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Gift of
JOHN WHITNEY AVERY, Y '93
1927

a

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A
DICTIONARY OP THE BIBLE.

COMPKISING its

AINTIQUITIES, BIOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY,

ANlJ

NATURAL HISTORY,

WiTit

NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS.

fcDitED

By \^riLLIAM smith, LL.D.,

CLASSICAL EXAMlNEK IN THE TTNIVEKSITY OP LONDON, AND
ITOR OF THE DIOTIONAKIES OF " GKEEIC AND E03IAN ANTIQUITIE
"BIOGRAPHY AND MYTHOLOGY," AND "GEOGRAPHy."

Xable of Sliew Bread. I'ram fhe Arcb of TitlU.

HARTFORt) :
J. B. BTJEE & HYDE,
1872.

PEEFACE.

The Bible, which an eminent Englishman has felicitously and truly
named the "Book fob the People,'' is nevertheless, with multitudes
even who profess to value it, "as the words of a book that is sealed, which
men deliver to one that is learned, saying, Read this I pray thee : and he
saith, I cannot ; for it is sealed: and the book is delivered to him that is not
learned, saying, Read this, I pray thee : and he saith, I am not learned."
(Isaiah xxix. 11. 12.)
There is much in the Bible to which only the Holy Spirit by His influ
ence on the heart can give the key; and thus the child and the unlettered
man may find in it a wondrous revelation though "sealed" to the undevout
scholar, for "the testimony of the Lord is sure, making wise the simple."
There is much too in these ancient Sacred Writings, that cannot be under
stood and enjoyed except by the aid of research and learning. Biblical
scholarship is needed to help us not only to fathom the depth of meaning,
but often to interpret even the real thought and import of what is read. The
most patient, prayerful and profound investigation of scholarly and devout
minds along the ages, has been addressed to the elucidation and unfolding
of the Bible, that no part of it may be "sealed" to the lowliest and unlet
tered, and that its divine significance may be comprehended by all. To
search the libraries of Christian lands, gather the results of the Biblical
learning of centuries and give them to the people, as a help in their reading
of the Divine "Word was a vast and most praiseworthy enterprise. A few
years since. Dr. William Smith of the University of London, and the most
eminent lexicographer in the English-speaking world, associated with him
self seventy distinguished Divines and Authors of both Europe and this
country, in the great task of preparing a complete Dictionary of the Bible,
and supplying the want which had been long felt by the religious Public.
The result of these labors has appeared in three large octavo volumes of
over three thousand double-columned pages in small type. This Dictionary
is not only unsurpassed, but far outrivals all other similar works and has
the unqualified praise and confidence of Christian scholars in this and other
lands. It is in itself a great library— the condensation of thousands of
volumes of essays, histories, travels and commentaries, so that the Bible is
elucidated and illustrated as never before. The labors and learning of cen
turies are gathered into this one focus, to throw a clear, strong light upon
every page of the Inspired Word. Whatever of Civil and Natural History,
of Biography, Geography, Archaeology and Literature relating to the Bible
might perplex and baflle the reader, is explained by the amplest discussion

II

and most reliable statement. Hardly a question can be started pertaining to
the Scriptures, to which an answer may not be found here. Animals and
plants ; historical incidents and traditions ; domestic and national customs
and institutions; manners, dress, and habits of life and thought; supersti
tions, forms of worship and doctrines ; conflicts and revolutions ; national
and religious progress or decline — all that the Bible contains is opened and
illuminated, so that the reader may study and understand the times
and peoples referred to, as if living then and among them, and thus may
more fully and accurately comprehend the lessons God has sought to teach
in His Word. Historic research, antiquarian investigation, the study of
languages and dialects, the discoveries of the modern travellers and explor
ers in the East, — Robinson, Rawlinson, Fergusson, Layard, Offert and
Stanley — and the largest, ripest scholarship of the Christian world have
been employed to unseal the Sacred Book and help both the clergy and laity
to understand it better and love it more.
The large cost and afiiuent learning of this gi-eat work however place
it beyond the reach of the mass of the people. Nor was it designed for
such, but especially for persons of scholarly pursuits and attainments.
Dr. Smith has therefore abridged it and prepared an edition for Young Per
sons, Sabbath School Teachers and Families. He says in his Preface, "The
'Larger Dictionary of the Bible' is mainly intended for Divines and Schol
ars. I have accordingly drawn up this 'Smaller Dictionary' myself, and
have spared no pains to adapt it to the wants of the persons for whom it is
intended. Judgment is needed in knowing what ought to be omitted, as
well as inserted in such a work. It contains every name in the Bible re
specting which any thing can be said ; it gives an account of each of the
books of the Bible ; it explains the civil and religious institutions, the man
ners and customs of the Jews, as well as of the various nations mentioned
or alluded to in Scripture." The work which the American publishers here
furnish, is what it claims to be, a reprint, without a single omission, of this
Dictionary by Dr. Smith. Some additions have been made to it from the
"Larger Dictionary," to give an ampler discussion of some topics, yet with
out oppressing or confusing ordinary readers with what — if not familiar
with the speculations of Rationalism and Infidelity, nor with the orisinal
languages of the Scriptures — is beyond their reach, and therefore would be
useless to them. Every subject, — person, place, event and thing — of which
any mention is made in the Bible and which is treated of in the " Larger
Dictionary" is included in this, with such fulness and fidelity as to supply
all that is essential to the explanation and comprehensive knowledge of it
The list of the proper names in the Old and New Testaments, with biographies
or historical sketches annexed, is more complete than that contained in any
other Dictionary or even Cruden's great Concordance. An examination of
the work will surprise one by the abundance and accuracy of the references
to chapters and verses, which it contains.

Ill
This republication has several excellences, (besides being much cheaper
than any other,) that commend it to the patronage of the Public.
(1) It is printed in type of a heavy, distinct and very legible face.
(2) The most careful endeavor and accurate scholarship have been en
listed, to avoid reproducing the errors which crept into the English edition.
(3) The pronunciation of names is the only matter in which Dr. S. is
open to serious criticism. English authorities differ from American. Our
standard lexicographers have here been followed, so as to adapt the work
to the American People, and give it a merit possessed by no other reprint.
(4) This is also the only reprint by an American publisher of the abridg-
ment made by Dr. Smith's own hand.
Illustrating and embellishing their work with over one hundred wood
cuts from both the "Larger" and "Smaller Dictionary" of Dr. Smith, with
valuable Maps, and twenty-four large and costly steel and wood-engravings
of ancient Cities and memorable Places, and putting it in the most attrac
tive and durable form, as respects typography and binding, the Publishers
confidently expect that the readers of the Bible who desire to study it with
clearer light and with greater profit, will appreciate the service here render
ed to the cause of Biblical interpretation and knowledge.
"The fairest flower that ever clomb up the cottage window," said Cole
ridge, "is not to my eyes so beautiful as the well-worn Bible on the cottage
table." In every household, this Dictionary should lie beside the Divine
Word, as the best aid in the study of it. By every Sabbath School Teach
er, by every person who wishes, in accordance with the direction of the Great
Teacher, to "search the Scriptures," and obtain "the riches of the wis
dom of God" this key should be used to unlock the exhaustless treasury.
Two disciples who had been taught by Christ during three years had
failed to comprehend the import of the Scriptures and learn the real charac
ter and mission of their Master. Travelling to Emmaus just after His
crucifixion they were overtaken by a stranger, who, discovering their dark
ness and despondency " beginning at Moses and all the prophets, opened"
to them " the Scriptures." And of the others of the Eleven it is also said
" Then opened He their understanding that they might understand the
Scriptures." Reverent study and sanctified learning have here sought to do for Christ's
disciples, for those who are to become teachers, apostles, for our homes and
Sabbath schools and churches what He did for His chosen ones. They have
' ' opened for them the Scriptures,"
That this valuable auxiliary may be the vade mecum with multitudes,
and that the help of the Spirit may ever accompany it, so that the Word of
God may not be to any as " a book that is sealed," nor misunderstood by the
unlearnedj is the desire of the
Amebican Publishers.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

I THE DEAD SEA FROM THE NORTH, (Steel.)  »  Frontispiece.
2 THE CITY OF ANTIOCH, C Steel.;  Tofacepage 41
3 BETHLEHEM,  " ®^
4 ANCIENT HARBOR OF CAES AREA,  " 95
6 COLOSSAE,  :  " 11^
6 CORINTH,  " 119
7 CITY OF DAMASCUS, (Steel.)  " 129
8 GAZA,  " 205
9 FOOL OF HEZEKIAH,  " 239
10 JERUSALEM AND THE MOUNT OF OLIVES, (Steel.)  " 285
11 LAODICEA,  " 337
12 CHAIN OF LEBANON,  " 347
13 MOUNT LEBANON, (Steel.)  " 433
14 NAZARETH,  " 443
15 THE RIVER NILE AND THE PYRAMIDS, (Steel,)  " 455
16 SAMARIA  " 601
17 SIDON FROM THE NORTH,  "^ 651
18 MOUNT SINAI AND THE PLAIN, (SteeL)  " 655
19 MOUNT TABOR  "• 681
20 TARSUS,  " 685
21 ENCLOSURE OF THE TEMPLE AND THE MOSQUE, (Steel,).... " 687
22 TIBERIAS AND LAKE, LOOKING TO THE NORTH,  " 701
23 THYATIEA,  " 707
24 COAST OF TYRE AND SIDON,  « 773
MAPS.
25 MAP OF THE HOLY LAND IN THE TIME OF CHRIST  " 291
26 MAP OF THE HOLY LAND IN THE TIME OF DAVID,  " 485
27 GENERAL MAP OF THE COUNTRIES MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE, " 611

LIST OF WEITEES.

ALFOSD, REV. HENRY, D.D.,
Dean of Canterbury,
BAILEY, RliV. HENRY, B. D-,
Warden of St. Augustine's, Coll. Canterbury.
BARRY, REV. ALFRED, B.D.,
Principal of Cheltenham College.
BEVAN, REV. WILLIAM L., M.A.,
Vicar of Hay, Brecknockshire.
BLAKESLEY, REV. JOSEPH W.,B.D.,
Canon of Canterbury.
BONAR, REV. HORATIUS, D.D.,
Kel50, N. B., Author of " Tbe Land of Promise, "&c.
BROWN, REV. THOMAS E., M.A., '
Vice-Principal of King WilIiam'sColl.,Isle of Man.
BROWNE, REV. ROBERT W., M.A.,
Archdeacon of Bath.
BROWNE, REV. E. HAROLD, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Ely.
BULLOCK, REV. WILLIAM T., M.A.,
Sec. of the 3oc. for the Propagation of the Gospel.
CLARK, REV. SAMUEL, M.A.,
Vicar of Bredwardine withBrobury, Herefordshire.
COOK, REV. E. C, M.A.,
Canon of Eseter.
COTTON, REV. GEORGE E. L., D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Calcutta.
DAVIES, REV. .J. LLEWELYN, M.A.,
Rector of Christ Church, Marylebone.
DAY, REV. GEORGE E., D.D.,
Prof, of Biblical Theology, Yale CoU., New Haven.
DEUrSCH, EMANUEL, M.R.A.S.,
Uaiversifcy of Berlin and British Museum.
DRAKE, REV. WILLIAM, M.A.,
Hon Canon of Worcest^jr.
EDDRUP, REV. EDWARD P., M.A.,
Pciucipal of the Theological College, Salisbury.
ELLlCOTf, REV. CHARLES J., D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol.
EL WIN, REV. WHITWELL, B. A.,
Kector of Bootou, Norfolk.
FARRAR, REV. FREDERICK W., M.A.,
Assisfc^mt .Mister of Harrow School.
FELTON, C. C, LL.D.,
Prof of Greek Lit., Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
FEsaassojj, james, f.r.s., f.r.a.s..
Royal Institatfoa of British Architects.
FFOtTLKES, EDMUND S., M.A.,
Late 'Fellow of Jesus Coll., Oxford.
FITZGERALD, REV. WILLIAM, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Killaloe.
GARDEM, REV. FRANCIS, M.A.,
Sabdean of the Chapel Royal.
GOTCH, F. W., LL.D.,
Hebrew Bxi^jiiner, University of London.
GROVE, GEORGE,
Crystal Palace, Sydenham.
HACKETT, REV. HORATIO B., D.D.,
Prof of Bib. Literature, Theo'l Sem. Newton, Ms.
HAWKINS, REV. ERNEST, B.D.,
Caaon of W'estmiuste": .
HAYMAN, REV. HiiNRY, M.A.,
Head Master of Grammar School, Cheltenham.
HERVEY, LORD ARTHUR C, M.A.,
Author of '-Genealogies of our Lord Jesus Christ."
HESSEY, REV. JAMES A., D.C.L.,
Head .Mvsterof Merchant Tailors' School.
HOOKER, JOSEPH D., M.D., F.R.S.,
Royal B ttanic Gardens, Kew.
HORNBY, REV. J. J., M.A.,
Principal of Bishop Cosin's Hall.
HOUGHTON, REV. WILLIAM, M.A.,
Hector of Preston, Salop.

I HOWSON, REV. JOHN S., D.D.,
t Jomt-Author of " Life and Epistles of St. Paul."
HUXTABLE, REV. EDGAR, M.A.,
Subdean of "Wells.
JONES, REV. W. BASIL, M.A.,
Prebendary of York and St. David's.
LAYARD, AUSTEN H., D.C.L., M.P.,
Author of "Nineveh and its Remains," &c.
LEATHES, REV. STANLEY, M.aI, M.R.S.L
Professor of Hebrew, King's College, London.
LIGHTFOOT, REV. JOSEPH B., D.D.,
Hulsean Professor of Divinity, Cambridge. Eng.
MARKS, REV. D. W.,
Professor of Hebrew, University Coll., London.
MEYRICK, REV. FREDERICK, M.A.,
Her Majesty 's Inspector of Schools.
OPPERT, PROF. JULES,
Author of "Chronology of Babylon;" Paris.
ORGER, REV. EDWARD R., M.A.,
Fellow of St. Augustine's, College, Canterbury.
ORMEROD, REV. THOMAS J., M.A.,
Archdeacon of Suffolk.
PEROWNE, REV. JOHN J. S., B.D.,
Vice Principal of St. David's Coll., Lampeter.
PEKOWNE, REV. THOS. T., B.D.,
Fellow and Tutor, Corpus Christi Coll., Cambridge.
PHILLOTT, REV. H. W., M.A.,
Rector of Staunton-on-Wye.
PLUMPTRE, REV. EDWARD H., M.A.,
Professor of Divinity, King's CoU., London.
POOLE. E. STANLEY, M.R.A.S.,
South Kensington Museum.
POOLE, R. STUART, M.R.S.L.,
Author of " Horae Aegyptiacae," &c.
PORTER, REV. J. LESLIE, M.A.,
Authorof "Handbook of Syria and Palestine."
PRITCHARD, REV. CHAS., M.A., F.R.S.,
Late Fellow of St. John's Coll., Cambridge, Eng.
RAWLINSON, REV. GEORGE, M.A.,
Author of "Great Monarchies of Anc. World."
ROSE, REV. HENRY J., B.D.,
Rector of Houghton Conquest, Bedfordshire.
SELWYN, REV. WILLIAM W., B.D.,
Margaret Professor of Divinity, Cambridge, Erg.
SMITH, REV. D. T., D.D.,
Prof, of Sac. Lit., Theo'l Sem., Bangor, Me.
SMITH, WILLIAM, LL.D., (Editor),
Classical Examiner, University ot London.
STANLEY, REV, ARTHUR P., D.D.,
Dean of ^\^estmiDster.
STOWE, REV. CALVIN E., D.D.,
Late Prof, of Sac. Lit., Theo'l Sem. Andover. Mass.
THOMPSON, REV. JOSEPH P., D.D.,
Author of "Egypt, Past and Present," N. Y, City.
THOMSON, REV. WILLIAM, D.D.,
Lord Archbishop of York.
THRUPP, REV. JOSEPH F., M.A.,
Vicar of Barrington.
TREGELLES, SAMUEL P., LL.D.,
Author, "Ace. of the I'rinted Text of theGr.N.T.
TRISTE.\M, REV. H. B., M.A., F.L.S.,
Author of "The Land of Israel."
TWISLETON, HON. EDW., M.A.,
Late Fellow of Baliol Coll., Oxford.
VENABLES, REV. EDMUND, M.A.,
Bonchnrch, Isle of Wight.
WESTCOTT, REV. BROOKE F., M.A.,
Authorof "Introduc'n to the Study of the Go.«pels.''
WORDSWORTH REV.CHRISTOPHER.D.U.,
Archdeicon of Westminster.
WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS, M.A.,
Librarian of Trinity Coll., Cambridge, En|;.

ABBEEYIATIONS.

A. 0. for After Christ.
A. D  Anno Domiju. (Latin) =in the year of
our Lord.
Am. ..... Amos, (0. T.)
anc  ancient. ,
Ann  Annals of Tacitus, a Roman historian.
Ant  Antiquities.
Apoc  Apocrypha.
Ar. or Arab. Arabic or Arabia.
A. U. C. . . . anna urbis conditai =in the year of the
building of the city, Rome.
A. V  the authorized or English version ot the
Bible. , . ,
B. & D. . . . Hist, of Bel and the Dragon, (Apoc.)
Bar  Baruch, (Apoc.)
B. C. ... Before Christ. , „ „ ^. „„„
B. R  Biblical Researches, by Dr. Kobmson.
Cant, . . . Canticles or Song of Solomon, (O. 1.)
cf .... conferer, (French)=compare.
ch & chs. . . chapter and chapters, respectively.
Chal .... ChaldsEa or Chaldsean.
1 Chr ... 1st Book of Chronicles, (O. I.)
1 Chr  2d Book of Chronicles, (0. T.)
Chrys. Hom. Hom*M of Chrysostom, A. D. 344-407.
j^ic  H.T Cicero, aRomanorator,B.C.lUo-4d
Cic! in Verr. Cicero's oration against Verres.
cir. or circ. . circa.(Latin)=about.
Col  Ep. to the Colossiaus, (N. T.)
Comm. . . Commentary.
comp. . . . compare.
1 Cor  1st Ep. to the Corinthians, (N. T. )
2 Cor  2d Ep. to the Corinthians, (N. T.)
Cyc  Cyclopedia.
Dan  Daniel, (0. T.)
Deut. . . : . Deuteronomy, (0. T.)
Diet  Dictionary.
Eccl  Eoclesiastes, (0. T.)
Bcclus. . . . Ecclcsiasticus, ( Apoc. ) '
ed  edition.
e. g  exempli gratia (Latin)=for example.
Eng. ..... England or English.
ep. & epp. . epistle and epistles, respectively.
Eph  Ep. to the Ephesians, (N. T.)
1 Esd. .' . . . 1st Book of Esdras, (Apoo.)
2 Bad  2d Book of Esdras, (Apoc.)
Estb  Esther, (0. T.)
Euseb. . . . Eusebius, a Gr. historian, who died A.
Ex  Exodus, (0. T.) [D. 340.
Ez  Ezekiel, (0. T.)
Ezr  Ezra, (0 T.)
f  following (verse or page.)
fem  feminine.
ff  foUowing (verses or pages )
Gal  Ep. to the Galatians, (N. T.)
Gen  Genesis, (0. T.)
Gr  Greek.
Hab  Habakkuk, (0. T.)
Hag  Haggai, (0. T.)
Handb. . . . Handbook.
H. E  Ecclesiastical History hyTSMSaViviS.
Ileb  Hebrew or Ep. to the Hebrews, (N T?.)
Herpd  Herodotus, a Gr. historian B. C. 484.
Hist  History.
Hor. Sat. . . Satires of Horace, a Roman poet B. C.
llos  Ilosea, (0. T.) [65-8.
ib. or ibid. . . ibidem, (Latin, )=in the same place.
id  idem, (Latin, )=the same.
i. e  i(i £3(, (Latin, )=that is.
in loc. . . . t'w ^oco, (Latin, )=in the pla«e, or on the
passage cited.
Is  Isaiah, (0. T.)
Jas  Ep. of James, (N. T.)
Jud  Judith, (Apoc.)
Jer  Jeremiah. (0. T.)
Jon  .lonah, (0. T.)
Jos  Joseplius, Antiquities of the Jews.
Jos. B.J... Jos. Bellum .Tudaicum^Jemsh War.
Josh. . . . Joshua, (0. T.)
Judg  Judges, (0. T.)

Juven. Sat. for Satires of Juvenal, a Eocan ?«=*•
IK  1st Book of Kings, (0. T.)
2 K  2d Book of Kings, (O. T.) .
Lam  Lamentations of Jeremiah, (y. '¦J .
L c  loco citato, (Latin)=at the 9^'' fV''-.
li cc. . : . . iocs cto4(Latin)=at the pla<esc>te4
Lev  Leviticus, (0. T.)
lib  /i&er, (Latin)=book.
Lin. or Linn. Linnajus, the Swedish naturalist.
lit  literal, or literally.
Liv .... Livy, a Roman historian.
Lxk  The Seventy, i. e. the Septnagint.
M  Monsieur, ( French, )=Mr. '
1 Mace. . . 1st Book of Maccabees, (Apoc.)
2 Mace. . . 2d Book of Maccabees, (Apoc.)
3 Mace. ... 3d Book of Maccabees, (Apoc.)
Mal  Malachi, (0. T.)
marg  margin or marginal.
Mart  Martial, a Roman poet A. D. 40-100.
masc. .... masculine.
Matt  Gospel according to Matthew.
Mic  Micah, (0. T.)
Mod. Eg. . . Modern Egyptians, by Lane.
MS  Manuscript.
MSS  Manuscripts.
Nah  Nahum, (0. T.)
Neh  Nehemiah, (O. T.)
Nin. & Bab. Nineveh and Baiylon, by Layard.
N. T  New Testament.
Kum. ..... Numbers, (0. T )
Ob  Obadiah, (0. T.)
O. T  Old Testament.
p. & pp; . . . page and pages, respectively.
Pal  Palestine.
Pent  Pentateuch.
Pers  Persian.
1 Pet. . . .1st Ep. of I>eter, (N. T.)
2 Pet  2d Ep. of Peter, (N. T.)
Phil  Ep. to the PhiUppians, (N. T.)
Philem. . . . Ep. to Philemon, (N. T.)
Polyb. . . . Polybius, a Gr. historian B. C. 205-123
Polyc  Polycarp, martyred A. D. 167.
Prov  Proverbs, (0. T )
Ps. & Pss. . Psalm or Psalms, (O. T.,) respectively-
Ptol  Ptolemy.
R  Rabbi, (before a Jewish name.)
Rawl  Rawlinson.
Rev  Revelation, or Apocalypse, (N. T.)
Rom  Ep. to the Romans, (N. T.)
Sacr. Lit. . . Sacred Literature.
Sam. . . . Samaritan Pentateuch.
1 Sam  1st Book oJ Samuel. (0. T.)
2 Sam  2d Book of Samuel, (0. T.)
S. & P. . . . Sinai and Palestine, by Stanley.
sc  scilicet (Latin)=that is to say.
sq. or seq . . sequens^ (Latin)=following (verse.)
sqq. or seqq. sequentia., ( Latin )=followiug (verses.)
Suet  Suetonius, a historian, A. D. 100.
Sus  History of Susanna, (Apoc.)
Syr  Syria or Syriac.
Tac  Tacitus, a Roman historian A.D. 56-135.
1 Thess. ... 1st Ep. to the Thcssalonians, (N. T.)
2 Thess. ... 2d Ep. to the Thcssalonians, (N. T.)
1 Tim  1st Ep. to Timothy, (N. T.)
2 Tim  2d Ep. to Timothy, (N. T.)
Tit  Ep. to Titus, (N. T.)
Tob  Tobit, (Apoc.)
ver  verse or verses.
viz  videlicet, (Latin)^namely.
vol  volume.
Vulg  Vulgate.
Wisd  Wisdom, fApoc.)
Zoch  Zechariah, (0. T.)
Zeph  Zephaniah, (0. T.)
§  denotes section or subdivision of ch.
=  denotes equivalent to.
Words in brackets and printed in small capitals
thus [Talmud,] refer the reader to those articles in the
Dictionary for further information.

DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE.

A.

AaTOn, the son of Amram and Jochebed,
ntxt tn& elder brother of Moses and Miriam
(iS'uHi. xxvi. 69, xxxiii. 39). He was a
Leritc, and is first mentioned in Ex. iv. 14,
as one who could " speak well." He was
appointed by Jehovah to be the Interpreter
and " Mouth " (Ex. iv. 16) of liis brother
Moses, who was "slow of speech;" and
aocordingly he was not only the organ of
communication with the Israelites and with
Pharaoh (Ex. iv. 30, vii. 2), but also the
actual instrument of working most of the
miracles of the Exodus. (See Ex. vii. 19,
&c.) Thus on the way to Mount Sinai,
during the battle with Amalek, Aaron is
mentioned with Hur, as staying up the
weary hands of Moses, when they were
lifted up for the victory of Israel (not in
prayer, as is sometimes explained, but) to
bear the rod of God. (See Ex. xvii. 9.)
Through all this period he is mentioned as
dependent upon his brother, and deriving
all his authority from him. The contrast
between them is even more strongly marked
on the arrival at Sinai. Moses at once acts
as the mediator (Gal. iii. 19) for the people,
to come near to God for them, and to speak
His words to them. Aaron only approaches
with Nadab, and Abiliu, and the seventy
elders of Israel, by special command, near
enough to see (jod's glory, but not so as to
enter His immediate presence. Left then,
on Moses' departure, to guide the people,
Aaron is tried for a moment on his own
responsibility, and he fails from a weak in
ability to withstand the demand of the peo
ple for visible " gods to go before them."
Possibly it seemed to him prudent to make
an image of Jehovah, in the well-known
form of Egyptian idolatry (Apis or Mnevis),
rather than to risk the total alienation of
the people to false gods ; and his weakness
was rewarded by seeing a " feast to the
Lord " (Ex. xxxii. 5) degraded to the lowest
form of heathenish sensuality, and knowing,
from Moses' words and deeds, that the cov-

AARON
enant with the Lord was utterly broken. He
repented of his sin, and Moses gained for
giveness for him (Deut. ix. 20). — Aaron
was now consecrated by Moses to the new
office of the high-priesthood. The order
of God for the consecration is found in Ex.
xxix., and the record of its execution in
Lev. viii. The solemnity of the office, and
its entire dependence for sanctity on the
ordinance of God, were vindicated by the
death of his sons, Nadab and Abihu, for
" offering strange fire " on the altar (Lev.
X. 1, 2). Prom this time the history of
Aaron is almost entirely that of the priest
hood, and its chief feature is the great re
bellion of Korah and the Levites against
his sacerdotal dignity, united with that of
Dathan and Abiram and the Reubenites
against the temporal authority of Moses.
[Korah.] — The only occasion on which
his individual character is seen is one of
presumption. The murmuring of Aaron
and Miriam against Moses clearly pro
ceeded from their trust, the one in his
priesthood, the other in her prophetic in
spiration, as equal commissions from God
(Num. xii. 2). On all other occasions he
is spoken of as acting with Moses in the
guidance of the people. Leaning as he
seems to have done wholly on him, it is not
strange that he should have shared his sin
at Meribah, and its punishment [Moses]
(Num. XX. 10-12). Aaron's death seems
to have followed very speedily. It took
place on Mount Hor, after the transference
of his robes and office to Eleazar (Num. xx.
28). This mount is still called the " Moun
tain of Aaron." [Hor.] — The wife of
Aaron was Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23) ; and the
two sons who survived him, Eleazar and
Ithamar. The high-priesthood descended
to the former, and to his descendants until
the time of Eli, who, although of the house
of Ithamar, received the high-priesthood,
and transmitted it to his children; with
them it continued till the accession of Solo-
(7)

AB 8
mon, who took it from Abiathar, and re
stored it to Zadok (of the house of Eleazar).
[Abiathak.] Ab {father'), an element in the composi
tion of many proper names, of which Abba
is a Chaldaic form, the sylliible affixed giv
ing the emphatic force of the definite arti
cle. Applied to God by Jesus Christ (Mark
siv. 36), and by St. Paul (Rom. viii. IS;
Gal. iv. 6).
Ab. [Months.]
Abad'don. [Apollton.]
Abag'tha, one of the seven eunuchs in
the Persian court of Ahasuerus (Esth. i.
10). Ab'ana, one of the " rivers of Damas
cus " (2K. V. 12). The Barada and the
Awaj are now the chief streams of Damas
cus, the former representing the Abana and
tlie latter the Pharpar of the text. . The
Barada rises in the Antilibanus, at about
23 miles from the city, after flowing through
wliich it runs across the plain, till it loses
itself in the lake or marsh Bahret el-Kib-
liyeh. Ab'arim, a mountain or range of high
lands on the east of the Jordan, in the land
of MoaV, lacing Jericho, and forming the
eastern wall of the Jordan valley at that
part. Its most elevated spot was " the
Mount Nebo, ' head ' of ' the ' Pisgah," from
which Moses viewed the Promised Land
before his death. These mountains are
mentioned in Num. xxvii. 12, xxxiii. 47, 48,
and Deut. xxxii. 49.
Ab'ba. [Ab.]
Ab'da. 1. Pather of Adoniram (1 K.
iv. 6). 2. Sin of Sliammua (Neh. xi. 17),
called Obadiah in 1 Chr. ix. 16.
Ab'deel, father of Shelemiah (Jer.
xx,xvi. 26).
Ab'di. 1. A Merarite, and ancestor of
Ethan the singer (1 Chr. vi. 44). 2. The
father of Kish, a Merarite, in the reign of
Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 12). 3. One of
the Bene-Elam in the time of Ezra, who
had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 26).
Ab'diel, son of Guni and father of Ahi,
one of the Gadites who were settled in the
land of Bashan (1 Chr. v. 15) in the days
of Jotham king of Judah.
Ab'don. 1. A judge of Israel (Judg.
xii. 13, 15), perhaps the same person as
Uedan in 1 Sam. xii. 11. 2. Son of
Shashak (1 Chr. viii. 23). 3. First-born
son of Jehiel, son of Gibeon (1 Chr. viii.
30, ix. 35, 36). 4. Son of Micah, a, con
temporary of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiv. 20),
called AcHuou in 2 K. xxii. 12. 5. A city
in the tribe of Asher, given to the Gcrshon-
ites (Josh. xxi. 30; l Chr. vi. 74).
Abed'negO (i. e. servant of Nego, per
haps the same as Ncho), the Chaldaean
name given to Azariah, one of the three
friends of Daniel, miraculously saved from
the fiery furnace (Dan. iii.).

ABIA

A'bel, the name of several places in
Palestine, probably signifies a meadow. _ A-
A'bel-beth-ma'aohah, a town of some im
portance (2 Sam. XX. 19), in the extreme
N. of Palestine, which fell an early P^ey to
the invading kings of Syria (1 K. xv. ^UJ
and Assyria (2 K. xv. 29). In the parallel
passage, 2 Chr. xvi. 4, the name is changed
to Abel-maim, "Abel on the waters." It
is also called simply Abel (2 Sam. xx. 14,
18). 2. A'bel-mizka'im, i. e. the mourn
ing of Egypt, the name given by the
Canaanites to the floor of Atad, at which
Joseph, his brothers, and the Egyptians
made their mourning for Jacob (Gen. 1. 11).
It was beyond (on the east of) Jordan.
[Atad.] 3. A'bel-shit'tim, "the meadow
of the acacias," in the " plains " of Moab;
on the low .level of the Jordan valley.
Here — their last resting-place before cross
ing the Jordan — Israel "pitched from
Bethjesimoth unto A. Shittim" (Num.
xxxiii. 49). The place is most frequently
mentioned by its shorter name of Shittim.
[Shittim.] 4. A'bel-me'uolah (" meadow
of the dance "), in the N. part of the Jordan
valley (1 K. iv. 12), to which the routed
Bedouin host fled from Gideon (Judg. vii.
22). Here Elisha was found at his plough
by Elijah returning up the valley from
Horeb (1 K. xix. 16-19). 5. A'bel-
ce'kamim, in the A. V. rendered "the
plain of the vineyards," a place eastward
of Jordan, beyond Aroer (Judg. xi. 33). 6.
" The GREAT ' Abel,' in the field of Joshua
the Bethshcmite " (1 Sam. vi. 18). By
comparison with 14 and 15, it would seem
that for Ahel should be read Ehen = stone.
Our translators, by the insertion of " stone
of," take a middle course.
A'bel (i. e. breath, vapor, transitori-
ness, probably so called from the shortness
of his life), the second son of Adam, mur
dered by his brother Cain (Gen. iv. 1-16).
Jehovah showed respect for Abel's oSering,
but not for that of Cain, because, according
to the Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 4), Abel
" by faith offered a more excellent sacrifice
than Cain." The expression " sin," i. e.
sin-ofl'ering "Heth at the door" (Gen. iv.
7), seems to imply that the need of sacri
fices of blood to obtain forgiveness was
already revealed. Our Lord spoke of Abel
as the first martyr (Matt, xxiii. 35) ; so did
the early church subsequently. The tradi
tional site of his murder and his grave are
pointed out near Damascus.
A'bez, a town in the possession of Issa-
char, named between Kisliion and Remeth,
in Josh. xix. 20, only.
A'bi, mother of king Hezekiah (2 K.
xviii. 2'), written Abijah in 2 Chr. xxix. 1.
Abi'a, Abi'ah, or Abijah. 1. Son
of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. vii
8). 2. Wife of Hezron (1 Chr. ii. 24). 3.
Second son of Samuel, whom together w ith

ABI-ALBON
ins eldest son Joel he made judge in Beer-
sheba (1 Sam. viii. 2; 1 Chr. vii. 28). The
corruptness of their administration was the
reason alleged by the Israelites for their
demanding a king. 4. Abijah, or Abijam,
the son of Rehoboam (1 Chr. iii. 10 ; Matt.
i. 7). 5. Mother of king Hezekiah. [Abi.J
6. Descendant of Eleazar, and chief of the
eighth of the 24 courses of priests (Luke i.
6) ; the same as Abijah, 4.
Abi-arbon. [Abiel.]
Abi'aeaph (Ex. vi. 24), otherwise
written Ebi'asaph (1 Chr. vi. 23, 37, ix.
19), the head of one of the families of the
Korhites (a house of the Kohathites). In
Ex. vi. 24, he appears at first sight to be
represented as one of the sons of Korah,
and as the brother of Assir and Elkanah.
But in 1 Chr. vi. he appears as the son of
Elkanah, the son of Assir, the son of Korah.
Among the remarkable descendants of Abi-
asaph, according to the text of 1 Chr. vi.
33-37, were Samuel the prophet and El
kanah his father (1 Sam. i. 1), and Heman
the singer; but Ebiasaph seems to be im
properly inserted in ver. 37.
Abi'athar, high-priest and fourth in
descent from Eli, who was of the line of
Ithamar, the younger son of Aaron. Abia
thar was the only one of all the sons of
Aliimelech the high-priest who escaped the
slaughter inflicted upon his father's house
by Saul, in revenge for his having inquired
of the Lord for David, and given him the
shew-bread to eat (1 Sam. xxii.). Abiathar
having become high-priest fled to David,
and was thus enabled to inquire of the Lord
for him (1 Sam. xxiii. 9, xxx. 7 ; 2 Sam. ii.
1, V. 19, &c.). He adhered to David in Ms
wanderings while pursued by Saul ; he was
with him while he reigned in Hebron (2
Sam. ii. 1-3), the city of the house of Aaron
(Josh. xxi. 10-13) ; he carried the ark be
fore him when David brought it up to
Jerusalem (1 Chr. xv. 11 ; 1 K. ii. 26) ; he
continued faithful to him in Absalom's re
bellion (2 Sam. XV. 24, 29, 35, 36, xvii.
15-17, xix. 11); and "was afflicted in all
wherein David was alfiicted." When, how-
• ever, Adonijah set himself up for David's
successor on the throne, in opposition to
Solomon, Abiathar sided with him, while
Zadok was on Solomon's side. Eor this
Abiathar was deprived of the hi^h-priest-
hood, and we are told that "Zadok the
priest did the king put in the room of Abia
thar " (1 K. ii. 27, 35), thus fulfilling the
prophecy of 1 Sam. ii. 30. — Zadok was
descended from Eleazar, the elder son of
Aaron. He is first mentioned in 1 Chr.
xii. 28, and is said to have joined David
while he reigned in Hebron. Erom this
time we read, both in tlie books of Samuel
and Chronicles, of " Zadok and Abiathar
the priests." There were, henceforth, two
high-priests in the reign of David, and till

9 ABIHAIL
the deposition of Abiathar by Solomon,
when Zadok became the sole high-priest.
In Mark ii. 26, we find Abiathar spoken of
as the high-priest in whose time David ate
the , shew-bread : this may perhaps be ac
counted for, if Abiathar was the person
who persuaded his father to allow David to
have the bread, and if the loaves were
given by him with his owu hand to David.
A'bib. [Months.]
Abi dah or Abi'da, a son of Midian
(Gen. XXV. 4; 1 Chr. i. 33.)
Abi dan, cMef of the tribe of Benja
min at the time of the Exodus (Num. i. 11,
ii. 22, vii. 60, 65, x. 24).
A'biel. 1. Eatlier of Kish, and conse
quently grandfather of Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1),
as well as of Abner, Saul's commander-in-
chief (1 Sam. xiv. 51). This is seen by
the following table : —
Abiel

Kish I
Saul

Ner I
Abner

2. One of Da^ad's mighty men (1 Chr.
xi. 32). In 2 Sam. xxiii. 31 he is called
Aei-albon. Atai-e'zer. 1. Eldest son of Gilead,
and descendant of Manasseh (Josh. xvii. 2 ;
1 Chr. vii. 18 ; Num. xxvi. 30, where the
name is given in the contracted form Jeb-
zer). He was the ancestor of the great
judge Gideon. [Gideon.] The name also
occurs in Judg. vi. 34, viii. 2; and in an
adjectival form (" the Abiezrite ") in Judg.
vi. 11, 24, viii. 32. 2. One of David's
" mighty men " (2 Sam. xxiii. 27; 1 Chr.
xi. 28, xxvii. 12).
Abigail. 1. The beautiful wife of
Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and sheep
in Carmel. When David's messengers
were slighted by Nabal, Abigail supplied
David and his followers with provisions,
and succeeded in appeasing his anger. Ten
days after tliis Nabal died, aud David sent
for Abigail and made her his wife (1 Sam.
XXV. 14, &c.). By her he had a son, called
Chileab in 2 Sam. iii. 3 ; but Daniel in 1
Chr. iii. 1. 2. A sister of David, manied
to Jether the Ishmaelite, and mother, by
him, of Amasa (1 Chr. ii. 17). The state
ment in 2 Sam. xvii. 25 that the mother of
Amasa was an Israelite is doubtless a tran
scriber's error.
Abiha'il. 1. Father of Znriel, chief
of the Levitical family of Merari, a con
temporary of Moses (Num. iii. 35). 2.
Wife of Abishur (1 Chr. ii. 29). 3. Sou
of Huri, of the tribe of Gad (1 Chr. v. 14).
4. Wife of Rehoboam. She io called the
daughter, i. e. descendant of Eliab, the
elder brother of David (2 Chr. d. 18). 5.

ABiinj

10

AL.SHAG

Father of Esther, and uncle of Mordecai
(Esth. ii. 16, ix. 29).
Abi'hu, the second son (Num. iii. 2) of
Aaron by Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23). Being,
together with his elder brother Nadab,
guxlty of offering strange fire to the Lord,
he was consumed by fire from heaven (Lev.
X. 1, 2).
Abi'hud, son of Bela and grandson of
Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 3).
Abi'jah. or Abi'jam. 1. Son and suc
cessor of Rehoboam on the throne of Ju
dah (1 K. xiv. 31 ; 2 Chr. xii. 16). He is
called Abijah in Chronicles, Abijam in
Kings. He began to reign b. c. 959, and
reigned three years. He endeavored to re
cover the kingdom of the Ten Tribes, and
made war on Jeroboam. He was success
ful in battle, and took several of the cities
of Israel. We are told that he walked in
all the sinj of Rehoboam (idolatry and its
attendant immoralities, 1 K. xiv. 23, 24),
and that his heart "was not perfect before
God, as the heart of David his father." He
was succeeded by Asa. 2. The second
son of Samuel, called Abiah in our ver
sion. [Abia, Abiah, No. 3.] 3. Son of
Jeroboam I. king of Israel, died in his
childhood, just after Jeroboam's wife had
been sent In disguise to seek help for him,
in his sickness, from the prophet Abijah (1
K. xiv.) 4. A descendant of Eleazar, who
gave liis name to the eighth of the twenty-
four courses into which the priests were di
vided by David (1 Chr. xxiv. 10; 2 Chr.
viii. 14; Neh. xii. 4, 17). To the course
cf Abijah or Abia belonged Zacharias the
father of John the Baptist (Luke i. 5). 5.
One of the priests who entered into a cov
enant with Nehemiah to walk in God's law
(Neh. X. 7) ; unless the name is rather that
of a family, and the same with the pre
ceding. Abi'jam. [Abijah, No. 1.]
Ab'ila. [Abilene.]
Abile'ne (JLuke iii. 1), a tetrarchy of
whidi the capital was Abila, a city situated
on the eastern slope of Antilib.anus, in a
district fertilized by the river Barada. Its
name probably arose from the green luxu
riance of its situation, " Abel " perhaps de
noting " a grassy meadow." [See p. 8.]
The name, thus derived, is quite sufficient
to account for the traditions of the death of
Abel, which are associated with the spot,
and which are localized by the tomb called
Sfebi Hahil, on a height above the ruins of
the city. The city was 18 miles from Da
mascus, and stood in a remarkable gorge
called Sulc Wady Barada, where the river
breaks down through the mountain towards
the plain of Damascus.
Abim'ael, a descendant of Joktan (Gen.
z. 28: 1 Chr. i. 22), and probably the pro
genitor of an Arab tribe.
Abim'elech {father of the king), the

Lame of several Philistine kings, was prob
ably a common title of these kings, iikb
that of Pharaoh among the Egyptians, ana
that of Caesar and Augustus among tne
Romans. Hence in the title of Ps. ^^-"'ly*
the name of Abimelech is given to the
king, who is called Achish in 1 Sam. xxi.
11.— 1. A Philistine, king of Gerar(Gen,
XX., xxi.), who, exercising the right claimed
by Eastern princes, of collecting all the
beautiful women of their dominions into
their harem (Gen. xii. 15 ; Esth. ii. 3), sent
for and took Sarah. A similar account is
given of Abraham's conduct on this occa
sion, to that of his behavior towards Pha
raoh. [Abraham.] 2. Another king of
Gerar in the time of Isaac, of whom a sim
ilar narrative is recorded in relation to Re-
bekah (Gen. xxvi. 1, &c.). 3. Son of the
judge Gideon by his Shechemite concubine
(Judg. viii. 31). After his father's death he
murdered all his brethren, 70 in number,
with the exception of Jotham, the youngest,
who concealed himself; and he then per
suaded the Shechemites to elect him' king.
Shechem now became an independent state,
and threw off the yoke of the conquering
Israelites. When Jotham heard that Abim
elech was made king, he addressed to the
Shechemites his fable of the trees choosing
a king (Judg. ix. 1). After Abimelech had
reigned three years, the citizens of Shechem
rebelled. He was absent at the time, but
he returned and quelled the insurrection.
Shortly after he stormed and took Thebez,
but was struck on the head by a woman
with the fragment of a mill-stone (comp. 2
Sam. xi. 21) ; and lest he should be said to
have died by a woman, he bade his armor-
bearer slay him. Thus God avenged the
murder of his brethren," aud fulfilled the
curse of Jotham.
Abin'adab. 1. A Levite, a native of
Kirjath-jearim, in whose house the .irk re
mained 20 years (1 Sam. vii. 1, 2 ; 1 Chr.
xiii. 7). 2. Second sou of Jesse, who fol
lowed Saul to his war against the Philis
tines (1 Sam. xvi. 8, xvii. 13). 3. A son
of Saul, who was slain with his brothers at
the fatal battle on Mount Gilboa (1 Sam.
xxxi. 2). 4. Father of one of the twelve
chief officers of Solomon (1 K. iv. 11).
Abin'oam, the father of Barak (Judir.
iv. 6, 12, V. 1, 12).
Abi'ram. 1. A Reubenite, son of Eli
ab, who with Dathan and On, men of tho
same tribe, and Korah a Levite, organized
a conspiracy against Moses and Aaron
(Num. xvi.). [For details, see Korah,]
2. Eldest son of Hiel, the Bethelite, who
died when his father laid the foundations
of Jericho (IK. xvi. 34), and thus accom
plished tho first part of the curse of Joshua
(Josh. vi. 26).
Ab'ishag, a beautiful Shunammite
taken into David's harem to comfort him

ABISHAI

11

ABRAHAM

fn his extreme old age (1 K. i. 1-4). After
David's death Adonijah induced Bathsheba,
the queen-mother, to ask Solomon to give
him Abishag in marriage ; but this impru
dent petition cost Adonijah his life (1 K. ii.
13, &c.). [Adonijah.]
Ataisha'i, the eldest of the three sons
of Zeruiah, Davil's sister, and brother to
Joab and Asahel (1 Chr. ii. 16). Like his
two brothers he was the devoted follower
of David. He was his companion in the
desperate night expedition to the camp of
Saul (1 Sam. xxvi. 6-9). On the outbreak
of Absalom's rebellion he remained true to
the king, and commanded a third part of
the army in the decisive battle against Ab
salom. He rescued David from the hands
of a gigantic Philistine, Ishbi-benob (2
Sam. xxi. 17). His personal prowess on
this, as on another occasion, when he fought
single-handed against three hundred, won
for him a place as captain of the second
three of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii.
18; 1 Chr. xi. 20).
Abish'alom, father or grandfather of
Maachah, who was the wife of Rehoboam,
and mother of Abijah (1 K. xv. 2, 10). He
is called Absalom in 2 Chr. xi. 20, 21.
This person must be David's son (see
LXX., 2 Sam. xiv. 27).
Abiahu'a. 1. Son of Bela, of the tribe
of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 4). 2. Son of
Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, ' and father
of Bukki, in the genealogy of the high-
priests (1 Chr. vi. 4, 5, 50, 51 ; Ezr. vii. 4, 5).
Ab'islmr, sou of Shammai (1 Chr. ii.
28). Ab'ital, one of David's wives (2 Sam."
iii. 4; 1 Chr. iii. 3).
Ab'itub, son of Shaharaim by Hushim
(1 Chr. viii. 11).
Abi'ud, descendant of Zorobabel in the
genealogy of Jesus Christ (Matt. i. 13).
Ablution. [Purification.]
Ata'ner. 1. Son of Ner, who was the
brother of Kish (1 Chr. ix. 36), the father
of Saul. Abner, therefore, was Saul's first
cousin [see Table, p. 9], and was made by
him commander-in-chief of his army (1
Sam. xiv. 51, xvii. 57, xxvi. 3-14). After
the death of Saul David was proclaimed
king of Judah in Hebron ; and some time
subsequently Abner proclaimed Ishbosheth,
Saul's son, as king of Israel, at Mahanaim
beyond Jordan. War soon broke out be
tween the two rival kings, and " a very
sore battle " was fought at Gibeon between
the men of Israel under Abner, and the
men of Judah under Joab, son of Zeruiah,
David's sister (1 Chr. ii. 16). When the
army of Ishbosheth was defeated, Joab's
youngest brother Asahel pursued Abner,
and in spite of warning refused to leave
him, so tliat Abner in self-defence was
forced to kill him. After tliis the war con
tinued, success inclining more and more to

the side of David, till at last the imprudence
of Ishbosheth deprived him of the counsels
and generalship of the hero who was in
truth the only support of his tottering
throne. Abner had married Rizpah, Saul's
concubine, and this, according to the views
of Oriental courts, might be so interpreted
as to imply a design upon the throne. Right
ly or wrongly, Ishbosheth so understood it,
and he even ventured to reproach Abner
with it. Abner, incensed at his ingratitude,
opened negotiations with David, by whom
he was most favorably received at Hebron.
He then undertook to procure his recogni
tion throughout Israel; but after leaving
liis presence for the purpose was enticed
back by Joab, and treacherously murdered
by him and his brother Abishai, at the gate
of the city, partly, no doubt, from fear lest
so distinguished a convert to their cause
should gain too high a place in David's fa
vor, but ostensibly in retaliation for the death
of As.ahel. This murder caused the great
est sorrow and indignation to David ; but
as the assassins were too powerful to be
punished, he contented himself with show
ing every public token of respect to Abner's
memory, by following the bier and pouring
forth a simple dirge over the slain (2 Sam.
iii. 33, 34). 2. The father of Jaasiel, chief
of the Benjamites in David's reign (1 Chr.
xxvii. 21) : probably the same as the pre- •
ceding. Abomination of Desolation, men
tioned by our Savior as a sign of the ap
proaching destruction of Jerusalem, with
reference to Dan. ix. 27, xi. 31, xii. 11.
The Jews considered the prophecy of Dan
iel as fulfilled in the profanation of the
Temple under Antiochus Epiphanes, when
the Israelites themselves erected an idol
atrous altar upon the sacred altar, and of
fered sacrifice thereon. This altar is de
scribed as " an abomination of desolation ''
(1 Mace. i. 54, vi. 7). The prophecy, how
ever, referred ultimately to the destruction
of Jerusalem by the Romans, and conse
quently the " abomination " must describe
some occurrence connected with that event.
It appears most probable tliat the profani
ties of the Zealots constituted the abomi
nation, which was the sign of impending
ruin. The introduction of the Roman stan
dards into the Temple, regarded by many
as the " desolation," took place after the
destruction of the city.
A'braham or A'taram, as his name ap
pears in the earlier portion of the history,
was the son of Terah, and founder of the
great Hebrew nation. His family, a branch
of the descendants of Shem, was settled in
Ur of the Chaldees, beyond the Euphrates.
Terah had two other sons, Nahor and
Haran. Haran died before his father in
XJr of the Chaldees, leaving a son Lot; and
Terah, taking with him Abram, with Sarai

ABRAHAM

12

ABRAHAM

his ¦wife, and his grandson Lot, emigrated
to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died.
On the death of his father, Abram, then in
the 75th year of his age, with Sarai and
Lot, pursued his course to the land of
Canaan, whither he was directed by divine
command (Gen. xii. 5), when he received
thw general protnise that he should become
tho founder of a great nation, and that all
the families of the earth should be blessed
in him. He passed through the heart of
the countrj' by the great highway to She
chem, and pitched his tent beneath the
terebinth of Moreh (Gen. xii. 6). Here
he received in vision from Jeliovah the
further revelation that this was the land
which liis descendants should inherit (xii.
7). The next halting-place of the wander
er was on a mountain between Bethel and
Ai (Gen. xii. 8). But the country was suf
fering from famine, and Abram, finding
neither pasture for his cattle nor food for
his household, journeyed still southwards
to the rich corn-lands of Egypt. There,
fearing that the great beauty of Sarai miglit
tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt and
expose his own life to peril, he arranged
that Sarai should represent herself as his
sister, which her actual relationsliip to
him, as prob.ahly the daughter of his broth
er Haran, allowed her to do with some
semblance of truth. But hor beauty was
reported to the king, _and she was taken
into the royal harem. The deception was
discovered, and Pharaoh with some indig
nation dismissed him from the country (xii.
10-20). Abram left Egypt with great pos
sessions, and, accompanied by Lot, re
turned by the south of Palestine to his
former encampment between Bethel and
Ai. The increased wealth of the two kins
men was the ultimate cause of their sepa
ration. The soil was not fertile enough to
support them both: their herdsmen quar
relled; and, to avoid dissensions in a
country where they were surrounded by
enemies, Abram proposed that each should
follow his own fortune. Lot chose the fer
tile plain of the Jordan, rich and well
v/atered as the garden of Jehovah ; while
Abram quitted the hill-fastness between
Bethel and Ai, and pitched his tent among
Ihe oak -groves of Mamre, close to Hebron
(Gen. xiii.). The chiefs of the tribes who
peopled the plain of the Jordan h.ad been
subdued in a previous irruption of north
ern warriors, and for twelve years had
been tho tributaries of Chedorlaomer, king
of Elam. Their rebellion brought down
upon Palestine and the neighboring coun
tries a fresh flood of invaders from the
north-east, who joined battle with the re
volted chieftains in tho vale of Siddim.
The king of Sodom and his confederates
wer« defeated, their cities plundered, and a
host of captives accompanied the victori

ous array of Chedorlaomer. Among thenJ
were Lot and his family. Abram, then con
federate with Mamre the Amorite and his
brethren, heard the tidings from a fugitive,
and hastily arming his trusty slaves, started
in pursuit. He followed the track of the
conquerors along the Jordan valley, came
up with them by Dan, and in a night attack
completely routed their host, and checked
for a time the stream of nortliern immigra
tion. The captives and plunder were all
recovered, and Abram was greeted on hia
return by the king of Sodom, and by Mel-
chizedek, king of Salem, priest of the Most
High God, who mysteriously appears upon
the scene to bless the patriarch, and re
ceive from him a tenth of the spoil (Gen.
xiv.). After this, the thrice-repeated prom
ise that his descendants should become a
mighty natiop and possess the land in which
he was a stranger, was confirmed with all
the solemnity of a religious ceremony (Gen.
XV.). Ten years had passed since, in obe
dience to the divine command, he had left
his father's house, and the fulfilment of the
promise was apparently more distant than
at first.' At the suggestion of Sarai, who
despaired of having children of her own, he
took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian
maid, who bore him Ishmael in the -86th
year of his age (Gen. xvi.). [Hagak; Ish
mael.] But this was not the accomplish
ment of the promise. Thirteen years
elapsed, dvriug which Abram still dwelt in
Hebron, when the. last step in the revela
tion was made, that the son of Sarai, and
not Ishmael, should inherit both the tem
poral and spiritual blessings. The cove
nant was renewed, and the rite of circum
cision established as its sign. This most
important crisis in Abram's life is marked
by the significant change of his name to
Abraham, "father of a multitude; " while
his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. In
his 99th year Abraham was circumcised, in
accordance with the divine command, to
gether with Ishmael and all the males of
his household, as well the slaves born in
his house as those purchased from the for
eigner (Gen. xvii.). The promise that
Sarah should have a son was repeated in
the remarkable scene described in ch. xviii.
Three men stood before Abraham ,as he sat
in his tent door in the heat of he day.
The patriarch, with true Eastern hospital-
ity, welcomed the strangers, and bade
them rest and refresh themselves. Tho
meal ended, they foretold the birth of
Isaac, and went on their way to Sodom.
Abraham accompanied them, and is repre
sented as an interlocutor in a dialogue with
Jehovah, in which he pleaded in vain to
avert the vengeance threatened to the de
voted cities of the plain (xviii. 17-33). lu
remarkable contrast with Abraham's firm
faith with regai'd to the magnificent for-

ABRAHAM

13

ABSALOM

tunes of his posterity stands the incident
which occurred during his temporary resi
dence among the Philistines in Gerar,
whither he had, for some cause, removed
after the destruction of Sodom. Sarah's
beauty won the admiration of Abimelech,
the king of the country ; the. temporizing
policy of Abraham produced the same re
sults as before ; and the narrative of ch.
XX. is nearly a repetition of that in ch. xii.
1 1-20. Abimelech's dignified rebuke taught
him that he was" not alone in recognizing a
God of justice. At length Isaac, the long-
looked-for child, was born. His birth was
welcomed by all the rejoicings which could
greet the advent of one whose future was
of such rich promise. Sarah's jealousy,
aroused by the mockery of Ishmael at the
" great banquet " which Abraham made to
celebrate the weaning of her son (Gen. xxi.
9), demanded that, with his mother Hagar,
he should be driven out (Gen. xxi. 10).
The patriarch reluctantly consented, con
soled by the fresh promise that Ishmael too
should become a great nation. But the
severest trial of his faith was yet to come.
For a long period the history is almost si
lent. At length he receives the strange
command to take Isaac, his only son, and
offer him for a burnt-offering at an ap
pointed place. Such a bidding, in direct
opposition to the promptings of nature and
the divine mandate against the shedding of
human blood, Abraham hesitated not to
obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, support
ed him in this final trial, " accounting that
God was able to raise up his son, even
from the dead, from whence also he re
ceived him in a figure" (Heb. xi. 19).
The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of
Jehovah, the promise of spiritual blessing
for the first time repeated, and Abraham
with his son returned to Beersheba, and
for a time dwelt there (Gen. xxii.). But
we find him after a few years in Ids origi
nal residence at Hebron, for there Sarah
died (Gen. xxiii. 2), and was buried in
the cave of Machpolah, which Abraham
purchased of Ephron the Hittite, for the
exorbitant price of 400 shekels of silver.
The mosque at Hebron is believed to stand
upon the site of the sepulchral cave. The
remaining years of Abraham's life are
marked by but few incidents. In his ad
vanced age he commissioned the faithful
steward of his house to seek a wife for
Isaac from the family of his brother Nahor,
binding him by the most solemn oath not
to contractr an alliance with the daughters
of the degraded Canaanites among whom
he dwelt (Gen. xxiv.). After Isaac's mar
riage with Eebekah, and his removal to
Lahai-roi, Abraham took to wife Keturah,
by whom he had six children, Zimran,
Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok, and
Shuab, who became the ancestors of

nomadic tribes inhabiting the countries
south and south-east of Palestine. Ketu
rah occupied a position inferior to that of
a legitimate wife. Her children, like Ish
mael, were dismissed with presents, and
settled in the East country during Abra
ham's lifetime, and Isaac was left sole heir
of his father's wealth. Abraham lived to
see the gradual accomplishment of the
promise in the birth of his grandchildrep
Jacob and Esau, and witnessed their growth
to manhood (Gen. xxv. 26). At the good
ly age of 175 he was " gathered to his peo
ple," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of
Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael
(Gen. xxv. 7-10). From the intimate com
munion which Abraham held with the Al
mighty, he is distinguished by the high
title of "the 'friend' of God" (2 Chr. xx.
7 ; Is. xii. 8 ; Jam. ii. 23) ; and El-Khalil,
"the friend," is the appellation by which
he is familiarly known in the traditions of
the Arabs, who have given the same name
to Hebron, the place of his residence.
Ab'salom '{father of peace) , third son
of David by Maachah, daughter of Talirai
king of Geshur, a Syrian district adjoining
the N. E. frontier of the Holy Land. Ab
salom had a sister, Tjimar, who was violated
by her half-brother Amnon, David's eldest
son by Ahinoam the Jezreelitess. The nat
ural avenger of such an outrage would be
Tamar's full brother Absalom. He brooded
over the wrong for two years, and then in
vited all the princes to a sheep-shearing
feast at his estate in Baal-hazor, on the bor
ders of Ephraim and Beiijamin. Here he
ordered his servants to murder Amnon, and
then fled for safety to his grandfather's court
at Geshur, where he remained for three
years. At the end of that time he was
brought back by an artifice of Joab, who
sent a woman of Tekoah to entreat the
king's interference in an imaginary case
similar to Absalom's. David, however,
would not see Absalom for two more years ;
but at length Joab brought about a recon
ciliation. Absalom now began at once to
prepare for rebellion, urged to it partly by
his own restless wickedness, partly perhaps
by the fear lest Bathsheba's child should
supplant him in the succession, to which
he would feel himself entitled as being now
David's eldest surviving son. Absalom tried
to supplant his father by courting popular
ity, standing in the gate, conversing with
every suitor, and lamenting the difficulty
which he would find in getting a hearing.
He also maintained a splendid retinue
(2 Sam. XV. 1), and was admired for his
personal beauty and the luxuriant growth
of his hair, on grounds similar to those
which had made Saul acceptable (1 Sam.
X. 23). It is probable too that the great
tribe of Judah had taken some offence at
David's government, perhaps from finding

ACCAD

14

ACHAjy

tkemselves completely merged in one united
Israel. But whatever the causes may have
been, Absalom raised the standard of revolt
at Hebron, the old capital of Judah, now
supplanted by Jerusalem. The revolt was
at first completely successful; David fled
from his capital over the Jordan to Maha
naim in Gilead. Absalom occupied Jeru
salem, and by the advice of Ahithophel took
possession of David's harem, in which he
had left t«n concubines. This was consid
ered to imply a formal assumption of all his
father's royal rights (comp. the conduct of
Adonijah, 1 K. ii. 13 ff.), and was also a
fulfilment of Nathan's prophecy (2 Sam.
xii. 11). But David had left friends who
watched over his interests. The vigorous
counsels of Ahithophel were afterwards
rej ected through the crafty advice of Hushai,
who insinuated himself into Absalom's
confidence to work his ruin, and Ahithophel
himself, seeing his ambitious hopes frus
trated, went home to Giloh, and committed
suicide. At last, after being solemnly
anointed king at Jerusalem (xix. 10),
Absalom crossed the Jordan to attack his
father, who by this time had rallied round
him a considerable force, whereas had
Ahithophcl's advice been followed, he would
probably have been crushed at once. A
decisive battle was fought in Gilead, in the
wood of Ephraim. Hero Absalom's forces
were totally defeated, and as he himself
was escaping, his long hair was entangled
in the branches of a terebinth, where he
was left hanging while the mule on which
he was riding rar. away from under him.
He was despatched by Joab in spite of the
prohibition of David, who, loving him to
the last, had desired that his life might be
spared. He was buried in a great pit in the
forest, and the conquerors threw stones
over his grave, an old proof of bitter hos
tility (Josh. vii. 26).
Ac'ead, one of the cities in the land of
Shinar (Gen. x. 10). Its position is quite
uncertain. Ao'earon. [Ekron.]
Ac'cho (the Ptolemais of the Maccabees
and N. T.), now called Acca, or more usu
ally by Europeans, Si. Jean d'Acre, the
most important sea-port town on the Syrian
coast, about 30 miles S. of Tyre. It was
situated on a slightly projecting headland,
at the northern extremity of that spacious
bay, which is formed by the bold promon
tory of Carmel on the opposite side. In
the division of Canaan among the tribes,
Accho fell to the lot of Asher, but was nev
er wrested from its original inhabitants
(Judg. i. 31) ; and hence it is reckoned by
the classical writers among the cities of
Phoenicia. No further mention is made of
it in the O. T. history, but it rose to impor
tance after the dismemberment of the Mace
donian empire. Along with the rest of

Phoenicia it fell to the lot of Egypt, and
was named Ptolemais, after one of tne
Ptolemies, probably Soter. It was after
wards taken by Antiochus the Great, ana
attached to his kingdom. The only notice
of it in the N. T. is in connection with ot.
Paul's passage from Tyre to Caesarea (Acts
xxi. 7). , „ .,
Aoel'dama, " the field of blood ; tho
name given by the Jews of Jerusalem to a
field near Jerusalem purchased by Judas
with the money which he received for tlie
betrayal of Christ, and so called from liis
violent death thereio (Acts i. 19). This i?
apparently at variance with the account of
St. Matthew (xxvii. 8), according to which
the "field of blood" was purchased by the
priests with the 30 pieces of silver, after
they had been cast down by Judas, as a
burial-place for strangers, the locality being
well known at the time as "the field of the
Potter." And accordingly ecclesiastical
tradition appears, from the earliest times,
to have pointed out two distinct spots as re
ferred to in the two accounts. The "field
of blood" is now shown on the steep south
ern face of the valley or ravine of Hinnom.
It was believed in the middle ages that the
soil of this place had the power of very
rapidly consuming bodies buried in it, and
in consequence either of this, or of the
sanctity of the spot, great quantities of the
earth were taken away ; amongst others by
the Pisan Crusaders in 1218 fortheir Campo
Santo at Pisa, .and by the Empress Helena
for that at Rome.
Acha'ia signifies, in the N.T., a Roman
province, which included the whole of the
Peloponnesus and the greater part of Hel
las proper with the adjacent islands. This
province, with that of Macedonia, compre
hended the whole of Greece ; hence Achaia
and Macedonia are frequently mentioned
together in the N. T. to indicate all Greece
(Acts xviii. 12, xix. 21; Rom. xv. 26, xvi,
6 ; J Cor. xvi. 15 ; 2 Cor. ii. 1, ix. 2, xi. 10
IT tss. i. 7,8). In the time of the Empe
ror tJlaudius, it was governed by a Procon
sul, translated in the A. V. " deputy " of
Achaia (Acts xviii. 12) .
Acha'icus, a name of a Christian (1
Cor. xvi. 17, subscription No. 25).
A'chan {trouller), an Israelite of the
tribe of Judah, who, when Jericho and all
that it contained were accursed and devoted
to destruction, secreted a portion of the
spoil in his tent. For this sin Jehovah
punished Israel by their defeat in the attack
upon Ai. When Achan confessed his guilt,
and the booty was discovered, he was stoned
to death with his whole family by the peo
ple in a valley situated between Ai and Jer
icho, and their remains, together with his
property, were burnt (Josh. vii. 16^-22).
From this event the valley received the
name of Achor (i. e. trovMe). [Aoeob.'J

ACHAE

15

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

A'char== Achan (1 Chr. ii. 7).
A'ehaz = A&az, king of Judah (Matt.
I. 9).Aell'bor. 1. Father of Baal-hanan,
king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39 ; 1 Chr.
i. 49). 2. Son of Michaiah, a contempo
rary of Josiah (2K. xxii. 12, 14 ; Jer. xxvi.
22, xxxvi. 12), called Abdon in 2 Chr.
xxsiv. 20.
A'ehim, son of Sadoc, and father of
Eliud, in our Lord's genealogy ; the fifth in
succession before Joseph, the husband of
Mary (Matt. i. 14). The Hebrew form of
the name would be Jachin, which is a short
form of Jehoiachin, the Lord will establish.
A'ehish, a Philistine king of Gath, who
in the title to the 34th Psalm is called Abim
elech. David twice found a refuge with
him when he fled from Saul. On the first
occasion, being recognized by the servants
of Achish as one celebrated for his victories
over the PhOistines, he was alarmed for his
safety, and feigned madness (1 Sam. xxi.
10-13). [David.] From Achish he fled
to the cave of AduUam. On a second occa
sion David fied to Achish with 600 men (1
Sam. xxvii. 2), and remained at Gath a
year and four months.
Aeh'metha. [Eobatana.]
A'ctior, "Valley of, or " valley of trou
ble," the spot at which Achan, the " trou-
bler of Israel," was stoned (Josh. vii. 24,
26). On the N. boundary of Judah (xv. 7 ;
also Is. lx>. 10; Hos. ii. 15).
Aeh'sa (1 Chr. ii. 49). [Achsah.]
Aeh'sall, daughter of Caleb. Her
father promised her in marriage to whoever
should take Debir. Othniel, her father's
younger brother, took that city, and accord
ingly received the hand of Achsah as his
reward. Caleb, at his daughter's request,
added to her dowry the upper and lower
springs, which she had pleaded for as pecu
liarly suitable to her inheritance in a south
country (Josh. xv. 15-19 ; Judg. i. 11-15).
Ach'shaph, a city within the territory
of Asher, named between Beten and Alam-
melech (Josh. xix. 25) ; originally the seat
of a Canaanite king (xi. 1, xii. 20).
Ach'zib. 1. A city in the lowlands of
Judah, named with Keilah and Mareshah
(Josh. XV. 44; Mic. i. 14). It is probably
the same with Chezib and Chozeba, which
see. 2. A town belonging to Asher (Josh.
xix. 29), from which the Canaanites were
not expelled (Judg. i. 31) ; afterwards
Ecdippa. It is now es-Zih, on the sea
shore, 2 h. 20 m. N. of Acre.
Acts of the Apostles, a second
treatise by the author of the third Gospel,
traditionally known as Luke. The identity
of the writer of both books is strongly
shown by their great similarity in style and
idiom, and the usage of particular words
and compound forms. It is, at first sight,
somewhat surprising that notices of tbe|

author are wanting, generally, in the Epis
tles of St. Paul, whom he must have accom
panied for some years on his travels. But
no Epistles were, strictly speaking, written
by St. Paul while our writer was in his
company, before his Rom.an imprisonment;
for he does not seem to have joined him at
Corinth (Acts xviii.), where the two Epis
tles to the Thessalonians were written, nor
to have been with him at Ephesus (ch. xix.),
whence, perhaps, the Epistle to tho Gala
tians was written; nor again to have win
tered with liim at Corinth (ch. xx. 3) at the
time of his writing the Epistle to the Ro
mans, and, perhaps, that to tho Galatians.
The book commences with an inscription to
one Theophilus, who was probably a man
of birth and station. But its design must
not be supposed to be limited to the edifica
tion of Theophilus, whose name is prefixed
only, as was customary then as now, by
way of dedication. The readers were evi
dently intended to be the members of the
Christian Church, whether Jews or Gen
tiles ; for its contents are such as are of
the utmost consequence to the whole
Church. They are The fulfilment of the
pror/iise of the Father by the descent of
the Holy Spirit, and the results- of thai
outpouring, by the dispersion of the Oos-
pel among Jews and Gentiles. Under these
leading heads all the personal and subor
dinate details may be ranged. Immediately
after the Ascension, St. Peter, the first of
the Twelve, designated by our Lord as the
Rock on whom the Church was to be built,
the holder of the keys of the kingdom,
becomes the prime actor under God in the
founding of the Church. He is the centre
of the first great group of sayings and
doings. The opening of the door to Jews
(ch. ii.) and Gentiles (ch. x.) is his office,
and by him, in good time, is accomplished.
But none of the existing twelve Apostles
were, humanly speaking, fitted to preaph
the Gospel to the cultivated Gentile world.
To be by divine grace the spiritual con
queror of Asia and Europe, God raised up
another instrument, from among the highly
educated and zealous Pharisees. The prep
aration of Saul of Tarsus for the work to
be done, the progress, in his hand, of that
work, his journeyings, preachings, and per
ils, his stripes and imprisonments, his testi
fying in Jerusalem and being brought to
testify in Rome, — these are the subjects of
the latter half of the book, of wldch the
great central figure is the Apostle Paul. It
seems most probable that the place of writ
ing was Rome, and the time about two years
from the date of St. Paul's arrival there, as
related in ch. xxviii. 30. This would give
us for the publication the year 63 a. d.,
according to the most probable assignment
of the date of the arrival of St. PatQ at
Rome.

AD AD AH

16

ADAMANT

Ad'adah, one of the cities in the
extreme south of Judah named with Di-
monah and Kedesh (Josh. xv. 22).
A'dah {ornament, beauty). 1. The
first of the two wives of Lamech, by whom
were born to him Jabal and Jubal (Gen. iv.
19). 2. AHittitess, one of the three wives
of Esau, mother of Eliphaz (Gen. xxxvi. 2,
10, 12, IG). In Gen. xxvi. 34 she is called
Bashemath. Adai'ah. 1. Maternal grandfather of
king Josiah, and native of Boscath in the
lowlands of Judah (2 K. xxii. 1). 2. A
Levite, of the Oershonite branch, and ances
tor of Asaph (1 Chr. vi. 41). In v. 21 he
is called Iddo. 3. A Benjamite, son of
Shimhi (1 Chr. viii. 21), who is apparently
the same as Shema in v. 13. 4. A priest,
son of Jehoram (1 Chr. ix. 12; Neh. xi.
12). 5. Ancestor of Maaseiah, one of the
captains who supported Jehoiada (2 Chr.
xxiii. 1). 6. One of the descendants of
Bani who had married a foreign wife after
the return from Babylon (Ezr. x. 29). 7.
The descendant of another Bani, who had
also taken a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 39). 8.
A man of Judah, of the line of Pharez
(Neh. xi. 6).
Adali a, the fifth son of Haman (Esth.
is. 8).
Ad'am, the name given in Scripture to
the first man. It apparently has reference
to the ground from which he was formed,
which is called in Hebrew Adamah. The
idea of redness of color seems to be inhe
rent in either word. The creation of man
was the work of the sixth day. His forma
tion was the ultimate object of the Creator.
It was with reference to him that all things
were designed. He was to be the "roof
and crown" of the whole fabric of the
world. In the first nine chapters of Gen
esis there appear to be three distinct histo
ries relating more or less to the life of
Adam. Tho first extends from Gen. i. 1 to
ii. 3, the second from ii. 4 to iv. 26, the
third from v. 1 to the end of ix. The word
at the commencement of the two latter nar
ratives,, which is rendered there and else
where generations, m.ay also be rendered
history. The object of the flrst of these
narratives is to record the creation ; that of
the second to give an account of paradise,
the original sin of man, and the immediate
posterity of Adam ; the third contains main
ly the history of Noah,'teferring, it would
seem, to Adam and his descendants princi-.
pally in relation to that patriarch. The
name Adam was not confined to the father
of the human race, but like homo was
applicable to woman as well as man, so
that we find it said in Gen. v. 2, " male and
female created He them, and called their
name Adam in the day when they were
created." The man Adam was placed in a
garden which the Lord God had planted

" eastward in Eden," for the V^ip°f, °^
dressing it and keeping it. [Eien. J Aaam
was permitted to eat of the fruit ot every
tree in the garden but one, which was callea
the "tree of the knowledge of good and
evil." The prohibition to taste the friut ot
this tree was enforced by the menace of
death. There was also another tree which
was called "the tree of life." Some sup
pose it to have acted as a kind of medicine,
and that by the continual use of it our first
parents, not created immortal, were pre^
served from death. 'While Adam was in
the garden of Eden, the beasts of the field
and the fowls of the air were brought to him
to be named, and whatsoever he called
every living creature that was the name
thereof. Thus the power of fitly designat
ing objects of sense was possessed by the
first man, a faculty which is generally con
sidered as indicating mature and extensive
intellectual resources. Upon the failure of
a companion suitable for Adam among the
creatures thus brought to him to be named,
the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall
upon him, and took one of his ribs from
him, which He fashioned into a ^oman and
brought her to the man. At this time they
are both described as being naked without
the consciousness of shame. Such is the
Scripture account of Adam prior to the
Fall. The first man is a true man, with
the powers of a man and the innocence of
a cliild. He is moreover spoken of by St.
Paul as being " the figure of Him that was
to come," the second Adam, Christ Jesus
(Rom. V. 14). By the subtlety of the ser
pent, the woman who was given to be with
Adam, was beguiled into a violation of the
one command which had been imposed upon
them. She took of the fruit of the forbid
den tree and gave it to her husband. The
propriety of its name was immediately
shown in the results which followed : self-
consciousness was the first-fruits of sin';
their eyes were opened and they knew that
they were naked. Though the curse of
Adam's rebellion of necessity fell upon him,
yet the very prohibition to eat of the tree
uf life after Ms transgression was jM-obably
a manifestation of Divine mercy, because
the greatest malediction of all would have
been to have the gift of indestructible life
superadded to a state of wretchedness and
sin. Adam is stated to have lived 930
years. His sons mentioned in Scripture are
Cain, Abel, and Seth; it is imphed how
ever that he had others.
Ad'am, a city on the Jordan " beside
Zaretan," in the time of Joshua (.Josh. iii.
16). Ad'amah, one of the "fenced cities"
of Naphtali, named between Chinnereth
and ha-Ramah (Josh. xix. 36).
Adamant, the translation of the Hebrew
word Shdmtr in Ez. iii. 9 and Zech. vii. 12.

ADA MI

17

ADNAH

In Jer. xvii. 1 it is translated " diamond."
In these three passages the word is the
representative of some stone of excessive
hardness, and is used metaphorically.
Since the Hebrews appear to have been
unacquainted with the true diamond, it is
very probable, from the expression in Ez.
iii. 9, of " adumunt harder than flint," that
by Shdmir is intended Emery, a variety of
Corundum, a mineral inferior only to the
diamond in hardness. Emery is extensively
used for polishing and cutting gems and
other hard substances.
.Ad'ami, a place on the border of Naph
tali (Josh. xix. 33).
.A'dar, a place on the south boundary
of Judah (Josh. xv. 3).
A'dar. [Months.]
Ad'asa, a place in Judsa, about 4 miles
from Bethhoron (1 Mace. vii. 40, 45).
Ad'beel, a son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
13; 1 Chr. i. 20), and proba'oly the progen
itor of an Arab tribe.
Ad'dan, one of the places from which
some of the captivity returned with Zerub-
babel to Judaia who could not show their
pedigree <as Israelites (Ezr. ii. 59). In the
parallel list of Nehemiah (vii. 61) the
n.ame is Addon.
Ad'dar, son of Bela (1 Chr. viii. 3),
called Ard in Num. xxvi. 40.
Ad'der. This word is used for any
poisonous snake, and is applied in this gen
eral sense by the translators of the A. V.
They use in a similar way the synonymous
term asp. The word adder occurs five
tiaios in the text of the A. V. (see below),
and three times in the margin as synony
mous with cockatrice, viz. Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29,
lix. 5. It rdjirescnts four Hebrew words :
1. 'Acshiib is found only in Ps. cxl. 3,
"They have sharpened their tongues like
a serpent, adders' poison is under their
Iii)s." The latter Jialf of this verse is
quoted by St. Paul from the LXX. in Rom.
iii. 13. 'Acshub may be represented by the
Toxicoa of Egypt and North Africa. 2.
Pethen. [Asp.] 3. Tsepha, or Tsiphoni,
occurs five times in the Hebrew Bible. In
Prov. xxiii. 32 it is translated adder, and
in Is. xi. 8, xiv. 29, lix. 5, Jer. viii. 17, it is
rendered cochatrice. From Jeremiah wc
learn that it was of a hostile nature, and
from the parallelism of Is. xi. 8 it appears
that tho Tsiphoni was considered even
more dreadful than tiie Petken. 4. She-
pliiphSn occurs only in Gen. xlix. 17, where
it is used to characterize the tribe of Dan :
" Dan shall bo a serpent by the way, an
adder in tho path, that biteth the horse's
heels, so that his rider shall fall backward."
The habit of lurking in the sand and biting
at the horse's heels, here alluded to, suits the
character of a well-known species of ven
omous sn.ake, and helps to identify it with
the celebrated horned viper, the asp of
2

Cleopatra {Cerastes), which is found abun
dantly in the dry sandy deserts of Egypt,
Syria, and Arabia. The Cerastes is ex
tremely venomous ; Bruce compelled a
specimen to scratch eighteen pigeons upon
the thigh as quickly as possible, and they
all died in nearly the same interval of time.
Ad'di. (Luke iii. 28.) Son of Cosam,
and father of Melehi, in our Lord's geneal
ogy ; tlie third above Salathiel.
Ad'don. [Addan.]
A'der, a Benjamite, son of Beriah,
chief of the inhabitants of .Aijalon (1 Chr.
viii. 15). The name is more correctly
Eder. A'diel. 1. A prince of the tribe of Sim
eon, descended from the prosperous family
of Shimei (1 Chr. iv. 36). He took part
in the murderous raid made by his tribo
upon the peaceable Hamite shepherds of
the valley of Gedor in the reign of Heze-
kiali. 2. A priest, ancestor of Maasiai (1
Chr. ix. 12). 3. Ancestor of Azmaveth,
David's treasurer (1 Chr. xxvii. 25).
A'din, ancestor of a family who returned
with Zerubbabel, to the number of 454
(Ezr. ii. 15), or G55 according to the par
allel list in Neh. vii. 20. Fifty-one more
accompanied Ezra in the second caravan
from Babylon (Ezr. viii. 6). They joined
with Nehemiah in a covenant to separate
themselves from the heathen (Neh. x. 16).
Ad'ina, one of David's captains beyond
the Jordan, and a chief of the Reubenites
(1 Chr. xi. 42). According to tlie A. V.
and the Syr. -he had the command of tJiirty
men ; but the passage should be rendered
"and over him were thirty," i. e. the
thirty before enumerated were his supe
riors. Adi'no, the Eanits, 2 Sam. xxiii. 8.
See J.*.shoeeam.
Aditha'im, a town belonging to Judah,
lying in the low country, and named, be
tween Sharaim and hag-Gederah, in Josh.
XV. 36 only.
Adla'i, ancestor of Shaphat, the over
seer of David's herds that fed in the broad
valleys (1 Chr. xxvii. 20).
Ad'mah, one of the " cities of the
plain," always coupled with Zeboim (Gen.
X. 19, xiv. 2, 8 ; Deut. xxix. 23 ; Hos. xi. 8).
Ad'matha, one of the seven princes of
Persia (Esth. i. 14).
Ad'ua. 1. One of the family of Pahafh-
Moab who returned with Ezra and married
a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 30). 2. A priest,
descendant of Harira in the days of Joia-
kim, the son of Jeshua (Neh. xii. 15).
Ad'nah. 1. A Manassite who deserted
from Saul aud joined the fortunes of David
on his road to Ziklag from the camp of the
Philistines. He was captain of a thousand
of his tribe, and fought at David's side in
the pursuit of the Amalekites (1 Chr. xii.
20). 2. The captain over 3QQjQ00 men of

ADONI-BEZEK

18

ADORABT

Judah who wore in Jehoshaphat's army (2
Chr. xvii. 14).
Adon'i-Ee'zek {lord of Bezelc), king
of Bezek, a city of the Canaanites. [Be-
zek.] This chieft,ain was vanquished by
tlio tril)e of Judali (Judg. i. 3-7), who cut
oiT his thumbs and great toes, and brought
him prisoner to Jerusalem, where he died.
He confessed that he had inflicted the same
cruelty upon 70 petty kings whom he had
conquered. Adoni'jah {myLordis Jehovah). 1. The
foartli son of David by Haggith, born at
Hebron, while his father was king of Ju
dah (2 Sam. iii. 4). After the death of liis
three brothers, Amnon, Chileab, and Absa
lom, he became eldest son ; and when his
father's strength was visibly declining, put
forward his pretensions to the crown.
David promised Bathsheba that her son
Solomon should inherit the succession (1
K. i. 30), for there was no absolute claim
of primogeniture in these Eastern monar
chies. Adonijah's cause was espoused by
Abiathar and Joab, the famous commander
of David's army. [Joab.] His name and
influence secured a large number of fol
lowers among the captains of the royal
army belonging to the tribe of Judah (comp.
1 K. i. 9, 25) ; and these, together with all the
princes, except Solomon, were entertained
by Adonijah at a great sacrificial feast held
" by the stone Zoheleth, which is by En-
rogel." [Enrogel.] Nathan and Bath-
shSba, now thoroughly alarmed, apprised
David of these proceedings, who immedi
ately gave orders that Solomon should bo
conducted on the royal mule in solemn
procession to Gihon, a spring on the W. of
Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxxii. 30). [Gihon.]
Here he was anointed and proclaimed king
by Zadok, and joyfully recognized by the
people. This decisive measure struck ter
ror into the opposite party, and Adonijah
fled to sanctuary, but was pardoned by
Solomon on condition that he should " show
himself a worthy man," with the threat
tliat "if wickedness were found in him he
should die " (i. 52). The death of David
quickly followed on these events; and
Adonij ah begged Bathsheba, who as " king's
mother " would now have special dignity
and influence [Asa], to procure Solomon's
consent to his marriage with Abishag, who
bad been the wife of David in his old age
(1 K. i. 3). This was regarded as equiva
lent to a fresh attempt on the throne [Ab-
8AL0.M; Abner]; aud therefore Solomon
ordered him to be put. to death by Benaiah,
ill accordance with the terms of his pre
vious pardon. 2. A Levite in the reign of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 8). 3. (Neh. x.
16.) [Adoniicam.]
„„f'*?°^'^^^- The sons of Adonikam,
b06 m number, were among those who
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel

(Ezr. ii. 13; Neh. vii. 18; 1 JEsd. v. .4),
In the last two passages the number is fabT.
The remainder of the family returned with
Ezra (Ezr. viii. 13; 1 Esd. viii. 39). The
name is given as Adonijah in Neh. x. 10.
Addni'ram (l K. iv. 6; by an unusual
contraction Adoram, 2 Sam. xx. 21, and
1 K. xii. 18 ; also Hadoram, 2 Chr. x. 18),
chief receiver of the tribute during tlie
reigns of David (2 Sam. xx. 24), Solomon
(1 K. iv. G), and Rehoboam (1 K. xii. 18).
This last monarch sent him to collect the
tribute from tho rebellious Israelites, by
whom he was stoned to death.
Ado'ni-ze'dek {lord of justice), the
Amorite king of Jerusalem who organized
a league with four other Amorite princes
against Joshua. The confederate kings
having laid siege to Gibeon, Joshua marched
to the relief of his new allies and put the
besiegers to flight. The five kings took
refuge in a cave at Makkedah, whence they
were taken and slain, their bodies hung on
trees, and then buried in the place of their
concealment (Josh. x. 1-27).
Adoption, an expression metaphorical
ly used by St. Paul in reference to the
present and prospective privileges of Chris
tians (Rom. viii. 15, 23 ; Gal. iv. 5 ; Eph. i.
5). He probably alludes to the Roman cus
tom of adoption, by which a person, not
having children of his o^vn, might adopt as
his son one born of other parents. The ef
fect of it was that the adopted child was
entitled to the name and sacra priraia of
his new father, and ranked as his heir-
at-law: while the father on his part was
entitled to the property of the son, and exer
cised towards him all the rights aad privi
leges of a father. In short, -the relation
ship was to all intents and purposes the
same as existed between a natural father
and son. The selection of a person to be
.adopted implied a decided preference and
love on the part of the adopter: and St.
Paul aptly transfers the well-known feel
ings and customs connected with the act to
illustrate the position of the Christianized
Jew or Gentile. The Jews themselves
were unacquainted with tho process of
adoption: indeed it would have been in
consistent with the regulations of the Mo
saic law affecting the inheritance of prop
erty : the instances occasionally adduced as
referring to the custom (Gon. xv. 3, xvi. 3,
xxx. 5-9) are evidently not cases of adop- '
tion proper.
Ado'ra or A'dor. [Adoraim.]
Adora'im, a fortified city built Ijy Re
hoboam (2 Chr. xi. 9), in Judah. Adoraim
IS probably the same place with Adora (1
Mace. xiii. 20), unless that be Dor, on the
sea-coast below Carmel. Robinson identi
fies it with Eitra, a " large village " on a
rising ground west of Hebron.
Ado'ram. [Adoniram; II.\doram.]

ADORATION

19

ADULLAM

Adoration. Th"? acts and postures by
which the Hebrews expressed adoration
bear a great similarity to those still in use
among Oriental nations. To rise up and
suddenly prostrate the body was the most

Adoration. Modern Egyptian. (Lane.)
simple method; but, generally speaking,
the prostration was conducted in a more
formal manner, the person falling upon the
knee and then gradually inclining the body
until the forehead touched the ground.
Such prostration was usual in the worship
of Jehovah (Gen.' xvii. 3; Ps. xcv. 6). But
it was by no means exclusively used for
that purpose ; it was tho formal mode of
receiving visitors (Gen. xviii. 2), of doing
obeisance to one of superior station (2
Sam. xiv. 4), and of showing respect to
equals (1 K. ii. 19). Occasionally it was
repeated three times (1 S.am. xx. 41), and
even seven times (Gen. xxxiii. 3). It was
accompanied by such acts as a kiss (Ex.
xviii. 7), laying hold of the knees or feet
Of the person to whom the adoration was
paid (Matt, xxviii. 9), and kissing the
ground on which he stood (Ps. Ixxii. 9 ;
Mic. vii. 17). Similar adoration was paid
to idols (1 K. xi.x. 18) : sometimes how
ever prostration was omitted, and the act
consisted simply in kissing the hand to the
object of reverence (Job xxxi. 27), and in
kissing the statue itself (Hos. xiii. 2).
Adjam'melech. 1. The name of an
idol introduced into Samaria by the colo
nists from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31). He
was worshipped with rites resembling those
of Molcch, children being burnt in his
honor. The first part of the word proba
bly means fire. Adr.amraeloeh was probably
the male power of the sun, and Anamme-
LECH, who is mentioned with Adrammeleoh
as a companion-god, the female power of
the sun. 2. Son of the Assyrian king Sen
nacherib, who, together with his brother
Sharezer, murdered their father in the
temple of Nisroch at Nineveh, after the
failure of the Assyrian attack on Jerusalem.
The parricides escaped into Armenia (2 K.
xix. 37; 2 Chr. xxxii. 21; Is. xxxvii. 38).
The date of this event was n. c. 680.
Adramyt'tium, a seaport in the prov

ince of Asia [Asia], situated in the dis
trict anciently called Aeolis, and alf o Mysia
(see Acts xvi. 7). Adramyttium gave,
and still gives, its name to a deep gulf on
this coast, opposite to the opening of which
is the island of Lesbos. [Mittlene." It
has no Biblical interest, except as illustrat
ing St. Paul's voyage from Caesarea in a
ship, belonging to this place (Acts xx^ii.
2). Ships of Adramyttium must have been
frequent on this coast, for it was a place
of considerable traffic. The modern Adra-
myti is a poor village, but it is still a place
of some trade and shipbuilding.
A'dria, more properly A'drias. It is
important to fix the meaning of this word
as used in Acts xxvii. 27. The word seems
to have been derived from the town of
Adria, near the Po ; and at first it denoted
the part of the Gulf of "Venice which is in
that neighborhood. Afterwards the signifi
cation of the name was extended, so as to
embrace the whole of that gulf. Subse
quently it obtained a much wider exten
sion, and in the apostolic age denoted that
natural division of the Mediterranean wiiich
had the coasts of Sicily, Italy, Greece, and
Africa for its boundaries. This definition
is explicitly given by almost a contempo
rary of St. Paul, the geographer Ptolemy,
who also says that Crete is bounded on the
west by Adrias. Later writers state that
Malta divides the Adriatic sea from tho
Tyrrhenian sea, and the isthmus of Corinth
the Aegean from the Adriatic. It is througli
ignorance of these fiicts, or through tho
want of attending to them, that writers have
drawn an argument from this geographical
term in favor of the false view which places
the apostle's shipwreck in the Gulf of
¦Venice. [Melita.]
A'driel, son of Barzillai, to whom Saul
gave his daughter Merab, although he had
previously promised her to David (1 Sam.
xviii. 19). His five sons were amongst the
seven descendants of Saul whom David sur
rendered to the Gibeonites in satisfaction
for the endeavors of Saul to extirpate them
(2 Sam. xxi. 8).
AduI'lam. Apocr. Odollam, a cityof
Judah in the lowland of the Shefelali (Josli.
XV. 35) ; the seat of a Canaanite king (Josh.
xii. 15), and evidently a place of great anti
quity (Gen. xxxviii. 1, 12, 20). Fortified
by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 7), it was one
of the towns reoccupied by the Jews after
their return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 30),
and still a city in the times of the Macca
bees (2 Mace. xii. 38). Adullamwas prob
ably near Peir Pubhdn, 5 or 6 miles N. of
Eleutheropolis. The limestone cliffs of tho
whole of that locality are pierced with ex
tensive excavations, some one of which is
doubtless the"caveof Adullam," the refuge
of David (1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 13}
1 Chr. xi. 15).

ADULTERY

20

AGE

Adultery. The parties to this crime
»\ ere a married woman and a man who was
not her husband. The toleration of polyg
amy, indeed, renders it nearly impossible
to make criminal a similar offence com
muted by a married man with a woman
nut Ids wife. The Mosaic penalty was that
both the guilty parties should be stoned,
and it applied as well to the betrothed as
to the married woman, provided she were
free (Deut. xxii. 22-24). A bondwoman
so ofl'ending was to be scourged, and the
man was to make a trespass offering (Lev.
xix. 20-22). At a later time, and when,
owing to Gentile example, the marriage
tie became a looser bond of union, public
feeling in regard to adultery changed, and
the penalty of death was seldom or never
inflicted. Thus, in the case of the woman
brought under our Lord's notice (John
viii.), it is likely that no one then thought
of stoning her in fact, though there re
mained the written law ready for the pur
pose of the caviller. It is likely also that
a divorce, in which the adulteress lost her
dower and rights of maintenance, &c.,
was the usual remedy, suggested by a wish
to avoid scandal and the excitement of com
miseration for crime. The expression in
St. Matthew (i. 19) "to make her a pub
Uc example," probably means to bring the
case before the local Sanhedrim, which was
the usual course, but which Joseph did not
propose to take, preferring repudiation, be
cause that could be managed privately.
The famous trial by the waters of jealousy
(Num. V. 11-29), was probably an ancient
custom, which Moses found deeply seated,
and which is said to be paralleled by a form
of ordeal called the "red water" in. West
ern Africa. The forms of Hebrew justice
all tended to limit the application of this
test. AVhen adu't&y ceased to be capital,
as no doubt it did, and divorce became a
matter of mere convenience, it would be
ii'usurd to suppose that this trial was con
tinued. And when adultery became com
mon, it would have been impious to expect
tbe miracle which it supposed.
Adum'mim, "the going up to" or
" OP," one of the landmarks of the boun
dary of Benjamin, a rising ground or pass
" over against Gilgal," and " on the south
side of the ' torrent ' " (Josh. xv. 7, xviii.
17), which is the position still occupied by
the road leading up from Jericho and the
Jordan viiUey to Jerusalem, on the south
face of the gorge of tho Wady Kelt. The
pass is still infested by robbers, as it was in
the days of our Lord, of whose parable of
tne Good Samaritan tliis is the scene.
Ae'gypt. [Egypt.]
Aene'aa, a paralytic at Lydda healed
by St.^ Peter (Acts ix. 33, 34).
Ae'non, a place "near to Salim," at
wlueh John baptized (John .ii. 23). It was

evidently west of the Jordan (comp. m. 22,
with 26, and with i. 28), and aUunded m
water. This is indicated by the name,
which is merely a Greek version ot a Chal-
dee word, signifying "springs." Aenon is
given in the Onomasticon as 8 miles south
of Scythopolis '.' near Salem and the Jor
dan." Aera. [Chronology.]
Aethio'pia. [Ethiopia.]
Afllnity. [Marriage.]
Ag'abus, a Christian prophet in the
apostolic age, mentioned in Acts xi. 28 and
xxi. 10. He predicted (Acts xi. 28) that a
famine would take place in the reign of
Claudius " throughout all the world." As
Greek and Roman writers used " the world "
of the Greek and the Roman world, so a
Jewish writer would use it naturally of the
Jewish world or Palestine. Josephus men
tions a famine which prevailed in Judaea
in the reign of Claudius, and swept away
many of the inhabitants. This, in all prob
ability, is the famine to which Agabus re
fers. A'gag, possibly the title of the kings of
Amalek, like Pharaoh of Egypt. One king
of this name is mentioned in Num. xxiv. 7,
and another in 1 Sam. xv. 8, 9, 20, 32. The
latter was the king of tbe Amalekites, whom
Saul spared, together with the best of the
spoil, although it was the well-known will
of Jehovah that the Amalekites should be
extirpated (Ex. xvii. 14; Deut. xxv. 17).
For this act of disobedience Samuel was
commissioned to declare to Saul Ids rejec
tion, and he himself sent for Agag and cut
him in pieces. [Samuel.] — Haman is
called the Agagitb in Esth. ui. 1, 10, viii.
3, 5. The Jews consider him a descendant
of Agag the Amalekite, and hence account
for the hatred with which he pursued theu'
race. A'gagite. [Agag.]
A'gar, [Hagar.]
Agate is mentioned four times in the
text of the A. V. ; viz. in Ex. xxviii. 19,
xxxix. 12; Is. liv. 12; Ez. xxvii. 16. In
the two former passages, where it is repre
sented by the Hebrew word sheh6, it is
spoken of as forming the second stone in
the tliird row of the high priest's breast
plate ; in each of the two latter places the
original word is cadcCd, by which, no doubt,
is intended a different stone. [Ruby.] —
Our English agate derives its name from
the Achates, on the banks of which, accord-
mg to Theophrastus and Pliny, it was first
found ; but as agates are met with in almost
every country, this stone was doubtless
from the earliest times known to the Orien
tals. It is a silieious stone of the quartz
family. Age, Old. In early stages of civiliza
tion, when experience is the only source of
practical knowledge, old age has its special

AGEB

21

AGRICULTURE

value, and consequently its special honors.
A further motive was superadded in the
case of the Jew, who was taught to con
sider old age as a reward for piety, and a
signal token of God's favor. For these
reasons the aged occupied a prominent
place in the social and political system of
the Jews. In private life they were looked
up to as the depositaries of knowledge (Job
XV. 10) : the young were ordered to rise up
in their presence (Lev. xix. 32) : they al
lowed them to give their opinion first (Job
xxxii. 4) : they wore taught to regard gray
hairs as a " crown of glory " and as the
"beauty of old men" (Prov. xvi. 31, xx.
29). The attainment of old age was re
garded as a special blessing (Job v. 26), not
only on account of the prolonged enjoy
ment of life to the individual, but also be
cause it indicated peaceful and prosperous
times (Zech. viii. 4; 1 Maoc. xiv. 9; Is.
Ixv. 20). In public affairs age carried
weight with it, especially in the infancy of
the state : it formed under Moses the main
qualification of those who acted as the
representatives of the people in all matters
of difficulty and deliberation. The old men
or Elders thus became a class, and the title
gradually ceased to convey the notion of
age, and was used in an official sense, like
Patres, Senatoros, and other similar terms.
[Elders.] Still it would be but natural
that such an ofiiee was generally held by
men of advanced age (1 K. xii. 8).
Ag'ee, a Hararite, father of Shammah,
one of David's three mightiest heroes (2
Sam. xxiii. 11).
Agriculture. This, though promi
nent in the scriptural narrative concerning
Adam, Cain, and Noah, was little cared for
by the patriarchs. The pastoral life was
the means of keeping the sacred race,
whilst yet a family, distinct from mixture
and locally unattached, especially whilst in
Egypt. When, grown into a nation they
conquered their future seats, agriculture
supplied a similar check on the foreign
intercourse and speedy demoralization,
especially as regards idolatry, which com
merce would have caused. Thus agricul
ture became the basis of the Mosaic com
monwealth. Taken in connection with the
inalienable character of inheritances, it
gave each man and each family a stake in
the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism.
" The land is Mine " (Lev. xxv. 23) was a
dictum which made agriculture likewise
the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus
every family felt its own life with intense
keenness, and had its divine tenure which
it was to guard from alienation. The pro
hibition of culture in the sabbatical year
formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent
reserved by the Divine Owner. Land
marks were deemed sacred (Deut. xix. 14),
B-nd the inalienability at the heritage was

¦insured by its reversion to the owner in the
year of jubilee; so th.at only so many years
of occupancy could be sold (Lev. .xxv. 8-
16, 23-35). The prophet Is.aiah (v. 8) de
nounces the contempt of such restrictions
by wealthy grandees, who sought to "add
field to field," erasing families .aud depopu
lating districts.
Rain. — The abund.ance of w.atcr in Pal
estine, from natural sources, made it a
contrast to rainless Egypt (Deut. viii. 7,
xi. 8-12). Rain was commonly expoctcd
soon after the autumnal equinox. Tiie com
mon scriptural expressions of the " early "
and the " latter rain" (Deut. xi. 14 ; Jer. v.
24; Hos. vi. 3; Zech. x. 1; Jam. v. 7) are
scarcely confirmed by modern experience,
the season of rains being unbroken, though
perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at
the beginning and the end of it.
Crops. — The cereal crops of constant
mention are wheat and barley, and more
rarely rye and millet (?). Of the two for
mer, together with the vino, olive, and fig,
the use of irrigation, the plough and tlie
harrow, mention is made in the book of
Job (xxxi. 40 ; xv. 33 ; xxiv. 6 ; xxix. 19 -,
xxxix. 10). Two kinds of cumin (thi
black variety called " fitches," Is. xxviii.
27), and such podded plants as beans and
lentiles, may be named among the stajde
produce. Ploughing and Sowing. — The plough
was probably very light, one yoke of oxen
usually sufficing to draw it. Mountains
and steep places were hoed (Is. vii. 25).
New ground and fallows, the use of whielj
latter was familiar to the Jews (Jer. iv. 3 ;
Hos. X. 12), were cleared of stones and of
thorns (Is. v. 2) early in the year, sowing
or gathering from "among thorns " being a
proverb for slovenly husbandry (Job v. 5 ;
Prov. xxiv. 30, 31). Sowing also took
place Miittowi previous ploughing, the seed,
as in the parable of the sower, being scat
tered broadcast, and ploughed in after
wards. The soil was then brushed over
with a light harrow, often of thorn bushes.
In highly y-rigated spots the seed w.ts
trampled in by cattle (Is, xxxii. 20), as in
Egypt. by goats. The more formal routine
of heavy western soils must not be made
tho standard of such a naturally fine tilth
as that of Palestine generally. During the
rains, if not too heavy, or between ttcir
two periods, would be the best time for
these operations; thus 70 days before the
passover was the time prescribed for sow
ing for the " wave-sheaf," and probably,
therefore, for that of barley generally.
The oxen wore urged on by a goad like i
spear (Judg. iii. 31). The custom of watch
ing ripening crops and threshing floors
against theft, or damage, is probably an
cient. Thus Boaz slept on the floor (Ruth
iii, 4, 7), Barley ripened a week or two

AGRICULTURE

22

AHAB

before wheat, and as fine harvest Aveather
was certain (Prov, xxvi. 1; 1 Sam. xii. 17;
Am. iv. 7), the crop chiefly varied with the
qunntity of timely rain. The proportion
of harvest gathered to seed sown was often
vast; a hundred fold is mentioned, but in
such a way as to signify that it was a limit
rarely attained (Gon. xxvi. 12 ; Matt. xiii.
8). Sowing a field with divers seeds -pas
forbidden (Deut. xxii. 9).
Reaping and Threshing. — The wheat,
&ii.., were reaped by the sickle, or pulled up
by the roots. They were bound in sheaves
— a process prominent in Scripture, The
sheaves or heaps were carted (Am. ii. 13)
to the floor — a circular spot of hard
ground, probably, as now, from 50 to 80 or
100 feet in diameter. Such floors were prob
ably permanent, and became well known
spots (Gen. 1. 10, 11 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 18).
On these the oxen, &c., forbidden to be
muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4), trampled out the
grain, as we find represented on the Egyp
tian monuments. At a later time the Jews
used a threshing sledge called morag (Is.
sli. 16; 2 Sam. xxiv. 22; 1 Chr. xxi. 23),
probably resembling the ndreg, still em
ployed in Egypt — a stage with three rollers
ridged with iron, which, aided by the dri
ver's weight, crushed out, often injuring,
the grain, as well as cut or tore the straw,
which thus became fit for fodder. Lighter
grains were beaten out with a stick (Is.
xxviii. 27). The use of animal manure is
proved frequent by such recurring expres
sions as " dung on the face of the earth,
field," &c. (Ps, Lxxxiii. 16 ; 2 K. ix. 37 ; Jer.
viii. 2, &c.).

Tlirrsliiiip-nnor. Tlie oxon driven ronnd the heap ( cou-
tiaiy to tbe usual custom. (Wilkinson, Thebes.)
Winnowing. — The " shovel " and " fan "
(Is. xxx. 24), the precise difference of
which is doubtful, indicate the process of
winnowing — a conspicuous part of ancient
husbandry (Ps. xxxv. 5 ; Job x.xi. 18 ; Is.
xrii. 13), and important, owing to the slov
enly threshing. Evening was the favorite
time (Uuth iii. 2), when there was mostly
a breeze. The " fan " (Matt. iii. 12) was
perhaps a broad shovel which threw the
gram up against the wind. The last pro
cess was the shaking in a sieve to separate
dirt and refuse (Am. ix. 9).
Fields and floors were not commonly en

closed; vineyards mostly were, ''^J^'^ "
tower and other buildings (Num. xxii. 24;
Ps. Ixxx. 13 ; Is. V. 5 ; Matt. xxi. 33 ; comp.
Judg. vi. 11). Banks of mud from ditches
were also used. — With regard to occu
pancy, a tenant might pay a fixed money
rent (Cant. viii. 11), or a stipulated sh.are
of the fruits (2 Sam. ix. 10; Matt. xxi. 34),
often a half or a third ; but local custom
was the only rule. A passer-by might eat
any quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap
or carry off fruit (Deut. xxiii, 24, 25 ; Matt.
xii. 1). — The rights of the corner to be
left, and of gleaning [Corner ; Gleaning],
formed tho poor m.an's claim on the soil for
support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf for
gotten in carrying to the floor was to be
left; so also with regard to the vineyard
and the olive-grove (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut.
xxiv. 19). Besides there seems a proba
bility that every third year a second tithe,
besides the priests', was paid for the poor
(Deut. xiv, 28, xxvi, 12 ; Am, iv, 4 ; Tob.
i. 7),Agrip'pa. [Herod.]
A'gur, the son of Jakeh, an unknown
Hebrew sage, who uttered or collected the
sayings of wisdom recorded in Prov. xxx.
A'hab. 1. Son of Omri, seventh king
of Israel, reigned b. c. 919-896. He mar
ried Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal king of
Tyre ; and in obedience to her wishes,
caused a temple to be built to Baal in Sa
maria itself, and an oracular grove to be
consecrated to Astarte. (See 1 K. xviii.
19.) How the worship of God was restored,
and the idolatrous priests slain, in conse
quence of " a sore famine in Samaria," is
related under Elijah. One of Ahab's chief
tastes was for splendid architecture, which
he showed by building an ivory house and
several cities. Desiring to add to his pleas
ure-grounds at Jezreel the vineyard of his
neighbor Naboth, he proposed to buy it or
give land in exchange for it ; and when this
was refused by Niiboth, a false accusation
of blasphemy was brought against him, and
not only was he himself stoned to death,
but his sons also, as we learn from 2 K.ix.
26. Thereupon Elijah declared that the
entire extirpation of Ahab's house was tho
penalty appointed for his long course of
wickedness, now crowned by this atrocious
crime. The execution, however, of the
sentence w.as delayed in consequence of
Ahab's deep repentance (1 K. xxi.).—
Ah.ab undertook three campaigns against
Bcnhadad II. king of Damascus, two de
fensive and one offensive. In the first,
Bcnhadad laid siege to Sam.aria, but was
repulsed with great loss (1 K. xx. 1-21),
Next year Bcnhadad again invaded Israel
by way of Aphek, on the E. of Jordan.
Yet Ahab's victory was so complete that
Bcnhadad himself fell into his hands • but
was released (contrary to the will of' God

AHARAH

23

AHASUERUS

fcs an.ioijiced by a prophet) on condition
of restoring all the cities of Israel which he
held, aud making " streets " for Ahab in
D.amascus ; that is, admitting into his capi
tal permanent Hebrew commissioners, in
an independent position, with special dwell
ings for themselves and their retinues, to
watch over the commercial and political in
terests of Ahab and his subjects (1 K. xx.
22-34). After this great success Ahab
enjoyed peace for three years, when he
attacked Ramoth in Gilead on the cast of
Jordan, in conjunction with Jehoshaphat
king of Judah, which tcwii he claimed as
belonging to Israel. But God's blessing
did not rest on the expedition, and Ahab
was told by the prophet Mioaiah that it
would fail. Ahab took the precaution of
disguising himself, so as not to offer a con
spicuous mark to the archers of Bcnhadad ;
but he was slain by a " certain man who
drew a bow at a venture." When he was
brought to be buried in Samaria, the dogs
licked up his blood as a servant was wash
ing his chariot ; a partial fulfilment of Eli
jah's prediction (1 K. xxi. 19), which was
more literally accomplished in the case of
his son (2 K. ix. 26). 2. A lying proph
et, who deceived the captive Israelites in
Babylon, and was burnt to death by Neb-
U'lhadnezzar (Jer. xxix. 21).
Ahar'ah, third son of Benjamin (1 Chr.
viii. 1). [Aher; Ahiram.]
Ahar'hel, a name occurring in an ob
scure fragment of the genealogies of Judah.
"The families of Aharhel" apparently
traced their descent through Coz to Ashur,
the posthumous son of Hezron. The Tar-
gum cf R. Joseph on Chronicles identifies
him with " Hur the firstborn of Miriam"
(1 Chr. iv._8).
Ahas'ai, a priest, ancestor of Maasiai
(Neh. xi. 13) ; called Jahzerah in 1 Chr.
ix. 12.
AhasTjai, father of Eliphelet, one of
David's thirty-seven captains (2 Sam. xxiii.
34). In the corrupt list in 1 Chr. xi. 35,
Eliphelet appears as "Eliphal the son of
Ur." Ahasue'rus, the name of one Median
and two Persian kings mentioned in the
O. T. The following is a list of the Medo-
Persian kings from Cyaxares to Artaxerxes
Longimanus, according to their ordinary
classical names. The Scriptural names
conjectured to correspond to them are
added in italics. 1. Cyaxares, king of
Media,son of I'hraortes, grandson of Dei-
oces and conqutror of Nineveh, began to
reign b. c. 634 : Ahasuerus. 2. Astyages
his son, last king of Media, b. c. 594 : Darius
the Mede. 3. Cyrus, son of his daughter
Mandane and Cambyses, a Persian noble,
flrst king of Persia, 559 : Cyrus. 4. Cam
byses his son, 529 : Ahasuerus. 5. A Ma-
gian usurper, who personated Smerdis, the

younger son of Cyrus, 621 : Aiiaxerxes.
6. Darius Hystaspis, r.aised to the throne
on the overtlirow of the Magi, 521 : Darius.
7. Xerxes his son, 485 : Ahasuerus. 8.
Artaxerxes Longimanus (Macrocheir), his
son, 465-425 : Aiiaxerxes. 1. In Dan. ix.
1, Ahasuerus is said to be tlie father of
Darius the Mede. Now it is almost certain
that Cyaxares is a form of Ahasuerus, Gro-
cized into Axares with the prefix Cy or Kai.
The son of this Cyaxares was Astyages, and
it is no improbable conjecture that Darius
the Mede was Astyages, set over Babylon
as viceroy by his grandson Cyrus, and al
lowed to live there in royal state. [Darius.]
This first Ahasuerus, then, is Cyaxares, the
conqueror of Nineveh. And, in accordance
with this view, we read in Tobit xiv. 15
that Nineveh was taken by Nabuehodonosor
and Assuerus, i. e. Cyaxares. 2. In Ezr.
iv. 6 the enemies of the Jews, after the
death of Cyrus, desirous to frustrate the
building of Jerusalem, send accusations
against them to Ahasuerus king of Persia.
This must be Cambyses. He ivas plainly
called after his grandfather, who was not
of royal race, and therefore it is very likely
that he also assumed the kingly name or
title of Cyaxares, which had been borne by
his most illustrious ancestor. 3. The third
is the Ahasuerus of the book of Esther.
Having divorced his queen Vasliti for re
fusing to appear in public at a banquet, he
married, four years afterwards, the Jewess'
Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai.
Five years after this, Haman, one of his
counsellors; having been slighted by Mor
decai, prevailed upon the king to order the
destruction of all the Jews in the empire.
But -before the day appointed for the mas
sacre, Esther and Mordecai overthrew the
infiuence which Haman had exercised, and
so completely changed his feelings in the
matter, that they induced him to put I [aman
to death, and to give the Jews the right of
self-defence. This they used so vigorously,
that they killed several thousands of their
opponents. This Ahasuerus is probably
Xerxes (tjje names being identical) : and
this conclusion is fortified "by the resem
blance of character, and by certain chrono
logical indications. As Xerxes scourged
the sea, and put to death the engineers of
his bridge because their work w.is injured
by a storm, so Ahasuerus repudiated his
queen 'Vashti because she would not violate
the decorum of her sex, and ordered the
massacre of the whole Jewish people to
gratify the malice of Haman. In the third
year of the reign of Xerxes was held an
assembly to arrange the Grecian war. lu
the third year of Ahasuerua was held a
great feast and assembly in Shushan the
palace (Esth. i. 3). In the seventh year
of his reign Xerxes returned defeated from
Greece, and consoled himse'if by the please

AHAVA

24

AHIAH

ures of the harem. In the seventh year of
his reign. ' ' fair young virgins were sought "
for Ahasuerus, and he replaced Vashti by
marrying Esther. The tribute ho " laid
ujion the land aud upon the isles of the
sea " (Esth. x. 1) may well have been the
result of th(3 expenditure and ruin of the
Grecian expedition.
Aha va, a place (Ezr. viii. 15), or a
river (viii. 21), on the banks of which Ezra
collected the second expedition which re
turned with him from Babylon to Jerusalem.
Perhaps it is the modern I/it, on the Eu
phrates, due east of Damascus.
A'haz, eleventh king of Judah, son of
Jotham, reigned 741-726. At the time of
his accession, Rezin king of Damascus and
Pekah king of Israel had recently formed
a league against Judah, and they proceeded
to lay siege to Jerusalem. Upon this Isaiah
hastened to give advice and encourage
ment to Ahaz, aud it' was probably owing
to the spirit of energy and religious devo
tion which he poured into his counsels,
that the allies failed in their attack on Jeru
salem (Is. vii. viii. ix.). But the allies in
flicted a most severe injury on Judah by
the capture of Elath, a flourishing port on
the Red Sea ; while the Philistines invaded
the W. and S. (2 K. xvi. ; 2 Chr. xxviii.).
The weak-minded and helpless Ahaz sought
deliverance from these numerous troubles
by appealing to Tiglath-pileser, king of
Assyria, who freed him from his most for
midable enemies by invading Syria, taking
Damascus, killing Rezin, and depriving
Israel of its Northern and trans-Jordanic
districts. Bat Ahaz had to purchase this
help at a costly price : he became tributary
to Tiglath-pileser, sent him all the treasures
of the Temple and his own palace, and
even appeared before bun in Damascus as
a vassal. He also ventured to seek for
safety in heathen ceremonies ; making his
son pass through the fire to Molech, con
sulting wizards and necromancers (Is. viii.
19), sacrificing to the Syrian gods, intro
ducing a foreign altar from Damascus, and
probably the worship of the heayenly bodies
from Assyria" and Babylon; and "The
altars on the top (or roof) of the upper
chamber of Ahaz " (2 K. xxiii. 12) were
connected with the adoration of the stars.
Ahazi'ah. 1. Son of Ahab and Jezebel,
eighth king of Israel, reigned n. c. 89G-895.
After the battle of Ramoth in Gilead, in
which Ahab pe'rishod [Ahab], the vassal
king of Moab refused his yearly tribute of
100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams with their
wool (comp. Is. xvi. 1). Before Ahaziah
could take measures for enforcing his
claim, he was seriously injured by a fall
through a lattice in his palace at Samaria.
In his health he had worshipped his
mother s gods, and now he sent to inquire
of the oracle of Baalzebub in the Philistine

city of Ekron whether he should recover
his health. But Elijah, who now for the
last time exercised the prophetic oflice, re
buked him for this' impiety, and announced
to him his approaching death._ Ihe only
other recorded transaction of his reign, lus
endeavor to join the king of Judah m trad
ing to Ophir, is related under Jehosha
phat (1 K. xxii. 49-53 ; 2 K. 1. ; 2 Chr. xx.
35-37). 2. Fifth king of Judiih, son of
Jehoram and Athaliah (daughter of Ahab), '
and therefore nephew of the preceding
Ahaziah, reigned one year, b. c. 884. He
is called Azariah, 2 Chr. xxii. G, probably
by a copyist's error, and Jeiioahaz, 2 Chr.
xxi. 17.. He was 22 years old at his acces
sion (2 K. viii. 2G ; his age, 42 in 2 Chr. xxii.
2, is also a copyist's error). Ahaziah was
an idolater, and he allied himself with
his uncle Jehoram king of Israel, brother
and successor of the preceding Ahaziah,
against Hazael, the new king of Syria.
The two kings were, however, defeated at
Ramoth, where Jehoram was severely
wounded. The revolution carried out in
Israel by Jehu under the guidance of Elisha
broke out while Ahazi.ah was visiting his
uncle at Jezreel. As Jehu approached the
town, Jehoram and Ahaziah went out to
meet him; tlie former was shot through
the heart by Jehu, and Ahaziah was pur- '
sued and mortally wounded. He died when
.he reached Megiddo.
Ah'ban, son of Abishur, by his wife
Abihail (1 Chr. ii. 29). He was of the
tribe of Judah.
A'her, ancestor of HusMm, or rather
"the Hushim," as the plural form seems
to indicate a family rather than an indi
vidual. iThe name occurs in an obscure
passage in the genealogy of Benjamin (1
Chr. vii. 12). It is not improbable that
Aher and Ahiram (Num. xxvi. 38) are
the same; unless. the former belonged to
the tribe of Dan, whose genealogy is-
omitted in 1 Chr. vii. j Hushim being a
Danite as well as a Benjamite name.
A'hi. 1. A Gadite, chief of a family
who lived in Gilead in Baslian (1 Chr. v.
15), in the days of Jotham, king of Judah.
2. A descendant of Shamer, of the tribe
of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 34). The n.ame, ac
cording to Gesenius, is a contraction of
Aliijah. Ahi'ahorAhi'jah. 1. SonofAhitub,
grandson of Phinehas, and great-grandson
uf Eli, succeeded his father as high-priest
in tho reign of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 3, 18).
Ahiah is probably the same person as
Ahimeloch the son of Ahitub. However it is
not impossible that Ahimclech may have
been brother to Ahiah. 3. One of Solo
mon's princes (1 K. iv. 3). 3. A prophet
of Shiloh (1 K. xiv. 2), hence called tho
Shilonite (xi. 29) in the days of Solomon
and of Jeroboam king of Israel, of whoxn

AHIAM

25

AHITHOPHEL

we have two remarkable prophecies extant :
the one in 1 K. xi. 31-39, addressed to
Jeroboam, announcing' the rending of the
ten tribes from Solomon : the other in 1 K.
xiv. 6-16, delivered in the prophet's extreme
old age to Jeroboam's wife, in which he
foretold the death of Abijah, the king's
son, who was sick, ami the destruction of
Jeroboam's house on account of the images
which he had set up, Jeroboam's speech
concerning Abijah (1 K. xiv. 2, 3) shows
the estimation in which he held his truth
and prophetic powers (comp. 2 Chr. ix.
20). 4, Father of Baasha, king of Israel
(1 K, XV. 27, 33), 5. Son of Jerahmeel
(1 Chr. ii. 25), 6. Son of Bela (1 Chr.
viii. 7), 7. One of David's mighty men
(1 Chr. X. 36), 8. A Levite in David's
reign (1 Chr. xxvi. 20), 9. One of "the
lieads of the people " who joined in the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 26).
Ahi'am, son of Sharar the Hararite (or
of Sacar, 1 Chr. xi. 35), one of David's
thirty mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 33).
Ahi'an, a Manassite, of the family of
Shemid.ah (1 Chr, vii. 19).
Ahie'zer. 1. Son of Ammishaddai,
hereditary chieftain of the tribe of Dan
(Num. i, 12, ii. 25, vii. 66). 2. The
Benjamite chief of a body of archers in
¦ the time of David (1 Chr. xii. 3).
Ahi'hud, 1. The son of Shelomi, and
prince of the tribe of Asher (Num. xxxiv.
27). 2. Chieftain of the tribe of Benja
min (1 Chr. viii. 7),
Ahi'jah. [Ahiah.]
Ahi'kam, son of Shaphan the scribe,
an influential officer at the court of Josiah,
was one of the delegates sent by Hilkiah to
consult Huldah (2 K. xxii. 12-14), In the
reign of Jehoiakim he successfully used his
influence to protect the prophet Jeremiah
(Jer. xxvi. 24). He was the father of
Gedaliah, [Gedaliah,]
Ahi'lud. 1, Father of Jehoshaphat,
the recorder or chronicler of the kingdom
in the reigns of David and Solomon (2
Sam. viii. 16, xx. 24; 1 K. iv. 3; 1 Chr.
xviii. 16). 2. The father of Baana, one
of Solomon's twelve commissariat oificors
(1 K, iv. 12). It is uncertain whether he
is the same with the foregoing.
Ahim'aaz, son of Zadok, the high-
priest in David's reign, and celebrated for
his swiftness of foot. During Absalom's
rebeUion he carried to David the important
intelligence that Ahithophel had counselled
an immediate attack upon David and bis
foUorers, and that, consequently, the king
must cross the Jordan without the least
delay (2 Sam. xv, 24-37, xvii, 15-22),
Shortly afterwards he was the first to bring
to the king the good news of Absalom's de
feat, suppressing his knowledge of the death
of his son, which was announced soon af
terwards by another (2 Sam, xviii. 19-33).

Ahi'man, one of the three giant Anakin)
who inhabited Mount Hebron (Num. xiii.
22, 33), seen by Caleb and the spies. The
whole race were cut off by Joshua (Josh.
xi. 21), and the three brothers were slain
by the tribe of Judah (Judg. i. 10).
Ahim'elech, son of Aliitub (1 Sam.
xxii. 11, 12), and high-priest at Nob in the
days of Saul. He gave David the shew-
bread to eat, and the sword of Goliath;
and for so doing was, upon the accusation
of Doeg the Edomite, put to death with his
whole house by Saul's order. Abiathar
alone escaped. [Abiathar.]
Ahi'moth, a Levite, apparently in the
time of David (1 Ciir. vi. 25). In ver. 35,
for Ahimoth we find Mahath, as in Luke
iii. 26.
Ahin'adab, son of Iddo, one of Solo
mon's twelve commissaries who supplied
provisions for the rpyal household (1 K.
iv. 14).
Ahin'oam. 1. The daughter of Ahim-
aaz and wife of Saul (1 Sam. xiv. 50).
2. A native of Jezreel who was married
to David during his wandering hfe (1 Sam.
xxv. 43). She lived with him and his other
wife Abigail at the court of Achish (xxvii.
3), was taken prisoner with her by the
Amalekites when they plundered Ziklag
(xxx. 5), but was rescued by David (18).
She is again mentioned as living with him
when he was king of Judah in Hebron (2
Sam. ii. 2), and was the mother of his
eldest son Amnon (iii. 2).
Ahi'o. 1. Son of Abinadab, who ac
companied the ark when it was brought
out of his father's house (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4 ;
1 Chr. xiii. 7). 2. A Benjamite, one of
the sons of Beriah who drove out the in
habitants of Gath (1 Chr. viii. 14). 3.
A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, father or
founder of Gibeon (1 Chr. viii. 31, ix. 37),
Ahi'ra, chief of the tribe of Naphtali
when Moses took the census in the year
after the Exodus (Nura, i. 15, ii. 29, vii.
78, 83, X. 27).
Ahi'ram, one o.f the sons of Benjamin,
and ancestor of the Ahiramites (Num.
xxvi. 38). In the list of Benjamin's chil
dren, in Gen. xlvi. 21, the name of Ahiram
appears as " Ehi and Rosh," the former
being probably the true reading, of which
the latter was an easy corruption. It is un
certain whether Ahiram is the same as Aher
(1 Chr. vii. 12), or Aharah (1 Chr. viii. 1.)
Ahis'amach, a Danite, father of Aho-
liab, one of the architects of the taberua cle
(Ex. xxxi. 6, xxxv. 34, xxxviii. 23).
Ahish'ahar, one of the sons of BUhan,
the grandson of Benjamin (1 Chr. vii. 10).
Ahi'shar, the controller of Solomon's
household (1 K. iv. 6).
Ahith'ophel {brother of foolishness),
a native of Giloh, was a privy councillor
of David, whose wisdtfn was highly es-

AHITUB

26

AIJELETH SHAHAR

teemed, though his name had an exactly
opposite signification (2 Sam. xvi. 23). He
was the grandfather of Bathsheba (comp.
2 Sam. xi. 3 with xxiii. 34). When Ahith
ophel joined the conspiracy of Absalom,
David prayed Jehovah to turn his counsel
to foolishness (xv. 31), alluding possibly
to the signification of his name. David's
grief at the treachery of his confidential
friend found expression in the Messianic
prophecies (Ps. xii. 9, Iv. 12-14), — In
order to show to the people that the breach
between Absalom and his father was irrep
arable, Ahithophel persuaded him to take
possession of the royal harem (2 Sam. xvi.
21). David, to counteract his counsel,
sent Hushai to Absalom. Ahithophel had
recommended an imraedi.ate pursuit of
David; but Hushai advised delay, his
object being to send intelligence to David,
and to give him time to collect his forces
for a decisive engagement. When Ahith
ophel saw that Hushai's advice prevailed,
he despaired of success, and returning to
his own home " put his household in order
and hanged himself" (xvii. 1-23),
Ahi'tub, 1. Father of Abimelech, or
Abijah, the son of Phinehas, and grand
son of Eli, and therefore of the family of
Ithamar (1 Sam. xiv. 3, xxii. 9, 11). 2,"
Son of Amariah, and father of Zadok the
high-priest (1 Chr. vi. 7, 8 ; 2 Sam. viii.
17), of the house of Eleazar. 3. The
genealogy of the high-priests in 1 Chr. vi.
11, 12, introduces another Ahitub, son of
another Amariah, and father of another
Zadok. But there are reasons for believ
ing that the second Ahitub and Zadok are
spurious. Ah'lab, a city of Asher from which the
Canaanites were not driven out (Judg. i. 31) .
Ahla'i, daughter of Sheshan, whom,
having no issue, he gave in marriage to his
Egyptian slave Jarha (1 Chr. ii. 31, 35).
In consequence of the failure of male issue,
she became the foundress of an important
branch of the family of the Jerahmeelites,
and from her were descended Zabad, one
of David's mighty men (1 Chr. xi. 41), and
Azariah, one of the captains of hundreds
in the reign of Joash (2 Chr. xxiii. 1).
Aho'ah, son of Bela, tho sou of Benja-
niin (1 Chr. viii. 4). In 1 Chr. viii. 7, he
is ca,lled Ahiah. The patronymic, Aho-
HiiE, is found in 2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 28; 1
Chr. xi. 12, 29, xxvii. 4.
Aho'hite. [Ahoaii.]
Aho'lah, and Aho'libah, two sym
bolical names, are described as harlots, the
former representing Samaria, and the latter
Judali (Ez. xxiii.).
Aho liab, a Danite of great skill as a
weaver and embroiderer, whom Moses ap
pointed with Bezaleel to erect the taber
nacle (Ex. xxxv. 30-35).
AhoUba'mah, one (probably the sec-

She

ond) of the three wives of -Esau.
was the daughter of Anah, a <loscenaant of
Seir the Horite (Gen. x^"-.^. 2^)- 1^,*^
eariier narrative (Gen. xxvi. ^H) Aholiba-
mah is called Judith, daughter of Been
the Hittite. It appears that her proper
personal name was Judith, and thatAholi-
bamah-was the name which she received as
the wife of Esau and foundress of three
tribes of his descendants.
Ahu'mai, son of Jahath, a descendant
of Judah, and head of one of the families
of the Zorathites (1 Chr. iv. 2).
Ahu'zam, i properly Ahuzzam, son of
Ashur, the father or founder of Tekoa, by
his wife Naarah (1 Chr. iv. 6).
Ahuz'sath, one of the friends of the
Philistine king Abimelech, who accom
panied him at his interview with Isaac
(Gen. xxvi. 2G).
A'i {heap of ruins). 1. A city lymg
east of Bethel and " beside Bethaven "
(Josh, vii, 2, viii. 9), It was the second
city taken by Israel after the passage of
the Jordan, and was "utterly destroyed"
(Josh. vii. 3-5, viii., ix, 3, x. 1, 2, xii. 9).
2. A city of the Ammonites, apparently
attached to Heshbon (Jer, xlix. 3).
Ai'ah, 1. Son of Zibeon, a descendant
of Seir, and ancestor of one of the wives
of Esau (1 Chr. i. 40), called in Gen,
xxxvi. 24, AjAH. He probably died before
his father, as the succession fell to his
brother Anah, 2. Father of Rizpah, the
concubine of Saul (2 Sam, iii, 7, xxi. 8,
10, 11.
Ai'ath, a place named by Isaiah (x. 28),
in connection with Migron and Michmasli,
probably the same as Ai.
Ai'ja, like Aiath, probably a variation
of the name Ai, mentioned with Michmash
and Bethel (Neh. xi. 31).
Aij'alon, "a place of deer or gazelles."
1. A city of the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 24;
1 Chr. vi. G9), originally allotted to the tribe
of Dan (Josh. xLx. 42 ; A. V. " Ajalon "),
which tribe, however, was un.able to dis
possess the Amorites of the place (Judg. i.
35). Aijalon was one of the towns fortified
by Rehoboam (2 Chron. xi. 10), and the last
we hear of it is as being in the hands of the
Philistines (2 Chr. xxviii. 18; A. V. "Aja
lon"). Being on the very frontier of the
two kingdoms, wo can understand how Ai
jalon should be spoken of sometimes (1 Chr.
vi. 69, comp. with UG) as in Ephraim, and
sometimes (2 Chr. xi. 10 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 31) as
in Judah and Benjamin. It is ropsesented
by the moderii YAlo, a little to the N. of the
Jaffa road, about 14 miles out of Jerusalem,
2. A place in Zebulun, mentioned as tha
burial-place of Elon, one of the Judges
(Judg. xii. 12).
Aij'eleth Sha'har (i. <=. the hind of
the morning dawn), found once only in the
Bible, in the title of Ps. xxii. It probaMy

AIN

27

ALEXANDER IH.

describes to the musician tho melody to
which the psalm was to be played, — "a
Psalm of David, addressed to the music-
master who presides over the band called
tho Morning Hind."
Ain. 1. One of the landmarks on the
easternboundary of Palestine (Num. xxxiv.
11). It is probably 'Ain el-'Azy, the main
source of the Orontes. 2. One of the
southernmost cities of Judah (Josh. xv.
32), aiterwards allotted to Simeon (Josh.
xix. 7; 1 Chr. iv. 32) and given to the
priests (Josh. xxi. 16).
A'jah = Aiah, 1 (Gen. xxxvi. 24).
Aj'alon. [Aijalon.]
A'kan, sou of Ezer, one of the " dukes "
or chieftains of the Horites, and descend
ant of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 27). He is called
Jakan in 1 Chr. i. 42 = Jaakan, which last
is probably the true reading in both cases.
Ak'kTlb. 1. A descendant of Zerub
babel and son of Elioenai (1 Chr. iii. 24).
2. One of the porters or doorkeepers at
the east gate of the Temple. His descend
ants succeeded to his office, and appear
among those who returned from Babylon
3. One of the Nethinira, whose family re
turned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 45). 4.
A Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding
the law to the people (Neh. viii. 7).
Akrab'bim, "the ascent op," and
"the going up to;" also "Maaleh-
acrabbim " (= "the scorpion-pass"). A
pass between the south end of the Dead
Sea and Zin, forming one of the landmarks
on the south boundary at once of Judah
(Josh. XV. 3) and of the Holy Land (Num.
xxxiv. 4), Also the boundary of the
Amorites (Judg. i. 36), As to tjie name,
scorpions abound in the whole of this dis
trict. Alabaster occurs in the N. T. only in
the notice of the alabaster-box of ointment

Alabaster VesBels. — From the ^British Museum. The in
scription on the centre vessel denotes the quantity it holds.
yhieh a woman brought to our Lord when
He sat at meat in the house of Simon the

leper at Bethany, the contents of which
she poured on the head of the Saviour (Matt.
xxvi. 7 ; Mark xiv. 3 ; Luke vii. 37). The
ancients considered alabaster to be the best
material in which to preserve their oint
ments. In Mark xiv. 3, the woman who
brouglit " the alabaster-box of ointment of
spikenard " is said to break the box before
pouring out the ointment, which probably
only means breaking the seal which kept
tlie essence of the perfume from evaporat
ing. Al'ameth, properly Alemeth, one of the
sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1
Chr. vii. 8).
Alam'melech ("king's oak"), a place
within the limits of Asher, named between
Aehshaph and Amad (Josh. xix. 26 only).
Al'amoth (I's. xlvi. title; 1 Chr. xv.
20), a word of exceedingly doubtful mean
ing, some interpreting it to mean a musical
instrument, and others a, melody.
Al'emeth, a Benjamite, son of Jehoa-
dah or Jarah (1 Chr. viii. 36, ix. 42), and
descended from Jonathan the son of Saul.
Alexan'der III., king of Macedon,
surnamed the great, the son of Pliilip
and Olympias, was born at Pella, e. c. 356,
and succeeded his father b. c. 336.. Two
years afterwards he crossed the Hellespont
(b. o. 334) to carry out tbe plans of his
father, and execute the mission of Greece
to the civilized world. The battle of the
Granicus was followed by the subjugation
of western Asia; and in the followhig year
the fate of the East was decided at Issus
(b. c. 333). Tyre and Gaza were tho only
cities in western Syria which offered Alex
ander any resistance, and these were re
duced and treated with unusual severity
(b. c. 332). Egypt next submitted to him ;
and in n. o. 331 he founded Alexandria,
which remains to the present day the most
characteristic monument of his life and
work. In the same year he finally defeated
Darius at Gaugamela ; and in b. c. 330 his
unhappy rival was murdered by Bessus,
satrap of Bactria. The next two years
were occupied by Alexander in the consoli
dation of his Persian conquests and the re
duction of Bactria. In b. c. 327 he crossed
the Indus, penetrated to the Hydaspes, and
was there forced by the discontent of his
army to turn westward. 'He reached Susa,
E. c. 325, and proceeded to Babylon, b. c.
324, which he chose as the capital of his
empire. In the next year (b. o. 323) he
died there in the midst of his gigantic
plans ; and those who inherited his con
quests left his designs unachieved and un
attempted (cf. Dan. vii. 6, viii. 5, xi. 3).
The famous tradition of the visit of Alex
ander to Jerusalem during his Phoenician
campaign, which is related by Josephus,
has been a fruitful source of controversy.
The Jews, it is said, had provoked hia

ALEXANDER BALAS

28

ALEXANDRIA

auger by refusing to transfer their alle
giance to him when summoned to do so
during the siege of Tyre, and after the re
duction of Tyre aud Gaza he turned to
wards Jerusalem. Jaddua (Jaddus) the
high-priest (Neh. xii. 11, 22) went out to
meet him, clad in his robes of hyacinth
and gold, and accompanied by a train of
priests and citizens arrayed in white. Al
exander was so moved by the solemn spec
tacle that he did reverence to the holy name
inscribed upon the tiara of the high-priest ;
and when Parmenio expressed surprise, he
replied that " he had seen the god whom
Jaddua represented in a dream at Dium,
encouraging him to cross over into Asia,
and promising him success." After this it
is said that he visited Jerusalem, offered
sacrifice there, beard the prophecies of
Daniel which foretold his victory, and con
ferred important privileges upon the Jews.
In the prophetic visions of Daniel the em
blem by which Alexander is typified (a he
goat) suggests the notions of strength and
speed; and the universal extent (Dan, viii.
6, , . . from the west on the face of the
whole earth) and marvellous rapidity of liis
conquests (Dan. I. c, he touched not the
ground) are brought forward as the char
acteristics of Ills power, which was directed
by the strongest personal impetuosity (Dan.
viii. 6, in the fury of his power). He
ruled with great dominion, and did accord
ing to his will (xi. 3), " and there was none
that could deliver . . . out of his hand "
(viii. 7).

Coin of Lysimnchus, King of Thrace, representing head
01 Alexander the Great as a young Jupiter Amnion.
Alexan'der Ba'las was, according to
some, a natural son of Antiochus I"V. Epiph
anes, but he was more generally regarded
as an impostor who falsely assumed the
connection. He claimed the throne of Syr
ia., in 152 B. c, in opposition to Demetrius
Soter, and gained the warm support of
Jonathan, the leader of the Jews (1 Mace.
ix. 73). In 150 b. c. he completely routed
the forces of Demetrius, who himself fell
in the retreat (1 Mace. x. 48-50). After
this, Alexander married Cleopatra, the
daughter of Ptolemy VI. Philometor. But
his triumph was of short duration. After
obtaining power he gave himself up to a
life of indulgence ; and when Demetrius
Nioator, the son of Demetrius Sotor,

landed in Syria, in 147 B. c, the new pre-
tender found powerful support (1 LViacc. x.
67 ff.) In the following year Ptclemy de
serted Alexander, who was defeated (1
Mace. xi. 15), and fied to Abac in Arabia,
where he was murdered, b. c. 14G (1 Mace.
.xi. 17). The narrative in 1 Mace, shows
clearly the partiality which the Jews en
tertained for Alexander ; and the same feel
ing was exhibited afterwards in the zeal
with which they supported his sou Antio
chus. [Antioghijs VI.]
Alexan'der. 1. Son of Simon the
Cyrenian, who was compelled to bear the
cross for our Lord (Mark xv. 21). 2. One
of the kindred of Annas the high-priest
(Acts iv. 6). 3. A Jew at Ephesus, whom
his countrymen put forward during the tu
mult raised by Demetrius the silversmith
(Acts xix. 33), to plead their cause with
the mob. 4. An Ephesian Christian, rep
robated by St. Paul in 1 Tim. i. 20, as
having, together with one Hymenaeus, put
from him faith and a good conscience, and
so made shipwreck concerning the faith.
This may be the same with 5. Alexan
der the coppersmith, mentioned by the
same apostle (2 Tim. iv, 14) as having
done him many mischiefs,
Alexan'dria (3 Mace, iii. 1; Acts
xviii. 24, vi. 9), the Hellenic, Roman, and
Christian capital of Egypt, was founded by
Alexander the Great, B, c, 332, who him
self traced the ground-plan of the city.
The work thus begun was continued after
the death of Alexander by the Ptolemies.
Under the despotism of the later Ptolemies
the trade of Alexandria declined, but its
population and wealth were enormous. Its
importance as one of the chief corn-ports
of Rome secured for it the general favor of
the first emperors. Its population was
mixed from the first. According to Jose
phus, Alexander himself assigned to the
Jews a place in his new city. Their num
bers and importance were rapidly increased
under the Ptolemies by fresh immigrations
and untiring industry. The Septuagint
translation was made for their benefit,
undor the first or second Ptolemy. Philo
estimates the number of the Alexandrine
Jews in his time at little less than 1,000,000 ;
and adds, that two of the five districts of
Alexandria were called "Jewish districts,"
and that many Jews lived scattered in the
remaining three. Julius Caesar aud Au
gustus confirmed to them the privileges
Mluch they had enjoyed before, aud they
retained them, with various interruptions,
during the tumults and persecutions of
later reigns. According to the common
legend, St. Mark first "preached the. Gos-
pel in Egypt, and founded the first Church
in Alexandria." At the beginning of the
second century the number of Christians at
Alexandria must have been very largo, and

ALEXANDRIANS

29

ALLIANCES

the great leaders of Gnosticism who arose
there (Basilides, Valentinus) exhibit an
exaggeration of the tendency of the Church.
Alexan'drians, the Jewish colonists
of Alexandria, who were admitted to the
privileges of citizenship, and had a syna
gogue at Jerusalem (Acts vi. 9).
Algum or Almug Trees ; the former
occurring in 2 Chr. ii. 8, ix. 10, 11, the lat
ter in 1 K. X. 11, 12. There can be no
question that these words are identical.
From 1 K. x. 11, 12-; 2 C]ir. ix. 10, 11, we
learn that the almug was brought in great
plenty from Ophir for Solomon's Temple
and house, and for the construction of mu
sical instruments. It is probable that this
tree is the red sandal wood, which is a na
tive of India and Ceylon. The wood is
very heavy, hard, and fine grained, and of
a beautiful garnet color.
Ali'ah. [Alvah.]
Ah' an. [Alvan.]
Allegory, a figure of speech, which has
been defined by Bishop Marsh, in accord
ance with its etymology, as " a representa
tion of one thing which is intended to excite
the representation of another thing; " the
first representation being consistent with
itself, but requiring, or capable of admitting,
a moral or spiritual interpretation over and
above its literal sense. In every allegory
there is a twofold sense ; the immediate or
historic, which is understood from the
words, and the ultimate, which is concerned
with the things signified by the words.
The allegorical interpretation is not of the
words, but of the things signified by thom ;
and not only may, but actually does, coex
ist with the literal interpretation in every
allegory, whether the narrative in which it
is conveyed be of things possible or real.
An illustration of this may be seen in Gal.
iv. 24, where the apostle gives an allegori
cal interpretation to the historical narrative
of Hagar and Sarah; not treating that nar
rative as an allegory in itself, as our A. V,
would lead us to suppose, but drawing
from it a deeper sense than is conveyed by
the immediate representation.
Allelu'ia, so written in Rev. xix. 7, foil.,
or more properly Hallelujah, " praise ye
Jehovah," as it is found in the margin of
Ps. civ. 35, cv. 45, cvi., cxi. 1, cxii. 1, cxiii.
1 (comp. Ps. cxiii, 9, cxv, 18, cxvi. 19, cxvii.
2), The literal meaning of " Hallelujah"
sufllciently indicates the character of the
Psalms in which it occurs, as hymns of
praise and thanksgiving. They are all
found in the last book of the collection, and
bear marks of being intended for use in the
Temple-service; the words " praise ye Je
hovah " being taken up by the full chorus
of L4vites. In the great hymn of triumph
in heaven over the destruction of Babylon,
the apostle in vision heard the multitude in
'chorus like the voice of mighty thunderings

burst forth, "Alleluia, for the Lord God
omnipotent reigneth," responding to the
voice which came out of the throne saying,
" Praise our God, all ye his servants, and
ye that fear him, both small and great"
(Rev. xix. 1-6), In this, as in the offering
of incense (Rev. viii.), there is evident al
lusion to the service of the Temple, as the
apostle had often witnessed it in its fading
grandeur. Alliances. On the first establishment
of the Hebrews in Palestine no connections
were formed between them and the sur
rounding nations. But with the extension
of their power under the kings, they were
brought more into contact with foreigners,
and alliances became essential to the secu
rity of their commerce. Solomon con
cluded two important treaties exclusively
for commercial purposes ; the first with
Hiram, king of Tyre, originally with the
view of obtaining materials and workmen
for the erection of the Temple, and after
wards for the supply of ship-builders and
sailors (1 K. v. 2-12, ix. 27) : the second
with a Pharaoh, king of Egypt ; by this he
secured a monopoly of the trade in horses
and other products of that country (1 K.'x.
28, 29). After the division of the kingdom
the alliances were of an offensive and de
fensive nature. When war broke out be
tween Amaziah and Jeroboam II. a coali
tion was formed between Rezin, king cf
Syria, and Pekah on the one side, and Ahaz
and Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, ou the
other (2 K. xvi. 5-9). By this means an
opening was afforded to tbe advances of the
A ssyrian power ; and the kingdoms of Israel
and Judah, as they were successively at
tacked, sought the alliance of the Egyptians,
who were strongly interested in maintaining
the independence of the Jews as a barrier
against the encroachments of the Assyrian
power (2 K. xvii. 4, xix. 9, 36 ; Is. xxx. 2).
On the restoration of independence Judas
Maccabeus sought an alliance with the
Romans as a counterpoise to the neighbor
ing state of Syria (1 Mace. viii.). Treaties
of a friendly nature were at the same peri
od concluded with the Lacedaemonians (1
Mace. xii. 2, xiv. 20). — The formation of
an alliance was attended with various re
ligious rites : a victim was slain and divided
into two parts, between which the contract
ing parties passed (Gen. xv. 10). That
this custom was maintained to a late period
appears from Jer. xxxiv. 1 8-20. Generally
speaking the oath alone is mentioned in the
contracting of alliances, either between na-
,^'Nns (Josh. ix. 15) or individuals (Gen.
XX. ¦ 28, xxxi. 53 ; 1 Sam. xx. 17 ; 2 K. xi.
4). The event was celebrated by a f'?ast
(Gen. I. c. ; Ex, xxiv. 11 ; 2 Sam. iii. 12,
20). Salt, as symbolical of fidelity, was
used on these occasions. Occasionally a
pillar or a heap of stones was set up as a

AJ-LON

30

ALPHAEUS

memorial of the alliance (Gen. xxxi. 52).
Presents were also sent by the party soli
citing the alliance (1 K. xv. 18 ; Is. xxx. 6 ;
1 Mace, XV. 18), The fidelity of the Jews
to their engagements was conspicuous at
all periods of their history (Josh. ix. 18),
and any breach of covenant was visited
with very severe punishment (2 Sam. x-xi.
1; Ez. xvii. 16).
Al'lon, a Simeonite, ancestor of Ziza, a
prince of his tribe in the reign of Hezekiah
(1 Chr. iv. 37),
Al'lon, a large strong tree of some de-
script ioi , probably an oak. The word is
found in two names in the topography of
Palestine. 1. Allon, more accurately
Elon, a place named among the cities of
Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33), Probably the
more correct construction is to take it with
the following word, i. e. " the oa,k by Zaa-
nannim," or " the oak of the loading of
tents," as if deriving its name from some
nomad tribe frequenting the spot. [Elon.]
2. Al'lon-b.v'chl'th (" oak of weeping"),
the tree under which Rebekah's nurse, Deb
orah, was buried (Gen. xxxv. 8).
Almo'dad, the first, in order, of the
descendants of Joktan (Gen. x. 26 ; 1 Chr.
i. 20), and the progenitor of an Arab tribe.
His settlements must be looked for, in com
mon with those of the other descendants of
Joktan, in the Arabian peninsula.
A.rmou, a city within the tribe of Ben
jamin, with " suburbs " given to the priests
/josh. xxi. 18). In the parallel list in 1
Chr. vi. it is found as Alemeth. [Alemeth.]
Al'mon-diblatha'im, one of the latest
stations of the Israelites, between Dibon-
gad and the mountains of Abarim (Num.
xxxiii. 46, 47). It is probable that Almon-
diblathaim is identical with Both-dibla-
thaim. Almond-Tree; Almond. This word
is found in Gen. xliii. 11 ; Ex. xxv. 33, 34,
xxxvii. 19, 20; Num. xvii. 8; Eeeles. xii.
5 ; Jer. i. 11, in the text of the A. V. It is
hivariably represented by tlie same Hebrew
word {sh&kid), which sometimes stands
for the whole tree, sometimes for the fruit
or nut. The almond-tree, whose scientific
name in Amygdalus communis, is a native
of Asia and North Africa, but it is cultiv.ated
in the milder parts of Europe. The height
of the tree is about 12 or 14 feet ; the flow
ers are pink, and arranged for the most
part in pairs ; the leaves are long, ovate,
with a serrated margin, and an acutis point.
The covering of the fruit is downy and suc
culent, enclosing the hard shell which con-
tams the kernel. It is curious to observe,
in connection with the almond-bowls of the
golden candlestick, that, in tho language
of lapidaries, Almonds are pieces of rOck-
crystal, even now used in adorning brancli-
candlesticks. Alms. The duty of alms-giving, espe-

I cially in kind, consisting chiefly m portiona
to be left designedly from produce of the
field, the vineyard, and the oliveyard (Lev,
xix, 9, 10, xxiii. 22; Deut. xv. 11, xxiv, 19,
xxvi. 2-13 ; Ruth ii, 2), is strictly enjoined
by the Law, Every third year also (Deut,
xiv. 28) each proprietor was directed to
share the tithe of his produce with "the
Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the
widow." The theological estimate of alms
giving among the Jews is indicated in the
following passages : — Job xxxi. 17 ; Prov,
X. 2, xi. 4 ; E.sth. ix. 22 ; Ps, cxii. 9 ; Acts
ix. 36, the case of Dorcas; x. 2, of Cor
nelius ; to which may be added, Tob. iv,
10, 11, xiv. 10, 11 ; and Ecclus. iii. 30, xl,
24. And the Talmudists went so far as to
interpret righteousness by alms-giving in
such passages as Gen. xviii. 19 ; Is. liv. 14;
Ps. xvii. 15. — The Pharisees were zealous
in alms-giving, but too ostentatious in their
mode of performance, for which our Lord
finds fault with them (Matt. vi. 2). — The
duty of relieving the poor was notoieglected
by the Christians (Matt. yi. 1-4; Luke xiv.
13; Acts XX. 35; Gal. ii. 10). Every
Christian was exhorted to lay by on the first
day of each week some portion of liis prof
its, to be applied to the wants of the needy
(Acts xi. 30; Rom. xv. 25-27; 1 Cor. xvi.
1-4). It was also considered a duty special
ly incumbent on widows to devote them
selves to such ministrations (1 Tim. v. 10).
• Almug- Trees. [Algum-Trees.]
Aloes, Lign Aloes (in Heb. Ahdlim,
AhaUth), the n.ame of a costly and sweet-
smelling wood which is mentioned in Num.
xxiv. 6 ; Ps. xiv. 8 ; Provf vii. 17 ; Cant. iv.
14 ; John xix. 39. It is usually identified
with the Aquilaria AgaUochum, a tree
which "supplies the agallochum, or aloes-
wood of commerce, much valued in India
on account of its aromatic qualities for
purposes of fumigation and for incense.
This tree grows to the height of 120 feet,
being 12 feet in girth. It is, however, un
certain whether the AhdUm or AhAUth is
in reality the aloes-wood of commerce; it
is quite possible that some kind of odorifer
ous cedar may bo the tree denoted by
these terms.
A'loth, a place or district, forming with
Asher the jurisdiction of the ninth of Solo
mon's commissariat officers (1 K. iv. 16).
Al'pha, the first letter of the Greek al
phabet, as Omega is the last. Its signifi
cance is plainly indicated in the context,
"I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning
and the end, the first and the last" (Rev.
i. 8, 11, xxi. 6, xxii. 13), which may be
compared with Is. xii. 4. Both Greeks and
Hebrews employed the letters of the alph.v
bet as numerals, "
Alphabet, [Writing.]
Alphae'us, tho father of tho Apostlfl
James the Less (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii 18 •

ALTAR

31

ALTAR

Luk 3 vi. IS; Acts i. 13), and husband of
that Mary who, with the mother of Jesus
and others, was standing by the cross dur
ing the crucifixion (Johnxix. 25). [Maky.]
In this latter place he is called Clopas (not,
as in the A. V., Cleophas).
Altar. (A.) The first altar of which
we have any account is that built by Noah
when he left the ark (Gen. viii. 20). In
the early times altars were usually built in
certain spots hallowed by religious associa
tions, e. g. where God appeared (Gen. xii.
7, xiii. 18, xxvi. 25, xx.w. 1). Generally
of course they were erected for the offer
ing of sacrifice ; but in some instances they
appear to have been only memorials. Al
tars were most probably originally made of
earth. The Law of Moses allowed themto
be made either of earth or unhewn stones
(Ex. XX. 24, 25). In later times they
were frequently built on high places, espe
cially in idolatrous worship (Deut. xii. 2).
(B.) The Law of Moses directed that two
altars should be made, tho one the Altar of
Burnt-offering (called also simply the Al
tar), and the other the Altar of Incense.
I. The Altar of Burnt-offering. It dif
fered in construction at different times.
(1.) In the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvii. 1 ff.
xxxviii. 1 ff.) it was comparatively small
and portable. In shape it was square. It
was five cubits in length, the same in
breadth, and three cubits high. It was
made of planks of shittim (or acacia) wood
overlaid with brass. The interior was hol
low (Ex. xxvii. 8), At tho four corners
were four projections called horns, made,
like the altar itself, of shittim-wood over
laid with brass (Ex. xxvii. 2). They proba
bly projected upwards ; and to them the
victim was bound when about to hk sacri
ficed (Ps. cxviii. 27), On the occasion of
the consecration of the priests (Ex. xxix.
12) and the offering of the sin-offering
(Lev. iv. 7 ff.) the blood of the victim was
sprinkled on the horns of the altar.
Round the altar, midway between the top
and bottom, ran a projecting ledge (A. V.
" compass "), on which perhaps the priests
stood when they officiated. To the outer
edge of this, again, a grating or net-work
of brass was affixed, and reached to the
bottom of the altar, which thus presented
the appearance of being larger below than
above. At the four corners of the net
work were four brazen rings, into which
were inserted the staves by which the altar
was carried. These staves were of the
same materials as the altar itself. As the
priests were forbidden to ascend the altar
by steps (Ex. xx, 26), it has. been conjec
tured that a slope of earth led gradually up
to the lodge from which they officiated.
The place of the altar was at " the door of
the tabernacle of the congregation " (Ex,
xl. 29). (2.) In Solomon's Te-nple the

altar was considerably larger in its dimen
sions. Like the former it was square; but
the length and breadth were now twenty cu
bits, and the height ten (2 Chr. iv. 1). It

Altar of Burnt Offering. From Surenhuaius' Mishna.
differed, too, in the material of which it was
made, being entirely of brass (1 K. viii. 64 ;
2 Chr. vii. 7). It had no grating; and in
stead of a single gradual slope, the ascent
to it was probably made by three succes
sive platforms, to each of whicli it has been
supposed that steps led, as in the figure
annexed. (3.) The altar of burnt offer
ing in the second (Zerubbabel's) temple.
Of this no description is given in the Bible.
Wc are only told (Ezr. iii. 2) that it was
built before the foundations of the Temple
were Laid. According to Josephus it was
placed on the same spot on which that of
Solomon had originally stood. (4.) The
altar erected by Herod, which is thus de
scribed by Josephus : "In front of the Tem
ple stood the altar, 15 cubits in height, and
in breadth and length of equal dimensions,
viz. 50 cubits ; it was built foursquare, with
horn-like corners projecting from it; and
on tho south side a gentle acclivity led up
to it. Moreover it was made without any
iron tool, neither did iron ever touch it at
any time." According to Lev. vi. 12, 13,
a perpetual fire was to be kept burning on
the altar. This was the symbol and token
of the perpetual worship of Jehovah. II.
The Altar of Incense, called also the golden
altar to distinguish it from the Altar of
Burnt-offering, which was called tho bra
zen a\ta.r (Ex. xxxviii. 30). {a.) That in
the Tabernacle was made of acaeia-wood,
overlaid with pure gold. In shape it was
square, being a cubit in length and breadth,
and 2 cubits in height. Like the Altar of
Burnt-offering it had horns at the four cor
ners, which were of one piece with the rest
of the altar. Its appearance may be illus
trated by the following figure. This altar
stood in the Holy Place, "before the vail
that is by the, ark of the testimony " (Ex.
xxx. 6, xl. 5). {b.) The Altar in Solomon's

ALTASCHITH

32

AMARIAH

Temple was similar (1 K. vii. 48; 1 Chr.
xxviii. 18), but was made of cedar overlaid
with gold. (<p.) The Altar of Incense is
mentioned as having been removed from

Supposed form of the Altar of Incense.
the Temple of Zerubbabel by Antiochus
Epiphanes (1 Mace. i. 21), Judas Macca-
baeus restored it, together with the holy
vessels, &c. (1 Mace. iv. 49). (C.) Other
altars. (1.) Altars of brick. There seems
to be an allusion to such in Is. Ixv. 3. (2.)
An Altar to an Unknown God. What altar
this was has been the subject of much dis
cussion. St. Paul merely mentions in his
speech on the Areopagus that he had him
self seen such an altar in Athens. As to
the origin of these altars, we are told by
Diogenes Laertius tliat in the time of a
plague, when the Athenians knew not what
god to propitiate in order to avert it, Epi-
menides caused black and while sheep to
be let loose from the Areopagus, and wher
ever they lay down, to be offered to the
respective divinities. It was probably on
this or similar occasions that altars were
dotlicated to an Unknown God, since they
knew not what god was offended and re
quired to be propitiated.
Al-tas'chith, found in the introductory
verse to the four following Psalms, Ivii.,
Iviii., lix., Ixxv. Literally rendered, tho
imjiort of the words is "destroy not," prob
ably the beginning of some song or poem
to the tune of wliich those psalms were to
be chanted.
A'lush, one of the stations of tho Isra
elites on their journey to Sinai, the last
b\fore RepbiJim (Num. xxxiii. 13, 14).
Al'vah, a duke of Edom (Gen. x.xxvi.
40), written At.iah in 1 Chr. i. 51,
Al'van, a Horite, son of Shobal (Gen.
xxxvi. 23), written Alian in 1 Chr. i. 40,
A'mad, an unknown place in Asher,
between Alammelech and Misheal (Josh,
XIX. 26 only).

Amad'atha (Esth, xvi. ^'^'^^l^^^
Amad'athus (Esth. xii, e). I'-'-J^''^^ "
^ A'mal,_an Asherite, son of Helem (1
^ Am"al^e:^; son of Eliphaz by his concu-
bine Timnah grandson of Esau and cluef-
tain (" duke" A. V.) of Edom (Gen, xxsvi.
12, 16; 1 Chr. i. 36). ;
Am'alekites, a nomadic tribe, which
occupied the peninsula of Smai and the
wilderness intervening between the south
ern hill-ranges of Palestine and the border
of Egypt (Num. xiii. 29 ; 1 Sam. xv. 7 ;
xxvii. 8), Arabian historians represeit
them as originally dwelling on the shores
of the Persian Gulf, y^hence they were
pressed westwards by the growth of the
Assyrian empire, and spread over a portion
of Arabia at a period antecedent to its occu
pation by the descendants of Joktan. The
physical character of the district which the
Amalekites occupied necessitated a nomadio
life, which they adopted to its fullest extent,
taking their families with them even on
their mUitary expeditions (Judg. vi. 5).
Their wealth consisted in flocks and herds.
Mention is made of a " town " (1 Sam. xv. 5),
but their towns could have been little more
than stations, or nomadic enclosures. The
kings or chieftains were perhaps distin
guished by the hereditary title Agag (Num.
xxiv. 7; 1 Sam. xv. 8). The Amalekites
first came in contact with the Israelites at
Repbidim, but were signally defeated (Ex.
xvii.). In union with the Canaanites they
again .attacked the Israelites on the borders
of Palestine, and defeated them near Hor-
mah (Num. xiv. 45). Saul undertook an
expedition against them, overrunning their
whole district from Havilah toShur, andin-
flicting an immense loss upon them (1 Sam.
xv). Their power was thenceforth broken,
and they degenerated into a horde of ban
ditti. Their destruction was completed by
David (1 Sam. xxvii., x,xx.).
A'mam, a city in tlie south of Judah,
named with Shema and Moladah in Josh.
.XV. 26 only.
A'man. [Haman.] (Esth. x. 7, xii. 6,
xiii. 3, 12, xiv. 17, xvi. 10, 17).
Am'ana, apparently a mountain in or
near Lebanon i^Cant. iv. 8). It is common
ly assumed that this is the mountain in
which the river Abana (2 K. v. 12) has its
source, but in the absence of further re
search in the Lebanon this is mere assump
tion. Amari'ah. 1. Father of Ahitub, ac
cording to 1 Chr. vi. 7, 52, and son of Me-
raioth, in the line of the high-priests. 2.
The high-priest in the reign of Jehoshaphat
(2 Chr. xix. 11). He was the son of Aza
riah. 3. Tho head of a Levitical house
of the Kohathites in tbe time of David (1
Chr. xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23). 4. The head of

AMA&A

33

AMETHYST

one of the twenty-four courses of priests,
which was named after him, in the times of
David, of Hezekiah, and of Nehemiah (1
Chr. xxiv. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxi. 15 ; Neh. x. 3,
xii. 2, 13). In the first passage the name
is written Immer, but it seems to be the
same name. Another form of the name is
Imri (1 Chr. ix. 4), a man of Judah, of the
sons of Bani. 5. One of the sons of Bani
in the time of Ezra, who had married a for
eign wife (Ezr. x. 42). 6. A priest who re
turned with Zerubbabel (Neh. x. 3, xii. 2, 13).
7. A descendant of Pharez, the son of Judah
(Neh. xi. 4), probably the same as I.aiki in
1 Chr. ix. 4. 8. An ancestor of Zepha
niah the prophet (Zeph. i. 1).
Am'asa. 1. Son of Ithra or Jether, by
Abigail, David's sister (2 Sam. xvii. 25).
He joined Absalom in his rebellion, and
was by liim appointed commander-in-chief
in th? place of Joab, by whom he was to
tally defeated in the forest of Ephraim (2
Sam. xviii. 6). When Joab incurred the
displeasure of David for killing Absalom,
David forgave the treason of Amasa, rec
ognized him as his nephew, and appointed
him Joab's successor (xix. 13). Joab after
wards, when they were both in pursuit of
the rebel Sheba, pretending to salute Amasa,
stabbed him with his sword (xx. 10), which
he held concealed in his left hand. 2, A
prince of Ephraim, son of Hadlai, in the
reign of Ahaz (2 Chr. xxviii. 12).
Amasa'i. 1. A Kohatliite, father of
Mahath, and ancestor of Samuel and He-
man the singer (1 Chr. vi. 25, 35). 2.
Chief of the captains of Judah and Ben
jamin, who deserted to David while an
outlaw at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 18), 3. One
of the priests who blew trumpets before the
Ark, when David brought it from the house
of Obededom (1 Chr. xv. 24). 4. Another
Kohathite, father of another Mahath, in
tlie reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix, 12),
unless the name is that of a family.
Amasha'i, son of Azareel, a priest in
the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 13), ap-
p.arently the same as Maasiai (1 Chr. ix.
• 12), Amasi'ah, son of Zichri, and captain
of 200,000 warriors of Judah, in the reign
of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 16),
A'math. [Hamath.]
Amazi'ah. 1. Son of Joash, and eighth
king of Judah, reigned b. c. 837-809. He
succeeded to the throne at the age of
25, on the murder of his father, and pun
ished the murderers. In order to restore
his kingdom to the greatness of Jehosha
phat's days, he made war on the Edomites,
defeated them in the valley of Salt, south
of the Dead Sea, and took their capital,
Selah or Petra, to which he gave the name
of Jokteel, i. e. "God-subdued." Flushed
with his success, he had the fjolish arro
gance to challenge Joash, king of Israel, to
3

battle. But Judah was completely defeated,
and Amaziah himself was taken prisoner,
and conveyed by Joash to Jerusalem, which
opened its gates to the conqueror. Ama
ziah lived 15 years after the death of Joash ;
and in the 29th year of his reign was mur
dered by conspirators at Lachish, whither
he had retired for safety from Jerusalem (2
Chr. xxv. 27). 2. A descendant of Simeon
(1 Chr, iv. 34). 3. A Levite (1 Chr, vi,
45) , 4. Priest of the golden calf at Bethel,
who endeavored to drive the jirophet Amos
from Israel into .Tudali (Am. vii. 10, 12, 14),
Embassador. The earliest examples
of ambassadors employed occur in the
cases of Edom, Moab, and the Amorites
(Num. XX. 14, xxi. 21 ; Judg. xi. 17-19),
afterwards in that -of the fraudulent Gibeon
ites (Josh. ix. 4, &e.), and in the instances
of civil strife mentioned Judg. xi. 12, and
XX, 12. They are alluded to more fre
quently during and after the contact of the
great adjacent monarchies of Syria, Baby
lon, &c., with those of Judah and Israel, as
in the invasion of Sennacherib. They
were usually men of high rank. In the
case quoted the chief captain, the chief cup
bearer, and chief of the eunuchs, were met
by delegates of similar dignity from Heze
kiah (2 K. xviii. 17, 18 ; see also Is. xxx.
4). Ambassadors are found to have been
employed, not only on occasions of hostile
challenge or insolent menace (2 K. xiv. 8 ;
1 K. XX. 2, 6), but of friendly compliment,
of request for alliance or other aid, of sub
missive deprecation, and of curious inquiry
(2 IC, xiv. 8, xvi. 7, xviii. 14 ; 2 Chr. xxxii.
31). Amber (Heb. chashmal) occurs only in
Ez. i. 4, 27, viii. 2. It is usually supposed
that the Hebrew word chashmal denotes a
metal, and not the fossil resin called amber.
Amen, literally, "true;" and, used as
a substantive, "that which is true,"
"truth" (Is. ixv. 16); a word used in
strong asseverations, fixing as it were the
stamp of truth upon the assertion which it
accompanied, and making it binding as an
oath (comp. Num. v. 22). According to
the Rabbins, "Amen" involved the ideas
of swearing, acceptance, and truthfulness.
In the synagogues and private houses it
was customary for the people or members
of the family who were present to say
" Amen " to the prayers which were offered
by tbe minister or the master of the house,
and the custom remained in the early Chris
tian Church (Matt. vi. 13 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 16).
And not only public prayers, but those of
fered in private, and doxologies were ap
propriately concluded with " Amen " (Rom.
ix. 5, xi. 36, XV. 33, xvi. 27 ; 2 Cor. xUi.
13, &c.).
Amethyst (Heb. achUm&h). Men
tion is made of this precious stone, which
formed the third in the third row of the

AMI

34

AMMON

high-priest's breastplate, in Ex. xxviii. 19,
xxix 12), " And the third row a ligure, an
agate, and an amethyst." It occurs also in
the N. T. (Rev. xxi. 20) as the twelfth stone
which garnished the foundations of the wall
of the iieavenly Jerusalem. Commentators
generally are agreed that the amethyst is
the stone indicated by the Hebrew word, an
opinion which is abundantly supported by
the ancient versions.
A'mi, one of "Solomon's servants"
(Ezr. ii. 57) : called Amon in Neh. vii. 59.
Amin'adab (Matt. i. 4; Luke iii. 33).
[Amminadab I.] <-
Amit'tai, father of the prophet Jonah
(2 K. xiv. 25; Jon. i. 1).
Am'mah, Tbe hill of, a hill " facing "
Giah by the way of the wilderness of
Gibeon, named as the point to which Joab's
pursuit of Abner after the death of Asahel
extended (2 Sam. ii. 24).
Am'mi, i. e. as explained in the marg.
of A. V. "my people," a figurative name,
applied to the kingdom of Israel in token
of God's reconciliation with them, in con
trast with the equally significant name Lo-
ammi given by the prophet Hosea to his
second son by Goraer the daughter of Dib-
laim (Hos. ii. 1). In the same manner
Ruhamah contrasts with Lo-Ruhamah.
Am'miel. 1. The spy selected by
Moses from the tribe of Dan (Num. xiii.
12). 2. Father of Machir of Lodebar (2
Sam. ix. 4, 5, xvii. 27), 3. Father of
Bathsheba (l Chr. iii. 5), called Eliam in
2 Sam. xi. 3. Ho was the son of Ahitho
phel, David's prime minister. 4. The
sixth son of Obed-Edom (1 Chr. x.xvi. 5),
and one of the doorkeepers of the Temple.
Am'mihud. 1. An Epbraimite, father
of Elishama, the chief of the tribe at the
time of the Exodus (Num. i. 10, ii. 18, vii.
48, 53, X. 22; 1 Chr. vii. 26), and, through
Mm, ancestor of Joshua. 2. A Simeon
ite, father of Shemuel; prince of the tribe
(Num. xxxiv. 20) at the time of tlie divis
ion of Canaan. 3. Tho father of Pedahel,
prince of the tribe of Naphtliali at the
same time (Num. xxxiv. 28). 4. The
father of Talmai, king of Geshur (2 Sam.
xiii. 37), 5. A descendant of Pharez, son
of Judah (1 Chr. ix. 4).
Ammin'adab. 1. Son of Ram or
Aram, and father of Nahshon, or Naasson
(as it is written. Matt. i. 4; Luke iii. 32),
who was tbe prince of the tribe of Judah,
at the first numbering of Israel in the sec
ond year of the Exodus (Num. i. 7, ii. 3 ;
Ruth iv. 19, 20 ; 1 Chr. i. 10). He was the
fourth generation after Judah, the patri
arch of his tribo, and one of the ancestors
of Jesus Christ. 2. Tho chief of the
112 sons of Uzzicl, a junior Levitical house
of the family of tbe Kohathites (Ex. vi.
18), in the days of David, whom that king
sent for, together with other chief fathers

of Levitical bouses, to bring *^ ^* °'
God to Jerusalem (1 Chr, xv. ^^'tV' X'
In 1 Chr. vi. 22, Izhar, tbe son of Kohath,
and father of Korah, is called Amminadab,
but it is probably only a clerical error. _
Ammin'adib, In Cant. vi. 12, it is
uncertain whether we ought to read. Am-
minadib, with the A. V., or my willing peo
ple, as in the margin.
Ammishad'dai, the father of Ahie-
zer, prince of the tribe of Dan at the time
of the Exodus (Num. i. 12, ii. 25, vii. 66,
71, X. 25).
Ammiz'abad, the son of Benaiah, who
apparently acted as his father's lieutenant,
and commanded the third division of Da
vid's army, which was on duty for the
tliird month (1 Chr. xxvii. 6),
Am'mon, Am'monites, Children
of Ammon, a people descended from
Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot by his younger
daughter (Gen. xix. 38; comp. Ps. Ixxxiii.
7, 8), as Moab was by the elder ; and dat
ing from the destruction of Sodom. The
near relation between the two peoples indi
cated in the story of their origin continued
throughout their existence (comp. Judg. x.
6 ; 2 Chr. xx. 1 ; Zeph. ii. 8, &c.). Indeed,
so close was their union, and so near their
identity, that each would appear to be oc
casionally spoken of under the name of the
other. "Unlike Moab, the precise position
of the territory of the Ammonites is not
ascertainable. In the earliest mention of
them (Deut. ii. 20) they are said to have
destroyed the Rephaim, whom they called
the Zamzummini, and to have dwelt in their
place, Jabbok being their border (Num.
xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 37, iu. 16). "Land"
or "country" is, however, but rarely
ascribed to them, nor is there any reference
to those habits and circumstances of civili
zation, which so constantly recur in the al
lusions to Moab. (Is. XV., xvi. ; Jer. xlviii.).
On the contrary, we find everywhere traces
of the fierce habits of marauders in their
incursions (1 S.am. xi. 2; Am. i. 13), and
a very high degree of crafty cruelty to their
foes (Jer. xii. 6, 7 ; Jud. vii. 11, 12). It ap
pears that Moab was the settled and civ
ilized half of the nation of Lot, aud that
Ammon formed its predatory and Bedouin
section. On the west of Jordan they never
obtained a footing. The hatred in which
the Ammonites were held by Israel is stated
to have arisen partly from their opposition,
or, rather, their denial of a.ssistan''e (Deut.
xxiii. 4), to the Israelites on their approach
to Canaan. But whatever its origin the
animosity continued in force to the latest
date. Tho last appearances of the Am
monites iu the biblical narrative are in the
books of Judith (v., vi., vii.) and of the
Maccabees (1 Mace. v. 6, 30-43), and it
has been already remarked that their chief
characteristics — close alliance with Moab,

AMMONITESS

35

AMOS

hatred of Israel, and cunning cruelty —
are maintained to the end. The tribe was
governed by a king (Judg. xi. 12, &c. ; 1
Sam. xii. 12 ; 2 Sam. x. 1 ; Jer. xl. 14) and
by " princes " (2 Sam. x. 3 ; 1 Chr. xix. 3).
It has been conjectured that Nahash (1
Sam. xi. 1 ; 2 Sam. x. 2) was the official
title of the king, as Pharaoh was of the
Egyptian monarchs ; but this is without any
sure foundation. Tlie divinity of the tribe
was Molech, generally named in the O. T.
under tho altered form of Milcom — " the
abomination of the children of Ammon ; "
aud occasionally as Malcham. In more
than one passage under the word rendered
" their king" in the A. V. an allusion is in
tended to this idol. [Molech.]
Ammoni'tess, a woman of Ammonite
race. Such were Naamah, the mother of
Rehoboam, one of Solomon's foreign wives
(1 K. xiv. 21, 31 ; 2 Clir. xii. 13), and Shim-
eatli, whose son Zabad or Jozachar was
one of the murderers of Joash (2 Chr.
xxiv. 26). For allusions to these mixed
marriages see 1 K. xi. 1, and Neh. xiii. 23.
Am'non. 1. Eldest son of David by
Ahinoam the Jezreelitess, born in Hebron
while his father's royalty was only acknowl
edged in Judah. He dishonored his half-
sister Tamar, and was in consequence mur
dered by her brother (2 Sam. xiii. 1-29).
2. Son of Shimon (1 Chr, iv. 20).
A'mok, a priest who returned with Ze
rubbabel (Neh. xii. 7, 20).
A'mon, an Egyptian divinity, whose
name occurs in that of No Amon (Nah. iii.
8), in A. V. "populous No," or Thebes,
»lso called No. [No.] The Greeks called

The god Amon (Wilkinson}.
this divinity Ammon. The ancient Egyp
tian name is Ameu. Arden was one of the
eight gods of the flrst order, and chief of
the triad of Thebes. He was worshipped at
tliat city as Amen-Ra, or "Amen the sun."

A'mon. King of Judah, son and suc
cessor of Manasseh, reigned two years,
from B. c. 642 to 640. Following his
father's example, Amon devoted himself
wholly to the service of false gods, but->vas
killed in a conspiracy. The people avenged
him by putting all the conspirators to death,
and secured the succession to his son Jo
siah. To Amon's reign we must refer the
terrible picture which the prophet Zepha
niah gives of the moral and religious slate
of Jerusalem.
Amorite, the Amorites, i.' e. the
dwellers on the summits — mountaineers —
one of the chief nations who possessed the
land of Canaan before its conquest by the
Israelites. In the genealogical table of
Gen. X. "the Amorite" is given as the
fourth son of Canaan, with "Zidon, Heth
[Hittite], the Jebusite," &c. As dwelling
on the elevated portions of the country,
they are contrasted with the Canaanites,
who -were the dwellers in the lowlands :
and the two thus formed the main broad
divisions of the Holy Land (Num. xiii. 29 ;
and see Josh. v. 1, x. 6, xi. 3 ; Deut. i. 7,
20, "mountain of the A.;" 44). In tho
very earliest times (Gen. xiv. 7) they are
occupying the barren heights west of the
Dead Sea, at tho place which afterwards
bore the name of Engedi. From this point
they stretched west to Hebron, where
Abram was then dwelling under the " oak-
grove " of the three brothers, Auer, Eshcol,
and Mamre (Gen. xiv. 13; comp; xiii. 18).
At the date of the invasion of the country,
Silion, their then king, had taken the rich
pasture-land south of the Jabbok, and had
driven the Moabites, its former possessors, .
across the wide chasm of the Amon (Num.
xxi. 13, 26), which thenceforward formed
the boundary between the two hostile peo
ples (Num. xxi. 13). This rich tract,
bounded by the Jabbok on the north, the
Arnou on the south, Jordan on the west,
and " the wilderness " on the east (Judg.
xi. 21, 22), was, perhaps, in the most special
sense the "land of the Amorites" (Num.
xxi. 31 ; Josh. xii. 2, 3, xiii. 9 ; Judg. xi.
21, 22) ; but their possessions are distinctly
stated to have extended to tbe very foot of
Herraon (Deut. iii. 8, iv. 48), embracing
" all Gilead and all Bashan" (ih. 10), with
the Jordan valley on the east of the rirer
(iv. 49). After the conquest of Cana.in
nothing is heard in the Bible of the Am
orites, except the occasional mention of
their name among the early inhabitants of
the country.
A'mos. A native of Tekoa in Judah,
about six miles S. of Bethlehem, originally
a shepherd and dresser of sycamore-trees,
who was called by God's Spirit to be a
prophet, although not trained in any of the
regular prophetic schools (i. 1, vii. 14, 15).
He travelled from Judah into the northern

AMOZ

36

ANAKIM

Kingdom of Israel or Ephraim, and there
exercised bis ministry, apparently not for
any long time. His date cannot be later
than the 15tli year of Uzziah's reign (b. c.
808) ; for he tells us that he prophesied
"in the reigns of Uzziah king of Judah,
and Jeroboam the son of Joash king of
Israel, two years before the earthquake."
But his ministry probably took place at
an earlier period, perhaps about the mid
dle of Jeroboam's reign.. The book of the
prophecies of Amos seems divided into four
principal portions closely connected to
gether. (1) From i. 1 to ii. 3 he denounces
the sins of the nations bordering on Israel
and Judah, as a preparation for (2), in
wliich, from ii. 4 to vi. 14, he describes the
state of those two kingdoms, especially the
former. This is followed by (3) vii. 1 to ix.
10, in which, after refiecting on the previous
prophecy, he relates his visit to Bethel, and
sketches the impending punishment of
Israel which he predicted to Amaziah.
After this in (4) he rises to a loftier and
more evangehcal strain, looking forward to
the time when the hope of the Messiah's
kingdom will be fulfilled, and His people
forgiven and established in the enjoyment
of God's blessings to all eternity. The
chief peculiarity of tlie style consists in the
number of allusions to natural objects and
agricultural occupations, as might be ex
pected from the early life of the author.
See i. 3, ii. 13, iii. 4, 5, iv, 2, 7, 9, v. 8, 19,
vi. 12, vii. 1, ix.3,9, 13, 14. The references
to it in the N, T. are two : v. 26, 26, 27 is
quoted by St. Stephen in Acts vii. 42, 43,
and i-x. 11 by St. James in Acts xv. 16.
A'moz, father of the prophet Isaiah,
and, according to Rabbinical tradition,
brother of Amaziah king of Judah (2 K.
XIX. 2, 20, XX. 1 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 22, xxxii. 20,
32 ; Is. i. 1, ii. 1, xiii. 1, xx, 2, xxxvii. 2,
21, xxxviii. 1).
Amphip'olis, a city of Macedonia,
through which Paul and Silas passed on
their way from Philippi to Thessalonica
(Acts xvii. 1). It was distant 33 Roman
miles from Philippi, It stood upon an
eminence on the left or eastern bank of tbe
river Strymon, just below its egress from
the lake Cercinitis, and at the distance of
about thras miles from the sea. Its site is
now occupied by a village called Ncokhdrio,
in Turkish Jcni-Keni, or "New Town."
Am'plias, a Christian at Rome (Rom.
x-ii. 8).
Arn'ram. 1. A Levite of the family
of the Kohathites, and father of Moses,
Aaron, and Miriam (Ex. vi. 18, 20; Num.
iii. 19; 1 Chr. vi. 2, 3, 18). He is called
the " son" of Kohath, but it is evident that
in the genealogy several generations must
have been omitted; for from Joseph to
Joshua ten generations are recorded, while
from Levi to Moses there are but three.

2. A sonof D.^non and descendant of Scd
(1 Chr. i. 41); properly ''Uamran =
Hemdan in Gen, xxxvi. 26, 3. One of
the sons of Bani in the time of Ezra, who
had married a foreign wife (Ezr, x. 34),
Am'ramites. A branch of the great
Kohathite family of the tribe of Levi (Nura.
iii. 27 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23) ; descended from
Amram the father of Moses.
Am'raphel, perhaps a Hamite king of
Shinar or Babylonia, who joined the victo
rious incursion of the Elamite Chedorlaomer
against the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah
and the cities of the plain (Gen. xiv.).
Amulets were ornaments, gems, scrolls,
&c., worn as preservatives against the power
of enchantments, and generally inscribed
with mystic forms or characters. The
word does not occur in the A, V., but the
" earrings " in Gen, xxxv. 4 were obviously
connected with idolatrous worship, and
were probably amulets taken from the
bodies of the slain Shechemites, They are
subsequently mentioned among the spoils
of Midian (Judg. viii. 24). Again, in Hos.
ii. 13, "decking herself with earrings" is
mentioned as one of the signs of the " days
of Baalim." The " earrings " in Is, iii. 20
were also amulets.
Am'zi. 1, A Levite of the family of
Merari, and ancestor of Ethan the minstrel
(1 Chr. vi. 46). 2. A priest, whose de
scendant Adaiah with his brethren did the
service for the temple in the time of Nehe
miah (Neh. xi. 12),
A'nab, a town in the mountains of
Judah (Josh. xv. 50), named, with Debir
and Hebron, as once belonging to the
Anakim (Josh, xi, 21),
A'nah, the son of Zibeon, the son of
Seir the Horite (Gen, xxxvi, 20, 24), a
" duke " or prince of liis tribe, and father
of Aholibamah, one of the wives of Esau
(Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14, 25), There is no reason
to suppose that he is other Uian the same
Anah who found the " hot springs " (not
"mules," as in the A. V.) iu the desert as
he fed the asses of Zibeon his father, though
Bunsen considers him a distinct personage,
the son of Seir and brother of Zibeon.
Anah'arath, a place within the border
of Issacbar, named with ShUion and Rab-
bith (Josh, xix, 19).
Anai'ah, 1. Probably a priest: one
of those who stood on Ezra's right hand as
he read the law to the people (Neh. viii, 4).
2. One of " the heads of the people" who
signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
X. 22). ^
An'akim, a race of giants, descendants
of Arba (Josh. xv. 13, xxi. 11), dwelUng in
the southern part of Canaan, and particu
larly at Hebron, which from their progeni
tor received the name of "city of Arba "
Besides the general designation Anakim,
they arc variously called sons of ^nak

ANAMIM

'd-(

ANDREW

(Num. xiii. 33), descendants of Anak (Num.
xiii. 22), and sons of Anakim (Deut. i. 28).
These designations serve to show that we
must regard Anak as the name of the race
rather tlian that of an individual, and this
is confirmed by what is said of Arba, their
progenitor, that he "was a great man
among the Anakim" (Josh. xiv. 15). The
race appears to have been divided into
three tribes or families, bearing the names
Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai. Though
the warlike appearance of the Anakim had
struck the Israelites with terror in the time
of Moses (Num. xiii. 28 ; Deut. ix. 2), they
were nevertheless dispossessed by Joshua,
and utterly driven from the land, except a
small remnant that found refuge in the
Philistine cities, Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod
(Josh. xi. 21, 22). Their chief city Hebron
became the possession of Caleb, who is said
to have driven out from it the three sons
of Anak mentioned above, that is the three
families or tribes of the Anakim (Josh. xv.
14; Judg. i. 20). After this time they
vanish from history.
An'amim, a Mizraite people or tribe,
respecting the settlements of which nothing
certain is known (Gen. x. 13 ; 1 Chr. i. 11).
Anam'meleeh, one of the idols wor
shipped by the colonists introduced into
Samaria from Sepharvaim (2 K. xvii. 31).
He was worshipped with rites resembling
those of Molech, children being burnt in
his honor, and is the companion-god to
Adrammeleoh. As Adrammelech is the
male power of the sun, so Anammelech is
the female power of the sun.
A'nan. One of "the heads of the peo
ple " who signed the covenant with Nehe
miah (Neh. X. 26).
Ana'ni, the seventh son of Elioenai,
descended through Zerubbabel from tke
royal line of Judsih (1 Chr. iii. 24).
Anani'ah. Probably a priest, and an
cestor of Azariah, who assisted in rebuild
ing the city wall in the days of Nehemiah
(Neh. iii. 23).
Anani'ah, a place, named between
Nob and Hazor, in which the Benjamites
lived after their return from captivity (Neh.
xi. 32).
Anani'as. 1. A high-priest in Acts
xxiii. 2-5, xxiv. 1. He was the son of
Nebedacius, succeeded Joseph son of Camy-
dus, and preceded Ismael son of Phabi.
He was nominated to the office by Herod
king of Chalcis, in a.d. 48 ; was deposed
shortly before Felix left the province, and
assassinated by tho sicarii at the beginning
of the last Jewish war. 2. A disciple at
Jerusalem, husband of Sapphira (Acts v.
1-11). Having sold his goods for the bene
fit of the church, he kept back a part of
the price, bringing to the apostles the re
mainder, as if it were the whole, his wifu
also being pr'v to '^^ scheme. St. Peter

denounced the fraud, and Ananias fell down
and expired. 3. A Jewish disciple at
Damascus (Acts ix. 10-17), of high repute
(Acts xxii. 12), who sought out Saul dur
ing the period of blindness and dejection
which followed his conversion, and an
nounced to him his future commission as a
preacher of the Gospel. Tradition makes
him to have been afterwards bishop of
Damascus, and to have died by martyrdom.
A'nath, father of Shamgar (Judg. iii.
31, V. 6).
Anatll'ema, which literally means «
thing suspended, is the equivalent of the
Hebrew word signifying a thing or person
devoted. Any olaject so devoted to Jehovah
was irredeemable: if an inanimate object,
it was to be given to the priests (Num.
xviii. 14) ; if a living creature or even a
man, it was to be slain (Lev. xxvii. 28,29).
The word anathema frequently occurs in
St. Paul's writings, and is generally trans
lated accursed. Many expositors have re
garded lus use of it as a teclmical term for
judicial excommunication. That the word
was so used in the early Church there can
be no doubt, but an examination of the
passages in which it occurs shows that it
had acquired a more general sense as ex
pressive either of strong feeling (Rom. ix.
3) or of dislike and condemnation (1 Cor.
xii. 3, xvi. 22; Gal. i. 9).
An'athoth. 1. Son of Becher, a son
of Benjamin (1 Chr. vii. 8). 2. One of
the heads of the people who signed the
covenant in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. x.
19) ; unless, as is not unlikely, the name
stands for "the men of Anathoth" enu
merated in Neh. vii. 27.
An'athoth, a priests' city, belonging to
the tribe of Benjamin, with " suburbs "
(Josh. xxi. 18; 1 Chr. vi. 60). Anathoth
lay on or near the great road from the
north to Jerusalem (Is. x. 30), and is placed
by Eusebius and Jerome at 3 miles from
the city. Its position has been discovered
by Robinson at Andia, on a broad ridge li
hour N. N. E. from Jerusalem. The culti
vation of the priests survives in tilled fields
of grain, with figs and olives. There are
the remains of walls and strong foundations,
and the quarries still supply Jerusalem
with building stones.
An'dre'W, one among the first called of
the Apostles of our Lord (John i. 40 ; Matt.
iv. 18) ; brother (whether elder or younger
is uncertain) of Simon Peter (ibid.). Ho
wjis of Bethsaida, and had been a disciple
of John the Baptist. On hearing Jesus a
second time designated by him as the Lamb
of God, he left his former master, and, iu
company v/ith another of John's disciples,
attached himself to our Lord. By his
means his brother Simon was brought to
Jesus (John i. 41). Tho apparent dis
crepancy in Matt, iv. 18 ff , Mark i. IG ff.,

ANDRONICUS

38

ANGELS

where the two appear to have been called
together, is no real one ; St. John relating
the first introduction of the brothers to
Jesus, the other Evangelists their formal
call to follow Him in his ministry. In the
catalogue of the Apostles, Andrew appears,
in Matt. x. 2, Luke vi. 14, second, next
after his brother Peter; but in Mark iii. 16,
.Acts i. 13, fourth, , next after the three,
Peter, James, and John, and in company
with Philip. Aud this appears to have been
bis real ])lace of dignity among the Apostles.
The traditions about him are various. Eu
sebius makes him preach in Scythia; Je
rome and Tlieodoret in Achaia (Greece) ;
Nicephorus in Asia Minor and Thrace.
He is said to have been crucified at Patrae
in Achaia. Some ancient writers speak of
au apocryphal Acts of Andrew.
Androni'cus. 1. An officer left as
viceroy (2 Mace. iv. 31) in Antioch by An
tiochus Epiphanes during his absence (b.
c. 171). At the instigation of Menelaus,
Andronicus put to death the high-priest
Onias, This murder excited general indig
nation : and on the return of Antiochus,
Andronicus was publicly degraded and exe
cuted (2 Mace, iv, 31-38). 2. Another
officer of Antiochus Epiphanes who was
left by him on Garizem (2 Mace, v. 23),
probably in occupation of the temple there.
3. A Christian at Rome, saluted by St.
Paul (Rom. xvi. 7) together with Junias.
A'nem, n. city of Issach.ar, with "sub
urbs," belonging to the Gershonites (1 Chr.
vi. 73).
A'ner, a city of M.anasseh west of Jor-
d.an, with "suburbs" given to the Koha
thites (1 Chr. vi. 70),
A'ner, one of the three Amorite chiefs
of Hebron who aided Abraham in the pur
suit after the four invading kings (Gen.
xiv. 13, 24).
Aneth'othite (2 Sam. xxiii. 27),
Anet'othite (1 Chr. xxvii. 12), and An'-
tothite (1 Chr. xi. 28, xii. 3), an inhabi
tant of Anathoth of the tribe of Benjamin.
Angels. By the word "angels" {i.e.
"messengers" of God) we ordinarily un
derstand a race of spiritual beings, of a
nature exalted far above that of man, al
though infinitely removed from that of God,
whose office is " to do Him service in
heaven, .and by His appointment to succor
and defend men on earth." I. Scriptural
use of the woj-cZ.— There are many passages
in which the expr.ession the "angel of
God," " the angel of Jehovah," is certainly
used for a manfostation of God himrelf.
Tills is especially the case in the earlier
books of the Old Testament, and may be
seen at once by a comparison of Gen, xxii.
11 with 12, and of Ex. iii. 2 with 6 and 14 ;
where He, who is called the "angel of
Jehovah" in one verse, is called "God,"
and even "Jehoviih" in those which fol

low, and accepts tbe worship due to God
alone. It is to be observed also, that, side
by side with these expressions, we read of
God's being manifested in tie form of man;
as to Abraham at Mamre (Gen. xviii. 2, 22,
comp, xix. 1), to Jacob at PenuqJ (Gen.
xxxii. 24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. v.
13, 15), &c. It is hardly to be doubted
that both sets of passages refer to the same
kind of manifestation of the Divine Pres
ence. Tbe inevitable inference is that by
the " Angel of the Lord " in such passages
is meant He, who is from, the beginning
the "Word," i.e. the Manifester or Re-
vealer of God. Besides this, which is the
highest application of the word " angel,"
we find the phrase used of any messengeia
of God, such aS the prophets (Is. xiii. 19;
•Hag. i. 13; Mal. iii. 1), the priests (Mal.
ii. 7), and the rulers of the Christian
churches (Rev. i. 20). II. Nature of an
gels. — Little is said of their nature as dis
tinct from their office. They are termed
"spirits" (as in Heb. i. 14) ; but it is nut
asserted that the angelic nature is incor
poreal. The contrary seems expressly im
plied by the words in which our Lord de
clares, that, after the Resurrection, men
shall be " like the angels " (Luke xx. 36) ;
because (Phil. iii. 21) their bodies, as weU
as their spirits, shall have been made en
tirely like His. The angels are revealed to
us as beings, such as man might be and
will bo when the power of sin and death is
removed, partaking in their measure of the
attributes of God, Truth, Purity, and Love,
because always beholding His face (Matt.
xviii. 10), and therefore being "made like
Him" (1 John iii. 2). This, of course,
implies finiteness, and therefore (in the
strict sense) "imperfection" of nature, and
constant progress, both moral and intellec-
lual, through all eternity. Such imperfec
tion, contrasted with the infinity of God,
is expressly ascribed to them in Job iv. 18 ;
Matt. xxiv. 36; 1 Pet. i. 12. The finite
ness of nature implies capacity of tempta
tion ; and accordingly we hear of " fallen
angels." Of the nature of their tempta
tion and the circumstances of their fall, we
know absolutely nothing. All that is cer
tain is, that they "left their first estate,"
and that they arc now "angels of -the
devil" (Matt. xxv. 41; Rev. xii. 7, 9),
partaking therefore of the falsehood, un-
clcanness, and hatred, which are liis pecu
liar characteristics (John viii. 44). On the
ether hand, the title especially assigned to
the angels of God, that of the " holy ones "
(see Dan. iv. 13, 23, viii. 13; Matt. xxv.
31), is precisely the one which is given to
those men who are renewed in Christ's
image, bufwhich belongs to them in actual
ity and in perfection only hereafter. (Comp,
Heb, ii. 10, V. 9, xii. 23.). III. Office of
the angels.— Of their office in heaven, w«

4NIAM

39

ANOINTING

hi.ve, of course, only vague prophetic
glimpses (as in 1 K, xxii, 19 ; Is. vi, 1-3 ;
Dan, vii 9, 10; Rev. vi. 11, &c.), which
show us notliing but a never-ceasing adora
tion. Their office towards man is far more
fully described to us. They are represent
ed as being, in the widest sense, agents of
God's Providence, natural and supernat
ural, to the body and to the soul. More
particularly, however, angels are spoken
of a« ministers of what is called supernat
ural ProA idence of God ; as agents in the
gTcat scheme of the spiritual redemption and
sanctification of man, of which the Bible is
the record. During the prophetic and
kingly period, angels are spoken of only as
ministers of God in the operations of na
ture. But in the captivity angels are re
vealed in a fresh light, as watching, not
only over Jerusalem, but also over heathen
kingdoms, under the Providence, and to
work out the designs, of the Lord. (See
Zech. passim, and Dan. iv. 13, 23, x. 10,
13, 20, 21, &c.) The Incarnation marks a
now epoch of angelic ministration. " The
Angel of Jehovah," the Lord of all created
angels, having now descended from heaven
to earth, it was natural that His servants
should continue to do Him service there.
The New Testament is the history of the
Church of Christ, every member of which
is united to Him. Accordingly, the angels
are revealed now, as " ministering spirits"
to each individual member of Christ for
His spiritual guidance and aid (Heb. i. 14).
In one word they are Christ's ministers of
grace now, as they shall be of judgment
hereafter (Matt. xiii. 39, 41, 49, xvi. 27,
xxiv. 31, &c.). That there are degrees of
the angelic nature, fallen and unfallen, and
special titles and .agencies belonging, to
each, is clearly declared by St. Paul (Eph.
i. 21 ; Rom. viii. 38), but what their gen
eral nature is, it is useless to speculate.
A'niam, a Manassite, son of Shemidah
(1 Chr. vii. 19).
A'nim, a city in the mountains of Judah,
named with Eshtemoh and Goshen (Josh.
XV. 50).
Anise. This word occurs only in Matt.
xxiii, 23. It is by no means a matter of
certainty whether the anise {Pimpinella
a'-dsum, Lin.) or the dill {Aneihum graveo-
lens) is here intended, though the proba
bility is more in favor of the latter plant.
Anklet. This word does not occur in
the A. v., but anklets are referred to in Is.
iii. 16, 18, 20. They were fastened to the
ankle-band of each leg, were as common
as bracelets and armlets, and made of
much the same materials ; the pleasant
jingling and tinkling which they made as
they knocked against each other, was no
doubt one of the reasons why they were ad
mired (" the bravery of their tinkhng orna
ments "), They are still worn in the East.

An'na. A " prophetess " in Jerusalem
at the time of our Lord's presentation in
the Temple (Luke ii. 36), She was of tha
tribe of Asher.
An'nas, the son of one Seth, was ap
pointed high-priest in the year a. d. 7, by
Quirinus, the imperial governor of Syria;
but was obliged by Valerius Gratus, pro
curator of Judaea, to give way to Ismael,
son of Phabi, at the beginning of the reign
of Tiberius, A. d. 14. Ismael was suc
ceeded by Eleazar, son of Annas ; then fol
lowed, after one year, Simon, son of Cami-
thus, and then, after another year (about
A, D. 25), Joseph Caiaphas, son-in-law of
Annas (John xviii. 13), But in Luke iii. 2,
Annas and Caiaplias are both called high-
priests, Annas being mentioned first. Our
Lord's first hearing (John xviii. 13) was
before Annas, who then sent liim bound to
Caiaphas, In Acts iv. 6, Annas is plainly
called the high-priest, and Caiaphas merely
named with others of his family. Some
maintain that the two, Annas and Caiaphas,
were together at the head of tho Jewish
people, — Caiaphas as actual high-priest,
Annas as president of the Sanhedrim.
Others again suppose that Annas held the
office of sagan, or substitute of the high-
priest. He lived to old age, having had
five sons high-priests.
Anointing, in Holy Scripture, is either
I. Material, with oil, or II. Spiritual,
with the Holy Ghost. I. Material. —
1. Ordinary. Anointing the body or
head with oil was a common practice with .
the Jews, as with other Oriental nations
(Deut. xxviii. 40; Ruth iii, 3; Mic. vi. 15).
Abstinence from it was a sign of mourning
(2 Sam. xiv. 2; Dan. x. 3; Matt. vi. 17).
Anointing the head with oil or ointment
seems also i;o have been a mark of rc^gpect
sometimes paid by a host to his guests
(Luke vii. 46 and Ps. xxiii. 5), 2. Official.
It was a rite 6t inauguration into each of
the three typical offices of the Jewish com
monwealth. .(*) Prophets were occasion
ally anointed to their office {1 K. xix. 16),
and are called messiahs, or anointed (1
Chr. xvi. 22; Ps. cv. 15). {l\ Priests, at
the first institution of the Levitical priest
hood, were all anointed to their offices, the
sons of Aaron as well as Aaron himself
(Ex. xl. 16 ; Num. iii. 3) ; but afterwards,
anointing seems not to have been rcpe.Tted
at the consecration of ordinary priests, but
to have been especially reserved for tbe
high-priest (Ex. xxix. 29 ; Lev. xvi. 32) ;
so that "the priest that is anointed" (Lev.
iv. 3) is generally thought to mean th;
high-priest, (c) Kings. Ancinting was
the principal and divinely-appointed cere
mony in the inauguration of the Jewish
kings (1 Sam. ix. 16, x. 1 ; 1 K. i. 34, ,19),
The rite was sometime! performed more
than once. David was thrice anointed to

ANT

40

ANTICHRIST

bb king. After the separation into two
kingdoms, the kings both of Judah and of
Israel seem still to have been anointed (2
K. ix. 3r xi. 12)." {d) Inanimate objects
also were anointed with oil in token of their
being set apart for religious service. Thus
Jacob anointed a pillar at Bethel (Gen.
xxxi. 13) ; and at the introduction of the
Mosaic economy, the tabernacle and all its
furniture were consecrated by anointing
(Ex, xxx. 26-28). 3, Ecclesiastical. An
ointing with oil in the name of the Lord is
prescribed by St, James to be used to
gether with prayer, by the elders of the
church, for the recovery of the sick (James
V, 14), Analogous to this is the anointing
with oil practised by the twelve (Mark vi.
13). II. Spiritual. — 1. In the O. T. a
Deliverer is promised under the title of
Messiah, or Anointed (Ps. ii. 2; Dan, ix,
25, 26) ; and the nature of his anointing is
described to be spiritual, with the Holy
Ghost (Is. Ixi. 1 ; see Luke iv. 18). In the
N. T. Jesus of Nazareth is shown to be the
Messiah, or Christ, or Anointed of the Old
Testament (John i, 41 ; Acts ix. 22, xvii.
2, 3, xviii. 4, 28) ; and the historical fact
of his being anointed with the Holy Ghost
is asserted and recorded (John i. 32, 33 ;
Acts iv. 27, X. 38). 2 Spiritual anointing
with the Holy Ghost is conferred also upon
Cliristians by God (2 Cor. i. 21), and they
are described as having an unction from
the Holy One, by which they know all
things ( 1 John u. 20, 27).
Ant (Heb. nemdldh). This insect is
mentioned twice in the O. T. : in Prov. vi.
6, xxx. 25. In the former of these passages
the diligence of this insect is instanced by
the wise man as an example worthy of imi
tation ; in the second passage the ant's wis-
doTTi is especially alluded to, for these in
sects, " though they be little on the earth,
are exceeding wise." It is well known that
the ancient Greeks and Romans believed
that the ant stored up food, which it col
lected in the summer, ready for the win
ter's consumption ; but this is an error.
The European species of .ants are all dor
mant in the winter, and consequently re
quire no food; and the observations of
modern naturalists seem almost conclusive
that no ants lay up for future consumption.
Antichrist. This term is employed
by the Apostle John alone, and is de
fined by him in a manner which leaves
no doubt as to its intrinsic meaning. With
regard to its application there is less cer
tainty. In tbe first passage (1 John ii. 18)
in which it occurs the apostle makes direct
reference to the false Christs, whose com
ing, it had been foretold, should mark the
last days. "Little children, it is the last
time : and as ye have heard th.at the Anti
christ Cometh, even now have there been
many Antichrists ; whereby we know that

it is the last time." The allusit n to Matt.
xxiv. 24 was clearly in the mind of the Syr
iac translator, who rendered Antichrist by
"the false Christ." In ver. 22 we find,
"he is the Antichrist that denieth the Fa
ther and the Son ; " and still more positive
ly, " every spirit that confesseth not that
Jesus Christ is come in the flesh" is of
Antichrist (comp. 2 John 7). Fromthese
emphatic and repeated definitions it has
been supposed that the object of the apostle
in his first epistle was to combat the errors
of Cerinthus, the Docetae, and the Gnos
tics on the subject of the Incarnation. The
Antichrists, against which he warned the
churches of Asia Minor as being already in
the world, had been of their own number ;
"they went out from us, but tlcy were not
of us " (1 John ii. 19) ; and the manner in
which they are referred to implies that tho
name was already familiar to those to whom
the epistle was addressed, through the apos
tle's oral teaching (2 Thess. ii. 5). The
coming of Antichrist was believed to be
foretold in the "vile person" of Daniel's
prophecy (xi. 21), which received its first
accomplishment in Antiochus Epiphanes,
but of which the complete fulfilment was
reserved for the last times. He is identi
fied with " the man of sin, the son of per
dition" (2 Thess, ii, 3), who should be re
vealed when he "who now letteth" was
removed ; that is, according to the belief of
the primitive church, when the Roman
order of things ceased to be. This inter
pretation brings Antichrist into close con
nection with the gigantic power of evil,
symbolized by the "beast" (Rev. xiii.),
who received his power from the dragon
{i. e. the devil, the serpent of Genesis),
continued for forty and two months, and
was invested with the kingdom of the ten
kings who destroyed the harlot Babylon
(Rev. xvii. 12, 17), the city of seven hills.
'The destruction of IBabylon is to be followed
by Uie rule of Antichrist for a short period
(Rev. xvii. 10), to be in his turn overthrown
in "the battle of that great day of God
Almighty" (Rev xvi. 14) with the false
prophet and all his followers (Rev. xix.).
The personality of Antichrist is to be in
ferred as well from the personality cf liis
historical precursor, as from th.at of Him to
whom he stands opposed. Such an inter
pretation is to be preferred to that which
regards Antichrist as the embodiment and
personification of all powers and .agencies
inimical to Chri.<i, or of the Antichristian
might of the world. But the language of
tlie apostles is intentionally obscure, and
this obscurity has been rather deepened
than removed by the conflicting interpreta
tions of expositors. All that the dark hints
of the apostles teach us is, that they re
garded Antichrist as a power whose influ
ence was beginning to be felt even It Iheii

w

c^

9
,i

ANTIOCH

41

ANTIOCHUS III.

time, but whose full development was re
served till the passing away of the principle
which hindered it, and the destruction of the
power symbolized by the mystical Babylon.
An'tioch. 1. In Stria. The capital
cf the Greek kings of Syria, and afterwards
tlie residence of the Roman governors of
tlie pTOvince which bore the same name.
I'iiis m.etropoli3 was situated where the
chain of Lebanon, running northwards, and
the chain of Taurus, running eastwards, are
brought to an abrupt meeting, Here the
Orontes breaks through the mountains ; and
Antioch was placed at a bend of the river,
partly on an island, partly on the level
which forms the left bank, ar.<jl partly on
the steep and craggy ascent of Mount Sil-
y>-is, which rose abruptly on the south. In
the immediate neighborhood was Daphne,
the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo (2 Mace.
iv. 33) ; whence the city was sometimes
called Antioch by Daphne, to distinguish
it from other cities of the same name. —
No city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately
connected with the history of the apostolic
church. —The chief interest of Antioch,

Date of St. Paul, Antioch.
however, is connected with the progress
of Christiiinity among the heathen. Here
the first Gentile church was founded (Acts
xi. 20, 21) ; here the disciples of Jesus
Christ were first called Christians (xi. 26).
It was from Antioch that St. Paul started
on his three missionary journeys. The city
was founded in tbe year 300 b. c, by Seleu-
cus Nicator. Jews were settled there from
the first in large numbers, were governed
by their own ethnarch, and allowed to have
the same political privileges with the Greeks-.
Antioch grew under the successive Seleu-
cid kings, till it became a city of great ex
tent and of remarkable beauty. Some of
the most magnificent buildings were on the

island. One feature, which seems to have
been characteristic of the great Syrian
cities, — avast street with colonnades, in
tersecting the whole from end to end, —
was added by Antiochus Epiphanes, By
Pompey it was made a free city, and such it
continued till the time of Antoninus Pius,
The early Emperors raised there some
large and important structures, such as
aqueducts, amphitheatres, and baths, Herod
the Great contributed a road and a colon
nade, 2, In Pisidia (Acts xiii, 14, xiv,
19, 21; 2 Tim. iii. 11), on the borders of
Phrygia, corresponds to Yalobatch, which
is distant from Ak-sher six hours over the
mountains. This city, like the Syrian An
tioch, was founded by Seleucus Nicator,
Under the Romans it became a colonia, .and
was also called Caesarea,
Anti'ochus II., king of Syria, sur
named the God, succeeded his father An
tiochus Soter in b. c, 261, During the
earlier part of his reign he was engaged in
a fierce war with Ptolemy Philadelphus,
king of Egypt, in the course of which Par-
thia and Bactria revolted and became inde
pendent kingdoms. At length (e. c. 250)
peace was made, and the two monarchs
"joined themselves together" (Dan. xi. 6),
and Ptolemy ('.'king of the south") gave
his daughter Berenice in marriage to An
tiochus ("the king of the north"), who
set aside his former wife, Laodice, to re
ceive her. After some time, on the death
of Ptolemy (b. c. 247), Antiochus recalled
Laodice and her children Seleucus and An
tiochus to court. Thus Berenice was " not
able to retain her power ; " and Laodice,
in jealous fear lest she might a second
time lose her ascendency, poisoned Antio
chus (him " that strengthened her," i. e.
Berenice), and caused Berenice and her in
fant son to be put to death, b. c. 246 (Dan.
xi. 6),
Anti'ochus III., surnamed the Great,
grandson of the preceding, suociided his
brother Seleucus Keraunos, who was as
sassinated after a short reign in b. o. 223,
He prosecuted the war agaiuat Ptolemy
Philopator with vigor, and at first with
success. In b. c. 218 he drove the Egyp
tian forces to Sidon, conquered Samaria
and Gilead, and wintered at Ptolemais. but
was defeated ne.xt year at Raphia, near
Gaza (b. o. 217), with immense loss, and
in consequence made a peace with Ptolemy,
in which he ceded to^him the disputed
provinces of Coole-Syria, Phoenicia aud
Palestine (Dan. xi. 11, 12), During the
next thirteen years Antiochus was engaged
in strengthening his position in Asia Minor,
and on the frontiers of Parthia, and by his
successes gained his surname of the Great.
At the end of this time, B. c. 205, Ptolemy
Philopator died, and left his kingdom to
his son Ptol, Epiphanes, T<ho was only flv«

A.NTIOCHUS IV,

42

ANTIOCHUS IV.

years old. Antiochus availed himself of
the opportunity which was offered by the
weakness of a minority and the unpopu
larity of the regent, to unite with Philip
III. of Macedon for the purpose of con
quering and dividing the Egyptian domin
ions. He succeeded in occupying the three
disputed provinces, but was recalled to
Asia by a war which broke out with At
tains, king of Pergamus ; and his ally
Philip was himself embroiled with the Ro
mans. In consequence of this diversion,
Ptolemy, by the aid of Scopas, again made
himself master of Jerusalem, aud recov
ered the territory which he had lost. In
B. c. 198 Antiochus reappeared in the field
and gained a decisive victory near the
sources of the Jordan ; and afterwards
captured Scopas and the remnant of his
forces who had taken refuge in Sidon.
His further designs against Egypt were
frustrated by the intervention of the Ro
mans. From Egypt Antiochus turned
again to Asia Minor, and after various suc
cesses in the Aegaean crossed over to
Greece, and by the advice of Hannibal
entered on a war with Rome. His vic
torious course was checked at Thermopy
lae (b. 0. 191), and after subsequent re
verses he was finally defeated at Magnesia
in Lydia, b. c. 190. In b. o. 187 he at
tacked a rich temple of Belus in Elymais,
aud was slain by the people who rose in its
defence.

Head of Antiochus IH. (From a coin.)
Anti'oehiis IV., Epiph'anes {the
Illustrious), was the youngest son of An
tiochus the Great. He was given as a
hostage to the Romans (b. c. 188) after his
father's defeat at Magnesia. In b. u. 175
he was released by the intervention of his
brother Seleucus, v/ho substituted his own
son Demetrius in his place. Antiochus
was at Athens when Seleucus was assassi
nated by Heliodojus. He took advantage
of his position, and, by the assistance of
Eumenes and Attalus, easily expelled Heli-
odorus who had usurped the crown, and
himself "obtained the kingdom by flat
teries " (Dan. xi. 21) to the exclusion of
ms nephew Demetrius (Dan. viii. 7). The
accession of Antiochus was immediately
foUowed by desperate efforts of the Hel-

lenizing party at Jerusalem to assert theij
supremacy. Jason, the brother "of Onias
III., the high-priest, persuaded the king to
transfer the high-priesthood to him, and at
the same time bought permission (2 Mace.
iv. 9) to carry out his design of habituat
ing the Jews to Greek customs (2 Maec.
iv. 7, 20). Three years afterwards, Meno;
laus, of the tribe of Benjamin, supplanted
Jason by offering the king a larger bribe,
and was himself appointed high-priest (2
Mace. iv. 23-26). Antiochus undertook
four campaigns against Egypt, b. c. 171,
170, 169, 168, with greater success than
had attended his predecessor, and the com
plete conquest of the country was pre
vented only by the interference of the Ro
mans (Dan. xi. 24; 1 Mace. i. IG ff.; 2
Mace. V. 11, ff.). On his return from his
second Egyptian campaign (b. c. 170) he
attacked Jerusalem. The Temple was
plundered, a terrible massacre took place,
and a Phrygian governor was left with
Menelaus in charge of the city (2 Mace. v. '
1-22; 1 Mace. i. 20-28). Two years af
terwards, at the close of the fourth expedi
tion, Antiochus detached a force under
Apollonius to occupy Jerusalem and fortify
it (1 Mace. iv. GI, v. 3 ff. ; Dan. xi, 41).
The decrees then followed which have
rendered his name infamous. The '.Pemple
was desecrated, and the observance of the
liiw was forbidden (1 Mace. i. 54). Ten
days afterwards an offering was made upon
the altar to Jupiter Olympius. At Jerusa
lem all opposition appears to have ceased ;
but Matt.athias and his sons organized a
resistance, which preserved inviolate the
name and faith of Israel. Meanwhile An
tiochus turned his arms to the East, to
wards Parthia and Armenia (Dan, xi, 40),
Hearing not long afterwards of the riches
of a temple of Nanaea in Elymais, hung
with the gifts of Alexander, he resolved to
plunder it. The attempt was defeated;
and though he did not fall like his father
in the act of s.acrilege, the event hastened
his death. He retired to Babylon, and
thence to Tabae in Persia, where he died

Head of Antloclius IV., Epiphoncs. (From a coin.)
b. c, 164, having first heard of the sui-
cesses of the Maccabees in restoring the
Temple-worship at Jerusalem (1 Mace, vi.
UG; comp, 2 Mace. i. 7-17?).

ANTIOCHUS V.

43

APHaRSATHCHITES

Anti'ochus V., Eu'pator {of noble
descent), succeeded his father Antiochus
IV. B. c. 164, while still a child, under the
guardianship of Lysias (1 Mace. iii. 32, vi.
17), though Antiochus had on his death
bed assigne 1 this office to Philip, his own
foster-brother (1 Mace. vi. 14, .15, 55; 2
Blacc. ix. 29). Shortly after his accession
he marched against Jerusalem with a large
army to relieve the Syrian garrison, which
was hard pressed by Judas Maceabaeus (1
Macc.-vi. 19 ff'.). He repulsed Judas at
Bethzacharia, and took Bethsura (Bethzur)
after a vigorous resistance (1 Maec. vi.
31-50). But when the Jewish force in the
Temple was on the point of yielding, Lys
ias persuaded the king to conclude a
hasty peace that he might advance to meet
Philip, who had returned from Persia and
made liimself master of Antioch (1 Mace.
vi. 61 ff.). Philip was speedily over
powered; but in the next year (b. c. 162)
Antiochus and Lysias fell into the hands
of Demetrius Soter, the son of Seleucus
Philopator, who caused them to be put
to death (1 Mace. vii. 2-r4; 2 Mace. xiv.
1,2). Anti'oehiis VI. was the son of Alex
ander Balas and Cleopatra. After his
father's death (146 b. c.) he remained in
Arabia; but though still a child (1 Mace.
xi. 64), he was soon afterwards brought
forward (c. 145 b. c.) as a claimant to the
throne of Syria against Demetrius Nicator
by Tryphon or Diodotus (1 Mace. xi. 39),
who had been an officer of his fatlier.

Head of Antiochus VI. (From a coin.)
Tryphon succeeded in giiining Antioch (1
Mace. xi. 56) ; and afterwards the greater
part of Syria submitted to the young An
tiochus. He afterwards defeated the troops
,of Demetrius at Hazor (1 Mace. xi. 67)
near Cadesh (ver. 73) ; and repulsed a
second attempt which he made to regain
Palestine (1 Mace. xii. 24 ff.). Tryphon
having now, with the assistance of Jona
than the high-priest, gained the supreme
power in the name of Antiochus, no longer
concealed his design of usurping the crown.
. As a first step he took Jonathan by treach
ery and put him. to death, B. c. 143 (1
Mace. xii. 40) ; and afterwards murdered

the young king, and ascended the throne
(1 Maec. xiii. 31).
Anti'ochus VII., Side'tes {cf Side,
in Pamphylia) , king of Syria, was the second
son of Demetrius I. When his brother
Demetrius Nicator, was taken prisoner (c.
141 B. 0.) by Mithridates I. (Arsaces VI., 1
Mace. xiv. 1) king of Parthia, he married
his wife Cleopatra and obtained possession
of the tlirone (137 b. c), having expelled
the usurper Tryphon (1 Mace. xv. 1 ff.).
At first he made a very advantageous treaty
with Simon, high-priest of the Jews, but
when he grew independent of his help, he
withdrew the concessions which he had
made, aud demanded the surrender of the
fortresses which the Jews held, or .an equiv
alent in money (1 Maec. xv. 2G ff.). As
Simon was unwilling to yield to his de
mands, he sent a force under Cendebaeus
against him, who occupied a fortified posi
tion at Cedron (? 1 Maec. xv. 41), near
Azotus, and harassed the surrounding
country. After the defeat of Cendebaeus
by the sons of Simon and the destruction
of his works (1 Maec. xvi. 1-10), Antiochus
laid siege to Jerusalem, but granted honor
able terms to John llyrcanus (b. c. 133),
who had made a vigorous resistance. In a
campaign against the Parthians he was
entirely defeated by Phraortes II. (Arsaces
VII.), and fell in the battle c. b. c. 127-6.
An'tipas, martyr at Pergamos (Rev. ii.
13), and according to tradition the bishop
of that place.
An'tipas. [Herod.]
Antipa'tris, a town to which the sol
diers conveyed St. Paul by night on their
march (Acts xxiii. 31). Its ancient name
was Capharsaba; and Herod, when he re
built the city, changed it to Antipatris, in
honor of his father Antipater. The village
Kef r- Saba still retains the ancient name of
Antipatris. An'tothite, a dweller at Anathoth (1
Chr. xi. 28, xii. 3). [Anathoth.]
Antothi'jah. A Benjamite, one of tbe
sons of Jeroham (1 Chr. viii. 24).
A'nub. Son of Coz and descendant of
Judah, through Ashur the father of Tekoa
(1 Chr. iv.' 8).
Apel'les, a Christi.an saluted by St.
Paul in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradition makes
him bishop of Smyrna or Heraclea.
Apes (Heb. kdphtm) aj-e mentioned in
1 K. X. 22, and 2 Chr. ix. 21. There can be
little doubt but that the apes were brought
from the same country which supplied ivory
and peacocks, both of which are common
in Ceylon; and Sir E. Tennent has drawn
attention to the fact that the Tamil names
for apes, ivory, and peacocks, are identical
with the Hebrew.
Aphar'sathchltes, Aphar'sites,
Aphar'sacites, the names of certain
tribes, colonies from which had been plant-

APHEK

44

APOSTLE

ed in Samaria by the Assyrian leader As-
napper (Ezr. iv. 9, v. 6). The first and
last are regarded as the same. Whence
these tribes came is entirely a matter of
conjecture. A'phek, the name of several places in
Palestine. 1. A royal city of the Canaan
ites, the king of which was killed by Joshua
(Josh. xii. 18), probably the same as Apiie-
KAH in Josh. XV. 53. 2. A city, appar
ently in the extreme north of Asher (Josh.
xix. 30), from which the Canaanites were
not ejected (Judg. i. 31 ; though here it is
Aphik). This is probably the same place
as Aphek (Josh. xiii. 4), on the extreme
north " border of the Amorites," identi
fied with the Aphaca of classical times, the
modern AfJca. 3. A place at which the
Philistines encamped while the Israelites
pitched in Ebon-ezer, before the fatal bat
tle in which the sons of Eli were killed and
the ark taken (1 Sam. iv. 1). This would
be somewhere to the N. "W. of, and at no
great distance from Jerusalem. 4, The
scene of another encampment of the Phi
listines, before an encounter not less dis
astrous than that just named, — the defeat
and death of Saul (1 Sam. xxix. 1). It is
possible that it may be tho same place as
the preceding. 5. A city on the military
road from Syria to Israel (1 K. xx. 26).
It is now found in Pik, at the head of the
Wady Fik, 6 miles east of the Sea of Gal
ilee. Aphe'kah, a city of Judah, in the
mountains (Josh, xv, 63), probably the,
same as Aphek (1).
Aphi'ah, one of the forefathers of king
Saul (1 Sam. ix. 1),
A'phik, a city of Asher from which the
Canaanites were not driven out (Judg. i.
31). ProbaMy the same place as Aphek
Aph'rah, the house of, a place men-
lioned in Mic. i. 10. Its site is uncertain.
Aph'ses, chief of the 18th of the 24
courses in the service of the Temple (1
Chr. xxiv. 15).
Apoo'alypse. [Revelation.]
Apoe'rypha. The collection of Books
to which this term is popularly applied in
cludes the following (the order given is
that in which they stand in the English
version) : I. 1 Esdras ; II. 2 Esdras ; III.
Tobit; IV. Judith; V. The rest of the
chapters of the Book of Esther, which are
found neither in the Hebrew nor in the
Chaldee; VI. The Wisdom of Solomon;
VII. The Wisdom of Jesus the Son of
Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus ; VIII. Baruch;
IX. The Song of the Three Holy Children ;
X. The History of Susanna ; XI. The His
tory of the destruction of Bel and the
.Dragon; XII. The Prayer of Mansisses,
king of JuL'ph ; XIII. 1 Maccabees ; XIV. 2
Maccabees The primary meanmg of Apoc-

Hipha, " hidden, secret," seems, towards
the close of the 2d century, to have been
associated with the signification " spuri-
ous," and ultimately to have settled down
into the latter. The separate books of this
collection are treated of in distinct Articles.
Their relation to the canonical books of the
Old Testament is discussed under Canon.
ApoUo'nla, a city of Macedonia,
through which Paul and Silas passed iu
their way from Philippi and Amplupolis lo
Thessalonica (Acts xvii. 1). According to
the Antonine Itinerary it was distant 30
Roman miles from Amphipolis, and 37
Roman miles from Thessalonica.
Apol'lOS, a Jew from Alexandria, elo
quent (which may also mean learned) and
mighty in the Scriptures ; one instructed in
the way of the Lord, according to the im
perfect view of the disciples of John the
Baptist (Acts xviii. 25), but on his coming
to Ephesus during a temporary absence ef
St. Paul, A. D. 54, more perfectly taught
by Aquila and Priscilla. After this he
became a preacher of the Gospel, first in
Achaia and then in Corinth (Acts xviii. 27,
xix. 1), where he watered that which Paul
had planted (1 Cor. iii. G). When the
apostle wrote his First Epistle to the Corin
thians, Apollos was with or near him (1
Cor. xvi. 12), probably at Ephesus in a. d.
57 : we hear of him then that he was un
willing at that time to journey to Corinth,
but would do so when he should have con
venient time. He is mentioned but once
more in the N. T., in Tit. iii. 13. After
this nothing is known of him. Tradition
makes him bishop of Caes.area. It has
been supposed by some that Apollos was
the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews.
Apol'lyon, or, as it is literally in the
margin of the A. "V. of Rev. ix. 11, " a de
stroyer," is the rendering of the Hebrew
word Abaddon, " the angel of the bottom
less pit." The angel Apollyon is further
described as the king of the locusts which
rose from the smoke of the bottomless pit
at the sounding of the fifth trumpet. From
the occurrence of the word in Ps. Ixxxviii.
11, the Rabbins have made Abaddon the
nethermost of the two regions into which
they divide the lower world. But that in
Rev. ix. 11, Abbadon is the angel and not
the abyss, is perfectly evident in the Greek.
There is no authority for conneoting it with
"the destroyer" alluded to in 1 Cor. x. 10.
Apostle (fme sent forth), in the N. T.,
originally the official name of those Twelve
of the disciples whom Jesus chose to send
forth flrst to preach the Gospel, and to be
with Him during the course of his ministry
on earth. The word also appears to have
been used in a. non-cffici.al sense to desig
nate a much wider circle of Christian mes
sengers and teachers. (See 2 Co.r. viii. 23 ;
1 Phil. ii. 25.) It is only of those who wer«

APOSTLE

46

APPEAL

officially designated Apostles, that we treat
in this article. The original qualification
of an Apostle, as stated by St. Peter, on
the occasion of electing a successor to the
traitor Judas, was, that he should have
been personally acquainted with the whole
ministerial course of our Lord, from his
baptism by John till the day when he was
taken up into Heaven. The Apostles were
from the lower ranks of life, simple and
uneducated; some of them were related
to Jesus according to the flesh ; some had
previously been disciples of John the Bap
tist. Our Lord chose them early in his
public career, though it is uncertain pre
cisely at what time. Some of them had
certainly partly attached themselves to Him
before; but after their call as Apostles
they appear to have been continuously
with Him, or in his service. They seem
to have been all on an equality, both during
and after the ministry of Christ on earth.
Early in our Lord's ministry, He sent them
out two and two to preach repentance, and
perform miracles in his name (Matt. x. ;
Luke ix.). This their mission was of the
nature of a solemn call to the children of
Israel, to whom it was confined (Matt. x.
5, G) . The Apostles were early warned by
their Master of the solemn nature and the
danger of their calling (Matt. x. 17). They
accompanied Him in his journeys of teach
ing and to the Jewish feasts, saw his
wonderful works, heard his- discourse_3 ad
dressed to the people, and made inquiries
of Him on religious matters. They recog
nized Him as the Christ of God (Matt. xvi.
16 ; Luke Lx. 20), and ascribed to Him su
pernatural power (Luke ix. 64) ; but in tbe
recognition of the spiritual teaching and
mission of Christ, they made very slow
progress, held back as they were by weak
ness of apprehension and by national preju
dices. Even at the removal of our Lord
from the earth, they were yet weak in their
knowledge (Luke xxiv. 21; John xvi. 12),
though he had for so long been carefully
jireparing and instructing them. And when
that happened of which He had so often fore
warned them — his apprehension by the
chief priests and Pharisees — they all for
sook Him and fled (Matt. xxvi. 56). They
left lus •burial to one who was not of their
number and to the women, and were only
convinced of Ms resurrection on the very
plainest proofs furnished by himself. On
tbe Feast of Pentecost, ten days after our
Lord's ascension, the Holy Spirit came down
on the assembled church (Acts ii.) ; and from
that time the Apostles became altogether dif
ferent men, giving witness with power of the
life and death and resurrection of Jesus as
He had declared they should (Luke xxiv.
48 ; Acts i. 8, 22, ii. 32, iii. 15, v. 32, xiii.
31). First of all the mother-church at ¦
Jerusalem grew up und?r their hands (Acts |

iii.-vii.), and their superior dignity and
power were universally acknowledged by
the rulers and the people (Acts v. 12 ff.).
Even the persecution which arose about
Stephen, and put the flrst cheek on the
spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not
seem to have brought peril to the Apostles
(Acts viii. 1). Their first mission out of
Jerusalem was to Samaria (Acts viii. 5-25),
whore the Lord himself had, during his
ministry, sown the seed of the Gospel.
Here ends,, properly speaking (or rather
perhaps with the general visitation hinted
at in Acts ix. 31), the first_period of tha
Apostles' agency, during which its centre is
Jerusalem, and the prominent figure is
that of St. Peter. — The centre of the
second period of the apostolic agency is
Antioch, where a church soon was built up,
consisting of Jews and Gentiles; and the
central figure of this and of the subsequent
period is St. Paul. The third apostolic
period is marked by the almost entire dis
appearance of the Twelve from the sacred
narrative, and the exclusive agency of St.
Paul, the great apostle of the Gentiles.
Of the missionary work of the rest of the
Twelve, we know absolutely nothing from
the sacred narrative. — As regards the
apostolic office, it seems to have been pre
eminently that of founding the churches,
and upholding them by supernatural power
specially bestowed for that purpose. It
ceased, as a matter of course., with its first
holders ; all continuation of it, from the
very conditions of its existence (cf. 1 Cor.
ix. 1), being impossible.
Appa'im. Sonof Nadab, and descend
ed from Jerahmeel, the founder of an im
portant family of the tribe of Judah (1
Chr. ii. 30, 31).
Appeal. The principle of appeal was
recognized by the Mosaic law in the estab
lishment of a central court under the
presidency of the judge or ruler for the
time being, before which all cases too diffi
cult for the local courts were to be tried
(Deut. xvii. 8, 9). According to the above
regulation, the appeal lay in the time pf
the Judges to the judge (Judg. iv. 5), and
under the monarchy to the king, who ap
pears to have deputed certain persons to
inquire into the facts of the case, and record
his decision thereon (2 Sam. xv. •'!). Je
hoshaphat delegated his judicial author
ity to a court permanently established for
the purpose (2 Chr. xix. S). Theue courts
were re-established by Ezra (Ezr. vii. 25).
After the institution of the Sanhedrim the
final appeal lay to them. St. Paul, as a
Roman citizen, exercised a right of appeal
from the jurisdiction of the local court at
Jerusalem to the emperor (Acts xxv. 11).
Since the procedure in the Jewish courts at
that period was of a mixed and undefined
character, he availed himself of his un-

APPHIA

46

ARABIA

doubted piivilege to be tried by the pure
Roman law.
Ap'phia, a Christian woman addressed
jointly with Philemon and Archippus in
Pliilem. 2, apparently a member of Phile
mon's household, and not improbably his
wife. Ap'pii Fo'rum, a well-known station
on the Appian Way, the great road which
led from Rome to the neighborhood of the
Bay of N.aples (Acts xxviii. 13). There is
no difficulty in identifying tho site with
some ruins near Treponti. [Three Tav
erns.] Apple-Tree, Apple (Keb.tappHach).
Mention of the apple-tree occurs in the A.
V. in Cant. ii. 3, viii. 5, and Joel i. 12. The
fruit of this tree is alluded to in Prov. xxv.
11, and Cant. ii. 5, vii. 8. It is a difficult
matter to say what is the specific tree de
noted by the Hebrew word tappitach.
Most modern writers maintain th.at it. is
either the quince or the citron. The quince
has some plausible arguments in its favor.
Its fragrance was held in high esteem by
the ancients. The quince was sacred to
Venus. On the other hand. Dr. Royle
says, "The rich color, fragrant odor, and
handsome appear.ance of the citron, wheth
er in flower or in fruit, are particularly
suited to the passages of Scripture men
tioned above." But neither the quince nor
t.he citron nor the apple appears fully to
ansv^er to all the Scriptural allusions. The
orange would answer all the demands of
the Scriptur.al passages, and orange-trees
are found in Palestine; but there cloes not
appear sufficient evidence that this tree was
known in the earlier times to the inhab-
it.ants of Palestine. The question of iden
tification, therefore, must still be left an
open one.
Aq'uila, a Jew whom St. Paul found at
Corinth on his arrival from Athens (Acts
xviii. 2). He was a native of Pontus, but
had fled, with his wife Priscilla, from Rome,
in consequence of an order of Claudius
commanding all Jews to leave the city. He
became acquainted with St. Paul, and they
abode together, and wrought at their com
mon trade of making the Cilician tent or
hair-cloth. Ou the departure of the Apos
tle from Corinth, a year and six months
after, Priscilla .and Aquila accompanied
him to Ephesus. There they remained,
and there they taught Apollos. At what
time they became Christians is uncertain.
Ar, or Ar of Moab, one of the chief
places of MD.ab (Is. xv. 1 ; Num. xxi. 28).
In later times the place was known as
Areopolis and Rabbath-Moab. The site is
still called Rabba ; it lies about half way
between Kerak and the Wady Mojeb, 10 or
11 miles from each, the Roman road pass
ing through it.
A'ra, One of the sons of Jether, the

head of a family of Asherites (1 Chr. vii.
38). A'rab, a city of Judah in the m.ountain-
ous district, probably in the neighborhood
of Hebron, mentioned only in Josh. xv. 52.
Ar'abah, . Although this word appears
in the A. V, in its origin.al shape only in
Josh, xviii. 18, yet in the Hebrew text it is
of frequent occurrence. It indicates more
particularly the deep-sunken valley or
trench which forms the most striking among
the many striking natural features of Pal
estine, and which extends with great
uniformity of formation from the slopes
of Hermon to the Elanitic Gulf {Gulf
of Akabah) of the Red Sea; the most
remarkable depression known to exist on
the surface of the globe. Through the
northern portion of this extraordinary fis
sure the Jordan rushes through the lakes
of Huleh and Gennesareth down its tortu
ous course to the deep chasm of the Dead
Sea, This portion, about 150 miles in
length, is known amongst the Arabs by the
name of el- Ghor. The southern boundary
of the Ghor is the wall of cliffs which crosses
the valley about 10 miles south of the Dead
Sea. From their summits, southward to
the Gulf of Akabah, the valley changes its
name, or, it would be more accurate to say,
retains its old name of Wady el-Ardbah.
Ara'bia, a country known in the 0, T,
under two designations, — 1, The East
Country (Gen, xxv. G) ; or perhaps the
East (Gen, x. 30 ; Num. xxiii. 7 ; Is. ii.
6) ; and Land of the Sons of the East
'(Gen. xxix. 1) ; Gentile name, Sons of the
East (Judg. vi. 3, vii, 12 ; 1 K, iv. 30 ; Job
i. 3 ; Is. xi. 14 ; Jer. xlix. 28 ; Ez, xxv,
4). From these passages it appears that
the Land of the East and Sons of ihe East
indicate, primarily, the country east of
Palestine, and the tribes descended from
Ishmael and from Keturah; and that this
original signification may have become grad
ually extended to Arabia and its inhabitants
generally, though without any strict limi
tation. 2. 'Ardb and 'Arab, whence Arabia
(2 Chr. ix. 14 ; Is. xxi. 13 ; Jer. xxv. 24; Ez.
xxvii. 21). This name seems to have the
same geographical reference as the former
name to the country and tribes east of the
Jordan, and chiefly north of the Ariibian
peninsula. — Arabia may be divided into
Arabia Proper, containing the whole penin
sula as far as the limits of the northern
deserts; Northern /I?-aMa, constituting the
great desert of Arabia ; and Western Ara
bia, the desert of Petra and the peninsula
of Sinai, or the country that has been called
Arabia Petraea. I. Arabia Proper, ot the
Arabian peninsula, consists of high t.able-
land, declining towards the north ; its most
elevated portions being the chain cf moun
tains running nearly parallel to the Red
Sea, and the territory east of the southern

ARABIA

47

ARABIA

part of this chain. So far as the interior
has been explored, it consists of mountain
ous and desert tracts, relieved by large
districts under cultivation, well peopled,
watered by wells and streams, and enjoying
periodical rains. The ni.ost fertile tracts
are those on the south-west and south. II.
Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert,
is a high, undulating, parched plain, of
which the Euphrates forms the natural
boundary from the Persian Gulf to tho
frontier of Syria, whence it is bounded by
the latter country aud the desert of Petra
on the north-west and west, the peninsula
of Arabia forming its southern limit. It
has few oases, the water of the wells is gen
erally either brackish or impotable, and it
is visited by the sand-wind called Samoom.
The inhabitants were known to the ancients
as " dwellers in tents " (comp. Is. xiii. 20;
Jer. xlix. 31; Ezek. xxxviii. 11); and they
extended from Babylonia on the east (comp.
Num. xxiii. 7 ; 2 Chr. xxi. 16 ; Is. ii. 6,
xiii. 20), to the borders of Egypt on the
west. These tribes, principally descended
from Ishmael and from Keturah have always
led awandcringandpastorallife. They con
ducted a considerable trade of merchan
dise of Ar.abia and India from the shores
of tho Persian Gulf (Ez. xxvii. 20-24),
whence a chain of oases still forms caravan-
stations ; and they likewise traded from the
western portions of the peninsula. The
latter traffic appears to bo frequently men
tioned in connection with Ishmaelites,
Keturahites, and other Arabian peoples
(Gen. xxxvii. 25, 28; 1 K. x. 15, 25; 2
Chr. ix. 14, 24 ; Is. Lx. 6 ; Jer. vi. 20) : it
seems, however, to have been chiefly in
the hands of the inhabitants of Idumaea.
III. Western Arabia includes the peninsula
of Sinai [Sinai], and the desert of Petra,
corresponding generally with the limits of
Arabia Petraea. The Latter name is proba
bly derived from that of its chief city ; not
from its stony character. It was in the
eariiest times inhabited by a people whose
genealogy is not mentioned in the Bible,
the Horites or Horim (Gen. xiv. 6, xxxvi.
20, 21, 22, 29, 30; Deut. ii: 12, 22). [Ho
rites.] But it was mostly peopled by de
scendants of Esau, and was generally
known as the land of Edom, or Idumaea
[Edom] ; as well as by its older appellation,
the desert of Seir, or Mount Seir. [Seir.]
The common origin of the Idumaeans from
Esau and Ishmael is found in the mar-
-iage of the former with a daughter of the
latter (Gen. xxviii. 9, xxxvi. 3). The
Nabathaeans succeeded to the Idumaeans.
— Inhabitants. 1. The descendants of Jok
tan occupied the principal portions of the
south and south-west of the peninsula, with
colonies in the interior. In Genesis (x, 30)
it is said, "and their dwelUng was from
?ftlesha, as thou goest unto Sephar, a mount

of the East {Kedem)." The princippl
Joktanite kingdom, and the chief state of
ancient Arabia, was that of the Yemen,
founded (according to the Arabs) by Yaa
rub, the son (or descendant) of Kahtdt
(Joktan). This was the Biblical kingdon
of Sheba. Its rulers, and most of its peo
ple, were descendants of Sebd (= Sheba)
whence the classical Sabaei. The domi
nant family was apparently that of Hira
yer, son (or descendant) of SebA. . A mem
ber of this family founded the more mod
ern kingdom of the Himyerites. Native
tradition seems to prove that the latter
appellation represented the former only
shortly before the Christian era, Th© rule
of the Himyerites (whence the Someriiae
of classical authors) probably extended
over the modern Yemen, Iladramdvxt, and
Mahreh. Their kingdom lasted until A. d.
525, when it fell before an Abyssinian in
vasion. The other chief Joktanite king
dom was that of the Hijiz, founded by
Jurhum, the brother of Yaarub, who left
the Yemen and settled in the neighborhood
of Mekkeh. This kingdom, situate in a
less fertile district than the Yemen, and
engaged in conflict with aboriginal tribes,
never attained the importance of that of
the south. 2. The Ishmaelites appear to
have entered the peninsula from the north
west. Thiit tliey have spread over the
whole of it (with the exception of one or
two districts on the south coast), and th.at
the modern nation is predominantly Ish
maelite, is asserted by the Arabs. They
extended northwards from the Hijaz into
the Arabian desert, where they mixed with
Keturahites and otiier Abrahamic peoples ;
and westwards to Idumaea, where they
mixed with Edomites, &c. The tribes
sprung from Ishmael have always been gov
erned by petty chiefs or heads of families
(sheykhs and emeers) : they have gener
ally followed a p.atriarchal life, and have
not originated kingdoms, though they have
in some instances succeeded to those of
the Joktanites, the principal one of these
being that of El-Heereh. With reference
to the Ishmaelites generally, there is doubt
as to the v/ide extension given to them by
Arab tradition. 3. Of the descendants of
Keturah the Arabs say little. They appear
to have settled chiefly north of the penin
sula in Desert Arabia, from Palestine to
the Persian Gulf. 4. In Northern and
Western Arabia are other. peoples, which,
from their geographical position and mode
of life, are sometimes classed with the
Arabs, Of these are Amalek, Uie de-
•scendants of Esau, &c. — Religion. The
most ancient idolatry of the Arabs we must
conclude to have been fetishism, of wliich
there are striking proofs in the sacred trees
and stones of historical times, and in the
worship of the heavenly bodies, or Sabae-

ARABIA

48

ARAU

Ism.' Magianism, an importation from
Chaldaea and Persia, must be reckoned
among the religions of the Pagan Arabs ;
but it never had very numerous followers.
Christianity was introduced into Southern
Arabia towards the close of the 2d cen
tury, and about a century later it had made
great progress. It flourished chiefly in the
Yemen, where many churches were built.
Judaism was propagated in Arabia, princi
pally by. Karaites, at the captivity, but it
¦was introduced before that time : it became
very prevalent in the Yemen, and in the
Hijiiz, especially at Kheybar and El-Me-
deeneli, where there are said to be still
tribes of Jewish extraction. — Language.
Arabic, the language of Anabia, is the most
developed and the richest of Shemitic lan
guages, and the only one of which we have
an extensive literature ; it is, therefore, of
great importance to the study of Hebrew.
Of its early phases we know nothing ; while
we have archaic monuments of the Him-
yeritic (the ancient language of Southern
Arabia), though we cannot fix their precise
ages. It is probable that in the 14th or 13th
cent. B. c, the Shemitic languages differed
much less than in after times. But it ap
pears from 2 K. xviii. 26, that in the 8th
cent. B. c. only the educated classes .among
the Jews understood Aramaic. With these
evidences before us, we think that the Him-
yeritie is to be reg.arded as a sister of the
He".:''ew, and the Arabic (commonly so
called) as a sister of the Hebrew and
Aramaic, oi, inits classical phasis, as a de
scendant of a sister of these two, but that
the Himyeritic is mixed with an African lan
guage, and that the other dialects of Arabia
are in like manner, though in a much less
degree, mixed with an African language. —
The manners and customs of the Arabs are
of great value in illustrating the Bible,
No one can mix with this people without
being constantly and forcibly reminded
either of the early patriarchs or of the
settled Israelites, We may instance their
pastoral life, their hospitality, their univer
sal respect for .age (comp. Lev. xix, 32),
their familiar deference (comp. 2 K. v, 13),
their superstitious regard for the board.
References in the Bible to the Arabs them-
S( Ives are still more clearly illustrated by
t\ie manners of the modern people, in their
predatory expeditions, their mode of wiir-
faro, their caravan journeys, &c. — Com
merce. Direct mention of the commerce
of the south does not appear to be made in
the Bible, but it seems to have passed to
Palestine principally through the northern
tribes. The Joktanite people of Southern
Arabia have always been, in contradistinc
tion to the Ishmaelite tribes, addicted to a
seafaring life. The latter were caravan-
merchants ; the former, the chief traders
of the Red Sea, carrying their commerce

to the shores of India, as weU as to the
nearer coasts of Africa, • i, i -^
Ara'bians, the nomadic tribes inhabit
ing the country to the east and south of
Palestine, who in tbe early times of He
brew history were known as Ishmaelites
and descendants of Keturah,
A'rad, a Benjamite, son of Beriah, who
drove out the inhabitants of Gath (1 Chr.
viii. 15).
A'rad, a royal city of the Canaanites,
named with Hormah and Libnah (Josh. xii.
14). The wilderness of Judah was to " the
south of Arad" (Judg. i. 16). It maybe
identified with a hill, Tel 'Ardd, an houi
and a half N. E. by E. from Milh (MoU-
dah), and 8 hours from Hebron.
A'rah. 1. An A.sherite, of the sons of
Ulla (1 Chr. vii. 39). 2. The sons of
Arab returned with Zerubbabel in number
775 according to Ezr. ii. 5, but G62 accord
ing to Neh, vii. 10. One of his descend
ants, Shechaniah, was the father-in-law of
Tobiah the Ammonite (Neh. vi. 10).
A'ram. 1. The name by which the He
brews designated, generally, the country ly
ing to the north-east of Palestine ; the great
mass of that high table-land which, rising
with sudden abruptness from the Jordan
and the very margin of the Lake of Gennes
areth, stretches, at an elevation of no less
than 2000 feet above the level of the sea,
to the banks of the Euphrates itself, con
trasting strongly with the low land border
ing on the Mediterranean, the "land of
Caanan," or the low country (Gen. xxxi. 18,
xxxiii. 18, &c.). Throughout the A. V. the
word is, with only a very few exceptions,
rendered, as in the Vulgate and LXX.,
Stria. Its earliest occurrence in the book
of Genesis is in the form of Aram-naha-
raim, i. c. the "highland of or between the
two rivers " (Gen. xxiv. 10, A. V. " Meso
potamia ") , but in several succeeding chap
ters, and in other parts of the Pentateuch,
the word is used without any addition, to
designate a dweller in Aram-naharaim. In
the liiter history we meet with a numbe»
of small nations or kingdoms forming parts
of the general land of Aram : — 1. Arara-
Zobah, or simply Zobah (1 Sam. xiv. 47;
2 Sam. viii. 3 ; 1 Clir. xviii. xix.). [Zobau.]
2. Aram beth-rehob (2 Sam. x. G), cr Re-
hob (x. 8). [Rehob.] 3. Aram-maachah
(1 Chr. xix. 6), or Maachah only (2 Sam.
X. 6). [Maachah.] 4. Geshur, " in Aram "
(2 Sam. XV. 8), usually named in connet tion
with Maachah (Deut. iii. 14 ; Josh. xiii. 11,
13, &c.). [Geshur.] 5. Ar.ain-Danime-
sek (D.amascus) (2 Sam. viii. 5, 6; 1 Chr.
•xviii. 5, 6). The whole of these petty
states are spoken of collectively under the
name of "Aram" (2 Sam. x. 13), but as
Damascus increased in importance it grad
ually absorbed the smaller powers (1 K.
XX. 1), and the name of Aram was at last ¦

ARAM-NAHARAIM

49

ARBELA

applied to it alone (Is. vii. 8 ; also 1 K. xi.
24, 25, XV. 18, &c.). In three passages
Aiam would seem to denote Assyria (2 K.
xviii. 26; Is. xxxvi. 11; Jer. xxxv. 11).
2. Another Aram is named in G(!n. xxii.
21, as a son of Kemuel, and descendant of
Nahor. 3. An Asherite, one of the sons
of Shamer (1 Chr. vii. 34). 4. Son of
Esrom, or Hezron, and the same as Ram
(Matt. i. 3, 4; Luke iii. 33).
A'ram-nahara'im (Ps. lx. title).
[Aram.] A'ram-zo'taah (Ps. lx. title). [Aram, 1.]
Arami'tess, a female inhabitant of
Aram (1 Chr. vii. 14).
A'ran, a Ilorite, son of Dishan and
brother of Uz (Gen. xxxvi. 28 ; 1 Chr. i.
42). Ar'arat, a mountainous district of Asia
mentioned in the Bible in connection with
the following events : — (1.) As the rest
ing-place of the Ark after the Deluge (Gen.
viii. 4) : (2.) as the asylum of the sons of
Sennacherib (2 K. xix, 37 ; Is, xxxvii, 38 ;
A. V. has "the land of Armenia"): (3.)
as the ally, and probably the neighbor, of
Minni and Ashehenaz (Jer. li. 27), [Ar
menia.] The name Ararat was unknown
to the geographers of Greece and Rome
as it still is to the Armenians of the pres
ent day : but that it was an indigenous and
an ancient name for a portion of Armenia,
appears from the statement of Moses of
Chorene, who gives Araraiia as the des
ignation of the central province. In its
Biblical sense it is descriptive generally of
the Armenian highlands — the lofty plateau
which overlooks the plain of the Araxes on
the N., and of Mesopotamia on the S.
Various opinions have been put forth as
to the spot where the Ark rested, as de
scribed in Gen. viii. 4 ; but Berosus the
Chaldaean, contcmpor.ary With Alexander
the Great, fixes the spot on the mountains
of Kurdistan. Tradition still points to the
Jebel Judi as the scene of the event. Eu
ropeans have given the name Ararat ex
clusively to the mountain which is called
Massis by the Armenians, Agri-Dagh, i. e.
Sieep Mountain, by the Turks, and Kuh-i-
Nuh, i, e. Noah's Mountain, by the Per
sians. It rises immediately out of the
plain of the Araxes, and terminates in two
conical peaks, named the Great and Less
Ararat, about seven miles distant from
each other ; the former of which attains an
elevation of 17,260 feet above the level of
the sea and about 14,000 above the plain of
the Araxes, while the latter is lower by
4000 feet. The shmmit of the higher is
covered with eternal snow for about 3000
feet. It is of volcanic origin. The sum
mit of Ararat was long deemed inacces
sible. It was first ascended in 1829 by
Partot, who approached it from the N. W,
Argwri, the only village known to have

been built on its slopes, was the spot where,
according to tradition, Noah planted his
vineyard. Lower down, in the plain of
Araxes, is Nachdjevan, where the patriarch
is reputed to have been buried. Return
ing to the broader signification we have
assigned to the term, "the mountains of
Ar.arat," as co-extensive with the Armenian
plateau from the base of Ararat in the N,
to the range of Kurdistan in the S., we
notice the following characteristics of that
region as illustrating the Bible narrative :
(1.) Its elevation. It rises to a height of
from GOOO to 7000 feet above the level of
the sea. (2.) Its geographical position.
The Armenian plateau stands equidistant
from the Euxine and the Caspian seas on
the N., and between the Persian Gulf and
the Mediterranean on the S. Viewed with
reference to the dispersion of the nations,
Armenia is the true centre of the world :
and at the present day Ararat is the g.-eat
boundary-stone between the empires of
Russia, Turkey, and Persia. (3.) lis phys
ical character. Tlie plains as well as tlie
mountains supply evidence of volcanic
agency. Armenia, however, differs ma
terially from other regions of similar geo
logical formation, inasmuch as it does not
rise to a sharp well-defined central crest,
but expands into plains or steppes, sepa
rated by a graduated series of subordinate
ranges. (4.) The climate. Winter lasts
from October to May, and is succeeded by
a brief spring and summer of intense heat.
In April the Armenian plains are still cov
ered with snow ; and in the early part of
September it freezes keenly at night. (5.)
The vegetation. Grass grows lu.xuriantly
on the plateau, and furnishes abundant
pasture during the summer months to the
flocks of the nomad Kurds. Wheat, barley,
and vines ripen at far higher altitudes than
on the Alps and the Pyrenees ; and the
harvest is brought to maturity with won
derful speed.
Arau'nah, a Jebusite who sold his
threshing-floor on Mount Moriah to David
as a site for an altar to Jeliovah, together
with his oxen (2 Sam. xxiv. 18-24 ; 1 Chr,
xxi. 25).
Ar'ba, the progenitor of the Anakim, or
sons of An.ak, from whom their chief city
Hebron received its name of Kirjath-Arba,
(Josh. xiv. 15, XV. 13, xxi. 11).
Ar'bah. Hebron, or Kirjath-Arba, as
"the cityof Arbah" is always rendered
elsewhere (Gen. xxxv. 27).
Ar'bathite, The, /, e. a native of the
Arabah or Ghor. [Araeah.] Abialbon
the A. was one of David's mighty men
(2 Sam. xxiii. 31 ; 1 Chr. xi. 32).
Arbe'la, mentioned in the Bible only
in 1 Mace, ix. 2, It is identified with the
modern Irbid, a site with a few ruins, west
of Mejdel, on the south-east side of the

ARBITE

50

ARETAS

Wady Uamdm, in a small plain at the foot
of the bill of Kurun Hattin.
Ar'bite, The. Paarai the Arbite was
one of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 36).
The word signifies a native of Arab.
Archela'us, son of Herod the Great,
by a S.amaritan woman, Malthake, and,
with his brother Antipas, brought up at
Rome. At the death of Herod (b. c. 4)
Jiis kingdom was divided between his three
sons, Herod Antipas, Archelaus, and Philip.
Archelaus never properly bore the title of
king (Matt. ii. 22), but only that of eth
narch. In the tenth year of his reign, or
the ninth, 'according to Dion Cassius, i. e.
A. D. 6, a complaint was preferred against
him by his brothers and his subjects on the
ground of his tyranny, in consequence of
which he was banished to Vienne in Gaul,
where he is generally said to have died.
Archery. [Arms.]
Ar'chevites, perhaps the inhabitants
of Erech, some of whom had been placed
as colonists in Samaria (Ezr. iv, 9),
Archip'pus, a Christian teacher in
Colossae (Col. iv. 17), called by St. Paul
his "fellow-soldier," (Philem. 2). He was
probably a member of Philemon's family,
Ar'chite,The (as if from a place named
Erech), the usual designation of David's
friend Hushai (2 Sam. xv. 32, xvii. 5, 14 ;
1 CIw. xxvii. 33). The word also appears
in Josh. xvi. 2, where "the borders of
Archi" {i. e. "the Archite") are named as
somewhere in the neighborhood of Bethel.
Architecture. The book of Genesis
(iv. 17, 20, 22) appears to divide mankind
into great characteristic sections, viz., the
"dwellers in tents" and the "dwellers in
cities." To the race of Shem is attributed
(Gen. X. 11, 12, 22, xi. 2-9) the foundation
of those cities in the plain of Shinar, B.aby-
lon, Nineveh, and others ; of one of which,
Resen, the epithet "great" sufficiently
marks its importance in the time of the
writer. . It is in connection with Egypt
that the Israelites appear first as builders
of cities, compelled to labor at the build
ings of the Egyptian monarchs. Pithom
and Raamses are said to have been built by
them (Ex. i. 11). They were by occupa
tion shepherds, and by habit dwellers in
tents (Gon. xlvii. 3). They had therefore
originally, speaking properly, no archi
tecture. From the time of the occupation
of Canaan they became dwellers in towns
and in houses of stone (Lev. xiv. 34, 45 ;
1 K. vii. 10) ; but these were not in all, nor
indeed in most cases, built by themselves
(Deut. vi. 10; Num. xiii. 19). The peace
ful reign and'vast wealth of Solomon g.ave
great impulse to architecture ; for besides
the Temple and his other great works, he
built fortresses and cities in various places,
among which Baalath and Tadmor are in
all nrobability represented by Baalbeo and

Pfilmyra (1 K. ix. 15, 24) f™M'« *e
succeeding kings of Israel and of Judah,
more than one is recorded as a builder:
Asa (1 K. XV. 23), Baasha i^xv. 17), Omn
fxvi. 24), Ahab (xvi. 32, xxii. 39), Heze>
kiah (2 K. XX. 20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 27-30),..
Jehoash, and Josiah (2 K. xu. 11, 12, xxii.
6) ; and, lastly, Jehoiakim, whose whiter
palace is mentioned (Jer. xxii. 14, xxxvi. "
22; see also Am. iii. 15). On the return
from captivity the chief care of the rulers
was to rebuild the Temple and the walls
of Jerusalem in a substantial manner, with
stone, and with timber from Lebanon (Ezr.
iii. 8, V. 8 ; Neh. ii. 8, iii,). But the reigns
of Ilerod and his successors were espe
cially remarkable for their great archi
tectural works. Not only was the Temple
restored, but the fortifications and other
public buildings of Jerusalem were enlarged
and embellished (Luke xxi. 5), The town ,,
of Caesarea was built on the site of Strato's
Tower ; Samaria was enlarged, and re
ceived the name of Sebaste, Of the original
splendor of these great works no doubt can
be entertained ; but of their style and ap
pearance we can only conjecture that they
were formed on Greek and Roman models.
The enormous stones employed in the
Assyrian, Persepolitan, and Egyptian build
ings, find a parallel in the substructions of
Baalbcc and in the huge blocks which still
remain at Jerusalem, relics of the buildings
either of Solomon or of Herod. But few
monuments are known to exist m Palestine
by which we can form an accurate idea of
its buildings, and even of those which do
remain no trustworthy examination has yet
been made. It is probable, however, that
the reservoirs known under the names of
the Pools of Solomon and Hezekiah con
tain some portions at least of the original
fabrics, Arctu'rus. The Hebrew words 'Ash
and 'Aish, rendered "Arcturus" in the
A. V. of Job ix. 9, xxxviii. 32, in conformity
with the Vulg. of the former passage, are
now generally believed to be identical, and
to represent the constellation Ursa Major,
known commonly as the Great Bear, or
Charles's Wain.
Ard, the son of Bela and grandson of
Benjamin (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 40),
In 1 Chr. viii. 3, he is called Addab.
Ard'ites, tbe descendants of Ard or
Addar the grandson of Benjamin .(Num.
xxvi. 40).
Ar'don, a son of Caleb, the son of Hez
ron, by his wife Azubah (1 Chr. ii. 18).
Are'li, a son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16;
Num. xxvi. 17). His descendants are
called the Aeelites (Num. xxvi. 17).
Areop'agite, a member of the court of
Areopagus (Acts xvii. 34). [Mars' Hill.]
Areop'agUS. [Mars' Hill.]
Are'tas. 1. A contemporary of Anti-

ARGOB

51

ARK OF TIIE COVENANT

ochus Epiphanes (b. c. 170) and Jason
(2 Ma(c. V. 8). 2. The Aretas alluded to
by St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32) was father-in-
law of Herod Antipas.
Ar'gob, a tract of country on the east
of the Jordan, in Bashan, the kingdom of
Og, containing 60 great and fortified cities.
In later times it was called Trachonitis,
and it is now apparently identified with the
Lejah, a very remarkable district south of
Damascus, and east of the Sea of Galilee
(Deut. iii. 4, 13, 14).
Ar'gob, perhaps a Gileadite officer, who
was governor of Argob. He was either an
accomplice of Pekah in the murder of
Pekahiah, or was slain by Pekah (2 K. xv.
25). Ariara'thes, properly Mithridates IV.,
Philopator, king of Capiiadoeia b. c. 1C8-
130, mentioned 1 Mace. xv. 22. Ho fell in
B. c. 130, in the war of tho Romans against
Aristonicus. Arid'ai, ninth son of Haman (Esth. ix.
^>- ,
Arid atha, sixth son of Haman (Esth.
vs.. 8).
Ari'eh. Either one of the accomplices
of Pekah in his conspiracy against Pekahiah,
or one of the princes of JPekahiah, who was
put to death with him (2 K. xv. 25) .
A'riel. 1 . One of the ' ' chief men " who
under Ezra directed the caravan which he
led back from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezr.
viii. 16). ¦; — The word occurs also in refer
ence to two Moabites slain by Benaiah (2
Sam. xxiii. 20; 1 Chr. xi. 22). Many re
gard the word as an epithet, " lion-like ; "
but it seems better to look upon it as a
proper name, and translate "two [sons] of
Ariel." 2. A_designation given by Isaiah
to the city of Jerusalem (Is. xxix. 1, 2, 7).
Its meaning is obscure. We must under
stand by it either "Lion of God," or
" Hearth of God." The latter meaning is
suggested by the use of the word in Ez.
xliii. 15, 16, as a synonyme for the altar of
burnt offering. On the whole it seems
most probable that, as a name given to
Jerusalem, Ariel means "Lion of God,"
whilst the word used by Ezekiel means
"Hearth of God."
Arimathae'a (Matt, xxvii. 57; Luke
xxiii. 51 ; John xix. 38). St. Luke calls it
"a city of Judaea." It is identified by
many with the modern Ramlah.
A'rioch. 1. The king of EUasar, one
of the allies of Chedorlaomer in his expedi
tion against his rebellious tributaries (Gen.
xiv. 1). 2. The captain of Nebuchadnez
zar's body-guard (Dan. ii. 14, &c.). 3.
Properly Eirioch, or Erioch, mentioned in
Jud. i, G as king of the Elymaeans,
Aris'ai, eighth son of Haman (Esth,
ix, 9),
Aristar'ohus, a Thessalonian (Acts
XX. 4, xxvii. 2), who accompanied St. Paul

on his third missionary journey (Acts xix.
29). He was with the apostle on his return
to Asia (Acts xx. 4) ; and again (xxvii. 2)
on his voyage to Rome. We trace hira ¦
afterwards as St. Paul's fellow-prisoner in
Col. iv. 10, and Philem. 24. Tradition
makes him bishop of Apamea.
Aristobu'lus, 1. A Jewish priest (2
Mace. i. 10), who resided in Egjrpt in the
reign of Ptolemaeus VI. Philometor. There
can be little doubt that he is identical with
the peripatetic philosopher of that name,
who dedicated to Ptol. Philometor his alle
goric exposition of the Pentateuch. 2. A
resident at Rome, some of whose house
hold are greeted in Rom. xvi. 10. Tradi
tion makes bim one of the 70 disciples, and
reports that he preached the Gospel in
Britain. Ark, Noah's. [Noah.]
Ark of the Covenant. The first
piece of the tabernacle's furniture, for
which precise directions were delivered
(Ex. XXV.). — I. It appears to have been
an oblong chest of shittim (acacia) wood,
24 cubits long, by li broad and deep.
Within and without gold was overlaid on
the wood, and on the upper side or lid,
which was edged round about with gold,
the mercy seat was placed. The ark was
fitted with rings, one at each of the four
corners, and through these were passed
staves of the same wood similarly overlaid,
by which it was carried by the Kohathites
(Num. vii. 9, x. 21). The ends of the
staves were visible without the veil in the
holy place of the Temple of Solomon (1 K,
viii. 8). 'The ark, when transported, was
enveloped in the "veil" of the dismantled
tabernacle, in the curtain of badgers' skins,
and in a blue cloth over all, and was there
fore not seen (Num. iv. 5, 20). — II. Its
purpose or object was to contain inviolate
the Divine autograph of the two tables,
that " covenant" from which it derived its
title. It was also probably a reliquary for
the pot of manna and the rod of Aaron,

Egyptian Arlc, (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt.)
Occupying the most holy spot of the sanc
tuary, it tended to exclude any idol from
the centre of worship. It was also the
support of the mercy seat, materially syiu-

ARKITE

52

ARMS, ARMOR

boliziug, perhaps, the "covenant" as that
on which ' ' mercy " rested, — HI. The chief
facts in the earlier history of the ark
(see Josh. iii. and vi.) need not be recited.
Before David's time its abode was fre
quently shifted. It sojourned among sev
eral, probably Levitical, families (1 Sam,
vii. 1 ; 2 Sam. vi. 3, 11 ; 1 Chr. xiii. 13, xv.
24, 26) in the border villages of Eastern
Judah, and did not take its place in the
tabernacle, but dwelt in curtains, i. e. in a
separate tent pitched for it in Jerusalem by
David. Its bringing up by David thither
was a national fcstiv.al. Subsequently the
Temple, when completed, received, in the
installation of the ark in its shrine, the
signal of its inauguration by the effulgence
of Divine glory instantly manifested. When
idolatry became more shameless in the
kingdom of Judah, Manasseh placed a
"carved image" in the "house of God,"
and probably removed the ark to make way
for it. This may account 'for the subse
quent statement that it was reinstated by
Josiah (2 Chr, xxxiii. 7, xxxv. 3), It was
probably taken captive or destroyed by
Nebuchadnezzar (2 Esdr, x. 22). Pri-
deaux's argument that there m,ust have
been an ark in the second Temple is of no
weight against express testimony, such as
that of Josephus,
Ark'ite, The, one of the families of
the Canaanites (Gen. x. 17 ; 1 Chr. i. 15),
and from the context evidently located in
the north of .Phoenicia, The site which
now bears the name of 'Arka lies on the
coast, 2 to 2h hours from the shore, about
12 miles north of Tripoli, and 5 south of
the Nahr el-Kebir.
Armaged'don, " the hill, or city
of Megiddo" (Rev, xvi. 16). The scene
of the struggle of good and evil is suggested
by that battle-field, the plain of Esdraelon,
which was famous for two great victories,
of Barak over the Canaanites, and of
Gideon over the Midianites ; and for two
great disasters, the death of Saul and of
Josiah. Arme'nia is nowhere mentioned under
that name in the original Hebrew, though
it occurs in the English version (2 K. xix.
37) for Ararat. Armenia is that lofty pla
teau whence the rivers Euphrates, Tigris,
Araxes, .and Acampsis, pour down their
waters in different directions ; the two first
to the Persian Gulf, the last two respectively
to the Caspian and Euxine seas. It may
be termed the nucleus of the mountain sys
tem of Western Asia; from the centre of
the plateau rise two lofty chains of moun
tains, which run from E. to W., converging
towards the Caspian sea, but parallel to
each other towards the W, The slight
acquaintance which the Hebrews had with
this country was probably derived from the
Phoenicians, There are signs of their

knowledge having been progressn e, Isaiajj,^,
in his prophecies regarding Babylon, speaks
of the hosts as coming from the "moun
tains" (xiii, 4), whUe Jeremiah employs
the specific names Ararat and Minni (li'.
27) , Ezekiel, apparently better acquainted
with the country, uses a name which was
familiar to its own inhabitants, Togarmah.
(1.) Ararat is mentioned as the place
whither the sons of Sennacherib fled (Is.
xxxvii. 38). It was the central district--
surrounding the mountain of that name.
(2.) Minni only occurs in Jer. li. 27. It
is probably identical with the district Min-
yas, in the upper valley of the Murad-su
branch of the Euphrates. (3.) Togarmah
is noticed in two passages of Ezekiel
(xxvii. 14, xxxviii. 6), both of which are in
favor of its identity with Armenia.
Armlet, an ornament universal in the
East, especially among women; used by
princes as one of the insignia of royalty,
and by distinguished persons in general.
The word is not used in the A. V., as even
in 2 Sam. i. 10 they render it by " the brace
let on his arm." Sometimes only one was
worn, on the right arm (Ecclus. xxi. 21).
From Cant. viii. G, it appears that the signet
sometimes consisted of a jewel on the arm

Assyrian Armlet (From Nineveh Marbles, Britiflli
MuBeum.)
let. These ornaments were. used bymcit
ancient princes. They are frequent on tne
sculptures of Persepolis and Nineveh, and
were worn by the kings of Persia.
Armo'ni, son of Saul by Rizpah (2 Sam.
xxi. 8).
Arms, Armor. The subject natu-
r.ally divides itself into — I. Offensive
weapons: Arms. II. Defensive weapons ;
Armor. — I. Offensive weapons. 1. Ap
parently the earliest known and most widely
used was the Chereb, or " Sword." Veiy
little can be gathered as to its shape, size,
material, or mode of use. Perhaps if any
thing is to be inferred it is that the Ghereh
is both a lighter and a shorter weapon than
the modern sword. It was carried in a
sheath (1 Sam. xvii. 51; 2 Sam. xx. 8; 1
Chr. xxi. 27), slung by a girdle. (1 Sam.
xxv. 13) and resting upon the thigh (Ps.
xiv. 3 ; Judg. iii. 16), or upon the hips (2
Sam. XX. 8). Doubtless it was of metal,
from the allusion to its brightness and
" glittering; " but from Josh. v. 2, 3, we
may perhaps infer that in early Mraes tne
material was flint. 2. Next to the sword

ARMS, ARMOR

53

ARMY

was the Speae; and of this weapon we
meet with at least three distinct kinds, o.
The Chantth, a " Spear," and that of the
largest kind. It was the weapon of Goli
ath (1 Sam. xvii. 7, 45 ; 2 Sam. xxi. 19 ; 1
Chr. XX. 5), and also of other giants (2
Sam. xxiii. 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 23) and mighty
warriors (2 Sam. ii. 23, xxiii. 18 ; 1 Chr.
xi. 11, 20). b. Apparently lighter than the
preceding was the Cid6n, or "Javelin."
When not in action the Ciddn was carried
on the back of the warrior (1 Sam. xvii.
6, A. V. "target"), c. Another kind of
spear was the Rdmach. In the historical
books it occurs in Num. xxv. 7, and 1 K.
xviii. 28, and frequently in the later books,
as in 1 Chr, xii. 8 (" buckler"), 2 Chr. xi.
12, d. The 5'fteZacA. was probably a lighter
missile or " dart." See 2 Chr. xxiii. 10,
xxxii. 5 (" darts ") ; Neh, iv. 17, 23 (see
margin) ; Job xxxiii. 18, xxxvi. 12 ; Joel
ii. 8, e. Shelet, a rod or staff, is used once
only to denote a weapon (2 Sam. xviii. 14).
3, Of missile weapons of offence the chief
was undoubtedly tbe Bow, Kesheth. It is
met with in the earliest stages of the his
tory, in use both for the chase (Gen, xxi.
20, xxvii. 3) and war (xlvii. 22). The Ar
rows were carried in a quiver (Gen. xxvii.
8; Is, xxii, 6, xlix, 2; Ps, cxxvii, 5).
From an allusiim in Job vi. 4, they would
seem to have been sometimes poisoned;
and Ps. cxx. t may point to a practice of
using arrows with some burning material
attached to them. 4. The Sling is first
mentioned in Judg. xx. 16, This simple
weapon with which David killed the giant
PhiQstine was the natural attendant of a
shepherd. Later in tbe monarchy, slingers
formed part of the regular army (2 K. iii.
25), II, Armor. 1. The Breastplate,
enumerated in the description of the arms
of Goliath, a "coat of mail," literally a
" breastplate of scales" (1 Sam. xvii. 5).
This word has furnished one of the names
of Mount Hermon (see Deut. iii. 9). 2.
The habergeon is mentioned but twice —

Assyrian Helmets,

In reference to-the gown of the high-priest
(Ex, xxviii. 32,. xxxix. 23). It was prob
ably a quilted shirt or doublet. 3. The
Helmet is referred to in 1 Sam. xvii. 5 ; 2
Chr. xxvi. 14 ; Ez '-k. xxvii. 10. 4. Greaves,

or defences for the feet made of br iss, are
named in 1 Sam. xvii. 6, only. 6. Two
kinds of Shield are distinguishable, a.
The large shield, encompassing (Ps. v. 12)
the whole person. When not iu actual con
flict, it was carried before the warrior (1
Sam. xvii. 7, 41). b. Of smaller dimen
sions was the buckler or target, probably
for use in hand-to-hand fight (1 K. x. 16,
47; 2 Chr. ix. 16, 16). 6. What kind of
arm was the Shelet it is impossible to de
termine. By some translators it is ren
dered a "quiver," by some "weapons"
generally, by others a " shield." It denot-

Assyrian Sliields.

Egyptian Shield.

ed certain weapons of gold taken by David
from Iladadezer king of Zobah (2 Sam.
viii. 7; 1 Chr. xviii. 7), and dedicated in
the Temple (2 K. xi. 10 ; 2 Chr. xxiii. 9
Cant. iv. 4). In Jer. li. 11 ; Ezek. xxvii.
11, the word has the force of a foreign arm.
Army. I. Jewish Armt. — The mili
tary organization of the Jews commenced
with their departure from the land of Egypt,
and was adapted to the nature of the expe
dition on which they then entered. Evory
man above 20 years of age was a soldier
(Num. i. 3) : each tribe formed a regiment
with its own banner and its own leader
(Num. ii. 2, x. 14) : their positions in the
camp or on the march were accurately
fixed (Num. ii.) : the whole army started
and stopped at a given signal (Num. x. 5,
6) : thus they came up out of Egypt ready
for the fight (Ex. xiii. 18). On the ap
proach of an enemy, a conscription wiis
made from the general body under the di
rection of a muster-master (Deut. xx. 5 ; 2
K. xxv. 19), by whom also the officers were
appointed (Deut. xx. 9). The army was
then divided into thousands and hundreds
under their respective captains (Num. xxxi.
14), and still further into families (Num, ii,
34; 2 Chr, xxv, 6, xxvi. 12), the family
being regarded as the unit in the Jewish
polity. With the kings arose the custom
of maintaining a body-guard, which formed
the nucleus of a standing army. Thus Saul
had a band of 3000 select warriors (1 Sara,

ARMY

54

ARPHAXAD

xiii. 2, xiv. 62, xxiv, 2), and David, before
his accession to the throne, 600 (1 Sam.
xxiii. 13, xxv. 13). This band he retained
after he became king, and added the Cher-
ethites and Pelethites (2 Sam. xv. 18,
XX. 7), together with another class, Shali-
shim officers of high rank, the chief of
whom (2 K.. vii. 2 ; 1 Chr. xii. 18) was im
mediately about the king's person. David
further organized a national militia, divided
into twelve regiments under their respec
tive officers, each of which was called out
for one month in the year (1 Chr. xxvii.
1) ; at the head of the army when in active
service he appointed a commander-in-chief
(1 Sam. xiv. 60). Hitherto tho army had
consisted entirely of infantry (1 Sam. iv.
10, XV. 4), the use of horses having been
restrained by divine command (Deut. xvii.
16); but we find that as the foreign rela
tions of the kingdom extended, much im
portance was attached to them. David had
reserved a hundred chariots from the spoils
of the Syrians (2 Sam. viii. 4) ; these prob
ably served as the foundation of tbe force
which Solomon afterwards enlarged through
his alliance with Egypt (1 K. x. 26, 28, 29).
It does not appear that the system estab
lished by David was maintained by the
kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity
of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated
the maintenance of a standing army. The
militia was occasionally called out in time
of peace (2 Chr. xiv. 8, xxv. 5, xxvi. 11) ;
but such cases were exceptional, On the
other hand the body-guard appears to have
been regularly kept up (1 K. xiv. 28 ; 2 K.
xi. 4, 11). Occasional reference is made
to war-chariots (2 K. viii. 21) ; but in Hez-
ekiah's reign no force of the kind could be
maintained, and the Jews were obliged to
seek the aid of Egypt for horses and char
iots (2 K. xviii. 23, 24; Is. xxxi. 1). The
maintenance and equipment of the soldiers
at the public expense dates from the estiib-
lishment of a standing army. It is doubt
ful whether the soldier ever received pay
even under tho kings. The numerical
strength of the Jewish army cannot be as
certained with any degree of accuracy : the
numbers, as given in the text, are mani
festly incorrect, and tbe discrepancies in
the various statements irreconcilable.
II. Roman Aemt. — The Roman army
was divided into legions, the number of
which varied considerably, each under six
tribuni (" chief captains," Acts xxi. 31), who
commanded by turns. The legion was sub
divided into ten cohorts (" band," Acts x.
1), the cohort into three maniples, and the
maniple into two centuries, containing ori
ginally 100 men, as the name implies, but
subsequently from 50 to 100 men, accord
ing to the strength of the legion. There
were thus 60 centuries in a legion, each
undei the command of a centurion (Acts x.

1, 22; Matt. viii. 5, xxvii. 54). In addi-
tion to the legionary cohorts, independent
cohorts of volunteers served under the Ro
man standards. One of these cohorts was
named the Italian (Acts x. 1), as consist
ing of volunteers from Italy. The cohort
named "Augustus" (Acts xxvii. 1) may.
have consisted of the volunteers from Se
baste. Others, however, think that it was
a cohors Augusta, similar to the legio Au
gusta. The head-quarters o'f the Roman
forces in Judaea were at Caesarea.
Ar'nan, In the received Hebrew text
" the sons of Arnan" are mentioned in the
genealogy of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 21),
Ar'non, the river or torrent which
formed thp boundary between Moab and
the Amorites, on the north of Moab (Num.
xxi. 13, 14, 24, 26 ; Judg. xi. 22), and after
wards between Moab and Israel (Reuben)
(Deut, ii. 24, 36, iii, 8, 12, 1 6, iv. 48 ;. Josh.
xii. 1, 2, xiii. 9, 16; Judg, xi. 13, 26).
There can be no doubt that the Wady el-
Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon. Its
principal source is near Kairane, on the
Haj route.
A'rod, a son of Gad (Num. xxvi. 17),
called Arodi in Gen. xlvi. 16.
Ar'odl. [Akod.]
Ar'odites. [Arod.]
Ar'oer, 1. A city on the torrent Ar
non, the southern point of the territory of
Sihon, king of the Amorites, and afterwards
of the tribe of Reuben (Deut. ii. 36, iii. 12,
iv. 48 ; Josh xii. 2, xiii. 9, IG ; Judg. xi. 26;
2 K. X. 33 ; 1 Chr. v. 8), but later again in
possession of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 19). It is
the modern Ard'ir, upon the very edge of
the precipitous north bank of the Wady
Mojeb. 2. Aroer "that is 'facing' Eab-
bah" (Rabbah of Ammon), a town built by
and belonging to Gad (Num. xxxii. 34;
Josh. xiii. 25; 2 Sam. xxiv. 5). This is
probably the place mentioned in Judg. xi.
33, which was shown in Jerome's time.
3. Aroer, in Is. xvii. 2, if a place at all,
must be still farther north than either of
the two already named, 4. A town in Ju
dah, named only in 1 Sam, xxx. 28, perhaps
Wady Ar'drah, on the road from Petra t5
Gaz.a, Aro'erite. Hothan the Aroerite was
the father of two of David's captains (1 Clir.
xi. 44).
.Ar'pad" or Ar'phad (Is. xxxvi. 19,
xxxvii. 13), a city or district in Syria, ap
parently dependent on Damascus (Jer.
xlix. 23). No trace of its existence has
yet been discovered (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13;
Is. X. 9).
Arphax'ad. 1. The son of Shem and
ancestor of Eber (Gen. x. 22, 24, xi. 10). 2.
Arphaxad, a king " who reigned over the
Modes in Ecbatana" (Jud. i. 1-4) : perhaps
the same as Phraortes, who fell in a liattio
with the Assyrians, 633 b. c.

ARROWS

55

ASAPH

ArrO'.ffS. [Arms.]
Ar'saces "VL, a king of P.arthia, who
assumed the royal title of Arsaces in addi
tion to liis proper name, MitudiDATES I.
(1 Mace. xiv. 1-3).
Artaxerx'es. 1. The first Aitaxerxes
is mentioned in Ezr. iv. 7, and appears
identical with Smerdis, the Magian impos
tor, and pretended brother of Cambyses,
who usurped the throne B. c. 622, and
reigned eight months. 2. In Neh. ii 1 we
have another Artaxerxes. We may safely
identify him* with Artaxerxes Macrocheir
or Longimanus, the son of Xerxes, who
reigned b. c. 464-426.
Ar'temas, a companion of St. Paul
(Tit. iii. 12). According to tradition he
was bishop of Lystra,
Ar'uboth, the third of Solomon's com
missariat districts (1 K. iv. 10), It in
cluded Sochoh, and was therefore probably
a name for the rich corn-growing lowland
country, Aru'mah, a place apparently in the
neighborhood of Shechem, at which Abim
elech resided (Judg. ix. 41).
Ar'vad (Ez, xxvii. 8,11). The island
of Ruad, which lies off Tortosa {Tai-ius),
2 or 3 miles from the Phoenician coast. In
agreement with this is the mention of " the
Arvadite" in Gen. x. 18, and 1 Chr. i. IG,
as a son of Canaan, with ' Zidon, Hamath,
and other northern localities,
Ar'vadite. [Arvad.]
Ar'za, prefect of the palace at Tirzah to
Elah king of Israel, who was assassinated
at a banquet in his house by Zimri (1 K.
xvi. 9).
A'sa. 1. Sonof Abijah, and third king of
Judah (b. c, 956-916). In his zeal against
heathenism he did not spare his grand
mother Maachah, who occupied the special
dignity of " King's Mother," to which great
importance was attached iu the Jewisli
court, Asa burnt the symbol of ber re
ligion (1 K. XV, 13), and threw its ashes
into the brook Kidron, and then deposed
Maachah from her dignity. He also, placed
in the Temple certain gifts which his father
had dedicated, and renewed the great altar
which the idolatrous priests apparently had
desecrated (2 Chr, xv, 8). Besides this,
he fortified cities on his frontiers, and
raised an army, amounting, according to
2 Chr. xiv. 8, to 580,000 men, a number
probably exaggerated by an error of the
copyist. During Asa's reign, Zerah, at the
head of an enormous host (2 Chr. xiv. 9),
attacked Mareshah. There he was utterly
defeated, and driven back with immense
loss to Gerar, The peace which followed
this victory was broken by the attempt of
Baasha of Israel to fortify Ramah. T.o
stop this Asa purchased the help of Bcn
hadad I, king of Damascus, by a large pay
ment of treasuie, forced Baasha to aban

don his purpose, and destroyed the works
which he had begun at Ramah, In his old
age Asa suffered from the gout. He died
greatly loved and honored in the 41st
year of his reign. 2. Ancestor of Bere-
chiah, a Levite who resided in one of the
villages of the Netophathites after the re
turn fronl Babylon (1 Chr. ix. 16).
As'ahel. 1, Nephew of David, being the
youngest son of his sister Zeruiah, He
was celebrated for his swiftness of foot.
When fighting under the command of his
brother Joab against Ishbosheth's .army at
Gibeon, he pursued Abner, who was obliged
to kiU him in self-defence (2 Sam. ii. 18 ff.).
[Abner.] 2. One of the Levites in tho
reign of Jehoshaphat, who went thromghout
the cities of Judah to instruct the people in
the knowledge of the law, at the time of
the revival of the true worship (2 Chr,
xvii. 8), 3. A Levite in the reign of Hez
ekiah, who had charge of the tithes and
dedicated things in the Temple under Cono-
niali and Shimei (2 Chr. xxxi. 13), 4. A
priest, father of Jonathan in the time of
Ezra (Ezr. x. 15). He is called Azael in
1 Esd. ix. 14,
Asahi'ah, a servant of king Josiah,
sent by him, together with others, to seek
information of Jehovah respecting the book
of the law which Hilkiah found in the Tem
ple (2 K. xxii. 12, 14 ; also called Asaiah,
2 Chr. xxxiv. 20).
Asai'ah, 1. A prince of one of the
families of the Simeonites in the reign of
Hezekiah, who prove out the Hamite shep
herds from Gedor (1 Chr. iv. 36), 2. A
Levite in the reign of David, chief of the
family of Merari (1 Chr. vi. 30). With
120 of his brethren he took part in the sol
emn service of bringing the ark from the
house of Obed-edom to the city of David
(1 Chr. XV, G, 11), 3. The firstborn of
"the Shilonite," according to 1 Chr. ix. 6,
who with his family dwelt in Jerusalem
after the return.from Babylon. In Neh. xi,
6 he is called Maaseiah, and his descent
is there, traced from Shiloni, 4, 2 Chr,
xxxiv. 20. [ASAHIAH.]
A'saph. 1. ALevite, sonofBerechlah,
one of the leaders of David's choir (1 Chr.
vi. 39). Psalms 1. and Ixxiii.-lxxxiii. are
attributed to him; and he vas in after
times celebrated as a seer as well as a mu
sical composer (2 Chr. xxix. 30 ; Neh. xii.
46). 2. The father or ancestor of Joab,
the recorder or chronicler to the kingclcTi
of Judah in the reign of Hezekiah (2 E,
xviii. 18, 37; Is. xxxvi. 3, 22), It is not
improbable that this A^aph is the sanw as
the preceding, 3. The keeper of the
royal forest or "paradise" of Artaxerxes
(Neh. ii. 8). His name would seem to in
dicate that he was a Jew, who, like Nehe
miah, was in high office at the court of
Persia, 4. Ancestor of Mattaniah, tlia

ASAREEL

56

ASHKBNAZ

conductor of the temple-phoir after the re
turn from Babylon (1 Chr. ix. 16 ; Neh. xi.
17). Most probably the same as 1 and 2,
Asar'eel, a son of Jehaleleel, whose
name is abruptly introduced into the gen
ealogies of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 16).
Asare'lah, one of the sons of Asaph,
set ap.art by David to " prophesy with harps
and with psalteries and with cymbals " (1
Chr, xxv. 2) ; called Jesiiarelah in ver.
14, As'ealon. [Ashkelon.]
As'enath, daughter of Potipherah,
priest, or possibly prince, of On [Potiphe
rah], wife of Joseph (Gen. xii. 46), and
mother of Manasseh and Ephraim (xii. 50,
xlvi, 20).
A'ser, Luke ii. 36 ; Rev. vii. 6. [Asher.]
Ash (Heb. 6ren) occurs only in Is. xliv,
14, It is impossible to determine what is
the tree denoted by the Hebrew word ; the
LXX, and the "Vulg. understand some
species of pine-tree. Perhaps the larch
{Laryx Europaea) may be intended.
A'shan, a city in the low country of
Judah (Josh. xv. 42). In Josh. xix. 7, and
1 Chr, iv. 32, it is mentioned again as be
longing to Simeon. It has not yet been
identified, unless it be the same as Ain
(comp. Josh. xxi. 16 with 1 Chr. vi. 59) ; in
which case Robinson found it at El Ghu-
wein. Ash'bea, a proper name, but whether
of a person or place is uncertain (1 Chr. iv,
21), Ash'bel, 2d son of Benjamin and an
cestor of the AsHBELiTES (Gen. xlvi. 21 ;
Num. xxvi. 38; 1 Chr. viii. 1).
Ash'ehenaz (1 Chr. i. 6; Jer, li. 27).
[Ashkenaz.] Ash'dod, or A'zo'tus (Acts viii. 40),
one of the five confederate cities of the
Philistines, situated about 30 miles from
the southern frontier of Palestine, 3 from
the Mediterranean Sea, and nearly mid
way between Gaza and . Joppa. It was
assigned to the tribe of Judah (Josh, xv,
47), but was never subdued by the Israel
ites. Its chief importance arose from its
position on the high road from Palestine to
Egypt. It is now an insignificant village,
with no memorials of its ancient impor
tance, but is still called Esdud.
Ash'dodites, the inhabitants of Ash
dod (Neh. iv. 7) ; called Ashdotuites in
Josh. xiii. 3.
Ash'doth-pis'gah, a curious and prob-
•ably a very ancient term of doubtful
meaning, found only in Deut. iii. 17 ; Josh.
xii. 8, xiU. 20 ; and in Deut. iv, 49, A. V,
" springs of Pisgah."
Ash'er, Apocr. and N. T, A'ser, the
Sth son of Jacob, by Zilp.ah, Leah's hand
maid [Gen. xxx. 13]. The general posi
tion of his tribe was on the sea-shore from
Carmel northwards, with Manasseh on the

south, Zebidun and Issacbar on the south
east, and Naphtali on the north-east. Ihe
boundaries and towns are given in Josh.
xix. 24-31, xvii, 10, 11; and Judg, i, 31,
32, They possessed the maritime portion
of the rich plain of Esdraelon, probably
for a distance of 8 or 10 miles from the
shore. This territory contained some of
the richest soil in all P.alestine ; and to this
fact, as well as to their proximity to the
Phoenicians, the degeneracy of the tribe
may be attributed (Judg, i. 31, v. 17),
Ash'er, a place which* formed one
boundary of the tribe of Manasseh on the
south (Josh, xvii. 7), Mr. Porter suggests
that Teydsir may be the Asher of Manas
seh {Bandb. p. 348),
Ash'erah, the name of a Phoenician
goddess, or rather of the idol itself (A. V.
" grove "), Asherah is closely connected
with AsHTORETH and her worship (Judg,
iii. 7, comp. ii. 3; Judg, vi. 25; 1 K. xviii.
19) ; Ashtoreth being, perhaps, the proper
name of the goddess, whilst Asherah is
the name of her image or symbol, which
was of wood (see Judg, vi, 25-30; 2 K,
xxiii, 14).
Ash'erites, descendants of Asher, and
members of his tribe (Judg. i, 32).
Ashes. The ashes on the altar of burnt-
offering were gathered into a cavity in its
surface. On the days of the tliree solemn
festivals the ashes were not removed, but
the accumulation was taken away after
wards in the morning, the priests casting
lots for the office. 'The ashes of a red
heifer burnt entire, according to regular
tions prescribed in Num. xix., had the cere- -
monial efficacy of purifying the unclean
(Heb. ix. 13), but of polluting the (flean.
[Sacrifice.] rAshes about the person,
especially on the head, were used as a
sign of sorrow. [Mourning.]
Ash'ima, a god of the Hamathite col
onists in Samaria (2 K. xvii. 30). It has
been regarded as identical with the Men-
desian god of the Egyptians, the Pan of the
Greeks, and has also been identified with
the Phoenician god Esmfln,
Ash'kelon, As'kelon, Apocr. As'
ealon, one of the five cities of the lords
of tbe Philistines (Josh. xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi.
17), but less often mentioned and apparent
ly less known to the Jews than the other
four. Samsoti went down from Timnath
to Ashkelon (Judg. xiv. 19), as if to a re
mote place whence his exploit was not
likely to be heard of. In the post-biblical
times Ashkelon rose to considerable im
portance. Near the town were the temple
and sacred lake of Derccto, the Syrian
Venus. The soil around was remarkable
for its fertility. Ascalon played a memora
ble part in the struggles of the Crusades.
Ash'kenaz, one of the three sons of
Gomer, son of Japl.et (Gen. x. 3). We

ASHNAH

57

ASP

may probably recognize the tribe of Ash
kenaz on the northern shore of Asia Minor,
in the name of Lake Ascanius, and in Eu
rope in the name Scand-ia, Scand-inavia.
Knobel considers that Ashkenaz is to be
identified with the German race.
Ash'nah, the name of two cities, both
:n tbe Lowlands of Judah : (1) named be
tween Zo.reah and Zanoah, and therefore
probably N. W. of Jerusalem (Josh. xv.
83) ; and (2) between Jiphtah and Nezib,
and therefore to the S. W. of Jerusalem
(Josh. XV. 4i^, Each, according to Rob
inson's Map (1857), would be about 16
miles from Jerusalem,
Ash'penaz, the master of the eunuchs
of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan, i. 3),
Ash'riel, properly As'riel (1 Chr, vii,
14). Ash'tarpth, and once As'taroth, a
city on the E. of Jordan, in Bashan, in the
kingdom of Og, doubtless so called from
being a seat of the worship of the goddess
of the same name. It is generally men
tioned as a description or definition of Og
(Deut. i. 4; Josh. ix. 10, xii. 4, xiii. 12).
The only trace of the name yet recovered
in these interesting districts is Tell-Ashie-
rah, or Asherah, and of tlds nothing more
than the n.ame is known.
Ashte'rathite, a nsitive or inhabitant
cf Asiitaroth (1 Chr, xi, 44) beyond Jor
dan. Ash'teroth Karna'im = " Ashtaroth
of the two horns or peaks," a place of very
great antiquity, the abode of the Rephaim
(Gen. xiv. 5). The name reappears but
once, as Carnaim, or Carnion (1 Maec. v.
26, 43, 44; 2 Maec. xii. 21, 26), in "the
land of Galaad." It is probably the. mod
ern Es-Sanamein, on the Haj route, about
25 miles 8. of Damascus.
Ash'toreth, the princip.al female di
vinity of the Phoenicians, called Ishtar
by the Assyrians, and Astarte by the
Greeks and Romans, She was by some
ancient writers identified with the moon.
But on the other hand the Assyrian Ishtar
was not the moon-goddess, but the planet
Venus; and Astarte was by many identi
fied with the goddess Venus (or Aphrodite)
as well as with the planet of that name.
It is certain that the worship of Astarte be
came identified with that of Venus, and
that this worship was connected with the
most impure rites is apparent from the
close connection of this goddess with Ashe
rah (1 K. xi. 5, 33 ; 2 K. xxiii. 13).
Ash'ur, the posthumous son of Hezron
by his wife Abiah (1 Chr. ii. 24, iv. 5). He
became " father " or founder of the town
of Tekoa.
Ash''urites, The. This name occurs
only in 2 Sam. ii. 9. By some of the old
interpreters the name is taken as meaning
the Geshuritee, but if we follow the Tar-

gum of Jonathan, which has Beth-AsTier,
"the house of Asher," "the Asherites'
will denote the inhabitants of the whole of
the country "W. of the Jordan above Jez
reel. Ash'vath, one of the sons of Japhlet,
of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 33).
Asia. The passages in the N. T., where
this word occurs, are tho following : Acts
ii. 9, vi. 9, xvi. 6, xix. 10, 22, 26, 27, xx. 4,
16; 18, xxi. 27, xxvii. 2; Rom. xvi. 6; 1
Cor. xvi. 19 ; 2 Cor. i. 8 ; 2 Tim. 1. 16 ; 1
Pet. i. 1; Rev. i. 4, 11. In all these it
may be confidently stated th.at the word is
used for a Roman province which embraced
the western part of the peninsula of Asia
Minor, and. of which Ephesus was the
capital. Asiar'chae {chief of Asia, A. V. ; Acts
xix. 81), officers chosen annually by the
cities of that part of the province of Asia,
of which Ephesus was, under Roman gov
ernment, the metropolis. They had charge
of the public games and religious theatri
cal spectacles, the expenses of which they
bore. A'siel. 1. A Simeonite whose descend
ant Jehu lived in the reign of Hezekiah (1
Chr. iv. 35). 2. One of the five swift
writers whom Esdras was commanded to
take to write the law and the history of the
world (2 Esd. xiv. 24).
Asmode'us (Tob. iii. 8, 17), the same
as Abaddon or Apollyon (Rev. ix. 11 ;
comp. Wisd. xviii. 25). From the fact
that the Talmud calls him "king of the
demons," some assume hira to be identical
with Beelzebub, and others with Azrael. In
the book of Tobit this evU spirit is repre
sented as loving Sara, the daughter of
Raguel, and causing the death of her seven
husbands. As'nah. The children of Asnah were
among the Netliinim who returned with
Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 50).
Asnap'per, mentioned in Ezr. iv. 10 as
the person who settled the Cuthaeans in
the cities of Samaria. He was probably a
general of Esarhaddon.
Asp {pethen). The Hebrew word occurs
in the six following passages : Deut. xxxii.
33; Job XX. 14, "16; Ps. Iviii. 6, xci. 13;
Is. xi. 8).. It is expressed in the passages
from the Psalms by adder in the text of the
A. v., and by asp in the margin: else
where the text of the A. V. has asp as the
representative of the original word pethen.
Tiiat some kind of poisonous serpent is de
noted by the Hebrew word is clear from
the passages quoted above. We further
learn from Ps. Iviii. 5, that the pethen was
a snake upon which the serpent-charmers
practised their art. From Is. xi. 8, it
would appear that the pethen was a dweller
in holes of walls, &c. As the Egyptian
obra is more frequently than any othej

ASPALATHUS

58

ASSYRIA

species the subject upon which the serpent-
charmers of the Bible lands practise their
art, and as it is fond of concealing itself in
_walls and iu holes (Is. xi. 8), it appears to
have the best claim to represent the pethen.
Aspal'athus, the name of some sweet
perfume mentioned in Ecclus. xxiv. 15.
The Lignum, Rhodianum is by some sup
posed to be the substance indicated by the
aspalathus ; the plant which yields it is
the Convolvulus scoparius of Linnaeus.
As'patha, third son of Haman (Esth.
ix. 7).
As'phar, the pool in the " wilderness
of Thecoe" (1 Mace. ix. 33). Is it possi
ble that the name is a corruption of lacus
Asphaltites ?
As'riel, the son of Gilead, and great-
grandson of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 31;
Josh. xvii. 2). He was the founder of the
family of the Asbielites.
Ass. Five Hebrew names of the genus
Asinus occur in the O. T. 1. Chamdr
denotes the male domestic ass, though the
word was no doubt used ih a general sense
to express any ass whether male or female.
The ass in Eastern countries is a very dif
ferent animal from what he is in Western
Europe. The most noble and honorable
amongst the Jews were wont to be mounted
on asses ; and in this manner our Lord him
self made his triumphant entry into Jeru
salem (Matt. xxi. 2). 2. Athdn, the com
mon domestic she-ass. Balaam rode on a
ghe-ass. The asses of Kish which Saul
Bought were she-asses. The Shunammite
(2 K. iv. 22, 24) rode on one when she went
to seek Elisha. They were she-asses which
formed the special care of one of David's
officers (1 Chr. xxvii. 30). 3. 'Air, the
name of a wild ass, which, occurs Gen.
xxxii. 16, xlix. 11 ; Judg. x. 4, xii. 14 ; Job
xi. 12; Is. xxx. 6, 24; Zech. ix. 9. 4.
Pere, a species of wild ass mentioned Gen.
xvi. 12; Ps. civ. 11; Job vi. 5, xi. 12, xxiv.
6, xxxix. 5 ; Hos. viii. 9 ; Jer. ii. 24, xiv.
6; Is. xxxii. 14. 5, Ardd occurs only in
Job xxxix. 5 ; but in what respect it differs
from the Pere is uncertain. — The species
known to the ancient Jews are Asinus
hemippus, which inhabits the deserts of
Syria, Mesopotamia, and Ihe northern parts
of Arabia ; the Asinv,s vulgaris of the N.
E, of Africa, the true onager or aboriginal
wild ass, whence the domesticated breed
has sprung; and probably the Asinus on
ager, the Koulan or Ghorkhur, which is
found in Western Asia, from 48° N, lati
tude southward to Persia, Beluohistan, and
"Western India, Mr, Layard remarks
that _ iu fleetness the wild ass {Asinus
hemippus) equals the gazelle, and to over
take them is a feat which only one or two
of tho most celebrated mares have been
known to accomplish,
Assh'ur, [AssYEiA,]

Asshnrim, a tribe descended from
Dedan, the grandson of Abraham (Gen.
xxv. 3), Like the other descendants of
Keturah, they have not been identified with
any degree of certainty, Knobel considers
them the same with the Asshur of Ez.
xxvii. 23, and connected with Southern
Arabia. Asside'ans, i. e. the pious, " puritans,"
the name assumed by a section of the or
thodox Jews (1 Maec. ii. 42, vii. 13; 2
Mace. xiv. 6) as distinguished from the
Hellenizing faction. They^ppear to have
existed as a party before the Maccabaean
rising, and were probably bound by some
peculiar vow to the external observance of
the Law.
As'sir. 1. Son of Korah (Ex. vi. 24;
1 Chr. vi. 22). 2. Son of Ebiasaph, and a
forefather of Samuel (1 Chr. vi. 23, 37).
3. Son of Jeconiah (1 Chr. iii. 17), unless
" Jeconiah the captive " be the true render
ing. As'sos or As'sus, a seaport of the
Roman province of Asia, in the district
anciently called Mysia. It was situated on
the northern shore of the gulf of AdramtT-
TiDM, and was only about seven miles from
the opposite coast of Lesbos, near Methym-
na (Acts xx. 13, 14),
As'sur, (Ezr. iv. 2; Ps. Ixxxiii. 8.)
[Asshuk; Asstria.]
AsS3np'ia, Assh'ur, was a great and •
powerful country lying on the Tigris (Gen.
ii. 14), the capital of which was Nineveh
(Gen. x. 11, &c.). It derived its name ap
parently from Asshur, the son of Shem
(Gen. X. 22), who in later times was wor
shipped by the Assyrians as their chief god.
The boundaries of Assyria differed greatly
at different periods. Probably in the ear
liest times it was confined to a small tract
of low country, lying chiefly on the left
bank of the 'Tigris. Gradually its limits
were extended, until it came to be regarded
as comprising the whole region between
the Armenian mountains (lat, 37° 30') upon
the north, and upon the south the country
about Baghdad (lat. 33" 30'), Eastward
its boundary was the high range of Zagros,.
or mountains of Kurdistdn ; westward, it
was, according to the views of some,
bounded by the Mesopotamian desert, while,
according to others, it reached the Euphra
tes, 1, General character of the country.—
On the N, and E. the high mountain-chains
of Armenia and Kurdistan are succeeded
by low ranges of limestone-hills of a some
what arid aspect. To those ridges there
succeeds at first an undulating zone of
country, well-watered and fairly productive,
which extends in length for 250 miles, and
is interrupted only by a single limestone-
range. Above and below this barrier is an
immense level tract, now for the most part
a wilderness, which bears marks of having

ASSYRIA

59

ASSYRIA

bee.i in early times well cultivated and
thickly peopled throughout, 2. Provinces
of Assyria. — The classical geographers
cUvided Assyria into a number of regions,
which appear to be chiefly named from
cities, as Arbelitis from Arbela; Calacene
(or Calaehine) from Calah or Halah (Gen.
X. 11 ; 2 IC. xvii. G) ; ApoUoniatis from
ApoUonia; Sittacene from Sittace, &c.
Adiabene, however, the richest region of
all, derived its appellation from the Zab
{Dial) river^ ou which it lay. 3. Chief
cities. — The chief cities of Assyria in the
time of its greatness appear to have been
the following : — Nineveh, which is mai'ked
by the mounds opposite Mosul {Nebi- Yunus
and Kouyunjik) ; Calah or Halah, now
Nimrud ; Asshur, now Kileh Sherghat ;
Sargina, or Dur-Sargina, now Kltorsabad ;
Arbela, still Ai-bil ; Opis at the junction of
the Diyaleli with the Tigris ; and Sittace,
a little farther down the latter river, if this
place should not rather be reckoned to
Babylonia. 4. History of Assyria — origi
nal peopling. — Scripture informs us that
Assyria was peopled from Babylon (Gen, x.
11), and both classical tradition and the
monuments of the country agree in this
representation. 5, Date of the foundation
of the kingdom. — As a country, Assyria
was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14,
xxv, 18; Num. xxiv, 22, 24); but it does
not appear in Jewish history as a kingdom
till the reign of Menahem (about b. c, 770).
Herodotus relates that the Assyrians were
"lords of Asia" for 520 years, till the
Median kingdom was formed, b. c. 708.
He would thus, it appears, have assigned to
the foundation of the Assyrian empire a
date not very greatly anterior to b. c. 1228.
This is, perhfips, the utmost that can be de
termined with any approach to certainty.
6. Early kings from the foundation of the
kingdom to Pul. — The Mesopotamian re
searches have rendered it apparent that the
original seat of government was not at
Nineveh, but at Kileh- Sherghat, on the
right bank of the Tigris. The kings proved
to have reigned there are fourteen in num
ber, divisible into three groups ; and their
reigns are thought Vo have covered a space
of nearly 350 years, from b. g. 1273 to b. c.
930. The most remarkable monarch of the
series was called Tiglath-pileser. He ap
pears to have been king towards the close
of the twelfth century, and thus to have been
contemporary Avith Samuel. The later kings
of the series are only known to us as the
ancestors of two great monarchs ; Sarda-
napalus the first, and his son, Shalmaneser
or Shalmanubar, a still greater conqueror.
His son and grandson foUowed in his steps,
but scarcely equalled his glory. The latter
is thought to be identical with the Biblical
Pul, Phul, or Phalock. [Pul.] 7. The kings
from, Pul to Esarhaddon. — In the 2d

book of Ki.igs we find the r amcs of Pul,
Tiglath-pileser, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib,
and Esarhaddon (2 K. xv. 19, 29, xvii. 3,
xviii. 13, xix. 37) ; and in Isaiah we have the
name of " Sargon, king of Assyria" (xx.
1). The inscriptions, by showing us that
Sargon was the father of Sennacherib, fix
his place in the Ust, and give us for the
monarchs of the last half of the 8tli and
the first half of the 7th century b. c. the
(probably) complete list of Tiglath-pileser
II., Shalmaneser II. , Sargon, Sennacherib,
and Esarhaddon. 6.. Lower dynasty. — It.
seems to be certain that at, or near, the
accession of Pul, about b. c. 770, a great
change of some kind or other occurred in
Assyria. Probably the Pul or Phalooh of
Scripture was really the last king of the
old monarchy, and Tiglath-pileser II. , his
successor, was the founder of what has
been called the "Lower Empire." 9. Sup
posed loss of the empire at this period. —
Many writers of repute have been inclined
to accept the statement of Herodotus with
respect to the breaking up of the whole
empire at this period. It is evident, how
ever, both from Scripture and from the
monuments, that the shock sustained
through the domestic revolution has been
greatly exaggerated. It is plain from Scrip
ture, that in the reigns of Tiglath-pileser,
Shalmaneser, Sargon, Sennacherib, and
Esarhaddon, Assyria was as great as at any
former era. On every ground it seems
necessary to conclude th.at the second
Assyrian kingdom was really greater and
more glorious than the first ; that under it
the limits of the empire reached their full
est extent, and the internal prosperity was
at the highest. 10. Successors of Esarhad
don.' — By the end of the reign of Esarhad
don the triumph of the arms of Assyria
had been so complete that scarcely an
enemy was left who could cause her serious
anxiety. In Scripture it is remarkable that
we hear nothing of Assyria after the reign
of Esarhaddon, and profane history is
equally silent until the attacks begin whipli
brought about her downfall. 11. Fall c
Assyria. — The fall of Assyria, long pre
viously prophesied by Isaiah (x. 5-19), was
effected by the growing strength and bold
ness of the Modes. If we may trust He
rodotus, the first Median attack on Nineveh
took place about the year b. c. 633. For
some time their efforts were unsuccessful;
but after a while, having won over the
Babylonians to their side, they became
superior to the Assyrians in the field, and
aboilt B. 0. 625, or a little earlier, laid final
siege to the capital. 12. Fulfilment of
prophecy. — The prophecies of Nahmn and
Zephaniah (ii. 13-15) against Assyria were
probably delivered shortly before the catas
trophe. In accordance with Nahum's an
nouncement (iii. 19) we find that Assyria

ASTAROTH

60

ATHAIAH

never succjeded in maintaining a distinct
nationaUty. 13. General cha/rpMer of the
empire. — The Assyrian monarchs bore
sway d ver a number of petty kings through
the entire extent of their dominions. These
native princes were feudatories of the
Great Monarch, of whom they held their
crown by the double tenure of homage and
tribute. It is not quite certain how far
Assyria required a religious conformity
from the subject people. Her religion was
a gross and complex polytheism, compris
ing the worship of thirteen principal and
numerous minor divinities, at the head of
all of whom stood the chief god, Asshur,
who seems to be the deified patriarch of the
nation (Gen. x. 22). The inscriptions ap
pear to state that in all countries over
which the Assyrians established their su
premacy, they set up "the laws of Asshur,"
and " altars to the Great Gods." 14. Its
exient. — On the west the Mediterranean
and the river Halys appear to have been
the boundaries ; on the north a fiuetuating
line, never reaching the Euxine nor extend
ing beyond the northern frontier of Ar
menia ; on the east, the Caspian Sea and
the Great Salt Desert; on the south the
Persian Gulf and the Desert of Arabia.
The countries included within these limits
are the following : — Susiana, Chaldaea,
Babylonia, Media, Matiene, Armenia, As
syria Proper, Mesopotamia, parts of Cap-
padocia and Cihcia, Syria, Phoenicia, Pal
estine, and Idumaea. Cyprus was also for
a while a dependency of the Assyrian kings,
and they may perhaps have held at one
time certain portions of Lower Egypt. 15.
Civilization of the Assyrians. — The civil
ization of the Assyrians was derived origi
nally from the Babylonians. They were a
Shemitic race, originally resident in Baby
lonia (which at that time was Cushite) , and
thus acquainted with the Babylonian inven
tions and discoveries, who ascended the
valley of the Tigris and established in the
tract immediately below the Armenian
mountains a separate and distinct nation
ality. Still, as their civilization developed,
it became in many respects peculiar. Their
art is of home growth. But they were
still in the most important points barbari
ans. Their government was rude and in
artificial; their religion coarse and sen
sual ; and their conduct of war cruel.
As'taroth, Deut. i. 4. [Ashtaroth.]
Astar'te. [Ashtoreth.]
Asty'ages, the last king of the Modes,
B. c. 595-560, or b. c. 592-568, who .was
conquered by Cyrus (Bel and Dragon, 1).
The name is identified by Rawlinson and
Niebuhr with Deiooes = Ashdahdk, the
emblem of the Median power.
Asup'pim, and House of, 1 Cbj. xxvi.
15, 17, literally "house of the gatherings."
Some understand it as a proper nj.me of

chambers on the south of the Temple;
others of certain store-rooms, or of the
council-chambers in the outer court of the
Temple in which, the elders held their
deliberations. Asya'critus, a Christian at Rome,
saluted by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 14).
A'tad, The Threshing-Floor of,
called also Abel-Mizraim (Gen. 1. 10, 11).
According to Jferome it was in his day
called Bethgla or Bethacla (Beth-Hogla).
Beth-Hogla is known to have lain between
tbe Jordan and Jericho, therefore on the
west side of Jordan.
At'arah, a wife of Jerahmeel, anl
mother of Onam (1 Chr. ii. 26).
Atar'gatis, or Derceto, a Syrian god
dess, represented generally with the body
of a woman and the tail of a fish (comp.
Dagon). Her most famous temples were
at Hierapolis (Mabug) and Ascalon. There
was a temple of Atargatis (2 Mace. xii. 26)
at Karnion, which was destroyed by Judas
Maceabaeus (1 Mace. v. 44).
At'aroth. 1, One of the towns in the
" land of Jazer and land of Gilead " (Num,
xxxii. 3), taken and built by tjie tribe of
Gad (xxxii, 34), From its mention with
places which have been identified on the
N, E. of the Dead Sea near the mountain
of the Jebel AttarHs, a connection has been
assumed between Ataroth and that moun
tain. But some other identification is
necessary, 2. A place oii the (south?)
boundary of Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh,
xvi. 2, 7), It is impossible to say whether
Ataroth is or is not the same place, as, 3.
Ataroth- adar, or -addar, on the west
border of Benjamin, " near the ' mountain'
that is on the south side of the nether Beth
horon" (Josh, xvi, 5, xviii, 13), In the
Onomasticon mention is made of an Ath-
aroth in Ephraim, in the mountains, 4 miles
N. of Sebaste ; as well as two places of the
name not far from Jerusalem. 4. " Ata
roth, the hocse of Jo All," a pl.ace (?)
occurring in the list of the descendants of
Judah (1 Chr. ii. 64).
A^'ter. 1. The children of Ater were
among the porters or gate-keepers of the
Temple wlio returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 42; Neh. vii. 45). 2. The children of
Atek op Hezekiah to the number of 98
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 16 ; Neh.
vii. 21), and were among the hoads of the
people who signed the covenant with Nehe
miah (x. 17).
A'thach(lSam.xxx.30). As the name
does not occur elsewhere, it has been sug
gested that it is an error of the transcriber
for Ether, a town in the low country of
Judah (Josh. xv. 42).
Athai'ah, a descendant of Pharez, the
son of Judah, who dwelt at Jerusalem after
the return from Babylon (Neh . xi. 4), called
U'iHAi in 1 Chr. ix. 4.

ATHALIAH

61

ATHENS

Atha'Ii'ah, daughter of Ahab and Jeze
bel, married Jehoram the son of Jehosha
phat king of Judah, and introduced into
the S. kingdom the worship of Baal. After
the great revolution, by which Jehu seated
himself on the throne of Samaria, she killed
all the members of the royal family of
Judah who had escaped his sword (2 K.
xi. 1), availing herself probably of her
position as King's Mother [Asa] to per
petrate the crime. From the slaughter of
the royal house, one infant named Joash,
the youngest son of Ahaziah, was rescued
by his aunt Jehosheba, wife of Jehoiada
(2 Chr. xxiii. 11) the high-priest (2 Chr.
xxiv. 6). The child was brought up un
der Jelioiada's care, and concealed in the
Temple for six years, during which period
Athaliah reigned over Judah. At length
Jehoiada thought it time to produce the
lawful king to the people, trusting to their
zeal for the worship of God, and loyalty to
the house of David, which had been so
strenuously called out by Asa and Jehosha
phat. His plan was successful, and Atha
liah was put to death.
Athenians, natives of Athens (Acts
xvii. 21).
Ath'ens, the capital of Attica, and tbe
chief seat of Grecian learning and civiliza
tion during the golden period of the his
tory of Greece. St. Paul visited it in his
journey from Macedonia, and appears to
have remained there some time (Acts xvii.
14-34 : comp. 1 Thess. iii. 1). In order
to understand the localities mentioned in
the narrative it is necessary to give a brief
account of the topography of the city.
Athens is situated about three miles from
the sea-coast, in the central plain of Attica.
In this plain rise several eminences. Of
these the most prominent is a lofty insulated
mountain, with a conical peaked summit,
now called the Hill of St., George, and
which bore in ancient times the name of
Lycabettus. This mountain, which was not
included within the ancient walls, lies to
the north-east of Athens, and forms the
most striking feature in the environs of the
city. It is to Athens what Vesuvius is to
Naples, or Arthur's Seat to Edinburgh.
South-west of Lycabettus there are four
hills of moderate height, all of which
formed part of the city. Of these the near
est to Lycabettus, and at the distance of a
mile from the latter, was the Acropolis, or
citadel of Athens, a square craggy rock ris
ing abruptly about 150 feet, with a flat
summit of about 1000 feet long from east
to west, by 500 feet broad from north to
south. Immediately west of the Acropolis
is a second hill of irregular form, the Are-
vpagus {Mars' BiU). To the south-west
there rises a third hill, tlie Pnyx, on which
the assemblies of the citizens were held ;

and to the south of the latter is a fourtl
hill, known as the Museum. On the eastern
and western sides of the city there run two
small streams, which are nearly exhausted
before they reach the sea, by the heats of
summer and by the channels for artificial
irrigation. That on the east is the Ilissus,
which flowed through the southern quarter
of the city : that on the west is the Cephis-
sus. South of the city was seen the Saronic
gulf, with the harbors of Athens. — Athens
is said to have derived its name from the
prominence given to the worship of the
goddess Athena (Minerva) by its king
Erechtheus. The inhabitants were previ
ously called Cecropidae, from Cecrops,
who, according to tradition, was the ori
ginal founder of the city. This at first oc
cupied only the hill or rock wliich after
wards became the Acropolis ; but gradually
the buildings spread over the ground at the
southern foot of this hill. It was not till
the time of Pisistratus and his sons (b. c.
660-514) that the city began to assume any
degree of splendor. The most remarkable
building of these despots was the gigantic
temple of the Olympian Zeus or Jupiter.
Xerxes reduced the .ancient city almost to
a heap of ashes. After the departure of
the Persians, its reconstruction on a much
larger scale was commenced under the .
superintendeneo of Themistocles, whose
first care was to provide for its safety by
the erection of walls. The Acropolis now
formed the centre of the city, round which
the new walls described an irregular circle
of about 60 stadia or 74 miles in circumfer
ence. But the views of Themistocles were
not confined to the mere defence of Athens :
he contemplated making her a great naval
power, and for this purpose adequate docks
and arsenals were required. Previousl;
the Athenians had used as their only harbor
the open roadstead of Phalerum on the
eastern side of the Phalerio bay, where the
sea-shore is nearest to Athens. But The
mistocles transferred the naval station of
the Athenians to the peninsula of Piraeus,
which is distant about 44 miles from Athens,
and contains three natural harbors. It was
not till the administration of Pericles that
the walls were built which connected Athens
with her ports. Under the administration
of Pericles, Athens was adorned with nu
merous public buildings, which existed in
all their glory when St. Paul visited the city.
The Acropolis was the centre of the archi
tectural splendor of Athens. After the
Persian wars tbe bill had ceased to be in
habited, and was appropriated to the wor
ship of Athena and to the other guardian
deities of the city. It was covered with
the temples of gods and heroes ; and thus
its platform presented not only a sanctuary,
but a museum, containing the finest pro-

ATHENS

62

ATHENS

ductions of the architect and the sculptor,
in which the whiteness of the marble was
relieved by brilliant colors, and rendered
still more dazzling by the transparent clear
ness of the Athenian atmosphere. The
only approach to it was from the Agora on
its western side. At the top of a magnifi
cent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad,
stood the Propylaea, constructed under the
auspices of Pericles, and which served as a
suitable entrance to the exquisite works
within. The Propylaea were themselves
one of the masterpieces of Athenian art.
They were entirely of Pente)ic marble, and
covered the whole of the western end of the
Acropolis, having a breadth of 168 feet.
On passing through the Propylaea all the
glories of the Acropolis became visible.
The chief building was the Parthenon {i. e.
House of tho Virgin), the most. perfect
production of Greciiin architecture. It
derived its name from its being the temple
of Athena Partbenos, or Athena the Virgin,
the invincible goddess of war. It stood on
the highest part of the Acropolis, near its
centre. It was entirely of Pcntelic marble,
on a rustic basement of ordinary limestone,
and its architecture, which was of the Doric
order, was of the purest kind. It was
adorned with the most exquisite sculptures,
executed by various artists under the di
rection of Phidias. A large number of
these sculptures were brought to England
by Lord Elgin, of whom they were purchased
by the nation and deposited in the British
Museum. But the chief wonder of the
Parthenon was the colossal statue of the
Virgin Goddess executed by Phidias him
self. The Acropolis was adorned with an
other coloss.al flgure of Athena, in bronze,
also the work of Phidias. It stood in the
open air, nearly opposite the Propylaea.
With its pedestal it must have been about
70 feet high, and consequently towered
above the roof of the Parthenon, so that the
point of its spear and the crest of its helmet
were visible off the promontory of Sunium
to ships approaching Athens. Another
magnificent building on the Acropolis was
the Erechthlum, or temple of Erechtheus.
It was one of the finest models of the Ionic
order, as the Parthenon was of the Doric.
It stood to the north of the latter building,
and close to the northern wall of the Acrop
olis. Among the remarkable places in
otlier parts of the city we may mention,
first, the Dionysiac theatre, which occupied
the slope .at the south-eastern extremity of
the Acropolis. The middle of it was ex-
oav.ated out of the rock, and the rows of
seats ascended in curves one above another,
the diameter increasing with the height.
It was no doubt sufficiently large to ac
commodate the whole body of Atheni.m
citizens, as well as the strangers who flocked
to Athens during the Dionysiac festival,

but its dimensions cannot now be accurately
ascertained. It hsid no roof, but the spec
tators were probably protected _ from the
sun by an awning, and from their elev.ated
seats they had a distinct view of the sea,
and of the peaked hills of Salamis in the
horizon. Above them rose the Parthenon
and the other buildings of the Acropolis, so
that they sat under the shadow of the an
cestral gods of the country. The Areopa--
gus, or Hill of Ares (Mars) is described
elsewhere. [Maes' Hill.] The Pnyx, or
place for holding the public assemblies of
the Athenians, stood on the side of a low
rocky hill, at the distance of about a quarter
of a mile from the Areopagus. Projecting
from the hill, and hewn out of it, still stands
a solid rectangular block, called the Bema
or pulpit, from whence the orators ad
dressed the multitude in the area before
them. The position of the Bema com
manded a view of the Propylaea and the
other magnificent edifices of the Acropohs,
while beneath it was the city itself studded
with monuments of Athenian glory. The
Athenian orators frequently roused the na
tional feelings of their audience by pointing
to the Propylaea and to the other splendid
buildings before them. Between the Pnyx
on the west, the Areopagus on the north,
and the Acropolis on the east, and closely
adjoining the base of these hills, stood the
Agora or "Market," where St. Paul dis
puted daily. In a direction from north-west
to south-east a street called the Ceramlcus
ran diagonally through the Agora, entering
it through the valley between the Pnyx and
the Areopagus. The street was named
after a district of the city, which was divided
into two parts, the Inner and Outer CeramT-
cus. The former lay within the city walls,
and included the Agora. The Outer Ceraml
cus, which formed a handsome suburb on
the north-west of the city, was the burial-
place of all persons honored with a publio
funeral. Through it ran the road to the
gymnasium .and gardens of the Academy,
which were situated about a mile from the
walls. The Academy was the place where
Plato and his disciples t.aught. On each
side of this road were monuments to illus
trious Athenians, especially those who had
fallen in battle. East of the city, and out
side the walls, was the Lyceum, a gymna
sium dedicated to Apollo Lyceus, and cele
brated as the place in which Aristotle
taught. — The remark of the sacred histo
rian respecting the inquisitive character of
the Athenians (Acts xvii. 21) is attested by
the unanimous voice of antiquity. Demos
thenes rebukes his countrymen for their
love of constantly going about in the mar
ket, and asking one another, 'What news?
Their natural liveliness was partly owing
to the purity and clearness of the atmos
phere of Attica, which also allowed then to

ATHLAI

63

ATONEMENT

pass much of their time in the open air.
The transparent clearness of the atmos
phere is noticed by Euripides {Medea, 829),
who describes the Athenians as "delicately
marching through most pellucid air." Mod
ern travellers have not failed to notice the
same pecuharity. Thus Dean Stanley
speaks "of the transparent clearness, the
brilliant coloring of an Athenian sky ; of
the flood of fire, with which the marble
columns, the mountains, and the sea are
all bathed and penetrated by an illumination
of an Athenian sunset." — St. Paul began
his address at Athens by speaking of their
" carefulness in religion," which is trans
lated in the A. V. " too superstitious," an
unfortunate mistranslation, as Conybeare
and Howson remark, " because it entirely
destroys the graceful courtesy of St. Paul's
opening address, and represents him as
beginning bis speech by offending his audi
ence." The Atlipn<an carefulness in re
ligion is confirmed by the ancient writers.
Thus Pausanias says that tbe Athenians
surpassed all other states in the attention
which thej' paid to the worship of the gods ;
and lience the city was crowded in every
direction with temples, altars, and other
sacred buildings. The altar "to the Un
known God," which St. Paul mentions, has
been spoken of elsewhere. [Altar, p. 31,
6.] Of the Christian church, founded by
St. Paul at Athens, according to ecclesiasti
cal tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite was
the first bishop. [Dionysius.]
Ath'lai, one of the sons of Bebai, who
put away his foreign wife at the exhorta
tion of Ezra (Ezr. x. 28).
Atonement, The day of. I. The
great day of national humiliation, and the
only one commanded in the Mosaic law.
[Fasts.] The mode of its observance is
described in Lev. xvi., and the conduct of
the people is emphatically enjoined in Lev.
xxiii. 26-3*. II. It was kept on the tenth
day of Tisri, that is, from the evening of
the ninth to the evening of the tenth of
that month, five days before the Feast of
T.abernacles. [Festivals.] III. The
observances of the day, as described in the
law, were as follow. It was kept by the
people as a high solemn sabbath. On this
occasion only the high priest was permitted
to enter into the Holy of Holies. Having
bathed his person and dressed himself en
tirely in the holy white linen garments, he
brought forward a young bullock for a sin-
offering, purchased at his own cost, on
account of himself and his family, and two
young goats for a sin-offering with a ram
for a burnt-offering, which were paid for
out of the public treasury, on account of
the people. He then presented the two
goats before the Lord at the door of the
tabernacle and cast lots upon them. On
one lot "For Jehovah" was inscribed, and

on the other " For Azazel." He next sacri
ficed the young bullock as a sin-offering
for himself and his family Taking with
him some of the blood of the bullock, he
filled a censer with burning coals from the
brazen altar, took a handful of incense,
and entered into the most holy place. He
then threw the incense upon the cofils and
enveloped the mercy-seat in a cloud of
smoke. Then, dipping his finger into the
blood, he sprinkled it seven times before
the mercy-seat eastward. The goat upon
which the lot "For Jehovah" had fallen
was then slain and the high priest sprinkled
its blood before the mercy-seat in the same
manner as he had done that of the bullock.
Going out from' the Holy of Holies he puri
fied the holy place, sprinkling some of the
blood of both the victims on the altar of
incense. At this time no one besides the
high priest was suffered to be present in
the holy place. The purification of the
Holy of Holies, and of the holy place, being
thus completed, the high priest laid his
hands upon the head of the goat on which
the lot " For Azazel" had fallen, and con
fessed over it all the sins of the people.
The goat was then led, by a man chosenfor
the purpose, into the wilderness, into " a
land not inhabited," and was there let loose.
The high priest after this returned into the
holy place, bathed himself again, put on
his usual garments of office, and offered
the two rams as burnt-offerings, one for
himself and one for the people. He also
burnt upon the altar the fat of the two sin-
offerings, while their flesh was carried away
and hurried outside the camp. They who
took away the flesh and the man who had
led away the goat had to bathe their per
sons and wash their clothes as soon as their
service was performed. The accessory
burnt-offerings mentioned Num. xxix. 7-11,
were a young bullock, a r.am, seven lambs,
and a young goat. IV. There has been
much discussion regarding the meaning of
the word Azazel. The opinions which seem
most worthy of notice are the following : —
1. It has been regarded as a designation of
the goat itself. This view has been most
favored by the old interpreters, who in gen
eral supposed it to mean the goat sent aivay,
or let loose. But in this case it does not
seem possible to make sense out of Lev.
xvi. 10 and 26. 2. Some have taken Azazel
for the name of the place to which the goat
was sent. 3. a) Gesenius supposes it to be
some false deity who was to be appeased
by such a sacrifice as that of the goat, b)
But others have regarded him as an evil
spirit, or the devil himself 4. An expla
nation of the word which seems less objec
tionable, if it is not wholly satisfactory,
would render the designation of the lot
" for eoBipZeie sending away." V. In con
sidering the meaning of the particular ritfls

ATROTH

64

AXE

if the day, three points appear to be of a
very distinctive character. 1. The white
garments of the high priest. 2. His en
trance into the Holy of Holies. 3.. The
scapegoat. The writer of the Epistle to
the Hebrews (ix. 7-25) teaches us to apply
the flrst two particulars. The high priest
liimself, with his person cleansed and
dressed in white garments, was the best
outward type which a living man could pre
sent in his own person of that pure and
noly One who was to purify His people and
to cleanse them from their sins. But
respecting the meaning of the scapegoat,
we have no such light to guide us, and the
subject is one of great doubt and difficulty.
It has been generally considered that it was
dismissed to signify the carrying away of
the sins of the people, as it were, out of
the sight of Jehovah. If we keep in view
tiiat the two goats are spoken of as parts
of one and the same sin-offering, we shall
not have much difficulty in seeing that they
form together but one symbolical expres
sion ; the slain goat setting forth the act of
sacrifice, in giving up its own life fjr Dthers
" to Jehovah; " and the goat which carried
off its load of sin " for complete removal,"
as signifying the cleansing infiuence of faith
in that sacrifice.
At'roth, a city of Gad (Num. xxxii 35).
At'tai. 1. Grandson of Sheshan the
Jerahmeelite through his daughter Ahlai,
whom he gave in marriage to Jarha, liis
Egyptian slave (1 Chr, ii, 35, 36). His
grandson Zabad was one of David's mighty
men (1 Chr. xi. 41). 2. One of the lion-
faced warriors of Gad, captains of the host,
who forded the Jordan at the time of its
overflow, and joined David in the wilder
ness (1 Chr. xii. 11). 3, Second son of
king Rehoboam by Maachah the daughter
of Absalom (2 Chr, xi. 20).
Attali'a, a coast-town of Pamphylia,
mentioned Acts xiv. 25. It was built by
Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamus,
and named after the monarch. All its re
mains are characteristic of the date of its
foundation. Leake fixes Attalia at Adalia,
on the S. coast of Asia Minor, N. of the
Duden Su, the ancient Catarrhactes.
At'talus, the name of three kings of
I'ergamus who reigned respectively d. c.
211-197, 159-138 (Philadelphus), 138-133
(Philometor). It is uncertain whether tho
letters sent from Rome in favor of the Jews
(1 Maec. XV. 22) were addressed to Attalus
II. or Attalus III., as their date falls in
B. c. 139-8, about the time when the latter
succeeded his uncle.
Jiugus'tus Caes'ar, the flrst Roman
emperor. He was born a. tj. c. 691, b. c.
63. His father was Caius Octavius; his
mother Atia, daughter of Julia the sis
ter of C. Julius Caesar. He was princi
pally educated by his great-uncle Julius

Caesar, and was made his heir. After hw
murder, the young Octavius, then Cams
Julius Caesar Octavianus, was taken into
the Triumvirate with Antony and Lepilus,
and, after the removal of the latter, divided
the empire with Antony. The struggle for
the supreme power was terminated in fa
vor of Octavianus by the. battle of Actium,
B. c. 31. On this victory he was saluted
Imperator by the senate, who conferred on
him the title Augustus (b. c. 27). The first
link binding him to N. T. history is his
treatment of Herod after the battle of
Actium. That prince, who had espoused
Antony's side, found himself pardoned,
taken into favor and confirmed, nay even
increased in his power. After Herod's
death in A. d. 4, Augustus divided his
dominions almost exactly according to his
dying directions, among his sons. Augus
tus died in Nolain Campania, Aug. 19,
A. u. c. 767, A. D. 14,. in his 76th year ; but
long before his death he had associated
Tiberius with him in the empire.
Augustus' Band (Acts xxvii. 1).
[Army.] A'va, a place in the empire of Assyria, ¦3'
apparently the same as Ivah (2 K. xvii.
24). Av'aran, the surname of Eleazar, broth
er of Judas Maccabeus (1 Maec. ii. 5).
A'ven. 1. The "plain of Aven " is
mentioned by Amos (i. 5) in his denunciar
tion of Syria and the country to the N. of
Palestine. It has not been identified witii
certainty. 2. In Hos. x. 8 the word is
clearly an abbreviation of Bethaven, that
is, Bethel (comp. iv. 15, &c.), 3. The
sacred city of Heliopolis or On, in Egypt
(Ez.xxx. 17).
A'vim, A'vims, or A'vites, 1. A
people among the early inhabitants of Pal
estine, whom we meet with in the S. W.
corner of the sea-coast, wliither they may
have made their way northwards from the
Desert. The only notice of them which
has come down to us is contained in a
remarkable fragment of primeval history
preserved in Deut. ii. 23, It is a curious
fact that both the LXX, and Jerome iden
tified the Avvim with the Hivites. 2. The
people of Avva, among the colonists who
were sent by the king of Assyria to re-
inhabit the depopulated cities of Israel (2
K. xvii, 31),
A'vith, the city of Hadad ben-Bedad,
one of the kings of Edom before there were
kings in Israel (Gen. xxxvi. 35 ; 1 Chr. i.
46). A'wl, a tool of which we do not know
the ancient form. The only notice of it is
in connection with the custom of boring
tbe ear of the slave (Ex. xxi. 6 ; Deut. xv.
17). Axe. Seven Hebrew words are ren
dered " axe " in the A. V. : the one of most

AZ^

65

AZARIiH

common occurrence being Garzen, from a
root signifying "to cut or sever," as
" hatchet," from " hack," corresponds to
the Lat. securis. It consisted of a head of
iron (cf. Is. x. 34), fastened, with thongs
or otherwise, upon a handle of wood, and
so liable to slip off (Deut. xix. 5 ; 2 K. vi.
5). It was used for felling trees (Deut. xx.
19), and also for shaping the wood when

Egyptian Axe. (British Museum).
felled, perhaps like the modem adze (1 K.
vi. 7). The "battle-axe" {mappSts, Jer.
li. 20) was probably, as its root indicates, a
heavy mace or maul, like that which gave
his surname to Charles Martel.
A'zal, a name only occurring in Zech.
xiv. 5. It ia mentioned as the limit to
which the ravine of the Mount of Olives
will extend when " Jeliovah shall go forth
to fight."
Azali'ah, the father of Shaphan the
scribe in the reign of Josiah (2 K. xxii. 3 ;
2 Chr. xxxiv. 8).
Azani'ah, the father or immediate an
cestor of Jeshua the Levite in the time of
Nehemiah (Neh. x. 9).
Aza'rael, a Levite musician (Neh. xii.
36). Aza'reel. 1. A Korhite who joined
David in his retreat at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii.
6). 2. A Levite musician of the family of
Heman in the time of David, 1 Chr. xxv.
l» : called Uzziel in xxv. 4. . 3. Son of
Jeroham, and prince of the tribe of Dan
when David numbered the people (1 Chr.
xxvii. 22). 4. One of the sons of Bani,
who put away his foreign wife on the
remonstrance of Ezra (Ezr. x. 41). 5.
Father or ancestor of Maasiai, or Amashai,
a priest who dwelt in Jerusalem after the
return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 13, comp. 1
Chr. Lx. 12).
Azari'ah, « common name in Hebrew,
and especially in the families of the priests
of the line of Eleazar, whose name has
precisely the same meaning as Azariah.
It is nearly identical, and is often con
founded with Ezra as well as with Zerahiah
and Seraiah. The principal persons who
'oore this name were : 1. Sonof Ahimaaz (1
Chr. vi. 9). He appears from 1 K. iv. 2,
to have succeeded Zadok, his grandfather,
in the higli-priesthood, in the reign of Sol
omon, Ahimaaz having died before Zadok.
[Ahimaaz.] To him, it can scarcely be
doubted, instead of to his grandson, Aza
riah the son of Johanan, belongs the notice
in 1 Chr. vi. 10. Josephus merely men
tions Azarias as the son and successor of

Ahimaaz. 2. A chief officer of Solomon's,
the son of Nathan, perhaps David's grand
son (1 K. iv. 5). 3. Tenth king of Judah,
more frequently called Uzziah (2 K. xiv.
21, XV. 1, 6, 7, 8, 17, 23, 27; 1 Chr. iii. 12).
4. Son of Ethan, of the sons of Zerah,
where, perhaps, Zerahiah is the more prob
able reading (1 Chr. ii. 8). 5. Son of
Jehu of the family of the Jerahmeelites,
and descended from Jarha the Egyptian
slave of Sheshan (1 Chr. ii. 38, 39). He
was probably one of the captains of hun
dreds in the time of Athaliah mentioned in
in 2 Chr. xxiii. 1 ; and there called the son
of Obed. This fact assigns the compila
tion of the genealogy in 1 Chr. ii. 36-41 to
the reign of Hezekiah. 6. The son of Jo
hanan (1 Chr. vi. 10). He must have been
high-priest in the reigns of Abijah and Asa.
7. Another Azariah is inserted between
Hilkiah, in Josiiili's reign, and Saraiah who
was put to death by Nebuchadnezzar, in 1
Chr. vi. 13, 14. 8. Son of Zephaniah, a
Kohathite, and ancestor of Samuel the
prophet (1 Chr. vi. 36). Apparently the
same as Uzziah in ver. 24. 9. Azariah,
the son of Oded (2 Chr. xv. 1), called
simply Oded in ver. 8, was a, remarkable
prophet in the days of king Asa, and a
contemporary of Azariah the son of Jo
hanan the high-priest, and of Hanani the
seer. 10. Son of Jehoshaphat king of
Judah (2 Chr. xxi. 2). 11. Another son
of Jehoshaphat, and brother of the nro-
ceding (2 Chr. xxi. 2). 12. In 2 Chr.
xxii. 6, Azariah is a clerical error for Aha
ziah. 13. Son of Jeroham, one of the
captains of Judah in the time of Athaliah
(2 Chr. xxiii. 1). 14. The high-priest in
the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, whose
name, perhaps from this circumstance, is
often corrupted into Azariah (2 K. xiv. 21,
XV. 1, 6, 7, 8, &c.). The most memorable
event of his life is that which is recorded
in 2 Chr. xxvi. 17-20. When king Uzziah.
elated by his great prospfirity and power,
"transgressed against the Lord his God,
and went into the Temple of the Lord to
burn incense upon the altar of incense,"
Azariah the priest, accompanied by eighty
of his brethren, went in boldly after him,
and withstood him. Azariah was contem
porary with Isaiah the prophet, and with
Amos and Joel, and doubtless witnessed
the great earthquake in Uzziah's reign
(Am. i. 1; Zech. xiv. 5). 15. Son of Jo
hanan, one of the captains of Ephraim in
the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr. xxviii. 12), who
sent back the captives and spoil that were
taken in the invasion of Judah by Pekah.
16. A Kohathite, father of Joel in the
reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 12). 17.
A Merarite, son of Jehalelel, in the time of
Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 12). 18. The
high-priest in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr.
xxxi. 10, 13). He appears to have co-

AZXZ

66

AZZAN

operated zealously with, the king in that
thorough purification of the Temple and
restoration of the temple services which was
BO conspicuous a feature in his reign. He
succeeded Urijah, who was high-priest in
tbe reign of Ahaz. 19. Son of Maaseiah,
who repaired part of the wall of Jerusalem
in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 23, 24).
20. One of the leaders of the children of
the province who went up from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 7). 21. One
of the Levites who assisted Ezra in instruct
ing the people in the knowledge of tbe law
(Neh. viii. 7). 22. One of the priests who
staled the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
x. 2), and probably the same with the
Azariah who assisted in the dedication of
the city wall (Neb. xii. 33). 23. Jer. xliii.
2 (Jezaniah). 24. The original name
of Abed-nego (D.an. i. 6, 7, 11, 19). He
appears to have been of the seed-royal of
Judah. A'zaz, a Reubenite, father of Bela (1
Chr. V. 8).
Azazi'ah. 1. A Levite musician in the
reign of David, appointed to play the harp
in the service which attended the procession
by which the ark was brought up from the
house of Obed-edom (1 Chr. xv. 21). 2.
The father of Hoshea, prince of the tribe
of Ephraim when David numbered the peo
ple (1 Chr. xxvii. 20). 3. One of the Le
vites in the reign of Hezeki.ah, who had
charge of the tithes and dedicated things in
the Temple under Cononiah and Shimei (2
Chr. xxxi. 13).
Az'buk, father or ancestor of Nehe
miah the prince of part of Bethzur (Neh.
iii. 16).
Aze'kah, a town of Judah, with de
pendent villages, lying in the Shefelali or
rich agricultur.al plain. It is most clearly
defined as being near Shochoh (1 Sam.
xvii. 1) ; but its position has not yet been
. recognized. A'zel, a descendant of Saul (1 Chr. viii.
37, 38, ix. 43, 44).
A'zem, a city in the extreme south of
Judah (Josh. xv. 29), afterwards allotted to
Simeon (xix. 3). Elsewhere it is Ezem.
Az'gad, The children of Azgad, to the
number of 1222 (2322 according to Noh.
vii. 17), were among the laymen who re
turned with Zorobabel (Ezr. ii. 12). A
second detachment of 110, with Johanan at
their head, accompanied Ezra in the second
caravan (Ezr. viii. 12), With the other
heads of the people they joined in the cove
nant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 15).
Afziel, a Levite (1 Chr. xv. 20). The
name i? a shortened form of Jaaziel in
ver. 18.
Azi'za, a layman of the family of Zattu,
who had married a foreign wife after the re
turn from Babylon (Ezr. x. 27),
Az'maveth. 1. One of David's mighty

men, a n.ative of Bahurim (2 Sam. xxm, 31. ;
1 Chr, xi. 83), and therefore probably a
Benjamite. 2. A descendant of Mephil;f,.:i
osheth, or Merib-baal (1 Chr. viii. 36, ij, ¦
42). 3. The father of Jeziel and Pelet,
two of the skilled Benjamite slingers and,
archers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr.
xii. 3), perhaps identical with No. 1. 4,
Overseer of the royal treasures in the reign
of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 25).
Az'maveth, a place to all appearance
in Benjamin, being named with Anathoth,
Kirjath-Jearim, and other towns belonging
to that tribe. (Ezr. ii. 24). The name
elsewhere occurs as Beth- Azmaveth.
Az'mon, a place named as being on the
S. boundary of the Holy Land, apparently
near the torrent of Egypt ( Wadi el-Arish)
(Num. xxxiv. 4, 6 ; Josh. xv. 4). It has not
yet been identified.
Az'noth-ta'ber, the ears {i. e. possibly,
the summits) of Tabor, one of the land
marks of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh.
xix. 34). The town, if town it be, has
hitherto escaped recognition.
A'zor, son of Eliakim, in the line of our
Lord (Matt. i. 13, 14).
AZO'tUS. [AsHDOD.]
Az'riel. 1. The head of a house of
the half-tribe of Manasseh beyond Jordan,
a man of renown (1 Clir. v. 24). 2. A
Napbt,alite, ancestor of Jerimoth the head
of tho tribe at the time of David's census
(1 Chr. xxvii. 19). 3. The father of Se
raiah, an officer of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxri.
26). Az'rikam.. 1. A descendant of Zerub
babel, and son of Neariah of the royal line
of Judah (1 Chr. iii. 23). 2. Eldest son
of Azel, and descendant of Saul (1 Chr.
viii. 38, ix. 44). 3. A Levite, ancestor of
Shemaiah who lived in the time of Nehe
miah (1 Chr. ix. 14; Neh. xi.'16). 4. Gov
ernor of the house, or prefect of the palace,
to king Ahaz, who was shain by Zichri, an
Epbraimite hero, in the successful invasion
of the southern kingdom by Pekah king of
Israel (2 Chr. x-\viii. 7).
Azu bah. 1. "Wife of Caleb, son of
Hezron (1 Chr. ii. 18, 19). 2. Mother of
king Jehoshaphat (1 K. xxii. 42; 2 Chr.
XX. 31).
A'zur, properly Az'Zur. 1. A Ben
jamite of Gibeon, and father of Hananiah
the false prophet (Jer. xxviii. 1). 2. Fatlier
of Jaazaniah, one of tbe princes of the peo
ple against whom Ezekiel was commanded ^
to prophesy (Ez. xi. 1). -''
Az'zah. "The more accurate rendering;
of the name of the well-known iPhiUstino
city, Gaza (Deut. ii. 23 ; 1 K. iv. 24;. Jer.
xxv. 20).
Az'zan, the father of Paltiel prince of
the tribe of Issacbar, who represented his
tribe in the division of the promised land
(Nura. xxxiv. 26).

AZZTJR

'67

BAAL

Az'zur, one of the heads of the people
who signed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh. x. 17). The n.ame is probably that
of a family, aud in Hebrew is the same as
is elsewhere represented by Aznn.

B.
Ba'al. 1. A Reubenite, whose son or
descendant Beerah was carried off by the
invading army of Assyria under Tiglath-
Pileser (1 Chr. v. 5). 2. The son of Je
hiel, father or founder of Gibeon, by his wife
Maachah ; brother of Kish, and grandfather
of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 30, ix. 36).
Ba'al, the supreme male divinity of the
Phoenician and Canaanitish nations, as
Ashtoreth was their supreme female di
vinity. Both names have the peculiarity
of being used in the plural, and it seems
certain that these plurals designate not
statues of the divinities, but different modi
fications of the divinities themselves. The
plural Baalim is found frequently alone.
The word Baal is in Hebrew a common
noun of frequent occurrence, having the
meaning Lord, not so much, however, in
the sense, of Ruler as of Master, Owner,
Possessor. There can be no doubt of the
very high antiquity of tbe worship of Baal.
We find it established amongst the Moab
ites and their allies the Midianites in the
time of Moses (Num. xxii. 41), and through
these nations the Israelites were seduced
to the worship of this god under the par
ticular form of Baal -Peer (Num, xxv. 3-18 ;
Deut. iv. 3). Ih the times of the kings
the worship of Baal spread greatly, and
together with ihat of Asherah became the
religion of tbe court and people of the ten
tribes (1 K. xvi. 31-33, xviii. 19, 22). And
though this idolatry was occasionally put
down (2 K. iii. 2, x. 28) it appears never
to have been permanently abolished among
them (2 K. xvii. 16) . In the kingdom of
Judiih also B.aal-worship extensively pre
vailed. The worship of Baal amongst the
Jews seems to have been appointed with
much pomp and ceremoni.al. Temples
were erected to him (1 K, xvi. 32 ; 2 K.
xi. 18) ; his images were set up (2 K. x.
26;; bis altars were very numerous (Jer.
xi. 13), were erected particularly on lofty
eminences (1 K. xviii. 20), and on the
roofs of houses (Jer. xxxii. 29) ; there
were priests in great numbers (IK. xviii.
19), and of various classes (2 K. x. 19) ;
the worshippers appear to have been ar
rayed in appropriate robes (2 K. x. 22) ;
the worship was performed by burning in
cense (Jer. vii. 9) and offering burnt sacri
fices, which occasionally consisted of hu
man viitim^ (Jer. xix. 5). The officiating
priests lanced with frantic shouts around

the altar, and cut themselves with kniveii
to excite the attention and compassion of
the god (1 K. xviii. 26-28), Throughout
all the Phoenician colonies we continually
find traces of the worship of this god ; nor
need we hesitate to regard the Babylonian
Bel (Is. xlvi. 1) or Belus, as essentially
identical with Baal, though perhaps under
some modified form. Among the compounds
of Baal which appear in the 0. T. are : 1.
Ba'al-be'rith (Judg. viii. 33, ix. 4). Tha
name signifies the Covenant-Baal, the god
who comes into covenant with the wor
shippers. 2. Ba'al-ze'bub, worshipped
at Ekron (2 K. i. 2, 3, 16). The meaning
of the name is Baal or Lord of the fly.
The name occurs in the N. T. in the well-
known form Beelzebub, 3. Ba'al-iia'-
NAN, 1. The name of one of the early
kings of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 38, 39 ; 1 Chr.
i. 49, 60). 2. The name of one of David's
officers, who had the superintendence of
his olive and sycamore plantations (1 Chr,
xxvii. 28). 4. Ba'al-pe'ob. We have
already referred to the worship of this god.
The narrative (Num. xxv.) seems clearly
to show that this form of Baal-worship was '
connected with licentious rites. Baal-Peor
was identified by the Rabbins and early
fathers with Priapus.
Baal, geographical. This word occurs
as the prefix or suffix to the names of sev
eral places in Palestine. It never seems
to have become a naturalized Hebrew
word ; and such places called by this name
or its compounds as can be identified, were
either near Plioenicia, or in proximity to
some other acknowledged seat of heathen
worship. Some of the places in the names
of which Baal forms a p.art are as follows :
— 1. Ba'al, a town of Simeon, named only
in 1 Chr. iv. 33, wliich from the parallel
list in Josh. xix. seems to have been iden
tical with Baalatii-Beer. 2. Ba'alah.
(a.) Another name for Kirjath-Jeari.m,
or Kirjath-Baal, the well-known town,
now Kuriet el Enab. It is mentioned in
Josh. XV. 9, 10; 1 Chr. xiii. 6. Li Josh.
XV. 11, it is called Mount Baalah, and in
XV, 60, and xviii. 14, Kirjath-Baal. It
would seem as if Baalah were the earlier
or Canaanite appellation of the place. In
2 Sam. vi. 2, the name occurs slightly al
tered as "Baale of Judah." (5.) A town
in the south of Judah (Josh. xv. 29), which
in xix. 3 is callek Balah, and in the paral
lel list (1 Chr. iv. 29) Bilhah. 3. Ba'al-
ATH, a town of Dan named with Gibbethon,
Gath-rinimon, and other Philistine places
(Josh, xix. 44), 4. Ba'alath-be'er =
Baal 1, a town among those in the south
part of Judah, given to Simeon, which also
bore the name of Ramath-negeb, or " the
height ofthe South "(Josh, xix, 8). 5. Ba'-
At.-GAD, used to denote the most northern
(Josh, xi, 17, xii, 7), or perhaps north-

BAALAH

68.

BABEL, EABTL.OK

vestern (xiii. 5), point to which Joshua's
victories extended. It was in all probabil
ity a Phoenician or Canaanite sanctuary
of Baal under the aspect of Gad, or For
tune, 6. Ba'ai.-ha'mon, a place at which
Solomon had a vineyard, evidently of great
extent (Cant, viii.' 11). 7. Ba'al-ha'zor,
a place "by Ephraim," where Absalom
appears to have had a sheep-farm, and
where Amnon was murdered (2 Sam. xiii.
23), 8. Mount Ba'al-heb'mon (Judg.
iii. 3), and simply Baal-hermon (1 Chr, v.
23), This is usually considered as a dis
tinct place from Mount Hermon ; but we
know that tliis mountain had at least three
names (Deut. iii. 9), and Baal-hermon may
have been a fourth in use among the Phoe
nician worshippers of Baal, 9. Ba'al-me'-
ON, one of the towns which were built by
ihe Reubenites (Num. xxxii. 38), and to
which they " gave other names." It also
occurs in 1 Chr. v. 8, and on each occasion
with Nebo. In the time of Ezekiel it was
Moabite, one of the cities which were the
"glory ofthe country" (Ez. xxv, 9), 10.
Ba'al-per'azim, the scene of a victory of
David over the Philistines, and of a great
destruction of their images (2 Sam. v, 20 ;
1 Chr, xiv, 11), The place and the cir
cumstance appear to be again alluded to in
Is. xxviii. 21, where it is called Mount P.
11. Ba'al-shal'isha, a place named only
in 2 K. iv. 42 ; apparently not far from Gil
gal (comp, ver, 38). 12, Ba'al-ta'mar,
a place named only in Judg. xx. 33, as near
Gibeah of Benjamin. The palm-tree {td-
mdr) of Deborah (iv. 5) was situated some
where in J;he locality, and is possibly alluded
to. 13. Ba'al-ze'phon, a place in Egypt
near where the Israelites crossed the Red
Sea (Ex, xiv, 2, 9 ; Num, xxxiii, 7), From
the position of Goshen and the indications
afforded hj the narrative of the route of the
Israelites, we place Baal-zephon on the
western shore of the Gulf of Suez, a little
below its head, which at that time was
about 30 or 40 miles northward of the pres
ent head.
Ba'alah. [Baal, No. 2.]
Ba'alath. [Baal, Nos. 3, 4.]
Ba' ale of Judah. [Baal, No, 2, a.]
Ba'ali (Hos, ii, 16), [Baal,]
Ba'alim. [Baal.]
Ba'alis, king of the Ammonites at the
time of the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer, xl. 14),
Ba'ana. 1. The son of Ahilud, Solo
mon's commissariat officer in Jezreel and
the north of the Jordan valley (1 K. iv. 12).
2. Father of Zadok, who .assisted in re
building the wall of Jerusalem under Ne
hemiah (Neh. iii. 4),
Ba'anah, 1. Sonof Rimmou.aBenja-
mite who with his brother Rechab mur
dered Ishbosheth. For this they were
killed by David, and their mutUated bodies

hung up t ver the pool at Hebron (2 Sam.-
iv, 2, 5, 6, 9), 2, A Netopbalhife, father
of Holeb or Heled, one of David's mighty
men (2 Sam, xxiii. 29; 1 Chr. xi. 30). 3.
Accurately Baana, son of Hushai, Solomon's
commissariat officer in Asher (1 K. iv. 16).
4. A mail who accompanied Zorobabel on
his return from the captivity (Ezr. ii. 2;
Neh. vii. 7). Possibly the same person is
intended in Neh, x, 27,
Ba'ara, one of the wives of Sharahaim,
a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chr, viii, 8),
Baasei'ah, a Gershonite Levite, one of
the forefathers of Asaph the singer (1 Chr,
vi, 40 [25]),
Ba'asha, b. c. 953-931, third sovereign
of the separate kingdom of Israel, and the
founder of its second dynasty. He was
son of Aliijah of the tribe of Issachar, and
conspired against king Nadab, son of Jero
boam, when he was besieging the Philistine
town of Gibbethon (1 K, xv, 27), and killed
him with his whole family. He appears to
have been of humble origin (1 K, xvi. 2).
It was probably in the 13tli year of his reign
that he made war on Asa, and began to for
tify Ramah. He was defeated by the un
expected alliance of Asa with Bcnhadad I.
of Damascus. Baasha died in the 24th
year of his reign, and was honorably buried'
in the beautiful city of Tirzah (Cant, vi. 4),
which he had made his capital (1 K, xvi.
G; 2 Chr. xvi. 1-6).
Ba'bel, Bab'ylon, is properly the capi
tal city of the country, which is called in
Genesis Shinar, and in the later books Chal
daea, or the land ofthe Chaldaeans. The ar
chitectural remains discovered in Southern
Babylonia, taken in conjunction with the
monumental records, seem to indicate that
it was not at first the capital, nor, indeed, a
town of very great importance. The first
rise of the Chaldaean power was in the re
gion close upon the Persian Gulf; thence
the nation spread northwiirds up the course
of the rivers, and the seat of government
moved in the same direction, being finally
fixed at Baby Ion,. perhaps not earlier than
B. c. 1700. 1. Topography of Babylon —
Ancient descriptions ofthe city. — 'The de
scriptions of Babylon which have come
down to us in classical writers are derived
chiefly from two sources, the works of He
rodotus and of Ctesias, According to the
former, the city, which was built on both
sides of the Euphrates, formed a vast
square, enclosed within a double line of
high walls, the extent of the outer circuit
being 480 stades, or about '56 miles. The
entire area included would thus have been
about 200 square miles. The houses, which
were frequently three or four stories liigh,
were laid out in straight streets crossiiig
each other at right angles. In each divis
ion of the town there was a fortress ot
stronghold, consisting in the one case of

BABEL, BABYLON

69

BABEL, BABIXON

the royal palace, in the other of the great
temple of Belus. The two portions of the
city were united by a bridge, composed of
¦ a series of stone piers with movable plat
forms of wood stretching from one pier to
another. According to Ctesias the circuit
of the city was not 480 but 360 stades, —
which is a little under 42 miles. It lay, he
says, on both sides of the Euphrates, and
the two parts were connected together by a
stone bridge five stades (above 1000 y.ards)
long, and 30 fteet broad, of the kind de
scribed by Herodotus. At either extremity
of the bridge was a royal palace, that in the
eastern city being the more magnificent of
the two. The two palaces were joined, not
only by the bridge, but by a tunnel under
the river I Ctesias' account of the temple
of Belus has not come down to us. In ex
amining the truth of these descriptions, we
shall most conveniently commence from
the outer circuit of the town. All the an
cient writers appear to agree in the fact of
a district of vast size, more or less inhab
ited, having been enclosed within lofty
walls, and included under the name of
Babylon. With respect to the exact extent
of the circuit they differ. The estimate of
Herodotus and of Pliny is 480 stades, of
Strabo 385, of Q. Curtius 368, of Clitarchus
365, and of Ctesias 360 stades. It is evi
dent that here we have merely the moder
ate variations to be expected iu independent
measurements, except in the first of the
numbers. Perhaps the true explanation is
that Herodotus spoke of the outer wall,
which could be traced in bis time. Taking
the lowest estimate of the extent of the
circuit, we shall have for the space witliin
the rampart an area of above 100 square
miles ; nearly five times the size of Lon
don! It is evident that this vast space
cannot have been entirely covered with
houses. With regard to the height and
breadth of the walls there is nearly as much
difference of statement as with regard to
their extent. The gates and walls are alike
mentioned in Scripture ; the height of the
one and the breadth of the other being
specially noticed (Jer. li. 58; comp. 1. 16,
audli. 53). II. Present siate of the ruins.
— About five miles above Hilah, on the
opposite or left bank of the Euphrates, oc
curs a series of artificial mounds of enor
mous size. They consist chiefly of three
great masses of building, — the high pile
of unbaked brickwork called by Rich ' Mu-
jellibe,' but which is known to the Arabs as
'Babil;' the building' denominated the
. ' Kasr ' or palace ; and a lofty mound, upon
which stands the modern tomb of Amram-
ibn-'Mb. On the west, or right bank, the
remains are very slight and scanty. Scat
tered over the country on both sides of the
Euphrates, are a number of remarkable
moi'uds usually standing single, which are

plainly of the same date with the great mass
of ruins upon the river bank. Of these, by
far the most striking is the vast ruin called
the Birs-Nimrud, which many regard as
the tower of Babel, situated about six miles
to the S. W. of Hillah; [Babel, Towfr
OP.] III. Identification of sites. — Tlie
great mound of Babil is probably th(! an
cient temple of Belus. T'he mound of (he
Kasr marks the site of the great Palace of
Nebuchadnezzar. The mound of Amrdm
is thought by M. Oppert to represent the
" hanging gardens " of Nebuchadnezzar ;
but most probably it represeuls the ancient
palace, coeval with Babylon itself, of which
Nebuchadnezzar speaks in his inscriptions
as adjoining his own more magnificent res
idence. The most remarkable fact con
nected with the magnificence of Babylorf,
is the poorness of the material with which
such wonderful results were produced.
With bricks made from the soil of the coun
try, in many parts an excellent clay, and at
first only " slime for mortar" (Gen. xi. 3),
were constructed edifices of so vast a size
that they still remain among the most enor
mous ruins in the world. IV. History of
Babylon. — Scripture represents 'the "be
ginning of -the kingdom " as belonging to
the time of Nimrod, the- grandson of Ham
(Gen. X. 6-10). The most ancient inscrip
tions appear to show that the primitive in
habitants ofthe country were really Cushite,
i. e. identical in race with the early inhab
itants of Southern Arabia and of Etliiopia.
The early annals of Babylon are filled by
Berosus, the native historian, with three
dynasties ; one of 49 Chaldean Icings, who
reigned 458 years ; another of 9 Arab kings,
who reigned 245 years ; and a third of 49
Assyrian monarchs, who held dominion for
52G years. The line of Babylonian kings
becomes exactly known to us from the year
B. c. 747. The "Canon of Ptolemy" gives
us the succession of Babylonian monarchs,
with the exact length of the reign of each,
from the year b. c. 747, when Nabonassar
mounted the throne, to B. c. 331, when the
last Persian king was dethroned by Alex
ander. Of the earlier kings of the Canon,
the only one worthy of notice is Mardocem-
palus (b. c. 721), the Meeodach-Baladan
of Scripture, but it is not till we come tb
Nabopolassar, the father of Nebuchadnez
zar, that a new era in the history of Baby
lon commences. On the fall of Nineveh
(b. c. 625) Babylon became not only an
independent kingdom, but an empire. The
city was taken by fi surprise (b. c. 539), as
Jeremiah had prophesied (li. 31), by an
army of Modes and Persians under Cyrus,
as intimated 170 years earlier by Isaiah
(xxi. 1-9), and, as Jeremiah had also fore
shown (li. 39), during a festival. Accord
ing to the book of Daniel, it would seem as
if Babylon was taken, FOt by Cyrus, king

BABEL, TOWER OF

70

BACA

of Persia, but by a Median king, named
Darius (v, 31), There is, however, suffi
cient indication that "Darius the Mede"
was not the real conqueror, but a monarch
trith a certai n delegated autliority (see Dan.
V. 31, and ix. 1), With the conquest by
Cyrus commenced the decay and ruin of
Babylon, though it continued a royal resi
dence through the entire period of the Per
sian empire. The defences and public
buildings suffered grievously from neglect
during the long period of peace which fol
lowed tho reign of Xerxes. After tlie death
of Alexander the Great, the removal ofthe
seat of empire ts Antioch under the Seleu-
cidae gave the finislung blow to the pros
perity of the place. Since then Babylon
has been a quarry from which all the tribes
in the vicinity have derived the bricks with
which they have built their cities. The
"gre.at city," "the beauty ofthe Chaldees'
excellency," has thus emphatically "be
come heaps" (Jer. li. 37).
Ba'bel, Tower of. The "tower of
Babel " is only mentioned once in Scripture
(Gen. xi. 4, 5), and then as incomplete. It
was built of bricks, and the " slime " used
for mortar was probably bitumen. Sucli
authorities as we possess represent the
building as destroyed soon after its erec
tion. When the Jews, however, were car
ried captive into Babylonia, they were
struck -with the vast magnitude and peculiar
character of certain of the Babylonian tem
ples, in one or other of wliich they thought
to recognize the very tower itself. The pre
dominant opinion was in favor of the great
temple of Nebo at Borsippa, the modern
Birs-Nimrud. But the Birs-Nimrud,
though it cannot be the tower of Babel itself,
may well be taken to show the probable shape
and character ofthe edifice. This building
appears to have been a sort of oblique pyr
amid built in seven receding stages. "Upon
a platform of crude brick, raised a few feet
above the level of the alluvial plain, was
built of burnt brick the first or basement
stage, — an exact square, 272 feet each
way, and 26 feet in perpendicular height.
Upon this stage w.as erected a second, 230
feet each way, and likewise 26 feet high;
whi=h, however, was not placed exactly in
_the middle of the first, but considerably-
nearer to the south-western end, which con
stituted the back of the building. The other
stages were arranged similarly; the third
being 188 feet, and again 26 feet high ; the
fourth, 146 feet square, and 15 feet high ;
the fifth 104 feet square, and the same
height as the fourth; the sixth 62 feet
square, aud again the same height ; and the
seventh 20 feet square, and once more the
same height. On the seventh st<age there
was probably placed the ark or tabernacle,
which seems to have been again 15 feet
high, and mutt have nearly, if not entirely,

covered the top of the seventh story. Tlie
entire original height, allowing three feet for
the platform, would thus have been 156 feet,
or, without the platform, 153 feet. The
whole formed a sort of oblique pyramid, the
gentler slope facing the N. E., and the
steeper inclining to the S, W, On the
N. E. side was the grand entrance, and here i
stood the vestibule, a separate building, the
debris from which having joined those from
the temple itself, fill up the intermediate
space, and very remarkably prolong the
mound in this direction " (Rawlinson's Ee-
rodotus, vol. ii. pp. 582-3).
Bab'ylon. 'The occurrence of this
name in 1 Pet, v, 13 has given rise to a
variety of conjectures, which may be briefly
enumerated. — 1. That Babylon tropically
denotes Rome, — 2. Some take Babylon,
with as little reason, to mean Jerusalem. —
3. Bar-Hebraeus understands by it the
house in Jerusalem where the Apostles
were assembled on the Day of Pentecost. —
4. Others placo it on the Tigris, and iden
tify it with Seleucia or Ctesiphon, bat for
this there is no evidence. The two theories
which remain are worthy of more consid
eration. — 6. That by Babylon is intended '
the small fort of that name which formed
the boundary between Upper and Lower
Egypt, the moderii Baboul. — 6. The most
natural supposition of all is that by Baby
lon is intended the old Babylon of Assyria,
which was largely inhabited by Jews at the
time in question,
Bab'ylon, in the Apocalypse, is the
symbolical name by which Rome is denoted
(Rev, xiv. 8, xvii., xviii.). The powier of
Rome- was regarded by the Later Jews as
that of Babylon by their forefathers (comp.
Jer. ii. 7 with Rev. xiv. 8), and hence,
whatever the people of Israel be under
stood to symbolize, Babylon represents the
antagonistic principle.
Bataylo'nia,ns, the inhabitants of Bab
ylon, a race of Sheniitic origin, who were
among the colonists planted in the cities of
Samaria by the conquering Assyrians (Ezr.
iv. 9).
Babylonish Garment, literally 'robe
of Shinar' (Josh, vii. 21), An ample roi le,
probably made of the skin or fur of an
animal (comp. Gen. xxv, 25), and orna
mented with embroidery, or perhaps a
variegated garment with figures inwoven in
the fashion for which the Babylonians were
celebrated. Ba'ca, The Valley of, a valley in
P.alestine, through which the exiled Psalm
ist sees in vision the pilgrims passing in
their m.arch towards the sanctuary of Jeho
vah at Zion (Ps. Ixxxiv. 6). That it was a
real locality is most probable, from the use
of the definite article before the name.
'fhe rendering of the Targum is Gehenna,
i. e. the Ge-Hinnom or ravine below Mount

BACCHIDES

71

BALAAM

Jjion. This locality agrees well with the
mention of Becalm (A, V, " mulberry ")
trees in 2 Sam, v, 23.
Bao'chides, a friend of Antiochus
Epiphanes and governor of Mesopotamia
(1 Maec, vii. 8), who was commissioned by
Demetrius Soter to investigate the charges
which Alcimus preferred against Judas
Maceabaeus. Bach'rites, The, the family of Becher,
ion of Ephraim (Num. xxvi. 35),
Badger-Skins, There is much ob-
Bcuritjs as to the meaning of the word
tachash, rendered "badger" in our A, V,
(Ex, xxv, 5, xxxv. 7, &c,) ; the ancient
versions seem nearly all agreed that it
denotes not an animal, but a color, either
black or sky-blue. The badger is not
found in the Bible lands. The Arabic
duchash or tuchash denotes a dolphin, but
in all probability is not restricted in its
application, but may refer to either a seal
or a cetacean. The skin of the Ualicore
from its hardness would be well suited for
making soles for shoes (Ez. xvi. 10), and
it is worthy of remark that the Arabs near
Cape Mussendum employ the skins of these
animals for a similar purpose. The Uali
core Tabernaculi is found in the Red Sea,
and on the coral banks of the Abyssinian
coast. Perhaps, however, tachash may
denote a seal, the skin of which animal
would suit all the demands of tlie Scrip
tural allusions.
Bag is the rendering of several words
iu the Old and New Testaments. 1. Chdr-
ttlm, the " bags " in which Naaman bound
up the two talents of silver for Gehazi (2
K. V. 23). The word only occurs besides
in Is. iii. 22, and there denotes the reticules
carried by the Hebrew ladies. 2, Cis, a
bag for carrying weights (Deut. xxv, 13 ;
Prov. xvi. 11 ; Mic. vi. 11), also used as a
purse (Prov. i. 14; Is. xlvi. 6). 3. Celt,
in Gen. xiii. 25, is the "sack" in which
Jacob's sons carried the corn which they
brought from Egypt, and in 1 Sam. ix. 7,
xxi. 6, it denotes a bag, or wallet, for carry
ing food. The shepherd's "bag" which
Divid had seems to have been worn by him
as necessary to his calling, and was prob.a-
bly, from a comparison of Zech. xi. 15, 16
(where A. V. "instruments" is the same
word), for the purpose of carrying tbe
lambs which -were unable to walk or were
lost, and contained materials for healing
such as were sick and binding up those
that were broken (comp. Ez. xxxiv. 4, 16).
4. Tsc. tr, properly a " bundle " (Gen. xiii.
85; 1 Sam. xxv. 29), appears to have been
used by travellers for carrying money dur
ing a long journey (Prov. vii. 20; Hag. i.
6 ; comp. Luke xii. 33) . The ' ' bag " which
Judas carried was probably a small box or
chest (John xii. 6, xiii. 29). The Greek
•trord is tlie same as that used in the

LXX. for "chest" in 2 Chr. xxiv. 8, 10,
11. Baha'rumite, The. [Bahurim.]
Bahu'rim, a village, the slight notices
remaining of which connect it almost
exclusively with the flight of David (2 Sam.
xvi. 5), It was apparently on, or close to
the road leading up from the Jordan valley
to Jerusalem, and must have been very
near the south boundary of Benjamin. Dr,
Barclay conjectures that it lay where some
ruins still exist close to a Wady Ruwaby,
which runs in a straight course for 3 miles
from Olivet directly towards Jordan.
Ba'jith (" the house "), referring to the
" temple " of the false gods of Moab, as
opposed to the " high places " in the same
sentence (Is. xv. 2, and compare xvi. 12).
Baktaak'kar, a Levite, apparently a
descendant of Asaph (1 Chr. ix. 15).
Bak'buk. "Children of Bakbuk "
were among the Nethinim who returned
from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii, 51 ;
Neh. vii. 53).
Bakbuki'ah. 1. A Levite iu time of
Nehemiah (Neh. xi. 17; xii. 9). 2. ALe
vite porter, apparently the same as the
preceding (Neh. xii. 25).
Ba'laam, the son of Beor, a man en
dowed with the gift of prophecy (Num,
xxii. 5). He belonged to the Midianites,
and perhaps as the prophet of his people
possessed the same authority that Moses
did among the Israelites, At any rate he
is mentioned in conjunction with the five
kings of Midian, apparently as a person of
the same rank (Num. xxxi. 8 ; cf, xxxi,
16). He seems to liiive lived at Petlior,
which is said at Deut. xxiii, 4 to have been
a city of Mesopotamia. He himself speaks
of being " brought from Ar.am out of the
mountains of the East" (Num. xxiii. 7).
Balaam is one of those instances which
meet us in Scripture of persons dwelling
among heathens but possessing a certain
knowledge of the one true God. When
the Israelites were encamped in the plains
of Moab, Balak, the 'king of Moab, sent
for Balaam to curse them. Balaam was
prohibited by God from going. The king
of Moab, however, sent again to him. The
prophet again refused, but was at length
allowed to go. Balaam therefore proceeded
on his journey with the messi-ngers of
Balak. But God's anger was kindled at
tliis manifestation of determined self-will,
and the angel of the Lord siood in the way
for an adversary against him. " The dumb
ass, speaking with man's voice, forbade the
madness of the prophet" (2 Pet. ii. 16).
Balaam predicted a magnificent career for
the people whom he was called to curse,
but he nevertheless suggested to the Moab
ites the expedient of seducing them to com
mit fornication. The effect of this is
recorded in ch. xxv. A battle was after*

BALAC

72

BAPTISM

wards fought against the Midianites, in
which Balaam sided with them ^nd was
slain by the sword of the people whom he
had endeavored to curse (Num. xxxi. 8).
Ba'lac, Rev. ii. 14. [Balak.]
Bal'adan. [Merodach-Baladan.]
Ba'lah, Josh. xix. 3. [Baal, Geogr.
No. 2, 6.]
Ba'lak, son of Zippor, king ofthe Moab
ites, at the time when the children of Is
rael were bringing their journeyings in the
wilderness to a close. Bal.ak entered into
a league with Midiiin and hired Balaam to
curse the Israelites ; but his designs were
frustrated in the manner recorded in Num.
xxii. -xxiv.
Bal'amo. [Baal, Geogr. No. 6.]
Baldness. There are two kinds of
baldness, viz. .artificial and natural. The
latter seems to have been uncommon, since
it exposed people to public derision, and is
perpetually alluded to as a mark of squalor
and misery (2 K. ii. 23 ; Is. iii. 24, xv. 2 ;
Jer. xlvii. 5; Ez. vii. 18, &c.) In Lev.
xiii. 29, &c., very careful directions are
given to distinguish "the plague upon the
head and beard " from mere natural bald
ness which is pronounced to be clean, ver.
40, Artificial baldness marked the conclu
sion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts xviii. 18 ;
Num, vi. 9), and was a sign of mourning.
Balm (Heb. tziri, izlri) occurs in Gen.
xxxvii. 25, xliii. 11; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. 11,
li. 8 ; and Ez. xxvii. 17. It is impossible
to identify it with any certainty. It may
represent the gum of the Pistacia lentiscus,
or that of the Balsamodendron opobalsa-
mum. [Spices; Mastick.] Hasselquist
has given a description of the true balsam-
tree of Mecca. He says that the exudation
from the plant "is of a yellow color,
and pellucid. It has a most fragrant
smell, which is resinous, balsamic, and
very agreeable. It is very tenacious or
glutinous, sticking to the fingers, and may
be drawn into long threads."
Ba'mah (lit. "high-place"). This
word appears in its Hebrew form only in
one passage (Ez. xx. 29), very obscure,
and full of the play upon words so dear to
the Hebrew , poets, so difficult for us to
appreciate : "What is the high-'place. where-
unto ye hie f and the name of it is called
Bamah unto this day."
Ba'moth-Ba'al, a sanctuary of Baal in
the country of Moab (Josh. xiii. 17), which
is probably mentioned in Num. xxi. 19,
under tbe shorter form of Bamoth, or Ba-
moth-in-the-ravine (20), and again in Is.
XV. 2.
Ba'ni. 1. A G.adite, one of David's
mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 86). 2. A Le
vite of the line of Merari, and forefather to
Ethan (1 Chr. vi. 46). 3. A man of Judah
of the hue of Pharez (1 Chr. ix. 4). 4.
••Children of Bani" returned from cap

tivity with Zerv^bbabel (Ezr. ii. 10 ; Neh.
X. 14; Ezr. x. 29, 84; 1 Esd. v. 12).
[BiNNUi, Mani.] 5. An Isra9lite " of th'e
sons of Bani" (Ezr. x. 38). 6. A Levite
(Neh. iii. 17). 7. A Levite (Neh. viii. 7;
ix. 4, 5 ; X. 13). 8. Another Levite, of
the sons of Asaph (Neh. xi. 22).
BancLuets, among the Hebrews, were
not only a means of social enjoyment, but
were a part of the observance of religious
festivity. At the three solemn festivals the
family also had its domestic feast (Deut.
xvi. 11). Probably both males andifemales
went up (1 Sam. i. 9) together, to hold
tbe festival. Sacrifices, both ordinary and
extraordinary (Ex. xxxiv. 15 ; Judg. xvi.
23), included a banquet, and Eli's sons
made this latter the prominent part. Birth
day-banquets are only mentioned in the
cases of Pharaoh and Herod (Gen. xl.
20 ; Matt. xiv. 6). Tbe usual time of the
banquet was the evening, and to begin early
was a mark of excess (Is. v. 11 ; Eccl. x.
16). The most essential materials ofthe
banqueting-room, next to the viands and
wine, which last was often drugged with
spices (Prov. ix. 2; Cant. viii. 2), were
perfumed unguents, garlands or loose fiow-
ers, white or brilliant robes; after these,
exhibitions of music, singers, and dancers,
riddles, jesting and merriment (Is. xxviii.
1 ; "Wisd. ii. 7 ; 2 Sam. xix. 35 ; Is. xxv. 6,
V. 12; Judg. xiv. 12; Neh. viii. 10; Ecd.
X. 19; Matt. xxii. 11; Am. vi. 5, 6; Luke
XV. 25). The posture at table in early
times was sitting (1 Sam. xvi. 11, xx. 5,
18), aud the guests were ranged in order of
dignity (Gen. xliii. 33 ; 1 Sam. ix. 22) : the
words which imply the recumbent posture
belong to the N. T. The separation of the
women's banquet was not a Jewish custom
(Esth. i. 9).
Baptism. I. It is well known that
ablution or batliing was common in meet
ancient nations as a preparation for prayers
and sacrifice or as expiatory of sin. There
is a natural connection in the mind bet^veen
the thought of physical and that of sphit-
ual pollution. In warm countries tliis con
nection is probably even closer than in
colder climates ; and hence the frequency
of ablution in the religious rites through
out the east. II. The history of Israel
and the Law of Moses abound with such
lustrations (Gen. xxxv. 2- Ex. xix. 10;
Lev. XV., xvii. 15, xxii. 4, 6, xvi. 26, 28;
Num. xix. 10). It was natural, that of all
people, the priests most especially should
be required to purify themselves in this
manner. The consecration of the liigh-
priest leserves especial notice. It wiia
first by baptism, then by unction, and lastly
by sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 4, xl. 12 ; Lev. viii.)
From the Gospel history we learn that at
that time ceremonial wasnings had been
greatly multipHf \ by traditv.jns of the doo

BAPTISM

73

BAPTISM

tors and elders (see Mark vii. 3, 4). The
_^most important and probably one of the
earliest of these traditional customs was
the baptizing of proselytes. III. The
baptism of John. — These usages of the
Jews will account for the readiness with
which all men fiocked to the baptism of
John tbe Baptist. There has been some
ULcertaimy as to the nature of John's bap
tism and its spiritual significance. It ap
peal h to have been a kind of transition
from the Jewish baptism to the Christian,
The distinction between John's baptism and
Christian baptism appears in the case
of Apollos (Acts xviii, 26, 27), and of the
disciples at Ephesus, mentioned Acts xi.x.
1-6. We cannot but draw from this his
tory the inference that in Christian baptism
there was a deeper spiri'cual significance.
IV. The Baptism of Jesus. — Plainly the
most important action of John as a baptist
was bis baptism of Jesus, which was His
formal setting apart for' His ministry, and
was a most Important portion of His con
secration to be the High Priest of God. He
was just entering on the age of thirty (Luke
iii. 23), the age at which the Levites began
tl'.eir ministry and the rabbis their teaching.
It has already been mentioned that the
consecration of Aaron to the high-priest
hood was by baptism, unction, and sacrifice
(see Lev. viii.). All these were undergone
by Jesus. Baptism was the beginning of
ecasecration ; unction was the immediate
consequent upon the baptism ; and sacri
fice was the completion of the initiation,
so that He was thenceforth perfected, or
fully consecrated as a Priest for evermore
" (Heb. vii. 28). V. Baptism of the Dis
ciples of Christ. — Whether our Lord f ver
baptized has been doubted. The only pas
sage which may distinctly bear on the
questicm is John iv. 1, 2, where it is said
" that Jesus made .and baptized more dis
ciples than John, though Jesus Himself
baptized not, but His disciples." We neces
sarily infer from it, that, as soon as our
Lord began His ministry, and gathered to
Him a company of disciples. He, like John
the Baptist, admitted into that company by
the administration of baptism. After the
resurrection, baptism became the initiatory
rite of the Christian Church, as circumcis
ion was the initiatory rite of Judaism. VI.
The Types of Baptism. — Baptism is com
pared to the Flood by which Noah was
saved (1 Pet. iii. 21) ; to the passage of
the Red Sea and the shadowing of the mi
raculous cloud (1 Cor. X. 1, 2) ; to circum
cision (Col. ii. 11) ; and to ileatb (Matt. xx.
22; Mark x. 39; Luke xii. 50). VII.
Names of Baptism. 1. "Baptism" prop
erly and literally means immersion. 2.
"The Water" is a name of baptism which
occurs in Acts x. 47. 3. "Washing of
Water " flit. " the bajih ofthe water") is

another Scriptural term, by which baptism
is signified (Eph. v. 26). There appears
clearly in these words a referenci! to the
bridal bath ; but the allusion to baptism is
clearer still. 4. " The washing of regen
eration" (lit. " the bath of regeneration ")
is a phrase naturally connected with the
foregoing. It occurs Tit. iii. 5. All an
cient and most modern commentators have
interpreted it of baptism. 5. " Illumina
tion" (Heb. vi. 4). VIII. Recipients of
Baptism. — The command to baptize was
co-extensive with the command to preach
the Gospel. All nations were to be evan
gelized; and they were to be made disci
ples, admitted into the fellowship of Christ's
religion, by baptism (Matt, xxviii. 19).
The great question has been, whether the
invitation extended, not to adults only, but
to infants also. The universality of the
invitation, Christ's declaration concerning
the blessedness of infants and their fitness
for his kingdom (Mar. x. 14), the admis
sion of infants to circumcision and to the
baptism of Jewish proselytes, the mention
of whole households, and the subsequent
practice of the Church, have been princi
pally relied on- by the advocates of infant
baptism. Th'e silence of the New Testa
ment concerning the baptism of infants, the
constant mention of faith as a pre-requisite
or condition of baptism, the great spiritual
blessings which seem attached to a right
reception of it, and the responsibility en
tailed on tliose who have taken its obliga
tions on themselves, seem the chief ob
jections urged against paedo-baptism. But
here we must leave ground which has been
so extensively occupied by controversial
ists. IX. The mode of Baptism. — The
language of the New Testament and of the
primitive fathers sufficiently points to im
mersion as the common mode of baptism.
But in the case of the family of the jailer
at Philippi (Acts xvi. 33), and of the three
thousand converted at Pentecost (Acts ii.),
it seems hardly likely that immersion should
have been possible. Moreover the ancient
Church, which mostly adopted immersion,
was satisfied with effusion in case of clini
cal baptism — the baptism of the sick and
dying. — Questions and Answers. — In tho
earliest times of the Christian Church we
find the catechumens required to renounce
the Devil and to profess their faith in the
Holy Trinity and in the principal articles
of the Creed. It is generally supposed
that St. Peter (1 Pet. iii. 21) refers to a
custom of this kind as existing from the
flrst. X. The formula of Baptism. — It
should seem from our Lord's own direction
(Matt, xxviii. 19) that the words made use
of in the administration of baptism should
be those which the Church has generally
retained. XI. Baptism for ihe Dead. —
1 Cor. XV. 27. "Else what shall they

BARABBAS

74

BARTHOX.OMEW

do who are baptized for the dead, if the dead
rise not at all ? Why are they then bap
tized for the dead ? " 1. TertuUian tells us
of a custom of vicarious baptism as exist
ing among the Marcionites ; and St. Chrys-
ostom relates of the same heretics, that,
when one of their catechumens died with
out baptism, they used to put a living per
son under the dead man's bed, and asked
whether he desired to be baptized ; the liv
ing man answering that he did, they then
baptized him in place of the departed
(Chrys. Horn. xl. on 1 Cor. xv.) 2. Chrys-
ostom believes the Apostle to refer to the
profession of faitli in baptism, part of which
was " I believe in the resurrection of the
dead." The former of the two Interpreta-
¦tions above mentioned commends itself to
us by its simplicity ; the latter by its an
tiquity. Many other explanations have
been given.
Barab'bas, a robber (John xviii. 40),
who had committed murder in an insurrec
tion (Mark xv, 7 ; Luke xxiii. 19) in Jeru
salem, and was lying in prison at the time
of the trial of Jesus before Pilate,
Bar'aehel, "the Buzite," father of
Elihu (Job xxxii. 2, 6). [Buz.]
Barachi'as, Matt, xxiii. 35. [Zacha-
KIAS .]
Ba'rak, son of Abinoam of Kedesh, a
refuge-city in Mount Naphtali, was incited
by Deborah, a prophetess of Ephraim, to
deliver Israel from the yoke of Jabin (Judg.
iv.). He utterly routed the Canaanites in
the plain of Jezreel (Esdraelon).
Barbarian. " Every one not a Greek
is a barbarian " is the common Greek defi
nition, and in this strict sense the word is
used in Rom. i. 14, "I am debtor both to
Greeks and barbarians." It often retains
this primitive meaning, as in 1 Cor. xiv. 11
(of one using an unknown tongue), and
Acts xxviii. 2, 4 (ofthe Maltese, who spoke
a Punic dialect).
Barhu'mite, The. [Bahurim.]
Bari'ah, one of the sons of Shemaiah,
a descendant of the royal family of Judah
(1 Chr. iii. 22).
Bar-Je'sus. [Eltmas.]
Bar-Jo'na. [Peter.]
Bar'kos, " Children of Barkos " were
among the Nethinim who returned from the
captivity -with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii, 53 ; Neh.
vii. 55).
Barley was grown by the Hebrews
(Lev. xxvii. 16 ; Deut. viii. 8 ; Ruth ii. 17,
&c.), who used it for baking into bread,
chiefly amongst the poor (Judg. vii. 13 ; 2
K. iv. 42 ; John vi, 9, 13) ; for making into
bread by mixing it with wheat, beans, len
tils, millet, &c, (Ez, iv, 9) ; and as fodder
for horses (1 K. iv. 28), The barley harvest
(Ruthi. 22, u, 23; 2 Sam, xxi, 0, 10) takes
place m Palestine in March and April, and
in the hilly districts as late as May ; but the

period of course varies according to tha
localities where the corn grown. It always
precedes the wheat harvest, in some placeS
by a week, in others by fully three weeks.
In Egypt the barley is about a month ear
lier than the wheat; whence its total de
struction by the hail-storm (Ex. ix. 31).
Barley was sown at any time between No
vember and March, according to the sea
son. Barley bread is even to this day lit
tle esteemed in Palestine. This fact is
important, as serving to elucidate some
passages in Scripture.
Bar'nabas, a name signifying "son of
prophecy," or " exhortation " (or, but not
s'o probably, " consolation," as A. V.),
given by the Apostles (Acts iv; 36) to
Joseph (or Joses), a Levite of the island
of Cyprus, who was early a disciple of
Christ. In Acts ix. 27, we find bim intro
ducing the newly-converted Saul to the
Apostles at Jerusalem, in a way which
seems to imply previous acquaintance be
tween the two. On tidings coming to the ¦
church at Jerusalem that men of Cyprus
and Cyrene had been preachiug to Gentiles
at Antioch, Barnabas was sent thither (Acts
xi. 19-26), and went to Tarsus to seek Saul,
as one specially raised up to preach to the
Gentiles (Acts xxvi, 17), Having brought
him to Antioch, he was sent with him to
Jerusalem with relief for the brethren in
Judaea (Acts xi, 30). On their return,
they (Acts xiii, 2) were ordained by the
church for the missionary work, and sent
forth (a, d. 45), From this time Barnabas
and Paul enjoy the title and dignity of
Apostles, Their first missionary journey
is related in Acts xiii,, xiv, ; it was confined'
to Cyprus and Asia Minor, Some time
after their return to Antioch (a. d. 47 or
48), they were sent (a. d. 50), with some
others, to Jerusalem, to determine with the
Apostles and Elders the difficult question
respecting the necessity of circumcision for
the Gentile converts (Acts xv, 1 ff'.). On
that occasion Paul and Bai-nabas were
recognized as the Apostles of imcircum-
cision. After another stay in Antioch on
their return, a variance took place between
Barnabas and Paul on the question uf
taking with them, on a second missionary
journey, John Mark, sister's son to Barna
bas (Acts XV. 36 ff.). They parted, and
Barnabas took Mark, and sailed to Cyprus,
his native island. Here the Scripture
notices of him cease. The Epistle attrib
uted to Barnabas is believed to have been
written early in the second century.
Bar'sabas. [Joseph Baesabas ; Judas
Barsadas.] Barthol'omew, one of the Twelve
Apostles of Christ (Matt. x. 8 ; Mark iii.
18 ; Luke vi. 14 ; Acts i. 13), It has been
not improbably conjectured that he is iden
tical with Nathanael (John i. 45 AT.). He

BARTIMAEUS
K said to have preached the Gospel in
India, that is, probably, Arabia Felix, and
according to some in Armenia.
Bartimae'us, a blind beggar of Jericho
who (Mark x. 46 ff.) sat by the wayside
begging as our Lord passed out of Jericho
on His last journey to Jerusalem.
Pa'ruch, 1, Son of Neri.ah, the friend
(Jer. xxxii. 12), amanuensis (Jer. xxxvi.
4-32), and faithful attendant of Jeremiah
(Jer. xxxvi. 10 ff. ; b. c. 603), in the dis
charge of his prophetic office. He was of
a noble family (comp. Jer. li. 59 ; Bar. i.
1), and of distinguished acquirements; and
his brother Seraiah held an honorable
office in the 30urt of Zedekiah (Jer. li. 69).
His enemies accused him of influencing
Jeremiah in favor of the Chaldaeans (Jer.
xliii. 3 ; cf. xxxvii. 13) ; and he was thrown
into prison with that prophet, where he re
mained till the capture of Jerusalem, b. c.
586. By the permission of Nebuchadnez
zar he remained with Jeremiah at Mizpeh
(Jos. Ant. X. 9, §1) ; but w.as afterwards
forced to go down to Egypt (Jer. xliii. 6).
Nothing is known certainly of the close of
his life. 2. The son of Zabbai, who as
sisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the walls of
Jesusalem (Neh. iii. 20). 3. A priest, or
faniUy of priests, who signed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 6), 4. The son
of Colrhozeh, a descendant of Perez, or
Pharez, tbe son of Judah, (Neh, xi. 5)
Baruch, The Book of, may be divided
into two main parts, i.-iii, 8, and iii, 9-end,
1, It exists at present in Greek, and in
several translations which were made from
the Greek, Of the two Old Latin versions
which remain, that which is incorporated
in the Vulgate is generally literal; the
other is more free. The vulgiir Syriao and
Arabic follow the Greek text closely. 2.
The assumed author is undoubtedly the
companion of Jeremiah, but the details of
the book are inconsistent with the assump
tion. 3. The book was held in little esteem
among the Jews. From the time of Irenaeus
it was frequently quoted both in the East
and in the West, and generally as the work
of Jeremiah. At the Council of Trent
Baruch was admitted into the Romish
Canon. 4, The two divisions ofthe book
are distinguished by marked peculiarities
of style and language. The Hebraic char
acter of the first part is such as to mark it
as a translation, and not as the work of a
Hebraizing Greek, The second part, on the
other hand, closely approaches the Alex
andrine type, 5, The most probable ex
planation of this contrast is gained by sup-
nosing that some one thoroughly conver
sant with the Alexandrine translation of
Jeremiah found the Hebrew fragment which
forms the basis of the book already attached
to the writings of that prophet, and wrought
it up into its present form. 6. The present

75

BASKET

book must be placed probLbl> about tbe
time of tho war of liberation (b. c, 160),
or somewhat earlier, 7. The Epistle of
Jeremiah, which, according to the authority
of some Greek MSS., stands in the English
version as the 6th chapter of Baruch, is the
work of a later period. It m,ay be assigned
with probability to the first century b. c.
Barzil'lai. 1, A wealthy Gileadite
who showed hospitality to David when he
fled from Absalom (2 Sam. xvii. 27). He
declined the king's offer of ending his days
at court (2 Sam. xix. 32-39). 2. A Meho-
lathite, whose son Adriel married Michal,
Saul's daughter (2 Sam.. xxi. 8).
Ba'shan, a district on the cast of Jor
dan. It is sometimes spoken of as the
"land of Bashan" (1 Chr. v, 11; and
comp. Num. xxi. 33, xxxii. 33), and some
times as "all Bashan" (Deut. iii. 10, 13;
Josh. xii. 5, xiii. 12, 30), but most com.
monly without any addition. It was taken
by the children of Israel after their con
quest of the land of Sihon from Arnon to
Jabbok. The limits of Bashan are very
strictly defined. It extended from the
" border of Gilead " on the south to Mount
Hermon on the north (Deut. iii. 3, 10, 14 ;
Josh. xii. 5; 1 Chr. v. 23), and from the
Arabah or Jordan valley on the west to
Salchah {Sulkhad) and the border of the
Geshurites and the Maachatliites on tbe
east (Josh. xii. 3-5; Deut. iii. 10). This
important district was bestowed on the half
tribe of Manasseh (Josh. xiii. 29-31),
together with "half Gilead."
Ba'shan-ha'voth-ja'ir, a name given
to Argob after its conquest by Jair (Deut.
iii. 14).
Bash'emath, daughter of Ishmael, the
last married of the three wives of Esau
(Gen. xxxvi. 3, 4, 13). In Gen. xxviii. 9
she is called Mahalath; whilst the name
Bashemath is in Gen. xxvi. 34 given to
another of Esau's wives, the daughter of
Elon the Hittite. This is probably due tc
a transcriber's error.
Basin. Among the smaller vessels for
the Tabernacle or -Temple service, many
must have been required to receive from the
sacrificial victims the blood to be sprinkled
for purification. The form and material of
these vessels can only be conjectured from
the analogy of ancient Assyrian- and Egyp
tian specimens of works of the same kind.
The "basin" from which our Lord washed
the disciples' feet was probably deeper and
larger than the ban J-basin for sprinkling.
Basket. The Hebrew terms used in
the description of this article are as follows ;
(1) Sal, so called from the twigs of which
it was originally made, specially used for
holding bread (Gen. xl. 16 ff. ; Ex. xxix. 3,
23 ; Lev. viii. 2, 26, 31 ; Num. vi. 15, 17,
19). -(2) 'Salsilldih, a word of kindred ori-
pn, applied to the basket used in gathering

BASMATH

76

BEAR

grapes (Jer. vi. 9). (3) Tene, in which the
Erst-fruits of the harvest were presented
(Deut, xxvi. 2, 4), We may infer that it
was used for household purposes, perhaps
to bring the corn to the mill. (4) Ctliib, so
called from its similarity to a birdcage or
trap, probably in regard to its having a lid :
it was used for carrying fruit (Am. viii. 1,
2) , (6) DAd, used for carrying fruit (Jer.
xxiv, 1, 2), as well as on a larger scale for
carrying clay to the brickyard (Ps, Ixxxi,
6; pots, A. v.), or for holding bulky
articles (2 K. x. 7), In the N, T. baskets
are described under three different terms,
Bas'math, a daughter of Solomon, mar
ried to Ahimaaz, one of his commissariat
officers (1 K, iv. 15),
Bastard. Among those who were ex
cluded from entering tlie congregation, even
to the tenth generation, was the mamzSr
(A. V. bastard), who was classed in this
respect with the Ammonite and Moabite
(Deut. xxiii. 2). The term is not, however,
applied to any illegitimate offspring, born
out of wedlock, but is restricted by the
Rabbins to the issue of any connection
within the degrees prohibited by the Law.
Bat {'dtalUph). There is no doubt
whatever that the A. V. is correct in its

Bat TaphozouB per/oratus.
rendering of this word (Lev. xi. 19 ; Deut.
xiv. 18). Many travellers have noticed the
immense numbers of bats that are found in
caverns in the East, and Mr. Layard says
that on the occasion of a visit to a cavern
these noisome beasts compelled him to re
treat. Bath, Bathing. This was a prescribed
part of the Jewish ritual of purification in
cases of accident, leprous or ordinary un-
cleanness (Lev. xv., xvi. 28, xxii. 6 ; Num.
xix. 7, 19 ; 2 Sam. xi. 2, 4 ; 2 K. v. 10) ; as
also after mourning, which always implied
defilement (Ruth iii. 3; 2 Sam. xii. 20).
¦With bathing, anointing -ras customarily
joined; the climate making both these
essential alike to health and pleasure, to
which luxury added the use of perfumes
(Susan. 17; Jud, x, 3; Esth. ii, 12), ' The
"pools," such as that of Siloam and Heze
kiah (Neh. iii, 15, 16; ? K. XX. 20; Is.
xxu. 11; John ix. 7), often sheltered by
porticos (John v. 2), are the first indica
tions we have of public bathing accommo
dation. Bath. [MEAsmiEs.]
Bath-rab'bim, The gate of, one of

the gates jf the ancient city of Heshbon
(Cant. vii. 4 [5]).
Bath'sheba (2 Sam. xi. 3, &c. ; also
called Bathshua in 1 Ghr. iii. 6), the daugh
ter of Eliam (2 Sam. xi. 3), or Ammiel (1
Chr. iii. 5), the son of Ahithophel (2 Sam.
xxiii. 34), and wife of Uriah the Hittite.
The child which was the fruit of her adul
terous intercourse with David died; but
after marriage she became the -mother of
four sons, Solomon (Matt. i. 6), Shimea,
Shobab, and Nathan. When Adonijah at
tempted to set aside, in his pwn favor, the
succession promised to Solomon, Bathsheba
was'employed by Nathan to inform the king
of the conspiracy (1 K, i. 11, 15, 23).
After the accession of Solomon, she, as
queen-mother, requested permission of hei.
son for Adoiiijah to take in marriage Abi
shag the Shunamite (1 K. ii. 21-25).
Bath'shua, [Bathsheba.]
Bath-zachari as, a place, named only
1 Mace, vi. 32, 33. It is the modern Beit
Sakdrteh, nine miles north of Beit sir,
[Bethzur.] Battle-axe, Jer. li. 20. [Maul.]
Bav'ai, son of Henadad, ruler of the
district of Keilah in the time of Nehemiah
(Neh. iii. 18).
Bay-tree {ezrdch). Most of the Jew
ish doctors understand by the term ezrdch
"a tree which grows in its own soil" —
one that has never been transplanted;
which is the interpretation given in the
margin of the A. V. (Ps. xxxvii. 35).
Baz'lith. " Children of B." were amongst
the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel
(Neb. vii. 54). In Ezr. ii. 52, the name is
given as Bazluth.
Baz'luth. [Bazlith.]
Bdel'lium (iecidtocA), Gen. ii. 12 ; Num.
xi. 7. It is quite impossible to say whether
beddlach denotes a mineral, or an animal
production, or a vegetable exudation. Bdel
lium is an odoriferous exudation from a tree
which is perhaps the Borassus flabellifor-
mis, Lin., of Arabia Felix.
Beali'ah, a Benjamite, who went over
to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 5).
Be'aloth, a town in the extreme soutb
of JudaU (Josh. xv. 24).
Beans (2 Sam. xvii. 28; Ezr. iv. 9).
Beans are cultivated in Palestine, wl.ieli
produces many of the leguminous order
of plants, such as lentils, kidney-beans,
vetches, &c. Beans are in blossom in Jan
uary ; they ha -e been noticed in flower at
Lydda on the 23d, and at Sidon and Acre
even earlier ; they continue in fl )wer till
March. Bear (1 Sam. xvii S4 , 2 Siirn, xvii, 8).
The_ Syrian bear {Ursus Syriacus), wliicll
is without doubt the animal mentioned in
the Bible, is still found on the higher nioun-
tains of Palestine. During the summer
months these bears keep to the snowy parts

BEARD

77

BED

of Lebanon, but descend in winter to the
villages and gardens; it is probable also
that at this period in former days they
extended their visits to other parts of Pal
estine. Beard. 'Western Asiatics have always
cherished the beard as the badge of the

Beards. Egyptian, fromWilkinson (top row). Of otlier
nations, from BoscUini and Layard.
dignity of manhood, and attached to it the
importance of a feature. The Egyptians
on the contrary, for the most part, shaved
the hair of the face and head, though we
find some instances to the contrary. It is
impossible to decide with certainty the
meaning of the precept (Lev, xix, 27, xxi.
5) regarding the " corners of the beard."
Probably the Jews retained the hair on the
sides of the face between the ear and the
eye, which the Arabs and others shaved
away. The beard is the object of an oath,
and that on which blessings or shame are
spoken of as resting. The custom was
and is to shave or pluck it and the hair out
in mourning (Is, I, 6, xv. 2 ; Jer, xii, 6,
xlviii, 37; Ezr, ix, 3; Bar, vi, 31); to
neglect it in seasons of permanent afflic
tion (2 Sam, xix, 24), and to regard any
insult to it as the last outrage which enmity
can inflict (2 Sam. x. 4), The beard was
the object of salutation (2 Sam, xx, 9),
The dressing, trimming, anointing, &c,, of
the beard, was performed with much cere
mony by persons of wealth and rank (Ps,
cxxxiii. 2), The removal of the beard was
a part of the ceremonial treatment proper
to a leper (Lev. xiv. 9),
Beb'ai, 1. " Sons of Bebai," 623 (Neh.
628) in number, returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii. 11 ; Neh, vii. 16),
and at a later period twenty-eight more, un
der Zechariah the son of Bebai, returned
withEzra (Ezr. viii. 11), Fourof this family
had taken foreign wives (Ezr. x, 28), The
name occurs also among those who sealed
the covenant (Neh, x, 15), 2, Father of
Zechariah, who was the leader of the
twenty-eight men of his tribe mentioned
above (Ezr. viii, 11),
Be'cher, 1, The second son of Ben
jamin, according to the list both in Gen.

xlvi. 21, and 1 Chr. vii. 6 ; but omitted In
1 Chr. viii. 1. It is highly prDbable that
Becher, or his heir and head of his house,
married an Ephraimitish heiress, a daughter
of Shuthelah (1 Chr. vii. 20, 21), and so
that his house was reckoned in the tribe of
Ephraim, just as Jair, the son of Segub,
was reckoned in the tribe of Manasseh (1
Chr. ii. 22; Num. xxxii. 40, 41). 2. Son
of Epliraim (Num. xxvi. 35), called Bered
(1 Chr. vii. 20). Same as the preceding.
Becho'rath, son of Aphiah or Abiah,
and grandson of Becher, according to 1
Sam. ix. 1 ; 1 Chr. vii. 8.
Bed and Bed-chamber. "We may
distinguish in the Jewish bed five principal
parts : 1. The mattress, which was limited
to a mere mat, or one or more quilts. 2.
The covering, a quilt finer than those used
in 1. In summer a thin blanket or the
outer garment worn by day (1 Sam. xix.
13) sufficed. Hence the law provided that
it should not bo kept in pledge after sunset,
that the poor man might not lack his need
ful covering (Deut. xxiv. 13). 3. The only
material mentioned for this is that which
occurs 1 Sam. xix. 13, and the word used
is of doubtful meaning, but seeins to
signify some fabric woven or plaited of
goat's hair. It is clear, however," that
it was something hastily adopted to serve
as a pillow, and is not decisive of the or
dinary use. Such pillows are common to
this day in the East, formed of sheep's
fleece or goat's skin, with a stuffing of cot
ton, &c. 4. The bedstead was not always
necessary, the divan, or platform along the
side or end of an Oriental room, sufficing
as a support for the bedding. Yet some
slight and portable frame seems implied
among the senses of the word, which is
used for a " bier" (2 Sam. iii. 31), and for
the ordinary bed (2 K. iv. 10), for the litter
on which a,sick jjerson might be carried (1
Sam. xix. 15), for Jacob's bed of sickness
(Gen. xlvii. 31), and for the couch on
which guests reclined at a banquet (Esth.
i. G). 5. The ornamental portions were
pillars and a canopy (Jud. xiii. 9), ivory

Bed and Head-xest. (Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians.')
carvings, gold and silver, and probably mo
saic work, purple and fine Unen (Esth. i

BEDAD 78
6; Cant. iii. 9, 10). The ordinary furni
ture of a bed-chamber in private life is
given in 2 K. iv. 10. The " bed-chamber "
in the Temple where Joash was hidden,
was, probably, a store-chamber for keeping
beds (2 K. xi. 2; 2 Chr. xxii. 11). The
position of the bed-chamber in the most
remote and secret parts of the palace seems
marked in the passages, Ex. viii. 3, 2 K.
vi, 12,
Be'dad, the father of Hadad king of
Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 35; 1 Chr. i. 46).
Be'dan, 1. Mentioned 1 Sam. xii. 11,
as a judge of Israel between Jerubbaal
(Gideon) and Jephthah. The Chaldee
Paraphrast reads Samson for Bedan; the
LXX., Syr., and Arab, all have Barak,
Ewald suggests that it may be a false read
ing for Abdon. 2. The son of Gilead (1
Chr. vii. 17).
Bedei'ah, one of the sons of Bani, in
the time of Ezra, who had taken a foreign
wife (Ezr. x. 35).
Bee {debdrdh), Deut. i. 44; Judg. xiv.
8; Ps. cxviii. 12; li. vii. 18. That Pales
tine abounded in bees is evident from the
description of that land by Moses, for it
was a land " flowing with milk and honey ; "
nor is there any reason for supposing that
this expression is to be understood oth-cr-
wise than in its literal sense. English nat
uralists know little of the species of bees
that are found in Palestine. Mr. F. Smith,
our best authority on the Hymenoptera, is
inclined to believe that the honey-bee of
Palestine is distinct from the honey-bee
{A. mcllifica) of this country. There can
be no doubt that the attacks of bees in
Eastern countries are more to be dreaded
than they are in more temperate climates.
Swarms in the East are far larger than
they are with us, and, on account of the
heat of the climate, one can readily ima
gine that their stings mustTgive rise to very
dangerous symptoms. The passage in Is.
vii. 18, "the Lord shall hiss for the bee
that is in the land of Assyria," has been
understood by some to refer to the practice
of "calling out the bees from their hives
by a hissing or whistling sound to their
labor in the fields, and summoning them
again to return" in the evening. In all
probabihty, however, tbe expression in
Isaiah has reference, as Mr. Denham says,
"to the custcun of the people in the East
of calling the attention of any one by a
significant hiss or rather hist."
Beeli'ada, one of David's sons, born
in Jerusalem (1 Chr. xiv. 7). In the hsts
in Samuel the name is Eliada,
Beol'zebul, the title of a heathen deity,
to whom the Jews ascribed the sovereignty
of the evil spirits (Matt, x, 25, xii. 24 ;
Mark iii. 22; Luke xi. 15 ff.). The cor
rect reading is without doubt Beelzebul, and
mt Beelzebub, as given in the Syriac, the

BEEROTH

Vulg., and some other versions. Soma
connect the term with zebAl, habitation,
thus making Beelzebul (Matt, x. 25), the
lord of the dwelling, whether as the " prince
of the power of the air " (Eph. ii. 2), of as
the prince of the lower world, or as inhab
iting human bodies, or as occupying a man
sion in the seventh heaven, like Saturn in
Oriental mythology. Others derive it from
zebel, dung, thus making Beelzebul, liter
ally, the lord of dung, or the dunghill;
and in a secondary sense, as zebelwas used
by the Talmudical writers as — idol or
idolatry, the lord of idols, prince of false
gods. We have lastly to notice the inge
nious conjecture of Hug that the fly, under
which Baalzebub was represented, was the
Scarabaeus pillularius or dunghill beetle,
in which case Baalzebub and Beelzebul,
might be used indifferently,
Be'er, 1, One of the latest^ halting-
places of the Israelites, lying beyond the
Arnon, and so called because of the well
which was there dug by the " princes " and
" nobles " of the people, and is perpetuated
in a fragment of poetry (Num. xxi. 16-18).
Tills is possibly the Beer-elim referred to
in Is, XV, 8, 2, A place to which Jotham,
the son of Gideon, fled for fear of his
brother Abimelech (Judg. ix. 21),
Bee'ra, son of Zophah, of the tribe of
Asher (1 Chr, vii, 37),
Bee'rah, prince of the Reubenites,
carried away by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chr,
V. 6).
Beer-E'lim, a spot named in Is. xv. 8
as on the "border of Moab," app.arently
the south, Eglaim being at the north end
of the Dead Sea. The name points to the
well dug by the chiefs of Israel on- their
approach to the promised land, close by the
"border of Moab" (Num. xxi. 16; comp."
13). Bee'ri. 1. The father of Judith, one
of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxvi. 34).
[Anah.] 2, Father of the prophet Hosea
(Hos. i. 1).
Beer-laha'i-roi, a well, or rather a
living spring (A. V. fountain, comp, Jer.
vi, 7), between Kadosh and Bered, in the
wilderness, " in the way to Shur," and
therefore in the " south country " (Gen.
.xxiv. 62). Mr. RowLand announces the
discovery of the well Lahairoi at Moyle or
Moilahi, a station on theroad to Beersheba.
10 hours south of Ruheibeh ; near which ij
a hole or cavern bearing tho name of BeU
Hagar (Ritter, Sinai, 1086, 7) : but this
requires confirmation.
Bee'roth, one of the four cities of the
Hivites who deluded Joshua into a treaty
of peace with them (Josh. ix. 17). It was
allotted to Benjamin (xviii. 25), and is
identified with the modem el-Bireh, which
stands at about 10 miles north of Jerusa
lem by the great road to NAbl}*s, Nahari

BEEROTll

79

BELLOWS

"the Beerothite" (2 Sam, xxiii, 37),
or " the Berothite " (1 Chr, xi, 39), was
one of the "mighty men" of David's
guard, Bee'roth of the Children of Jaa
kan, the wells of the tribe of Bene- Jaakan,
which formed one of the halting-places of
the Israelites in the desert (Deut. x, 6).
In Num. xxxiii., the name is given as
Bene Jaakan only,
Beer'-sheba the name of one of the
old places in Palestine, which formed the
southern limit of the country. There are
two accounts of the origin of the name.
1, According to the first, the well was dug
by Abraham, and the name given, because
there he and Abimelech the king of the
Philistines " sware " both of them (Gen.
xxi. 31), 2, The other narrative ascribes
the origin of the name to an occurrence al
most precisely similar, in which both Abim
elech the. king of the Philistines, and Phi-
chol, his chief captain, are again con
cerned, with the difference that the person
on the Hebrew side of the transaction is
Isaac instead of Abraham (Gen, xxvi. 31-
33), Tliere are at present on the spot
two principal wells, and five smaller ones.
The two principal wells are on or close to
the northern bank of the Wady es-Seba'.
They lie just a hundred yards apart,, and
are so placed as to be visible from a con
siderable distance. The larger of the two,
wliich lies to the cast, is, according to th;
careful measurements of Dr. Robinson,
12j feet diam., and at the time of his visit
(Apr, 12) was 44i feet to the surface of
the water; the masonry which encloses
the well reaches downwards for 284 feet.
The other well is 5 feet diam., and was 42
feet to the water. The curb-stones round
the mouth of both wells are worn into deep
grooves by the action of the ropes of so
many centuries, and "look as if frilled or
fluted all round." The five lesser wells
are in a group in the bed of the wady. On
some low hills north of the large wells are
scattered the foundations and ruins of a
town of moderate size. There are no
trees or shrubs near the spot, Beersheba
was given to the tribe of Simeon (xix, 2 ;
1 Chr. iv. 28). In the time of Jerome it
was still a considerable place ; and later it
Is mentioned as an episcopal city under the
Bishop of Jerusalem, It only remains to
notice that it .retains its ancient name as
nearly similar in sound as an Arabic signi
fication will permit — Bir es-Sebd — the
" well of the Hon," or " of seven,"
Beesh'terah, one of the two cities
^Hotted to the sons of Gershom, out of the
tribe of Manasseh beyond Jordan (Josh.
xxi, 27). It appears to be identical with
Ushtaroth (1 Chr, vi, 71),
Beetle, [Locust.]
Beheading. [Punishments.]

Be'hemoth. There can be little or no
doubt, that by this word (Job xl. 16-24)
the hippopotamus is intended, since all the
details descriptive of the behemoth accord
entirely with the ascertained habits of that
animal. Since in the first part of Jehovah's
discourse (Job xxxviii., xxxix.) land ani
mals and birds are mentioned, it suits the
general purpose of that discourse better to
suppose that aquatic or amphibious crea
tures are spoken of in the last half of it :
and since the leviathan, by almost univer-'
sal consent, denotes the crocodile, the be
hemoth seems clearly to' point to the hip
popotamus, his associate in the Nile. The
description of the animal's lying under
"the shady trees," amongst the "reeds"
and willows, is peculiarly appropriate.
Be'kah, [Weights and Measures,]
BeL [Baal],
Be'la. 1. One of the five cities of
the plain which was spared at the interces
sion of Lot, and received the name of
Zoar (Gen. xiv. 2, xix. 22). It lay on the
southern extremity of the Dead Sea, on
the frontier of Moab and Palestine (Jerome
on Is. XV.), and on the route to Egypt; the
connection in which it is found. Is. xv, 5 ;
Jer, xlviii. 34 ; Gen. xiii. 10. We first
read of Bela in Gen, xiv. 2, 8. 2. .Son of
Beor, who reigned over Edom in the city of
Dinhabah, eight generations before Saul,
king of Israel, or about the time of the
Exodus. He is supposed by some to be
the same as Balaam. It is not impro'oable
that he was a Chaldean by birth, and
reigned in Edom by conquest. He may
have been contemporary with Moses (Gen,
xxxvi. 31-33 ; 1 Chr. i. 43, 44). 3. Eldest
son of Benjamin, according to Gen. xlvi.
21 (A. V. "Belah"); Num. xxvi. 38, 40;
1 Chr. vii. 6, viii. 1, and head of the family
of the Belaites. 4, Son of Ahaz, a
Reubenite (1 Chr, v. 8).
Be'lah, [Bela, 3.]
Be'laites, the. Num. xxvi. 38, [Bela,
Ee'lial, The translators of our A. V.,
following the Vulgate, have frequently
treated this word as a proper name, and
given it in the form Belial, in accordance
with 2 Cor. vi. 16. There can be no ques
tion, however, that the word is not to be
regarded as a proper name in the O. T. ;
its meaning is worthlessness, and hence
recklessness, lawlessness. The expression
son or man of Belial must be understood
as meaning simply a worthless, lawless
fellow. The term as used in 2 Cor. vi, 15
is generally understood as an appellative
of Satan, as the personification of all that
was bad,
Bello'WS. The word occurs only in Jer,
vi, 29, "The bellows are burned;" where
their use is to heat a smelting furnace, A
picture of two differ^n* kinds of bellows,

BELLS

80

BENE-JAAKAN

both of highly ingenious construction, may
be found in Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt, iii.
3.^8. "They consisted," he says, "of a
leather, secured and fitted into a frame,
from which a long pipe extended for car
rying the wind to the fire. They were
worked by the feet, the operator standing
upon them, with one under each foot, and
pressing them alternately while he pulled
uj) each exhausted skin with a string he
hi Id in his band. In one instance we ob-
BC rve from the painting, that when the man
left the bellows, they were raised as if in
flated with air; and this would imply a
knowledge of the valve. The pipes, even
in the time of Thotmes II. [supposed to be]
the contemporary of Moses, appear to have
been simply of reed, tipped with a metal
point to resist the action of the fire."
Bells. In Ex. xxviii. 33 the bells al
luded to were the golden ones, according
to the Rabbis 72 in number, round the hem
of the high-priest's epliod. The object of
them was "that his sound might be heard
when he went in unto the holy place, and
when he came out, that he die not" (Ex,
xxviii. 34; Ecclus. xiv, 9), To this day
bells are frequently attached, for the sake
of their pleasant sound, to the anklets of
women. The little girls of Cairo wear
strings of them round their feet. In Zech.
xiv. 20 "bells of the horses" is probably
a wrong rendering. It is more probable
that they are not bells, but concave or flat
pieces- of brass, which were sometimes at
tached to horses for the sake of ornament.
Belshaz'zar, the last king of Babylon.
According to the well-known narrative in
Dan. v., he was slain during a splendid
feast in his palace. Similarly Xenophon
tells us that Babylon was taken by Cyrus
in the night, while the inhabitants were
engaged in feasting and revelry, and that
the king was killed. On the other hand
the narratives of Berosus in Josephus and
of Herodotus differ from the above account
in some important particulars. Berosus
calls the last king of Babylon Nabonnedus
or Nabonadius, and says that in the 17th
year of his reign Cyrus took Babylon,
the king having retired to the neighboring
city of Borsippus or Borsippa. According
to Herodotus the last king was called La-
bjnetus. These discrepancies have lately
been cleared up by the discoveries of Sir
Henry Rawlinson. From the inscriptions
it appears that the eldest son of Nabon
nedus was called Bel-shar-ezar, contracted
into Belshazzar, and admitted by his father
to a share in the government. So that
Belshazzar, as joint king with his father,
may have been governor of Babylon, when
the city was attacked by the combined
forces of the Modes and Persians, and may
have perished in the assault which fol
lowed ; while Nabonnedus leading a force

to the relief of the place was defeated, and
obliged to take refuge in Borsippa. In
Dan. V. 2, Nebuchadnezzar is called the
father of Belshazzar. This, of course, need
only mean grandfather or ancestor. Raw
linson connects Belshazzar with Nebuchad
nezzar through his mother; but Marcus
Niebuhr considers Belshazzar to be another „
name for Evil-merodach, the son of Nebu
chadnezzar. On Rawlinson's view, Bel
shazzar died b. 0. 538 ; on Niebuhr's, B. c.
559. Belteshaz'zar. [Daniel.]
Ben, a Levite " of the second degree,"
one of the porters appointed by David for
the ark (1 Chr. xv. 18),
Bena'iah, 1. The son of Jehoiada
the chief priest (1 Chr, xxvii, 5), and there
fore of the tribe of Levi, though a native
¦of Kabzoel (2 Sam, xxiii, 20 ; 1 Chr, xi,
22), in the south of Judah; set by David
(1 Chr. xi. 25) over his bodyguard of
Cherethites and Pelethites (2 Sam, viii. 18;
1 K. i. 38 ; 1 Chr. xviii. 17 ; 2 Sam. xx. 23),
and occupying a middle rank between the
flrst three of the " mighty men," and the
thirty "valiant men of the armies" (2 Sam.
xxiii. 22, 23 ; 1 Chr. xi. 25, xxvii. 6). The
exploits which gave him this rank are nar
rated in 2 Sam. xxiii. 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. xi. 22.
He was captain of the host for the third
month (1 Chr. :*xvii. 5). Benaiah remained
faithful to Solomon during Adonijah's at
tempt on the crown (1 K. i. 8, 10, 32, 38,
44) ; and was raised into the place of Joab
as commander-in-chief of the whole army
(ii. 35, iv. 4). 2. Benaiah the Piratho-
NiTE ; an Epbraimite, one of David's thirty
mighty ,men (2 Sam. xxiii. 30 ; 1 Chr. xi.
31), and the captain of the eleventh
monthly course (1 Chr. xxvii. 14). 3. A
Levite in the time of David, who "played
with a psaltery on Alamoth" (1 Chr. xv.
18, 20, xvi. 6). 4. A priest in the time of
David, appointed to blow the trumpet be
fore the ark (1 Chr. xv. 24, xvi. 6). 5. A
Levite of the sons of Asaph (2 Chr. xx.
14). 6. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah,
one of the " overseers of offerings " (2
Chr. xxxi. 13). 7. One of the "princes"
of the families of Simeon (1 Cbr. iv. 36).
8. Four laymen in the time of Ezra who
had taken strange wives (Ezr. x. 26, 30,
35, 43). 9. The father of Pelatiah, "a
prince of the people " in the time of Ezekiel
(xi. 1, 13).
Ben-am'mi, the son of the younger
daughter of Lot, and progenitor of the
Ammonites (Gen. xix. 38).
Ben-eb'erak, one of the cities of the
tribe of Dan, mentioned only in Josh. xix.
45. Bene-ja'akan, a tribe who gave their
name to certain wells in the desert which •
formed one of the halting-places of the
Israelites on their journey to Canaan.

BENE-KEDEM

81

BENJAMIN

[BEBEorH Bene- Jaakan. ] The tribe
doubtleiis derived its name from Jaakan,
the son of Ezer son of Seir the Horite (1
Chr. i. 42), whose name is also given in
Genesis (xxxvi. 27) as Akan.
Bene-ke'dem, "tho children of the
East," an appellation given to a people, or
to peoples, ..iwelling to the east of Pales
tine. It occurs in Gen. xxix. 1 ; Job i. 3 ;
Judg. vi. 3, 33, vii. 12, viii. 10. From
Judg. vii. 11-15, it is to be inferred that
they spoke a dialect intelligible to an Isra
elite. BenhEV'dad, the name of three kings
of Damascus. — Benhadad I. was either
son or grandson of Rezon, and in his time
Damascus was supreme in Syria. He
made an alliance with Asa, and conquered
a great p.art of the N. of Israel. From 1
K. XX. 34, it would appear that he con
tinued to make war upon Israel in Omri's
time, and forced him to make " streets " in
Samaria for Syrian residents. This date is
B. c. 950. — Benhadad II. , son of the pre
ceding, and also king of Damascus. Long
wars with Israel characterized his reign.
Some time after the death of Ahab, Ben
hadad renewed the war with Israel, at
tacked Samaria a second time, and pressed
the siege so closely that there was a terri
ble famine in the city. But the Syrians
broke up in the night in consequence of a
Budden panic. Soon after Benhadad fell
sick, and sent Hazael to consult Elisha as
to the issue of his malady. On the day
after Hazael's return Benhadad was mur
dered, probably by some of his own ser
vants (2 K. viii. 7-15). Benhadad's death
was about n. c. 890, and be must have
reigned some 30 years. — Benhadad III.,
son of Hazael, and his successor on the
throne of Syria. When he succeeded to
the tJirone, Jehoash recovered the cities
which Jehoahaz had lost to the Syrians,
and beat him in Aphek (2 K. xiii. 17, 25) .
Jehoash gained two more victories, but did
not restore the dominion of Israel on the
E. of Jordan. The date of Benhadad III.
is B. c. 840.
Ben-ha'il, one of the princes whom king
Jehoshaphat sent to teach in the cities of
Judah (2 Chr. xvii. 7).
Ben-ha'nan, son of Shimon, in the
line of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 20).
Beni'nu, a Levite ; one of those who
scaled the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
i. 13 [14]).
Ben'jamin. 1. The youngest of the
children of Jacob, and the only one of the
thirteen who was born in Palestine. His
birth took place on the road between Bethel
and Bethlehem, a short distance from the
latter, and his mother Rachel died in the
actof giving him birth, naming him with
her last breath Ben-oni; " son of my sor
row." This was by Jacob changed into

Benjamin (Gen. xxxv. 16-18). Until the
journeys of Jacob's sons and of Jacob him
self into Egypt we hear nothing of Benja
min. Henceforward the history of Benja
min is the history of the tribe. And up to
the time of the entrance on the Promised
Land that history is as meagre as it is
afterwards full and interesting. The prox
imity of Benjamin to Ephraim during the
march to the Promised Land was main
tained in the territories allotted to each,
Benjamin lay immediately to the south of
Ephraim and between him and Judah, It
formed almost a parallelogram, of about 26
miles in length by 12 in breadth. Its eastern
boundary was the Jordan, and from thenco
it extended to the wooded district of Kir
jath-jearim, a point about eight miles west
of Jerusalem, while in the other direction
it stretched from the vtilley of Hinnom,
under the " Shoulder of the Jebusite" on
the south, to Bethel on the north. On the
south the territory ended abruptly with the
steep slopes of the hill of Jerusalem, — on
the north it melted imperceptibly into the
possessions of friendly Ephraim. — (1.)
The general level of this part of Palestine
is very high,not less than 2000 feet above
the maritime plain of the Mediterranean
ou the one side, or than 3000 feet above
the deep valley of the Jordan on the other,
besides which this general level or plateau
is surmounted, in the district now under
consideration, by a large number of emi
nences, almost every one of which has
borne some part in the history of the tribe.
(2.) No less important than these emi
nences are the torrent-beds and ravines by
which the upper country breaks down into
the deep tracts on each side of it. The
passes on the eastern side are of a much
more difficult and intricate character than
those of the western. The contrast be
tween the warlike character of the tribe
and the peaceful image of its progenitor
comes out in many scattered notices. Ben-
j.amin was the only tribe which seems to
have pursued archery to any purpose, and
their skill in the bow {1 Sam. xx. 20, 36 ;
2 Sam. i. 22; 1-Chr. viii. 40, xii. 2; 2 Chr,
xvii. 17) and the sling (Judg. xx. 16) is
celebrated. The dreadful deed recorded in
Judg, xix., tliough repelled by the whole
country, was unhesitatingly adopted and
defended by Benjamin with an obstinacy
and spirit truly extraordinary. That fright
ful transaction was indeed a crisis in the
history of the tribe : the six hundred who
took refuge in the cliff Rimmon were the
only survivors, A long interval must have
elapsed between so abject a condition and
the culminating point at which we next
meet with the tribe. Several circumstances
may have conduced to its restoration to
that place which it was now to assume.
Ramah (1 Sam. ix. 12, &c.), Mizpeh (»

BENJAMIN

82

BERODACH-BAT.ADAA

Ram, vii. 5), Bethel, and Gibeon (1 K. iii,
4) were all iu the land of Benjamin. The
people who resorted to these sanctuaries
must gradually have been accustomed to
associate the tribe with power and sanctity.
The struggles and contests which followed
the death of Saul arose from the natural
unwillingness of the tribe to relinquish its
position at tbe head ofthe nation, especial
ly in favor of Judah, and we do not hear
of any cordial cooperation or firm union
between the two tribes until the disruption
of the kingdoms. Henceforward the his
tory of Benjamin becomes merged in that
of the southern kingdom. 2. A man of
the tribe of Benjamin, son of Billian, and
the head of a family of warriors (1 Chr.
vii. 10). 3, One of the "sons of Harim,"
an Israelite in the time of Ezra, who had
married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 32).
Ben'jamin, High gate, or gate, of,
Jer. XX. 2, xxxvii. 13, xxxviii. 7; Zech.
xiv. 10. [Jerusalem.]
Be'no, a Levite of the sons of Merari
(1 Chr. xxiv. 26, 27).
Ben-o'ni, the name which the ¦ dying
Rachel gave to her newly-born son, but
which by his father was changed into Ben
jamin (Gen. xxxv. 18),
Ben-zo'heth, a name occurring among
the descend.ants of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 20),
Be'on, a place on the east of Jordan
(Num, xxxii, 3), doubtless a contraction of
Baal-meon (comp. ver. 38).
Be'or, 1. The father of Bela, one of
the early Edomite kings (Gen, xxxvi. 32 ;
1 Chr. i. 43). 2. Father of Balaam (Num.
xxii. 6, xxiv. 3, 16, xxxi. 8 ; Deut, xxiii, 4 ;
Josh. xiii. 22, xxiv. 9; Mic, vi, 5), He is
called BosOK ih the N, T.
Be'ra, king of Sodom at the time of the
invasion of the five kings under Chedor
laomer (Gen. xiv. 2; also 17 and 21).
Ber'achah, a Benjamite, who attached
himself to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 3).
Ber'achah, Valley of, a valley in
which Jehoshaphat and his people assem
bled to "bless" Jehovah after the over
throw ofthe hosts of Moabites, Ammonites,
and Mehunim, who had come against them,
and which from that fact acquired its name
of "the valley of blessing" (2 Chr. xx.
26). The name of BereilAt still survives,
attached to ruins in a valley of the same
name lying between Tekua and the main
road from Bethlehem to Hebron.
Berachi'ah, a Gershonite Levite, father
of Asiiph the singer (1 Chr. vi. 39), [Be-
SECIIIAII.] Berai'ah, son of Shimhi, a chief man of
Benjamin (1 Chr, viii, 21),
Bere'a. 1. A city of Macedonia, men
tioned in Acts xvii, 10, 15. It is now
called Vcrria or Kara- Verria, and is situ
ated en the eastern slope of the Olympian
mountain-range, commanding an extensive

view of the plain of the Axius and Hali-
acmon, and has now 15,000 or 20,000 in-
habitants. 2. The modern Aleppo, men-
tioned in 2 Maoc. xiii. 4. 3. A place in
Judea, apparently not very far from Jeni-
salem (1 Mace. ix. 4).
Bereehi'ah. 1. One of the sons of
Zorobabel, and a descendant of the royal
family of Judah (1 Chr. iii. 20). 2. A
man mentioned as the father ef MeshuUam
who assisted in rebuldingthe walls of Jeru
salem (Neh. iii. 4, 30, vi, 18). 3. A Le
vite of the line of Elkanah (1 Chr. lx. 16).
4. A doorkeeper for the ark (1 Chr. xv.
23). 5. One ofthe chief men of the tribe
of Ephraim in the time of king Ahaz (2
Chr. xxviii. 12). 6. Father of Asaph the
singer (1 Chr. xv, 17), [Berachiah,] 7,
Father of Zechariah the prophet (Zech. i.
1,7), Be'red. 1, A place in the south of
Palestine, between which and Kadesh lay ¦
the well Lahai-roi (Gen. xvi. 14), 2, A
son or descendant of Ephraim (1 Chr. vii.
20), possibly identical with Becher iu Num
xxvi. 35, by a mere change of letters.
Bereni'ce. [Bernice.]
Be'ri, son of Zophah, of the tribe of
Asher (1 Chr. vii. 36).
Beri'ah. 1. A son of Asher (Gen.
xlvi. 17; Num. xxvi, 44, 45), from whom
descended the "family of the Beriites"
(Num, xxvi. 44), 2, A son of Ephraim,
so named on account of the state of his
father's house when he was born (1 Chr.
vii. 20-23). This short notice is of no
slight historical importance ; especially as
it refers to a period of Hebrew history re
specting which the Bible affords us no other
like information. The event must be as
signed to the time between Jacob's death
and the beginning of the oppression. 3.
A Benjamite. He and his brother Shema
were ancestors of the inhabitants of Ajalon,
and expelled the inhabitants of Gath (1
Chr. viii. 13, 16.) 4. A Levite (1 Chr.
xxiii. 10, 11).
Beri'ites. [Beriah, 1.]
Be'rites, Tho, a tribe or people who are
named with Abel and Beth-maachah, and
who were therefore doubtless situated in
the north of Pfilestine (2 Sam. xx. 14).
Be'rith,The god Judg. be. 46, [Baai-
BERITII.] Bernl'ce and Bereni'ce, the eldest
daughter of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1,
&c.). She was first married to her uncle
Herod, king of Chalcis, and after his death
(a. d. 48) she lived under circumstances
of great suspicion with her own brother
Agrippa II., in connection with whom slie
is mentioned Acts xxv. 13, 23, xxvi. 30, as
having visited Festus on his appointment as
Procurator of Judaea.
Ber'odach-Bal'adan, 2 K. xx. la.
[MeRODACH-B ALAD AN. ")

BEROTHAH 5
Bero'thah, Bero'thai. The fir^t of
these two names is given by Ezekiel (xlvii.
16) iu connection with Hamath and Da
mascus as forming part of the northern
boundary of the Promised Land. The
second is mentioned (2 S.am. viii. 8) also iu
connection with Hamath and Damascus.
The well-known city Beirut (Berytus)
n.aturally suggests itself as identical with
one at least of the names ; but in each
instance the circumstances of the case seem
to require a position farther east,
Bero'thite, The (l Chr, xi, 39). [Bee-
KOTH,] Beryl {tarsMsh) occurs in Ex. xxviii.
20, xxxix. 13 ; Cant. v. 14 ; Ez. i, 16, x. 9,
xxviii, 13 ; Dan, x, 6, It is generally sup
posed that the iarshish derives its name
from the place so called. The ancient
chrysolite or the modern yellow topaz ap
pears to have a better claim than any other
gem to represent the tarshtsh of the He
brew Bible, certainly a better claim than
the beryl of the A, V,, a rendering W||»ich
appears to be unsupported by any kind of
e vidence, Be'sai, "Children of Besai" were
among the Nethinim who returned to Ju
daea with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii, 49 ; Neh,
vii. 52),
Besodei'ah, father of MeshuUam, one
of the repairers of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh, iii. 6),
Be'sor, The Brook, a torrent-bed or
wady in the extreme south of Judah, of
which mention occurs only in 1 Sam. xxx.
9, 10, 21,
Be'tah, a city belonging to Hadadezer,
king of Zobah, mentioned with Berothai
(2 Sam, viii, 8). In the parallel account
1 Chr. xviii, 8, the n.ame is called Tibchath.
Be'ten, one of the cities on the border
of the tribe of Asher (Josh. xix. 25) .
Beth, the most gener.al word for a house
or habitation. Like Aedes in Latin and
Dom in German, it has the special mean
ing of a temple or house of worship.- —
Beth is more frequently employed in com
pound names of places than any other
word. Beth-eked, the " shearing house "
(2 K. X, 12), lay between Jezreel and Sa
maria, according to Jerome 15 miles from
the town of Legio, and in the plain of
Esdraelon, Beth-haggan, " the garden-
house" (2 K. ix. 27), is doubtless the same
place as Engannin, "spring of gardens,"
the modern Jenin.
Beth-ab'ara, a place beyond Jordan,
in which, according to the Received Text
of the N, T.) John was baptizing (John i.
28), If this reading be correct, Bethabara
may be identical with Beth-barah, the an
cient ford of Jordan, or, which seems more
likely, with Beth-nimrah, on the east of
the river, nearly opposite Jericho.
Beth'-anath, one ofthe ' ' fenced cities "

3 BETH-BAAL-JIEON
of Naphtali, named with BethshemeSh
(Josh, xix, 38) ; from neither of them were
the Canaanites expelled (Judg. i. 33).
Beth'-anoth, a town in the mountain
ous district of Judah, named with Halbul,
Bethzur, and others, in Josh, xv, 59 only.
Beth'any, a village which, scanty as
are the notices of it contained in Scripture,
is more intimately associated in our minds
than perhaps any other place with the most
familiar acts and scenes ofthe last d.ays of
the life of Christ, It was situated "at" the
Mount of Olives (Mark xi. 1 ; Luke xix.
29), about fifteen stadia from Jerusalem
(John xi. 18), on or near the usual road
from Jericho to the city (Luke xix, 29,
comp, 1; Mark xi. 1, comp. x. 46), and
close by the west (?) of another village
called Bethphage, the two being several
times mentioned together. Bethany is now
known by a name derived from Lazarus, —
el-'Azarlyeh or Lazarieh. It lies on the
eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, fully
a mile beyond the summit, and not very far
from the point at which the road to Jericho
begins its more sudden descent towards the
Jordan valley, El-'AzartyeK is a ruinous
and wretched village, a wild mountain ham
let of some twenty families. Beth-any has
been commonly explained " House of
Dates," but it more probably signifies
" House of Misery " (H. Dixon, Holy Land,
ii. 214, foil.).
Beth-ar'abah, one of the six cities of
Judah which were situated down in the
Arabah, the sunk valley of the Jordan and
Dead Sea (Josh, xv, 61), on the north bor
der of the tribe, ' It is also included in the
list ofthe towns of Benjamin (xviii. 22).
Beth'-aram, .accurately Beth-haeam,
one of the towns of Gad on the cast of Jor
dan, described as in " the valley," Josh. xiii.
27, and no doubt the same place as that
named Beth-h.4ran iu Num. xxxii. 36.
Beth-ar'bel, named only in Hos, x. 14,
as the scene of a sack and massacre by
Shalman, Beth-a'ven, a place on the mountains
of Benjamin, east of Bethel (Josh. vii. 2,
xviii. 12), and lying between that place and
Michmash (1 Sam. xiii, 5, xiv, 23), In
Hos. iv. 15, V. 8, X. 5, the name is trans
ferred to the neighboring Bethel, — once
the " house of God," but then the house of
idols, of " naught."
Beth-az'maveth. Under this name is
mentioned, in Neh. vii. 28 only, the town
of Benjamin which is elsewhere called Az
maveth, and Beth-samos,
Beth-baal-me'on, a place in the pos
sessions of Reuben, on the downs (A. V.
"plain") east of Jordan (Josh. xiii. 17),
At the Israelites' first approach its name
was Baal-meon (Num, xxxii, 38, or in its
contracted form, Beon, xxxii, 3), to which
the Beth was possibly a Hebrew addition.

BETH-BARAH

84

BETH-GADER

lifter it would seem to have come into pos
session of Moab, and to be known either as
Beth-meon (Jer, xlviii, 23) or Baal-meon
(Ez, xxv, 9). The name is still attached
to a ruined place of considerable size, a
short distance to the S. W, of Hesbdn, and
bearing the name of " the fortress of Mi'-
Hn," or Ma6in, which appears to give its
appellation to the Wady Zerka m'aein.
Beth-ba'rah, named only in Judg. vii.
24, as a point apparently south of the scene
of Gideon's victory. Beth-barah derives
its chief interest from the possibility that
its more modern representative may have
been Beth-abara where John baptized. It
was probably the chief ford of the district.
Beth-bir'ei, a town of Simeon (1 Chr,-
Iv. 31), which by comparison with the par
allel list in Josh. xix. appears to have had
also the name of Beth-lebaoth, It lay
to the extreme south,
Beth'-car, a place named as the point
to which the Israelites pursued the Philis
tines (1 Sam. vii. 11), and therefore west
of Mizpeh. Josephus says that the stone
Ebenezer was set up hero.
Beth-da'gon. 1. A city in the low
country of Judah (Josh. xv. 41), and there
fore not far from the Philistine territory,
with which its name implies a connection.
2. A town apparently near the coast,
named as one of the landmarks of the
boundary of Asher (Josh. xix. 27),
Bet'h-diblatha'im, a town of Moab
(Jer. xlviii. 22), apparently the place else
where called Almon-Diblathaim.
Both'el. 1. A well-known city and
holy place of central Palestine. Of the ori
gin of the name of Bethel there are two
accounts extant, 1, It was bestowed on
the spot by Jacob under the awe inspired
by the nocturnal vision of God, when ou
his journey from his father's house at Beer
sheba to seek his wife in Haran (Gen.
xxviii. 19). 2. .But according to the other
account. Bethel received its name on the
occasion of a blessing bestowed by God
upon Jacob after hi° return from Padan-
ar.im ; at which time also (according to this
narrative) the name of Israel was given
him (Gen. xxxv, 14, 16), — Early as is the
date involved in these narratives, yet, if we
are to accept the precise definition of Gen,
xii, 8, tho name of Bethel would appear to
have existed at this spot even before the
arrival of Abram in Canaan (Gen, xii. 8,
xiii. 3, 4). In one thing, however, the
above narratives all agree, — in omitting
any mention of town or buildings at Bethel
at that early period, and in drawing a
marked distinction between the "city "of
Luz and the consecrated "phace" in its
neighborhood (comp. Gen, xxxv. 7), The
appropriation of the name of Bethel to the
oity appears not to have been made till still
later, when it was taken by the tribe of

Ephraim ; after which the n<ame of Luz oc
curs no more (Judg, i, 22-26) , — After tha
conquest Bethel is frequently heard of. In
the troubled times when there was no king
in Israel, it was to Bethel that the people
went up in their distress to ask counsel of
God (Judg, XX. 18, 26, 31 ; xxi. 2 : A. V.
"house of God"). Here was the ark of
the covenant under the charge of Phinehas
the grandson of Aaron (xx. 26-28, xxi. 4).
Later we find it named as one of the holy
cities to which Samuel went in circuit (1
Sam. vii. 16). Here Jeroboam placed one
of the two calves of gold. Towards the
end of Jeroboam's life Bethel fell into
the hands of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). Eli
jah visited Bethel, and we hear of "sons
of the prophets '' as resident there (2 K. ii.
2, 3), two facts apparantly incompatible
with the active existence ofthe calf-worship.
But, after the destruction of the Baal wor
ship by Jehu, Bethel comes once more into
view (2 K. X. 29). After the desolation of
the northern kingdom by the king of As
syria, Bethel still remained an abode of
priests (2 K. xvii. 28, 27). In the account
of Josiah's iconoclasm we catch one more
glimpse of the altar of Jeroboam, with its
last loathsome fire of " dead men's bones"
burning upon it. In later times Bethel is
named only once ; its ruins still lie on the
right hand side of the road 'from 'Jerusalem
to Nablous under the scarcely altered name
of Beitin. 2. A town in the south part
of Judah, named in Josh. xii. 16, and 1 Siim.
xxx. 27. By comparison ofthe lists ofthe
towns of Judah and Simoon (Josh. xv. 30,
xix. 4 ; 1 Chr. iv. 29, 30), the place appears
under the names of Chesil, Bethul, and
Bethuel. — Hiel, the Bethelite, is re
corded as the rebuilder of Jericho (1 K.
xvi. 34).
Beth-e'mek, a place on or near the bor
der of Asher, on the north side of which
was the ravine of Jiphthah-el (Josh. xix. 27).
Beth'er, The Mountains of (Cant.
ii. 17). There is no clew to guide us to
what mountains are intended here.
Bethesda, the Hebrew name of a res
ervoir or tank, with five "porches," close
upon the sheep-gate or "market" in Jeru
salem (John V. 2). The porches — i. e.
cloisters or colonnades — were extensive
enough to accommodate a large number of
sick and infirm people, whose custom it was
to wait there for the "troubling of the
water." The large reservoir Birket Israil,
within the walls of the city, close by the St.
Stephen's G.ate, and under the north-east
wall of the Haram area, is generally con
sidered to be the modern representative of
Bethesda. Bethe'zel, a place named only in Mic.
i. 11. From the context it was doubtless
situated in the plain of Philistia.
Beth-ga'der, doubtless a place, though

>»«

'¦^^

BETHLEHEM.

BETH-GAMUL

85

BETH-NIMRAH

it occurs in the genealogies of Judah as if
a person (1 Chr. ii. 51).
Beth-ga'mul, a town of Moab, in the
downs east of Jordan (Jer. xlviii. 23,
comp. 21).
Beth-hac'eerem (Neh. ill. 14). From
Jer. vi. 1, we find that it was used as a
beacon-station, and that it was near Tekoa.
In the time of Nehemiah (iii. 14) it had a
ruler or prince. By Jerome a village named
Beihacharma is said to have been on a
mountain between Tekoa and Jerusalem, a
position in which the eminence known as
the Frank mountain (Herodium) stands
conspicuous ; and this has accordingly been
suggested as Beth-baccerem.
Beth-ha'ran, one ofthe fenced cities on
the east of Jordan, built by the Gadites
(Num. xxxii. 36). It is no doubt the same
place as Beth-abam, Josh. xiii. 27.
Beth-hog'la and Hog'lah, a place on
the border of Jud<ah (Josh. xv. 6) and of
Benjamin (xviii. 19), to which latter tribe
it was reckoned to belong (xviii. 21). A
magnificent spring and a ruin between Jer
icho and the Jordan still bear the names of
Ainhajla and KHsr I/ajla, and are doubt
less on or near the old site.
Beth-ho'ron, the name of two towns
or villages, an "upper" and a "nether"
(Josh. xvi. 3, 5 ; 1 Chr. vii. 24), on the road
from Gibeon to Azekah (Josh. x. 10, 11),
and the Philistine plain (1 Mace. in. 24).
Beth-horon lay on the boundary-line be
tween Benjamin and Ephraim (Josh. xvi.
3, 5), and (xviii. 13, 14) was counted to
Ephraim (Josh. xxi. ,22; 1 Chr. vii. 24),
and given to the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 22 ;
1 Chr. vi. 68 [53], There is no room for
doubt that the- two Beth-borons still survive
in the modern vUlages of Beit-'Ar, et-tahta
and el-foka.
Beth-jesh'lmoth, or Jes'imoth, a
town or place east of Jordan, on the lower
level at the south end of the Jordan valley
(Num. xxxiii. 49) ; and named with Ash-
dod-pisgab and Beth-peor, It was one of
the limits of the encampment of Israel be
fore crossing the Jordan, Later it was al
lotted to Reuben (Josh, xii. 3, xiii. 20), but
came at last into the hands of Moab, and
formed one of the cities wliich were " the
glory ofthe country" (Ez. xxv, 9).
Beth-leb'aoth, a town in the lot of
Simeon (Josh. xix. 6), and therefore in the
extreme south of Judah (xv, 32, Lebaoth).
In the parallel list in 1 Chr, iv. 31 the name
is given Beth-birei,
Bethlehem, 1. One of the oldest
towns in Palestine, already in existence at
the time of Jacob's return to the country.
Its earliest name was Ef heath or Ephra-
TAH (see Gen. xxxv, 16, 19, xlviii. 7), and
it is not till long after the occupation of the
country by the Israelites that we meet with
it under its new name of Bethlehem. After

the conquest Bethlehem appears under ils
own name Bethlehem-judah (Judg. xvii. 7 ;
1 Sam. xvii. 12; Ruth i. 1, 2). The Book
of Ruth is a page from the dcmestie history
of Bethlehem : the names, almost the very
persons, of the Bethlehemites are there
brought before us ; we are allowed to assist
at their most peculiar customs, and to wit
ness the very springs of those events which
have conferred immortality on the name
of the place. The elevation of David to
the kingdom does not appear to have af
fected the fortunes of his native town. —
The few remaining casual notices of Beth
lehem in the Old Testament may be quickly
enumerated. It was fortified by Rehoboam
(2 Chr. xi. 6). By the time of the captiv
ity, the Inn of Chimham by Bethlehem ap
pears to have become the recognized point
of departure for travellers to Egypt (Jer.
xii. 17). — In the New Testament Bethle
hem retains its distinctive title of Bethle
hem-judah (Matt. ii. 1, 5), and once, in the
announcement of the Angels, the "city of
David" (Luke ii. 4; comp. John vii. 42).
The passages just quoted, and the few which
follow, exhaust the references to it in the
N. T. (Matt. ii. 6, 8, 16 ; Luke ii. 15). The
modern town of Beit-lahm lies to the E. of
the main road from Jerusalem to Hebron,
6 miles from the former. It covers the E.
and N. E. parts of the ridge of a long gray
hill of Jura limestone, which stands nearly
due E. and W., and is about a mile in
length. The hill has a deep valley on the
N. and another on the S. On the top lies
the village in a kind of irregular triangle.
The population is about 3000 souls, entirely
Christians. 2. A town in the portion of
Zebulun namednowherebutin Josh. xix. 15.
Bethlo'mon, 1 Esd. v. 17. [Bethle
hem, 1.]
Beth-ma'achah, a place named only
in 2 Sam. xx. 14, 15. In the absence of
more information, we can only conclude
thfit it is identical with Maachah, or Aram-
maachah, one of the petty Syrian kingdoms
in the north of Palestine (comp. 2 K. xv.
29). Beth-mar'caboth, "house ofthe char
iots," one ofthe towns of Simeon, situated
to the extreme south of Judah (Josh. xix.
5 ; 1 Chr. iv. 31). In the parallel list. Josh.
XV. 30, 31, Madmannah occurs in place of
Beth-marcaboth. Beth-me'on, Jer. xlviii. 23. A con
tracted form of the name elsewhere given
as Beth-eaal-meon,
Beth-nim'rah, one of the fenced cities
on the east of Jordan taken and built by
the tribe of Gad (Num. xxxii. 36), and de
scribed as lying in the valley beside Beth-
haran (Josh, xiii, 27). In Num, xxxii, 3
it is called simply Nimbah. The name
still survives in the Nahr Nimrim, the
Arab appellation of the lower end of the

BETHORON

86

BETHULIA

Wady Shoaib, where the waters of that
valley discharge themselves into the Jor
dan close to one of the regul.ar fords a few
miles above Jericho,
Betho'ron, i. e. Bethoron (Jud. iv. 4).
Beth-pa'let, a town among those in
the extreme south of Judah, named in
Josh. XV. 27.
Beth-paa'zez, a town of Issachar named
with En-haddah (Josh. xix. 21), and of
which nothing is known. '
Beth-pe'or, a place, no doubt dedicated
to the god Baal-peor, on the east of Jor
dan, opposite Jericho, and six miles above
Libias or Beth-liaran. It was in the pos
session of the tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii.
20). One of the last halting-places of the
children of Israel is designated " the
ravine over against Beth-peor" (Deut.
iii. 29, iv. 46).
Beth'-phage, the name of a place on
the mount of Olives, on the road between
J ericho and Jerusalem. It was apparently
close to Bethany (Matt. xxi. 1 ; Mark xi.
1 ; Luke xix. 29), and to the eastward of
it. No remains however which could an
swer to this position have been found, and
the traditional site is above Bethany, half
way between that village and the top of the
mount. Beth'-phelet, Neh. xi. 26. [Beth-
PALET.] Beth'-rapha, a name which occurs in
the genealogy of Judah as the son of Esh-
ton (1 Chr. iv. 12).
Beth'-rehob, a place mentioned as hav
ing near it the valley in which lay the town
of Liiish or Dan (Judg. xviii. 28). It was
one of the little kingdoms of Aram or
Syria (2 Sam. x. 6). Robinson conjectures
that this ancient place is represented by
the modern Hunin.
Beth-sa'ida. 1. "Bethsaida of Gali
lee" (John xii. 21), a city which was the
native place of Andrew, Peter, and Philip
(John i. 44, xii. 21) in the land of Gen
nesareth (Mark vi. 45; comp. 53), and
therefore on the west side of the Lake.
Dr. Robinson places Bethsaida at 'Ain et-
Tabigah, a short distance north of Khan
Tilinyeh, which he identifies with Caper
naum. 2. By comparing the narratives in
Mark vi. 31-53, and Luke ix. 10-17, it ap
pears certain that the Bethsaida at which
the 5000 were fed must have been a second
place of the same name on the east of the
lake. Such a place there was at the north
eastern extremity, formerly a village,, but
rebuilt and adorned by PhiHpthe Tetrarch,
and raised to the dignity of a town under
the name of Julias, after the daughter of
the emperor. Here in a magnificent tomb
Philip was buried. Of this Bethsaida we
have certainly one and probably two men
tions in the Gospels: 1. That named
above, of the feeding of the 6000 (Luke

ix. 10). 2. The other, most probally, la
Mark viii. 22.
Beth-she'an, or in Samuel, Beth-
shan, a city, which, with its "daughter"
towns, belonged to Manasseh (1 Chr. vii.
29), though within the limits of Issachar
(Josh. xvii. 11), and therefore on the west
of Jordan (comp. 1 Mace. v. 52) — but
not mentioned in the lists of the latter
tribe. The Canaanites were not driven out
from the town (Judg. i. 27). In later
times it was called Scythopolis (2 Maec.
xii. 29) ; but this name has not survived to
the present day; and the place is still
known as Beisdn. It lies in the Ghor or
Jordan valley, about twelve miles south of
the sea of Galilee, and four miles west of
the Jordan.
Beth-she'mesh. 1. One of the towns
which marked the north boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV. 10), but not nam.ed in the lists
of the cities of that tribe. It is now 'Aiiv-
shems, about two miles from the great Phi
listine pl.ain, and seven from Ekron. 2. A
city on the border of Issachar (Josh. xix.
22). 3. One ofthe "fenced cities" of
Naphtali (Josh, xix, 38 ; Judg. i. 33). 4,
An idolatrous temple or place in Egypt
(Jer. xliii. 13). In tho middle ages Heli
opolis was still called by the Arabs Ain
Shems. Beth-shit'tah, one of the spots to
which the flight of tho host of the Midian
ites extended after their discomfiture by
Gideon (Judg, vii. 22),
Beth-tap'puah, one of the towns of
Judah, in the mountainous district, and
near Hebron (Josh, xv. 53 ; comp. 1 Chr.
ii. 43). Here it has actually been discov
ered by Robinson under the modern name
of Teffuh 5 miles W. of Hebron, on a ridge
of high table-land.
Bethu'el, the son of Nahor by Milcah;
nephew of Abraham, and father of Rebekah
(Gen. xxii. 22, 23, xxiv. 15, 24, 47, xxviii.
2). In xxv. 20, and xxviii. 5, he is called
" Bethuel the Syrian." Though often re
ferred to as above in the narrative, Bethuel
only appears in person once (xxiv. 50).
Upon this an ingenious conjecture is raised
by Prof Blunt that he was the subject of
some imbecility or other incapacity.
Be''thul, a town of Simeon in the south,
named with El-tolad and Hormah (Josh.
xix. 4), called also Chesil and Bethuel
(Josh. XV. 30; 1 Chr. iv. 29).
Bethuli'a, the city which was the scene
of the chief events of the Boc/k of Judith,
in which book only the name occurs. Its
position is there described with very mi
nute detail. Notwithstanding this detail,
however the identification of the site of
Bethulia has hitlierto defied all attempts,
aud is one of the greatest puzzles of sacicd
geography. Von Raumor suggests SanHtr,
which is perhaps the nearest to probability.

BETH-ZACHARIAS

87

BIBLE

It is about three miles from Doihan, and
BOiue six or seven from Jenin (Engannim),
which stand on the very edge of the great
pliun of Esdraelon.
Beth-zaehari'as. [Bath-Zachari-
AS.'l Beth'-ZUr, a town in the mountains of
Judah, named between Halbul and Gedor
(Josh. XV. 58). The recovery of the site
of Bethzur, under the almost identical
name of Beit-sur, explains its impregna
bility, and also the reason for the choice of
its position, since it commands the road
from Beersheba and Hebron, which has
always been the main approach to Jeru
salem from the south.
Bet'onim, a town in the inheritance of
the children of Gad, apparently on their
northern bound.ary (Josh. xiii. 26).
Betrothing. [Marriage.]
Beu'lah, " married," the name which
the land of Israel is to bear, when " the
land slmll be married" (Is. Ixii. 4).
Ue'zai, " Children of Bezai," to the
number of 323, returned from captivity
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 17 ; Neh. vii. 23).
The name occurs again among those who
sealed the covenant (Neh. x. 18).
Bezal'eel. 1. The son of Uri, the son
of Hur, of the tribe of Judah, and one of
the architects of the tabernacle (Ex. xxxi.
1-6). His charge was chiefly in all works
of metal, wood, and stone. 2. One of the
sons of Pahath-moab who had taken a for
eign wife (Ezr. x. 30).
Be'zek. 1. The residence of Adoni-
bezek, i. e. the " lord of Bezek " (Judg. i.
5) ; in the lot of Judah (verse 3), and in
habited by Canaanites and Perizzites (verse
• 4). This must have been a distinct place
from 2. "Where Saul numbered the forces
of Israel and.Judah before going to the re
lief of Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. xi. 8). This
was doubtless somewhere in the centre of
the country, near the Jordan valley. No
identification of either place has been
made iif modern times.
Be'zer, son of Zophah, one of the
heads of the houses of Asher (1 Chr. vii.
37). jBe'zer in the 'Wilderness, a city of
the Reubenites, with suburbs, set apart by
Moses as one of the three cities of refuge
in the downs on the east of the Jordiin, and
. allotted to the Merarites (Deut. iv. 43 ;
Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 36; 1 Chr. vi. 78).
Bible. I. When the Books of the Old
Testament were formed into a Canon
[Canon] it was natural to give a general
name to the collection. The earliest in
stance of such a title occurs in Daniel, who
refers to " the books " (Dan. ix. 2) in a
manner which seems to mark the prophetic
writings as already collected into one whole.
The same word was applied by the Jews in
Alexandria to the collected books of the |

Old Testament — ai ^IfSlai, more frequently
Tu §i(i>.la — whence the word Bible, or
The Book, has been given to the collected
books of the Old and New Testaments.
The writers of the New Testament call
the books of the Old Testament either The
Scripture {>/ yqatpij, Acts viii. 32 ; Gal. iii.
22; 2 Tim. iii. 16), or The Scriptures
{al YQafai, Matt, xxi. 42; Luke xxiv, 27),
or The Holy Scriptures {t'x tiQa yqifinaxu,
2 Tim, iii, 15), The use of the phrase
ij uctiaiit dia6i'iittj in 2 Cor, iii. 14, for the
law as read in the synagogues, led gradu
ally to the extension of the word to include
the other books of the Jewish Scriptures,
Of the Latin equivalents, which were
adopted by different writers {Instrumen-
tum, Testamentum), the latter met with the
most general acceptance, and perpetuated
itself in the languages of modern Europe,
whence the terms Old Testament and New
Testament, though the Greek word prop
erly signifies "Covenant" rather than
" 'restament." But the application of the
word Bible to the collected books of the
Old and New Testaments is not to be traced
farther back than the 5th century of our
era, II. The existence of a collection of
sacred books recognized as authoritative
leads naturally to a more or less systematic
arrangement. The Prologue to Ecclesias
ticus mentions "the law and the prophets
and the other Books." In the N. T. there is
the same kind of recognition. " The Law
and the Prophets " is the shorter (Matt. xi.
13, xxii, 40; Acts xiii. 15, &c.) ; "the
Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms " (Luke
xxiv. 44), the fuller statement of the di
vision popularly recognized. The arrange
ment of the books of the Hebrew text un
der these three heads, requires however a
further notice, 1, The Law, containing
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy, naturally continued to oc
cupy the position which it must have held
from the first as the most ancient and
authoritative portion. In the Hebrew clas
sification the titles were taken from the
initial words, or prominent words in th^
initial verse; in that of the LXX, they
were intended to be significant of the sub
ject of each book, 2, The next group pre
sents a more singular combination, 'Ihe
arrangement stands as follows : —

Josh u I.
Judfjt-s. I & li Salnne],
1 & 2 Kiuga.

Frophela

r C Isaiah.
\ Greater  < Jeremiah,
1 C Ezekiel.
J C The twelve
[Lesser  < minor
^ < Prophets.

— the Hebrew titles of these books corre
sponding to those of the English Bibles. 3.
Last in or ler came the group known b)

BIBLE

88

BILEAM

the Jews as Ceihubim, including the remain
ing books of the Hebrew Canon, arranged
in the following order, and with subordi
nate divisions : {a) Psalms, Proverbs, Job.
(5) The Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamenta
tions, Eoclesiastes, Esther — the five rolls.
(c) Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 and 2
Chronicles. The history of tlie arrange
ment of the Books of the New Testament
presents some variations, not without in
terest, as indicating differences of feeling
or modes of thought. The four Gospels
and the Acts of the Apostles uniformly
stand first. They are so far to the New
what the Pentateuch was to the Old Tes
tament. The position of the Acts as an
intermediate book, the sequel to the Gos
pels, the prelude to the Epistles, was ob
viously a natural one. After this we meet
with some striking differences. The order
in the Alexandrian, Vatican, and Ephraem
MSS, (A B C) gives precedence to the
Catholic Epistles, and this would appear to
have been characteristic of the Eastern
Churches. The Western Church on the
other hand, as represented by Jerome, Au
gustine, and their successors, gave priority
of position to the Pauline Epistles, The
Apocalypse, as might be expected from the
peculiar character of its contents, occupied
a position by itself. III. Division into
Chapters and Verses. — The Hebrew of the
Old Testament. It is hardly possible to
conceive of the liturgical use of the books
of the Old Testament, without some kind
of recognized division. The references,
however, in Mark xii. 26 and Luke xx. 37,
Rom, xi. 2, and Acts -viii. 32, indicate a
division which had become familiar, and
show that some at least of the sections
were known popularly by the titles taken
from their subjects. In like manner the
existence of a cycle of lessons is indicated
by Luke iv. 17 ; Acts xiii. 15, xv. 21 ; 2
Cor. iii. 14. The Talmudic division is on
the following plan. The Law was in the
first instance divided into fifty-four Par-
shioth, or sections, so as to provide <a les-
i son for each Sabbath in the Jewish inter
calary year. Coexisting with this there
was a subdivision into lesser Parshioth. A
different terminology was employed for the
Elder and Later Prophets, and the division
was less uniform. The name of the sec
tions in this case was Ilaphtaroth. Of the
traditional divisions of the Hebrew Bible,
however, that which has exercised most in
fluence in the received arrangement of the
text, was the subdivision of the larger sec
tions into verses {Pesukim). These do
not appear to have been used till the post-
Talmudic recension of the text by the
Masoretes of the 9th century. The chief
facts that remain to be stated as to the
verse division of the Old Testament are,
that it was adopted by Stephens in his edi

tion of the Vulgate, 1565, and by Frellon
in that of 1556; that it appeared for the
first time in an English translation, in the
Geneva Bible of 1660, and was thence
transferred to the Bishops' Bible of 1568,
and the Authorized Version of 1611. ^ With
tbe New Testament, the division into chap
ters adopted by Hugh de St, Cher super
seded those that had been in use previous
ly, appeared in the early editions of the
Vulgate, was transferred to the English
Bible by Coverdale, and so became uni
versal. As to the division into verses, the
absence of an authoritative standard left
more scope to the individual discretion of
editors or printers, and tho activity of the
two Stephenses caused that which they
adopted in their numerous editions of the
Greek Testament and Vulgate to be gen
erally received. In the Preface to the
Concordance, published by Henry Ste
phens, 1694, he gives an account of the
origin of this division. The whole -work
was accomplished " inter ^quitandum " on
his journey from Paris to Lyons. While
it was in progress men doubted of its. suc
cess. No sooner was it known than it met
with universal acceptance. The edition in
which this division was first adopted was
published in 1551. It was used for the
English version published in Geneva in
1560, and from that time, with slight vari
ations in detail, has been universally rec
ognized. . Bid'kar, Jehu's " captain," originally
his fellow-ofllcer (2 K, ix, 25) ; who com
pleted the sentence on Jehoram son of
Ahab. Bier. [Bdrial.]
Big'tha, one of the seven chamberlains
or eunuchs of the harem of Ahasuerus
(Esth. i. 10).
Big'than and Big'thana, an eunuch
(chamberlain, A. V.) in the court of Ahas
uerus, one of those "who kept the door,"
and conspired with Teresh against tlie
king's life (Esth. ii. 21). The tfonspkaoy
was detected by Mordecai.
Big'vai. 1. "Children of Bigvai,"
2066 (Neh. 20C7) in number, returned
from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 14; Neh. vii. 19), and 72 of them at a
later date with Ezra (Ezr. vih. 14). 2.
Apparently one of the cliiefs of Zerubb"-
bel's expedition (Ezr. ii. 2 ; Neh. vii. 7),
whose family afterwards signed the cove
nant (Neh. X. 16).
Bik'ath-Aven, Amos i. 5 marg. [Aven,
Bil'dad, the second o^' "ob's tlireo
friends. He i; called "tHe Shuhite,"
which implies both his family and nation
(Job ii. 11).
Bil'eam, a town in the western half cf
the tribe of Manasseh, named only in 1
Chr. vi. 70, as being given to the Kohath

BILGAH

89

BISHOP

ites. In the lists in Josh. xvii. and xxi.
this name does not appear, and Ibleam and
Gath-rimmon are substituted for it.
Bil'gah. 1. A priest in the time of
David ; the head of the fifteenth course for
the temple service (1 Chr. xxiv. 14). 2.
A priest or priestly family who returned
fl om Babylon with Zerubbabel and Jeshua
(Heh. xu. 5, 18),
Bil'gai, Neh, x. 8. [Bilgah, 2.]
Bil'hali, handmaid of Rachel (Gen,
xxix, 29), and concubine of Jacob, to
whom she bore Dan and Naphtali (Gen,
xxx, 3-8, xxxv, 25, xlvi, 25; 1 Chr. vii.
13). [Reuben.]
Bil'han. 1, A Horite chief, son of
Ezer, son of Seir, dwelling in Mount Seir,
in the land of Edom (Gen, xxxvi. 27 ; 1
Chr. i. 42), 2. A Benjamite, son of Jedi-
ael (1 Chr. vii, 10), and probably descend
ed from Bela,
Bil'shan, one of Zerubbabel's compan
ions on his expedition from Babylon (Ezr.
ii. 2 ; Neh. vii, 7).
Bim'hal, one of the sons of Japhlet in
the line of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 33).
Bin'ea, the son of Moza; one of the
descendants of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 37 ; ix
43V Bin'nui. 1, A Levite, father of Noa-
di.ah, in Ezra's time (Ezr. viii. 33). 2. One
of the sons of Pahath-moab, who had taken
a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 30). 3. Another
, Israelite, ofthe sons of Bani, who had also
taken a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 38). 4. Al
tered from Bani in the corresponding list
in Ezra (Neh. vii. 15). 5. A Levite, son
of Henadad, who assisted at the reparation
of tho wall of Jerusalem, under Nehemiah
(Neh. iii. 24; x. 9). He is possibly also
tho Binnui in xii. 8.
Birds. [Sparrow.]
Bir'sha, king of Gomorrha at the time
of the invasion of Chedorlaomer (Gen.
xiv. 2).
Birthdays. The custom of observ
ing birthdays is very ancient (Gen. xl. 20 ;
Jer. XX. 15) ; and in Job i. 4, &c., we read
that Job's sons "feasted every one his
day." In Persia they were celebrated
¦with peculiar honors and banquets, and in
Egypt the king's birthdays were kept with
great pomp. It is very probable that in
Matt. xiv. 6, the feast to commemorate
Herod's accession is intended, for we know
that such feasts were common, and were
called "the day ofthe king" (Hos. vii. 6).
Birthright. The advantages accruing
to the eldest son were not definitely fixed
in patriarchal times. Great respect was
pail to him in the household, and, as the
family widened into a tribe, this grew into
a sustained authority, undefined, save by
custom, in all matters of common interest.
Thus the " princes " of the congregation
bad probably rights of primogeniture (Num.

vii. 2, xxi. 18, xxv. 14). A "double por
tion " of the paternal property was allotted
by the Mosaic law (Deut. xxi. 15-17). The
first-born of the king was his successor by
law (2 Chr. xxi. 3) : David, however, by
divine appointment, excluded Adonijah in
favor of Solomon.
Bir'zavith, a name occurring in the
genealogies of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 31), and
apparently, from the mode of its mention,
the name of a place.
Bishop. This word, applied in the N.
T. to the officers of the Church who wero
charged with certain functions of superin
tendence, had been in use before as a title
of office. When the organization of the
Christian churches in Gentile cities .involved
the assignment of tho work of pastoral su
perintendence to a distinct order, the title
bishop (iTui'trxoTTo?) presented itselfas at once
convenient and familiar, and was therefore
adopted as readily as the word elder {irqia-
(SuTfjos) had been in the mother church of
Jerusalem. That the two titles wero ori
ginally equivalent is clear from the follow
ing facts. 1. Bishops and elders are no
where named together as being orders
distinct from each other. 2. Bishops and
deacons are named as apparently an' ex
haustive division of the - olHcers of the
Church addressed by St. Paul as an apostle
(Phil. i. 1; 1 Tim. i. 1, 8). 3. The same
persons are described by both names (Acts
XX. 17, 18; Tit. i. 6, 8). 4. Elders dis
charge functions which are essentially epis
copal, i. e. involving pastoral superintend
ence (1 Tim. V. 17 ; 1 Pet. v. 1, 2). Assum
ing as proved the identity of the bisjiops and
elders of the N. T. we have to inquire into,
1, The relation which existed betwe'en the
two titles, 2. The functions and mode of
appointment of the men to whom both titles
¦we,r& applied. 3. Their relations to the
general government and discipline of the
Church, I, There can be no doubt that
elders had the priority iu order of time.
The order itself is recognized in Acts jd,
30, and in Acts xv. 2, The earliest use of
"bishops," on the other hand, is in the ad
dress of St, Paul to the elders of Bliletus
(Acts XX. 28), and there it is rather de
scriptive of functions than given as a title.
11. Of the order in which the first elders
were appointed, as of the occasion which led
to the institution of the office, we have no re
cord. Arguing from the analogy of the Seven
in Acts vi. 5, 6, it would seem probable that
they were chosen by the members of the
Church collectively, and then set apart to
their office by the laying on of the apostles'
hands. In the case of Timothy (1 Tim.
iv. 14 ; 2 Tim. i. 6) the " presbyteis," prob
ably the body of the elders at Lystra, had
taken part with the apostle in this act of
ordination. The conditions which were to
be observed in choosing these officers, as

BITHIAH

60

BLOOD

stated in the pastoral epistles, are, blame
less life and reputation among those " that
are without" as well as within the Church,
fitness for the Work of teaching, the wide
kindliness or temper which shows itself in
hospitality, the being "the husband of one
wife " (t. e. according to the most probable
interpretation, not divorced and then mar
ried to another), showing powers of gov
ernment in his own household as well as in
self-control, not being a recent, and, there
fore, an untried convert. AVhen appointed,
the duties of the bishop-elders appear to
have been as follows : 1. General superin
tendence over the spiritual well-being of
the flock (1 Pet. v. 2). 2. The work of
teaching, both publicly aud privately (1
Thess. v. 12; Tit. i. 9; 1 Tim. v. 17). 3.
The work of visiting the sick appears in
Jam. V. 14, as assigned to the elders of the
Church. 4. Among other acts of charity,
that of receiving strangers occupied a con
spicuous place (1 Tim. iii. 2; Tit. i. 8).
The mode in which these officers of the
Church were supported or remunerated
varied probably in different cities. Col
lectively at Jerusalem, and probably in
other churches, the body of bishop-elders
took part in deliberations (Acts xv. 6-22,
xxi. 18), addressed other churches {ibid.
XV. 23), were joined with the apostles in
the work of ordaining by the laying on of
hands (2 Tim. i. G). III. It is clear from
what has been said that episcopal func
tions in the modern sense of the words, as
implying a special superintendence over
the ministers of the Church, belonged only
to the apostles and those whom they in
vested *ith their authority.
Bithi'ah, daughter of a Pharaoh, and
•wife of Mered, a descendant of Judah (1
Chr. iv. 18).
Bith'ron (more accurately "the Bith-
ron"), a place, doubtless a district in the
Jordan valley, ou the east side of the river
(2 Sam. ii. 29).
Bithyn'ia. This province of Asia
Minor is mentioned only in Acts xvi. 7, and
in 1 Pet. i. 1. Bithynia, considered as a
Roman province, was on the west contigu
ous to Asia. On the east its limits under
went great modifications. The province
was originally inherited by the Roman re
public (n. c. 74) as a legacy from Nico-
medss III. The chief town of Bithynia
was Nicaea, celebrated for the general
Council of the Church held there in a. d.
325 against the Arian heresy.
Bitter Herbs. The Israelites were
commanded to eat the Paschal lamb " with
unleavened bread and with bitter herbs "
(Ex. xii. 8). These may well be under
stood to denote various sorts of bitter
plants, such particularly as belong to the
cruciferae, as some of the bitter cresses, or
to the, chicory group of the composiiae, the

hawkweeds, and sow-thistles, and wild let
tuces which grow abundantly in the Penin
sula of Sinai, in Palestine, and in Egypti
Bittern. The Hebrew word has been
the subject of various interpretations. Phil-
ological arguments appear to be rather in
favor of the "hedgehog" or "porcupme,"
for the Hebrew word -hippdd appears to be
identical with kunfud, the Arabic word for
the hedgehog ; but zoologically, the hedge
hog or porcupine is quite out of the ques
tion. Tho word occurs in Is. xiv. 23, xxxiv.
11 ; Zeph. ii. 14, and we are inclined to
believe that the A. V. is correct. The
bittern {Boiaurus stellaris) belongs to the
Ardeidae, the heron family of birds.
Bizjoth'jah, a town in the south of
Judah (Josh. xv. 28).
Biz'tha, the second ofthe seven eunuchs
of king Ahasuerus' harem (Esth. i. 10).
Blains, violent ulcerous inflammations,
the sixth plague of Egypt (Ex. ix. 9, 10),
and hence called in Deut. xxviii. 27, 35,
" the botch of Egypt." It seems to have
been the black leprosy, a, fearful kind of
elephantiasis. Blasphemy, in its technical EngUsh
sense, signifies the speaking evil of God,
and in this sense it is found Ps. Ixxiv. 18;
Is. Iii. 5 ; Rom. ii. 24, &c. But according
to its derivation it may mean any species
of calumny and abuse : see 1 K. xxi. 10 ;
Acts xviii. 6; Jude 9, &c. Blasphemy was
punished with stoning, which was inflicted
on the son of Shelomith (Lev. xxiv. 11).
On this charge both our Lord and St. Ste
phen were condemned to death by tho
Jews. It only remains to speak of "the
blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," which
has been so fruitful a theme for speculation
and controversy (Matt. xii. 32 ; Mark iii.
28). It consisted in attributing to the pow
er of Satan those unquestionable miracles,
which Jesus performed by " tlie finger of
God," and the power of the Holy Spirit.
Blas'tus, the chamberlam of Herod
Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 20).
Blindness is extremely common in the
East from many causes. Blind beggars
figure repeatedly in the N. T. (Matt. xii.
22), and " opening the eyes of the bUnd"
is mentioned in prophecy as a pecuUar
attribute of the Messiah (Is. xxix. 18, &c.).
The Jews were specially charged to treat
tlie blind with compassion and care (Lev.
xix. 14; Deut. xx, li. 18). Blindness wil
fully inflicted for political or other purposes
is alluded to in Scripture (1 Sam. xi. 2;
Jer. xxxix. 7).
Blood. To blood is ascribed in Scrip
ture the mysterious sacredness which be
longs to life, and God reserves it to Him
self when allowing man the dominion over
and the use- of the lower animals for food.
Thus reserved, it acquires a double powers
1. that of sacrificial atonement; and 2. that

BLOOD

01

BOZKATH

of bteoming a curse when wantonly shod,
unless duly expiated (Gen. ix. 4 ; Lev. vii.
26, xvii. 11-13).
Blood, Issue of. The menstruous
discharge, or the ^Ma;i(s uteri (Lev. xv. 19-
80 ; Matt. ix. 20 ; Mark v. 25, and Luke
viii. 43). The latter caused a permanent
legal uncleanness, the former a temporary
one, mostly for seven days ; after which the
woman was to be purified by the customary
offering. Blood, Bevenger of. It was, and
even still is, a common practice among na
tions of patriarchal habits, that the near
est of kin should, as a matter .of duty,
avenge the death of a murdered relative.
Compensation for murder is allowed by the
Koran. Among the Bedouins, and other
Arab tribes, should the offer of blood-
money be refused, the ' Thar,' or law of
blood, comes into operation, and any per
son within the fifth degree of blood from
the homicide may be legally killed by any
one within the same degree of consanguinity
to the victim. The right to blood-revenge
is never lost, except as annulled by com
pensation ; it descends to the latest gener
ation. The law of Moses was very precise
in its directions on the subject of Retalia
tion. 1. The wilful murderer was to be
put to death without permission of com
pensation. The nearest relative of the
deceased became the authorized avenger
of blood (Num. xxxv. 19), 2. The law of
retaliation was not to extend beyond the
immediate offender (Deut, xxiv, 16 ; 2 K,
xiv. 6; 2 Chr. xxv. 4; Jer, xxxi, 29, 30;
Ezek, xviii. 20). 3, The involuntary shed-
dor of blood was permitted to take flight to
one of six Levitical cities, specially ap-
poiuted as cities of refuge (Num, xxxv, 22,
23; Deut, xix. 4-6),
Boaner'ges, a name signifying "sons
of thunder," given by our Lord to the two
sons of Zebedee, James and John (Mark
iii. 17). See Luke ix, 54; Mark ix, 38;
comp. Matt. xx. 20, &c.
Boar, [Swine.]
Bo'az, 1. A wealthy Bethlehemite,
kinsman -to Elimelech, the husband of
Naomi, He married Ruth, and redeemed
the estates of her deceased husband Mah-
lon (iv, 1, ff.). Boaz is mentioned in the
genealogy of Christ (Matt. i. 5), but there
is great difficulty in assigning his date. 2,
Boaz, the name of one of Solomon's
brazen pillars erected in the temple porch.
[Jachin.] It stood on the left, and was 18
cubits high (1 K. vii. 15, 21 ; 2 Chr. iii. 16 ;
Jer. Iii. 21).
Boch'eru, son of Azel, according to the
present Heb. text of 1 Chr. viii. 38.
Bo'ehim, " the weepers," a place on
the •»> est of Jordan above Gilgal (Judg. ii.
1,5). So'lian, a Beubeoite, aAer whom a

stone was named. Its position was on the
border of the territories of Benjamin and
Judah (Josh. xv. 6, xviii. 17).
Boil. [Medicine.]
Bondage. [Slavery.]
Book. [Writing.]
Booths. [Succoih ; Tabernacles,
Eeast op.]
Booty consisted of captives of both
sexes, cattle, and whatever a captured city
might contain, especially metallic treas
ures. Within the limits of Canaan no
captives were to be made (Deut. xx. 14
and 16) ; beyond these limits, in case of
warlike resistance, all the women and chil
dren were to be made captives, and the men
put to death. The law of booty is given
in Num. xxxi. 26-47. As regarded tho
army David added a regulation that the
baggage guard should share equally with
the troops engaged (1 Sam. xxx. 24, 25).
Bo'oz, Matt. i. 5; Luke iii. 32. [Boaz.]
Bos'cath, 2 K. xxii. 1. [Bozkath.]
Bo'sor. The Aramaic mode of pro
nouncing the name of Beor, the father of
Balaam (2 Pet. ii. 15).
Bottle. 1. The skin bottle; 2.. The
bottle of earthen or glass ware, both of
them capable of being closed from the air.
1. The Arabs keep their water, milk, and
other liquors, in leathern bottles. These
are made of goatskins. When the animal
is killed they cut off its feet and its head,
and they draw it in this manner out of the
skin, without opening its belly. The great
leathern bottles are made of the skin of
a he-goat, and the small ones, that serve
instead of a bottle of water on the road,
are made of a kid's skin. The effect of ex
ternal heat upon a skin bottle is indicated
in Ps. cxix. 83, "a bottle in the smoke," -
and of expansion produced by fermenta
tion in Matt. ix. 17, "new wine in old bot
tles." 2. Vessels of metal, earthen or
glass ware for liquids were in use among
the Greeks, Egyptians, Etruscans, and
Assyrians, and also no doubt among the
Jews, especially in later times. Thus Jer.
xix. 1, "a potter's earthen bottle." The
Jews probably borrowed their manufac
tures in this particular from Egypt.
Box-tree. The Heb. teasshitr occurs
in Is. xii. 19, lx. 13. The Talmudical and
Jewish writers generally are of opinion
th.at the box-tree is intended. Box-wood
writing tablets are alluded to in 2 Esdr. xiv.
24. Bo'zez, one of the two sharp rocks be
tween the passages by which Jonathan
entered the Philistine garrison. It seems
to have been that on the north (1 Sam. xiv.
4,5). Boz'kath, a city of Judah in the low
lands (Josh. XV. 39). It is mentioned once
again (2 K. xxii. 1, A. V. " Boscath") aa
the native place of the mother of king Josiah.

BOZRAH

92

BRICK

Boz'rah. 1, In Edom — the city of
Jobab the son of Zerah, one of the early
kings of that nation (Gen, xxxvi. 33 ; 1
Chr, i, 44), This is doubtless the place
mentioned in later times by Isaiah (xxxiv,
6, Ixiii, 1) in connection with Edom, and
by Jeremiah (xlix. 13, 22), Amos (i. 12),
and Micah (ii. 12). There is no reason to
doubt that its modern representative is el-
Busaireh, wliich lies on the mountain dis
trict to the S. E. of the Dead Sea. 2. In
his catalogue of the cities of the land of
Moab, Jeremiah (xlviii. 24) me'ntions a
Bozrah as in " the plain country" (ver. 21,
i. t. the high level downs on the east of the
Dead Sea).
Bracelet. [See Armlet.] Bracelets
of fine twisted "Venetian gold are still com
mon in Egypt. In Gen. xxxviii. 18, 25,
the word rendered "bracelet" means
probably " a string by which a seal-ring
was suspended." Men as well as women
wore bracelets, as we see from Cant. v. 14.
Layard says of the Assyrian kings : "The
arms were encircled by armlets, and ihe
wrists by bracelet; "
Bramble [Thorns.]
Brass The word nechdsheth is im
properly translated by " brass." In most
places of the O. T. the correct translation
would be copper, although it may some
times possiMy mean bronze, a compound
of copper and tin. Indeed a simple metal
was obviously intended, as we see from
Deut. viii. 9, xxxii, 25, and Job xxviii. 2.
Copper was known at a very early period
(Gen. iv. 22), The word x"^-"^^'?"'"'^ in
Rev, i. 15, ii. 18 (A, V, "fine brass'.'), has
excited much difference of opinion. Some
suppose it to have been orichalcum, which
was so rare as to be more valuable than
gold. Brazen-serpent. [Serpent.]
Bread. The preparation of bread as
an article of food dates from a very early
period : the earliest undoubted instance of
its use is found in Gen. xviii, 6, The corn
or grain employed was of various sorts :
the best bread was made of wheat, which
after being ground produced the " flour "
or "meal" (Judg. vi. 19; 1 Sam. i. 24; 1
K. iv, 22, xvii. 12, 14), and when sifted the
"flue flour" (Ex. xxix. 2; Gen. xviii. G)
usually employed in the sacred offerings
(Ex, xxix. 40; Lev. ii. 1; Ez, xlvi. 14),
and iu the meals of the wealthy (1 K. iv,
1:2; 2 K. vii. 1; Ez, xvi, 13, 19; Rev.
xviii, 13), " Barley " was used only by the
very poor (John vi. 9, 13), or in times of
scarcity (Ruth iii. 15, compared with i, 1 ;
2 K, iv, 38, 42 ; Rev, vi. 6). " Spelt" was
also used both in Egypt (Ex. ix. 32) and Pal
estine (Is. xxviii. 25 ; Ez. iv. 9 ; 1 K. xix.
6). The bread taken by persons on a
journey (Gen. xiv. 23 ; Josh. ix. 12) was
probal ly a ^nd of biscuit. The process

of making bread was as follows : — the
flour was flrst mixed with water, or per
haps milk; it was then kneaded with the
hands (in Egypt with the feet also) in a
small wooden bowl or " kneading-trough"
until it became dough (Ex. xii. 34, 39 ; 2
Sam. xiii. 3 ; Jer. vii. 18 ; Hos. vii. 4'!

Egyptians kneading dough with their hands.
(Wilkinson, from 'a painting in the tomb of Barneses m
at Thebes.)
When the kneading was completed, leaven
was generally added [Leaven]; but. when
the time for preparation was short, it was
omitted, and unleavened cakes, hastily
baked, were eaten, as is still the prevalent
custom among the Bedouins (Gen. xviii. 6,
xix. 3 ; Ex. xii. 39 ; Judg. vi. 19 ; 1 Sam.
xxviii. 24). The leavened mass was allowed
to stand for some time (Matt. xiii. 33;
Luke xiii. 21). The dough was then di
vided into round cakes (Ex. xxix. 23;
Judg. vii, 13, viii. 5 ; 1 Sam. x. 3 ; Prov.
vi. 26) , not unlike flat stones in shape and
appearance (Matt, vii, 9; comp, iv, 8),
about a span in diameter and a fingef's
breadth in thickness. In the towns where
professional bakers resided, there were no
doubt fixed ovens, in shape and size, resem
bling those in use among ourselves: but
more usually each household possessecta
portable oven, consisting of a stone or
metal jar, about three feet high, which was
heated inwardly with wood (1 K, xvii.l2;
Is. xliv, 15; Jer, vii. 18) or dried V^"
and flower-stalks (Matt, vi, 30),
Breastplate, [Arms.]
Brethren of Jesus, [James.]
Brick, Herodotus (i, 179), describing
the mode of building tie walls of Babylon,
says that the cl.ay dug out of the ditch was
made into bricks as soon as it was carried
up, and burnt in kilns. The bricks were
cemented with hot bitumen, and at every
tlurtieth row crates of reeds were stufi'ed
in (comp. Gen. xi, 3). The Babylonjsn
bricks were more commonly burnt in kilM
than those used at Nineveh, which are
chiefly sun-dried like the Egyptian, They
are_ usually from 12 to 13 in, square, and
34 in, thick. They thus possess more.of
the character of tUes (Ez. iv. 1). The Is
raelites, in common with othra captiTCBi

BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM

93

BURIAI.

were employed by the Egyptian monarchs
in making bricks and in building (Ex. i. 14,
v. 7). Egyptian bricks were not gener
ally dried in kilns, but in the sun. When
made of the Nile mud, they required
straw to prevent cracking; and crude
brick walls had frequently the addition.al
security of a layer of reeds and sticks,
placed at intervals to act as binders. A
brick pyramid is mentioned by Herodotus
(ii.' 136) as the work of King Asychis.
The Jews learned the art of brick-making
in Egypt, and we find the use of the brick
kiln in David's time (2 Sam. xii. 31), and
a complaint made by Isaiah that the people
built altars of brick instead of unhewn
stone as the law directed (Is. Ixv. 3; Ex.
XX. 26). [See Straw.]
, Bride, Bridegroom. [Marriage.]
Bridge. The only mention of a bridge
in the Canonical Scriptures is indirectly in
the proper name Geshur, a district in
Bashan, N. E. of the sea of Galilee. At
this place a bridge still exists, called the
bridge of the sons of Jacob. Judas Mac
eabaeus is said to have intended to make a
bridge in order to besiege the town of Cas-
phor or Caspis, situate near a lake (2 Mace.
xii. 13). Tlie Romans were the first con
structors of arched bridges. The bridge
connecting the Temple with the upper city,
of which Josephus speaks, seems to have
been an arched viaduct.
Brigandine, Jer. xlvi. 4; elsewhere
" habergeon," or " coat of mail."
Brimstone. The Hebrew word is con
nected with gdpher, " gopher-wood," A. V.
Gen. vi. 14, and probably signified in the
first instance the gum or resin that exuded
from that tree ; hence it was transferred to
all inflammable substances, and especially
to sulphur, which is found in considerable
quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea
(Gen. xix. 24).
Brother. The Hebrew word is used
in various senses in the O. T., as, 1. Any
kinsman, and not a mere brother; e. g.
nephew (Gen. xiv. 16, xiii. 8), husband
(Cant. iv. 9). 2. One of the same tribe (2
Sam. xix. 13). 3. Of the same people (Ex.
ii. 14), or even of a cognate people (Num.
XX. 14). 4. An ally (Am. i. 9). 5. Any
friend (Job v. 15). 6. One of the same
office (1 K. ix. 13). ¦ 7. A fellow-man (Lev.
xix. 17). 8. Metaphorically of any similari
ty, as in Job xxx. 19. The word aSeXtjio; has
a similar range of meanings in the N. T.
Buk'ki. 1. Son of Abishua and father
of Uzzi, fifth from Aaron in the line of the
aigh-priests in 1 Chr. v. 31, vi. 36 (vi. 6,
51, A. v.), and in the genealogy of Ezra,
Ezr. vii. 4. 2. Son of Jogli, prince ofthe
tribe of Dan, one of the ten men chosen to
apportion the land of Canaan between the
tribes (Num. xxxiv. 22). _
Sukki'ah, a Kohathite Levite, of the"|

sons of Heman, one of the musicians in
the Temple (1 Chr. xxv. 4, 13).
Bui, [Months.]
Bull, BuUock, terms used sjrnony-
mously with ox, oxen, in the A. V., as the
representatives of several Hebrew words.
Bdkdr, the most common, is properly a
generic name for horned cattle when .if
full age and fit for the plough. Accord
ingly it is variously rendered bullock
(Is, Lxv. 25), cow (Ez. iv. 15), oxen (Gen,
xii. 16). In Is. li. 20, the "wild bull"
("wild ox "in Deut. xiv, 5) was possibly
one of the larger species of antelope, and
took its name from its swiftness, D».
Robinson mentions large herds of black
and almost hairless buffaloes as still exist
ing in Palestine, and these may be the ani
mal indicated.
Bu'nah, a son of Jerahmeel, of the
family of Pharez in Judah (1 Chr. ii. 25).
Bun'ni. 1. One of the Levites in the
time of Nehemiah (Noli, ix, 4) ; possibly
the same person is mentioned in x, 15.
2. Another Levite, but of earlier date than
the preceding (Neh. xi. 15).
Burial, Sepulchres, [Tombs.] On
this subject we have to notice : 1, the place
of burial, its site and shape ; 2, the mode
of burial ; -3. the prevalent notions regard
ing this duty, 1. A natural cave enlarged
and adapted by excavation, or an artificial
imitation of one, was the standard type of
sepulchre. This was what the structure
of the Jewish soil supplied or suggested.
Sepulchres, when the owner's means per
mitted it, were commonly prepared before
hand, and stood often in gardens, by road
sides, or even adjoining houses. Kings and
prophets alone were probablj' buried within
towns (1 K. ii. 10, xvi. 6, 28 ; 2 K. x. 35,
xiii. 9 ; 2 Chr, xvi, 14, xxviii. 27 ; 1 Sam.
xxv, 1, xxviii, 3), Sarah's tomb and
Rachel's seem to have been chosen merely
from the accident of the place of death;
but the successive interments at the former
(Gen, xlix, 31) are a chronicle of the
strong family feeling among the Jews.
Cities soon became populous and demanded
cemeteries (Ez, xxxix, 15), which were
placed without the walls. Sepulchres were
marked sometimes by pillars, as that of
Rachel, or by pyramids, as those of the
Asmoneans at Modin. Such as were not
otherwise noticeable were scrupulously
"whited" (Matt, xxiii. 27) once a year,
after the rains before the passover, to warn
passers-by of defilement. 2. " The man
ner of the Jews " included the use of spices,
where they could command the means. Thus
Asa lay iu a, " bed of spices " (2 Chr. xvi,
11), A portion of these were burnt in
honor of the deceased, and to this use was
probably destined part of the 100 pounds
weight of " myrrh and alofes " in our Lord's
case. In no instance, save that of Saul

BURNT-OEEERING

94

CAESAREA PHILIPPI

and his sons, were the bodies burned; and
even then the bones were interred, and re-
exhumed for solemn entombment. It was
the office of the next of kin to perform
and preside over the whole funereal office ;
but a company of public buriers, originat
ing in an exceptional necessity (Ez, xxxix,
12-14), had become, it seems, customary
in tho times of the N. T. (Acts v, 6, 10).
The bier, the word for which in the O. T.
is the same as that rendered " bed," was
borne by the nearest relatives. The grave-
clothes were probably of the fashion worn
in life, but swathed and fastened with ban
dages, and the head covered separately. 3.
The precedent of Jacob's and Joseph's re
mains being returned to the land of Canaan
was followed, in wish at least, by every
pious Jew. Following a similar notion,
some of the Rabbins taught that only in
that land could those who were buried
obtain a sh.are in the resurrection which
was to usher in Messiah's reign on earth.
Tombs were, in popular belief, led by the
same teaching, invested with traditions.
Burnt-offering, The word is applied
to the offering which was wholly consumed
by fire on the altar, and the whole of which,
except the refuse ashes, " ascended " in
the smoke to God, The burnt-offering is
first named in Gen. viii. 20, as offered after
the Elood. Throughout the whole of the
B -ok of Genesis (see xv. 9, 17, xxii. 2, 7,
8 13) it appears to be the only sacrifice
referred to ; afterwards it became distin
guished as one of the regular classes of
sa erifiee under the Mosaic law. The mean
ing of the whole burnt-offering was that
whish is the original idea of all sacrifice,
the offering by the sacrificer of himself,
soul a-ad body, to God, the submission of
his will to the will of the Lord, The cer
emonies of the burnt-offering are given in
detail in the Book of Leviticus. There
were, as public burnt-offerings — 1st. The
daily burnt-offering (Ex. xxix. 38-42;
Num xviii. 3-8), 2dly, The Sabbath
burnt -offering (Num. xxviii. 9, 10), 3dly,
The cf'ering ai the new moon, at the three
great festivals, ihe great Day of Atone
ment, and feast of trumpets. (See Num,
xxviii. 11-xxix. 39),- Private burnt-offer
ings were appointed at the consecration of
prie'ts (Ex. xxxix. 15 ; Lev. viii. 18, ix, 12),
at the purification of women (Lev, xii. 6,
8), at the cleansing of the lepers (Lev. xiv.
19), and removal of other ceremonial un
cleanness (xv. 15, 30), on any accidental
breach of the Nazaritic vow, or at its con
clusion (Num. vi. ; comp. Acts xxi, 26),
&c. But freewill burnt-offerings were
offered and accepted by God on any sol
emn occasions (Num. vii.; 1 K. viii, 64),
Bush, The Hebrew word seneh occurs
only in those passages which refer to Jeho-'
vah's appearance to Moses " in the flame of

fire in the bush " (Ex, iii, 2, 3, 4 ; Deut.
xxxiii. 16). Celsius has argued in favor of
the Rubus vulgaris, i. e, R. fruiicosus, the
bramble or blackberry bush, Sprengel iden
tifies the s'ineh with what he terms the Ru
bus sanctus, and says it grows abundantly.
near Sinai. It is quite impossible to say
what kind of thorn bush is intended.
Bushel. [Measures.]
Butter, curdled milk (Gen. xviii. 8;
Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Judg. v. 25 ; Job xx. 17).
Milk is generally offered to travellers in
Palestine in a curdled or sour state, "leb-
ben," thick, almost like butter. Hassel
quist describes the method of making but
ter employed by the Arab women : "they
made butter in- a leather bag, hung on
three poles erected for the purpose, in the
form of a cone, and drawn to and fro '
by two women."
Buz. 1. The second son of Milcah and
Nahor (Gen. xxii. 21). Elihu " the Buz
ite " was probably a descendant of Buz. 2.
A name occurring in the genealogies of the
tribe of Gad (1 Chr. v. 14).
Bu'zi, father of Ezekiel the prophet,
(Ez. i. 3). c.
Cab. [Measures.]
Cata'bon, a town in the low country ot
Judah (Josh. xv. 40).
Ca'bul, a place named as one of the
landmarks on the boundary of Asher (Josh.
xix. 27). It may fairly be considered as
still existing in the modern Kabul, 8 or 9
miles east of Akka, and about the same
distance from Jefai.
Cae'sar, always in the N.T. the Roman
emperor, the sovereign of Judaea (John
xix. 12, 15 ; Acts xvii. 7).
Caesare'a (Acts viii. 40, ix. 30, x. 1, 24,
xi. 11, xii. 19, xviii. 22, xxi. 8, 16, xxiii. 23,
33, xxv. 1, 4, 6, 13) was situated on tho
coast of Palestine, on the line of the great
road from Tyre to Egypt, and about half
way between Joppa and Dora. The dis
tance from Jerusalem was about 70 nfiles ;
Josephus states it in round numbers as 600
stadia. In Strabo's time there was on this
point of the coast merely a town called
"Strato's Tower" with a landing-place,
whereas, in the time of Tacitus, Caesarea
is spoken of as being the head of Judaea.
It was in this interval that the city was
built by Herod the Great. It was the offi
cial residence of the Herodian kingSj and
of Festus, Felix, and the other Roman
procurators of Judaea. Caesarea continued
to be a city of some importance even in the
time of the Crusades, and the name still
lingers on the site {Kaisariyeh) .
Caesare'a Philip'pi is mentioned
only in the two first Gospels (Matt. xvi. Wi

CAGE

95

CALF

Mark viii. 27) and in accounts of the same
transactions. It was at the easternmost
and most important of the two recognized
sources of the Jordan, the ottier being at
Tel-el-Kadi. The spring rises, and the
city was built, on a limestone terrace in a
valley at the base of Mount Hermon.
Ca°?area Philippi has no O. T. history,
tnough it has been not unreasonably identi
fied with Baal- Gad. There is no difficulty
in identifying it with the Panium of Jose
phus. Panium became part of the territory
of Philip tetrarch of Trachonitis, who en
larged and embellished the town, and called
it Caesarea Philippi, partly after his own
name, and partly after that of thfe emperor.
It is still flailed Banias.
Cage. The term so rendered in Jer. v.
27, is more properly a ti-ap, in which decoy
birds were placed (comp. Ecclus. xi. 30).
In Rev. xviii. 2, the Greek term means a
prison, Cai'aphas, in full Joseph Caiaphas,
high-priest of the Jews under Tiberius
(Matt, xxvi, 3, 57 ; John xi, 49, xviii, 13,
14, 24, 28; Acts iv, 6). The Procurator
Valerius Gratus appointed him to the dig-
niiy. He was son-in-law of Annas, [An
nas.] Catn, The historical facts in the life of
Cain, as recorded in Gen, iv., are briefly
these : — He was the eldest son of Adam
and Eve ; he followed the business of agri
culture ; in a flt of jealousy, roused by the
rejection of his own sacrifice and the accept
ance of Abel's, he committed the crime of
murder, for which he was expelled from
Eden, and led the life of an exile ; he set
tled in the land of Nod, and built a city
which he named after his son Enoch ; his
descendants are enumerated, together with
the inventions for wliich they were remark
able. Cain, one of the cities in the low coun
try of Judah, named with Zanoah and
Gibeah (Josh, xv. 57).
Cai'nan, 1, Son of Enos, aged 70
years when he begat Mahalaleel his son.
He lived 840 years afterwards, and died
aged 910 (Gen. v. 9-14), 2. Son of Ar
phaxad, and father of Sala, according to
Luke iii. 35, 36, and usually called the
second Cainan, He is also found in the
present copies of the LXX., but is no
where named in the Hebrew MSS. It
seems certain that his name was introduced
into the genealogies of the Greek O. T, in
order to bring them into harmony with the
genealogy of Christ in St, Luke's Gospel,
Ca'lah, one of the most ancient cities of
Assyria (Gen, x. 11), The site of Calah
is probably marked by the NimrHd ruins.
If this be regarded as ascertained, Calah
must be considered to have been at one
time (about b, c, 930-720) the capital of
the empire.

Calamus. [Reed.]
Cal'eol, a man of Judah, son or descend
ant of Zerah (1 Chr. ih 6). Probably
identical with Chalcol.
Caldron, a vessel for boiling flesh, ei
ther for ceremonial or domestic use (2 Chr.
xxxv. 13 ; 1 Sam. ii. 14 ; Mic. iii. 3 ; Job
xii. 20).
Ca'leb. 1. According to 1 Chr. ii. 9,
18, 19, 42, 60, the son of Hezron, the son
of Pharez, the son of Judah, and the father
of Hur by Ephrath or Ephratah, and con
sequently gr.andfather of Caleb the spy.
2. Son of Jephunneh, by which patronymic
the illustrious spy is usually designated
(Num. xiii. G, and ten other places), with
the addition of that of "the Kenezite," or
" sonof Kenaz," in Nura. xxxii. 12 ; Josh.
xiv. 6, 14. Caleb is first mentioned in the
list of the rulers or princes who were sent
to search the land of Canaan in the second
year of the Exodus. He and Oshea or
Joshua the son of Nun were the only two
of the whole number who encouraged the
people to enter in boldly to the land, and
take possession of it. Forty-five years
afterwards, Caleb came to Joshua and
claimed possession of the land of the Ana-
kims, Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron, and the
neighboring hill country (Josh, xiv.).
This was immediately granted to him, and
the following chapter relates how he took
possession of Hebron, driving out the three
sons of Anak ; and how he offered Achsah
his daughter in marriage to whoever would
take Kirjath-Sepher, i. e. Debir; and how
when Othniel, his younger brother, had
performed the feat, he not only gave him
his daughter to wife, but with her the upper
and nether springs of water which she
asked for. It is probable that Caleb was a
foreigner by birth ; a proselyte, incorporat
ed into the tribe of Judah.
Calf, In Ex, xxxii. 4, we are told thai
Aaron, constrained by the people in the ab
sence of Moses, made a molten calf of the

Bronze Figure of Apis. CWilkinsen.)
golden earrings of the people, to represent
the Elohim which brought Israel out of
Egypt. Probably it was a wooden figure

CALNEH

96

C4KA

laminated with gold, a process which is
known to have existed in Egypt. "A
gilded ox covered with a pall " was an em
blem of Osiris (Wilkinson, iv, 335), To
punish the apostasy Moses burnt the calf,
and then grinding it to powder scattered it
over the water, which he made the people
druik. The process which he used is diffi
cult of explanation, Bochart and Rosen-
mOUer think that he merely cut, ground,
and filed the gold to powder. It has al
ways been a great dispute respecting this
calf and those of Jeroboam, whether, I.
tho Jews intended them for some Egyptian
god, or II, for a mere cherubic symbol of
Jeliovah. Of the various sacred cows of
Egypt, those of Isis, of Athor, and of the
three kinds of sacred bulls. Apis, Basis,
and Mnevis, Sir G. Wilkinson fixes on the
latter as the prototype of the golden calf.
It seems to us more likely that in this calf-
worship the Jews merely
*' Likened their Maker to the graved ox,"
or \n other words, adopted a well-under
stood cherubic emblem. The calf at Dan
was carried away by Tiglath-Pileser, and
that of Bethel ten years after by his son
Shalmaneser. Cal'neh or Cal'no appears in Gen
esis (x. 10) among the cities of Nimrod.
Probably the site is the moderii Niffer. In
the 8tli century b. c. Calneh was taken by
one of the Assyrian kings, and never re
covered its prosperity (Is, x. 9; Am. vi. 2).
Cal'vary, a word occurring in the A. "V.
only in Luke xxiii. 33, and there arising
from the t^-anslators' having literally adopt
ed the word calvaria, i. e. a bare skull, the
Vulgate rendering of xQavior, which again
is nothing but the Greek for Golgotha.
The popular expression "Mount Calvary"
is not warranted by any statement in the ac
counts of the place of our Lord's crucifixion.
Camel, It is clear from Gen. xii. 16 that
camels were early known to the Egjrptians,
though no representation of this animal
has yet been discovered in the paintings
or hieroglyphics. The Ethiopians had
"camels in abundance" (2 Chr. xiv, 16);
the queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem
' ' with camels that bare spices and gold and
precious stones " (1 K. x, 2) ; the men of
Kedar and of Hazor possessed camels (Jer.
xlix. 29, 32) ; David took away the camels
from the Geshurites and the Amalekites
(1 Sam. xxvii. 2, xxx. 17) ; forty camels'
burden of good things were sent to Elisha
by Benhadad king of Syria from Damas
cus (2 K. viii. 9) ; the Ishmaelites trafficked
.with Egypt in the precious gums of Gilead,
carried on the backs of camels (Gen.
xxx vii, 25) ; the Midianites and the Amalek
ites possessed camels " as the sand by the
sea-side for multitude" (Judg, vii. 12);
Job had three thousand camels before his

afiliction (Job i. 3), and sis thousand after
wards (xiii. 12). The camel was used for
riding (Gen. xxiv. 64 ; 1 Sam. xxx. 17) ; aa
a beast of biurden generally (Gen. xxxvii.
25 ; 2 K. viii. 9 ; 1 K, x, 2, &c.) ; and for
draught purposes (Is, xxi. 7). From 1
Sam. xxx. 17 we learn that camels wore
used in war. John the Baptist wore a
garment made of camel's hair (Matt. iii. 4;
Marki. 6), and some have supposed that
Elijah "was clad in a, dress of the same
stuff." Dr. Kitto says "the Arabs adorn
the necks of their camels with a band of
cloth or leather, upon which are strung
small shells called cowries in the form of
half-moonsr" This very aptly illustrates
Judg. viii. 21, 26.'* The species of camel
which was in common use amongst the Jews
and the heathen nations of Palestine was
the Arabian or one-humped camel {Came-
lus Arabicus). The dromedary is a swifter
animal than the baggage-camel, and is used
chiefly for riding purposes ; it is merely a
finer breed than the other : the Arabs call
it the Heirie. The speed of the dromedary
has been greatly exaggerated, the Arabs
asserting that it is swifter than the horse ;
eight or nine miles an hour is the utmost
it is able to perform ; this pace, however, it
is able to keep up for hours together.
Ca'mon, the place in which Jaie the
Judge was buried (Judg. x. 6).
Camp, [Encampments,]
Camphire (Heb. cdpher). There can
be no doubt that ' ' camphire "is an incor
rect rendering of the Hebrew term, which
occurs in the sense of some aromatic sub
stance only in Cant. i. 14, iv. 13. The
margin in both passages has " cypress."
The substance really denoted by cdpher is
the Lawsonia alba of botanists, the henna
of Arabian naturalists. The inhabitants
of Nubia called the henna-plant Khofreh.
The henna-plant grows in Egyit, Syria,
Arabia, and N, India, The S Dwera are
white, and glow in clusters, al 1 are very
fragrant. The whole shrub is from four to
six feet high. The Lawsonia alba, the
only known species, belongs to the natural
order Lyihraceae.
Ca'na of Galilee, once Cana in
Galilee, a village or town not far from
Capernaum, memorable as the scene of
Christ's first miracle (John ii, 1, 11, iv. 4fi)
as well as of a subsequent one (iv. 46, 64),
and also as the native place of the Apostle
Nathanael (xxi. 2). The traditional site is
at Kefr Kenna, a small village about 44
miles north-west of Nazareth. The rival
site is a village situated farther north,
about 5 miles north of Seffurieh (Sep-
phoris) and 9 of Nazareth, near the present
Jefai, the Jotapata of the Jewish wars.
This village still bears the name of Kaiia-

* The word erroneously translated " camels" in Esth.Tiii.
10 probably signifies " mules " of a fine breed.

CANAAN

97

CANON OF SCRIPTURE

d-jelU. The Gospel history -will not be
affected whichever site may be discovered
to be the real one,
Ca'naan, 1, The fourth son of Ham
(Gen, X, 6; 1 Chr. i. 8) ; the progunitor of
the Phoenicians (" Zidon"), and ofthe va
rious nations who before the Israelite con
quest iieoplod the sea-coast of Palestine,
and generally the whole of the country
westward of the Jordan (Gen. x, 13 ; 1
Chr. i, 13), 2, The name "Canaan" is
sometimes employed for the country itself.
In several passages the word is concealed
in the A. V. by being translated. These
are; Is. xxiii. 8, "traffickers," and xxiii.
11, " the merchant city ; " Hos. xii. 7,
"He is a merchant;" Zeph. i. 11, "mer
chant-people." Ca'naan, The Land of, lit. "Low
land," a name denoting the country west
of the Jordan and Dead Sea, and between
those waters and the Mediterranean;
specially opposed to the "land of Gilead,"
that is, the high table-land on the east of
the Jordan. It is only in later notices,
such as Zeph. ii. 5, and Matt. xv. 22, that
we find it applied to the low maritime plains
of PhiUstia and Phoenicia (comp. Mark
vn. 26).
Ca'naanite, The, the designation of
the Apostle Simon, otherwise known as
" Simon Zelotes." It occurs in Matt. x. 4 ;.
Mark iii. 18, and is derived from a Chaldee
or Syriac word, by which the Jewish sect
or faction of " the Zealots " was designated.
The Greek equivalent is Zelotes (Luke vi.
15; Actsi. 13).
Ca'naanites,The,a word used in two
senses : 1 . a tribe which inhabited a partic
ular locality of the land west of the .Tordau
before the conquest; and 2. the people who
inhabited generally the whole of that coun
try, 1, For tho tribe of " the Canaanites "
only — the dwellers in the lowland. The
whole of the country west of Jordan was a
" lowland " as compared with the loftier and
more extended tracts on the east : but there
was a part of this western country which
was still more emphatically a "lowland."
"The Canaanite dwells by the sea, and by
the side of Jordan " (Num. xiii. 29). In
Gen. X. 18-20 the seats of the Canaanite
tribe are given as on the sea-shore and in
the Jordan Valley (comp. Josh. xi. 3). 2.
Applied as a general name to the non-Isra
elite inhabitants of the land, as we have
already seen -was tbe case with " Canaan."
Instances of this are. Gen, xii. G ; Num,
xxi. 3 ; Judg. i. 10 ; and Gen, xiii. 12. See
also Gen. xxiv. 3, 37, comp. xxviii. 2, 6 ;
Ex. xiii. 11, comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians,
the Canaanites were probably given to
commerce ; and thus the name became prob
ably in later times an occasional synonyme
for a merchant (Job xii. G ; Prov. xxxi. 24 ;
vonip. Is. xxiii. 8, 11 ; Hos. xii. 7 ; Zeph. i. 11.
7

Canda'ce, a queen of Ethiopia (MeroS),
mentioned Acts viii. 27. The name was
not a proper name of an individual, but
that of a dynasty of Ethiopian queens.
Candlestick, which Moses was com
manded to make for the tiibernacle, is de
scribed Ex. xxv. 31-37; xxxvii. 17-24. It
is called in Lev. xxiv. 4, " tbe pure," and
in Ecclus. xxvi. 17, "the holy candlestick."
With its various appurtenances it required
a talent of " pure gold," and it was not
moulded, but " of beaten work." Josephus,
however, says that it was of cast gold, and
hollow. The candlestick was placed on the
south side of the first apartment of the
tabernacle, opposite tbe table of shew-bread
(Ex. xxv. 37) , and was lighted every even
ing and dressed every morning (Ex. xxvii.
20, 21, xxx. 8; comp. 1 Sam. iii. 2). Each
lamp was supplied with cotton, and half a
log of the purest olive-oil (about two wine
glasses), which was sufficient to keep them
burning during a long night. 'When car
ried' about, the candlestick was covered
with a cloth of blue, and put with its ap
pendages iu badger-skin bags, which were
supported on a bar (Num. iv. 9). In Solo
mon's Temple, instead of this candlestick,
there were ten golden candlesticks simi
larly embossed, five on the right and five
on the left (1 K. vii. 49 ; 2 Chr. iv. 7).
They were taken to Babylon (Jer. Iii. 19).
In the Temple of Zerubbabel there was
again a single candlestick (1 Mace. i. 23.
iv. 49).

Candlestick. (From Arch of Titus.)
Cane. [Reed.]
Cankerworm. [Locust.]
Can'neh (Ez. xxvii. 23), probably a
contraction of Calneh, which is the reading
of one MS.
Canon of Scripture, The, may bo gen
erally described as " the collection of books
which form the original and authoritative

CANOPY

98

CAPERNAUM

written rule of the faith and practice of the
Christian Church. The word Canon, in
classical Greek, is properly a straight rod,
as the rod of a shield, or that used in weav-
ing, or a carpenter's rule. In patristic
writings the word is commonly used both as
" a rule " in the widest sense, and especially
in the iihrases "the rule ofthe Church,"
"the rule of faith," "the rule of truth."
As applied to Scripture the derivatives of
Canon were used long before the simple
word. The title " Canonical" was first
given to writings in the sense of " admitted
by the rule," and not as "forming part of
and giving the rule." The first direct ap
plication of the term Canon to the Scrip
tures seems to be in the verses of Amphilo-
chius (c. 380 a.d), where the word indi
cates the rule by which the contents of the
Bible must be determined, and thus secon
darily an index of the constituent books.
Among Latin writers it is commonly found
from the time of Jerome and Augustine,
and their usage of the word, which is wider
than that of Greek writers, is the source of
its modern acceptation. The uncanonical
books were described simply as " those
without," or "those uncanonized." The
Apocryphal books which were supposed to
occupy an intermediate position, were called
"books read," or " ecclesiastical," though
the latter title was also applied to the ca
nonical Scriptures. The canonical books
were also called "booksof the Testament,"
aud Jerome styled the whole collection by
the striking name of " the lioly library,"
which happily expresses the unity and va
riety of the Bible. Popular belief assigned
to Ezra and " the great synagogue " the task
of collecting and promulgating the Scrip
tures as part of their work iu organizing
the Jewish Church. Doubts have been
thrown upon this belief, but it is in every
way consistent with the history of Judaism
and with the internal evidence ofthe books
themselves. After the Maccabaean perse
cution the history of the formation of the
Canon is merged in the history of its con
tents. The Old Testament appears from
that time as a whole. The complete Canon
of the New Testament, as commonly re
ceived at present, was ratified .at the third
Council of Cahthage (a. d. 397), and
from that tjmewas accepted throughout the
Latin Church. Respecting the books of
which the Canon is composed, see the arti
cle Bible.
Canopy (Jud. x. 21, xiii. 9, xvi. 19).
The canopy of Ilolofernes is the only one
mentioned. It probably retained the mos
quito nets or curtains in which the name
originated, although its description (Jud. x,
21) betrays luxury and display rather than
such simple usefulness.
Canticles, Song of Songs, i. e. the
mist beautiful of soigs, entitled in the A.

V, The Song op Solomon, I, Author
and date. — By the Hebrew title it is as
cribed to Solomon ; and so in all the ver
sions, and by the majority of Jewish and
Christian writers, ancient and modern, ' A
few of the Talmudical writers assigned it to
the age of Hezekiah. More recent criticism,
however, has called in question this deep-
rooted and well-accredited tradition, but on
the whole it seems unnecessary to depart
from the plain meaning of the Hebrew title.
Supposing the date fixed to the reign of
Solomon, there is great difficulty in deter
mining at what period of that monarch's
life the poem was written. II. Form. — It
may be called a drama, as it contains the
dramatic evolution of a simple love-story.
III. Meaning. — The schools of interpreta
tion may be divided into three : — ihe mys
tical, or typical ; ihe allegorical ; and the
literal. 1. The mystical interpretation is
properly an offshoot of the allegorical, and
probably owes its origin to the necessity
which was felt of supplying a literal basis
for the speculation of the allegorists. This
basis is either the marriage of Solomon with
Pharaoh's daughter, or his marriage with
an Israelitish wom.an, the Shulamite. The
mystical interpretation makes its first ap
pearance in Origen, who wrote a volumi
nous commentary upon the Canticles. 2,
Allegorical. — Notwithstanding the attempts
which have been made to discover the prin
ciple of interpretation in the LXX. (Cant.
iv. 8), Jesus son of Sirach (xlvii. 14-17;
Wisd. viii. 2), and Josephus {c. Apion.i.
§8), it is impossible to trace it with any
certainty farther back th.an the Talmud.
According to the Talmud the beloved is
taken to be God ; the loved one, or bride,
is the congregation of Israel. In the
Christian Church, the Talmudical interpre
tation, imported by Origen, was all but
universally received. 3. The literal in
terpretation. — According to the most gen
erally received interpretation of the modern
literalists, the Song is intended to display
the victory of humble and constant love
over ihe temptations of wealth and royalty,
IV. Canonicity. — The book has been re
jected from the Canon by some cvitics; but
in no case has its rejection been defended
on external grounds. It is found in the
LXX., and in the translations of Aquila,
Symmachus, and Theodotion. It is con
tained in the catalogue given in the Talmud,
and in the catalogue of Melito ; and in short
we have the same evidence for its canoni
city as that which is commonly adduced for
the canonicity of any book of the 0. T.
Caper'naum was on the western shore
of the Sea of Galilee (Matt, iv, 13 ; comp.
John vi. 24), and, if recent discoveries are
to be trusted, was of sufficient importance
to give to that Sea, in whole or in part, the
name of the " lake of Capernaum." It wai

CAPHAR

99

CAPTIVITIES

in the " land of Gennesaret " (Matt. xiv.
84, comp. John vi. 17, 21, 24). It was of
sufficient size to be always called a " city "
(Miitt. ix. 1 ; Mark i. 33) ; had its own
synagogue, in which our Lord frequently
taught (John vi. 59 ; Mark i. 21 ; Luke iv.
33, 38) — a synagogue built by the centurion
of the detachment of Roman soldiers which
appears to have been quartered in the place
(Luke vii. 1, comp. 8; Matt. viii. 8), But
besides the g.arrison there was also a cus
toms' station, where the dues were gathered
both by stationary (Matt. ix. 9 ; Mark ii.
14; Luke V. 27) aud by itinerant (Matt.
xvii. 24) officers. The only interest at
taching to Capernaum is as the residence of
our Lord and his Apostles, the scene of so
many miracles and " gracious words." At
Nazareth He was "brought up," but Ca
pernaum was emphatically His " own city ; "
it was when He returned thither that He is
said to have been " at home " (Mark ii. 1).
The spots which lay claim to its site are, 1.
Khan Minyeh, a mound of ruins, •which
takes its name from an old khan hard by.
This mound is situated close upon the sea
shore at the north-western extremity ofthe
plain (now El Ghuweir). 2. Three miles
north of Khan Minyeh is the other claim
ant, Tell Hiim, — ruins of walls and founda
tions covering a space of " half a rhile long
by a quarter wide," on a point of the shore
projecting into the lake and backed by a
very gently rising ground. Khan Minyeh
Et-Tabighah, and Tell Hitm, are all, with
out doubt, ancient sites, but it is impossible
to say which of them represents Capernaum,
which Cborazin, or which Bethsaida.
Ca'phar, one of the numerous words
employed in the Bible to denote a village or
collection of dwellings smaller than a city
{Ir). Mr, Stanley proposes to render it by
" hamlet." In names of pLaces it occurs in
Chephar-iia-Amimonai, Chephieah, Ca-
PHAE-SALAMA. To US Its chief interest
arises from its forming a part of the name
uf Capeknaum, i. e. Capharnahum.
Caph'tor, Caph'torim, thrice men-
lijned as the primitive seat of the Philis
tines (Deut. ii. 23 ; Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Am. ix.
7), who are once called Caphtorims
(Deut. ii. 23), as of the same race as tho
Mizraite people of that name (Gen. x. 14 ;
" Caphthorim," 1 Chr. i. 12). The position
of the country, since it was peopled by
Mizraites, must be supposed to be in Egypt
or near to it in Africa, for the idea of the
south-west of Palestine is excluded by the
migration of the Philistines. Mr. R. S.
Poole has proposed to recognize Caphtor in
the ancient Egyptian name of Coptos, or
the Coptite nome. It is probable that the
Philistines left Caphtor not long after the
first arrival of the Mizraite tribes, while
they had not yet attained that attachment
to the soil that afterv ards so eminently

characterized the descendants of those
which formed the Egyptian nation,
Cappado'cia, Cappado'cians (Acts
ii, 9; 1 Pet. i. 1), Tlie range of Mount
Taurus and the upper course of the Eu
phrates m.ay safely be mentioned, in general
terms, as natural boundaries of Cappadocia
on the south and east. Its geographical
limits on the west and north were variable.
In early times tbe name reached as far
northwards as the Euxine Sea, Cappadocia
is an elevated table-land intersected by
mountain-chains. It seems always to have
been deficient in wood ; but it was a good
grain country, and particularly famous for
grazing. Its Roman metropolis was Caes
area, The native Cappadocians seem origi
nally to have belonged to the Syrian stock.
Captain, (1.) As a purely military
title Captain answers to sar in the Hebrew
army, and " tribune " in the Roman. The
"captain of the guard" in Acts xxviii. 16
was ^Tohably thu praefedus praetorio. (2.)
Kdtsin, occasionally rendered captain, ap
plies sometimes to a military (Josh. x. 24 ;
Judg. xi. 6, 11; Is. xxii. 3; Dan. xi. 18),
sometimes to a civil command (e, g. Is. i.
10, iii. 6), (3.) The " captain of the tem
ple " mentioned by St. Luke (xxii. 4 ; Acts
iv. 1, V, 24) superintended the guard of
priests and Levites, who kept watch by
night in the Temple.
Captivities of the Jews. The pres
ent article is confined to the forcible de
portation of_ the Jews from their native
land, and their forcible detention, under
the Assyrian or Babylonian kings. The
kingdom of Israel was invaded by three or
four successive kings of Assyria. Pul or
S.ardanapalus, according to Rawlinson, im
posed a tribute (b. c. 771 or 762 Rawl.)
upon Menahem (1 Chr. v. 2G, and 2 K. xv,
19), Tiglath-Pileser carried .away (b. c.
740) the trans-Jord.anic tribes (1 Chr. v.
26) and the inhabitants of Galilee (2 K.
XV. 29, comp. Is. ix. 1) to Assyria. Shal
maneser twice invaded (2 K. xvii. 3, 5)
the kingdom which remained to Hoshea,
took Samaria (b. c. 721) after a siege of
three years, and carried Israel away into
Assyria. Sennacherib (b. c. 713) is stated
to have carried into Assyria 200,000 cap
tives from the Jewish cities which he took
(2 K. xviii. 13). Nebuchadnezzar, in the
flrst half of his reign (b. c. 606-562), re
peatedly invaded Judaea, besieged Jeru-
s.alem, carried away the inhabitants to
Babylon, and destroyed the Temple. Two
distinct deportations are mentioned in 2 K.
xxiv. 14 (including 10,000 persons.) and
xxv. 11, One in 2 Chr. xxxvi. 20. Three
in Jer. Hi. 28-30, including 4600 persons,
and one in Dan, i. 3, The two principal
deportations were, (1) that which took
place B. c. 598, when Jehoiachin with all
the nobles, soldiers, and artificers was car*

CARBUNCLE

100

CARRLiGE

ried away; and (2) that which followed the
destruction of the Temple and the capture
of Zedekiah b, c, 688. The 70 years of
captivity predicted by Jeremiah (xxv, 12)
are dated by Prideaux from b. c. 606. The
captivity of Ezekiel dates from B.C. 598, when
that prophet, like Mordecai the uncle of Es
ther (Esth. ii. 6), accompanied Jehoiachin.
The captives were treated not as slaves but
as colonists. The Babylonian captivity was
brought to a dose by the decree (Ezr. i, 2)
of Cyrus (e. c. 536), and the return of a
portion of the nation under Sheshbazzar or
Zerubbabel (b. c. 535), Ezra (b. c. 458),
and Nehemiah (b. c. 445). The number
who returned upon the decree of b. c. 536
was 42,360, besides servants. Those who
were left in Assyria (Esth. viii. 9, 11), and
kept up their national distinctions, were
known as The Dispersion (John vii. 35 ;
1 Pet. i. 1 ; James i. 1), Many attempts
b.ave been made to discover the ten tribes
existing as a distinct community. But
though history bears no witness of their
present distinct existence, it enables us to
track the footsteps of tho departing race in
four directions after the time of the Cap
tivity. (1.) Some returned and mixed
with the Jews (Luke ii, 36 ; Phil, iii, 5,
&o.). (2.) Some were left in Samaria,
mingled with the Samaritans (Ezr. vi. 21;
John iv. 12), and became bitter enemies of
the Jews. (3.) Many remained in Assyria,
and were recognized as an integral part of
the Dispersion (see Acts ii, 9, xxvi. 7),
(4.) Most, probably, apostatized in Assyria,
adopted the usages and idolatry of the na
tions among whom they were planted, and
became wholly swallowed up in them.
Carbuncle, the representative in the
A. V. of the Hebrew words 'ekddch and
bdrkath or bdrelceth. 1. 'Ekddch (Is. liv.
12) may be a general term to denote any
bright sparkling gem, but it is impossible to
determine its real meaning. 2. Bdrekath,
bdrelceth (Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix, 10; Ez.
xxviii. 13), is supposed to be the smaragdus
or emerald,
Car'cas, the seventh of the seven
"chamberlains" {i.e. eunuchs) of king
Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10).
Car'chemiSh occupied nearly the site
of the later Mabug, or Hierapolis, It
seems to have commanded the ordinary
passage of the Euphr.ates at Bir, or Bireh-
jik. Carcheraisli appears to have been
taken by Pliaraoh-Necho shortly after the
battle of Megiddo (c. u. c. 608), and re
taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a battle
throe years later, b. c. GOS (Jer. xlvi. 2),
Care'ah, father of Johanan (2 K.
xxv. 23), elsewhere in the A. V. spelt Ka-
KEAH. Ca'ria, the southern part of the region
Which in the N. T. is called Asia, and the
noun I- western part of the, peninsula of Asia

Minor, At an earlier perioJ we find yt
mentioned as a separate district (1 Maec.
XV. 23). A little later it was incorporated
in the province of A sia,
Car'mel. 1. A mountain which forms
one of the most striking and characteristic
features of the country of Palestine. Ag
if to accentuate more distinctly the bay
which forms the one indentation in the
coast, this noble ridge, the only headland
of lower and central Palestine, forms its
southern boundary, running out with a bold
bluff promontory all but into the very
waves of the Mediterranean, From this
point it stretches in a nearly straight line,
bearing about S. S, E., for a little more
than twelve miles, when it terminates sud
denly in a bluff somewhat corresponding to
its western end, breaking down abruptly
into the hills of Jenln and Samaria, which
form at that part the central mass of the
country, Carmel thus stands as a wall be
tween the maritime plain of Sharon on the
south, and the more inland expanse of Es
draelon on the north. Its structure is in
the m.ain the Jura formation (upper oolite),
which is prevalent in the centre of West
ern Palestine — a soft white limestone, with
nodules and veins of flint. In form Carmel
is a tolerably continuous ridge, at the W.
end about 600, and E, about 1600 feet above
the sea. There seem to be grounds for
believing that from very early times it was
considered as a sacred spot. In later times
we know that its reputation was not con
fined to Palestine, But that which has
made the name of Carmel most famihar to
the modern world is its intimate connection
with the history of the two great prophets
of Israel — Elijah and Elisha, It is now
commonly called 3Iar Ely as ; Kurmel be
ing occasionally, but only seldom, heard,
2, A town in the mountainous country of
Judah (Josh. xv. 55), familiar to us as the
residence of Nabal (1 Sam. xxv, 2, 5, 7,
40). Car'mi. 1. The 4th son of Reuben the
progenitor of the family of the Cakjiites
(Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi, 14 ; Num, xxvi. 6 ;
1 Chr. V. 3), 2. A man of the tribe of
Judah, father of Achan, the " troubler of
Israel " (Josh. vii. 1, 18; 1 Chr. ii, 7, iv,
1), according to the first two passages tlie
son of Zabdi or Zimri.
Car'naim, a large and fortified city in
"the land of Galaad," It was besieged
and taken by Judas Maceabaeus (1 Mace.
V. 26, 43, 44), A comparison with 2 Maec,
xii. 21, 26, enables us to identify it with
Ashtekoth-Kaknaim, ' Carpenter. [Handickaft.]
Car'pus, a Christian at Troas (2 Tim.
iv, 13). According to Hippolytus, Carpus
was bishop of Berytus in Thrace.
Carriage. This word occurs only six
times in the text of the A. V., aud signifies

CARSHENA

101

CEDAR

what we now call " baggage." In the
margin of 1 Sam. xvii, 20, and xxvi. 6-7 —
and there only — "carriage "is employed
in the sense of a wagon or cart.
Carshe'na, one of the seven princes of
Persia .and M.idia (Esth. i. 14).
Cart, Gen. xiv. 19, 27 ; Num, vii. 3, 7,
8, a vehicle drawn by cattle (2 Sam, vi. 6),
to be distinguished from the chariot drawn

Egyptian cart with two wheels, (Wilkinson.)

by horses. Carts and wagons were either
open or covered (Num. vii. 3), and were
used for conveyance of persons (Gen. xiv.
19), burdens (1 Sam. vi. 7, 8), or produce
(Am. ii. 13). The only cart used in West
ern Asia has two wheels of solid wood.
But in the monuments of ancient Egypt
representations are found of carts with two
wheels, having four or six spokes, used for
carrying produce, and of one used for re
ligious purposes having four wheels with
eightspokes. Carving. The arts of carving and en
graving were much in request in the con
struction both of the Tabernacle and the
Temple (Ex, xxxi. 5, xx-xv. 33-, 1 K, vi.
18, 35 ; Ps. Ixxiv, 6), as well as in the or
namentation of the priestly dresses (Ex,
xxviii, 9-36; Zech. iii. 9; 2 Chr. ii. 6, 14).
Casiph'ia, a place of uncertain site on
the road between Babylon and Jerusalem
(Ezr, viii. 17),
Cas'luhim, a Mizraite people or tribe
(Gen. X. 14; 1 Chr. i. 12). The only clew
we have as yet to the position of the Cas-
luhim is their place in the list of tho sons
of Mizraim between the Pathrhsim and the
Caphtorim, whence it is probable that they
were seated in Upper Egypt.
Cassia. The representative in the A.
V. of the Hebrew words kidddh and keizl-
6ih. 1. Kidddh occurs in Ex. xxx. 24,
and in Ez, xxvii. 19. The accounts of
cassia as given by ancient authors are con
fused; and the investigation of the subject
is a difficult one. It is clear that the Latin
writers by the terra casia understood both
the Oriental product now under considera
tion, as well as some low sweet herbaceous
plant; but the Greek word is limited to the
Bai?tern product. The cassia-bark of com

merce is yielded by various ki ids of Cin^
namomum, which grow in different, parts
of India. 2. Ketzidih, only in Ps. xiv. 8.
This word is generally supposed to be
another term for cassia : the old versions,
as well as the etymology of the Hebrew
word, are in favor of this interpretation.
Castle. [Fortifications.]
Cas'tor and Pollux (Acts xxviii, 11).
The twin sons of Jupiter and Leda were
regarded as the tutelary divinities of sail
ors. They appeared in heaven as the con
stellation Gemini. In art they were some
times represented simply as stars hovering
over a ship, but more frequently as young
men on horseback, with conical caps and
stars above them. Such figures were
probably painted or sculptured at the bow
of the ship.
Cats occur only in Baruch vi. 22. The
Greek word, as used by Aristotle, has more
particular reference to the wild cat. He
rodotus (ii. 66) applies it to denote the do
mestic animal. The context of the passage
in Baruch appears to point to the domesti
cated animal. Perhaps the people of Baby
lon originally procured the cat from Egypt,
The domestic cat of the ancient Egyp
tians is supposed by some to be identical
with the Felis maniculata.
Caterpillar, The representative in
the A, V, of the Hebrew words chdstl and
yelek. 1, Chdstl occurs in 1 K, viii. 37;
2 Chr. vi, 28 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 46 ; Is. xxxiii,
4; Joel i. 4 ; and seems to be applied to a
locust, perhaps in its larva state, 2, Yelek.
[Locust,] Cattle, [Bull,]
Ca've, The chalky limestone of which
the rocks of Syria and Palestine chiefly
consist presents, as is the case in all lime
stone formations, a vast number of caverns
and natural fissures, many of which have
also been artificially enlarged and adapted
to various purposes both of shelter and de
fence. The most remarkable caves no
ticed in Scripture are: 1. That in which
Lot dwelt after the destruction of Sodom
(Gen. XLX. 30). 2. The cave of Mach
pelah (xxiii. 17). 3. Cave of Makkedah
(Josh. X, 10), 4. Cave of Adullam (1
Sam, xxii, 1), 5, Cave of Engedi (xxiv,
3), 6- Obadiah's cave (1 K. xviii. 4). 7.
Elijah's cave ia Horeb (xix. 9). 8, 9.
The rock sepulchres of Lazarus, and of
our Lord (John xi. 38 ; Matt, xxvii. 60).
Cedar. The Heb. word erez, invariably
rendered " cedar" by the A. V., stands for
that tree in most of the passages where the
word occurs. The erez, or " firmly rooted
and strong tree," from an Arabic root which
has this signification, is particularly the
name of the cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus
Libani) ; but that the word is used in a
wider sense to denote other trees of the
Conifer as is clear from some Scriptural

CEDRON

102

CHALCEDONY

where it occurs. For instance,
the "cedar wood" mentioned iu Lev. xiv.
6 can hardly be the wood of the Lebanon
cedars, seeing that tho Cedrus Libani could
never have grown in the peninsula of Sinai.
There is another passage (Ez. xxvii. 5), in
which perhaps erez denotes some fir; in
all probability the Pinus Halepensis, which
grows in Lebanon, and is better fitted for
furnishing ship-masts than the wood of the
Cedrus Libani. The Cedrus Libani, Pinus
Halepensis, and Juniperus excelsa, were
probably all included under the term erez ;
though there can be no doubt that by this
name is more especially denoted the cedar
of Lebanon, as being the firmest _ and
grandest of the conifers. As far as is at
present known, the cedar of Lebanon is
confined in Syria to one valley of the
Lebanon range, viz., that of the Kedisha
river, which flows from near the highest
point of the range westwar4 to the Medi
terranean, and enters the sea at the port
of Tripoli. The grove is at the very upper
part of the valley, about 15 miles from the
sea, 6500 feet above that level, and its
position is moreover above that of all other
arboreous vegetation.
Ce'dron. In this form is given in the
N. T. the name of the brook Kidron in the
ravine below the eastern wall of Jerusalem
(John xviii. 1, only). Beyond it was the
garden of Gethsemane. [Kidkon.]
. Ceiling. The descriptions of Scripture
(1 K. vi. 9, 15, vii. 3 ; 2 Chr. iii. 5, 9 ; Jer.
x.\ii. 14; Hag. i. 4), and of Josephus, show
that the ceilings of the Temple and the
palaces of the Jewish kings were formed
of cedar planks applied to the beams or
joints crossing from wall to wall, probably
with sunk panels, edged and ornamented
with gold,' and carved with incised or
other patterns, sometimes painted (Jer.
xxii. 14).
Celos3rria. [Coelestkia.]
Cen'chrea (accurately. Cenchreae),
the eastern harbor of Corinth {i. e. its har
bor on the Saronic Gulf) and the empori
um of its trade with the Asiatic shores of
the Mediterranean, as Lechacum on the
Corinthian Gulf connected it with Italy
and tbe west. St. Paul sailed from Cen
chreae (Acts xviii. 18) on his return to
Syria from his second missionary journey ;
and when he wrote his Epistle to the Ro
mans in the course of the third journey,
an organized church seems to have been
formed here (Rom. xvi. 1).
Censer. A small portable vessel of
metal fitted to receive burning coals from
the altar, and on which the incense for
burning was sprinkled (2 Chr. xxvi. 18;
Luke i, 9). The only distinct precepts re
garding the use of the censer are found in
Num. iv. 14, and in Lev. xvi. 12. Solo
mon prepared "censers of pure gold" as

part of the same furniture (1 K, vii. 50; 2
Chr. iv. 22). Possibly their general use
may have been to take up coals from the
brazen altar, and convey the incense while
burning to the " golden altar," or " altar
of incense," on which it was to be offered
morning and evening (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). So
Uzziah, when he was intending "to burn
incense upon the altar of incense," took " a I
censer in his hand " (2 Chr. xxvi. 16, 19).
The word rendered "censer" in. Hebr. ix.
4 probably means the " altar of incense."
Census. [Taxing.]
Centurion, [Akmt,]
Cephas. [Peter,]
Chaff. The Heb. words rendered chaff
in A, V, do not seem to have precisely the
same meaning : chdshash = dry grass, hay ;
and occurs twice only in O, T., viz.. Is. v,
24, xxxiii. 11. Mdis is chaff separated by
winnowing from the grain — the husk of
the wheat. The carrying away of chaff by
the wind is an ordinary Scriptural image"
of the destruction of the wicked, and of
their powerlessness to resist God's judg
ments (Ps. i. 4; Is. xviii. 13; Hos, xiii. 3;
Zeph. ii. 2).
Chain, Chains were used, 1, as badges
of office; 2, for orn.ament; 3, for confin
ing prisoners, 1, The gold chain placed
about Joseph's neck (Gen, xU, 42), and
that promised to Daniel (Dan, v. 7), are
instances of the first use. In Ez. xvi. 11,
the chain is mentioned as the symbol of
sovereignty. 2. Chains for ornamental
purposes were worn by men as well as
women in many countries both of Europe
and Asia, and probably tliis was the case
among the Hebrews (Prov. i. 9), The
necklace consisted of pearls, corals, &c..
threaded on a string. Besides the neck
lace, other chains were worn (Jud. x. 4),
hanging down as far as the waist, or even
lower. Some were adorfied with pieces of
metal, shaped in the form of the* moon
("round tires like the moon," A. V. ; Is.
iii. 18). The Midianites adorned the necks
of their camels with it (Judg. viii. 21, 26).
To other chains were suspended various
trinkets — as scent-bottles (Is. iii. 20) and
mirrors (Is. iii. 23). Step-chains were at
tached to the ankle-rings, which shortened
the step and produced a mincing gait (Is.
iii. 16, 18). 3. The means adopted for con
fining prisoners among the Jews were fetters
similar to our handcuffs (Judg. xvi. 21 ; 2
Sam. iii. 34 ; 2 K. xxv. 7 ; Jer. xxxix. 7).
Among the Romans, the prisoner was hand
cuffed to one, and occasionally to two guards
(Acts xii. 6, 7, xxi. 33).
Chalcedony, only in Rev. xxi. 19.
The name is applied in modern mineralogy
to one of the varieties of agate. There
can, however, be little doubt that the stone
to which Theophrastus refers, as being
founi! in the island opposite Chalcedon

CHALOOL

103

CHALDEANb

and used as a solder, must have been the
green transparent carbonate of copper, or
our copper emerald.
Chal'col, 3 K. iv 31. [Calcol.]
Chalde'a, more correctly Chaldaea,
properly only the most southern portion of
ISabylonia, is used in Scripture to signify
that vast alluvial plain which has been
formed by the deposits of the Euphrates
and th e Tigris — at least so far as it lies to
the wt st of the latter stream. This extraor
dinary flat, unbroken except by the works
of man, extends a distance of 400 miles
along the course of the rivers, and is on an
average about 100 miles in width. The
general aspect of the country is thus de
scribed by a modern traveller, who well
contrasts its condition now with the ap
pearance which it must have presented in
ancient times : " In former days," he says,
" the vast plains of Babylon were nourished
by a complicated system of canals and
watercourses, which spread over the sur
face of the country like a network. The
wants of a teeming population were sup-
pUed by a rich soil, not less bountiful than
that on the banks of the Egyptian •Nile.
lake islands rising from a golden sea of
waving corn, stood frequent groves of
palm-trees and pleasant gardens, affording
to the idler or traveller their grateful and
highly-valued shade. Crowds of passen
gers hurried along the dusty roads to and
from the busy city. The land was rich in
corn and wine. How changed is the as
pect of that region at the present day!
Long lines of mounds, it is true, mark the
courses of those inain arteries which for-
. merly diffused life and vegetation along their
banks, but their channels are now bereft
of moisture-and choked with drifted sand;
the smaller offshoots are wholly effaced.
' A drought is upon her waters,' says the
prophet, ' and they shall be dried up ! ' All
that remains of that ancient civilization —
that ' glory of kingdoms,' — ' the praise of
the whole earth ' — is recognizable in the
numerous mouldering heaps of brick and
rubbish which overspread the surface of
the plain. Instead of the luxurious fields,
the groves and gardens, nothing now meets
the eye but an arid waste — the dense popu
lation of former times is vanished, and no
man dwells there." (Loftus's Chaldaea,
pp. 14, 16.) The true Chaldaea is always
in the geographers a distinct region, being
the most southern portion of Babylonia,
lying chiefly (if not solely) on the right
bank of the Euphrates. Babylonia above
this is separated into two districts, called
respectively Amordacia and Auranitis.
The former is the name of the central ter
ritory round Babylon itself; the latter is
applieii to the regions towards the north,
where Babylonia borders on Assyria.
d'fes. --Babylonia was celebrated at all

times for the number and antiquity of iti
cities. The most important of those wliich
have been identified are Borsippa {Birs-
Nimrud), Sippara or Sepharvaim (Mo-
saib), Cutha {Ibrahim), Calneh {Niffer),
Erech {Warka), Ur {Mugheir), Chilmad
{Kalwadha), Larancha {Senkereh), Ii
{Hit), Duraba {Akkerkuf) ; but besides
these there were a multitude of others, the
sites of which have not been determined.
The extraordinary fertility ofthe Chaldaean
soil has been noticed by various writers.
It is said to be the only country in the
world where wheat grows wild, Herod
otus declared (i. 193) that grain com
monly returned 200-fold to the sower, and
occasionally 300-fold. The palm was un
doubtedly one of the principal objects of
cultivation. The soil is rich, but there is
now little cultivation, the inhabitants sub
sisting chiefiy upon dates. More than half
the country is left dry and waste from the
want of a proper system of irrigation;
while tlie remaining half is to a great ex
tent covered with marshes, owing to the
same neglect.
Chalde'ans, or Chal'dees, appear in
Scripture, until the time of the Captivity,
as the people of the country which has
Babylon for its capital, and which is itself
termed Shinar ; but in the Book of Daniel,
while this meaning is still found (v. 30, and
ix. 1), a new sense shows itself. The
Chaldeans are classed with the magicians
and astronomers ; and evidently form a
sort of priest class,- who have a peculiar
"tongue" and "learning" (i. 4), and are
consulted by the king on religious sub
jects. The same variety appears in profane
writers. It appears that the Chaldeans
{Kaldai or Kaldi) were in the earliest
times merely one out of the many Cushite
tribes inhabiting the great alluvial plain
known afterwards as Chaldaea or Babylo
nia. Their special seat was probably that
southern portion of the country which is
found to have so late retained the name of
Chaldaea. Here was Ur " of the Chal
dees," the modern Mugheir, which lies
south of the Euphrates, near its junction
with the Shat-el-Hie. In process of time,
.as the Kaldi grew in power, their name
gradually prevailed over those of the other
tribes inhabiting the country ; and by the
era of the Jewish captivity it had begun to
be used generally for all the inhabitants of
Babylonia. It had come by this time to
have two senses, both ethnic : in the one it
was thck special appellative of a particul.ar
race to whom it had belonged from the re
motest times, in the other it designated the
nation at large in which this race was pre
dominant. It has been observed above
that the Kaldi proper were a' Cushite race.
This is proved by the remains of their lan
guage, which closely resembles the Galla

CHALDEES

104

CHARIOT

or ancient language of Ethiopia. Now it
appears by tie inscriptions that while, both
in Assyria and in later Babylonia, the
Shemitic type of speech prevailed for civil
purposes, the ancient Cushite dialect was
retained, as a learned language for scien
tific and religious literature. This is no
doubt the " learning " and the " tongue " to
which reference is made in the Book of
Daniel (i. 4). The Chaldeans were really
the learned class ; they were priests, magi
cians, or astronomers, and in the last of the
three capacities they probably effected dis
coveries of great importance. In later
times they seem to have degenerated into
mere fortune-tellers.

Uostumes ofthe Chaldeans. (Rawlinson. From Ancient
Monuments.)
(Jhaldees. [Chaldeans.]
Chalk Stones. [Lime.]
Chamberlain, Erastus, "the chamber
lain" of the city of Corinth, was one of
those whose salutations to the Roman Chris
tians are given at the end of the Ep. ad
dressed to them (Rom. xvi, 23), The
office which he held was apparently that of
public treasurer, or arcarius, as the Vul
gate renders his title. These arcarii were
inferior magistrates, who had the charge
of tbe public chest {area publica) , and were
under the authority of the senate. They
kept the accounts of the public revenues.
The office held by Blastus, "the king's
chamberlain," was entirely different from
this (Acts xii. 20), It was a post of hon
or wliich involved great intimacy and in
fluence with the king. The margin of our
version gives "that was over the king's
bedchamber," For Chamberlain as used
in the O. T., see Eunuch.
Chameleon, the translation of the He
brew cdttch, which occurs in the sense of
some kind of unclean animal in Lev. xi. 30.
Others suppose it to be the lizard, known
by the name of the "Monitor of the Nile"
{Monitor Niloticus, Grey), a large strong
reptile common m Egypt and other parts
of Africa-

Chamois, the tranwlation of the Hohiew
zemer in Deut. xiv, 5. But the translation
is incorrect; for there is no evidence that
the chamois has ever been seen in Pales
tine or the Lebanon, It is probable that
some mountain sheep is intended.
Cha'naan, the manner in which the
word Canaan is spelt in the A. V. of the
Apocrypha and N. T. (Jud. v. 3, 9, 10 ; Bar.
iii. 22 ; Sus. 66 ; 1 Mace. ix. 37 ; Acts vii.
11, xiii. 19).
Chapiter, the capital of a pUlar; also
possibly a roll moulding at the top of a
building or work of art, as in the case (1)
of the pillars of the Tabernacle and Tem
ple, and of the two pillars called especially
Jachin and Boaz ; and (2) ofthe lavers be
longing to the Temple (Ex. xxxviii. 17 ; 1
K. vii. 27, 31, 38).
Char'ashim, The "Valley of ("ra
vine of crsiftsmen"), a place mentioned
twice : — 1 Chr. iv. 14, as having been
founded or settled by Joab, a man of the
tribe of Judah and family of Othniel; and
Neh. xi. 35, as being reinhabited by Benja
mites after the Captivity. In this passage it
is rendered " valley of craftsmen."
Char'chemish, 2 Chr. xxxv, 20, [Cab-
CHEMISH.] Charger, a shallow vn^sel for receiving
water or blood, also for presenting offer
ings of fine flour with oil (Num. vii. 79),
The diiugbter of Horodias brought the hesid
of St, John the Baptist in a charger (Matt.
xiv, 8) : probably a trencher or platter.
[Basin.] Chariot, a vehicle used either for war
like or peaceful purposes, but most com
monly the former. Of the latter use tlie
following only are probable instances as
regards the Jews, 1 K. xviii. 44, and as re
gards other nations. Gen. xii. 43, xlvi. 29;
2 K. V. 9 ; Acts viii. 28. The earliest men
tion of chariots in Scriiiture is in Egypt,
where Joseph, as a mark of distinction, was
placed in Pharaoh's second chariot (Gen.
xii. 43), and (ater when he went in liis own
chariot to meet his father on his entrance
into Egypt from Canaan (xlvi. 29). In the
funeral procession of Jacob chariots also
formed a part, possibly by way of escort or
as a guard of honor (1. 9). The next
mention of Egyptian ch.ariots is for a war
like purpose (Ex. xir. 7). In this point
of view chariots among some nations of ,
antiquity, as eleph.ants among others, may
be regarded as filling the place of hea,vy
artillery in modern times, so that the mili
tary power of a nation might be estimated
by the number of its chariots. Thus Pha
raoh in pursuing Israel took with him 600
chariots. The Canaanites of the valleys
of Palestine were enabled to resist the Is
raelites successfully in c^nisequencB of tha
nuaiber of their chariots of irin, i. e. per
haps armed with iron scythe* Mosh. xtu

CHAEEAN

105

CHEMARIMK

18; Judg. i. 19). Jabin, king of Canaan,
had 900 chariots (Judg. iv. 3). The Phi
listines in Saul's time had 30,000 (1 Sam.
x'ui. 5). David took from Hadadezer, king
of Zobah, 1000 chariots (2 Sam. viii. 4),
and from the Syrians a little later 700 (x.
18), who, in order to recover their ground,
collected 32,000 chariots (1 Chr. xix. 7).
Up to this time the Israelites possessed few
or nc chariots, partly no doubt in conse-
qnonee of the theocratic prohibition against
multiplying horses, for fear of intercourse
with Egypt, and the regal despotism implied
in the possession of them (Deut. xvii. 16 ;
1 Sam. viii. 11, 12). But to some extent
David (2 Sam. viii. 4), and in a much
greater degree Solomon, broke through the
prohibition. He raised, therefore, and
maintained a force of 1400 chariots (1 K.
X. 25) by taxation on certain cities agree
ably to Eastern custom in such matters (1
K. ix. 19, X. 26). From this time chariots
were regarded as among the most important
arms of war, though tho supplies of them and
of horses appear to have been mainly drawn
from Egypt (1 K. xxii. 34 ; 2 K. ix. 16, 21,
xiii. 7, 14, xvui. 24, xxiii. 30; Is. xxxi. 1).
Most commonly two persons, and some
times three, rode in the chariot, of whom
the third was employed to carry the state
umbrella (2 K. ix. 20, 24 ; 1 K. xxii. 34
Acts viii. 38), A second chariot usually
accompanied the king to battle, to be used
in case of necessity (2 Chr. xxv. 34). The
prophets allude frequently to chariots as
typical of power (Ps. xx. 7, civ. 3; Jer. li.
21 ; Zech. vi. 1). In the N. T., the only
mention made of a chariot, except in Rev.
ix, 9, is in the case of the Ethiopian or
Abyssinian eunuch of Queen Candace (Acts
viii, 28, 29, 38), Jewish chariots were no
doubt imitated from Egyptian models, if
not actually imported from Egypt,

Assyrian Chariot

Char'ran, Acts vii. 2, 4, [Haean,]
Chase. [Hunting.]
Che'bar, a river in the " land of the
Chaldeans" (Ez. i. 3), on the banks of
which some of the Jews were located at the
time of the captivity, and where Ezekiel
saw his earlier visions (Ez. i. 1, iii. 15, 23,
&c ), Jtis commonly regarded as identi

cal with the Habor, or river of Gozan, ta
which some portion of the IsraeUtes were
removed by the Assyrians (2 K. xvii. 6).
But this is a mere conjecture. Perhaps
the Chebar of Ezekiel is the Nahr Mcdcha
or Royal Canal of Nebuchadnezzar, — the
greatest of all the cuttings in Mesopotamia.
Che'bel, one of the singular topograph
ical terms in which the ancient Hebrew
language abounded, and which give so
much force and precision to its records.
The ordinary meaning of the word Chebel is
a "rope" or " cord;" but inits topograhxii-
cal sense, as meaning a "tract" or "dis
trict," we findit always attached to the region
of Argob, which is invariably designated
by this, and by no other term (Deut. iii. 4,
13, 14; IK. iv. 13).
Chedorlao'mer, a king of Elam, in
the time of Abraham, who with three other
chiefs made war upon the kings of Sodom,
Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Zoar, and
reduced them to servitude (Gen. xiv. 17) .
The name of a king is found upon the
bricks recently discovered in Chaldaea,
which, is read Kudar-mapula. This man
has been supposed to be identical with
Chedorlaomer, and the opinion is confirmed
by the fact that he is further distinguished
by a title which may be translated " Rav-
ager of the west."
Cheese is mentioned only three times
in the Bible, and on each occasion under a
different name in the Hebrew (Job x. 10 ;
1 Sam. xvii. 18; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). It is
difficult to decide how far these terms cor
respond with our notion of cheese; for they
simply express various degrees of coagula
tion. It may be observed that cheese is
not at the present day common among the
Bedouin Arabs, butter being decidedly pre
ferred; but there is a substance, closely
corresponding to those mentioned in 1
Sam. xvii. ; 2 Sam. xvii., consisting of
coagulated buttermilk, which is dried untU
it becomes quite hard, and is then ground :
the Arabs eat it mixed with butter.
Che'lal, Ezr. X. 30.
Chel'luh, Ezr. X. 36.
Che'lub. 1. A man among the descend
ants of Judah, described as the brother of
Shuah and the father of Mechir. 2. Ezri
the son of Chelub was the overseer of
those who "did the work of the field for
tillage of the ground," one of David's
officers (1 Chr. xxvii. 26).
Chelu'bai, the son of Hezron, of one
of the chief families of Judah. The name
occurs in 1 Chr. ii. 9 only, and from a com
parison of this passage with ii. 18 and 42,
it would appear to be but another form of
the name Caleb.
Chem'arims, The. This word only
occurs in the text of the A. V. in Zeph. i.
4. In 2 K. xxiii. 5 it is rendered "idola
trous priests," and in Hos. x. 5 " priests/

CHBMOSH

106

CHERUB

and in both cases " chemarim " is given iu
the margin. So far as regards the Hebrew
us.age of the word it is exclusively applied
to the priests of the false worship, and was
in all probability a term of foreign origin.
Che'mosh, the national deity of the
Mos.abites (Num. xxi. 29 ; Jer. xlviii. 7, 13,
413), In Judg. xi. 24, he also appears as
the god of the Ammonites. Solomon in
troduced, and Josiah abolished, the wor
ship of Chemosh at Jerusalem (1 K. xi. 7 ;
2 K. xxiii. 13). Jerome identifies him with
Baal-Peor ; others with Baal-Zebub, on
etymological grounds; others with Mars,
and others with Saturn.
Chena'anah. 1. Son of Bilhan, son
of Jediael, son of Benjamin, head of a
Benjamite house (1 Chr. vii. 10), probably
of the family of the Belaites. [Bela,] 2,
Father, or ancestor, of Zedekiah the false
prophet (1 K, xxii. 11, 24; 2 Chr, xviii, 10,
23), Chen'ani, one of the Levites who as
sisted at the solemn purification of the peo
ple under Ezra (Neh. ix. 4).
Chenani'ah, chief of the Levites',
irhen David carried the ark to Jerusalem
(1 Chr. XV. 22, xxvi. 29).
Che'phar-Haam'monai, " Hamlet
of the Ammonites ; " a, place mentioned
among the towns of Benjamin (Josh, xviii,
24). No trace of it has yet been discov
ered, Chephi'rah, " the hamlet ; " one of the
four cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 17),
named afterwards among the towns of Ben
jamin, -(vith Ramah, Beeroth, and Mizpeh
(xviii. 26). The men of Chephirah re
turned with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezr,
ii. 25; Neh. vii. 29).
Che'ran, one of the sons of Dishon the
Horite "duke" (Gen. xxxvi. 26; 1 Chr, i,
41), Cher'ethims, Ez. xxv. 16. The plural
form of the word elsewhere rendered Cher
ethites ; which see.
Cher'ethites and Pel'ethites, the
life-guards of King David (2 Sam. viii, 18,
XV. 18, XX, 7, 23 ; 1 K. i. 38, 44 ; 1 Chr
xviii, 17), These titles are commonly said
to signify " executioners and couriers," It
is plain that these royal guards were em
ployed as executioners (2 K, xi, 4), and as
couriers (1 K, xiv, 27), But it has been
conjectured that they may have been foreign
mercenaries. They are connected with the
Gittites, a foreign tribe (2 Sam. xv. 21) ;
and the Cherethites are mentioned as a na
tion (1 Sam. xxx. 14), dwelling apparently
on the coast, and therefore probably Philis
tines, of which name Pelethites may be
only another form.
Che'rith, The Brook, the torrent-bed
or wady in which Elijah hid himself during
the early part of the three years' drought
(1 K. xvii. 3, 5). The position of the

Cherith has been much disputed. The
argument from probability is in favor of
the Cherith being'on the east of Jordan, and
the name may possibly be discovered there.
Cher'ub, apparently a place in Babylo
nia from which some persons of doubtful
extraction returned to Judaea with Zerub
babel (Ezr; ii. 59; Neh. vii. 61).
Cher'ub, Cher'ubim, The symboli
cal figure so called was a, composite crea
ture-form which finds a parallel in the
rehgious insignia of Assyria, Egypt, and
Persia, e. g. tbe sphinx, the winged bulls
and Hons of Nineveh, &c. The Hebrew

The Winged Female Sphinx. (Wilkinson.)
idea seems to limit the number of the cher
ubim. A pair (Ex, xxv, 18, &c,) were
placed on the mercy-seat of the ark : a
pair of colossal size overshadowed it in
Solomon's Temple with the canopy of their
contiguously extended wings, Ezekiel, i.
4 -14, speaks of four, and similarly the apoc
alyptic "beasts" (Rev. iv. 6) are four,—
So at the front or east of Eden were post
ed " the cherubim," as though the whole of
some recognized number. The cheruiiim
are placed beneath the actual presence of
Jehovah, whose moving throne they appear
to draw (Gen, iii, 24 ; Ez. i. 5, 25, 26, x. 1,
2, 6, 7; Is. vi, 2, 3, 6). The glory sym
bolizing that presence which eye cannot see
rests or rides on them, or one of them,
thence dismounts to the temple threshold,
and then departs and mounts agahi (Ez. x.
4, 18; comp. ix. 3; Ps, xviii, 10), There
is in them an entire absence of human
sympatHy, and even on the mercy-seat they
probably appeared not merely as admiring
and wondering (1 Pet, i, 12), but as guardi
ans of the cover.ant and avengers of its
breach. Those on the ark were to be
placed with wings stretched forth, one at
each end of the mercy-seat, and to be made
" of the mercy-seat," They are called the
cherubim of glory (Heb. tx. 5), ns on them
the glory, when visible, rested. They
were anointed with the holy oil, like the
ark itself, and the other sacred furniture.
Their wings were to be stretched upwards,
and their faces "towards each other ana
towiirds the, mercy-seat." It is remarkablS
that with such precise directions as to their
position, attitude, and material, notbiugi

OHBSALON

107

CHILDREN

save that they were winged, is said con
cerning their shape. On the whole 1 seems
likely that the word " cherub" meant not
only -the composite creature-form, of which
the man, lion, ox, and eagle were the ele-
m3nt8, but, further, some peculiar and
mystical form, which Ezekiel, being a
priest, would know and recognize as " the
face of a cherub" (Ez. x. 14), but which
was kept secret from all others ; and such
probably were those on the ark, though
those on the hangings and panels might be
of the popular device. 'What this peculiar
cherubic form was is perhaps an impenetra
ble mystery. It might well be the symbol
of Him whom none could behold and live.
For as symbols of Divine attributes, e. g.
omnipotence and omniscience, not as rep
resentations of actual beings, the cheru
bim should be regarded.
Ches'alon, a place named as-one ofthe
landmarks on the west part of the north
boundary of Judah (Josh. xv. 10), probably
Kesla, about six miles to the N. E. of Ain-
ihems, on the western mountains of Judah.
Che'sed, fourth son of Nahor (Gen.
xxii. 22).
Che'sil, a town in the extreme south of
Palestine, named with Hormah and Ziklag
(Josh. XV. 30). In Josh. xix. 4 the name
Bethul occurs in place of it, whence we
may conclude that Chesil was an early
variation of Bethul.
Chest, By this word are translated in
the A, V. two distinct Hebrew terms : 1,
irdn ; this is invariably used for the Ark

Egyptian Chest or Box iVom Thebes, (Wilkinson.)
of the Covenant, and with' two exceptions,
for that only, 'The two exceptions alluded
to are {a) the " coffin" in which the bones
of Joseph were carried from Egypt (Gen, I.
26); and (6) the "chest" in which Jehoiada
the priest collected the alms for the repairs
of the Temple (2 K, xii, 9, 10 ; 2 Chr, xxiv.
8-11). Of the former the accompanying
engraving is probably a near representa
tion, 2, gendztm, " chests " (Ez. xxvii.
2* only).
Chestnut-tree (Heb. 'armdn : Gen.
fsx. 37 ; Ezek. xxxi. 8) : it is spoken of as

one of tho gloiics of Assyria, /ijr which the
"plane-tree" ought probably to have been
substituted. The context of the passages
where the word occurs indicates some tree
which thVives best in low and rather moist
situations, whereas the chestnut-tree is a
tree which prefers dry and hilly ground.
Chesul'loth (lit, " the loins "), one of
the towns of Issachar, deriving its name,
perhaps, from its situation on the slope of
some mountain (Josh, xix. 18). From its
position in the lists it appears to be between
Jezreel and Shunem {Salam).
Chet'tiim, 1 Mace. i. 1. [Chiitim.]
Che'zib, a name wliich occurs but once
(Gen. xxxviii. 5), probably the same as
ACHZIB. Chidon, the name which in 1 Chr. xiii.
9 is given to the threshing-floor at which
the accident to the ark took place. In the
parallel account in 2 Sam. vi. the name ia
given as Nachon.
Children. The blessing of offspring,
but especially of the male sex, is highly
valued among all Eastern nations, while tha
absence is regarded as one of the severest
punishments (Gen. xvi. 2 ; Deut. vii. 14 ;
1 Sam. i. 6 ; 2 Sam. vi. 23 ; 2 K. iv. 14 ; Is.
xlvii. 9 ; Jer. xx. 15 ; Ps. cxxvii. 3, 5).
As soon as the child was born, it was washed
in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in
swaddhng clothes. Arab mothers some
times rub their children with earth or sand
(Ez. xvi. 4 ; Job xxxviii. 9 ; Luke ii. 7).
On the 8th day the rite of circumcision, va
the case of a boy, was performed, and a
name given, sometimes, but not usually,
the same as that of the father, and gener
ally conveying some special meaning. Al
the end of a certain time the mother was te
make an offering of purification of a lamt
as a burnt- offering, and a pigeon or turtle
dove as a sin-offering, or, in case of pover
ty, two doves or pigeons, one as a burnt
offering, the other as a sin-offering (Lev.
xii. 1-8; Luke ii. 22), The period of
nursing appears to have been sometimes
prolonged to three years (Is, xlix, 15 ; 3
Mace, vii, 27). Nurses were employed in
cases of necessity (Ex. ii. 9 ; Gen. xxiv.
59, xxxv. 8 ; 1 Sam. iv. 4 ; 2 K. xi. 2 ; 3
Chr. xxii. 11). The time of weaning was
an occasion of rejoicing (Gen. xxi. 8).
Arab children wear little or no clothing for
four or five years : the young of both sexes
are usually carried by the mothers on the
hip or the shoulder, a custom to which
allusion is made by Isaiah (Is. xlix. 22, Ixvi.
12).' Both boys and girls in their early
years were under the care of the women
(Prov. xxxi. 1). Afterwards the boys were
taken by the father under his charge.
Those in wealthy families had tutors of
governors, who were sometimes eunuchs
(Num. xi. 12; 2 K. x. 1, 5; Is. xlix. 23:
Gal. iii. 24; Esth. ii. 7). Daughters nsu-

CHILEAB

108

CHRISTIAN

*Jly rfrnfiined in the women's apartments
till la-irriage, or, among the poorer classes,
were employed in household work (Lev.
xxi. 9; Num. xii. 14; 1 Sam.ix. 11; Prov.
xxxi. 19, 23; Ecclus. vii. 26, xiii. 9; 2
Mace. iii. 19). The firstborn male chil
dren were regarded as devoted to God, and
were to be redeemed by an offering (Ex.
xiii. 13; Num. xviii. 15; Luke ii. 22).
The authority of parents, especially of the
father, over children was very great, as
was also the reverence enjoined by the law
to. be paid to parents. The disobedient
child, the striker or reviler of a parent,
was liable to capital punishment, though
not at the independent will of the parent.
The inheritance was divided equally be
tween all the sons except the eldest, who
received a double portion (Deut. xxi. 17;
Gen. x.xv. 31, xlix. 3; 1 Chr. v. 1,2; Judg.
xi. 2,7). Daughters had by right no por
tion in the inheritance ; but if a man had
no son, his inheritance passed to his daugh-
tei-s, who were forbidden to marry out of
their father's tribe (Num. xxvu. 1, 8,
xxxvi. 2, 8).
Chil'eab. [Abigail.]
Chil'ion, the son of Elimelech and
Naomi, and husband of Orpah (Ruth i, 2-5,
iv, 9). He is described as " an Ephrathite
of Bethlehem-judah."
Chil'mad, a place or country mentioned
in conjunction with Sheba and Asshur (Ez.
xxvii. 23).
Chim'ham, a follower, and probably a
son, of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned
from beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam,
xix, 37, 38, 40). David appears to have
bestowed on him a possession at Bethle
hem, on which, in later times, an itm or
Khan was standing (Jer. xii. 17) .
Chim'han. [Chimham.]
Chin'nereth, accurately CinnartJi, a
fortified city in the tribe of Naphtali (Josh.
xix. 35 only), of which no trace is found in
later writers, and no remains by travellers.
Chin'nereth, Sea of (Num. xxxiv. 11 ;
Josh. xiii. 27), the inland sea, which is most
familiarly known to us as the " Lake of
Gennesareth." It seems likely that Chin
nereth was an ancient Canaanite name
existing long prior to the Israelite conquest.
Chin'neroth. [Chinnereth.]
Chi'os. The position of this island in
reference to the neighboring islands and
coasts could hardly be better described than
in the detailed account of St. Paul's return
voyage from Troas to Caesarea (Acts xx.
xxi.). Having come from Assos to Mity-
lene in Lesbos (xx. 14), he arrived the next
day over against Chips (v. 15), the next day
at Samos and tarried at Trogyllium {ib.) ;
and the following day at Miletus {ib.) :
thence he went by Cos and Rhodes to Patara
(xxi. 1). Chios is separated from the main
land by a strait of only 5 miles. Its .3ngth

is abou* 32 miles, and in breadih it varifli
fiomf o 18.
Chis'leu. [Months.]
Chis'lon, father of Elidad, the priftce ol
the tribe of Benjamin, chosen to assist in
the division of the land of Canaan among
the tribes (Num. xxxiv. 21).
Chis'loth-Ta'bor, a place to the bor
der of which reached the border of Zebulun
(Josh. xix. 12). It may be the village /isiii,
which is now standing about two miles and
a half to the west of Mount Tabor.
Chit'tim, Kit'tim, a family or race
descended from Javan (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chr.i.
7; A. V. Kittim), closely related to the
Dodanim, and remotely to the other de
scendants of Javan. Chittim is frequently
noticed in Scripture : Balaam predicts that
a fleet should thence proceed for the destruc
tion of Assyria (Num. xxiv. 24) : in Is. xxiii.
1, 12, it appears as the resort of the fleets of
Tyre : in Jer. ii. 10, the "isles of Chittim"
are to the far west, as Kedar to the east of
Palestine : the Tyrians procured thence the
cedar or box-wood, which they inlaid with
ivory for the decks of their vessels (Ez.
xxvii. 6) : in Dan. xi. 30, " ships of Chittim"
advance to the south to meet the king of the
north. At a later period we find Alexander
the Great described as comingfrom the land
of Chettiim (1 Mace. i. 1), and Perseus as
king of the Citims (1 Maec. viii. 5). Jose
phus considered Cyprus as the original seat
of the Chittim, adducing as evidence the
name of its principal town, Citium. Citium
was without doubt a Phoenician town.
From the town the name extended to the
whole island of Cyprus, which was occupied
by Phoenician colonies. The name Chittim,
which in the first instance had appUed to
Phoenicians only, passed over to the islands
which they had occupied, and thence to the
people who succeeded the Phoenicians iu
the occupation of them. Thus in Mace,
Chittim evidently = Macedonia.
Chi'im. [Remphan.]
Chlo'e, a woman mentioned in 1 Cor.
i. 11.
Chora'shan, one ofthe places in which
" D.avid and his men were wont to haunt,''
(1 Sam. xxx. 30). It may, perhaps, be
identified with AsHAN of Simeon.
Chora'zin, one ofthe cities in which our
Lord's mighty works were done, but named
only in His denunciation (Matt. xi. 21;
Luke X. 13). St. Jerome describes it as on
the shore of the lake, two miles from Ca
pernaum, but Its modern site is uncertami
Ohoze'ba. The "men of Chozeba"
are named (1 Chr. iv. 22) amongst tl e de
scendants of Shelah the son of Judah.
Chezib and Chozeba are perhaps, the same
as AcHziB.
Christ. [Jesus,]
Christian. The disciples, we are told
(Acts xi. 26), were first called Chrittiws at

CHRONICLES

109

CHRONICLES

Antioch on the Orontes, somewhere about
A. D. 43. The name, and the place where
it w.as conferred, are both significant. It is
clear that the appellation " Christian " was
one which could not have been assumed
by the Christians themselves. They were
known to each other as brethren of one
family, as disciples of the same Master, as
believers in the same faith, and as distin
guished by the same endeavors after holi
ness and consecration of life ; and so were
called brethren (Acts xv. 1, 23 ; 1 Cor. vii.
12), disciples (Acts ix. 26, xi. 29), believers
(Acts V. 14), saints (Rom. viii. 27, xv. 26).
But the outer world could know nothing of
the true force and significance of tliese
terms. To the contemptuous Jew they
were Nazarenes and Galilaeans, names
which carried with them the infamy and
turbulence of the places whence they
sprung, and from whence notldng good and
no prophet might come. The Jews could
add notliing to the scorn which these names
expressed, and had they endeavored to do
so they would not have defiled the glory of
their Messiah by applying his title to those
whom they could not but regard as the fol
lowers of a pretender. The name " Chris
tian," then, which, in the only other cases
where it appears in the N. T. (Acts xxvi.
28; 1 Pet. iv. 16), is used contemptuously,
could not have been applied by the early
disciples to themselves, nor could it have
come to them from their own nation the
Jews ; it must, therefore, have been im
posed upoii them by the Gentile world, and
no place could have so appropriately given
rise to it as Antioch, where the first Church
was planted among the heathen. Its inhab
itants were celebrated for their wit and a
propensity for conferring nicknames. The
Emperor Julian himself was not secure
from their jests. Apollonius of Tyana was
driven from the city by the insults of the
inhabitants. Their wit, however, was often
harmless enough; and tliere is no reason
to suppose that the name " Christian" of
itself was intended as a .term of scurrility
or abuse, though it would naturally be used
with contempt. Suidas says the name was
given in the reign of Claudius, when Peter
appointed Evodius bishop of Antioch, and
they who were formerly called Nazarenes
and Galilaeans had their name changed to
Christians. Chronicles, First and Second
Books of, the name originally given to
the record made by the appointed histori
ographers in the kingdoms of Israel and
Judah. In the LXX. these books are
caMed Paralipomena {i. e. things omitted),
which is understood as meaning that they
are supplementary to the books of Kings.
The Vulgate retains both tho Hebrew and
Greek name in Latin characters, Dibre
jammim, or haja/mim, and Paralipomenon,

The constant tradition of the Jf-wi is that
these books were for the mostpaitcompiled
by Ezra, In fact, the internal evidence as
to the time when tho book of Chronicles was
compiled, seems to tally remarkably with
the tradition concerning its authorship. As
regards the plan of the book, of which the
book of Ezra is a continuation, forming one
work, it becomes apparent immediately we
consider it as the compilation of Ezra cr
some one nearly contemporary with him.
One of the greatest difficulties connected
with the captivity and the return must have
been the maintenance of that genealogical
distribution of the lands which yet was a
vital point of the Jewish economy. Another
difficulty intimately connected with the
former was the maintenance of the temple
services at Jerusalem. This could only bo
effected by the residence of the priests and
Levites in Jerusalem in the order of their
courses : and this residence was only prac
ticable in case of the payment of the
appointed tithes, first-fruits, and other
offerings. But then again the registers of
the Levitical genealogies were necessary,
in order that it might be known who were
entitled to such and such allowances, as
porters, as singers, as priests, and so on;
because all these offices went by families ;
and again the payment of the tithes, first-
fruits, &c., was dependent upon the diiferent
families of Israel being established each in
his inheritance. Obviously therefore one
of the most pressing wants of the Jewish
community after their return from Babylon
would be trusty genealogical records. But
further, not only had Zerubbabel, and after
him Ezra and Nehemiah, labored most
earnestly to restore the temple and the pub
lic worship of God there to the condition it
had been in under the kings of Judah, but
it appears clearly from their policy, and
from the language of the contemporary
prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, that they
had it much at heart to re-infuse something
of national life and spirit into the heart of
the people, and to make them feel that they
were still the inheritors of God's covenant
ed mercies, and that the captivity had only
temporarily interrupted, not dried up, tlie
stream of God's favor to their nation.
Now nothing could more effectually aid
these pious and patriotic designs than sot
ting before the people a compendious
history of the kingdom of David, which
should embrace a full account of its pros
perity, should trace the sins which led to
its overthrow, should Carry the thread
through the period of the captivity, and
continue it as it were unbroken on the
other side ; and those passages in their
former history would be especially impor
tant which exhibited their greatest and best
kings as engaged in building or restoring
tlie temple, in reforming all corruptions in

CHRONOLOGY

110

CHURCH

religion, and zealously regulating the ser
vices of the house of God. As regards the
kingdom of Israel or Samaria, seeing it had
utterly and hopelessly passed away, and
that the existing inhabitants were among the
bitterest " adversaries of Judah and Benja
min," it would naturally engage very little
of the compiler's attention. These consid
erations explain exactly the plan and scope
of that historical work which consists ofthe
two books of Chronicles .and the book of
Ezra. For after having in the firsteight
chapters given the genealogical divisions
and settlements of the various tribes, the
compiler marks distinctly his own age and
his own purpose, by informing us in ch. ix.
1 of the disturbance of those settlements by
the Babylonish captivity, and in the follow
ing verses, of the partial restoration of
them at the return from Babylon (2-24) ;
and that this list refers to the families who
had returned from Babylon is clear, not
only from the context, but from its reinser
tion, Neh. xi. 3-23, with additional matter
evidently extracted from the public archives,
and relating to times subsequent to the
return from Babylon, extending to Neh. xii.
27, where Nehemiah's narrative is again
resumed in continuance with Neh. xi. 2.
Having thus shown the re-establishment of
the returned families, each in their own
inheritance according to the houses of their
fathers, the compiler proceeds to the other
part of his plan, which is to give a continu
ous history af the kingdom of Judah from
David to his own times, introduced by the
closing scene of Saul's life (eh. x.), which
introduction is itself prefaced by a geneal
ogy of the house of Saul (ix. 35-44). As
regards the materials used by Ezra, they
are not difficult to discover. The geneal
ogies are obviously transcribed from some
register, in which were preserved the
genealogies of the tribes and families drawn
up at different times ; while the history is
mainly drawn from the same documents as
those used in the Books of Kings. [Kings,
Books op.]
Chronology. By this term we under
stand the technical and historical chronol
ogy of tho Jews and their ancestors from
the earliest time to the close of the New
Testament Canon, i. Technical Chro-
NOLOor, — The technical part of Hebrew
chronology presents great difficulties, ii.
Historical Ciironolooy. — The histori
cal part of Hebrew chronology is not less
difficult than the technical. The informa
tion in the Bible is indeed direct rather
than inferential, although there is very im
portant evidence ofthe latter kind, but the
present state of the numbers makes abso
lute certainty in many cases impossible.
Three principal systems of Biblical Chro
nology have been founded, which may be
termed the Long System, the Short, and

the Rabbinical. There is a fourth, which,
although an offshoot in part of the last, can
scarcely be termed biblical, inasmuch as it
depends for the most part upon theories,
not only independent of, but repugnant to
the Bible : this last is at present peculiar to
Baron Bunsen. The principal advocates
of the Long Chronology are Jackson, Hales,
and Des-Vignoles. Of the Short Chronol
ogy Ussher may be considered as the most
able advocate. The Rabbinical Chronology
accepts the biblical numbers, but makes the
most arbitrary corrections. For the date of
the Exodus it has been virtually accepted
by Bunsen, Lepsius, and Lord A, Hervey.

i

;i

i

BuDscn.

B.C.
54U 31552078 1648 1027 686

B.C.
6420 3170 202315931014 580

B.C.40042348 192114911012 588

B.C.
3983 1531
1012 689

B.C.
(Adorn) cir. 20,001)
(Nooh) cii. 10,000

Abram leaves Haran..
I3m
Foundation of Solo
mon's Temple. . .
Destruction of Solo
mon's Temple. . .
1004 5S3
The numbers given by the LXX. for the
antediluvian patriarchs would place the
creation of Adam 2262 yrs. before the end
of the Flood, or B. c. cir. 5361 or 5421.
Chrysolite, one of the precious stones
in the foundation of the heavenly Jerusa
lem (Rev. xxi. 20). It has been already
stated [Bektl] that the chrysolite of the
ancients is identical with the modern Ori
ental topaz, the iarshish of the Hebrew
Bible. Chrysoprase occurs only in Rev. xxi.
20, The true chrysoprase is sometimes
found in antique Egyptian jewelry set alter
nately with bits of lapis-lazuli ; it is not im
probable therefore tliat this is the stone
which was the tenth in the walls of the
heavenly Jerusalem,
Chub, the name of a people in alliance
with Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzai
(Ez. xxx, 5), and probably of Northern Af
rica, or of the lands near Egypt to the S.
Chun, a city of Hadadezer (1 Chr, xviii.
8), called Berothai in 2 Sam. viii. 8.
Church. I. The derivation of the word
Church is uncertain. It is generally said
to be derived from the Greek kunakon
{xvQiaxov), "belonging to the Lord." Bfit
the derivation has been too hastily assumed.
It is probably connected with kirk, the
Latin circus, circiilus, the Greek kuhlds
{xvxXog). II. Ecclesia {ixxX,iaia),theG!:eet
word for Church, originally meant an as
sembly called out by the magistrate, or by
legitimate authority. This is the ordinary
classical sense of the word. But it throws
no light on the nature of the institution so
designated in the New Testament. For to
the writers of the N. T. the word had now
CHURCH

111

CHURCH

lost its primary signification, and was either
used generally for any meeting (Acts xix.
82), or more particularly, it denoted (1)
the religious assemblies of the Jews (Deut.
iv. 10, xviii. 16) ; (2) the whole assembly
or congregation of the Israelitish people
(Acts vii. 38; Heb. ii. 12; Ps. xxii. 22;
Deut. xxxi. 30). It was in this last sense
that the word was adopted and applied by
the writers of the -N. T. to the Christian
congregation. The chief difference be
tween the words " ecclesia" and " church,"
would probably consist in this, that " eccle
sia "primarily signified the Christian body,
and seeondiirily the place of assembly,
while the first signification of "church"
was the place of assembly, which imparted
its name to the body of worshippers. III.
Tli£ Church as desc^-ibed in the Gospels. —
The word occurs only twice. Each time
in St. Matthew (Matt. xvi. 18, "On this
rock will I build my Church ; " xviii. 17,
" Tell it unto the Church ") . In every other
3ase it is spoken of as "the kingdom of
heaven" by St. Matthew, and as " the king
dom of God" by St. Mark and St. Luke.
St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John, never
use the expression " kingdom of heaven."
St. John once uses the phrase "kingdom
of God" (iii. 3), St. Matthew occasion
ally speaks of "the kingdom of God" (vi.
33, xxi. 31, 43), and sometimes simply of
"the kingdom" (iv, 23, xiii, 19, xxiv. 14)
In xiii, 41 and xvi. 2S, it is "the Son of
Man's kingdom." In xx. 21, "thy king
dom," *. e. Christ's. In the one Gospel of
St. Matthew the Church is spoken of no
less than thirty-six times as "the kingdom."
Other descriptions or titles are hardly
found in the Evangelists. It is Christ's
household (Matt, x; 25), the salt and light
of the worid (v. 13, 15), Christ's flock
(Matt, xxvi, 31; John x. 1), its members
are the branches growing on Christ the
Vine (John xv.) ; but the general descrip
tion of it, not metaphorically but directly,
is, that it is a kingdom (Matt. xvi. 19).
From the Gospel then, we learn that Christ
was about to establish His heavenly king
dom on earth, which was to be the substi
tute for the Jewish Church and kingdom,
now doomed to destruction (Matt. xxi. 43),
IV. The Church as described in the Ads
and in the Epistles — its Origin, Nature,
and Constitution. — From the Gospels we
learn little .in the way of detail as to the
kuigdom which was to be established. It
was in the great forty days which intervened
between the Resurrection and the Ascen
sion that our Lord explained specifically to
His Apostles " the things pertaining to the
kingdom of God" (Acts i. 3), that is, Ms
fiiture Church. — Its Origin. — The remo
val of Christ from the earth had left his
followers a shattered company with no bond
of external or internal cohesioii, except the

memory of the Master whom they h.ad lost,
and the recollection of his injunctions to
unity and love. They continued together,
meeting for prayer and supplication, and
waiting for Christ's promise of the gift of
the Holy Ghost. 'They numbered in all
some 140 persons, namely, the eleven, the
faithful women, the Lord's mother, his
brethren, and 120 disciples. They had faith
to believe that there was a work before them
which they were about to be called to per
form J and that they might be ready to do
it, they filled up the number of the Twelve
by the appointment of Jlitthias "to be a
true witness " with the eleven " of the Res
urrection." The Day of Pentecost is the
birth-day of tlie Christian Church. The
Spirit, who was then sent by the Son from
the Father, and rested on each of the Dis
ciples, combined them once more into a
whole, — combined them as they never had
before been combined, by an internal and
spiritual bond of cohesion. Before they
had been individual followers of Jesus, now
they became his mystical body, animated
by His Spirit. — Its Nature. — " Then they
that gladly received his word were baptized
, , , and they continued steadfastly in the
Apostles' doctrine and fellowship, ^.nd in
breaking of bread and in prayers " (Acts ii,
41). Here we have indirectly exhibited the
essential conditions of Church Communion,
They are (1) Baptism, Baptism implying
on the part of the recipient repentance and
faith ; (2) Apostolic Doctrine ; (3) Fellow
ship with the Apostles ; (4) the Lord's Sup
per ; (5) Public 'Worship, Every requisite
for church- membership is here enumerated
not only for the Apostolic days, but for
future ages. St. Luke's treatise being his
torical, not dogmatical, he does not directly
enter further into the essential nature of
the Church. The community of goods,
which he describes as being universal
amongst the members of the infant society
(ii. 44, iv. 32), is .specially declared to be
a voluntary practice (v. 4), not a necessary
duty of Christians as such (comp. Acts ix,
36, 30, xi. 29). From the illustrations
adopted by St. Paul in his Epistles, we
have additional Ught thrown upon the na
ture of the Church, Tho passage which is
most illustrative of our subject in the Epis
tles is Eph. iv. 3, 6, Here we see what it
is that constitutes the unity of the Church
in the mind of the Apostle : (1) unity of
Headship, " one Lord ; " (2) unity of beUef,
"one faith;" (3) unity of Sacraments,
" one baptism : " (4) unity of hope of eter
nal life, "one hope of your calling ; " (6)
unity of love, "unity of the Spirit in the
bond of peace; " (6) unity of organization,
"one body," The Church, then, at this
period was a body of baptized men and
women who believed in Jesus asthe Clttist,
and in the revelation made by Him, who

CHURCH

112 CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM

were united by having the same faith, hope, I Presbyters in Jerusalem bore indifferently^
„„.^ „„;,„„t;r,r. Cr,;,.;* «f 1n,,o tl,„ ^„m„ a„n_ fUn nnrvo r,f "Ri.shOOS (rOll- I, 1 , i iim,.lU,

sind animating Spirit of love, the same Sac
raments, and the same spiritual invisible
Head. — 'What was the Constitution of this
body t — On the evening of the Day of Pen
tecost, the 3140 members of which it con
sisted were — (1) Apostles ; (2) previous
Disciples; (3) converts. At this time the
Church was not only morally but actually
one congregation. Soon, however, its
numbers grew so considerably that it was
a physical impossibility that all its mem
bers should come together in one spot. It
became, therefore, an aggregate of congre
gations, though without losing its essential
unity. The apostles, who had been closest
to the Lord Jesus in his life on earth would
doubtless have formed the centres of the
several congregations. Thus the Church
continued for apparently some seven years,
but at the end of that time "the number
of disciples was " so greatly "multiplied"
(Acts vi. 1) that the twelve Apostles found
themselves to be too few to carry out these
works unaided. They thereupon for the
first time exercised the powers of mission
intrusted to them (John xx. 21), and by
Laying their hands on the Seven who were
recommended to them by the general body
of Christians, they appointed them to fulfil
the secular task of -distributing the common
stock. It is a question which cannot be
certainly answered whether the office of
these Seven is to be identified with that of
the deacons elsewhere found. We incline
to the hypothesis which makes the Seven
the originals of the Deacons, From this
time therefore, or from about this time,
there existed in the Church — (1) the Apos
tles ; (2) the Deacons and Evangelists ; (3)
the multitude of the faithful, "We hear of
no other Church-officer till the year 44,
seven years after the appointment of the
deacons. .'We find that there were then in
the Church of Jerusalem officers named
Presbyters (xi. 30) who were the assistants
of James, the chief administrator of that
Church (xii. 17). The circumstances of
their first appointment are not recounted.
No doubt they were similar to those under
which the Deacons were appointed. The
name of Presbyter or Elder implies that the
men selected were of mature age. By the
year 44, therefore, there were in tho Church
of Jerusalem— -(1) the Apostles holding
the government of the whole body in their
owu hands ; (2) Presbyters invested by the
Apostles with authority for conducting pub
lic worship in each congregation ; (3) Dea
cons or Ev.angelists similarly invested with
the lesser power of preaching and of baptiz
ing unbelievers, and of distributing the
common goods among the brethren. The
same order was established in the Gentile
Churches founded by St, Paul, the only
difference being that those who were called

the name of Bishops (f l^if;, . ..^ ,, „.
1 2- Tit i 7) or of Presbyte.s (1 Tim. v.
17 • Tit ' i 5) elsewhere. It was in the
Church of Jerusalem that another order of
the ministry found its exemplar. JamqS^;
the brother of the Lord remained unmo.
tested during the persecution of Heroil
Agrippa in the year 44, and from this time;
he is the acknowledged head of the Churcli
of Jerusalem. A consideration of Acts xii,
17, XV. 13, 19; Gal ii. 2, 9, 12; Acts xxi,
18, will remove all doubt on this point;
'Whatever his pre-eminence was, he ap
pears to have borne no special title indicat-'^
ing it. The example of the Mother Churcff
of Jerusalem was again followed by the
Pauline Churches. Timothy and Titus had
probably no distinctive title, but it is im
possible to read the Epistles addressej^'to
them without seeing that they had an au
thority superior to that of the ordinary
bishops or priests (1 Tim. iii., v. 17, 19;
Tit. i, 5), Thus, then, we See that where
the Apostles were themselves able to super
intend the Churches that they had founded,'
the Church-officers consisted of — (1) Apos
tles ; (2) Bishops or Priests ; (3) Deacons
and Evangelists, 'When the Apostles'were
unable to give personal superintendence;','
they delegated that power which they had'
in common to one of themselves, as iti Je
rusalem, or to one in whom they had con
fidence, as at Ephesus and in Crete.'' As
the apostles died off, these Apostohc Dele
gates necessarily multiplied. By the end
of the first century, when St. John was the
only Apostle that now survived, they would
have been established in every country, as
Crete, and in every large town where there -
were several bishops or priests, such as the
seven towns of Asia mentioned in the Book
of Revelation. These superintendents ap
pear to be addressed by St. John under the
name of Angels. 'With St. John's death
the Apostolic College was extinguished,
and the Apostolic Delegates or AngelSwcre
left to fill their places in the government
of the Church, not with the full unrestricted
power of the Apostles, but with authority
only to be exercised in limited districts.
In the next century we find that these offi
cers bore the name of Bishops, while those
who in the first century were called mdif-
ferently Presbyters or Bishops had now
only the title of Presbyters. "We conclude,
therefore, that the title bishop was grad
ually dropped by the second order of tlie
ministry, and applied specifically to those
who represented what James, Timothy, and
Titus had been in the Apostolic age.
Chush'an-Rishatha'im, the khigof
Mesopotamia who oppressed Isr.ael during
eight years in the generation immediately;,
following Joshua (Judg. iii. 8). The seat
of his dominion was probably the region

CUUZA

113

CISTERN

between the Euphrates and the Khabour.
Chushan-Rishathaim's yoke was broken
from the neck of the people of Israel at
the end of eight years by Othniel, Caleb's
nephew (Judg. iii. 10), and nothing more
is heard of Mesopotamia as an aggressive
power. The rise of the Assyrian empire,
about B. I J. 1270, would naturally reduce the
bordering nations to insignificance.
Chu'za (properly Chuzas), the house-
steward of Herod Antipas (Luke viii. 3).
Cic'car. [Jordan.]
CiUc'ia, a maritime province in the S.
E. of Asia Minor,- bordering on Pamphylia
in the 'W., Lycaonia and Cappadocia in the
N., and Syria in the E. The connection
between the Jews and Cilicia dates from the
time when it became part of the Syrian
kingdom. In the Apostolic age they were
still there in considerable numbers (Acts
vi. 9). Cilicia was from its geographical
position the high road between Syria and
the "West ; it was also the native country of
St. Paul ; hence it was visited by him, first
ly, soon after his conversion (Gal. i. 21 ;
Acts ix. 30) ; and again in his second apos
tolical journey, when he entered it on tbe
side of Syria, and crossed Antitaurus by
the Pylae Ciliciae into Lycaonia (Acts xv.
41), ,
Cinnamon, a well-known aromatic sub
stance, the rind of the Laurus cinnamo-
mum, called Korunda-gauhah, in Ceylon.
It is mentioned in Ex. xxx. 23 as one of the
component parts of the holy anointing oil,
which Moses was commanded to prepare —
in Prov. vii. 17 as a perfume for the bed —
and in Cant. iv. 14 as one of the plants of
the garden whicli is the image of the spouse.
In R^v. xviii. 13 it is enumerated among
the merchandise of the great Babylon. It
was imported into Judaea by the Phoeni
cians or by the Arabians, and is now found
in Sumatra, Borneo, China. &c., but chiefly,
and of the best quality, in the S. "W. part
of Ceylon.
Cin'neroth, All, a district named with
the " land of Naphtali " and other northern
places as having been laidwaste by Benha
dad (1 K. XV. 20). It was possibly the
small enclosed district north of Tiberias,
and by the side of the lake, afterwards
known as " the plain of Gennesareth."
Circumcision was peculiarly, though
not exclusively, a Jewish rite. It was en
joined upon Abr.aham, the father of the
nation, by God, at the institution, and as
the token, of the Covenant, which assured
to him and his descendants the promise of
the Messiah (Gen. xvii,). It was thus made
a necessary condition of Jewish national
ity Every male child was to be circum
cised when eight days old (Lev. xii, 3) on
pain of death. If the eighth day were a
Sabbath the rite was not postponed (John
vii, 22, 23). Slaves, whether homeborn or
8

purchased, were circumcised (Gen. xvii. 12,
13) ; and foreigners must have their males
circumcised before they could be allowed
to partake of the passover (Ex. xii. 48), or
become Jewish citizens. It seems to havq -
been customary to name a child when it
was circumcised (Luke i. 59), The use of
circumcision by other nations besides the
Jews is to be gathered almost entirely from
sources extraneous to the Bible, The rite
has been found to prevail extensively both
in ancient and modern times. The biblical
notice of the rite describes it as distinc
tively Jewish; so that in the N. T. "the
circumcision" and "the uncircumcision "
are frequently used as synonymes for tJie
Jews and the Gentiles. Circumcision cer
tainly belonged to the Jews as it did to no
other people, by virtue of its divine institu
tion, of the religious privileges which were
attached to it, and of the strict regulations
which enforced its observance. Moreover,
the O, T. history incidentally discloses the
fact that many, if not all, of the nations
with whom they came in contact were un-
circumcised. The origin of the custom
amongst one large section of those Gen- •
tiles who follow it, is to be found in the
biblical record of the circumcision of Ish
mael (Gen. xvii, 25). Though Mohammed
did not enjoin circumcision in the Koran,
he was circumcised- himself, according to
the custom of his country ; and circum
cision is now as common amongst the Mo
hammedans as amongst the Jews, The
process of restoring a circumcised person
to his natural condition by a surgical oper
ation was sometimes undergone. Some of
the Jews in the time of Antiochus Epiph
anes, wishing to assimilate themselves to
the heathen around them, " made them
selves uncircumcised " (1 Mace. i. 15),
Against having recourse to this pr-actice,
from an excessive anti-Judaistie tendency,
St. Paul cautions the Corinthians (1 Cor.
vii. 18). The attitude which Christianity,
at its introduction, assumed towards cir
cumcision was one of absolute hostility, so
far as the necessity of the rite to salvation,
or its possession of any religious or moral
worth was concerned (Acts xv. ; Gal. v,
2).. The Abyssinian Christians stiU prac
tise circumcision as a national custom,
Cis, the father of Saul (Acts xiii. 21),
usually called Kish.
Cistern, a receptacle for water, either
conducted from an external spring, or pro
ceeding from rain-fall. The dryness of the
summer months between May and Septem
ber, in Syria, and the scarcity of springs in
many parts of the country, make it neces
sary to collect in reservoirs aud cisterns the
rain-water, of which abundance fal]« in the
intermediate period. The largest sort of
public tanks or reservoirs is usuall;^ called
in A. V. " pool," while for-the smaller and

CITHERN

114

CLAUDIUS

more private it is convenient to reserve the
name cistern. Both pools and cisterns are
frequent throughout the whole of Syria
and Palestine, On the long forgotten way
from Jericho to Bethel, " broken cisterns "
of high antiquity are found at regular in-
terv.als. Jerusalem depends mainly for
water upon its cisterns, of which almost
every private house possesses one or more,
excavated in the rock on which the city is
built. The cisterns have usually a round
opening at the top, sometimes built up with
stonework above and furnished with a curb
and a wheel for the bucket (Eccl. xii. 6),
so that they have externally mtich the ap
pearance of an ordinary well. The water
is conducted into them from the roofs of
the houses during the rainy season, and
with care remains sweet during the whole
summer and autumn. In this manner
most of the larger houses and pubhc build
ings are supplied. Empty cisterns were
sometimes used as prisons and places of
confinement, Joseph was cast into a " pit "
(Gen. xxxvii. 22), and his " dungeon " in
Egypt is called by the same name (xii. 14).
Jeremiah was thrown into a miry though
empty cistern, whose depth is indicated by
the cords used to lot him down (Jer.
xxxviii. 6).
Cithern (1 Mace. iv. 54), a musical in
strument, resembling a guitar, most prob
ably of Greek origin, employed by the
Chaldeans, and introduced by the Hebrews
into Palestine on their return thither after
the Babyloni.an captivity.
Cities. 1. 'Ar, and also '/)•; 2. Kir-
jath ; probably the most ancient name
for city, but seldom used in prose as a gen
eral name for town. The classification of
the human race into dwellers in towns and
nomade wanderers (Gen. iv. 20, 22) seems
to be intimated by the etymological sense
of both words, as places of security against
an enemy, distinguished from the unwalled
tillage or hamlet, whose resistance is more
aasily overcome by the marauding tribes
of the desert. The earliest notice in Scrip
ture of city-building is of Enoch by Cain,
in the land of his exile (Gen. iv. 17). After
the confusion of tongues, the desoendaifts
of Nimrod founded Babel, Erech, Accad,
and Calneh, in the land of Shinar, and
Asshur, a branch from the same stock,
buUt Nineveh, Rehoboth-by-the-river, Ca
lah, aud Resen, the last being " a great
city." The earliest description of a city,
properly so called, is that of Sodom (Gen.
xix. 1-22). Hebron is s.aid to have been
built seven years before Zoan (Tanis) in
Egypt, and is thus the only Syrian town
which presents the elements of a date for
its foundation (Num. xiii. 22). Even be
fore the time of Abraham there were cities
in Egypt (Gen. xii. 14, 16; Num. xiii. 22),
and the Israelites, during their sojourn

there, were employed in building or forti
fying the " treasure cities " of lit hom and
Raamses (Ex. i. 11). Meanwhile the .4et-
tled inhabitants of Syria on both sides of
the Jordan had grown in power and in
number of "fenced cities," which were
occupied and perhaps partly rebuilt or for
tified after the conquest.
Cities of Keftlge, six Levitical cities
specially chosen for refuge to the involun
tary homicide until released from banish
ment by the death of the high-priest (Num.
xxxv. 6, 13, 15; Josh. xx. 2, 7, 9). There
were three on each side of Jordan. 1. Ke
desh, in Naphtali (1 Chr. vi. 76). 2.
Shechem, in Mount Ephraim (Josh. xxi.
21; 1 Chr. vi. 67; 2 Chr. x. 1). 3. He
bron, in Judah (Josh. xxi. 13 ; 2 Sam. v.
5; 1 Chr. vi. 55, xxix. 27; 2 Chr. xi. 10).
4. On the E. side of Jordan — Bezek, in
the tribe of Reuben, in the plains of Moab
(Deut. iv. 43; Josh, xx. 8,. xxi. 36; 1
Mace. V. 26). 5. Ramoth-Gilead, in the
tribe of Gad (Deut. iv. 43 ; Josh, xxi. 38 ;
1 K, xxii, 3), 6, Golan, in Bashan, in
the half -tribe of Manasseh (Deut, iv, 43;,
Josh, xxi, 27 ; 1 Chr, vi. 71),
Cit'ims, 1 Mace, viii. 6. [CHiniM.]
Citizenship. The use of this term in
Scripture has exclusive reference to the
usages of the Roman empire. The' privi
lege of Roman citizenship was originally
acquired in various ways, as by purchase
(Acts xxii. 28), by military services, by
favor, or by manumission. The right once
obtained descended to a man's children
(Acts xxii. 28), Among the privileges at
tached to citizenship, we may note that a
man could not be bound or imprisoned
without a formal trial (Acts xxii, 29), still
less be scourged (Acts xvi. 37; Cic, in
Verr. v, 63, 66). A nother privilege attach
ing to citizenship wj-s the appeal from a
provincial tribunal to tbe emperor at Rome
(Acts xxv, 11),
Citron, [Apple-trpe.]
Clau'da (Acts xxvii. 16), a small island
nearly due 'W, of Cape Matala on the S,
coast of Crete, and nearly due S of Phoe-
NiCE, now Gozzo.
Clau'dia, a Christian woman mentioned
in 2 Tim. iv, 21-, as saluting Timothens.
There is reason for supposing that tliis
Claudia was a British maiden, daughter of
king Cogidubnus, an .ally of Rome, who
took the name of his imperial patron,
Tiberius Claudius. She .appears to hiive
become the wife of Pudens, who is men
tioned in the same verse.
Clau'dius, fourth Roman emperor,
reigned from 4 1 to 54 a, d. He was tbe
son of Nero Drusus, was born in Lyons,
Aug. 1, B. c. 9 or 10, and lived private and
unknown till the day of his being called to
the throne, January 24, A. d. 41. He was
nominated to the supreme power mainly

CLAUDIUS LYSIAS

115

COAL

through the influence of Herod Agrippa
the First. In the reign of Claudius there
were several famines, arising from unfa
vorable harvests, and one such occurred in
Palestine and Syria (Acts xi. 28-30) under
' the procurators Cuspius Fadus and Tiberius
Alexander, which perhaps lastedsome years.
CLaudius was induced by a tumult of the
Jews in Rome to expel them from the city
(cf. Acts xviii. 2). 'The date of this event
is uncertain. After a weak and foolish reign
he was poisoned by his fourth wife Agrippina,
the mother of Nero, Oct, 13, A. d. 54,
Clau'dius Lys'ias. [Ltsias.]
Clay, As the sediment of water re
maining in pits or in streets, the word is
used frequently in 0, T. (Is. Ivii. 20 ; Jer.
xxxviii, 6; Ps, xviii. 42), and in N, T.
(John ix, 6), a mixture of sand or dust
with spittle. It is also found in the sense
of potter's clay, (Is, xii. 25), The great
seat of the pottery of the present day in
Palestine isi Gaza, where are made the ves
sels in dark blue clay so frequently met
with. Another use of clay was for sealing
(Job xxxviii, 14). 'Wine jars in Egypt
were sometimes sealed with clay ; mummy
pits were sealed with the same substance,
and remains of clay are still found adher
ing to the stone door-jambs. Our Lord's
tomb may have been thus sealed (Matt.
xxvii. 66), as also the earthen vessel con-
tauiing the evidences of Jeremiah's pur
chase (Jer. xxxii. 14). The seal used for
public documents was rolled on the moist
clay, and the tablet was then placed in the
fire and baked. The practice of sealing
doors with cl.ay to facilitate detection in case
of malpractice is still common in the East.
Clem'ent (Phil. iv. 2), a fellow-laborer
of St. Paul, when he was at Philippi. It
was generally believed in the ancient
church, that this Clement was identical
with the Bishop of Rome, who afterwards
became so celebrated.
Cle'opas, one of the two disciples who
were going to Emmaus on the day of the
resurrection (Luke xxiv, 18) . It is a ques
tion whether this Cleopas is to be consid
ered as identical with Cleophas (accur.
Clopas) orAlphaeusinJohnxix. 25. On the
whole, it seems safer to doubt their identity.
Cleopa'tra. 1, The "wife of Ptole
my " (Esth. xi. 1) was probably the grand
daughter of Antiochus, and wife of Ptol.
VI. Philometor, 2, A daughter of Ptol.
VI, Philometor and Cleopatra (1), who
was married first to Alexander Balas B. c.
150 (1 Mace. X. 58), and afterwards given
by her father to Demetrius Nicator when
he invaded Syria (1 Maoc. xi. 12). During
the captivity of Demetrius in Parthia, Cleo
patra married his brother Antiochus VII.
Sidetes, She afterwards murdered Seleucus,
her eldest son by Demetrius ; and at length
was herself poisoned b. ii, 120 by a draught

which she had prepared for her second son
Antiochus VIII,
Cle'ophas. [Cleopas; Alphaeus.]
Clothing. [Dress.]
Cloud. The shelter given, and refi'esh-
ment of rain promised, by clouds, give
them their peculiar prominence in Oriental
imagery, and the individual cloud iu an
ordinary cloudless region becomes well
defined and is dwelt upon like the indi
vidual tree in the bare landscape, 'When
a cloud appears, rain is ordinarily appre
hended, and thus the " cloud without rain "
becomes a proverb for the man of promise
without performance (Prov. xvi. 15 ; Is.
xviii. 4, xxv, 5 ; Jude 12 ; comp. Prov. xxv,
14), The cloud is a figure of transitori-
ness (Job xxx. 15; Hos. vi. 4), and of
whatever intercepts divine favor or human
supplication (Lam. ii. 1, iii. 44), Being
the least substantial of visible forms, it is
the one amongst material things which'
suggests most easilyspiritual being. Hence
it is the recognized machinery by which
supernatural appearances are introduced
(Is. xix. 1 ; Ez. i. 4; Rev. i. 7). A bright
cloud, at any rate at times, visited and
rested on the Mercy Seat (Ex. xxix. 42, 43 ;
1 K. viii. 10, 11 ; 2 Chr. v. 14 ; Ez. xliii. 4),
and was by later writers named Sheoliinah,
Cloud, Pillar of. This was the ac;
tive form of the symbolical glory-cloud,
betokening God's presence to lead His
chosen -host, or to inquire and visit offences,
as the luminous cloud of the sanctuary ex
hibited the same under an aspect of repose.
The cloud, which became a pillar when the
host moved, seems to have rested at other
times on the tabernacle, whence God is said
to have " come down in the p'illar " (Num.
xii. 5; so Ex. xxxiii. 9, 10). It preceded
the host, apparently resting on the ark
which led the way (Ex. xiii. 21, xl. 36, &c. ;
Num. ix. 15-23, x. 34);
Cni'dus is mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 23,
as one of the Greek cities which contained
Jewish residents in the 2d century b. c,
and in Acts xxvii. 7, as a harbor which was
passed by St. Paul after leaving Myra, and
before running under the lee of Crete. It
was a city of great consequence, situated
at the extreme S. W. of the peninsula of
Asia Minor, on a promontory now called-
Cape Crio, which projects between the
islands of Cos and Rhodes (see Acts xxi. 1).
Coal. In A. V. this word represents no
less than five different Heb. words. 1.
The first and most frequently used is gache-
leth, a live ember, burning fuel, as distin
guished from pechdm (Prov. xxvi. 21). In
2 Sam. xxii. 9, 13, " coals of fire " are put
metaphorically for the lightnings proceeding
from God (Ps. xviii. 8, 12, 13, cxl. 10). In
Prov. xxv. 22 we have the proverbial ex
pression, "Thou shalt heap coals of fire
upon his head," which has been adopted by

COAT

116

COLOSSIAKS

St. Paul iu Rom. xii. 20, and by which are
metaphorically expressed the burning shame
and confusion which men must feel when
their evil is requited by good. 2. Pechdm.
In Prov, xxvi. 21, this word cle.arly signi
fies fuel not yet lighted. The fuel meant
in the above passages is probably charcoal,
and not coal in our sense of the word.
Coat. [Dress.]
Cock. In the N. T. the "cock"' is
mentioned in reference to St. Peter's de
nial 01 our Lord, and indirectly in the
word "cock-crowing" (Matt. xxvi. 34;
Mark xiv. 30, xiii. 35, &c.). "We know
that the domestic cock and hen were early
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans,
and as no mention is made in the O. T. of
these birds, and no figures of them occur
on the Egyptian monuments, they probably
came into Judaea with the Romans, who,
as is well known, prized these birds both as
articles of food and for cock-fighting.
Cockatrice. [Adder.]
Cockle (Heb. loshdh) occurs only in
Job xxxi. 40, "We are inclined to believe
th.at the boshdh denotes any bad weeds or
fruit, and may in Job signify bad or smut
ted barley,
Coele-Syr'ia, " the hollow Syria," was
(strictly speaking) the name given by the
Greeks, afterthe time of Alexander, to the re
markable valley or hollow which intervenes
between Libanus and Anti-Libanus, stretch
ing a distance. of nearly a hundred miles.
But the term was also used in a much
wider sense. In the first place it was ex
tended so as to include the inhabited tract
to the east of the Anti-Libanus range, be
tween it and the desert, in wliich stood the
gre.at city of -Damascus ; and then it was
further carried on upon that side of Jordan,
through Traconitis and Paraea, to Idumaea
and the borders of Egypt. The only dis
tinct reference to the region, as a separate
tract of country, which the Jewish Scrip
tures contain, is probably that in Amos
(i. 6), where "the inhabitants of the plain
of Aven " are threatened in conjunction
with those of Damascus, In the Apocry
phal Books there is frequent mention of
Coilo-Syria in a somewhat vague sense,
nearly .as an equivalent for Syria (1 Esd.
il 17, 24, 27, iv. 48, vi. 29, vii. 1, viii. 67;
1 -Jlaec. x. 69 ; 2 Mace. iii. 5, 8, iv. 4, viii.
8, X. 11). In all these cases the word is
given in A. V. as Celosyeia.
Coger {Argdz), a movable box hang
ing from the side of a cart (1 Sam, vi. 8,
11, 15). This word is found nowhere else.
CofOn. [Burial.]
Col-ho'|:eh, a man ofthe tribe of Jud.ah
in tbe time of Nehtmiah (Neh. iii. 15, xi. 5).
CoUar. For the proper sense of this term,
as It occurs in Judg. viii. 20, see Earrings.
CoUege, The. In 2 K, xxii, 14 it is
said in the A, V, that Huldah the prophet

ess " dwelt in Jerusalem in tlid w,
(Heb, mishneh), or, as the margin has it,
"in the second part." The same part of
the city is undoubtedly alluded to in Zeph.
i. 10 (A. V. "the second"). It is proba
ble that the mishneh was the "lower city,"
built on the hill Akra.
Colony, a designation of Philippi, in
Acts xvi. 12, After the battle of Actium,
Augustus assigned to his veterans those
parts of Italy which had espoused the
cause of Antony, and transported mar.y of
the expelled inhabitants to Philippi, Dyr-
rachium, and other cities. In this way
Philippi was made a Roman colony with
the "Jus Italicum."
Colors. The terms relative to color,
occurring in the Bible, may be arranged in
two classes, the first including those applied
to the description of natural objects, the
second those artificial mixtures which were
employed in dyeing or painting. The nat
ural colors noticed in tho Bible are white,
black, red, yellow, and green. The only
fundamental color of which the Hebrews
appear to have had a clear conception was
red ; and even this is not very often noticed.
They had therefore no scientific knowledge
of colors, and we cannot but think that the
attempt to explain such passages as Re v.iv. 3
by the rules of pliilosophical truth, must fail,
Colos'se (more properly Colos'sao),
a city in the upper part of the basin of the
Maeander, on one of its affluents named the
Lyons. Hierapolis and Laodicaea were in
its immediate neighborhood (Col. ii. 1, iv.
13, 15, 16 ; see Rev. i. 11, iii. 14). Colossae
fell as these other two cities rose in im
portance. It was situated close to the
great road which led from- Ephesus to the
Euphrates. Hence our impulse would be
to conclude that St. Paul passed this way,
and found'^d or confirmed the Colossian
Church on his third missionary journey
(Acts xviii. 23, xix. 1). The most compe
tent commentators, however, agree in think
ing that Col. ii. 1, proves that St. Paul
had never been there when the Epistle was
written. That the Apostle hoped to visit
the place on being delivered from his Ro
man imprisonment is clear from Philemon
22 (compare Phil. ii. 24).
Colossians, The Epistle to the, was
written by the Apostle St. Paul during liis
first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16), and
apparently in that portion of it (Col. iv. 3, 4)
when the Apostle's imprisonment had not
assumed the more severe character wliich
seems to be reflected in the Epistle to the
Philippians (ch. i. 20, 21, SO, ii. 27), and
which not improbably succeeded (he death
of Burrus in a. d. 62, and the decline ofthe
influence of Seneca. This epistle was ad
dressed to the Christians of the city of Co
lossae, and was delivered to them by Tych-
icus, whom the Apostle had sent both to

COMMERCE

117

CONEY

them (ch. iv. 7, 8), and to the church of
Ephesus (ch. vi. 21), to inquire into their
state and to administer exhortation and
comfort. The epistle seems to have been
called forth by the information St. Paul had
received from Epaphras (ch. iv. 12 ; Phi
lem. 23) and from Onesimus, both of whom
appear to have been natives of Colossae.
The main object of the epistle is to warn
the Colossians against a spirit of semi-Ju-
daistic and semi-Oriental philosophy which
was corrupting the simplicity of their be
lief, and was noticeably tending to obscure
(he eternal glory and dignity of Christ.
The striking similarity between many por
tions of this epistle and of that of the Ephe
sians may be accounted for, (1) by the
proximity in time at which the two epistles
were written ; (2) by the high probability
that in two cities of Asia within a moderate
distance from one another, there would be
many doctrinal prejudices, and many social
relations, that would call forth and need
precisely the same language of warning and
exhortation. The shorter and perhaps more
vividly expressed Epistle to the Colossians
seems to have been first written, and to have
suggested the more comprehensive, more
systematic, but less individualizing, epistle
to the church of Ephesus.
Commerce. From the time that men
began to live in cities, trade, in some shape,
must have been carried on to supply the
town-dwell ers with necessaries ; but it is
also clear that international trade must
have existed, and affected to some extent
even the pastoral nomade races, for we find
that Abraham was rich, not only in cattle,
but in silver, gold, and gold and silver plate
and ornaments (Gen. xiii. 2, xxiv. 22, 53).
Among trading nations mentioned in Scrip
ture, Egypt holds in very early times a
prominent position, though her external
trade was carried on, not by her own citi
zens, but by foreigners, — chiefly of the
nomade races. The internal trade of the
Jews, as well as the external, was much
promoted, as was the case also in Egypt, by
the festivals, which brought large numbers
of persons to Jerusalem, and caused great
outlay in victims for sacrifices and in in
cense (1 K. viii. 63). The places of pub
lic market were, then as now, chiefly the
open spaces near the gates, to which goods
were brought for sale by those who came
from the outside (Neh. xiii. 15, 16; Zeph. i.
10). The traders iu later times were al
lowed to intrude into the temple, in the
outer courts of which victims were public
ly scld fur the sacrifices (Zech.xiv.21 ; Matt.
xxi. 12; John ii. 14).
Conani'ah, one of the chiefs of the Le
vites in the time of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxv. 9).
Concubine. The difference between
wife and concubine was less marked among
the Hebr-^ws than among us. owing to the

absence of moial stigma. The concubine's
condition was a definite one, and quite
independent of the fact of there being
another woman having the rights of wife
towards the same man. The difference
probably lay in the absence of the right of
the bill of divorce, without which the wife
could not be repudiated. 'With regard to
tho children of wife and concubine, there
was no such difference as our illegitimacy
implies ; the latter were a supplementary
family to the former; their names occur in
the patriarchal genealogies (Gen. xxii. 24;
1 Chr. i. 22), and their position and provis
ion would depend on the father's will (Gen.
xxv. 6). The state of concubinage is as
sumed and provided for by the law of Moses.
A concubine would generally be either, (1)
a Hebrew girl bought of her father ; (2) a
Gentile captive taken in war; (3) a foreign
slave bought; or (4) a Canaanitish woman,
bond or frfee. The rights of (1) and (2)
were protected by law (Ex, xxi, 7 ; Deut,
xxi. 10-14), but (3) was unrecognized, and
(4) prohibited. Free Hebrew women also
might become concubines. So Gideon's
concubine seems to have been of a family
of rank and influence in Shechem, and such
was probably the state of the LeTite's concu
bine (Judg. XX.) . The ravages of war among
the male .sex, or the impoverishrnent of
families, might often induce tbifi coDdition,
The case (1) was not a hard lot (Ex. xxi.).
The provisions relating to (2) are merciful
and considerate to a rare degree. In the
books of Samuel and Kings the concubines
mentioned belong to the king, and their
condition and number cease to be a guide
to the general practice. A new king stepped
into the rights of his predecessor, and by
Solomon's time the custom had approx
imated to that of a Persian harem (2 Sam,
xii. 8, xvi. 21; 1 K. ii. 22). To seize on
royal concubines for his use was thus a
usurper's first act. Such was probably the
intent of Abner's act (-2 Sam. iii, 7), and
similarly the request on behalf of Adoni
jah was construed (1 K. ii. 21-24).
Conduit. Although no notice is given
either by Scripture, or by Josephus of any
connection between the pools of Solomon
beyond Bethlehem and a supply of water
for Jerusalem, it seems unlikely that so
large a work as the pools should be con
structed merely for irrigating his gardens
(Eccl. ii, 6), and tradition, both oral and as
represented by Talmudical writers, ascribes
to Solomon the formation of the original
aqueduct by which water was brought to
Jerusalem, Coney {Shdphdn), a. gregarious animal
of the class Pachydermata, which is found
in Palestine, living in the eaves and clefts
of the rocks, and has been erroneciusly
identified' with the Rabbit or Coney, Its
scientific name is Hyrax Syriacus. In

CONGREGATION

118

COPPEU

Lev. xi. 5 and in Deut, xiv, 7 it is declared
to be unclean, because it chews the cud,
but does not divide the hoof. In Ps, civ,
18 we are told " the rocks are a refuge for

Jlyna Syiiacua, (From a specimen in the Britiali Mu
seum.)
the coneys," and in Prov. xxx. 26, that " the
coneys are but a feeble folk, yet make they
their houses in the rocks." The Hyrax
satisfies exactly the expressions in the two
last passages. Its color is gray or brown
ou the back, white on the belW^ it is like
the alpine marmot, scarcely of the size of
the domestic cat, having long hair, a very
short tail, and round ears. It is found on
the Lebanon and in the Jordan and Dead
Sea valleys.
Congregation, This describes the
Hebrew people in its collective capacity
under its peculiar aspect as a holy commu
nity, held together by religious rather than
poUtical bonds. Sometimes it is used in a
broad sense as inclusive of foreign settlers
(Ex. xii. 19) ; but more properly, as exclu
sively appropriate to the Hebrew element
of the population (Num, xv, 15). Every
circumcised Hebrew was a member of the
congregation, and took part in its proceed
ings, probably from the time that he bore
arms. The congregation occupied an im-
jiortant position under the Theocracy, as
tho comitia or national parliament, invest
ed with legislative and judicial powers ;
each house, family, and tribe being repre
sented by its head or father. The number
of these representatives being inconvenient
ly large for ordinary business, a further
selection was made by Moses of 70, who
formed a species of standing committee
(Num. xi, 16), Occasionally indeed the
whole body of the people was assembled at
the door of the tabernacle, hence usually
called the tabernacle of the congregation
(Num, X. 3), The people were strictly
bound by the acts of their representatives,
even in cases where they disapproved of
them (Josh. ix. 18), After the occupation
of the land of Canaan, the congregation
w.as assembled only on matters of the high
est importance. In the later periods of
Jewish history the congregation was repre
sented by the Sanhedrim,
Coni'ah. [Jeconiah.]
Cononi'ah, a Levite, ruler ofthe offer
ings and tithes in the time of Hezekiah (2
Chr. xxxi, 12, 13).

Consecration. [Priest.]
Convocation. This term is appliefl
invariably to meetings of a religious char
acter, in contradistinction to congregation,
¦With one exception (Is. i. 13), the word is
peculiar to the Pentateuch.
Cooking. As meat did not form an ar
ticle of ordinary diet among the Jews, the
art of cooking was not carried to any per- 1
fection. Few animals were slaughtered
except for purposes of hospitality or fes
tivity. The proceedings on such occasions
appear to have been as follows : — On the
arrival of a guest, the animal, either a kid,
lamb, or calf, was killed (Gen. xviii. 7;
Luke XV, 23), its throat being cut so that
the blood might be poured out (Lev. vii.
26) ; it was then flayed and was ready either
for roasting or boiling ; in the former Case
the animal was preserved entire (Ex. xii.
46), and roasted either over a fire (Ex. xii.
8) of wood (Is. xliv. 16), or perhaps in an
Oven, consisting simply of a hole dug in the
earth, well heated, and covered up. Boil
ing, however, was the more usual method of
cooking. Co'os, Acts x.xi. 1. [Cos.]
Copper, Heb. Nechdsheth, in the A. V.
always rendered "brass," except in Ezr.
viii. 27, and Jer. xv. 12. This metal is
usually found as pyrites (sulphuret of cop
per and iron), malacliite (carb. of copper),
or in the state of oxide, and occasionally
in a native state, principally in the New
'World. It was almost exclusively used
by the ancients for common purposes; for
which its elastic and ductile nature rendered
it practically available. 'We read in the
Bible of copper, possessed in countless
abundance (2 Chr. iv. 18), and used for
every kind of instrument ; as chains (Judg.
xvi. 21), pillars (1 K. vii. 15-21), lavers,
the great one being called "tho coppei
sea" (2K. xxv. 13; 1 Chr. xviii. 8), and
the other temple vessels. These were
made in the foundery, with the assistance
of Hiram, a Phoenician (1 K. vii. 13), al
though the Jews were not ignorant of met
allurgy (Ez. xxii. 18 ; Deut. iv. 20, &c.),and
appear to have worked their own mines
(Deut. viii. 9 ; Is. li. 1). We read also of
copper mirrors (Ex. xxxviii. 8 ; Job xxxrii.
IS), and even of copper arms, as helmets,
spears, &c. (1 S.am. xvii. 5, 6, 38; 2 Siim.
xxi. 16). The expression " bow of steel,"
in Job XX. 24 ; Ps. .xviii. 34, should be ren
dered "bow of copper." They cculd
hardly have applied copper to these pur
poses without possessing some judicious
system of alloys, or perhaps some forgot
ten secret for rendering the metal harder
and more elastic than we can make it. The
only place in the A. V. where " copper" is
mentioned is Ez. viii. 27 (cf. 1 Esd. riii.
57). These vessels may have been of ori
chalcum hke the Peri ian or Indian vasej

CORAL

119

CORINTHIANS

found among t.ie treasurei, of Darius. In
Ez, xxvii. 13 the importation of copper ves
sels to the markets of Tyre by merchants of
Javan, Tubal, and Meshech is alluded to.
Probably these were the Mosohi, &c., who
worked the copper-mines in the neighbor
hood of Mount Caucasus, In 2 Tim. iv.
It /aineue is rendered " coppersmith," but
the term is perfectly general.
Coral occurs only as the somewhat
doubtful rendering of the Hebrew rdmdth,
in Job xxviii. 18, and in Ez. xxvii, 16, But
"coral" has decidedly the best claim of
any other substances to represent rdmdth.
¦With regard to the estimation in which
coral was held by the Jews and other Ori
entals, it must be remembered that coral
varies in price with us. Pliny says that
the Indians valued coral as the Romans
valued iiearls.
Corban, an offering to God of any sort,
bloody or bloodless, but particularly in ful
filment of a vow. The law laid down rules
for vows, 1. affirmative ; 2. negative (Lev.
xxvii. ; Num. xxx.). Upon these rules the
traditionists enlarged, and laid down that a
man might interdict himself by vow, not
only from using for himself, but from giv
ing to another, or receiving from him, some
particular object, whether of food or any
other kind whatsoever. The thing thus
interdicted was considered as Corban, A
person might thus exempt himself from
any inconveniEnt obligation under plea of
coi'ban. It was practices of this sort that
our Lord reprehended (Matt. xv. 6 ; Mark
vii. 11), as annulling the spirit of the law.
Cord. The materials of which cord
was made varied according to the strength
required ; the strongest rope was probably
made of strips of camel hide, as still used
by the Bedouins, The finer Sorts were
made of flax (Is, xix. 9), and probably of
reeds and rushes. In the N. T. the term
is applied to the whip which our Saviour
made (John ii. 15), and to the ropes of a
ship (Acts xxvii. 32).
Co're, Jude 11. [Korah, 1.]
Coriander. The plant called Corian-
di^um sativum h found in Egypt, Persia,
an! India, and has a round tall stalk; it
bears umbfUiferous white or reddish flow
ers, from which arise globular, grayish,
spicy seed-corns, marked with fine striae.
It is mentioned twice in the Bible (Ex, xvi.
31 ; Num. xi. 7).
Corinth. 'This city is alike remarkable
for its distinctive geographical position, its
emuience in Greek and Roman history, and
its close connection with the early spread
of Christianity, Geographically its situa
tion was so marked, that the name of its
Isthmus has been given to every narrow
neck of land between two seas. But, be
sides this, the site of Corinth is distin
guished by another conspicuous physical

fciture — viz, the Acrocorinthus, a vast
citadel of rock, which rises abruptly to the
height of 2000 feet above the level of the
sea, and the summit of which is so exten
sive that it once contained a whole town.
The situation of Corinth, and the posses
sion of its eastern and western harbors
(Cenchreae and Leohaeum), are the se
crets of its history. In the latest passages
of Greek history Corinth held a conspicu
ous place. It is not the true Greek Corinth
with which we have to do in the life of St.
Paul, but the Corinth which was rebuilt
and established as a Roman colony. The
distinction between the two must be care
fully remembered. The new city was hardly
less distinguished than the old, and it ac
quired a fresh importance as the metropolis
of the Roman province of Aciiaia. Cor
inth was a place of great mental activity,
as well as of commercial and manufactur
ing enterprise. Its wealth was so cele
brated as to be proverbial; so were the
vice and profiigacy of its inhabitants. The
worship of Venus here was attended with
shameful licentiousness. All these points
are indirectly illustrated by passages in the
two epistles to the Corinthians. Corinth
is still an episcopal see. The city has now
shrunk to a wretched village, on the old
site, and bearing the old name, which, how
ever, is corrupted into GoHho. The Posi-
donium, or sanctuary of Neptune, the
scene of the Isthmian games, from which
St. Paul borrows some of his most striking
imagery iu 1 Cor. and other epistles, was
a short distance to the N. E. of Corinth,
at the narrowest part of the Isthmus, near
the harbor of Schoenus (now Kalamdki)
on the Saronic gulf. The exact site of the
temple is doubtful; but to the south are
the remains of the stadium, where the foot
races were run (1 Cor. ix. 24) ; to the east
are those of the theatre, which was prob
ably the scene of the pugilistic contests
{ib. 26) : and abundant on the shore are
the small green pine-trees which gave the
fading wreath {ib. 25) to the victors in the
games. Corinthians, First Epistle to the,
was written by the Apostle St. Paul toward.
the close of his nearly three years' stay at
Ephesus (Acts XLX. 10, xx. 31), wliich, we
learn from 1 Cor. xvi. 8, probably ternrunated
with the Pentecost of a. d. 57 or 58. The
bearers were probably (according to the
common subscription) Stephanus, FortU'
natus, and Achaicus, who had been retent-_
ly sent to the Apostle, and who, iji the f:on-
clusion of this epistle (ch. xvi. 17) are
especially commended to the honorable
regard of the church of Corinth. This
varied and highly characteristic letter was
addressed not to any party, but lothe whole
body of the large (Acts "sviii. 8, 10), Ju-
daeo-Gentile (Acts xviii 4) church of

CORINTHIANS

120

CORMORANT

Corinth, and appears to have been called
forth, 1st, by the information the Apostle
had received from members of the house
hold of Chloe (ch. i. 11), of the divisions
that were existing among them, which were
of so grave a nature as to have already in
due 3d the Apostle to desire Timothy to visit
Corinth (ch. iv. 17) after his journey to
Macedonia (Acts xix. 22) ; 2dly, by the in
formation ho had received of a grievous case
of incest (ch. v. 1), and of the defective
state of the Corinthian converts, not only
in regard of general habits (ch. vi. 1, sq.)
and church discipline (ch. xi. 20, sq.), but
as it would also seem, of doctrine (ch.
XV.) ; 3dly, by the inquiries that had been
specially addressed to St- Paul by the
church of Corinth on several matters re
lating to Christian practice. Two special
points deserve separate consideration : 1.
The state of parties at Corinth at the time
of the Apostle's writing. The few facts
supplied to us by the Acts of the Apostles,
and the notices in the epistle, appear to be
as follows : The Corinthian church was
planted by the Apostle himself (1 Cor. iii.
6), in his second missionary journey (Acts
xviii. 1, sq.). He abode in the city ayear
and a half (ch. xviii. 11). A short lime
after the Apostle had left the city tbe elo
quent Jew of Alexandria, Apollos, went to
Corinth (Acts xix. 1). This circumstance
of the visit of Apollos appears to have
formed the commencement of a gradual
division into two parties, the followers of
St. Paul, and the followers of Apollos
(comp. ch. iv. 6). These divisions, how
ever, were to be multiplied; for, as it
would seem, shortly after the departure of
Apollos, Judaizing teachers, supplied prob
ably with letters of commendation (2 Cor.
iii. 1) from the church of Jerusalem, ap
pear to have come to Corinth and to have
preached tlie Gospel in a spirit of diroct
antagonism to St. Paul -personally. To
this third party we may perhaps add a
fourth, that, under the name of " the fol
lowers of Christ" (ch. i. 12), sought at
flrst to separate themselves from the fac
tious adherence to particular teachers, but
eventually were driven by antagonism into
positions equally sectarian and inimical to
the unity of the.church. At this moment
ous period, before parties had become con
solidated, and had distinctly withdrawn
from communion with one another, the
Apostle writes : and in the outset of the
epistle (eh. i.-iv. 21) we have his noble and
Impassioned protest against this fourfold
rending of the robe of Christ. 2. The
number of epistles written by St. Paul to
the Corinthian church will probably rem.ain
a.subj,eot of controversy to the end of time.
The -well-kaown words (ch. v. 9) do cer
tainly seem (to point to some former epis
tolary comnii-anication to the churgh of

Corinth. The whole context seems in fa
vor of this view, though the Greek com
mentators are of the contrary opinion, and
no notice has been taken of the lost epistle
by .any writers of antiquity.
Corinthians, Second Epistle tO
the, was written a few months subse
quently to the flrst, in the same year, —
and thus, if the dates assigned to the former
epistle be .correct, about the autumn of a. d.
57 or 58, a short time previous to the
Apostle's three months' stay in Achaia
(Acts XX. 3). The place whence it was
written was clearly not Ephesus (sec ch. i.
8), but Macedonia (ch. vii. 5, viU. 1, ix. 2),
whither the Apostle went by way of Troas
(ch. ii. 12), after waiting a short time in
the latter place for the return of Titus (ch,
ii, 13), The Vatican MS., the bulk of
later MSS., and the old Syr. version, as
sign Philippi as the exact place whence it
was written ; but for this assertion We have
no certain grounds to rely on : that the
bearers, however, were Titus and his asso
ciates (Luke ?) is apparently substantiated
by ch. viii. 23, ix, 3, 5, The epistle was
occasioned by the information which tho
Apostle had received from Titus, and also,
as it would certainly seem probable, from
Timothy, of the reception of the first epis
tle. This information, as it would seem.
from our present epistle, was mainly fa
vorable ; the better part of the church
were returning back to their spiritual al
legiance to their founder (ch. i. 13, 14, vii
9, 15, 16), but there was still a faction, pos
sibly of the Judaizing members (comp. ch.
xi, 22), that were sharpened into even a
more keen animosity against the Apostle
personally (ch, x. 1, 10), and more strenu
ously denied his claim to Apostleship. Tbe
contents of this epistle are thus very va
ried, but may be divided into three parts :
1st, the Apostle's account of the character
of his spiritual labors, accompanied with
notices of his affectionate feelings towards
his converts (ch. i.-vii.) ; 2dly, directions
about the collections (ch. viii,, ix.) ; 3dly,
defence of his own Apostolical character
(ch. x.-xiii. 10). The principal historical
difficulty connected with the epistle: relates
to the number of visits made by tho
Apostle to the church of Corinth, Tbe
words of this epistle (ch, xii. 14, xiii. 1, 2)
seem distinctly to imply th.at St. Paul had
visited Corinth twice before the time ot
which he now writes. St. Luke, however,
only mentions one visit prior to that time .
(Acts xviii. 1, sq.) ; for the visit recorded
in Acts XX. 2, 3, is confessedly subsequent.
"We must assume that the Aposlle made a
visit to Corinth which St. Luke did nut re
cord, probably during the period of liis
three years' residence at Ephesus,
Cormorant. The representative in the
A, V, of the 'Hebrew woida kMh »»cl

CORN

121

COS

shilic. As to the former, see Pelican.
Shdldc occurs only as the name of an un-
cleii^n bird in Lev. xi. 17; Deut. xiv. 17.
The word has been variously rendered.
The etymology points to some plunging
bird : the common cormorant {Phalacro-
corax carbo), wliich some writers have
identified with the Shdldc, is unknown in
the eastern Mediterranean ; another species
is found S. of the Red Sea, but none on
the "W. 03ast of Palestine.
Corn. The most common kinds were
wheat, bailey, spelt (A. V. Ex. ix. 32, and
Is, xxviii. 25, "rie;" Ez. iv. 9, "fitches"),
and millet; oats are mentioned only by
rabbinical writers. Corn-crops are still
reckoned at twentyfold what was sown, and
were anciently much more. " Seven ears
on one stalk " (Gen. xii. 22) is no unusual
phenomenon in Egypt at this day. The
many-eared stalk is also common in the
wheat of Palestine, and it is of course of
the bearded kind. "Wheat (see 2 Sam. iv.
6) was stored in the house for domestic
purposes. It is at present often kept in a
dry well, and perhaps the "ground corn"
of 2 Sam. xvii. 19 was meant to imply that
the well was so used. From Solomon's
time (2 Chr. ii. 10, 15), as agriculture became
developed under a settled government, Pal
estine was a corn-exporting country, and
her grain was largely taken by her com
mercial neighbor Tyre (Ez. xxvii. 17 ;
comp. Am. viii. 5). ¦ " Plenty of corn " was
part of Jacob's blessing (Gen. xxviii. 28;
comp. Ps. Ixv. 13).
Corne'lius, a Roman centurion of the
Itiilian cohort stationed in Caesarea (Acts
X. 1, &c.), a man full of good works and
alms-deeds. "With his household he was
baptized by St. Peter, and thus Cornelius
became the first-fruits of the Gentile world
to Christ.
Corner. The " corner " of the field
was uot allowed (Lev. xix. 9) to be wholly
reaped. It formed a right of the poor to
carry off what was so left, and this was a
p.art of the maintenance from the soil to
which that class were entitled. On the
principles of the Mosaic polity every He
brew family had a hold on a certain fixed
estate, and could by no ordinary and casual
calamity be wholly beggared. Hence its
indigent members had the claims of kindred
on the "corners," &c., of the field which
their landed brethren reaped. In the la
ter period i,f the prophets their constant
. complaints concerning the defrauding the
poor (Is. X. 2; Am. v. 11, viii. 6) seem to
show that such laws had lost their practical
force. Still later, under the Scribes, mi
nute legislation fixed one sixtieth as the
portion of a field which was to be left for the
legal "corner." The proportion beingthus
fixed, all the grain might be reaped, and
enough to satisfy the reguHtjpn subse

quently separated from the whole crop.
I'his " corner" was, like the gleaning,
tithe-free. Corner-stone, a quoin or corner-stone,
of great importance in binding together the
sides of a building. Some of the comer-
stones in the ancient work of the Temple
foundations are 17 or 19 feet long, and 74
feet thick. At Nineveh the corners are
sometimes formed of one angular stone.
The phrase " corner-stone " is sometimes
used to denote any principal person, as the
princes of Egypt (Is. xix. 13), and is thus
applied to our Lord (Is. xxviii, 16 ; Matt,
xxi. 42; IPet. ii. 6, 7),
Cornet (Heb. Shdphdr), a loud-sound
ing instrument, made of the horn of a rain
or of a chamois (sometimes of an ox), and
used by the ancient Hebrews for signals,
for announcing the "Jubilee" (Lev. xxv,
9), for proclaiming the new year, for the
purposes of war (Jer. iv. 5, 19 ; comp. Job
xxxix. 26), as well as for the sentinels
placed at the watch-towers to give notice
of the approach of an enemy (Ez. xxxiii. 4,
5). Shdphdr is generally rendered in the
A. V. "trumpet," but "cornet" (the more
correct translation) is used in 2 Chr, xv,
14 ; Ps, xcviii. 6 ; Hos. v. 8 ; and 1 Chr.
XV. 28. "Cornet" is also employed in
Dan. iii. 5, 7, 10, 16, for the Chaldee Keren
(literally a horn). The silver trumpets
which Moses was charged to furnish for the
Israelites, were to be used for the follow
ing purposes : for the calling together of
the assembly, for the journeying of camps,
for sounding the alarm of war, and for cele
brating the sacrifices on festivals and new
moons (Num. x. 1-10). In the age of Sol
omon the " silver trumpets " were increased
in number to 120 (2 Chr. v. 12) ; and, in
dependently of the objects for which they
had been first introduced, they were now
employed in the orchestra of the Temple
as an accompaniment to songs of thanks
giving and praise. The sounding of the
cornet was the distinguishing ritual feature
of the festival appointed by Moses to be
held on the first day of the seventh month
under the denomination of " a day of blow
ing trumpets" (Num. xxix. 1), or "me
morial of blowing of trumpets " (Lev. xxiii.
24). [Trumpets, Feasts oe.]
Cos or Co'os (now Stanchio or Stanko).
This small island of the Grecian Archipel
ago has several interesting points of con
nection with the Jews. It is specified as
one of the places which contained Jewish
residents (1 Maoc. xv. 23). Julius Caesar
issued an edict in favor of the Jews of Cos.
Herod the Great conferred many favors on
the island. St. Paul, on the return from
his third missionary journey, passed the
night here, after sailing from Miletus.
The chief town (of the same name) was on
the N. U. near a promontory called Scaa-

COSAM

122

CRETE

darium : and perhaps it is to the town that
reference is made in the Acts (xxi. 1).
Co'sam, son of Elmodam, in the line
of Joseph the husband of Mary (Luke ui.
28)-, Cotton, Heb. carpas (comp. Lat, car-
lasTis) Esth, i, 6, where the Vulg, has car-
basini coloris, as if a color, not a material
(so in A. V. "green"), were intended.
There is a doubt whether under Sh&sh, in
the earlier, and Buts, in the later books of
the O. T., rendered in the A. V, by " white
linen," " fine linen," &c,, cotton may have
been included as well. The dress of the
Egyptian priests, at any rate in their min
istrations, was without doubt of linen (He
rod, ii. 37). Cotton is now both grown and
manufactured in various parts of Syria and
Palestine ; but there is no proof that, till
they came in contact with Persia, the He
brews generally knew of it as a distinct
fabric from linen. [Linen.]
Couch. [Bei>.]
Council. 1. The great council of the
Sanhedrim, which sat at Jerusalem. [San
hedrim.] 2. The lesser courts (Matt, x,
17 ; Mark xiii, 9), of which there were two
at Jerusalem, and one in each town of Pal
estine, The constitution of these courts is
a doubtful point. The existence of local
courts, however constituted, is clearly im
plied in the passages quoted from the N,
T, ; and perhaps the "judgment" (Matt,
V, 21) applies to them, 3. A kind of jury
or privy council (ActS xxv. 12), consisting
of a certain number of assessors, who as
sisted Roman governors in tlie administra
tion of justice and other public matters.
Court (Heb. chdisir), an open enclo
sure, applied in the A. 'V, most commonly
to the enclosures of the Tabernacle and the
Temple (Ex, xxvii, 9, xl. 33 ; Lev, vi, 16 ;
1 K. vi, 36, vii, 8 ; 2 K, xxiii. 12 ; 2 Chr.
xxxiii. 5, &o.).
Covenant. The Heb, blrith means
primarily " a cutting," with reference to
the custom of cutting or dividing animals
in two, and passing between the parts in
ratifying a covenant (Gen. xv. ; Jer. xxxiv,
18, 19), In the N, T, the corresponding
word is diathece {SiaSi'ixij), which is fre
quently, though by no moans uniformly,
translated testament in the Authorized Ver
sion, In its Biblical meaning of a com
pact or agreement between two parties, the
word is used — 1, Improperly, of a cove
nant between God and man. Man not be
ing in any way in the position of an inde
pendent covenanting party, the phrase is
evidently used by way of accommodation.
Strictly speaking, such a covenant is quite
unconditional, and amounts to a promise
(Gal, iii, 15, ff,) or act of mere favor (Ps.
Ixxxix, 28), Thus the assurance given by
• God after the Flood, that a like judgment
should not be repeated, and that the recur

rence ofthe seasons, and of da/ and night,
should not cease, is called a covenant (Gen.
ix, ; Jer, xxxiii. 20), Consistently with
this representation of God's dealings with
man under the form of a covenant, such
covenant is said to be confirmed, in con
formity to human custom, by an oath
(Deut. iv, 31 ; Ps, Ixxxix, 3), to be sanc
tioned by curses to fall upon the unfaithful
(Deut. xxix. 21), and to be accompanied
by a sign, such as the rainbow (Gen ix.),
circumcision (Gen. xvii.), or the Sabbath
(Ex, xxxi. 16, 17), 2, Properly, of a cove
nant between man and man, i. e. a solemn
compact or agreement, either between tribes
or nations (1 Sam. xi. 1 ; Jjsh, ix, 6, 15),
or between individuals (Gen. xxxi, 44), by
which each party bound himself to fulfil
certain conditions, and was assured of re
ceiving certain advantages. In making
such a covenant God was solemnly invoked
as witness (Gen. xxxi. 50), and an -oath
was sworn (Gen, xxi, 31), A sign or wit
ness of the covenant was sometimes framed,
such as a gift (Gen, xxi. 30), or a pillar, or
heap of stones erected (Gen. xxxi. 52).
The marriage compact is called " the cove
nant of God" (Prov. ii. 17; see Mah ii.
14) . The word covenant came to be ap
plied to a sure ordinance, such as that Of
the shew-bread (Lev, xxiv. 8) ; and is used
figuratively in such expressions as a cove
nant with death (Is, xxviii, 18), or with the
wild beasts (Hos, ii, 18),
Cow, [Bull,]
Coz, a man among the descendants of
Judah (1 Chr. iv, 8),
Coz'tai, daughter of Zur, a chief of the
Midianites (Num. xxv. 15, 18),
Crane. There can be little doubt that
the A. V. is incorrect in rendering sils by
" crane," which bird is probably intended
by the Hebrew word 'dgAr, translated
"swallow," by the A. V. [Swallow.]
Mention is made of the sUts in Hezekiah's
prayer (Is. xxxviii. 14), "Like a sits or an
'dgAr so did I twitter ; " and again in Jer.
viii. 7 these two words occur in the same
order, from which passage we learu that
both birds were migi-atory. According to
the testimony of most of the ancient ver'
sions, sils denotes a " swallow."
Creditor. [Loan.]
Cres'cens (2 Tim. iv. 10), an assistant
of St. Paul, said to have been one of the
seventy disciples. According to early tra
dition, he preached the Gospel in Galatia.
Later tradition makes him preach in Gaul,
and found the Church at Vienne.
Crete, the modern Candia. This lar^
island, which closes in the Greek Archipel
ago on the S., extends through a distance
of 140 miles between its extreme points of
Cape Salmonb (Acts xxvii. 7) on the E.
and Cape Criumetopon beyond Phobnicb
or Phoenix (jh. 12) on the 'W. Though

CRETES

123

CROWN

extremely bold and mountainous, this island
has very fruitful valleys, and in early times
it was celebrated for its hundred cities. It
seems likely that a very early acquaintance
existed between the Cretans and the Jews.
There is no doubt that Jews were settled
in the island in considerable numbers dur
ing tho period between the death of Alex
ander the Great and the final destruction
of Jerusalem. Gortyna seems to have been
their chief residence (1 Mace. xv. 23).
Thus the special mention of Cretans (Acts
ii, 11) among those who were at Jerusalem
at the great Pentecost is just what we
should expect. No notice is given in the
Acts of any more direct evangelization of
Crete; and no absolute proof can be ad
duced that St, Paul was ever there before
his voyage from Caesarea to Puteoli, The
circumstances of St, Paul's recorded visit
were briefly as follows : — The wind being
contrary when he was off Cnidus (Acts
xxvii, 7), the ship was forced to run down
to Cape Salmone, and thence under the lee
of Crete to Fair Havens, which was near
a city called Lasaea (ver, 8). Thence, after
some delay, an attempt was made, on the
wind becoming favorable, to reach Phoenice
for the purpose of wintering there (ver, 12),
The next point of connection between St.
Paul and this island is found in the Epistle
to Titus. It is evident from Tit. i. 5, that
the Apostle himself was here at no long
interval of time before he wrote the letter.
In the course of the letter (Tit. i. 12) St.
Paul adduces from Epimenides, a Cretan
sage and poet, a quotation iu which the
vices of hi? countrymen are described in
dark colors. The truth of their statement
is abundantly confirmed by other ancient
writers. Cretes (Acts ii. 11). Cretans, inhabit
ants of Crete,
Cris'pus, ruler of the Jewish syna
gogue at Corinth (Acts xviii, 8) ; baptized
with his family by St. Paul (1 Cor. i. 14).
According to tradition, he became after
wards Bishop of Aegina.
Cross. As the emblem of a slave's
death and a. murderer's punishment, the
cross was naturally looked upon with the
profotmdest horror. But after the celebrat
ed vision of Constantine, he ordered liis
friends to make a cross of gold and gems,
such as he had seen, and " the towering
eagles resigned the flags unto the cross,"
and " the tree of cursing and shame " " sat
upon the sceptres and was engraved and
signed on the foreheads of kings" (Jer.
Taylor, Life of Christ, iii., xv. 1). The
new standards were called by the name
Labarum, and may be seen on the coins of
Constantine the Great and bis nearer suc
cessors. The Latin cross, on which our
Lord suffered, was in the form of the letter
T| aud had au upright above the crossbar,

on which the " title " was placed. There
was a projection from the central stem, on
which the body of the sufferer rested. This
was to prevent the weight of the body from

The Labarum. (From a coin in the British Museum.)
tearing away the hands. 'Whether there
was also a support to the feet (as we see in
pictures), is doubtful. An inscription was
generally placed above the criminal's head,
briefly expressing his guilt, and generally
was carried before him. It was covered
with white gypsum, and the letters were
black. It is a question whether tying or
binding to the cross was the more common
method. That our Lord was nailed, ac .
cording to prophecy, is certain (John xx.
25, 27, &e. ; Zech. xii. 10; Ps. xxii. 16).
It is, however, extremely probable that
both methods were used at once. The
cross on which our Saviour suffered is said
to have been discovered in A. d. 326, and to
this day the supposed title, or rather frag
ments of it, are shown to the people once a
year in the Church of Sta. Croce in Geru-
salemme at Rome. It was uot till the 6th
century that the emblem of the cross became
the image ofthe crucifix. As a symbol the
use of it was frequent in the early Church.
It was not till the 2d century that any par
ticular efficacy was attached to it. [Cruci-
jpixion.] Crown. This ornament, which is both
ancient and universal, probably originated
from the fillets used to prevent the hair
from being dishevelled by the wind. Such
fillets are still common, and they may be
seen on the sculptures of Persepolis, Nine
veh, and Egypt ; they gradually developed
into turbans, which by tho addition of orna
mental or precious materials assumed the
dignity of mitres or crowns. Both the or •
dinary priests and the high-piiest woro

CROWN OP THORNS

124

CRUCIFIXION

them. The common " bonnet " (Ex. xxviii.
87, xxix. 6, &c), formed a sort of linen fil
let or crown. The mitre of the high-priest
(used also of a regal crown, Ez. xxi, 26)
was much mare splei.did (Ex. xxviii. 36;
Lev, viii. 9), It had a second fillet of blue
lace, aud over it a golden diadem (Ex.
xxix. 6). The gold band was tied behind
with blue lace (embroidered with flowers),
and being two fingers broad, bore the in
scription "Holiness to the Lord" (comp.
Rev, xvii. 5). There are many words in
Scripture denoting a crown besides those
mentioned : the head-dress of bridegrooms
(Is. 1x1. 10; Bar. v. 2; Ez, xxiv, 17), and
of women (Is. iii. 20); a head-dress of
great splendor (Is. xxviii. 5) ; a wreath of
flowers (Prov. i. 9, iv. 9) ; and a common
tiara or turban (Job xxix. 14; Is. hi. 23).
The general word is 'atdrdh, and we must
attach to it the notion of a costly turban ir
radiated with pearls and gems of priceless
value, which often form aigrettes for feath
ers, as in the crowns of modern Asiatic
sovereigns. Such was probably the crown,
which with its precious stones weighed (or
rather " was worth") a talent, taken by
David from the king of Ammon at Rabbah,
and used as the state crown of Judah (2
Sam. xii. 30). In Rev. xii. 3, xix. 12, allu
sion is made to " many crowns " worn in
token of extended dominion. The laurel,
pine, or parsley crowns given to victors in
the great games of Greece are finely al
luded to by St. Paul (1 Cor. ix. 25 ; 2 Tim.
li. 5, &c.).

Crcwng worn by Assyrian Kings. (From Nimroud and
Kouyuojiic.)
Crown of Thorns, Matt, xxvii. 29.
Oar Lord was crowned with thorns in
mockery by the Roman soldiers. The ob
ject seems to have been insult, and not the
infliction of pain, as has generally been sup
posed. The Rh.amnus or Spina Christi, al
though abundant in the neighborhood of
Jerusalem, cannot be the plant intended,
because its thorns are so strong and large
that it could not have been woven into a
wreath. Had the acacia been intended, as
some suppose, the phrase would have been
different. Obviously some small flexile
thorny shrub il meant; perhaps Capparis
tpinosa.

Crucifixion was in use among the
Egyptians (Gen. xl. 19), the Carthaginians,
the Persians (Esth. vii, 10), the Assyrians,
Scythians, Indians, Germans, and from the
earliest times among the Greeks and Ro
mans, "Whether this mode of execution
was known to the ancient Jews is a matter
of dispute. Probably tho Jews borrowed it
from the Romans, It was unanimously
considered the most horrible form of death.
Among the Romans also the degradation
was a part of the infliction, and the punish
ment if applied to freemen was only used
in the case of the vilest criminals. Our
Lord was condem-ned to it by the popular
cry of the Jews (Matt, xxvii. 23) on the
charge of sedition against Caesar (Luke
xxiii. 2), although the Sanhedrim had
previously condemned him on the totally
distinct charge of blasphemy. The scar
let robe, crown of thorns, and other in
sults to which our Lord was subjected were
illegal, and arose from the spontaneous
petulance of the brutal soldiery. But the
punishment properly commenced with
scourging, after the criminal had been
stripped. It was inflicted not with the
comparatively mild rods, but the more ter
rible scourge (2 Cor. xi. 24, 25), which was
not used by the Jews (Deut. xxv. 3), Into
these scourges the soldiers often stuck nails,
pieces of bone, &c., to heighten the pain,
which was often so intense that the sufferer
died under it. In our Lord's case, howev
er, this infliction seems neither to have
been the legal scourging after sentence, nor
yet the examination by torture (Acts xxii.
24), but rather a scourging b^ore the sen
tence, to excite pity and procure immunity
from further punishment (Luke xxiii. 22;
John xix. 1). The criminal carried his
own cross, or at any rate a part of it. The
place of execution was outside the city (1
K. xxi, 13 ; Acts vii, 58 ; Heb, xiii, 12), of
ten in some public road or other conspicu
ous place. Arrived at the place of execu
tion, the sufferer was stripped naked, the
dress being the perquisite of the soldiers
(Matt, xxvii. 35^. The cross was then
driven into the ground, so that the feet of
the condemned were a foot or two above
the earth, and he was lifted upon it, or else
stretched upon it on the ground, and then
lifted with it. Before the nailing or 'bind
ing took place, a medicated cup was given
out of kindness to confuse the senses and
deaden the pangs of the sufferer (Prov.
x-Kxi. 6), usually "of wire mingled with
myrrh," because myrrh was soporiflc. Our
Lord refused it that his senses might be
clear (Matt, xxvii. 34 ; Mark xv. 23). He
was crucified between two " thieves " or
" malefactors," according to prophecy (Is.
Iiii. 12) ; and was watched according to
custom by a party of four soldiers (John
six. 88) with their centurion (Matt; xsvit.

CRUSE

125

CUPBEARER

66), whose express office was to prevent
the stealing of the body. This was neces
sary from the lingering ch.aracter of the
death, which sometimes did not supervene
even for three days, and was at last tho re
sult of gradual benumbing and starvation.
But for this' guard, the persons might have
been taken down and recovered, as was ac
tually done in tbe case of a friend of Jo
sephus. Fracture of the legs was especial
ly adopted by the Jews to hasten death
(John xix. 31). But the unusual rapidity
of our Lord's death was due to the depth
of His previous agonies, or may be suffi
ciently accounted for simply from peculiari
ties of constitution^ Pilate expressly sat
isfied himself of the actual death by ques
tioning the centurion (Mark xv. 44). In
most cases the body was suffered to rot on
the cross by the action of sun and rain, or
to be devoured by birds and beasts. Sep
ulture was generally therefore forbidden ;
but in consequence of Deut. xxi. 22, 23, an
express national exception was made in fa
vor ofthe Jews (Matt, xxvii. 58). This
accursed and avrful mode of punishment
was happily abolished by Constantine.
Cruse, a vessel for holding water, such
as was carried by Saul when on his night
expedition after David (1 Sam. xxvi. 11,
12, 16), and by Elijah (1 K. xix. 6). In a
similar case in the present day this would
be a globular vessel of blue porous clay,
about 9 inches diameter, with a neck of
about 3 inches long, a small handle below
the neck, and opposite the handle a straight
spout, with an orifice about the size of a
straw, through which the water is drunk or
sucked. Crystal, the representative in the A. V.
of two Hebrew words. 1. ZecAcith occurs
only in Job xxviii. IT, where " glass "
probably is intended, 2, Kerach occurs
in numerous passages in the O, T. to denote
" ice," " frost," &c. ; but once only (Ez. i.
22), as is generally understood, to signify
"crystal." The ancients supposed rock-
crystal to be merely ice congealed by
intense cold. The similarity of appearance
between ice and crystal caused.no doubt
the identity of the terms to express these
substances. The Greek word occurs in
Rev. iv. 6, xxii. 1, It may mean either
"ice" or "crystal."
Cubit. [Measures.]
Cuckoo (Heb. shachaph). There cloes
not appear to be any authority for this
translation of the A. V,; the Heb, word
occurs twice only (Lev, xi, 16 ; Deut. xiv,
15), as the name of some unclean bird, and
may probably indicate some of the larger
petrels, which abound in the east of the
Mediterranean, Cucumbers (Heb, kishshuim). This
word occurs, in Num. xi. 6, as one of the
gi<od things of Egypt for which the Israel

ites longed. There Is no doubt as to th(»
meaning of the Hebrew. Egypt producer
excellent cucumbers, melons, &c., the Cu-
cumis chate being the best of its tribe yef
known. This plant grows in the fertile
earth .around Cairo after the inundation of
the Nile, and not elsewhere in Egypt, Tbe
C. chate is a, variety only of the common
melon (C. melo) ; it was once cultivated in
England, and called "the round-leaved
Egyptian melon ; " but it is rather an insipid
sort. Besides the Cucumis chate, the com
mon cucumber (C, saiivus), of which tho
Arabs distinguish a number of varieties, is
common in Egypt. "Both Cucumis chate
and C. saiivus," says Mr, Tristram, " are
now grown in great quantities in Palestine :
on visiting the Arab school in Jerusalem
(1858) I observed that the dinner which
the children brought with them to school
consisted, without exception, of a piece of
barley-cake and a raw cucumber, which
they eat rind and all," The " lodge in a
garden of cucumbers " (Is. i, 8) is a rude
temporary shelter, erected in the open
grounds where vines, cucumbers, gourds,
&c., are grown, in which some lonely man
or boy is set to watch, either to guard the
plants from robbers, or- to scare away the
foxes and jackals from the vines.
Cummin, one of the cultivated plants
of Palestine (is, xxviii, 25, 27 ; Matt, xxiii,
23), It is an umbelliferous plant some
thing like fennel. The seeds have a
bitterish warm taste with an aromatic
flavor. The Maltese are said to grow it at
the present day, and to thresh it in the
manner described by Isaiah,
Cup. The cups of the Jews, whether
of metal or earthenware, were possibly bor
rowed, in point of shape and design, from
Egypt and from the Phoenicians, who were
celebrated in that branch of workmanship,
Egyptian cups were of various shapes,
either with handles or without them. In
Solomon's time all his drinking vessels
were of gold, none of silver (1 K. x. 21).
Babylon is compared to a golden cup (Jer.
li. 7). The great laver, or "sea," was made
with a rim like the rim of a cup, {Cds),
"with flowers of lilies" (1 K. vii. 26),. a
form which the Persepolitan cups resemble.
The cups of the N. T, were often nc doubt
formed on Greek and Roman models. The/
were sometimes of gold (Rev. xvii. 4),
Cupbearer. An officer of high rank
with Egyptian, Persian, Assyrian, as veil
as Jewish monarchs (1 K. x. 5), The chief
cupbearer, or butler, to the king of Egypt
was the means of raising Joseph to his high
position (Gen. xl. 1, 21, xii. 9). Rabshakeh
appears from bis name to have filled a like
office in the Assyrian court (2 K. xviii, 17),
Nehemiah was cupbearer to Artaxerxes
Longimanus king of Perria (Neh, i. 11,
u. 1).

CURTAINS

126

CYPRUS

Curtains. The Hebrew terms translat
ed in the A. V. by this word are three : 1.
Yeridth, the ten "curtains" of fine linen,
and also the eleven of goats' hair, which
covered the Tabernacle of Moses (Ex. xxvi.
1-13; xxxvi. 8-17. 2. Mdsdc, the "hang
ing " for the doorway of the tabernacle, Ex.
xxvi. 36, &c., and also for the gate of tho
court round the tabernacle, Ex. xxvii. 16,
&c. The rendering " curtain " occurs but
once. Num. iii. 26. 3. Ddk. This word
is found but once (Is. xl. 22), audits mean
ing is doubtful.
Cush, a Benjamite mentioned only in
the title to Ps. vii. He was probably a
follower of Saul, the head of his tribe,
Cush, the name of a son of Ham, ap
parently the eldest, and of a territory or
territories occupied by Ms descendants. 1,
In the genealogy of Noah's children Cush
seems to be an individual, for it is said
"Cush begat Nimrod" (Gen, x. 8; 1 Chr.
i. 10), 2. Cush as a country appears to be
African in all passages except Gen. ii. 13.
'We may thus distinguish a primeval and a
post-diluvian Cush. The former was en
compassed by Gihon, the second river of
Paradise : it would seem therefore to have
been somewhere to the northward of As
syria. It is possible that the African Cush
was named from this elder country. In
the ancient Egyptian inscriptions Ethiopia
above Egypt if termed Keesh or Kesh, and
this territory probably perfectly corre
sponds to the African Cush of tho Bible.
The Cushites however had clearly a wider
exteni'ion, like the Ethiopians of the
Greeks, but apparently with a more definite
ethiiic relation. The Cushites appear to
have spread along tracts extending from
the higher Nile to the Euphrates and Tigris.
History affords many traces of this relation
of Babylonia, Arabia, and Ethiopia. Zerah
the Cushite (A. V. "Ethiopian"), who was
defeated by Asa,' was most probably a king
of Egypt, certainly the leader of an Egyptian
army. Cu'shan (Hab. ill. 7), possibly the same
as Cushan-rishathaim (A. V. Cushan-) king
of Mesopotamia (Judg. iii. 8, 10).
Cu'shi. Properly " the Cushite," " the
Ethiopian," a man apparently attached to
Joab's person (2 Sam. xviii. 21, 22, 23, 31,
32). Cuth or Cu'thah, one of the countries
whence Shalmaneser introduced colonists
into Samaria (2 K. xvii. 24, 30). Its posi
tion is un('ecided ; but it may perhaps be
identified ^.-ith the Cossaei, a warlike tribe,
who occupied the mountain ranges dividing
Persia and Media.
Cutting offfrom the People. [Ex
communication.] Cuttings [in the Flesh]. The pro
hibition (Lev. xix. 28) against marks or
cuttings in the flesh for the dead must be

taken in connection with the parallel pas
sages (Lev. xxi. 5; Deut. xiv. 1), in which
shaving the head with the same view is
equally forbidden. The ground of the pro-^
hibition will be found in the s-uperstitions
or inhuman practices prevailing among
heathen nations. The priests of Baal cut
themselves with knives to propitiate tho
god " after their manner" (1 K. xviii. 28).
Lucian, speaking of the Syrian priestly at
tendants of this mock deity, says, that
using violent gestures they cut their arms
and tongues with swords. The prohibition,
therefore, is directed against practices pre
vailing not among the Egyptians whom the
Israelites were leaving, but among the
Syrians, to whom they were about to be
come neighbors. But there is another
usage contemplated more remotely by the
prohibition, viz., that of printing marks,
tattooing, to indicate allegiance to a deity,
in the same manner as soldiers and slaves
bore tattooed marks to indicate allegiance
or adscription. This is evidently alluded
to in the Revelation of St. John (xiii. 16,
xvii. 5, xix. 20), and, though in a contrary
direction, by Ezekiel (ix. 4), by St. Paul
(Gal. vi. 17), in the Revelation (vii. 3),
and perhaps by Isaiah (xliv. 5) and Zech
ariah (xiii. 6).
Cymbal, Cymbals, a percussive mu
sical instrument. Two kinds of cymbals
are mentioned in Ps. cl. 5, "loud cymbals"
or castagneites, and " high-sounding cym
bals." The former consisted of four small
plates of brass or of some other hard metal ;
two plates were attached to each hand of
the performer, and were struck together to
produce a great noise. The latter consist
ed of two larger plates, one held in each
hand, and struck together as an accompani
ment to other instruments. The use of
cymbals was not necessarily restricted to
the worship of the Temple or to sacred
occasions : they were employed for military
purposes, and also by Hebrew women as a
musical accompaniment to their national
dances. Both kinds of cymbals are still
common in the East in military music, and
Niebuhr often refers to them iu his trav
els. The "bells" of Zech. xiv. 20, were
probably concave pieces or plates of brass
which the people of Palestine and Syria
attached to horses by way of ornament.
Cypress (Heb. tirzdh). The Heb.
word is found only in Is. xliv. 14. 'We are
quite unable to assign any definite render
ing to it. The true cypress is a native of
the Taurus. The Hebrew word points to
some tree with a hard grain, and this is all
that can be positively said of it.
Cy'prus. This island was in early
times in close commercial connection witib
Phoenicia ; and there is little doubt that it
is referred to in such passages of the O. T.
as Ez. xxvii. 6. [Chittim.] Possibly

CYRENE

127

CYRUS

Jews may have settled in Cyprus before
the time of Alexander. Soon after his
time they were numerous in the island, as
is distinctly implied in 1 Mace. xv. 23.
The first notice of it in the N. T. is in
Acts iv. 36, where it is mentioned as the
native place of Barnabas. In Acts xi. 19,
20, it appears prominently in connection
with the earliest spreading of Christianity,
and is again mentioned in connection with
the missionary journeys of St. Paul (Acts
xiii. 4-13, XV. 39, xxi. 3), and with his
voyage to Rome (xxvii. 4). The island
became a Roman province (b. c. 58) under
circumstances discreditable to Rome. At
first .its administration was joined .with that
of Cilicia, but after the battle of Actium it
was separately governed. In the first di
vision it was made an imperial province ;
but the emperor afterwards gave it up to
the Senate. The proconsul appears to
have resided at PapEos on the west of the
island. Cyre'ne, the principal city of that part
of northern Africa, which was anciently
called Cyrenaica, and also (from its five
cMef cities) Pentapolitana. This district
was that wide projecting portion of the
co.ast (corresponding to the modern
Tripoli), which was separated from tho
territory of Carthage on the one hand, and
that of Egypt on the other. The points to
be noticed in reference to Cyrene as con
nected with the N. T. are these, — that,
though on the African coast, it was a Greek
city ; that the Jews were settled there in
large numbers, and that under the Romans
it was politically connected with Crete.
The Greek colonization of thij part of Af
rica under B.attus began as early as b. c.
631. After the death of Alexander the
Great, it became a dependency of Egypt.
It is in this period that we find the Jews es
tablished there with great privileges, having
been introduced by Ptolemy the son of La-
gus. Soon after the Jewish war they rose
against the Roman power. In the year
B. c. 75 the territory of Cyrene was re
duced to the form of a province. On the
conquest of Crete (b. c. 67) the two were
united in one province, and together fre
quently called Creta-Cyrene. The num
bers and position of the Jews in Cyrene
prepare us for the frequent mention of the
place in the N. T. in connection with Chris
tianity. Simon, who bore our Saviour's
cross (Matt, xxvii. 32 ; Mark xv. 21 ; Luke
xxiii. 26) was a native of Cyrene, Jewish
dwellers in Cyrenaica were in Jerusalem at
Pentecost (Acts ii, 10), They even gave
their, name to one of the synagogues in
Jerusalem {ib. vi. 9), Christian converts
from Cyrene were among those who con
tributed actively to the formation of the
flrst Gentile church- at Antioch (xi, 20),
^Xucius of Cyrene (xiii. 1) is traditionally

said to have been the first bishop of his na«
tive district.

Tetradrachm (Attic talent) of Cyrene.
Obv. Sacred silphium plant. Rev. KTfPA. Headof beard.
eu Jupiter Ammon to the right,
Cyre'nius, the literal English render
ing in the A. "V". of the. Greek name, which
is itself the Greek form of the Rom.an
name of Quirinus. The full name is Pub-
lius Sulpicius Quirinus. He was consul
B. c. 12, and made governor of Syria after
the banishment of Archelaus in A. d. 6.
He was sent to make an enrolment of
property in Syria, and made accordingly,
both there and in Judaea, a census or
anoyQatp]. But this census seems in Luke
(ii, 2) to be identified with one which took
place at the time of tho birth of Christ,
Hence has arisen a considerable difficulty,
but there is good reason for believing that
Quirinus was twice governor of Syria, and
that his first governorship extended from
B. c. 4 (the year of Christ's birth) to B. c.
1, when he was succeeded by M. Lollius.
Cy'rus, the founder of the Persian em
pire (see D.an, vi, 28, x, 1, 13; 2 Chr,
xxxvi. 22, 23), was, according to the com
mon legend, the son of Mandane, the
daughter of Astyages the last king of Me
dia, and Cambyses a Persian of the royal
family of the Achaemenidae. In conse
quence of a dream, Astyages, it is said,
designed the death of his infant grandson,
but the child was spared by those whom he
charged with the commission of the crime,
and was reared in obscurity under the name
of Agradates. "When he grew up to man
hood his courage and genius placed him at
the head of the Per.sians, The tyranny of
Astyages had at that time alienated a large
faction of the Medes, and Cyrus headed a.
revolt which ended in the defeat and cap
ture of tho Median king b. c. 559, near
Pasargadae. After consolidating the em
pire which he thus gained, Cyrus entered
on that career of conquest which has made
him the hero of the east. In e. c. 546 (?)
he defeated Croesus, and the kingdom of
Lydia was the prize of his success. Baby
lon fell before his army, and the ancient
dominions of Assyria were added to hia
empire (b. c. 538), Afterwards he at
tacked the Massagetae, and according to
Herodotus fell in a battle against them b, c,
529. His tomb is still shown at Fasarga-

DABAREH

128

DAMASCUS

dae, the scene of his first decisive victory.
Hitherto the great kings, with whom the
Jews had been brought into contact, had
been open oppressors or seductive allies ;
but Cyrus was a generous liberator and a
just guardian of their rights. An inspired
prophet (Is. xliv. 28) recognized in him " a
shepherd" of the Lord, an "anointed"
king (Is. xiv. 1). The edict of Cyrus for
the rebuilding of the Temple (2 Chr. xxxvi.
22, 23; Ezr. i. 1-4, iii. 7, iv. 3, v. 13, 17,
ri. 3) was in fact the beginning of Juda
ism ; and the great changes by which the
nation was transformed into a church are
clearly marked.

D.

Dab'areh (Josh. xxi. 28), or Dabe-
KATH, a town on the boundary of Zebulun
(Josh. xix. 12) named as next to Chisloth-
Tabor. But in 1 Chr. vi. 72, and in Josh.
xxi. 28, it is said to belong to Issachar.
Under the name of Debarieh it still lies at
the western foot of Tabor.
Dab'basbeth, a town on the boundary
of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 11).
Da'gon, apparently the masculine (1
Sam. V. 3, 4) correlative of Atargatis, was
the national god of the Pliilistines. The

nih-god. rromNlmioud. (Lafurd.)

most famous temples of Dagon were at
Gaza (Judg. xvi. 21-30) and Ashdod (1
Sam, v. 5, 6; 1 Chr. x. 10). The latter
temple was destroyed by Jonathan in the
Maccabaean wars (1 Mace. x. 83, 84, xi. 4).
Traces of the worship of Dagon likewise
appear in the names Caphar-Dagon (near
Jamnia), and Beth-DagOn in Judah (Josh.
xv; 41) and Asher (Josh. xix. 27). Dagon
was represented with the face and hands of
a man and the tail of a fish (1 Sam. v. 5).
The fish-like form was a natural emblem
of fruitfulness, and as such was likely to be
adopted by seafaring tribes in the repre
sentation of their gods.
Dal'san, 1 Esd. v. 31 = Rezin (Ezr.
ii. 48), by the commonly repeated change
of R to D.
Dalai'ah, the sixth son of Elioenai, a
descendant of the royal family of Judah (1
Chr. iii. 24).
Dalmanu'tha, a town on the west side
of the Sea of Galilee near Magdala (Matt.
XV. 39 afid Mark viii. 10). [Ma-gdala.]
Dalmanutha probably stood at the place
called 'Ain-el-Bdrideh, "the cold Foun
tain." Dalma'tia, a mountainous district on
the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, ex
tending from the river Naro in the S. to the
Savus in the N. St. Paul sent Titus there
(2 Tim. iv. 10), and he himself had
preached the Gospel in its immediate neigh
borhood (Rom. XV, 19),
Dal'phon, the second of the ten sons
of Haman (Esth, ix, 7),
Dam'aris, an Athenian woman con
verted to Christianity by St, Paul's preach
ing (Acts xvii.'34), Chrysostom and oth
ers held her to have been the wife of Dio
nysius the Areopagite.
Damas'cus, one ofthe most ancient and
most important of the cities of Syria. It is
situated in a plain of vast size and of ex
treme fertility, wliich lies east of the great
chain (Jf Anti-Libanus, ors the edge of the
desert. This fertile plain, which is nearly
circular, and about 30 miles in diameter, is
due to the river Barada, which is probably
the "Ab.ana" of Scripture, Two other
streams, the Wady Helbon upon the north,
and the Awaj upon the south, which flows
direct from Hermon, increase the feitiUty
of the Damascene plain, and contend for
the honor of representing the "Pharpar"
of Scripture, According to Josephus, Da
mascus w.as founded by Uz, the son of
Arani, and grandson of Shem, It is first
mentioned in Scripture in connection with
Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), whose steward was
a native of the place (xV. 2), Nothing
more is known of Damascus until the time
of David, when " the Syrians of Damascus
came to succor Hadadezer, king of Zobah,"
with whom David was at war (2 Sam. viii.
5; 1 Chr. xviii. 5). On this occasion Da-

I'll -J* 7 J.

DAMASCUS

129

DAN

vid " slew of the Syrians 22,000 men ; "
and in consequence of this victory became
completely master of the whole territory,
which he garrisoned with Israelites (2 Sam.
vui. 6). It appears that in the reign of
Solomon, a certain Rezon, who had been, a
subject of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, and had
escaped when David conquered Zobah, made
himself master of Damascus, and estab
lished his own rule there (1 K, xi. 23-26),
Afterwards the family of Hadad appears
to have recovered the throne, and a Benha
dad, grandson of the antagonist of David,
is found in league with Baasha, king of
Israel, against Asa (1 K, xv, 19 ; 2 Chr, xvi,
3) , and afterwards in league with Asa against
Baasha (1 K. xv. 20). He was succeeded by
his son, Hadad IV. (the Benhadad II. of
Scripture), who was defeated by Ahab (1
K, XX,), Three years afterwards war broke
out afresh, through the claim of Ahab to
the city of Ramoth-Gilead (1 K, xxii. 1-4),
The defeat and death of Ahab at that place
{ib. 15-37) seem to have enabled the Syr
ians of Damascus to resume the offensive.
Their bands ravaged the lands of Israel
during the reign of Jehoram; and tliey
even undertook at this time a second siege
of Samaria, which was frustrated miracu
lously (2 K, vi, 24, vii, 6, 7), " After this,
we do not hear of any more attempts against
the Israelite capital. The cuneiform in
scriptions show that towards the close of
his reign Benhadad was exposed to the as
saults of a great conqueror, who was bent
on extending the dominion of Assyria over
Syria and Palestine, It may have been
these cirrumstances which encouraged Ha
zael, the servant of Benhadad, to murder
him, and seize the throne, which Elisha had
declared would certainly one day be his (2
K, viii, 15). Shortly after the accession of
Hazael ("about e. c. 884) he w.as in his turn
attacked by the Assyrians, who defeated him
with great loss amid the fastnesses of Anti-
Libanus. However, in his wars with Israel
.and Judah he was more fortunate, and his
Bon Benhadad followed up his successes.
At last a deliverer appeared (verse 5), and
Joash, the son of Jehoahaz, " beat Hazael
thrice, and recovered the cities of Israel"
(verse 25) , In the next reign still further
advantages were g.ained by the Israelites.
Jeroboam II. (ab. b. c. 836) is said to have
recovered Damascus (2 K. xiv. 28), and
though this may not mean that he captured
the city, it at least implies that he obtained
a certain influence over it. A century later
(ab. n. c. 742) the Syrians appear .as allies
of Israel against Juilnh (2 K. xv. 37). It
seems to have been during a pause in the
struggle against Assyria that Rezin king of
Damascus, and Pekah king of Israel, re
solved conjointly to attack Jerusalem, in
tending to depose Ahaz and set up as king
a creature of their own (Is. vii. 1-6 j 2 K.
9

xvi. 5). Jerusalem successfully maintained
itself against the combined attack. Ahaz
was induced to throw himself into the arms
of Tiglath-Pileser, to ask aid from him, and
to accept voluntarily the position of an As
syrian feudatory {ib. xvi. 7, 8). The aid
sought was given, with the important result,
that Rezin was slain, the kingdom of Da
mascus brought to an end, and the city it
self destroyed, the inhabitants being carried
captive into Assyria (2 K. xvi. 9 ; comp. Is.
vii. 8 and Am. i. 5). It was long before
Damascus recovered from this serious blow.
We do not know at what time Damascus
was rebuilt; but Strabo says that it was
the most famous place in Syria during the
Persian period. At the time of the Gospel
history, and of the apostle Paul, it formed
a part of the kingdom of Aretas (2 Cor. xi,
32), an Arabian prince, who held his king
dom under the Romans, Damascus has
always been a great centre for trade. It
would appear from Ez. xxvii, that Damas
cus took manufactured goods from the
Phoenicians, and supplied them in exchange
with wool and wine. But the passage
trade of Damascus has probably been at all
times more important than its direct com
merce. Certain localities in Damascus are
shown as the site of those Scriptural events
which especially interest us in its history,
A " long wide thoroughfare," leading direct
from one of the gates to the Castle or pal
ace of the Pasha, is "called by the guides
' Straight' " (Acts ix, 11) ; but the natives
know it among themselves as the " Street
of Bazaars," The house of Judas is shown,
but it is not in the street " Str.aight," That
of Ananias is also pointed out. The scene
of the conversion is confidently said to be
an open green spot, surrounded by trees,
and used as the Christian burial-ground ;
but four distinct spots have been pointed
out at different times, so that little confi
dence can be placed in any of them. The
point of the walls .at which St. Paul was let
down by a basket (Acts ix. 25 ; 2 Cor. xi.
33) is also shown.
Dan. 1. The fifth son of Jacob, and
the first, of Bilhah, Rachel's maid (Gen.
xxx. 6). The origin of the name is given
in the exclamation of Rachel — " God hath
judged me {ddnanni) . . . and given me a
son; therefore she called his name Dan,"
i.e. "judge." In the blessing of Jacob
(Gen. xlix. 16) this play on the name is re
peated — " Dan shall judge {yddtn) his
people." The records of Dan are unusually
meagre. Only one son is attributed to him
(Gen, xlvi. 23) ; but when the people were
numbered in the wilderness of Sinai, his
tribe was, with the exception of Judah, the
most numerous of all, containing 62,700
men able to serve. The position of Dan
during the march through the desert was on
the north side of the tabernacle (Nura, ii.

DAN

130

DANCE

85), the hindmost of the long procession
(ii. 31, X. 25). It arrived at the threshold
of the Promised Land, and passed the or
deal of the rites of Baal-peor (Num. xxv.)
with an increase of 1700 on the earlier cen
sus. In the division of the Promised Land
D.an was the last ofthe tribes to receive his
portion, and that portion, according to the
record of Joshua, strange as it appears iu tbe
face of the numbers just quoted, was the
smallest of the twelve (Josh. xix. 48) . But
notwithstanding its smallness it had eminent
natural advantages. On the north and east
it was completely embraced by its two
brother-tribes Ephraim and Benjamin, while
on the south-east and south it joined Judah,
and was thus surrounded by the three most
powerful states of the whole confederacy.
From Japho — afterwards Joppa, and now
Yd,fa — on the north, to Ekron and Gath-
rimmon on the south, a length of at least
14 miles, that noble tract, one of the most
fertile in the whole of Palestine, was allot
ted to this tribo. But this rich district, the
corn-field and the garden ofthe whole south
of Palestine, was too valuable to be given
up without a struggle by its origin.al pos^
sessors. The Amorites accordingly " forced
the children of Dan into tbe mountain, for
they would not suffer them to come down
into the valley " (Judg. i. 34). With the
help of Ephraim, Dan prevailed against the
Amorites for a time, but iu a few years the
Philistines took the place of the Amorites
and irith the same result. These consid
erations enable us to understand how it
happened that long after the partition of
the land all the inheritance of the Danites
had not fallen to them among the tribes of
Israel (Judg. xviii. 1). They also explain
the warlike and independent character of
the tribe betokened in the name of their
head-quarters Mahaneh-Dan, "the camp,
or host of Dan," in tho fact specially in
sisted on and reiterated (xviii. 11, 16, 17)
of the complete equipment of their 600
warriors " appointed with weapons of war,"
— and the lawless freebooting style of their
behavior to Micah, In the "security"
and "quiet" (Judg. xviii. 7, 10) of their rich
northern possession the Danites enjoyed the
leisure and repose which had been denied
them in their original seat. But of the fate
of the city to which they gave " the name
of their father " (Josh, xix. 47) we know
scarcely anything. In the time of David
Dan still kept its place among the tribes (1
Chr. xii. 35). Asher is omitted, but the
" prince of the tribe of D<an " is mentioned
in_ the list of 1 Chr. xxvii. 22. But from
this time forward the name as applied to
the tribe vanishes ; it is kept alive only by
the northern city. In the genealogies of
1 Chr. ii.-xii. Dan is omitted entirely.
Lastly, Dan is omitted from the list of those
who were sealed by the Angel in the vision

of St. John (Rev, vii. 6-7), 2. The well-
known city, so familiar as the most north
ern landmark of Palestine, in the common
expression " from Dan even to Beersheba,"
The name ofthe place was originally Laish
or Leshem (Josh. xix. 47), Its inhabitants
lived " after the manner of the Zidonians,"
i. e. engaged in commerce, and without
defence. Living thus " quiet and secure,"
they fell an easy prey to the active and
practised freebooters of the Danites, They
conferred upon their new acquisition the
name of their own tribe, " after the name
of their father who was born unto Israel "
(Judg, xviii. 29 ; Josh. xix. 47), and Laish
became Dan. After the establishment of
the Danites at Dan it became the acknowl
edged extremity of the country. Dan was,
with other northern cities, laid waste by
Benhadad (1 K. xv. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and
this is the last mention of the place. "With
regard to the mention of Dan in Gen. xiv.
14 it is probable that the passage originally
contained an older name, as Laish; and
that when that was superseded by Dan, the
new name was inserted in the MSS. The
TeU el-Kadi, a mound from the foot of
which gushes out one of the largest foun
tains in the world, the main source of the
Jordan, is very probably the site of the
town and citadel of Dan. The spring is
called el Ledddn, possibly a corruption of
Dan, and the stream from the spring Nah/r
ed Dhan, while the name, Tdl el Kadij
" tlie Judge's mound," agrees in significa
tion with the ancient name. 3. Appar
ently the name of a city, associated with
Javan, as one of the places in Southern
Arabia from which the Phoenicians obtained
wrought iron, cassia, and calamus (Ez.
xxvii. 19).
Dan'iteS, The. The descendants of
Dan, and members of his tribe (Judg. xiii.
2, xviii. 1, 11 ; 1 Chr. xii. 36).
Dan-ja'an, a place named only in 2
Sam. xxiv. 6 as one ofthe points visited by
Joab in taking the census of the people.
There seems no reason for doubting thiit
the well-known Dan is intended.
Dance. The dance is spoken of in Holy
Scripture universally as symbolical of some
rejoicing, and is often coupled for the sake
of contrast with mourning, as in Eccl. iii.
4 (comp. Ps. xxx. 11 ; Matt. xi. 17). In
the earlier period it is found combined with
some song or refrain (Ex. xv. 20, xxxii. 18,
19 ; 1 Sam. xxi. 11) ; and with the tam
bourine (A. V. "timbrel"), more especially
in those impulsive outbursts of popular
feeling which cannot find sufficient vent in
voice or .in gesture singly. Dancing formed
a part of the religious ceremonies of the
Egyptians, and was also common in private
entertainments. The "feast unto the Lord,"
which Moses proposed to Pharaoh to hold,
was really a dance. Women, however,

DANCE

131

DANIEL

among the Hebrews made the dance their
especial means of expressing their feelings,
and so welcomed their husbands or friends
on their return from battle. The " eating
and drinking and dancing " of the Amalek
ites is recorded, as is the people's " rising
up to play," with a tacit censure . The He
brews, however, save in such moments of
temptation, seem to have left dancing to
the women. But- more especially, on such
occasions of triumph, any woman whose
nearness of kin to the champion of the mo
ment gave her a public character among
her own sex, seems to have felt that it was
her part to lead such a demonstration of
triumph, or of welcome (Ex. xv, 20 ; Judg.
xi. 34), This marks the peculiarity of Da
vid's conduct, when, on the return of the
Ark of God from its long sojourn among
strangers and borderers, he (2 Sam. vi. 5-
22) was himself the leader of the dance ;
and here too the women, with their timbrels
(see especially vv. 5, 19, 20, 22), took an
iinportant share. This fact brings out more
markedly the feelings of Saul's daughter
Michal, keeping aloof from the occasion,
and "looking through a window" at the
scene. She should, in accordance with the
examples of Miriam, &c., have herself led
the female choir, and so come out to meet
the Ark and her lord. She stays with the
"household" (ver, 20), and "comes out to
meet" him with reproaches, perhaps feeling
tliat his zeal was a rebuke to her apathy.
From the mention of " damsels," " tim
brels," and '¦' dances " (Ps. Ixviii. 25, cxlix.
3, cl, 4), as elements of religious wor
ship, it may perhaps be inferred that Da
vid's feeling led him to incorporate in its
rites that popular mode of festive celebra
tion. In the earlier period of the Judges
the dances of the virgins in Shiloh (Judg,
xxi, 19-23) were certainly part of a reli
gious festivity. Dancing also had its place
among merely festive amusements, apart
from any religious character (Jer, x-xxi. 4,
13; Lam. v. 15 ; Mark vi. 22 ; Lukexv. 25).
Dance, By this word is rendered in
the A. V, tho Hebrew term mdchdl, a musi
cal instrument of percussion, supposed to

Musical Instruments. Dance. (Mendelssolin.)
have been used by the Hebrews at an early
period of their history. In the grand Hal
lelujah Psalm (cl.) which closes that mag
nificent collection, the sacred poet exhorts
mankind to i raise Jehovah in His sanctu

ary with all kinds of music ; and .amongst
the instruments mentioned at the 3d, 4th,
and Sth verses is found mdchdl. It is gen
erally believed to have been made of inetal,
open like a ring: it had many small
bells attached to its border, and was
played at weddings and merry-makings by
women, who accompanied it with the voice.
Dan'iel. 1. The second son of D.avid
by Abigail the Carmelitess (1 Chr. iii. 1),
In 2 S.am. iii. 3, he is called Chileab. 2.
The fourth of " the greater prophets."
Nothing is known of his parentage or fam
ily. He appears, however, to have been
of royal or noble descpnt (Dan. i. 3), and
to have possessed considerable persona]
endowments (Dan. i. 4). He was taken to
Babylon in " the third year of Jehoiakim "
(b. o. 604), and trained for the king's ser
vice with his three companions. Like
Joseph in earlier times, he gained the fa-
'vor of his guardian, and was divinely sup
ported in his resolve to abstain from tho
" king's meat" for fear of defilement (Dan,
i, 8-16). At the close of his three years'
discipline (D.an. i. 5, 18), Daniel had an
opportunity of exercising his peculiar gift
(Dan, i, 17) of interpreting dreams, on
the occasion of Nebuchadnezzar's decree
against the Magi (Dan, ii, 14, ff.). In con
sequence of his success he was made
" ruler ofthe whole province of Babylon,"
and "chief of the governors over all the
wise men of Babylon " (ii. 48). He after
wards interpreted the second dream of
Nebuchadnezzar (iv. 8-27), and the hand
writing on the wall which disturbed the
feast of Belshazzar (v. 10-28), tliough he
no longer held his official position among
the magi (Dan. v. 7, 8, 12), and probably
lived at Susa (Dan. viii. 2), At the ac
cession of Btwitts- he was made flrst of the «
"tliree presidents" of the empire (Dsm,
vi. 2), and was delivered from the lions'
den, into which he had been cast for his
faithfulness to the rites of his faith (vi. 10-
23 ; cf. Bel and Dr. 29-42). At the acces
sion of Cyrus he still retained his prosperi
ty (vi. 28; cf.i. 21;BelandDr. 2); though
he does not appear to have remained at
B.abylon (cf. D.an. i. 21), .and in "the third
year of Cyrus " (n. c. 534) he saw his last
recorded vision on the banks of the Tigris
(x. 1, 4). In the prophecies of Ezekiel
mention is made of Daniel as a pattern of
righteousness (xiv. 14, 20) and wisdom
(xxviii. 3) ; and since Daniel was still
yonng at that time (circ. b. c. 588-584),
some have thought that another prophet of
the name must have lived at some earlier
time, perhaps during the captivity of Nin
eveh, whose fame was transferred lo his
later namesake. On the other hand tho
narrative in Dan. i. 11, implies that Daniel
was conspicuously distinguished for purity
and knowledge at a very early age (c£

DANIEL, BOOK OF

132

DARDA

Hist. Sus. 46), and he may have been
nearly forty years old at the time of
Ezekiel's prophecy. 3. A descendant of
Itham.ar, who returned with Ezra (Ezr.
viu. 2). 4. A priest whd sealed the cove
nant drawn up by Nehemiah b, c. 446 (Neh,
X, 6). He is perhaps the same as No. 3,
Dan'iel, The Book of, is the earliest
example of apocalyptic literature, and in a
great degree the model according to which
iill later apocalypses were constructed. In
this aspect it stands at the head of a series
of writings in which the deepest thoughts
of the Jewish people found expression after
the close of the prophetic era. The lan
guage of the book, no less than its general
form, belongs to an era of transition. Like
the book of Ezra, Daniel is composed part
ly in the vernacular Aramaic (Chaldee),
and partly in the sacred Hebrew. The in
troduction (i.-ii. 4 a) is written in Hebrew.
On the occasion of the " Syriac '-' (i. e.
Aramaic) answer of the Chaldaeans, the
language changes to Aramaic, and this is
retained till the close of the seventh chap
ter (ii. 4 b — vii.). The personal intro
duction of Daniel as the writer of the text
(viii. 1) is marked by the resumption of
the Hebrew, which continues to the close
of the book (viii.-xii.). The use of Greek
technical terms marks a period when com
merce had already united Persia and Greece.
The book may be divided into three parts.
The first chapter forms an introduction.
The next six chapters (ii.-vii.) give a gen
eral view of the progressive history of the
powers of the world, and of the principles
of the divine government as seen in events
of the life of Daniel. The remainder of
the book (viii.-xii.) traces in minuter de
tail the fortunes of the people of God, as
typical of the fortunes of the Church in all
ages. The unity of the book in its present
form, notwithstanding the difference of lan
guage, is generally acknowledged. Still
there is a remarkable difference in its in
ternal ch.aracter. In the first seven chap
ters Daniel is spoken of historically (i. 6-
21, ii. 14-49, iv. 8-27, v. 13-29, vi. 2-28,
vii. 1, 2) ; in the last five he appears per
sonally as the writer (vii. 15-28, viii. 1-
ix. 22, X. 1-9, xii. 5). The cause of the
difference of person is commonly supposed
to lie in the n.ature of the case. It is, how
ever, more probable that the peculiarity
arose from the manner in which the book
assumed its final shape. The book exer
cised a great infiuence upon the Christi.an
Church, Apart from the general type of
Apocalyptic composition which the Apos
tolic writers derived from Daniel (2 Thess,
ii. ; Rev. passim : cf Matt, xxvi, 64, xxi,
44?), the New Testament incidentally ac
knowledges each of the characteristic ele
ments of the book, its miracles (Hebr. xi.
id, 34), its predictions (Matt, xxiv, 15),

and its doctrine of angels (Luke i. 19, 26} .
At a still earlier time the same infiuence
may be traced in the Apocrypha, The_
authenticity of the book has been attacked'
in modern times, and its composition as
cribed to the times of the Maccabees : but
in doctrine the book is closely connected
with the writings of the Exile, and forms a
last step in the development ofthe ideas of
Messiah (vii, 13, &c,), of the resurrection
(xii, 2, 3), of the ministry of angels (viii,
16, xii, 1, &c.), of personal devotion (vi.
10, 11, i. 8), which formed the basis of
later speculations, but received no essen
tial addition in the interval before the com
ing of our Lord. Generally it may be said
that while the book presents in many re
spects a "startling and exceptional charac
ter, yet it is far more difficult to explain
its composition in the Maccabaean period
than to connect the peculiarities which it
exhibits with the exigencies of the Return.
Daniel, Apocryphal Additions to.
The Greek translations of Daniel, like that
of Esther, contain several pieces which are
not found in the original text. The mo.^t
important of these additions are contained
in the Apocrypha of the English Bible un
der the titles of The Song of ihe Three Holy
Children, The History of Susannah, and
The History of . . . Bel and ihe Dragon.
The flrst of these pieces is incorporated
into the narrative of Daniel. After tho
three confessors were thrown into the
furnace (Dan. iii. 23), Azarias is repre
sented praying to God for deliverance
(Song of Three Chndren, 3-22) ; and in
answer the angel of the Lord shields them
from the fire which consumes their enemies
(23-27), whereupon "the three, as out of
one mouth," raise a triumphant song (29-
68), of which a chief part (35-66) has been
used as a hymn in the Christian Church
since the 4th century. The two other
pieces appear more distinctly as appendi
ces, and offer no semblance of forming
part of the original text. The History of
Susannah (or Tlie Judgment of Daniel) is
generally found at the beginning of the
book, though it also occurs after the 12th
chapter. The History of Bel and the
Dragon is placed at the end of the book.
The character of these additions indicates
the hand of an Alexandrine writer ; and it
is not unlikely that the translator of Daniel
wrought up traditions which were already
current, and appended them to his work.
Dan'nah, a city in the mountains oi
Judah (Josh. xv. 49), and probably south
or south-west of Hebron. No trace of its
name has been discovered.
Da'ra, 1 Chr. ii. 6. [Darda.]
Dar'da, a son of aUihol, one of four
men of great fame for their wisdom, but
surpassed by Solomon (1 K. iv. 31). In 1
Chr. ii. 6, however, the same four namei

DARIC

133

DAVID

eccnr ag<ain as "sons of Zerah," of the
tribe of Judah, with the slight difference
that Darda appears as Dara. The identity
of these persons with those in 1 K. iv. has
' been greatly debated ; but there cannot be
much reasonable doubt that they are the
same. Daric (A. V. " dram ; " Ezr. ii. 69 ; viii.
27; Neh. vii, 70, 71, 72; 1 Chr. xxix. 7),a
gold coin current in Palestine in the period
after the return from Babylon. At these
times there was no large issue of gold
money except by the Persian kings. The
Barics which have been discovered are
thick pieces of pure gold, of archaic style,
bearing on the obverse the figure of a king
with bow and javelin, or bow and dagger,
and on the reverse an irregular incuse
square. Dari'US, the name of several kings of
Media and Persia. Three kings bearing
this name are mentioned in the O. T, 1.
Darius the Mede (Dan. xi, 1, vi, 1), "the
son of Ahasuerus of the seed of the Medes "
(ix. 1), who succeeded to the Babylonian
kingdom on the de.ath of Belshazzar, being
then sixty-two years old (Dan. v. 31 ; ix.
1). Only one year of his reign is men
tioned (Dan. ix. 1, xi. 1) ; but that was of
great importance for the Jews. Daniel
was advanced by the king to the highest
dignity (Dan. vi. 1, ff.), probably in conse
quence of his former services (cf. Dan. v.
17) ; and after his miraculous deliverance,
Darius issued a decree enjoining through
out his dominions "reverence for the God
of Daniel" (Dan. vi. 25, ff.). The ex
treme obscurity of the Babylonian annals
has given occasion to different hypotheses
as to the name under which Darius the
Mede is known in history ; but he is prob
ably the same as " Astyages," the last king
of the Medes. 2. Darius, the son of
Hystaspes the founder of the Perso- Arian
dynasty. Upon the usurpation of the Ma
gian Smerdis, he conspired with six other
Persian chiefs to overthrow the impostor,
and on the success of the plot was placed
upon the throne, B. c. 521. His designs of
foreign conquest were interrupted by a re
volt of the Babylonians. After the subju-
- gation of Babylon Darius turned his arms
against Scythia, Libya, and India. The
defeat of Marathon (b. c. 490) only roused
him to prepare vigorously for that decisive
struggle with the West which was now in
evitable. His plans were again thwarted
by rebellion. With regard to the Jews,
Darius Hystaspes pursued the same poUcy
as Cyrus, and restored to them the privi
leges which they had lost (Ezr. v. 1, &c. ;
vi. 1, &c.) 3. Darius the Persian (Neli.
xii. 22) may be identified with Darius II.
Nothus (Ochus), king of Persia B. c. 424-3
to 405-4, if the whole passage in question
»'as written by Nehemiah. If, however.

the register was continued to a later timet
as is not improbable, the occurrence of the
name Jaddua (vv. 11, 22) points to Darius
III. Codomannus, the antagonist of Alex
ander, and last king of Persia b. c. 336-
330 (1 Mace. i. I).
Darkness is spoken of as encompass
ing the actual presence of God, as that out
of which he speaks, the envelope, as it
were, of Divine glory (Ex. xx. 21 ; IK,
viii, 12) , The plague of Darkness in Egypt
has been ascribed by various commentators
to non-miraculous agency, but no sufficient
account of its intense degree, long duration,
and limited area, as proceeding from any
physical cause, has been given. The dark
ness "over all the land" (Matt, xxvii. 45)
attending the crucifixion has been similarly
attributed to an eclipse. Phlegon of Tralles
indeed mentions an eclipse of intense dark
ness, which began at noon, and was com
bined, he says, in Bithynia, with an earth
quake, which in the uncertain state of our
chronology more or less nearly synchronizes
with the event. Darkness is also, as in the
expression "land of darkness," used for the
state of the dead (Job x. 21, 22) ; and fre
quently figuratively, for ignorance and un
belief, as the privation of spiritual light
(John i. 5, iii. 19).
Dar'kon. Children of Darken were
among the " servants of Solomon " who re
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 56; Neh. vii. 68).
Dates, 2 Chr, xxxi. 5, marg. [Palm
Tree.] Da'than, a Reubenite chieftain, son of
Eliab, who joined the conspiracy of Korah
the Levite (Num. xvi. 1, xxvi. 9 ; Deut. xi.
6; Ps, cvi. 17),
Daughter, 1. The word is used in
Scripture not only for daughter, but for
granddaughter or other female descendant,
much in the same way and like extent with
"son" (Gen, xxiv, 48, xxxi. 43). 2. The
femiile inhabitants of a place, a country, or
the females of a particular race are called
daughters (Gen. vi. 2, xxvii. 46, xxviii. 6,
xxxvi, 2; Num, xxv. 1; Deut. xxiii, 17;
Is, iii. 16; Jer. xlvi. 11, xlix. 2, 3, 4; Luke
xxiii, 28). 3, The same notion of descent
explains the phrase " daughters of music,"
i. e. singing birds (Eccl. xii. 4), and the use
of the word for branches of a tree (Gen,
xlix. 22), the pupil of tiie eye (Lam. ii. 18;
Ps, xvii, 8), and the expression " daughter
of 90 years," to denote the age of Sarah
(Gen, xvii. 17). 4, It is also used of cities
in general (Is. x. 32, xxiii. 12 ; Jer, vi, 2,
26 ; Zech. ix. 9). 5, But more specifically
of dependent towns or hamlets, while to the
principal city the eorrel.ative "mother "is
appUed (Num. xxi. 25; Josh. xvii. 11, 16;
Judg. i. 27; 1 Chr. vii. 28; 2 Sam. xx. 19).
David, the son of Jesse. His life may
be divided into three portions : — I. H.i«

DAVID

134

DAVID

youth before his introduction to the court
of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III.
His reign. — I. The early life of David con-
tiiins in many important respects the ante
cedents of his future career. 1. His fam
ily may best be seen in the form of a
genealogy. It thus appears that David
was the you ngest son, probably the youngest
child, of a family of ten. His '•mother's
name is unknown. His father, Jesse, was
of .a great age when David was still young
(1 Sam. xvii. 12). His parents both lived
till after his final rupture with Saul (1 Sam.
xxii. 3). Through them David inherited
several points wliich he never lost, {a)
His connection with Moab through his
great-grandmother Ruth. This he kept up
when he escaped to Moab and intrusted his
aged parents to the care of the king (1 Sam.
xxii. 3). (J) His birthplace, Bethlehem.
His recollection of the well of Bethlehem
is one of the most touching incidents of his
later life (1 Chr. xi. 17), .and it is his con
nection with it that brought the place again
in after times into universal fame (Luke ii.
4). {c) His general connection with the
tribe of Judah. {d) His relations to Zeru
iah and Abigail. Though called in 1 Chr.
ii. 16, sisters of David, they are not ex
pressly called the daughters of Jesse ; and
Abigail, in 2 Sam. xvii. 25, is called the
daughter of Nahash, Is it too much to
suppose that David's mother had been the
wife or concubine of Nahash, and then
married by Jesse ? 2. As the youngest of
the family he may possibly have received
from liis parents the name, which first ap
pears in him, of David ihe beloved, the
darling. Perhaps for this same reason he
was never intimate witli his brethren. The
familiarity which he lost with his brothers
he gained with his nephews. The three
sons of his sister Zeruiah, and the one son
of his sister Abigail, were probably of the
same age as David himself, and they ac
cordingly were to him throughout hfe in
the relation usually occupied by brothers
and cousins. The two sons of lus brother

Shimeah are both connected with his aftei
liistory. One was Jonadab, the fiiend and
adviser of his eldest son Amnon (2 Sam.
xiii. 3). The other was Jonathan (2 Sam.
xxi. 21), who afterwards became the coun
sellor of David himself (1 Chr. xxvii. 32).
The first time that David appears in history
at once admits us to the whole family circle |
There was a practice once a year at Beth
lehem, probably at the first new moon of
the year, of holding a sacrificial feast, at
which Jesse, as the chief proprietor of the
place, would preside (1 S.am. xx. 6), with
the elders of the town. At this or such like
feast (xvi. 1) suddenly appeared tho great
prophet Samuel, driving a heifer before
him, and having in his hand a horii of the
consecrated oil of the Tabernacle. The
heifer was killed. The p.arty were waiting
to begin the feast. Samuel stood with his
horn to pour forth the oil, as if for .an invi
tation to begin (comp. ix, S2), He was
restrained by divine intimation as son after
son passed by, Eliab, the oldest, by " his
height "and "his countenance," seemed the
natural counterpart of Saul, whose rival,
unknown to them, the prophet came to se
lect. But the day was gone when kings
were chosen because^ they were head .and
shoulders taller than the rest, " Samuel
said unto Jesse, Are these all thy children ?
And he said, There remaineth yet the
youngest, and behold he keepeth the sheep,"
This is our first and most characteristic in
troduction to the future king. The boy
was brought in. We are enabled to fix
Ms appearance at once in our minds. He
w.as of short stature, with red or auburn
hair, such as is not unfrequently seen in
his countrymen of the East at the present
day. In later life he wore a beard. His
bright eyes are especially mentioned (xvi.
12), and generally he was remarkable for
the grace of his figure and countenance
("fair of eyes," "comely," "goodly,"
xvi, 12, 18, xvii, 42), well made, and of
immense strength and agility. His swift
ness and activity made him (like his nephew

Salmon or Salmah
(Euthiv. 21, lOlir. ii. U),
Boaz = Rutli = Marlon

Elimelech =» Naomi (Ruth i. 1),

oLod

(Rutb iv. 10).

Chiiion B3 Oipah.

(Ruth iv. IT).

(2 Sam. xvii. 25) Nahash =. unluiown «= Jesse.

r

.1

1

Jonathan (1 Chr. xxvii. 32).

|.^Chr.

16).

Abigail =a Jether ¦= Ii-a ? 1
(1 Chr. (Jerome.
ii. 17). Qu. Heb.
on 1 Chr.
xi. -10).

, I.

Eliab, Ellhu
(1 Chr.
xxvii.
T

Abin- Shamnioli,
adab. Shimmah, Shimeah (2 Sam.
ixi. 21).

Nethan- Raddai Ozcm {one DAVm
cd. (Rael, (Asam ib not
Jos. Ant, Jos. Ant. given,
vi^8. 1. Ti. 8. 1). uidesB

Kei, Ewald).

Elihu,

Ataliliai. Joab. AeaheL Amasa Abihail=Rchoboam. Jonatlian
1^ K- ^ (2Chi-.ii.l).
Zefiadiah
(1 Chr. xxvii. 7).

(2Sam. xxi. 21;
1 Chr. xxvii. 82).
(Natlian ? ?
Jer. Qu. Heb.
on 1 Sam. xvi, 12).

Jonadab Joel ?
(2 Sam. (Jerome,
XiU. S). Qu. Heb.
on 1 Clir.

Syr. and Arab.
lChr,ii.l5).

DAVID

135

DAMD

Aialibl) like a wild gazelle, his feet like
Jtart's feet, and his arms strong enough
to break a bow of steel (Ps. xviii. 33, 34).
He was pursuing the occupation allotted in
Eastern countries usually to the slaves, the
females, or the despised of the family. He
usually carried a switch or wand in his hand
(1 Sam. xvii. 40), such as would be used
for his dogs (xvii. 43), and a scrip or wal
let round his neck, to carry anything that
was needed for his shepherd's life (xvii.
43). 3. But there was .another preparation
still more needed for his otficc, which is his
next introduction to the history. When
the body-guard of Saul were discussing
with their master where the best minstrel
could be found to chase away his madness
by music, one of the young men in the
guard suggested David. Saul, with the
absolute control inherent in the idea of an
Oriental king, instantly sent for him, and
in the successful effort of David's harp we
have the first glimpse into that genius for
music and poetry which was afterwards
consecrated in the Psalms. 4. One inci
dent alone of his solitary shepherd life has
come down to us — his conflict with the
Hon and the bear in defence of his father's
flocks (1 Sam. xvii. 34, 35). But it did
not stand alone. He was already known to
Saul's guards for his martial exploits, prob
ably against the Philistines (xvi. 18), and,
when he suddenly appeared in the camp,
his elder brother immediately guessed that
he had left the sheep in his ardor to see the
battle (xvii. 28). The scene of the battle
is at EpHES-DAMjtjii, in the frontier-hills of
Judah, called prob.ably from this or similar
encounters " the bound of blood." Saul's
array is encamped on one side of the ravine,
the Philistines on the other; the watercourse
of Elah or " the Terebinth" runs between
them. A Philistine of gigantic stature, arid
clothed in complete armor, insults the com
paratively defenceless Israelites, amongst
whom the king alone appears to be well
armed (xvii. 38 ; comp. xiii. 20), No one
can be found to take up the ch.allengc. At
tills juncture David appears in the camp.
Just as he comes to the circle of wagons
which formed, as in Arab settlements, a
rude fortification round the Israelite camp
(xvii. 20), he hears the well-known shout
of the Israelite war-cry (comp. Num. xxiii.
21). The martial spirit of the boy is stirred
at the sound ; he leaves his provisions with
the baggage-master, and darts to join his
brothers, like one of the royal messengers,
into the midst of the lines. Then he hears
the challenge, now made for tbe fortieth
time — sees the dismay of his countrymen
shears the reward proposed by the king
— goes with the impetuosity of youth from
soldier to soldier talking of the event, in
spite of his brother's rebuke — is intro
duced to Saul — undertakes the combat.

His victory over tne gigantic Philistine is
rendered more conspicuous by his own di
minutive stature, and by the simple weapons
with which it was accomplished — not the
armor of Saul, which he naturally found too
large, but the shepherd's sling, which he
always carried with him, and the five pol
ished pebbles which he picked up as he went
from the watercourse of the valley, and put
in his shepherd's wallet. Two trophies long
remained of the bsittle — one, the huge
sword of the Philistine, which was hung uj)
behind the ephod in the Tabernacle at Nob
(1 Sam, xxi. 9) ; the other, the head, which
he bore away himself, and which was either
laid up at Nob, or subsequently at Jeru
salem. — II. Relations with Said. We
now enter on a new aspect of David's life.
The victory over Goliath had been a turn
ing point of his career, Saul inquired his
parentage, and took him finally to his court,
Jonathan was inspired by the romantic
friendship which bound the two youths to
gether to the end of their lives. The tri
umphant songs of the Israelitish women
announced that tliey felt that in him Israel
had now found a deliverer mightier even
than S.aul, And in those songs, and in the
fame which David thus acquired, was laid
the foundation of th.at unhappy jealousy of
Saul towards him, which, mingling with the
king's constitutional malady, poisoned his
whole future relations to David, Three
new qualities now beg.an to develop them
selves in David's character. The first was
his prudence. Secondly, we now see liis
magnanimous forbearance, called forth, in
the first instance, tow.ards Saul, but dis
playing itself (with a few painful excep
tions) in the rest of liis life. Thirdly, his
hairbreadth escapes, continued through so
many years, impressed upon him a sense
of dependence on the Divine help, clearly
derived from this epoch. This course of
life subdivides itself into four portions : —
1. His life at the court of Saul till his final
escape (1 Sam. xviii. 2-xix. 18), His oflSce
is not exactly defined. But it would seem
that, having been first armor-bearor (xvi,
21, xviii, 2), then made captain over a
thousand — the subdivision of a tribe —
(xviii. 13), he finally, on his marriage with
Michal, the king's second daughter, was
raised to the high oflice of captain of the
king's body-guard, second only, if not
equal, to Abner, the captain of the host,
and Jonathan, the heir apparent. These
three formed the usual companions of tbe
king at his meals (xx. 25). David was now
chiefly known for liis successful exploits
against the Philistines, by one of which lie
won his wife, and drove back the Philistine
power with a blow from which it only ral
lied at the disastrous close of Saul's reign.
He also still performed from time to time
the office of minstrel. But the successive

DA-VID

136

DAVID

snares laid by Saul to entrap hira, and the
oiien violence into wliich the king's mad
ness twice broke c ut, at last convinced him
that his life was" no longer safe. He had
two faithful allies, however, in the court —
the son of Saul, his friend Jonathan — the
diiughtor of.Saul, his wife Michal. Warned
oy the one, and assisted by the other, he
escaped by night, and was from thence
forward a fugitive. Jonathan he never
saw again except by stealth. Michal was
given in marriage to another (Phaltiel),
and he saw hor no more till long after
her father's death. 2. His escape (1 Sam.
xix. 18-x.xi. 15). He first fled to Naioth
(or the pastures) of Ramah, to Samuel.
"This is the first recorded occasion of his
meeting with Samuel since the original in
terview during his boyhood at Bethlehem.
Up to this time both the king and himself
had thought that a reunion was possible
(see XX. 5, 26). But the madness of Saul
now became more settled and ferocious in
character, and David's danger proportion-
ably greater. The secret interview with
Jonathan confirmed the alarm already ex
cited by Saul's endeavor to seize him at
Eamah, and he now determined to leave
his country, and take refuge, like Coriola-
nus or Themistocles in like circumstances,
in the court of his enemy. Before this last
resolve, he visited Nob, the seat of the
tabernacle, partly to obtain a final inter
view with the high-priest (1 Sam. xxii. 9,
15), partly to obtain food and weapons.
On the pretext of a secret mission from
Saul, he gained an answer from the oracle,
some of the consecrated loaves, and the
consecrate-i sword of Goliath. His stay at
the court of Achish was short. Discovered
possibly by " the sword of Goliath," his
presence revived the national enmity of the
Philistines against their former conqueror,
and he only escaped by feigning madness
(1 Sam. xxi. 13). 3. His life as an inde
pendent outLaw (xxii. 1-xxvi. 25), (a)
His first retreat was the cave of Adullam,
probably the large cavern, not far from
Bethlehem, now called Khureitim. From
its vicinity to Bethlehem, he was joined
there by his whole family, now feeling them
selves insecure from Saul's fury (xxii. 1).
This was probably the foundation of his
intimate connection with his nephews, the
sons of Zeruiah, (6) His next move was
to a stronghold, either the mountain, after
wards called Herodium, close to Adullam,
or the fastness called by Josephus Masada,
the Grecized form of the Hebrew word
Matzed (1 Sam. xxii, 4, 5 ; 1 Chr. xii. 16),
in the neighborhood of En-gedi. Whilst
there he had deposited his aged parents,
for the sake of greater security, beyond the
Jordan, with their ancestral kinsman of
Moab {ib. 3), The neighboring king,
Nahash of Ammon, also treated him kindly

(2 Sam. x. 2). Here occurred the chival
rous exploit of the three heroes just men
tioned to procure water from the well of
Bethlehem, and David's chivalrous answer,
like that of Alexander in the desert of
Gedrosia (1 Chr. xi. 16-19; 2 Sam, xxiii.
14-17). He was joined here by two sepa
rate bands. One a little body of eleven
fierce Gadite mountaineers, who swam the
Jordan in flood-time to reach him (1 Chr.
xii. 8). Another was a detachment of men
from Judah and Benjamin under his
nephew Amasai, who henceforth attached
himself to David's fortunes (1 Chr. xii. 16-
18). (c) At the warning of Gad, *he fled
to the forest of Hareth, and then again fell
in with the Philistines, and again, appar
ently advised by Gad (xxiii. 4), made a
descent on their foraging parties, and re
lieved Keilah, in which he took up his
abode. Whilst there, now for the first time
in a fortified town of his own (xxiii. 7), he
was joined by a new and most important
ally — Abiathar, the last survivor of the
house of Ithamar. By this time the 400
who had joined him at Adullam (xxii. 2)
had swelled to 600 (xxiii. 13). {d) The
situation of David was now changed by the
appearance of Saul himself on the scene.
Apparently the danger was too great for
the little army to keep together. They es
caped from Keilah, and dispersed, "whith
ersoever they could go," among the fast
nesses of Judah. Henceforth it becomes
diflacult to follow his movements with ex
actness. But thus rnuch we discern. He is
in the wilderness of Ziph. Once (or twice)
the Ziphites betray his movements to Saul.
Prom thence Saul literally hunts him like a
partridge, the treacherous Ziphites beating
the bushes before him, and 3000 men sta
tioned to catch even the print of his footsteps
on the hills (1 Sam. xxiii. 14, 22, xxiv. H,
xxvi. 2, 20). David finds himself driven to
the extreme south of Judah, in the wilder
ness of Maon. On two, if not three occa
sions, the pursuer and pursued catch sight
of each other (1 Sam. xxiii. 25-29, xxiv. 1-
22, xxvi.). Whilst he was in the wilderness
of Maon occurred David's adventure with
Nabal, instructive as showing his mode
of carrying on the freebooter's life, and his
marriage with Abigail. His marriage with
Ahino.am from Jezreel, also in the same
neighborhood (Josh. xv. 56), seems to have
taken place a short time belbre (1 Sam. xxv.
43, xxvii. 3; 2 Sam. iii. 2). 4. His ser
vice under Achish (1 Sam. xxvii. 1 ; 2 Sam.
i. 27). Wearied with his wandering life
he at last crosses the Philistine frontier,
not, as before, in the capsioity of a fugitive,
but the chief of a powerful band — his 600
men 'how grown into an organized force,
with their wives .and ff.railies around them
(xxvii. 3, 4). After tl e manner of Eastern
potentates, Athish gav e tim, for his supporti

DAVID

137

DAVID

a city — Ziklag on the frontier of Philistia
(xxvii. 6). There we meet with the first
note of time in David's life. He was set
tled there for u, year and four months
(xxvii. 7), .and a body of Benjamite arch
ers ami slingers, twenty-two of whom are
specially named, joined lum from the very
tribe of his rival (1 Chr. xii. 1-7). He
deceived Achish into confidence by attack
ing the. old Nomadic inhabitants of the
desert frontier, and representing the plun
der to be of portions of the southern tribes
or the Nomadic allied tribes of Israel. But
this confidence was not shared by the Plii-
hstine nobles, and accordingly David was
sent back by Achish from the last victo
rious campaign against Saul. During his
absence the Bedouin Amalekites, whom he
had plundered during tbe previous year, had
made a descent upon Ziklag, burnt it to the
ground, and carried oflf the wives and chil
dren of the new settlement. A wild scene
of frantic grief and recrimination ensued
between David and his followers. It was
calmed by an oracle of assurance from
Abiathar. Assisted by the Manassites who
had joined him on the march to Gilboa (1
Chr. xii. 19-21), he overtook the invaders
in the desert, and recovered the spoil (1
Sam. XXX.). Two days after this victory
a Bedouin arrived from the north with the
fatal news of the death at Gilboa. The
reception of the tidings of the death of his
rival and of his friend, tho solemn mourn
ing, the vent of his indignation against tlie
bearer of the message, the pathetic lamen
tation that followed, will close the second
period of David's life (2 Sam. i. 1-27).—
III. David's reign. (I.) As king of .Tudah
at Hebron, 7i years (2 Sam. ii. 1-v. 5).
Hebron was selected, doubtless, as the an
cient sacred city of the tribe of Judah, the
burial-place of the patriarchs and the in
heritance of Caleb. Here David was first
formally anointed king (2 Sam, ii, 4),
To Judah his dominion was nominally con
fined. Gradually his power increased,
and during the two years which followed
the elevation of Ishbosheth a series of
skirmishes took place between the two
kmgdoms. Then rapidly followed, though
irithout David's consent, the successive
murders of Abner and of Ishbosheth (2
Sam. iii. 30, iv. 5). The throne, so long
waiting for him, was now vacant, and tlie
united voice of the whole people at once
called him to occupy it. A solemn league
was made between him and his people (2
Sam. V. 3). For the third time David was
anointed king, and a festival of three days
celebrated the joyful event (1 Chr. xii. 39).
His little band had now swelled into "a
great host, like the host of God" (I'Chr.
rt. 22). The command of it, which had
formerly rested on David alone, he now
devolved on his nephew Joab (2 Sam. U.

28). (II.) Eeign over all Israel, 33 years
(2 Sam. V. 5 to 1 K. ii. 11). (1) The foun
dation of Jerusalem. One fastness alone in
the centre of the land had liitherto defied
the arms of Israel. On this, -with a singu
lar prescience, David fixed as his future
capital. By one sudden assault Jehus was
taken. The reward bestowed on the suc
cessful scaler of the precipice was the
highest place in the army. Joab hence
forward became captain of the host (1 Chr.
xi. 6). The royal residence was instantly
fixed there — fortifications were added by
the king and by Joab — and it was known
by the special name ofthe " city of David"
(1 Chr. xi. 7; 2 Sam. v. 9). The Philis
tines made two ineffectual attacks on the
new king (2 Sam. v. 17-20), and a retribu
tion on their former victories took place
by the capture and conflagration of their
own idols (1 Chr. xiv. 12). Tyre, now for
tbe first time appearing in the sacred his
tory, allied herself with Israel ; and Hiram
sent cedar- wood for the buildings of tho new
capitiil (2 Sam. v. 11), especially for the
palace of David himself (2 Sam. vii. 2).,
Unhallowed and profane as the city had
been before, it was at once elevated to a
sanctity which it has never lost, above any
of the ancient sanctuaries of the land. The
ark was now removed from its obscurity
at Kirjath-jearim with marked solemnity.
A temporary halt (owing to the death of
Uzza) detained it at Obed-edom's house,
after which it ag.ain moved fcrwaid with
great state to Jerusalem. It was the great
est day of David's life. One incident only
tarnished its splendor — the reproach of
Michal, his wife, aa he was finally entering
his own palace, to carry to his own household
the benediction which he had already pro
nounced on his people. His act of severity
towards her was an additional mark of the
stress which he himself laid on the solem
nity (2 Sam.' vi. 20-23; 1 Chr. xv. 29).
(2) Foundation of the Court and Empire
of Israel, 2 Sam. viii, to xii. The erec
tion of the new capital at Jerusalem in
troduces us to a new era in David's life
and in the history of the monarchy. He
became a king on the scale of the great
Oriental sovereigns of Egypt and Persia,
with a regular administration and organi
zation of court and camp; and he also
founded an imperial dominion which for
the first time realized the prophetic de
scription of the bounds of -the chosen peo
ple (Gen. XV, 18-21). The internal organ
ization now established lasted till the final
overthrow of the monarchy. The empire
was of much shorter duration, continuing
only through the reigns of David and his
successor Solomon. But, for the period
of its existence, it lent a peculiar character
to the sacred history, {a) In the inter
nal organization of the kingdom th ) first

DAVID

138

DAVID

new element that has to be considered is
the royal family, the dynasty, of which
David -was the founder, a position which
entitled him to the name of "Patriarch"
(Acts ii. 29), and (ultimately) of the ances
tor of the Messiah. Of these, Absalom
and Adonijah both inherited their father's
beauty (2 Sam. xiv. 25; 1 K, i-_6)i but
Solomon alone possessed any of his higher
qualities. It was from a union of the chil
dren of Solomon and Abs.alom that the royal
line was carried on (1 K. xv. 2). David's
strong parental affection for all of -them
is very remarkable (2 Sam. xiii. 31, 33, 86,
xiv. 33, xvui. 6, 33, xix. 4 ; 1 K. i. 6). {b)
The military organization, which was in
fact inherited from Saul, but greatly devel
oped by David, was as follows : — (1) " The
Host," i. e. the whole aviiilable military
force of Israel, consisting of all males capa
ble of bearing arms, and summoned only
for war. There were 12 divisions of 24,000
each, who were held to be in duty month
by month ; and over each of them presided
an oflScer, selected for this purpose from
the other military bodies formed by David
(1 Chr. xxvii. 1-15). The army was still
distinguished from those of surrounding
nations by its primitive aspect of a force
of infantry without cavalry. The only in
novations as yet allowed were the introduc
tion of a very limited number of chariots
(2 Sam. viii. 4) and of mules for the
princes and officers instead of asses (2
Sam. xiii. 29, xviii. 9). (2) The Body
guard. This also had existed in the court
of Saul, and David liimself had probably
been its commandmg officer (1 Sam. xxii.
14). But it now assumed a peculiar organ
ization. They were at least in name for
eigners, as having been drawn from the
Philistines, probably during David's resi
dence at the court of Gath. They are usually
called from this circumstance "Cherethites
and Pelethites." The captain of the force
was, however, not only not a foreigner, but
In Israelite of the highest distinction and
purest descent, w^ho first appears in this
capacity, but who outlived David, and
became the chief support of the throne of
his son, namely Benai.ah, son of the chief-
priest Jehoiada, representative of the eld
est branch of Aaron's house (2 SdSi. viii.
18, XV. 18, XX. 23; IK. i. 38, 44). (3)
The most peculiar military institution in
David's army was that wliich arose out
of the peculiar circumstances of his early
life. The nucleus of what afterwards be
came the only standing army in David's
forces was the band of 600 men who had
gathered round him in his wanderings. The
number of 600 was still preserved. It be
came yet further subdivided into three large
bands of 200 each, and small bands of 20
each. The small bands were commanded
by 30 officers, one for each baud, who to

gether formed " the tliirty,' and t.ie3 large
bands by 3 officers, who together formed
" the three," and the whole by one chief,
"the captain of the mighty men " (2 Sam.
xxiii. 8-39; 1 Chr. xi. 9-47). The cam-
mander of the whole force was Abishai,
David's nephew (1 Chr. xi. 20 ; and comp
2 S<am. xvi. 9). (c) Side by side with this
military organization were estabUshed social
and moral institutions. Some were entirely
for pastoral, agricultural, and financial pur
poses (1 Chr. xxvii. 25-31), others forjudicial
(1 Chr. xxvi. 29-32) . Some few are named
as constituting what would now be called the
court, or council ofthe king ; the councillors,
Aiiithophel of Gilo, and Jonathan, the king's
nephew (1 Chr. xxvii. 32, 33) ; the com
panion or "friend," Hushai (1 Chr, xxvii,
33 ; 2 Sam, xv. 37, xvi. 19) ; the scribe,
Sheva, or Seraiah, and at one time Jonatlian
(2 Sam, XX, 25 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 32) ; Jehosha
phat, the recorder or historian (2 Sam. xx.
24) , and Adoram .the tax-collector, both of
whom survived him (2 Sam. xx. 24; IK,
xii. 18, iv. 3, 6 ), But the more peculiar of
David's institutions were those directly bear
ing on religion. Two prophets appear as
the king's constant advisei's. Of these,
Gad, who seems to have been the elder, had
been David's companion in exile ; and, from
his being called "the seer," belongs prob?
ably to the earliest form of the prophetic
schools, Nathan, who appears for tbe first
time after the establishment of the kingdom
of Jerusalem (2 Sam, vii, 2), is distin
guished both by his title of "prophet," and
by the nature of the prophecies which he
utters (2 Sam, vii. 5-17, xii, 1-14), as of
the purest type of prophetic dispensation,
and as the hope of the new generation,
which he supports in the person of Sol
omon (1 K, i,). Two high-priests also
appear — representatives of the two rival
houses of Aaron (1 Chr, xxiv. 3) ;hereag!iin,
as in the case ofthe two prophets, one, Abia
thar, who attended him at Jerusalem, com
panion of his exile, and connected with the
old time of the judges (1 Chr. xxvii, 34),
joining him after the death of Saul, and be
coming afterwards the support of his son ;
the other, Zadoc, who ministered at Gib
eon (1 Chr. xvi, 39), and who was made
the head of the Aaronic family (xxvii, 17).
Besides these four great religious func
tionaries there were two classes of subor
dinates — prophets, specially instructed in
singing and music, under Asaph, Heman
the grandson of Samuel, and Jeduthun (1
Chr. xxv. 1-31) — Levites, or attendants
on the sanctuary, who again were subdi
vided into the guardians of the gates and
guardians of the treasures (1 Chr. xxvi.
1-28) which had been accumulated, suice
the re-establishment of the nation, by Sam
uel, Saul, Abner, Joab, and David himself
(1 Chr. xxvi. 26-28). QU From the in-

DAVID

139

liAVID

ternal state of David's kingdom we pass to
its external re'iations. These willbefoundat
length under the various countries to which
they relate. It will be here only neces
sary to briefly indicate the enlargement of
his dominions. Within ten years from the
capture of Jerusalem, he had reduced to a
state of permanent subjection the Philis-
jiNES on the west (2 Sam. viii. 1) ; the
MoAuiTES on the east (2 Sam. viii. 2), by
the exploits of Benaiah (2 Sam. xxiii. 20) ;
the SvRiANS on the north-east as far as the
Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 3) ; the Edomites
(2 Sam. viii. 14), on the south; and finally
the Ammonites, who had broken their an
cient alUance, and made one grand resist
ance to the advance of his empire (2 Sam.
K. 1-19, xii. 26-31). These three last wars
were entangled with each other. The last
and crowning point was the siege of Kab
bah. (3) Three great calamities may be
selected as marking the beginning, middle,
and close of David's otherwise prosperous
reign: which appears to be intimated in
the question of Gad (2 Sam. xxiv. 13), " a
three years' famine, a three months' flight,
or a three days' pestilence." {a) Of these,
the first (the three years' famine) intro
duces us to the last notices of David's re
lations with the house of Saul. There has
often arisen a painful suspicion in later
times, as there seems to have been at the
time (xvi. 7), that the oracle, which gave
as the cause of the famine Saul's massacre
of the Gibeonites, may have been con
nected with the desire to extinguish the
last remains of the fallen dynasty. But
such an explanation is not needed. The
massacre was probably the most recent
national crime that had left any deep im-
pressiou; and the whole tenor of D.avid's
conduct towards Saul's family is of an op
posite kind, (i) Tlie second group of in
cidents contains the tragedy of David's
life, which grew in all its parts out of the
,p,olygamy, with its evil consequences, into
which he h,ad plunged on becoming king.
Underneath the splendor of his last glori
ous campaign against the Ammonites, was
a dark story, known probably at that time
only to a very few; the double crime of
adultery with Bathsheba, and of the virtual
murder of Uriah, The crimes are un-
dpubtedly those of a common Oriental
deSROt- But the rebuke of Nathan; the
sudden revival of the king's conscience ;
Ills grief for the sickness of the child ; the
gathering of his uncles and elder brothers
around him ; his return .of hope and peace ;
are characteristic of David, and of David
only. - But the clouds from this time gath
ered over David's fortunes, and hencefor
ward " the sword never departed from his
house" (2 Sam. xii. 10). The outrage on
his daughter Tamar; the murder of his
I son Amnon ; and then the revolt of

his best-beloved Absalom, r/.-f/nt en the
crisis which once more seD'» aJ/. foit'.i a wan
derer, as in tho days whe.i l.e fled from
Saul; and this, the hea.isst trial of his
life, was aggravated by the impetuosity of
Joab, now perhaps, from his complicity in
David's crime, more unmanageable than
ever. The rebellion was fostered appar
ently by the grov/ing jealousy of tho tribe
of Judah at seeing their king absorbed into
the whole nation ; and if, as .appears from
2 Sam. xi. 3, xxiii. 34, Ahithophel was the
grandfather of Bathsheba, its main sup
porter waci one whom David had provoked
by his own crimes. For its general course
the reader is referred to the names just
mentioned. Malianaim was the capital
of David's exile, as it had been of the ex
iled house of Saul (2 Sam. xvii. 24 ; comp.
ii. 8, 12). His forces were arranged under
the three great military officers who re
mained faithful to his fortunes — Joab, cap
tain of the host; Abishai, captain of "the
mighty men ; " and Ittai, who seems to
have taken the place of Benaiah as cap
tain of the guard (2 Sam.' xviii. 2). On
Absalom's side was David's nephew Amasa
{ib. xvii. 25). The final battle was fought
in the " forest of Ephraim," which termi
nated in the accident leading to the death
of Absalom. At this point the narrative
resumes its minute detail. The return was
marked at every stage by rejoicing and
amnesty (2 Sam. xix. 16-40; 1 K. ii. 7).
Judah was first reconciled. The embers
of the insurrection, still smouldering (3
Sam. xix. 41-43) in David's hereditary ene
mies of the tribe of Benjamin, were
trampled out by the mixture of boldness
and sagacity iu Joab, now, after the mur
der of Amasa, once more in his old posi
tion. And David again reigned in undis
turbed peace at Jerusalem (2 Sam. xx.
1-22).. {c) The closing period of David's
life, with the exception of one great calam
ity, may be considered as a gradual prepa
ration for the reign of his successor.
Tills calamity was the three days' pesti
lence which visited Jerusalem at the warn
ing of the prophet Gad. The occasion
which led to this warning was the census
of the people taken by Joab at the king's
orders (2 Sam. xxix. 1-9 ; 1 Chr. xxi, 1-7,
xxvii, 23, 24), Joab's repugnance to tho
measure was such that he refused alto
gether to number Levi and Benjamin (1
Chr, xxi, 6). The plague a,nd its cessation
were commemorated down to the latest
times of the Jewish nation. Outside the
walls of Jerusalem, Araunah or Oman, -a
wealthy Jebusite — perhaps even the an
cient king of Jehus (2 Sam, xxiv, 23) —
possessed a threshing-floor; there he and.
his sons were engaged in threshing the com
gathered in from the harvest (1 Chr, xxi.
20) . At this snot an awful vision appeared,

DAVID, CITY OF

140

DAY

such as is described in the later days of Je
rusalem, of the Angel of the Lord stretch
ing out a drawn sword between earth and
sky ove- the devoted city. The scene of
such an apparition at such a moment was
at once marked out for a sanctuary. David
demanded, and Araunah willingly granted,
the site : the altar wiis erected on the rock
of the threshing-floor ; the place was called
by the name of "Moriah" (2 Chr. iii. 1);
and for the first time a holy place, sancti
fied by a vision of the Divine presence,
was recognized in Jerusalem. It was this
spot which afterwards became the altar of
the Temple, and tlierefore the centre of the
national worship, with but slight interrup
tion, for more than 1000 years, and it is
even contended that the same spot is the
rock, still regarded with almost idolatrous
veneration, in the centre of the Mussulman
" Dome of the Eock." A formidable con
spiracy to interrupt the succession broke
out in the last days of David's reign, wliich
detached from his person two of his court,
who from personal offence or adherence to
the ancient family had been alienated from
him — Joab and Abiathar. But Zadok,
Nathan, Benaiah, Shimei, and Rei remain
ing firm, the plot was stifled, and Solo
mon's inauguration took place under his
father's auspices (1 K. i. 1-53). By this
time David's infirmities had grown upon
him. The warmth of his exhausted frame
was attempted to be restored by the intro
duction of a young Shunammite, of the
name of Abishag, mentioned apparently
for the sake of an incident which grew up
in connection with her out of the later
events (2 K. i. 1, ii. 17). His last song is
preserved — a striking union ofthe ideal
of a just ruler which he had placed before
him, and of the difflcr.ltios which he had
felt in realizing it (2 Sim. xxiii. 1-7). His
last words, as recordc- i, to his suceessor,
are general exhortatioas to his duty, com
bined with warnings against Joab and
Shimei, and charges to remember the chil
dren of Barzillai (1 K. ii. 1-9). He died, ac
cording to Josephus, at the age of 70, and
" was buried in the city of David." After
the return from the captivity, " the sepul
chres of David " were still pointed out
"between Siloah and the house of the
mighty men," or " the guardhouse" (Neh,.
iii. 16). His tomb, which became the gen
eral sepulchre of the kings of Judah, was
pointed out in the latest times of the Jew
ish people. The edifice shown as such
from the Crusades to the present day is on
the southern hill of modern Jerusalem,
commonly called Mount Zion, under the
so-called " Coenaculum ; " but it cannot be
identified with the tomb of David, which
was emphatically within the walls.
Da-rid, City of, [Jerusalem,]
Uay The variable bngth of the natu

ral day at different seasons led in the very
earliest times to the adoption of the civU
day (or one revolution of the sun) as a
standard of time. The commencement of
the civil day varies in different nations:
the Babylonians reckoned it from sunrise
to sunrise; the Umbrians from noon to
noon ; the Romans from midnight to mid
night ; the Athenians and others from sun
set to sunset. The Hebrews naturally
adopted the latter reckoning (Lev, xxiii.
32, " from even to even shall ye celebrate
your sabbath ") from Gen, i, 5, " the even
ing and the morning were the first day."
The Jews are supposed, like the modern
Arabs, to have adopted from an early
period minute specifications of the parts
of the natural day. Roughly indeed they
were content to divide it into "morning,
evening, and noonday" (Ps. Iv. 17); but
when they wished for greater accuracy they
pointed to six unequal parts, each of which
was again subdivided. These are held to
have been: 1. "The dawn." 2. "Sun
rise." 3. "Heat of the day," about 9
o'clock ; 4. " The two noons " (Gen. xliii.
16; Deut. xxviii, 29); 5, "The cool (lit.
wind) of the day," before sunset (Gen. iii.
8) ; so called by the Persians to this day ;
6. " Evening." The phrase " between the
two evenings" (Ex, xvi. 12, xxx. 8), being
the time marked for slaying the paschal
lamb and offering the evening sacrifice
(Ex. xii, 6, xxix, 39), led to a. dispute be
tween the Karaites and Samaritans on the
one hand, and the Pharisees on the other.
The former took it to mean between sunset
and full darkness (Deut, xvi, 6) ; the Eab-
binists explained it as -the time between the
beginning and end of sunset. Before the
captivity the Jews divided the night into
three watches (Ps. Ixilj. 6, xc. 4) , viz. the
first watch, lasting till midnight (Lam. ii.
19, A. V, "the beginning of the watches ") ;
the " Middle watch," lasting tUl cockcrow
(Judg, vii, -19) ; and the morning watch,
lasting till sunrise (Ex, xiv, 24), These
divisions were probably connected with the
Levitical duties in the Temple service.
The Jews, however, say (in spito of their
own definitio'i, "a watch is the third part
of the night," that they always had four
night-watches (comp. Neh. ix. 3), but that
the fourth was counted as a part of the
morning. In the N. T. we have allusions
to four watches, a division borrowed from
the Greeks and Romans. These were, 1.
from twilight till 9 o'clock (Mark. xi. 11;
John XX 19); 2. miinight, from 9 till 12
o'clock Mark xiii. 35); 3. till 3 in the
morning (Mark xiii. 35 ; 3 Maec. v. 23) ;
4. till daybreak (John xviii. 28). Tlie
word held to mean " hour " is first found
in Dan. iii. 6, 15, v. 5. Perhaps the Jews,
like the Greeks, learnt from the Babylonians
the division ot the day intj 12 parts. In

DAYSMAN

141

DEBORAH

our Lord's time the division was common
(John xi, 9),
Daysman, an old English term, mean
ing umpire or arbitrator (Job ix. 33). It
is derived from day, in the specific sense of
a day fixed for a trial.
Deacon. The office described by this
title appears in the'N. T. as the correlative
of Bishop. [Bishop.] The two are men-
tioued together in Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. iii. 2,
8. Like most words of similar import, it
appears to have been first used in its ge
neric sense, implying subordinate activity (1
Cor. iii. 5 ; 2 Cor. vi, 4), and afterwards to
have gained a more defined connotation, as
applied to a distinct body of men in the
Christian society. The narrative of Acts
vi. is commonly referred to as giving an ac
count of the institution of this office. The
Apostles, in order to meet the complaints
of the Hellenistic Jews, that their widows
were neglected in the daily ministration,
call on the body of believers to choose seven
men "full of the Holy Ghost and of wis
dom," whom they " may appoint over this
business." It may be questioned, however,
whether the seven were not appointed to
higher functions than those of the deacons
of the N. T, There are indications, how
ever, of the existence of another body in
the Church of Jerusalem whom we may
compare with the deacons of Phil, i, 1, and
1 Tim. iii. 8, As the " elders " of Acts
xiv. 23, XV. 6 ; 1 Pet, v, 1, were not merely
men advanced in years, so the " young
men " of Acts v, 6, 10, were probably not
merely young men, but persons occupying
a distinct position and exercising distinct
functions. Assuming the identity of the
two names we have. to ask — (1) To what
previous organization, if any, the order is
traceable ? (2) What were the qualifications
and functions ofthe men so designated? I,
As the constitution of the Jewish synagogue
had its elders or pastors, so also it had its
subordinate officers (Luke iV, 20), whose
work it was to give the reader the rolls
containing tho lessons for the d.ay, to clean
the synagogue, to open and close it at the
light times. II. The moral qualifications
described in 1 Tim, iii., as necessary for the
office of a deacon, are substantially the
same as those of the bishop. The deacons,
however, were not required to be " given
to hospitality," nor to be " apt to teach."
It was enough for them to "hold the mys
tery of the faith in a pure conscience."
They were not to gain their living by dis
reputable occupations. On offering them
selves for their work they were to be subject
to a strict scrutiny (1 'Tim, iii, 10), and if
this ended satisfactorily were. to enter on it.
From the analogy of the synagogue, and
from the scanty notices of the N, T,, we
may think of the deacons or " young men "
in the Church of Jerusalem is preparing

the rooms ii which the disciples met, taking
part in the distribution of alms out of the
common fund, at first with no direct super
vision, than under that of the Seven, and
afterwards under the elders, maintaining
order at the daily meetings of the disciples
to break bro id, baptizing new converts, dis
tributing tk3 bread and the wine of the
Lord's Supper, which the Apostle or his
representative had blessed. It does not ap
pear to have belonged to the office of a
deacon to teach publicly in the Church,
Deaconess. The word liuxoiuf is found
in Rom. .xvi. 1 (A. V, "servant"), associ
ated with a female name, and this has led
to the conclusion that there existed in the
Apostolic age, as there undoubtedly did a
little later, an order of women bearing that
title, and exercising in relation to their own
sex functions which were analogous to those
of the deacons. On this hypothesis it has
been inferred that the women mentioned in
Rom, xvi, 6, 12, belonged to such an order.
The rules given as to the conduct of women
in 1 Tim, iii, 11, Tit. ii, 3, have in like
manner been referred to them, and they
have been identified even with the " wid
ows " of 1 Tim, V, 3-10,
Dead Sea, This name nowhere occurs
in the Bible, and appears not to have exist
ed until the 2d century after Christ, In
the O. T. the lake is called " the Salt Sea,"
and "the Sea of the Plain," and under
the former of these names it is described.
Dearth, [Famine.]
De'bir, the name of three places of
Palestine, 1. A town in the mountains of
Judah (Josh, xv, 49), one of a group of
eleven cities to the west of Hebron, The
earlier name of Debir was Kirjathsephor,
" city of book " (Josh. xv. 15 ; Judg. i. 13),
and Kirjathsannah, "city of palm" (Josh,
XV. 49) . It was one of the cities given with
their " suburbs " to the priests (Josh, xxi,
15 ; 1 Chr, vi. 58), Debir has not been
discovered with certainty in modern times ;
but about three miles to the west of Hebron
is a deep and secluded valley called the
Wady NurikAr, enclosed on the north by
hills, of which one bears a name certainly
suggestive of Debir — Dewir-ban. 2. A
place on the north boundary of Judah, near
the "Valley of Aelior" (Josh, xv. 7), and
therefore somewhere in the complications
of hill and ravine behind Jericho, A IVady
Dabor is marked in Van de Velde's map as
close to the S. of Neby Musa, at the N, W,
corner of the Dead Sea. 3. The "border
of Debir " is named as forming part of the
boundary of Gad (Josh. xiii. 26), and as ap
parently not far from Mahanaim,
De'bir, king of Eglon ; one of the five
kings hanged by Joshua (Josh, x. 3, 23).
Deb'orah, 1. The nurse of Rebekah
(Gen, x.xxv, 1), Dehorah accompanied Re
bekah from the house of Bethuel (Gen.

DEBTOR

142

DEKAR

xxiv. 59), and is only mentioned by name
on the occasion of her burial, under the
oak-tree of Bethel, which was called in her
honor Allon-Bachuth. 2. A prophetess
who judged Israel (Judg, iv., v.). She
lived under the palm-tree of Deborah, be
tween Ramah and Bethel in Mount Ephraim
(.ludg. iv. 5), which, as palm-trees were
rare in Palestine, " is mentioned as a well-
known and solit<ary landmark, and was
probably the. same spot as that called (Judg.
XX. 33) Baal-Tamar, or the sanctuary of
the palm" {Stanley, S. and P. 146), She
was probably a woman of Ephraim, al
though, from the expression in Judg. v. 13,
some suppose her to h.ave belonged to
Issachar. Lapidoth was probably her hus
band, and not Barak, as some s.ay. She
was not so much a judge as one gifted with
prophetic command (Judg, iv. 6, 14, v. 7),
and by virtue of her inspiration " a mother
in Israel." Jabin's tyranny was peculiarly
felt in the northern tribes, who were near
his capital and under her jurisdiction, viz.
Zebulon, Naphtali, and Issachar : hence,
when she summoned Bar.ak to the deliver
ance, it was on them that the brunt of the
battle fell. Under her direction Barak en
camped on the broad summit of Tabor.
Debor.ah's prophecy was fulfilled (Judg. iv.
9) , and the enemy's general perished among
the "oaks ofthe wanderers (Zaanaim),"
in the tent of tlie Bedouin Kenite's wife
(Judg. iv. 21) in the northern mountains.
Deborah's title of "prophetess" includes
the notion of inspired poetry, as in Ex. xv.
20 ; and in this sense the glorious trium
phal ode (Judg. V.) well vindicates her claim
10 the office.
Debtor. [Loan.]
Deoap'olis, This name occurs only
three times in the Scriptures, Matt, iv, 25,
Mark v. 20, and vii. 31, Immediately after
the conquest of Syria by the Rom.ans (b, c.
65) ten cities appear to have been rebuilt,
partially colonized, and endowed with pecu
liar privileges; the country around them
was hence callcdDecapolis. Pliny enumer
ates them as follows : Scythopolis, Hippos,
Gadara, Pella, Philadelphia, Gerasa,
Dion, Canatha, Damascus, and Raphana.
All the cities of Decapohs, with the single
exception of Scythopolis, lay on tho east of
the Jordan. It would appear, however,
from Matt, iv, 25, and Mark vii. 31, that
Deciipolis was a general appellation for a
large district extending along both sides of
the Jordan. PUuy says it reached from
Damascus on the north to Philadelphia on
the south, aud from Scythopolis on the west
to Canatha on the e'ast. This region, once
so populous and prosperous, from which
multitudes flocked to hear the Saviour and
through which multitudes followed His
footsteps, is now almost without an inhab
itant.

De'dan. 1. The name of a son of Eaa-
mah, son of Cush (Gen, x. 7; 1 Chr. i, 9),
2. A son of Jokshan, son of Keturah
(Gen. xxv, 3; 1 Chr. i. 32). — The pas
sages in the Bible in which Dedan is men
tioned (besides the genealogies above re
ferred to) are contained in the prophecies
of Isaiah (xxi. 13), 'Jeremiah (xxv. 23,
xlix. 8), and Ezekiel (xxv. 13, xxvii. 15,
20, xxxviii. 13), and are in every case ob-
.scure. The probable inferences from these
mentions of Dedan are — 1, That Dedan,
son of Raamah, settled on the shores of the
Persian Gulf, and his descendants became
caravan-merchants between that coast and
Palestine. 2. That Jokshan, or a son of
Jokshan, by intermarriage with the Cushite
Dedan formed a tribe of the same name,
which appears to have had its chief settle
ment in the borders of Idumaea, and per
haps to have led a pastoral life,
Ded'anim, Is. xxi. 13. [Dedan.]
Dedication, Feast of the, the fes
tival instituted to commemor.ate the purging
of the Temple and the rebuilding of the
altar after Judas Maceabaeus had driven
out the Syrians, b. c. 164. It is named
only once in the Canonical Scriptures,
John X. 22. Its institution is recorded 1
Mace. iv. 52-59. It commenced on the
25th of Chisleu, the anniversary of the pol
lution of the Temple by Antiochus Epipha
nes, B. c. 167. Like the great Mosaic
feasts, it lasted eight days, but it did not re
quire attendance at Jerusalem. It was an
occasion of much festivity. The writer of
2 Maec. tells us that it was celebrated in
nearly the same manner as the Feast of
Tabernacles, with the carrying of branches
of trees, and with much singing (x. 6, 7).
Josephus states that the festival was called
"Lights." In the Temple at Jerusalem
the "Hallel" was sung every day ofthe
feast. Deer. [Fallow-Deek.]
Degrees; Songs of, a title given to
fifteen Psalms, from cxx. to cxxxiv. in
clusive. Four of them are attributed to
David, one is ascribed to the pen of
Solomon, and the other ten give no indica
tion of their author. With respect to the
term rendered in the A. V. "degrees," a
great diversity of opinion prevails, but the
most probable opinion is that they were
pilgrim songs, sung by the people as they
went up to Jerusalem.
De'havites, mentioned only once in
Scripture (Ezr. iv. 9) among the colonists
pl.anted in Samaria after the completion of
the Captivity of Israel, They are proba
bly the Daf orDahi, mentioned by Herodo
tus (i, 125) among the nomadic tribes of
Persia, De'kar. The son of Deker, i. e. Ben-
Dekek, was Solomon's commissariat oflicer
in the western part of the hill-country of

DELAIAH

143

DEMON

rfudah and Benjamin, Shaalbim and Beth-
shemesh (1 K. iv. 9).
Delai'ah. 1. A priest in tbe time of
David, leader of the twenty-third course
of priests (1 Chr. xxiv. 18). 2. " Children
of Delaiah " were among the people of un
certain pedigree who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 60; Neh. vii. 62).
3. Son of Mehetabeel and father of
Shemaiah (Neh. vi. 10). 4. Son of Shem
aiah, one of the "princes" about the court
of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 25).,
Del'ilah, a woman who dwelt in the
valley of Sorek, beloved by Samson (Judg.
xvi. 4-18). There seems to be little doubt
.that she was a Philistine courtesan.
[Samson.] Deluge. [Noah.]
De'lus, mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 23, is
the smallest of the islands called Cyclades
in the Aegaean Sea. It was one of the chief
seats of the worship of Apollo, and was
celebrated as the birthplace of this god and
of his sister Artemis (Diana).
De'mas, most probably a contraction
from Demetrius, or perhaps from Demar-
chus, a companion of St. P.aul (Philem. 24 ;
Col. iv. 14) during his first imprisonment
at Rome. At a later period (2 Tim. iv.
10) we find him mentioned as having de
serted the apostle through love of this
present world, and gone to Thessalonici.
Deme'trius, a maker of silver shrines
of Artemis at Ephesus (Acts xix. 24).
These wore small models of the great tem
ple ofthe Ephesian Artemis,with her statue,
which it was customary to carry ou jour
neys, and place on houses, as charms,
Deme'trius 1„ surnamed Soter, "The
Saviour," king of Syria, was the son of
Ssieucus Philopator, and grandson of Anti
ochus the Great, 'While still a boy he was
sent by his father as a hostage to Rome
(b, 0. 175) in exchange for his uncle
Antiochus Epiphanes. From his position
he was unable to offer any opposition to the
nsurp.ation of the Syrian throne by Antio
chus IV, ; but on the death of that monarch
(n. c. 164) he claimed his liberty and the
recognition of his claim by the Roman
Bcuate in preference to that of his cousin
Antiochus V, His petition was refused ; he
left Italy secretly, and landed with a small
force at Tripolis in Phoenicia (2 Mace, xiv,
1; 1 Mace. vii. 1), The Syrians soon
declared in his favor (b. c. 162), and Antio
chus and his protector Lysias were put to
death (1 Mace, vii, 2, 3; 2 Mace. xiv. 2),
His campaigns against the Jews were
nnsuccessful. In b. o, 152, Alexander
Balas was brought forward, with the con
sent ofthe Roman senate, as a claimant to
the throne. The rivals met in a decisive
engagement (b. c 150), and Demetrius,
•fter displaying the greatest personal

bravery, was defeated and slain (I Mace.
X. 48-50). -

Tetradrachm (Attic talent) of DemetrmB I.
Deme'trius II,, " The Victorius "
(Nicator), was the elder son of Demetrius
Soter. He was sent by his father, together
with his brother Antiochus, with a large
treasure, to Cnidus, when Alexander Balas
laid claim to the throne of Syria. When he
was grown up he made a descent on Syria
(b. c. 148), and was received with general
favor (1 Maec. x. 67, ff.). His campaigns
against Jonathan and the Jews are described
in 1 Maec. x., xi. In b. c. 138, Demetrius
was taken prisoner by Arsaces VI. (Mith
ridates), whose dominions he had invaded
(1 Mace. xiv. 1-3). Mithridates treated
his captive lionor,ably, and gave him his
daughter in marriage. When Antiochus
Sidetes, who had gained possession of tho
Syrian throne, invaded Parthia, Phraates
employed Demetrius to effect a diversion.
In this Demetrius succeeded, and when

Tetradrachm (Attic tnlect) of DemetriuB It.
Antiochus fell in battle, he again took pos
session of the Syriiin crown (b. c. 128),
Not long afterwards a pretender, supported
by Ptol. Physcon, appeared in the field
against him, and after suff'ering a defeat he
was assassinated, according to some by hia
wife, while attempting to escape by sea.
Demon. Its usage in classical Greek
is various. In Homer, where the gods are
but supernatural men, it is used inter
changeably with "god;" afterwards in
Hesiod, when the idea of the gods had
become more exalted and less familiar, the
demons " are spoken of as intermediate
beings, the messengers of the gods to men.
In the Gospels generally, in James ii. 19,
and in Rev. xvi. 14, the demons are spoken
of as spiritual beings, at enmity with God,
and having power to afflict man, not only
with disease, but, as is marked by the
frec[uent epithet " unclean," wiih spiritual

DEMONIACS

144

DEPOSIT

pollution also. They " believe " the power
of God " and tremble " (James ii. 19) ; they
recognize the Lord as the Son of God
(Matt. viii. 29; Lukeiv. 41), and acknowl
edge the power of His name, used in
exorcism, in the place of the name of
Jehovah, by His appointed messengers
(Acts xix. 15) ; and look forward in terror
to the judgment to come (Matt. viii. 29).
The description is precisely that of a na
ture akin to the angelic in knowledge and
powers, but with the emphatic addition of
the idea of positive and active wickedness.
Demoniacs. This word is frequently
used in the N. T., and applied to persons
«uffering under the possession of a demon
or evil spirit, such possession generally
showing itself visibly in bodily disease or
mental derangement. It has been main
tained by many persons that our Lord and
the Evangehsts, in referring to demoniacal
p(>ssession, spoke only in accommodation
tp the general belief of the Jews, without
any assertion as to its truth or its falsity.
It is concluded that, since the symptoms of
the affliction were frequently those of bodily
disease (as dumbness, Matt. ix. 32 ; blind
ness. Matt. xii. 22 ; epilepsy, Mark ix.
17-27), or those seen in cases of ordinary
insanity (as in Matt. viii. 28 ; Mark v, 1-5),
and since also tho phrase " to have a devil "
is constantly used in connection with, and
as apparently equivalent to, "to be mad"
(see John vii. 20, viii. 48, x. 20, and perhaps
Matt. xi. 18; Luke vii. 33), the demoniacs
were merely persons suffering under un
usual diseases of body and mind. But
demoniacs are frequently distinguished from
those afflicted with bodily sickness (see
Mark i. 32, xvi. 17, 18; Luke vi. 17, 18),
even, it would seem, from the epileptic
(Matt. iv. 24) ; the same outward signs are
sometimes referred to possession, some
times merely to disease (comp. Matt. iv.
24, with xvii. 15 ; Matt. xii. 22, with Mark
vii. 32, &c.) ; the demons are represented
as speaking in their own persons with
superhuman knowledge, and acknowledg
ing our Lord to be, not as the Jews gener
ally called him, son of David, but Son of
God (Matt. viii. 29 ; Mark i. 24, v. 7 ; Luke
iv. 41, &c.). All these things speak of a
personal power of evil. Nor does our Lord
speak of demons as personal spirits of evil
to tbe multitude alone, but in His secret
conversations with His disciples, declaring
the means and conditions by which power
over them could be exercised (Matt. .xvii.
21). Twice also He distinctly connects
demoniacal possession with the power of
the evil one ; once in Luke x. 18, to the
seventy disciples, whore He speaks of His
power and theirs over demoniacs as a "fall
of Satan," and again in Matt. xii. 25-30,
when He was accused of casting out demons
through Beelzebub, and, instead of giving

any hint that the possessed were not really
under any direct and personal power of
evil. He uses an argument, as to the division
of Satan against himself, which, if posses
sion be unreal, becomes inconclusive and
almost insincere. Lastly, the single fact
recorded of the entrance of the demons at
Gadara (Mark v. 10-14) into the herd of
swine, and the effect which that entrance
caused, is sufficient to overthrow the notion
that our Lord and the Evangelists do not
assert or imply any objective reaUty of
possession. ' We are led, therefore, to the
ordinary and literal interpretation of these
passages, that there are evil spirits, subjects
of the Evil One, who, in the days of the
Lord Himself and His Apostles especially,
were permitted by God to exercise a direct
influence over the souls and bodies of
certain men. This influence is clearly
distinguished from the ordinary power of
corruption and temptation, -wielded by Sa
tan through the permission of God. The
distinguishing feature of possession is the
complete or incomplete loss of the suffer
er's reason or power of will; his actions,
Ills words, and almost his thoughts are
mastered by the evU spirit (Mark i. 24, v.
7 ; Acts xix. 15), tUl his personahty seems
to be destroyed, or, if not destroyed, so
overborne as to produce the consciousness
of a twofold will within him, lilce that some
times felt in a dream.
Dena'rius, A. V. "penny" (Matt.
xviii. 28, XX. 2, 9, 13, xxii. 19 ; Mark vi.
37, xii. 15, xiv. 5 ; Luke vii. 41, x. 35, xx.
24 ; John vi. 7, xii. 5 ; Rev. vi. 6), a Roman
silver coin, in the time of Our Saviour and
the Apostles. It took its name from its
being first equal to ten " asses," a number
afterwards increased to sixteen. It was
the principal silver coin of the Roman
commonwealth. From the parable of the
laborers in the vineyard it would seem that
a denarius was then the ordinary pay for a
day's labor (Matt. xx. 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 13).
Deposit, the arrangement by which one
man kept at another's request the property
of the latter, until demanded back, was one
common to all the nations of antiquity. The
exigencies of war and other causes of ab
sence must often have rendered such a de
posit, especially as reg.ards animals, an own
er's only course. Tlie articles specified by
the Mosaic law are, (1.) " money or stuff ; "
and (2.) " an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or
any beast." The first case was viewed as
only li.able to loss by theft, and the thief, if
found, was to pay double. In the second,
if the beast were to " die, or bo hurt, or
driven away, no man seeing it," tbe depos
itary was to purge himself by an oath before
the judges. In case, however, the animal
were stolen, the depositary was liable to
restitution, which probably was necessary
to prevent collusive theft.

DEPUTY

145

DEUTERONOMY

Deputy, the uniform rendering in the
A. V. of the Greek word which signifies
"proconsul" (Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38).
The English word is curious in itself, and
to a certain extent appropriate, having been
appUed formerly to the Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland. Der'be (Acts xiv, 20, 21, xvi, 1, xx, 4),
The exact position of this town has not yet
been ascertained, but its general situation
is undoubted. It was in the eastern part of
the great upland plain of Lycaonia, which
stretches from Iconium eastwards along the
north side of the ch.ain of Taurus, It must
have been somewhere near the place where
the pass called the Cilician Gates opened
a way from the low plain of Cilicia to the
tahle-land of the interior ; and probably it
was a stage upon the great road which
passed this way.
Desert, a word which is sparingly em
ployed in the A. V, to translate four He
brew terms, of which three are essentially
different in signification, A " desert," in
the sense which is ordinarily attached to
the word, is a vast, burning, sandy plain,
alike destitute of trees and of water. Here,
it is simply necessary to show that the
words rendered in the A. V. by " desert,"
wlien used in the historical books, denoted
definite localities ; and that those localities
do not answer to the common conception
of a "desert." 1. Arabah, This word
means that very depressed and enclosed
region — the deepest and the hottest ch.asm
. in the world — the sunken valley north and
south of the Dead Sea, but more particu
larly the former. [Arabah.] Arabah in
the sense of the Jordan Valley is translated
by the word " desert " only in Ez. xlvii. 8.
In a more general sense of waste, deserted
country — a meaning easily suggested by
the idea of excessive heat contained in the
root — " Desert," as the rendering ot Ara-
iah, occurs in the prophets and poetical
books ; as Is. xxxv. 1, 6, xl. 3, xii. 19, li.
3; Jer. u. 6, v, 6, xvii. 6, 1. 12; but this
general sense is never found in the histori
cal books. 2. MiDEAR. This word, which
our translators have most frequently ren-
clered by " desert," is accurately the " pas
ture ground." It is most frequently used
for those tracts of waste land which lie be
yond the cultivated ground in the immedi
ate neighborhood of the towns and villages
of Palestine, and which are a very familiar
feature to the traveller in that country. In
the poetical books " desert " is found as the
translation of Midbar in Deut. xxxii. 10 ;
Job xxiv. 5 ; Is. xxi. 1 ; Jer. xxv, 24. 3.
Charbah appears to have the force of dry
ness, and thence of desolation. It does
not occur in any historical passages. It is
rendered " desert " in Ps, cii, 6 ; Is, xlviii.
21; Ezek. xiii, 4. The term commonly
employed for it in the A, V, is " waste
10

places" or "desolation." 4. JesiiImon,
with the definite article, apparently denotes
the waste tracts on both sides of the Dead
Sea. In all these cases it is treated as a
proper name in the A. V. Without the ar
ticle it occurs in a few passages of poetry ;
in the following of which it is rendered
"desert." Ps. Ixxxviii. 40, cvi, 14; Is.
xliii, 19, 20.
Deu'el, father of Eliasaph, the " cap
tain " of the tribe of Gad at the time of the
numbering of the people at Sinai (Num
i. 14, vii. 42, 47, .\. 20). The same m.an is
mentioned again in ii. 14, but here the
name appears as Eeuel.
Deuteronomy — wbic'h means " the
repetition of the law " — consists chiefly of
three discourses delivered by Moses short
ly before his death. Subjoined to these
discourses are the Song of Moses, the
Blessing of Moses, and the story of his
death. I. The first discourse (i. 1-iv. 40).
After a brief historical - introduction, the
speaker recapitulates the chief events of
the last 40 years in the wilderness, and es
pecially those events which ' had the most
immediate bearing on the entry of the peo
ple into the promised land. To this dis
course is appended a brief notice of the
severing of the three cities of refuge on
the east side ofthe Jordan (iv. 41-43). II.
The second discourse is introduced like the
first by an explanation of the circum
stances under which it was delivered (iv.
44-49). It extends from chap. v. 1-xxvi.
19, and contains a recapitulation, with some
modifications and additions of the Law al
ready given on Mount Sinai. III. In the
third discourse (xxvii. 1-xxx. 20), the El
ders of Israel are associated with Moses,
The people are commanded to set up stones
upon Mount Ebal, and on them to write
" all the words of this law." Then follow
the several curses to be pronounced by the
Levites on Ebal (xxvii. 14-26), and the
blessings on Gerizim (xxviii. 1-14). IV.
The delivery of the Law as written by
Moses (for its still further preservation) to
the custody of the Levites, and a charge to
the people to hear it read once every seven
years (xxxi.) : the Song of Moses spoken
in the ears of the people (xxxi. 30-xxxii,
44) : and the blessing of the twelve tribes
(xxxiii.). V. The Book closes (xxxiv.)
with an account of the death of Moses,
which is first announced to him in xxxii,
48-52, It has been maintained by many
modern critics that Deuteronomy is of
later origin than the other four books of
the Pentateuch; but the book bears wit
ness to its own authorship (xxxi, 19), and
is expressly cited in the N. T. as the work
of Moses (Matt, xix, 7, 8; Mark x. 3;
Acts iii, 22, vii. 37), The last ch,apter,
containing an account of the death of
Moses, was of course added by a later

DEVIL

146

DIANA

hand, and perhaps formed originally the
beginning of the book of Joshua. [Pen
tateuch.] Devil. The name describes Satan as
slandering God to man, and man to God.
The former work is, of course, a part of
his great work of temptation to evil ; and
is not only exemplified but illustrated as to
its general nature and tendency by the nar
rative of Gen. iii. The effect is to stir up
the spirit of freedom in man to seek a fan
cied independence ; and it is but a slight
step further to impute falsehood or cruelty
to God. The other -work, the slandering
or accusing m.an before God, is, as it must
necessarily be, -unintolligiblc to us. The
essence of this accusation is the imputa
tion of selfish motives (Job i. 9, 10), and
its refutation is placed in the self-sacrifice
of those "who loved not their own lives
unto death." [Satan ; Demon.]
Dew. This in the summer is so copious
in Palestine that it supplies to some extent
the absence of rain (Ecclus. xviii. 16, xliii,
22), and becomes important to the agricul
turist. As a proof of this copiousness the
well-known sign of Gideon (Judg. vi. 37,
39, 40) maybe adduced. Thus it is coupled
in the divine blessing with rain, or men
tioned as a prime source of fertility (Gen.
xxvii. 28; Deut. xxxiii. 13; Zech. viii. 12),
and its withdrawal is attributed to a curse
(2 Sam. i. 21; 1 K. xvii. 1; Hag. i. 10).
It becomes a leading object in prophetic
imagery by reason of its penetrating mois
ture without tho apparent effort of rain
(Deut. xxxii. 2 ; Job xxix. 19 ; Ps. cxxxiii.
3; Prov. xix. 12; Is. xxvi. 19; Hos. xiv.
5 ; Mic. V. 7) ; while its speedy evanescence
typifies the tr.ansient goodness of the hypo
crite (Hos. vi. 4, xiii. 3).
Diadem. What the " diadem" of the
Jews was we know not. That of other na
tions of antiquity was a fillet of silk, two
inches broad, bound round the head and
tied behind, the invention of which is at
tributed to Liber, Its color was gener-

Obverse of Tetradrachm of Tigrancs, King of Syria,
ally white ; sometimes, however, it was of
blue, hke that of Darius ; and it was sown
with pearls or other gems (Zech, ix, 16),
and enriched with gold (Rev. ix. 7). It
was peculiarly the mark of Oriental sover
eigns (1 Mace. xiii. 32). A crown was

used by the kings of Israel, even hi battle
(2 Sam. i. 10); but in all probability this
was not the state crown (2 Sam, xii, 30),
although used in thfe coronation of Joash
(2 K, xi. 12), In Esth. i. 11, ii. 17, we
have ceiher for the turban worn by the
Persian king, queen, or other eminent per
sons to whom it was conceded as a special
favor (viii. 15). The diadem of the king
differed from that of others in having an
ered triangular peak. The words in Ez.
xxiii. 15 mean long and flowing turbans of
gorgeous colors.
Dial, The word ma'aldth is the same
as that rendered " steps " in A. V. (Ex^ xx.
26; IK. X. 19), and "degrees" in A. V.
(2 K. XX. 9, 10, 11 ; Is. xxxviii. 8), where,
to give a consistent rendering, we should
read with the margin the " degrees " rather
than the "dial " of Ahaz. In the absence
of any materials for determining the shape
and structure of the solar instrument, which
certainly appears intended, the best course
is to follow the most strictly natural mean
ing of the words, and to consider that the
ma'aldth were really stairs, and that the
shadow (perhaps of some column or obehsk
on the top) fell on a greater or smaller
number of them according as the sun was
low or high. The terrace of a, pahace
might easily be thus ornamented.
Diamond (Heb. yahaldm), a preciciis
stone, the third in the second row on the
breastplate of the high-priest (Ex. xxviii
18, xxxix. 11), and mentioned by Ezekiei.
xxviii. 13) among the precious stones of
the king of Tyre. Some suppose yahaldm
to be the " emerald." Respecting shdmir,
which is translated " diamond " in Jer. xvii.
1, see under Adamant,
Dian'a, This Latin word, properly de
noting a Roman divinity, is the representa
tive of the Greek Artemis, the tutelary
goddess of the Ephesians, who plays so
important a part in the narrative of Acts
xix. The Ephesian Diana was, however,
regarded as invested with very different
attributes, and is rather to be identified
with Astfirte and other female divinities of
the East, The coin below will give some
notion of the image of the true Ephesian
Diiina, which was grotesque and archaic in
character. The head wore a mural crown,
each hand held a bar of metal, and the
lower p.art ended in a rude block covered
with figures of animals and mystic inscrip- : ,
tions. This idol was reg.ardod as an object
of peculi.ar sanctity, and was believed to
have -fallen down from heaven (Acts xLv
35). The cry of the mob (Acts xix. 28),
"Great is Dians of the Ephesians 1" and
the strong expression in ver. 27, "whom
all Asia and the world worshippeth," may
be abundantly illustrated from a variety of
sources. The term "gre.at" was evidently.
a title of honor recognized as belonging to

DIBLAIM

147

DIONYSIES

the Eplesian
acriptious.

. We find it in in-

Ureck Imperial Copper Coin of Ephesus and Smyrna.
Domitia with name of proconsul.
Dibla'im, mother of Hose.a's wife Go-
nier (Hos. i. 3).
Dib'lath (accurately Diblah), a place
named only in Ez. vi. 14, as if situated at
one of the extremities of the land of Israel,
is perhaps only another form of Rielah.
Di'bon. 1. A town on the east side of
Jordan, in the rich pastoral country, which
was taken possession of and rebuilt by
the children of Gad (Num. xxxii. 3, 34).
From this circumstance it possibly re
ceived the name of Dibon-Gad (Num.
xxxiii. 45, 46). Its first mention is in
Nuni. xxi. 30, and from this it appears to
have belonged originally to the Moabites.
We find Dibou counted to Reuben in the
lists of Joshua (xiii. 9, 17). In the time
of Isaiah and Jeremiah, however, it was
again in possession of Moab (Is, xv. .2 ;
Jer. xlviii. 18, 22, comp. 21). In the same
denunciations of Isaiah it appears, prob
ably, under the name of Dimon, In mod
ern times the name Dhiban has been dis
covered as attached to extensive ruins on
the Roman road, about three miles north
of the Arnon {Wady Modjeb). 2. One of
the towns which were re-inhabited by the
men of Judah after the return from cap
tivity (Neh, xi, 25), identical with Dimo-
NAH. Di'bon-Gad, [Dibon.]
Dib'ri, a Danite, father of Shelomith
(Lev. xxiv. 11),
Didraehmon. [Monet; Shekel.]
Did'ymus, that is, the Twin, a sur
name of the Apostle Thomas (John xi, 16,
XX, 24, xxi, 2), [Thomas.]
Dik'lah (Gen. x. 27; l Chr. i. 21), a
son of Joktan, whose settlements, in com
mon with those of the other sons of Jok
tan, must be looked for in Arabia, The
name in Hebrew signifies " a palm-tree ; "
hence it is thought that Diklah is a part of
Arabia containing many palm-trees,
Dil'ean, one of the cities in the low
lands of Judah (Josh. xv. 38), It has not
been identified with certainty.
Dim'nah, a city in the tribe of Zebu
lun, given to the Merarite Levites (Josh.
xxi. 35),
Di'mon,The'Waters of, some streams
on the east of the Dead Sea, in the land of
Moab, against which Isaiah is here uttering

denunciations (Is. xv. 9), Gesenius con
jectures that the two n.ames Dimon and
Dibon are the same,
Dlmo'nah, a city in the south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 22), perhaps the same as Dibon
in Neh. xi. 25.
Di'nah, the daughter of Jacob by Leah
(Gen. xxx, 21), She accompanied her
father from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and,
having ventured among the inhabitants,
was violiited by Shechem the son of Hanior,
the chieftain of the territory in which her
father had settled (Gen. xxxiv.). Shechem
proposed to make the usual reparation by
paying a sum to the father and marrying
her (Gen. xxxiv. 12). But in this case the
suitor was an alien, and the crown of the
offence consisted in its haying been com
mitted by an alien against the favored peo
ple of God; he had "wrought folly in Is
rael " (xxxiv. 7). The proposals of Hamor,
who acted as his deputy, were framed on
the recognition of the hitherto complete
separation of the two peoples ; he proposed
the fusion of the two by the establishment
of the rights of intermarriage and com
merce. The sons of Jacob, bent upon re
venge, availed themselves of the eagerness,
which Shechem showed, to effect their pur
pose ; they demanded, as a condition of the
proposed union, the circumcision of the
Shechemites. They therefore assented;
and on the third day, when the pain and
fever resulting from the operation were at
tho highest, Simeon and Levi, own brothers
to Dinah, attacked them unexpectedly, slew
all the males, and plundered their city,
Di'naites (Ezr. iv, 9), the name of
some of the Cuthaean colonists who wero
placed in the cities of Samaria after the
captivity of the ten tribes.
Din'habah (Gen. xxxvi. 32 ; 1 Chr. i.
43), tho capital city, and probably the birth
place, of Bela, son of Beor, king of Edom,
Dionys'ia, "the feast of Bacchus,"
which was celebrated, especially in later
times, with wild e-xtravagance and licen
tious enthusiasm. Women, as well as men,
joined in the processions, acting the p<art of
Maenads, crowned with ivy and bearing
the thyrsus. Shortly before the persecu
tion of Antiochus Epiphanes, 168 b. c, in
which the Jews "were compelled to go in
procession to Bacchus carrying ivy " (2
Mace, vi, 7), the secret celebration of the
Bacchanalia in Italy had been revealed to
the Roman senate (n. c. 186). A decree
was passed forbidding its observance in
Rome or Italy. This fact offers the best
commentary on the conduct of Antiochus.
Dionys'ius the Areopagite (Acts
xvii. 34), an eminent Athenian, converted
to Christianity by the preaching of St.
Paul. He is said to have been first bishop
of Athens. The writings which were once
attributed to him arc now confessed to be

DIONYSUS

148

DIVINATION

the production of some neo-Platonists of
the 6th century,
Diony'sus (2 Mace, xiv, 33 ; 3 Mace, ii,
29), also called Bacchus, the god of wine.
His worship was greatly modified by the in
corporation of Eastern elements, and as
sumed the twofold form of wild orgies and
mystic rites. To the Jew, Dionysus would
necessarily appear as the embodiment of
paganism in its most material shape, sanc
tioning the most tumultuous passions and
the worst excesses.
Dioscorin'thius, [Months.]
Diot'rephes, a Christian mentioned in
8 John 9, but of whom nothing is known.
Disciple. [Schools.]
Diseases. [Medicine.]
Dish. [Ba^in; Charger]. In ancient
Egypt, and also in Judaea, guests at the
table handled their food with the fingers.
The same is the case in modern Egypt.
Each person breaks off a small piece of
bread, dips it in the dish, and then conveys
it to his mouth, together with a small por
tion of the meat or other contents of the
dish. To pick out a delicate morsel and
hand it to a friend is esteemed a compli
ment, and to . refuse such an oflfering is
contrary to good manners. Judas dipping
his hand in the same dish with our Lord
was showing especial friendhness and inti
macy, Dis^han, the youngest son of Seir the
Horite (Gen, xxxvi, 21, 28, 30 ; 1 Chr, i.
,38, 42),
Dis'hon, 1. The fifth son of Seir (Gen.
xxxvi. 21, 26, 30; 1 Chr, i. 38), 2, The
son of Anah and grandson of Seir (Gen.
xxxvi. 25; 1 Chr. i. 38).
Dispersion, The Jews of the, or
simply The Dispersion, was the general
title applied to those Jews who remained
settled in foreign countries after the return
from the Babylonian exile, and during the
period of the second Temple. The Disper
sion, as a distinct element influencing the
entire character of the Jews, dates from the
Bibylonian exile. Outwardly and inward
ly, by its effects both on the Gentiles and on
thti people of Israel, the Dispersion appears
to hfive been the clearest providential prep-
aratiju for the spread of Christianity, At
the beginning of the Christi.an era the Dis
persion was divided into three great sec
tions, the Babylonian, tho Syrian, the
Egyptian. Precedence was yielded to the
first. From Babylon the Jews spread
throughout Persia, Media, and Parthia.
The Greek conquests in Asia extended the
limits of the Dispersion. Seleucus Nicator
transplanted large bodies of Jewish colo
nists from Babylonia to the capitals of his
western provinces. His policy was fol
lowed by his suceessor Antiochus the Great ;
and the persecutions of Antiochus Epipha
nes only served to push forward the Jewish

emigration to the remoter districts of hig
empire. Large settlements of Jews were
established in Cyprus, in the islands of the
Aegaean, and on the western coast of Asia
Minor. The Jews of the Syrian provinces
gradually formed a closer connection with*
their new homes, and together with the
Greek language adopted in many respects
Greek ideas. This Hellenizing tendency,
however, found its most free development
at Alexandria, The Jewish settlements
established there by Alexander and Ptolemy
I. became the source ofthe African disper
sion, which spread over the north coast of
Africa, and perhaps inland to Abyssinia.
At Cyrene and Berenice (Tripoli) the Jew
ish inhabitants formed a considerable por
tion of the-population. The Jewish settle
ments in Rome were consequent upon the
occupation of Jerusalem by Pompey, B. c.
03. The captives and emigrants whom he
brought with him were located in the trans -
Tiberine quarter. In the reign of Claudius
the Jews became objects of suspicion from
their immense numbers ; and the internal
disputes led to their banishment from the
city (Acts xviii. 2). This expulsion, if
general, can only have been temporary, for
in a few years the Jews at Rome were
numerous (Acts xxviii. 17, ff.). The influ
ence of the Dispersion on the rapid prom
ulgation of Christianity can scarcely be
overrated. The course of the apostolic
preaching followed in a regular progress
the line of Jewish settlements. The mixed
assembly from which the first converts were
gathered on the day of Pentecost represent
ed each Division of the Dispersion (Acts
ii. 9-11; (1) Parthians ... Mesopotamia;
(2) Judaea (i. e. Syria) . . . Pamphylia; .
(3) Egypt . . . Greece ; (4) Romans . . . ),
and these converts naturally prepared the
way for the apostles in the interval wliich
preceded the beginning of the separate ap
ostolic missions. St. James and St. Peter
wrote to the Jews of the Dispersion (Jam.
i, 1; 1 Pet. 1. 1).
Divination has been universal in all
ages, and all nations alike civilized and
savage. Numerous forms of divination are
mentioned, such as divination by rods (Hos.
iv. 12 ; divination by arrows (Ez. xxi. 21) ;
divination by cups (Gen, xliv, 5) ; consul
tation of Teraphim (Zoch, x, 2 ; Ez, xxi,
21; 1 Sam, xv. 23) [Terapaim] ; divina
tion by the liver (Ez, xxi. 21).; divination
by dreams (Deut. xiii, 2, 3 ; Judg, vii, 13 ;
Jer. xxiii. 32) ; consultation of oracles (Is,
xii. 21-24, xliv. 7), Moses forbade every
species of divination because a prying into
the future clouds the . mind with supersti
tion, and because it would have been an
incentive to idolatry : indeed the frequent
denunciations of the sin in the prophets
tend to prove that these forbidden arts pre
sented peculiar temptations to apostate Is-

DIVORCE

149

DOR

rael. But God supplied his people with
substitutes for divination, which would have
rendered it superfluous, and left them in no
doubt as to his will in circumstances of
danger, had they continued faithful. It
was only when they were unfaithful that
the revelation was withdrawn (1 Sam.
xxviii, 6; 2 Sam, ii. 1, v. 23, &c.). Super
stition not unfrequently goes hand in hand
with scepticism, and hence, amid the gen
eral infidelity prevalent through the Roman
empire at our Lord's coming, imposture
was rampant ; as a glance at the pages of
Tacitus will suffice to prove. Hence the
lucratife trades of such men as Simon
Magus (Acts viii, 9), Bar-jesus (Acts viii.
6, 8), the slave with the spirit of Python
(Acts xvi. 16), the vagabond Jews, exorcists
(Luke xi. 19; Acts xix. 13), and others (2
Tim, iii. 13; Rev. xix. 20, &c.), as well as
the notorious dealers in magical books at
Ephesus (Acts xix, 19),
Divorce. The law regulating this sub
ject is found Deut. xxiv. 1-4, and the cases
in which the right of a husband to divorce
h's wife was lost, are stated ib. xxii. 19, 29.
The ground of divorce is a point on which
the Jewish doctors of this period of the N.
T. widely differed; the school of Shammai
seeming to limit it to a moral delinquency
in the woman, whilst that of Hillel extended
it to trifling causes, e. g., if the wife burnt
the food she was cooking for her husband.
The Pharisees wished perhaps to embroil
our Saviour with these rival schools by their
question (Matt. xix. 3) ; by His answer to
which, as well as by His previous ihaxim
(v. 31), he declares that but fortheir hard
ened state of heart, such questions would
have no place. Yet from the distinction
made, " but I say urito you," v. 31, 32, it
seems to follow, that he regarded all the
lesser causes than " fornication " as stand
ing on too weak groUnd, and declined the
, question of how to interpret the words of
Moses. Diz'ahab, a place in the Arabian Des
ert, mentioned Deut. i. 1, is identified with
Dahab, a cape on the W. shore ofthe Gulf
of Akabah.
Dod'ai, an Ahohite who commanded the
course of the 2d month (1 Chr. xxvii.
4). It is probable that he is the same as
Dodo, 2.
Ded'anim, Gen. x. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 7 (in
some copies and in marg. of A. V. 1 Chr.
i. 7, Eodanim), a family or race descended
from Javan, the son of Japhet (Gen. x. 4 ;
1 Chr. i. 7). The weight of authority is in
favor of the former name. Dodanim is re
garded as identical with the Dardani, who
were found in historical times in Illyricura
and Troy.
Dod'avah, a man of Maresha in Judah,
father of Eliezer, who denounced Jehosha
phat's alliance with Ahaziah (2 Chr. xx. 37.)

Do'do. 1. A man of Bethlehem, father
of Elhanan, who was one of David's thirty
captains (2 Sam. xxiii. 24; 1 Chr. xi. 26),
He is a different person from, 2. Dodo
the Ahohite, father of Eleazar, the second
of the three mighty men who were over the
thirty (2 Sam. xxiii. 9; 1 Chr. xi. 12). He,
or his son — in which case we must suppose
the words "Eleazar son of" to have es
caped from the text — probably had the
command of the second monthly course (I
Chr. xxvii. 4). In the latter passage tha
name is Dodai.
Do'eg, an Idumaean, chief of Saul's
herdmen. He was at Nob when Abimelech
gave David the sword of Goliath, and not
only gave information to Saul, but when
others declined the office, himself executed .
the king's order to destroy the priests of
Nob, with their families, to the number of
85 persons, together with all their property
(1 Sam. xxi. 7, xxii. 9, 18, 22; Ps. Ill,),
Dog, an animal frequently mentioned
in Scripture, It was used by the Hebrews
as a watch for their houses (Is. Ivi, 10),
and for guarding their flocks (Job, xxx, 1).
Then also, as now, troops of hungry and
semi-wild dogs used to wander about the
fields and streets of the cities, devouring
dead bodies and other offal (1 K, xiv. 11,
xvi. 4, xxi, 19, 23, xxii. 38 ; 2 K, ix. 10, 36 ;
Jer. XV. 3 ; Ps. lix. 0, 14), and thus became
such objects of dislike that fierce and cruel
enemies are poetically styled dogs in Ps.
xxii. 16, 20. Moreover the dog being an
unclean animal (Is, Ixvi. 3), the terms dog,
dead dog^ dog's head, were used .as terms
of reproach, or of humility in speaking of
one's self (1 Sam. xxiv. 14 ; 2 Sam, iii, 8, i.x.
8, xvi. 9; 2 K. viii. 13). Stanley mentions
that he saw on the very site of Jezreel the
descendants of the dogs that devoured Jez
ebel, prowling on the mounds without the
walls for offal and carrion thrown out to
them to consume.
Doors, [Gates.]
Doph'kah, a place mentioned (Num,
xxxiii. 12) as a station in the Desert where
the Israelites encamped ; see Wilderness.
Dor (Josh. xvii. 11; 1 K. iv. 11; 1
Mace. XV. 11), an ancient royal city of the
Canaanites (Josh. xii. 23), whose ruler wai-
an ally of Jabin king of Hazor against
Joshua (Josh. xi. 1, 2). It was probably
the most southern settlement of the Phoeni
cians on the coast of Syria, It appears to
have been within the territory of the tribe
of Asher, though allotted to Manasseh(,Tosh,
xvii. 11 ; Judg. i. 27). The original inhab
itants were never expelled ; but during the
prosperous reigns of David and Solomon
they were made tributary (Judg. i. 27, 28),
and the latter monarch stationed at Dor
one of his twelve purveyors (1 K, iv, 11).
Jerome places it on the coast, " in tho ninth
mUe from Caesarea, on the way to Ptole^

DORA

150

DREAMS

mais." Just at the point indicated is the
small village of Taniitra, probably an Arab
corruption of Dora, consisting of about
thirty houses, wholly constructed of ancient
materials. Dora. 1 Maec. XV. 11, 13, 25. [Dor.]
Dor'cas. [Tabitha.]
Dosith'eus, " a priest and Levite,"
who carried the translation of Esther to
Egypt (Esth. xi. 1, 2).
Do'thaim. [Dothan.]
Do'than, a place first mentioned (Gen.
xxxvii. 17) in connection with the history of
Joseph, and apparently as in the neighbor
hood of Shechem. It next appears as the
residence of Elisha (2 K. vi. 13). Later
still we encounter it under the name of
Dothaim, as a landmark in the account of
Holofernes's campaign against Bethulia
(Jud. iv. 6, vii. 3, 18, viii. 3). It was
known to Eusebius, who places it 12 miles
to the N. of Sebaste (Samaria) ; and here
it has been discovered in our own times,
still bearing its ancient name unimpaired.
Dove (Heb. Ydndh). The first mention
of this bird occurs in Gen. viii. The dove's
rapidity of flight is alluded to in Ps. Iv. 6 ;
the beauty of its plumage in Ps. Ixviii. 13 ;
its dwelling in the rocks and valleys in Jer.
xlviii. 28, and Ez. vii. 16; its mournful
voice in Is. xxxviii. 14, lix. 11 ; Nah. ii. 7;
Its harmlessness in Matt. x. 16 ; its sim
plicity in Hos. vii. 11, and its amativeness
in Cant. i. 15, ii. 14. Doves are kept in a
domesticated state in many parts of the
East. In Persia pigeon-houses are erected
at a distance from the dwellings, for the
purpose of collecting the dung as manure.
There is probably an allusion to such a cus
tom in Is. lx. 8.
Dove's Dung. Various explanations
have been given of the passage in 2 K. vi.
25, which describes the famine of Sam.aria
to have been so excessive, that "an ass's
head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver,
and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung
for five pieces of silver." Bochart has
labored to show that it denotes a species
of cicer, "chick-pea," which he says the
Arabs call usndn, and sometimes improp
erly "dove's or sparrow's dung." It can
scarcely be believed that even in the worst
horrors of a siege a substance so vile as is
implied by the literal rendering should
have been used for food.
Dowry. [Makeiagb.]
Drachm (2 Mace. iv. 19, x. 20, xii. 43 ;
Luke XV. 8, 9), a Greek silver coin, vary
ing in weight on account of the use of dif
ferent talents. In Luke (A. V. "piece
of silver") denarii seem to be intended,
[Money ; Silver, Piece op,]
Dragon. The translators ofthe A. V.,
apparently following the Vulgate, have
rendered by the same word " dragon " the
two Hebrew words Tan and Tannin, which

appear to be quite distinct in meaning. 1
The. former is used, always in the plural,
in Job xxx. 29 ; Is. xxxiv. 13, xliii. 20 ; in
Is. xiii. 22 ; in Jer, x, 22, xlix. 33 ; in Ps.
xliv. 19; and in Jer. ix. 11, xiv. 6, li. 37; '
Mic. i. 8. It is always applied to some
creatures inhabiting the desert, and we
should conclude from this that it refers
rather to some wild beast than to a serpent.
The Syriac renders it by a word wliich,
according to Pococke, means a "jackal."
II. The word tannin seems to refer to any
gre.at monster, whether of the land or the
sea, being indeed more usually applied to
some kind of serpent or reptile, but not
exclusively restricted to that sense. When
we examine special passages we find the
word used in Gen. i. 21, of the great.sea-
monsters, the representatives of the inhab
itants of the deep. On the other hand, in
Ex. vii. 9, 10, 12, Deut. xxxii. 33, Ps. s-i.
13, it refers to land-serpents of a powerful
and deadly kind. In the N. T. it is only
found in the Apocalypse (Rev. xii. 3, 4, 7,
9, 16, 17, &c.), as applied metaphorically
to "the old serpent, called the Devil, and ,
Satan," the description of tbe "dragon"
being dictated by- the symbolical meaning
of the image rather than by any reference
to any actually existing creature. The
reason of this scriptural symbol is- to be
sought not only in the union of gigantic
power with craft and malignity ,. of wliich
the serpent is the natural emblem, but in
the record of the serpent's agency in the
temptation (Gen. iii.).
Dram. [Daric]
Dreams. The Scripture declares, that
the influeuce of the Spirit of God upon the
soul extends to its sleeping as well as its
waking thoughts. But, in accordance with
the principle enunciated by St. Paul in 1
Cor. xiv, 15, dreams, in which the under-
st.anding is asleep, are placed below the
visions of prophecy, in which the under
standing plays its part. It is true that the
book of Job, standing as it does on the
basis of " natural religion," dwells on
dreams and " visions in deep sleep," as the
chosen method of God's revelation of Him
self to man (see Job iv. 13, vii. 14, xxxiii.
15). But in Num. xii. 6; Deut. xiii. 1, 3,
5-; Jer. xxvii. 9 ; Joel ii. 28, &c., dreamers
of dreams, whether true or false, are placed
below " projihets," and even below "divi
ners ; " and similarly in the climax of 1
Sam. xxviii. 6, we read that "Jehovah
answered Saul not, neither by, dreams, nor
by Urini [by symbol], nor by prophets."
Under the Christian dispensation, while
we read frequently of trances and visions,
dreams are never referred to as vehicles
of divine revelation. In exact accordance
with this principle are the actual records of
the dreams sent by God. The greater num
ber of such dreams were granted, for pre-

DRESS

151

DRESS

diction or for warning, to those who were
aliens to the Jewish covenant. And, where
dreams are recorded as means of God's
revelation to His chosen servants, they are
almost always referred to the periods of
their earliest and most imperfect knowledge
of Him.
Dress. This subject includes the follow
ing particulars : 1. Materials. 2. Color
and decoration. 3. Name, form, and mode
of wearing the various articles. 4. Special
usages relating thereto. 1. The earliest
and simplest robe was made out of the
leaves of a tree, portions of which were
sewn together, so as to form an apron (Gen.
iii. 7). After the fall, the skins of animals
supplied a more durable material (Gen. iii.
21), which was adapted to a rude state of
society, and is stated to have been used by
various ancient nations. Skins were not
wholly disused at later periods : the " man
tle " worn by Elijah appears to have been
the skin of a sheep or some other animal
with the wool left on. It was characteristic
of a prophet's office from its mean appear
ance (Zech. xiii. 4 ; cf. Matt. vii. 15). Pe
lisses of sheepskin still form an ordinary
article of dress in the East. The art of
weaving hair was known to the Hebrews at
an early period (Ex, xxvi. 7, xxxv. 6) ; the
sackcloth used by mourners was of this
material, John the Baptist's robe was of
camel's hair (Matt, iii, 4). Wool, we may
presume, was introduced at a very early
period, the flocks of the pastoral families
being kept partly for their wool (Gen.
xxxviii. 12) : it was at all times largely em
ployed, particularly for the outer garments
(Lev, xiii. 47; Deut. xxii. 11; &c.). It is
probable that the acquaintance of the He
brews with linen, and perhaps cotton, dates
from the period of the captivity in Egypt,
when they were instructed in the manufac
ture (1 Chr, iv. 21), After their return to
Palestine we have frequent notices of linen.
Silk was not introduced until a very late
period (Rev. xviii. 12). The use of mixed
material, such as wool and flax, was forbid
den (Lev. xix. 19 ; Deut, xxii. 11), 2. Color
and decoration. — The prevailing color of
the Hebrew dress was the natural white of
the materials employed, which might be
brought to a liigh state of brilliancy by the
art of the fuller (Mark ix. 3). It is un
certain when the art of dyeing became
known to the Hebrews ; the dress worn by
Joseph (Gen, xxxvii, 3, 23) is variously
taken to be either a " coat of divers colors,"
or a tunic furnished with sleeves and reach
ing down to the ankles. The latter is
probably the correct sense. The notice of
scarlet thread (Gen, xxxviii, 28) implies
some acquaintance with dyeing. The
Egyptians had carried the art of weaving
and embroidery to a high state of perfec
tion, and from them the Hebrews learned

various methods of producing decorated
stuffs. The elements of ornamentation
were — (1) weaving with threads previous
ly dyed (Ex. xxxv. 26) ; (2) the introduc
tion of gold thread or wire (Ex. xxvii, 6, ff.) ;
(3) the addition of figures. These devices
may have been either woven into the stuff,
or cut out of other stuff and afterwards at
tached by needlework : in the former case
the pattern would appear only on one side,
in the latter the pattern .might be varied.
Robes decorated with gold (Ps. xiv. 13),
and at a later period with silver thread (cf.
Acts xii, 21), were worn by royal person
ages ; other kinds of embroidered robes
were worn by the wealthy both of Tyre (Ez,
xvi, 13) and Palestine (Judg, v. 30; Ps,
xiv. 14) , The art does not appear to have
been maintained among the Hebrews : the
Babylonians and other Eastern nations
(Josh, vii, 21 ; Ez. xxvii. 24), as well as the
Egyptians (Ez. xxvii. 7), excelled in it.
Nor does the art of dyeing appear to have
been followed up in Palestine : dyed robes
were imported from foreign countries
(Zeph. i. 8), particularly from Phoenicia,
and were not much used on account of
their expensiveness : purple (Prov. xxxi.
22 ; Luke xvi, 19) and scarlet (2 Sam. i.
24) were occasionally worn by the wealthy.
The surrounding nations were more lavish
in their use of them : the wealthy Tyrians
(Ez. xxvii. 7), the Midianitish kings (Judg.
viii. 26), the Assyrian nobles (Ez. xxiii. 6),
and Persian officers (Esth. viii. 15), are all
represented in purple. 3. The names,
forms,.and mode of wearing the robes. — It
is difficult to give a satisfactory account of
the various articles of dress mentioned in
the Bible. The general characteristics of
Oriental dress have indeed preserved a re
markable uniformity in all ages : the mod
ern Arab dresses much as the ancient He
brew did ; there are the same flowing robes,
the same distinction between the outer and
inner garments, the former heavy and
warm, the latter light, adapted to the rapid
and excessive changes of temperature in
those countries ; and there is the same dis
tinction between the costume ofthe rich and
the poor, consisting in the multiplication
of robes of a finer texture and more ample
dimensions. Hence the numerous illustra
tions of ancient costume, which may be
drawn from the usages of modern Orientals,
supplying in great measure the want of
contemporaneous representations,. The cos
tume of the men and women was v ery simi
lar ; there was sufficient uifference, however,
to mark the sex, and it was strictly forbidden
to a woman to wear the appendages, such as
the staff, signet-ring, and other ornaments,
or, according to Josephus, the weapons, of a
man ; as well as to a man to wear the outer
robe of a woman (Deut. xxii. 5). We shall
first describe the robes which were common

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102

DRESS

to the two sexes, and then those which were
peculiar to women. (1.) Thecithdnethwas
the most essential article of dress. It was
a closely -fitting garment, resembling in form
and use our shirt, though unfortunately
translated coat in the A, V. The material
of which it was made was either wool, cot
ton, or linen. The primitive clihdneth was
witliout sleeves and reached only to the
knee. Another kind reached to the wrists
and ankles. It was in either case kept
close to the body by a girdle, and the fold
formed by the overlapping of the robe
served as an inner pocket. A person wear
ing the cethdneth alone was described as
naked, A. V. The annexed woodcut (fig.
1) represents the simplest style of Oriental

rig. 1.— An Egyptian. (Lane's Modem Egyptians.)
dress, a long loose shirt or cethdneth with
out a girdle, reaching nearly to the ankle.
(2.) The sddin appears to have been a
wrapper of fine linen, which might be used
in various ways, but especially as a night
shirt (Mark xiv. 51). (3.) The miil was
an upper or second tunic, the difference
being that it was longer than the first. As
an article of ordinary dress it was worn by
kings (1 Sam. xxiv. 4), prophets (1 Sam.
xxviii, 14), nobles (Job i. 20), and youths
(1 Sam. ii. 19). It may, however, be
doubted whether the term is used in its
specific sense in these passages, and not
rather for any robe that chanced to be worn
over the clthdneth. Where two tunics are
mentioned (Luke iii. 11) as being worn at
the same time, the second would be a mill ;
travellers generally wore two, but tho prac
tice was forbidden to the disciples (Matt.
X. 10; Lukeix. 3). Tho dress of tho mid
dle and upper classes in modern Egypt (fig,
2) illustrates the customs of the Hebrews,
C4.) The ordinary outer garment consisted

of a quadrangular piece of woollen cloth,
probably resembling in shape a Scotch
plaid. The size and texture would vary
with the means of the wearer. The He
brew terms referring to it are — simlah,
sometimes put for clothes generally (Gen
xxxv. 2, xxxvii. 34; Ex, iii. 22, xxii. S-
Deut. X. 18 ; Is. iii. 7, iv. 1) ; beged, which

Fig. 2. — An Egyptian of the Upper Classes. (Lane.)
is more usual in speaking of robes of a
handsome and substantial character (Gen.
xxvii. 15, xii. 42 ; Ex. xxviii. 2 ; IK. xxii.
10 ; 2 Chr. xviii. 9 ; Is. Ixiii, 1) ; cisuth,
appropriate to passages where covering. or
protection is the prominent idea (Ex. xxii,
26 ; Job xxvi, 6, xxxi, 19) ; and lastly
libitsh, usual in poetry, but specially ap
plied to a wiirrior's cloak (2 Sam. xx. 8),
priests' vestments (2 K, x, 32), and royal
apparel (Esth, vi. 11, viii. 15). Another
term, mad, is specifically applied to a long
cloak (Judg, ii. 16; .2 S.am. xx. 8), and to
the priest's coat (Lev. vi. 10), The beged
might be worn in various ways, either
wrapped round the body, or worn over the
shoulders, like a shawl, with the ends or
" skirts " hanging down in front, or it might
be thrown over the head, so as to conceal
the face (2 Sam. xv, 30; Esth. vi. 12).
Tho ends were skirted with a fringe and
bound with a dark purple ribbon (Num. xv,
38) : it was confined at the waist by a
girdle, and the fold, formed by the ov-ei'-
lapping of the robe, served as a pocket.
'"ne dress of the women differed from that
of the men in regard to the outer garment,
the cethdneth being worn equally bjr both
sexes (Cant. v. 3) . The names of their dis
tinctive robes wero as follow : (1) mitpa.
chath {veil, wimple, A. V.), a kind of shawl
fRuth iii. 15 ; Is. iii. 22) ; (2) ma'aidphdh
{mantle, A. "V.), another kind of shaw (Is.

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163

DRINK

iii. 22) ; (3) tsatph {veil, A. V.), probably
a light summer dress of handsome appear
ance and of ample dimensions ; (4) rddid
{veil, A. v.), a similar robe (Is. iii. 23;
Cant. V. 7) ; (5) peihtgi {stomacher, A.
v.), a term of doubtful origin, but proba
bly significant of a gay holiday dress (Is.
iii. 24) ; (6) gilyonim (Is. iii. 23), also a
doubtful w'ord, probably means, as in the
A. V,, glasses. The garments of females
were terminated by an ample border of
fringe {skirts. A, V.), which concealed the
feet (Is. xlvii, 2; Jer, xiii, 22), Figs, 3
.and 4 illustrate some of the peculiarities
of female dress ; the former is an Egyptian
woman in her walking dreas : the latter
represents a dress, probably of great an
tiquity, still worn by the peasants in the
south of Egypt. The references to Greek
or Roman dress are few : the x^"l^^'? (2
Mace. xii. 35 ; Matt, xxvii. 28) was either
the paludamentum, the military scarf of
the Roman soldiery, or the Greek chlamys
itself, which was introduced under the Em
perors : it was especially worn by officers.
The travelling cloak referred to by St. Paul
(2 Tim. iv. 13) is generally identified with
the Roman paenula, of which it may be a
corruption. It. is, however, otherwise ex
plained as a travelUng-case for carrying
clothes or books. 4. Special usages re
lating to dress. — The length of the dress
rendered it inconvenient for active exer
cise ; hence the outer garments were either
left in the house by a person working close
by (Matt. xxiv. 18) or were thrown off
when the occasion arose (Mark x. 50;

fig 8.— .An Egyptian Woman. (Lane.)
John xiii, 4; Acts vii, 68), or, if this was
not possible, as in the case of a person
teftvelling, they were girded up (1 K, xviii,
Wi 2 K, iv. 29, ix. 1; 1 Pet. i. 13); on

entering a house the upper garment was
probably laid aside, and resiimed on going
out (Acts xii. 8), In a sitting posture, the
garments concealed the feet ; this was held
to be an act of reverence (Is. vi 2). The
number of suits possessed by the Hebrews
was considerable: a single suit consist-

Fig. 4. — A Woman of the Southern Province of Uppcf
Egypt. (Lane.)
ed of an under and upper garment. The
presentation of a robe in many instances
amounted to installation or investiture
(Gen, xU. 42; Esth. viii. 15; Is. xxii,
21) ; on the other hand, taking it away
amounted to dismissal from office (2 Miicc,
iv. 38'), The production of the best robe
was a mark of special honor in a household
(Luke XV. 22). The number of robes thus
received or kept in store for presents was
very large, and formed one of the main
elements of wealth in the East (Job xxii,
16; Matt, vi, 19; James v. 2), so that to
have clothing = to be wealthy and power
ful (Is. iii. 6, 7). On grand occasions the
entertainer offered becoming robes to his
guests. The business of making clothes
devolved upon women in a family (Prov,
xxxi, 22 ; Acts ix. 39) ; little art was re
quired in what we may term the tailoring
department; the garments came forth for
the most part ready made from the loom,
so that the weaver supplanted the tailor.
Drink, Strong. The Hebrew term
shicar, in its etymological sense, applies to
any beverage that had intoxicating qual
ities. We may infer from Cant, viii. 2
that the Hebrews were in the habit of ex- .
pressing the juice of other fruits besides
the grape for the purpose of making wine ;
the pome^anate, which is there noticed,
was probably one out of many fruits, so
used. With regard to the application of

DROMEDARY

154

EAGLE

the term in later times wc have the ex
plicit statement of Jerome, as well as other
sources of information, from which we
may state that the following beverages were
known to the Jews : 1, Beer, which was
largely consumed in Egypt under the name
of zythus, and was thence introduced into
Palestine. It was made of barley; cer
tain herbs, such as lupine and skirret, were
used as substitutes for hops. 2. Cider,
which is noticed in the Mishna as apple-
wine. 3. Honey-wine, of which there were
two sorts, one consisting of a mixture of
wine, honey, and pepper; the other a de
coction of the juice of the grape, termed
dehash (honey) by the Hebrews, and dibs
by the modern Syrians. 4. Date-wine,
which was also manufactured in Egypt.
It was made by mashing the fruit in water
In certain proportions, 5, Various other
fruits and vegetables are enumerated by
Pliny as supplying materials for/arfiii'oMS or
home-made wine, such as figs, millet, the ca-
rob fruit, &c. It is not improbable that the
Hebrews applied raisins to this purpose in
the simple manner followed by the Ara
bians, viz., by putting them in jars of water
and burying them in the ground until fer
mentation takes place.
Dromedary. [Camel.]
Drusil'la, daughter of Herod Agrippa
I. (Acts xii. 1, 19, ff.) and Cypres. She
was at first betrothed to Antiochus Epiph
anes, prince of Commagene, but was mar
ried to Azizus, king of Emesa, Soon af
ter, Felix, procurator of Judaea, brought
about her seduction by means of the Cyp
rian sorcerer Simon, and took her as his
wife. In Acts xxiv. 24, we find her in
company with Felix at Caesarea, Felix
had by Drusilla a son named Agrippa, who,
together with his mother, perished in the
eruption of Vesuvius under Titus,
Dtllcimer (Heb. Sumphoniah), a mu
sical instrument, mentioned in Dan. iii. 5,
15, probably the bagpipe. The same in
strument is still in use amongst peasants
in the N. W. of Asia and in Southern
Europe, where it is known by the similar
name Sampogna or Zampogna.
Du'mah, 1. A son of Ishmael, most
probably the founder of the Ishmaelite
tribe of Arabia, and thence the name of
the principal place, or district, inhabited by
that tribe (Gen, xxv, 14 ; 1 Chr, i. 30 ; Is,
xxi. 11). 2, A city in the mountainous
district of Judah, near Hebron (Josh. xv.
52), represented by the ruins of a village
called ed-Daumeh, 6 miles south-west of
Hebron. Dung. The uses of dung were twofold,
as manure, and as fuel. Tho manure con
sisted cither of straw steeped in liquid
manure (Is. xxv. 10), or the sweepings
(Is., v. 25) of the streets and roads, which
were carefully removed from 'about the

houses and collected in heaps outside the
walls of the towns at fixed spots (hence
the dung-gate at Jerusalem, Neh. ii. 13),
and thence removed in due course to the
fields. The mode of applying manure to
trees was by digging holes about their
roots and inserting it (Luke xiii. 8), as
still practised in Southern Italy. In the
case of sacrifices the dung was burnt out
side the camp (Ex. xxix. 14 ; Lev. iv. 11,
viii. 17; Num. xix. 5) : hence the extreme
opprobrium of the threat in Mal. ii. 3. Par
ticular directions were laid down in the
law to enforce cleanliness with regard to
human ordure (Deut. xxiii. 12, ff.) : it was
the grossest .insult to turn a man's house
into a receptacle for it (2 K, x. 27 ; Ezr,
vi, 11; Dan. ii. 5, iii, 29, "dunghill" A,
V,) ; public establishments of that nature
are still found in the large towns of the
East, — The difficulty of procuring fuel in
Syria, Arabia, and Egypt, has made dung
in all ages valuable as a substitute : it was
probably used for heating ovens and for
baking cakes (Ez, iv, 12, 15), the equable
heat which it produced adapting it pecu
liarly for the latter operation. Cow's and
camel's dung is still used for a similar pur
pose by the Bedouins,
Dungeon. [Prison.]
Du'ra, the plain where Nebuchadnezzar
set up the golden image (Dan. iii. 1) has
been sometimes identified with a tract a
little below Tekrit, on the left bank of the
Tigris, where the name Dur is still found,
M. Oppert places the plain (or, as he calls
it, the "valley") of Dura to the south
east of Babylon, in the vicinity of the
mound of Dowair or Diiair.
Dust, [Moukning,]

E.
Eagle (Heb. nesher). The Hebrew
word, which occurs frequently in the O.T.,
may denote a particular species of the Fal-
conidae, as in Lev. xi, 13 ; Deut. xiv, 12,
where the nesher is distinguished from the
ossifrage, osprey, and other raptatorial
birds ; but the term is used also to express
the griffon yulture ( Vultur fulvus) in two
or three passages. At least four distinct
kinds of eagles have been observed in Pal
estine, viz, the golden eagle {Aquila Ohry-
sa&tos), the spotted eagle {A. naevia), the
commonest species in the rocky districts,
the imperial eagle {Aquila Heliaca), and
the very common Circaetos gallicus, which
preys on the numerous reptilia of Pales
tine, The Heb. nesher may stand for any
of these different species, though perhaps
more particular reference to the golden and
imperial eagles and the griffon vulture may
be intended. The passage in Mic. i. 16«

EARNEST

155

EARTHQUAKE

"Enlarge thy baldness as the eagle," may
refer to the griffon vulture ( Vultur fulvus),
in which case the simile is peculiarly appro
priate, for the whole head and neck of this
bird are destitute of true feathers. The
"eagles " of Matt, xxiv; 28, Luke xvii, 37,
may include the Vultur fulvus and Neo-
phron percnopterus ; though, as eagles fre
quently prey upon dead bodies, there is no
necessity to restrict the Greek word to the
Vuliuridae. The figure of an eagle is now
and has been long a favorite military
ensign. The Persians so employed it; a
fact which illustrates the passage in Is.
xlvi. 11. The same bird was similarly em
ployed by the Assyrians and the Romans,
Earnest (2 Cor, i, 22, v. 5 ; Eph, i. 14).
The equivalent in tlie original is arrhabon
(ijiuBiSiiv), a Graecized form of the Heb.
'irdbdn, wliich was introduced by the Phoe
nicians into Greece, and also into Italy,
where it reappears under the forms of ar-
rhalo and arrha. The Hebrew word was
used generally for pledge (Gen. xxxviii.
17), and in its cognate forms for surety
(Prov. xvii, 18) and hostage (2 K, xiv. 14),
The Greek derivative, however, acquired a
more technical sense as signifying tho de
posit paid by the purchaser on entering
into an agreement for the purchase of any
thing. Earrings. The material of which ear
rings were made was generally gold (Ex,
xxxii. 2), and their form circular. They
were worn by women and by youth of both

Egyptian Earrings. From Willtinson.
sexes (Ex. 1. c). It had been inferred
from the passage quoted, and from Judg.
viii. 24, that they were not worn by men :
these passages are, however, by no means
, conclusive. The earring appears to have
been regarded with superstitious reverence
as an amulet. On this account they were
surrendered along with the idols by Jacob's
household (Gen. xxxv. 4). Chardin de
scribes' earrings, with talismanic figures and
f^haraoters on them, as still existing in the
East. Jewels were sometimes attached to
the rings. The size of the earrings still
worn in eastern countries far exceeds what
is usual among ourselves; hence they
formed a handsome present (Job xiii, 11),

or offering to the service ol God (Num.
xxxi. 50),
Sarth, The term is used i n two widely
different senses : (1) for the material of
which the earth's surface is composed ; (2)
as the name of the planet on which man
dwells. The Hebrew language discrimi
nates between these two by the use of sepa
rate terms, Adamah for the former, Erets
for the latter. I. Adamah is the earth in the
sense of soil or ground, particul.arly as being
susceptible of cultivation. The earth sup
plied the elementary substance of which
man's body was formed, and the terms adam
and adamah are brought into juxtaposition,
implying an etymological connection (Gen.
ii. 7). II. Erets is applied in a more or
less extended sense : 1. to the whole world
(Gen. i. 1) ; 2. to land as opposed to sea
(Gen. i. 10) ; 3. to a country (Gen. xxi. 32) ;
4. to a plot of ground (Gen. xxiii. 15) ; and
5. to the ground on which a man stands
(Gen. xxxiii. 3). The two former senses
alone concern us, the flrst involving au
inquiry into the opinions of the Hebrews on
Cosmogony, the second on Geography. I.
Cosmogony. 1. The earth w.as regarded
not only as the central point of the universe,
but as the universe itself, every other body
— the heavens, sun, moon, and stars — being
subsidiary to, and, as it were, the comple
ment of the earth. 2. The earth was regarded
in a twofold aspect ; in relation to God, as
the manifestation of His infinite attributes ;
in relation to man, as the scene of his abode.
1. The Hebrew cosmogony is based upon
the leading principle that the universe ex
ists, not independently of God, nor yet co
existent with God, nor yet in opposition to
Him, as a hostile element, but- dependently
upon Him, subsequently to Him, and in
subjection to Him. 2. Creation was regard
ed as a progressive work — a gradual devel
opment from the inferior to the superior
orders of things. II. Geography. There
seem to be traces of the same ideas as pre
vailed among the Greeks, that the world
was a disk (Is. xl. 22), bordered by the
ocean, with Jerusalem as its centre, like
Delphi, as the navel, or, according- to an
other view, the highest point of the world.
As to tbe size of the earth, the Hebrews
had but a very indefinite notion.
Earthenware. [Pottekt.]
Earthquake. Earthquakes, more or
less violent, are of frequent occurrence in
Palestine, as might be expected from the
numerous traces of volcanic agency visible
in the features of that country. The re
corded instances, however, are but few; the
most remarkable occurred in the reign of
Uzziah (Am. i. 1 ; Zech, xiv, 5), which Jo
sephus connected with the sacrilege and
consequent punishment of that monarch (2
Chr. xxvi, 16, ff,). From Zech. xiv, 4, we
are led to infer that a great convulsion took

EAST

156

EBIASAPH

pUce at this time in the Mount of Olives,
the mountain being split so as to leave a
valley between its summits, Josephus -re
cords something ofthe sort, but his account
is by no means clear. We cannot but think
that the two accounts have the same foun
dation, and that the Mount of Olives was
really affected by the earthquake. An
earthquake occurred at the time of our
Saviour's crucifixion (Matt, xxvii, 51-54),
which may be deemed miraculous rather
from the conjunction of circumstances than
from the nature of the phenomenon itself.
Earthquakes are not unfrequently accom
panied by fissures of the earth's surface ;
Instances of this are recorded in connection
with the destruction of Korah and his com
pany (Num. xvi, 32), and at the time of our
Lord's death (Matt, xxxvii. 51) ; the former
may be paralleled by a similar occurrence
at Oppido in Calabria A, d. 1783, where the
earth opened to the extent of 500, and a
depth of more than 200 feet.
East. The Hebrew terms, descriptive
ofthe east, differ in idea, and, to a certain
extent, in application; {1) kedem properly
means that which is before or in front of
a person, and was applied to the east from
the custom of turning in that direction when
describing, the points ofthe compass, before,
behind, the right, and the left, representing
respectively E.,AV., S., andN. (Job xxiii. 8,
9) ; (2) mizrach means the jilace of the sun's
rising. Bearing in mind this etymological
distinction, it is natural that kedem should
be used when the /o«r quarters ofthe world
are described (as in Gen. xiii. 14, xxviii.
14; Job xxiii. 8, 9; Ez. xlvii. 18, ff.), and
mizrach when the east is only distinguished
from the west (Josh. xi. 3 ; Ps. 1. 1, ciii. 12,
cxiii. 3; Zech. viii. 7), or from some other
one quarter (Dan. viii. 9, xi. 44 ; Am. viii.
12) ; exceptions to this usage occur in Ps.
evil. 3, and Is. xliii. 5 ; each, however, ad
mitting of explanation. Again, kedem is
used in a strictly geographical sense to
describe a spot or country immediately be
fore another in an easterly direction ; hence
it occurs in such passages as Gen, ii, 8, iii,
24, xi, 2, xiii. 11, xxv. 6; and hence the
subsequent application of the term, as a
proper name (Gen. xxv. 6, eastward, unto
the land of Kedem), to the hands lying im
mediately eastward of P.alestine, viz.Arabia,
Mesopotsimia, and Babylonia; on the other
hand m,izrach is used of the far east with a
less definite signification (Is. xii. 2, 25,
xliii. 5, xlvi. 11).
Easter. The occurrence of this word
in the A. V. of Acts xii, 4, is chiefly noticea
ble as an example of the want of consistency
m the translators. In the earlier English
versions Easter had been frequently used
as the tianslation of pascha {naaxa). At
the last revision Passover was substituted
in all passages but this, [Passoveb.]

E'bal. 1, One of the sons of Shobal
the son of Seir (Gen, xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chr. i.
40). 2. Obal the son of Joktan (1 Chr; i.
22 ; comp. Gen. x. 28.
E'bal, Mount, a mount in the promised
land, on which, according to the command
of Moses, the Israelites were, after their
entrance on the promised land, to "put"
the curse which should fall upon them if
they disobeyed the commandments of Je
hovah. The blessing consequent on obedi
ence was to be similarly localized on Mount
Gerizim (Deut. xi. 26-29). Ebal and
Gerizim are the mounts which form the
sides of the fertile valley iu which lies
NabHs, the ancient Shechem — Ebal on
the north and Gerizim on the south. One
of the most serious variations between the
Hebrew text of the Pentateuch and the
Samaritan text, is in reference to Ebal and
Gerizim. In Deut. xxvii. 4, the Samaritan
has Gerizim, while the Hebrew (as in A. V.)
has E bal, as the mount on which the altar to
Jehovah and the inscription of the law were
to be erected. Upon this basis they ground
the sanctity of Gerizim and the authenticity
ofthe temple and holy place, wliich did exist
and still exist there. The modern name of
Ebal is Siiii Salamiyah, from a Moham
medan female saint, whose tomb is stand
ing on the eastern part ofthe ridge, a httle
before the highest point is reached.
E'bed. 1. (Many MSS, have Ebee.) Fa
ther of Gaal, who with his brethren assisted
the men of Shechem in their revolt against
Abimelech (Judg, ix, 26, 28, 30, 31, 35). 2.
Son of Jonathan ; one of the Bene-Adinwho
returned from ISabylon with Ezra (Ezr.
viii. 6). ,
E'bed-Me'Iech, an Aethiopian eunuch
in the service of king Zedekiah, through
whose interference Jeremiah was released
from prison (Jer. xxxviii. 7, ff., xxxix. 15,
ff.). His n.ame seems to be an official ti
tle = King's slave, i. e. minister.
Eb'en-e'zer ("the stone of help"), a
stone set up by Samuel after a signal de
feat of the Philistines, as a memorial of the
" help " received on the occasion from Je
hovah (1 Sam. vii. 12). Its position is care
fully defined as between Mizpeh and Shen.
E'ber. 1. SonofSalah, andgn/at-grand-
son of Shem (Gen. x. 24; 1 Chr. i. 19).
For confusion between Eber .and Heber see
Hebeb. 2. Son of Elpaal and descendant
of Sharah.aim of the tribe of Benjamin (1
Chr. viii. 12). _ 3. A priest in the days of
Joiakim tho son of Jeshua (Neh. xii. 20). .
Ebi'asaph, a Kohathite Levite of the
family of Korah, one of the forefathers of
the prophet Samuel and of Heman the
singer (1 Chr. vi. 23; 37). The same man
is probably intended in ix. 19. The name
appears also to be identical with Abiasapb,
and in one passage (1 Chr. xxvi. 1) to b«
abbreviated to Asaph.

EBONY

157

ECLIPSE OF THE SUN

Ebony (Heb. hobntm) occurs only in
hi. xxvii. 16, as one of the valuiible com
modities imported into Tyre by the men of
Dedan. The best, kind of ebony is yield
ed by the Diospyros ebenum, a tree which
grows in Ceylon and Southern India. There
is every reason for believing that the ebony
afforded by the Diospyros ebenum was im
ported from India or Ceylon by Phoenician
traders. Ebro'nah, one of the halting-places of
the Israelites in the desert, immediately pre
ceding Ezion-geber (Num. xxxiii. 34, 35).
Eebat'ana (Heb. AchmMthd). It is
doubtful whether the name of this place is
really contained in the Hebrew Scriptures.
Many of the best commentators understand
the expression, in Ezr. vi. 2, differently,
and translate it " in a coffer." In the apoc
ryphal books Ecbatana is frequently men
tioned (Tob. iii. 7, xiv. 12, 14 ; Jud. i. 1,2;
2 Mace. ix. 3, &c.). Two cities of the name
of Ecbatana seem to have existed in ancient
times, one the capital of Northern Media,
the Media Atropat(5n6 of Strabo ; the other
the metropolis of the larger and more im
portant province known as Media Magna.
The site of the former appears to be marked
by the very curious ruins at Takht-i- Sulet-
man (lat. 36° 28', long. 47° 9') ; while that
of tbe latter is occupied by Hamadan, which
is one of the most important cities of mod
em Persia. There is generally some diffi
culty in determining, when Ecbatana is
mentioned, whether the nortliern or the
southern metropolis is intended. Few wri
ters are aware of the existence of the two
cities, and they lie sufficiently near to one
another for geographical notices iu most
cases to suit either site. The northern city
was the " seven-walled town " described by
Herodotus, and declared by him to have
been the capital of Cyrus (Herod, i. 98, 99,
153) ; and it was thus most probably there
that the roll was found which proved to
Darius that Cyrus had really made a decree
allowing the Jews to rebuild their temple.
The peculiar feature of the site of Takht-i-
Suletman is a conical hill rising to the
height of about 150 feet above the plain,
and covered both on its top and sides with
massive ruins of the most antique and prim
itive character. In the 2d book of Macca
bees (ix. 3, &c.) the Ecbatana mentioned
is undoubtedly the southern city, now rep
resented both in name and site by Hama-
dan. This place, situated on the northern
flank of the great mountain called formerly
Orontes, and now Elwend, was perhaps as
ancient as the "other, and is far better known
in history. If not the Median capital of
Cyrus, it was at any rate regarded from the
time of Darius Hystaspis as the chief city
of the Persian satrapy of Media, and as
such it became the summer residence of
Bie Persian kings from Darius downwards.

The Ecbatana ofthe book of Tobit is thought
by Sir H, Rawlinson to be the northern
city. Ecclesias'tes. The title of this book
is in Hebrew Koheleth, a feminine noun,
signifying one who speaks publicly in an
assembly, and hence rendered in the Sep -
tuagint hy Ecclesiasies, which is adopted
in the English version. Koheleth is the
name by which Solomon speaks of himself
throughout the book. "The words ofthe
preacher (Heb. Koheleth) the son of David,
king of Jerusalem" (i. 1). The apparent
anomaly of the feminine termin.ation indi
cates that the abstract noun has been trans
ferred from the office to the person holding
it. The Book is that which it professes to
be, — the confession of a man of wide expe
rience looking back upon his past life and
looking out upon the disorders and calami
ties which surround him. The writer is a
man who has sinned in giving way to self
ishness and sensuality, who has paid the
penalty of that sin in satiety and weariness
of life, but who has through all this been
under the discipline of a divine education,
and has learnt from it the lesson which God
meant to teach him. It is tolerably clear
that the recurring burden of "Vanity of
vanities " and the teaching which recom
mends a life of calm enjoyment, mark,
whenever they occur, a kind of halting-
place in the succession of thoughts,
Ecclesias'ticus, one of the books of
the Apocrypha, is the title given in the
Latin Version to the book which is called
in the Septuagint The Wisdom of Jesus
the Son op Sirach. The word desig
nates the character of the writing, as pub
licly used in the services of the Church,
The writer describes himself as Jesus {i. e.
Jeshua) the son of Sirach, of Jerusalem (i,
27), but we know nothing of the author.
The language in which the book was origi
nally composed was Hebrew, i. e. perhaps
the Aramean dialect ; and the Greek trans
lation incorporated in the LXX. was made
by the grandson of the author in Egypt
"in the reign of Euergetes," perhaps Ptol
emy VII. Physcon, who also bore the sur
name of Euergetes (b. o. 170-117).
Eclipse of the Sun, No historical
notice of an eclipse occurs in the Bible,
but there are passages in the prophets
which contain manifest allusion to this phe
nomenon (Am. viii, 9 ; Mic. iii. 6 ; Zech,
xiv. 6; Joel ii, 10, 31, iii. 15), Some of
these notices probably refer to eclipses
that occurred about the time of the respet
tive compositions : thus the date of Amos
coincides with a total eclipse, which oc
curred Feb. 9, b. c, 784, and was visible at
Jerusalem shortly after noon ; that of Mi
cah with the eclipse of June 5, e. c. 718.
A passing notice in Jer. xv. 9 coincides in
date with the eclipse of Sept, 30, b, c, 010,

ED

158

EDOM

so well known from Herodotus's account
(i. 74, 103), Tbe darkness that overspread
the world at the crucifixion cannot with
reason be attributed to an eclipse, as the
moon was at the full at the tmie of the
Passover. Ed, i. e. "witness," a word inserted in
the Auth. Vers, of Josh. xxii. 34, apparent
ly on the authority of a few MSS., and also
of the Syriac and.Ar.abic Versions, but not
existing in the generally received Hebrew
text. E'dar, Tower of (accur. Eder), a
place named only in Gen. xxxv. 21. Ac
cording to Jerome it was 1000 paces from
Bethlehem. E'den. 1. The first residence of m.an,
called in the Septuagint Paradise. The
latter is a word of Persian origin,' and de
scribes an extensive tract of pleasure land,
somewhat like an English park; and the
use of it suggests a wider view of man's
first abode th.an a garden. The descrip
tion of Eden is as follows : — " And the
Lord God planted a garden in Eden east
ward. . , . And a river goeth forth from
Eden to water the garden ; and from thence
it is divided and becomes four heads (or
arms). The name of the first is Pison :
that is it which compasseth the whole land
of Havilah, where is the gold. And tho
gold of that land is good : tliere is the bdel
lium and the onyx stone. And the name
cf the second river is Gihon ; that is it
whi''.h compasseth the whole land of Cush.
And the name of the third river is Hid-
dekel; that is it which floweth before As
syria. And the fourth river, that is Eu
phrates" (Gen, ii. 8-14). In the eastern
portion then of the region of Eden was
the garden planted. The Hiddekel is the
Tigris; but with regard to the Pison and
Gihon, a, great variety of opinion exists.
Many ancient writers, as Josephus, identi
fied the Pison with the Ganges, and the Gihon
with the Nile. Others, guided by the posi
tion of the two known rivers, identify the
two unknown ones with the Phasis and
Araxes, which also have their sources in
the highlands of Armenia. Others, again,
have transferred the site to the sources of
the Oxus and Jaxartes, and place it in
Bactria; others, agiiin, in the valley of
Cashmere. Such speculations may be mul
tiplied ad infinitum, and have sometimes
assumed the wildest character. 2. One
of the marts which supplied the luxury of
Tyre with richly embroidered stuffs. It is
associated with Haran, Sheba, and Asshur.
In 2 K. xix. 12, and Is. xxxvii. 12, " the
sons of Eden " are mentioned with Gozan,
Haran, and Rczeph, as victims of the As
syrian greed of conquest. In the absence
of positive evidence, probability seems to
point to tho N. W. of Mesopotamia as the
loc^lity of Eden. 3. Beth-Eden, "house

of pleasure ; " probably the name of s
country residence of the kings of Damas
cus (Am. i. 6).
E'den. 1. A Gershgnite Levite, sonof
Joab, in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr.
xxix. 12). 2. Also a Levite, contemporary
and probably identical with the preceding
(2 Chr. xxxi. 15).
E'der. 1. One of the towns of Judah,
in the extreme south, and on the borders
of Edom (Josh. xv. 21). No trace of it
has been discovered in modern times. 2.
A Levite of the family of Merari, in the
time of David (1 Chr. xxiii. 23, xxiv. 30).
E'dom, Idume'a, or Idumae'a. The
name Edom was given to Esau, the first-born
son of Isaac, and twin brother of Jacob,
when he sold his birthright to the latter for
a meal of lentil pottage. The peculiar
color of the pottage gave rise to the name
Edom, which signifies "red" (Gen. xxv.
29-34) . The country which the Lord subse
quently gave to Esau was hence called the
" field of Edom " (Gen. xxxii. 3), or "land
of Edom" (Gen. xxxvi. 16; Num. xxxiii.
87), and his descendants were called the
Eclomites. Probably its physical aspect
may have had something to do with this.
Edom was previously called Mount Seir
(Gen. xxxii. 3, xxxvi. 8), from Seir the
progenitor of the Horites (Gen. xiv. 6,
xxxvi. 20-22). The name Seir was perhaps
adopted on account of its being descriptive
ofthe " rugged" character ofthe territory.
The original inhabitants of the country
were called Horites, from Hori, the grand
son of Seir (Gen. xxxvi, 20, 22), because
that name was descriptive of their habits as
" Troglodytes," or " dwellers in caves,"
Edom was wholly a mountainous country.
It embraced the narrow mountainous tract
(about 100 miles long by 20 broad) extend
ing along the eastern side of the Arabah
from tho northern end of the gulf of Elath
to near the southern end of the Dead. Sea. .
It was separated from Moab on the N. by
the "brook Zered" (Deut. ii. 13, 14, 18),
probably the modern Wady-el-Ahsy. The
ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah {Busei-
reh) near the northern border (Gen. xxxvi,
33 ; Is. xxxiv. 6, Ixiii, 1 ; Jer. xlix. 13, 22). .
But Sela (Petra) appears to have been the
principal stronghold in the days of Amazi
ah (b. c.) 838 ; 2 K. xiv. 7) : Elath and
Eziongeber were the se.a-ports (2 Sam. viii.
14; 1 K. ix. 26). Esiiu's bitter hatred to
his brother Jacob for fraudulently obtaining
his blessing appears to have been inherit
ed by his latest posterity. The Edomites
peremptorily refused to permit the Israel
ites to pass through their land (Num. xx.
18-21). For a period of 400 -years we
hear no more of the Edomites. They were
then attacked and defeated by Saul (1
S.ani. xiv. 47). Some forty years later
David overthrew their army in the ' Valley

EDOM

159

EGLON

of Salt," and his general, Joab, following
ap the victory, destroyed nearly the whole
male population (1 K. xi. 15, 16), and
placed Jewish garrisons in all the strong
holds of Edom (2 Sam. viii. 13, 14). In
the reign of Jehoshaphat (b. c. 914) the
Edomites attempted to invade Israel in
conjunction with Ammon and Moab, but
were miraculously destroyed in the valley
of Berachah (2 Chr. xx. 22). A few years
later they revolted against Jehoram, elected
a king, and for half a century retained their
independence (2 Chr. xxi. 8). They were
then attacked by Amaziah, and Sela their
great strongliold was captured (2 K. xiv. 7 ;
2 Chr, xxv. U, 12). Yet the IsraeKtes
were never able again completely to subdue
them (2 Chr. xxviii. 17). When Nebuchad
nezzar besieged Jerusalem the Edomites
joined, him, and took an active part in the
plunder of the city and slaughter of the
Jews. Their cruelty at that time seems to
be specially referred to in the 137th Psalm.
It was on account of these acts of cruelty
committed upon the Jews in the day of
their calamity that the Edomites were so
fearfully denounced by the later prophets
(Is. xxxiv. 5-8, Ixiii. 1-4 ; Jer. xlix. 17 ;
Lam. iv. 21; Ez. xxv, 13, 14; Am. i. 11,
12; Obad. 10, sq.). Ou the conquest of
Judah, the Edomites, probably in reward
for their services during the war, were
permitted to settle in southern Palestine,
and the whole plateau between it and Egypt,
which now usually bore the Greek name of
Idumaea; but they were about the same
time driven out of Edom Proper by the
Nabatheans. For more than four centuries
they continued to prosper. But during the
warhke rule of the Maccabees they were
again completely subdued, and even forced
to conform to Jewish laws and rites, and
submit to the government of Jewish pre
fects. The Edomites were now incorporat
ed with the Jewish nation, and the whole
province was often termed by Greek and
Roman writers Idumaea. Immediately
before the siege of Jerusalem by Titus,
20,000 Idumaeans wero admitted to the
Holy City, which they filled with robbery
and bloodshed. From this time the Edom
ites, as a separate people, disfippear from
the page of history. — Little is kiiown of
their religion; but that little shows them
to have been idolaters (2 Chr. xxv. 14, 15,
20). Their habits were singular. The
Horites, their predecessors in Mount Seir,
were, as their name implies, troglodytes, or
dwellers in caves; and the Edomites
seem to have adopted their dwellings as
well as their country. Everywhere we
nieet with caves and grottos hewn in the
soft sandstone strata. Those at Petra are
well kno^v^l. The nature of the climate,
the dryness of the soU, and their great size,
render them healthy, pleasant, and com

modious habitations, while their security
made them specially suitable to a country
exposed in every age to incessant attacks
of robbers.
E'domites. [Edom.]
Ed'rei. 1. One of the two capital cities
of Bashan (Num. xxi. 33; Deut. i. 4, iii. 10;
Josh. xii. 4). In Scripture it is only men
tioned in connection with the victory gained
by the Israelites over the Amorites under
Og their king, and, the territory thus ac
quired. The ruins of tliis ancient city,
still bearing tlie name Edr'a, stand on a
rocky promontory which projects from the-
S. W. corner of the Lejah. The ruins are
nearly three miles in circumference, and
have a strange wild look, rising up in black
shattered masses from the midst of a wilder
ness of black rocks. 2. A town of northern
Palestine, allotted to the tribe of Naphtali,
and situated near Kedesh (Josh. xix. 37).
About two miles south of Kedesh is a coni
cal rocky hill called Tell Khvraibeh, the
"Tell of the ruin," which may be the site
of Edrei.
Education. Although nothing is more
carefully inculcated in the L.aw than the
duty of parents to teach their children its
precepts and principles (Ex. xii. 26, xiii. 8,
14; Deut. iv. 6, 9, 10, vi. 2, 7, 20, &c.),
yet there is little trace among the Hebrews
in earlier times of education in any other
subjects. The wisdom therefore and in
struction, of which so much is said in the
Book of Proverbs, are to be understood
chiefly of msral and religious discipline,
imparted, according to the direction of the
Law, by the teaching and under tbe exam
ple of parents. In later times the prophe
cies, and comments on them as well as on
the earlier Scriptures, together with other
subjects, were studied. Parents were re
quired to teach their children some trade.
Previous to the captivity, the chief deposi
taries of learning were the schools or col
leges, from which in most cases proceeded
that succession of publio teachers, who at
various times endeavored to reform the
moral and religious conduct of both rulers
and people. Besides the prophetical schools
instruction was given by the priests in the
Temple and elsewhere, but their subjects
were doubtless exclusively concerned with
religion and worship.
Eg!lah, one of David's wives during
his reign in Hebron, and the mother of his
son Ithream (2 Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chr. iii. 3).
According to the ancient Hebrew tradition,
she was Michal.
Egla'im, a place named only in Is. xv.
8, probably the same as En- eglaim.
Eg'lon. 1. A king of the Moabites
(Judg. iii, 12, ff.), who, aided by the Am
monites and the Amalekites, crossed the
Jordan and took " the city of palm-trees,"
Here, according to Josephus, he built him-

EGYPT

160

EGYPT

self a palace, and continued for eighteen
years to oppress the children of Israel,
who paid him tribute. He was slain by
Ehud. [Ehud.] 2. A town of Judah in
the low country (Josh, xv, 39). During
the struggles of the conquest, Eglon was
one of a confederacy of five towns, which
under Jerusalem attempted resistance, by
attacking Gibeon after the treaty of the lat-
ter-with Israel (Josh. x.). The name sur
vives in the modern .Ajlan, a shapeless
mass of ruins, about 10 miles from Eleu
theropolis and 14 from Gaza, on the S. of
the great maritime plain.
Egypt, a country occupying the north
eastern angle of Africa. Its limits appear
always to have been very nearly the same.
In Ezekiel (xxix. 10, xxx. 6) the whole
country is spoken of as extending from
Migdol to Syene, which indicates the same
limits to the east and the south as at pres
ent. Names. — The common name of Egypt
in the Bible is "Mizraim," or more fully
" the land of Mizraim." In form Mizraim
is a dual, and accordingly it is generally
joined with a plural verb. When, there
fore, in Gen. x. 6, Mizraim is mentioned as
V, son of Ham, we must not conclude that
anything more is meant than that Egypt was
colonized by descendants of Ham. 'Ihe dual
number doubtless indicates the natural di
vision of the country into an upper and a
lower region. The singular Mazor also
occurs, and some suppose that it indicates
Lower Egypt, but there is no sure ground
for this assertion. The Arabic name of
Egypt, .ilfi^r, signifies "red mud." Egypt
is also called in the Bible " the land of
Ham" (Ps. cv. 23, 27; comp. Ixxviii. 51),
a name most probably referring to Ham the
son of Noah; and " Rahab," the proud or
insolent ; both these appear to be poetical
appellations. The common ancient Egyp
tian name of the country is written in hier
oglyphics KEM, which was perhaps pro
nounced Chem. This name signifies, alike
in the ancient language and in Coptic,
"black," and may be supposed to have
been given to the land on account of the
blackness of its alluvial soU. We may
reasonably conjecture that Kem is the
Egyptian equivalent of Ham, and also of
Ma/ior, these two words being similar or
even the' same in sense. Under the Pha
raohs Egypt w.as divided into Upper and
Lower, " the two regions." In subsequent
times this double division obtained. In the
time of the Greeks and Romans Upper
Egypt was divided into the Heptanomis and
the Thebals,. making altogether three prov
inces, but the division of the whole coun
try into two was even then the most usual.
General Appearance, Climate, ^c. — The
general appearance of the country cannot
have greatly changed since tho days of
Moses. The Delta was always avast level

plain, although of old more perfectly wa
tered than now by the branches of the Nile
and numerous canals, while the nariow
valley of Upper Egj'pt must have suffered
still less alteration. Anciently, however,
the rushes must have been abund,ant;
whereas now they have almost disappeared,
except in the lakes. The whole country is
remarkable for its extreme fertility, which
especially strikes the beholder when the
rich green of the fields is contrasted with
the utterly bare yellow mountains or the
sand-strewn rocky desert on either side.
The climate is equable and healthy. Rain
is not very unfrequent on the northern
coast, but inland very rare. Cultivation
nowhere depends upon it. This absence of
rain is mentioned in Deut. (xi.- 10, 11) as
rendering artificial irrigation necessary,
unlike the case of Palestine, and in Zech.
(xiv. 18) as peculiar to the country. Egypt
has been visited in all ages by severe pesti
lences. Famines are frequent, and one in
the middle ages, in the time of the Fdtimee
Khaleefeh El-Slustausirbillah, seems to
have been even more severe than that, of
Joseph. The inundation of the Nile fer
tilizes and sustains the country, and makes
the river its chief blessing. 'The Nile was
on this account anciently worshipped.
The rise begins in Egypt about the summer
solstice, and the inundation commences
about two months later. The greatest
height is attained about or somewhat af
ter the autumnal equinox. The inunda
tion lasts about three months. Cultivation,
Agriculture, ^c. — The ancient prosperity
of Egypt is attested by the Bible as well
as by the numerous monuments of the
country. As early as the age of the Great
Pyramid it must have been densely popu
lated. The contrast of the present state
of Egypt to its former prosperity is more
to be ascribed to political than to phys
ical causes, Egypt is naturally an agri
cultural country. As far back as the days
of Abraham, we find that when the prod
uce' failed in Palestine, Egypt was the
natural resource. In the time of Joseph
it was evidently the granary, at least dur
ing famines, of the nations around. The
inundation, as taking the place of rain, has
always rendered the system of agriculture
peculiar; and the artificial irrigation dur
ing the time of low Nile is necessarily on
the same principle. Vines were exten
sively cultivated. Of other fruit-trees, the
date-palm was the most common and valu
able. The gardens resembled the fields,
being watered in the same manner by irri
gation. On .the tenure of land much light
is thrown by the history of Joseph. Be
fore the famine each city and large village
had its field (Gen. xii. 48) ; but Joseph
gained for Pharaoh all the land, except
that of the priests, in exchange for food,

EGYPT

161

EGYPT

and required for the right thus obtained a
fifth of the produce, which became a law

tiranary, showing ho-w the gmin was put in, and that the
doors a b were intended for taking it out. (WUkiiison.)

(xlvii. 20-26). Religion. — The basis of
the religion was Nigritian fetichism, the
lowest kind of nature-worship, differing in
different parts of the country, and hence
obviously indigenous. Upon this were in
grafted, first, cosmic worship, mixed up
with traces of primeval revelation, as in
Babylonia ; and then, a system of personi
fications of moral and intellectual abstrac
tion.?. There were three orders of gods —
the eight great gods, the twelve lesser, and
the Osirian group. There was no promi-
astt hero-worship, although deceased kings
and other individuals often received divine
honors. The great doctrines of the im

mortality of the soul, man's rcBponsibility,
and future rewards and punishments, were
taught. Among tbe rites, circumcision is
the most re-narkable : it is as old as the
time of the ivth dynasty. The Israelites
in Egypt appear during the oppression, for
the most part, to have adopted the Egyptian
religion (Josh, x.xiv. 14; Ez. xx. 7, 8).
The golden calf, or rather steer, was prob
ably taken from the bull Apis, certainly
from one of the sacred bulls. Remphan
and Chiun were foreign divinities adopted
into the Egyptian Pantheon. Ashtoreth
was worshipped at Memphis. Doubtless
this worship was introduced by the Phoeni
cian Shepherds. Army. — There are some
notices of the Egyptian army in the O. 'I',
They show, like the monuments, that its
most important branch was the chariot-
force. The Pharaoh of the Exodus led
600 chosen chariots besides his whole char
iot-force in pursuit of the Israelites, The
warriors fighting in ch<ariots are probably
the " horsemen " mentioned in the relation
of this event and elsewhere, for in Egyptian
they are called the ' ' horse "or " cavalry,"
Wo have no subsequent indication in the
Bible of the constitution of an Egyptian
army until the time of the xxiid dynasty,
when we find that Shishak's invading force
was partly composed of foreigners ; whether
mercenaries or allies, cannot as yet be pos
itively determined, although the monuments
make it most probable that they were of
the former character. The army of Necho,
defeated at Carchemish, seems to have been
similarly composed, although it probably
contained Greek mercenaries, who soon
afterwards became the most iniportant

Disciplined Troops of the time of the XVIIlth Dynasty. (Wilkinson.) '

foreign element in the Egyptian forces.
Domestic Life. — 'The sculptures and paint
ings of the tombs give us a very full insight
into the domestic life of the ancient Egyp
tians, What most strikes us in then: man
ners is tho high position occupied by we
ll

men, and the entire absence of the harem
system of seclusion. Marriage ap.pears to
have been universal, at least with the richer
class; and if polygamy were tolerated it
was rarely practised. There were no
castes, although great classes were very

EGYPT

162

EGYPT

distinct. The occupations of the higher
class wero the superintendence of their
fields and gardens ; their diversions, the
pursuit of game in the deserts, or on the
river, and fishing. The tending of cattle
was left to the most despised of the lower
class. The Egyjitian feasts, and the dances,
music, and feats wliich accompanied them,
for the diversion of the guests, as well as
the common games, were prohably intro
duced among the Hebrews in the most lux
urious days of the kingdoms of Israel and
Judah. 'The account of the noontide din
ner of Joseph (Gen. xliii. 16, 31-34) agrees
with the representations of the monuments.
The funeral ceremonies were far more im
portant th.an any events of the Egyptian
life, as the tomb was regarded as the only
true home. Magicians. — We find frequent
reference in the Bible to the magicians of
Egypt (Gen. xii. 8 ; Ex. vii. 11, &c.). The
monuments do not recognize any such art,
and we must conclude that magic was se
cretly practised, not because it was thought
to be unlawful, but in order to give it im
portance. Industrial Arts. — The indus
trial arts held an important place in the
occupations of the Egyptians. The work
ers in fine flax and the weavers of white
linen are mentioned in a manner that
shows they were among the chief contribu
tors to the riches of the country (Is. xix.
9). The fine linen of Egypt found its way
to Palestine (Prov. vii. 16). Pottery was
a great branch of the native manufactures,
and appears to have furnished employment
to the Hebrews during the bondage (Ps.
Ixxxi. 6, Ixviii. 13; comp. Ex. i. 14), Fes
tivals. — Tlie religious festivals were numer
ous, and some of them were, in the days of
Herodotus, kept with great merrymaking
and license. The feast which the Israelites
celebrated when Aaron had made the gold
en calf seems to have been very much of
the same chiiracter. History. — The an
cient history of Egypt may be divided into
three portions : — the old monarchy, ex
tending from the foundation of the king
dom to the invasion of the Hyksos ; the
middle, from the entriince to the expulsion
of the Hyksos ; and the new, from the re-
establishment of the native monarchy by
Amosis to the Persian conquest. (1.)
The Old Monarchy. — Memphis was the
most ancient capital, the foundation of
which is ascribed to Menes, the first mortal
king of Egypt. The names of the kings,
divided into .thirty dynasties, are handed
down in the lists of Manetho,* and are
also known from the works which they ex
ecuted. The most memorable epoch in
the history of the Old Moniirchy is that of
* Manetho wag an Egyptian priest who lived under the
Ptolemiefl in the yd century B. c, and wrote in Greek a
history of Egypt, In which he divided the kings into thirty
dynasties. Ihe work itself is lost, but tho lists of dynas-
Bes have been preserved by the Christian writers.

the Pyramid kings, placed in Manetho'*
fourth dynasty. Their names are found
upon these monuments : the builder of the
great pyramid is called Supliis by Manetho,
Cheops by Herodotus, and Khufu or Shu-
fu, in an inscription upon the pyramid.
The erection of the second pyramid is at
tributed by Herodotus and Diodorus to
Chephren ; and upon the neighboring tombs
has been read the name of Khafra or
Shafre. The builder of the third pyramid
is named Mycerinus by Herodot'.»s and
Diodorus ; and in this very pyramid a coflln
has been found bearing the name Menkura.
The most powerful kings of the Old Mon
archy were those of Manetho's twelfth dy
nasty : to this period are assigned the con
struction of the Lake of Moeris and the
Labyrinth.' (2.) The Middle Monarchy. —
Of this period we only know that a nomad
ic horde called Hyksos -f for several centu
ries occupied and made Egypt tributary;
that their capital was Memphis ; that in the
Sethroite nome they constructed an immense
earth-camp, which they called Abaris ; that
at a certain period of their occupation
two independent kingdoms were formed in
Egypt, one in the Thebaid, which held in
timate relations -with Ethiopia ; another at
Xois, among the marshes of the Nile ; and
that, finally, the Egyptians regained their
independence and expelled the Hyksos,
who thereupon retired into Palestine. The
Hyksos form the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
seventeenth dynasties. Manetho says they
were Arabs, but he calls the six kings of tho
fifteenth dynasty Phoenicians. (3.) The
New Monarchy extends from the com
mencement of the eighteenth to the end of
the thirtieth dynasty. The kingdom was
consolidated by Amosis, who succeeded
in expelling the Hyksos, and thus prepared
the way for the foreign expeditions which
his successors carried on in Asia and
Africa, extending from Mesopotamia in the
former to Ethiopia in the latter continent.
The glorious era- of Egyptian history was
unaer the nineteenth dynasty, when Sethi
I., B. c. 1322, and his grandson, Rameses
the Great, b. c. 1311, both of whom repre
sent the Sesostris of the Greek hist-irians,
carried their arms over the whole of West
ern Asia, and southwards into Souddn, and
amassed vast treasures, which were expend
ed on public works. Under the later kings
of the nineteenth dynasty the power of
Egypt faded : the twentieth and twenty-first
dynasties achieved nothing worthy of rec
ord ; but with the twenty-second we enter
upon a period that is interesting from its
associiitions with Biblical history, the flrst
of this dynasty, Sheshonk I. (Seconchis)
B. c. 990, being the Shishak who invaded
Judea in Rehoboam's reign and pillaged

-t This, their Egyptian name, ia d
from Bi/k, a king, aud Sos, a shepheid.

itian name, ia derived by Manetho

EGYPT

163

EICRON

the Temple (1 Kings xiv. 25) . Probably his
euccessor, Osorkonl., is the Zerah of Scrip
ture, defeated by Asa, Egypt makes no
flgure in Asiatic history during the xxiiird
and xxivth dynasties ; under the xxvth it re
gained, in part at least, its ancient impor
tance. This was an Ethiopian line, the
warlike sovereigns of which strove to the
utmost to repel the onward stride of As
syria. So, whom.we are disposed to iden
tify with Shebek II. or Sebichus, the second
Ethiopian, made an alliance with Hoshea
the last king of Israel, Tehrak or Tirha-
kah, the third of this house, advanced
against Sennacherib in support of Heze
kiah. After this, u. native dynasty again
ooccupied the throne, the xxvith, of Satte
kings, Psametek I. or Psammetichus I.
(b. 0, 664), who maybe regarded as the
head of this dynasty, warred in Palestine,
and took Ashdod, Azotus, after a siege of
twenty-nine years. Neku or Necho, the
Boa of Psammetichus, continued the war in
the East, and marched along the coast of
Palestine to attack the king of Assyria.
At Megiddo Josiah encountered him (b. c.
608-7), notwithstanding the remonstrance
of the Egyytian king, which is very illus
trative of the policy of the Pharaohs in the
East (2 Chr. xxxv. 21), no less than is his
lenient conduct afber t':;s defeat and death of
the king of Judah. The army of Necho was
after a short space routed at Carchemish by
Nebuchadnezzar, B, o, 005-4 (Jer, xlvi. 2) .
The second successor of Necho, Apries or
Pharaoh-Hophra, sent his army into Pales
tine to the aid of Zedekiah (Jer. xxxvii. 5,7,
1 1 ) , so that the siege of Jerusalem was raised
for a time, and kindly received the fugitives
from the captured city. He seems to have
been afterwards attacked by Nebuchadnez
zar in his own countrj'. There is, however,
no'certain account of a complete subjuga
tion of Egypt by the king of Babylon.
Aniasis, the successor of Apries, had a long
and prosperous reign, and somewhat re
stored the weight of Egypt in the East.
But the new power of Persi i was to prove
even more terrible to his house than. Baby
lon had been to the house of Psammetichus,
and the son of Amasis had reigned but six
months when Cambyses reduced the coun
try to the condition of a province of his
empire, b,. c. 525. — yi'"it.h respect to the
difiicult question of the period of the so
journ of tho Israelites in Egypt, the fol
lowing remarks may suffice. The chronol
ogy of Egypt is now so far settled that the
accession of the eighteenth dynasty may be
regarded as fixed to within a few years of
B. c. 1525 The era of the Exodus, in the
system of Ussher, is b. c, 1491, The obvi
ous conclusion agrees with the statement
of Manetho, that Moses left Egypt under
Amosis, the first king of the eighteenth
dj nasty The same king, as we have al

ready seen, expelled the Shepherd Kings ;
and there is, in fact, no doubt that the great
power of the eighteenth dynasty was con
nected with this expulsion. In this change
of dynasty many writers see a ntitural ex
planation of the " new king who kne-w not
Joseph." If this view is correct, Joseph
would have come into Egypt under one of
the later kings of tbe Shepherd dynasty.
But, plausible as this theory is, the uncer
tainty in which Scriptural chronology is in
volved prevents us from coming to any
definite conclusion. Lepsius and other
eminent Egyptologers place the arrival of
the Israelites under the eighteenth dynasty,
and the Exodus under the nineteenth, in
the year 1314 b. c. He identifies the chief
oppressor, from whom Moses fled, witii
the great king of the nineteenth dynasty,
Rameses II., and the Pharaoh of tho Exo
dus with his son and successor Menptaii,
or Phthaiimen, Mr, PoOle, however,
takes an entirely opposite view, and places
not only the arrival of the Israelites in
Egypt, but also the Exodus, within the
dynasties of the Shepherd kings. . It seems
impossible to come to any definite conclu
sion upon the subject. The difficulty of a
solution is still further increased' by the
uncertainty as to the length of the sojourn
of the Israelites in Egypt, whether it was
215 years, according to the Septuagint, or
430 years, according to the Hebrew,
Egyptian, Egyptians. Natives of
Egypt. E'hi, head of one of the Benjamite
houses according to the list in Gen. xlvi.
21. He seems to be the same as Ahi-r.am
in the list in Num. xxvi. 38, and if so,
Ahiram is probably the right name, as the
family were called Ahiramites. In 1 Chr.
viii. 1, the same person seems to be called
Aharah, and perhaps also Ahoali, in ver. 4,
Ahiah, ver. 7, and Aher, 1 Chr. vii. 12.
E'hud. 1. Ehud, the son of Billian,
and great-grandson of Benjamin the Patri
arch (1 Chr. vii. 10, viii. 6). 2, Ehud son
of Gera of the tribe of Benjamin (Judg.
iii. 15), the second Judge of the Israelites.
In the Bible he is not called a Judge, but a
deliverer (I. c.) : so Othniel (Judg. iii. 9)
and all the Judges (Neh. ix. 27). As a
Benjamite he, was specially chosen to de
stroy Eglon, who had established himself in
Jericho, which was included in the boun
daries of that tribe. He w.as very strong,
and left-handed. [Eglon.]
E'ker, a descendant of Judah through
the families of Hezron and Jerahmeel (1
Chr. ii. 27),
Ek'ron, one of tb» five towns belong
ing to the lords of the Philistines, and the
most northerly of the five (Josh, xiii. 3).
Like the other Philistine cities its situa
tion was in the lowlands. It fell to the lot
of Judah (Josh. xv. 45, 46 Judg. i. 1 g").

EKRONITES

164

ELDAAH

and indeed formed one of the landmarks
on his north border. We afterwards, how
ever, find it mentioned among the cities of
Dan (Josh, xix, 43). But it mattered little
to which tribe it nominally belonged, for
before the monarchy it was again' in full
possession ofthe Philistines (1 Sam. v. 10).
''Aktr, the modern representative of Ekron,
lies at about 5 miles S. W. of Ramleh.
In the Apocrypha it appears as Aocakon
(1 Mace. X. 89, only).
Ek'ronites. This word appears in
Josh. xiii. 3, and 1 Sam. v. 10. In the for
mer it should be singular — "the Ekron-
ite." El'adah, a descendant of Ephraim
through Shuthelah (1 Chr. vii. 20). .
E'lah, 1, The son and successor of
Baasha, king of Israel (1 K, xvi, 8-10) ;
his reign lasted for little more than a year
(comp, ver. 8 with 10). He was killed,
while drunk, by Zimri, in the house of his
steward Arza, who was probably a confed
erate in the plot. 2. Father of Hoshea,
the last king of Israel (2 K. xv. 30, xvii. 1).
E'lah. 1. One of the dukes of Edom
(Gen. xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chr. i. 52). 2. Shimei
ben-Elah was Solomon's commissariat offi
cer in Benjamin (1 K. iv. 18), 3, A son
of Caleb the son of Jephunneh (1 Chr. iv.
15). 4. Son of Uzzi, a Benjamite (1 Chr.
ix. 8), and one of the chiefs of the tribe
at the settlement of the. country.
Elah, The Valley of (= Valley of
the Terebinth), a valley in (not " by," as
the A. V, has it) which the Israelites were
encamped against the Philistines when Da-
vid,killed Goliath (1 Sam, xvii, 2, 19), It
is once more mentioned in the same con
nection (xxi. 9). It lay somewhere near
Socoh of Judah and Azekah, and was
nearer Ekron than any other Philistine
town. So much may be gathered from the
narrative of 1 Sam. xvii.
E'lam seems to h.ave been originally the
name of a man, the son of Shem (Gen. x.
22; 1 Clir, i. 17), Commonly, however, it
is used as the appellation of a country
tGen, xiv, 1, 9; Is. xi. 11, xxi. 2; Jer.
s.xv. 25; xlix. 34-39; Ez. xxxii, 24; Dan.
viii, 2). 1. The Elam of Scripture appears
to be the province lying south of Assyria
and east of Persia Proper., to which He
rodotus gives the name of Cissia (iii. 91, v.
49, &o.), and which is termed Susis or
Susiana by the geographers. It appears
from Gen. x. 22, that this country was ori
ginally peopled by descendants of Shem,
closely allied to the Aramaeans (Syrians)
and the Assyrians; and from Gen, xiv.
1-12, it is evident that by the time of Abra
ham a very important power had been built
up in the same region. It is plain that <at
tills early time the predominant power in
Lower Mesopotamia was Elam, which for
a while held the place possessed earlier by

Babylon (Gen. x, 10), and later by eithe?
Babylon or Assyria, 2, A Korhite Levite,
fifth son of Meshelemiah ; one ofthe Bene-
Asaph, in the time of king David (1 Cltt.
xxvi. .3). 3. A chief man of the tribe of
Benjamin, one of the sons of Shishak (I
Chr, viii. 24), 4, " Children of Elam," to
the number of 1254, returned with Zerub
babel from Babylon (Ezr, ii, 7 ; Neh, vii.
12; 1 Esd, V, 12), and a further detach--
ment of 71 men with Ezra in the second
caravan (Ezr. viii. 7 ; 1 Esd. viii. 33). Elam
occurs amongst the names of those, the
chief of the people, who signed the cove
nant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 14). 5. In
the same lists is a second Elam, whose
sons, to the same number as in the former
case, returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii.
31 ; Neh. vii. 34), and which for the sake
of distinction is called ' ' the other Elam."
6. One of the priests who accompanied
Nehemiah at the dedication of the new wall
of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 42).
E'lamites. This word is found only in
Ezr. iv. 9. The Elamites were the original
inhabitants of the country called Elam;
they were descendants of Shem, and per
haps drew their name from an actual man
Elam (Gen, x. 22),
El'asah. 1, One of the Bene-Pashur,
a priest, in the time of Ezra, who had mar
ried a Gentile wife (Ezr, x, 22), 2, Son of
Shaphan ; one of the two men who were
sent on a mission by King Zedekiah to Neb
uchadnezzar at Babylon (Jer. xxix, 8).
E'lath, E'loth, the name of a town of
the land of Edom, commonly mentioned
together with Ezion-geber, and situate at
the head of the Arabian Gulf, which was
thence called the Elanitic Gulf. It first
occurs in the account of the wanderings
(Deut. ii. 8) , and in later times must have
come under the rule of David in his con
quest of the land of Edom (2 Sam. viii, 14),
We find the place named again in connec
tion with Solomon's navy (1 K, ix, 26;
comp. 2 Chr, viii. 17), It was app.arently
included in tho revolt of Edom against Jo-
ram -recorded in 2 K, viii. 20 ; but it was
taken by Azariah (xiv, 22), After tliis,
however, " Rezin king of Syria recovered
Elath, and drave out the Jews from Elath,
and the Syrians came to Elath and dwelt
there to this d.ay " (xvi, 6). From this
time the place is not mentioned until the
Roman period, during which it became a
frontier-town of the south, and the resi
dence of a Christian bishop. The Arabic
name is Eyleh.
El-Beth'el, the name which Jacob ia
said to have bestowed on the place at which
God appeared to him when he was fiyuig
from Esau (Gen. xxv, 7),
El'daah (Gen, xxv, 4 ; 1 Chr, i, 33), the
last, in order, of the sons of Midian, No
satisfactory trace of the tribe which we may

ELDAD

165

ELEPH

m\ pose to have taken the appellation has
yet been found,
El'dad and Me'dad, two of the 70
elders to whom was communicated the pro
phetic power of Moses (Num. xi. 16, 26).
Although their naracf; were upon the list
which Moses had drawn up (xi. 26), they
did not repair with the rest of their breth
ren to the tabernacle, but continued to
prophesy in the camp. Moses, being re
quested by Joshua to forbid this, refused to
do so, and expressed a wish that the gift of
prophecy might be diffused throughout the
people. Elder. The term elder or old man, as
the Hebrew literally imports, was one of
extensive use, as an official title, among
the Hebrews and the surrounding nations.
It had reference to various offices (Gen.
xxiv. 2, 1. 7 ; 2 Sam. xii. 17 ; Ez. xxvii. 9),
As betokening a, political office, it applied
not only to the Hebrews, but also to the
Egyptians (Gen. I. 7), the Moabites and
Midianites (Num. xxii, 7), Wherever a
patriarchal system is in force, the office
of the elder will be found, as the keystone
of the social and political fabric ; it is so
at the present day among the Arabs,
where the Sheikh (= the old man) is the
highest authority in the tribe. The earli
est notice of the elders acting in concert
as a political body is at the time of the
Exodus, They were the representatives
of the people, so much so that elders
andpeople are occasionally used as equiva
lent terms (comp. Josh. xxiv. 1 with 2, 19,
21; 1 Sam. viii. 4 with 7, 10, 10). Their
authority was undefined, and extended to
all matters concerning the public weal.
When the tribes became settled the elders
were distinguished by different titles ac
cording as they were acting as national
representatives, as district governors over
the several tribes (Deut, xxxi, 28 ; 2 Sam,
xix, 11), or as local magistrates in the pro
vincial towns, whose duty it was to sit in
the gate and administer justice (Deut. xix.
12; Ruth iv. 9, 11; 1 K. xxi. 8). Their
number and influence may be inferred from
1 Sam. xxx. 26, ff. They retained their po
sition under all the political changes which
the Jews underwent : under the Judges
(Judg. ii. 7 ; 1 Sam, iv. 3) ; under the
kings (2 Sara. xvii. 4) ; during tbe captivity
(Jer. xxix. 1 ; Ez. viii, 1) ; subsequently
to the return (Ezr. v. 5, vi. 7, 14, x. 8, 14) ;
under the Maccabees, when they were de
scribed sometimes as the senate (1 Mace.
xii. 6; 2 Mace. i. 10, iv. 44, xi. 27), some
times by their ordinary title (1 Mace. vii.
83, xi. 23, xii. 35) ; and, lastly, at tho'com-
meucement of the Christian era, when they
are noticed as a distinct body from the San
hedrim. St. Luke describes the whole
order by the collective term nqfnpyri'Qiov
(Luke xvii. 66 ; Acts xxii. 5). With re

spect to the elders in the Christian Church,
see Bishop.
El'ead, a descendant of Ephraim (I
Chr, vii, 21). ^ ^
Elea'leh, a place on the east of Jordan,
tjiken possession of and rebuilt by the
tribe of Reuben (Num. xxxii. 3, 37). By
Isaiah and Jeremiah it is mentioned as a
Moabite town (Is. xv. 4, xvi. 9 ; Jer. xlviii.
3i\ Ele'asah. 1. Son of Helez, one of the
descendants of Judah, of the family of
Hezron (1 Chr. ii. 39). 2. Son of Rapha.,
or Rcphaiah ; a descendant of Saul through
Jonathan and Merib-baal or Mephibosheth
(1 Chr. viii. 37, ix. 43).
Elea'zar. 1. Third son of Aaron, by
Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab. After
the death of Nadab and Abihu without
children (Lev. x. 1 ; Num. iii. 4), Eleazar
was appointed chief over the principal Le
vites (Num. iii. 32). With his brother
Ithamar he ministered as a priest during
their father's lifetime, and immediately be
fore his death was invested on Mount Hor
with the sacred garments, as the suceessor
of Aaron in the office of high-priest (Num,
XX. 28). One of his first duties was in
conjunction with Moses to superintend the
census of the people (Num. x.xvi. 3). Af
ter the conquest of Canaan by Joshua he
took part in the distribution of the land
(Josh. xiv. 1). The time of his death is
not mentioned in Scripture. 2. The son
of Abinadab, of the bill of Kirjath-jearim
(1 Sam. vh. 1). 3. The son of Dodo the
Ahohite, i. e. possibly a descendant of
Ahoah of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr,
viii, 4) ; one of the three principal mighty
men of David's army (2 Sam, xxiii. 9 ; 1
Chr, xi. 12). 4. A Merarite Levite, son of
Mahli, and grandson of Merari (l Chr.
xxiii, 21, 22, xxiv, 28), 5. A priest who
took part in the feast of dedication under
Nehemiah (Neh. xii. 42). 6, One of tbe
sons of Parosh ; an Israelite {i. e. a layman)
who had married a foreign wife, and had tc
put her away (Ezr. x. 25; lEsdr. ix. 20),
7. Son of Phinehas a Levite (Ezr. viii. 33 ;
1 Esdr. viii. 63). 8. Surnamed Avakan
(1 Mace. ii. 5), the fourth son of Matta-
thias, who fell by a noble act of self-devo
tion in an engagement with Antiochus Eu-
pator, is. o. 164 (1 Mace, vi, 43, ff.). In a
former battle with Nicanor, Eleazar was
appointed by Judas to read " tho holy book "
before the attack, and the watchword in the
fight — "The help of God" — was his
'own name (2 Mace. viii. 23). 0, The son
of Eliud, in the genealogy of Jesus Christ
(Matt. i. 15).
El-elo'he-Is'rael, the name bestowed
by Jacob on the altar which he erected
facing the city of Shechem (Gen, xxxiii.
19, 20),
Elepll, one ofthe towns allotted to Ben-

ELEPHANT

166

ELIAKIM

;aniin, a.id named next to Jerusalem (Josh.
xviii. 28).
Elephant. The word does not occur
in the text of the canonical Scriptures of
the A. v., but is found as the marginal
reading to Behemoth, in Job xl. 15. "Ele
phant's teeth " is the marginal reading for
" ivory " in 1 K. x. 22 ; 2 Chr. ix. 41. El
ephants, however, are repeatedly mentioned
in the 1st and 2d books of Maccabees, as
being used in warfare (1 Mace. vi.).
Eleu'therus, a river of Syria men
tioned in 1 Mjcc. xi. 7 ; xii. 30. It sepa
rated Syria from Phoenicia, and formed the
northern limit of Coele-syria, It is the
modern Nahr-el- Kebir, " Great River,"
Elha'nan. 1. A- distinguished warrior
m the time of King David, who performed
a memorable exploit against the Philistines,
though ill what that exploit exactly con
sisted, and who the hero himself was, it is
not easy to determine, {a.) 2 Sam. xxi. 19
says that he was the "son of Jaare Oregim
t)ie Bethlehemite," and that he " slew Goli
ath the Gittite, the staff of whose spear was
like a weaver's beam," Here, in the A, V.
the words "the brother of" are inserted, to
bring the passage into agreement with,
(6.) 1 Chr. XX. 5, which states that "El
hanan, son of Jair (or Jaor) slew Lahmi
the brother of Goliath the Gittite, the staff of
¦whose spe.ar," &c. Of these two statements
the latter is probably the more correct, —
the differences between them being much
smaller in the original than in English, 2.
The son of Dodo of Bethlehem, one of
"the thirty" of David's guard, and named
first on the list (2 Sam. xxiii. 24 ; 1 Chr.
xi. 26).
E'll was descended from Aaron through
Ithamar, the youngest of his two surviving
sons (Lev. x. 1, 2, 12 ; comp. 1 K. ii. 27
with 2 Sam. viii. 17; 1 Chr. x.xiv. 3). As
tbe history makes no mention of any high-
priest of the line of Ithamar before Eli, he
is generally supposed to have been the first
of that line who held the office. From him,
his sons having died before him, it appears
to have passed to his grandson, Ahitub (1
Sam. xiv. 3) , and it certainly remained in his
family till Abiathar, the grandson of Ahitub,
was " thrust out from being priest unto the
Lord " by Solomon for his share in Adoni
jah's rebellion (1 K. ii. 26, 27 ; i. 7), and the
high-priesthood passed back again to the
family of Eleazar in the person of Zadok (1
K. ii. 35). Its return to the elder branch
was one part of the punisliment which had
been denounced against Eli during his life
time, for his culpable negligence (1 Sam.
ii. 22-25) when his sons by their rapacity
and lieeHtipusness profaned the priesthood,
and brought the rites of religion into abhor
rence among the people (1 Sam. ii. 27-36,
with 1 K. ii, 27), Notwithstanding thio
one groat blemish, the character of Eli is

marked by eminent piety, as shown by hu
meek submission to the divine judgment (1
Sam. iii, 18), .and his supreme regard for
the ark of God (iv. 18). In addition to the
ofBce of high-priest he held that of judge,
being the immediate predecessor of his pu
pil Saftiuel (1 Sam. vii. 6, 15-17), the last
of the judges. He died at the advanced
age of 98 years (1 Sam, iv. 15), overcome
by the disastrous intelligence that the ark
of God had been taken in battle by the Phi
listines, who had also slain his sons Hophni
and Phinehas.
Eliab. 1. Son of Helen and leader of
the tribe of Zebulun at the time ofthe cen
sus in the wilderness of Sinai (Num, i, 9,
ii. 7, vii. 24, 29, x. 16. 2, A Reubenite,
son of Pallu or Phallu, father or progenitor
of Dathan and Abiram (Num. xxvi. 8, 9,
xvi. 1, 12 ; Deut, xi. 6), 3. One of Da
vid's brothers, the eldest of the family (1
Chr. ii. 13; 1 Sam. xvi, 6, xvii. 13, 28).
4. A Levite in the time of David, who was
both a "porter" and a musician on the
"psaltery" (1 Chr, xv, 18, 20, xvi. 5). 5.
One of the warlike Gadite leaders who came
over to David when he was in the wilder
ness ta.king refuge from Saul (1 Chr, xii,
9), 6. An ancestor of Samuel the proph
et ; a Kohathite Levite, son of Nahath (1
Chr. vi. 27), 7. Son of Nathanael, one of
the forefathers of Judith, and therefore be
longing to the tribe of Simeon (Jud. viii. 1),
Ell'ada, I. One of David's sons ; ac
cording to the lists, the youngest but one
of the family born to him after his estab
lishment in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 16; 1
Chr, iii. 8), 2. A mighty man of war, a
Benjiimite, who led 200,000 of his tribe to
the army of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 17),
Eli'adah, Father of Rezon, the cap
tain of a marauding band of Zobah wliich
annoyed Solomon (1 K, xi. 23).
Eli'ah, 1. A Benjamite; one of the
sons of Jeroham, and a chief man of the
tribe (1 Chr. viii. 27). 2, One of the Beue-
Elani ; an Israelite {i. e. a layman) in the
times of Ezra, who had married a foreign
wife (Ezr. x. 26).
Eli'ahba, a Shaalbonite, one of the
Thirty of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 82;
1 Chr. xi. 33).
Eli'akim. 1. Son of Hilkiah; master
of Hezcldah's household (" over the house,"
.as Is. xxxvi. 3), 2 K. xviii. 18, 26, 37. He
succeeded Shebna in this office, after he had
been ejected from it as a punishment for his
pride (Is. xxii. 15-20). Eliakim was a good
man, as appears by the title emphatically
applied to him by God, "my servant Eha-
kim" (Is. xxii. 20), and as was evinced bj
his conduct on the occasion of Sennache
rib's invasion (2 K. xviii. 37, xix. 1-5), and
also in tbe discharge of the duties of his
high station, in which he acted as a "father
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and to the

ELIAM

167

ELIHU

house of Judah" (Is. xxii. 21). 2. The
original name of Jehoiakim king of Judah
(2 K. xxiii. 34; 2 Chr. xxxvi. 4). 3. A
priest in the days of Nehemiah, who as
sisted at the dedication of the new wall of
Jemsalem (Neh. xii. 41). 4. Eldest son
of Abiud, or Judah; brother of Joseph, and
father of Azor (Matt. i. 13). 5. Son of
Melea, and father of Jonan (Luke iii. 80,
SI). Eli'am. 1. Father of Bathsheba, the
wife of David (1 Sam. xi. 3). 2. Son of
Ahithcphel the Gilonite; one of David's
"thirty" warriors (2 Sam. xxiii. 34).
Eli'as, the form in which the name of
Elijah is given in the A. V. of the Apoc-
' 'rypha and N. Test.
' Eli'asaph. 1, Son of Deuel; head of
the tribe of Dan at the time of the census
in the Wilderness of Sinai (Num. i. 14, ii.
14, vii, 42, 47, x, 20), 2. Son of Lael; a
Levite, and "chief of the house of the fa
ther of the Gershonite " at the same time
(Num. iii, 24).
Eli'ashib. 1. A priest in the time of
King David, eleventh in the order of the
"governors" of the sanctuary (1 Chr.
xxiv.l2). 2, A son of Elioenai ; one ofthe
latest descendants of the royal family of Ju
dah (1 Chr. iii. 24). 3. High-priest at Je,-
rusalem at the time ofthe rebuilding ofthe
walls under Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 1, 20, 21).
4. A singer in the time of Ezra who had
married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 24). 5, A
son of Zattu (Ezr. x. 27), and, 8. A son
of Bani (x. 36), both of whom had trans
gressed in the same manner.
Eli'athah, one of the sons of Heman, a
musician'in tho Temple in the time of King
David (1 Chr. xxv. 4), who with twelve
of his sons and brethren had the twentieth
division ofthe temple-service (xxv. 27).
Eli'dad, son of Chislon ; the man chosen
to represent the tribe of Benjamin in the
division of the land of Canaan (Num.
xxxiv. 21),
E'liel, 1. One of the heads of the tribe
of Manasseh on the east of Jordan (1 Chr.
v. 24), 2. Son of Toah ; a forefather of
Samuel the prophet (1 Chr. vi. 34) . 3 . One
of theBene-Shimhi; a chief man in the tribe
of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii, 20), 4. Like the
preceding, a Benjamite, but belonging to the
'Bene-Shashak (1 Chr. viii. 22), 5, " The
Mahavito ; " one of the heroes of David's
guard in the extended list of 1 Chr. (xi.
46). 8. Another of the same guard, but
without any express designation (xi, 47).
7. One of the Gadite heroes who came
across Jordan to David when he was in
tho wilderness of Juriah hiding from Saul
(1 Chr. xii. 11), 8. A Kohathite Levite,
at the time of the transportation of the Ark
from the House of Obed-edom to Jerusalem
(1 Chr, XV, 9, 11), 0. A Levite in the
time of Hezekiah; one of the overseers of

the offerings made in the Temple (2 Chr.
xxxi. 13).
Elie'nai, one of the Bene-shimhi; a
descendant of Benjamin, aud a chief man
in the tribe (1 Chr. viii. 20),
Elie'zer, 1. Abraham's chief servant,
called by him " Eliezer of D.amascus "
(Gen. XV. 2), There is an apparent con
tradiction in the A. V., for it. does not ap
pear how, if he was " of Damascus," he
could be " born in Abr<aham's house " (ver.
3). But the phrase " son of my house,"
only imports that he was one of Abraham's
household, not that he was born in his
house. It was, most likely, this same
Eliezer who is described in Gen. xxiv. 2.
2. Second son of Moses aud Zipporah, to
whom his father gave this name, " because,
said he, the God of my father was my help,
that delivered me from the sword of Pha
raoh" (Ex. xviii. 4; 1 Chr, xxiii, 15, 17),
He remained with his mother and brother
Gershom, in the care of Jethro his grand
father, when Moses returned to Egypt (Ex.
iv. 18), she having been sent back to her
father by Moses (Ex, xviii, 2), though she
set off to accompany him, and went part
of the way with him, 3, One of the sons
of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr.
vii. 8). 4. A priest in the reign of David
(1 Chr. XV. 24), 5. Son of Zichri, ruler
of the Reubenites in the reign of David (1
Chr. xxvii. 16). 6. Son of Dodavah, of
Mareshah in Judah (2 Chr. xx. 87), a proph
et, who rebuked Jehoshaphat for joining
himself with Ahaziah king of Israel, 7,
A chief Israelite — a "man of understand
ing " — whom Ezra sent with others from
Ahava to Casiphia, to induce some Levites
and Nethinim to 'accompany him to Jeru
salem (Ezr. viii. 16). 8, 9, 10, A priest,
a Levite, and an Israelite of the sons of
Harim, who, in the time of Ezra, had mar
ried foreign wives (Ezr. x. 18, 23, 31). 11.
Son of Jorim, in the genealogy of Christ
(Luke ii. 29).
Elihoe'nai, son of Zerahiah, one ofthe
Bene-Pahath-moab, who with 200 men re
turned from the Captivity with Ezra (Ezr.
viii. 4).
Eliho'reph, son of Shisha, and one of
Solomon's scribes (1 K. iv. 3).
Eli'hu. 1. One of the interlocutors in the
book of Job. [Job.] He is described as
the " son of Barachel the Buzite," and thus
apparently referred to the family of Buz,
the son of Nahor, and nephew of Abra
ham (Gen. xxii. 21). 2. Son of Tohu; a
forefather of Samuel the prophet (1 Sam.
i. 1). 3. In 1 Chr. xxvii. 18, Ehhu " ol
the brethren of David " is mentioned as the
chief of the tribe of J idah. 4. One of
the captains of the thousands of Manasseh
(1 Chr. xii. 20) who followed David to
Ziklag after he had left the Philistine army
on the eve of the battle of Gilboa. 6. A

ELIJAH

168

ELIJAH

Korhite Levite in the time of David ; one
of the (Joorkeepers of the house of Jehovah.
He was a son of Shemaiah, aud of the fam
ily of Obed-edom (1 Chr. xxvi. 7).
Eli'jah has been well entitled " the
grandest and the most romantic character
that Israel ever produced." Certainly
there is no personage in the 0. T, whose
career is more vividly portrayed, or who
exercises on us a more remarkable fasci
nation, "Elijah the Tishbite of the in
habitants of Gilead,". is literally all that
is given us to know of his parentage
and locality. To an Israelite of the tribes
west of Jordan the title " Gileadite "
must have conveyed a similar impression,
though in a far stronger degree, to that
which the title " Celt" does to us. What
the Highlands were a century ago to the
towns in the Lowlands of Scotland, that,
and more than that, must Gilead have been
to Samaria or Jerusalem, It is impossible
rightly to estimate his character without
recollecting this fact. It is seen at every
turn. Of his appearance as he " stood be
fore " Ahab, with tbe suddenness of motion
to this day characteristic of the Bedouins
from his native hills, we can perhaps re
alize something from the touches, few, but
strong, of the narrative. His chief char
acteristic was his hair, long and thick, and
hangi:!ff down his back; which, if not be
tokening the immense strength of Samson,
yet accompanied powers of endurance no
less remarkable. His ordinary clothing
consisted of a girdle of skin round his
loins, which he tightened when about to
move quickly (1 K. xviii. 46). But in ad
dition to this he occasionally wore the
"mantle," or cape, of sheepskin, which
has supplied us with one of our most fa
miliar figures of speech. In this mantle,
in moments of emotion, he would hide his
face (1 K. xix. 13), or when excited would
roll it up as into a kind of staff. The soli
tary life in which these external peeuliari-
¦jes had been assumed had also nurtured
^at fierceness of zeal and that directness
of address which so distinguished him. It
was in tho wild loneliness of the hills and
ravines of Gilead that the knowledge of
Jehovah, the living God of Israel, had been
impressed on his mind, which w.as to form
the subject of his mission to the idolatrous
court and country of Israel. The northern
kingdom had at this time forsaken almost en
tirely the faith of Jehovah, The worship of
the calves had been a departure from Him ;
but still it would appear that even in the
presence of the calves Jehovah was ac
knowledged, and they were at any rate a
national institution, not one imported from
the idolatries of any of the surrounding
countries. But the case was quite differ
ent when Ahab introduced the foreign reli
gion of his wifij's family, the worship of

the Phoenician Baal, It is as a, witness
against these two evils that Elijah comes
forward. 1, What we may call the first
Act in his life embraces between three and
four years — three years and six months
for the duration of the drought, according
to the statements of the New Testament
(Luke iv. 25 ; James v. 17), and three or
four months more for the journey to Horeb,
and the return to Gilead (IK, xvii, 1-xix,
21), His introduction is of the most
startling description : he suddenly appears
before Ahab, as with the unrestrained free
dom of eastern manners he would have no
difficulty in doing, and proclaims the ven
geance of Jehovah for the apostasy of the
king. What immediate action followed on
this we are not told ; but it is plain that
Elijah had to fly before some threatened
vengeance either of tho king, or more prob
ably of the queen (comp, xix, 2). Per
haps it was at this juncture that Jezebel
" cut off the prophets of Jehovah" (1 K,
xviii, 4), He was directed to the brook
Cherith. There in the hollow of the tor
rent-bed he remained, supported in the
miraculous manner with which we are all
familiar, till the failing of the brook obliged
him to forsake it. His next refuge was at
Zarephath, a Phoenician town lying be
tween Tyre and Sidon, certainly the last
place at which the enemy of Baal would
be looked for. The widow woman in whose
house he lived seems, however, to have
been an Israelite, and no Baal-worshipper,
if we may take her adjuration by "Jeho
vah thy God" as an indication. Here
Elijah performed the miriicles of prolong
ing the oil and the meal ; and restored tho
son of the widow to life after his apparent
death. In this, or some other r-itreat, an
interval of more than two years must have
elapsed. The drought continued, and at
last the full horrors of famine, caused by
the failure of the crops, descended on Sa
maria, The king and his chief domestic
officer divided between them the mournful
duty of ascertiiining that neither round the
springs, which are so frequent a feature of
central Palestine, nor in the nooks and
crannies of the most shaded torrent-beds,
was there any of the herbage left, which
in those countries is so certain an indica
tion of the presence of moisture. It is the
moment for the reappearance of the proph
et. He shows himself first to the min
ister. There, suddenly planted in his path,
is the man whom he and his master have
been seeking for more than three years.
Before the sudden apparition of that wild
figure, and th.at stern, unbroken counte
nance, Obadiah could not but fall on his
face. Elijah, however, soon calms his agi
tation — "As Jehovah of hosts liveth, be
fore whom I stand, I will surely sbow my
self to Ahab J " and thus reliev *! jf his

ELIJAH

169

ELIJAH

(fear that, as on a former occasion, Elijah
would disappear before he could return
with the king, Obadiah departs to inform
Ahab that the man they seek is there,
Ahab arrived, Elijah makes liis charge —
"Thou hast forsaken Jehovah and fol
lowed the Baals," He then commands
that £,./. Israel be collected to Mount
Carmel ivith the four hundred and fifty
prophets of Baal, and the four hun
dred, of Asherah (Ashtaroth), the latter
being under the especial protection of
the queen. There are few more sublime
stories in history than this. On the one
hand the solitary servant of Jehovah, ac
companied by his one attendant ; with his
wild shaggy hair, his scanty garb and
nheepskin cloak, but with calm dignity of
demeanor and the minutest regularity of
procedure, repairing the ruined altar of
Jehovah with twelve stones — on the other
hand the 850 prophets of Baal and Ashta
roth, doubtless in all the splendor of their
vestments (2 K, x. 22), with the wild din
of their vain repetitions and the maddened
fury of their disappointed hopes, and the
s'lent people surrounding all. The conclu
sion of the long day need only be glanced
at. The fire of Jehovah consuming both
sacrifice and altar — the prophets of Baal
kiUed, it would seem by Elijah's own
hand (xviii. 40) — the king, with an apathy
almost unintelligible, eating and drinking
in the very midst of the carnage of his own
adherents — the rising storm — the ride
across the plain to Jezreel, a distance of at
least 16 miles ; the prophet, with true Arab
endurance, running before the chariot, but
also with true Arab instinct stopping short
of the city, and going no farther than the
" entrance of Jezreel." So far the triumph
had been complete ; but the spirit of Jezebel
was not to be so easily overcome, and her
first.aet is a vow of vengeance against the
author of this' ".destruction. Elijah takes
refuge in flight. The danger was great,
and the fefuge must be distant. The first
stage on the journey was Beersheba, Here
Elijah halted. His servant he left in the
town ; while he himself set out alone into
the wilderness. His spirit is quite brok
en, and he wanders forth over the dreary
sweeps of those rocky hills wishing for
death. But God, who had brought His
servant into this difficulty, provided him
with the means of escaping from it. The
prophet was wakened from his dream of
despondency beneath the solitary bush of
the wilderness, was fed with the bread and
the -water which to this day are all a Bed
ouin's requirements, and went forward, in
the strength of that food, a journey of forty
days to the mount of God, even to Horeb.
Here, in the cave, one of the numerous
caverns in those awful mountains, he re-
mamed for certainly one night. In the

morning came the " word of Jehovah' —
the question, "What doest thou here,
Elijah?" In answer to this invitation the
prophet opens bis griefs. The reply comes
in that ambiguous and indirect form in
which it seems necessary that the deepest
communications with the human mind
should be couched, to be effectual. He is
directed to leave the cavern and stand on
the mountain in the open air, face to face
with Jehovah. Then, as before with Moses
(Ex. xxxiv. 6), " The Lord passed by,"
passed in all the terror of His most appall
ing manifestations ; and penetrating the
dead silence which followed these, came
the mysterious symbol — the "still small
voice," and still as it was it spoke in louder
accents to the wounded heart of Elijah than
the roar and blaze -whieh had preceded it.
To him no less unmistakably than to Moses,
centuries before, it was proclaimed that
Jehovah was " merciful and gracious, long-
suffering and abundant in goodness and
truth." Elijah knew the call, and at once
stepping forward and hiding his face in
his mantle, stood waiting for the Di
vine communication. Three commands
were laid on him — three changes were to
be made. Of these three commands the
two first were reserved for Elisha to ac
complish, the last only was executed by
Elijah himself. His first search was for
Elisha. Apparently he soon found him;
we must conclude at his native place, Abel-
meholah. Elisha was ploughing at the
time, and Elijah "passed over to him" —
possibly crossed the river — and cast his
mantle, the well-known sheepskin cloak,
upon him, as if, by that familiar action,
claiming him for his son. A moment of
hesitation, and then commenced that long
period of service and intercourse which
continued till Elijah's removal, aud which
after that time procured for Elisha one of
the best titles to esteem and reverence —
" Elisha the son of Shaphat, who poured
water on the hands of Elijah." 2. Ahab
and Jezebel now probably believed that
their threats had been effectual, and that
they had seen the last of their tormentor.
After the murder of Naboth, Ahab loses no
time in entering on his new acquisition.
But his triumph was a short one. Elijah
had received an intimation from Jehovah
of what was taking place, and rapidly as
the accusation and death of Naboth had
been hurried over, he was there to meet
his ancient enemy on the very scene of his
crime. And then follows the curse, in
terms fearful to any Oriental — peculiarly
terrible to a Jew — and most of all signifi
cant to a successor of the apostate princes
of the northern kingdom. The whole of
Elijah's denunciation may possibly be re
covered by putting together the words re-
caUed by John, 2 K, ix, 20, 16, 37, aid

ELIJAH

170

ErjOENAI

tliose given in 1 K, xxi, 19-25, 8, A
space of three or four years now elapses
(comp, 1 K, xxii, 1, 51 , 2 K, i, 17) before
we again catch a glimpse of Elijah, Ahazi
ah has met with a fatal accident, and is on
liis death-bed (2 K, i. 1, 2; 1 K, xxii. 61).
In his extremity he sends to an oracle or
shiine of Baal at the Philistine town of
Ekron, to ascertain the issue of his illness.
But the oracle is nearer at hand than the
distant Ekron. An intimation is conveyed
to the prophet, probably at that time inhab
iting one ofthe recesses of Carmel, and, as
on the former occasions, he suddenly ap
pears on the path of the messengers, with
out preface or inquiry utters his message of
death, and as rapidly disappears. But this
check only roused the wrath of Ahaziah, A
captain was despatched, with a party of fifty,
to take Elijah prisoner, " And there came
down fire from heaven and consumed him
and his fifty." A second party was sent,
only to meet the same fate. The altered
tone of the leader of a third party brought
Ehjah down. But the king gained nothing.
The message was delivered to his face in
the same words as it had been to the mes
sengers, and Elijah was allowed to go
harmless. 4. It must have been shortly
after the death of Ahaziah that Elijah made
a communication with the southern king
dom. When Jehoram the son of Jehosha
phat began " to walk in the ways of the
kings of Israel," Elijah sent him a letter
denouncing his evil doings, and predicting
his death (2 Chr, xxi. 12-15.) In its con
tents the letter bears a strong resemblance
to the speeches of Elijah, while in the
details of style it is very peculiar, and quite
different from the narrative in which it is
embedded. 6. The closing transaction of
Elijah's life introduces us to a locality
heretofore unconnected with him. It was
at Gilgal — probably on the western edge
of the hills of Ephraim — that the prophet
received the divine intimation that his de
parture was at hand. He was at the time
with Elisha, who seems now to have become
his constant companion, and whom he
endeavors to persuade to remain behind
while he goes on an errand of Jehovah, But
Elisha will not so easily give up his mas
ter. They went together to Bethel. Again
Elijah attempts to escape to Jericho, and
again Elisha protests that he will not be
separated from him. At Jericho h? makes
a final effort to avoid what they Doth so
much dread. But Elisha is not to be con
quered, and the two set off across the
undulating plain of burning sand, to the
distant river — Elijah in his mantle or cape
of sheepskin, Elisha in ordinary clothes.
Fifty men ofthe sons ofthe prophets ascend
the abrupt heights behind the town to watch
what happens in the distance. Talking as
they go, the two reach the river, and stand

on the shelving bank beside its swift; brown
current. But they are not to stop even
here. It is as if the aged Gileadite cannot
rest till he again sets foot on his own side
of the river. He rolls up his mantle as into
a staff, and with his old energy strikes the
waters ns Moses had done before liim, -^
strikes them as if they were an enemy; and
they are divided liither and thither, and
they two go over on dry ground, " And it
came to pass as they still went on and
talked, that, behold, a chariot of fire and
horses of fire, and parted them both asun
der, and Elijah went up by the whirlwind in
to the skies," — And here ends all the direct
information which is vouchsafed to us ofthe
life and work of this great prophet. How
deep was the impression which be made on
the mind ofthe nation may be judged of from
the fixed belief which many centuries after
prevailed that Elijah would again appear for
the relief and restoration of his country.
But on the other hand, the deep impression
which Elijah had thus made on his nation
only renders more remarkable the departure
which the image conveyed by the latej
references to him evinces, from that so
sharply presented in the records of his
actual life. With the exception of the
eulogiums contained in the catalogues of
worthies in the book of Jesus the . son of
Sirach (xlviii.) and 1 Mace. ii. 58, and the
passing allusion in Luke ix. 54, none of
these later references allude to his works
of destruction or of portent. They all set
forth a very different side of his character
to that brought out in the historical nar
rative. They speak of his being a man
of like passions with ourselves (James v,
17) ; of his kindness to the widow of Sarep
ta (Luke iv, 25) ; of his " restoring all
things " (Matt, xvii. 11) ; " turning the hearts
of the fathers to the cliildren, and the diso
bedient to the wisdom ofthe just " (Mal, iv.
5, 6 ; Luke i. 17). 2. A priest ofthe sons
of Harim, who had married a foreign wife
(Ezr. X. 21).
El'ika, a Harodite, one of David's guard
(2 Sam. xxiii. 25).
E'Um (Ex. XV. 27; Num. 'xxxiii. 9), the
second station where the Israelites en
camped after crossing the Red Sea. It is
distinguished as having had " twelve wells
(rather 'fountains') of water, and three
score and ten palm-trees."
Elini'eleeh, a man ofthe tribe of Judah,
and of the family of the Hezronites, who
dwelt in Bethlehem-Ephratah in the days
of the Judges. In consequence of a great
dearth in the land he went with his wife
Naomi, and his two sons, Mahlon and Chii
ion, to dwell in Moab, where he and his sons
died without posterity (Ruth i. 2, 3, &c.).
Elioe'nai. 1. Eldest son of Neariah,
the son of Shemaiah (1 Chr. iii. 23, 24). 2.
Head of a family of the Simeonites (1 Chri

ELIPHAL

171

ELISHA

iv 36). 3. Head ofone of the families of
thi sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1
Chr. vii. 8). 4. Seventh son of Meshele
miah, the son of Kore, ofthe sons of Asaph,
a Korhite Levite, and one ofthe door-keep
ers of tlie " house of Jehovah " (1 Chr.
xxvi. 3). 5. A priest ofthe sons of Pashur,
ill the days of Ezra, one of those who had
married foreign wives (Ezr. x. 22). He is
possibly the same as, 6. who is mentioned
in Neh. xii. 41, as one of the priests who
accompanied Nehemiah with trumpets at
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem.
7. An Israelite, of the sons of Zattu, who
had also married a foreign wife (Ezr, x. 27).
El'iphal, son of Ur, one of David's
guard (1 Chr. xi. 35). [Eliphelet, 3,]
Ehph'alet, the last of the thirteen
sons born to David, after his establishment
in Jerusalem (2 Sam, v, 16 ; 1 Chr, xiv, 7),
[Elipuelet, 2.]
El'iphaz. 1. The son of Esau and
Adah, and father of Teman (Gen. xxxvi. 4 ;
1 Chr. i. 35, 36). 2. The chief of the
" three friends " of Job. He is called " the
Temanite ; " hence it is naturally inferred
that he was a descendant of Teman. On
him falls the main burden of the argument,
that God's retribution in this world is per
fect and certain, and that consequently
suffering must be a proof of previous sin
(Job iv., v-,,xv., xxii.). The great truth
brought out by him is the unapproachable
majesty and purity of God (iv. 12-21, xv.
12-16). [Job.]
Eliph' elehj^ a Merarite Levite ; one of
the gate-keepers appointed by David to
play on the harp "on the Sheminith" on
the occasion of bringing up the Ark to the
city of David (1 Chr. xv, 18, 21),
EUph'elet, 1, The name of a son of
. David, one of the children born to him .after
his establishment in Jerusalem (1 Chr. iii.
C). 2. Another son of David, belonging
also to the Jerusalem family, and apparent
ly the last of his sons (1 Chr. iii. 8), 3.
Son of Ahasbai, son of the M.aachathite.
One of the thirty warriors of David's guard
(2 Sam. xxiii. 34), 4. Sonof Eshek, a de
scendant of king Saul through Jonathan (1
Chr, viii, 39), 5, One of the leaders ofthe
. Bene- Adonikam, who returned from Baby
lon with Ezra (Ezr, viii. 13), 6, Aman
of the Bene-Hashum in the time of Ezra
who had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 33),
Elis'abeth, the wife of Zacharias and
mother of John the Baptist, She was her
self of the priestly family, and a relation
(Luke i, 36) of the mother of our Lord,
Elise'^US, the form in which the name
Elisha appears in the A, V, ofthe Apocry
pha and the N, T, (Ecclus, xlviii, 12 ; Luke
iv, 27).
Ell'sha, son of Shaphat of Abel-me-
holah ; the attendant and disciple of Eli
jah, and subsequently his successor as

prophet of ti * kingdom of .srael. 1. Tha
earliest mention of his name is in the com
mand to Elijah in the cave at Horeb (1 K.
xix. 16, 17). But our first introduction to
the future prophet is in the fields of his
native place. Abel-meholah was probably
in the valley of the Jordan. Elijah, on his
way from Sinai to Damascus by the Jordan
valley, lights on his successor engaged in
the labors of the field. To cross to him, to
throw over his shoulders the rough mantle
— a token at once of investiture with the
prophet's office, and of adoption as a son —
was to Elijah but the work of an instant,
and the prophet strode on as if what ho
had done were nothing — " Go back again,
for what have I done unto thee? " Elisha
was not a man who, having put his hand to
the plough, was likely to look back ; he de
layed merely to give the farewell kiss to his
'father and mother, and preside at a parting
feast with his people, and then followed the
great prophet on his northward road. Sev
en or eight years must have passed between
the call of Elisha and the removal of his
master, and during the whole of that time
we hear nothing of him. But when that
period had elapsed he reappears, to become
the most prominent figure in the history of
his country during the rest of his long life.
In almost every respect Elisha presents the
most complete contrast to Elijah. The co
pious collection of his sayings and doings
which are preserved from the 3d to the 9th
chapter of the 2d book of Kings, is full of
testimonies to this contrast. Elijah was a
true Bedouin child of the desert. If he
enters a city it is only to deliver his mes
sage of fire and be gone, Elisha, on the
other hand, is a civilized man, an inhab
itant of cities. And as with Ms man
ners so with his appearance. The touches
of the narrative are very slight ; but we
can gather that his dress was the ordinary
garment of an Israelite, the beged, prob
ably similar in form to the long abbeyeh of
the modern Syrians (2 K, ii, 12), that his
hair was worn trimmed behind, in contrast
to the disordered locks of Elijah (ii. 23,
as explained below), and that he used a
walking-staff (iv. 29) of the kind ordinari
ly carried by grave or aged citizens (Zech,
viii. 4), The call of Elisha seems to have
taken place about four years before the
death of Ahab, He died in the reign of
Joash, the grandson of Jehu, This em
braces a period of not less than 65 years,
for certainly 55 of which he held the office
of "prophet in Israel" (2 K. v, 8). After
the departure of his master, Elisha returned
to dwell at Jericho (2K, ii. 18), The town
had been lately rebuilt (1 K, xvi, 34), aud
was the residence of a body of the " sons
of the prophets " (2 K, ii. 5, 15), One of
the springs of Jericho was noxious at the
time of Elisha's visit. At tlie request of

ELISHA

172

ELISHA

the men of Je richo he remedied this evil.
He took salt in a new vessel, and cast it
into the water at its source in the name of
Jehovah. 2. We next meet with Elisha at
Bethel, in the heart of the country, on his
way from Jericho to Mount Carmel (2 K.
ii. 23). His last visit had been made in
company with Elijah on their road down
to the Jordan (ii. 2). Here the boys of
the town were clustered, waiting, as they
still wait at the entrance of the villages of
Palestine, for the chance passer-by. In
the short-trimmed locks of Elisha, how
were they to recognize the successor of the
prophet, with whose shaggy hair streaming
over his shoulders they were all familiar ?
So with the license of the Eastern children
they scoff at the new comer as he walks
by — "Go up, roundhead! go up, round
head ! " For once Elisha assumed the
sternness of his master. He turned upon
them and cursed them in the n.ame of Je
hovah, and we all know the catastrophe
which followed. 3. Elisha extricates Je
horam king of Israel, and the kings of Ju
dah and Edom, from their difficulty in the
campaign against Moab, arising from want
of water (iii. 4-27). This incident proba
bly took place at the S. E. end of the Dead
Sea. 4. The widow of one of the sons
of the prophets is in debt, and her two sons
are about to be t.aken from her and sold as
slaves. She has no property but a pot of
oil. This Elisha causes (in his absence,
iv. 5) to multijily, until the widow has filled
with it all the vessels which she could bor
row, 5. The next occurrence is at Shu
nem and Mount Carmel (iv, 8-37). The
story divides itself into two partsj separated
from each other by several years, {a.)
Elisha, probably on his way between
Carmel and the Jordan valley, calls acci
dentally at Shunem. Here he is hospi
tably entertained by a woman of sub
stance, apparently at that time ignorant
of the character of her guest. There is
no occasion here to quote the details of
tills charming narrative. (6.) An interval
has elapsed of several years. The boy is
now old enough to accompany his father
to the corn-field, where the harvest is pro
ceeding. The fierce rays of the morning
sun are too powerful for him. and he is
carried home to his mother only to die at
noon. She says nothing of their, loss to
her husband, but depositing her cliild on
the bed of the man of God, at once starts
in quest of him to Mount Carmel. No ex
planation is needed to tell EUsha the exact
state of the case. The heat of the season
will allow of no delay in taking the neces
sary steps, and Gehazi is at once despatched
to run back to Shunem with the utmost
speed. He takes the prophet's walking-
staff ir his hand, which he is to lay on th«
fcce of the child. The mother and Elisha

follow in haste. Before they reach th«
village the sun of that long, anxious, sum
mer afternoon must have set. Gehazi
meets them on the road, but he has no re
assuring report to give ; the placing of the
staff on the face of the dead boy had called
forth no sign of life. Then Elisha enters
the house, goes up to liis own chamber,
"and he shut the door on them twain and
prayed unto Jehovah." The child is re
stored to life. 6. The scene now changes
to Gilgal, apparently at a time when Elisha
was residing there (iv. 38-41). The sons
of the prophets are sitting round him. It
is a time of famine. The food of the party
must consist of any herbs that can be
found. The great caldron is put on at
the command of Elisha, and one of the
company brings his blanket full of such
wild vegetables as he has collected, and
empties it into the pottage. But no sooner
have they begun their meal than the taste
betrays the presence of some noxious herb,
and they cry out, " There is death in the
pot, O man of God ! " In this case the
cure was effected by meal which Elisha
cast into the stew in the caldron, 7, (iv,
42-44), This in all probability belongs to
the same time, and also to the same place,
as the preceding, A man from Baal-
shalisha brings the man of God a present
of the first-fruits, which under the law
(Num, xviii. 8, 12 ; Deut. xviii. 3, 4) were
the perquisite of the ministers of the sanc
tuary. 8. The simple records of these
domestic incidents amongst the sons of tho
prophets are now interrupted by an occur
rence -of a more important character (v,
1-27), The chief captain of the army of
Syria, to whom his country was indebted
for some signal success, was afflicted with
leprosy (v, 27), One of the members of
his establishment is an Israelite girl, kid
napped by the marauders of Syria in one
of their forays over the border, and she
brings into that Syrian household the fame
of the name and skill of Elisha, The news
is communicated by Naaman himself to the
king, Benhadad had yet to learn the posi
tion and character of Elisha, He writes to
the king of Israel a letter very ch.aracteris-
tic of a military prince. With this letter,
and with a present, and a full retinue ol
attendants (13, 15, 23), Naaman proceeds
to Samaria, to the house of Elis?ia, Elisha
still keeps in the background, and while
Naaman stands at the docrway, contents
himself with sending out a messenger with
the simple direction to bathe seven times
in the Jordan, The independent behavior
of the prophet, and the simplicity of the
prescription, all combined to enrage Naa
man, His slaves, however, knew how to
deal with the quick but not ungenerous
temper of their master, And the result is,
that be goes down to the Jordan and. dip)

ELISHA

173

ELISHA

himself seven times, " and his flesh came
again like the flesh of a little child, and he
was clean," His first business after his
cure is to thank his benefactor. He re
turns with his whole following, and this
time he will not be denied the presence of
EUsha ; but making his way in, and stand
ing before him, he gratefully acknowledges
the power of the God of Israel, and en
treats him to accept the present whieh he
has brought from Damascus, Elisha is
firm, and refuses the offer, though re
peated with the strongest adjuration. But
Gehazi cannot allow such treasures thus
to escape him. So he frames a story by
which the generous Naaman is made to
send back with him to Elisha's house a
considerable present in money and clothes.
He then went in and stood before his mas
ter as if nothing had happened. But the
prophet was not to be so deceived. His
heart had gone after his servant through
the whole transaction, even to its minutest
details, and he visits Gehazi with the tre
mendous punishment of the leprosy, from
which he has just relieved Naaman. 9.
(vi. 1-7). We now return to the sons of
the prophets ; but this time the scene ap
pears to be changed, and is probably at
Jericho, and during the residence of Elisha
there. As one of them was cutting at a
tree overhanging the stream, the iron of his
a.xe flew off and sank into the water. His
cry soon brought the man of God to his aid.
The stream ofthe Jordan is deep up to the
very bank, especially when the water is so
low as to leave the wood dry, and is more
over so turbid that search would be useless.
But the place at which the lost axe en
tered thewaterisshown to Elisha; he breaks
off a stick and casts it into the stream, and
the iron appears on the surface, and is re
covered by its possessor, 10, (vi, 8-23).
Elisha is now residing at Dothan, half way
on the road between Samaria and Jezreel.
The incursions of the Syrian marauding
bands (comp, v, 2) still continue. Their
manoDuvres are not hid from the man of
God, and by his warnings he saves the king
"not once nor twice." A strong party
with chariots is despatched to effect the
capture of Elisha, They march by night,
and before morning take up their station
round the base of the eminence on which
the ruins of Dothan still stand. Elisha's
servant is the first to discover the danger.
But Elisha remains unmoved by his fears.
He prays to Jeliovah, and the ivboie of the
Syrian warriors are struck blind. Then
descending, • bo off'ers to lead them to the
person and the place which they seek. He
conducts them to Samaria, There, at the
prayer of the prophet, their sight is restored,
»nd they find themselves not in a retired
countrv village, but in the midst of the
capital of Israel, and in the presence of

the king and his troops, Aft^r such a re
pulse it is not surprising that the maraud
ing forays ofthe Syrian troops ceased, 11.
(vi. 24-vii. 2), But the king of Syria
could not rest under such dishonor. He
abandons his marauding system, and gathers
a regular army, with whieh he lays siege to
Samaria, _ The awful extremities to which
the inhabitants of the place were driven
need not here be recalled. 12. (viii. 1-6).
We now go back several years to an inci
dent connected with the lady of Shunem,
at a period antecedent to the cure of Naa
man and the transfer of his leprosy to
Geh.azi (v. 1, 27). Elisha bad been made
aware of a famine which Jehovah was about
to bring upon the hand for seven years ; and
he had warned his friend the Shunammite
thereof that she might provide for her safety.
At the end of the seven years she returned
to her native place, to find that during her
absence her house with the field-land at
tached to it had been appropriated by some
other person. To the king therefore the
Shunammite had recourse. And now oc
curred one of those rare coincidences which
it is impossible not to ascribe to something
more than mere chance. At the very mo
ment of the entrance of the ¦\roman and
her son the king was listening to a recital
by Gehazi of " all the great tilings whieh
Elisha bad done." The woman was in
stantly recognized by Gehazi. From her
own mouth the king hears the repetition
of the wonderful tale, and, whether from
regard to Elisha, or struck by the extraor
dinary coincidence, orders her land to be
restored with the value of all its produce
during her absence. 13. (viii. 7-15).
Hitherto we have met with the prophet
only in his own country. We now find
him at Damascus. He is there to carry
out the command given to Elijah on Horeb
to anoint Hazael to be king over Syria.
At the time of his arrival Benhadad was
prostrate with his last illness. The king's
first desire is naturally to ascertain his
own fate ; and Hazael is commissioned to
be the bearer of a present to the prophet,
and to ask the question on the part of
his master, " Shall I recover of this dis
ease ? " 'The reply, probably originally
ambiguous, is doubly uncertain in the pres
ent doubtful state of the Hebrew text ; but
the general conclusion was unmistakable :
"Jehovah hath showed me that he shall
surely die." But this was not all that had
been revealed to the prophet. If Benhadad
died, who would be king in his stead but
the man who now stood before him? The
prospect was one which drew forth the tears
of the man of God. At Hazael's request
Elisha confesses the reason of his tears.
But the prospect is one which has no sor
row for Hazael. His only doubt is the
possibility of such good fortune for one sa

ELISHAH

174

ELON

mean. " But what is thy slave, dog that
he is, that he should do this great thing? "
To which Elisha replies, " Jehovah hath
showed me that thou wilt be king over
Syria," Returning to the king, Hazael
telle him only half the dark saying of the
man of God — " He told me that thou
shouldest surely recover," But that was
the last day of Benhadad's life, 14. (ix.
1-10), Two of the injunctions laid on
Elijah had now been carried out; the third
still remained. The time was come for
the fulfilment of the curse upon Ahab by
anointing Jehu king over Israel. Elisha's
personal share in the transaction was con
fined to giving directions to one of the
sons of the prophets. [Jehu.] 15. Be
yond this we have no record of Elisha's
having taken any part in the revolution of
Jehu, or the events which followed it. He
does not again appear till we find him on
his death-bed in his own house (xiii. 14-
19). 16. (xiii. 20-22). The power of the
prophet, however, does not terminate with
his death. Even in the tomb he restores the
dead to life.
Eli'shah, the eldest son of Javan (Gen.
X, 4), The residence of his descendants is
described in Ez, xxvii. 7, as the " isles of
Elishah," whence the Phoenicians obtained
their purple and blue dyes. Some connect
the race of Elishah with the Aeolians,
others with Elis, and in a more extended
sense Peloponnesus, or even Hellas. It
appears correct to treat it as the design.a-
tion of a race rather than of a locality.
Eiish'ama. 1. Son of Ammihud, the
"prince" or "captain" of the tribe of
Ephraim in the wilderness of Sinai (Num.
i. 10, ii. 18, vii. 48, x. 22). From 1 Chr.
vii. 26 we find that he was grandfather to
the great Joshua. 2, A son of King David,
born to him of his wives after his establish
ment in Jerusalem (2 Sam. v. 16 ; 1 Chr.
iii. 8, xiv. 7.) 3. Another son of David (1
Chr. iii. 6), who in the other lists is called
Elishda. 4. A descendant of Judah ; the
son of Jekamiah (1 Chr. ii, 41), 5. The
father of Nethaniah and grandfather of Ish
mael (2 K. xxv. 25 ; Jer. xii. 1). 8. Scribe
to king Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 12, 20, 21).
7. A priest in the time of Jehoshaphat (2
Chr. xvii. 1).
Elish'aphat, son of Zichri ; one of the
captains of hundreds ih the time of Jehoiada
(2 Chr. xxiii. 8),
Elish'eba, the wife of A.aron (Ex, vi.
23). She was the daughter of Amminadab,
and sister of Naashon tlio captain of the
host of Judah (Num. ii, 3),
Elishu'a, one of David's sons, born after
his settlement in Jerusalem (2 Sam, v. 15 ;
1 Chr. xiv, 5).
E'liiid, son of Achim in the genealogy
of Christ (Matt. i. 15).
Eliz'aphan, 1. A Levite, son of Uz

ziel, chief of the house of the Kohathites
at the time of the census in the wilderness
of Sinai (Num, iii. 30), 2. Son of Par-
nach ; prince of the tribe of Zebulun (Num.
xxxiv. 25).
Eli'zur, son of Shedeur ; prince of the
tribe, and over the host of Reuben (Num.
i. 5, ii. 10,-vii. 30, 35, x. 18).
El'kanah. 1. Son, or rather grandson
(see 1 Chr. vi. 22, 23 [7, 8]), of Korah, ac
cording to Ex. vi. 24. 2. A descendant of
the above in the line of Ahimoth, otherwise
Mahath, 1 Chr. vi. 26, 35 (Heb. 11, 20).
3. Another Kohathite Levite, was son of
Jeroham, and father of Samuel the illus
trious Judge and Prophet (1 Chr. vi. 27,
34). All that is known of him is contained
in the above notices and in 1 Sam. i.' 1, 4,
8, 19, 21, 23, and ii. 2, 20, 4, A Levite
(1 Chr. ix. 16). 5. A Korhite who joined
David while he was at Ziklag (1 Chr, xii.
6) . 6. An officer in the household of Ahaz,
king of Judah, who was slain by Zichri the
Epbraimite, when Pekah invaded Judah.
(2 Chr. xxviii. 7),
El'kosh, the binthplace of the prophet
Nahum, hence called "the Elkoshite,"
Nah. i. 1, Two widely differing Jewish
traditions assign as widely different locah
ties to this place. In the time of Jerome
it was believed to exist in a small village
of Galilee. Others assign it to Alkush, a
village on the east bank of tbe Tigris,
about two miles north of Mosul. The for
mer is more in accordance with the internal
evidence afforded by the prophecy, which
gives no sign of having been written in As
syria. El'lasar, the city of Arioch (Gen. xiv,
1), seems to be the Hebrew representative
of the old Chaldaean town called in the
native dialect Larsa or Larancha. Larsa
was a town of Lower Babylonia or Chaldaea,
situated nearly half way between Ur {Mug
heir) and Erech ( Warka), on the left bank
of the Euphrates, It is now Senkereh,
Elm, Hos. iv. 13. See Oak,
Elmo'dam, son of Er, in the genealo
gy of Joseph (Luke iii. 28),
Ernaam, the ftither of Jeribai and Josh-
aviah, two of David's guard, according to
1 Chr. xi. 46,
El'nathan. 1. The maternal grand
father of Jehoiachin (2 K. xxiv. 8) is doubt
less the same man with Elnathan the son of
Achbor (Jer, xxvi. 22, xxxvi. 12, 25). 2,
The name of three persons, apparently Le
vites, in the time of Ezra (Ez. viii. 16).
E'lon. 1. A Hittite, whose daughter
was one of Esau's wives (Gen. xxvi. 34,
xx.xvi. 2). 2. The second of the three
sons attributed to Zebulun (Gen. xlvi. 14 ;
Num. x.xvi. 26) ; and the founder of the
family of the Elonites. 3. Elon the Zeb-
ulonite, who judged Israel for ten years, and
was buried in Aijalon in Zebulun (Tudg.

ELON-BETH-HANAN

175

EMBROIDERER

xii, 11, 12), 4, One of the towns in the
border of the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 43).
E'lon-beth'-hanan is named with
two Danite towns as forming one of Solo
mon's commissariat districts (1 K. iv, 9),
E'lonites, The, Num, xxvi, 26. [Elon,
E'loth, 1 K. ix. 26, [Elath.]
Elpa'al, a Benjamite, son of Hushim
and brother of Ahitub (1 Chr. viii. 11), He
was the founder of a numerous family.
Elpa'let, one of David's sons bom in
¦ Jerusalem (1 Chr, xiv. 5),
El-pa,'ran. Literally "the terebiafth
of Paran" (Gen. xiv. 6). [Pahan.]
El'tekeh, one of the cities in the boir-
der of Dan (Josh, xix, 44), which with itfi
suburbs was allotted to the Kohathite Le
vites (xxi, 23),
El'tekon, one of the towns of the tribe
of Judah in the mountains (Josh. xv. 59),
It has not yet been identified.
El'tolad, one of the cities in the south
of Judah (Josh, xv, 30) allotted to Simeon
(Josh, xix, 4) ; and in possession of that
tribe until the time of David (1 Chr, iv.
29). Elul, Neh. vi. 15; 1 Mace. xiv. 27.
[Months.] Eltl'zai, one of the warriors of Benja
min, wno joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr.
xii. 5).
El'ymas, the Arabic name of the Jew
ish magus or sorcerer Barjesus (Acts xiii.
6, ff.).
El'zabad. 1. One of the Gadite heroes
who came across the Jordan to David (1
Chr. xii. 12). 2. A Korhite Levite (I Chr.
xxvi. 7).
El'zaphan, second son of Uzziel, who
was the son of Kohath son of Levi (Ex.
vi. 22).
Embalming, the process by which
dead bodies are preserved from putrefac
tion and decay. It was most general
among the Egyptians, and it is in connec
tion with this people that the two instances
which we meet with in the O. T. are men
tioned (Gen. 1. 2, 26). Of the Egyptian
method of embalming there remain two
minute accounts, which have a general
kind of agreement, though they differ in
details. Herodotus (ii. 86-89) describes
tlttee modes, varying in completeness and
expense, and practised by persons regular
ly trained to the profession who were initi
ated into the mysteries of the art by their
ancestors. The embalmers flrst removed
part of the brain through the nostrils, by
means of a crooked iron, and destroyed the
rest by injecting caustic drugs. An incision
was then made along the flank with a sharp
Ethiopian stone, and the whole of the in
testines removed. Tho cavity was rinsed
out with palm-wine, and afterwards scoured
With pounded perfumes. It was then filled

with pure myrrh pounded, cassia, and oth
er aromatics, except frankincense. This
done, the body was sewn up and steeped in
natron for seventy days. When the sev
enty days were accomplished, the embalm
ers washed the corpse and swathed it in
bandages of linen, cut in strips and smeared
with gum. They then gave it up to tha
relatives of the deceased, who provided for

The Mummy's Kuad, seen at an open panel of the coffin.
CWilklnsou.) ,
it a wooden case, made in the shape of a
man, in which the dead was placed, and de
posited in an erect position against the wall
of the sepulchral chamber. The second
mode of embalinins cost about 20 minae. In
this case no incision was made in the body,
nor were the intestines removed, but cedar-
oU was injected into the stomach by the
rectum. 'The oil wss prevented from es
caping, .and the body was then steeped iu
natron for the appointed number of days.
On the last day the oil w.as withdrawn, and
carried off with it the stomach and intes
tines in a state of solution, while the flesh
was consumed by the natron, and nothing
was left but the skin and bones. ' The body
in this state was returned to the relatives
of the deceased. The third mode, whieh
was adopted by the poorer classes, and cost
but Httle, consisted in rinsing out the intes
tines with syrmaea, an infusion of senna
and cassia, and steeping the body for the
usual number of days in natrum. It does
not appear that embalming, properly s®
called, was practised by the Hebrews.
Embroiderer, This term is given is
the A, V. as the equivalent of rrfft^m, the pro
ductions of the art being described as "nee.
dlework" {rikmdh). In Exodus the em
broiderer is contrasted with the " cunning
workman " {chdsMb). Various explan.a-
tions bave been offered as to the distinction
between them, but most of these overlook
the distinction marked in the Bible itself,
viz. that the rdkSm wove simply a varie
gated texture, without gold thread or fig
ures, and that the chdsheb interwove gold
thread or figures inta the variegated tex
ture. The distinction, as given by the

i;m.'GRaL1>

176

EN-DOR

Talnrjdist.-!, is this — thai rilimAh, or ' ' nee
dlework," was where a pattern was attached
to the staff by being sewn oii to 1» on one
side, and the work.of the chdsheb when the
pattern was worked into the stuff by tho
loom, and so appeared onioft sides. The art
of embroidery by the loom was extensively
practised among the nations of antiquity.
In addition to the Egyptians, the Babyloni
ans were celebrated for it; but embroid
ery in the proper sense of the term, i. e.
with tbe needle, was a Phrygian invention
of later date (Plin. viii. 48).
Emerald, a precious stone, first in the
Bocoi.d row on the breastplate of the liigh-
piiest (Ex: xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11), imported
to Tyre from Syria (Ez. xxvii. 16), used as
a seal or" signet (Ecclus. xxxii. 6), as an
ornament of clothing and bedding (Ez.
xxviii. 13 ; Jud. x. 21), and spoken of as
one of the foundations of Jerusalem (Rev.
x.xi. 19; Tob. xfti. 16). The rainbow round
the throne is compared to Emerald in Rev.
iv. 3.
Emerods (Deut, xxviii, 27 ; 1 Sam, v,
6, 9, 12, vi. 4, 5, 11). Probably hemorrhoi
dal timers, or bleeding piles, are intended.
These are very common in Syria at pres
ent, oriental habits of want of exercise and
improper food, producing derangement of
the liver, constipation, &c., being such as
to cause them,
E'mims, a tribe or family of gigantic
stature whieh originally inhabited the re
gion along the eastern side of the Dead
Sea, They were related to the Anakim,
and were generally called by the same
name ; but their conquerors the Moabites
termed them Emim — that is, "terrible
men " (Deut. ii. 11) — most probably on ac
count of their fierce aspect,
Emman'uel, Matt, i, 23. [Imman-
UEL.] Em'maus, the village to which the two
disciples were going when our Lord ap
peared to them on the way, on the day of
His resurrection (Luke xxiv. 13). Luke
makes its distance from Jerusalem sixty
stadia {A. Y. "threescore furlongs"), or
about 74 miles ; and Josephus mentions " a
village called Emmaus " at the same dis
tance. The site of Emmaus remains yet
to be identified.
Em'maus, or TTicop'olls (1 Mace. iii.
40), a town is. the plain of Philistia, at the
foot of the mcuntains of Judah, 22 Roman
miles from Jerusalem, and 10 from Lydda.
It was fortified by Bacchides, the general of
Antiochus Epiphanes, when he wa'? engaged
in the war with Jonathan Maceabaeus (1
Maec. ix. 50). It was in the plain beside
this city that Judas Maceabaeus so signally
defeated the Syrians with a mere handful
of men, as related in 1 Mace. iii. 57, iv. 3,
&c. A small miserable village called 'Amwds
still occupies tho site of the ancient city.

Em'mor, the father of Sychem (Acts
vii. 16), [Hamok,]
En, at the beginning of many Hebrew
words, signifies a spring or fountain,
E'nam, one of the cities of Judah in
the Shefelah or lowland (Josh. xv. 34).
E'nan. Ahira ben-Euan was " prince "
of the tribe of Naphtali at the time of the
numbering of Israel in the wilderness of
Sinai (Num. i. 15).
Encampment primarily dencted the
resting-place of an army or company of
travellers at night (Ex, xvi, 13; Gen, xxxii,
21), and was hence applied to the army or
ca."avan when on its march (Ex, xiv, 19 ;
Josh. X. 5, xi. 4; Gen. xxxii. 7, 8). Among
nomadic tribes war never attained to the
dignity of a science, and their encamp
ments were consequently devoid of all the
appliances of more systematic warfare.
The description of the camp of the Israel
ites, on their march from Egypt (Num. ii.,
iii.), supplies the greatest amount of in
formation on the subject. The tabernacle,
corresponding to the chieftain's tent of an
ordinary encampment, was placed in the
centre, and around and facing it (Num. ii.
1), arranged in four grand divisions, cor
responding to the four points of the com
pass, lay the host of Israel, according to
their standards (Num, i. 52, ii. 2). In the
centre, round the tabernacle, and with no
standard but the cloudy or fiery pillar which
rested over it, were the tents of the priests
and Levites. The former, with Moses and
Aaron at their head, were encamped on the
eastern side. The order of encampment
was preserved on the march (Num. U.
17), Enchantments. 1. Heb. Idttm or
lehdtim (Ex. vii. 11, 22, viii. 7), secret
arts. 2. Cishdphim {2 S..\x. 22; M.ic.y.
12; Nah, iii. 4), "muttered spells," The
belief in the pOw jr of certain formulae was
universal in the ancient world. 3, LH-
chdshim (Eccl. x, 11), This word is es
pecially used of the charming of serpents,
Jer. viii. 17 (cf Ps, Iviii. 5 ; Ecclus. xii.
13; Eccl. X, m, 4, The word nichi-
shim is used of the enchantments soujiht
by Balaam (Num, xxiv, 1), It propeily
alludes to ophiomancy, but in this place
has a general meaning of endeavoring to
gain omens, 5, Cheber is used for magic
(Is. xlvii. 9, 12). Any resort to these meth
ods of imposture was strictly forbidden in
Scripture (Lev, xix, 26 ; Is, xlvii. 9, &c.),
but to eradicate the tendency is almost im
possible (2 K. xvii, 17; 2 Chr, xxxiii. 6),
and we find it still flourishing at the Chris
tian era (Acts xiii. 6, 8, viii, 9, 11 ; Gal. v.
20; Rev. ix. 21).
En'-dor, a place in the territory of Issa
char, and yet possessed by Manasseh (Josh.
xvii. 11). Endor was long held in memory
by the Jewish people as connected withths

EN -EGLAIM

177

ENOCH, THE BOOK OB'

great victory over Sisera and Jabin. It
was here that the witch dwelt whom Saul
consulted (1 Sam. xxviii. 7). It was known
to Eusebius, who describes it as a large vil
lage 4 miles S. of Tabor. Here to the N.
of Jebel Duhy the name still lingers. The
distimce from the slopes of Gilboa to En-
dor is 7 or 8 miles, over difficult ground.
En-egla'im a place named only by
Ezekiel (xlvii. 10), apparently as on the
Dead Sea ; but whether near to or far from
Engedi, on the west or east side of the Sea,
it is impossible to ascertain.
En-gan'nim, 1. A city in the low
country of Judah, named between Zanoah
and Tappuah (Josh. xv. 34). 2, A city on
the border of Issachar (Josh, xix, 21),
allotted with its " suburbs " to the Gershon
ite Levites (xxi. 29), probably Jenin, the
first village encountered on the ascent from
the great plain of Esdraelon into the hills
of the centriil country,
En'gedi, a town in the wilderness of
Judah (Josh. xv. 62) , on the western shore
of the Dead Sea (Ez. xlvii. 10), Its origi-
LUl name was Hazazon-Tamar, ou account
of the palm-groves which surrounded it (2
Chr, XX. 2; Ecclus. -xxiv. 14). Its site is
about the middle of the western shore of
the lake, at the fountain of Ain Jidy, from
which the place gets its name. It was im
mediately after an assault upon the " Am
orites, that dwelt in Hazazon-Tamar," that
the five Mesopotamian kings were attacked
by the rulers of the plain of Sodom (Gen.
xiv, 7; comp. 2 Chr. xx, 2), Saul was
told that David was in the ' ' wilderness of
Engedi;" and he took "3000 men, and
went to seek David and his men upon the
rocks of the wild goats " (1 Sam. xxiv, 1-
4). The vineyards of Engedi were cele
brated by Solomon (Cant. i. 14),
Engine, a term exclusively applied to
military affairs in the Bible, The engines
to which the term is applied in 2 Chr, xxvi.
13. were designed to propel various missiles

###<

AlsyriaD War-engine. (From Botta, pi. 100.)
from the walls of a besieged town : one, with
which the Hebrews were acquainted, was
12

the battering-ram, described in Ez. xxvi. 9,
and still more precisely in Ez. iv. 2, xxi. 22.
Engraver, His chief business was cut
ting names or devices on rings and seals ;
the only notices of engraving are in con
nection with the high-priest's dress — the
two onyx-stones, tbe twelve jewels, and the
mitre-plate having inscriptions on them
(Ex. xxviu. 11, 21, 36),
En-had'dah, one of the cities on tho
border of Issachar named next to Engan
nim (Josh. xix. 21).
En-hak'kore, the spring which burst
out in answer to the cry of Samson after
his exploit with the jawbone (Judg. xv, 19).
En-ha'zor, one of the fenced cities in
the inheritance of Naphtali, distinct from
Hazor (Josh. xix. 37), It has not yet been
identified. En-mish'pat, Gen. xiv. 7. [I^adesh.]
E'noeh. 1. Tie eldest son of Cain
(Gen. iv, 17), who called the city which he
built after his name (18). 2. The son of
Jared and father of Methuselah (Gen, v,
21, ff. ; Luke iii. 28), In the Epistle of Jude
(24) he is described as " the seventh from
Adam ; " and the number is probably no
ticed as conveying the idea of divine con>
pletion and rest, while Enoch was himself
a type of perfected humanity. After the
birth of Methuselah it is said (Gen. v. 22-24)
that Enoch " walked with God three hun
dred years , , . and he was not ; for God
took him." The phrase "walked with
God" is elsewhere only used of Noah (Gen,
vi, 9 ; cf. .Gen. xvii. 1, &c.), and is to be
explained of a proplietic life spent in im
mediate converse with the spiritual woriu.
In the Epistle to the Hebrews the spring
and issue of Enoch's life are clearly marked,
— Both the Latin and Greek fathers com
monly coupled Enoch and Elijah as historic
witnesses ofthe possibility of a resurrection
of the body and of a true human existence
in glory ; and the voice of early ecclesias
tical tradition is almost unanimous in. re
garding them as " tlie two witnesses " (Rev.
xi. 3, ff.) who should fall before " the beast."
Enoch, The Book of. The first trace
of its existence is generally found in the
Epistle of St. Jude (14, 15), but the
words of the Apostle leave it uncertain
whether he derived his quotation from tra
dition or from writing, though the wide
spread of the book in the second century
seems almost decisive in favor of the latter
supposition. Considerable fragments are
preserved in the Ohronographia of Georgi-
us Syncellus (about 792 A. D.), and these,
with the scanty notices of earlier writers,
constituted the sole remains of the book
known in Europe till the close of the last
century. Meanwhile, however, a report
was current that the entire book was pre
served in Abyssinia ; and at length, in 1773,
Bruce brought with him on his return from

ENON

178

EPHES-DAMMIM

Egypt three MSS. containing the complete
Ethiopic translation. The Ethiopic trans
lation was made from the Greek, and prob
ably towards the middle or close of thu
fourth century. But it is uncertain whether
tbe Greek text was the original, or itself a
translation from the Hebrew. In its prest nt
shape the book consists of a series of reve
lations supposed to have been given to
Enoch and Noah, which extend to the most
varied aspects of nature and life, and are
designed to. offer a comprehensive vindica
tion of the action of Providence. Notwith
standing the quotation in St. Jude, and the
wide circulation of the book itself, the
apocalypse of Enoch was uniformly .and
distinctly separated from the canonical
Scriptures. E'non, a place " near to Salim," at
whieh John baptized (John iii. 23). It was
evidently west of the Jordan (comp. iii. 22,
with 26, and with i. 28), and abounded in
water. This is indicated by the name,
which is merely a Greek version of a Chal
dee word, signifying "springs." Aenon is
given in the Onomasticon as 8 miles south
of Scythopolis "near Salem and the Jordan."
E'nos, the son of Seth ; properly called
Enosh, as in 1 Chr. i. 1 (Gen. iv. 26, v, 6,
7, 9, 10, 11; Luke iii, 38),
E'nosh. The same as the preceding (1
Chr. i. 1).
En-rimmon, one of the places whieh
tlie men of Judah re-inhabited after their
return from the Captivity (Neh. xi. 29).
Perhaps tho same as " Ain and Rimmon "
(Josh. XV. 32), and "Ain, Remmon" (xix.
7; and see 1 Chr. iv. 32).
En-ro'gel, a spring which formed one
of the landmarks on the boundary line be
tween Judah (Josh. xv. 7) and Benjamin
(xviii. 16). Here, Jonathan and Ahimaaz
remained, afterthe flight of David, aw.aiting
intelligence from within the walls (2 Sam.
xvii, 17; and here, by the stone Zoheleth,
which is close to En-rogel, .Adonijah held
the feast, whieh was the first and last act
of his attempt on the crown (1 K. i. 9). It
m.ay be identified with the present " Foun
tain of the Virgin," 'Ain Umm cd-Daraj
the perennial source from which the
I'ool of Siloam is supplied,
En'-Shemesh, a spring which formed
one of tho landmarks on the north bounda
ry of Judah (Josh, xv, 7) .and the south
boundary of Benjamin (xviii. 17), perhaps
Ain-Haud or Ain-Ohdt,— the "Well ofthe
Apostles," — about a mile below Bethany.
Ensign {nis ; in the A. V. generally
"ensign," sometimes "standard;" degel,
" standard," with the exception of Cant. ii.
4, "banner;" dih, "ensign"). The dis
tinction between these-three Hebrew terms
is sufficiently marked by their respective
uses : nis is a signal : degel a milit.ary stan
dard for a large division of an army ; and

dih, the same for a small one. Neither of
them, however, expresses the idea which
" standard " conveys to our minds,- viz. a
flag ; the standards in use among the He
brews probably resembled those of the
Egyptians and Assyrians — a figure or de
vice of some kind elevated on a pole. {1.)
The notices of the nes or "ensign" are
most frequent ; it consisted of some well-
understood signal which was exhibited on
the top of a pole from a bare mountain top
(Is. xiii. 2, xviii. 3). What the nature of
the signal was, we have no means of stat
ing. The important point to be observed
is, that tho nis was an occasional signal,
and not a military standard. (2.) The term
degel is used to describe the standards which
were given to each of the four divisions of
the Israelite army at the time of the Exodus
(Num. i. 52, ii. 2, ff., x. 14, ff.). The char
acter of the Hehrew military standards is
quite a matter of conjecture ; they probably
resembled the Egyptian, which consisted
of a sacred emblem, such as an animal, a
boat, or the king's name.
Bn-tap'puah, It is probably identi
cal with Tappuah, the position of which will
be elsewhere examined (Josh. xvii. 7).
Epaene'tus, a Christian at Rome,
greeted by St. Paul in Rom. xvi. 5, and
designated as his beloved, and the first fruit
of Asia unto Christ.
Ep'aphras, a fellow-laborer with the
Apostle Paul, mentioned Col. i. 7, as hav
ing taught the Colossian church the grace
of God in truth, and designated a faithful
minister of Christ on their behalf. He was
at that time with St. Paul at Rome (Col. iv.
12), and seems by the expression there used
to have been a Colossian by birth. We find
him again mentioned in the Epistle to Phi
lemon (ver. 23), which was sent at the same
time as that to tho Colossians. Epaphras
may be the same as Epaphroditus, but the
notices in the N. T. do not enable us to
speak with any confidence.
Bpaphrodi'tus (Phil. ii. 25, iv. 18).
See above under Epaphras.
E'phah, the first, in order, of the sons
of Midian (Gen. x.xv. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 33), after
wards mentioned by Isaiah (lx. 6, 7).
E'phah. 1. Concubine of Caleb, in tho
line of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 46). 2. Son of Jah-
dai ; also in the line of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 47).
Ephah. [Measures.]
E'phai, a Netophathite, whose sons were
among the " captains of the forces " left in
Judah after tlie deportation to Babylon
(Jer. xl. 8, xii. 3, comp. xl. 13).
E'pher, the second, in order, of the
sons of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4 ; 1 Chr. i. 33).
E'pher. 1. A son of Ezra, among the
descendants of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 17), 2,
One of the heads ofthe families of Manas
seh on the east of Jordan (1 Chr, v, 24),
E'phes-dam'mim, a place between

EPHESIANS

179

EPHESUS

Socoh and Azok.ah, at which the Philistines
were encamped before the affray in which
Goliath was killed (1 Sam, xvii, 1), Under
the shorter form of Pas-dammim it occurs
once again in a similar connection (1 Chr,
xi. 13),
Ephesians, The Epistle to the, was
written by tho Apostle St. Paul during his
first captivity at Rome (Acts xxviii. 16),
apparently immediately after lie had writ
ten the Epistle to the Colossians [Colos
sians, Ep, to], and during that period
(perhaps the early part of A, d. 62) when
his imprisonment had not assumed the
severer character which seems to have
marked its close. This epistle was ad
dressed to the Christian church at Ephesus.
[Ephesus.] Its contents may be divided
into two portions, the first mainly dodrinal
(ch. i.-iii.), the' second hortatory and
pradical. 'The Apostle reminds his con
verts that they had been redeemed from
sin by grace, and not by works, and he
exhorts them to walk worthy of this call
ing, and to keep the unity of the Spirit,
Eph'esus, the capital of the Roman'
province of Asia, and an illustrious city in
the district of Ionia, nearly opposite the
island of Samos, St, Paul's life furnishes
illustrations of the mercantile relations of
Ephesus with Achaia on the W., Mace
donia on the N,, and Syria on the E, As
to the relations of Ephesus to the inland
regions of the continent, these also are
prominently brought before us in the Apos
tle's travels. The " upper coasts " (Acts
xix, 1) through which he passed,- when
about to take up his residence in the city,
were the Phrygian t.able-lands of the in
terior. Two great reads at least, in the
Roman times, led eastward from Ephesus ;
one through the. passes of Tmolusto Sardis
(Rev, iii, 1) and thence to Galatia and the
N. E., tlie other round the extremity of
Pactyas to Magnesia, and so up the valley
of the Maeander to Iconium, whence the
communication was direct to the Euphrates
and to the Syrian Antioch. 'There seem
to have been Sardian and Magnosian gates
on the E. side of Ephesus corresponding to
these roads respectively. There wore also
coast-roads leadin» northwards to Smyrna
and southwards to Miletus. By tho Latter of
these it is probable that the Ephesian elders
travelled when summoned to meet Paul at
tho latter city (Acts xx, 17, 18), Con
spicuous at tho head of the harbor of Ephe
sus was the great temple of Diana _ or
Artemi?; the tutelary divinity of the city.
This building was r<aised on immense sub
structions, in consequence of tho swampy
nature of the ground. The earlier temple,
which had been begun before. the Persian
war, was burnt down in the night when
Alexander the Great was born; and an-
o.her structure, raised by the enthusiastic

co-operation of all the inhabitants of
"Asia," had tiiken its place. The mag
nificence of this sanctuary was a proverb
throughout tho civilized world. In conse
quence of this devotion the city of Ephesus
was called viAxoQot (Acts xix. 35) or "war
den " of Diana. Another consequence of
the celebrity of Diana's.worship at Ephesus
was, th.at a large manufactory grew up
there of portable shrines, which strangers
purchased, and devotees carried with them
on journeys or set up in their houses. Of
the manufacturers engaged in this business,
perhaps Alexander the "coppersmith" (2
Tim. iv, 14) was one. The case of De
metrius the " silversmith " is explicit. The
city was celebrated for its magical arts. In
illustr.ation of the magical "books which
were publicly burnt (ver, 19) under the in
fluence of St. Paul's preaching, it is enough
hero to refer to the Ephesian Writings
(mentioned by Plutarch and others), which
wore regarded as a charm when pronounced,
and when written down were carried about
as amulets. Asia was a proconsular prov
ince ; and in harmony with this fact we
find proconsuls' (A, V, " deputies") special
ly mentioned (ver. 38). Again we learn
from Pliny (v. 31) thiit Ephesus was an
assize town; and in the sacred narr.ative
(ver. 38) we find the court-days alluded to
as actually being held (A. V. "the law is
open ") during the uproar. Ephesus itself
was a "free city," and had its own assem
blies and its own magistrates. The senate
is mentioned by Josephus ; and St. Luke,
in the narrative before us, speaks of "the
people " and of its customary assemblies
(ver. 39, A. V. " a lawful assembly ").
We even find conspicuous mention made
of one of the most important municipal
Officers of Ephesus, the " Town-Clerk " or
keeper of the records, whom we know from
other sources to have been a person of
groat influence and responsibility. It is
remarkable how all these political and re
ligious characteristics of Ephesus, wliieh
appear in the sacred narrative, are illus
trated by inscriptions and coins. The
coins of Ephesus .are full of allusions to
the worship of Diana in various aspects.
The Jews were estabUshed there in consid
erable numbers (Acts ii. 9, vi. 9). It is
here, and here only, that we find disciples
of John the Baptist explicitly mentioned
after the ascension of Christ (Acts xviii.
25, xix, 3). The case of Apollos (xviii,
24) is an exemplification further of the in
tercourse between this place and Alexan
dria, The .first seeds of Christian truth
were possibly sown at Ephesus immediately
after the Great Pentecost (Acts ii,). In
St. Paul's stay of more th.an two years
(xix. 8, 10, XX, 31), which formed the most
important passage of his third circuit, and
during which he labored, first in thti sjna-

EPHLAL

180

EPHRAIM

gogae (xix, 8), and then in the school of
Tyrannus (ver. 9), and also in private
bouses (xx. 20), and during which he wrote
the First Epistle to the Corinthians, we
have the period of the chief evangelization
of this shore of the Aegean. The address
at Miletus shows that the church at Ephe
sus was thoroughly organized under its
presbyters. At a later period Timothy
was set over them, as we learn from the
two epistles addressed to him. Among St.
Paul's other companions, two, Trophimus
and Tychicus,. were natives of Asia (xx.
4), and the latter probably (2 Tim, iv, 12),
the former certainly (Acts xxi. 29), natives
of Ephesus. In the same connection we
ought to mention Onesiphorus (2 Tim. i.
16-18) and his household (iv, 19). On the
other hand must be noticed cert.ain speci
fied Ephesian antagonists of the Apostle,
the sons of Sceva and his party (Acts xix.
14), Hymenaeus and Alexander (l Tim. i.
20 ; 2 'i'im. iv. 14), and Phygellus and Her-
mogenes (2 Tim. i. 15). The whole pl.ace is
now utterly desolate, with the exception of
tho small Turkish, village at Ayasaluk.
The ruins are of vast extent.
Eph'lal, a descendant of Judah, of the
family of Hezron and of Jerahmeel (1 Chr,
ii. 37),
Ephod, a sacred vestment originally ap
propriate to the high-priest (Ex. xxviii. 4),
but afterwards worn by ordinary priests (l
Sam. xxii. 18), and. deemed characteristic
of the office (1 Sam. ii. 28, xiv. 3 ; Hos, iii.
4). For a description of the robe itself
see High-Priest. The importance of the
Ephod as the receptacle of the breastplate
led to its adoption in the idolatrous forms
of worship instituted in the time of the
Judges (Judg, viii. 27, xvii. 5, xviii. 14, ff.).
E'phod, father of Hanniel of the tribe
of Manasseh (Num. xxxiv. 23).
E'phraim, the second son of Joseph
by his wife Asenath, The first indication
we have of that ascendency over his elder
brother Manasseh, which at a later period
the tribe of Ephraim so unmistakably pos
sessed, is in the blessing of the children by
Jacob, Gen, xlviii. Ephraim would appear
at that time to have been about 21 years
oil. He was born before the beginning of
the seven years of famine, towards the lat
ter part of whieh Jacob bad come to Egypt,
17 years before his death (Gen. xlvii. 28).
Before Joseph's death Ephraim's family had
reached the third generation (Gen. 1. 23),
and it must have been about this time that
the affray mentioned in 1 Chr. vii. 21 oc
curred. To this early period too must
probably be referred the circumstance al
luded to in Ps. Ixxviii. 9. It is at the time
of the sending of the spies to the Promised
Land that we are first introduced to the
great hero to whom the tribe owed much
of its subsequent greatness. Under Joshua

the tribe must have taken a nigh position
in the nation, to judge from the tone
which the Ephraimites assumed on occa
sions shortly subsequent to the conquest.
The boundaries of the portion of Ephraim
are given in Josh, xvi. 1-10. The south
boundary was coincident for part of its
length with the north boundary of Benja
min. It extended from the Jordan on the
E., at the reach opposite Jericho, to the
Mediterranean on the W,, probably about
Joppa. On the N, of Ephraim and Ma
nasseh were the tribes of Asher, Zebulun,
and Issachar. The territory thus allotted
to the " house of Joseph" riiay be roughly
estimated at 55 miles from E. to W, by 70
from N. to S., a portion about equal in ex
tent to the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk
(Eng,) combined. But though similar in
size, nothing can be more different iu its
nature from those level counties than this
broken and hilly tract. Central Palestine
consists of an elevated district which rises
from the flat ranges of the wilderness on
the south of Judah, and terminates on the
north with the slopes which descend into
the great plain of Esdraelon. On the west
a flat strip separates it from the sea, .and
on the east another flat strip forms the val
ley of the Jordan. Of this district the
northern half was occupied by the gre.at
tribe we are now considering. This was
the Har-Ephraim, the " Mount Ephr.aini,"
a district which seems to extend as far
south as Ramah .and Bethel (1 Sam. i, 1,
vii. 17; 2 Chr, xiii. 4, 19, compared with
XV. 8), places but a few miles north of Jeru
salem, and witlun the limits of Benjamin.
After the revolt of Jeroboam, the history
of Ephraim is the history of the kingdom
of Isriiel, since not only did the tribe be
come a kingdom, but the kingdom em
braced little besides the tribe. This is not
surprising, and quite susceptible of expla
nation. North of Ephraim the country
appears never to have beeh really taken
possession of by the Israehtes. And in
addition to this original defect there is
much in the physical formation and cir
cumstances of the upper portion of Pales
tine to explain why those tribes never took
any active part in the kingdom. But on
the other hand the position of Ephraim
was altogether different. It was one at
once of great richness and great security.
Her fertile plains and well watered valleys
could only be reached by a laborious as
cent through steep and narrow ravines, all
but impassable for an army. There is no
record of any attack on the central king
dom, either from the Jordan valley or the
maritime pl.ain. On the north side, from
the plain of Esdraelon, it was more acces
sible, and it was from tliis side that the
final invasion appears to have been m.ade.
E'phraim. In " Baal-hazor which is

EPHRAIM

181

ER

hy Ephraim" was Absalom's sheep-farm,
at which took place the murder of Amnon,
one of the earliest precursors of tbe great
revolt (2 Sam, xiii, 23), There is no clew
to its situation,
E'phraim, a city " in the district near
the wilderness " to which our Lord' retired
with his disciples when threatened with vio
lence by the priests (John xi. 54). Per
haps Ophrah and Ephraim are identical,
and their modern representative is ei-Tai-
yibeh. It is situated 4 or 5 miles east of
Bethel, and 16 from Jerusalem.
E'phraim, Gate of, one of the gates
of the city of Jerusalem (2 K. xiv. 13 ; 2
Chr. xxv. 23; Neh. viii. 16; xii. 39), prob
ably at or near the position of the present
" Damascus gate."
E'phraim, The "Wood of, a wood, or
rather a forest, on the E. of Jordan, in
-^hich the fatal battle was fought between
the armies of David and of Absalom (2
Sam, xviii. 6), The name is probably de
rived from the slaughter of Ephraim at the
fords of Jordan by the Gileadites under
Jephthah (Judg. xii. 1, 4, 5).
E'phraimite. Of the tribe of Ephra
im; elsewhere called " Ephrathite " (Judg.
xii. 5),
Ephra'in, a city of Israel, which with
its dependent hamlets Abijah and the army
of Judah captured from Jeroboam (2 Chr.
xiii, 19). It has been conjectured that this
Ephrain or Ephron is identical with the
Ephraim by which Absalom's sheep-farm
of Baal-hazor was situated ; with the city
called Ephraim near the wilderness in which
our Lord lived for some .time; and with
Ophrah, a city of Benjamin, apparently
not far from Bethel, But nothing more
than conjecture can be arrived at on these
points. Eph'ratah or Bph'rath. 1.- Second
wife of Caleb the son of Hezron, mother
of Hur, and grandmother of Caleb the spy,
according to 1 Chr, ii. 19, 50, and prob
ably 24, and iv. 4, 2. The ancient name
of Bethlehem-Judah, as is manifest from
Gen, xxxv. 16, 19, xlviii. 7,
Eph'rathite, 1, An inhabitant of Beth
lehem (Ruth i. 2). 2. An Epbraimite (1
Sam, i. 1; 1 K. xi. 26),
Eph'ron, 1. The son of Zocbar, a
Hittite, from whom Abraham bought the
field and cave of Machpelah (Gen, xxiii.
8-17; xxv, 9, xlix, 29, 39, 1, 13), 2. A
very strong city on the east of Jordan be
tween Carnaim (Ashteroth-Karnaim) and
Bethshean, attacked and demolished by
Judas Maccabsieus (1 Mace, v, 46-52; 2
Maec. xii. 27).
Eph'ron, Mount, The "cities of
Mount Ephron " formed one of the land
marks on the northern boundary of the
tiibe of Judah (Josh, xv. 9),
Epicure'ans, The, de>-=ved their name

from Epicurus (342-271 B. c), a philoso
pher of Attic descent, whose " G.ai-den " at
Athens rivalled in popularity the " Porch"
and the "Academy." The doctrines of
Epicurus found wide acceptance in Asi-a
Minor and Alexandria, and they gained a
brilliant advocate at Rome in Lucretius
(95-50 B. c). The object of Epicurus
was to find in philosophy a practical guide
to happiness. True pleasure and not ab
solute truth was the end at which he aimed ;
experience and not reason the test on
which he relied. It is obvious th.at a sys
tem thus framed would degenerate by a
natural descent into mere materialism ; and
in this form Epicurism was the popular
philosophy at the beginning of the Christian
era. When St, Paul addressed " Epicure
ans and Stoics " (Acts xvii. 18) at Athens,
the philosophy of life was practically re
duced to the teaching of those two antag
onistic schools.
Epiph'anes (1 Maec. i. 10, x, 1). [An
tiochus Epiphanes.]
Ep'iphi (3 Mace, vi, 38), name of the
eleventh month of the Egyptian Vague
year, and the Alexandrian or Egyptian
Julian year.
Epistle. The epistles of the N. T. in
their outw.ard form are such as might be
expected from men who were brought into
contact with Greek and Roman customs,
themselves belonging to a different race,
and so reproducing the imported style with
only partial accuracy. They begin (the
Epistle to the Hebrews and 1 John ex
cepted) with the n.ames of the writer,
and of those to whom the Epistle is ad
dressed. Then follows the formula of sal
utation. Then the letter itself commences,
in the first person, the singular and plural
being used indiscriminately. When the
substance of the letter has been completed,
come the individual messages. The con
clusion in this case was probably modified
by the fact that the letters were dictated to
an amanuensis. When he had done his work,
the Apostle took up the pen or reed, and
added, in his own large characters (Gal.
vi. 11) the authenticating autograph. In
one instance, Rom. xvi. ^2, the amanuensis
in his own name adds his salutation. An
allusion in 2 Cor. iii. 1 brings before us
another class of letters which must have
been in frequent use in the early ages of
the Christian Church, by which travellers
or teachers were commended by one churcli
to the good offices of others.
Er. 1. First born of Judah. Er " was
wicked in the sight of the Lord ; and the
Lord slew him." It does not appear -H'hat
the nature of his sin was ; but, from his
Cana,anitish birth on the mother's side, it
was probably connected with the abomina
ble idolatries of Canaan (Gen. xxxviii. 3-7 ;
Num. xxvi. 19). 2, Descendant of Shelah

ERAN

182

ESAU

the son of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 21). 3. Son
of Jose, and father of Elmodam (Ltike
iii. 28).
E'ran, son of Shuthel.ah, eldest son of
Ephraim (Num. xxvi. 36). Eran was the
head ofthe family of
E'ranites, The, Num. xxvi. 36.
E'rochj one of the cities of Nimrod's
kingdom in the land of Shinar (Gen x. 10),
doubtless the same as Orchofi, 82 miles S.
and 43 E. of Babylon, the modern designa
tions of the site, Warka, Irka, and Irak,
bearing a considerable affinity to the origi
nal name.
Eras'tUS, 1. One of the .attendants or
deacons of St. Paul at Ephe.sus, who with
Timothy was sent forw.ard into Macedonia
while the Apostle himself remained in Asia
(Acts xix. 22). He is probably the same
with Erastus who is again mentioned in the
salutations to Timothy (2 Tim. iii. 20),
though not the same with, 2. Erastus the
chamberlain, or rather the public treasurer,
of Corinth, who was one of the early con
verts to Christianity (Rom. xvi. 23). Ac
cording to the traditions of the Greek
Church, he was first treasurer to tho Church
at Jerusalem, and afterwards Bishop of
Paneas. E'ri, son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 10), and
ancestor ofthe Erites (Num. xxvi, 16).
Esa'ias, the form of the name of the
prophet Isaiah in the N. T. [Isaiah.]
E'sar-had'don, one of the greatest of
the kings of Assyria, was the son of Sen
nacherib (2 K. xix. 37) and the grandson of
Sargon who succeeded Shalmaneser. Noth
ing is really known of Esar-haddon until
his accession (ab. b. c. 680 ; 2 K. xix. 37 ;
Is. xxxvii. 38). He appears by his monu
ments to have been one of the most power
ful — if not ihe most powerful — of all the
Assyrian monarchs. He carried his arms
over all Asia between the Persian Gulf, the
Armenian mountains, and the Mediterra
nean. In consequence of the dis.affection
of Babylon, and its frequent revolts from
former Assyrian kings, Esar-haddon, hav
ing subdued the sons of Merodach-Baladan
who headed the national party, introduced
tlie new policy of substituting for the former
government by viceroys, a direct depend
ence upon the Assyrian crown. He is the
only Assyrian monarch whom we find to
have actually reigned at Babylon, where he
built himself a palace, bricks from whieh
have been recently recovered bearing his
name. His Babylonian reign lasted thir
teen years, from E. c. 680 to b. c. 667 ; and
it was doubtless within this space of time
that Manasseh, king of Judah, having been
seized by his captains at Jerusalem on a
charge of rebellion, was brought before
him at Babylon (2 Chr. xxxiii. 11) and de
tained for a time as prisoner there. As a

builder of great works Esar-haddon ia pasf-
ticularly distinguished. Besides his palace
at Babylon, he built at least three others in
different parts of his dominions, either for
himself or his son. The south-west palace
at Nimrud is the best preserved of his con
structions. It is conjectured that Esar
haddon died about B. c. 660.
E'sau, the eldest son of Isaac, and twin-
brother of Jacob. The singular appearance
of the child at his birth originated the name
(Esau means hairy, Gen. xxv. 25). This
was not the only remarkable circumstance
connected with the birth of the infant. Even
in the womb the twin-brothers struggled to
gether (xxv, 22), Esau's robust frame and
"rough" aspect were the types of a wild
and daring nature. The peculiarities" of
his character soon began to develop them
selves. He was, in fact, a thorough Bed
ouin, a " eon ofthe desert," who delighted to
roam free as the wind of heaven, and who
was impatient of the restraints of civilized
or settled life. His old father, by a caprice
of affection not uncommon, loved his wilful,
vagrant boy ; and his keen relish for savory
food being gratified by Esau's venison, he
liked him all the better for his skill in hunt
ing (xxv. 28). An event occurred which
exhibited the reckless character of Esau on
the one hand, and the selfish, grasping na
ture of his brother on the other. J.acob
takes advantage of his brother's distress to
rob him of that which was dear as life itself
to an Eastern patriarch. Esau married at
the age of 40, and contrary to the wish of
his parents. His wives were both Canaan
ites; and they " were bitterness of spirit
unto Isaac and to Rebekah" (Gen. xxvi.
34, 35). The next episode in the history
of Esau and Jacob is still more painful
than the former. Jacob, through the craft
of his mother, is again successful, and se
cures irrevocably the covenant blessing.
Esau vows venge.ance. But he knew not a
mother's watchful care. By a characteristic
piece of domestic policy Rebekah succeed
ed both in exciting Isaac's anger against
Esau, and obtaining bis consent to Jacob's
departure. When Esau heard that his fa
ther had commanded Jacob to take a wife
of the daughters of his kinsman Laban, he
also resolved to try whether by a new alli
ance he could propitiate his parents. He
accordingly married his cousin Mahalath,
the daughter of Ishmael (xxviii. 8, 9).
This marriage appears to have brought him
into connection with the Ishmaelitish tribes
beyond the valley of Arabah, He soon af-
terw.ards established himself in Mount Seir ;
still retaining, however, some interest in
his father's property in Southern Palestine.
He was residing in Mount Seir when Jacob
returned from Padan-aram, and had then be
come so rich and powerful that the iinjires-

ESAY

183

ESHCOL

e.ons of his brother's early offences seem to
have been almost completely effaced. It
does not appear that the brothers again met
until the death of their father about 20 years
afterwards. They united in laying Isaac's
body in the cave of .Machpelah. Of Esau's
.subsequent history nothing is known; for
that of his descendants see Edom.*
E'say, the form of the name of Isaiah
iu .Ecclus. xlviii. 20, 22 ; •2 Esd. ii. 18.
[IS.ilAH.] Esdrae'lon. This name is merely the
Greek form of the Hebrew word Jezkeel.
It occurs in this exact shape only twice in
the k. V, (Jud. iii. 9, iv, 6), In Jud, iii. 3
it is EsDUAELOM, and in i, 8 Esdrelom, with
the addition of " the great plain." In the
0. T, the plain is called the Valley of
Jezreel; by Josephus "the great plain."
The name is derived from the old royal
citj of Jezkeel, whieh occupied a com
manding site, near the eastern extremity
of tliC plain, on a spur of Mount Gilboa.
" Ihrs great plain of Esdraelon " extends
across. Central Palestine from the Mediter
ranean to the Jordan, separating the moun
tain raiiges of Carmel and Samaria from
those of Galilee, The western section of
it is properly the plain of Accho, or 'Akka.
The main body of the plain is a triangle.
Its base on the east extends from Jenin
(the ancient Engannim) to the foot of the
hills below Nazareth, and is about 15 miles
long: the north side, formed by tbe hills
of Galilee, is about 12 miles long^ and the
south side, formed by the Samaria range,
is about 18 miles. The apex on the west
is a narrow pass opening into the plain of
'Akka. From the base of this triangular
plain three branches stretch out eastward,
like fingers from a hand, divided by two
bleak, gray ridges — one bearing the fa
miliar name of - Mount Gilboa : the other
called by Franks Little Hermon, but by
natives Jebel ed-Duhy. The central branch
is the richest as well as the most cele
brated. This is the "Valley of Jezreel"
proper — tho battle-field on which Gideon
triumphed, and Saul .and Jonathan were
overtlirown (Judg, vii. 1, sq. ; 1 Sam. xxix,
and xxxi.). Two things are worthy of spe
cial notice in the plain of Esdraelon : 1,
its wonderful richness, 2, its desolation.
If we except the eastern branches, there is
not a single inhabited village on its whole
surface, and not more than one sixth of its
soil is cultivated. It is the home of the
wild wandering Bedouin,
Es'dras. The form of the name of
Ezra tho scribe in 1 and 2 Esdras,
Es'dras, First Book of, the first in
order of the Apocryphal books in the Eng
lish Bible, It was never known to exist in
Hebrew, and formed no part of the Hebrew
Canon, As regards the contents of the
book, and the author or authors of it — the

first chapter is a tr.anscript of the two last
chapters of 2 Chr. for the most part oer
batim, and only in one or two parts slightly
abridged and par.aphrased. Chapters iii., iv.,
and v., to the end of v. 6, are the original
portions of the book, and the rest is a tran
script more or less exact of the book of
Ezra, with the chapters transposed and
quite otherwise arranged, and a portion of
Nehemiah. Hence a twofold design in the
compiler is discernible. One to introduce
and give Scriptural sanction to the legend
about Zerubbabel ; the other to explain the
great obscurities of the book of Ezra, in
which, ho /fever, he has signally failed. As
regards the time and place when the com
pilation was made, the original portion is
that which alone affords much clew. This
seems to indicate that the writer was thor
oughly conversant with Hebrew, even if he
did not write the book in that language.
He was well acquainted too with the books
of Esther and Daniel (1 Esdr. iii. 1, 2,
sqq.), and other books of Scripture {ib.
20, 21, 39, 41, &c., and 45 compared with
Ps. cxxxvii, 7). But that he did not live
under the Persian kings, appears by the
undiseriminating way in which he uses
promiscuously the phrase Medes and Per
sians, or, Persians and Medes, according
as he happened to be imitating the language
of Daniel or of the book of Esther.
Es'dras, The Second Book of, in
the English Version of the Apocrypha, and
so called by the author (2 Esdr. i. 1). The
original title, "the Apocalypse of Ezra," is
far more appropriate. Chapters iii.-xiv.
consist of a series of angelic revelations
and visions in whieh Ezra is instructed in
some of the great mysteries of the moral
world, and. assured of the final triumph of
the righteous. The d.ate of the book is un
certain, but there can be no doubt that it is
a genuine product of Jewish thought. The
Apocalypse was probably written in Egypt;
the opening and closing chapters certainly
were. Though this book is included among
those which are " read for examples of life "
by the English Church, no use of it is there
made in public worship.
E'sek, a well, which the herdsmen of
Isaac dug in the valley of Gerar (Gen.
xxvi, 20),
Esh-ba'al, the fourth son of Saul, ac
cording to the genealogies of 1 Chr. viii. 3,
and ix. 39, is doubtless the same person as
ISI-I-BOSHETH, Esh'ban, a, Horite; one of the four
sons of Dishan (Gen, xxxvi. 20 ; 1 Chr.
i, 41). Esh'col, brother of Mamre the Amorite,
and of Aner ; and one ¦ of Abraham's com -
paniors in his pursuit ofthe four kings who
had Ch.-ried off Lot (Gen. xiv. 13, 24),
Esh'col, The'VaUey, or the Brook
of J a wady in the neighborhood of Hebron,

ESHEAN

184

ESTHER, BOOK OF

explored by the spies who were sent by
Moses from Kadesh-barnea (Num, xxxiii,
9 ; Deut. i, 24). The name is still attached
t.o a spring of fine water called 'Ain-Esh-
kali, in a valley about two miles north of
Hebron. Esh'ean, one of the cities of Judah
(Josh. XV. 52).
E'shek, a Benjamite, one of the late
descendants of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 39).
Esh'kalonites, The, Josh, xiii, 3.
[Ashkelon.] Esh'taol, a town in the low country —
the Shefelah— ot^iadah, afterwards allotted
to D.an (Josh. xv. 33, xix. 41). Here Sam
son spent his boyhood, and hither after his
last exploit his body was brought (Judg.
xiii. 25, xvi. 31, xviii. 2, 8, 11, 12),
Esh'taulites, The, with the Zareath-
ites, were among the families of Kirjath-
jearim (1 Chr. ii. 53).
Eshtem'oa, and in shorter form Esh
temoh', a town of Judah, in the mountains
(Josh. XV. 50), allotted to the priests (xxi,
14 ; 1 Chr. vi. 57). It was one of the places
frequented by David and his followers dur
ing the long period of their wanderings (1
Sam. xxx. 28, comp. 31). Its site is. at
Semu'a, a village seven miles south of
Hebron. Eshtemoa appears to have been
founded by the descendants of the Egyptian
wife of a certain Mered (1 Chr. iv, 17),
Esh'ton, a name wliich occurs in the
genealogies of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 11, 12).
Es'li, son of Nagge or Naggai, in the
genealogy of Christ (Luke iii. 25).
Es'ril, 1 Esd, ix, 34, [Azareel, or
Shaeai.] Es'rom, Matt, i, 3 ; Luke iii, 33, [Hez
ron.] Essenes', a Jewish sect, who, according
to the description of Josephus, combined
the ascetic virtues of the Pythagoreans and
Stoics with a spiritual knowledge ofthe Di
vine L.aw. It seems probable that the name
signifies " seer," or " the silent, ihe mysteri
ous." As il sect the Essenes were distin
guished by an aspiration after id^jal purity
rather than by any special code of doctrines.
From the Maccabaean age there was a con
tinuous effort among the stricter Jews to
attain an absolute standard ' of holiness.
E.ach class of devotees was looked upon as
practically impure by their successors, who
carried the laws of purity still further; and
the Essenes stand at the extreme limit of
the mystic asceticism which was thus grad
ually reduced to shape. To the Pharisees
they stood nearly in the same relation as
that in which the Pharisees themselves
stood with regard to the mass of the people.
There were isolated communities of Es
senes, which were regulated by strict rules,
analogous to those of the monastic institu
tions of a later date. All things were held
in common, without distinction of property ;

and special provision was made for tlie re
lief of the poor. Self-denial, temperance,
and labor — especially agriculture — were
the marks of the outward life of the Es
senes; purity and divine communion the
objects of their aspiration. Slavery, war,
and commerce were alike forbidden. Their
best known settlements were on the N. W.
shore of the Dead Sea.
Es'ther, tlfk Persian name of Hadas-
SAH, daughter of Abihail, the son of Shimei,
the son of Kish, a Benjamite. Esther was
a beautiful Jewish maiden, whose ancestor
liish had been among the captives led away
from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar when
Jehoiachin was taken captive. She was an
orphan without father or mother, and had
been brought up by her cousin Mordecai,
who had an oflice in the household of Ahas
uerus king of Persia, and dwelt at "Shu
shan the palace," 'VVhen Vashti was dis
missed from being queen, and all the fairest
virgins of the kingdom had been collected
at Shushan for the king to make choice of
a successor to her from among them, the
choice fell upon Esther. The king was not
aware, however, of her race and parentage ;
and so, on the representation of Haman the
Agagite that the Jews scattered through his
empire were a pernicious race, he gave him
full power and authority to kill them all,
young and old, women and children, and
take possession of their property. The
means taken by Esther to avert this great
calamity'from her people and her kindred
are fully related in the book of Esther,
History is wholly silent both about Vashti
and Esther, Herodotus mentions only one
of Xerxes' wives ; Scripture mentions two
only, if indeed either of them were -wives
at all. It seems natural to conclude that
Esther, a captive, and one of the harem,
was not of the highest rank of wives, but
that a special honor, with the name of
queen, m.ay have been given to her, as to
Vashti before her, as the favorite concubine
or inferior wife, whose off'spring, however,
if she had any, would not have succeeded
to the Persian throne.
Es'ther, Book of, one of the latest ol
the canonical books of Scripture, having
been written late in the reign of Xerxes, or
early in that of his son Artaxerxes Longim
anus. The author is not known, but may
very probably have been Mordecai Hmself.
Those who ascribe it to Ezra, or the men
of the Great Synagoglie, may have merely
meant that Ezra edited and added it to the
canon of Scripture, wliich he probably did.
The book of Esther is placed among the
hagiographa by the Jews, and in that first
portion of them which they call "the five
rolls." It is sometimes emphatically called
Megillah ("roll"), without other distinc
tion, and is read through by the Jews in
their synagogues al the feast of Purim. II

ETAM

185

EUERGETES

ftas often been remarked as a peculiarity
of this book that the name of God does not
once occur in it. The style of writing is
remarkably chaste and simple. It does not
in the least savor of romance. The He
brew is very like that of Ezra and parts of
the Chronicles; generally pure, but mixed
with some woids of Persian origin, aud
some of C haldxic affinity. In short it is
just frhat one would expect to find in a
. work of the age to which the book of Es
ther professes to belong. As regards the
Sept\iagint version of the book, it consists
of the canonical Esther with various inter
polations prefixed, interspersed, and added
at the close. Though, however, the inter
polations of the Greek copy are thus mani-
"'cst, they make a consistent and intelligible
story. But the Apocryphal additions as
they are inserted in some editions of the
Latin Vulgate, and in the English Bible,
are incomprehensible.
E'tam. 1. A village of the tribe of
.Simeon, specified only in the list in 1 Chr.
iv. 32 (comp. Josh. xix. 7). 2. A place in
Judah, fortified and garrisoned by Reho
boam (2 Chr. xi. 6). Here, according to
the statements of Josephus and the Tal
mudists, were the sources of the water from
which Solomon's gardens and pleasure-
grounds were fed, and Bethlehem and the
'Temple supplied.
E'tam, The Rock, a cliff or lofty rock,
into a cleft or chasm of which Samson re
tired after his slaughter of the Philistines
(Judg. XV. 8, 11). This natural strong
hold Wiis in the tribe of Judah ; .and near
it, probably at its foot, was Lehi or Ramath-
lehi, and Enhakkore (xv. 9, 14, 17, 19).
The name Etam was held by a city in the
neighborhood of Bethlehem (2 Chr. xi. 6),
which is known to have been situated in
the extremely uneven and broken country
round the modern Urtas. Here is a fitting
scene for the adventure of Samson,
E'tham, one of the early resting-places
of the Israelites when they quitted Egypt,
the position of which may be very nearly
fixed in consequence of its being described
as " in the edge of the wilderness " (Ex.
xiii, 20; Num, xxxiii. 6, 7). Etham may
be placed where the cultivable land ceases,
near the Seba Bidr or Seven Wells, about
three miles from the western side of the
ancient head of tho gulf.
E'than. 1. Ethan the Ezrahite, one
of the four sons of M.ahol, whose wisdom
was excelled by Solomon (1 K. iv, 31 ; 1
Chr, ii, 6), His name is in the title of Ps,
Ixxxix, 2, Son of Kishi or Kushaiah; a
Merarite Levite, head of that family in the
time of king David (1 Chr, vi, 44), and
spoken of as a "singer," With Heman
and Asaph, the heads of the other two fam
ilies of Levites, Ethan was appointed to
sound with cymbals (xv. 17, 19). 3. A

Gershonite Levite, one of the ' ancestors
of Asaph the singer {1 Chr. vi. 42, Heb.
27). ^
Eth'anim. [Months.]
Ethba'al, king of Sidon and father of
Jezebel (1 K. xvi. 31). Josephus repre
sents hira as king of the Tyrians as well as
the Sidonians. We may thus identify him
with Eithobalus, who, after having assas
sinated Pheles, usurped the throne of Tyre
for 32 years. The d.ate of Ethbaal's reign
may be given as about b. o. 940-908.
E'ther, one of the cities of Judah in the
low country, the Shefelah (Josh. xv. 42),
allotted to Simeon (xix. 7).
Ethio'pia. The country which the
Greeks and Romans described as "Aethio-
pia " and the Hebrews as "Cush" l.ay to
the S. of Egypt, and embraced, in its most
extended sense, the modern Nubia, Sen-
naar, Kordofan, and northern Abyssinia,
and in its more definite sense the kingdom
of Meroa. Syene marked the division be
tween Ethiopia and Egypt (Ez. xxix. 10)
The Hebrews do not appear to have had
much practical acquaint.ance with Ethiopia
itself, though the Ethiopians were well
known to them through their intercourse
with Egypt. The inhabitants of Ethiopia
were a Hamitic race (Gen. x. 6).' They
were divided into various tribes, of whieh
the Sabaeans were the most powerful. The
history of Ethiopia is closely interwoven
with that of Egypt. The two countries
were not unfrequently united under the
rule of the same sovereign. Shortly be
fore our Saviour's birth a native dynasty of
females, holding the official title of Candace
(Plin, vi. 35), held sway in Ethiopia, and
even resisted the advance of the Roman
arms. One of these is the queen noticed
in Acts viii. 27,
Ethio'pian, properly "Cushite" (Jer,
xiii. 23) ; used of Zerah (2 Chr. xiv. 9 [8]),
and Ebed-melech (Jer, xxxviii, 7, 10, 12,
xxxix, 16),
Ethiopian "Woman. The wife of
Moses is so described in Num. xii, 1, She
is elsewhere said to have been the daugh
ter of a Midianite, and in consequence of
this some have supposed that the allusion
is to another wife whom Moses married
after the death of Zipporah.
Ethio'pians, properly "Cush" or
"Ethiopia" in two passages (Is. xx. 4; Jer,
xlvi. 9). Elsewhere " Cushites," or inhab
itants of Ethiopia (2 Chr. xii. 3, xiv. 12
[11], 13 [12], xvi. 8, xxi. 16; Dan. xi. 43;
Am. ix. 7; Zeph. ii. 12).
Eth'nan, one of the sons of Helah the
wife of Ashur (1 Chr. iv. 7),
Eth'ni, a Gershonite Levite (1 Chr. vi.
41; Heb. 26).
Eubu'luS, a Christian at Rome men
tioned by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 21).
Euer'getes. [Piolemaefs HI.]

EUNICE

18C

EVANGELIST

Euni'oe, mother of Timothens (2 Tim.
i.5). Eunuch. The law (Deut. xxiii. 1;
comp. Lev. xxii. 24) is repugnant to thus
treating any Israelite. The origination of
the practice is ascribed to Semiramis, and
is no doubt as early, or nearly so, as East
ern despotism itself. The complete assim
ilation of the kingdom of Israel, and lat
terly of Judah, to the neighboring models
of despotism, is traceable in the rank and
prominence of eunuchs (2 K, viii, 6, ix, 32,
xxiii, 11, XXV. 19 ; Is. Ivi. 3, 4 ; Jer. xxix,
2, xxxiv, 19, xxxviii, 7, xii. 16, Iii, 25),
They mostly appear in one of two rela
tions, either military, as " set over the men
of war," greater trustworthiness possibly
counterbalancing inferior courage and mil
itary vigor, or associated, as we mostly
recognize them, with women and children.
We find the Assyrian Rab-Saris, or chief
eunuch (2 K. xviii. 17), employed together
with other high officials as ambassador. It
is probable that Daniel and his companions
were thus treated, in fulfilment of 2 K, xx,
17, 18 ; Is, xxxix. 7 ; comp, Dan, i, 3, 7.
The court of Herod of course had its eu
nuchs, as had also that of Queen Candace
(Acts viii. 27),
Euo'dias, a Christian woman at Philippi
(Phil, iv, 2), The name is correctly En-
ODIA, Euphra'tes is probably a word of
Aryan origin, signifying " the good and
abounding river," It is most frequently
denoted in the Bible by the term "the
river." The Euphrates is the largest, the
longest, and by far the most important of
the rivers of Western Asia, It rises from
two chief sources in the Armenian moun
tains, and flows into the Persian Gulf, The
entire course is 1780 miles, and of this dis
tance more than two thirds (1200 miles) is
navigable for boats. The width of the
river is greatest at the distance of 700 or
800 miles from its mouth — that is to say,
from its junction with the Khabour to the
village of Werai. It there averages 400
yards. The annual inundation of the
Euphrates is caused by the melting of the
snows in the Armenian highlands. It oc
curs in the month of May, The great
hydraulic works ascribed to Nebuchadnez
zar had for their chief object to control
the inundation. The Euphrates is first
mentioned in Scripture as one of the four
rivers of Eden (Gen. ii. 14), Its celebrity
is there sufficiently indicated by the ab
sence of any explanatory phrase, such as
accompanies the names of the other streams.
We next hear of it in the covenant made
with Abraham (Gen, xv, 18), where the
whole country from "the great river, the
river Euphrates," to the river of Egypt is
promised to the chosen race. During the
reigns of David and Solomon the dominion'

of Israel actually attained to the full extent
both ways of the original promise, the
Euphrates forming the boundary of their
empire to the N. E., and the river of Egypt
to the S, W, This wide-spread territory
was lost upon the disruption of the empire
under Rehoboam ; and no more is heard in
Scripture of tbe Euphrates until the ex
pedition of Necho against the Babylonians
in the reign of Josi.ah, The river still
brings down as much water as of old, but
the precious element is wiisted by the
neglect of man ; the various watercourses
along which it was in former times con
veyed are dry; the main channel has
shrunk; and the w.ater stagnates in un
wholesome marshes.
Eupol'emus, the " son of John, the
son of Accos," one of the envoys sent to
Rome by Judas Maceabaeus, cir. b. c. 161
(1 M.acc. viii. 17; 2 Maec. iv. II). He
has been identified with the historian of the
same name, but it is by no means clear that
the historian was of Jewish descent.
Euroc'lydon, the name given (Acts
xxvii. 14) to the gale of wind wliich off the
south coast of Crete seized the ship in
which St. Paul was ultimately wrecked on
the coast of Malta. It came down from
the island, and therefore must have blown,
more or less, from the northward.
Eu'tychus, a youth at Troas (Acts xx.
9), who sitting in a window, and h.aving
fallen asleep while St. Paul was discoursing
far into the night, fell from the third story,
and being taken up dead, was miraculously
restored to life by the Apostle,
Evangelist means " the publisher of
glad tidings," and therefore seems common
to the work of the Christian ministry gen
erally; yet in Eph. iv, 11, the " evange
lists " appear on the one hand after the
"apostles " and "prophets : " on the other
before the " pastors " and " teachers," This
passage accordingly would lead us to think
of them as standing between the two other
groups — sent forth as missionary preachers
of the Gospel by the first, and as such pre
paring the way for the labors of the second.
The same inference would seem to follow
the occurrence of the word as applied to
Philip in Acts xxi. 8. It foUov/s from what
has been said that the calling of the Evan
gelist is the proclamation of the glad tidings
to those who have not known them, rather
than the instruction and pastoral care of
those who have believed and been baptizet?,.
It follows also that the name denotes a
work rather than an order. The Evangelist
might or might not be a Bishop-Elder or a
deacon. The Apostles, so far as they
evangelized (Acts viii. 25, xiv. 7 ; 1 Cor. i.
17), might claim the title, though there
were many Evangelists who were not Apos
tles. If the Gospel was a, written book,
and the office of the Evangelists was to

EVE

187

EXCOMMUNICATION

read or distribute it, then the writers of
such books were pre-eminently the Evan
gelists. In later liturgical language the
word was applied to the reader of the
Gospel for the day.
Eve, the name given in Scripture to the
first woman. The account of Eve's crea
tion is found at Gen. ii. 21, 22, Perhaps
that which we are chiefly intended to learn
from the narrative is the foundation upon
which the union between man and wife is
built, viz,, identity of nature and oneness
of origin. Through the subtlety of the
serpent. Eve was beguiled into a violation
of the one commandment which had been
imposed upon her and Adam. The Scrip
ture account of Eve closes with the birth
of Seth.
E'vi, one of the five kings or princes of
Midian, slain by the Israelites (Num. xxxi.
8; Josh. xiii. 21).
E'vil-mero'dach (2 K. xxv. 27), the
son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. He
reigned but a short time, having ascended
the tlirone on the death of Nebuchadnezzar
in B. c. 561, and being himself succeeded
hy Neriglissar in b. c. 559. He was mur
dered by Neriglissar.
Excommunication. I. Jewish Ex-
eommunication. The Jewish system of ex
communication was threefold. For a first
offence a delinquent was subjected to the
penalty of Niddui. The twenty-four of
fences for which it was inflicted are vari
ous, and range iu heinousness from the
offence of keeping a fierce dog to that of
taking God's name in vain. The offender
was first cited to appear in court ; and if
he refused to appear or to make amends,
his sentence was pronounced. The term
of this punishment was thirty days ; and it
was extended to a second and to a third
thirty days when necessary. If at the end
of that time the offender was still contu-
m.acious, he was subjected to the second
excommunication, termed Cherem, a word
meaning something devoted to God (Lev.
xxvii. 21, 28; Ex. xxii. 20 [19]; Num.
xviii. 14). Severer penalties were now at
tached. The sentence was delivered by a
court of ten, and was accompanied by a
solemn malediction. Lastly followed Sham-
m&thd, which was an entire cutting off
from the congregation. The punishment
of excommunication is not appointed by
the Law of Moses. It is founded on the
natural right of self-protection whieh all
societies enjoy. The case of Korah, Da
than, and Abiram (Num. xvi.), the curse
denounced on Meroz (Judg. v. 23), the
commission and proclamation of Ezra (vii.
26, X. 8), and the reformation of Nehemiah
(xui. 25), are appealed to by the Talmud
ists as precedents by which their proceed
ings are regulated. In the New Testament,
Jewish excommunication is brought prom

inently before us in the case of the man
th.at was born blind (John ix.). The ex
pressions here used refer, no doubt, to the
first form of excommunication, or Niddui.
In Luke vi. 22, it has been thought that our
Lord referred specifically to the three forms
of Jewish excommunication : "Blessed are
ye when men shall hate you, .and when
they shall separate you from their com
pany, and shall reproach you, and cast out
your name as evil, for the Son of Man's
sake." The three words very accurately
express the simple separation, the addi
tional malediction, and the final exclusion
of niddui, cherem, and shammdthd. II.
Christian Excommunication. Excommu
nication, as exercised by the Christian
Church, is not merely founded on the nat
ural right, possessed by all societies, nor
merely on the example of the Jewish
Church and nation. It was instituted by
our Lord (Matt, xviii. 15, 18), and it was
practised and commanded by St. Paul (1
Tim. i, 20; 1 Cor. v. 11; Tit. iii. 10). In
the Epistles we find St. Paul frequently
claiming the right to exercise discipline
over his converts (comp. 2 Cor. i. 23, xiii.
10). In two cases we find him exercising
this authority to the extent of cutting off
offenders from the Church. What is
the full meaning of the expression, " de
liver unto Satan," is doubtful. All agree
that excommunication is contained in it,
but whether it implies any further pun
ishment, inflicted by the extraordinary pow
ers committed specially to the Apostles,
has been questioned. Introduction into
the Church is, in St. Paul's mind, a trans
lation from the kingdom and power of
Satan to the kingdom and government of
Christ, This being so, he Could hardly
more naturally describe the effect of ex
cluding a man from the Church than by the
words "deliver Mm unto Satan," In ad
dition to the claim to exercise discipline,
and its actual exercise in the form of ex
communication, by the Apostles, we find
Apostolic precepts directing that discipline
should be exercised by the rulers of the
Church, and that in some cases excommu
nication should be restored to (2 Thess, iii
14; Rom. xvi. 17; Gal. v. 12; 1 Tim. vi,
3; Tit. iii. 10; 2 John 10; 3 John 10;
Rev. ii. 20), "There are two passages still
more important to our subject (Gftl. i. 8, 9 ;
1 Cor, xvi. 22). It has been supposed that
these two expressions, " let him be Anath
ema," "let him be Anathema Maranatha,"
refer respectively to the two later stages of
Jewish excommunication — the cherem and
the shammdthd. The Nature of Excom
munication is made more evident by the
acts of St, Paul than by any investigation
of Jewish practice or of the etymology of
words. We thus find, (1) that it is a spir
itual penalty, involving no temporal pun-

EXECUTIONER

188

EZBON

ishmcnt, except accidentally; (2) that it
consists in separ.ation from the ( jommunion
ofthe Church; (3) that its object is the
good of the sufferer (1 Cor. v. 5), and the
protection of the sound members of the
Church (2 Tim. iii. 17) ; (4) that its sub
jects are those who are guilty of heresy (1
Tim. i. 20), or gross immorality (1 Cor. v.
1) ; (5) that it is inflicted by the authority
of the Church at large (Matt, xviii. 18),
wielded by the highest ecclesiastical officer
(1 Cor, V, 3 ; Tit. iii. 10) ; (6) that this
officer's sentence is promulgati^d by the
congregation to which the offender belongs
(1 Cor. V, 4), in deference to his superior
judgment and command (2 Cor, ii, 9), and
in spite of .any opposition on the part of a
minority {ib. 6) ; (7) that the exclusion
may be of indefinite duration, or for a pe
riod ; (8) that its dur.ation may be abridged
at the discretion and by the indulgence of
the person who has imposed the penalty
{ib. 8) ; (9) that penitence is the condi
tion on which restoration to communion is
granted {ib. 7) ; (10) that the sentence is
to be publicly reversed as it was publicly
promulgated {ib. 10).
Executioner. The Hebrew word de
scribes, in the first instance, the office of
executioner, and, secondarily, the general
duties of tne body-guard of a monarch.
Thus Potiphar was " captain of the execu
tioners " (Gen. xxxvii. 36; see margin).
That the "captain ofthe guard " himself
oeciisionally performed the duty of an ex
ecutioner appears from 1 K. ii. 25, 34.
Nevertheless the post was one of high dig
nity. Exile. [Captivitt.]
Ex'odus (that is, going out [of Egypt]),
the second book'of the Law or Pentateuch.
It may be divided into two principal parts ;
I. Historical, i. 1-xviii. 27 ; and, II, Legis
lative, xix. 1-xl. 38, The former of these
may be subdivided into, (1.) the preparation
for the deliverance of Israel from , their
bondage in Egypt; (2.) the accomplish
ment of that deliverance, I. (1.) The first
section (i, 1-xii. 36) contains an account of
the following particulars : The great in
crease of Jacob's posterity in the land of
Egypt, and their oppression under a new
dynasty, which occupied the throne after
the death of Joseph (ch. i.) ; the birth, ed
ucation, -and fiight of Moses (ii.) ; his sol
emn call to be the deliverer of his people
fiii. 1-iv, 17), and his return to Egypt in
consequence (iv, 18-31) ; his first ineffectu
al attempt to prevail upon Pharaoh to let the
Israelites go, which only resulted in an in
crease of their burdens (v, 1-21) ; a fur
ther prepa -ation of Moses and Aaron for
their office, together with the account of
their genealogies (v, 22-vii, 7) ; the succes
sive signs and wonders, by means of which
tbe deliverance of Israel from the land of

bondage is at length accomplished, and the
institution of the Passover (vii, 8-xii. 36).
(2.) A narrative of events from the depart
ure out of Egypt to the arrival of the Is
raelites at Mount Sinai. II, The solemn
establishment of the Theocracy on Mount
Sinai, This book, in short, gives a sketch
of the early history of Israel as a nation :
and the history has three clearly marked
stages. First we see a nation enslaved;
next a n.ation redeemed ; lastly a nation set
apart, and through the blending of its reli
gious and political life consecrated to the
service of God.
Ex'odus, The, of the Israelites from
Egypt. On the date of this event see
Egypt, p, 163, The history of the Exodus
itself commencss with the close of that of
the Ten Plagues, [Plagues op Egypt.]
In the night in which, at midnight, the
firstborn were slain (Ex. xii. 29), Pharaoh
urged the departure of the IsraeUtes (ver.
31, 32), They at once set forth from Ra
meses (ver, 37, 39), apparently during the
night (ver, 42), but towards morning, on
the 15th day of the first month (Num. xxxiii.
3). They made three journeys and en
camped by the Red Sea. Here Pharaoh
overtook them, and the great, miracle oc
curred by which they were saved, while the
pursuer and his army were dieatroyed. [Red
Sea, Passage op.]
-Exorcist. The use of the term exor
cists in Acts xix. 13 confirms what we know
from other sources as to the commcn prac
tice of exorcism amongst the Jews. That
some, at least, of them not only pretended
to, hut possessed, the power of exorcising,
appears by our Lord's admission when he
asks the Pharisees, "If I by Beelzebuh
cast out devils, by whom do your disciples
cast them out?" (Matt, xii, 27), What
means were employed by real exorcists we
are not informed, David, by pliiying skil
fully on a harp, procured the temporary
departure of the evU spirit which troubled
Saul (1 Siim. xvi. 23). It was the pr<jfane
use of the name of Jesus as a mere charm
or spell which led to the disastrous issue
recorded in the Acts of the Apostles (xix.
13-16). The power of casting out devils
was bestowed by Christ while on earth
upon the Apostles (Matt. x. 8) and the sev
enty disciples (Luke x. 17-19, and was, ac
cording to His promise (Mark xvi. 17),
exercised by believers after His Ascensior
(Acts xvi. 18) ; but to the Christian miracle,
whether as performed by our Lord himself
or by His followers, the N. T. writers nevet
apply the terms " exorcise " or " exorcist."
Expiation. [Sacrifice.]
Ea'bai, father of Naarai, who was one
of David's tliirty mighty m« n (1 Chr. xi.
37). EzTbon, 1, Son of Gad, and founder
of one of the Gadite families (Gen, xlvi.

EZEKIAS

189

EZRA

16; Num, xxvi, 16), 2, Son of Bela, the
son of Benjamin, according to 1 Chr, vii, 7,
Ezeki'as, Matt, l, 9, lO, [Hezekiah.]
Eze'kiel, one ofthe four greater proph
ets, was the son of a priest named Buzi,
and was taken captive in the captivity of Je
hoiachin, eleven years before the destruc
tion of Jerusalem, He was a member of a
community of Jewish exiles who settled on
tlie banks of the Chebar, a " river " or
stream of Babylonia, It was by this river
" in the land of the Chaldaeans " that God's
message first reached him (i.3). His call
took place " in the fifth year of king Jelioia-
chin's captivity," b, c. 595 (i. 2), "in the
tliirtiethyear, in the fourth month." The lat
ter expression is uncertain. It now seems
generally agreed that it was the 30th year
from the new era of Nabopolassar, father of
Nebuchadnezzar, who began to reign b. c.
625. The use of this Chaldee epoch is the
more appropriate as the prophet wrote in
Babylonia, and he gives a Jewish chronol
ogy in ver. 2, The decision of the ques
tion is the less important because in all
other places Ezekiel dates from the year
of Jehoiachin's captivity (xxix, 17, xxx.
29, et passim). We learn from an inci
dental allusion (xxiv, 18) -^the only refer
ence which ha makes tahis personal history
— that he VaUi? married, and had a house
(viii. 1) in hia^ace of j6xile, and loSt his
wife by a sud^n and unforeseen stroke.
He hved in the highest cons^deriition among
his companions in exile, a>nd their elders
consulted him on all occasions (viii. 1, xi.
25, xiv. 1, XX. 1, &c.). The last date he
mentions is the 27th year of the captivity
(xxix. 17), so that his mission extended
over twenty -two years, during part of whieh
period Daniel was probably living, and al
ready famous (Ez. xiv. 14, xxviii. 3). He
is said to have been murdered in Babylon
by some Jewish prince whom he had con
victed of idolatry, and to have been buried
ia the tomb of Shem and Arphaxad, on the
blinks of the Euphrates, The tomb, said
to have been built by Jehoiachin, was shown
a few days' journey from Bagdad, Ezekiel
was distinguished by his stern and inflex
ible energy of will and character ; and we
also observe a devoted adherence to the
rites and ceremonies of his national re
ligion. The depth of his matter, and the
marvellous nature of his visions, make him
occasionally obscure. The book is divided
into two great parts — of which the destruc
tion of Jerusalem is the turning-point;
chapters i,-xxiv. contain predictions deliv
ered before that event, and xxv,-xlyiii, ,
after it, as we see from xxvi. 2. Algain,
chapters i.-xxxii. are mainly occupied with
correction, denunciation, and reproof, while
the remainder deal chiefly in consolation
and promise. A parenthetical section
in the middle of the book (xxv.-xxxii.)

contains -a group of prophecies against
seven foreign nations, the septenary ar
rangement being apparently intentional.
There are no direct quotatTons from Eze
kiel in the New Testament, but in the
Apocalypse there are many parallels and
obvious allusions to the later chapters
(xl.-xlviii.). E'zel, The Stone, A well-known stone
in the neighborhood of Saul's residence,
the scene of the parting of David and
Jonathan when the former finally fled from
the court (1 Sam. xx. 19),
E'zem, one of the towns of Simeon,
(1 Chr. iv. 29).
E'zer. 1. A son of Ephraim, who was
slain by the aboriginal inhabitants of Gath,
while engaged in a foray on their cattle
(1 Chr. vii. 21). 2. A priest who assisted
in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem
under Nehemiah (Neh. xii. 42). 3. Father
of Hushah of the sons of Hur (1 Chr.
iv. 4).
E'zion-ga'ber, or E'zion-ge'ber
(Num. xxxiii. 35 ; Deut. ii. 8 ; 1 K. ix. 26,
xxii. 48; 2 Chr. viii. 17), the last station
named for the encampment of the Israel
ites before they came to the wilderness of
Zin. It probably stood at Ain el-Ghudydn
about ten miles up what is now the dry
bed of the Arabah, but which was probably
then the northern end of the gulf.
Ez'nite, The. According to the state
ment of 2 Sam. xxiii. 8, " Adino the Ez-
nite" was another name for " Josheb-bas-
shebeth" a Tachcemonite (1 Chr. xi. 11).
Ez'ra, called Esdras in the Apocrypha,
the famous Scribe and Priest, descended
from Hilkiah the high-priest in Josiah's
reign, from whose younger son Azariah
sprung Seraiah, Ezra's father, quite -a. dif
ferent person from Seraiah the high-priest
(Ezr. vii, 1), All that is really known of
Ezra is contained in the four last chapters of
thebookof EzraandinNeh. viii. andxii. 26.
From these passages we learn that he was a
learned and pious priest residing at Baby
lon in the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
The origin of his influence with the king
does not appear, but in the seventh year
of his reign, in spite of the unfavorable
report which had been sent by Rehum and
Shimshai, he obtained leave to go to Jeru
salem, and to take with him a company of
Israelites, together with priests, Levites,
singers, porters, and Nethinim, The jour
ney of Ezra and his companions from Baby
lon to Jerusalem took just four months ; and
they brought up with them a large free
will offering of gold and silver, and silver
vessels. It appears that his great design
was to effect a religious reformation among
the Palestine Jews, and to bring them back
to the observation of the Law of Moses,
from which they had grievously declined.
His first step, accordingly, was to enforce a

EZRA, BOOK OF

190

FAIRS

separation from their wives upo'H ai. who
had made heathen marriages, iu which
number were many priests and Levites, as
well as other fsraelites. This was effected
in little more than six months after his
arrival at Jerusalem, With the detailed
account of this important transaction Ez
ra's autobiography ends abruptly, and we
hear nothing more of him till, 13 years
afterwards, in the 20th of Artaxerxes, we
find bim ag.ain at Jerusalem with Nehemiah
" the Tirshatha," It seems probable that
after he had effected the above-named ref
ormation, and had appointed competent
judges and magistrates, with authority to
maintain it, he himself returned to the king
of Persia. The functions he executed under
Nehemiah's government were purely of a
priestly and ecclesiastical character. But
in such he filled the first place. As Ezra is
not mentioned after Nehemiah's departure
for Babylon in the 32d Artaxerxes, and as
everything fell into confusion during Nehe
miah's absence (Neh. xiii.), it is not unlikely
that Ezra may have died or returned to
Babylon before that year. There was a Jew
ish tradition that he was buried in Persia,
The principal works ascribed to him by the
Jews arc ; 1. The institution of the Great
Synagogue, 2, The settling the canon of
Scripture, and restoring, correcting, and
editing tho whole sacred volume, 3. The
introduction of the Chaldee character in
stead of the old Hebrew or S.amaritan.
4. The authorship of the books of Chron
icles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and, some add, Es-
- ther ; and, many of the Jews say, also of
the books of Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve
prophets, 5. The establishment of syna
gogues. Ez'ra, Book of, is a continuation of
the books of Chronicles, Like these books,
it consists of the contemporary historical
journals kept from time to time, which
were afterwards strung together, and either
abridged or added to, as the case required,
by a later hand. That later hand, in the
book of Ezra, was doubtless Ezra's own,
as appears by the four last chapters, as well
ns by other matter inserted in the previous
chapters. The chief portion of the last
chapter of 2 Chr. and Ezr, i. was probably
written by Daniel, As regards Ezr. ii.,
and as far as iii. 1, it is found (with the ex
ception of clerical errors) in tho 7th ch. of
Nehemiah, where it belongs beyond a shad
ow of doubt. The next portion extends
from iii. 2 to the end of ch. vi. Witli the
exception of one large explanatory addition
by Ezra, extending from iv. 6 to 23, this
portion is the work of a -vi'riter contem
porary with Zerubbabel and Jeshua, and an
eye-witness of the rebuilding of the Temple
in the beginning of tbe reign of D.arius
Hystaspis, That it was the prophet Hag
gai becomes tolerably sure when wc ob

serve further the remarkable coincideftcei
in style, Ezr, iv, 6-23 is a parenthetic ad
dition by a much later hand, and as the
passage most clearly shows, made in the
reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. The
compiler who inserted ch, ii., a document
drawn up in tho reign of Artaxerxes to
illustrate the return of the captives under
Zerubbabel, here inserts a notice of two
historical facts — of which one occurred in
the reign of Xerxes, and the other in the
reign of Artaxerxes — to illustrate the op
position offered by the heathen to the re
building of the ''Temple in the reign of
Cyrus and Cambyses. The last four chap
ters, beginning with ch. vii., are Ezra's
own, and continue the history after a gap
of fifty-eight years — from the sixth of
Darius to the seventh of Artaxerxes. It is
¦written partly in Hebrew, and partly in
Chaldee. The Chaldee begins at iv, 8, and
continues to the end of vi, 18, The letter
or decree of Artaxerxes, vii. 12-26, is also
given in the original Chaldee, The period
covered by the book is eighty years, from
the first of Cyrus, e, c, 636, to the be
ginning of the eighth of Artaxerxes, b, o,
456, Ez'rahite, The, a title attached to two
persons — Ethan, (1 K, iv, 31; Ps, Ixxxix.
title) and Heman;(Ps. Ixxxviii. title),
Ez'ri, son of Chelub, .superintendent of
king David's farm-laborers (1 Chr. xxvii.
26). R
Fable, Of the fable, as distinguished
from the parable [Parable], we have but
two examples in the Bible, (1,) that of the
trees choosing their king, addressed by
Jotham to the men of Shechem (Judg, ix,
8-15) ; (2.) that of the cedar of Lebanon
and the thistle, as the answer of Jehoash
to the challenge of Amaziah (2 K. xiv, 9),
The fables of false teachers claiming to
belong to the Christian church, alluded to
by writers of the N, T. (1 Tim. i. 4, iv. 7;
Tit, i. 14 ; 2 Pet, i. 16), do not appear to
have had the character of fables, properly
so called.
Fair Havens, a harbor in the island
of Crete (Acts xxvii. 8), though not men
tioned in any other ancient writing, is still
known by its own Greek name, and appears
to have been the harbor of Lasaea, These
places are situated four or five miles to the
E. of Cape Matala, which is the most con
spicuous headland on the S. coast of Crete,
and immediately to the W. of which the
coast frends suddenly to the N,
Pairs, a word which occurs only in Ez.
xxvii., and there no less than seven times
(ver. 12, 14, 16, 19, 22, 27, 33) : in the last
of these verses it is rendered "wares," and

FALLOW-DEER

191

FASTS

this we believe to be the true meaning of
the word throughout.
Fallow-deer (Heb. yachmdr). The
Heb. word, which is mentioned only in
Deut. xiv. 5 and in 1 K. iv. 23, is probably
the Alcelaphus bubalis of Barbary and N.
Africa. It is about the size of a stag, and
lives in herds.
Famine. In the whole of Syria and
Arabia, the fruits of the earth must ever be
dependent on rain ; the watersheds having
few large springs, and the small rivers
not being sufficient for the irrigation of
even C\e level lands. If therefore the
heavy rains of November and December
fail, the sustenance of the people is out off
in the parching drought of harvest-time,
when the country is almost devoid of mois
ture. Egypt, again, owes all its fertility to
its mighty river, whose annual rise inun
dates nearly the whole land. The causes
of dearth and famine in Egypt are occa
sioned by defective inundation, preceded
and accompanied and followed by prevalent
easterly and southerly winds. The first
famine recorded in the Bible is that of
Abraham after he had pitched his tent on
the east of Bethel (Gen. xii. 10). We
may conclude that this famine was exten
sive, although this is not quite proved by
the fact of Abraham's going to Egypt; for
on the occasion of the second famine, in
the days of Isaac, this patriarch found
refuge with Abimelech king of tho Philis
tines in Gerar (Gen, xxvi. 1, sq.). We
hear no more of times of scarcity until the
great famine of Egypt whieh " was over all
the face of the earth." We have mentioned
the chief causes of famines in Egypt : this
instance differs in the providential recur
rence of seven years of plenty, whereby
Joseph was enabled to provide against the
coming dearth, and to supply not only the
population of Egypt with corn, but those
of the surrounding countries (Gen. xii.
53-57), The modern history of Egypt
throws some curious light on these ancient
records of famines ; and instances of their
recurrence may be cited to assist us in un
derstanding their course and extent. The
most remarkable famine was that of the
reign of the FAtimee Khaleefeh, El-Mus-
tansir hillah, which is the only instance on
record of one of seven years' duration in
Egypt since the time of Joseph (a. h, 457-
464, A. D. 1064-1071), Vehement drought
and pestilence continued for seven consec
utive years, so that the people ate corpses,
and animals that died of themselves. The
famine of Samaria resembled it in many
jjiirticulars ; and that very briefly recorded
in 2 K. viii. 1, 2, affords another instance
of one of seven years. In Arabia, famines
arc of frequent occurrence.
Farthing, Two names of coins in
the N, T, arc rendered in the A. V. by this

word. — 1. Ko^giivT);;, quadrans (M.att. v.
26 ; Mark xii. 42), a com current in Pales
tine m the time of our Lord. It was equiv
alent to two lepta (A. V. "mites "). The
name quadrans was originally given to tho
quarter of the Roman as, or piece of three
uneiae, therefore also called teruneius. 2.
maunior (Matt. x. 29; Luke xii. 6), prop
erly a small as, assarium, but in the time
of our Lord used as the Gr. equivalent of
the Lat. as. The rendering of the Vulg.
in Luke xii. 6 makes it probable that a sin
gle coin is intended by two assaria.
Fasts. I. One fast only was appointed
by the law, that on the day of Atonement.
There is no mention of any other periodi
cal fast in the O. T., except in Zoch. vii.
1-7, viii. 19. From these passages it ap
pears that the Jews, during their captivity,
observed four annual fasts, in the fourth,
fifth, seventh, and tenth months. Zecha
riah simply distinguishes the fasts by the
months in which they were observed ; but
the Mishna and St. Jerome give statements
of certain historical events which they were
intended to commemorate. The number
of annual fasts in the present Jewish Cal
endar has been multiplied to twenty-eight.
II. Public fasts were occasionally pro
claimed to express national humili.ation,
and to supplicate divine favor. In the case
of public danger, the proclamation appears
to have been accompanied with the blow
ing of trumpets (Joel ii. 1-15). The fol
lowing instances are recorded of strictly
national fasts : Samuel gathered " all Is
rael " to Mizpeh and proclaimed a fast (I
Sam. vii. 6) ; Jehoshaphat appointed one
" throughout all Judah " when he was pre
paring for war against Moab and Ammon
(2 Chr. XX. 3) ; in the reign of Jehoiakim,
one was procl.aimed for " all tho people in
Jerusalem and all who came thither out of
the cities of Judah," when the prophecy of
Jeremiah was publicly read by Baruch
(Jer. xxxvi. 6-10 ; cf. Baruch i. 5) ; three
days after the feast of Tabern.acles, when
tho second temple was completed, " the
children of Israel assembled with fasting
and with sackclothes and earth upon them "
to hear the law read, and to confess their
sins (Neh. ix. 1). There are references to
general fasts in the Prophets (Joel i. 14, ii.
15; Is. Iviii.), and two are noticed in the
books of the Maccabees (1 Mace. iii. 46,
47; 2 Mace. xiii. 10-12). III. Priv.ate
occasional fasts are recognized in one pas
sage of the law (Num. xxx. 13). The in
stances given of individuals fasting under
the influence of grief, vexation, or anxie
ty, are numerous. "IV. In the N. T, the
only references to the Jewish fasts are the
mention of "the Fast" in Acts xxvii. 9
(generally understood to denote the Day
of Atonement), and the allusions to the
weekly fasts (Matt, ix, 14 ; Mark i\ 18 ;

FAT

192

FENCED CITIES

Luke V. 33, xviii. 12; Acts x. 30). These
fasts originated some time after the cap
tivity, ''i'hey were observed on the second
and fifth days of the week, which, being ap
pointed as the days for public fasts, seem
to have been selected for these private vol
untary fasts. V. The Jewish fasts were
observed with various degrees of strict
ness. Sometimes there was entire absti
nence from food (Esth. iv. 16, &c.). On
olher occasions, there appears to have been
only a restriction to a very plain diet (Dan.
X. 3). Those who fasted frequently dressed
in sackcloth or rent their clothes, put ashes
on their head and went barefoot (1 K, xxi.
27; Neh. ix. 1; Ps, xxxv. 13). VI. The
sacrifice of the personal will, which gives
to fasting all its value, is- expressed in the
old term used in the law, affliding the soul.
Fat. The Hebrews distinguished be
tween the suet or pure fat of an animal, and
the fat which was intermixed with the lean
(Neh. viii. 10). Certain restrictions were
imposed upon them in reference to the for
mer ; some parts ofthe suet, viz., about the
stomach, the entrails, the kidneys, and the
tail of a sheep, which grows to an excessive
size in many eastern countries, and pro
duces a large quantity of rich fat, were for
bidden to be eaten in the case of animals
off'ered to Jehovah in sacrifice (Lev. iii, 3,
9, 17, vii, 3, 23), The ground of the pro
hibition was that the fat was the richest part
of the animal, and therefore belonged to
Him (iii. 16). The presentation of the fat
as the richest part of the animal was agree
able to the dictates of natural feeling, and
was the ordinary practice even of heathen
nations. The burning of the fat of sacri
fices was particularly specified in each kind
of offering.
Fat, i. e. Vat, the word employed in
the A, V. to translate the Hebrew term
yekeh, in Joel ii. 34, iii. 13, The word com
monly used for yekeb is "winepress" or
" winefat," and once "pressfat" (Hag, ii.
16), The " vats " appear to have been ex
cavated out of the native rock of the hills
on whieh the vineyards lay.
Father, The position and authority of
the father as the head of the family are ex
pressly assumed and sanctioned in Scrip
ture, as a likeness of that of the Almighty
over His creatures. It lies of course at the
root of that so-called patriarchal govern
ment (Gen. iii. 10; 1 Cor, xi. 3), which
was introductory to the more definite sys
tems whieh followed, and which in part, but
not wholly, superseded it. The father's
blessing was regarded as conferring special
benefit, but his malediction special injury,
on those on whom it fell (Gen, ix. 25, 27,
xxvii.- 27-40, xlviii. 15, 20, xlix.) ; and so
also the sin of a parent was held to affect,
in certain cases, the welfare of his descend
ants (2 K. V. 27). The command to honor

parents is noticed by St. Paul as the only
one of the Decalogue which bore a distinct
promise (Ex. xx, 12; Eph. vi. 2), .and dis
respect towards them was condenined by
the Law as one of the worst of crimes (Ex.
xxi. 15, 17 ; 1 Tim. i. 9). It is to this well
recognized theory of parental authority and
supremacy that the very various uses of
the term "father" in iScripture are due.
"Fathers " is used in the sense of seniors
(Acts vii. 2, xxii. 1), and ff parents in gen
er.al, or ancestors (Dan. v. 2 ; Jer. xxvii.
7; Matt, xxiii. 30, 32).
Fathom, [Measures.]
Feasts. [Festivals,]
Fe'lix, a Roman procurator of Judaea,
appointed by the Emperor Claudius, whose
freedman he was, on the banishment of
Ventidius Cumanus in a. d. 53. Tacitus
states that Felix and Cumanus were joint
procurators ; Cumanus having Galilee, and
Felix Samaria, Felix was the brother
of Claudius's powerful freedman Pallas,
He ruled the province in a mean, cruel, and
profligate manner. His period of office
was full of troubles and seditions, St.
Paul was brought before Felix in Caesarea.
He was remanded to prison and kept there
two years, in hopes of extorting money
from him (Acts xxiv. 26, 27). At the end
of th.at time Porcius Festus [Festus] was
appointed to supersede Felix, who, on his
return to Rome, was accused by the Jews
in Caesarea, and would have suffered the
penalty due to his atrocities, had not his
brother Pallas prevailed with the Emperor
Nero to spare liim. This was probably in
the year 60 a, d. The wife of Felix was
Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I,,
the former wife of Azizus king of Emesa.
Fenced Cities, The broad distinction
between a city and a village in BibUcal
language consisted in the possession of
walls. The city had walls, the village was
unwalled, or had only a watchman's tower,
to which the villagers resorted in times of
danger, A threefold distinction is thus ob
tained — 1, cities; 2. unwalled villages; 3.
villages with castles or towers (1 Chr. xxvu
25). The district east ofthe Jordan, form
ing the kingdoms of Mo.ab and Bashan, is
said to have abounded from very early
times in castles and fortresses, such as
were built by Uzziah to protect the cattle,
and to repel the inroads of the neighboring
tribes, besides unwalled towns (Deut. iii.
6 ; 2 Chr. xxvi. 10). The fortifications of
the cities of Palestine, thus regularly
"fenced," consisted of one jt more walls
crowned with battlemented parapets, hav
ing towers at regular intervals (2 Chr.
xxxii. 5; Jer. xxxi. 38), on which in later
times engines of war were placed, and
watch was kept by day and night in time
of war (2 Chr. xxvi. 9, 15 ; Judg. ix. 45 i
2 K. ix. 17.)

FERREX

193

FIR

Ferret. One of the unclean creeping
things mentioned in Lev. xi. 30. The an
imal referred to was probably a reptile of
the lizard tribe. The Rabbinical writers
seem to have identified this animal with the
hedgehog. Festivals. I. The religious times or
dained in the Law fall under three heads :
(1.) Those formally connected with the
institution of the Sabbath ; (2.) The his
torical or great festivals ; (3 ) The Day of
Atonement. (1.) Immediately connected
with the institution of the Sabbath are : {a)
The weekly Sabbath itself. (6) The sev
enth new moon or Feast of Trumpets, (c)
The Sabbatical Year, {d) The Year of
Jubilee, (2,) The great feasts are : {a)
The Passover. (6) The Feast of Pente
cost, of Weeks, of Wheat-harvest, or, of
the First-fruits, (c) The Feast of Taber
nacles, or of Ingathering. On each of
these occasions every male Israelite was
commanded " to appear before the Lord,"
that is, to attend in the court of the taber
nacle or the temple, and to make his offer
ing with a joyful heart (Deut. xxvii. 7;
'Neh. viii. 9-12). The attendance of wo
men was voluntary, but the zealous often
went up to the Passover. On all the days
of Holy Convocation there was to be an
entire suspension of ordinary labor of
all kinds (Ex. xii. 16 ; Lev, xvi. 29, xxiii.
".l, 24, 25, 35). But on the intervening
days of the longer festiviils work might be
carried on. Besides their religious pur
pose, the great festivals must have had an
important bearing on the maintenance of a
feeUng of national unity. The frequent
recurrence of the sabbatical number in the
organization of these festivals is too re
markable to be passed over, and seems,
when viewed in connection with the sab
batical sacred times, to furnish a strong
proof that the whole system of the festivals
of the Jewish law was the product of one
. mind. The agricultural significance of the
three great festivals is clearly set forth in
the account of the Jewish sacred year con
tained in Lev. xxiii. The times of the
festivals were evidently ordained in wis
dom, so as to interfere as little as possi
ble with the industry of the people, (3.)
For the Day of Atonement see that article.
II. After the captivity, tho Feast of Purim
(Esth. ix. 20, sq.) and that of the Dedica
tion (1 Maec. iv. 56) were instituted,
Fes'tus, Por'cius, successor of Felix
as procurator of Judaea (Acts xxiv, 27),
sent by Nero probably in the autumn of the
year 60 a. d. A few weeks after Festus
reached his province he heard the cause of
St. Paul, who had been left a prisoner by
Pelix, in the presence of Herod Agrippa
II. and Bernice his sister (Acts xxv. 11,
12). Judaea was in the same disturbed
state during the procuratorship of Festus,
13

which had prevailed through that of hia
predecessor. He died probably in the sum
mer of 62 a. d., having ruled the province
less than two years.
Fetters, Fetters were usually made of
brass, and also in pairs, the word being in
the dual number. Iron was occasionally em
ployed for the purpose (Ps, cv. 18, cxlix, 8).
Fever {kaddachath, dalleketh, char-
chur ; Lev, xxvi, 16; Deut, xxviii. 22).
These words, from various roots, signifying
heat or inflammation, are rendered in the
A. V. by various words suggestive of fever,
or a feverish affection. The third word
may perhaps be erysipelas. Intermittent
fever and dysentery, the latter often fatal,
are ordinary Arabian diseases.
Field. The Hebrew sadeh is applied
to any cultivated ground, and in some in
stances in marked opposition to the neigh
boring wilderness. On the other h.and the
sadeh is frequently contrasted with what is
enclosed, whether a vineyard, a garden, or
a walled town. In many passages the term
implies what is remote from a house (Gen.
iv. 8, xxiv. 63 ; Deut. xxii. 25) or settled
habitation, as in the case of Esau (Gen.
xxv. 27). The separate plots of ground
were marked off by stones, which might
easily bo removed (Deut. xix. 14, xxvii.
17 ; cf. Job xxiv. 2 ; Prov. xxii, 28, xxiii,
10) ; the absence of fences rendered the
fields liable to damage from straying cattle
(E.x. xxii, 5) or fire (ver. 6 ; 2 Sam. xiv,
30) : hence the necessity of constantly
watching flocks and herds. From the ab
sence of enclosures, cultivated land of any
size might be termed a field. It should be
observed that the expressions "fruitful
field" (Is. X. 18, xxix. 17, xxxii. 15, 16),
and "plentiful field" (Is. xvi. 10; Jer,
xlviii. 33), are not connected with sadeh,
but with carmel, meaning a park or well-
kept wood, as distinct from a wilderness or
a forest. Fig, Fig-tree (Heb, tUndh), a word
of frequent occurrence in the O. T, where
it signifies the tree Ficus Carica of Lin
naeus, and also its fruit. The fig-tree is
very common in Palestine (Deut. viii, 8).
Mount Olivet was famous for its fig-trees
in ancient times, and they are still found
there. "To sit under one's own vine and
one's own fig-tree " became a proverbial
expression among the Jews to denote peace
and prosperity (1 K. iv, 25; Mic, iv, 4;
Zech. iii. 10),
Fir (Heb. bSrdsh, blrdth. Is, xiv, 8 ; Ez.
xxvii. 5, &c.). As the term " cedar " is in
all probability applicable to more than one
tree, so also " fir " in the A. V, represents
probably one or other of the following
trees: 1. Pinus sylvestris, or Scotch fir;
2, Larch; 3, Cupressus sempervirens, or
cypress, all which are at this day found in
the Lebanon.

FIRE

194

FIRST-FRUITS

Fire is represented as the symbol of Je
hovah's presence, and the instrument of
his power, in the way either of approval or
of destruction (Ex. iii. 2, xiv. 19, &c.).
Parallel with this application of fire and
with its symbolical meaning are to be noted
the similar use for sacrificial purposes and
the respect paid to it, or to the heavenly
bodies as symbols of deity, which prevailed
among so many nations of antiquity, and
of whieh the traces are not even now ex
tinct : e. g. the Sabaean and Magian sys
tems of worship, and their alleged connec
tion with Abrah.am ; the occasional relapse
' of the Jews themselves into sun, or its cor
rupted form of fire-worship (Is. xxvii. 9;
Deut. xvii. 3, &o.), the worship or deifica
tion of heavenly bodies or of fire, prevail
ing to some extent, as among the Persians,
so also even in Egypt. Fire for sacred pur
poses obtained elsewhere than from the
altar was called " strange fire," and for the
use of such Nadab and Abihu were pun
ished with death by fire from God (Lev. x.
1, 2; Nura. iii. 4, xxvi. 61).
Firepan, one of the vessels of the
Temple service (Ex. xxvii. 3, xxxviii. 3; 2
K. xxv. 15; Jer. Iii. 19). The same word
is elsewhere rendered " snuff-dish " (Ex.
xxv. 38, xxxvii. 23 ; Num. iv. 2) and " cen
ser " (Lev. X. 1, xvi. 12; Nura. xvi. 6, ff.).
There appear, therefore, to have been two
articles so called : one, like a chafing-dish,
to carry live coals for the purpose of burn
ing incense; another, like a smiffer-dish,
to be used in trimming the lamps, in order to
carry the snuffers and convey away the snuff.
Firkin. [Weights and Measures.]
Firmament. The Hebrew term rdkia,
so translated, is generally regarded as ex
pressive of simple expansion, and is so
rendered in the margin of the A. V. (Gen.
i. 6). The root moans to expand by beat
ing, whether by the hand, the foot, or any
instrument. It is especially used of beat
ing out metals into thin plates (Ex. xxxix.
3; Nmn. xvi. 39). The sense of solidity,
therefore, is combined with the ideas of
expansion and tenuity in the term. The
same idea of solidity runs through all the
references to the rdMa. In Ex. xxiv. 10,
it is represented as a solid floor. So again,
in Ez. i. 22-2G, the "flrmament" is the
floor on whieh the throne of the Most High
is placed. Further, the office of the rdkia
in the economy of the world demanded
strength and substance. It was to serve as
a division between the waters above and
the waters below (Gen. i. 7). In keeping
with this view the rdMa was provided with
"windows" (Gen. vii. 11; Is. xxiv. 18;
Mal. iii. 10) and "doors " (Ps. Ixxviii. 23),
through whieh the rain and tho snow might
descend. A secondary purpose which the
rdkta served was to support the heavenly
bodies, sun, moon, and st.ars (Gen. i. 14),

in which they were fixed as nails, and from
wliich, consequently, they might be said to
drop off (Is. xiv. 12, xxxiv. 4; Matt. xxiv.
29). First-bom. Under the Law, in mem
ory of the Exodus, the eldest son was re
garded as devoted to God, and was in every
case to be redeemed by an offering not ex
ceeding 5 shekels, within one month from
birth. If he died before the expiration of
30 days, the Jewish doctors held the father
excused, but liable to the payment if he
outlived that time (Ex. xiii. 12-15, xxii,
29; Num. viii. 17, xvui. 15, 16; Lev
xxvii. 6). The eldest son received a double
portion of the father's inheritance (Deut,
xxi, 17), but not of the mother's. Under
the monarchy, the eldest son usually, but
not always, as appears in the case of Solo
mon, succeeded his father in the kingdom
(1 K. i. 30, ii. 22). The male first-born of
animals was also devoted to God (Ex. xiii.
2, 12, 13, xxii. 29, xxxiv. 19, 20), Unclean
animals were to be redeemed with the ad
dition of one fifth of the value, or else put
to death ; or, if not redeemed, to be sold,
and the price given to the priests (Lev.
xxvii. 13, 27, 28).
First-fruits, 1. The Law ordered in
general, that the first of all ripe fruits and
of liquors, or, as it is twice expressed, the
first of first-fruits, should be off'ered in
God's house (Ex. xxii. 29, xxiii, 19, xxxiv.
27). 2. On the morrow after the Passover
sabbath, i. c. on the 16tli of Nisan, a sheaf
of new corn was to be brought to the priest,
and waved before the altar, in acknowledg
ment of the gift of fruitfulness (Lev. xxii'.
5, 6, 10, 12, ii. 12). 3. At the expiration
of 7 weeks from this, time, i. e. at the Feast
of Pentecost, an oblation was to be made
of 2 loaves of leavened bread made from
the new flour, which were to be waved in
like manner with the Passover sheaf (Ex.
xxxiv. 22 ; Lev. xxiii. 15, 17 ; Num. xxviii.
26). 4. 'I'he feast of ingathering, i. e. the
Feast of Tabern.acles in the 7th month, was
itself an acknowledgment of the fruits of
the harvest (Ex. xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22 ; Lev.
xxiii. 39). These four sorts of offerings
wore national. Besides them, the two fol
lowing were of an individual kind. 5. A
cake of the first dough that was baked, was
to be offered as a heave-offering (Nura. xv.
19, 21). 6. The first-fruits of the land
were to be brought in a basket to the holy
place of God's choice, and there presented
to the priest, who was to set the basket
down before the altar (Deut. xxvi. 2-11).
The offerings were the perquisite of the
priests (Num. xviii. 11 ; Deut. xviii. 4)
Nehemiah, at the Return from Captivity,
took pains to reorganize the offerings of
first-fruits of both kinds, and to appoint
places to receive them (Neh. x. 35, 37, xii.
44). An offering of first-fruits is mentioned

FISH

195

FLOOR

fts an aeccptjible one to the prophet Elisha
(2 K. iv. 42).
Fish. The Hebrews recognized fish as
one of the great divisions of the animal
kingdom, and, as such, give thom a place
in the account of the creation (Gen. i. 21,
28), as well as in other passages where an
exhaustive description of living creatures
is intended (Gen. ix. 2 ; Ex, xx. 4 ; Deut.
iv. 18 ; 1 K. iv. 33) The Mosaic law (Lev.
xi. 9, 10) pronout.oed unclean such fisli as
were devoid of fins .and scales : these were
and are regarded as unwholesome in Egypt.
Among the Philistines, Dagon was repre
sented by a figure, half man and half fish
(1 Sam. V. 4). On this account the wor
ship of fish is expressly prohibited (Deut.
iv. 18). In Palestine, the Sea of Galilee
was and still is remarkably well stored
with fish. Jerusalem derived its supply
chiefly from the Mediterranean (comp. Ez.
xlvii. 10) . The existence of a regular fish-
market is implied in the notice of the fish-
gate, which was probably contiguous to it
(2 Chr. xxxiii. 14 ; Neh, jii. 3, xii. 39 ;
Zeph i. 10). Numerous allusions to the
art of fishing occur in the Bible, The
most usual method of catching fish was by
the use of the net, either the casting net
(Hab, i, 15; Ez, xxvi, 5, 14, xlvii. 10),
probably resembling the one used in Egypt,

An Egyptian Landing-net. (Wilkinson.)
as shown in Wilkinson (iii. 55), or the
draw or drag net (Is. xix. 8; Hah. i. 15),
wliich was larger, and required the use of
a boat : the latter was probably most used
on the Sea of Galilee, as the number of
boats kept on it was very considerable.
Angling was a fiivorito pursuit of the
wealthy in Egj-pt, as well as followed
by the poor who could not afford a net.
A still more scientific method was with the
trident or the spearj as practised in Egypt in
taking the crocodile (Job xii. 7) or the
hippopotamus. Pitches {i. e. Vetches), the represen
tative in the A, V, of the two Ileb, words
eussemeth and ketsach. As to the former

see Rite, Ketsach denotes without doubt
the Nigella sativa,'an herbaceous annu.al
plant belonging to the natural order Ranun-
culaceae, and sub-order Uelleboreae, which
grows in the S, of Europe and in the N. of
Africa. Flag, the representative in the A. V,
of the two Heb. words dchO, and sitph. 1,
AchU,, il word, according to Jerome, of
Egyptian origin, and denoting " any green
and coarse herbage, such as rushes and
reeds, which grows in marshy places." It
seems probable that sorae specific plant is
denoted in Job viii. 11. The word occurs
once again in Gen. xii. 2, 18, where it is*
said that the scucn well-favored kine carae
up out of the river and fed in an dchii. It
is ^erha'ps the Cyperusesc^dentus. 2. Svph
(Ex. ii. 3, 5 ; Is. xix. 6) appears to be used
in a very wide sense to denote " weeds of
any kind."
Flagon, a word eraployed in the A. V.
to render two distinct Hebrew terms: 1,
Ashtshah (2 Sam. vi. 19 ; 1 Chr. xvi. 3 ;
Cant. ii. 5; Hos. iii. 1). It really means a
cake of pressed raisins. 2. Ncbel {Is. xxii.
24) is commonly used for a bottle or vessel,
originally probably a skin, but in later times
a piece of pottery (Is. xxx. 14).
Flax. Two words are used for this
plant in the O. T., or rather the same word
slightly modified. Eliminating all the places
where the words are used for the article
manufactured in the thread, the piece, or
the made up garment, we reduce them to
two (Ex. ix. 31; Josh. ii. 0). It seems
probable that the cultivation of flax for
the purpose of the manufacture of linen was
by no means confined to Egypt; but th,at
originating iu India it spread over Asia at
a very early period of antiquity. That it
was grown in Palestine even before the con
quest of that country by the Israelites ap
¦pears from Josh. ii. 6. The various pro
cesses employed in preparing the flax for
manufacture-into cloth are indicated : 1,
The drying process. 2. The peeling of tho
stalks, and separ.ation of the fibres. 3. The
hackling (Is. xix. 9), That flax was one
of the most important crops in Palestine
appears frora Hos. ii. 5, 9.
Plea, an insect twice only mentioned in
Scripture, viz., in 1 Sam. xxiv. 14, xxvi.
20. Fleas are abundant in the East, and
afford the subject of many proverbial ex
pressions. Flesh. [Food.]
Flint. The Heb. challdm tsh is rendered
flint in Deut. viii. 15, xxxii. 13; Ps. cxiv,
8 ; and Is. 1. 7. In Job xxviii. 9 the same
word is rendered rock in the text, and flint
in the margin. In Ez, iii, 9 the English
word "flint" occurs in the same serse, but
there it represents the Heb, Tzor.
Flood. [Noah.]
Floor, [Pavembht,"!

FLOUR

196

FOOD

Flour. [Bread.]
Flute (1 K. i. 4, marg, [Pipe]), a. mu
sical instrument mentioned amongst others
(Dan. iii. 6, 7, 10, 15) as used at the wor
ship of the golden image which Nebuchad
nezzar had set up.
Flux, Bloody (Acts xxviii. 8), the
same as our dysentery, which in the East
is, though sometimes sporadic, generally
epidemic and infectious, and then assumes
its worst form.
Fly, Flies, 1. Zlbitb occurs only in
Eccl. X. 1 and in Is. vii. 18, .and is prob
ably a generic n.ame for any insect. The
' zlbUb from the rivers of Egypt has been
identified with the zimb^f which Bruce
gives a description, and whieh is evident
ly sorae species of Tabanus. 2. 'Ardb
("swarms ot flies," "divers sorts ot flies,"
A. v.), the name of the insect, or insects,
which God sent to punish Pharaoh ; see Ex.
viii. 21-31 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 31. As the
drdb are said to have filled the houses of
the Egyptians, it seems not improbable that
common flies {Muscidae) are more espe
cially intended. The identification of the
'drdb with the cockroach is purely gratui
tous. Food.. The diet of Eastern nations has
been in all ages light and simple. As com
pared with our own habits, the chief points
of contrast are the small amount of animal
food consumed, the variety of articles used
as accompaniments to bread, the substitution
of milk in various forms for our liquors,
and the corabination of what we should
deem heterogeneous elements in the same
dish, or the same meal. The chief point
of agreement is the large consumption of
bread, the importance of which in the eyes
of the Hebrew is testified by the use of the
term lechem (originally food of any Idnd)
specifically for bread, as .:well as by the ex
pression "staff of bread" (Lev. xxvi. 26;
Ps. cv. 16; Ez. iv. 16, xiv. 13). Simpler
preparations of corn were, however, com
mon ; sometimes the fresh green ears were
eaten in a natural state, the husks bein'g
rubbed offby the hand (Lev. xxiii. 14 ; Deut.
xxiii. 25 ; 2 K, iv. 42 ; Matt. xii. 1 ; Luke
vi. 1) ; more frequently, however, the grains,
after being carefully picked, were roasted
in a pan over a fire (Lev. ii. 14), and eaten
as "parched corn," in which form they ivere
an ordinary article of diet, particularly
among laborers, or others who had not the
means of dressing food (Lev. xxiii. 14 ; Ruth
ii. 14 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 17, xxv, 18 ; 2 S.am. xvii.
28) : this practice is still very usual in the
East. Soraotiraes the grain was bruised
(A. V. " beaten," Lev, ii. 14, 16), and then
dried in the sun ; it was eaten either raixed
with oil (Lev. ii. 15), or made into a soft
cake ( A. V. " dough ; " Num. xv. 20 ; Neh. x.
37; Ez. xliv, 30), The Hebrews used a great
variety of articles (John xxi, 5) to give a rel

ish to 01 cid. Sometimes salt fraa so used
(Job vi. 6) , as we learn from the passage just
quoted ; sometimes the bread was dipped
into the sour wine (A, V, "vinegar")
which the laborers drank (Ruth ii, 14);
or, where meat was eaten, into the gravy,
which was either served up separately for
the purpose, as by Gideon (Judg, vi, 19),
or placed in the middle of the meat-dish, as
done by the Arabs. Milk and its prepara
tions hold a conspicuous place in Eastern
diet, as affording substantial nourishment;
sometimes it was produced in a fresh state
(Gen. .xviii. 8), but more generally in the
form of the modern leban, i. e. sour milk
(A. V. "butter;" Gen. xviii. 8; Judg. v.
25; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). Fruit was another
source of subsistence : figs stand first in
point of importance ; they were generally
dried and pressed into cakes. Grapes were
generally eaten in a dried state as raisins.
Fruit-cake forms a part of the daily food of
the Ar.abians, Of vegetables we have most
frequent notice of lentils (Gen. xxv. 34 ; 2
Sam, xvii. 28, xxiii. 11 ; Ez. iv. 9), which
are still largely used by the Bedouins in
travelling; beans (2 Sam. xvii, 28; Ez. iv.
9), leeks, onions, and garlic, which were
and still are of a superior quality in Egypt
(Num. xi. 5) . The modern Arabians con
sume but few vegetables : radishes and
leeks are most in use, and are eaten raw
with bread. In addition to these classes we
have to notice some other important articles
of food : in the first place, honey, whether
the natural product of the bee (1 Sam. xiv.
25; Matt. iii. 4), -n-hich abounds in most
parts of Arabia, or of the other natural and
artificial productions included under that
head, especially the dibs of the Syrians and
Arabians, i. e. grape-juice boiled down,
which is still extensively used in the East;
the latter is supposed to be referred to in
Gen. xliii. 11, and Ez. xxvii. 17. With re
gard to oil, it does not appear to have been
used to the extent we might h.ave anticipat
ed. Eggs are not often noticed*' but were
evidently known as articles of food (Is. x.
14, lix. 5: Luke xi. 12.) The Orientals
have been .at all times sparing in the use
of anim.al food : not only does the exces
sive heat of the climate render it both un
wholesome to eat much meat, and expen
sive from the necessity of immediately
consuming a whole animal, but beyond this
the ritual regulations of the Mos.aie law in
ancient, as of the Koran in modern times,
have tended to the same result. The pro
hibition expressed against consuming the
blood of any animal (Gen. ix. 4) was more
fully developed in the Levitical law, and
enforced by the penalty of death (Lev. iii.
17, vii. 26, xix. 26 ; Deut. xii. 16 ; 1 Sam.
xiv. 32, ff. ; Ez. xliv. 7, 15). Certain por
tions of the fat of sacrifices were also foi-
bidden (Lev. iii. 9, 10), as being set apart

FOOTMAN

197

FOUNTAIN

fbr the altar (Lev. iii. 16, vii. 25 ; cf. 1 Sam,
ii. 16, ir, ; 2 Chr, vii. 7). In addition to the
above, Christians were forbidden to eat the
flesh of animals, portions of which had
been offered to idols. All beasts and birds
classed as unclean (Lev. xi. l,ff. ; Deut.
xiv. 4, ff.) were also prohibited. Under
these restrictions the Hebrews were per
mitted the free use of animal food : gen
erally speaking they only availed them
selves of it in the exercise of hospitality
(Gen. xviii. 7), or at festivals of a reli
gious (Ex. xii. 8), public (1 K. i. 9; 1 Chr.
xii. 40), or private character (Gen. xxvii.
4 ; Luke xv. 23) ; it was only in royal
households that there was a daily consump
tion of meat (1 K. iv. 23 ; Neh, v. 18).
The animals killed for meat were — calves
(Gen. xviii. 7 ; 1 Sam. xxviii. 24 ; Am.
vi. 4) ; lambs (2 Sam. xii. 4 ; Am. vi. 4) ;
oxen, not above three years of age (1
K, i. 9; Prov. xv, 17; Is. xxii. 13; Matt.
xxii. 4) ; kids (Gen, xxvii. 9 ; Judg. vi. 19 ;
1 Sara. xvi. 20) ; harts, roebucks, and fal
low-deer (1 K. iv, 23) ; birds of various
kinds ; fish, with the exception of such as
were without scales and fins (Lev. xi. 9 ;
Deut. xiv. 9). Locusts, of which certain
species only were esteemed clean (Lev. xi.
22), were occasionally eaten (Matt. iii. 4),
tut considered as poor fare.
Footman, a word employed in the
Aath. Version in two senses. 1. Gener-
al'.y, to distinguish those of the people or
of the fighting-men who went on foot from
those who were on horseback or in chariots.
But, 2. The word occurs in a more special
sense (in 1 Sam. xxii. 17 only), and as the
translation of a different term from the
above. This passage affords the first men
tion of the existence of a body of swift run
ners in attendance on the king, though
such a thing had been foretold by Samuel
(1 Sam. viii. 11). This body appears to
have been afterwards kept up, and to have
been distinct from the body-guard — the six
hundred and the thirty — who were origi-
niited by David. See 1 K. xiv. 27, 28 ; 2
Chr. xii. 10, 11 ; 2 K. xi. 4, 6, 11, 13, 19.
In each of these cases the word is the same
as the above, and is rendered " guard ; "
but the translators were evidently aware of
its signification, for they have put the word
" runners " in the margin in two instances
(IK. xiv. 27; 2 K. xi. 13).
Forehead. The practice of veiling the
face in public for women of the higher
classes, especially married women, in the
East, sufficiently stigmatizes with reproach
the unveiled face of women of bad charac
ter (Gen. xxiv. 65 ; Jer. iii. 3). The cus
tom among many Oriental nations both of
coloring the face and forehead, and of im
pressing on the body marks indicative of
devotion to some special deity or religious
•ect is mentioned else where. The "jew ds

for the forehead," mentioned bv Ezekiel
(xvi. 12), and in margin of A. V. (Gen.
xxiv. 22), were in all probability nose-rings
(Is. iii. 21). ^ ^
Forest. Although Palestine has never
been in historical times a woodland coun
try, yet therS can be no doubt that there
was much more wood forraerly than there
is at present. (1.) The wood of Ephraim
clothed the slopes of the hills that bordered
the plain of Jezreel, and the plain itself in
the neighborhood of Bethshan (Josh. xvii.
15, ff'.). (2.) The wood of Bethel (2. K. ii.
23, 24) was situated in the ravine which
descends to the plain of Jericho. (3.)
The forest of H.areth (1 Sara. xxii. 5) was
somewhere on the border of th(; Philistine
plain, in the southern part of Judah. (4.)
The wood through which the Israelites
passed in their pursuit of the PhiUstines ( 1
Sara. xiv. 25) was probably near Aijalon
(comp. V. 31). (5.) The "wood" (Ps.
exxxii. 6) implied in the name of Kirjath-
jearim (1 Sam. vii. 2) must have been
similarly situated, as also (6.) were the
" forests" in which Jotham placed his forts
(2 Chr. xxvii. 4). (7.) The plain of
Sharon was partly covered with wood (Is.
Ixv. 10). (8.) The wood in the wilderness
of Ziph, in which David concealed himself
(1 Sam. xxiii. 15, ff.), lay S. E. of Hebron.
¦The house of the forest of Lebanon (1 K.
vii. 2, X. 17, 21 ; 2 Chr. ix. 16, 20) was so
called probably from being fitted up with
cedar. Fortifications. [Fenced Cities.]
Fortuna'tus (1 Cor. xvi. 17), one of
three Corinthians, the others being Steph
anas and Achaicus, who were at Ephesus
when St. Paul wrote his first Epistle.
There is a Fortunatus raentioned at the
end of Clement's first Epistle to the Co
rinthians, who was possibly the same per
son. Fountain, Among the attractive fea-

fe, \'^'\^

Foontain at Nazai'eth. (Boberts.)

FOWL

198

FRONTLETS

tnres presented by the Land of Promise to
the nation migrating from Egypt by way
of tbe desert, none would be more striking
than the natural gush of waters from the
ground. The springs of Palestine, though
short-lived, are remarkable for their abun
dance and beauty, especially those which
fall iiito the Jordan and its lakes through
out its whole course. The spring or foun
tain of living water, the " eye " of the
landscape, is distinguished in all Oriental
languages from the artificially sunk and en
closed well. Jerusalem appears to have
possessed either more than one perennial
spring, or one issuing by more than one
outlet. In Oriental cities generally public
fountains .are frequent. Traces of such
fountains at Jerusalem may perhaps be
found in the names En-Rogel (2 Sam, xvii.
17), the "Dragon-well" or fountain, and
the " gate ofthe fountain" (Neh. ii. 13, 14).
Fowl, Several distinct Hebrew and
Greek words are thus rendered in the A,
V. of the Bible. Of these the most com-
inon is 'dph, which is usually a collective
term for all kinds of birds. In 1 K. iv, 23,
among the daily provisions for Solomon's
table, "fatted fowl" are included. In th'e
N. T, the word translated " fowls " is raost
fr:-4uently thatwhich comprehends all kinds
of birds (including ravens, Luke xii, 24).
[Sparrow.] Fox (Heb. sh&'dl). Probably the
"jackal" is the animal signified in almost
ill the passages in the O. T, where the
Hebrew term occurs. The shu'dlim- of
Judg. XV. 4 are evidently " jackals," aud
not " foxes," for the former anim.al is gre
garious, whereas the latter is solidary in its
habits. With respect to the jackals and
foxes of Palestine, there is no doubt that
the common jackal of the country is the
Canis aureus, whieh may bo heard every
night in the villages. A vulpine animal,
under the name of Canis Syriacus, occurs
in Lebanon. The Egyptian Vulpes Niloti
cus, and doubtless the common fox of our
own country, are Palestine species.
Frankincense, a vegetsible resin, brit
tle, glittering, and of a bitter taste, used
for the purpose of sacrifici.al fumigation
(Ex. xxx. 3-1-30). It is obtained by suc
cessive incisions in the bark of a tree called
the arbor thuris, the first of which yields
the purest and whitest kind; while the
produce of the after incisions is spotted
with yellow, and as it becomes old loses its
whiteness .altogether. The Hebrews im
ported their frankincense from Arabia (Is.
lx. 6; Jer. vi. 20), and more particularly
from Saba; but it is remarkable that at
present the Arabian Lib.anum, or Olibanuni
is of a very Inferior kind, and that the finest
frankincense imported into Turkey comes
through Arabia from the islands of the In
dian Archipelago. There can be little

doubt that the tree which produces the In
dian frankincense is the Boswellia serraia
of Roxburgh, or Boswellia thurifera of
Colebrooke. ¦ It is still extremely uncer
tain what tree produces the Arabian Olib-
anura. Frog. The mention of this reptile in
the O. T. is confined to the passage in Ex.
viii. 2-7, &c., in which the plague of frogs
is described, and to Ps. Ixxviii. 45, cv. 30.
In the N. T. the word occurs once only, in
Rev, xvi. 13, There is no question as to
the animal meant. The only known spe
cies of frog whieh occurs .at present in
Egypt is the Rana esculenia, the edible
frog of the continent.
Frontlets, or Phylacteries (Ex,
xiii. 16 ; Deut. vi. 8, xi. 18 ; Matt, xxiii. 5),
These " frontlets " or " phylacteries " were
strips of parchment, on which were written
four passages of Scripture (E.x, xiii, 2-10,
11-17; Deut, vi, 4-9, 13-23) in an ink pre
pared for the purpose. -They were then
rolled up in a case of black calfskin, which
was attached to a stiffer piece of leather,
having a thong one finger broad, and one
and a half cubits long. They were placed
at the bend of the left arm. Those worn
on the forehead were written on four strips
of parchment, and put into four little cells
within a square case, on whieh the letter
U was written. The square liad two thongs,
on which Hebrew letters were inscribed.
That phylacteries were used as amulets ia
certain, and was very natural. The ex
pression " they m.ake broad their phylac
teries" (Matt, xxiii. 5) refers not so much
to the phylactery itself, which seems to

Frontlets or Fhylnctcries.

have been of a prescribed brej hh, as to
the case in which the parchment » as kept,
which tho Pharisees, among their other
pretentious customs (Mark vii. 3, t ; Luke
V. 33, &c,), made as conspicuous as they
could. It is said that the Pharisees wore

FULLER

199

GABRIEL

them always, whereas tbe common people
only used them, at prayers. The modern
Jews only wear them at morning prayers,
and sometimes at noon. In our Lord's
time they were worn by all Jews, except
the Karaites, women, and slaves. Boys, at
the age of thirteen years and a day, were
bouad to we.ar them. The Karaites ex
plained Deut. vi. 8, Ex. xiii. 9, &c., as a
figurative comm?nd to remember the law,
as is certainly the case in similar passages
(Prov, iii, 3, vi, 21, vii, 3; Cant. viii. 6,
&c.). It seems clear to us that the scope
of these injunctions favors the Karaite in
terpretation. FuUer. The trade of the fullers, so
far as it is mentioned in Scripture, appears
to have consisted chiefly in cleansing gar
ments and whiteni7ig them. The process
of fulling or cleansing cloth consisted in
treading or stamping on the garments with
the feet or with buts in tubs of water, in
which some alk.9.line substance answering
the purpose of soap had been dissolved.
The substances used for this purpose which
are mentioned in Scripture are natrum
(Prov. xxv. 20 ; Jer. ii. 22) and soap (Mal.
ill. 2). Other substances also are men
tioned as being employed in cleansing,
which, together with alkali, seem to identi
fy the Jewish with the Roman process, as
mine and chalk. The process of whitcn-
iuggarments was performed by rubbing into
them chfjk or earth of some kind. Creta
Cimolia (Cimolite) was probably the earth
most fiiquently used. The trade of the
fullers, as causing offensive smells, and
also as requiring space for drying clothes,
appears to have been carried on at Jerusa
lem outside the city.
Fuller's Field, The, a spot near Je-
rijsalem (2 K. xviii. 17; Is. vii. 3, xxxvi.
2) so close to the walls that a person speak
ing from there could be heard on them (2
K. xviii. 17, 26). One resort ofthe fullers
of Jerusalem would seem to have been be
low the city on the south-east side. But
Rabshakeh and his " great host" must have
come from the north; and the Fuller's
Field was therefore, to judge from this cir
cumstance, on the table-land on the north
ern side of the city.
Funerals, [Boeial,]
Furlong, [Measures,]
Furnace. Various kinds of furnaces
are noticed in the Bible, such as a smeltiog
or calcining furnace (Gen. xix. 28 ; Ex. ix.
8, 10, xix. 18), especially a lime-kiln (Is.
xxxiii. 12 ¦; Am. ii. 1) ; a rcflning furnace
(Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21 ; Ez. xxii. 18, ff.) ;
a Largo furnace built like a brick-kiln (Dan.
Li. 22, 23).; the potter's furnace (Ecclus.
Xiyii. 6; the blacksmith's furnace (Ecclus,
xxxviii, 28), The Persians were in the
habit of using the furnace as a means of in-

Tlie Egyptian Potter's Furnace, CWUfcinson.)

flicting punishment (Dan, I.
22 ; 2 Mace, vii. 5 ; Hos, vii.

c. ; Jer, xxix,
7).

G.

Ga'al, son of Ebed, aided the Shechem
ites in their rebellion against Abimelech
(Judg. ix.),
Ga'ash. On the north side of " the hill
of Gaash " was the city which was given to
Joshua (Josh. xxiv. 30 ; Judg. ii. 9 ; comp.
Josh. xix. 49, 50). It does not appear to
have been recognized.
Ga'ba. The same name as Geba, It
is found in the A. V. in Josh, xviii, 24;
Ezr. ii. 26 ; Neh. vii. 30.
Gab'atha, Esth. xii. 1. [Bigthas-.]
Gab'bai, apparently the head of an im
portant family of Benjamin resident at Je
rusalem (Neh. xi. 8).
Gab'batha, the Hebrew or Chaldee
appellation of a place, also called "Pave
ment," where the judgment-scat or bema
was planted, from Jiis place on which Pilate
delivered our Lord to death (John xix. 13).
The place was outside the praetorium, for
Pilate brought Jesus forth from thence to
it. It is suggested that Gabbatha is a mere
translation of "paveraent." It is more
probably from an ancient root signifying
height or roundness. In this case Gabba
tha designated the elevated Bema ; and the
"pavement" was possibly some mosaic or
tessellated work, either forming the bema
itself, or the flooring of the court immedi
ately round it.
Ga'briel. The word, whieh is not in
itself distinctive, but merely a description
of the angelic office, is used as a proper
name or title in D<an. viii. 16, ix. 21, and in
Luke i. 19, 26. In the ordinary traditions,
Jewish and Christian, Gabriel is spoken of
as one of the archangels. In Scripture he
is set forth only as the representative ofthe
angelic nature in its ministration of com»
fort and sympathy to m.in.

GAD

200

GAHAE

Gad, Jacob's seventh son, the first-born
of Zilpah, Leah's maid, and whole-brother
to Asher (Gen. xxx. 11-13, xlvi, 16, 18),
The word means either "fortune" or
" troop :" hence Leah said at his birth, —
" a troop (of children) cometh "'(Gen. xxx,
ii. ; comp. xlix. 19), Ofthe childhood and
life of the patriarch Gad nothing is pre
served. At the time of the descent into
Egypt seven sons are ascribed to hira.
The alliance between the tribes of Reuben
and Gad was doubtless induced by the sim
ilarity of their pursuits. Of all the sons of
Jacob these two tribes alone returned to
the land which their forefathers had left
five hundred years before, with their occu
pations unchanged. At the halt on the east
of Jordan we find them coming forward -to
Moses with the representation that they
" have cattle," — "a great multitude of cat
tle," and the land where they now are is a
"place for cattle." They did not, however,
attempt to evade taking their proper share
of the difficulties of subduing the land of
Canaan, and after that task had been ef
fected they were dismissed by Joshua •"to
their tents," to their " wives, their little
ones, and their cattle," which they had left
behind them in Gilead. The country al
lotted to Gad appears,.speaking roughly, to
have lain chiefly about the centre of the
land east of Jordan. The south of that
district — from tho Arnon {Wady Mojeb),
about halfway down the Dead Sea, to Hesh
bon, nearly due east of Jerusalem — was
occupied by Reuben, and at or about Hesh
bon the possessions of Gad commenced.
They embraced half Gilead, as the oldest
record specially states (Deut. iii. 12), or
half the land of the children of Ammon
(Josh. xiii. 25), probably the mountainous
district which is intersected by the torrent
Jabbok, including, as its most northern
town, tho ancient sanctuary of Mahanaim.
On the east the furthest landmark given is
"Aroer, that faces Rabbah," the present
Amman (Josh. xiii. 25). West was the
Jordan (27). Such was the territory al
lotted to the Gadites, but there is no doubt
that they soon extended themselves beyond
these limits. The official records of tho
reign of Jotham of Judah (1 Chr. v. 11, 16)
show them to -have been at that time estab
lished over the whole of Gilead, and in pos
session of Bashan as far as Salcah, and
very far both to the north and the east of
the border given thcra originally, while the
Manassites were pushed still further north
wards to Mount Hermon (1 Chr. v. 23).
The character of the tribe is throughout
strongly marked — fierce and warlike —
" strong men of might, men of war for the
battle, that could handle shield and buckler,
their faces the faces of lions, and like roes
upon the mountains for swiftness." Gad
was carried into captivity by Tiglath-Pile

ser (1 Chr. V. 26), and in the time of Jere
miah the cities of the tribe seem to have
been inhabited by the Ammonites,
Gad, "the seer," or " the king's seer,"
i. e. David's (1 Chr, xxix, 29 ; 2 Chr, xxix,
25 ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 ; 1 Chr. xxi. 9), was a
" prophet " who appears to have joined
David when in the hold (1 Sam. xxii. 5).
He reappears in connection with the pun
ishment inflicted for the numbering of tlie
people (2 Sam. xxiv. 11-19; 1 Chr. xxi. 9-
19). He wrote a book of the Acts of Da
vid (1 Chr. xxix. 29), and also assisted in
the arrangements for the musical service of
the "house of God" (2 Chr. xxix. 26).
Gad, properly " the Gad," with the
article. In the A. V, of Is. Ixv. 11 the
clause "that prepare a table, for that
troop " has in the margin instead of the
last word the proper name " Gad," which
evidently denotes some idol worshipped by
the Jews in Babylon, though it is impopsi-
ble positively to identify it,
Gad'ites, The, the defcendants of Gad,
and merabers of his tribe,
Gad'ara, a strong city situated neai the
xiver Hieromax, east of the Sea of Gab lee,
over against Scythopolis and Tiberias, and
sixteen Roman miles distant from each of
those places; Josephus calls it the cap
ital of Peraea. A large district was at
tached to it. Gadara itself is not mentioned
in the Bible, but it is evidently identical
with the " country of the Gadarenes, " or
Gergesenes (Matt, viii, 28 ; Mark v, 1 ;
Luke viii. 26, 37). The ruins of this city,
now called Um Keis, are about two miles
in circuraference. Gadara derives its great
est interest from having been the scene of
our Lord's miracle in healing the demoni
acs (Matt. viii. 28-34 ; Mark v. 1-21 ; Luke
viii. 26-40), The whole circumstance-j of
the narrative are strikingly illustrated by
the features of the country. Another thing
is worthy of notice. The most interesting
remains of Gadara are its tombs, which dot
the cliffs for a considerable distance round
the city, Gadara was captured by Vespa
sian on the first outbreak of the war with
the Jews; all its inhabitants massacred;
and the town itself, with the surrounding
villages, reduced to ashes.
Gad'di, son of Susi; the Manassite spy'
sent by Moses to explore Canaan (Num,
xiii. 11).
Gad'diel, a Zebulonite, one of tha
twelve spies (Num. xiii. 10),
Ga'di, father of Menahem (2 K, xv, 14,
17). Ga'ham, son of Na.Jor, Abraham's
brother, by his concubine Reumah (Gen.
xxii. 24).
Ga'har. The Benc-Gahar were among
the families of Nethinim who returned from
the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 47 1
Neh. vii. 49).

GAIUS

201

GALILEE

Gai'us. [Johk, Second and Third
Epistles of.]
Gal'aad, the Greek form of the word
Gilead. Ga'lal. 1, A Levite, one of the sons
of Asaph (I Chr, ix. 15). 2. Another Le
vite of the family of Elkanah (1 Chr. ix.
16). 3. A third Levite, son of Jeduthun
(Neh. xi, 17).
Gala'tia is liter<ally the "Gallia" of
the East. The Galatians were in their or
igin a stream of that great Keltic torrent
which poured into Greece in the third cen
tury before the Christian era. Some of
these invaders moved on into Thrace, and
appeared on the shores of the Hellespont
and Bosporus, when Nicomedes I., king of
Bithynia, being then engaged in a civil war,
invited them across to help him. At the
end of the Republic, Galatia appears as a
dependent kingdom; at the beginning of
the Empire as a province (a. d. 26), The
Roman province of Galatia may be roughly
described as the central region of the pe
ninsula of Asia Minor, with the provinces
of Asia on the west, Cappadoci.v. on the
east, Pamphylia and Cilicia on the south,
and Bithynia and Pontus on the north.
These Eastern Gauls preserved much of
their ancient character, and something of
their ancient Language. The prevailing
speech, however, of the district was Greek.
The inscriptions found at Aiicyra are
-Greek, and St. Paul wrote his Epistle in
Greek. It is difficult at first sight to de
termine in what sense the word Galatia is
used by the writers of the N, T., or whether
always in the same sense. In the Acts of
the Apostles the journeys of St. Paul
through the district are mentioned in very
general terms, ' On all accounts it seems
most probable that Gal.atia is used by St.
Luke as an ethnographical term, and not
for the Roman province of that name,
Galatians, The Epistle to the, was
written by the Apostle St. Paul not long
after his journey through Galatia and Phry
gia (Acts xviii. 23), and probably in the
early portion of his two years and a half
stay at Ephesus, whieh terminated with the
Pentecost of a. d. 57 or 58. The Epistle
appears to have been called forth by the
machinations of -Judaizing teachers, who,
shortly before the d.ate of its composition,
had endeavored to seduce the churches of
this province into a recognition of circum
cision (v. 2, 11, 12, vi. 12, sq.), and had
openly sought to depreciate the apostolic
claims of St. Paul (comp. i. 1, 11), The
scope and contents of the Epistle are thus
— (1) apologetic (i., ii.) and polemical (iii,
iv.^; and (2) horatory and practical (v,,
vi,) ; the positions, and demonstr.ations of
tbe former portion being used with great
power and persuasiveness in the exhorta
tions of the latter. Two historical ques

tions require a brief notice : 1. Thi^ num-
ber of visits made by St. Paul to the
churches of Galatia previous to his writing
the Epistle. These seem certainly to have
been two. 'J'he Apostle founded the churches
of Galatia in the visit recorded Acts xvi.
6, during his second missionary journey,
about A. D. 51, and revisited them at the
period and on the occasion mentioned Acts
xviii. 23, when he went through the coun
try of Galatia and Phrygia. On this occa
sion it would seem probable that he found
the leaven of Judaisra beginning to work
in the churches of Galatia. 2. Closely al
lied with the preceding question is that of
the diite, and the phace from whieh the
Epistle was written. It was probably writ
ten about the same time as the Epistle to
Romans at Corinth, during the three months
that the Apostle staid there (Acts xx. 2, 3),
app.arently the winter of A. d. 57 or 58.
Galbanum, one of the perfumes em
ployed in the prepar,ation of the sacred in
cense (Ex. xxx. 34). The galbanum of
comraerce is brought chiefly from India
and the Levant. It is a resinous gum of a
brownish yellow color, and strong, disa
greeable smell, usually met with in masses,
but sometimes found in yellowish, tear-like
drops. But, though galbanum itself is
well known, the plant which yields it has
not been exactly determined.
Gal'eed, the name given by Jacob to
the heap which he and Laban made on
Mount Gilead in witness of the covenant
then entered into between them (Gen.
xxxi. 47, 48; comp. 23, 25).
Gal'ilee. This name, which in the Ro
man age was applied to a large province,
seems to have been originally confined to a
little "circuit" of country round Kedesh-
Naphtali, in which were situated the twenty
towns given by Solomon to Hiram, king of
Tyre, as payment for his work in convey
ing timber from Lebanon to Jerusalem
(Josh. XX. 7; 1 K. ix. 11). They were
then, or subsequently, occupied by stran
gers, and for this reason Isaiah gives to the
district the name " Galilee of the Gentiles "
(Is. ix. 1), It is probable that the strangers
increased in number, and became during
the captivity the great body of the inhab
itants ; extending themselves also over the
surrounding country, they gave to their new
territories the old name, until at length
Galilee became one of the largest provinces
of Palestine. In the time of our Loid all
Palestine was divided into three provinces,
Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee (Acts ix. 31 ;
Luke xvii. 11; Joseph. B. J. iii. 3). The
latter included the whole northern section
of the country, including the ancient terri
tories of Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, and
Naphtali. On the west it was bounded by
the territory of Ptolemais, which probably
included the whole plain of Akka to *ht

GALILEE, SEA 05

202

GALLIO

foot of Carmel. The southern border ran
along the base of Carmel and of the hills
of Saraaria to Mount Gilboa, and then de
scended the valley of Jezreel by Scythop
olis to the Jordan. The river, Jordan, the
Sea of Galilee, and the upper Jordan to
the fountain at Dan, forraed the eastern
border; and the northern ran from Dan
westward across the mountain ridge till it
touched the territory of the Phoenicians.
Galilee was divided into two sections,
"Lower" and-" Upper." Lower Galilee
included the great plain of Esdraelon with
its offshoots, which run down to the Jordan
and the Lake of Tiberias ; and the whole
of the hill country adjoining-it on tbe north
to the foot of the mountain-range. It was
thus one of the richest and most beautiful
sections of Palestine. The chief towns of
Lower Galilee were Tiberias, Tarichaea, at
the southern end of the Sea of Galilee,
and Sepphoris. The towns most celebrated
in N. T. history are Nazareth, Cana, and
Tiberias (Luke i. 26; John ii. 1, vi. 1).
Upper Galilee embraced the whole moun
tain-range lying between the upper Jordan
aud Phoenicia. To this region the name
" Galilee of the Gentiles" is given in the
O. and N. T. (Is. ix. 1 ; Matt. iv. 15). The
town of Capernaum, on the north shore of
the lake, was in Upper Galilee. Galilee
was the scene of the greater part of our
Lord's private hfe and public acts. His
early years were spent at Nazareth; and
when He entered on His great work He
made Capernaum His home (Matt. iv. 13,
ix. 1). It is a remarkable fact that the first
three Gospels are chiefly taken up with our
Lord's ministrations in this province, while
the Gospel of John dwells more upon those
in Judaea. The nature of our Lord's par
ables and illustrations was greatly influ
enced by the peculiar features and products
of the country. The Apostles were all
either Galileans by birth or residence (Acts
i. 11). After the destruction of Jerusalem,
Galilee became the chief seat of Jewish
schools of learning, and the residence of
their most celebrated Rabbins.
Galilee, Sea of. [Gennesareth.]
Gall, the representative in the A. V. of
the Hehrew words mtirerdh, or mSrdrdh,
and rdsh. 1. Mererdh or mlrdrdh denotes
etymologically " that which is bitter; " see
Job xiii. 26, "thou writest bitter things
against me." Hence the term is applied to
the " bile " or " gall " from its intense bit
terness (Job xvi. 13, XX. 25) ; it is also
used of the " poison " of serpents (Job xx.
14), which the ancients erroneously be
lieved was their gall, 2, Rdsh, generally
translated " gall " by the A. V., is in Hos.
X. 4 rendered " hemlock : " in Deat. xxxii,
33, and Job xx, 16, rdsh denotes the
"poison" or "venom "of serpents. From
Deut. xxix. 18, and Lam. iii. 19, coiipared

with Hos. X, 4, it is evident that the Hebrew
term denotes some bitter, and perhaps poi
sonous plant. Other writers have supposed,
and with some reason (from Deut, xxxii,
32), th.at some berry-bearing plant must be
intended. Gesenius understands "poppies."
The capsules of the Papaveraceae may
well give ihe name of rdsh ("head") to
the plant in question, just as we speak of
poppy heads. The various species of this
family spring up quickly in corn-fields, and
the juice is extremely bitter. A steeped
solution of poppy heads may be " tho wa
ter of gall " of Jer, viii. 14, The passages
in the Gospels which relate the circum
stance of the Roman soldiers offering our
Lord, just before his crucifi.xion, " vinegar
mingled with gall," according to St, Mat
thew (xxvii. 34), and "wine mingled with
myrrh," according to St. Mark's account
(xv. 23), require some consideration. " Mat
thew, in his usual wayj" as Hengstenberg re
marks, " designates the drink theologically :
alw.ays keeping his eye on the prophecies
of the O. T,, he speaks of gall and vinegar
for the purpose of rendering the fulfilment
of the Psalms more manifest. Mark again
(xv. 23), according to his way, looks rather
at the outward quality of the drink."
"Gall" is not to be understood in any
other sense than as expressing the bitter
nature of the draught. Notwithstanding
the almost concurrent opinion of ancient
and modern commentators that the " wine
mingled with myrrh" was offered to our
Lord as an anodyne, we cannot readily
come to the same conclusion. Had the
soldiers intended a mitigation of suffering,
they would doubtless have offered a draught
drugged with some- substance having nar
cotic properties. The drink in question
was probably a mere ordinary beverage of
the Romans,
Gallery, an architectural term, de
scribing the porticos or verandas which
are not uncommon in Eastern houses. It
is doubtful, however, whether the Hebrew
words, so translated, have any reference to
such an object.
Galley, [Ship,]
Gal'lim (=" heaps," or, possibly,
"springs"), a place which is twice men
tioned in the Bible: (1.) As the native
place of the man to whom Michal, David's
wife, was given (1 Sam. xxv, 44), There
is no clew to the situation of the place.
(2.) The name occurs again in the cata
logue of places terrified at tho approach of
Sennacherib (Is. x. 30). The name of
Gallim has not been met with in modern
times. Gal'lio, Junius Annaeus Gallic, the
Roman proconsul of Achaia when St.
Paul was at Corinth, A. D, 53, under the
Emperor Claudius (Acts xviii, 12). He
was brother to Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the

GALLOWS

'zm

GARDEN

^philosopher. Jerome in the Chronicle of
¦JEusebius s.ays that he committed suicide in
tho year 66 a. d.
Gallows. [PtINISHMEXT.]
Gama'liel. 1. SonofPedahzur; prince
or captain of the tribe of Manasseh at tlie
census at Sinai (Num. i. 10, ii. 20, vii. 54,
69), and at starting on the m.arch through
the wilderness (x, 23). 2. A Pharisee
and celebrated doctor of the law, who gave
prudent worldly advice in the Sanhedrim
respecting the treatment of the followers
of Jesus of N.azareth (Acts v. 34, ff.). We
learn from Acts xxii. 3 that he was the
preceptor of St. Paul. He is generally
identified with the very celebrated Jewish
doctor Gamaliel. This Gamaliel was son
of Rabbi Simeon, and grandson of the cele
brated Hillel ; he was president of the
Sanhedrim under Tiberius, Caligula, and
Claudius, and is reported to have died
eighteen years before the destruction of
Jerusalem. Games. Among the Greeks the rage
for theatrical exhibitions was such that
every city of any size possessed its theatre
and stadiura. At Ephesus an annual con
test was held in honor of Diana. It is
probable that St. Paul was present when
these games were proceeding. A direct
reference to the exhibitions that took place
on such occasions is made in 1 Cor. xv.
82. St. Paul's Epistles abound with allu
sions to the Greek contests, borrowed
probably from the Isthmian games, at
which he may well have been present dur
ing his first visit to Corinth. These con
tests (2 Tim. iv. 7 ; 1 Tim. vi. 12) were
divided into two classes, the pancratium,
consisting of boxing and wrestling, and the
pentathlon, consisting of leaping, running,
quoiting, hurling the spear, and wrestling.
'The competitors (1 Cor. ix. 25; 2 Tim. ii.'
6) required a long and severe course of
previous training (1 Tim, iv. 8), during
wliich a particular diet was enforced (1
Cor. ix. 25, 27), In the Olympic contests
these preparatory exercises extended .over
a period of ten months, during the last of
which they were conducted under the super
vision of appointed officers. The contests
took place iu the presence of a vast multi-
*'ide of spectators (Heb, xii. 1), the com
petitors being the spectacle (1 Cor, iv, 9 ;
Heb. X. 33). The games were opened by
the proclamation of a herald (1 Cor. ix.
27), whose office it was to give out the
name and country of each candidate, and
especially to announce the name of the
victor before the assembled multitude.
The judge was selected for his spotless
integrity (2 Tim, iv. 8) ; his -office was to
flecide any disputes (Col. iii. 15) and to
give the prize (1 Cor, ix. 24; Phil, iii, 14),
consisting of a crown (2 Tim, ii. 6, iv, 8)
of leaves of wild oUve at the Olympic

gameo, and of pine, or at tti3 period, ivf,
at the Isthmian games, St. Paul alludes
to two only out of the five coptests, boxing
and running, more frequently to the hatter.
In boxing (cf 1 Cor. ix. 26) the hands and
'arms were bound with the cesius, a band of
leather studded with nails. The foot-race
(2 Tira, iv. 7) was run in the stadium (1
Cor. ix. 24), an oblong area, open at one
end, and rounded in a semicircular form at
the other, along the sides of -(vhich were
the raised tiers of seats on which the spec
tators sat. The judge was stationed by the
goal (Phil. iii. 14), which was cle.arly visible
from one end of the stadium to the other.
Gam'madims. This word occurs only
in Ez. xxvii. 11. A variety of explanations
of the term have been offered. (1.) One
class renders it " pygmies." (2.) A second
treats it as a geographical or local term.
(3.) A third gives a more general sense to
the word, " brave warriors." Hitzig sug
gests " deserters." After all, the render
ing in the LXX., " guards," 'furnishes the
simplest explanation.
Ga'mul, a priest ; the leader of the 22d
course in the service of the sanctuary (1
Chr. xxiv. 17).
Garden. Gardens in the East, as the
Hebrew word indicates, are enclosures, on
the outskirts of towns, planted with various
trees and shrubs. From the allusions in
the Bible we learu that they were sur
rounded by hedges of thorn (Is. v. 5), or
walls of stone (Prov. xxiv. 31). For fur
ther protection lodges (Is. i. 8 ; Lam. ii. 6)
or watchtowers (Mark xii. 1) were built in
them, in whieh sat the keeper (Job x.xvii.
18) to drive away the wild beasts and rob
bers, as is the case to this day. The gar
dens of the Hebrews were planted with
flowers and aromatic shrubs (Cant. vi. 2,
iv. 16), besides olives, fig-trees, nuts, or
walnuts (Cant. vi. 11), pomegr.anates, and
others for domestic use (Ex. xxiii. 11;
Jer. x.\ix. 5; Am. ix. 14). Gardens of
herbs, or kitchen-gardens, are mentioned
in Deut. xi. 10, and 1 K. xxi. 2. Cucum
bers were grown in them (Is. i. 8 ; Bar. vi.
70), and probably also melons, leeks,
onions, and g.arlic, which are spoken
of (Nura. xi. 5) as the productions of a
neighboring country. The rose-garden in
Jerusalem, said to have been situated west
ward of the temple mount, is remarkable as
having been one ofthe few gardens, which,
from the time of the prophets, existed
within the city walls. But of all the gar
dens of Palestine none is possessed of as
sociations more sacred and imperishable
than the garden of Gethsemane, beside the
oil-presses on the slopes of Olivet, In b
climate like that of Palestine the neigh
borhood of water was an important consid
eration in selecting the site of a garden.
To the old Hebrew poets " a well- watered

GAREB

204

GATH

garden," or " a tree planted by the waters,"
was an cn,blem of luxuriant fertility and
material prosperity (Is. Iviii. 11 ; Jer. xvii.
8, xxxi. 12), From a neighboring stream
or cistern were supplied the channels or
conduits by which the gardens were inter
sected, and the water was thus conveyed
to all parts (Ps. i. 3; Eccl. ii. 6; Ecclus.
x.xiv. 30). It is matter of doubt what is the
exact meaning ofthe expression " to water
with the foot " in Deut, xi. 10, The He
brews made use of gardens as places of
burial (John xix. 41). Manasseh and his
son Anion were buried in the garden of
their iialace, the garden of Uzza (2 K.
Xxi. 18, 26). The retirement of gardens
rendered them favorite places for devotion
(Matt. xxvi. 36; John xviii. 1; cf Gen.
xxiv. 63). In the degenerate times of the
monarchy they were selected as the scenes
of idolatrous worship (Is. i. 29, lxv. 3,
Ixvi. 17), and images of the idols were
probably erected in them. The traditional
gardens and* pools of Solomon, supposed
to be alluded to in Eccl. ii. 5, 6, are shown
in tne Wady Urtds {i. e. Hortus), about
an hour and a quarter to the south of Beth
lehem. The " king's garden," mentioned
in 2 K. xxv. 4 ; Neh. iii. 15 ; Jer. xxxix. 4,
Iii 7, was near the pool of Siloam, at the
mouth of the Tyropoeon, north of Bir Eyub,
and was formed by the meeting of the val
leys of Jehoshaphat and Ben Hinnom,
Ga'reb, one of the heroes of David's
army '(2 Sam. xxiii. 38),
Gareb, The Hill, in the neighborhood
of Jerusalem, named only in Jer. xxxi. 39.
Garlic (Num. xi. 5), is the Allium Sati
vum of Linnaeus, which abounds in Egypt.
Garment. [Dress.]
Gar'mite, The. Keilah the Garmite,
i. e. the descendant of Gerem, is raentioned
in the obscure genealogical lists of the
families of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 19).
Garrison. Tlie Hebrew words so ren
dered in the A, V, are derivatives from the
root ndtsab to " place, erect," which may
be applied to » variety of objects, (1.)
Maitsab and mattsabah undoubtedly mean
a " garrison," or fortified post (1 Sam. xiii.
23, xiv. 1, 4, 12, 15; 2 Sam. xxiii. 14).
(2), Netsib is also used for a "garrison"
'in 1 Chr. xi. 16), but elsewhere for a
column " erected in an enemy's country
as a token of conquest (1 Sam. xiii. 3).
(3.) The same word elsewhere means
" officers " placed over a v.anquished peo
ple (2 Sam. viii. 6,14; 1 Chr. xviii. 13 ; 2
Chr. xvii. 2). (4.) Maitscbah in Ez. xxvi.
11 means a "pillar."
Gash'mu. A variation of the name
Gebiiem (Neh. vi. 6).
Ga'tam, the fourth son of Eliphaz the
son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 11; 1 Chr. i. 36),
and one of the " dukes" of Eliphaz (Gen.
xxxvi 16).

Gate, The gates and gateways of east
ern cities anciently held, and still hold, an
important part, not only in the defence but
in the public economy of the place. They
are thus sometimes taken as representing
the city itself (Gen, xxii, 17, xxiv, 60;
Deut, xii. 12; Judg, v, 8;" Ruth iv, 10;
Ps, Ixxxvii. 2, cxxii, 2), Among the
special purposes for which they were used
may be mentioned : 1, As places of pub
lic resort (Gen, xix, 1, xxiii, 10, xxxiv.
20, 24; 1 Sam. iv. 18, &c.). 2, Places
for public deliberation, administration of
justice, or of audience for kings and
rulers, or ambassadors (Deut. xvi. 18, xxi,
19, xxv. 7; Josh. xx. 4; Judg. ix. 35, &c.).
3. Public markets (2 K. vii, 1). In heathen
towns the open spaces near the gates ap
pear to have been sometimes used as places
for sacrifice (Acts xiv. 13; comp. 2 K.
xxiii. 8). Regarded therefore as positions
of great importance the gates of cities were
carefully guarded and closed at nightfall
(Deut. iii. 5 ; Josh. ii. 5, 7 ; Judg. ix. 40,
¦44). They contained chambers over the
gateway (2 Sam. xviii. 24). The doors
themselves of the larger gates mentioned
in Scripture were two-leaved, plated with
metal, closed with locks and fastened with
metal bars (Deut. iii. 5 ; Pa. cvii. 16 ; Is.
xiv. 1, 2). Gates not defended by iron
were of course liable to be set on fire by
.an enemy (Judg. ix. 62). The gateways
of royal palaces and even of private houses
were often richly ornamented. Sentences
from the Law were inscribed on and above
the gates (Deut. vi. 9; Is. liv. 12; Rev.
xxi. 21). The gates of Solommi's Temple
were very massive and costly, being over
laid with gold and carvings (1 K. vi. 34, 35 ;
2 IC. xviii. 16). Those of the Holy Place
were of olive-wood, two-leaved, and over
laid with gold ; those of the temple of fir
(1 K. vi. 31, 32, 34 ; Ez. xii. 23, 24). The
figurative gates of pearl and precious stones
(Is. liv. 12; Rev. xxi. 21) may be regarded
as having their types in the massive stone
doors which are found in some of the an
cient houses in Syria. These are of sin
gle slabs several inches thick, sometimes
10 feet high, and turn on stone pivots
above. The p.arts of the doorway were
the threshold (Judg. xix. 27) ; the side-
posts, the lintel (Ex. xii. 7), In the Tem
ple, Levites, and in bouses of the wealthier
classes, and in palaces, persons were es
pecially appointed to keep tiie door ^Jcr,
xxxv, 4; 2 K. xii. 9, xxv. 18, &c.),
Gath, one of the five royal cities of
the Philistines (Jjsh, xiii. 3 ; 1 Sam. vi,
17) ; and the native place of the giant Go
liath (1 Sam, xvii, 4, 23). It probably
stood upon the conspicuous hill now called
Tell-es-Sdfieh, upon the side of the plain of
Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of
Judah; 10 miles E. of Ashdod, and about

V s

t'

i

J *.

f I

GATH- HEPHER

205

GEBA

the same distance 8. by E. of Ekron. It
is irregular in form, and about 200 ft. high.
Gath occupied a strong position (2 Chr. xi.
8) on the border of Judah and Pliilistia (1
Sam. xxi. 10; 1 Chr, xviii. 1); and from
its strength and resources forming the key
of both countries, it was the scene of fre
quent struggles, and was often captured
and recaptured (2 Chr. xi. 8, xxvi. 6 ; 2 K.
xii. 17; Am. vi. 2). The ravages of war
to which Gath was exposed appear to have
destroyed it at a comparatively early pe
riod, as it is not mentioned among the other
royal cities by the later prophets (Zeph. ii.
4; Zech. ix. 5, 6). It is familiar to the
Bible student as the scene of one of the
most romantic incidents in the life of king
David (1 Sam. xxi. 10-15).
Gath-he'pher, or Git'tah-he'pher,
a town on the border of the territory of
Zebulun, not far from Japhia, now Ydfa
« (Josh. xix. 12, 13), celebrated as the native
place of the prophet Jonah (2 K, xiv, 25) ,
El-Meshhad, a village 2 miles E. of Se-
firieh, is the ancient Gath-hepher,
Gath-rim'mon. 1. A city given out
of the tribe of Dan to the Levites (Josh.
xxi. 24 ; 1 Chr. vi. 69) , situated ou the plain
of Philistia, apparently not far from Joppa
(Josh. xix. 45), 2. A town of the half
tribe of Manasseh west of the Jordan, as
signed to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 25), The
reading Gath-rimmon is probably an error
of the transcribers,
Ga'za (properly ^zr^afe), one ofthe five
chief cities of. the Philistines, It is re
markable for its continuous existence and
importance from the very earliest tiraes.
The secret of this unbroken history is to
be found iu the situation of Gaza. It is
the last town in the S. W. of Palestine, on
the frontier towards Egj^t. The sarae pe
culiarity of situation has made Gaza impor
tant in a military sense. Its name means
" the strong ; " and this was well elucidat
ed in its siege by Alexander the Gfreat,
which lasted five months. In Gen. x. 19
it appears, even before the call of Abra
ham, as a " border " city of the Canaan
ites. In the conquest of Joshua the terri
tory of Gaza is mentioned as one which he
was not able to subdue (Josh, x. 41, xi. 22,
xiii. 3). It was assigned to' tlie tribe of
Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and that tribe did
obtain possession of it (Judg. i. 18) ; but
they did not hold it long ; for soon after
wards we find it in the hands of the Phi
listines (Judg. iii. 3, xiii. 1, xvi. 1, 21) ; in
deed it seems to have been their capital ;
and apparently continued through the times
of Samuel, Saul, and David to be a Philis-
tme city (1 Sam. vi. 17, xiv, 52, xxxi, 1 ; 2
Sam. xxi. 15). Solomon became master
of "Azz.ih" (1 K. iv. 24). But in after
times the same trouble with the Philistines
recurred (2 Chr. xxi. 16, xxvi. 6, x.xviii.

18). The passage where Gaza is men
tioned in the N. T. (Acts viii. 26) is full of
interest. It is the account of the baptism
of the Ethiopian eunuch on his return from
Jerusalem to Egypt. The words " which is
desert" have given rise to much discus
sion. The probability is, that they refer
to the road, and are used by the angel te
inform Philip, who was then in Samaria
on what route he would find the eunuch.
Besides the ordinary road from Jerusalem
by Ramleh to Gaza, there was another,
more favorable for carriages (Acts xiii. 23),
further to the south through Hebron, and
thence through a district comparatively
mthout towns and much exposed to the in
cursions of the people from the desert. The
modern Ghuzzeh is situated partly on an
oblong hill of moderate height, and partly
on the lower ground. The climate of the
place is almost tropical, but it has deep
wells of excellent water. There are a few
palra-trees in the town, and its fruit-or
chards are very productive. But the chief
feature of the neighborhood is the wide
spread olive-grove to the N. and N. E.
Gaza'ra, a place frequently mentioned
in the wars of the Maccabees, and of great
importance in the operations of both par
ties (1 Mace. ix. 52, xiii. 63, xiv. 7, 33, 34,
36, XV. 28, xvi. 1; 2 Mace. x. 32-36).
There is every reason to believe that Gaz-
ara was the sarae place as the more ancient
Gezer or Gazer.
Ga'zathites, The (Josh. xiii. 3), the
inhabitants of Gaza.
Ga'zer, 2 Sam. v. 25; 1 Chr. xiv. 16.
[Gezer.] Ga'zez, a narae which occurs twice in
1 Chr. ii. 46; (1) as sonof Caleb by Ephah
his concubine ; and (2) as son of Haran,
the son of the same woman ; the second is
possibly only a repetition of the first.
Ga'zites, The, inhabitants of Gaza
(Judg. xvi. 2).
Gaz'zam. The Bene-Gazzam were
among the families of the Nethinim who
returned from the captivity with Zerubba
bel (Ezr. ii. 48; Neh. vii. 51).
Ge'ba, a city of Eenj.amin, with " sub •
urbs," allotted to the priests (Josh. xxi. 17;
1 Chr. vi. 60). It is named amongst the
first group of the Benjamite towns ; appar
ently those lying near to and along the north
boundary (Josh, xviii. 24) . Here the name
is given as Gaea, During the wars of the
earlier part of the reign of Saul, Geba was
held as a garrison by the Philistines (1 Sam,
xiii. 3), but they were ejected by Jonathan,
Later in the same campaign we find it re
ferred to to define the position of the tw o
rocks which stood in the ravine below the
garrison of Michmash, in terms which fix
Geba on the south and Michmash on the
north of the ravine (1 Sam. xiv. 5 ; the A, V,
has here Gibeah), Exactly in accordance

GEBAL

206

GENEALOGY

with this is the position of the modern vil
lage of Jcba, which stands picturesquely on
the top of its steep terraced hill, on the very
edge of the great Wady Swweinit, looking
northwards to the opposite village, which
also retains its old n.ame ot Mukhmas.
Ge'taal, a proper name, occurring in Ps.
Ixxxiii, 7, in connection with Edom and
Moab, Ammon and Amalek, the Philistines
and the inhabitants of Tyre, The contexts
both of the psalm and of the historical
records will justify our assuming the Gebal
of the Psalms to be one and the same city
with the Gcbal of Ezekiel (.xxvii. 9), a mar
itime town of Phoenicia. From the fact
that its inhabitants are written ' ' Giblians "
in tho Vulg., and " Biblians " in the LXX.,
we may infer their identity with the Gib-
lites, spoken of in connection with Lebanon
by Joshua (xiii. 5), and that of their city
with tho " Biblus " (or Byblus) of profane
literature. It is called ^TcJaiZ by the Arabs,
thus reviving the old Biblical name.
Ge'ber. 1. The son of Geber resided
in the fortress of Ramoth-Gilead, and had
charge of ILavoth-Jair, and the district of
Argob (IK. iv. 13). 2. Geber the son of
Uri had a district south of the former — the
" land of GUead " (1 K. iv, 19),
Ge'bim, a village north of Jerusalem
(Is. x. 31), apparently between Anathoth
(tbe modern Anata^ and the ridge on which
Nob was situ.ated,
Gedali'ah, son of Ahikam (Jeremiah's
protector, Jer. x.wi. 24), and grandson of
Shaphan the secretary of king Josiah. Af
ter tho destruction of the Temple, b. c.
588, Nebuchadnezzar departed from Judaea,
leaving Gedaliah with a Chaldean guard
(Jer. xl. 5) at Mizpah to govern the vine
dressers and husbandmen (Jer. Iii. IG) who
were exempted from captivity. Jeremiah
joined Gedaliah ; and Mispali became tlio
resort of Jews from various quarters (Jer.
xl. 6, 11). lie was murdered by Ishmael
two months after his appointment.
Ged'eon. The Greek form of the He
brew n.ame Gideon (Heb. xi. 32).
Ge'der. The king of Gcder was one of
the 31 kings who v/ere ovej-come by Joshua
.,on tho west of the Jordan (Josh. xii. 13).
It is possible that it may be the sarae place
as tho Geder named in 1 Chr, iv. 39.
Gede'rah, a town of Judah in the low
land country (Josh. xv. 36), apparently in its
eastern part. No town bearing this name
has however been yet discovered in this
hitherto little explored district.
Gede'rathite, The, the native of a
place called Gcderah, apparently in Ben
jamin (1 Chr. xii. 4),
Ged'erite, The, the native of some
place named Gedor or Gederah (1 Chr,
xxvii, 28).
Ged'eroth, a town in the low country
of Judah (Josh. xv. 41; 2 Chr. xxviii. 18).

Gederotha'im, a town in the low
country of Judah (Josh, xv, 36), named
next in order to Gederah,
Ge'dor, a town in the mountainous part
of Jud<ah (Josh. xv. 58), a few miles north
of Hebron, Robinson discovcMd -a JedOr
half way between Bethlehem and Hebron,
about two miles west of the road.
Geha'zi, the servant or boy of Elisha.
He was sent as the prophet's messenger on
two occasions to the good Shunamraite (2
K. iv.) ; obtained fraudulently money and
garraents frora Naaraan, wit,s miraculously
smitten with incurable leprosy, and was
dismissed from the prophet's service (2 K.
v.). Later in the history he is mentioned
as being engaged in relating to King Joram
all the great things which Elisha had done
(2 K. viu.).
Gehen'na. [Hinnom.]
Gel'iloth, a place named among the
marks of the south boundary line of the*
tribe of Benjamin (Josh, xviii, 17). The
name Geliloth never occurs again in this
locality, and it therefore seems probable
that Gilgal is the right reading.
Gemal'li, the father of Ammiel, the
Danite spy (Num. xiii. 12).
Gemari'ah. 1, Son of Shaphan the
scribe, and father of Michaiah. He was one
of the nobles of Judah, and had a cham
ber in the house of the Lord, from whieh
Baruch read Jeremiah's alarming prophecy
in the ears of all the people, n. c. 606 (Jer,
xxxvi.). 2. Son of Hilkiah, was made the
bearer of Jeremiah's letter to the captive
Jews (Jer. xxix.).
Gems. [Stones, Precious.]
Genealogy. In Hebrew the term for
genealogy or pedigree is " the book of the
g'enerations ; " and because the oldest his
tories were usually drawn up on a genea
logical basis, the expression often extended
to the whole history, as is the case with the
Gospel of St. M.atthew, where " the book of
the generation of Jesus Christ" includes
the whole history contained in that Gospeh
Tho promise of the land of Canaan to the
seed of Abriiham, Isa.ac and Jacob succes
sively, and the separation of the Israelites
from the Gentile world; the expectation
of Messiah as to spring from tho tribe of
Judah; the exclusively hereditary priest
hood of Aaron with its dignity and emolu
ments ; the long succession of kings in the
line of David ; and the whole division and
occupation of the land upon genealogical
principles by the tribes, families, and houses
of fathers, gave a deeper importance to the
science of genealogy among the Jews than
perhaps any other nation. With Jacob, the
founder of the nation, the system of reck- ^
oning by genealogies was much further de
veloped. In Gen. xxxv. 22-26, we have a
formal account of the sons of Jacob, the
patriarchs of the nation, repeated in Ex. i-

GENEALOGY

207

GENEALOGY OF CHRIST

1-3. In Gen. xlvi. we have an exact gene
alogical census of the house of Israel at
the time of Jacob's going down to Egypt.
When the Israelites were in the wilderness
of Sinai, their number was taken by Divine
command " after their families, by the
house of their fathers," According to these
genealogical divisions they pitched their
tents, and marched, and offered their gifts
and offerings, chose spies, and the whole
land of Canaan was parcelled out amongst
them. When David established the temple
services on thejfooting which continued till
the time of Christ, he divided the priests
and Levites into courses and corapanies,
each under the family chief. When Heze
kiah reopened the temple, and restored
the temple services, which had fallen into
disuse, he reckoned the whole nation by
genealogies. When Zerubbabel brought
baekthe captivity from Babylon, one of his
first cares seems to have been to take a cen
sus of those that returned, and to settle them
according to their genealogies. Passing
on to the time of the birth of Christ, we
have a striking incidental proof of the
continuance of the Jewish genealogical
economy in the fact that when Augustus
ordered the census of the empire to be
taken, the Jews in the province of Syria
immediately went each one to his own city.
Another proof is the existence of our
Lord's genealogy in two forms as given by
St. Matthew and St. Luke. The mention
of Zacharias, as "ofthe course of Abia," of
Elizabeth, as " of the daughter of Aaron,"
and of Anna the daughter of Phanuel, as
" of the tribe of Aser," are further indica
tions of the same thing. From all this it is
abundantly manifest that the Jewish gene
alogical records continued to be kept till
near the destruction of Jerusalem. But
there can be little doubt that the registers
of the Jewish tribes and families perished
at the destruction of Jerus.alem, and not
before. It remains to be said that just
notions of the nature of the Jewish genea
logical records are of great importance with
a view to the right interpretation of Scrip
ture. Let it only be remembered that these
records have respect to political and terri
torial divisions, as much as to strictly gen
ealogical descent, and it will at once be
seen how erroneous a conclusion it may
be, that all who are called "sons " of such
or such a patriarch, or chief father, must
necessarily be his very children. If any
one family or house became extinct, some
other would succeed to its place, called
after its own chief father. Hence of course
a census of any tribe dra-wn up at a later
period, would exhibit different divisions
from one drawn up at an earlier. The
same principle must be borne in mind in in
terpreting any particular genealogy ,_ Again,
when a pedigree was abbreviated, it would

naturally specify such generations as would
indicate frora what chief houses tbe person
descended. But then as regards the chron
ological use of the Scripture genetlogies,
it follows frora the above view that great
caution is necessary in using them as meas
ures of time, though they are invaluable
for this purpose whenever we can be sure
that they are complete. The Jewish gen
ealogies have two forms, one giving .the
generations in a descending, the other in
an ascending scale. Examples of the de
scending form may be seen in Ruth iv. 18-
22, or 1 Chr. iii. Of the ascending, 1 Chr.
vi. 33-43 (A. V.) ; Ezr. vii. 1-5. Females
are named in genealogies when there is
anything remarkable about them, or when
any right or property is tr.ansmitted through
them. See Gen. xi. 29, xxii. 23, xxv. 1-4,
xxxv. 22-26 ; Ex. vi. 23 ; Num. xxvi. 33 ;
1 Chr. ii. 4, 19, 50, 35, &c.
Genealogy of Jesus Christ. The
Now Testament gives us the genealogy of
but one person, that of our Saviour. The
following propositions will explain the true
construction of these genealogies : — 1.
They are both the genealogies of Joseph
i. c. of Jesus Christ as the reputed and,
legal son of Joseph and M.ary. 2. The
genealogy of St. Matthew is Joseph's gen
ealogy as legal suceessor to the throne of
David. St. Luke's is Joseph's private gen
ealogy, exhibiting his real birth, as David's
son, and thus showing why he was heir to
Solomon's crown. The simple principle
that one evangelist exhibits that genealogy
which contained the successive heirs to
David's and Solomon's throne, while the
other exhibits the paternal stem of hira who
was the heir, expl.ains all the .anomalies of
the two pedigrees, their agreements as well
as their discrepancies, .and the circumstance
of there being two at all. 3. Mary, the
mother of Jesus, was in all probability the
daughter of Jacob, and first cousin to
Joseph her husband. But besides these
main difficulties, as they have been thought
to be, there are several others which can
not be passed over in any account, how
ever concise, of the genealogies of Christ.
Tho most startling is the total discropancj
between them both and that of Zerubbabel
in the O. T. (1 Chr. iii. 19-24). In this
last, of seven sons of Zerubbabel not one
bears the name, or anything like the name,
of Rhesa or Abiud ; and of the next gen
eration not one bears the name, or any
thing like the name, of Eliakim or Joanna,
which are in the corresponding generation
in Matthew and Luke. Rhesa is in fact
not a name at all, but it is the Chaldee title
of the princes of the captivity. It is very
probable therefore that this title should
have been placed against the name of
Zerubbabel by some early Christian Jew,
and thence crept into the text. If this be

GENEALOGY OF CHRIST 208 GENEALOGY OF CHRIST
80, St. Luke will then give Joanna as the
son of Zerubbabel. But Joanna is the very
same name as Ilananiah, the son of Zerub
babel according to 1 Chr. iii. 19. [Hana-
NiAH.] In St. Matthew this generation is
omitted. In the ne.xt generation we iden
tify M<atthew's Ab-jud (Abiud) with Luke's
Juda, and both with Hodaiah of 1 Chr. iii.
24, bj the simple process of supposing the
Shemaiah 'of 1 Chr. iii. 22 to be the same
person as the Shimei of ver. 19. The
next difficulty is the difference in the num
ber of generations between the two gene
alogies. St. Matthew's division into three
fourteen!, gives only 42, while St. Luke,
frora Abraham to Christ inclusive, reckons
56, or, which is more to the point (since
tho generations between Abraham and
David are the same in both genealogies),
•while St. Matthew reckons 28 from David
to Christ, St. Luke reckons 43, or 42 with
out Rhesa. But the genealogy itself supplies
the explanation. In the second tessaro-
decade, including the kings, we know that
three generations are omitted — Ahaziah,
Joash, Amaziah - - in order to reduce the
generations from 17 to 14 : the difference
between tl..ese 17 and the 19 of St. Luke be
ing very small, bo in like manner it is
obvious that the generations have been
abridged in the same way in the third di
vision to keep to the number 14, Another
difficulty is the apparent deficiency iu the
number of the last tessaro-decade, which
seems to contain only 13 names ; but the
explanation of this is, that either in the
process of translation, or otherwise, the
names of Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin have
got confused and expressed by the one
n.ame Jechonias. The last difficulty of
sufficient importance to be mentioned here
is a chronological one. In both the gen
ealogies there are but three names be
tween Salraon and David — Boaz, Obed,
Jesse, But, according to the coramon
chronology, from the entrance into Canaan
(when Salmon was corae to man's estate)
to the birth of David was 405 years, or
from that to 600 years and upwards. Now
for about an equal period, from Solomon to
Jehoiachin, St, Luke's genealogy contains
20 names. Obviously therefore either the
chronology or the genealogy is wrong. It
must suffice here to assert that the shorten
ing the interval between the Exodus and
David by about 200 years, whieh«brings it
to the lenjjth indicated by the genealogies,
does in the raost remarkable manner bring
Iraelitish history into harmony with Egyp
tian, with the tradition.al Jewish date ofthe
Exodus, with the fragment of Edoinitish
history preserved in Gen. xxxvi. 31-39,
and with the internal evidence of the Israel
itish history itself. The following pedigree
wOl exhibit the successive generations as
given by the two Evangelists : —

According Adam
to I

Lamech

St. Luke. Seth

Noah

£noa

„, 1

1

Sliem

Cainan

1 ^

1

Arphaxad

Maleleel

1

1

Cainm

Jared

1

1

Sala

Enoch 1

Heber

Mathusala

1

1

Pharez

Phalec (Peleg)

1

1

Ezrom

Eagau (Reu)

1

Aram (Ban)

Saruch (Serug)

1

1

Ammadab

NachOT

1

1

Naason

Thara (Terah)

1

1

Salmon = Racha>

Accoramg Abraham

1

to Matt. 1

Booz — Ruth

and Ltike. Isaac

1

1

Obed

Jacob

1

Juaah

Jesse

1

According Sok

David— Bathabehl

mon According Nathan

to Matt. 1 to LuJce.

Roboam

Mattatha

Abia

Menan Helea

aL

Josaphat

Eliakim

Joram (Ahaziah,
Joash, Amaziah)

Jonan 1

1

Joseph

Oziaa

1

Joatham

Juda

1

1

Simeon

Achaz

1

Ezekiaa

Levi

1

1

Matthai

Manasses

1

1

Jorim

Amon

1

1

Eliezer

Josiaa

1

1

Jose

Jechonias (i. e. Je

bL

hoiakim) and his

brothers (»". e. Je
hoahaz, Zedekiah,

1

Elmodam

and Shalbim).

1

•I

Cosam

Jechonias (i. e. Je

Mai.

hoiachin), chad

less.

Mclchi

Nori
(JKott. ond Xnfe.)
1
His heir was
, . Salathiel
Zorobabel (the Prince or Rheaa)
I
Joanna (Hananiah, in 1 Chr. iii. 19,
omitted by Matthew, i. 13)
Juda, or Abiud (Hodaiah, 1 Chr. Iii. S4|
Eliakim AzoT
Sadoc I
Achim Elmd
Eleazer
JMtx JosephSomei
Mattathias Maath
Nagga EbU
Amoi J..
GENERATION

JosephJaona
Me'cM Levi
iHatt. and Luke.) |

His il eir was . . Mattlian or Matthat
 I 
Jacob Heli
 I (Jfa«. ondLiilx.) |
.1

209

GENESIS

Mary o= Jacob' 3 hpir was Joseph
Jesus, called Ciirlst
Thus il will be seen that the whole num
ber of generations from Adam to Christ,
both inclusive, is 74, without the second
Cainan and Rhesa.
. Generation. In the long-lived Patri
archal age a generation seems to have been
computed at 100 years (Gen. xv. 10 ; comp,
13, and Ex. xii. 40) ; but subsequently the
reckoning was the same which has been
adopted by other civilized nations, viz.,
from thirty to forty years (Job xiii. 10),
For generation in the sense of a definite
period of tirae, s ?a Gen. xv. 16 ; Deut.
xxiii. 3, 4, 8, ¦ &c. As an indefinite period
of time ; — for tirae past, see Deut. xxxii.
7; Is, Mil. 12; for tirae future, see Ps.
xiv, 17, Ixxii. 5, &c. Generation is also
used to signify the men of an age, or time,
as contemporaries (Gen. vi. 9 ; Is. Iiii. 8) ;
posterity, especially in legal formulae (Lev,
iii. 17, &c.) ; fathers, or ancestors (Ps, xlix,
19). Genes'areth.. [Gennesaket.]
Gen'esiS, the first book of the Law or
Pentateuch, so called from its title in the
Septuagint, that is. Creation. Respecting
its integrity and author, see Pentateuch.
The book of Genesis (with the first chap
ters of Exodus) describes the steps which led
to the establishment of the Theocracy, It
is a part of the writer's plan to tell us what
the Divine preparation of the world was,
iu order to show, first, the significance of
the call of Abraham, and next, the true na
ture of the Jewish theocracy. He begins
with the creation of the world, because the
God who created the world and the God
who revealed Himself to the fathers is the
same God. The book of Genesis has thus
a character at once special and universal.
It embraces the world ; it speaks of God as
tho God of the whole human race. But as
lh.3 Intro iuction to Jewish history, it makes
Ihe universal interest subordinate to the
national. Eive princip.al persons are the
pillars, so to speak, on which the whole
superstnicture rests : Adam, Noah, Abra
ham, Isaac and Jacob. I. Adam. The
creation of the world, and the earliest his
tory of m.ankind (ch. i.-iii.). As yet no di
vergence of the different families of man.
n. Noah. The history of Adam's de
scendants to the death of Noah (iv.-ix.),
14

Here we have (1) the line of Cain branch
ing off while the history follows the for
tunes of Seth, whose descendants are (2)
traced in genealogical succession, .and in
an unbroken line as far as Noah, and (3)
the history of Noah himself (vi.-ix.), con
tinued to his de.ath. III. Abraham. No.ah's
posterity till the death of Abraham (x.-xxv,
18). Here we have (1) the peopling of the
whole earth by the descendants of Noah's
three sons (xi. 1-9). The history of two of
these is then dropped, and (2) the line of
Shem only pursued (.\i. 10-32) as far as Te
rah and Abraham, where the genealogical
table breaks oflf. (3) Abraham is now the
prominent figure (xii.-x.xv. 18). But as
Ter.ali had two other sons, Nahor and Ha
ran (xi. 27), some notices respecting their
families are added. Lot's migration with
Abraham into the land of Canaan is men
tioned, as well as the fact that he was the
father of Moab and Ammon (xix. 37, 38),
n.ations whose later history was intimately
connected with that of the posterity of
Abraham. Nahor remained in Mesopota
mia, but his faraily is briefly enumerated
(xxii. 20-24), chiefly no doubtfor Rebekah's
sake, who was afterwards the wife of Isaac.
Of Abraham's own children, there branches
off first the line by Ishmael (xxi. 9, &o.),
and next the children by Keturah ; and the
genealogical notices of tliese two branches
of his posterity are apparently brought to
gether (xxv. 1-6, and xxv. 12-18), in order
that, being here severally dismissed at the
end of Abraham's life, the main stream of
the narrative may flow in the chiinnel of
Isaac's fortunes. IV. Isaac. Isaac's life
(xxv. 19-xxxv. 29), a life in itself retiring
and uneventful. But in his sons the final
separation takes place, leaving the field
clear for the great story ofthe chosen seed.
Even when Nahor's family coraes on the
scene, as it does in oh. xxix.,. we hear only
so much of it as is necessary to throw light
on Jacob's history. V. Jacob. The his
tory of Jacob and Joseph (xxxvi. 1). Here,
after Isaac's death, we have (1) the geneal
ogy of Esau (xxxvi.), who then drcJps out
of the narrative, in order that (2) the his
tory of the Patriarchs may be carried on
without intermission to the' death of Joseph
(xxxvii.-l.) It will be seen that a specific
pliin is preserved throughout. The main
purpose is never forgotten. God's relation
to IsraeLholds the first place in the writer's
mind. It is this which it is his object tc
convey. The history of that chosen seed,
who were the heirs of the promise and the
guardians of the Divine oracles, is the only
history which interprets man's relation to
God. By its light all others shine, and
may be read when the time shall come.
Meanwhile, as the different families drop
off here and there from the principal stock,
their course is briefly indicated. Beyond

GENNESARET

210

GERIZIM

all doubt, then, we may trace in the book
of Genesis a systematic plan.
Gennea'aret, Land of. After the
miracle of feeding the five thous.and, our
Lord and His disciples crossed the Lake of
Gennesaret and came to the other side, at
a place which is called " the land of Gen
nesaret" (Matt. xiv. 34; Mark vi. 53). It
is generally believed that this term was ap
plied to the fertile crescent-shaped plain on
tho western shore of the lake, extending
from Khan Minyeh on the north to the
steep hill behind Mejdel on the south, and
called by the Arabs el-Ghuweir, " the little
Ghor." Mr. Porter gives the length as
three railes, and the greatest breadth as
about one mile. Additional interest is given
to the land of Gennesaret, or el-Ghuweir, by
the probability that its scenery suggested
the parable of the Sower.
Gennes'aret Sea of, called in the O.
T. "the Sea of Chinnereth," or "Cinne-
roth" (Num. xxxiv.ll ; Josh. xii. 3), from a
town of that name whieh stood on or near
its shore (Josh. xix. 35). At its north-west
ern angle was a beautiful and fertile plain
called ' ' Gennesaret " (Matt. xiv. 34 ;' Mark
vi. 53), from which the name of the lake
was taken. The lake is also called in the
N. T. " the sea of Galilee," from the prov
ince of Galilee which bordered on its west
ern side (Matt. iv. 18 ; Mark vii. 31 ; John
vi. 1); .and "the sea of Tiberias," from
the celebrated city (John vi. 1). Its mod
ern name is Bahr Tubariyeh. Most of our
Lord's public life was spent iu the environs
of the Sea of Gennesaret. This region
was then the most densely peopled in all
Palestine. No less than nine cities stood
on the very shores of the lake. The sea
of Gennesaret is of an oval shape, about
thirteen geographical miles long, and six
broad. The river Jordan enters it at
its northern ¦ end, and passes out at its
southern end. In fact the bed of the lake
is just a lower section of the great Jordan
valley. Its most remarkable feature is its
deep depression, being no less than 700 feet
below the level of the ocean. The scenery
is bleak and monotonous. Tho great de
pression makes the climate of the shores
almost tropical, "This is very sensibly felt
by the tr.aveller in going down from the
plains of Galilee, In summer the heat is
intense, and even iu early spring the air
has something of an Egyptian bjminess.
The water of the lake is sweet, cool, and
transparent; and as the beach is every-
vrhere pebbly it has a beautiful sparkling
look. It abounds in fish »ow as in ancient
tiraes. Gentiles. .In the O. T. the Heb.
^dytm signified the nations, the surround
ing nations, foreigners as opposed to Israel
(Neh. V. 8), .and was used with an invidious
meaning. In the N, T. it is used as equiv

alent to Greek. But the A. V, is not con
sistent in its translation of the word Hellen,
sometimes rendering it by " Greek " (Acts
xiv. 1, xvii. 4; Rom. i, 16, x. 12), some
times by "Gentile " {Rom, ii, 9, 10, iii. 9;
1 Cor. X. 32). The latter use of the word
seems to have arisen from the almost Uiii-
versal adoption of tho Greek language.
Gen'utaatll, the son of Hadad, an Edom
ite of the royal family, by an Egypthan prin
cess, the sister of Tahpenes, the queen ofthe
Pharaoh who governed Egypt in the latter
part of the reign of David (1 K. xi. 20;
comp. 16),
Ge'ra, one of the " sons," i. e. de
scendants, of Benjamin, enumerated in
Gen. xlvi. 21, as already Living at the time
of Jacob's migration into Egypt, He was
son of Bela (1 Chr, viii. 3), The te.xt of '
this last passage is very corrupt ; and the
different Geras there named seem to re
duce themselves into one — the same as the
son of Bela. Gera, who is named (Judg.
iii. 15) as the ancestor of Ehud, and in 2
Sara. xvi. 5, as the ancestor of Shimei who
cursed David, is probably also the same
person. Gerah. [Weights and Measukes.]
Ge'rar, a very ancient city south of
Gaza. It occurs chiefly in Genesis (x, 19,
XX. 1, xxvi. 16) ; also incidentally in 2 Chr,
xiv. 13, 14. It must have trenched on the
" south" or "south country" of later Pal
estine. From a comparison of xxi. 32 with
xxvi. 23, 26, Beersheba would seem to be
just on the verge of this territory, and per
haps to be its limit towards the N. E.
Gergesenes', [Gadaha.]
Ger'izim. On the position of Mount
Gerizim, see Ebal. It is an important
question whether Gerizim was the moun
tain on which Abraham was directed to of
fer his son Isaac (Gen. xxii. 2, and sq.).
First, then, let it be observed that it is net
the mountain, but the district which is
there called Moriah, and that antecedently
to the occurrence which took place "upon
one of the mountains " in its vicinity — a
consideration which of itself would natur
ally point to the locality, already iinovin to
Abraham, as the plain or plains of Mcreb,
"the land of vision," "the high land;"
and therefore consistently "the land of
adoration," or "religious worship," as it is
variously explained. That all these inter
pretations are incomparably more applica
ble to the natural features of Gerizim and
its neighborhood, than to the hillock (in
comparison) upon which Solomon built his
temple, none can fo'r a moment doubt who
have seen both. [Moriah.] The Samari
tans, therefore, through whom the tradi
tion of the true site of Gerizim has been
preserved, are probably not wrong when
they point out still — as they have dona
from time immemorial — Gerizhu as the

GERIZITES

211

GETHSEMANE

hill upon which Abraham's " faith was
made perfect." Another tradition of the
Samaritans is far less trustworthy: viz.,
that Mount Gerizim was the spot where
Melehisedech met Abraham — though there
certainly was a Salem or Shalem in that
neighborhood (Gen. xxxiii. 18). Lastly,
the altar which Jacob built was not on Ger
izim, as the Samaritans contend, though
probably about its base, at the head of the
plain between it and Ebal, " in the parcel
of a field " which that patriarch purchased
frora the children of Hamor, and where he
spread his tent (Gen. xxxiii. 18-20). Here
was likewise his well (John iv, 6), and the
tomb of his son Joseph (Josh. xxiv. 32),
both of which are still shown. We now
enter upon the second phase in the history
of Gerizim, According to Josephus, a
marriage contracted between M.anasseh,
brother of Jaddus, the then high-priest, and
the daughter of Sanballat the Cuthaean
(comp. 2 K. xvii, 24), having created a
great stir amongst the Jews, who had been
strictly forbidden to contract alien mar
riages (Ezr. ix. 2; Neh, xiii, 28), Sanbal
lat, in order to reconcile his son-in-law to
this unpopular affinity, obtained leave from
Alexander the Great to build a temple
upon Mount Gerizim, and to inaugurate a
rival priesthood and altar there to those of
Jerusalem. " Sam.aria thenceforth," s.ays
Prideaux, " became the common refuge
and aiylum of the refractory Jews." Ger-
izini is hkewise still to the Sam.aritans
what Jerusalem is to the Jews, and Mecca
to the Mohamraedans.
Ger'izites, 1 Sam. xxvii. 8. [Gerzites,]
Ger'shom. 1, The first-born son of
Moses and Zipporah (Ex. ii. 22, xviii. 3).
The name is explained in these passages
as = " a stranger there," in allusion to
Moses' being a foreigner in Midian — " For
he said, I have been a stranger {Ger) iii a
foreign land." Its true meaning, taking it
as a Hebrew word, is " expulsion." The
circumcision of Gershom is probably relat
ed in Ex. iv. 25. 2. The form under
which the narae Gershon — the eldest son
of Levi — is given in several passages of
Chronicles, viz., 1 Chr. vi. 16, 17, 20, 43,
02, 71, XV. 7. 3. The representative of
the priestly family of Phinehas, among
those who accompanied Ezra from Babylon
(Ezr. viii. 2).
Ger'shon, the eldest of the three sons
of Levi, born before the descent of Jacob's
family into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 11; Ex. vi.
16). But, though the eldest born, the fam-
iUes of Gershon were outstripped in fame
b' their younger brethren of Kohath, from
whom sprang Moses and the priestly line
of Aaron. At the census .in the wilder
ness of Sinai the whole number of the
males of the sons of Gershon was 7500
fNum. iii. 22), midway between the Ko

hathites and the Merarites. The sons of
Gershon (the Gershonites) had cliarge ol
the fabrics of the Tabernacle — the cover
ings, curt.ains, hangings, and cords (Num.
iii. 25, 26, iv. 25, 26) ; for the transport of
these they had two covered wagons and
four oxen (vii. 3, 7). In the encampment
their station was behind the Tabernacle,
on the west side (Nura. iii. 23). In the
apportionment of the Levitical cities thir
teen fell to the lot of the Gershonites.
These were in the northern tribes — two in
M.anesseh beyond Jordan, four in Issachar,
four in Asher, and three in Naphtali.
Ger'shonites, The, the family de
scended from Gershon or Gershom, the
son of Levi. " The Gershonite," as ap
plied to individu.als occurs in 1 Chr. xxvi.21.
Ger'zites, The, a tribe who with the
Geshurites and the Amalekites occupied
the Land between the south of Palestine
and Egypt in the time of Saul (1 Sam.
xxvii. 8). In the name of Mount Gerizim
we have the only remaining trace of the
presence of this old tribe of Bedouins in
central Palestine.
Ge'sham (properly Geshan, as in
A. V. of 1611), one ofthe sons of Jahdai,
in the genealogy of Judah and family of
Caleb (1 Chr. ii. 47).
Ge'shem, and Gash'mu, an Arabian,
mentioned in Neh. ii. 19, and vi. 1, 2, 6.
We may conclude that he was an inh.ab-
itant of Arabia Petraea, or of the Arabian
Desert, and prob.ably the chief of a tribe.
Ge'shur, a little principality in the
north-eastern corner of Bashan, adjoining
the province of Argob (Deut. iii. 14), and
the kingdom of Aram (Syria in the A. V, ;
2 Sam. XV. 8; comp. 1 Chr, i, 23), It i,5
highly probable that Geshur was a section
of the wild .and rugged region now called
el-Lejah. [Argob.]
Gesh'uri and Gesh'urites. 1. The
inhabitants of Geshur (Deut. iii. 14; Josh.
xii. 5, xiii. 11). 2. An ancient tribe which
dwelt in tile desert between Ar.abia and
Philistia (Josh. xiii. 2; 1 Sam. xxvii. 8).
Ge'ther, the third in order of the sons
of Aram (Gen. x. 23). No satisfactory
trace of the people sprung from this stock
has been found.
Gethsem'ane, a small "farm " (A. V.
" place ;" M«att. xxvi. 36; Mark xiv. 32),
situated across the brook Kedron (John
xviii. 1), probably at the foot of Mount
Olivet (Luke xxii. 39), to the N. W., and
about i or I of a raile English from the
walls of Jerusalem. There was a " gar
den," or rather" orchard, attached to it, to
which, the olive, fig, and pomegranate
doubtless invited resort by their hospitable
shade. And we know from the Evangel
ists Luke (xxii. 39) and John (xviii. 2)
that our Lordofttimes resorted thither witli
Ills disciples. BatGethsemauo has not coma

GEUEL

212

GIBEAH

down to us as a scene of mirth ; its inex
haustible .associations are the offspring of a
single event — the Agony of the Son of God
on the evening preceding His Passion. A
garden, with eight venerable olive-trees, and
a grotto to the north, detached from it, and
in closer connection with the church of the
Sepulchre ofthe Virgin, are pointed out as
the Gethsemane. Against the contemporary
antiquity ofthe olive-trees it has been urged
that Titus cut down all the trees about Jeru
salem. The probability would seem to be
that they were planted by Christian hands
to mark the spot; unless, like the sacred
olive of the Acropolis, they may have re
produced themselves.
Geu'el, son of Machi, the Gadite spy
(Num. xiii. 15).
• Gez'er, an ancient city of Canaan,
whose king, Horam, or El.am, coming to
the assistance of Lachish, was killed with
all his people by Joshua (Josh. x. 33, xii.
12). It formed one of the landmarks on
the south boundary of Ephraim, between
the lower Beth-horon and the Mediterra
nean (xvi. 3), the western limit of the tribe
(1 Chr. vii. 28). It w.as allotted with its
suburbs to the Kohathite Levites (Josh.
xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. vi. 67) ; but the original
inhabitants were not dispossessed (Judg.
i. 29) ; and even down to the reign of Solo
mon the Cananites were still dwelling there,
and paying tribute to Israel (1 K. ix. 16).
Ewald takes Gezer and Geshur to be the
same. In one place Gob is given as iden
tical with Gezer (1 Chr. xx. 4 ; comp. 2
Sam. xxi. 18).
Gez'rites, The. The word which the
Jewish critics have substituted in the mar
gin of the Bible for the ancient reading,
"the Gerizite" (1 Sam. xxvii. 8), [Ger
zites, The.]
Gi'ah, a place named only in 2 Sam. ii.
24, to designate the position of the hill
Ammah. Giants, 1. They are first spoken of
in Gen. vi. 4, under the narae Nephilim.
We are told in Gon. vi. 1-4 that "there were
Nephilira in the earth," and that afterwards
the "sons of God" mingling with the
beautiful "daughters of men" produced
a race of violent and insolent Gibborim
(A. V. "mighty men"). But who were
the parents of these giants ? who are " the
sons of God?"? They were most proba
bly the pious Sethites, though the prev
alent opinion both in the Jewish and early
Christian Cnui'ch is that they were angels.
It was probably this ancient view which
gave rise to the spurious Book of Enoch,
and the notion quoted from it by St, Jude
(6), and alluded to by St. Peter (2 Pet, ii.
4), 2. The Rephaim, a name which fre
quently occurs. The earliest mention of
them is the record of their defeat by Che
dorlaomer and some allied kings at Ashte

roth-Karnaim (Gen, xiv, 6). Extirpated,
however, from tbe east of Palestine, they
long found a home in the west (2 Sam.
xxi. 18, sq. ; 1 Chr. xx. 4). It is probable
that they had possessed districts west of
the Jordan in early times, since the " Val
ley of Rephaim" (2 Sam. v. 18; 1 Chr. xi.
15; Is. xvii. 5), a rich valley S. W. of
Jerusalem, derived its name from them.
They were probably an aboriginal people
of which the Emim, Anaiom, and Zdzim
were branches.
Gita'taar. Bene-Gibbar, to the number
of ninety-five, returned with Zerubbabel
from Babylon (Ezr. ii. 20).
Gib'bethon, a town allotted to the
tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 44), and after
wards given with its " suburbs" to the Ko
hathite Levites (xxi. 23).
Gib'ea. Sheva "the father of Mac-
benah," and "father of Gibea," is men
tioned with other names unmistakably
those of places and not persons, among the
descendants of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 49, comp.
42). This would seem to point out Gibea.
Gib'eah, a word employed in the Bible
to denote a "hill," Like most words of
this kind it gave its name to several towns
and places in Palestine, which would doubt
less be generally on or near a hUl. They
are — 1, Gibeah, a city in the mountain-
district of Judah, named with Maon and
the southern Carmel (Josh, xv, 57; and
comp. 1 Chr. ii. 49, &c.). 2. Gibeath is
enumerated among the last group of the
towns of Benjamin, next to Jerusalem
(Josh, xviii. 28). It is generally taken to
be the place which afterwards became so
notorious as " Gibeah-of-Bonjamin " or
"of-Saul." But this was five or six miles
north of Jerusalem, The name being in
the "construct state" — Gibeath and not
Gibeah — may it not belong to the follow
ing name Kirjath, and denote the hill ad
joining that town ? 3, The place in which
the Ark rem.ained from the time of its re
turn hy the Philistines till its removal by
David (2 Sam. vi. 3, 4 ; comp. 1 Sam. vii.
1, 2). 4. Gibeah-op-Benjamin, first ap
pears in the tragical story of the Levite
and his concubine (Judg. xix., xx.). It
was then a " city," with the usual open
street or square (Judg. xix. 15, 17, 20),
and containing 700 " chosen men " (xx.
15), probably the same whose skill as sling
ers is preserved in the next verse. In
many particulars Gibeah agrees very close
ly with Tuleil-el-Fid, a conspicuous emi
nence just four railes north of Jerusalem,
to the right of the road. We next meet
with Gibeah-of-Benjarain during the Phihs-
tine wars of Saul and Jonathan (1 Sam,
xiii,, xiv,). It now bears its full title. As
" Giboah-of-Benjarain " this place is re
ferred to in 2 Sam. xxiii. 29 (comp. 1 Chr.
xi. 31), and as "Gibeah" it is mentioned

GIBEATH

213

GIER-EAGLE

by Hosea (v. 8, bt. 9, x. 9), but it does not
again appear in the history. It is, how
ever, almost without doubt identical with
— 5. Gibeah-of-Saul. This is not raen
tioned as Saul's city till after his anointing
(1 Sam. X. 26), when he is said to have
gone " home " to Gibeah. In the subse
quent narrative the town bears its full
name (xi. 4). 8. Gibeah-in-tiie-Field,
named only in Judg. xx. 31, as the place
to which one of the " highways " led from
Gibeah-of-Benjarain. It is probably the
sarae as Geba. The "meadows of Gaba"
(A. V. Gibeah ; Judg. xx. 33) have no
connection with the "field," the Hebrew
words being entirely different.
Gib'eath, Josh, xviii. 28. [Gibeah, 2.]
Gib'eathite, The, i. n. the native of
Gibeah (1 Chr, xii. 3).
Gib'eon, one of the four cities of the
Hivites, the inhabitants of which made a
league with Joshua (ix, 3-15), and thus
escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai (comp.
xi. 19). Gibeon lay within the territory
of Benjamin (xviii. 25), and with its " sub
urbs " was allotted to the priests (xxi. 17),
of whom it became afterwards a principal
station. It retains its ancient narae alraost
intact, El- Jib. Its distance frora Jerusalem
by the main road is as nearly as possible 64
miles ; but there is a raore direct road re
ducing it to 5 railes,
Gib'eonites, The, the people of Gib
eon, and perhaps also of the three cities
associated with Gibeon (Josh, ix, 17) —
Hivites ; and who, on the discovery of the
stratafeiu by which they had obtained the
protection ofthe Israelites, were condemned
to be perpetual bondmen, hewers of wood
and drawers of water for the congregation,
and for the house of God and altar of Je
hovah (Josh. ix. 23, 27). Saul appears to
have broken this covenant, and in a fit of
enthusiasm or patriotism to have killed
some, and devised a general massacre of
the rest (2 Sam, xxi. 1, 2, 5). This was
expiated many years after by giving up
seven men of Saul's descendants to the
Gibeonites, who hung them or crucified
them " before Jehovah " — as a kind of sac
rifice — in Gibeah, Saul's own town (4, 6,9).
Gib'lites, The, [Gebal,]
Qiddal'ti, one of the sons of Heman,
the king's seer (1 Chr. xxv, 4),
Gid'del. 1. Children of Giddel were
. among the Nethinim who returned from
the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 47 ;
Neh. vii, 49), 2. Bene-Giddel were also
among the " servants of Solomon " who
returned to Judaea in the same caravan
(Ezr. ii. 56; Neh. vii. 58),
Gid'eon, a Manassite, youngest son of
Joash of the Abiezrites, an undistinguished
family who lived at Ophrah, a town proba
My ou the west of Jordan (Judg, vi, 15),
He was the fifth recorded Judge of Israel,

and for many reasons the greatest of them
all. When we first hear • of him he was
grown up and had sons (Judg, vi. 11, viii,
20), and from the apostrophe of (lie angel
(vi. 12) we may conclude that ho had al-
re.ady distinguished himself in war against
the roving bands of nomadio robbers who
had oppressed Israel for seven years, and
whose countless multitudes (compared to
locusts from their terrible devastations, vi,
5) annually destroyed all the produce of
Canaan, except such as could be concealed
in mountain-fastnesses (vi. 2), It was
probably during this disastrous period that
the emigration of Elimelech took place
(Ruth i. 1, 2), When th^j angel appeared,
Gideon was threshing wheat with a flail in
the winepress, to conceal it from the preda
tory tyrants. His call to be a deliverer, ^nd
his destruction of Baal's altar, are related
in Judg. vi. After this begins the second
act of Gideon's life. Clothed by the Spirit
of God (Judg. vi. 34 ; comp..l Chr. xii. 18 ;
Luke xxiv. 49), he blew a trumpet, and
was joined by Zebulun, Naphtali, and even
the reluctant Asher, Strengthened by a
double sign frora God, he reduced his army
of 32,000 by the usual proclamation (Deut.
XX. 8; comp. 1 Mace. iii. 56). By a sec
ond test at "the spring of trembling" he
again reduced the number of his followers
to 300 (Judg. vii. 5, sq.). The midnight
attack upon the Midianites, their panic,
and the rout and slaughter that followed,
are told in Judg. vii. The memory of this
splendid deliverance took deep root in the
national traditions (1 Sam. xii, 11 ; Ps,
Lxxxiii. 11 ; Is, ix. 4, x. 26 ; Heb, xi. 32),
After this there was a peace of 40 years,
and we see Gideon in peaceful possession
of his well-earned honors, and surrounded
by the dignity of a numerous household
(viii, 29-31), It is not improbable that,
like Saul, he had owed a part of his popu
larity to his princely appearance (Judg,
viii. 18). In this third stage of his life
occur alike his most noble and his raost
questionable acts, viz., the refusal of the
monarchy on theocratic grounds, and the
irregular consecration of a jewelled ephod
formed out of the rich spoils of Midian
which proved to the Israelites a temptation
to idolatry, although it was doubtless in
tended for use in the worship of Jehovah.
Gideo'ni, a Benjamite, father of Abidan
(Num. i. 14, iii, 22, vii, 60, 65, x. 24).
Gi'dom, a place named only in Judg.
XX. 45. It would appear to have been situ
ated between Gibeah {Tuleil-el-Ful) and tho
clifi' Rimmon,
Gier-eagle, an un'^lean bird mentioned
in Lev, xi. 18 and Deut. xiv. 17. There is
no reason to doubt that the rdchdm of the
Heb. Scriptures is identical in reality as in
name with the racham of the Arabs, vi?.,
the Egyptian vulture.

GIFT

214

GIMZO

Gift. The giving and receiving of pres
ents has m all ages been not only a more
frequent, but also a more formal and sig
nificant proceeding in the East than araong
ourselves. We cannot adduce a more re
markable proof of the important part which
presents play in the social life of the East
than (he fact that the Hebrew language pos
sesses no less than fifteen different expres
sions for the one idea. The nature of the
presents was as various as were the occa
sions. The mode of presentation was with
as much parade as possible. The refusal
of a present was regarded as a high indig-
oity. No less an insult was it, not to bring
3. -jrssent when the position of .the parties
aemanded it (1 Sara. x. 27).
Gi'hon. 1. The second river of Para-
di_se (Gen. ii. 13). [Eden.] 2. A place
near Jerusalem, memorable as the scene
of the anointing and proclamation of Solo
mon as king (1 K. i. 33, 38, 45).
Gil'alai, one of the priests' sons at the
consecration of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xii. 36).
Gilbo'a, a raountain rang6 on the east
ern side of the plain of Esdraelon, rising
ovorthecity of Jezreel (comp. 1 Sam. xxviii.
4 with xxix. 1). It is only mentioned in
Scripture in connection with one event in
Israelitish history, the defeat and death of
Saul and Jonathan by the Philistines (1
Sam. xxxi. 1 ; 2 Sam. i. 6, xxi. 12 ; 1 Chr.
X. 1, 8.) Ofthe identity of Gilboa with the
ridge which stretches eastward, from the
ruins of Jezreel, no doubt can be enter-
t.ained. The village is now called Jelbiu.
Gil'ead. 1. A mountainous region
bounded on the west by the Jordan, on the
north by Bashan, on the east by the Arabian
plateau, and on the south by Moab and Am
mon (Gen. xxxi. 21 ; Deut. iii. 12-17). Itis
sometimes called "Mount Gilead" (Gen.
xxxi. 25), sometimes "the hand of Gilead"
Nura. xxxii. 1) ; and sometimes simply " Gil
ead " (Ps. lx. 7 ; Gen. x.xxvii. 25) ; but a com
parison of the several passages shows that
they all mean the sarae thing. The name
Gilead, as is usual in Palestine, describes the
plij'sical aspect ofthe country. It signifies
" a hard rocky region." The statements in
Gen. xxxi. 48, are not opposed to this ety-
raology. The old narae of the district was
Gilead, but by a slight change in the pro
nunciation, the radical letters being re
tained, the meaning was made beautifully
applicable to the " heap of stones" Jacob
and Laban had built up — " the heap of
witness." Those acquainted with tho mod
ern Arabs and their literature will see how
intensely such a play upon the word would
be .appreciated by them. The mountains
of Gilead have a real elevation of from two
to three thousand feet ; but their apparent
elevation on the western side is much great
er, owing to the depression of the Jordan

valley, which averages about 1000 feet
Their outline is singularly uniform, resem-
bhng a massive wall running along the
horizon. The name Galaad occurs several
times in the history of the Maccabees (I
Maec. V. 9, sq.). 2. Possibly the name of
a mountain west ofthe Jordan, near Jezreel
(Judg. vii. 3). We are inclined, however,
to think that the true reading in this place
should be Gilboa. 3. Son of Machir,
grandson of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 29, 30).
4. The father of Jephthah (Judg. xi. 1; 2).
Gil'eadites, The (Judg. xii. 4, 5;
Num. xxvi. 29 ; Judg. x. 3), a branch ofthe
tribe of Manasseh, descended from Gilead
There appears to have been an old standing
feud between them and the Ephraimites,
who t.aunted them with being deserters.
Gil'gal. 1, The site of the first camp
of the Israelites on the west of the .Jordan,
the place at which they passed the first night
after crossing the river,and where the twelve
stones were set up which had been taken
from the bed of the stream (Josh, iv. 19,
20, comp. 3) ; where also they kept their
first passover in the land of Canaan (v. 10),
It was in the " end of the east of Jericho "
(A, V, "in the cast border of Jericho ") ap-"
parently on a hillock or rising ground (v.
3, comp. 9), in the Arbotli- Jericho (A. V.
"the plains"), that is, the hot depressed
district of the Ghor which lay between the
town and the Jordan (v. 10). We again
encounter Gilgal in the time of Saul, when
it seems to have exchanged its military as
sociations for those of sanctity. We ag<ain
have a glimpse of it, some sixty yfea»s later,
in the history of David's return to Jerusa
lem (2 Sam. xix.). Its site is uncertain.
But, 2. it was certainly » distinct place
from the Gilgal which is connected with the
last scene in the life of Elijah, and with one
of Elisha's miracles (2 K. ii.). The men
tion of Baal-shalisha (iv. 42) gives a clow
to its situation, when taken with tho notice
of Eusebius, that that place was fifteen
miles from Diospolis (Lydda) towards the
north.- In that very position stand now the
ruins bearing the name ot Jiljilieh, i. e, Gil
gal, 3. The " KING OF the kations oj
Gilgal," or rather perhaps the " king of
Goim-at-Gilgal," is mentioned in the cata
logue of the chiefs overthrown by Joshua
(Josh. xii. 23). 4. A Gilgal is spoken of
in Josh. XV. 7, in describing tho north bor
der of Judah.
Gi'loh, a town in the mountainous part
of Judah, named in {he first group, with
Debir and Eshtemoh (Josh, xv, 51) ; it was
the native place of the famous Ahithophel
(2 Sam. XV. 12).
Gi'lonite, The, native of GUoh (2 Sam.
XV. 12; x.xiii. 34).
Gim'zo, a town which with its depen
dent villages was taken possession of by
the Philistines in the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr.

GIN

215

GOAD

xxviii. 18y. The name {Jimiu) stiU re
mains attached to a large village between
two and three miles S. W. of Lydda, south
of the road between Jerusalem and
Jaffa. Gin, a trap for birds or beasts : it con
sisted of a net (Is. viii. 14, and a stick to
»ct as a springe (Am. iii. 5").
Gl'nath, father of Tibni(.l K. xvi.21, 22).
Gin'netho, one of the chief of the
priests and Levites who returned to Judaea
with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 4). He is
doubtless the same person as
Gin'nethon, a priest who sealed the
c< venaut with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 6).
Girdle, an essential article of dress in
the E'lst, and worn both' by men and wo
men. Tho common girdle was made of
leather (2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4), like that
worn by the Bedouins of the present day.
A finer girdle was made of linen (Jer. xiii.
1; Ez. xvi. 10), embroidered with silk, and
sometimes with gold and silver thread
(Dan. A. 5; Rev. i. 13, xv. 6), and fre
quently studded with gold and precious
stones or pearls. The manufacture of these
girdles formed part of the employment of
women (Prov. xxxi. 24). The girdle was
fastened by a clasp of gold or silver, or tied
in a knot so that the ends hung down in
front, as in the figures on the ruins of Per
sepolis. It was worn by men about the
loins (Is. V. 27, xi. 5). 'The girdle of wo
men was generally looser than that of the
men, and was worn about the hips, except
when they were actively engaged (Prov.
xxxi. 17). The military girdle was worn
about the waist ; the sword or dagger was
suspended from it (Judg. iii. 16 ; 2 Sam.
XX, 8 ; Ps. xiv. 3) . Hence girding up the
loins denotes preparation for battle or for
active exertion. In times of mourning,
girdles of sackcloth were worn as marks of
humiliation and sorrow (Is, iii. 24, xxii. 12).
In consequence of the costly materials of
which girdles were made, they were fre
quently given as presents (1 Sam. xviii. 4 ;
2 Sam. xviii, 11), They were used as
pockets, as araong the Arabs still, and as
purses, one end of the girdle being folded
back for the purpose (Matt. x. 9 ; Mark vi.
8). The girdle worn by the priests about
the close-fitting tunic (Ex. xxviii. 39, xxxix.
29) is described, by Josephus as made of
linen so fine of texture as to loolj, like the
slough of a snake, and embroidered with
flowers of scarlet, -purple, blue, and .fine
Imen. It was about four fingers broad,
and was wrapped several tiraes round the
priest's bodj', the ends hanging down to
the feet. The " curious girdle " (Ex, xxviii.
8) was made of the same materials and
colors as tbe ephod, that is, of " gold, blue,
and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined
linen." Josephus describes it as sewn to
the breastplate. After passing once round

it was tied in front upon the scant, the nidi
hanging down.
Gir'gashites, The, one ofthe nations
who were in possession of Canaan before
the entrance thither of tbe children of Is
rael (Gen. X. 16, xv, 21; Deut. vii. 1;
Josh, iii, 10, xxiv. 11; 1 Chr. i, 14; Neh,
ix, 8).
Gir'gasite, The (Gen. x, lO), See
the foregoing.
Gis'pa, one of the overseers of the
Nethinim, in " the Ophel," after tho return
from captivity (Neh, xi. 21).
Git'tah-hepher, Josh, xix, 13. [Gath-
hepher.] Gitta'im, [Gittites.]
Git'tites, the 600 men who followed
David from Gath, under Ittai the Gittite (2
Sam, XV, 18, 19), and who probably acted
as a kind of body-guard, Obed-edom "the
Gittite " may have been so named from the
town of Gittaim in Benjamin (2 Sam, iv, 3 ;
Neh. xi, 33), or from Gath-rimmon,
Gittith, a musical instrument, by some
supposed to have been used by the people
of Gath ; and by others to have been em
ployed at the festivities of the vintage (Ps,
viii., Ixxxi., Ixxxiv.),
Gi'zonite, The, " The sons of Hashem
the Gizonite " are named amongst the war
riors of David's guard (1 Chr, xi, 34),
Kennicott concludes that the name should
be Gooni,
Glass. The Heb. word occurs only in
Job xxviii. 17, where in A. V. it is rendered
" crystal," In spite of the absence of spe
cific allusion to glass in the sacred writings,
the Hebrews must have been aware of the
invention. From paintings representing
the process of glass-blowing which have
been discovered at Beni-hassan, and in
tombs at other places, we know that the in
vention is at least as remote as the age of
Osirtasen the first (perhaps a contemporary
of Joseph), 3500 years ago. Fragments
too of wine- vases as old as the Exodus have
been discovered in Egypt. The art was
also known to the ancient Assyrians, In
the N. T. glass is alluded to as an emblem
of brightness (Rev. iv. 6, xv. 2, xxi. 18),
Gleaning, The gleaning of fruit trees,
as well as of com fieldsj was reserved for
the poor. [Corner.]
Glede, the old name for the coramon
kite {milvus ater) occurs only in Deut. xiv,
13 araong the unclean birds of prey.
Gnat, mentioned only in the proverbial
expression used by our Saviour in Matt,
xxiii. 24.
Goad (Judg. iii. 31; 1 Sam. xiii, 21),
But the Hebrew word in the latter passage
probably means the point o*' the plough-
share. The former word does pi abably
refer to the goad, the long handle o ' whieh
might be used as a formidable weapon.
The instrument, as still used in the coutt-

GOAT

216

GOD

tries of Southern Europe and Western Asia,
consists of a rod about eight feet long,
brought to a sharp point and sometimes
cased with iron at the head.
Goat. There appear to be two or three
varieties of the comraon goat {Hircus aega-
grus) at present bred in Palestine and
Syria, but whether they are identical with
those which were .reared by the ancient
Hebrews it is not possible to say. The
most marked varieties are the Syrian goat
{Capra Mambrica, Linn.), and the Angora
goat {Capra Angorensis, Linn.), with fine
long hair. As to the "wild goats" (1 Sam.
xxiv. 2 ; Job xxxix. 1, and Ps. civ. 18) it is
not at all improbable that some species of
ibex is denoted.
Goat, Scape. [Atonement, Day op.]
Go'ath, a place apparently in the neigh
borhood of Jerusalem, and naraed, in con
nection with the bill Gareb, only in Jer,
xxxi. 39.
Gob, a place raentioned only in 2 Sam,
xxi. 18, 19, as the scene of two encounters
between David's warriors and the Philis
tines, In the parallel account in 1 Chr.
XX. 4, the name is given as Gezer.
Goblet, a circular vessel for wine or
other liquid.
God. Throughout the Hebrew .Scrip
tures two chief names are used for the one
true divine Being — Elohim, commonly
translated God in our Version, and Jeho
vah, translated Lord. Elohim is the plu
ral of Eloah (in Arabic Allah), a form
which occurs only in poetry and a few pas
sages of later Hebrew (Neh. ix. 17 ; 2 Chr.
«»xii. 15). It is also formed with the pro
nominal suffixes, as Eloi, m.y God, with the
dependent genitive, and with an epithet, in
which case it is often used in the short
form El (a word signifying strength), as in
El-Shaddai, God Almighty, the name by
which God was specially known to the pa
triarchs (Gen. xvii. 1, xxviii. 3; Ex. vi. 3).
The etymology is uncertain, but it is gen
erally agreed that the primary idea is that
of strength, power to effed ; and th.at it
properly describes God in that character in
which He is exhibited to all men in His
works, as the creatoT, sustainer, and su
preme governor of the world. Hence it is
used to denote any being believed in and
worshipped as God ; but in the sense of a
heathen deity, or a divine being spoken of
indefinitely, the singular is most often used,
and the plural is employed, with the strict
idea of nuraber, fbr the collective objects
of polytheistic worship, the gods, ihe gods
of ihe heathen. It is also used for any
be ing that strikes an observer as god-like
(1 Sam. xxvui. 13), and for kings, judges,
and others endowed with authority from
God (Psalm Ixxxii. 1, G, viii. 6, xcvii. 7,
&c. ; Ex. xxi. 6, xxii. 7, 8). The short
form El is used for a hero, or mighty man.

as Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. xxxi. 11), a
sense derived at once from the meaning of
strength. The plural form of Elohim has
given rise to much discussion. The fanci
ful idea, that it referred to the Trinity of
Persons in the Godhead, hardly finds now
a supporter among scholars. It is either
what grammarians call ihe plural of ma
jesty, or it denotes the fulness ot divine
strength, the sum of the powers displayed
by God. Jehovah denotes specifically the
one true God, whose people the Jews were,
and who made them the guardians of His
truth. The name is never applied to a
false god, nor to any other being, except
One, the Angel-Jehovah, who is thereby
marked as one with God, and who appears
again in the New Covenant as " God mani
fested in the flesh." Thus much is clear;
but all else is beset with difficulties. At a
time too early to be traced, the Jews ab
stained from pronouncing the name, for
fear of its irreverent use. The custom is
said to have been founded on a strained
interpretation of Lev. xxiv. 16 ; and the
phrase there used, " The Name " {Shema),
is substituted by the Rabbis for the unutter
able word. They also call it " the name
of four letters " (mrii)> " the great and
terrible name," " the peculiar name," " the
separate name." In readingthe Scriptures, .
they substituted for it the word Adonai
{Lord), from the translation .f which by
KvQiiif in the LXX., followed by the Vul
gate, which uses Dominus, we have got
the Lord of our Version. Our translators
have, however, used Jehovah in four pas
sages (Ex, vi. 3.; Psalra Ixxxiii, 18 ; Is,
xii. 2, xxvi. 4), and in the compounds, Je-
hovah-Jireh, Jehovah- Nissi, and Jehovah-
Shalom {Jeliovah shall see, Jehovah is my
Banner, Jehovah is Peace, Gen, xxii. 14 ;
Ex. xvii. 15 ; Judges vi. 24) ; while the
similar phrases .Jehovah- Tsidkenu and Je
hovah- Shammah are translated, " the Lord
our righteousness," and " the Lord is there "
(Jer. xxiii. 6, xxxiii. 16 ; Ezek. xlviii. 35).
In one passage the abbreviated form Jah is
retained (Psalm Ixviii. 4). The substitu
tion of the word Lord is most unhappy;
for, while it in no way represents the mean
ing of the sacred name, the mind his con
stantly to guard against a confusion with
its lower uses, and above all, the direct per
sonal bearing of the name on the revelation
of God flirough the whole course of Jewish
history is kept injurif^isly out of sight. The
key to the meaning of (he name is unqucc
tionably given in God's revelation of Himself
to Moses by the phrase " I am that I am,"
in connection with the statement, that He
was now first revealed- by his name Jeho
vah (Ex. iii. 14, vi. 3). Without entering
here upon questions of Hebrew philology,
we must be content to take as established
the etymological conjection of the lam*

GOG

217

GOMER

Jehovah with the Hebrew substantive verb,
with the mference that it expresses the
essential, eternal, unchangeable Being
of Jehovah. But more, it is not the ex
pression only, or chiefly, of an absolute
truth : it is a pradical revelation of God,
in His essential, unchangeable relation to
His chosen people, the basis of His Cove-
na it. This is both iraplied in the occasion
on which it is revealed to Moses, and in the
flfljenth verse of Ex. iii. And here we
find the solution of a difliculty raised by
Ex. vi. 3, as if it meant that the name Je
hovah had not been known to the patri
archs. There is abundant evidence to the
contj^jy. As early as the time of Seth,
" men began to call on the name of Jeho
vah" (Gen. iv. 25). 'The name is used by
the patriarchs themselves (Gen. xviii. 14 ;
xxiv. 40; xxvi. 28; xxviii. 21). It is the
basis of titles, like Jehovah-Jireh, and of
proper names, like Moriah and Jochebed.
Indeed, the same reasoning would prove
that the prtriarchs did not know God as
Elohim, but exclusively as El-Shaddai.
But, in fact, the word name is used here,
as elsewhere, for the attributes of God.
He was about, for the first time, fully to re
veal that aspect of His character which the
name implied. [Jehovah.]
Gog. 1. A Reubenite (1 Chr. v. 4),
son of Shemaiah. 2. [Magog.]
Go'lan, a city of Bashan (Deut, iv.
43), allotted out of the half tribe of Manas
seh to the Levites (Josh. xxi. 27), and one
of the three cities of refu.ge east of the
Jordan (xx, 8), Its very site is now un
known. It gave its name to the province
of Gaulanitis, which is frequently men
tioned by Josephus. It lay cast of Galilee,
¦ and north of Gadaritis. [Gadara,] The
Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to its foun
tains at Dan and Caesare.a- Philippi, formed
its western boundary. It corresponds to
the modern province ot Jauldn (which is
the Arabic form of the Hebrew Golan).
The greater part of Gaulanitis is a flat and
fertile table-land, well watered, and clothed
with luxuriant grass.
Gold, the raost valuable of metals,
from its color, lustre, weight, ductility, and
other useful properties. Hence it is used
as an emblem of purity (Job xxiii. 10) and
nobility (Lam. iv. 1). Gold was known
from the very earliest tiraes (Gen. ii. 11').
It was at first chiefly used for ornaments,
&c, (Gen. xxiv. 22). Coined money was
not known to the ancients till a compara
tively late period; and on the Egyptian
tombs gold is represented as being weighed
m rings for commercial purjioses. (Comp.
Gen. xUii. 21), Gold was extremely abun
dant in ancient times (1 Chr. xxii. 14; 2
Chr, i, 15, ix, 9 ; Nah. ii. 9 ; Dan, iu, 1) ;
but this did not depreciate its value, be
cause of the enormous quantities consumed

by the wealthy in furniture, &c. (1 K, vi,
22, X, passim ; Cant. iii. 9, 10 ; Esth. i. 6 ;
Jer. x. 9). The chief countries mentioned
as producing gold are Arabia, Sheba, and
Ophir (1 K. ix 28, x. 1 ; Job x.xviii. 16),
Other gold-bearing countries wore Uphaz
(Jer, X. 9; Dan. x. 5) and Parvaim (2
Chr. iii. 6). Metallurgio processes are
mentioned in Ps. Ixvi. 10; Prov. xvii. 3,
xxvii. 21 ; and in Is. xlvi. 6, the trade of
goldsmith (cf. Judg. xvii. 4) is alluded to
in connection with the overlaying of idols
with gold-leaf.
Gol'gotha, the Hebrew name of the
spot at which our Lord was crucified (Matt.
xxvii, 33: Mark xv, 22; John xix. 17).
By these three Evangelists it is interpreted
to mean the "place of a skull." St.
Luke's words are really as follows — "the
place which is called ' a skull ' " — not, as
in the other Gospels, " of a skull," thus
employing the Greek term exactly as they
do the Hebrew one; Two explanations of
the name are given : (1) that it was a spot
where executions ordinarily took place,
and therefore abounded in skulls. Or (2)
it may come from the look or form of the
spot itself, bald, round, and skull-like, and
therefore a mound or hillock, in accordance
with the comraon phrase — for which there
is no direct authority ^ "Mount Calvary,"
Whichever of these is the correct explana
tion, Golgotha seems to have been a known
spot. Q-oli'ath, a famous giant of Gath, who
" morning and evening for forty days " de
fied the armies of Israel (1 Sam. xvii.).
He was possibly descended from the old
Rephaim [Giants], of whom a -scattered
remnant took refuge with the Pliilistines
after their dispersion by the Araraonites
(Deut. ii. 20, 21; 2 Sam. xxi, 22). His
height was " six cubits and a span," which,
taking the cnhit at 21 inches, would make
him lOh feet high. But the LXX. and Jo
sephus read "four cubits and a span."
The scene of hin combat with David was
the Valley of the Terebinth, between
Shochoh and Arekah, probably among the
western passes cf Benjamin, although a
confused modern tradition has given the
name of Ain JaTilocd (spring of Goliath)
to the spring of Harod (Judg. vii, 1), In
2 Sam, xxi, 19, we iind that another Goli
ath of Gath was slain by Elhanan, also a
Bethlehemite, Go'mer, 1. The oldest son of Japheth,
and the father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and
Togarmah (Gen, x, 2, 3), His name is
subsequently noticed but once (Ez. xxxviii,
6) as an illy of subject of the Scythian
king Gog, He is generally recognized as
the progenitor of the early Cimn; crians, of
the later Cimbri and ihe other branches of
the Celtic family, and of the modern Gael
and Cymry, the latter preserving w'ih v°jy

GOMORRAH

218

GOSPELS

slight deviation the original name. 2. The
daughter of Diblaim, and concubine of
Hosea (i. 3).
Gomor rah, in the N. T, written Go-
mor'rha, one of the five " cities of the
plain," or " vale of Siddim," that under
their respective kings joined battle there
with Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2-8) and his
allies, by whom they were discomfited till
Abraham came to the rescue. Four out of
tho five were afterwards destroyed by the
Lord with fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 23-
29). One of them only, Zoar or Bela,
which was its original name, was spared at
the request of Lot, in order that he might
take refuge there. Of these Gomorrah
seems to have been only second to Sodom
in importance, as well as in the wickedness
that led to their overthrow. What that
atrocity was may be gathered from Gen.
xix. 4-8. Their geographical position is
discussed under Sodom.
Gopher Wood. Only once in Gen.
vi. 14. Two principal conjectures have
been .proposed: — 1. That the "trees of
Gopher" are any trees of the resinous
kind, such as pine, fir, &c. 2 That Gopher
is cypress.
Go'shen, the name of a part of Egypt
where the Israelites dwelt for the whole
period of their sojourn in that country. It
is usually called the " land of Goshen," but
also Goshen simply. It appears to have
borne another name, "the land of Rameses"
(Gen. xlvii. 11), unless this be the name of
a district of Goshen. It was between Jo
seph's residence at the time and the frontier
of Palestine, and apparently the extreme
province' towards that frontier (Gen. xlvi.
29). The results of an examination of
Biblical evidence are that the land of Go
shen lay between the eastern part of the
ancient Delta and the western border of
Palestine, that it was scarcely a part of
Egypt Proper, was inhabited by other for
eigners besides the Israelites ; that it was
B, pasture land, especially suited to a shep
herd-people, and sufficient for the Israelites,
who there prospered, and were separate
from the main body ofthe Egyptians. These
indications seem to indicate the Wddi-t-
Tumeyldt, the valley along which anciently
flowed the canal of the Red Sea. -
Gospels. The name Gospel (from god
and spell, Angl. Sax. good message or nevis,
which is atranslation of theGreek tiJaj-yeilioi')
is applied to the four inspired histories of
the life and teaching of Christ contained in
the New Testament, of which separate ac
counts are given in their place. They were
all composed during the latter half of the
flrst century : those of St. Matthew and St.
Mark some years before the destruction of
Jerusalem ; that of St. Luke probably about
A. D. 64 ; and that of St. John towards the
close ofthe century. Before the end ofthe

second :!entury, there is abundant evidenca
that the four Gospels, as one collection,
were generally used and accepted. As a
matter of literary history, nothing can be
better established than the genuineness of
the Gospels. On comparing these four
books one with another, a peculiar difficulty
claims attention, which has had much to do
with the controversy as to their genuine
ness. In the fourth Gospel the narrative
coincides with that of the other three in a
tew passages only. Putting aside the ac
count of the Passion, there are only three
facts which John relates in comraon with
the other Evangelists. Two of these are,
the feeding of the five thousand, aad the
storm on the Sea of Galilee (ch. vi.). The
third is the anointing of His feet by Mary.
Whilst the others present the life of Jesus
in Galilee, John follows him intQ Judaea ;
nor should we know, but for him, that our
Lord had journeyed to Jerusalem at the
prescribed feasts. The received explanation
is the only satisfactory one, namely, that
John, writing last, at the close of the first
century, had seen the other Gospels, and
purposely abstained from writing anew
what they had sufficiently recorded. — In
the other three Gospels there is a great
amount of agreement. If we suppose tho
history that tlity contain to be divided into
sections, in 42 of these all the three narra
tives coincide, 12 more are given by Mat
thew and Mark only, 5 by Mark and Luke
only,, and 14 by Matthew and Luke. To
these must be added 5 peculiar to Matthew,
2 to Mark, and 9 to Luke ; and the enumera
tion is complete. But this applies only to
general coincidence as to the facts narrated :
the amount of verbal coincidence, that is, the
passages either verbally the same, or coin
ciding in the use of many of the same
words, is much smaller. Various theories
have been proposed to account for this phe
nomenon. (1.) The flrst and most obvious
suggestion would be, that the n.arrators made
use of each other's work. Acccrdiugly
many have endeavored to ascertain which
Gospel is to be regarded as the first ; wliich
is copied from the first ; and which is the
last, and copied from the otlier two. But
the theory in its crude form is in itself most
improbable ; and the wonder is that so much
time and learning have been devoted to it.
It assumes that an Evangelist has taken up
the work of his predecessor, and, without
substantial alteration, has made a few
changes in form, a few additions and re
trenchments, and then has allowed the
-B'hole to go forth under his name. (2.)
The supposition of a common original from
which the three Gospels were drawn, each
with more or less modification, would nat
urally occur to those who rejected the no
tion that the Evangelists had copied from
each other. But if all the Evangelists had

GOURD

219

GOVERNOB

agreed to draw from a common original, it
must have been widely if not universally
accepted in the Church ; and yet there is
no record of its existence. If the work
^as of high authority, it would have been
' preserved, or at least mentioned ; if of low
er authority, it could not h.ave become the
basis of tliree canonical Gospels, (3.)
There is another supposition to account for
these facts. It is probable that none of the
Gospels was written until many years after
the day of Pentecost on wliich the Holy
Spirit descended on the assembled disci
ples. From that day commenced at Jeru
salem the work of preaching the Gospel
and converting the world. Now' their
preaching must have been, from the nature
of the case, in great part historical ; it must
have been based upon an account of the
life and acts of Jesus of Nazareth. Nor is
there anything unnatural in the supposition
that the Apostles intentionally uttered their
witness in the same order, and even, for
the most part, in the sarae form of words.
It is supposed, then, that the portions of
the three Gospels which liarmonize most
exactly owe their agreement to the fact
that the apostolic preaching had already
clothed itself in a settled or usual form of
words, to which the writers inclined to con
form witliout feeling bound to do so ; and
the difi'erences which occur, often in the
closest proximity to the harmonies, arise
from the feeling of independence with
which each wrote what he had seen and
heard, or, in the case of Mark and Luke,
what apostolic witnesses had told him.
Gourd. 1. Kikdydn only in Jon. iv,
8-10, The plant which is intended by this

Cutor-oil Plant.

word, and whieh afforded shade to tbe
prophet Jonah before Nineveh, is the Si-
cinus communis, or castor-oil plant, which,
formerly a native of Asia, is now natural
ized in America, Africa, and the south of
Europe. This plant varies considerably in
size, being in India a tree, but in England
seldom attaining a greater height than three
or four feet. The leaves are large and
palmate, with serrated lobes, and would
form an excellent shelter for the sun-strick
en prophet. The seeds contain the oil so
well known under the name of " castor-oil,"
which has for ages been in high repute as a
medicine. 2. 'With regard to the "wild
gourds " {pakku'dih) of 2 K. iv. 39, which
one of " the sons of the prophets " gath
ered ignorantly, supposing them to bo good
for food, there can be no doubt thiit it is a
species of the gourd tribe {Cucurbitaceae) ,
which contains some plants of a very bitter
and dangerous character. As several kinds
of Cucurbitaceae, such as melons, pump
kins, &o., are favorite articles of refreshing
food amongst the Orientals, we can easily
understand the cause of the mistake.
Governor. In the Auth. Ver. this one
English word is the representative of no
less than ten Hebrew and four Greek words.
1. The chief of a tribe or family. 2. A
ruler in his capacity of lawgiver and dis
penser of justice. 3. A ruler considered
especially as having power over the proper
ty and persons of his subjects (Josh. xii.
2; Ps. cv. 20; Gen. xxiv. 2). The " gov
ernors of the people," in 2 Chr. xxiii. 20,
appear to have been the king's body-guard
(cf. 2 K. xi, 19), 4. A prominent person
age, whatever his capacity. It is applied
to a king as the military and civil chief of
his people (2 Sam. v. 2, vi. 21; 1 Chr,
xxix. 22), to the general of an army (2
Chr. xxxii. 21), and to the head of a tribe
(2 Chr. xix. 11). It denotes an officer of
high rank in the palace, the lord liigh
chamberlain (2 Chr. xxviii. 7). It is ap
plied in 1 K. X. 15 to the petty chieftains
who were tributary to Solomon (2 Chr. ix.
14) ; to the military commander of the
Syrians (1 K. xx. 24), the Assyrians (2 K.
xviii. 24, xxiii. 6), the Chaldeans (Jer. li.
23), and the Medes (Jer. li. 38). Under
the Persian viceroys, during the Babyloni
an captivity, the laind of the Hebrews ap
pears to have been portioned out among
' ' governors " {pachdth) inferior in rank to
the satraps (Ezr. viii. 36), Uke the other
provinces which were under the dominion
of the Persian king (Neh, ii. 7, 9), It is
impossible to determine the precise limits
of their authority, or the functions which •
they had to perform. It appears from Ezr,
vi, 8 that these governors were intrusted
with the collection of the king's taxes ; .and
from Neh. v. 18, xii. 26, that they were sup
ported by a contribution levied upon the

GOZAN

220

GROVE

people, which was technically termed "the
bread of the governor " (comp. Ezr. iv. 14).
They were probably assisted in discharging
their official duties by a council (Ezr. iv. 7,
vi. 6). The " governor " beyond the river
had a judgment-seat at Jerusalem, from
which iirobably he administered justice
when making a progress through his prov
ince (Neh. iii. 7).
Go'zan seems in the A. V. of 1 Chr. v.
26, to be the name of a river; but in Kings
(2 K. xvii. 6, and xviii. 11) it is evidently
applied not to a river but a country. Gozan
vras the tract to which the Israelites were
carried away captive by Pul, Tiglath-Pile
ser, and Shalmaneser, or possibly Sargon.
It is probably identical with the Gauzanitis
of Ptolemy, aud may be regarded as repre
sented by the Mygdonia of other writers.
It was the tract watered by the Habor, the
modern Kliabour, the great Mesopotamian
affluent of the Euphrates.
Grape. [Vine.]
Grass, 'This is the ordinary rendering
ofthe Hebrew word chdtsir (1 K. xviii, 5;
Job xl, .5; Ps. civ. 14; Is, xv. 6), As the
herbage rapidly fades under the parching
beat ofthe sun of Palestine, it has afforded
to the sacred writers an image of the fleet
ing nature of human fortunes (Job viii. 12 ;
Ps, xxxvii, 2), and also of the brevity of
human life (Is. xl, 6, 7; Ps. xc. 5),
Grasshopper. [Locust.]
Gra-ve, [Burial.]
Greaves {mitschdh). This word oc
curs in the A, V. only in 1 Sam. xvii. 6.
Its ordinary meaning is a piece of defen
sive armor which reached frora the foot to
the knee, and thus protected tlie shin of
the wearer. But the mitschdh of the above
passage can hardly have been armor of this
nature. It was not worn on the legs, but
en the feet of Goliath, and would therefore
appear to have been a kind of shoe or
boot. Greece, Greeks, Grecians. The
histories of Greece and Palestine are little
connected with each other. In Gen. x. 2-
6 Moses mentions the descendants of Javan
as peopling the isles of the Gentiles ; and
when the Hebrews came into contact with
the lonians of Asia Minor, and recognized
them as the long-lost islanders of the west
ern migration, it was natural that they
should mark the similarity of sound be
tween Javan and lones. Accordingly the
O. T, word which is Orecia, in A. V,
Greece, Greeks, &c., is in Hebrew Javan
(Joel iii, 6; Dan, viii, 21): the Hebrew,
however, is sometimes retained (Is. Ixvi,
• 19; Ez. xxvii, 13), The Greeks and He
brews met for the flrst time in the slave-
market. The medium of communication
seems to have been the Tyrian slave-mer-
cha-.ts. About b, c, 800 Joel speaks of
tiie Tyrians as selling the cUldren of

Judah to the Grecians (Joel iii, 6) ; and in
Ez. xxvii. 13 the Greeks are mentioned as
bartering their brazen vessels for slaves.
Prophetical notice of Greece occurs in
Dan, viii. 21, &c., where the histoiy of
Alexander and his successors is rapidly
sketched. Zechariah (ix. 13) foretells the
triumphs of the Maccabees against the
Graeco-Syrian empire, while Isaiah looks
forward to the conversion of the Greeks
amongst other Gentiles, through the in
strumentality of Jewish missionaries (Ixvi.
19). In 1 Mace. xii. 5-23 we have an ac
count of an embassy and letter sent by the
Lacedaemonians to the Jews, The most
remarkable feature in the transaction i^ the
claim which the Lacedaemonians prefer to
kindred with the Jews, and which Areus
professes to establish by reference to a
book. The name of the country, Greece,
occurs once in N. T. (Acts xx. 2), as op
posed to Macedonia. [Gentiles.]
Greyhound. The translation in the
text of the A. V. (Prov. xxx. 31) of the
Hebrew word zarzir mothnayin, i. e. "one
girt about the loins." Various are the
opinions as to what animal " comely, in
going" is here intended. Some think "a
leopard," others " an eagle," or " a man
girt with armor," or " a zebra," or " a war-
horse girt with trappings." But perhaps
the word means "a wrestler," when girt
about the loins for a contest.
Grinding. [Mill.]
Grove. A word used in the A. V., with
two exceptions, to translate the mysterious
Hebrew term Asherah, which is not a grove,
but probably an idol or image of some kind.
[Asherah.] It is also probable that there
was a connection between this symbol or
image, whatever it was, and the sacred
symbolic tree, the represeatation of which
occurs so frequently on Assyrian sculp
tures, and is figured below. 2. The two
exceptions noticed above are Gen. xxi. 33,

Sacred Symbolic Tree of the LssyrianB.
and 1 Sam. xxii. 6 (margin). In the re
ligions of the ancient heathen world graves
play a prominent pa't. In the old time*

GUDGODAH

221

HADAD

altars only were erected to the gods. It
was thought wrong to shut up the gods
within walls, and hence trees were the first
temples ; and from the earliest times groves
are mentioned in connection with religious
worship (Gen. xii. 6, 7, xiii. 18 ; Deut. xi.
30; A. V. "plain"). The groves were
generally found connected with temples,
and often had the right of affording an asy
lum. Some have supposed that even the
Jewish Temple had an enclosure planted
with palm and cedar (Ps. xcii. 12, 13) and
olive (Ps. Iii. 8), as the mosque which
stands on its site now has. This is more
than doubtful; but we know that a cele
brated oak stood by the sanctuary at She
chem (Josh.' xxiv. 26; Judg. ix, 6). There
are in Scripture many memorable trees :
e. g. Allon-bachuth (Gen, xxxv, 8) , the tam
arisk in Gibeah (1 Sam. xxii. 6), the tere
binth in Shechem (Josh, xxiv. 26) under
which the law was set up, the palm-tree of
Deborah (Judg. iv. 5) , the terebinth of en
chantments (Judg. ix, 37), the terebinth of
wanderers (Judg. iv, 11), and others (1
Sam. xiv. 2, x, 3, sometimes " plain " in
A. v.). This observation of particular
trees was among the heathen extended to
a regular worship of them.
Gud'gOdah, Deut, a, 7. [Hob Hagid-
GAD.] Guest. [Hospitality.]
Gu'ni. 1. A son of Naphtali (Gen.
xlvi. 24; 1 Chr. vii. 13), the founder ofthe
family ofthe Gunites (Num. xxvi. 48). 2.
A descendant of Gad (1 Chr. v. 15).
Gll'nites, The, descendants of Guni,
son of Naphtali (Num. xxvi. 48).
Gur, The going -up to, an ascent or
rising ground, at which Ahaziah received
his death-blow while flying, from Jehu after
the slaughter of Joram (2 K. ix. 27).
Gur Baal, a place or district in which
dwelt Arabians, as recorded in 2 Chr. xxvi.
7. It appears from the context to have
been in the country lying between Palestine
and the Arabian peninsula; but this, al
though probable, cannot be proved.

H.
Haahash'tari, a man, or a family, im
mediately descended from Ashur, "father
of Tekoa" by his second wife Naarah (1
Chr. iv. 6).
Habai'ah. Bene-Habaiah were among
the sons of the priests who returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 61 ; Neh.
vu. 63).
Hab'akk'Uk, the eighth in order of the
minor prophets. Of the facts of the
prophet's life we have no certain informa
tion. He probably delivered Ids prophecy
about the 12th or 13th year of Josiah (b, c.

630 or 629), The prophet commences hj
announcing his office and iniportant mis-
sion (i. 1). He bewails the corruption and
social disorganization by which he is sur
rounded, and cries to Jehovah for help
(i. 2-4). Next follows the reply of the
Deity, threatening swift vengeance (i. 6-
11), The prophet, transferring himself to
the near future foreshadowed in the divine
threatenings, sees the rapacity and boastful
impiety of the Chaldean hosts, but, confi
dent that God has only employed them as the
instruments of correction, assuraes (ii. 1)
an attitude of hopeful expectancy, and waits
to see the issue. He receives the divine
coraraand to write in an enduring form the
vision of God's retributive justice, as re
vealed to his prophetic eye (ii. 2, 3), The
doom of the Chaldeans is first foretold in
general terras (ii. 4-6), and the announce
ment is followed by a series of denuncia
tions pronounced upon them by the nations
-who had suffered from their oppression
(ii. 6-20) . The strophical arrangement of
these " woes " is a remarkable feature of
the prophecy. The whole concludes with
the raagnificent Psalm in chap, iii., a com
position unrivalled for boldness of concep
tion, sublimity of thought, and majesty of
diction, Habazini'ah, apparently the head of
one of the families of the Rechabites (Jer,
xxxv. 3).
Habergeon, a coat of mail covering
the neck and breast. [Arms.]
Ha'bor, the "river of Gozan" (2 K.
xvii. 6, and xviii. 11), is identified beyond
all reasonable doubt with the famous af
fluent of the Euphrates, which is called
Aborrhas and Chaboras hy ancient writers,
and now Khabour.
Haehali'ah, the father of Nehemiah
(Neh. i. 1, X. 1).
Hach'ilah, The Hill, a hill apparent
ly situated in a wood in the wUderness or
waste land in the neighborhood of Ziph ; in
the fastnesses, or passes, of which David
and his six hundred followers were lurking
when the Ziphites informed Saul of his
whereabouts (1 Sam. xxiii. 19 ; comp, 14,
15, 18). No trace of the name Hachilah
has yet been discovered.
Hach'moni, Son of, and The Hach'-
monite (1 Chr, xxvii. 32, xi. 11).
Hachraon or Hachmoni was no doubt the
founder of a family to which these men be
longed : the actual father of Jashobeam was
Zabdiel (1 Chr. xxvii. 2), and he is also
said to have* belonged to the Korhites (1
Chr. xii. 6), possibly the Levites descended
from Korah,
Ha'dad, originally tbe indigenous ap
pellation of tho Sun araong the Syrians, and
thence transferred to the king, as the high
est of earthly authorities. The title appears
to have been an official one, like Pharaoh,

HADADEZER

222

HAGAR

It Is found occasionally in the altered form
Hadar (Gen. xxv. 15, xxxvi. 39, compared
with 1 Chr. i. 30, 50). 1. Son of Ishmftel
(Gen. xxv. 15; 1 Chr. i. 30). 2. A king
of Edom who gained an important victory
over the Midianites on the field of Moab
(Gen. xxxvi. 35; 1 Chr. i. 46). 3. Also a
king of Edom, with Pan for his capital
(1 Chr. i. 50). 4. A member of the royal
house of Edom (1 K. xi. 14, ff.). In his
childhood he escaped the massacre under
Joab, in which his father appears to have
perished, and fled with a band of followers
into Egypt. Ph<araoh, the predecessor of
Solomon's father-in-law, treated him kind
ly, and gave him his sister-in-law in mar
riage. After David's death Hadad resolved
to attempt the recovery of his dominion :
Pharaoh in v.ain discouraged him, and upon
this he left Egypt and returned to his own
country. Hadade'zer (2 Sam. viii. 3-12; IK.
xi. 23), [Hadarezer.]
Ha'dad-rim'mon is, .according to the
ordinary interpretation of Zech. xii. 11, a
place in the valley of Megiddo, named after
two Syrian idols, where a national lamen
tation was held for the death of king
Josiah. Ha'dar. [Hadad.]
Hadare'zer, son of Rehob (2 Sam. viii.
3), the king of the Aramite state of Zobah,
who was pursued by Dtivid, and defeated
•with great loss both of chariots', horses, and
men (1 Chr. xviii, 3, 4). After the. first
repulse of the Ammonites and their Syrian
allies by Joab, Hadarezer sent his army to
the assistance of his kindred the people of
Maachah, Rehob, and Ishtob (1 Chr. xi.x.
16; 2 Sam. x. 15, comp. 8), Under -the
command of Shophach, or Shobach, the
captain of the host, they crossed the Eu
phrates, joined the other Syri.ans, and
encamped at a place called Helam, David
himself came from Jerusalem to take the
command ofthe Israelite army. As on the
former occasion, the rout was complete.
Had'ashah, one of the towns of Judah,
iu tho maritirae low country (Josh. xv. 37
only), probably the Adas a of the Macca
baean history,
Hadas'sah, probably the earlier name
of Esther (Esth. ii. 7).
Hadat'tah, According to the A. V.
one of the towns of Judah in the extreme
south (Josh, XV. 25),
Ha'clid, a place named, with Lod (Lyd-
d.a) and Quo, only in the later books of the
history (Ezr. ii. 33; Neh. vii. 37, xi. 34).
In the time of Eusebius a town called
Aditha, or Adatha, existed to the east of
Diospolis (Lydda), This was probably
Iladid. _
Had'lai, a man of Ephraim (2 Chr.
xxviii. 12),
Hado'ram. 1. The fifth son of Joktan

(Gen. X. 27; 1 Chr, i, 21), His settlements,
unlike those of many of Jocktan's sons, have
not been identified. 2, Son of Tou or Toi
king of Hamath; his father's ambassador
to congratulate David on his victory over
Haderezer king of Zobah (1 Chr, xviii. 10),
3. The form assumed in Chronicles by the
narae of the intendant of taxes under David,
Solomon, and Rehoboam (2 Chr. x. 18). Iu
Kings the name is given in the longer form
of Adoniram, but in Samuel (2 Sam, xx,
24) as Adoram,
Ha'drach, a country of Syria, men
tioned once only, by the prophet Zechariah
(ix. 1, 2). The position of the district,
with its borders, is here generally stated;
but the narae itself seems to "have wholly
disappeared. It still remains unknown.
Ha'gab. Bene-Hagab were among the
Nethinim who returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii, 46),
Hag'aba. Bcne-Hagaba . were among
the Nethinim who came back from captivity
with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 48), The name
is .'ilightly different in form from
Hag'abah, under wliich it is found in
the parallel list of Ezr. ii, 45),
Ha'gar, an Egyptian woman, the hand
maid, or slave, of Sarah (Gen. xvi. 1),
whom the latter gave as a concubine to
Abraham, after he had dwelt ten years in
the land of Canaan and had no children by
Sarah (xvi. 2 and 3) . That she was a bond
woman is stated. both in the O. T. and in
the N. T., in the latter as part of her typical
character. It is recorded that " when she
saw that she had conceived, her mistress was
despised in her eyes " (4), and Sarah, with
the anger, we may suppose, of a free woman,
r.ather than of a wife, reproached Abraham
for the results of her own act. Hagar fled,
turning her steps towards her native land
through the great wilderness traversed by
tho Egyptian road. By the fountain in the
way to Shur, the angel of the Lord found
her, charged her to return and submit her
self under tho hands of her mistress, and
delivered the remarkable prophecy respect
ing her unborn child recorded in ver. 10-
12. On her return, she g<ave birth to
Ishmael, and Abraham was then eighty-six
years old. Mention is not again made of
Hagar in the history of Abrahara until the
feast at the weaning of Isaac, when "Sarah
saw the son of Hagar the Egyptian, which
she had borne unto Abraham, mocking;"
and in exact sequence with the first flight
of Hagar, we now read of her expulsion.
The verisimilitude, oriental exactness, and
simple beauty of this story are internal evj-
dencos attesting its truth, apart from all
other evidence. The name of Hagar occurs
elsewhere only when she takes a wife to
Ishmjicl (xxi, 21); and in the genealogy
(xxv, 12), St. Paul refers to her as the
type of the old covcnantj likening hef to

HA6ARENE8

223

HAIR

Mount Sinai, the Mount of the Law (Gal. iv.
22 seqq,),
Hagarenes', Ha'garites, a people
dwelling to the east of Palestine, with whom
the tribe of Reuben made war in the time
of Saul (1 Clir, v, 10, 18-20), The same
people, as confederate against Israel, are
mentioned in Ps, Ixxxiii, 6, It is generally
believed that they were named after Hagar,
and that the important town and dictrict of
Hejer, on the borders of the Persian Gulf,
represent them,
Ha'gerite, The. Jaziz the Hagerite,
t. e. the descendant of Hagar, had the
charge of David's sheep (1 Chr. xxvii. 31).
Hag'gai, the tenth in order of the Mi
nor Prophets, and first o.f those who proph
esied after the Captivity, With regard to
his tribe and parentage both history and
tradition are alike silent; but it is more
tli.au probable that he was one of the e'xiles
wlio returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua,
The rebuilding of the temple, which was
commenced in the reign of Cyrus (b. c.
535), was suspended during the reigns of
his successors, Cambyses and Pseudo-Smer-
dis, in consequence of the determined hos
tility of the Samaritans. On the accession
of Darius Hystaspis (b. c. 521), the proph
ets Haggai and Zechariah urged the renewal
of the undertaking, and obtained the per
mission and assistance of the king (Ezr. v.
1, vi. 14). According to tradition, Haggai
was born in Babylon, was a young man
when he came to Jerusalem, and was bu
ried with honor near the sepulchres of the
priests,. The names of Haggai and Zecha
riah are associated in the LXX. in the titles
of Ps. 137, 145-148 ; in the Vulgate in those
of Ps. Ill, 145; and in the Peshito Syriac
in those of Ps. 125, 126, 145, 146, 147, 148.
It may be th.at tradition assigned to these
prophets the arrangement of the above-men
tioned psalms for use in the temple service.
The style of Haggai is generally tame and
prosaic, though at tiraes it rises to the dig
nity of severe invective, when the prophet
rebukes his countryraen for their selfish in
dolence and neglect of God's house. But
the brevity _of the prophecies is so great,
and the po-verty of expression .which char
acterizes them so striking, as to give rise to
a conjecture, not without reason, that in
their present form they are but the outline
or summary of the original discourses.
They were delivered in the second year of
Darius Hystaspis (b, c. 520), at intervals
from the 1st day of the 6th month to the
24th day of the 9th month in the same
year. '
Hag'geri. " MiBHAR son of Haggeri "
was one of the mighty men of David's
guard, according to 1 Chr. xi. 38, The
parallel passage — 2 Sam, xxiii, 36 — has
"Bani the Gadite," which is probably the
correct reading.

Hag'gi, second son of Gad (Gen, xl<i
16; Num. xxvi, 15).
Haggi'ah, a Merarite Levite (1 Chr, vi.
30), ^
Hag'gites, The, a Gadite family sprung
from Haggi (Num. xxvi. 15).
Hag'gith, one of David's wives, the
mother of Adonijah (2 Sam. iii. 4: 1 K, i
5, 11, ii. 13; 1 Chr. iii. 2).
Had. The form in which the well-known
place Ai appears in the A. V. on its first in
troduction (Gen. xii. 8, xiii. 3),
Hair. 'The Hebrews were fully alive to
the importance of the hair as an element
of personal beauty, whether as seen in the
" curled locks, black as a raven," of youth
(Cant. V. 11), or in the "crown of glory"
that encircled the head of old age (Prov,
xvi. 31), Long hair was admired in the
case of young men; it is especially noticed
in the description of Absalom's person (2
Sam. xiv. 26). The care requisite to keep
the hair in order in such cases must have
been very great, and hence the practice of
wearing long hair was unusual, and only
resorted to as an act of religious obser
vance. In times of affliction the hair was
altogether cut off (Is. iii. 17, 24, xv. 2 ; Jer.
vii. 29). Tearing the hair (Ezr. ix. 3) and
letting it go dishevelled were similar tokens
of grief. The usual and favorite color of
the hair -was black (Cant. v. 11), as is indi
cated in the comparisons to a "flock of
goats" and the "tents of Kedar" (Cant, iv,-
1, i. 5) : a similar hue is probably intended
by the purple of Cant. vii. 5. The ap
proach of age was raarked by a sprinkling
(Hos. vii. 9) of gray hairs, which soon
overspread the whole head (Gen. xiii. 38,
xliv, 29; IK. ii. 6, 9; Prov, xvi. 31, xx.
29) . Pure white hair was deemed charac
teristic ofthe Divine Majesty (Daw, vii. 9;
Rev, i. 14), The chief beauty of the hair

Egyptian WigB. (Wilkinson.^
consisted in curls, whether of a natural or
artificial character. With regard to the
mode of dressing the hair, we have no very
precise information; the terms used are of

H.AKKATAN

224

HAMATH

• general character, as of Jezebel (2 K, ix,
SO), of Judith (x, 3). The terras used in
the N. T. (1 Tim. ii. 9; 1 Pet. iii. 3) are
also of a general character. The arrange
ment of Samson's hair into seven locks, or
more properly braids (Judg. xvi. 13, 19)
involves the practice of plaining, which was
also familiar to the Egypti!",rj and Greeks.
The locks were probably kept in their place
by a fillet, as in Egypt. The Hebrews, like
other nations of e.D*iTiity, anointed the
hair profusely with o'.ntraents, which were
gener.ally compouid'dd of various aromatic
ingredients (Ruth -lii. 3; 2 Sam. xiv. 2; Ps.
xxiii. 5, xiv. 7, xc-ii. 10; Eccl. i.x, 8; Is. iii.
24) ; more Fspecially on 'occasion of fes
tivities or ',r,.<>pitality (Matt. vi. 17, xxvi.
7 ; Luke ',1'. 46). It appears to have been
the custom of the Jews in our Saviour's
time to swear by tbe hair (Matt. v. 36),
much as 'the Egyptian women still swear
by the side-lock, and the men by their
beards, Hak'katan, Johanan, son of Hakka-
tan was the chief of the Bene-Azgad who
returned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezr.
viii. 12),
Hak'koz, a priest, the chief the seventh
course in the service of the sanctuary, as
appointed by David (1 Chr. xxiv, 10). In
Ezr. ii. 61 and Neh, iii. 4, 21, the name
occurs again as Koz in the A. 'V,
Haku'pha. Bene-Hakupha were among
the Nethinim who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii. 51 ; Neh. vii. 53).
Ha'lah is probably a different place
from the Calah of Gen. x. 11, It may be
identified with the Chalcitis of Ptolemy,
Halak, The Mount, a mountain
twice, and twice only, named as the south
ern limit of Joshua's conquests (Josh. xi.
17, xii. 7J, but which has not yet been iden
tified. Hal'hul, a town of Judah in the moun
tain district (Josh. xv. 58), The name
still remains unaltered, attached to a con
spicuous hill a mile to the left of the road
from Jerusalem to Hebron, between 3 and
4 miles from the latter,
Ha'li, a town on the boundary of Asher,
named between HeUsath and Beten (Josh,
.xix. 25),
Hall, used of the court of the high-
priest's house (Luke xxii. 55). In Matt.
xxvii. 27, and Mark xv. 16, "hall "is sy
nonymous with "praetorium," whieh in
John xviii. 28 is in A. V. "judgment-
hall." Hallelujah. [Alleluia.]
HaUo'hesh, one of the chief of the
people who sealed the covenant with Nehe
miah (Neh. X. 24).
Halo'hesh. Sballum, son of Hal-lo-
hesh, was "ruler of the half part of
Jerusalem " at the time of the repau: of the
wall by Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 12).

Ham. 1. The. name of one of the
three sons of Noah, apparently the seciond
in age. It probably signifies "warm "or
" hot." This meaning is confirmed by that
of the Egyptian word Kem (Egypt), the
Egyptian equivalent of Ham, which sig
nifies " black," probably implying warmth
as well as blackness. Of the history of
Ham nothing is related except his irrever
ence to bis father, and the curse which thai
patri.arch pronounced. The sons of Ham
are stated to have been " Cush and Miz
raim and Phut and Canaan " (Gen. x. 6 ;
comp. 1 Clir. i. 8). The name of Ham
alone, of the three sons of Noah, is known
to have been given to a country. Egypt
is reeogrnzed as the ' ' land of Ham " ia. the
Bible (Ps. Ixxviii. 51, cv. 23, cvi. 22). The
other settlements of the sons of Ham are
discussed under their respective names*.
An inquiry into the history of the Hamite
nations presents considerable difficulties,
since it cannot be determined in the cases
of the most important of those commonly
held to be Hamite that they were purely
of that stock. It is certain that the three
most illustrious Hamite nations — the Cush
ites, the Phoenicians, and the Egyptians
— were greatly mixed with foreign peoples.
There are some common characteristics,
however, which appear to connect the dif
ferent branches of the Hamite family, and
to distingTiish them from the children of
Japheth and Shem. Their architecture has
a solid grandeur that we look for in vain
elsewhere, 2, According to the present
text (Gen. xiv. 5), Chedorlaomer and his
allies smote the Zuzim in a place called
Ham, If, as seems likely, the Zuzim be
the same as the Zamzummim, Ham must
be placed in what was afterwards the Am
monite territory. Hence it has been con
jectured, that Ham is but another form of
the name of the chief stronghold of , the
children of jlmnion, Rabbah, now Am
man. Ha'man, the chief minister or vizier of
king Ahasuerus (Esth. iii. 1), After the
failure of his attempt to cut off all the
Jews in the Persian empire, he livas hanged
on the gallows which he had erected for
Mordecai. The Targum and Josephus in
terpret the description of him — the Agag:ite
— as signifying that he was of Amalekitish
descent. Ha'math, the principal city of Upper
Syria, was situated in the valley of the
Orontes, which it commanded from the low
screen of hills which forms the water
shed between the Orontes and the Litany
— the "entrance of Hamath," as it is
called in Scripture (Num. xxxiv, 8 ; Josh.
xiii, 5, &c,) —to the defile of Daphne be
low Antioch, The Hamathites were a
Hamitic race, and are included among the
descendants of Canaan (Gen. x. 18). We

HAMATH-ZOBAH

225

HANANI

must regard them as closely akin to the
Hittites on whom they bordered, and with
whom they were generally in alliance.
Nothing appears of the power of Hamath
until the time of David (2 Sam, viii, 10),
Hamath seems clearly to have been in
cluded in the dominions of Solomon (1 K.
iv. 21-24), The " store-cities," which Sol
omon "built in Hamath" (2 Chr. viii. 4),
were perhaps staples for trade. In the As
syrian inscriptions of the time • of Ah.ab
(b. 0. 900) Hamath appears as a sep.arate
power, iu alliance with the Syrians of Da-
uascus, the Hittites, and the Phoenicians.
About three quarters of a century later
Jeroboam the Second " recovered Hamath"
(2 K. xiv. 28). SooL afterwards the As
syrians took it (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13,
&c.), and from this time it ceased to be
a place of much importance. Antiochus
Epiphanes changed its narae to Epiphaneia,
The natives, however, called it Haraath,
even in St. Jerorae's tirae, and its present
name, Hamah, is but slightly altered from
the ancient form.
Ha'math-ZO'bah (2 Chr. viii. 3) has
been conjectured to be the same as Hamath.
But the name Haraath-zobah would seem
rather suited to another Hamath which was
distinguished frora the " Great Hamath " by
the suffix " Zobah."
Ham.'athite, The, one of the families
descended from Canaan, named last in the
Ust (Gen. x. 18 ; 1 Chr. i. 16).
Hani'math, one of the fortified cities
in the territory allotted to Naphtali (Josh,
xix, 35). It was near TiberLas, one raile
distant, and had its narae, Chaniraath, "hot
baths," because it contained those of Ti
berias. In the list of Levitical cities given
out of Naphtali (Josh. xxi. 32) the narae of
this place seems to be given as Hammoth-
DOR. Hammed' atha, father of the infamous
Haman (Esth. iii. 1, 10, viii. 5, ix. 24).
Ham'melech, lit. "the king," unne-
cesarily rendered in the A. V. as a proper
name (Jer. xxxvi. 2G, xxxviii. 6).
Hammol'eketh, a daughter of Machir
and sister of Gilead (1 Chr. vii. 17, 18),
Ham'mon. 1. A city in Asher (Josh.
xix. 28), apparently not far from Zidon-
rabbah. 2. A city allotted out of the tribe
of Naphtali to the Levites (1 Chr. vi. 76),
and answering to the somewhat similar
names Hammath and Hammath-Dor in
Joshua, Ham'moth-dor, [Hammath.]
Ham'onah. the name of a city men
tioned in Ezekiel (xxxix. 16).
Ha'mon-gog, The Valley of, the
name to be bestowed on a ravine or glen,
previously known as ' ' the ravine of the
passengers on the east of the sea," after
the burial there of " Gog and all his multi
tude" (Ez, xxxix, 11, 15), 15

Ha'mor, a Hivite, who at the tirae of
the entrance of Jacob on Palestine was
prince of the land and city of Shechem
(Gen. xxxiii. 19, xxxiv. 2, 4, G, 8, 13, 18,
20, 24, 26). [Dinah.]
Hamu'el, a man of Simeon; son of
Mis.hma, of the faraily of Shaul (1 Chr,.iv.
26). Ha'mul, the younger son of Pliarez,
Judah's son by Tamar (Gen. xlvi, 12; 1
Chr. ii. 5).
Ha'mulites, The, the family of the
preceding (Num. xxvi. 21).
Hamu'tal, daughter of Jeremiah of
Libnah ; one of the wives of khig Josiah
(2 K. xxiii. 31, xxiv, 18; Jer. lii. 1).
Hanam'eel, son of Shallum, and cous
in of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxii. 7, 8, 9, 12; anl
comp. 44),
Ha'nan. 1. One of the chief people
of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 23),
2, Tlie last of the six sons of Azel, a de
scendant of Saul (1 Chr. viii, 38, ix. 44).
3, " Son of M.aaehah," i. e. possibly a
Syrian of Aram-Maaeah, one of the heroes
of David's guard (1 Chr. xi.43). 4. The
sons of Hanan were among the Nethinim
who returned from Babylon with Zerubba
bel (Ezr. ii. 46; Neh. vii. 49). 5. One of
the Levites who assisted Ezra in his public
exposition of the law (Neh. viii. 7). Tbe
same person is probably mentioned in x,
10, 6. One of the " heads " of the " peo
ple," who also sealed the covenant (x. 22>.
7, Another of the chief laymen on the
same occasion (x. 26), 8. Son of Zaceur,
son of Mattaniah, whom Nehemiah made
one of the storekeepers of the provisions
collected as tithes (Neh. xiii. 13). 9. Son
of Igdaliah (Jer, xxxv, 4).
Haaan'eel, The Tower of, a tower
which formed part of the w.all of Jerusalem
(Neh, iii. 1, xii. 39). From these two pas
sages, particularly from the former, it
might alraost be inferred that Hananeel was
but another narae for the Tower of Meah :
at any rate they were close together, and
stood between the sheep-gate and the fish-
gate. This tower is further mentioned in
Jer. xxxi. 38. The remaining passage in
whieh it is named (Zech. xiv. 10) also con
nects this tower with the "corner-gate,"
which lay on the other side of the sheep-
gate. Hana'ni. 1. One of the sons of Heman,
and head of the 18th course of the service
(1 Chr. xxv. 4, 25), 2. A seer who re
buked (b. c. 941) Asa, king of Judah (2
Chr. xvi. 7). For this he was iraprisoncd
(10), He (or another Hanani) was the
father of Jehu the seer, who testified against
Baasha (1 K, xvi. 1, 7) and Jehoshaphat
(2 Chr. xix, 2, xx. 34), 3. One of the
priests who in the time of Ezra bad t.aken
strange wives (Ezr, x, 20), 4, A brother
of Nehemiah (Neh, i, 2) was afterwards

HANANIAH

226

HANDICRAFT

made governor of Jerusalem under Nehe
miah (vii. 2). 5. A priest mentioned in
Neh. xii. 36.
Hanani'ah. 1. One of the 14 sons of
Heman, and chief of the 16th course of
singers (1 Chr. xxv. 4, 5, 23). 2. A gen
eral in the array of king Uzziah (2 Chr.
xxvi. 11). 3. Father of Zedekiah in tbe
reign of Jehoiakim, 4, Son of Azur, a
Benjamite of Gibeon and a false prophet in
the reign of Zedekiah king of Judah. In
the 4tli year of his reign, b. c, 595, Hana
niah withstood Jeremiah the prophet, and
publicly prophesied in the temple that with
in two years Jeconiah and all his fellow-
captives, with the vessels of the Lord's
house which Nebuchadnezzar had taken
away to Babylon, should be brought back
to Jerusalem (Jer. xxviii.) ; an indication
that treacherous negotiations were already
secretly opened with Pharaoh-Hophra.
Ilananiah corroborated his prophecy by tak
ing from off the neck of Jeremiah the yoke
which he wore by Divine command (Jer.
xxvii.) in token ofthe subjection of Judaea
and the neighboring countries to the Babylo
nian empire, and breaking it. But Jeremiah
was bid to go and tell Hananiah that for
the wooden yokes which he had broken he
should nisike yokes of iron, so firm was the
dominion of B.abylon destined to be for
seventy years. The prophet Jeremiah add
ed this rebuke and prediction of Hanani-
ah's death, the fulfilment of which closes
the history of this false prophet. 5. Grand
father of Irijah, the captain of the ward at
the gate of Benjamin, who a.~rested Jere
miah, on the charge of deserting to the
Chaldeans (Jer. xxxvii, 13), 6. Head of
a Benjiimite house (1 Chr. viii. 24), 7.
The Hebrew narae of Shadrach, He was
of the house of D.avid, according to Jew
ish tradition (Dan. i. 3, 6, 7, 11, 19; ii. 17).
8. Son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 19), from
whom Christ derived his descent. He is
the sarae person who is by St, Luke called
.Joanna. The identity of the two names
Hananiah and Joanna is apparent immedi
ately we corapare them in Hebrew. 9.
One of the sons of Bebai, who returned
with Ezra from Babylon (Ezr. x. 28). 10.
A priest, one of the m.akers of the sacred
ointments and incense, who built a portion
of the wall of Jerusalem in the diiys of
Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 8). H. Head of the
priestly course of Jeremiah in the days of
Joiakim (Neh. xii. 12). 12. Ruler of the
palace at Jerusalem under Nehemiah. The
arrangements for guarding tbe gates of
Jerusalem were intrusted to him with
Hanani, the Tirshatha's brother (Neh, vii.
2, 3). 13. An Israelite (Neh, x. 23),
Handicraft, (Acts xviii, 3, xix. 25;
Rev, xviii. 22). In the present article brief
notices only can be given of such handicraft
trades as are mentioned in Scripture, 1,

The preparation of iron for use either in
war, in agriculture, or for domestic pur
poses, was doubtless one of the earliest ap
plications of labor ; and together with iron,
working in brass, or rather copper alloyed
with tin, bronze, is mentioned in the same
passage as practised in antediluvian times
(Gen. iv. 22), In the construction of the
Tabernacle, copper, but no iron, appears
to have been used, though the use of iron
was at the same period well known to the
Jews, both from their own use of it and
from their Egyptian education, whilst the
Canaanite inhabitants of Palestine and
Syria were in full possession of its use
both for warlike and domestic purposes
(Ex. XX. 25, xxv. 3, xxvii. 19 ; Nura. xxxv,
16 ; Deut. iii. 11, iv. 20, viii. 9 ; Josh, viii,
31, xvii. 16, 18), After the establishment
of the Jews in Canaan, the occupation of
a smith became recognized as a distinct
employment (1 Sam. xiii. 19), The smith's
work and its results are often mentioned in
Scripture (2 Sam. xii, 31; 1 K. vi, 7; 2
Chr. xxvi. 14; Is. xliv. 12, liv, 16), The
worker in gold and silver must have found
employment both among the Hebrews and
the neighboring nations in very early times,
as appears from the ornaments sent by
Abraham to Rebekah (Gen, xxiv, 22, 53,
xxxv, 4, xxxviii. 18; Deut. vii. 23). But
whatever skill the Hebrews possessed, it is
quite clear that they must have learned
much from Egypt and its " iron furnaces,"
both in raetal-work and in the arts of set
ting and polishing precious stones. Vari
ous processes of the goldsmith's work are
illtistrated by Egyptian monuments. After
the conquest frequent notices are found
both of moulded and wrought metal, in
cluding soldering, which last had long been
known in Egypt ; but the Phoenicians ap
pear to have possessed greater skill than
the Jews in these arts, at least in Solomon'*

Egyptian Blow-pipe, and small Fireplace with Cheeks 10
confine aud reflect the heat. (Wilkinson.)
time (Judg. viii. 24, 27, xvii. 4 ; 1 K. vii.
13, 45, 46 ; Is. xK. 7 ; Wisd. xv. 4 ; Ecclus.
xxxviii. 28; Bar. vi. 50, 55, 57). 2, The
work of the carpenter is often mentioned
in Scripture (Gen, vi, 14 ; Ex, xxxvii, ; Is.
xliv. 13). In the palace built by David for

HANDICRAFT

227

HANES

himself the workmen employed were chiefly
Phoenicians sent bj- Hiram (2 Sam. v. 11 ; 1
Chr. xiv. 1), as most probably were those,
or at least the principal of those, who were
epnployed by Soloraon in liis works (1 K, v.
6). But in the repairs of the Teraple, ex
ecuted under Joash king of Judah, and
also In the rebuilding under Zerubbabel,
no mention is made of foreign workmen,

Carpenters. (Wilkinson.)
r, drills a hole in the seat of a chair, 3. 1 1. leps of chair.
Square. w, man planing or polisliing the leg
though in the latter case the timber is ex
pressly said to have been brought by sea to
Joppa by Zidonians (2 K. xii. 11 ; 2 Chr,
xxiv. 12; Ezra iii. 7). That the Jewish
carpenters must have been able to carve
with some skill is evident from Is. xll. 7,
xliv. 13. In the N. T, the occupation of a
carpenter is mentioned in connection with
Joseph the husband of the Virgin Mary,
anl ascribed to our Lord himself by way
of reproach (Mark vi. 3; Matt. xiii. 55).
8, Tbe masons eraployed by David and
Solomon, at least the chief of them, were
Phoenicians (1 K. v. 18; Ez, xxvii. 9),
The large stones used in Solomon's Tem
ple are said by Josephus to have been fltted
together exactly without either mortar or
cramps, but the foundation stones to have'
been fastened with lead. For ordinary
builling, mortar was used; sometimes,
perhaps, bitumen, as was the case at Baby
lon (Gen. xi. 3). The lime, clay, and
straw of which mortar is generally com
posed in the East, require to be very care
fully mixed and united so as to resist wet.
The wall " daubed with untempered mor
tar " of Ezekiel (xiii. 10) was perhaps a
sort of cob-wall of mud or clay without
lime, which would give way under heavy
rain. The use of whitewash on tombs is
remarked by our Lord (Matt, xxiii. 27).
Houses infected with leprosy were required
by the Law to be re-plastered (Lev. xiv.
40-45). 4. Akin to the craft of the carpen
ter is that of ship and boat-building, which
must have been exercised to some extent
for the fishing-vessels on the l.ake of Gen
nesaret (Matt. viii. 23, ix. 1; John xxi. 3,
8). Solomon built, at Ezion-Geber, ships
for his foreign trade, which were manned
by Phoenician crews, an experiment which
Jehoshaphat endeavored in vain to renew
(IK. ix. 26, 27, xxu 48 ; 2 Chr. xx. 36, 37).

u u, adzes.
of a chair.

5. The perfumes used in tbe religious ser
vices, and in later times in the funer.al-
rites of monarchs, imply knowledge and
practice in the art ofthe "apothecaries,"
who appear to have formed a guild or
association (Ex. xxx. ,25, 35 ; Neh. iii. 8 ;
2 Chr. xvi. 14; Eccl. vii. 1, x. 1; Ec
clus. xxxviii. 8), 6. The arts of spinning
and weaving both wool and linen were
carried on in early times,
as they are still usually
among the Bedouins, by
woraen. One of the ex
cellences attributed to tbe
good housewife is her
skill and industry in these
arts (Ex. xxxv, 25, 26;
Lev, xix, 19 ; Deut. xxii,
11; 2K. xxiii, 7; Ez. xvi.
16; Prov. xxxi. 13, 24).
The loom with its beam
(1 Sam. xvii. 7), pin
(Judg. xvi. 14), and shut
tle (Job vii. 6) , was perhaps introduced later,
but as early as David's time (1 Sam. xvii. 7).
Together with weaving we read also of em
broidery, in which gold and silver threads
were interwoven with the body of the stuff,
sometimes iu figure patterns, or with pre
cious stones set in the needle-work (Ex.
xxvi. 1, xxviii. 4, xxxix. 6-13). 7. Besides
these arts, those of dyeing and of dressing
cloth were practised in Palestine, and those
also of tanning and dressing leather (Josh. ii.
15-18 ; 2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iii. 4 ; Acts ix. 43).
Shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are men
tioned in the Mishna {Pesach, iv, 6) ; the
barber, or his occupation, by Ezekiel (v. 1 :
Lev. xiv, 8;. Num, vi. 5), and the tailor,
plasterers, glaziers, and glass vessels, paint
ers, and goldworkers are mentioned in the
Mishna {Chel. viii, 9, xxix, 3, 4, xxx, 1),
Tent-makers are noticed in the Acts (xviii,
3), and frequent allusion is made to the
trade of the potters. 8. Bakers are noticed
in Scripture (Jer. xxxvii. 21 ; Hos. vii. 4) ;
and the well-known valley Tyropoeon prob
ably derived its name from the occupation
ofthe cheese-makers, its inhabitants. Butch
ers, not Jewish, are spoken of 1 Cor. x. 25.
Handkerchief, Napkin, Apron.
The two former of these terras, as used in
the A, V, = aovSuQiov, the latter = aifiiy.h-
Sior. The sudarium is noticed in the N,
T. as a wrapper to fold up raoney (Luke
xix, 20) — as a cloth bound about the head
of a corpse (John xi. 44, xx. 7) — and last
ly as an article of dress that could be easily
reraoved (Acts xix. 12), probably a hand
kerchief worn on the head like the keffieh
of the Bedouins,
Ha'nes, a place in Egypt only men
tioned in Is. xxx, 4, We think that the
Chald. Paraphr. is right in identifying it
with Tahpanhes, a fortified town on tlia
eastern frontier.

HANGING

228

HARIM

Hanging, Hangings. (1.) The " hang-
'ing " was a curtain or " covering " to close
an entrance ; one was placed before the
door of the 'Tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 36, 37,
xxxix. 38). (2.) The "hangings" were
used for covering the walls of the court of
tlie Tabernacle, just as tapestry was in
modern times (Ex. xxvii. 9, xxxv. 17,
xxxviii. 9; Nura. iii. J26, iv. 26).
Han'iel, one of the sons of Ulla of the
tribe of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 39).
Han'nah, one ofthe wives of Elkanah,
aud mother of Samuel (1 Sara. i. ii.), A
hyran of thanksgiving for the birth of her
son is in the highest order of prophetic
poetry ; its resemblance to that of the Vir
gin Mary (comp. 1 Sam. ii. 1-10 with Luke
i. 46-55 ; see also Ps. cxiii.) has been no
ticed by the commentators. More recent
critics have, however, assigned its author
ship to David.
Han'nathon, one of the cities of Zeb
ulun (Josh. xix. 14).
Han'niel, son of Ephod, and prince of
Manasseh (Nura. xxxiv. 23).
Ha'noeh. 1. The third in order of the
children of Midian (Gen. xxv. 4). 2. Eld
est son of Reuben (Gen. xlvi. 9 ; Ex. vi.
14 ; Nura. xxvi. 5 ; 1 Chr. v, 3), and found
er of the faraily of the Hanochites (Nura.
xxvi. 5),
Ha'nun. 1. Son of Nahash (2 Sam, x.
1, 2 ; 1 Chr, xix, 1, 2), king of Ammon,
who dishonored the ambassadors of David
(2 Sam. x. 4), and involved the Ammon
ites in a disastrous war (2 Sara. xii. 31 ; 1
Chr. xix. 6). 2. A man who, with the
people of Zanoah, repaired the ravine-gate
in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 13). 3,
The 6th son of Zal.apb, who also assisted
in the repair of the wall, apparently on the
east side (Neh, iii. 30),
Haphra'im, a city of Issachar, men
tioned next to Shunem (Josh. xix. 19).
About 6 miles north-east of Lejjun, and 2
miles west of Solam (the ancient Shunem),
stands the village of el-'Afuleh, which may
possibly be the representative of Haphraira.
Ha'ra (l Chr. v. 26, only) is either a
jjlace utterly unknown, or it must be re
garded as identical with Haran or Charran.
Har'adah, a desert station of the Isra
elites (Num. xxxiii. 24, 25) ; its position is
uncertain. Ha'ran. 1. The third son of Terah, and
therefore youngest brother of Abram (Gen.
xi. 20). Three children .are ascribed to hira
— Lot (27, 31), and two daughters, viz., Mil
cah, who married her uncle Nahor (29), and
Isc.ah (29). Haran was born in Ur of the
Chaldees, and he died there while his father
was still living (28). 2. A Gershonite Le-
f ite in the time of David, one of the family
of Shimei (1 Chr. x.xiii. 9). 3. A son of
the great Caleb by his concubine Ephah
(1 Chr. ii. 46). 4. Haean or Charran

(Acts vii. 2, 4), name of the place whithei
Abraham migrated with his family from Ur
of the Chaldees, and where the descend
ants of his brother Nahor established them
selves (comp. Gen. xxiv. 10 with xxvii.
43). It is said to be in Mesopotamia (Gen.
xxiv. 10), or more definitely, in Padan-
Arara (xxv. 20), the cultivated district at
the foot of the hills, a name well applj'ing
to the beautiful stretch of country which
lies below Mount Masius between the Khar
bour and the Euphrates. Here, .about mid
way in this district, is a, small village still
called Harrdn. It was celebrated among
the Romans under the name of Charrae, as
the scene of the defeat of Crassus.
Ha'rarite, The. The designation of
three of David's guard, 1. Agee, a Ha
rarite (2 S.am. xxiii, 11), 2, Shammah the
Hararite (2 Sam. xxiii. 33). 3. Sharar
(2 Sara, xxiii. 33) or Sacar (1 Chr, xi, 35)
the Hararite, was the father of Ahiam,
another member of the guard.
Har'bona, the tMrd of the seven cham
berlains, or eunuchs, who served king
Ahasuerus (Esth. i. 10).
Har'bonah (Esth. vii, 9), the s.ame as
the preceding.
Hare (Heb, arnebeth) occurs only in
Lev. xi, 6 and Deut, xiv, 7, amongst tht
animals disallowed as food by the Mosaii
law. The hare is at this day called arnel
by the Arabs in Palestine and Syria. Il
was erroneously thought by the ancient
Jews to have chewed the cud. They werf
no doubt misled, as in the case of tin
shdphdn {Hyrax), by the habit these ani
mais have of moving the jaw about.
Harem. [House.]
Ha'reph, a name occurring in the gen
ealogies of Judah, as a son of Caleb, and
as "father of Beth-gader" (1 Chr. ii. 51,
only). Ha'reth, The Forest of, in which Da
vid took refuge, after, at the instigation of
the prophet Gad, he had quitted the " hold"
or fastness of the cave of Adullam (1 Sam.
xxii. 5).
Harhai'ah, father of Uzziel— (Neh.
iii. 8).
Har'has, an ancestor of Shallum the
husband of Huldah (2 K. xxii. 14).
Har'htir. The sons of Harhur were
among the Nethinim who returjied from
Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 51; Noh.
vii. 63^.
Ha'rim. 1. A priest who had charge
of the third division in the house of God
(1 Chr. xxiv. 8). 2, Bene-Harim, prob
ably descendants of the above,-to the num
ber of 1017, came up frora Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii. 39; Neh. vii, 42), 3,
It further occurs in a list of the families of
priests " who went up with Zerubbabel and
Jeshua," and of those who were their de
scendants in the next generation (Neh. xii.

HARIPII

229

HASHABIAH

15). 4, Another family of Bene-Harim,
three hunired and twenty in number, cnme
from the captivity in the same caravan (Ezr.
ii. 32; Neh. vii. 35). They also appear
among those who had married foreign wives
(Ezr. X. 31), as well as those who sealed
the covenant (Neh. x. 27).
Ha'riph. A hundred and twelve of the
Bene-llariph returned from the captivity
with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 24). The narae
occurs again-araong the " heads of the peo
ple" who sealed the covenant (x. 19).
Harlot. That this class of persons
existed in the earliest states of society is
clear frora Gen. xxxviii. 15. Rahab (Josh.
ii. 1) is said by the Chaldee paraph., to
have been an innkeeper, but if there were
such persons, considering what we know
of Canaanitish raorals (Lev. xviii. 27), we
may conclude that they would, if women,
have been of this class. The " harlots "
are classed with " publicans," as those who
lav under the ban of society in the N, T.
• (Matt. xxi. 32),
Har'nepher, one of the sons of Zophah,
of the tribe of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 36).
Ha'rod, The Well of, a. spring by
which Gideon and his great army encamped
on the morning of the day which ended in
the rout of the Midianites (Judg. vii, 1),
and where the trial of the people by their
mode of drinking apparently took place.
The Ain JalAd is very suitable to the cir
cumstances, as being at present the largest
spring in the neighborhood,
Ha'rodite, The, the design<ation of
two of the thirty -seven warriors of David's
guard, Shammah and Elika (2 Sam. xxiii.
25), doubtless derived from a place naraed
Harod. Har'oeh, a name occurring in the gen
ealogical hsts of Judah as one of the sons
of "Shobal, father of Kirjath-jearim" (1
Chr. ii. 52).
Ha'rorite, The, the title given to Sham-
moih, one of the warriors of David's guard
(1 Chr. xi. 27).
Har'osheth " of the Gentiles," so
called frora the mixed races that inhabited
it, a city in the north of the land of Canaan,
supposed to have stood on the west coast
of tbe lake Merom, from which the Jordan
issues forth in one unbroken stream. It
was the residence of Sisera, captain of Ja
bin, king of Canaan (Judg. iv. 2), and it was
the point to which the victorious Israelites
under Barak pursued the discomfited host
and chariots of the second potentate of that
n.ame (Judg. iv. 16).
Harp (Heb. kinndr). The kinndr was
tho national instrument of the Hebrews,
and was well known throughout Asia.
Moses assigns its invention to the antedilu
vian period (Gen. iv. 21). Josephus re
cords that the kinndr had ten strings, and
that it was played on Ji^ith the plectrum;

but this is in contradiction to what is set
forth in the 1st book of Samuel (xvi. 23,
xviii. 10"), that David played on the kinndr
with his hand. Probably there was a
smaller and a larger kinndr, and these may
have been played in different ways (1 Sam.
X. 5).
Harro-W. The word so rendered (2
Sam. xii. 31) 1 Chr. xx. 3, is prob.ably a
threshing-maeliine. The verb rendered " to
harrow" (Is. xxviii. 24; Job xxxix. 10;
Hos. X. 11) expresses apparently the break
ing of the clods, and is so far analogous to
our harrowing, but whether done by any
such machine as we call a "harrow," is
very doubtful.
Har'sha. Bene-Harsha were among
the families of Nethinim who came back
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 52 ;
Neh. vii. 54).
Hart. The hart is reckoned among the
clean animals (Deut. xii. 15, xiv. 5, xv. 22),
and seems, from the passages quoted, as well
as frora 1 K. iv. 23, to have been comraonly
killed for food. The Heb. masc. noun
ayydl denotes, there can be no doubt, some
species of Cervidae (de'er tribe), either the
Dama vulgaris, fallow-deer, or the Ccrvus
Barbarus, the Barbary deer.
Ha'rum. Father of Aharhel, in one of
the most obscure genealogies of Judah (1
Chr. iv. 8).
Haru'maph, father or ancestor of Jci-
aiah (Neh. iii. 10).
Haru'phite, The, the designation of
Shephatiah, one of the Korhites who re
paired to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 5).
Ha'ruz, a man of Jotbah, father of
MeshuUemeth, queen of Manasseh (2 K.
xxi. 19),
Harvest. [Agriculture.]
Hasadi'ah, one of a group of five per
sons among the descendiants of the royal
line of Judah (1 Chr. iii. 20), apparently
sons of Zerubbabel.
Hasenu'ah, a Benjamite, of one of tne
chief families in the tribe (1 Chr. ix. 7).
Hashabi'ah. 1. A Merarite Levite (1
Chr. vi. 45; Heb. 30). 2, Another Mera
rite Levite (1 Chr. ix. 14). 3. The fourth
of the six sons of Jeduthun (1 Chr. xxv.
3), who had charge of the twelfth course
(19). 4. One of the descendants of He
bron the son of Kohath (1 Chr, xxvi. 30).
5. The son of Kemuel, who was prince of
the tribe of Levi in the time of David (1
Chr. xxvii. 17). 6. A Levite, one of the
"chiefs" of his tribe, who officiated for
king Josiah at his great passover-feast (2
Chr. xxxv. 9). 7. A Merarite Levite who
accorapanied Ezra frora Babylon (Ezr. viii.
19). ,8. One of the chiefs of the priests
who forraed part of the same caravan (Ezr.
viii. 24). 9. Ruler of half the circuit or
environs of Keilah ; he repaired a portion
cf the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah

HASHABNAH

230

HAWK

(Neh, iii 17), 10. One of the Levites
who sealed the covenant of reformation
after the return from the captivity (Neh.
X. 11, xii. 24; comp. 26), 11, Another
Lcfite, son of Bunni (Neh. xi. 15), 12,
A Levite, son of Mattaniah (Neh. xi. 22).
13. A priest of the family of Hilkiah in
the days of Joiakim son of Jeshua (Neh.
xii, 21).
Hashab'nah, one of the chief of the
"people" who sealed the covenant with
Nehemiiih (Neh. x. 25).
Hashabni'ah. 1. Father of Hattush
(Neh. iii. 10). 2. ALevite who was araong
those who officiated at the great fast under
Ezra and Nehemiah when the covenant was
sealed (Neh. ix. 5).
Hashbad'ana, one of the men (prob
ably Levites) who stood on Ezra's left
hand while he read .the law to the people
in Jerusalem (Neh. viii. 4).
Ha'shem. The sons of Hashem tbe
Gizonite are named amongst the members
of David's guard in 1 Chr. xi. 34.
Hashmo'nah, a station of the Israel
ites, mentioned Num. xxxiii. 29, as next
before Sloseroth. '
Ha'shub. 1, A son of Pahath-Moab,
who assisted in the repair ofthe wall of
Jerusalem (Nell, iii. 11). 2. Anotherwho
assisted in the sarae work (Nell. iii. 23).
3. One of the heads of the people who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
X. 23). 4. A Merarite Levite (Neh. xi. 15).
Hashu'bah, i;he first of a group of five
men, apparently the latter half of the fami
ly of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 20).
Ha'shum. 1. Bene-Hashum, two hun
dred and twenty-three in nuraber, carae
back from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 19; Neh. vii. 22; Ezr. x. 33). The
chief man of the family was among those
who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh. X. 18). 2. One of the priests or
Levites who stood on Ezra's left hand while
he read the law to the congregation (Neh.
viii. 4).
Hashu'pha, one of the families of
Nethinim who returned fronl captivity in
the first caravan (Neh. vii. 46).
Has'rah, the form in which the name
Harhas is given in 2 Chr. xxxiv. 22 (comp*
2 K. xxii. 14),
Hassena'ah, The Bene-has-senaah re
built the fish-gate in the repair of the wall
of .Jerusalem (Neh. lii. 3),
Has'shub, a Merarite Levite (1 Chr,
ix. 14), mentioned again Neh. xi. 15.
Hasu'pha. Bene-Hasupha were among
the Nethinim who returned from Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii, 43),
Ha'tach, one of the eunuchs in the
court of Ahasuerus (Esth. iv. 5, 6, 9, 10),
Ha'thath, one of the sons of Othniel
tbe Kenazite (1 Chr. iv. 13),
Hat'ipha, Bene-Hatipha were among

the Nethenim who returned from BabyloB
with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii. 54; Neh, vii. 66),
Hat'ita, Bene-Hatita were among the
"porters" {i. e. the gate-keepers) who re
turned from the captivity with Zerubbabe]
(Ezr. ii. 42 ; Neh, vii, 45),
Hat'til, Bene-Hattil were among the
" children of Solomon's slaves " who came
back from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr
ii. 57; Neh. vii. 59),
Hat'tush. 1, A descendant of the
kings of Judah, apparently one of the sons
of Shechaniah (1 Chr, iii, 22), in the fourth
or fifth generation from Zerubbabel, A
person of the same name accompanied
Ezra from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezr, viii.
2). In another statement Hattush is said
to have returned with Zerubbabel (Neh.
xii. 2). 2. Son of Hashabniah; one of
those who assisted Nehemiah in the repair
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh, iii. 10),
Hau'ran, a province of Palestine twice
raentioned by Ezekiel (xlvii, 16, 18), There
can be little doubt that it is identical with
the well-known Greek province of Aura
nitis and the modern Ilaurdn.
Hav'ilah. 1. A son of Cush (Gen. x.
7) ; and, 2. A son of Joktan (x. 29). Va
rious theories have been advanced respect
ing these obscure peoples. It appears to
be most probable that both stocks settled
in the same country, and there intermar
ried ; thus receiving one name, and forming
one race, with a common descent. The
Cushite people of this name forraed the
westernmost colony of Cush along the south
of Arabia,
Hav'ilah (Gen. ii. 11), [Eden,]
Havoth-ja'ir, certain villages on tha
east of Jordan, in Gilead or Bashan, which
were taken by Jair the son of Manasseh,
and called after his name (Num, xxxii. 41;
Deut. iii. 14), In the records of Manas
seh in Josh, xiii. 30, and 1 Chr, ii, 23, the
Havoth-jair are reckoned with other dis
tricts as making up sixty " cities " (comp,
1 K. iv, 13), There is apparently some
confusion in these different statements as to
what the sixty cities really consisted of.
No less doubtful is the number of the Ha
voth-jair. In 1 Chr. ii. 22 they are speci
fied as twenty-three, but in Judg, a. 4, as
thirty, Ha-wk, the translation of the Hebrew
n6ts (Lev, xi. 16; Deut. xiv, 15; Job
xxxix. 26), The word is doubtless generic,
as appears from the expression in Deut.
andLev. "after his kind," and includes vari
ous species ofthe Falconidae. With respect
to the passage in Job {I. c), which appears
to allude to the raigratory habits of hawks,
it is curious to observe that of the ten or
twelve lesser raptors of Palestine, nearly
all are summer migrants. The kestrel re
mains all the year, but the others are all
migrants from the south.

HAY

231

HAZOR

Hay (Heb. chdtsir), the rendering of
the A. V. in Prov. xxvii. 26, and Is. xv, 6,
of the above-named Heb, term, which oc
curs frequently iu the O, T,, and denotes
"grass" of any kind, Harmer, quoting
from a MS.-j)aper of Sir J. Chardin, states
that hay is not made anywhere in the East,
and that the " hay" of the A, V, is there
fore an error of translation. It is quite
probable that the modern Orientals do not
make hay in our sense of the term ; but it
is certain that the ancients did mow their
grass, and probably made use of the dry
material. See Ps, xxxvii. 2, We may re
mark that there is an express Hebrew term
for "dry grass" or "hay," viz, chashash,
which, in the only two places where the
word occurs (Is. v. 24, xxxiii, 11) is ren
dered " chaff" in the A. V,
Haz'ael, a king of Damascus, who
reigned from about B. c. 886 to b. c. 840.
He appears to have been previously a per
son in a high position at the court of Ben
hadad, and was sent by his master to Elisha,
to inquire if he would recover from the
malady under which he was suffering.
Elisha's answer led to the murder of Ben
hadad by his ambitious servant, who forth
with mounted the throne (2 K. viii. 7-15).
He was soon engaged in hostilities with
Ahaziah king of Judah, and Jehoram king
of Israel, for the possession of the city of
Eamoth-Gilead (ibid. viii. 28), Towards
the close of the reign of Jehu, Hazael led
the Syrians against the Israelites (about
B, c, 860), whom he " smote in all their
coasts" (2 K. X, 32), thus accomplishing
the prophecy of Elisha (ibid. viii. 12). At
the close of his life, having taken Gath
(ibid, xii, 17; comp. Am. vi. 2), he pro
ceeded to attack Jerusalem (2 Chr. xxiv,
24), and was about to assault the city, when
Joash bribed him to retire (2 K, xii, 18),
Hazael appears to have died about the year
B, c. 840 (ibid, xiii, 24), having reigned 46
years, Hazai''ah, a man of Judah of the fam
ily of the Shilonites, or descendants of
Shelah (Neh. xi. 5).
H^'zar-ad'dar, &c. [Hazer.]
Hazarma'veth, the tliirJ, in order, of
the sons of Joktan (Gen, x, 26), The'
name is preserved in the Arabic Hadra-
mttwt and Hadrumdwi, the appell.ation of
a province .and an ancient people of South-
em Arabia, Its capital is Sathara, a very
ancient city, and its chief ports are Mirbdt,
Zafiri, and Kisheem, from whence a great
trade was carried on, in ancient^ times, with
India and Africa,
Hazel. The Hebrew term litz occurs
only in Gen, xxx, 37, Authorities are di
vided between the hazel and the almond
tree, as representing the Uz. The latter is
most probiibly correct,
Hazelelpo'ni, the sister of the sons of

Etam in the genealogies of Judah (1 Chr.
IV. 3).
Ha'zer, topographically, seems gener
ally employed for the " vill.ages " of people
in a roving and unsettled life, the semi-per-
m.anent collections of dwellings which are
described by travellers among the mod
ern Arabs to consist of rough stone walls
covered with the tent cloths. As a proper
name it appears in the A. V. : 1. In the
plural, Hazerim, and Hazekoth, for which
see below. 2. In the slightly different form
of Hazor. 3. In composition with other
words. 1. Hazar-addab, a place naraed as
one of the landmarks on the southern boun
dary of the land promised to Israel (Num,
xxxiv. 4; Adar, Josh. xv. 3). 2. Hazar-
ENAN, the place at which the northern
boundary of the land promised to the chil
dren of Israel was to terminate (Num.
xxxiv, 9, 10 ; corap. Ez. xlvii. 17, xlviii, 1),
3, Hazar-gaddah, one of the towns in the
southern district of Judah (Josh. xv. 27),
naraed between Moladah and Heshmon,
4. Hazar-shual, a town in the southern
district of Judah, lying between Hazar-
gaddah and Beersheba (Josh, xv. 28, xix.
3; 1 Chr. iv. 28). 5, Hazar-susah, one
of the ' ' cities " allotted to Simeon in the
extrerae south of the territory of Judah
(Josh, xix. 5).
Haze'rim. The Avims, or more accu
rately the Avvim, are said to have lived " in
the villages (A, V, ' Hazerira ') as far as
Gaza " (Deut. ii. 23) before their expulsion
by the Caphtorira.
Haze'roth (Num. xi. 35, xii. 16, xxxiii,
17; Deut, i, 1), a station of the Israelites
in the desert, and perhaps recognizable in
the Arabic Hudhera.
Haz'ezon-ta'mar, and Haz'azon-
ta'mar, the ancient name of Engedi (Gen,
xiv. 7). The name occurs in the records
of the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr, xx. 2),
Ha'ziel, a Levite in the time of David,
of the family of Shimei or Shimi, the
younger branch of the Gershonites (1 Chr
xxiii. 9).
Ha'zo, a son of Nahor, by Milcah his
wife (Gen. xxii, 22).
Ha'zor, 1, A fortified city, which on
the occupation of the country was allotted
to Naphtali (Josh. xix. 36). Its position
was apparently between Ramah and Kedesh
(ibid. xii. 19), on the high ground over
looking the Lake of Merom. ' There is no
reason for supposing it a different place
from thfit of whieh Jabin was king i^Josh.
xi. 1; Judg. iv. 2, 17; 1 Sam. xii. 9). It
was the princip.al city of the whol, of North
Palestine (Josh. xi. 10). It was fortified
by Solomon (1 K. iv. 15), and its inhabit
ants were carried captive by Tiglath-Pile
ser (2 K. XV. 29). The most probable site
of Hazor is TeU Khuraioeh. 2. One of
the " cities " of Judah in the extreme south

HEAD-DRESS

232

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO

named next in order to Kedesh (Josh, xv,
23). 3 Hazor-Hadattah = " new Hazor,"
another of the southern towns of Judah
(Josh. XV. 25). 4. A place in which the
Beqiamites resided after their return from
the captivity (Neh. xi. 33).
Head-cfress. The Hebrews do not ap
pear to have regardiid a covering for the
head as an essential article of dress. The
earliest notice we have of such a thing is
in connection with the sacerdotal vest
ments (Ex. xxviii. 40). We may in^er that
it was not ordinarily worn in the mosaic
age. Even in after times it seems to have
been reserved especially for purposes of
ornament ; thus the Tsdniph is noticed as
being worn by nobles (Job xxix. 14), ladies
(Is. iii. 23), and kings (Is. Ixii. 3), while
the Pe&r was an article of holiday dress
(Is. 1x1. 3, A. V. " beauty; " Ez. xxiv. 17,
23), and was worn at weddings (Is. Ixi.
10). The ordinary head-dress of the Bed
ouin consists of the keffieh, a square hand
kerchief, generally of red and yellow cotton,
or cotton and silk, folded so that three of
the corners hang dCwn over the back and
shoulders, leaving the face exposed, and
bound round the head by a cord. . It is not
improbable that a similar covering was used
by the Hebrews on certain occasions. The
Assyrian head-dress is described in Ez.
xxiii. 15, under the terms " exceeding in
dyed attire." The word rendered " hats "
in Dan. iii. 21, properly applies to a cloak.
Hearth. One way of baking much
practised in the East is to place the dough
on an iron plate, either laid on, or support
ed on legs above the vessel sunk in the
ground, whieh forms the oven. The cakes
baked " on the hearth" (Gen. xviii. 6) were
probably baked in the existing Bedouin
manner, on hot stones covered with ashes.
The "hearth" of king Jehoiakim's winter
palace (Jer. xxxvi. 23) was possibly a pan
or brazier of charcoal.
Heath. There seems no reason to
doubt Celsius' conclusion that the 'ar'dr
(Jer. xvii. 6), was some species of juniper,
probably the savin.
Heathen. [Gentiles.]
Heaven. There are four Hebrew words
thus rendered in the 0. T., which, we may
briefly notice. 1, RdkVa (A. V. firma
ment), [Firmament,] 2. Shdmayim.
This is tho word used in the expression
" the heaven •and the earth," or " the upper
and lower regions " (Gen. i. 1). 3. Mdrdm,
used for heaven in Ps. xviii. 16 ; Jer. xxv.
<W; Is. xxiv. 18. Properly speaking it
means a mountain, as in Ps. cii. 19 ; Ez.
xvii. 23. 4. Shechdkim, " exp.anses," with
reference to the extent of heaven (Deut.
xxxiii. 26; Job xxxv. 5). St. Paul's ex
pression " third heaven " (2 Cor. xii. 2) has
led to much conjecture. Grotius said that
the Jews divided the heaven into tliree

parts, viz., 1, the air or atmosphere, where
clouds gather; 2, the firmament, in which
the sun, moon, and stars are fixed ; 3, the
upper heaven, the abode of God and his
angels, He'ber. 1, Grandson of the patriarch
Asher (Gen. xlvi, 17 ; 1 Chr, vii. 31 ; Num,
xxvi, 45), from whom came the Heberites
(Num. xyvi. 45). 2. The patriarch Ebeb
(Luke iii. 35), [Eber.]
He'bre'W. This word first occurs as
given to Abram by the Canaanites (Gen.
xiv. 13) because he had crossed the Eu
phrates. The n.ame is also derived frora
'eber, "beyond, on the other side," but t'nis
is essentially the sarae with the preceding
explanation, since both imply that Abraham
and his posterity were called Hebrews in
order to express a distinction lietween the
races E. and W. of the Euphrates. It
would therefore appear that Hebrew was a
cis-Euphratian word applied to trans-Eu-
phratian imraigrants. 'The term Israelite
was used by the Jews of themselves among
themselves, the term Hebrew was the name
by which they were known to foreigners.
The latter was accepted by the Jews in
their external relations ; and after tho gen
eral substitution of the word Jew, it still
found a place in that marked and special
feature of national contradistinction, the
language. All the Books of the Old Tes
tament are written in the Hebrew language,
with the exception of the following pas
sages — Dan. ii. 4-vii. ; Ez, iv, 8-vi. 18, and
vii. 12-26 ; Jer. x. 11 — which are in Chal
dee. Both Hebrew and Chaldee are sister
dialects of a great faraily of languages, to
which the name of Semitic is usually given,
from the real or supposed descent of the
people speaking them from the patri
arch Shem, The dialects of this Semitic
family msiy be divided into three main
branches : 1, The Northern or Aramaean,
to whieh the Chaldee and Syriac belong,
2. The Southern, of which the Arabic is
the most important, and wliich also includes
the Ethiopic, 3. The Central, which com
prises the Hebrew and the dialects spoken
by the other inhabitants of Palestine, such
as the Canaanites and Phoenicians,
Hebre'ws, Epistle to the. There
has been a wide difference of opinion re
specting the authorship of this Epistle. The
superscription, the ordinary source of in
formation, is wanting ; but there is no rea
son to doubt that at first, everywhere, ex
cept in North Africa, St. Paul was regarded
as the author. Clement of Alexandria as-
scribed test. Luke the translation of the
Epistle into Greek from a Hebrew original
of St. Paul. Origen believed that the
thoughts were St. Paul's, the Language and
composition St. Luke's or Clement's of
Rome. TertuUian names Barnabas as the
reputed author according to the Ncth

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO 233

HEBRON

African tradition. Luther's conjecture that
Apollos was the author has been adopted
by many. The Epistle was probably ad
dressed to the Jews in Jerusalem and Pales
tine. The argument of the Epistle is such
as could be used with most effect to a church
consisting exclusively of Jews by birth,
personally familiar with and attached to the
Temple-service. It was evidently written
before the destruction of Jerusalem in a. d.
70. The whole argument, and specially
the passages viii. 4 and sq., ix. 6 and sq.,
and xiii. 10 and sq., imply that the Temple"
was standing, and that its usual course of
Divine service was carried on without in
terruption. The date which best agrees
with the traditionary account of the author
ship and destination of the Epistle is a. d.
63, about the end of St. Paul's imprison
ment at Rome, or a year after Albinus suc
ceeded Festus as Procurator. — We have
already seen that Clement of Alexandria
stated that the Epistle was written by St.
Paul in Hebrew, and translated by St. Luke
into Greek. But nothing is said to lead us
to regard it as a tradition, rather than a
conjecture suggested by the style of the
Epistle. In favor of a Greek original we
m.ay observe (1.) the purity and easy flow
of the Greek ; (2.) the use of Greek words
which could not be adequately expressed in
Hebrew without long periphrase ; (3.) the
use of paronomasia ; and (4.) the use of
the Septuagint in quotations and refer
ences. — With respect to the scope of the
Epistle, it should be recollected that, while
the numerous Christian churches scattered
throughout Judaea (Acts ix. 31 ; Gal. i. 22)
were continually exposed to persecution
frcm the Jews (1 Thess. ii. 14), there was
in Jerusalem one additional weapon in the
hands ofthe predominant oppressors ofthe
Christians, The magnificent national Tem
ple might be shut against the Hebrew
Christian ; and even if this afiliction were
not often laid upon him, yet there was
a secret burden which he bore within hira,
the knowledge tli.at the end of all the beauty
and awfulne.»s of Zion was rapidly approach
ing. What could take the place of the
Temple, and thatwhich was behind the veil,
and the Levitical sacrifices, and the Holy
City, when they should cease to exist?
What compensation could Christianity offer
him for the loss which was pressing the
Hebrew Christian raore and raore? The
writer of this Epistle meets the Hebrew
Christians on their own ground. His an
swer is — " Your-new faith gives you Christ,
and, in Christ, all you seek, all your fathers
•ought. In Christ the Son of God you have
an all-sufficient Mediator, nearer than
angels to the Father, eminent above Moses
as a benefactor, more sympathizing and
more prevailing than the High-priest as an
intercessor: His sabbath awaits you io

heaven; to His covenant the old was in
tended to be subservient ; His atonement is
the eternal reality of whieh sacrifices are
but the passing shadow ; His city heavenly,
not made with hands. Havino- Hira, be
lieve in Him with all your heart, with a
faith in the unseen future, strong as that of
the saints of old, patient under present, and
prepared for coming woe, full of energy,
and hope, and holiness, and love." Such
was the teaching of the Epistle to the He
brews. He'bron. 1. The third son of Kohath,
who was the second son of Levi ; the
younger brother of Araram, father of Moses
and Aaron (Ex. vi. 18; Num. iii. 19; 1
Chr. vi. 2, 18, xxiii. 12). The immediate
children of Hebron are not mentioned by
name (comp. Ex. vi. 21, 22), but he was
the founder of a family of Hebronites (Num.
iii. 27, xxvi. 58 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23, 30, 31) or
Bene-Hebron (1 Chr. xv. 9, .x.xiii. 19). 2.
A city of Judah (Josh. xv. 54) ; situated
araong the mountains (Josh. xx. 7), 20
Roman railes south of Jerusalem, and the
same distance north of Beersheba. Hebron
is one of the raost ancient cities in the
world still existing ; and in this respect it is
the rival of Damascus. It was built, says
a sacred writer, " seven years before Zoan
in Egypt" (Nura. xiii. 22) ; andwasawell-
known town when Abrahara entered Canaan
3780 years ago (Gen. xiii. 18). Its original
narae was Kirjath-Arba (Judg. i. 10), "the
city of Arba ; " so called from Arba, the
father of Anak, and progenitor of the giant
Anakim (Josh. xxi. 14, xv. 13, 14). The
chief interest of this city arises from its
having been the scene »f some of the most
striking events in the lives ofthe patriarchs.
Sarah died at Hebron ; and Abraham then
bought from Ephron the Hittite the field
and cave of Machpelah, to serve as a family
tomb (Gen. xxiii. 2-20), The cave is still
there ; and the raassive walls ofthe Haram
or mosque, within which it lies, form the
most remarkable object in the whole city
Abraham is called by Mohammedans el'
Khulil, " the Friend," i. e. of God, and
this is the modern narae of Hebron. He
bron now contains about 5000 inhabitants,
of whom some 50 families are Jews. It is
picturesquely situated in a narrow valley,
surrounded by rocky hills. The vallej
runs from north to south ; and the main
quarter of the town, surmounted by the
lofty walls of the venerable Haram, lies
partly on the eastern slope (Gen. xx.xvii.
14; comp, xxiii- 19)- About a mile from the
town, up the valley, is one of the largest
oak-trees in Palestine. This, say some.
Is the very tree beneath which Abraham
pitched his tent, and it still bears the narae
of the patriarch. 3. One of the towns in
the territory of Asher (Josh, xix, 28), on
the boundary cf the tribe. It is not cer«

HEBRONITES

234

HELL

tain whether the name should not rather be
Ebdon or Abdon, since that form is found
in many MSS.
Heb'ronites, The. A family of Ko
hathite Levites, descendants of Hebron the
son of Kohath (Num. iii. 27, xxvi. 58 ; 1
Chr. xxvi. 23),
Hedge, The Heb, words thus ren
dered denote simply that which surrounds
or encloses, whether it be a stone wall
{geder, Prov, xxiv, 31 ; Ez, xiii. 10) or a
fence of other materials. The stone walls
which surround the sheepfolds of modern
Palestine are frequently crowned with sharp
thorns. Hega'i, one of the eunuchs (A. V.
" chamberlains ") of the court of Ahasuerus
(Esth. ii. 8, 15).
He'ge, another form of the preceding
(Esth. ii. 3).
Heifer. The Hebrew language has no
expression that exactly corresponds to
our heifer ; for both eglah and parah are
applied to cows that have calved (1 Sam.
vi. 7-12 ; Job xxi, 10 ; Is, vii. 21), The
heifef or young cow was not commonly
used for ploughing, but only for treading
out the corn (Hos, x, 11 ; but see Judg. xiv,
18), when it ran about without any head
stall (Deut. xxv. 4) ; hence the expression
an "unbroken heifer" (Hos. iv. 16; A. V.
"backsliding"), to which Israel is com
pared. Heir, The Hebrew institutions relative
to inheritance were of a very simple char
acter. Under the Patriarchal system the
property was divided among the sons of
the legitimate wives (Gen. xxi. 10, xxiv.
36, xxv. 5), a largei*portion being assigned
to one, generally the eldest, on whom de
volved the duty of maintaining the females
of the family. The sons of concubines
were portioned off with presents (Gen. xxv.
6), At a later period the exclusion- of the
sons of concubines was rigidly enforced
(Judg, xi. 1, ff.). Daughters had no share
in the patrimony (Gen. xxi, 14), but re
ceived a marriage portion. The Mosaic
law regulated the succession to real prop
erty thus : it was to be divided among the
sons, the eldest receiving a double portion
(Deut, xxi. 17) , the others equal shares ;
hf there were no sons, it went to the daugh
ters (Num, xxvii, 8), on the condition that
they did not marry out of their own tribe
(Nura, xxxvi, 6, ff. ; Tob. vi, 12, vii. 13),
utherwise the patrimony was forfeited. If
there were no daughters, it went to the
brother of tbe deceased ; if no brother, to
the paternal uncle ; and, failing these, to the
next of kin (Num, xxvii. 9-11).
He'lah, one of the two wives of Ashur,
father of Tekoa (1 Chr. iv. 5).
He'lam, a place east of the Jordan, but
west of the Euphrates, at wliich the Syrians
were collected by Hadarezer, and at which

D.ivid met and defeated them (2 Sam. x.
16, 17). , •
Hel'bah, a town of Asher, probably on
the plain of Phoenicia, not far from Sidon
(Judg. i, 31),
Hel'bon, a place mentioned only in
Ezekiel xxvii. Geographers have hitherto
represented Helbon as identical with the
city of Aleppo, called Haleb by the Arabs;
but there are strong reasons against this, and
the ancient city must be identified with a
village within a few miles of Damascus,
StiU bearing the ancient name Helbon, and
still celebrated as producing the finest
grapes in the country,
Hel'dai, 1, The twelfth captain of the-
monthly courses for the temple service (1
Chr. xxvii. 15). 2. An Israelite who seems
to have returned from the Captivity (Zech.
vi. 10),
He'leb, son of Baanah, the Netophath
ite, one of the heroes of king David's guard
(2 Sam, xxiii, 29), In the parallel Ust
the name is given as ^
He'led, 1 Chr. xi. 30. [Heleb.]
He'lek, one of the descendants of Ma
nasseh, and second son of Gilead (Num*
xxvi. 30).
He'lekites, The, the family descended
frora the foregoing (Num. xxvi. 30).
He'lem. 1. A descendant of Asher (1
Chr, vii. 35), 2. A man mentioned only
in Zech. vi. 14, Apparently the s.ame as
Heldai, He'leph, the place from which the
boundary of the tribe of Naphtali started
(Josh, xix, 33).
He'lez. 1. One of " the thirty" of Da
vid's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chr. xi,
27), an Epbraimite, and captain ofthe sev
enth monthly course (1 Chr. xxvii. 10. 2,
A man of Judah, son of Azariah (1 Chr,
ii. 39),
He'li, the father of Joseph, the husband
of the Virgin Mary (Luke iii, 23) ; main
tained by Lord A. Hervey, the latest inves
tigator of the genealogy of Christ, to have
been the real brother of Jacob, the father
of the Virgin herself,
Hel'kath, the town named as the start
ing-point for the boundary of the tribe of
Asher (Josh, xix, 25), and allotted with its
"suburbs" to the Gershonite Levites (xxi..
31). Its site has not been recovered,
Hel'kath Haz'zurim, a smooth piece
of ground, apparently close to the pool of
Gibeon, where the combat took place be
tween the two parties of Joab's meii and
Abner's men, which ended in the death of
the whole of the combatants, and brought
on a general battle (2 Sam, ii, 16) .
Hell, This is the word generally and
unfortunately used by our translators to
render the Hebrew Sheol. It would per
haps have been better to retain the Hebrew
-yord Sheol, or else render it always by

HELLENllsT

235

HENADAD

"the grave " or " the pit," It is deep (Jo'u
xi, 8) and dark (Job xi, 21, 22) in the cen
tre of the earth (Num. xvi, 30 ; Deut, xxxii,
22), having within it depths on depths
(Prov. ix. 18), .and fastened with gates (Is.
xxxviii. 10) and bars (Job xvii. 16). In
this cavernous realm are the souls of dead
mon, the Rephaim and ill spirits (Ps. Ixxxvi.
13,-lxxxis. 48; Prov. xxiii. 14; Ez. xxxi.
17, xxxii. 21). It is clear that in many
passages of the O, T, Sheol can only mean
"the grave," and is so rendered in the
A, V, (see, for example. Gen, xxxvii, 35,
xiii, 38; 1 Sam, ii, 0; Job xiv. 13). In
other passages, however, it seems to involve
a notion of punishment, and is therefore
rendered in the A. V. by the word "Hell."
But in many cases this translation misleads
the reader. It is obvious, for instance,
that Job xi. 8 ; Ps. cxxxix. 8 ; Am. ix. 2
(where "hell" is used as the antithesis of
"heaven"), merely illustrate the Jewish
notions of the locality of Sheol in the bow
els of the earth. In the N, T. the word
Hades, like Sheol, sometimes means merely
"tbe grave" (Rev, xx. 13; Acts ii. 31; 1
Cor. XV, 55), or in general "the unseen
world." It is in this sense that the creeds
say of our Lord, " He went down into hell,"
meaning the state of the dead in general,
MTithout any restriction of happiness or mis
ery, a doctrine certainly, though only vir
tually, expressed in Scripture (Eph. iv. 9 ;
Acts ii. 25-31). Elsewhere in the N, T,
Hades is used of a place of torment (Luke
xvi, 23 ;¦ 2 Pet. ii. 4 ; M,att. xi. 23, &c. Con
sequently it has been the prevalent, almost
the universal, notion that Hades is an inter
mediate state between death and resurrec
tion, divided into two parts, one the abode
of the blessed, and the other of the lost.
In holding tills view, main reliance is placed
on the parable of Dives and Lazarus ; but
it is impossible to ground the proof of an
important theological doctrine on a passage
which confessedly abounds in Jewish meta
phors. The word most frequently used in
the N. T. for the place of future punish
ment is Gehenna or Gehenna of fire. [Ge
henna and Hinnom.]
Hellenist. In one of the earliest no
tices of the first Christian Church at Jeru
salem (Acts vi, 1), two distinct parties
are recognized among its members, "He
brews " and " Hellenists " (Grecians), who
appear to stand towards one another in
some degree in a relation of jealous rivalry
(comp. Acts ix, 29). The name, accord
ing to its derivation, marks a class distin-
ittished by peculiar habits, and not by
aesceut. Thus the Hellenists as a body
included not only the proselytes of Greek
Cor foreign) parentage, but also those Jews
who, by settling in foreign countries, had
ftdopted the prevalent form of the current

Greek en ilization, and with it the use of
the common Greek dialect.
Helmet. [Arms.]
He'lon, father of Eliab, of the tribe of
Zebulun (Num. i. 9, ii. 7, vii. 24, 29, x. 16).
Hem of Garment. The importance
which the later Jews, espeei.ally the Phar
isees (Matt, xxiii. 5), attached to the hem
or fringe of their garments was founded
upon the regulation in Num. xv, 38, 39,
which gave a symbolical raeaning to it,
He'mam. Hori and Hemam were sons
of Lotan, the eldest son of Seir (Gen, xxxvi.
22). He'man. 1. Son of Zer.ah (1 Chr. ii.
6 ; IK. iv. 31). 2. Son of Joel, and grand
son of Samuel the prophet, a Kohathite.
He is called " the singer," rather the musi
cian (1 Chr. vi. 33), and was the first of
the three Levites to whom was committed
the vocal and instrumental music of the
temple-service iu the reign of David (1 Chr.
XV. 16-22), Asaph and Ethan, or rather
according to xxv. 1, 3, Jeduthan, being his
colleagues. A further account of Heman
is given 1 Chr. xxv., where he is called
(ver. 5) " the king's seer in the matters of
God." Whether or no this Heman is the
person to whom the 88th Psalm is ascribed
is doubtful. He is there called " the Ez
rahite ; " and the 89th Psalm is ascribed to
" Ethan the Ezrahite,"
He'math, a person, or place, named iu
the genealogical lists of Judah, as the origin
of the Kenites, and the "father" of tha
house of RECH-4.n (1 Chr. ii. 55).
Hem'dan, the eldest son of Dishon,
son of Anah the Horite (Gen. xxxvi. 26) .
[Amram 2.]
Hemlock. The Hebrew rdsh is ren
dered " hemlock " in two passages (Hos. x.
4; Am. vi. 12), but elsewhere "gall."
[Gall,] Hen, According to the A. V. of Zech,
vi, 14, Hen is a son of Zephaniah, and ap
parently the same who is called Josiah in
ver. 10, But by the LXX. and others, the
words are taken to mean " for the favor of
the son of Zephaniah."
Hen. The hen is nowhere noticed in
the Bible except iu Matt, xxiii. 37 ; Luke
xiii, 34. That a bird so comraon in-Pales-
tine should receive such slight notice, is
certainly singular,
He'na seeras to have been one of the
chief cities of a monarchical state wMchthe
Assyrian kings had reduced shortly before
the tirae of Sennacherib (2 K. xix. 13 ; Is,
xxxvii. 13), At no great distance from
Sippara (now if osaiJ), is an ancient town
called Ana or Anah, which may be the
same as Hena,
Heu'adad, the head of a family of the
Levites who took a prominent part in th«
rebuilding ofthe Temple (Ezr, iii, 91.

HENOCH

236

HERMONITES

He'nooh. 1. Enoch 2 (1 Chr, i, 3),
2. Hanoch 1 (1 Chr. i. 33).
He'pher. 1. The youngest of the sons
of Gilead (Num. xxvi. 32), and head of the
family of the Hepherites. 2. Son of
Ashur, the " father of Tekoa" (1 Chr, iv.
6), 3. The Meeherathite, one ofthe heroes
of David's guard (1 Chr. xi. 36),
He'pher, a place in ancient Canaan,
which occurs in the list of conquered kings
(Josh. xii. 17). It was on the west of Jor
dan (comp. 7 and 1 K. iv. 10.)
He'pherites, The, the family of He-
pher the son of Gilead (Nura. xxvi, 32),
Heph'zi-bah. 1. A name signifying
" My delight in her," which is to be borne
by the restored Jerusalem (Is. Ixii. 4), 2,
The queen of king Hezekiah, and the
mother of Manasseh (2 K. xxi. 1),
Herald. The only notice of this officer
m the O. T. occurs in Dan. iii. 4. The
term " herald," might be substituted for
" preacher " in 1 Tim. ii. 7 ; 2 Tim. i. 11 ; 2
Pet. ii. 5.
Herd, Herdsman. The herd was
greatly regarded both in the patriarchal and
Mosaic period. The ox was the most
precious stock next to horse and mule.
The herd yielded the most esteemed sacri
fice (Num. vu. 3 ; Ps. Ixix. 31 ; Is. l.xvi. 3) ;
also flesh meat, and milk, chiefly converted,
probably, into butter and cheese (Deut.
xxx. ii. 14; 2 Sara. xvii. 29). Tho full-
grown ox is hardly ever slaughtered in
Syria ; but, both for sacrificial and convivial
purposes, the young aniraal was preferred
(Ex. xxix. 1). The agricultural and general
usefulness ofthe ox, in ploughing, threshing,
and as a beast of burden (1 Chr. xii. 40; Is.
xlvi. 1), made such a slaughtering seem
wasteful. Herdsmen, &c., in Egypt were
a low, perhaps the lowest caste ; but of the
abundance of cattle in Egypt, and of the
care there bestowed on them, there is no
doubt (Gen. xlvii. 6, 17 ; Ex. ix. 4, 20). So
the plague of hail was sent to smite espe
cially tbe cattle (Ps. Ixxviii. 48), the first
born of wliich also were smitten (Ex. xii. 29) .
The Israelites departing stipulated for (Ex.
X, 26) and took " much cattle " with them
(xii. 38). Cattle forraed thus one of the
traditions of the Israelitish nation in its
greatest period, and became almost a part
of that greatness. The occupation of herds-
roan was honorable in early times (Gen.
xlvii. 6; 1 Sam. xi, 5;.l Olir. xxvii, 29,
xxviii. 1). S.aul himself resumed it in the
interval of his cares as king ; also Doeg was
certainly high in his confidence (1 Sara.
xxi. 7). Pharaoh raade some of Joseph's
brethren " rulers over his cattle." David's
herd-masters were among his chief officers
01 state. The prophet Amos at first fol
lowed this occupation (Am. i. 1, vii. 14).
He'resh, a Levite attached to the taber
nacle (1 Cbr. ix. 15)

Her'mas, the name of a Christian resi
dent at Rome to whom St. .Paul sends greet
ing in his Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14).
Irenaeus, TertuUian, and Origen agree in
attributing to him the work called the
Shepherd : which is supposed to have been
written in the pontificate of Clement I.;
while others affirm it to have been the work
of a namesake in the following age. Jt ex
isted for a long time only in a Latin ver
sion, but the first part in Greek is to be
found at the end of the Codex Sinaiticus.
It was never received into the canon ; but
yet was generally cited with respect only
second to that which was paid to the author
itative books of the N. T.
Her'mes, a Christian mentioned in
Rom, xvi. 14. According to tradition lie
was one ofthe Seventy disciples, and after
wards Bishop of Dalmatia,
Hermog'enes, a person mentioned by
St, Paul in the latest of all his Epistles
(2 Tim. i. 15) when aU in Asia had turned
away from liim, and among their number
" Phygellus and Hermogenes."
Her'mon, a mountain on the north
eastern border of Palestine (Deut. iii. 8;
Josh, xii, 1), over against Lebanon (Josh.
xi, 17), adjoining the plateau of Bashan
(1 Chr. V. 23). It stands at the southern
end, and is the culminating point of the
anti-Libanus range ; it towers high above
the ancient border city of Dan and the foun
tains of the Jordan, and is the most con
spicuous and beautiful mountain in Pales
tine or Syria, The name Hermon was
doubtless suggested by its appearance —
" a lofty prominent peak," visible from afar.
The Sidonians called it Sirion, and the
Amorites Shenir. It was also named Sion,
"the elevated" (Deut. iv. 48). So now,
at the present day, it is called Jebel esh-
Sheikh, " the chief mountain ; " and Jebel
eth-Thelj, " snowy mountain," When the
whole country is parched with the summer
sun, white lines of snow streak the head of
Hermon, This mountain was the great
landmark of the Israelites, It was associ
ated with their northern border almost as
intimately as the sea was with the western,
Hermon has three summits, situated like
the angles of a triangle, and about a quarter
of a mile from each other. This may ac
count for the expression in Ps, xiii. 7 (6),
"IwUl remember thee from the land of
the Jordan and tho Ilermons." In two pas
sages of Scripture this mountain is called
Baal-hermon (Judg. iii, 3; 1 Chr. v. 23),
possibly becausi Baal was there worshipped.
The height of Hermon has never been
measured, though it has often been estimat
ed. It may safely be reckoned at 10,000
feet, Her'monites, The, Properly "the
Hermons," with reference to the three sum-
mits of Mount Hermon (Ps. xiii. 6 [7]).

HEROD

237

HEROD

Her od. This family, though of Idu
maean origin, and thus aUens by race, were
Jews in faith. I, Herod the Great was
the second son of Antipater, an Idumaean,
who was appointed Procurator of Judaea
by Julius Caesar, b, c. 47, and Cypres, an
Arabian of noble descent. At the time of
bis father's elevation, though only fifteen
years old, he received the government of
GalUee, and shortly afterwards that of
COele-Syria, When Antony carae to Syria,
B. c. 41, he appointed Herod and his elder
brother Phasael tetrarchs of Judaea. Her
od was forced to abandon Judaea next year
by an invasion of the Parthians, who sup
ported the claims of Antigonus, the rep
resentative of the Asmonaean dynasty,
and fled to Rome (b. c. 40). At Rome he
was well received by Antony and Octavian,
and was appointed by the senate king of
Judaea to the exclusion of the Hasmonean
line. In the course of a few years, by the
help of the Romans, he took Jerusalem
(b. c. 37), and completely established his
authority throughout his dominions. After
the battle of Actium he visited Octavian at
Rhodes, and his noble bearing won for hira
the favor of the conqueror, who confirmed
him in the possession of the kingdom, b, c,
31, and in tbe next year increased it hy the
addition of several important cities, and
afterwards gave him the province of Trach
onitis and the district of Paneas, The
remainder of the reign of Herod was un
disturbed by external troubles, but his do
mestic life was embittered hy an almost
uninterrupted series of injuries and cruel
acts of vengeance. The terrible acts of
bloodshed which Herod perpetrated in his
own family were accompanied by others
among his subjects equally terrible, from
the number who fell victims to them. Ac
cording to the well-known story, he or
dered the nobles whom he had called to
him in his last moments to be executed
immediately after his decease, that so at
least his death might be attended by uni
versal mourning. It was at the time of
his fatal illness that he must have caused
the slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem
(Matt. ii. 16-18), and from the comparative
Insignificance of the murder of a few young
children in an unimportant village when
contrasted with the deeds which he carried
out or designed, it is not surprising that
Josephus has passed it over in silence. In
dealing with the religious feelings or pre
judices of the Jews, Herod showed as
groat contempt for public opinion as in the
execution of his personal vengeance. But
wlule he alienated in this manner the affec
tions of the Jews by his cruelty and disre
gard for the Law, he adorned Jerusalem
with many splendid monuments of his tas^te
and magnifioeu'-e. The Temple, which he
Wbuilt with scrupulous care, was the great

est of those works. The restoration was
begun B. c. 20, and the Temple itself was
completed in a year and a half. But fresh
additions were constantly made in succeed
ing years, so that it was said that the Tem
ple was "built in forty and six years"
(John ii. 20), a phrase which expresses tbe
whole period from the comraencement of
Herod's work to the completion of the
latest addition then raade. II. Herod An
tipas was the son of Herod the Great by
Malthace, a Saraarit.an. His father had
origiuiiUy destined him as his successor in
the kingdom, but by the last change of his
will appointed him " tetrarch of Galilee and
Peraea " (Matt. xiv. 1 ; Luke iii, 19, ix. 7 ;
Acts xiii. 1, Cf. Luke iii. 1), He first mar
ried a daughter of Aretas, " king of Ara
bia Petraea," but after some time he made
overtures of marriage to Herodias, the
wife of his half-brother Herod Philip, which
she received favorably, Aretas, indignant
at the insult offered to his daughter, found
a pretext for invading the territory of
Herod, and defeated him with great loss.
This defeat, according to the famous pas
sage in Josephus, was attributed by many
to the murder of John the Baptist, which
had been committed by Antipas shortly be
fore, under the influence of Herodias (Matt
xiv. 4, ff. ; Mark vi. 17, ff. ; Luke iii, 19),
At a later time the ambition of Herodias
proved the cause of her husband's ruin.
She urged him to go to Rome to gain
the title of king (cf, Mark vi. 14) ; but
he was opposed at the court of Caligula
by the emissaries of Agrippa, and con
demned to perpetual banishment at Lug-
dunum, a. d. 39. Herodias voluntarily
shared his punishment, and he died in ex
ile. Pilate took occasion from our Lord's
residence in Galilee to send Him for exara-
ination (Luke xxiii. 6, ff.) to Herod Antipas,
who came up to Jerusalem to celebrate the
Passover. The city of Tiberias, which An
tipas founded and named in honor ofthe em
peror, was the most conspicuous monument
of his long reign. III. Herod Philip I.
(Philip, M<ark vi. 17) was the son of Herod
the Great and Mariamne, and must be
carefully distinguished from the tetrarch
Philip. He married Herodias, the sister
of Agrippa I., by whom he had a daughter
Salome, Herodias, however, left him, and
made an infamous raarriage with his half-
brother Herod Antipas (Matt, xiv, 3 ; Mark
vi. 17; Luke iii. 19). He was excluded
from all share in his father's possessions in
consequence of his mother's treachery, and
lived afterwards in a private station. IV,
Herod Philip II. was the son of Herod the
Great and Cleopatra. Like his half-brothers
Antipas and Archelaus, he was brought up
at home. He received as his own govern
ment Batanea, Trachonitis, Auranitis (Gau-
louitis) and some parts about Jamnia, with

HEROD

238

HESED

the title of tetrarch (Luke iii. 1). He 1
built a new city on the site of Paneas, near
the sources of the Jordan, which he called
Caesarea (Matt. xvi. 13; Mark viii, 27),
and raised Bethsaida to the rank of a city
under the title of Julias, and died there
A. D. 34, He married Salome, the daughter
of Ilerod PhUip I. and Herodias. V,
Herod Agrippa I. was tbe son of Aristo-
bulus and Berenice, and grandson of Her
od the Great, He was brought up at
Rome with Claudius and Drusus, and after
a life*of various vicissitudes, was thrown
into prison by Tiberius, where he remained
tiU the accession of Caius (CaUgula) A. D
37, The new emperor gave him the gov
ernments forraerly held by the tetrarchs
Philip and Lysanias, and bestowed on him
the ensigns of royalty and other marks of
favor (Acts xii. 1). On the banishment
of Antipas, his dominions were added to
those already held by Agrippa, After
wards Agrippa rendered important ser
vices to Claudius, and received from him
in return (a, d. 41) the government of
Judaea and Saraaria, Unlike his prede
cessors, Agrippa was a strict observer of
the Law, and he sought with success the
favor of the Jews. It is probable that it
was with this view he put to death James
the son of Zebedee, and further imprisoned
Peter (Acts xii. 1, ff.). But his sudden
death interrupted his ambitious projects.
In tho fourth year of his reign over the
whole of Judaea (a. d. 44) Agrippa attend
ed some games at Caesarea, held in honor
of the Emperor, When he appeared in the
theatre (Acts xii. 21) his flatterers saluted
him as a god ; and suddenly he was seized
with terrible pains, and being carried from
the theatre to the palace died after five
days' agony. VI. Herod Agrippa II,
was the son of Herod Agrippa I. and
Cj'pros, a grand-niece of Herod tho Great,
At the tirae of the death of his father a. d,
44, he was at Rome, Not long .afterwards,
however, the Emperor gave him (about
A, D. 50) the kingdom of Chalcis, which had
belonged to his uncle ; and then transferred
him (a. d. 52) to the tetr.archies formerly
held by Philip and Lysanias, with the title
of king (Acts xxv. 13). "The relation in
which he stood to his sister Berenice (Acts
xxv. 13) was the cause of grave suspicion.
In the last Roman war Agrippa took part
with the Romans, and after the fall of
Jerusalem retired with Berenice to Rome,
where he died in the third year of Tr.ajan
(a. d. 100). The appearance of St. Paul
before Agrippa (a. d. 00) offers several
characteristic traits. The " pomp " with
which tbe Icing came into the audience
chamber (Acts xxv. 23) was accordant
with his general bearing; and the cold
irony with which he met the impassioned
words of tho Apostle (Acts xxvi. 27, 28)

suits the temper of one who was contented
to take part in the destruction of his na-
'^°Hero'dlanS. In the account which is
siven by St. Matthew (xxii. 15, ff.) and
St Mark (xii. 13, ff.) of the last efforts
made by different sections of the Jews to
obtain from our Lord Himself the mate
rials for His accusation, a party under the
name of Herodians is represented as act
ing in concert with the Pharisees (Matt.
xxii. 16; Mark xii. 13; comp. also iii. 6,
viii, 15), There were probably many who
saw in tbe power of the Herodian family
the pledge of the preservation of their na
tional existence in the face of Roraan am
bition. Two distinct classes might thus
unite in supporting what was a domestic
tyranny as contrasted vith absolute depen
dence on Rome : those who saw in the
Herods a protection against direct heathen
rule, and those who were incUned to look
with satisfaction upon such a compromise
between the ancient faith and heathen civ
ilization, as Herod the Great and his sue- '
cessors had endeavored to realize, as the
true and highest consummation of Jewish
hopes, Hero'dias, daughter of Aristobulus, one
of the sons of Mariamne and Herod the
Great, and consequently sister of Agrippa
I, She first married Herod Philip I. ; then
she eloped from him to marry Herod Anti
pas, her step-uncle, who had been long
married to, and was still livmg with, the
daughter of Aeneas or Aretas, king of
Arabia, The consequences both of the
crime, and of the reproof which it in
curred, are well known, Aretas made
war upon Herod for the injury done to
his daughter, and routed him with the bss
of his whole army. The head of John the
Baptist was granted to the request of He
rodias (Matt, xiv. 8-11; Mark vi. 24-28),
According to Josephus the execution took
place in a fortress caUed Machaerus, look
ing down upon the Dead Sea from the
south. She accompanied Antipas into ex
ile to Lugdunum.
Hero'dion, a relative of St, Paul, to
whora he sen,ds his salutation amongst tho
Christians oif the Roman Church (Rom.
xvi. 11).
Heron. The Hebrew andphah appears
as the name of an unclean bird in Lev. xi.
19, Deut. xiv. 18. It was probably a ge
neric name for a well-known class of birds.
The only point on which any two commen
tators seem to agree is, that it is not the
heron. On etymological grounds, Geseniua
considers the name applicable to some irri
table bird, perhaps the goose.
He'sed, the .son of Hesed, or Ben-
Chesed, was commissary for Soloraon in
the district of " the Arubboth, Socoh, and
aU the land of Hepher " (I K. iv. 10),

HESHBON

239

HEZEKIAH

Hesh'bon, the capital city of Sihon
king of the Amorites (Num. xxi. 26). It
stood on the western border of the high
plain {Mishor, Josh. xiii. 17), and on the
boundary-Une between the tribes of Reuben
and Gad. The ruins of Hesbdn, 20 miles
east of the Jordan, on the parallel of the
northern end of the Dead Sea, mark the
site, as they bear the name, of the ancient
Heshbon. There are many cisterns among
the ruins (comp. Cant. -vii. 4).
Hesh'mon, a place named, with others,
as lying in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 27).
Hes'ron. Hezron, the son of Reuben
(Num. xxvi. 6), and ancestor of the Hez
ronites. Heth, the forefather of the nation of the
Hittites. In the genealogical tables of
Gen. X. and 1 Chr. i., Heth is a son of
Canaan. The Hittites were therefore a
Hamite race, neither ofthe " country " nor
the "kindred" of Abraham and Isaac
(Gen. xxiv. 3, 4, xxviii. 1, 2).
Heth'lon, the name of a place on the
northern border of Palestine (Ez. xlvii. 15,
xlviii. 1). In all probability the " way of
Hctblon " is the pass at the northern end
of Lebanon, and is thus identical with " the
entrance of Hamath" in Num. xxxiv. 8, &c.
Hez'ekl, a Benjaminite, one of the
Bene-Elpaal, a descendant of Shaaraim
(1 Chi. viii. 17).
Hezeki'ah. 1. Twelfth king of Judah,
son ofthe apostate Ahaz and Abi (or Abijah),
ascended the throne at the age of 25, b. c.
726. Hezekiah was one of the three most
perfect kings of Judah (2K. xviii. 5 ; Ecclus.
xlix. 4). His first act was to purge, and
repair, and reopen with splendid sacrifices
and perfect ceremonial, the T.eraple, which
had been despoiled and neglected during
the careless and idolatrous reign of his fa
ther. This consecration was accorapanied
by a revival of the theocratic spirit, so
strict as not even to spare " the high
places," whieh, although tolerated by many
well-intentioned kings, had naturally been
profaned by the worship of images and
Asherahs (2 K. xviii. 4). A still more de
cisive act was the destruction of a brazen
serpent, said to have been the one used by
Moses in the miraculous healing of the
Israelites (Num. xxi. 9), which had become
an object of adoration. When the kingdom
of Israel had fallen, Hezekiah extended his
pious endeavors to Ephraim and Manas
seh ; and by inviting the scattered inhabit
ants to a peculiar Passover, kindled their
indignation also against the idolatrous prac
tices which still continued among them.
This Passover was, from the necessities of
the case, celebrated at an unusual, though
not illegal (Num ix. 10, 11) tirae; and by
an excess of Levitical zeal it was continued
for the unprecedented period of fourteen |

days (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi.). Ai the
head of a repentant and united people,
Hezekiah ventured to assume the aggres
sive against tbe Philistines ; and in a series
of victories not only rewon the cities which
his father had lost (2 Chr. xxviii. 18), but
even dispossessed them of their own cities,
except Gaza (2 K. xviii. 8) and Gath. It
was perhaps to the purposes of this war that
he applied the raoney whieh would other
wise have been used to pay the tribute ex
acted by Shalmaneser, according to the
agreement of Ahaz with his predecessor,
Tiglath-Pileser. When, after the capture
of Samaria, the king of Assyria applied for
this impost, Hezekiah refused it, and in
open rebellion omitted to send even the
usual presents (2 K. xviii. 7). Instant war
was averted by the heroic and long-con
tinued resistance of the Tyrians under their
king Eluloeus. This raust have been a
critical and intensely anxious period for
Jerusalem ; and Hezekiah used every avail
able means to strengthen his position, and
render his capital impregnable (2 K. xx.
20; 2 Chr. xxxii. 3-5, 30; Is. xxii. 8-11,
xxxiii. 18). According to a scheme of
chronology proposed by Dr. Hinoks, Heze
kiah's dangerous illness (2 K. xx. ; Is.
xxxviii. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 24) nearly synchro
nized with Sargon's futile invasion, in the
fourteenth year of Hezekiah's reign, eleven
years before Sennacherib's invasion. Th.at
it must have preceded the attack of Sen
nacherib is nearly obvious from the promise
in 2 K, XX. 6, as well as from raoderii dis
coveries. Hezekiah, whose kingdom was
in a dangerous crisis, and who had at that
time no heir (for Manasseh was not born
till long afterwards, 2 K. xxi. 1), " turned
his face to the wall and wept sore " at the
threatened approach of dissolution. God
had compassion on his anguish, and heard
his prayer, Isaiah had hardly left the
palace when he was ordered to promise the
king immediate recovery, and a fresh lease
of life, ratifying the promise by a sign, and
curing the boil by a plaster of figs, 'Various
ambassadors came with letters and gifts to
congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery (2
Chr. xxxii, 23), and among them an em
bassy from Merodach-Baladan (or Bero-
dach, 2 K, xx. 12), the viceroy of Babylon,
The ostensible object of this mission was to
corapliment Hezekiah on his .convalescence
(2 K. XX. 12 ; Is. xxxix. 1) ; but its real
purpose was to discover how far an alliance
between the two powers was possible or
desirable, for Merodach-Baladan, no less
than Hezekiah, was in apprehension of the
Assyrians. Community of interest made
Hezekiah receive the overtures of Babylon
with unconcealed gratification; and, per
haps, to enhance the opinion of his own im
portance as an ally, he displayed to the mes
sengers the princely treasures which he and

HEZEKIAH

240

HIDDEKEL

his predecessors had accumulated. If osten
tation were his motive it received a terrible
rebuke, and he was informed by Isaiah
that from the then tottering and subor
dinate province of B.abylon, and not from
the mighty Assyria, would come the ruin
and captivity of Judah (Is. xxxix. 5). Sar
gon was succeeded (b. c. 702) by his
son Sennacherib, whose two invasions oc
cupy the greater part of the Scripture rec
ords concerning the reign of Hezekiah.
The first of these took place in the third
year of Sennacherib (b. c. 702), and occu
pies only three verses (2 K. xviii. 13-16),
though tho route of the advancing Assyri
ans may be traced in Is. x. 6, xi. The
m.ain liope of the political faction was the
alliance with Egypt, and they seem to have
soueht it by presents and private entreaties
(Is. xxx. 6). The account given of this
first invasion in the Annals of Sennacherib
is, that he attacked Hezekiah because the
Ekronites had sent their king Padiya (or
" Haddiya ") as a prisoner to Jerusalera
(cf. 2 K. xviii. 8) ; that he took forty-six
cities ("all the fenced cities " in 2 K. xviii.
13 is apparently a general expression, cf.
xLx. 8) and 200,000 prisoners ; that he be
sieged Jerusalem with mounds (cf. 2 K.
xix. 32) ; and although Hezekiah promised
to pay 800 talents of silver (of which per
haps 300 only were ever paid) and 30 of
gold (2 K. xviii. 14), yet not content with
this he mulcted him of a part of his domin
ions, and gave them to tlie kings of Ekron,
Ashdod, and Gaza. In almost every par
ticular this account agrees with the notice
in Scripture. Hezekiah's bribe (or fine)
brought a temporary release, for the As
syrians marched into Egypt, where, if He
rodotus and Josephus are to be trusted,
they advanced without resistance to Pelusi-
um. In spite of this advantage, Sennache
rib was forced to raise the siege of Pelu-
siura by the advance of Tirhakah or Tara-
kos, Retiirning from his futile expedition,
Sennacherib " dealt treacherously " with
Hezekiah (Is, xxxiii, 1) by attacking the
stronghold of Lachish, This was the com
mencement of that second invasion respect
ing which we have such full details in 2 K.
xviii. 17, sq. ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 9, sq. ; Is. xxxvi.
From Lachish Sennacherib sent against Je-
rusaleman army under two officers and his
cupbearer tlie orator Rabshakeh, with a
blasphemous and insulting summons to sur
render. Hezekiah's ministers were thrown
into anguish and dismay, but the undaunted
Isaiah hurled back threatening for threat
ening with unrivalled eloquence and force.
Meanwhile Sennacherib, having taken La-
chi'li, was besieging Libnah, when, alarmed
by a "rumor" of Tirhakah's advance, he
was forced to relinquish once more his
immediate designs, and content himself
with a defiant letter to Hezekiah. The

next event of the campaign, about which
we are informed, is, that the Jewish king,
with simple piety, - prayed to God, with
Sennacherib's letter outspread before him,
and received a prophecy of immediate de
liverance. Accordingly " that night the
Angel of the Lord went out and smote in
the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men."
There is no doubt that some secondary
cause was employed in the accomplishment
of this event. We are certainly "not to
suppose," as Dr. Johnson observed, "that
the angel went about with a sword in his
hand stabbing them one by one, but that
sorae powerful natural agent was employed."
Josephus, followed by an immense major
ity of ancient and modern commentators,
attributes it to the Pestilence. Hezekiah
only lived to enjoy for about^one year more
his well-earned peace and glory. He slept
with his fathers after a reign of twenty-
nine years, in the 56th year of his age (b.
c. 697). 2. Son of Neariah, one of the
descendants of the royal family of Judah
(1 Chr. iii. 23). 3. The same name, though
rendered in the A. V. Hizkiah, is found
in Zeph. i. 1. 4. AiEK-OE-HEZBiaAH,
[Ater.] He' zion, a king of Aram (Syria), father
of Tabrimon, and grandfather of Benhadad
I, He and his father are mentioned only
in 1 K. XV. 18. He is probably identical
with Rezon, the contempoTary of Solomon,
in 1 K. xi. 23 ; the two names being very
similar in Hebrew, and still more so in the
versions. He'zir, 1, A priest in the time of
David, leader of the 17th monthly course
in the service (1 Chr. xxiv. 15). 2. One
of the heads of the people (laymen) who
sealed the solemn covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh. X, 20),
Hez'rai, one of the thirty heroes of
David's guard (2 Sam, xxiii. 35), In the
parallel list the name appears as
Hez'ro, in 1 Chr, xi, 37.
Hez'ron. 1. A son of Reuben (Gen,
xlvi, 9 ; Ex, vi. 14), 2, A sou of Pharez
(Gen. xlvi. 12; Ruth iv. 18).
Hez'ronites, The, 1. Descendants
of Hezron the son of Reuben (Num, xxvi,
6), 2. A branch of the tribe of Judah,
doscendants of Hezron, the son of Pharez
(Num. xxvi. 31),
Hid dai, one of the thirty-seven heroes
of David's guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 30),
Hid'dekel, one of the rivers of Eden,
the river which " goeth eastward to As
syria" (Gen, ii, 14), and whieh Daniel calls
"the Great river" (Dan. x. 4), seems to
have been rightly identified by the LXX,
with the Tigris, Dekel is clearly an equiv
alent of Digla or Diglath, a name boriie
by the Tigris in all ages. The name now
in use among the inhabitants of Mesopota*
mia is Dijleh.

HIEL

241

HIGH-PRIEST

Hi'el, a native of Bethel, who rebuilt
Jericho in the reign of Ahab (1 K, xvi,
84) ; and in whom was fulfilled the curse
pronounced by Joshua (Josh, v, i, 26),
Hierap'olis. This place is mentioned
only once in Scripture (Col. iv. 13), with
Colossae and Laodicea. Such associa
tion is just what we should expect ; for the
three towns were all in the basin of the
Maeander, and within a few miles of one
another. Higgai'on, a word which occurs three
times in the book of Psalms (ix. 17, xix.
15, xcii, 4), The word has two meanings,
one of a general chiiracter, implyingthoughi,
refledion, and another, in Ps. ix. 17, and
Ps, xcii. 4, of a technical nature, the pre
cise meaning of which cannot at this dis
tance of time be determined.
High Places. From the earliest times
it was the custom among all nations to erect
altars and places of worship on lofty and
conspicuous spots, . To this general cus
tom we find constant allusion in the Bible
(Is. lxv. 7 ; Jer. iii. 6 ; Ez, vi. 13, xviii, 6 ;
Hos, iv, 13), and it is especially attributed
to tbe Moabites (Is. xv. 2, xvi. 12; Jer.
xlviii. 35). Even Abraham built an altar
to the Lord on a raountain near Bethel (xii.
7', 8; cf. xxii. 2-4, xxxi. 54), which shows
that the practice was then as innocent as it
was natural; and although it afterwards
became raingled with idolatrous obser
vances (Num. xxiii. 3), it was in itself far
less likely to be abused th.an the consecra
tion of groves (Hos. iv. 13), It is, how
ever, quite obvious that if every grove and
erainence had been suffered to become a
place for legitimate worship, especially in a
country where they had already been de
filed with the sins of polytheism, the ut
most danger would have resulted to the
pure worship of the one true God, It was
therefore implicitly forbidden by the law
of Moses (Deut. xii. 11-14), which also
gave the strictest injunction to destroy
these monuments of Canaanitish idolatry
(Lev, xxvi, 30 ; Nura, xxxiii, 52 ; Deut.
xxxiii. 29). Tbe command was a prospec
tive one, and was not to come into force un
til such time as the tribes were settled in
the promised land. Thus we find that both
Gideon and Manoah built altars on high
places by Divine coraraand (Judg, vi. 25,
26, xiii, 16-23), and it is quite clear, from
the tone of the book of Judges that the
law on the subject was either totally forgot
ten or practically obsolete. It is raore
surprising to find this law absolutely ig
nored at a ranch later period, when there
was no intelligible reason for its violation
— as by Samuel at Mizpeh (1 Sam, vii. 10)
and at Bethlehem (xvi. 5) ; by Saul at Gil
gal (xiii, 9) and at Ajalon ( ? xiv. 35) ; by
David (1 Chr, xxi. 26) ; by Elijah on Mount
Carmel (1 K, xviii, 30) ; and by other
10

prophets (1 Sam. x. 5). The explanations
which are given are sufficiently unsatisfac
tory ; but it is at any rate certain that the
worship in high places was organized and
all but universal throughout Judea, not
only during (1 K. iii. 2-4), but even after
the time of Soloraon, The convenience of
thera was obvious, because, as local centres
of religious worship, they obviated the un
pleasant and dangerous necessity of visit
ing Jerus.alem for the celebration of the
yearly feasts (2 K. xxiii. 9). Many of the
pious kings of Judah were either too weak
or too ill-informed to reprpss the worship of
Jeliovah at these local sanctuaries, while
they of course endeavored to prevent it
from being contaminated with polytheism.
At last Hezekiah set himself in good ear
nest to the suppression of this pTcvalent cor
ruption (2 K. xviii. 4, 22), both in Judah and
Israel (2 Chr. xxxi. 1), although, so rapid
was the growth of the evil, th.at even his'
sweeping reformation required to be finally
consuram.ated by Josiah (2 K. xxiii.), and
that too in Jerusalem and its immediate
neighborhood (2 Chr. xxiv. 3). After the
time of Josiah we find no further mention
of these Jehovistio high places.
High-priest. I. Legally. The first
distinct separation of Aaron to the office of
tbe priesthood, which previously belonged to
the first-born, was that recorded Ex. xxviii.
We find from the' very first the following
characteristic attributes of Aaron and the
high-priests his successors, as distinguished
from the other priests : (1,) Aaron alone
was anointed (Lev. viii. 12), whence one
of the distinctive epithets of the high-
priest was "the anointed priest" (Lev. iv.
3, 5, 16, xxi. 10; see Num. xxxv. 25), This
appears also from Ex. xxix. 29, 30. The
anointing of the sons of Aaron, i. e. the
coramon priests, seems to have been con
fined to sprinkling their garments with the
anointing oil (Ex. xxix. 21, xxviii. 41, &c.).
The anointing of the high-priest is alluded to
in Ps. cxxxiii. 2. (2.) The high-priest had a
peculiar dress, which passed to bis sucees
sor at his death. This dress consisted of
eight parts, as the Rabbins constantly note,
the breastplate, the ephud with its curious
girdle, the robe ofthe ephod, the mitre, the
broidered coat or diaper tunic, and the gir
dle, the materials being gold, blue, red,
crimson, andfine (white) linen (Ex. xxviii.).
To the above are added, in ver. 42, the
breeches or drawers (Lev. xvi. 4) of linen ;
and. to make up the nuraber 8, some reckon
the high-priest's mitre, or the plate sep
arately from the bonnet ; while others
reckon the curious girdle ofthe ephod sep
arately from the ephod. Of these 8 arti
cles of attire, 4 — viz, the coat or tunic,
the girdle, the breeches, and the bonnet or
turban {migbd'dh) instead of the niitre
{mitsnepheth) — belonged to the common

HIGH-PRIEST

242

HIGH-PRIEST

priests. Taking the articles of the high-
priest's dress in the order in which they are
enumerated above, we have {a.) the breast
plate, or, as it is further ntiraed (vers. 15,
29, 30), the breastplate of judgment. The
breastplate was originally 2 spans long, and
1 span broad, but when doubled it was
square, the shape in which it was worn. On
it wero the 12 precious stones, set in 4 rows,
3 in a row, thus corresponding to the 12
tribes, and divided in the same manner as
their camps were ; each stone having the
name ofone ofthe children of Israel engraved
upon it. According to the LXX. and Jose
phus, and in accordance with the language
of Scripture, it was these stones which con
stituted the ITrim and Thummira, [Uriji
andTHUMMiM.] {b.) The ephod. This
consisted of two parts, of which one covered
the back, and tiie other the front, i. e. the
breast and upper part of the body. These
were clasped together ou the shoulder with
two large onyx stones, each having en
graved on it 6 ofthe names ofthe tribes of
Israel. It was further united by a " curi
ous girdle" of gold, blue, purple, scarlet,
and fine twined linen round the waist [Eph
od; Girdle], (c.) The robe ofthe ephod.
This was of inferior material to the ephod
itself, being all of blue (ver. 31), whieh im
plied its being only of "woven, work"
(xxxix. 22) . It was worn immediately un
der the ephod, and was longer than it. The
bluerohe had no sleeves, but only slits in
the sides for the arms to corae through. It
had a hole for the head to pass through,
with a border round it of woven work, to
prevent its being rent. The skirt of this
robe had a remarkable trimming of pome
granates in blue, red, and crimson, with a
bell of gold between each pomegranate al
ternately. The bells were to give a sound
when the high-priest went in and carae out
of the Holy Place, {d.) The mitre or up
per turban, with its gold plate, engraved
with Holiness to the Lord, fastened to it
by a ribbon of blue, (e.) 'The broidered
coat was a tunic or long skirt of linen with
a tessellated or diaper pattern, like the set
ting of a stone. The girdle, also of linen,
was wound round the body several times
from the breast downwards, and the ends
¦ hung down to the ankles. The breeches or
drawers, of linen, covered the loins and
thighs ; and the bonnet was a turban of lin
en, partially covering the head, but not in
the form of a cone like that of the high-
priest when the mitre was added to it.
These four last were common to all priests.
(3.) Aaron had peculiar functions. To him
alone it appertained, and he alone was per
mitted, to enter the Holy of Holies, which
he did once a year, on the great day of
atoneraent, when he sprinkled the blood of
the sin-offering on the mercy-seat, and
b"rnt incense within the --eil (Lev. xvi.)

(4.) The high-priest had a peculiar place
in the law ofthe manslayer, and his taking
sanctuary in the cities of refuge. The man
slayer might not leave the city of refuge
during the lifetime of the existing high-
priest who was anointed with the holy oil
(Num. xxxv, 25, 28), It was also forbidden
to the high-priest to follow a funeral, or
rend his clothes for the dead, according to
the precedent in Lev, x. 6. The Rabbins
speak very frequently of one second in dig
nity to the high-priest, whom they call the
Sagan, and who often acted in the high-
priest's room. He is the same who in the
0. T. is called "the second priest" (2 K.
xxiii. 4, xxv. 18). Thus too it is explained
of Annas and Caiaphas (Luke iii. 2), that
Annas was Sagan. Ananias is also thought
by some to have been Sagan, acting for the
high-priest (Acts xxiii. 2), — It does not
appear by whose authority the high-priests
were appointed to their office before there
were kings of Israel, But as we find it in
variably done by the civil power in later
times, it is prob.able that, in the tiraes pre
ceding the monarchy, it was by the elders,
or Sanhedrim, It should be added, that
the usual age for entering upon the func
tions of the priesthood, according to 2 Chr.
xxxi. 17, is considered to have been 20
years, though a priest or high-priest was
not actually incapacitated if he had attained
to puberty. Again, according to Lev. xxi.,
no one that had a blemish could officiate at
the altar, II. Theologically. The theo
logical view of the high-priesthood does
not fall within the scope of this work. It
must suffice therefore to indicate that such
a view would embrace the consideration of
the office, dress, functions, and ministra
tions of the high-priest, considered as typi
cal of the priesthood of our Lord Jesus
Christ, and as setting forth under shadows
the truths which are openly taught under
the Gospel. This has been done to a great
extent in the Epistle to the Hebrews, It
would also embrace all the moral and spir
itual teaching supposed to be intended by
such symbols. III. Historically. The
history of the high-priests embraces a pe
riod of about 1370 years, and a succession
of about 80 high-priests, beginning with
A.aron, and ending with Phannias. They
naturally arrange themselves into three
groups — {a.) those before David; (5.)
those from David to the captivity ; {c.) those
from the return ofthe Babylonish captivity
till the cess.ation of the office at the destruc
tion of Jerusalem, {a.) The high-priests
of the first group, who are distinctly made
known to us as such are — 1. Aaron; 2.
Eleazar; 3. Phinehas; 4. Eli; 5. Ahitub
(1 Chr. ix. 11 ; Neh. xi. 11 ; 1 Sam. xiv. 3) ;
6. Ahiah ; 7. Abimelech, Phinehas the so.a
of Eli, and father of Ahitub, died before his
father, and so was not high-priest. Of the

HIGH-PRIEST

243

HIGH-PRIEST

»bove, the three first succeeded in regular
order, Nadab and Abihu, Aaron's eldest
sons, having died in the wilderness (Lev.
X.), But Eli, the 4th, was of the line of
Ithamar. What was the exact interval be
tween the death of Phinehas and the acces
sion of Eli, what led to the transference of
V the chief priesthood from the line of Elea
zar to that of Ithamar, we have no means
of determining from Scripture. Josephus
asserts that the father of Bukki — whom he
calls Joseph, and Abiezer, i. e. Abishua —
was the last high-priest of Phinehas's line,
before Zadok. If Abishua died, leaving a
son or grandson under age, Eli, as head of
the line of Ithamar, might have become
liigh-priest as a matter of course, or he
might have been appointed by the elders.
If Ahiah and Abimelech are not variations
of the name of the same person, they must
have been brothers, since both were sons
of Ahitub, The high-priests then before
D.avid's reign may be set down as eight iu
nuraber, of whom seven are said in Scrip
ture to have been high-priests, and one by
Josephus alone. (6,) Passing to the sec
ond group, we begin with the unexplained
circumstance of tliere being two priests in
the reign of David, apparently of nsarly
equal authority, viz, Zadok and Abiathar
(1 Chr, XV. 11 ; 2 Sam. vii. 17), It is not
unlikely that after the death of Abimelech
and the secession of Abiathar to David,
Saul may have m.ade Zadok priest, and that
David may h.ave avoided the difficulty of
deciding between the claims of his faithful
friend Abiath ar and his new and important
ally Zadok by appointing them to a joint
priesthood : the first place, with the Ephod
and Urim and Thuramim, remaining with
Abiathar, who was in actual possession of
them. The first considerable difficulty that
meets us in the historical survey of the
high-priests of the second group is to as
certain who was higli-priest at the dedica
tion of Solomon's Temple. Josephus says
that Zadok was, and the Seder Olani makes
hiiji the high-priest in the reign of Solo
mon ; but 1 K. iv. 2 distinctly asserts that
Azariah the son of Zadok was priest under
Solomon, and 1 Chr. vi. 10 tells us of Aza
riah, "he it is that executed the priest's
office in the temple that Solomon built in
Jerusalem," obviously meaning at its first
completion. We can hardly therefore be
w;rong in saying that Azariah the son of
Ahimaaz was the first high-priest of Solo
mon's Temple, The priests of this series
ended with Seraiah, who was taken pris
oner by Nebuzar-adan, and slain at Riblah
by Nebuchadnezzar, together with Zepha
niah the second priest or Sagan, after the
burning of the Temple and the plunder of
aU the sacred vessels (2 K. xx. 18). His
son Jehozadak or Josedech was at the same
lime carried away captive (1 Chr. vi. 15).

The time occupied by these liigh-priests
was about 454 years, which gives an aver
age of something more than twenty-five
years to each high-priest. It is remarkable
that not a single instance is recorded after
the time of David of an inquiry by Urim
and Thummira. The ministry of the proph
ets seems to have superseded that of the
high-priests (see e. g. 2 Chr. xv., xviii., xx.
14, 15; 2 K. xi.x. 1, 2, x.xii. 12-14; Jer.
xxi. 1, 2). (c.) An interval of about fifty-
two years elapsed between the high-iiriests
of the second and third group, during which
there were neither Teraple, nor altar, nor
ark, nor priest. Jehozadak, or Josedech, as
it is written in Haggai (i. 1, 14, &e.), who
should have succeeded Seraiah, hved and
died a captive at Babylon. The pontifical
office revived in his son Jeshua, of whora
such frequent mention is made in Ezra and
Nehemiah, Haggai and Zechariah, 1 Esdr.
and Ecclus. ; and he therefore stands at
the head of this third and last series, hon
orably distinguished for his zealous coop
eration with Zerubbabel in rebuilding the
Temple, and restoring the dilapidated coni-
monwealth of Israel. Under the Syrian
domination the high-priesthood was brought
to the lowest degradation by the apostasy
and crimes of the last Onias or Menelaus,
the son of Eleazar, and after a vacancy of
seven years by the brief pontificate of Al
cimus, his no less infaraous successor. A
new and glorious succession of high-priests
arose in the Asmonean family, who united
the dignity of civil rulers, and for a time
of independent sovereigns, to that of the
high-priesthood. The Asmonean family
were priests of the course of Joiarib, the
first of the twenty-four courses (1 Chr.
xxiv. 7), whose return from captivity is re
corded 1 Chr. ix. -10 ; Neh. xi. 10. They
were probably of the house of Eleazar,
though this cannot be affirmed with cer
tainty. This Asmonean dynasty lasted
from B. c. 153, till the faraily was dara.aged
by intestine divisions, and then destroyed
by Herod the Great. Aristobulus, the last
high-priest of his line, brother of Mariam
ne, was murdered by order of Herod, his
brother-in-law, b. c. 35. There were no
fewer than twenty-eight high-priests from
the reign of Herod to the destruction of
the Temple by Titus, a period of 107 years.
The N. T, introduces us to some of these
later and oft-changing high-priests, viz,
Annas, Caiaphas, and Ananias, Theophi
lus, the son of Ananus, was the high-priest
from whom Saul received letters to the
synagogue at Damascus (Acts ix, 1, 14),
Phannias, the last 'high-priest, was ap
pointed by lot by the Zealots from the
course of priests called by Josephus Eni-
achim (probably a corrupt reading for
Jacliim), The subjoined table shows the
succession of high-piiests, as far as it can

HILEN

244

HILLS

be. ascertained, and of the contemporary
civil rulers : —

nrviL ntJLEB.

Moses 
Joshua 
Othniel 
Abishua 
Eli 
Samuel 
Saul 
David 
Solonion 
Abijah 
Asa 
Jehoshaphat 
Jehoram 
Ahaziah 
Jehoash 
Amaziah 
Uzziah 
Jotham 
Ahaz 
Hezekiah 
Manasseh 
Amon 
Josiah  • 
Jehoiakim 
Zedekiah  ¦
Evil-Merodach 
Zerubbabel (Cyrus and Da-
ntis).
Mordecai ? (Xerxes) 
Ezra and Nehemiah (Arta
xerxes).
Darius Nothus 
Artaxerxes Mnemon 
Alexander the Great 
Onias I. (Ptolemy Soter, An
tigonus).
PtoTemy Soter 
Ptolemy Philadelphus 

Ftolcmy Euergetes 
Ptolemy Philopator 
Ptolemy Epiphanes and An
tiochus.
Antiochus Epiphanes 

Demetrius 
Alexander Balas. >

Simon (Asmonean) 
John llyrcanus (Asm.) 
King Aristobulus (Asm.) 
King Alexander Jannaeus
(Asmonean).
Queen Alexandra (Asm).
King Aristobulus IL (Asm.)
Pompey the Great and Kyr-
canus, or rather, towu/ds
the end of his pontificate,
Antipater.
I Pacorus the Parthian 
Herod K. of Judaea 

ilerod the Great. .

Archclau"? K. of Judaea..

BIGH-PEIE8T.
Aaron.
Eleazar.Phinehaa. Abishua.
Eli. Ahitub.Ahijah.
Zadok and Abiatliar.
Azariah.Johanan. Azariah.Amariah.Jehoiada.
Do. and Zechariah.
?
Azariah. ?
Urijah. Azariah.Shallum.
Hilkiah.Azariah f
Seraiah.
JchozadalbJeshua.Joiakim. Eliashib.Joiada.Johanan.Jaddua. Onias L
Simon the Just
Eleazar.Manasseh. Onias TI.
Simon II.
Onias III.
(Joshua, or) Jason.'
Onias, or Menelaus.
Jacimus, or Alcimus.
Jonathan, brother of Judos
Maccabeus (Asmonean).
Simon (Asmonean),
John Hyrcanua (Do.),
Aristobulus (Do.).
Alexander Jannaeus (Do.).
Hyrcanus LLJDo.).
Aristobulus II. (Do.).
Hyrcanus II. (Do.).

Antigonus (Do.).
Ananelus.
Aristobulus (lost of Asmo
neans), murdered by Herod.
Ananelus restored.
Jesus, son of Faneus.
Simon, son of Boethus, father-
in-law to Herod.
Matthias, son of Theoplulus.
Jozarus, son of Simon.
Eleazar,Jesus, Son of Si©.
Jozarus (second tirae),
Ananus.

Cyrenius governor of Syria,
second time.
Valorius Grotus, procurator Ishmael, son of Phabi.
of Judea

VitelUua, governor of Syria.

flcrod Agrippa. 
Herod king of Chalcis.,

Appointed by the people.,..
Do (Whiston on B. J. iv.
Chosen by lot 

. Eleazar, son of Ananus.
. Simon, son of Kamith.
. Caiaphas, called also Joseph.
. Jonathan, son of Ananus.
. Theophilus, brother of Jona
than.
. Simon Cantheras.
. Matthias, brother of Jonathan,
son of Ananus.
. Elioneus, son of Cantlieras.
. Joseph, son of Camei.
. Ananias, son of Nebcdeua.
. Jonathan.
. Iiunuel, son of Fabi.
. Joseph, son of Simon.
. *Aiiauii3, son of Ananus, or
Ananias.
. Jesus, son of Gamaliel.
t, Mattliies, sonof Theophilus.
. Phannias, son of Samuel.

Hi'len, the name of a city of Judah allotted
with its suburbs to the priests (1 Chr. vi. 58).

Hilki'ah. 1. father of Eliaki.a (2 K.
xviii. 37; Is. xxii. 20, xxxvi. 22). [Eli
akim.] 2. High-priest in the reign of
Josiah (2 K. xxii. 4, sqq. ; 2 Clir. xxxiv. 9,
sqq. ; 1 Esdr. i. 8). According to the gen
ealogy in 1 Chr. vi. 13 he was son of Shal
lum, and from Ezr. vii. 1, apparently the
ancestor of Ezra the scribe. His high-
priesthood was rendered particularly illus
trious by the great reformation effected
under it by king Josiah, by the solemn
Passover kept at Jerusalem in the 18th
year of that king's reign, and above all by
the discovery which he made of the book
of the law of Moses in the temple. 3. A
Merarite Levite, son of Amzi (1 Chr. vi.
45; hebr. 30), 4. Another Merarite Le
vite, second son of Hosah (1 Chr. xxvi.
11). 5. One of those who stood on the
right hand of Ezra Avhcn he read the law
to' the people. Doubtless a Levite, and
probably a priest (Neh. viii, 4). 6. A
priest of Anathoth, father of the prophet
Jeremiah (Jer. i. 1). 7. Father of Gema-
riali, who was one of Zcdekiah's envoys to
Babylon (Jer. xxix. 3).
Eil'lel, a native of Pirathon in Mount
Ephraim, father of Abdon, one of the
judges of Israel (Judg. xii. 13, 15).
Hills. The structure and characteris
tics of the, hills of Palestine will be most
conveniently noticed in the general descrip
tion of the features of the country. But it
may not be unprofitable to call attention
here to the various Hebrew terms for which
the word "liiU" has been employed in the
Auth. Version^ 1. Giheah, from a root
which seems to have the force of curvature
or humpishness. A word involving tliis
idea is peculiarly applicable to the rounded
hills of Palestine. 2. But our translators
have also employed the same English word
for the very different term Tiar, which has
a much more extended sense than giheah,
meaning a whole district rather than an in
dividual eminence, and to which our word
"mountain" answers with tolerable accu
racy. For instance, in Ex. xxiv. 4, the
"hill" is the same which is elsewhere in
the same chapter (12, 13, 18, &c.) and
book consistently and accurately rendered
"mount" and "mountain." The country
of the hills," in Deut. i. 7 ; Josh. ix. 1, x.
40, xi. 16, is the elevated district of Judah,
Benjamin and Ephraim, which is correctly
called " the mountain " in the earliest de
scriptions of Palestine (Num. xiii.- 29), and
in many subsequent passages. 3, On one
occasion the word Ma'aleh, better "as
cent," is rendered "hill" (1 Sam. ix. 11).
4. In the N. T. the word "hill" is em
ployed to render the Greek word Bowos ;
but on one occasion it is used for oQug, else
where "mountain," so as to obscure the
connection between the two parts of the
same narrative (Luke ix. 37).

HIN

245

HIVITES

Hin. [Measures.]
EUad, the female ofthe eommon stag or
tervus elaphui. It is frequently noticed in
the poetical parts of Scripture as emblem
atic of activity (Gen. xlix. 21 ; 2 Sam. xxii.
34; Ps. xviii. 33; Hab. iii. 19), gentleness
(Prov. V. 19), feminine modesty (Cant. ii.
7, iii. 5), earnest longing (Ps. xiii; 1), and
maternal affection (Jer. xiv. 5). Its shy
ness and remoteness from the haunts of
men are also alluded to (Job xxxix. 1),
and its timidity, causing it to cast its
young at the sound of thunder (Ps. xxix.
Hinge. Both ancient Egyptian and
modern Oriental doors were and are hung
by means of pivots turning in sockets both
on the upper and lower sides (1 K. vii. 50).
In Syria, and especially the HaurSn, there
are many ancient doors consisting of stone
slabs with pivots carved out of the same
piece, inserted in sockets above and below,
and fixed during the building of the house.
The allusion in Pjrov. xxvi. 14 is thus clear
ly explained.
Hin'nom, Valley of, otherwise called
" the valley of the son " or " children of
Hinnom," a deep and narrow ravine, with
steep; rocky sides to the S. and W. of Je
rusalem, separ.atiug Mount Zion to the N.
from the " Hill of Evil Counsel," and the
sloping rocky plateau of the " plain of Re
phaim " to the S. The earliest mention of
the Valley of Hinnom is in Josh. xv. 8,
xviii. IG, where the boundary-line between
the tribes of Judah and Benjamin is de
scribed, as passing along the bed of the
ravine. On the southern brow, overlook
ing the valley at its eastern extremity, Sol
oraon erected high places for Molech (1 IC.
xi. 7), whose horrid rites were revived from
time to time in the same vicinity hy the
later idolatrous kings. Ahaz and Manas
seh made their children " pass through the
Are" in this valley (2 K. xvi. 3; 2 Chr.
xxviii. 3, xxxiii. 6), and the fiendish cus
tom of infant sacrifice to the fire-gods
seems to have been kept up in Tophet, at
its S-. E. extremity, for a considerable peri
od (Jer. vii. 31; 2 K. xxx. 10). To put
an end to these abominations the place was
polluted by Josiah, who rendered it cere
monially unclean by spreading over it hu
man 'bones, and other corruptions (2 K.
xxiii. 10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 4, 5), from
whieh tirae it appears to have become the
common cesspool ofthe city, into which its
sewage was conducted, to be carried off by
the waters of the Kidron, as well as a lay
stall, where all its solid filth was collected.
From its ceremonial defilement, and from
the detested and abominable fire of Molech,
if not from the supposed ever-burning fu
neral piles, the later Jews applied the name
of this valley Ge Hinnom, Gehenna, to de
note the place •>f eternal torment. In this

sense the word is used by our Lord (Matt.
V. 29, X. 28, xxiii. 15 ; Mark ix. 43 ; Luka
xii. 5).
Hippopot'amus. [Behemoth.]
Hi'rah, an AduUamite, the friend of
Judah (Gen. xx.xviii. 1, 12; and see 20).
Hi'ram, or Hu'raan. 1. The king of
Tyre who sent workmen and materials to
Jerusalem, first (2 Sam. v. 11, 1 Chr. xiv.
1) to build a palace for David, whom he
ever loved (1 K. v. 1), and again (1 K. v.
10, vii. 13, 2 Chr. 14, 16) to build the Tem
ple for Solomon, with whom he had a treaty
of peace and commerce (1 K. v. 11, 12).
The contempt with which he received Solo
mon's present of Cabul (1 K. ix. 12) does
not appear to have caused any breach be- ¦
tween the two kings. He admitted Solo
mon's ships, issuing from Joppa, to a share
in the profitable trade of the Mediterrane.an
(1 K. X. 22) ; and Jewish sailors, under
the guidance of Tyrians, were taught to
bring the gold of India (1 K. ix. 26) to
Solomon's two harbors on the Eed Sea.
2. Hiram was the name of a man of mixed
race (I K. vii. 13, 40), the principal archi
tect and engineer sent by king Hiram to
Soloraon. Hit'tites, The, the nation descended
from Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second
son of Canaan. Abraham bought frora
the " Children of Heth," the field and tlie
cave of Machpelah, belonging to Ephron
the Hittite. They were then settled at the
town which was afterwards, under its new
narae of Hebron, to become one of the
most famous cities of Palestine, then bear
ing the name of Kirjath-arba (Gen. xxiii.
19, xxv. 9). When the Israelites entered
the Promised Land, we find the Hittites
taking their part against the invader, in
equal alliance with the other Canaanite
tribes (Josh. ix. 1, xi. 3, &c.). Hencefor
ward the notices of the Hittites are very
few and faint. We meet with two individ
uals, both attached to the person of David.
(1.) "Aliimelech the Hittite" (1 Sam.
xxvi. 6). (2.) "Uriah the Hittite," one
of "the thirty" of David's body-guaid (2
Sam. xxiii. 39; 1 Chr. xi. 41).
Hivites, The. In the genealogical
tables of Genesis, "the Hivite" is named
as one of the descendants — the sixth in
order — of Canaan, the son of Ham (Gen.
X. 17; 1 Chr. i. 15). We first encounter
the actual people of the Hivites at the tirae
of Jacob's return to Canaan. Shechem
was then in their possession, Hamor the
Hivite being the "prince of the land"
(Gen. xxxiv. 2). We next meet with thn
Hivites during the conquest of Canaan
(Josh. ix. 7, xi. 19). The main body of
the Hivites were at tliis time living on the
northern confines of western Palestine —
"under Hermon, in the land of Mizpeh"
(Josh. xi. 3) — "in Mount Lebanon, from

HIZKIAH

246

HOOK

Mount I aal-Hermon to the entering in
of Hamath " (Judg. iii. 3 ; comp. 2 Sam.
xtiv. 7).
Hizki'ah, an ancestor of Zephaniah the
prophet (Zeph. i. 1).
Hizki'jah, according to the A. V. a
man who sealed the covenant with Nehe
miah (Neh. A. 17). But there is no doubt
that the r.ame should be taken with that
preceding it, as " Ater-Hizkijah."
Ho'bab. This name is found in two
places only (Num. x. 29; Judg. iv. 11),
and it seems doubtful whether it denotes
the father-in-law or brother-in-law of Mo
ses. (1.) In favor of the latter is the ex
press statement that Hobab was "the son
of Eagucl " (Num. x. 29) ; Raguel or Ruol
— the Hehrew word in both cases is the
same — being identified with Jethro, not
only in Ex. ii. 18 (comp. iii. 1, &c.), but
also by Josephus. (2.) In favor of Ho-
bab's identity with Jethro are the words. of
Judg. iv. 11, and the Mahometan traditions.
But whether Hobab was the father-in-law
of Moses or not, the notice of him in Num.
X. 29-32, though brief, is full of point and
interest. While Jethro is preserved to us
as the wise and practised administrator,
Hobab appears as the experienced Bed
ouin sheikh, to whom Moses looked for
the material safety of his cumbrous cara
van in the new and difficult ground before
thera. Ho'bah, the place to which Abraham
pursued the kings who had pillaged Sodom
(Gen. xiv. 15). It was situated "to the
north of Damascus."
Hod, one of the sons of Zophah, among
tho descendants of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 37).
Hodai'ah, son of Elioenai, of the royal
line of Judah (1 Ghr. iii. 24).
Hodavl'ah. 1. A m.an of- Manasseh,
one of the heads of the lialf-tribe on the
east of Jordan (1 Chr. v. 24). 2. A man
of Benjamin, son of Has-senuah (1 Chr. ix.
7), 3. A Levite, who seems to have given
his name to ah important family in the
tribe (Ezr. ii. 40).
Ho'desh„a woman named in the gene
alogies of Benjamin (1 Chr. viii. 9) as the
wife of Shaharaim.
Hode'vah, Neh. vii. 43. [HoDAViAH,
3-1 Hodi'ah, one of the two wives of Ezra,
a rfian of Judah (IChr. iv. 19). She is
doubtless the same person as Jehudijiih in
.verse 18.
Hodi'jah. 1. A Levite in the time of
Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. viii. 7; and
probable also ix. 5, x. 10). 2. Another
Levite at the same time (Neh. x. 13). 3.
A layman; one of the "heads" of the
people at the same time (Neh.x. 18).
Hog'lah, the third ofthe five daughters
of Zelophehad (Ntira. xxvi. 33, xxvii. 1,
xxxvi. 11; Josh, xvii 3.

Ho'ham, king of Hebron at the timo
of the conquest of Canaan (Josh. x. 3).
Holofer'nes, or, more correctly, Olo>
FEENES, was, according to the book of
Judith, a general of Nebuchadnezzar, king
of the Assyrians (Jud. ii. 4), who was
slain- by the Jewish heroine Judith during
the siege of Bethulia.
Ho 'Ion. 1. A town in the mountains
of Judah ; one of the first group, of wljich
Debir was apparently the most considerable
(Josh. XV. 51, xxi. 15). [Hilen.] 2. A
city of Moab (Jer. xlviii. 21, only.) No
identification of it has yet taken place.
Ho'mam, the form under which, in 1
Chr. i. 39, an Edomite nfime appears, which
in Gen. xxxvi. is given Hemam.
Homer. [Measuees.]
Honey. The Hebrew debash, in the
first place, applies to the product of the
bee, to which we exclusively give the name
of honey. All travellers agree in describing
Palestine as a land " flowing with milk and
honey " (Ex. iii. 8) ; bees being abundant
even in the remote parts of the wilderness,
where they deposit their honey in the crevices
of the rocks or in hollow trees. In some
parts of northern Arabia the hills are so well
stocked with bees, that no sooner are hives
placed than they are occupied. In the
second place the term debash applies to a
decoction of the juice of the grape, which is
still called dibs, and which forms an article
of commerce in the East ; it was this, and
not ordiuaiy bee-hontfy, which Jacob sent
to Joseph (Gen. xliii. 11 ), and which the
Tyrians purchased from Palestine (Ez.
xxvii. 17). A third kind has been de
scribed by some writers as "veget.ible"
honey, by which is meant the exudations
of certain trees and shrubs, such as the
Tamarix niannifera, foHnd in the penin
sula of Sinai, or the stunted oaks of Luris-
tan and Mesopotamia. The honey which
Jonathan ate in the wood (1 Sam. xiv. 25),
and the " wild honey " which supported
John the Baptist (Matt. iii. 4), have boon
referred to this species. But it was prob
ably the honey of the wild bees.
Hook, Hooks. Various kinds of hookj
are noticed in the Bible, of wliich the fol
lowing are the most important : 1. Fishing
hooks (Am. iv. 2; Job xii. 2; Is. xix. 8;
Hab. i. 15). 2. Properly a ring (A. V.
"thorn"), placed through the mouth of a
large fish and attached by a cord to a stake
for the purpose of keeping it alive in the
water (Job xii. 2) ; the word meaning the
cordis rendered "hook" in the A. V. 3.
A ring, such as in our country is placed
througli the nose of a bull, and similarly
used in the East for leading about lions
(Ez. xix. 4, where the A. V. has "with
chains"), camels, and other animals. A
similar method was adopted for leading
prisoners, as in the case of Manasseh, who

HOPHNI

247

HORN

was lod with rings (2 Chr. xxxiii. 11 ; A. V.
" in tho thorns "). An illustration of this
practict is found in a bass-relief discovered
at Khorsabad (Layard, ii. 376). 4. The
hooks of the pillars of the 'Tabernacle.
(Ex. xxvi. 32, 37, xxvii. 10, ff., xxxviii. 13,
IT. 5. A vine-dresser'f pruning-hook (Is.
ii 4, xviii. 5; Mip. iv. 3; Joel iii. 10). 6.
A flesh-hook for getting up the joints of
meat out of the boiling-pot (Ex. xxvii. 3 ;
1 Sam. ii. 13, 14). 7. Probably "hooks"
used for the purpose of hanging up animals
to flay t! era (Ez. xl. 43).
Hoph'ni and Phineas, the two sous of
Eli, who fulfilled their hereditary sacerdo
tal duties at Shiloh. Tlieir brutal rapacity
and lust, which seemed to acquire fresh
\ iolence with their father's increasing years
( I Sara. ii. 22, 12-17), filled the people with
disgust and indignation, and provoked the
;urse which was denounced against their
father's house, first by an unknown prophet
(27-30), and then by Samuel (1 Sara. iii.
11-14). They were both cut off in one
day in the flower of their age, and the ark
which they had accorapanied to battle
against the Philistines was lost on the same
occasion (1 Sam. iv. 10, 11).
Hor, Mount. I. The mountain on
(vhich Aaron died (Num. xx. 25, 27). The
word Hor is probably an archaic form of
Har, the usual Hebrew term for "moun
tain." It was "on the boundary line"
(Num, XX. 23) or |'at the edge" (xxxiii.
87) of the land of Edom. It was the halt
ing-place of the people next after Kad£sh
(xx. 22, xxxiii. 37), and they quitted it Tor
Zalmonah (xxxiii. 41) in the road to the Eed
Sea (xxi. 4). It was during the encamp
ment at Kadesh thiit Aaron was gathered
to his fathers. It is situated on the eastern
side of the great valley of the Arabah, the
highest and most conspicuous of the whole
range of the sandstone mountains of Edom,
having close beneath it on its eastern side
the mysterious city of Petra. The tradition
has existed from the earliest date. It is
now the Jebel Nebi-Haritn, "the mountain
of the Prophet Aaron." Its height is 4800
feet above the Mediterr.inean, that is to say,
about 1700 feet above the town of Petra,
4000 above the level of the Arabah, and
more than 6000 above the Dead Sea. The
mountain is marked far and near by its
double top, which rises like u, huge castel
lated building from a lower base, and is
enrmountod by a circular dome ofthe tomb
of Aaron, a distinct white spot on the dark
red surface of the mountain. The chief
interest of Mount Hor consists in the pros
pect from its summit — the last view of
Aaron — that view which was to him what
Pisgah was to his brother. 2. A mountain,
entirely distinct from the preceding, named
in Num. xxxiv. 7, 8, only, as one ofthe marks
ofthe northern boundary ofthe land which

the jhildren of Israel were about to conquer.
This " Mount Hor" is the great chain of
Lebanon itself.
Ho'ram, king of Gezer at the time of
the conquest of the south-western part of
Palestine (Josh. x. 33).
Ho'reb. [Sinai.]
Ho'rem, one of the fortified places in
the territory of Naphtali; named with Iron
and Migdal-el (Josh. xix. 38). VandeVeldo
suggests Hurah as the site of Horem.
Hor Hagid'gad, the name of the desert
station where the Israelites encamped (Num.
xxxiii. 32) , prohably the same as Gudgodah
(Deut. X. 7).
Ho'ri. 1. A Horite, son of Lotan, the
sonof Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 22; 1 Chr. i. 39).
2. In Gen. xxxvi. 30, tho name has in the
original the definite article prefixed, " the
Horite ; " and is in fact precisely the same
word with that which in the preceding verse,
and also in 21, is rendered in the A. Vj
"the Horites." 3. A man of Simeon;
father of Shaphat (Num. xiii. 5).
Ho'rites and Ho'rims, the aboriginal
inhabitants of Mount Seir (Gen. xiv. 6),
and probably allied to the Emiras and
Rephairas. The name Horite appears to
have been derived from their habits as
" cave-dwellers." Their excavated dwell
ings are still found in hundreds in the
sandstone cliffs and mountains of Edom,
and especially in Petra.
Hor'mah, or Zephath (Judg. i. 17), was
the chief town of a king of a Can.aanitish
tribe on the south of Palestine, which was
reduced by Joshua, and became a city of
the territory of Judah (xv. 30; 1 Sam.
xxx. 30), but apparently belonged to Sim
eon (1 Chr. iv. 30).
THorn. The word " horn" is often used
metaphorically to signify strength and hon
or. Of strength the horn of the unicorn
was the most frequent representative (Deut.
xxxiii. 17, &c.), but not always ; comp. I

Heads of Modern Asiatics ornamented with TZoms.
K. xxii. 11, where probably horns of iron,
worn defiantly and symbjlicallj ou th«

HORNET

248

HOSEA

head, are intended. Among the Druses
upon Mount Lebanon the married wo'men
wear silver horns on their heads. In the
sense of honor, the word horn stands for
the abstract {my horn, Job xvi. 15 ; all ihe
horns af Israel, Lam. ii. 3),' and so for the
supreme authority. It also stands for tlie
concrete, whence it comes to mean king,
kingdom (Dan. viii. 2, &c. ; Zech. i. 18).
Out of either or both of these two last met
aphors sprang the idea of representing gods
with horns.
Hornet. In Scripture the hornet is re
ferred to only as the means which Jehovah
employed for the extirpation of the Canaan
ites (Ex. xxiii. 28; Deut. vii. 20; Josh.
xxiv. 12; Wisd. xii. 8). Some commenta
tors regard the word as used in its literal
sense, but it more probably expresses un
der a vivid image the consternation with
which Jehovah would inspire the enemies
of the Israelites, as declared in Deut. ii.
25, Josh. ii. 11.
Horona'im, a town of Moab, possibly
a sanctuary, naraed with Zoar and Luhith
(Is. XV. 5; Jer. xlviii. 3, 5, 34).
Hor'onite, The, the designation of
Sanballat (Neh. ii. 10, 19 ; xiii. 28). It is
derived by Gesenius from Iloronaim.
Horse. The most striking feature in
the Biblical notices of the horse is the ex
clusive application of it to warlike opera
tions ; in no instance is that useful animal
employed for the purposes of ordinary loco
motion or agriculture, if we except Is.
xxviii. 28, where we learn that horses (A.
V. " horsemen 'Q were employed in thresh
ing, not, however, in that case put in the
gears, but simply driven about wildly over
the strewed grain. The anijjjpated descrip
tion of the horse in Job xxxix. 19-25 Ap
plies solely to the war-horse. The Hebrews
in the patriarchal age, as a pastoral race,
.did not stand in need ofthe services of the
horse, and for a long period after their set
tlement in Canaan they dispensed with it,
partly in consequence of the hilly nature
ofthe country, which only admitted of the
use of chariots in certain localities (Judg.
i. 19), and partly in consequence ofthe pro
hibition in Deut. xvii. 16, which would be
hold to .apply at all periods. David first
established a force of cavalry and chariots
after the defeat of Hadadezer (2 Sam. viii.
4). But the great supply of horses was
subsequently effected by Solomon through
his connection with Egypt (1 K. iv. 26).
Solomon also established a very active trade
in horses, which were brought by dealers
out of Egypt and resold at a profit to the
Hittites, who lived between Palestine and
the Euphrates (1 K. x. 28, 29). In tho
countries adjacent to Palestine, tho use oi
the horse was much more frequent. It
was introduced into Egypt probably by tha
©yksos, as it is not represented on the

monuments before the 18th dynasty. Th*
Jewish kings sought the assistance of tha
Egyptians against the Assyrians in this re
spect (Is. xxxi. 1, xxxvi. 8; 'Ez. xvii. 15).
But the cavalry of the Assyrians and other
eastern nations was resjarded as most formi
dable ; the horses themselves were highly
bred, as the Assyrian sculptures still testify,
and fully merited the praise bestowed on
them by Habakkuk (i. 8). With regard to
the trappings and management ofthe horse
we have little information ; the bridle was
placed over the horse's nose (Is. xxx. 28),
and a bit or curb is also mentioned (2 K,
xix. 28 ; Ps. xxxii. 9 ; Prov. xxvi. 3 ; Is.
xxxvii. 29; in the A. V. it is incorrectly
given " bridle," with the exception of Ps.
xxxii.). The harness of the Assyrian horsea
was profusely decorated, the bits being
gilt (1 Esdr. iii. 6), and the bridles adorneij
with tassels ; on the neck was a collar ter
minating in a bell, as described by Zej^^a-
riah (xiv. 20). Saddles were not used un
tU a late period. The horses were not shod,
and therefore hoofs as h.ard " as flint" (Is.
V. 28) were regarded as a great merit. The
chariot-horses were covered with embroid
ered trappings (Ez. xxvii. 20). Horses and
chariots were used also in idolatrous pro
cessions, as noticed in regard to the sun (2
K. xxiii. 11).
Horse-leech (Heb. 'alAkdh) occurs
once only, viz. Prov. xxx. 15. There is lit
tle doubt that ' alv-kdh denotes some species
of leech, or rather is the generic term for
any bloodsucking annelid.
^o'sah, a city of Asher (Josh. xix. 29),
the next landmark on the boundary to Tyre.
Ho'sah, a Merarite Levite (1 Chr. xxvi.
10), chosen by David to- be one of the first
doorkeepers to the ark after its arrival in
Jerusalem (1 Chr. xxvi. 38).
Hosan'na ( " Save, we pray"), the cry
of the multitudes as they thronged in our
Lord's triumphal procession into Jerusalem
(Matt. xxi. 9, 15 ; Mark xi. 0, 10 ; John xii.
13). The Psalm from which it was taken,
the 118th, was one with which they wero
familiar from being accustomed to recite
the 25th and 26th verses at the Feast. of
Tabernacles. On that occasion the Hailel,
consisting of Psalms cxiii.-cxviii., was
ch.anted by one of the priests, and at certain
intervals the multitudes joined in the re
sponses, v.-aving their branches of willow
and palm, and shouting as they waved them,
Hallelujah, or Hosanna, or " O Lord, I
beseech thoe, send now prosperity" (Ps.
cxviii. 25).
Hose'a, son of Beeri, and first of the
Minor Prophets. The title of the book
gives for the beginning of Hosea's miristry
vhe reign of Uzziah, king of Judal but
limits this vague definition by referenoe to
Jeroboam II. , king of Israel; it therefore
yields a date not later than b. c. 783. Tha

HOSHAIAH

249

HOSPITALITY

pictures of social and political life which
Hosea draws so forcibly are rather applica
ble to the interregnum whieh followed the
death of Jeroboam (782-772), and to the
reign of the succeeding kings. It seems
almojt certain that very few of his prophe
cies were written until after the death of
Jerob:;am (783), and probably the life, or
rather tht prophetic career, of Hosea ex
tended from 784 to 725, a period of fifty-
nine y sars. The prophecies of Hosea were
ddliv erad in the kingdom of Israel. It is
easy to recognize two great divisions in the
book : (1) chap. i. to iii. ; (2) iv. to end.
The subdivision of these several parts is a
work of greater difficulty. (1.) The first
division should probably be subdivided into
three separate poems, each originating in a
distinct aim, and each after its own fashion
attempting t6 express the idolatry of Israel
by imagery borrowed from the matrimonial
relation. The first, and therefore the least
elaborate of these, is contained in chap, iii.,
the second in i. 2-11, the third in i. 2-9, and
il. 1-23. These three are progressively
elaborate developments of the same reiter
ated idea. Chap. i. 2-9 is common to the
second and third poems, but not repeated
with each severally. (2.) Attempts have
been made to subdivide the second p.art of the
book. These divisions are raade either ac
cording to reigns of contemporary kings, or
according to the subject matter of the poem.
The prophecies were probably collected by
Hosea himself towards the end of his career.
Hosea is referred to in the following pas
sages ofthe N. T. : M.att. ix. 13, xii. 7, Hos.
vi. 6 ; Luke xxiii. 30, Rev. vi. 16, Hos. x.
8; Matt. ii. 15, Hos. xi. 1 ; Rom. ix. 25,. 26,
1 Pet. ii. 10, Hos. i. 10, ii. 23 ; 1 Cor. xv.
4, Hos, vi. 2; Heb. xiii. 15, Hos. xiv. 2.
Hoshai'ah. 1. A man who assisted in
the dedication of tho wall of Jerusalem
after it had been rebuilt by Nehemiah (Neh.
xii. 32). 2. The father of a certain Jeza-
niali, or Azariah, wlio was a man of note
after the destruction of Jerusalem by Neb
uchadnezzar (Jer. xiii. 1, xliii. 2).
Hosh'aixia, one of the sons of Jeconiah,
or Jehoiachin,, tho last king of Judah but
one (1 Chr. iii. 18).
Hoshe'a, the nineteenth, last, and best
king of Israel, Ho succeeded Pekah, whora
he slew in a successful conspiracy, thereby
fulfilling a prophecy of Isaiah (Is. vii. 16).
It took place b. c. 737, in the 20th year of
Jotham (2 K. xv. 30), i. e. " in the 20th
year after Joth.am became sole king," for he
only reigned 16 years (2 K. xv. 33). But
there must have been an interregnum of at
least eight years before Hoshea came to the
throne, which was not till e. c. 729^ in the
12th year of Ahaz (2K. xvii. 1). It is ex
pressly stated (2 K. xvii. 2) that Hoshea
was not so sinful as his predecessors. In
the tUJi-d year of his reign (b. c. 726) Shal

maneser cruelly stormed the strong caves
of Beth-arbel(Hos. viii. 14), and made Israel
tributary (2 K. xvii. 3) for three years. At
tbe end of this period, encouraged perhaps
by the revolt of Hezekiah, Hoshea entered
into a secret alliance with So, king otrEgypt,
to throw off the Assyrian yoke. The alli
ance did him no good ; it was revealed to
the court of Nineveh by the Assyrian party
in Ephraim, and Hoshea was immediately
seized as a rebellious vassal, shut up in
prison, and apparently treated with the
utmost indignity (Mic. v. 1). Of the sub
sequent fortunes of Hoshea we know noth
ing. Hoshe'a. 1. The son of Nun, i. e.
Joshua (Deut. xxxii. 44 ; and also in Nura.
xiii. 8, though there the A. V. has Oshea).
2. Son of Azaziah (1 Chr. xxvii. 20) ; like
his great namesake, a man of Ephraim,
ruler of his tribe in the tirae of king David.
3. One of the heads of the people who
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
X. 23).
Hospitality. Hospitality was regard
ed by raost nations of tlie ancient world as
one of the chief virtues. Araong the Arabs
we find the best illustrations of the old
Bible narratives, and among them see traits
that might beseem their ancestor Abraham.
The laws respecting strangers (Lev. xix.
33, 34) and the poor (Lev. xxv. 14, seq. ;
Deut. XV. 7), and concerning redemption
(Lev. xxv. 23, seqq.), &c., are framed in
accordance with the spirit of hospitality;
and the strength of the national feeling re
garding it is shown in the incidental men
tions of its practice. In the Law, compas
sion to strangers is constantly enforced by
the words " fopt y e were strangers in the .
land of Egypt " (Lev. xix. 34) . And before
the Law, Abraham's entertainment of the
angels (Gen. xviii. 1, seqq.) aud Lot's (xix.
1), are in exact agreement with its pre
cepts, and with modern usage (comp, Ex. ii.
20; Judg. xiii. 15, xix. 17, 20, 21). In the
N. T. hospitality is yet more markedly en
joined ; and in the more civilized state of
society which then prevailed, its exercise
became more a social virtue than a neces
sity of patriarchal life. The good Samar
itan stands for all ages as an example of
Christian hospitality, embodying the com
mand to lovo one's neighbor as himself.
The neglect of Christ is symbolized by in-
hospitaUty to our neighbors (Matt. xxv. 43).
The Apostles urged the Church to " follow
after hospitality " (Rom. xii. 13 ; cf 1 Tim.
V. 10) ; to remember Abraham's example
(Heb, xiii. 8) ; to " use hospitality one to
another without grudging " (1 Pet. iv. 9) ;
while a bishop must be a "lover of hospital
ity " (Tit. i. 8, cf. 1 Tim. iii. 2). The prac
tice of the early Christians was in accord
with these precepts. They had all things
in coramon, and their hospitality was a

HOTHAM

250

HOUSE

characteristic of their belief. Such having
been the usage of Biblical times, it is in the
next pl.ace hnport.ant to remark how hos
pitality was shown. In the patriarchal
ages we may take Abraham's example as
tlie most fitting, as we have of it tlie fullest
account. " The account," Siays Mr. Lane,
"of Abraham's entertaining tlie three an
gels, related in the Bible, presents a perfect
picture of the mauner in which a moderii
Bedawee sheykh receives travellers arriv
ing at his encampment. He immediately
orders his wife or women to make bread,
slaughters a sheep or some other animal,
and dresses it iu haste, and bringing milk
and any other provisions that he m.ay li.ave
ready at hand, with the bread and the meat
which ho lias dressed, sets thera before his
guests. If these be persons of high rank,
he stands by them wliile tliey eat, as Abra
ham did in the case above alluded to. Most
Bedawees will suffer almost any injury to
tliemsclves or tlieir families rather th.an
allow their guests to be ill-treated while
under their protection." The Oriental re
spect for the covenant of bread .and salt, or
salt alone, certainly sprang from the high
regard in -ivhieh hospitality was held.
Ho'tham, a man of Asher, son of
Heber, of the family of Beriah (1 Chr. vii.
32). ETo'than, a man of Aroer, father of
Sliama and Jehiel (1 Chr. xi. 44).
Ho'thir, the 13th son of He.man, "the
king's seer " (1 Ghr. xxv. 4, 28), and
therefore a Kohathite Levite.
Hour. The ancient Hebrews were prob
ably unacquainted with the division of the
natural day into 24 parts ; but they after
wards parcelled out the period between
sunrise and sunset into a series of divisions
distinguished by the sun's course. The
early Jews appear to have divided the day
into four jiarts (Neh. i.x. 3), and tho night
into three watches (Judg. vii. 19), and
even in the N. T. we find a trace of this
division in M.att. xx. 1-5. The Greeks
adopted the division of the day into 12
hours from the Babylonians. At what
period the Jews became first acquainted
with this way of reckoning time is unknown,
but it is gener.ally supposed th.at they too
learnt it from the Babyloni.ans during the
captivity. In whatever way originated, it
was known to the Egyptians .at a very early
period. They had 12 hours of tho day and
of the night. There are two kinds of
hours, viz. (1.) the astronomical or equi
noctial hour, i. e. the 24tli part of .a civil
day, .and (2.) the natural hour, i. e. the
12th part of tbe natural day, or of the time
between sunrise and sunset. These are
the hours meant in the N. T. (John xi. 9,
&c.), and it must be remembered that they
perpetually v.ary in length, so as to be very
diflerent at different times of the year. For

the purposes of prayer the old division of
the d.ay into 4 portions was continued in
the Temple service, as we see from Acts ii.
15, iii. 1, X. 9.
House. The houses of the rural poor
in Egypt, as well as in raost parts of Syria,
Arabia, and Persia, .are for the most part
mere huts of mud, or sunburnt bricks. In
some parts of Palestine and Ar.abia stone is
used, and in certain districts caves in the
rock are used as dwellings (Amos v. 11).
The houses are usually of one story only,
viz., tho ground floor, and often contain
only one apartment. Sometimes a small
court for the cattle is attached ; and in
some cases the cattle are housed in the
same building, or the people live on a raised
platform, and tlie cattle round them on the
ground (1 Sam. xxviii. 24). .The windov/s
are small apertures high up in the walls,
sometimes grated with wood. The roofs
are commonly but not always flat, and are
usually formed of a plaster of mud and
straw laid upon boughs or rafters ; and
upon the flat roofs, tents or " booths " of
boughs or rushes are often raised to he
used as sleeping-places iu summer. The

\mw^^^j±:^m

A Nestorian Clouse, with stnpcs upon the roof for
eleeping. (Laj ard, i\ ij.t.'t/i, i. 177.)
difference between the poorest houses and
those of the class next above thera is
greater th.an between these and the houses
of the first rank. The prevailing plan of
Eastern houses of this class presents, as
was the case in ancient Egypt, a front of
wall, whose blank and mean appearance is
usually relieved only by the door aud a few
latticed and projecting windows. Within
this is a court or courts with apartments
opening into them. Over the door is a pro
jecting window with a lattice mare or less
elaborately wrought, which, except in times
of public celebrations, is usually closed (2 K.

HOUSE

251

HOUSE

lx. iyO). An awning is sometimes dr.awn
over the court, and the floor strewed with
carpets on festive occasions. The stairs to
the upper apartnients are in Syria usually in
a corner of the court. Around part, if not
the whole, ofthe court is a veranda, often
nine or ten feet deep, over which, when
there is more than one floor, runs a second
gaUery of like depth with a balustrade.

Inner Court of Houeo in Cairo. (Lane, Modem
EgyjAiaiis.)
Bearing in mind that the reception room is
raised above the level of the court, we may,
in e.xplaining the circumstances of the mira
cle of the paralytic (Mark ii. 3 ; Luke v.
18), suppose, 1. either that our Lord was
standing under the veranda, and the peo
ple in front in the court. The bearers of
the sick man ascended the stairs to the
roof of the bouse, and taking off a portion
of the boarded covering of the veranda,
or removing the awning, in the former case
let down the bed through the veranda
roof, or in tlie latter, down by loay of the
roof, and deposited it before the Saviour.
2. Another explanation presents itself in
considering the room where .the company
were .assembled as the " upper room," and
the roof opened for the bed to be the true
roof of the house. 3. And one still more
simple is found in regarding the liouse as
one of the rude dwellings now to be seen
near the Sea of Galilee, a mere room 10 or
12 feet liigh, and .as many or more square,
with no opening except the door. The
roof, used as a sleeping-place, is reached
by a ladder from the outside, and the bear
ers of the paralytic, unable to approach the
door, would thus have ascended the roof,
and having uncovered it, let liim down into
the room where our Lord was. Wlien
there is no second floor, but more than one

court, the women's apartments, h.ireon,
harem, or harar.i, are usually in the sec
ond court ; otherwise tliey form a separate
building within the general enclosure, or
are above on the first floor. When there
is an upper story, the Ka'ali forms the most
important apartment, and thus probalily
answers to the "upper room," which Avas
often the " gucst-elianilicr" (Luke xxii. 12
Acts i. 13, ix. 37, .\x. 8). The windows of
the upper rooms often project one or two
feet, and form a kiosk or latticed cliamljor.
Such may liave been "the cliaiulicr in the
w.aH" (2 K. iv. 10, 11). The '¦ lattice,"
through wliich Ahaziah fell, jicrliaps be
longed to an upper chamber of this kind (2
K. i. 2), as also the "third loft," from
which Eutyclius fell (Acts xx. 9 ; comp.
Jer. x.xii. 13). There are usually no spe
cial bedrooms in Eastern liouscs. The
outer doors are closed witli a wooden lock,
but in some cases the apartments arc divid
ed from cacli other by curtains only. There
are no chimneys, but fire is made when re
quired with cliarcoal in a eliaiing-dish; or
a fire of wood might be kindled in the op;n
court of the liouse (Luke x.\"ii. 55). .Some
houses iu Cairo have an apartment, open
in front to the court, with two or more
arches, and a railing; and a pillar to sup
port the wall above. It was in a chamber
of this kind, probably one of the largest
size to be found in a palace, that our Lord
w.as being arraigned before the liigli-priest,
at tlie time when tire denial of Iliiu by St.
Peter took place. He " turned and looked ''
on Peter as he stood by tbe fire in the

Interior of IIouBe (harem) in DamascuB.
court (Luke x.xii. 6G, 61; John xviii. 24),
whilst He himself was in the "hall of
judgment." In no point do Oriental do
mestic habits difler more from European
than in the use of the roof. Its fl.at sur
face is made useful for v.arious household
purposes, as drying corn, hanging up linen,
and preparing tigs and raisins. The roofs
are used as places of recreation in the
evening, and often as sleeping-places at
night (2 Sam. xi. 2, xvi. 22; Dan. iv. 29;

HUKKOK

252

HUSHAI

I Sam, ix. 25, 26 ; Job xxvii. 18 ; Prov.
xxi. 9). They were also used as places
for devotion, and even idolatrous worship
(Jer. xxxii. 29, xix. 13; 2 K. xxiii. 12;
Zeph. i. 5 ; Acts x. 9). At the time of
the Feast of Tabernacles booths were
erected by the Jews on the tops of their
bouses. Protection of the roof by parapets
was enjoined by the law (Deut. xxii. 8).
Special apartments were devoted in larger
houses to winter and summer uses (Jer.
xxxvi. 22; Am. iii. 15). The ivory house
of Ahab was prohably a palace largely or
namented with inlaid ivory. The circum
stance of Samson's pulling down the house
by means of the pillars, may be explained
by the fact of the company being assembled
on tiers of balconies above each other,
supported by central pillars on the base
ment ; when these were pulled down the
whole of the upper floors would fall also
(Judg. xvi. .26).
Huk'kok, a place on the boundary of
Naphtali (Josh. xix. 34) naraed next to Az-
noth-Tabor. It has been recovered in Yakuk,
a village in the mountains of Naphtali, west
of the upper end of the Sea of Galilee.
Hu'kok, a narae which in 1 Chr. vi. 75
is substituted for Helkath in Josh. xxi.
Hul, the second son of Aram, and
grandson of Shem (Gen. x. 23). The
strongest evidence is in favor of the district
about the roots of Lebanon.
Hul'dah, a prophetess, whose husband
Shallum was keeper of the wardrobe in the
time of king Josiah. It was to her that Josiah
had recourse when Hilkiah found a book of
the law, to procure an authoritative opinion
on it (2 K. xxii. 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv. 22).
Hum'tah, a city of Judah, one of those
In the mountain-district, the next to He
bron (Josh. XV. 54).
Hunting. Hunting, as a matter of ne
cessity, whether for the extermination of
dangerous beasts, or for procuring suste
nance, betokens a rude and semi-civilized
state ; as an amusement, it betokens an ad
vanced state. The Hebrews, as a pastoral
and agricultiiral people, were not given to
tie sports of the field; the density of the
population, the' earnestness of their- char
acter, and the tendency of their ritual reg
ulations, particularly those affecting food,
all combined to discourage the practice of
hunting. The manner of catching animals
was either by digging a pitfall, or secondly
by a trap, which was set under ground
(Job xviii. 10), iu the run of the animal
(Prov. xxii. 5), and caught it by the leg
(Job xviii. 9) ; or lastly by the use of the
net, of which there were various kinds, as
for the gazelle (Is. ]>. 20, A. V. " wild
bull ") and other animals of that class.
Hu'pham, a son of Benjamin, founder
ot the family of Ihs Huphamites (Num.
xyvi. 39).

Hu'phamites, The, descendants of
Hupham of the tribe of Benjamin (Num.
xxvi. 39).
Hup'pah, a priest in the time of David
(1 Chr. xxiv. 13).
Hup'pim, head of a Benjamite family.
According to the text of the LXX. in Gen.,
a son of Bela, but 1 Chr. vii. 12, tella us
that he was a son of Ir, or Iri.
Hur. 1. A man who is mentioned with
Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the
battle with Amalek at Eephidim (Ex. xvii.
10), when with Aaron he stayed up the
hands of Moses (12). He is mentioned
again in xxiv. 14, as being, with Aaron,
left in charge of the people by Moses dur
ing his ascent of Sinai. The Jewish tra
dition is that he was the husband of Mir
iam, and that he was identical with, 2. The
grandfather of . Bezaleel, the chief artifi
cer of the tabernacle — " son of Huri, son
of Hur — of the tribe of Judah." (Ex.
xxxi. 2, xxxv. 30, xxxviii. 22). In the lists
of the descehdiints of Judah in 1 Chr. the
pedigree is more fully preserved. Hur
there appears as one of the great family of
Pharez. He was the son of Caleb ben-
Hezron, by a second wife, Ephrath (ii. 19,
20; comp. 5, also iv. 1), the first fruit of
the marriage (ii. 50, iv. 4), and the father,
besides Uri (ver. 20), of three sons, who
founded the towns of Ejrjath-jearim, Beth
lehem, and Beth-gader (51). 3. The
fourth of the five kings of Midian, who
were slain with Balaam after the "matter
of Peor " (Num. xxxi. 8). In a Later men
tion of them (Josh. xiii. 21), they are called
princes of Midian and dukes. 4. Father
of Rephaiah, who was ruler of half of the
environs of Jerusalem, and assisted Nehe
miah in the repair of the wall (Neh. iii. 9).
5. The "son of Hur " — Ben-Hur — was
commissariat officer for Solomon iu Mount
Ephraim (1 K. iv. 8).
Hu'rai, one of David's guard — Hurai
of the torrents of Gash — according to the
list of 1 Chr. xi. 32. [Hiddai.]
Hu'ram. 1. A Benjamite; son of Bela,
the fii.'t-born of the patriarch (1 Chr. viii.
5). 2. The form in which the name ofthe
king of Tyre in alliance with David and
Solomon — and elsewhere given as Hiram
— appears in Chronicles (1 Chr, xiv. 1 ; 2
Chr. ii. 3, 11, 12; viii. 2, 18; ix. 10, 21).
3. The same change occurs in Chronicles
in the name of Hiram the artificer, which
is given as Huram in the following places ;
2 Chr. ii. 13 ; iv. 11. 16. [Hiram.] '
Hu'ri, a Gadite ; father of Abihail (1
Chr. V, 14).
Husband. [Marriage.]
Hu'shah, a name which occurs in the
genealogies of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr.
iv. 4) — " Ezer, father of Hushah." It
may perhaps be the name of a place.
Hu'shai, an.ArcMte, i. e., possibly an

HUSHAM

253

HYSSOP

Inhabitant of a place called Erec (2 Sam.
XV. 32, ff., xvi, 16, ff.). He is called the
" friend " of David (2 Sam. xv. 37 : comp.
1 Chr. xxvii. 33). To hi-m David confided
the delicate and flangerous part of a pre
tended adherence to the cause of Absalom.
He was probably the father of Baana (1
K. iv. 16).
Hu'sham, one of the early kings of
Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 34, 35; 1 Chr.i. 45,
46). Hu'shathite, The, the designation
of two of the heroes of David's guard. 1.
Siubechai (2 Sam. xxi. 18; 1 Chr. xi. 29,
XX. 4, xxvii. 11). Josephus, however, calls
him a Hittite. 2. Mebunnai (2 Sam. xxiii.
27), a mere corruption of Sibbechai.
Hu'shim. 1. In Gen. xlvi. 23, " the
children of Dan" are said to h.ave been
Hushim. The name is plural, as if of a
tribe rather than an individual. In Num.
xxvi. the name is changed to Shuham. 2.
A Benjamite (1 Chr. vii. 1.2) ; and here
again apparently the plural nature of the
name is recognized, and Hushim is stated
to be "the sons of Aher." 3. One of the
two wives of Shaharaim (1 Chr. viii. 8).
Husks. The word rendered in the A.
V, "husks " (Luke xv. 16) describes real
ly the fruit of a particular kind of tree,
viz. : the carob or Ceratonia siliqua of bot
anists. This tree is very commonly met
with in Syria and Egypt ; it produces pods,
shaped hke a horn, varying in length from
6 to 10 inches, and about a finger's breadth,
or rather more.
Huz, the eldest son of Nahor and Milcah
(Gen. xxii. 21).
Huz'zab, according to the general opin
ion of the Jews, was the queen of Nineveh
at the time when Nahum delivered his
prophecy (Nah. ii. 7). The moderns fol
low the rendering in the margin of our
English Bible — "that which was estab
lished." Still it is not improbable that after
all Huzzab may really he a proper narae.
Huzzab may mean "th5 Zab country," or
the fertile tract east of the Tigris, watered
by the upper and lower Zab rivers.
Hyaena. Authorities ^re at variance
as to whether the terra tzdbi!t'a in Jer. xii.
9 means a " hyaena," as the LXX. has it, or
a " speckled bird," as in the A. V. "The
only other instance in which it occurs is as
a proper name, Zeboim (1 Sam. xiii., " the
valley of hyaenas," Aquila; Neh. xi. 34).
The hyaena was comraon in ancient as in
modern Egypt, and is constantly depicted
upon raonuments ; it must therefore have
been well known to the Jews.
Hymenae'us, the name of a person
occurring twice in the correspondence be
tween St. Paul and Timothy ; the first time
classed with Alexander (1 Tim. i. 20), and
the second time classed with Philetus (2
Tim. ii. 17, 18). In the error with which he

was eh..rged he stands as one of the earliisr^
of the Gnostics. As regards the sentence
passed upon him — it has been asserted
by some writers of erainence, that the " de
livering to Satan " is a mere synonyme for
ecclesiastical excommunication. Such can
hardly be the case. As the Apostles healed
all manner of bodily infirmities, so they
seem to have possessed and exercised the
same power in inflicting thera — a power
far too perilous to be continued when the
manifold exigencies of the Apostolic age
had passed away (Acts v. 5, 10, ix. 17, 40,
xiii. 11). Even apart from actual interven
tion by the Apostles, bodily visitations are
spoken of in the case of those who ap
proached the Lord's Supper unworthily (1
Cor. xi. 30).
Hymn. Among the later Jews the word
hymn was more or less vague in its appli
cation, and capable of being used as occasion
should arise. To Christians the Hymn has
always been something different from the
Psalm ; a different conception in thought,
a different type in composition. There is
some dispute about the hymn sung by our
Lord and his Apostles on the occasion of
the Last Supper; but even supposing it to
have been the Hallel, or Paschal Hymn, con
sisting of Pss. cxiii.-cxviii., it is obvious that
the word hymn is in this case applied not
to au individual psalm, but to a nuraber of
psalms chanted successively, and all togeth
er forming a kind of devotional exercise
which is not unaptly called a hymn. In
the jail at Philippi, Paul and Silas " sang
hymns " (A. V. " praises ") unto God, and
so loud was their song that their fellow-
prisoners heard them. This must have
been what we mean by singing, and not
merely recitation. It was in fact a verita
ble singing of hymns. And it is remarkable
that the noun hymn is only used in refer
ence to the services of the Greeks, and in
the same passages is clearly distinguished
from the psalm (Eph. v. 19, Col. iii. 16),
"psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs."
Hyssop. (Heb. &zdb.) The Szdb was
used to sprinkle the doorposts ofthe Israel
ites in Egypt with the blood of the paschal
liimb (Ex. xii. 22) ; it was employed in the
purification of lepers and leprous houses
(Lev. xiv, 4, 51), and in the sacrifice ofthe
red heifer (Num. xix. 6). In consequence
of its detergent qualities, or frora its being
associated with the purificatory services,
the Psalmist makes use of the expression,
" purge me with tzdb " (Ps, li. 7). It is
described in 1 K. iv, '33 as growing on or
near walls. Bochart decides in fevor of
marjoram, or some plant like it, and to this
conclusion, it must be admitted, all ancient
tradition points. But Dr. Royle, after a
careful investigation of the subject, arrives
at the conclusion that the hyssop is no other
than the caper-plant, or capparis spinosa

IBHAR

254

IDOLATRY

of Linnaeus. The Arahic name of this
plant, asuf, by which it is sometimes,
though not commonly, described, bears
considerable resemblance to the Hebrew.

lbT3,ar, one of the sons of David (2
Sam. v. 15 ; 1 Chr. iii. 6, xiv. 5) born in
Jerusalem. Ib'leam, a city of Manasseh, with vil
lages or towns dependent on it (Judg. i.
27) . It appears to have been situated in
the territory of either Issachar or Asher
(Josh. xvii. 11). The ascent of GnE was
"at Ibleam" (2 K. ix. 27), somewhere
near the present Jenin, probably to the
north of it.
Ibnei'ah, son of Jehoram, a Benjamite
(1 Chr. ix. 8).
Ibni'jah, a Benjamite (1 Chr. ix. 8).
Ib'ri, a Merarite Levite of the family of
Jaaziah (1 Chr. xxiv, 27), in the time of
David, Ib'zan, a native of Bethlehem of Zebu
lun, who judged Israel for seven years
after Jephthah (Judg. xii. 8, 10).
Ich'abod, the son of Phinehas, and
grandson of Eli (1 Sam. iv. 21).
Ico'nium, the modern Konieh, was the
capital of Lycaonia. It was on the great
Un? of communication between Ephesus
and the western coast of the peninsula on
one side, and Tarsus, Antioch, and the
Euphrates on the other. Iconium was a
well chosen place for missionary operations
(Acts xiv. 1, 3, 21, 22_, xvi. 1, 2, xviii. 23).
"The Apostle's first visit was on his first
circuit, in company with Barnabas ; and
on this occasion he approached it from
AnKoch in Pisidia., which lay to the west.
Id'alah, one of the cities of the . tribe
of Zebulun, named between Shimron and
Bethlehem (Josh, xix, 15),
Id'bash, one of the three sons of Abi-
Etam , among the farailies of Judah (1 Chr,
iv. 3).
Id'do. 1. The father of Abinadab (1
K. iv. 14). 2. A descendant of Gershom,
son of Levi (1 Chr. vi. 21). 3. Son of
Zechariah, ruler of the tribe of Manasseh
east of Jordan in tlie time of David (1 Chr.
xxvii. 21). 4. A seer whose "visions"
against Jeroboam incidentally contained
some of the acts of Solomon (2 Chr. ix.
29) . Ho appears to have written a chroni
cle or story relating to the life and reign of
Abijali (2 Chr. xiii. 22), and also a book
"concerning genealogies" in which the
acts of Rehoboam were recorded (xii. 15).
These books are lost, but they may have
formed part of tho foundation of the ex
isting books of Chronicles. 5, The gr.and
father of tlie prophet Zechariah (Zech: i, 1,

7), although in other places Zechariah is.
called " the son of Iddo " (Ezr. v, 1 ; vi.
14). Iddo returned frora Babylon with
Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh. xii. 4). 6.
The chief of those who assembled at Ca
siphia, at the time of the second caravan
from B.abylon. He was one of the Nethi
nim (Ezr. viii. 17; corap. 20).
Idol, Image. No less than twenty-
one different Hebrew words have been ren
dered in the A. V. either by idol or image,
including a class of abstract terms, which,
with a deep moral significance, express the
degradation associated with it, and stand
out as a protest of the language against the
enormities of idolatry. Such are, 1. Aven,
rendered elsewhere " nought," " vanity,"
" iniquity," " wickedness," " sorrow," &c.,
and once only "idol" (Is. Ixvi. 3). 2.
Elil is thought by some to have a sense
akin to that of " falsehood." In strong
contrast with Jehovah it appears in Ps. xc.
5, xcvii. 7. 3. Emdh, " horror," or " ter
ror," and hence an object of horror or ter
ror (Jer. 1. 38), in reference either to tho
hideousness of the idols or to the gross
character of their worsliip. 4. Bdsheth,
"shame," or "shameful thing" (A. V.
Jer. X}. 13 ; Hos. ix. 10), applied to Baal or
Baal-Peor, as characterizing the obscenity
of his worship, &c. Among the earliest
objects- of worsliip, regarded as symbols of
deity, were, the meteoric stones which the
ancients believed to have been the images
of the gods sent down from heaven. From
these they transferred their regard to rough
unhewn blocks, to stone columns or pillars
of wood» in which the di^dnity worshipped
was supposed to dwell, and whieh were
consecrated, like tho sacred stone at Delphi,
by being anointed with oil, and crowned
with wool on solemn days. Such customs
are remarkable illustrations of the solemn
consecration by Jacob of the stone at Beth
el, as showing the religious reverence with
which these memorials were regarded. Of
the forms assumed by the idolatrous images
we have not many traces ' in the Bible.
Dagon, the fish-god of the Philistines, was
a human figure terminating in a fish ; and
that the Syrian deities were represented in
later tiraes in a symbolical human shape
we know for certainty. The Hebrews im
itated their neighbors in this respect as in
others (Is. xliv. 13; Wisd. .xiii. 13). When
the process of adorning the im.ngo was com
pleted, it was placed in a temple or shrine
appointed for it (Epist. Jer. 12, 19 ; Wisd.
xiii. 15; 1 Cor. viii, 10). From these
temples the idols were soraetiraes carried
in procession (Epist, Jer, 4, 26) on festival
days. Their priests were m.aint.ained from
the idol treasury, and feasted upon the
meats which were appointed for the idols'
use (Bel and the Dragon, 3, 13).
idolatry, strictly speaking, denotes the

IDOLATRY

255

IDOLATRY

worship i)f deity in a visible form, whether
the images to which homage is paid are
symbolical representations of the true God
or of the false divinities which have been
made the objects of worship in His stead.
I. History of Idolatry among the Jews. —
The first undoubted allusion to idolatry or
idolatrous customs in the Bible is in the
account of Rachel's stealing her father's
teraphim (Gen. xxxi. 19), a relic of the
worship of other gods, whom the ,ancestors
of the Israelites served ' ' on the other side
of the river, in old tirae" (Josh. xxiv. 2).
These he consulted as oracles (Gen. xxx.
27, A.V. "learned by experience "), though
without entirely losing sight of tho God of
Abrahara and the God of Nahor, to whom
he appealed when occasion offered (Gen.
xx:iri. 53), while he was ready, in the pres
ence of Jacob, to acknowledge the benefits
conferred upon him by Jehovah (Gen. xxx.
27). Such, indeed, was the character of
most of the idolatrous worship of the Israel
ites. Like the Cuthean colonists in Sa
maria, who "feared Jehovah and served
their ov.fn gods " (2 K, xvii, 33), they
blended in a strange manner a theoretical
belief in the true God with the external
reverence which they were led to pay to
the idols of the nations by whom they were
surrounded. During their long residence
in Egypt, the country of symbolism, they
defiled themselves with the idols of the
land, and it was long before the taint was
reraoved (Josh. xxiv. 14; Ez. xx. 7). To
those gods Moses, as the herald of Jehovah,
flung down the gauntlet of defiance, and
the plagues of Egypt smote their symbols
(Num. xxxiii. 4). Yet, with the memory
of their deliverance fresh in their minds,
their leader absent, the Israelites clamored
for some visible shape in which they might
worship the God who had brought thera
out of Egypt (Ex. xxxii.). Aaron lent
himself to the popular cry, and chose as
the symbol of deity one with which they
had long been familiar — the calf — em
bodiment of Apis, and emblem of the pro
ductive power of nature. For a while the
erection of the tabernacle, and the establish
ment of the worship which accompanied it,
satisfied that craving for an outward sign
which the Israelites constantly exhibited;
and for the remainder of their march through
the desert, with the dwelling-place of Jeho
vah in their midst, they did not again de
generate into open apostasy. But it was
only so long as their contact with the na
tions was of a hostile character that this
seeming orthodoxy was maintained. Dur
ing the lives of Joshua and the elders who
outlived him, they kept true to their allegi
ance; but the generation following, who
knew not Jehovah, nor the works he had
done for Israel, swerved from the plain p.ath
of their fathers, and were caught in the

toils ofthe foreigner (Judg. ii.). From this
time forth their history becomes little more
than a chronicle of the inevitable sequence
of offence and punishment (Judg. ii. 12,
14). By turns each conquering nation
strove to establish the worship of its na
tional god. Thus far idolatry as a national
sin. The episode of Micah, in Judg.
xvii., xviii., sheds a lurid light on the secret
practices of individuals, who, without for
mally renouncing Jehovah, though ceasing
to recognize Him as the theocratic King
(xvii. 6), linked with His worship the sym
bols of ancient idolatry. In later times tlie
practice of secret idolatry was carried to
greater lengths. Images were set up on
the corn-floors, in the wine-vats, and be
hind the doors of private houses (Is. Ivii, 8 ;
Hos. ix. 1, 2) ; and to check this tendency
the statute in Deut. xxvii. 15 was originally
promulgated. Under Samuel's administra
tion a fast was held, and purificatory rites
performed, to mark the public renunciation
of idolatry (1 Sam, vii, 3-6), But in the
reign of Solomon all this was forgotten.
Each of his many foreign wives brought
with her the gods of her own nation ; and
tlie gods of Araraon, Moab, and Zidon
were openly worshipped, Rehoboam, the
son of an Ammonite mother, perpetuated
the worst features of Solomon's idolatry (1
K, xiv, 22-24) ; and in his reign was macio
the great schism in the national religion :
when Jeroboam, fresh frora his recollec
tions of the Apis worship of Egypt, erected
golden calves at Bethel aud at Dan, and by
this crafty state-policy severed forever the
kingdoms of Judah and Israel (1 K. xii. 26-
33), The successors of Jeroboam followed
in his steps, till Ahab, who married a Zido-
nian princess, at her instigation (1 K. xxi.
25) built a teraple and altar to Baal, and
revived all the aborainations ofthe Amorites
(1 K. xxi. 26). Compared with the worship
of Baal, the worship of the calves was a
venial offence, probably because it was
morally less detestable and also less anti-
national (1 K. xii. 28; 2 K. x. 28-31),
Henceforth Baal-worship became so com
pletely identified with the northern kingdom
that it is described as walking in the way or
statutes ofthe kings of Israel (2 K. xvi, 3,
xvii. 8), as distinguished from the sin of
Jeroboam. The conquest of the ten tribes
by Shalmaneser was for them the last scene
of the drama of abominations which had
been enacted uninterruptedly for upwards
of 250 years. The first act of Hezekiah
on ascending the throne was the restoration
and purification of the teraple, which had
been dismantled and closed during the lat
ter part of his father's life (2 Clir. xxviii.
24, xxix. 3). The iconoclastic spirit was
not confined to Judah and Benjamin, but
spread throughout Ephraim aud Manasseh
(2 Chr. xxxi. 1), and to all extcrn.il ap-

IDOLATRY

256

IDOLATRY

pearance idolatry was extirpated. But the
reform extended little below the surface (Is.
xxix. 13). With the death of Josiah ended
the last effort to revive among the people a
purer ritual, if not a purer faith. The lamp
of David, which had long, shed but a strug
gling ray, flickered for a while and then
went out iu the darkness of Babylonian cap
tivity. Hut foreign exile was powerless to
eradicate the deep inbred tendency to idola-
trj'. One of the first difficulties with which
Ezra had to co ntend was the haste with which
his countryraen took them foreign wives of
the people of the land, and followed them in
all their .abomiiuy;ions (Ezr. ix.) The con
quests of Alexander in Asia caused Greek
influence to be extensively felt, and Greek
idolatry to be first tolerated, and then
practised, by the Jews (1 Mace. i. 43-50,
64). The attempt of Antiochus to establish
this form of worship was vigorously re
sisted by Mattathias (1 Mace. ii. 23-26).
The erection of synagogues has heen as
signed as a reason for the comparative
purity of the Jewish worship after the cap
tivity, while another cause has been dis
covered in the hatred for images acquired
by the Jews in their intercourse with the
Persians. II. Objects of Idolatry. — In
the old religion of the Semitic races the
deity, following human analogy, was con
ceived of as male and feraale : the one rep
resenting the active, the other the passive
principle of nature ; the former the source
of spiritual, the latter of physical life. The
Bun and moon were early selected as out
ward symbofs of this all-pervading power,
and the worship of the heavenly bodies
was not only the most ancient but the
most prevalent system of idolatry. Tak
ing its rise in the plains of Chaldea, it
spread through Egypt, Greece, Scythia,
and even Mexico and Ceylon (corap.
Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 3; Job xxxi. 26-28).
It is probable that the Israelites learnt
their first lessons in sun-worship from
the Egyptians, in whose religious sys
tem that luminary, as Osiris, held a prom-
ineiit place. The Phoenicians worshipped
him under the title of "Lord of heaven."
As Molech or Milcora, the sun was wor
shipped by the Araraonites, and as Clie-
raosh by the Moabites. The Hadad of
the Syrians is the same deity. " The Assyr
ian Bel, or Belus, is another form of Baal.
By the later kings of Judah, sacred horses
and chariots wero dedicated to the sun-god,
as by the Persians (2 K. xxiii. 11). The
moon, worshipped by the Phoenicians under
the name of Astarte or Baaltis, the passive
power of nature, as Baal was the active,
and known to the Hehrews as Ashtaroth or
Ashtoreth, the tutelary goddess of the Zido
nians, appears early araong the objects of
Israelitish idolatry. In the later times of
tho monarchy, the planets, or the zodiacal

signs, received, next to the sun aud moon,
their share of popular adortition (2 K. xxiii.
5). Beast-worship, as exemplified in the
calves of Jeroboam, has already been al
luded to. There is no actual proof that
the Israelites ever joined in the service
of Dagon, the fish-god of the Philistines,
though Ahaziah sent stealthily to Baalze
bub, the fly-god of Ekron (2 K. i.), and in
later times the brazen serpent became the
object of idolatrous homage (2 K. xviii. 4).
Of pure hero-worship among theSeniitio
races we find no trace. The singular rever
ence with which trees have been honored is
not without example in the history of the
Hebrews. The terebinth at Mamre, be
neath which Abraham built an altar (Gen.
xii. 7, xiii. 18), and the memorial grove
planted by him at Beersheba (Gen. xxi. 33),
were intimately connected with patriarchal
worship. Mountains and high places were
chosen spots for offering sacrifice and in
cense to idols (1 K, xi, 7, xiv, 23) ; and the
retirement of gardens and the thick shade
of woods offered great attractions to their
worshippers (2 K, xvi. 4 ; Is. i. 29 ; Hos. iv.
13). "The host of heaven was worshipped
on the house-top (2 K. xxiii. 12 ; Jer. xix.
3, xxxii. 29 ; Zeph. i. 5). III. Punishment
of Idolatry. — If one main object of the
Hebrew polity was to teach the unity of God,
the extermination of idolatry was but a sub
ordinate end. Jehovah, the God of the Is
raelites, was the civil head of the State.
He was the theocratic king of the people,
who had delivered them from bondage, and
to whom they had taken a willing oath of
allegiance. Idolatry, therefore, to an Is-
rjielite was a state offence (1 Sam. xv. 23),
a political crime pf the gravest character,
high treason against the majesty of his king.
But it was much more than all this. While
the idolatry of foreign nations is stigma
tized merely as an abomination in the sight
of God, which called for his vengeance, the
sin of the Israelites is regarded as of more
glaring enormity and greater moral guilt.
In the figurative language of the prophets,
the relation between Jehovah and his people
is represented as a marriage bond (Is. liv.
5; Jer. iii, 14), and the worship of false
gods with all its accompaniments (Lev. xx.
56) becomes then the greatest of social
wrongs (Hos. ii. ; Jer. iii., &c.). The first
and second commandments are directed
against idolatry of every form. Individuals
and communities were equally amenable to
the rigorous code. The individual offender
was devoted to destruction (Ex. xxii. 20) ;
his nearest relatives were not only bound
to denounce him and deliver him up to
punishment (Deut. xiii. 2-10), but thtiir
li.ands were to strike the first blow, when, on
the evidence of two witnesses at least, he
was stoned (Deut. xvii. 2-5'.. To attempt
to seduce others to false worsliip was a

IPTJMEA.

.257

INCENSE

crime of equal enormity (Deut. xiii. 6-
10). Idume'a. [Edom.]
I'gal. 1. One ofthe spies, son of Joseph,
ofthe tribe of Issachar (Num. xiii. 7). 2.
One of the heroes of David's guard, son of
N ithan of Zobah (2 Sam. xxiii. 36) .
Igdali'ah, a prophet or holy man —
" the man of God " — named once only (Jer.
xxxv. 4), as the father of Hanan.
Ig'eal, a son of Shemaiah ; a descend
ant of the roj-al house of Judah (1 Chr. iii.
22). I'im. 1. Tho partial or contracted form
of the narae Ije- Abarim (Nura. xxxiii. 45).
2. A town in the extreme south of Judah
(Josh. XV. 28).
I'je-ab'anm, one of the later halting-
places of the children of Israel (Num. xxi.
11, xxxiii. 44). It was on the boundary —
the S. E. boundary — of the territory of
Moab; in the waste uncultivated " wilder
ness " on its skirts (xxi. 11).
I'jon, a town in the north of Palestine,
belonging to the tribe of Naphtali. It was
taken and plundered by the captains of Ben
hadad (1 K. XV. 20 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 4), and a
second time by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. xv. 29).
It was situated a few miles N. W. of the
site of Dan, in a fertile and beautiful little
plain called Merj 'Ayun.
Ik'kesh, the father of Ira the Tekoite
(2 Sam. xxiii. 26; 1 Chr. xi. 28, xxvii.
llai, an Ahohite, one of the heroes of
David's guard (1 Chr. xi. 29).
lUyr'ieum, an extensive district lying
along the eastern coast of the Adriatic, from
the boundary of Italy on the north to Epirus
on the south, and contiguous toMoesiaand
Macedonia on the east (Rom. xv. 19).
Image. [Idol.]
Im'la, father or progenitor of Micaiah
the prophet (2 Chr. xviii. 7, 8). The form
Im'lah is employed in the parallel nar
rative (1 K. xxii. 8, 9).
Imman'uel, that is, God with us, the
symbolical name given by the prophet
Isaiah to the child who was announced to
Ahaz and the people of Judiih, as the sign
which G od 'would give of their deliverance
from their enemies (Is, vii, 14), It is ap
plied by the Apostle Matthew to the Mes
siah, born of the Virgin (Matt. i. 23). It
would therefore appear that the immediate
reference of the prophet was to some con
temporary occurrence, but th.at his words
received their true and full accomplishment
in the birth of the Messiah.
Im'mer. 1, The founder of an important
family of priests (1 Chr, ix, 12 ; Neh. xi.
13). " This family had charge of, and gave
its name to, the sixteenth course of the ser
vice (1 Chr, xxiv. 14). 2. Apparently the
name of a place in Babylonia (Ezr. ii. 59 ;
Neh. vii. 61). ir

Im'na, a descendant of Asher, son of
Helera (1 Chr. vii. 35; corap. 40),
Im'nah, 1, The first-born of Asher
(1 Chr. vii. 30). 2. Kore ben-Imnah, the
Levite, assisted in the reforms of Hezekiah
(2 Chr. xxxi. 14).
Im'rah, a descendant of Asher, of the
family of Zophah (1 Chr. vii. 36).
Im'ri. 1. A man of Judah, ofthe great
family of Pharez (1 Chr. ix. 4). 2. Father
or progenitor of Zaccur (Neh. iii. 2).
'Incense, The incense employed in the
service of the tabernacle was compounded
of the perfumes stacte, onycha, galbanum,
and pure frankincense. All incense which
Was not made of these ingredients was for
bidden to be offered (Ex. xxx. 9). Aaron,
as high-priest, was originally appointed to
offer incense, but in the daily service of
the second temple the office devolved upon
the inferior priests, frora araong whora one
was chosen by lot (Luke i. 9), each morn
ing and evening. The tiraes of offering
incense were specified in the instructions
first given to Moses (Ex. xxx. 7, 8). The
morning incense was offered when the
lamps were trimmed in the Holy place,
and before the sacrifice, when the watch
man set for the purpose announced the
break of day. When the lamps were light
ed " between the evenings," after the even
ing sacrifice and before the drink-offerings
were offered, incense was again burnt on
the golden altar, which ' ' belonged to the
oracle " (1 K. vi. 22), and stood before the
veil which separated the Holy place from
the Holy of Holies, the throne cif God (Rev.
viii. 4). When the priest entered the Holy
place with the incense, all the people were
removed from the teraple, and from be
tween the porch and the altar (cf. Luke i.
10). Profound silence was observed among
the congregation who were praying with
out (cf. Rev. viii. 1), and at a signal from
the prefect the priest cast the incense on
the fire, and bowing reverently towards the
Holy of Holies retired slowly backwards,
not prolonging his prayer that he might
not al.arni the congregation, or causa them
to fear that he had been struck dead for
offering unworthily (Lev. xvi. 18 ; Luke i.
21). On the day of atonement the service
was different. The offering of incense has
formed a part of the religious ceremonies
of raost ancient nations. It was an ele
ment in the idolatrous worship of the Is
raelites (Jer. xi. 12, 17, xlviii. 35 ; 2 Chr.
xxxiv. 25). Looking upon incense in con
nection with the other ceremonial obser
vances of the Mosaic ritual, it would
rather seem to be syrabolical, not of prayer
itself, but of that which makes prayer ac
ceptable, the intercession of Clu-ist. In
Rev. viii. 3, 4, the incense is spoken of as
something distinct from, though offered with
the prayers of all the saints (cf. Luke i

INDIA

258

IRON

ID) ; and in Rev v. 8 it is the golden vials,
and not the odors or incense, which are said
to be the prayers of saints.
India. The name (>f India does not oc
cur in the Bible before the book of Esther,
where it is noticed as the limit of the terri
tories of Ahasuerus in the east, as Ethiopia
was in tho west (i, 1 ; viii, 9), The India
of the book of Esther is not the peninsula
of Hindostan, but the country surrounding
the Indus, the Punjdb, and perhaps Scinde.
In 1 Mace. viii. 8, India is reckoned among
the countries which Eumenes, king of Per-
g.amus, received out of the former posses-
fions of Antioclius the Great. A more
authentic notice of the country occurs in ]
Mace. xi. 37. But though the name of
India occurs so seldom, the people and
productions of that country must have
been tolerably well known to the Jews.
There is undoubted evidence that an active
trade was carried on between India and
Western Asia. The trade opened by Solo
mon with Ophir through the Red Sea con
sisted cliiefly of Indian articles. The con
nection thus established with India led to the
opinion that the Indians were included under
the ethnological title of Cush (Gen. x. 6).
Inheritance. [Heir.]
Ink, Inkhorn. [Writing.]
,Inn. The Hebrew word {mdldn) thus
rendered literally signifies "a lodging-place
for the night." Inns, in our sense of the
terra, were, as they still are, unknown in
the East, whore hospitality is religiously
practised.. The khans, or caravanserais,
are the representatives of European inns,
and these were established but gradually.
It is doubtful whether there is any allusion
to thera in the Old Testaraent. The halt
ing-place of a caravan was selected origi
nally on account of its proximity to water
or pasture, by which the travellers pitched
their tents, and passed the night. Such
was undoubtedly the " inn " at which oc
curred the incident in the life of Moses,
narrated in Ex. iv. 24 (comp. Gen. xiii.
27), On the more frequented routes, re
mote from towns (Jer, ix, 2), caravanserais
were in course of time erected, often at the
e.\'pense of the wealthy. The following
description of one of those on the road
from Bagdad to Babylon will suffice for
all: "It is a large and substantial square
building, in tho distance resembling a for
tress, being surrounded with a lofty wall,
and flanked by round towers to defend the
inmates in case of attack. Passing through
a strong gateway, the guest enters a large
court, tho sides of which are divided into
numerous arched compartments, open in
front, for the accommodation of separate
parties, and for the reception of goods. In
the centre is a spacious raised platform,
used for sleeping upon at night, or for the
cSerotions of thn faithful during the day.

Between the outer wall and the. compart
ments are wide vaulted arcades, extending
round the entire building, where the beasts
of burden are placed. Upon the roof of
the arcades is an excellent terrace, and
over the gateway an elevated tower con
taining two rooms — one of which is open
at the sides, permitting the occupants to
enjoy every iDreath of air that passes across
the heated plain. The terrace is tolerably
clean ; but the court and stabling below are
ankle-deep in chopped straw and filth."
(Loftus, Chaldea, p. 13,)
Instant, Instantly, in the A, V,,
means urgent, urgently, or fervently, as
will be seen from the following passages :
Luke vii. 4, xxiii. 23; Acts xxvi. 7; Rom.
xii. 12. In 2 Tim. iv. 2 we find "be in
stant in season and out of season." The
literal sense is " stand ready " — "be alert"
for whatever may happen.
Iphedei'ah, a descendant of Benjamin,
one of the Bene-Shashak (1 Chr. viii, 25).
Ir, 1 Chr. vii, 12, [Iri.]
I'ra. 1. "The Jairite," named in the
catalogue of David's great officers (2 Sam.
XX. 26). 2. One of the heroes of David's
guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 38 ; 1 Chr. xi. 40).
3. Another of David's guard, a Tekoite,
son of Ikkesh (2 Sam. xxiii. 26 ; 1 Chr. xi.
28). I'rad, son of Enoch ; grandson'of Cain,
and father of Mehujael (Gen. iv. 18).
I'ram, a leader of the Edomites (Gen.
xxxvi. 43; 1 Chr. i. 54), i. e., the chief of
a family or tribe. No identification of him
has been found.
I'ri, or Ir, a Benjamite, son of Bela (1
Chr. vii. 7, 12).
Iri'jah, son of Shelemiah, a captain
of the ward, who met Jeremiah in the gate
of Jerusalem , called the " gate of Ben
jamin," accused him of being about to de
sert to the Chaldeans, and led him back to
the princes (Jer. xxxvii. 13, 14).
Ir'-nahash, a name which, like many
other n.ames of places, occurs in the gene
alogical lists of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 12).
I'ron, one of the cities of Naphtali
(Josh. xix. 38), hitherto totally unknown.
Iron is mentioned with brass as the
earliest of known metals (Gen. iv. 22). As
it is rarely found in its native state, but
gener.ally in combination with oxygen, the
knowledge of the art of forging iron, which
is attributed to Tubal Cain, argues an ac
quaintance with the difficulties which attend
the smelting of this metal. The natural
wealth of the soil of Canaan is indicated bj
describing it as " a land whose stones are
iron" (Deut. viii. 9). The book of Job
contains passages which indicate that iron
was a metal well known. Of the manner
of procuring it, we learn that "iron ia
taken from dust" (xxviii. 2). The "fur
nace of iron " (Deut. iv. 28 ; IK. viii. 511

niPEEL

259

ISAAC

is a figure which vividly expresses hard
bondage, as represented by the severe labor
which attended the operation of smelting.
Sheet-iron was used for cooking utensils
(Ez. iv. 3; cf. Lev. vii. 9). That it was
plentiful in the time of David appears from
1 Chr. xxii. 3. The market of Tyre was.
supplied with bright or polished iron by the
mercliants of Dan and Javan- (Ez. xxvii.
19). The Chalybes of the Pontus were
celebrated as workers in iron in very an
cient tiraes. The produce of their labor is
supposed to be alluded to in Jer. xv.
12, as being of superior quality. It was
for a long time supposed that the Egyp
tians were ignorant of the use of iron, and
that the allusions in the Pentateuch were
anachronisms, as no traces of it have been
found in their monuments ; but in the sep
ulchres at Thebes butchers are repre
sented as sharpening their knives on a
round bar of metal attached to their aprons,
which from its blue color is presumed to be
steel. One iron mine only has been dis
covered in Egypt, which was worked by
the ancients. It is at Haramami, between
the Nile and the Eed Sea ; the iron found
by Mr. Burton was in the form of specu
lar and red ore. That no articles of iron
should have been found is readily accounted
for by the fact that it is easily destroyed by
moisture and exposure to the air. Speci
mens of Assyrian iron-work overlaid with
bronze wore discovered by Mr. Layard, and
are now in the British Museum. Iron
weapons of various kinds were found at
Nimroud, but fell to pieces on exposure
to the air. There is considerable doubt
whether the ancients were acquainted with
cast-iron. The rendering given by the
LXX. of Job xl. 18 seems to imply that
some method nearly like that of casting
was known, and is supported by a passage
in Diodorus (v. 13). In 'Ecclus, x.xxviii.
28, we have a picture of the interior of an
iron-smith's (Is, xliv. 12) workshop,
Ir'peel, one of the cities of Benjamin
(Josh, xviii. 27). No trace has yet been
discovered of its situation,
Ir'-she'mesh, a city of the Danites
(Josh, xi.x. 41), probably identical with
¦Seth-siiemesh, and, if not identical, at
least connected with Mount Heres (Judg.
i. 35). I'm, the eldest son of the great Caleb
son of Jephunneh (1 Chr. iv. 15).
I'saac, the son whora Sarah, in accord
ance with the Divine promise, bore to Abra
ham, in the hundredth year of his age, at
Gerar. In his infancy he became the ob
ject of Ishmacl's jealousy ; and in his youth
the victim, in intention, of Abraham's great
sacrificial act of faith. When forty years
old he married Rebekah his cousin, by
whom, when he was sixty, he had two sons,
Esau and Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year

he and his brother Ishmael buried their fa-
ther Abraham in the cave of Machpelah.
Frora this abode by the well Lahai-roi, in
the South Country, Isaac was driven by a
famine to Gerar. Here Jehovali appeared
to him and bade him dwell there, and noi
go over into Egypt, and renewed to him the
promises made to Abrahara. Here he sub
jected himself, like Abraham in the same
place and .under like circumstances (Gen
XX. 2), to a rebuke from Abimelech the
Philistine king for an equivocation. Here
he acquired great wealth by his flocks, but
was repeatedly dispossessed by the Philis
tines of the wells which he sank at con
venient stations. At Beersheba Jehovah
appeared to him by night and blessed him.
and he built an altar there : there, too, like
Abraham, he received a visit from the Phi
listine king Abimelech, with whom he made
a covenant of peace. After the deceit by
whicli Jacob acquired his father's blessing,
Isaac sent his son to seek a wife in Padan-
aram ; and all that we know of him during
the last forty-three years of his life is, that
he saw that son, with a large and prosper
ous family, return to hira at Hebron (xxxv.
27) before he died there at the age of 180
years. He was buried by his two sons in
the cave of Machpel.ah. In the N. T.
reference is made to the offering of Isaac
(Heb. xi. 17 ; and James ii. 21) and to his
blessing his sons (Heb. xi. 20). As the
child of the promise, and as the progenitor
of the children of the promise, he is con
trasted with Ishmael (Rom. ix. 7, 10 ; Gal.
iv. 28; Heb. xi. 18). In our Lord's re
markable argument with the Sadducees, hia
history is carried beyond the point at wliicli
it is left in the 0. T., and beyond the grave.
Isaac, of whom it was said (Gen. xxx\': 29)
th.at he was gathered to his people, is rep
resented as still living to God (Luke xx.
38, &c.) ; and by the same Divine author
ity he is proclaimed as an acknowledged
heir of future glory (Matt. viii. 11, &c.).
It has been asked what are the persecutions
sustained by Isaac from Ishmael to which
St. Paul refers (Gal. iv, 29). Rashi re-
Lates a Jewish tradition of Isaac suffering
personal violence from Ishmael, a tradition
which some think was adopted by St. Paul.
In reference to the offering up of Isaac by
Abraham, the primary doctrines taught are
those of sacrifice and substitution, as the
means appointed by God for taking away
sin ; and, as co-ordin.ate with these, the
need of the obedience of faith, on tho part
of man, to receive the benefit (Heb. xi. 17).
A confusion is often made between Isaac
and the victim actually ' offered. Isaac
himself is generally viewed as a type of
the Son of God, offered for the sins of
inen; but Isaac, himself one -of the sinful
race for whom atonement was to be made,
— Isaac, who did not actually suffer death,

ISAIAH

260

ISAI.AH

— was no fit type of Hira who " was slain,
tlio just for the unjust." But the animal,
not of the human race, which God provided
and Abrahara offered, was in the whole
history of sacrifice the recognized type
of " the Larab of God, that taketh away
tlie sins of the world." Isaac is the type
of humanity itself, devoted to death for
sin, and submitting to the sentence.
Isa'iah, the prophet, son of Araoz. The
Hebrew name, our shortened form of which
occurs with other persons [see Jesaiaii,
Jeshaiah], signifies Salvation of Jahu (a
shortened form of Jehovah). He prophe
sied concerning Judah and Jerusalem in
the days of Uzziali, Jothara, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, kings of Judah (Is. i. 1). Isaiah
must have been an old man at the close of
Hezekiah's reign. The ordinary chronol
ogy gives 758 B. c. for the date of Jotham's
accession, and 698 for that of Hezekiah's
death. This gives us a period of sixty
years. And since his ministry commenced
before Uzziah's death (how long we know
not), supposing him to have been no more
than twenty years old when he began to
prophesy, he would have been eighty or
ninety at Manasseh's accession. Rabbini
cal tradition says that Isaiah was sawn
asunder in a trunk of a tree by order of
Manasseh, to which it is supposed that ref
erence is made in Hebrews xi. 37. I. Chs.
i.-v, contain Isaiah's prophecies in the
reigns of Uzziah and Jotham. Ch, i, is
very general in its contents, Chs. ii.-iv.
are one prophesying, — the leading thought
of which is, that the present prosperity of
Judah should be destroyed for her sins, to
m.ake room for the real glory of piety and
virtue ; while ch. v. . forras a distinct dis
course, whose main purport is that Israel,
God's vineyard, shall be brought to desola
tion. Ch. vi. describes an ecstatic vision
that fell upon the prophet in the year of
Uzziah's death. Ch. vi., vii., delivered in
the reign of Ahaz, when he was threatened
by the forces of Pekah, king of Israel, and
Rezin, king of Syria. As a sign that Judah
was not yet to perisli, he announces the
birth of the child Immanuel, who should
"know to refuse the evil and choose the
good," before the land of the two hostile
kings should be left desolate. Ch. viii.-
ix. 7. As the Assyrian empire began more
and more to threaten the Hebrew common-
we.alth with utter overthrow, the prediction
of the Messiah, the Restorer of Israel, be
comes more positive and clear. The king
was bent upon an alli.ance with Assyria.
This Isaiah steadfastly opposes. — Ch. ix.
8-x. 4 is a prophecy delivered at this time
against the kingdom of Israel (ix. 8-x. 4).
Cli. X. 6-xii. 6 is one of the most highly
wrought 'passages in the whole book, and
w^s probably one single prophecy. It
flAnJfl wliolly disconnected with the pre

ceding in the circumstances ^h.ch it pre
supposes ; and to what period to assign it
is not easy to determine. Ch. xiii.-xxiii.
contain chiefly a collection of utterances,
each of which is styled a " burden." (o.)
The first (xiii. 1-xiv. 27) is against Baby
lon. The ode of triumph (xiv. 3-23) in
this burden is among the most poetical pas
sages in, all literature, (i.) The short and
pregnant "burden" ag.ainst Philistia (xiv.
29-32), in the year that Ahaz died, was oc
casioned by the revolt of the Philistines
from Judah, and their successful inroad
recorded in 2 Chr. xxviii. 18. {c.) The
"burden of Moab" (xv., xvi.) is remark
able for the elegiac strain in which the
prophet bewails the disasters of Moab, and
for the dramatic character of xvi. 1-6.
{d.) Ch. xvii., xviii. This prophecy is
headed "the burden of Damascus;" and
yet after ver. 8 the attention is withdrawn
from Damascus and turned to Israel, and
then to Ethiopia, (e.) In the "burden of
Egypt" (xix.) the prophet prophesies the
utter helplessness of Egypt under 'God's
judgments, probably to counteract the ten
dency which led both Judah and Israel to
look tow.ards Egypt for succor against As
syria. (/.) In the midst of these "bur
dens" stands a passage which presents Isa
iah in a new aspect, an aspect in which he
appears in this instance only. The more
emphatically to enforce the warning al
ready conveyed in the "burden of Egypt,"
Isaiah was commanded to appear in the
streets and temple of Jerusalem stripped
of his sackcloth mantle, and wearing his
vest only, with his feet also bare, {g.) In
"the burden of the desert of the sea," a
poetical design.ation of Babylonia (xxi. 1-
10), the images in which the fall of Baby
lon is indicated are sketched with Aes
chylean grandeur, (h.) " The burden of
Duraah," and "of Arabia" (xxi. 11-17),
relate apparently to sorae Assyrian invasion.
(i.) In "the burden ot the valley of vision"
(xxii. 1-14) it is doubtless Jerusalem that
is thus dcsign.ated. The scene presented
is that of Jerusalem during an invasion.
{k.) The passage in xxii. 15-25 is singular
in Isaiah as a prophesying against an indi
vidual. Shebna was one of the king's high
est functionaries, and seems to have been
leader of a party opposed to Jehovah (ver.
25). (I.) The last "burden" is against
Tyre (xxiii.). Her utter destruction is not
predicted by Isaiah as it afterwards was by
Ezekiel. Ch. xxiv.-xxvii. form one proph
ecy, essentially connected with the preced
ing ten "burdens" (xiii.-xxiii.), of which
it is in effect a general summary. In xxv.,
after commemorating the destruction of
all oppressors, the prophet gives us in
vers. 6-9 a most glowing description of
Messianic blessings. In xxvi., vers. 12-
18 describe the new, happy state of God'»

ISAIAH

261

ISH-BOSHETH

people as God's work wholly. In xxvii. 1,
" Leviathan the fleeing serpent, and Levia
than the twisting serpent, anef the dragon
in the sea," are perhaps Nineveh and Baby
lon — two phiises ofthe same Asshur —
and Egypt (comp. ver. 13) ; all, however,
symbolizing adverse powers of evil. Ch.
xxiii.-xxxv. predicts the Assyrian invasion.
The prophet protests against the policy of
courting the help of Egypt against Assyria
(xxx. 1-17, xxxi. 1-3.) Ch. xxxvii.-xxxix.
At length the season so often, though no
doubt obscurely foretold, arrived. The
Assyrian was near, with forces apparently
Irresistible. In tlic universal consternation
which ensued, all the hope of the state
centred upon Isaiah; the highest func
tionaries of the state — Shebna too — wait
upon him in the narae of their sovereign.
The short answer which Jehovah gave
through liira was, that the Assyrian king
should hear intelligence which should send
him back to his own land, there to perish.
How. the deliverance was to be effected,
Isaiah was not commissioned to tell ; but
the very next night (2 K. xi.x. 35) brought
the appalling fulfilment. II. The last 27
chapters form a separate prophecy, and are
supposed by many critics to have been
written in the time of the Babylonian cap
tivity, and are therefore ascribed to a " later
Isaiah." It is evident that the point of
time and situation from which the prophet
here speaks is that of the captivity in Baby
lon (corap. e. g. Ixiv. 10, 11) ; but tills may
be adopted on a principle which appears to
characterize "vision," viz., that the proph
et sees the future as if present.. This sec
ond part falls into three sections, each, as
it happens, consisting of nine chapters ;
the two first end with the refrain, " There
is no peiice, saith Jehovah {or " my God "),
to the wicked ; " and the third with the
same thought amplified. (1.) Tlie first
section (xl.-xlviii.) has for its main topic
the comforting assurance of the deliver
ance from Babylon by Koresh (Cyrus) who
Is even naraed twice (xii. 2, 3, 25, xliv. 28,
xiv. 1-4, 13, xlvi. 11, xlviii. 14, 15). It is
characteristic of sacred prophecy in gen
eral that the " vision " of a great deliver
ance leads the seer to glance at the great
deliverance to come through Jesus Christ.
This principle of association prevails in
the second part -taken as a whole ; but in
the first section, taken apart, it appears as
yet imperfectly. (2.) 'The second section
(xlix.-lvii.) is distinguished from the first
by several features. The person of Cyrus
as well as his name, and the specification
of Babylon, disappear altogether. Return
from exile is indeed spoken of repeatedly
and at length (xlLx. 9-26, li. 9-lii. 12, Iv.
12, 13, Ivil. 14) ; but in such general terras
as admit of being applied to the spiritual
and Messianic, as well as to the literal res- 1

toration. (3.) In the third section (Iviii.
-Ixvi.), as Cyrus nowhere appears, so nei
ther does "Jehovah's servant" occur so
frequently to view as in the second. The
only delineation of the latter is in Ixi. 1-3
and in Ixiii. 1-6, 9. He no longer appears
as suffering, but only as saving and aven
ging Zfbn. The section is mainly occupied
with various practical exliortations founded
upon the views of the future already set
forth. In favor of the authenticity of the
l.ast 27 chapters the following reasons m.ay
be advanced, {a.) The unanimous testi
mony of Jewish and Christian ' tradition
(comp. Ecclus. xlviii. 24) ; and the evi
dence of the N. T. quotations (M<att. iii. 3 ;
Luke iv. 17 ; Acts viii. 28 ; Rom. x. 16, 20).
(6.) The unity of design which connects
these last 27 chapters with the preceding.
The oneness of diction which pervades the
whole book. The peculiar elevation and
grandeur of style, which characterize the
second pjirt as well as the first. The ab
sence of any other name than Isaiah's
claiming the authorship. Lastly, the Mes
sianic predictions which mark its inspira
tion, and remove the chief ground of ob
jection, against its having been written by
Isaiah. In point of style we can find no
difficulty in recognizing in the second part
the presence of the same plastic genius as
we discover in the first-.
Is'cah, daughter of Haran the brother
of Abram, and sister of Milcah and of Lot
(Gen. xi. 29). In the Jewish traditions
she is identified with Sabai.
Iscar'iot. [Jddas Iscariot,]
Ish'bah, a man in the line of Judah,
commemorated as the " father of Eshte
moa" (1 Chr, iv, 17),
Ish'bak, a son of Abraham and Ketu
rah (Gen, xxv. 2; IChr. i. 32), and the
progenitor of a tribe of northern Arabia.
Ish'bi-be'nob, son of Eapha, one of
the race of Philistine giants, who attacked
David in battle, but was slain by Abishai
(2 Sam. x.xi. 16, 17).
Ish-bo'sheth, the youngest of Saul's
four sons, and his legitimate successor.
His narae appears (1 Chr. viii. 33, ix, 39)
to have been originally Esh-baal, " the
raan of Baal." He was 35 years of age at
the time of the battle o'f Gilboa, but for
five years Abner was engaged in restoring
the dominion of the house of Saul over
all Israel. Ishbosheth was then " 40 years
old when he began to reign over Israel, and
reigned two years " (2 Sara. iii. 10). Dur
ing these two years he reigned at Maha
naim, though only in name. The wars and
negotiations with David were entirely car
ried on by Abner (2 Sam. ii. 12, iii. 6, 12).
The death of Abner deprived the house of
Saul- of their last remaining support. When
Ishbosheth heard of it, "his hands were
feeble, and all the Israelites were troubled "

ISHI

262

(2 Sam. IT. 1). In this extremity of weaTs-
ness he fell a victim, probably, to revenge
for a crime of his father. Two Beerothites,
Baana and Rechab, in remembrance. It has
been conjectured, of Saul's slaughter of
tlieir kinsmen the Gibeonites, determined
to take advantage of the helplessness of
the royal house to destroy the only Apre-
sentative that was left, excepting the child
Mi-phibosheth (2 Sam. iv. 4). After as
sassinating Ishbosheth, they took his head
te David as a welcome present. They met
with a stern reception. David rebuked
lliem for the cold-blooded murder of an
innocent man, and ordered them to be ex
ecuted. The head of Ishbosheth was care
fully buried in the sepulchre of liis great
kinsman Abner, at the same place (2 Sam.
lY. 9-12).
I'shl. 1. A man of the descendants of
Judah, son of Appaim (1 Chr. ii. 31) ; one
of the grciit house of Hezron. 2. In a
subsequent genealogy of Judah we find
another Ishi, with a son Zoheth (1 Chr. iv.
20), 3, Head of a family of the tribe of
Simeon (1 Chr, iv. 42). 4. One of the
heads of the tribe of Manasseh on the east
of Jordan (1 Chr. v. 24).
I'shi, This word occurs in IIos, ii, 16,
aud signifies " my man," " my husband."
It is the Israelite term, in opposition to
Baali, the Canaanite term, with the same
meaning, though with a significance of its
own. Ishi'ah, the fifth of the five sons of Iz
riihiah; one of the heads of tlie tribe of
Issachar ia the time of David (1 Chr.
vii. 3).
IsM'jah, a lay Israelite of the Bene-
Harim, who had married a foreign wife
(Ezr. X. 31).
Ish'ma, a name in the genealogy of
Judah (1 Chr. iv. 3).
Ish'mael. 1. 'The son of Abraham by
Hagar the Egyptian, his concubine; born
when Abraham was fourscore and six years
old (Gen. xvL 15, 16). Ishmael was the
first-born of his father. He was born in
Abraham's house, when he dwelt in the
plain of Mamre ; and on the institution of
the covenant of circumcision, was circum
cised, be being, then thirteen years old
(xvii. 25). With the institution of the
covenant, God renewed his promise re
specting Ishmael. He does not again ap
pear in the narrative until the weaning of
Isaac. The latter was born when Abraham
was a hundred years old (xxi. 5), and as
the weaning, according to Eastern usage,
probably took place when the child was
between two and three years old,. Ishmael
himself must have been then between fif
teen and sixteen years of ago. At the
great feast made in celebration of the
weaning, " Sarah saw the son of H.agar the
Egyrtian, wliich she had borne unto Abra-

ISHMAEIi
ham, mocking," and urgea Abraham »
cast out him and his mother. •'-"° Amiao
arch, comfortSd by God's renewed promise
that of Ishmael He would make a nation,
sent them both away, and they departed
and wandered in the wilderness of Beer
sheba. It is doubtful whether the wander
ers halted by the well, or at once continued |
their way to the " wilderness of Paran,"
where, we are told in the next verse to that
just quoted, he dwelt, and where " his moth
er took him a wife out of the land of Egypt "
(Gen. xxi.- 9-21). This wife of Ishmael
was the mother of his twelve sons, and
daughter. Of the later life of Ishmael we
know little. He was present with Isaac
at the burial of Abraham. He died at the
age of 137 years (xxv. 17, IS) . The sons cf
Ishmael peopled the north and west of the
Arabian peninsula, and eventually formed
the chief element of the Arab nation.
Their language, which is generally acknowl
edged to have been the Arabic commonlj
so called, has been adopted with insignifi
cant exceptions throughout Arabia. Tho
term Ishmaelite occurs on three occasions :
Gen. xxxvii. 25, 27, 28, xxxix. 1; Judg.
viii. 24; Ps. Ixxxiii, 6. 2, One of the
sons of Azel, a descendant of Saul through
Meribbaal, or Mephibosheth (1 Chr. viii.
38, ix, 44.) 3. A man of Judah, father of
Zebadiah (2 Chr. xix, 11), 4, Another
man of Judah, son of Jehohanan ; one of
the captains of hundreds who assisted
Jehoiada in restoring Joash to the throne
(2 Chr,xxiu, 1), 5. A priest, of tho Bene-
Pashur, who was forced by Ezra to relin
quish Ills foreign wife (Ezr. x. 22). 6.
The son of Nethaniah; a perfect marvel
of craft and villany, whose treachery forms
one of the chief episodes of the history of
the period immediately succeeding the first
fall of Jerusalem. His exploits are related
in Jer. xl. 7-xli. 15, with a short summary
in 2 K. xxv. 23-25. His full description
is " Ishmael, the son of Nethaniah, the son
of Elishama, of the seed royal " of Judah
(Jer. xii. 1 ; 2 K. xxv. 25). During the
siege of the city he had, like many others
of his countrymen (Jer. xl. 11), fled
across the Jordan, where he found a refuge
at the court of Baalis, the then king of the
Benc-Ammon. After the departure of the
Chaldeans, Ishmael made no secret of his
intention to kill the superintendent left by
the king of Babylon, and usurp his posi
tion. Of this Gedaliah was warned in ex
press terms by Johanan and his companr
ions. Thirty days after, in the seventh
month (xii. 1), on the third day of the
month, Ishmael again appeared .at Mizpah,
this time accompanied by ten men. Gedaliah
entertained them at a feast (xii. 1). Be
fore its close Ishmael and his followers had
murdered Gedaliah and all his attendants
with such secrecy that no alarm was given

ISHMAELITE

263

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OP

OUtsid» ihe room. The same night he
killed dll Gedaliah's establishment, includ
ing some Chaldean soldiers who were there.
For two days the massacre remained per
fectly unknown to the people of the town;
On the second day, Ishmael perceived from
his elevated position a large party coming
southward along the main road from She
chem and Samaria. He went out to meet
thom. They proved to be eighty devotees,
who with rent clothes, and with shaven
beards, mutilated bodies, and with other
marks of heathen devotion, and weeping
as they went, were bringing incense and
offerings to the ruins of the Temple. At
his invitation they turned aside to the resi
dence of the superintendent. As the un
suspecting pilgrims -passed into the court
yard he closed the entrances behind them,
and there he and his band butchered the
whole number : ten only escaped by the
offer of heavy ransom for their lives. The
seventy corpses were then thrown into the
well which, as at Cawnpore, was within the
precincts of the house, and which was com
pletely filled with the bodies. This done
he descended to the town, surprised and
carried off the daughters of king Zedekiah,
who had been sent' there by Nebuchadnezzar
for -safety, with their eunuchs and their
Chaldean guard (xii, 10, 16), and all the
people of the town, and made off with his
prisoners to the country of the Ammonites.
The news of the massacre had by this time
got abroad, and Ishmael-was quickly pur
sued by Johanan and his companions.
He was attacked, two of his bravos slain,
the whole of the prey recovered ; and Ish-
ra.ael himself, with the remaining eight of
his people, escaped to the Ammonites.
Ishmaelite. [Ishmael.]
Ishma'iah, son of Obadiah ; the ruler
of the tribe of Zebulun in the time of
king David (1 Chr. xxvii. 19).
Igh'meelite (1 Chr, ii, 17) and Ish'-
meelites (Gen, xxxvii. 26, 27, 28, xxxix.
1), the form in which the descendants of
Ishmael are given in a few places in the
A.V. Ish'merai, a Benjamite ; one of the
family of Elpaal (1 Chr. viii. 18),
I'shod, one of the tribe of Manasseh
on the east of Jordan, son of Hammoleketh
(1 Chr. vii. 18),
Ish'pan, a Benjamite, one of the fam
ily of Shashak (1 Chr, viii. 22).
Ish'tob, apparently one of the small
kingdoms or states which formed part of
the general country of Aram, narried with
Zobah, Rehob, and Maacah (2 Sara. x. 6,
8), It is probable that the real signification
is " the men of Ton,"
Ish'uah, the second son of Asher (Gen.
xlvi. 17).
Ish'uai, the tliird son of Asher (1 Chr.
vii. 30), founder of a family bearing his

name (Num. xxvi. 44 ; A. V. " Jesu-
ites ").
Ish'ui, the second son of Saul by hia
wife Ahinoam (1 Sara. xiv. 49, comp. 50).
Isle. The radical sense of the Hebrew
word seems to be " habitable places," as
opposed to water, and in this sense it oc
curs in Is. xiii. 15. Hence it means secon
darily any maritime district, whether be
longing to a continent or to an island : thus
it is used of the shore of the Mediterranean
(Is. xx; 6, xxiii. 2, 6), and ofthe coasts of
Elishah (Ez. xxvii. 7), i. e. of Greece and
Asia Minor.
Ismachi'ah, a Levite who was one of
the overseers of offerings during the revi
val under king Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 13).
lamai'ah, a Gibeonite, one of the chiefs
of those warriors who joined David at Zik
lag X-l Chr. xii. 4).
Is'pah, a Benjamite, of the family of
Beriah ; one of the heads of his tribe (1
Chr. viii. 16).
Is'rael. 1. The name given (Gen.
xxxii. 28) to Jacob after his wrestling with
the Angel (Hos. xii. 4) at Peniel. Gese
nius interprets Israel "soldier of God.''
2. It became the national name of the
twelve tribes collectively. They are so
called in Ex. iii. 16 and afterw.ards. 3.
It is used in a narrower sense, excluding
Judah, in 1 Sara._ xi. 8 ; 2 Sam. xx. 1 ; 1
K. xii. 16. Thenceforth it was assumed
and accepted as the name of the Northern
Kingdom. 4. After the Babylonian captiv
ity, the returned exiles resumed the name
Israel as the designation of their nation.
The name Israel is also used to denote lay
men, as distinguished from Priests, Levites,
and other ministers (Ezr. vi. 16, ix. 1, x.
25; Neh. xi. 3, &c.).
Israel, Kingdom of, 1, The prophet
Ahijah of Shiloh, who was commissioned
in the latter days of Solomon to announce
the division of the kingdom, left one tribe
(Judah) to the house of David, and assigned
ten to Jeroboam (1 K. xi. 35, 31). These
were probably Joseph (= Ephraim and Ma
nasseh), Issachar, Zebulun, Asher, Naph
tali, Benjainin, Dan, Simeon, Gad, and
Reuben ; Levi being intentionally omitted.
Eventually the greatei part of Benjamin,
and probably the whole of Simeon and Dan,
were included as if by comraon consent in
the kingdom of Judah. With respect to the
conquests of David, Moab appears to have
been attached to the kingdom of Lsrael (2
K. iii. 4) ; so much of Syria as remained
subject to Solomon (see 1 K. xi, 24) would
probably be claimed by his successor in the
northern kingdom; and Ammon, though
connected with Rehoboam as his mother's
native land (2 Chr. xii. 13), and though
afterwards tributary to Judah (2 Chr. xxvii.
5), was at one time alUed (2 Chr. xx. 1),
we know not how closely or 'tiow early, wilb

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF

264

ISSACHAE

Moab. The sea-coast between Accho and
Japho remained in the possession of Israel.
2. The population of the kingdom is not
expressly stated ; and in drawing any infer
ence from the numbers of fighting men, we
must bear in mind that the numbers in the
Hebrew text are strongly suspected to have
been subjected to extensive, perhaps sys
tematic, corruption. Jeroboam brought into
the field an army of 800,000 men (2 Chr.
xiii. 3). If in b. o. 957 there were actually
under arms 800,000 men of that age in Is
rael, the whole population may perhaps
have amounted to at least three millions
and a half. 3. Sheche.ai was the first cap
ital ofthe new kingdom (1 K. xii. 25), ven
erable for its traditions, and beautiful in its
situation. Subsequently Tirzah became the
royal residence, if not the capital, of Jero
boam (1 K. xiv. 17) and of his successors
(xv. 33, xvi. 8, 17, 23). Samaria, uniting
in itself the qualities of beauty and fertility,
and a commanding position, was chosen by
Omri (1 K. xvi. 24), and remained the cap
ital of the kingdom until it had given the
last proof of its strength by sustaining for
three years the onset of the hosts of As
syria. Jezreel was probably only a royal
residence of some of the Israelitish kings.
4. The kingdom of Israel lasted 254 years,
from B. u. 975 to b. c. 721, about two thirds
of the duration of its more compact neigh
bor Judah. The detailed history of the
kingdom will be found under the naraes of
its nineteen kings. A sumraary view may
be taken in four periods : (a.) b. c. 975-
929. Jeroboam had not sufficient force of
character in himself to make a lasting im
pression on Ms people. A king, but not a
founder of a dynasty, he aimed at nothing
beyond securing his present elevation. The
army soon learned its power to dictate to
the isolated monarch and disunited peo
ple. Baasha, in the midst of the army at
Gibbethon, slew the son and successor of
Jeroboam; Zimri, a captain of chariots,
slew the son and successor of Baasha ; Om
ri, the captain of the host, was chosen to
punish Zimri ; and after a civil war of four
years he prevailed over Tibni, the choice
of half the peoplg. {b.) n. c. 929-884.
For forty-five years Israel was governed by
the house of Orari. That sagacious king
pitched on the strong hill of Samaria as the
site of his capital. 'The princes of his house
cultivated .an alliance with the kings of Ju
dah, which was cemented by tlie marriage
of Jehoram and Athaliah. Tho adoption
of Baal-worship led to a reaction in the na
tion, to the moral triumph of the prophets
in the person of Elijah, and to the extinction
of the house of Ahab in obedience to the
bidding of Elisha. (c.) B, c, 884-772. Un
paralleled triumphs, but deeper humilia
tion, awaited the kingdom of Israel under
the dynasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest

king of Damascus, reduced Jehoahaz to the
condition of a vassal, and triumphed for a
tirae over both the disunited Hebrew king
doms. Almost the first sign of the restora
tion of their strength was a war between
them; and Jehoash, the grandson nf Jehu,
entered Jerusalem as the conqueror of
Amaziah. Jehoash also turned the tide of
war against the Syrians ; and Jeroboam
II., the most powerful of all the kings of Is
rael, captured Damascus, and recovered
the whole ancient frontier from Hamath to
the Dead Sea. This short-lived greatness
expired with the last king of Jehu's line.
{d.) b. c. 772-721. Military violence, it
would seem, broke off the hereditary suc
cession after the obscure and probably con
vulsed reign of Zachariah. An unsuccess-
¦ful usurper, Shallum, is followed by the
cruel Menahem, who, being unable to make
head against the first attack of Assyria un
der Pul, became the agent of that monarch
for the oppressive taxation of his subjects,
Yet his power at home was sufficient to in
sure for his son and successor Pekahiah a
ten years' reign, cut short by ahold usurper,
Pekah. Abandoning the northern and tr ans-
Jordanic regions to the encroaching powei
of Assyria under Tiglath-Pileser, he was
very near subjugating Judah, with the help
of Damascus, now the coequal ally of Is
rael.' But Assyria interposing summarily
put an end to the independence of Damas
cus, and perhaps was the indirect cause of
the assassination ofthe baffled Pekah. The
irresolute Hoshea, the next and last usurp
er, became tributary to his invader, Shal
maneser, betrayed the Assyrian to the rival
monarchy of Egypt, and was punished by
the loss of his liberty, and by the capture,
after a three years' siege, of his strong cap
ital, Samaria. Some gleanings of the ten
tribes yet rem.ained in the land after so
many years of religious decline, moral de
basement, national degradation, anarchy,
bloodshed, and deportation. Even these
were gathered up by the conqueror, and
carried to Assyria, never again, as a dis
tinct people, to occupy their portion of that
goodly and pleasant land which their fore
fathers won under Joshua from the heathen.
Is'raelite. In 2 Sam. xvii. 25, Ithra,
the father of Amasa, is called " an Israel
ite," while in 1 Chr. ii. 17 he appears as
" Jether the Ishmaelite." The latter is un
doubtedly the true reading.
Is'sachar. 1. The ninth son of Jacob and
the fifth of Leah ; the first born to Ltah,
after the interval which occurred in the
births of her children (Gen. xxx. 17 ; comp.
xxix. 35). At the descent into Egypt four
sons are ascribed to him, who founded the
four chief families of the tribe, (Gen. xlvi.
13; Num. xxvi, 23, 25; 1 Chr. vii. 1). T'ne
number of the fighting men of Issachar,
when taken in the census at Sinai, was 5i,i60,

ISSHIAH

265

ITCEAEA

During the journey they seem to have stead
ily increased. The allotment of Issachar
lay above that of Manasseh (Josh. xix. 17-
23). In the words of Josephus, "it extend
ed in length from Carmel to the Jordan,
in breadth to Mount Tabor." This terri
tory was, as it still is, among the richest
land in Palestine. Westward was the fa
mous plain which derived its name from its
fertility. On the north is Tabor, which
even under the burning sun of that climate
fs said to retain the glades and dells of an
English wood. On the east, behind Jez-
teel, is the opening which conducts to the
plain ofthe Jordan — to that Beth-shean
whieh was proverbially among the Rabbis
the gate, of Paradise for its fruitfulness. It
is this aspect of the territory of Issachar
which appears to be alluded to in the Bless
ing of Jacob. 2, A Korhite Levite, one
of the doorkeepers of the house of Jeho
vah, seventh son of, Obed-edom (1 Chr.
xxvi. 5).
Isshi'ah. 1. A descendant of Moses
by his younger son Eliezer (1 Chr. xxiv.
21; comp. xxiii. 17, xxvi. 25). 2. A Le
vite of the house of Kohath and family of
Uzziel (1 Chr. xxiv. 25).
Issue, Bunning. (Lev. xv. 2, 3,
xxii. 4; Num. v. 2; and Sam. iii. 29.) In
Lev. XV. 3 a distinction is introduced, which
merely moans that the cessation of the
actual flux does not constitute ceremonial
cleanness, but that the patient must bide
the legal time, seven days (ver. 13), and
perform the prescribed purifications and
sacrifice (ver. 14).
Is'uah, second son of Asher (1 Chr.
Tii. 30).
Is'ui, third son of Asher (Gen. xlvi. 17),
founder of a family called after him, though
in the A. V. appearing as the Jesuiies
(Num. xxvi. 44),
Italian Band. [Army.] ,
It'aly. This word is used in the N, T,
(Acts xviii. 2, xxvii. 1 ; Heb. xiii. 24) in
the usual sense of the period, i. e. in its
true geographical sense, as denoting the
whole natural peninsula between the Alps
and the Straits of Messina.
Ith'ai, a Benjamite, son of Ribai of
Gibeah, one of tho heroes of David's guard
(1 Chr. xi. 31).
Ith'amar, the youngest son of Aaron
(Ex. vi. 23). After the deaths of Nadab
and Abihu (Lev. x. 1), Eleazar and Itha
mar were appointed to succeed to their
places in the priestly office (Ex. xxviii. 1,
40, 43; Num. iii. 3, 4; 1 Chr. xxiv. 2). In
the distribution of services belonging to the
Tabernacle, and its transport on the march
of the Israelites, the Gershonites and the
Merarites were placed under the, superin
tendence of Ithamar (Ex. xxxviii. 21 ; Num.
iy. 21-33)., The high-priesthood passed
into the family of ItMniaT in the person

of Eli, but for what reason we ate not in
formed. Ith'iel. 1. A Benjamite, sonof Jesaiah
(Neh. xi. 7). 2. One of two persons —
Ithiel and Ucal — to whom Agur ben- Jakeh
delivered his discourse (Prov. xxx. 1).
Ith'mah, a Moabite, one of the heroes
of David's guard (1 Chr. xi. 46).
Ith'nan, one of the towns in the ex
treme south of .Judah (Josh. xv. 23). No
trace of its existence has yet been discov
ered. Ith'ra, an Israelite (2 Sam. xvii. 25) or
Ishmaelite (1 Chr. ii. 17), tho father of
Amasa by Abigail. David's sister.
Ith'ran. 1. A son of Dishon, a Ho
rite (Gen. xxxi. 26; 1 Chr. i. 41); and
probably a phylarch of a tribe of the Horim
(Gen. xxxvi. 30). 2. A descendant of
Asher (1 Chr. vii. 30-40).
Ith'ream, son of David, born to him in
Hebron, and distinctly specified as the sixth,
and as the child of Eglah, David's wife (2
Sam. iii. 5; 1 Chr. iii. 3).
Ith'rite, The. The designation of two
of the members of David's guard, Ira and
Gareb (2 Sam. xxiii. 38; 1 Chr. xi. 40).
They may have come from Jattir, in the
mountains of Judah.
It'tah-ka'zin, one of the landmarks of
the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 13).
It has not been identified.
It'tai, 1, " Ittai the Gittite," i. e.
the native of Gath, a Philistine in the army
of king David. He appears only during
the revolution of Absalom, We first dis
cern him on the morning of David's 'flight.
Last in the procession came the 600 heroes
who had forraed JDiivid's band during his
wanderings in Judah, and had been with
him at Gath (2 Sam. xv. 18 ; comp. 1 Sam.
xxiii. 13, xxvii. 2, xxx. 9, 10). Amongst
these, apparently commanding them, w'as
Ittai the Gittite (ver. 19). He caught the
eye of the king, who at once addressed
him and besought him not to attach himself
to a doubtful cause, but to return "with his
brethren " and abide with tlie king (19, 20.)
But Ittai is firm : he is the king's slave, and
wherever his master goes he will go. Ac
cordingly he is allowed by David to pro
ceed. 'W'hen the army was numbered and
organized by David at Mahanaim, Ittai
again appears, now in command of a third
part of the force (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 5, 12).
2. Son of Ribai, from Gibeah of Benja
min ; one of the thirty heroes of David's
guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 29).
Iturae'a, a small province on the north
western border of Palestine, lying along
thS base of Mount Hermon, only men
tioned in Luke iii. 1. Jetur the son of
Ishmael gave his name, like the rest of his
brethren, to the little province he colonized
j^Gen. xxv. 15, 16). Ituraea, with the ad
joining provinces fell into the hands of a

IVAH

260

chief called Zenodorus ; but about b. c. 20,
they were taken from him by the Roman
emperor, and given to Herod the Great,
who bequeathed them to his son Philip
(Luke iii. 1). It adjoined Trachonitis, and
lay along the base of Libanus between Ti
berias and Damascus. At the place indi
cated is situated the modern province of
JedUr, which is just the Arabic form of the
Hebrew Jetur.
I'vah, or A'va, which iS mentioned in
Scripture twice (2 K. xviii. 34, xix. 13;
comp. Is. xxxvii. 13) in connection with
Hena and Sepharvaim, and once (2 K. xvii.
24) in connection with Babylon and Cu-
thah, must be sought in Babylonia, and is
probably identical with the modern Hit, on
the Euphrates.
Ivory (Heb. sMn in all passages, ex
cept 1 K. X. 22, .and 2 Chr. ix. 21, where
shenhabbim is so rendered). The word
shin literally signifies the " tooth " of any
animal, and hence more especially denotes
the substance of the projecting tusks of
elephants. It is remarkable that no word
in Biblical Hebrew denotes an elephant,
unless the latter portion of the compound
shenhabbim be supposed to have this mean
ing. Gesenius derives it from the Sanscrit
ibhas, " an elephant." The skilled work
men of Hiram, king of Tyre, fashioned the
great ivory throne of Solomon, and over
laid it with pure gold (1 K. x. 18 ; 2 Chr.
ii, 17), The ivory thus employed was
supplied by the caravans of Dedan (Is. xxi.
13; Ez. xxvii. 15), or was brought with
apes and peacocks by the navy of Tar-
Bhi3h(l K, X, 22). The "ivory house"
of Ahab (1 K, xxii, 39) was probably a pal
ace, the walls of which were panelled with
ivory, like the palace of Menelaus, de
scribed by Homer {Odys. iv. 73). Beds
inlaid or veneered with ivory were in use
among the Hebrews (Am. vi. 4).
Iz'ehar. The form in which the name
Izhar is given in the A. V. of Num. iii. 19
only. Iz'eharites, The. A family of Ko
hathite Levites, descended from Izhar the
son of Kohath (Num, iii. 27) ; called also
"Izharites" (1 Chr. xxvi. 23, 29).
Iz'har, son of Kohath, grandson of
Levi, uncle of Aaron and Moses, and father
of Korah (Ex. vi. 18, 21; Nura. iii. 19, xvi.
1 ; 1 Chr, vi, 2, 18). Izhar was the head
of the family of the Izharites (1 Chr. xxiv.
22, xxvi. 23, 30), or Izeharites (Num. iii.
27; 1 Chr, xxvi, 23, 29).
Iz'rahite, The, the designation of
Sharahuth (1 Chr. xxvii. 8). Its real force
is probably Zerahite, that is, from the great
Judaic family of Zerah.
Iz'ri, a Levite leader of the fourth
course or ward in the service of the house
of God (1 Chr. xxv. 11). In ver. 3 he is
failed Zebi.

JABAI..

J.

Ja'akan, the same as Jakan, the forefa*
ther of the Bene- Jaakan (Deut. x. 6).
Jaak'obah, one of the princes of tho
families of Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 36).
Jaa'la. Bene-Jaala were araong the
descendants of " Solomon's slaves" who
returned frora Babylon with Zerubbabel
(Neh. vii. 58). The name also occurs as
Jaa'lah, Ezr. ii. 56.
Jaa'lam, a son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 5,
14, 18 ; comp. 1 Chr. i. 35), and a phylarch
(A. V. "duke") or head of a tribe of
Edom. Ja'anal. A chief man in the tribe of
Gad (1 Chr. v. 12).
Ja'are-or'egim (2 Sam. xxi, 19), a
Bethlehemite, and the father of Elhanan,
who slew Goliath. In the parallel passage,
1 Chr. XX. 5, Jair is found instead of Jaare,
and Oregim is omitted. The conclusion
of Kennicott appears a just one — that in
the latter place it has been interpolated
from the former, and that Jair or Jaor is
the correct reading instead of Jaare.
Jaa'sau, one of the Bene-Bani who had
married a foreign wife, and had to put her
away (Ezr. x. 37).
Jaa'siel, son of the great Abner (1 Chr
xxvii. 21).
Jaazani'ah. 1. One of the captains
of the forces who accompanied Johanan
ben-Kareah to pay his respects to Geda
liah at Mizpah (2 K. xxv. 23), and who ap
pears afterwards to have assisted in re
covering Ishma<;rs prey from bis clutches
(comp. Jer. xii. li ; xliii. 4, 5). 2. Son of
Shaphan (Ez. viii. 11). It is possible that
he is identical with, 3. Son of Azur ; one
of the princes of the people against whom
Ezekiel was directed to prophesy (Ez. xi.
1). 4. A Rechabite, son of Jeremitih (Jer.
xxxv. 3).
Jaa'zer, or Ja'zer, a town on the east
of Jordan, in or near to Gilead (Num.
xxxii. 1, 3; 1 Chr. xxvi. 31). We first
hear of it in possession of the Amorites,
and as taken by Israel after Heshbon, and
on their way from thence to Bashan (Num. ,
xxi. 32). It seeras to have given its name
to a district of dependent or "daughter"
towns (Num. xxi. 32, A. V. "villages;"
1 Mace. V. 8), the " land of Jazer " (Num.
xxxii. 1).
Jaazi'ah, apparently a third son, or a
descendant, of Merari the Levite (1 Chr.
xxiv. 26, 27).
Jaa'ziel, one of the Levites of the sec
ond order who were appointed by David to
perform the musical service before the ark
(1 Chr. XV. 18).
Ja'bal, the son of Lamech and Adah
(Gen. iv. 20) and brother of Jubal. H" u

JABBOK

267

JACOB

Jesciibed as the father of such as dwell in
tents and have cattle.
Jab'bok, a stream which intersects the
mountain-range of Gilead (comp. Josh. xii.
2 and 5), and falls into the Jordan about
'nidway between the sea of Galilee and the
Dead Sea. It was anciently the border
of the children of Araraon (Nura. xxi. 24 ;
Deut. ii. 37, iii. 16). It was on the south
bank of the Jabbok the interview took
place between Jacob and Esau (Gen. xxxii.
22) ; and this river afterwards becarae,
towards its western part^ the boundary be
tween the kingdoras of Sihon and Og (Josh.
xii. 2, 5). Its modern name is Wady
Zurka. Ja'besh. 1. Father of Shallum, the
15th king of Isriiel (2 K. xv. 10, 13, 14).
2. Jabesh, or Jabesh Gilead, or Jabesh in
the territory of Gilead. In its widest sense
Gilead included the half tribe of Manasseh
(1 Chr. xxvii. 21) as well as the tribes of
Gad and Reuben (Num. xxxii, 1-42) east
of the Jordan — and of the cities of Gil
ead, Jabesh was the chief. It is first men
tioned in Judg. xxi. 8-14. Being attacked
subsequently by Nahash the Aramonito, it
gave Saul an opportunity of displaying his
prowess in its defence (1 Sara. xi. 1-15).
Eusebius places it beyond the Jordan, 6
miles from Pella on the mountain-road to
Gerasa ; where its name is probably pre
served in the Wady Yabes.
Ja'bez. 1. Apparently a place at which
the families of the scribes resided, who
belonged to the families of the Kenites (1
Chr. ii. 55). 2. The narae occurs again in
the genealogies of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 9, 10),
in a passage of reraarkable detail inserted
in a genealogy again connected with Beth
lehem (ver, 4), Jabez was "more honor
able than his brethren," though who they
were is not ascertainable,
Ja'bin. 1. King of Hazor, who organ
ized a confederacy of the northern princes
against the Israelites (Josh. xi. 1-3). Josh
ua surprised the allied forces by the waters
of Merom (ver. 7) and utterly routed them.
During the ensuing wars, Joshua again at
tacked Jabin, and burnt his city (xi. 1-14).
2. A king of Hazor, whose general, Sisera,
was defeated by Barak (Judg. iv. 3, 13).
Jab'neel. 1. One of the points on the
northern boundary of Judah, not quite at
the sea, though near it (Josh. xv. 11).
There is no sign, however, of its ever hav
ing been occupied by Judah, Josephus
attributes it to the Danites. There was a
constant struggle going on between that
tribe and the Philistines for the possession
of all the places in the lowland plains, and
it is not surprising that the next time we
meet with Jabneel it should be in the hands
of the latter (2 Chr. xxvi. 6). Uzziah
dispossessed them of it, and demolished
its fortiflcations. Here it is in the shorter

form of Jabneh In its Greekgarb, Iam-
NiA,,it is frequently mentioned in the Mac
cabees (1 Mace, iv, 15, v. 58, x. 69, xv.
40; 2 Maco. xii, 9), At the time of the
fall of Jerusalem, Jabneh was one of the
most populous places of Judaea, The
modern village of Yebna, more accurately
Ibna, stands about two miles from the sea,
on a slight eminence just south of the Nahr
Rubin. 2, One of the landmarks on the
boundary of Naphtali (Josh, xix, 33) in
Upper Galilee,
Jab'neh, 2 Chr, xxvi, 6. [Jabneel,]
Ja'chan, one of seven chief men of the
tribe of Gad (1 Chr, v, 13),
Ja'chin. 1. One of the two pillars
which were set up "in the porch" (IK.
vii. 21) or before the teraple (2 Chr. iii. 17)
of Soloraon. [Boaz,] 2, Fourth son of
Simeon (Gen, xlvi, 10 ; Ex, vi, 15) ; founder
of the family of the Jachinites (Num.
xxvi. 12). 3. Head of the 21st course of
priests in the time of David. Sorae of the
course returned from Babylon (1 Chr. ix.
10, xxiv. 17;. Neh. xi. 10).
Jacinth, a precious stone, forming one
of the foundations of the walls of the new
Jerusalera (Rev. xxi. 20). It seems to bn
identical with the Hebrew leshem (A. V.
" ligure," Ex. xxviii. 19). The jacinth of
hyacinth is a red variety of zircon, which is
found in square prisms, of a white, gray,
red, reddish-brown, yellow, or pale-green
color. The expression in Rev. ix. 17, " df
jacinth," applied to the breastplate,is de
scriptive simply of a hyacinthine, i. e.
dark-purple color.
Ja'cob, the second son of Isaac and
Rebekah. He was born with Esau, when
Isaac was 59 and Abraham 159 years old,
probably at the well Lahai-roi. His history
is related in the latter half of the book of
Genesis. He bought the birthright from his
brother Esau ; and afterwards, at his moth
er's instigation, acquired the blessing in
tended for Esau, by practising a well-known
deceit on Isaac. Hitherto the two sons
shared the wanderings of Isaac in the South
Country ; but now Jacob, in his 78th year,
was sent from the family home, to avoid his
brother, and to seek a wife among his kin
dred in Padan-aram. As he passed through
Bethel, God appeared to him. After the
lapse of 21 years he returned from Padan-
aram with two wives, two concubines, eleven
sons, and a daughter; and large groperty.
He escaped from -the angiy pursuit of La
ban, from a meeting with Esau, and from
the vengeance of the Canaanites provoked
by the murder of Shechem ; and in each of
those three emergencies he was aided and
strengthened by the interposition of God,
and in sign of the grace won hy a night of
wrestling with God his name was changed
at Jabbok into Israel. Deborah and Rachel
died before he reached Hebron; and it was

JADA

268

JAHAZ

at Hebron, in the 122d year of his age, that
he and Esau buried their father Isaac. Jo
seph, the favorite son of Jacob, was sold
into Egypt eleven years before the death of
Isaac; and Jacob had probably exceeded
his 130th year when he went thither, being
encouraged in a divine vision as he passed
for the last time through Beersheba. He
was presented to Pharaoh, and dwelt for
seventeen years in Raraeses and Goshen.
After giving his solemn blessing to Ephraim
and Manasseh, and his own sons one by one,
and charging the ten to complete their re
conciliation with Joseph, he died in his 147th
year. His body was embalmed, carried
with great care and pomp into the land of
Canaan, and deposited with his fathers, and
his wife Leah, in the cave of Machpelah. —
The example of Jacob is quoted by the first
and the last of the minor prophets. Hosea,
in the latter days of the kingdom, seeks
(xii. 3, 4, 12) to convert the descendants of
Jacob from their state of alienation from
God, by recalling to their memory the re
peated acts of God's favor shown to their
ancestor. And Malachi (i. 2) strengthens
the desponding hearts of the returned exiles
by assuring them that the love which: God
bestowed upon Jacob was not withheld from
thera. Besides the frequent mention of his
name in conjunction with those ofthe other
iwo patriarchs, there are distinct references
'o events in the life of Jacob in four books
¦it the N. T. In Rom. ix. 11-13, St. Paul
adduces the history of Jacob's birth to prove
that the favor of God is independent of the
Older of natural descent. In Heb. xii. 16,
and xi. 21, the transfer of the birthright and
Jacob's dying benediction are referred to.
His vision at Bethel, and his possession of
land at Shechem are cited in St. John i.
51, and iv. 5, 12. And St. Stephen, in his
speech (Acts vii. 12, 16), mentions the
famine which was the means of restoring
Jacob to his lost son in Egypt, and the
burial of the patriarch in Shechem.
Ja'da, son of Onam, and brother of
Shammai, in the genealogy of the sons of
Jerahmeel by his wife Atarah (1 Chr. ii.
28, 32).
Jada'u, one of the Bene-Nebo who had
taken a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 43).
Jaddu'a. 1, Son and successor in the
high-priesthood of Jonathan or Johanan.
He is the last of the high-priests mentioned
in the O, T., and probably altogether the
latest name in the canon (Neh. xii. 11, 22).
2. One of the chief of the people, i. e. ot the
laymen, who scaled the covenant with Nehe
miah (Neh. X. 21).
Ja'don, tho Meronothite, who assisted
to repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh.
iii. 7).
Ja'el, the wife of Heber the Kenite. In
the headlong rout which followed the defeat
ot the Canaanites by Barak, Sisera, aban

doning his chariot the more easily to avoid
notice, fied unattended, and in an opposite
direction from that taRen by his array, to
the tent of the Kenite chieftainess. He ac
cepted Jael's invitation to enter, and she
fiung a mantle over him as he lay wearily,
on the floor. When thirst prevented sleepj
and he asked for water, she brought him
buttermilk in her choicest vessel, thus rati
fying with the semblance of officious zeal
the sacred bond of Eastern hospitality. At
last, with a feeling of perfect security, the
weary general resigned himself to the deep
sleep of misery and fatigue. Then it was
that Jael took in her left hand one of the
great wooden pins whicli fastened down the
cords of the tent, and in her right hand the
mallet used to drive it into the ground, and
with one terrible blow dashed it through
Sisera's temples deep into the earth (Judg.
V. 27). She then waited to meet the pur
suing Barak, and led him into her tent that
she might in his presence claim the glory,
of the deed ! Many have supposed that by
this act she fulfilled the saying of Deborah,
that God would sell Sisera into the hand of
a woman (Judg. iv. 9) ; and hence they,
have supposed that Jael was actuated by
some divine and hidden influence. But the
Bible gives no hint of such an inspiration.
Ja'gur, a town of Judah, one of those
farthest to the south, on the frontier of
Edom (Josh. xv. 21).
Jah, the abbreviated form of" Jehovah,"
used only in poetry. It occurs frequently
in the Hebrew, but with a single exception
(Ps. Ixviii. 4) is rendered " Lord " in the
A. V. The identity of Jah and Jehovah is
strongly marked in two passages of Isaiah
(xii. 2, xxvi. 4), the force of which is greatly
weakened by the English rendering, " the
Lord." The former of these should be
translated " for my strength and song is
Jah Jehovah " (comp. Ex. xv. 2) ; and
the latter, " trust ye in Jehovah forever,
for in Jah Jehovah is the rock of ages."
Ja'hath. 1. Son of Libni, the son of
Gershom, the son of Levi (1 Chr. vi. 20).
2. Head of a later house in the family of
Gershom, being the eldest son of Shimei,
the son of Laadan (1 Chr. xxiii. 10, 11).
3. A man in the genealogy of Judah (1
Chr. iv. 2), son of Reaiah ben-Shobal. 4.
A Levite, son of Shelomoth (1 Chr. xxiv
22). 5. A Merarite Levite in the reign ol
Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiv. 12).
Ja'haz, also Jaha'za, Jaha'zah, and
Jah'zah. Under these four forms are
given in the A. V. the name of a place
which in the Hebrew appears as Yahnts and
Yahlsah. At Jahaz the decisive battle was
fought between the children of Israel and
Sihon king of the Amorites (Num. xxi, 23 ;
Deut. ii. 82; .ludg. xi. 20). It was in the
allotment of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18). Like
man} others relating to tbe places east ft

JAHAZA

269

JAMES

ihe Dead Sea, the question of its site must
await further research.
Jaha'za, Josh, xiii. 18. [Jahaz.]
Jaha'zah, Josh. xxi. 36; Jer. xlviii. 21.
[Jahaz.] Jahazi'ah, son of Tikvah, apparently a
priest (Ezr. x. 15).
Jaha'ziel. 1. One of the heroes of
Benjamin who joined David at Ziklag (1
Chr. xii. 4). 2. A priest in the reign of
David (1 Chr. xvi. 6). 3. A Kohathite
Levite, third son of Hebron (1 Chr. xxiii.
19; xxiv. 23). 4. Son of Zechariah, a
Levite of the Bene-Asaph in the reign of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xx. 14). 5. The "son
of Jahaziel" was the chief of the Bene-
Shecaniah who returned frora Babylon with
Ezra (Ezr. viii. 5>.
Jan dai, a man who appears to be thrust
abruptly into the genealogy ofCaleb, as the
father of six sons (1 Chr. ii. 47).
Jah'diel, a chieftain of Manasseh on
the east of Jordan (1 Chr. v. 24).
Jah'do, a Gadite (1 Chr. v. 14), son of
Buz, and father of Jeshishai.
Jah'leel, the third of the three sons
of Zebulun (Gen. xlvi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. 26),
founder ofthe family ofthe Jahleelites.
Jah'mai, a man of Issachar, one of the
heads ofthe house of Tolah (1 Chr. vii, 2).
Jah'zah, 1 Chr, vi, 78, [Jahaz,]
Jah'zeel, the first of the four sons of
Napht<ali (Gen, xlvi. 24), founder of the
family of the Jaiizeelitbs (Num, xxvi,
48). Jahze'rah, a priest of the house of Im
mer (1 Chr. ix, 12),
Jah'ziel, the s<ame as Jahzeel (1 Chr,
vii. 13).
Ja'ir, 1. A man who on his father's
side was descended from Judah, and on his
mother's from Manasseh. During the con
quest he took the whole of the tract of Ar
gob (Deut, iii, 14), and in addition pos
sessed himself of some nomad villages in
Gilead, which he called after his own name
Havvotii-Jair (Num. xxxii. 41 ; 1 Chr. ii.
23). 2. "Jaie THE Gileadite," who judged
Israel for two-and-twenty years (Judg. x.
3-5). He had thirty sons who rode thirty
asses, and possessed thirty cities in the land
of Gilead, which, like those of their name
sake, were called Havvoth-Jair. 3, A
Benjaraite, son of Kish, and father of Mor
decai (Esth. ii. 5). 4. The father of El
hanan, one of the heroes of David's array
(1 Chr. XX. 5).
Ja'irite, T.he. Ira the Jairite was a
priest (A. V. "chief ruler") to David (2
'f gara. XX. 26).
Ja'irus. 1. A ruler of a synagogue,
probably in some town near the western
shore of the Sea of Galilee (Matt. ix. 18 ;
Mark v. 22. Luke viii. 41). 2. Esth. xi.
2. [Jaie, 3.]
Ja'kan, son of Ezer the Horite (1 Chr.

i. 42). Thi same as Jaakan. And tea
Akan. Ja'keh. [Proverbs.]
Ja'kim. 1. Head of the 12th course of
priests in the reign of David (1 Chr. xxiv.
12). 2. A Benjamite, one of the Bene-
Shirahi (1 Chr. viii. 19),
Ja'lon, one of the sons of Ezra (1 Chr.
iv, 17).
Jam'bres. [Jannes and Jambres.]
James. 1. James the son op Zebe
dee, one of the Twelve Apostles. We
first hear of him in a. d. 27, when Zebe
dee, a fisherman (Mark i. 20), was out on
the Sea of Galilee with his two sons, James
and John, and some boatmen. He was en
gaged in his customary occupation of fish
ing, and near him was another boat belong
ing to Simon and Andrew, with whom he
and his sons were in partnership. Finding
themselves unsuccessful, the occupants of
both boats came ashore, and began to wash
their nets. At this time the new Teacher
appeared upon the beach. At His call
they left all, and becarae, once and for
ever. His disciples, hereafter to catch men.
For a full year we lose sight of St. James.
He is then, in the spring of 28, called to
the apostleship with his eleven brethren
(Matt. X, 2; Mark iii, 14; Luke vi. 13;
Acts i. 13). In the list of the Apostles
given us by St. Mark, and iu the book of
Acts, his name occurs next to that of Si
mon Peter : in the Gospels of St. Matthew
and St. Luke it comes third. It is worthy
of notice that with one exception (Luke ix.
28), the name of James is put before that
of John, and that John is twice described
as "the brother of James" (Mark v. 37;
Matt. xvii. 1). This would appear to im
ply that at this time James, either from age
or character, took a higher position than
his brother. It would seem to have been
at the time of the appointment of the
twelve Apostles that the, name of Boaner
ges was given to the sons of Zebedee. —
The " Sons of Thunder " had a burning
and impetuous spirit, which twice exhibits
itself in its unchastened form (Luke ix. 54 ;
Mark x. 37). The first occasion on which
this natural character raanifests itself in
St. Jaraes and his brother is at the com
mencement of our Lord's last journey to
Jerusalem in the year 30. He was passing
through Samaria, and " sent messengers
before his face " into a certain village, "to
make ready for hira " (Luke ix. 52), i. e.
in all probability to announce him as the
Messiah. The Samaritans, with their old
jealousy strong upon V em, refused to re
ceive him ; and in their exasperation James
and Join, entreated their Master to follow
the example of Elijah, and call down fire
to consume thera. At the end of the
same journey a similar spirit appears again
(Mark X. 35). On the night before tha

JAMES THE LESS

270

JAMES, EPISTLE OF

Crucifixion he was present at the Agony in
the Garden. On the day of the Ascension
he is mentioned as persevering with the
rest of the Apostles and disciples in prayer
(Acts i. 13). Shortly before the day of
the Passover, in the year 44, he was put
to death by Hero! Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 1,
2). 2. James tpe son op Alphaeus, one
of the Twelve Apostles. Matt. x. 3 ; Mark
iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13. 3. James
THE EEOTIIEE OP TIIE LOED. Matt. xill.
55 ; M.ark vi. 3 ; Gal. i. 19. 4. James the
SON OP Maet, Matt, xxvii, 56; Luke
xxiv, 10, Also called the Less. Mark
XX. 40. 5. James the brothee op Jude.
Jude 1, 6. James the brother (?) op
Jude, Luke vi, 16 ; Acts i. 13, 7. James,
Acts xii. 17, XV. 13, xxi. 18 ; 1 Cor. xv. 7 ;
Gal. ii. 9, 12, 8. James the servant of
God and op our Lord Jesus Christ,
James i, 1, St, Paul identifies for us
Nos. 3. and 7, (see Gal. ii. 9 and 12 com
pared with i. 19). If we may translate
'lovdag 'luxwjiov, Judas the brother, rather
than the son of James, we may conclude
that 5. and 6. are identical. We may iden
tify 5. and 6. with 3., because we know that
James tiie Lord's brother had a brother
named Jude. We may identify 4. with 3.,
because we know James the son of Maiy
Tiad a brother named Joses, and so also had
James the Lord's brother. Thus there re
main two only, James the son of Alphaeus
(2), and James the brother of the Lord
(3). Can we, or can we not, identify
them? This is one of the most difficult
questions in the Gospel history By com
paring Matt, xxvii. 56 and Mark xv. 40,
with John xix. 25, we find that the Virgin
Msiry had a sister named like herself,
Mary, who was the wife of Clopas or Al
phaeus (varieties of the same name), and
who h.ad two sons, James the Less and
Joses. By referring to Matt. xiii. 55 and
Mark vi. 3, we find that a James and a
Joses, with two other brethren called Jude
and Simon, and at least three sisters, were
living with the Virgin Mary at Nazareth.
By referring to Luke vi, 16 and Acts i. 13,
we find that there were two brethren named
James and Jude among the Apostles. It
would certainly be natural to think that we
had hero but one family of four brothers
and three or raore sisters, the children of
Clopas and Mary, nephews and nieces of
the Virgin Mary. 'There are difficulties,
however, in tho way of this conclusion into
which we cannot here enter ; but in reply
to the objection that the four brethren in
Matt. xiii. 55 are described as the brothers
of Jesus, not as His cousins, it must be
recollected that iSeifoi, which is here trans
lated "brethren," may also signify cousins.
James the Less, son of Alphaeus or
Clopas, and brother of our Lord (see
above), was called to tho Apostolate, to

gether with his younger brother Judj, il
the spring of the year 28. It is not likely
(though far from impossible) that James
and Jude took part with their brothers and
sisters, and the Virgin Mary, in trying " to
lay hold on " Jesus in the autumn of the
same year (Mark iii. 21) ; and it is likely,
though not certain, that it is of the other
brothers and sisters, without these two, that
St. John says, " Neither did His brethren
believe on Him" (John vii. 5^, in the
autumn of A, D, 29. We hear no more of
James till after the Crucifixion and the
Resurrection. At some time in the forty
days that intervened between the Resurrec
tion and the Ascension the Lord appeared
to him. This is not related by the Evangel
ists, but it is mentioned by St. Paul (1 Cor.
XV, 7). Again we lose sight of James for
ten years, and when he appears once more
it is in a far higher position than any that
he has yet held. In the year 37 occurred
the conversion of Saul. Three years after
his conversion he paid his first visit to Jeru
salem, but the Christians recollected what
they had suffered .at his hands, and feared
to have anything to do witJi him. Barnabas,
at this time of far higher reputation than
himself, took him by the hand, and intro
duced him to Peter and James (Acts ix. 27;
G.al. i. 18, 19), and by their authority he
was admitted into the society of the Chris
tians, and allowed to associate freely with
thera during the fifteen days of his stiiy.
Here we find James on a level with Peter,
and with him deciding on the admission of
St. Paul into fellowship with the Church at
Jerusalem ; and from henceforth we always
find him equal, or in his own department
superior, to the very chiefest Apostles,
Peter, John, and Paul. For by tliis time
he had been appointed to preside over the
infant Church in its most important centre,
in a position equivalent to that of Bishop.
This pre-eminence is evident througliout
the after history of the Apostles, whether
wo read it in the Acts, in the Epistles, or in
Ecclesiastical writers (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13,
19, xxi. 18; Gal. ii. 9). According to tra
dition, James was thrown down from (he
Temple by the Scribes and Pharisees ; he '
was then stoned and his brains dashed out
by a fuller's club.
James., The General Epistle of.
The author of this Epistle was in all proba
bility James the son of Alphaeus, and our
Lord's brother. It was written from Jeru
salem, which St. James does not 'seem to
have ever left. Its main object is not to
teach doctrine, but to improve morality.
St. James is the moral teacher of the N. 'T.
He wrote for the Jewish Christians wheth
er in Jerusalem or abroad, to warn them
against the sins to which tts Jews they were
most liable, and to console and exhort them
under the sufferings to which as Christians

JAMIN

271

JAEIB

they were most exposed. It has been main
tained that the passage ii. 14-26 is a formal
opposition to St. Paul's doctrine of Jus
tification by Faith ; but if we consider the
meaning of the two Apostles, we see at
once that there is no contradiction either
intended or possible. St. Paul was opposing
the Judaizing party, which claimed to earn
acceptance by good works, whether the
works of the Mosaic law, or works of piety
done by themselves. In opposition to these,
St. Paul lays down the great truth that ac
ceptance cannot be earned by man at all,
but is the free gift of God to the Christian
man, for the sake of the merits of Jesus
Christ, appropriated by each individual, and
made his own by the instrumentality of faith.
St. James, on the other hand, was opposing
the old Jewish tenet that to be a child of
Abrahara was all in all; that godliness was
not necessary, so that the belief was cor
rect. Ja'min. 1. Second son of Simeon
(Gen. xlvi. 10; Ex. vi. 15; 1 Chr.iv. 24),
founder of the family of the Jaminites
(Num. xxvi. 12). 2. A man of Judah,
second son of Ram the Jerahmeelite (1 Chr.
ii. 27). 3. One of the Levites who under
Ezra and Nehemiah read and expounded
the law to the people (Neh. viii. 7).
Jam'lech, one of the chief men of the
tribe of Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 34).
Jam'nia. [Jabneel.]
Jan'na, son of Joseph, and father of
Melehi, in the genealogy of Christ (Luke
ui. 24).
Jan'nes and Jam'bres, the names of
two Egyptian magicians who opposed Mo
ses. St. Paul alone of the sacred writers
mentions thom by name, and says no raore
than that they " withstood Moses," and that
their folly in doing so became manifest (2
Tim. iii. 8, 9). It appears frora the Jewish
commentators that these names were held
to be those of the magicians who opposed
Moses and Aaron, spoken of in Exodus.
Whether Jannes and Jambres were men
tioned in some long-lost book relating to
the early history ofthe Israelites, orwhether
there were a veritable oral tradition respect
ing them, cannot now be determined. .
Jano'ah, a place apparently in the north
of Galilee, or the " land of Naphtali," —
one of those taken by Tiglath-Pileser in his
first incursion into Palestine (2 K. xv. 29).
No trace of it appears elsewhere.
Jaho'hah, a place on the boundary of
Ephraim (Josh. xvi. 6, 7), east of Neapolis.
A little less tlian twelve railes from NablAs,
and about S. E. in direction, two miles from
. Akrabeh, is the village of Yanitn, doubtless
identical with the ancient Janohali.
Ja'num, a town of Judah in the moun
tain district, apparently not far from He
bron (Josh. XV, 53).
Ja'phethi one of the three sons of

Noah. From the order in which their
names invariably occur (Gen. v. 32, vi. 10)
we should naturally infer that Japheth was
the youngest, but we learn from ix. 24 that
Ham held that position. It has been gen-
erjilly supposed from x. 21 that Japheth
was the eldest ; but the word " elder " in that
passage is better connected with "brother."
We infer therefore that Japheth was the
second son of Noah. The descendants of
Japheth occupied the "isles of the Gen
tiles" (Gen. X. 5), i. e. the coast-lands of
the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and Asia
Minor, whence they spread northwards ever
the whole continent of Europe and a con
siderable portion of Asia.
Japhi'a. The boundary of Zebulun
ascended from Daberath to Japhia, and
thence passed to Gath-hepher (Josh. xix.
12)'. Ydfa, 2 miles S. of Nazareth, is not
unlikely to be identical with Japhia.
Japhi'a. 1. King of Lachish at the
time of the conquest of Canaan by the Is
raelites (Josh.'x. 3). 2. One of the sons
of David born to hira in Jerusalem (2 Sam.
V. 15; 1 Chr. iii. 7, xiv. 6).
Janh'let, a descendant of Asher through
Beriah (1 Chr. vii. 32, 38).
Japh'leti. The boundary ofthe " Japh-
letite" is one of the landmarks on the
south boundary-line of ¦ Ephraim (Josh.
xvi. 3).
Ja'pho (Josh. xix. 46). The Heb. form
of the better known Joppa (2 Chr. ii. 16 ;
Ezr. iii. 7; Jon. i. 3). In its modern garb
it is Ydfa.
Ja'rah, a descendant of Saul; son of
Micah, and great-grandson of Mephibo
sheth (1 Chr. ix. 42, comp.'40).
Ja'reb is either to be explained as the
proper name of a country or person, as a
noun in apposition, or as a verb from a
root, r&l, "to contend, plead." All these
senses are represented in the A. V. and the
marginal readings (Hos. v. 13, x. 6), and
the least preferable has been inserted in
the text. Jareb is most probably the name
of some city of Assyria, or another name
of the country itself.
Ja'red, one of the antediluvian patri
archs, the fifth from Adam ; son of Mahala
leel, and father of Enoch (Gen. v. 15, 16, 18
-20; Luke iii. 37). In the lists of Chron
icles the name is given in the A. V. .Tered.
Jaresi'ah, a Benjamite, one of the
Bene- Jehoram (1 Chr. viii. 27).
Jar'ha, the Egyptian serv.ant of She
shan, about the time of Eli, to whom his -
master gave his daughter and heir in mar
riage (1 Chr. ii. 31).
Ja'rita. 1. Named in the list of 1 Chr.
iv. 24 only, as a son of Simeon. Perhaps
the same as Jachin (Gen. xlvi., Ex. vi.,
and Num. xxvi.). 2. One of the "chief
men" who accompanied Ezra on his journey
from Babylon to Jerusalem / Ezr. viii. 16">,

JARIMOTH

272

.JA.VAN

3. A priest of the house of Jeshua the son
of Jozadak, who had married a foreign wife,
and was compelled by Ezra to put her
away (Ezr. x. 18). 4. (1 Mace. xiv. 29).
A contraction or corruption of the narae
JOARIB (ii, 1),
Jar'imoth, 1 Esd, ix. 28. [Jeremoth,]
Jar'muth, 1. A town in the low coun
try of Judah (Josh. xv. 35), Its king, Pi-
KAM, was one of the five who conspired
to punish Gibeon for having made .alliance
with Israel (Josh. x. 3, 5), and who were
routed at Bethhoron and put to death by
Joshua at Makkedah (23). Its site is prob
ably the modern YarmAk. 2. A city of
Is^acllar, allotted with its suburbs to the
Gershonite Levites (Josh. xxi. 29).
Jaro'ah, a chief man of the tribe of Gad
(1 Chr, V, 14).
Ja'shen. Bene-Jashen — " sons of Ja-
shen " — are named in the catalogue of the
heroes of David's guard in 2 Sam. xxiii, 32,
Ja'sher, Book of, or, as the margin of
the A, V, gives it, "the book of the up
right," a record alluded to in two passages
only of the O, T. (Josh, x, 13, and 2 Sam,
i, 18), and consequently the subject of
much dispute. That it was written in
verse may reasonably be inferred from the
only specimens extant, which exhibit un
mistakable signs of metrical rhythm. Ge
senius conjectured that it was an anthology
of ancient songs, which acquired its name,
" the book of the just or upright," from
being written in praise of upright men.
Jasho'beam. Possibly one and the
same follower of David, bearing this name,
is described as a Hachmonite (1 Chr, xi.
11), a Korhite (1 Chr. xii. 6), and son of
Zabdiel (1 Chr. xxvii. 2). He came to
David at Ziklag, His distinguishing ex
ploit was that he slew 300 (or 800, 2 Sam,
xxiii. 8) men at one tirae. He is named
first among the chief of the mighty men
of David (1 Chr. xi. 11).
Ja'shub. 1. The third son of Issachar,
and founder of the family of the Jashubiles
(Num, x.xvi. 24; 1 Chr. vii. 1). 2. One
of the sons of Bani, a layman in the tirae
of Ezra who had to put away his foreign
wife (Ezr. x. 29).
Jash'ubi-le hem, a person or a place
naraed araong the descendants of Shelah,
the son of Judah by Bath-shua the Canaan-
itess (1 Chr. iv. 22).
Ja'siel, the last named on the list of
David's heroes in 1 Chr. xi. 47,
Ja'son. 1. Jason tiie son op Elea
zer was one of tlie commissioners sent by
Judas Maccab.acus to conclude a treaty with
the Romans B. c. 161 (1 Mace. vui. 17).
2. Jason the father op Antipater, who
was an envoy to Rome at a later period (1
Mace. xii. 16, xiv. 22), is p,robably the
same person as No. 1. 3. Jason op Cy-
BENE, a Jewish historian who wrote "in

five books " a history of the Jewish war pf
liberation, which supplied the chief mate
rials for the second book ofthe Maccabees.
[2 Maccabees.] His name aud the place
of bis residence seem to mark Jason as a
Hellenistic Jew, but nothing more is known
of hira than can be gathered from 2 Mace.
ii. 19-23. 4. Jason the High-Priest,
the second son of Simon II., and brother
of Onias IIL, who succeeded in obtaining
the high-priesthood from Antiochus Epiph
anes (circa 175 b. c.) to the exclusion of
his elder brother (2 Mace. iv. 7-26). He
labored in every way- to introduce Greek
custoras among the people, and that with
great success (2 Mace. iv.). After three
years (cir. b. c. 172) he was in turn sup
planted in the king's favor by his own
emissary Menelaus, and was forced to take
refuge among the Ammonites (2 Mace. iv.
26). On a report of the death of Antio
chus (c. 170 B. c.) he made a violent at
tempt to recover his power (2 Mace. v. 5-
7), but was repulsed, and again fled to the
Ammonites, Afterwards he was compelled
to retire to Egypt, and thence to Sparta (2
Mace. V. 9), and there "perished in a
strange land " (2 Mace. I. c. ; cf, Dan, xii.
30, ff. ; 1 Mace. i. 12, ff.). 5. Jason the
Thessalonian, who entertained Paul and
Silas, and was in consequence attacked by
the Jewish mob (Acts xvii. 5, 6, 7, 9). He
is probably the samp as the Jason men
tioned in Rom. xvi. 21 as a companion of
the apostle, and one of his kinsmen or fel
low-tribesmen. It is conjectured that Jason
and Secundus (Acts xx. 4) were the same.
Jasper, a precious stone frequently no
ticed in Scripture. It was the last of the
twelve inserted in the high-priest's breast
plate (Ex. xxviii. 20, xxxix. 13), and the
first of the twelve used in the foundations
ofthe new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 19), The
characteristics of the stone, as far as they
are specified in Scripture (Rev. xxi, 11),
are, that it was "most precious," and "like
crystal : " we may also infer frora Rev, iv, 3,
that it was a stone of brilliant and trans
parent light. The stone which we nams
"j.asper" does not accord with this de
scription. There can be no doubt that the
diamond would more adequately answer to
the description in the book of Revelation,
Jath'niel, a Korhite Levite, the fourth
of the family of Meshelemiah (1 Chr, xxvi.
2). Jat'tir, a town of Judah in the moun
tain districts (Josh. xv. 48), one ofthe group
containing Socho, Eshtemoa, &c. (See
also Josh, xxi, 14 ; 1 S.am. xxx. 27 ; 1 Chr.
vi. 57). By Robinson it is identified with
'Attir, 6 miles N. of Molada, and 10 miles
S, of Hebron,
Ja'van. 1. A son of Jiipheth, and the
father of Elishah and Tarshish, Kittim and
Dodanim (Gen. x. 2, 4). The name ap-

JAVELIN

273

JEDUTHUN

pears in Is. Ixvi. 19, where it is coupled
with Tarshish, Pul, and Lud, and more
particularly with Tubal and the " isles afar
off," as representatives of the Gentile
world : again in Ez. xxvii. 13, where it is
coupled with Tubal and Meshech, as car
rying on considerable commerce with the
I'yrians, who imported from these coun-
tiies slaves and brazen vessels : in Dan.
riii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2, in reference to the
Macedonian empire; and lastly in Zech.
ix. 13, in reference to the Graeco-Syrian
empire. From a comparison of these vari
ous passages there can be no doubt that
Javan was regarded as the representative
of the Greek race. The narae was prob
ably introduced into Asia by the Phoeni
cians, to whom the lonians were naturally
better known than any other of the Hel
lenic races, on account of their commercial
activity and the high prosperity of their
towns on the western coast of Asia Minor.
2. A town in the southern p.art of Arabia
{Yemen), whither the Phoenicians traded
(Ez. xxvii. 19).
Javelin. [Arms.]
Ja'zer. [Jaazer.]
Ja'ziz, a Hagarite who had charge of
the flocks, the sheep and goats of king
David (1 Chr. xxvii. 31).
Je'arim, Mount, a place named in
specifying the northern boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV. 10). The boundary ran from
Mount Seir to "the shoulder of Mount
Jearim, which is Cesalon" — that is, Ces.a-
lou was the landmark on the mountain.
Kesla stands, 7 miles due west of Jeru
salem, on a high point on the north slope
of a lofty ridge, which is probably Mount
Jearim. Jeat'erai, a Gershonite Levite, son of
Zertih (1 Chr. vi. 21).
Jeberechi'ah, father of a certain
Zechariah, in the reign of Ahaz, mentioned
Is. viii. 2. As this form occurs nowhere
else, and both the LXX. and Vulgate have
Berechiah, it is probably only an accidental
corruption. Je'bus, one of the n.araes of Jerusalem,
the city of tiie Jebusites, also called Jebusi.
(Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 16, 28 ; Judg. xix. 10,
11 ; 1 Chr. xi. 4, 5). [Jerusalem.]
Jebu'si, the name employed for the city
of Jebus (Josh. XV. 8, xviii. 16, 28).
Jeb'usites, The, were descended from
the third son of Canaan (Gen. x. 16 ; 1
Chr. i. 14). The actual people first ap
pear in the invaluable report of the spies
(Num. xiii. 29). When Jabin organized
his rising against Joshua he sent amongst
others " to the Amorite, the Hittite, the
Perizzite, aud the Jebusite in the moun
tain " (Josh. xi. 3). A mountain-tribe they
were, and a mountain-tribe they remained.
"Jebus, which is Jerusalem," lost its king
in the slaughter of Bethhoron (Josh. x. 1, 5,
18

26.; comp. xii. 10), was sacked .and burned
by the men of Judali (Judg. i. 21), and its
citadel finally scaled and occupied by Da
vid (2 Sara. V. 6). After this they emerge
from the darkness but once, in the person
of Araunah the Jebusite, " Araunah the
king," who appears before us in true kingly
dignity in his well-known transaction with
David (2 Sam. xxiv. 23; 1 Chr. xix. 23).
Jeoami'ah, one of seven, including
Salathiel and Pedaiah, who were intro
duced into the royal line, on the failure of
it in the person of Jehoiachin (1 Chr, iii.
18). Jecholi'ah, wife of Amaziah king of
Judah, and mother of Azariah or Uzziah
his successor (2 K. xv. 2).
Jechoni'as, the Greek form of the
n.ame of king Jechoniah, an altered form
of Jehoiachin. [Jehoiachin.]
Jecholi'ah. The same as Jecoliah (2
Chr. xxvi. 3).
Jeconi'ah, an altered form of the
name of Jehoiachin (1 Chr. iii. 16, 17;
Jer. xxiv. 1, xxvii. 20, xxviii. 4, xxix. 1 ;
Esth. ii. 6).
Jeda'iah. I. Head of the second
course ot priests, as they were divided in
the time of D.avid (1 Chr. xxiv. 7). Some
of them survived to return to Jerusalem
after the Babylonish captivity, as appears
from Ezr. ii. 36; Neh. vii. 39. 2. A priest
in • the tirae of Jeshua the high-priest
(Zech. vi. 10, 14).
Jeda'iah. 1. A Simeonite, forefather
of Ziza (1 Chr. iv. 37). 2. Son of Ha-
rumaph ; a man who did his part in the re
building of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii.
10). Jedi'ael. 1. A chief patriarch of the
tribe of Benjamin (1 Chr. vii. 6, 11). It
is usually assumed that Jediael is the same
as Ashbel (Gen. xlvi. 21 ; Num. xxvi. 38 ;
1 Chr. viii.). But tills is not certain. 2.
Second son of Meshelemiah, a Levite (1
Chr; xxvi. 1, 2). 3. Son of Shimri; ona
of the heroes of David's guard (1 Chr. xi,
45). 4. One ofthe chiefs ofthe thousands
of Manasseh who joined David on his
raiirch to Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 20; comp. 1
Sara, xxix., x.xx.).
Jed'idah, queen of Amon, and mother
of the good king Josiali (2 K. xxii. 1).
Jedidi'ah, Jedid-Jah, " darling of Je
hovah," the name bestowed, through Na
than the prophet, on David's son Solomon
(2 Sam. xii. 25).
Jed'uthun, a Levite, of the family of
Merari, is probably the sarae as Ethan
(comp. 1 Chr. xv. 17, 19, with 1 Chr. xvi.
41, 42, XXV. 1, 3, 6; 2 Chr. xxxv.' 15).
His office was generally to preside over tha
music of> the temple service. Jeduthun's
name stands at the head of tho 39th, e2d,
and 77th Psalms, indicating probably that
they were to be sung by his choir.

JEEZER

274

JEHOHANAN

Jee'zer, the form assumed in the list
in Numbers (xxvi. 30) by the name of a
descendant of Manasseh, and founder of
the family of the Jeezerites. In parallel
lists tho name is given as Abi-ezee.
Je'gar-sahadu'tha (" heap of testi
mony " ) , the Aramaean narae given by
Laban the Syrian to the heap of stones
which he erected as a memorial of the
compact between Jacob and himself, while
Jacob commemorated the sarae by setting
up a pillar (Gen. xxxi. 47), as was his cus
tom on several other occasions. Galeed, a
"witness heap," which is given as the
Hebrew equivalent, does not exactly repre
sent Jegar-s.ahadutha.
Jehal'eleel. Four men of the Bene-
Jehaleleel are introduced abruptly into the
genealogies of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 16).
Jehal'elel, a Merarite Levite, father
of Az.ariah (2 Chr. xxix. 12).
Jehdei'ah. 1. The representative of
the Bene-Shubael, in the time of David (1
Chr. xxiv. 20). 2. A Meronothite who had
charge of the she-asses of David (1 Chr.
xxvii. 30).
Jehez ekel, a priest to whom was given
by David the charge of the twentieth of the
twenty-four courses in the service of the
house of Jehovah (1 Chr. xxiv. 16).
Jehi'ah and Obed-edom were " door
keepers for tho ark" at the time of its
establishment in Jerusalem (1 Chr. xv.
24). Jehi'el. 1. One of the Levites appoint
ed by David to assist in the service of the
house of God (1 Chr. xv. 18, 20, xvi. 4).
2. One of the sons of Jehoshaphat king of
Judah, put to death by his brother Jehoram
(2 Chr. xxi. 2). 3. One of the rulers of
the house of God at the time ofthe reforms
of Josi.ah (2 Chr. xxxv. 8). 4. A Gershon
ite Levite, head of the Bene-Laadan in
the time of David (1 Chr. xxiii. 8), who
had charge of the treasures (xxix. 8). 5.
Son of Hachmoni, or of a. Hachmonite,
named in the list of David's officers (1 Chr.
xxvii. 32) as " with the king's sons," wh.at-
ever that may mean. 6. A Levite of the
Bene-Heman, who took part in the restora
tions of king Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 14).
7. Another Levite at the same period (2
Chr. xxxi, 13). 8. Father of Obadiah, of
the Beno-Joab (Ezr, viii, 9), 9. One of
the Bene-Elam, father of Shechaniah (Ezr.
X. 2). 10. A member of the same family,
who had himself to part with his wife (Ezr.
X. 26). 11. A priest, one of the Bene-
Harim, who also had to put away his for-
eigii wife (Ezr. x. 21).
Jehi'ol, a perfectly distinct name from
the last. 1. A man described as father of
Gibeon ; a forefather of king Sajil (1 Chr.
ix. 35). 2. One of the sons of Hotham
the Aroerite ; a member of D.avid's guard
(1 Chr. xi. 4-1).

Jehi'eli, according to the -^- ^ *
Gershonite Levite of the family of Laadas
(1 Chr. xxvi. 21, 22). ,
Jehizki'ah, son of Shallum, one of
the heads of the tribe of Ephraim m the
time of Ahaz (2 Chr. xxvui. 12 ; comp. 8,
Jeho'adah, one of the descendants of
Saul (1 Chr. viii. 36) ; great-grandson to
Meribaal, i. e. Mephibosheth.
Jehoad'dan, queen to king Joash, and
mother of Amaziah of Judah (2 K, xiv. 2 ;
2 Chr. xxv. 1).
Jeho'ahaz. 1. The son and successor
of Jehu, reigned 17 years -B. c. 856-840
over Israel in Samaria. His inglorious
history is given in 2 K. xiii. 1-9. Through
out his reign (ver. 22) he was kept in sub
jection by Hazael king of Damascus.
Jehoahaz maintained the idolatry of Jero
boam ; but in the extremity of his humili
ation he besought Jehovah, and Jehovah
gave Israel a deliverer — probably either
Jehoash (w. 23 and 25), or Jeroboam II.
(2 K. xiv. 24, 25), 2. Jehoahaz, otherwise
called Shallum, the fourth (aec. to 1 Chr.
iii. 15), or third, if Zedekiah's age be cor
rectly stated (2 Chr. xxxvi. 11), son of
Josiah, whom he succeeded as king of
Judah. He was chosen by the people in
preference to his elder (comp. 2 K. xxiii.
31 and 36) brother, n. c. 610, and he reigned
three months in Jerusalem. Pharaoh-Npoho
on his return from Carchemish, perhaps
resenting the election of Jehoahaz, sent to
Jerusalem to depose him, and to fetch' him
to Riblah. There he was cast into chains,
and from thence he was taken into Egypt,
where he died. 3. The name given (2
Chr. xxi. 17) to Ahaziah, the youngest son
of Jehoram king of Judah.
JehO'ash, the uncontracted form of
Joash. 1. The eighth king of Judah;
son of Ahaziah (2 K. xi. 21, xii. 1,2, 4, 6,
7, 18, xiv. 13). [Joash, 1.] 2. The
twelfth king of Israel ; son of Jehoahaz
(2 K. xiii. 10, 25, xiv. 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16,
17). [Joash, 2.]
Jeho'hanan. 1. A Korhite Levite,
one of the doorkeepers to the house of Je
hovah, i. e. the Tabernacle, according to
the appointment of David (1 Chr. xxvi. 3 ;
comp. xxv. 1). He was the sixth of the
seven sons of Meshelemiah. 2. One of the
principal men of Judtih, under king Je-
hoshaph.at (2 Chr. xvii. 15 ; comp. 13 .and
19). 3. Father of Ishmael, one of the
"captains of hundreds" whom Jehoiada
the priest took into his confidence about the
restoration of the line of Judah (2 Chr.
xxiii. 1). 4. OneoftheBene-Bebai, alay
Israelite who was forced by Ezra to put
away his foreign wife (Ezr. x. 28). 5. A
priest (Neh. xii. 13) ; the representative of
the house of Amariah (comp. 2), during
the high-priesthood of Joiakim (ver. 12).

JEHOIACHIN

275

JEHOIARIB

0. A priest who took part in the dedication
of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 42).
Jehoi'achin, son of Jehoiakim and Ne-
hushta, and for three months and ten days
king of Judah, B. c. 597. Jehoiachin came
to the throne when Egypt was still prostrate
in consequence of the victory at Carche
mish. Jerusalem was quite defenceless,
and unable to offer any resistance to the
regular array which Nebuchadnezzar sent
to besiege it (2 K. xxiv. 10, 11). In a very
short time Jehoiachin surrendered at dis
cretion ; and he, and the queen-mother, and
all his servants, captains, and officers, came
out and gave themselves up to Nebuchad
nezzar, who carried thera, with the harera
and the eunuchs, to Babylon (Jer. xxix, 2 ;
Ezek. xvii. 12, xix. 9). 'There he reraained
a prisoner, actually in prison, and wearing
prison garraents, for tliirty-six years, viz.
till the death of Nebuchadnezzar, when
Evil-Merodach, succeeding to the throne
of Babylon, brought hira out of prison, and
made hira sit at his own table. Whether
Jehoiachin outlived the two years of Evil-
Merodaeh's reign or not does not appear,
nor have we any particulars of his hfe at
Babylon. It does not appear certainly frora
Scripture, whether Jehoiachin was married
or had any children. That Zedekiah, who
in 1 Chr. iii. 16 is called " his son," is the
same as Zedekiah his uncle (called "his
brother," 2 Chr. xxxvi. 10), who was his
•uccessor on the throne, seems certain.
Jehoi'ada. 1. Father of Benaiah,
David's well-known warrior (2 S<am. viii.
18, 1 K. i. and ii. passim, 1 Chr. xviii. 17,
&c.). 2. Leader of the Aaronites, I. e. the
priests ; who joined David at Hebron (1
Chr. xii. 27). 3, According to 1 Chr,
xxvii, 34, son of Benaiah, But in all prob
ability, Benaiah the son of Jehoiada is
meant, by a confusion similar to that which
has arisen with regard to Ahimclech and
Abiathar, 1 Chr. xviii. 16, 2 Sam. viii. 17.
4. High-priest at the time of Athaliah's
usurpation of the throne of Judah (b, c.
884-878), and during the greater portion of
the 40 years' reign of Joash, He probably
succeeded Amariah. He married Jehoshe
ba, or Jehoshabeath, daughter of king Je
horam, and sister of king Ahaziah (2 Chr.
xxii. 11) ; and when Athaliah slew all the
seed royal of Judah after Ahaziah had been
put to death by Jehu, he and his wife stole
Joash from among the king's sons, and hid
him for six years in the Temple, and event
ually replaced him ou the throne of his
ancestors. Having divided the priests and
Levites into three bands, which were posted
at the principal entrances, he produced the
young king before the whole assembly, and
crowned and anointed him. Athaliah was
put to death. [Athaliah.] The destruc
tion of Baal-worship and the restoration of
the Temple were among the great works

effected by Jehoiada. He died b. c. 884»
5. Second priest, or sagan, to Seraiah th«
high-priest (Jet. xxix. 25-29 ; 2 K. xxv. 18).
6. Son of Paseach, who assisted to repair
the old gate of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 6).
Johoi'akim, called Eliakim, son of
Josiah and Zebudah, and king of Judah.
After deposing Jehoahaz, Pharaoh Necho
set Eliakim, his elder brother, upon the
throne, and changed his name to Jehoiakim,
B. 0. 608-597. Egypt played no part in
Jewish politics during the seven or eight
years of Jehoialdm's reign. After the battle
of Carchemiiih Nebuchadnezzar carae into
Palestine as one of the Egyptian tributary
kingdoms, the capture of which was the
natural fruit of his victory over Necho.
He found Jehoiakim quite defenceless.
After a short siege he entered Jerusalem,
took the king prisoner, bound him in fetters
to carry him to Babylon, and took also some
of the precious vessels of the Temple and
carried them to the land of Shinar. But he
seems to have changed his purpose as re
garded Jehoiakim, and to have accepted
his submission, and reinstated him on the
throne, perhaps in remembrance of the
fidelity of his father Josiah. What is
certain is, that Jehoiakim becarae tributary
to Nebuchadnezzar after his invasion of
Judah, aud continued so for three years,
but at the end of that time broke his oath of
allegiance and rebelled against hira (2 K.
xxiv. 1). Though Nebuchadnezzar was not
able at that tirae to come in person to
chastise his rebellious vassal he sent against
him numerous bands of Chaldeans, with
Syrians, Moabites, and Ammonites, who
were all now subject to Babylon (2 K.
xxiv. 7), and who cruelly harassed the
whole country. Either in an engagement
with some of these forces, or else by the
hand of his own oppressed subjects, who
thought to conciliate the Babylonians by
the murder of their king, Jehoiakim came
to a violent end in the 11th year of his
reign. His body was cast out ignominious
ly on the ground ; and then, after being left
exposed fbr some time, was dragged away
and buried "with the burial of an ass,"
without pomp or lamentation, "beyond the
gates of Jerusalem" (Jer. xxii. 18, 19,
xxxvi. 30) . A 11 the accounts we have of Je
hoiakim concur in ascribing to him a vicious
and irreligious charatter. Tlie writer of 2
K. xxiii. 37, tells us that " he did that which
was evU in the sight of Jehovah," a state
ment which is repeated xxiv. 9, and 2 Chr.
xxxvi. 5. But it is in the writings of Jere
miah that we have the fullest portraiture of
him. The reign of Jehoiakim extends from
B. c. 609 to B. c. 598, or as some reckon
599. Jehoi'arita, head of the first of the
24 courses of priests, according to the ar
rangement of king David (1 Clir, xxiv. 7),

JEUONADAB

276

JEHORAM

Some of his descendants returned from the
Babylonish captivity, as we learn from 1
Chr. ix. 10, Neh. xi. 10, Their chief in
the days of Joiakira the son of Jeshua was
Alattenai (Neh. xii. 6, 19)., They were
probably of the house of Eleazar, To the
course of Jehoiarib belonged the Asraonean
family (1 Mace, ii, 1), and Josephus, as he
informs us,
Jehon'adab, and Jon'adab, the son
of Rechab, founder of the Rechabites. It
appears from 1 Chr. ii. 55, that his father
or ancestor Rechab belonged to a branch
of the Kenites, the Arabian tribe which en
tered Palestine with the Israelites. One
settleme~nt of them was established, under
a fourfold division, at or near the town of
Jabez in Judah (1 Cbr. ii. 55). To these
last belonged Rechab and his son Jehona-
dab. The Bedouin habits, which were kept
up by the other branches of the Kenite
tribe, were inculcated by Jehonadab with
the utmost minuteness on his descendants
(Jer. xxxv. 6). Bearing in mind this gen-
eriil character of Jehonadab as an Arab
chief, and the founder of a half religious
sect, we are the better able to understand
the single occasion on which he appears be
fore us in the historical narrative. Jehu was
advancing, after the slaughter of Betlieked,
on the city of Saraaria, when he suddenly
met the austere Bedouin coming towards
him (2 K. x. 15). The king was in his
chariot ; the Arab was on foot. No doubt
he acted in concert with Jehu throughout ;
the only occasion on which he is expressly
mentioned is when he went with Jehu
through the temple of Baal to turn out any
that there might happen to be in the mass
of Pagan worshippers (2 K, x. 23),
Jehon'athan. 1, Son of Uzziah;
superintendent of certain of king David's
storehouses (1 Chr. xxvii. 25). 2, One of
the Levites who were sent by Jehoshaphat
through the cities of Judah, with a book of
the Law, to teach the people (2 Chr. xvii.
8). 3. A priest (Neh. xii. 18) ; the repre
sentative of the family of Shemaiah (ver.
6), when Joiakim was high-priest.
Jeho'ram, 1. Son of Ahab king of
Israel, who succeeded his brother Ahaziah,
B. 0. 896, and died b. c. 884, The alliance
between the kingdoras of Israel and Judah,
commenced by his father and Jehoshaphat,
was very close throughout his reign. We
first find him associated with Jehoshaphat
and the king of Edom, at that time a tribu
tary of the kingdom of Judah, in a war
against the Moabites. The three armies
were in the utraost danger of perishing for
want of water. The piety of Jehoshaphat
suggested an inquiry of sorae prophet of
Jehovah, and Elisha, at that tirae and since
the latter part of Ahab's reign Elijah's at
tendant (2 K. iii, 11; 1 K, xix. 19-21), was
found with the host. Frora him Jehoram

received a severe rebuke, .and was l)ii to
inquire of the prophets of his father and
mother, the prophets of Baal. Neverthe
less for Jehoshaphat's sake Elisha inquired
of Jehovah, and received the promise of an
abundant supply of water, and of a great
victory over the Moabites ; a promise which
was immediiitely fulfilled. The Moabites
were put to the rout. The allies pursued
them with great slaughter into their own
land, which they utterly ravaged and de
stroyed with all its cities. Kirharaseth alone
remained, and there the king of Moab made
his last stand. An attempt to break through
the besieging army having failed, he re
sorted to the desperate expedient of offer
ing up his eldest son, the heir to his throne,
as a burnt-offering, upon the wall of the
city, in the sight of the enemy. Upon this
the Israelites retired and returned to their
own land (2 K, iii.). A little later, when
war broke out between Syria and Israel, we
find Elisha befriending Jehoram. What
happened after this to change the relations
between the king and the prophet we can
only conjecture. But it seems probable
that when the Syrian inroads ceased, and
he felt less dependent upon the aid of the
prophet, he relapsed into idolatry, and was
rebuked by Elisha, and threatened with a
return of the calamities from which he had
escaped. Refusing to repent, a fresh inva
sion by the Syrians, and a close siege of
Samaria, actually came to pass, according
probably to the word of the prophet.
Hence, when the terrible incident arose, in
consequence of the famine, of a woman
boiling and eating her own child, the king
immediately attributed the evil to Elisha,
and determined to take away his life. The
providential interposition by which both
Elisha's life was saved and the city deliv
ered, is narrated 2 K. vii., and Jehoram
appears to have returned to friendly feeling
towards Elisha (2 K. viii. 4). It was very
soon after the above events that Elisha
went to Damascus, and predicted the revolt
of Hazael, and his accession to the throne
of Syria in the room of Ben-hadad. Jeho
ram seems to have thought the revolution
in Syria, which immediately followed Eli
sha's prediction, a good opportunity to pur
sue his father's favorite project of recov
ering Riimoth-Gilead from the Syrians. He
accordingly made an alliance with his neph
ew Ahaziah, who had just succeeded Joram
on the throne of Judah, and the two kings
proceeded to occupy Ramoth-Gilead by
force. The expedition was an unfortunate
one. Jehoram was wounded in battle, and
obliged to return to Jezreel to be healejl of
his wounds (2 K. viii. 29, ix. 14, 15), ieav-
ing his army under Jehu to hold Ramoth-
Gilead against Hazael. Jehu, however,
and the army under his coraraand, revolted
from their allegiance to Jehoram (2 K. ix.),

JEHOSHABEATH

277 JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF

and hastily marching to Jezreel, surprised
Jehoram, wounded and defenceless as he
was. Jehoram, going out to meet him, fell
pierced by an arrow from Jehu's bow on
the very plot of ground which Ahab had
wrested frora Naboth the Jezreehte; thus
fulfilling to the letter the prophecy of Eli
jah (1 K. xxi. 21-29). With the life of
Jehoram ended the dynasty of Omri. 2.
Eldest son of Jehoshaphat, succeeded his
father on the throne of Judah at the age of
82, and reigned eight years, frora B, o,
893-2 to 885-4. Jehosheba his daughter
was wife to the high-priest Jehoiada. As
soon as he was fi.xed on the throne, he put
his six brothers to death, with many of the
chief nobles of the land. He then, proba
bly at the instance of his wife Athaliah the
laughter of Ahab, proceeded to establish
the worship of Baal. A prophetic writing
from the aged prophet Elijah (2 Chr. xxi.
12), failed' to produce any good effect upon
him. This was in the first or second year
of his reign. The reniiiinder of it was a
series of calamities. First the Edomites,
who had been tributary to Jehoshaphat, re
volted from his dominion, and established
their permanent independence. Next Lib
nah, one of the strongest fortified cities in
Judah (2 K, xix, 8), rebelled against him.
Then followed invasions of armed bands of
Pliilistines and of Arabians, who stormed
the king's palace, put his wives and all his
children, except his youngest son Ahaziah,
to death (2 Chr. xxii. 1), or carried them
into captivity, and plundered all his treas
ures. He died of a terrible disease (2 Chr.
xxi. 19, 20) early in the twelfth year of his
brother-in-law Jehoram's reign over Israel.
Jehoshab'eath, the form in which the
name of Jehosheba is given in 2 Chr. xxii.
11. Jehosh'aphat. I. King of Judah, son
of Asa, succeeded to the throne b. c. 914,
when he was 35 years old, and reigned 25
years. His history is to bo found among
tho events recorded in 1 K. xv. 24 ; 2 K.
viii. 16, or in a continuous narrative in 2
Chr. xvii. 1-xxi. 3. He was contemporary
with Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram. At
first he strengthened himself against Israel
by fortifying and giirrisoning the cities of
Judah and the Epbraimite conquests of
Asia. But soon afterwards the two He
brew kings, perhaps appreciating their com
mon danger from D.amascus and the tribes
on their eastern frontier, formed an alli
ance. Jehoshaphat's eldest son Jehoram
married Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab
and Jezebel. In his own kingdom Jehosh
aphat ever showed himself a zealous fol
lower of the commandments of God : he
tried, it would seem not quite successfully,
to put down the high places and groves in
which the people of Judah burnt incense.
Bichea ar>d honors iucraised around him.

He received tribute from the Philistinej
and Arabians ; and kept up a large stand
ing army in Jerusalem. It was probably
about the 16th year of his reign (b. c. 808)
when he went to Samaria to visit Ahab, and
to become his ally in the great battle of
Ramoth-Gilead. Frora thence Jehoshaphat
returned to Jerusalem in peace ; and went
himself through the people " frora Beer
sheba to Mount Ephraira," reclairaing them
to the law of God. Turning his attention
to foreign coramerce, he built at Ezion-
geber, with the help of Ahaziah, a navy de
signed to go to Tariihish ; but it was wrecked
at Ezion-geber. Before the close of his
reign he was engaged in two additional
wars. He was miraculously delivered from
a threatened attack of the people of Ara
raon, Moab, and Seir. After this, perhaps,
must be dated the war which Jehoshaph.at,
in conjunction with Jehoram king of Israel
and the king of Edom, carried on against
the rebellious king .of Moab (2 K. iii.). In
his declining years the adrainistr.ation of
affairs was placed (probably b. c. 891) in
the hands of his son Jehoram. 2. Son of
Ahilud, who filled the office of recorder or
annalist in the courts of David (2 Sam. viii.
16, &c.) and Solomon (1 K. iv. 3). 3,
One of the priests, who (1 Chr, xv. 24)
were appointed to blow trumpets before the'
ark when it was carried from the house of
Obed-edom to Jerusalem. 4. Son jf Pa-
ruah ; one of the twelve purveyors of king
Solomon (1 K. iv. 17). 5. Son of Nimslii,
and father of king Jehu (2 K. ix. 2, 14).
Jehosh'aphat, 'Valley of, a valley
mentioned by Joel only, as the spot in
which, after the return of Judah and Jeru
salem from captivity, Jehovah would gather
all the heathen (Joel iii. 2), and would there
sit to judge them for their misdeeds to Is
rael (iii. 12). The prophet seems to have
glanced back to that triumphant day when
king Jehoshaphat, the greatest king tha
nation had seen since Solomon, led out hia
people to a valley in the wilderness of
Tekoah, and was there blessed with such a
victory over the hordes of his enemies as
was without a parallel in the national rec
ords (2 Chr. XX.). The scene of "Jeho
vah's judgment" has been localized, and the
name has corae down to us attached to that
deep r.avine whieh separates Jerusalem from
the Mount of Olives, through which at one
time the Kedron forced its stream. At
what period the narae was first applied to
this spot is not known. There is no trace
of it in the Bible or in Josephus. In both
the only name used for this gorge is Kid
ron (N. T. Cedron). We first encounter
its new title in the middle of the 4tli century
in the Onoroasift'com of Eusebius andjcrome,
and in the Commentary of the latter Father
on Joel. Since that tirae the narae has
been recognized and adopted by traveUeri

JEHOSHEBA

278

JEHOVAH

of all ages and all faiths. Both Moslems
and Jews believe that the last Judgment is
to take place there. The steep sides of the
ravine, wherever a level strip affords the
opportunity, are crowded — in places al
most paved — by the sepulchres of the
Moslems, or the simpler slabs of the Jew
ish tombs, alike awaiting the assembly of
the last Judgment. The name would seem
to be generally confined by travellers to
the upper part of the glen, frora about the
"Tomb of the Virgin" to the south-east
corner of the wall of Jerusalem.
Jehosh'eba. daughter of Joram king
of Israel, and wife of Jehoiada the high-
pri est (2 K. xi. 2) . Her name in the Chron
icles is given Jehoshabeath. As she is
called, 2 K. xi. 2, " the daughter ot Joram,
sister of Ahaziah," it has been conjectured
that she was the daughter, not of AthaUah,
but of Joram by another wife. She is the
only recorded instance of the marriage of a
princess of the royal house with a high-
priest. Jehosh'ua, that is, "help of Jehovah
or " Saviour." In this form is given the
name of Joshua in Num. xiii. 16, on the oc
casion of its bestowal by Moses. Once
more only the name appears in its full form
in the A. V. — as
' Jehosh'uah, in the genealogy of Eph
raim (1 Chr. vii. 27).
Jehovah. The true pronunciation of
this name, by which God was known to
the Hebrews, has been entirely lost, the
Jews themselves scrupulously avoiding
every mention of it, and substituting in its
stead one or other of the words with whose
proper vowel-points it may happen to be
written. Tliis custom, which had its origin
in reverence, and has alraost degenerated
into a superstition, was founded upon an
erroneous rendering of Lev. xxiv. 16, from
which it was inferred that the mere utter
ance of the name constituted a capital of
fence. According to Jewish tradition, it
was pronounaed but once a year by the
high-priest on the day of Atoneraent when
he entered the Holy of Holies ; but on this
point there is sorae doubt. On the authori
ty of Maimonides we learn that it ceased
with Siraeon the Just, But even after the
destruction of the second Temple instances
arc met with of individuals who were in
possession of the mysterious secret. That
the Hebrews learned the word from the
Egyptians is a theory which has found some
advocates. There can be but little doubt
that the process in reality was reversed,
.and that in this case the Hebrews were, not
the borrowers, but the lenders. Wo have
indisputable evidence that it existed araong
them, whatever may have been its origin,
many centuries before it is found in other
rpcords ; of the contrary we have no evi
dence whatever. One argument for the

rtenotlcRd.

Egyptian origin of Jehovah may --
ItTfound in the circumstance ff/^^,^^^
?5^r^^T4r-Hch "^asserted i~ --
(2 K. xxm. o*;. nractice of con

in accordance wUh^th^e^PJ^ae^^^^ ^^^

is not
conquer-
rrs"Towards the conquerea, unless the
?lvntiln king imposed upon the king of
ffJS^^ the name of one of his own gods
But the same reasoning would prove that I
the origin of the word was Babylonian, for
the king of Babylon changed the name of
Mattaniah to Zedekmfe (2 K. xxiv. 17).
But many, abandoniag as untenable the
theory of an Egyptian origin, have sought
to trace the name among the Phoenicians
and Canaanitish tribes. From the occur
rence of Jehovah as a compound in the
proper names of many who wero not He
brews, Hamaker contends that it must have
been known among heathen people. But
such knowledge, if it existed, was no more
than might have been obtained by their ne
cessary contact with the Hebrews. The
names of Uriah the Hittite, of Araunah or
Aranjah the Jebusite, of Tohiah the Am
monite, and of the Canaanitish town Biz-
jothjah, may be all explained without hav
ing recourse to Hamaker's hypothesis.
Most of the authorities on the opposite side
have taken for the basis of their explana
tions, and the different methods of punctua
tion which they propose, the passage in Ex.
iii, 14, to which we must naturally look for
a solution of the question. When Moses
received his commission to be the deliverer
of Israel, the Almighty, who appeared in
the burning bush, communicated to hira the
name which he should give as the creden
tials of his mission : "And God said unto
Moses, I AM that I am 11'^!";'? ^^$ '^.'!''7^
ehyeh asher ehyeh) ; and he said, Thus shalt
thou say unto the children of Israel, I am
hath sent me unto you." That this passage
is intended to indicate the etymology of
Jehovah, as understood by the Hebrews, no
one has ventured to doubt : it is in fact the
key to the whole mystery. The next point
for consideration is of vastly more impor
tance : what is the meaning of Jehovah, and
what docs it express of the being and nature
of God, more than or in distinction from the
other names appUed to the deity in the O.
T. ? Elohim is used in many t-ases of the
gods of the heathen, who included in thf
same title the God ofthe Hebrews, and de
noted generally the Deity when spoken of
a supernatural being, and when no national
feeling influenced the spoaker. But, al
though the distinction between Elohim, an
the general appellation of Deity, aud Johfr
vah, the national God of the Israelites, con
tains some superficial truth, the real nature
of their difference must be sought for far
deeper, and as a foundation for tho argu
ments which will be adduced recourse must

JEUOVAH-nJIREH

279

JEHU

again be had to etymology. With regard
to the derivation of Elohim, etymologists are
divided in their opinions ; sorae connecting
it with £1,- and the unused root Cl, " to be
strong." From whatever root however,
tlie word may be derived, most are of
opinion that the primary idea contained in
it is that of strength, power; so that Elohim
is the proper appellation of the Deity, as
n anifested in His creative and universally
sustaining agency, and in the general di
vine guidance and government of the world.
The question now arises. What is the raean
ing to be attached to the plural form of the
word? Some have discovered therein the
mystery of the Trinity, while others main
tain that it points to polytheism. It is prob
able that the plural form Elohim, instead
of pointing to polytheism, is applied to God
as coraprehending in Himself the fulness of
all power, and uniting in a perfect degree
all that which the name signifies, and all
the attributes which the heathen ascribe to
the several divinities of their pantheon.
The singular ildah, with few exceptions
(Neh. ix. 17 ; 2 Chr. xxxii. 15), occurs only
in poetry. It will be found, upon examina
tion of the passages in which Elohim oc
curs, that it is chiefly in places where God
is exhibited only in the plenitude of his
power, and where no especial reference is
made to his unity, personality, or holiness,
or to his relation to Israel and the theoc
racy. But while Elohim exhibits God dis
played in his power as the creator and
governor of the physical universe, the name
Jehovah designates his nature as He stands
In relation to man, as the only almighty,
true, personal, holy Being, a spirit, and
" the father of spirits " (Num. xvi. 22 ;
comp. John iv. 24), who revealed himself
to his people, made a covenant with them,
and became their lawgiver, and to whom
all honor and worship are due. If the
etymology above given be accepted, and
the name be derived from the future tense
of the substantive verb, it would denote, in
accordance with the general analogy of
proper naraes of a similar forra, "He that
is," " tho Being," whose chief attribute is
eternal existence. As the Israelites were
in a reraarkable raanuer distinguished as
the people of Jehovah, who becarae their
lawgiver and supreme ruler, it is not strange
that He should be put in strong contrast
with Chemosh (Judg. xi. 24), Ashtaroth
(Judg. X. 6), and the Baalim (Judg. iii. 7),
the national deities of the surrounding
nations, and thus be pre-eminently distin
guished in one aspect of his character as
the tutelary deity ofthe Hebrews. [God.]
Jeho'vah-ji'reh, i. e. " Jehovah will
see," or " provide," the name given by
Abraham to the place on which he had been
commanded to offer Isaac, to commemorate
the interposition of the angel of Jehovah,

who appeared to prevent the sacrifice (Gen.
xxii. 14), and provided another victim.
Jeho'vah-nis'si, i. e. " Jehovah my
banner," the name given by Moses to the
altar which he built in coramenioration of
the discomfiture of the Araalekites by
Joshua and his chosen warriors at Repbi
dim (Ex. xvii. 15). The significance of
the narae is probably contained in the allu
sion to the staff which Moses held in his
hand as a banner during the engagement.
Jeho'vah-sha'lom, i. e. " Jehovah
(is) peace," or, with an ellipsis, " Jehovah,
the God of peace," the altar erected by
Gideon in Ophrah was so called in memo
ry of the salutation addressed to him by
the angel of Jehovah, " Peace be unto thee "
(Judg. vi. 24).
Jehoz'abad. 1. A Korahite Levite,
second son of Obed-edom, and one of the
porters of the south gate of the Teraple,
and of the storehouse there in the tirae of
David (1 Chr. xxvi. 4, 15, compared with
Neh. xii. 25). 2. A Benjamite, captain of
180,000 armed men, in the days of king
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 18). 3. Sonof
Shomer or Shimrith, a Moabitish woman,
who with another conspired against king
Joash and slew him in his bed (2 K. xii. 21 ;
2 Chr. xxiv. 26).
Jehoz'adak, son of the high priest
Seraiah (1 Chr. vi. 14, 15) in the reign of
Zedekiah. When his father was slain at
Riblah by order of Nebuchadnezzar, in the
nth of Zedekiah (2 K. xxv. 18, 21), Jehoz
adak was led away captive to Babylon (1
Chr. vi. 15), where he doubtless spent the
remainder of his d.ays. He himself never
attained the high-priesthood, but he was the
father of Jeshua the liigh-priest — who with
Zerubbabel headed the Return from Captiv
ity — and of all his successors till the pontifi
cate of Alcimus (Ezr. hi. 2 ; Nell. xii. 26, &c.)
Jehu. 1. The founder of the fifth
dynasty of the kingdom of Israel, son of
Jehoshaphat (2 K. ix. 2). In his youth he
had been one of the guards of Ahab. His
'first appearance in history is when, with a
corarade in arms, Bidkar, he rode behind
Ahab on the fatal journey from Samaria to
Jezreel, and heard the warning of Elijah
against the murderer of Naboth (2 K. ix.
25). But he had already, as it woUldseem,
been known to Elijah as a youth of proraise,
and, accordingly, in the vision at Horeb he
is mentioned as the future king of Israel,
whom Elijah is to ar.oint as the minister
of vengeance on Israjl (1 K. xix. 16, 17)-.
Th's injunction, for reasons unknown tous,
ELjah never fulfilled. It was reserve I long
afterwards or his successor Elishai Jehu
meantime, in the reigns of Ahaziah and
Jehoram, had risen to importance. He was.
under the last-named king, captain of tho
host in the siege of Ramoth-Gilead. Whilst
in the midst of the officers of tlie besieging

JEHU
army a youth suddenly entered, of wild ap
pearance (2 K, ix, 11), and insisted on a
private interview with Jehu. They retired
into a secret chamber. The youth uncov
ered a vial of the sacred oil which he had
brought with him, poured it over Jehu's
head, and after announcing to hira the mes
sage from Elisha, that he was appointed to
be king of Israel and destroyer ofthe house
of Ahab, rushed out of the house and disap
peared. Jehu's countenance, as he re-en
tered the assembly of officers, showed that
some strange tidings had reached him. He
tried at first to evade their questions, but
then revealed the situation in which he
found himself placed by the prophetic call.
In a moment the enthusiasm of the army
took fire. They threw their garments un
der bis feet, so as to form a rough carpet of
state, placed him on the top of the stairs,
as on an extempore throne, blew the royal
s.alute on their trumpets, and thus ordained
him king. He then cut off all communica
tion between Ramoth-Gilead and Jezreel,
and set off, full speed, with his ancient com
rade, Bidkar, whom he had made captain
of the host in his place, and a band of horse
men. Frora the tower of Jezreel a watch
man saw the cloud of dust (A. V. " com
pany ") and announced his coming (2 K. ix.
17). It was not till he had almost reached
the city, and was identified by the watch
man, that alarm was taken. But it was not
till, in answer to Jehoram's question, " Is it
peace, Jehu ? " that Jehu's fierce denuncia
tion of Jezebel at once revealed the danger.
Jehu seized his opportunity, and shot him
through the heart (ix. 24) . The body was
thrown out on the fatal field, and whilst his
soldiers pursued and killed the king of
Judah at Beth-gan (A. V. "the garden
house "), probably Engannim, Jehu himself
advanced to the gates of Jezreel and ful
filled the divine warning on Jezebel as
already on Jehoram, He then entered on
a work of extermination hitherto unparal
leled in the history of the Jewish monarchy.
All the descendants of Ahab that remained
in Jezreel, together with the officers of the
court, and hierarchy of Astarte, were swept
away. His next step was to secure Sama
ria, As he drove on he encountered a
strange -figure, such as might have remind
ed him ofthe great Elijah. It wiis Jchoh.a-
dab, the austere Arabian sectary, the son
of Rechab, In him his keen eye discovered
a ready ally. He took him into his chariot,
and they concocted their schemes as they
entered Samaria (x. 15, 16), Up to this
moment there was nothing which showed
anything beyond a determination to exter
minate in all its branches the personal ad
herents of Ah.ab. There was to be a new
inauguration of the worship of Baal. A
solemn assembly, sacred vestments, innu
merable victims, were ready. The vast

280 JEHUSH
temple at Saraaria raised ^y^^^^\^\f-
xvi, 32) was crowded from end to end. Ihe
chief sacrifice was offered, as if ^ thf ^X-
cess of his zeal, by Jehu himself. Jehona
dab joined in the deception._ There was
some apprehension lest worshippers ol Je
hovah might be found in the temple ; such,
it seems, had been the intermixture of the
two religions. As soon, however, as itwas
ascertained that all, -and none but, the idol
aters were there, the signal was given to
eighty trusted guards, and a sweeping mas
sacre removed at one blow the whole hea
then population of the kingdom of Israel.
This is the last public act recorded of Jehu.
The remaining twenty-seven years of hia
long reign are passed over in a few words,
in which two points only are material : —
He did not destroy the calf-worship of Jero
boam : — The trans-Jordanic tribes suffered
much frora the ravages of Hazael (2 K. x.
29-33). He was buried in state in Samaria,
and was succeeded by his son Jehoahaz
(2 K. X, 35), His name is the first of the
Israelite kings which appears in the Assyr
ian monuracnts. 2, Jehu, son of Hanani;
a, prophet of Judah, but whose ministrations
were chiefiy directed to Israel. His father
was probably the seer who attacked Asa
(2 Chr, xvi. 7). He must have begun his
career as a prophet when very young. He
first denounced Baasha (1 K. xvi. 1, 7), and
then, after an interval of thirty years, reap
pears to denounce Jehoshaphat for his al
liance with Ahab (2 Chr. xix, 2, 3), He
survived Jehoshaphat and wrote his life (xx.
34). 3. A man of Judiih of the house oi
Hezron (1 Chr, ii. 38). 4. A Simeonite, soE
of Josibiah (1 Chr. iv. 35). 5, Jehu tha
Antothite was one ofthe chief ofthe heroes
of Benjamin, who joined David at Ziklag
(1 Chr. xii. 3),
Jehub'bah, a man of Asher; son of
Shamer or Shomer, of the house of Beriah
(1 Chr, vii, 34),
Je'hucal, son of Shelemiah; one of two
persons sent by king Zedekiah to Jeremiah,
to entreat his prayers and advice (Jer.
xxxvii. 3).
Je'hud, one of the towns of the tribe of
Dim (Josh. xix. 45), named between Baal
ath and Bene-berak.
Jehu'di, son of Nethaniah, a man em
ployed by the princes of Jehoiakim's court
to fetch B.aruch to read Jeremiah's denun
ciation (Jer. xxxvi. 14), and then by the
king to fetch the volume itself and read it
to him (21, 23).
Jehudi'jah. There is really no suph
name in the Heb. Bible as that which our
A, V, »«hibits at 1 Chr. iv. 18. If it is a
proper name at all, it is Ha-jehudijah, like
Ham-melech, Hak-koz, &c. ; and it seeras
to be rather an appellative, " the Jewess."
Je'hush, son of Eshek, a remote d«
scendant of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 39).

JEIEL

281

JEREMIAH

Jei'ei. 1. A Reubenite of the house of
Joel (1 Chr. v. 7). 2. A Merarite Levite,
one of the gate-keepers to the .sacred tent
(1 Chr. XV. 18). His duty was also to play
the harp (ver. 21), or the psaltery and harp
(xvi. 5), in the service before the Ark.
3 . A Gershonite ^Levite, one of the Bene-
Asiiph, forefather of Jahaziel in the time
of king Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xx. 14). 4.
The Scribe who kept the account of the
numbers of king Uzziah's irregular preda
tory warriors (2 Chr. xxvi. 11). 5. A Ger
shonite Levite, one of the Bene-Elizaphan
(2 Chr. xxix. 13). 6. One ofthe chiefs of
the Levites in the time of Josiah (2 Chr.
xxxv. 9). 7. One of the Bene-Adonikam
who formed part of the caravan of Ezra
from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezr. viii. 13).
8. A layman, of the Bene-Nebo, who had
taken a foreign wife and had to relinquish
her (Ezr. x. 43).
Jekab'zeel, a fuller form of the name
of Kabzeel, the raost reraote city of Judah
on the southern frontier (Neh. xi, 25),
Jekame'am, a Levite in the time of
king David; fourth of the sons of Hebron,
the son of Kohath (1 Chr. xxiii. 19, xxiv. 23),
Jekami'ah, son of Shallum, in the line
of Ahlai (1 Chr. ii. 41).
Jeku'thiel, a man recorded in the gen
ealogies of Judah '(1 Chr. iv. 18) . as the
son of a certain Ezra or Mered, by his Jew
ish wife (A. V. Jehudijah), and in his turn
the father, orfounder, ofthe town of Zanoah.
Jemi'ma, the eldest of the three daugh
ters born to ilob after the restoration of his
prosperity (Job xiii. 14).
Jemu'el, the eldest son of Simeon
(Gen, xlvi. 10; Ex. vi. 15).
Jeph'thae (Heb. xi, 32), the Greek
form of the narae Jephthah, -
Jeph'thah, a judge, about b. c. 1143-
1137. His history is contained in Judg. xi,
1-xii, 8, He was a Gileadite, the son of
Gilead and a concubine. Driven by the
legitiraate sons from his father's inheritance,
he went to Tob, and became the head of a
company of freebooters in a debatable land
prob.ably belonging to Ammon (2 Sam. x,
6). His fiiiiie as a bold and successful cap-
tiiin was carried back to his native Gilead;
and when the time was ripe for throwing
off the yoke of Ammon, Jephthah consent
ed to become their captain, on the condition
(solemnly ratified before the Lord in Miz
peh) that in the event of his success against
Ammon he should still remain as their
acknowledged head. He collected warriors
throughout Gilead and Manasseh, the prov
inces which acknowledged his authority;
and then he vowed his v.ow unto the Lord.
The Ammonites were routed with great
slaughter. But as the conqueror returned
to Mizpeh there came out to meet him a
procession of damsels with dances and tim
brels, and among them— tbe first person

from his own house — his daughter and
only child. " Alas ! my daughter, thou hast
brought me very low," was the greeting of
the heart-stricken father. But the high-
minded maiden is ready for any person.al
suffering in the hour of her father's triumph.
Only she asks for a respite of two months
to withdraw to her native mountains, and
in their recesses to weep with her virgin-
friends over the early disappointment of
her life. When that time was ended she
returned to her father, and " he did unto
her his vow." But Jephthah had not long
leisure, even if he were disposed, for the
indulgence of domestic grief. The proud
tribe of Ephraim challenged his right to go
to war, as he h.ad done without their con
currence, against Ammon. He first defeat
ed them, then intercepted the fugitives at
the fords of Jordan, and there put forty-two
thousand men to the sword. He judged
Israel six years and died. It is generally
conjectured thiit his jurisdiction was limit
ed to the trans-Jordanic region. That the
daughter of Jephthah was really offered up
to God in sacrifice, is a conclusion which it
seems irapossible to avoid.
Jephun'neh. 1. Father of Caleb the
spy, appears to have belonged to an Edom-
jtish tribe called Kenezites, from Kenaz
their founder (S«e Num. xiii. 6, &c., xxxii.
12, &c. ; Josh. xiv. 14, &c. ; 1 Chr. iv. 15).
2. A descendant of Asher, eldest of the
three sons of Jether (1 Chr. vii. 38).
Je'rah, the fourth in order of the sons of
Joktan (Gen. x. 26; 1 Chr. i. 20), and the
progenitor of a tribe of southern Arabia.
Jerah'meel. 1. First-born son of
Hezron, the son of Pharez, the son of Judah
(1 Chr. ii. 9, 25-27, 33, 42) and founder of
the family of Jerahmeelites (1 Sam. xxvii.
10). 2. A Merarite Levite, the represen
tative of the faraily of Kish, the son of
Mahli (1 Chr. xxiv. 29; comp, xxiii, 21).
3. Son of Hammelech, who was employed
by Jehoiakim to make Jeremiah and Ba
ruch prisoners, after he had burnt the roll
of Jeremiah's prophecy (Jer. xxxvi. 26).
Jerah'meelites, The. The tribe da-
scended from the flrst of the foregoing per
sons (1 Sam. xxvii. 10). They dwelt in
the south of Judah.
Je'red. 1, Son of Mahalaleel and fa^.
ther of Enoch (1 Chr. i. 2). 2. One of
the descendants of Judah signalized as the
' ' father " — i, ^, the founder — " of Gedor "
(1 Chr, iv. 18).
Jer'emai, a layman ; one of the Bene-
Hashum, who was compelled by Ezra to
put away his foreign wife (Ezr. x. 33).
Jeremi'ah was " the son' of Hilkiah
of the priests that were in Anathoth " (Jer.
i. 1), and was a child in the reign of Jo-
siab, B. c. 638-608 (i. 6). In his youth he
was called to the prophetic office, but we
have hardly any mention of him during

JEREMIAH

the eighteeu years between hiu call and
Josiah's death, or during the short reign
of Jehoahaz. Under Jehoiakim, b. c. 607 -
597, he opposed the Egyptian p.arty, then
dominant in Jerusalem, and maintained
that the only way of safety lay in accepting
the supremacy of the Chaldeans. He was
accordingly accused of treachery, and men
claiming to be prophets had their " word
of Jehovah " to set against his (xiv. 13,
xxiii. 7). In the fourth year of Jehoiakim
the battle of Carchemish overthrew the
hopes of the Egyptian party (xlvi. 2), and
the armies of Nebuchadnezzar drove those
who had no defenced cities to take refuge
iu Jerusalem (xxxv. 11). As the danger
from the Chaldeans became more threaten
ing, the persecution against Jeremiah grew
hotter (xviii.). The people sought his life ;
his voice rose up in the prayer that God
would deliver and avenge him. That
thought he soon reproduced in act as well
as word. Standing in the valley of Ben-
Hinnom, he broke the earthen vessel he
carried in his hands, and prophesied to the
people that the whole city should be defiled
with the dead, as that valley had been,
within their memory, by Josiah (xix. 10-
13). The boldness of the speech and act
drew upon him immedjfite punishment.
The years that followed brought no change
for the better. Famine and drought were
added to the miseries of the people (xiv. 1),
but false prophets still deceived them with
assurances of plenty; and Jeremiah w.as
looked on with dislike, as " a prophet of
evil," and "everyone cursed" him (xv.
10). He was set, however, "as a fenced
brazen wall " (xv. 20), and went on with
his work, reproving king and nobles and
people. The danger which Jeremiah had
so long foretold at last came near. First
Jehoiakim, and afterwards his successor
Jehoiachin, were carried into exile (2 K.
xxiv.) ; but Zedekiah (b. c. 597-586), who
was appointed by Nebuchadnezzar, does
not exhibit the same obstinate resistance to
the prophet's counsels as Jehoiakim. He
respects him, fears him, seeks his counsel ;
but he is a mere shadow of a king, power
less even against his own counsellors, and
in his reign, accordingly, the sufferings of
Jeremiah were sharper than they had been
before. The approach of an Egyptian
array, and the consequent departure of the
Chaldeans, made the position of Jeremiah
full of danger ; and he sought to effect his es
cape from the city, and to take refuge in his
own town of Anathoth or its neighborhood
(xxxvii. 12). The discovery of this plan led
to the charge of desertion : it was thought
that he too was "falling away to the
Chaldeans," as others were doing (xxxviii,
19) ; and, in spite of his denial, he was
'arown into a dungeon (xxxvii. 16). The
interposition of the king, who still respect-

282 JEREMIAH
ed and consulted him, led to some mitiga-
tion of the rigor of his confinement (xxxvu.
2n • but, as this did not hinder him froffl-
speiiking to the people, the princes of Ju
dah bent on an alli.ance with Egypt, and
calculating on the king's being un.able to
resist them (xxviii. 5), threw him mto the
prison-pit, to die there. From this hor
rible fate he was again delivered by the
friendship of the Ethiopian eunuch, Ebed-
Melech, and the king's regard for him,
and was restored to the milder custody in
which he had been kept previously where
we find (xxxii. 16) he had the compan

ionship of Baruch. The return of the
Chaldean army filled both king and people
with dismay (xxxii. 1) ; and the risk now
was, that they would pass from their pre
sumptuous confidence to the opposite ex
treme, and sink down in despair, with no
faith in God and no hope for the future.
The prophet was taught how to meet thiit
danger also. Ip his prison, while the
Chaldeans were ravaging the country, he
bought, with all requisite forraalities, the
field at Anathoth which his kinsraan Ha-
nameel wished to get rid of (xxxii. 6-9).
His faith in the promises of God did not
fail him. At last the blow came. The
city was taken, the Temple burnt. The
king and his princes shared the fate of Je
hoiachin. The prophet gave utterance to
his sorrow in the Lamentatio:ns. After
the capture of Jerusalem, b. c. 586, the
Chaldean party in Judah had now the pros
pect of better things. We find a special
charge given to Nebuzaradan (xxxix. 11),
to protect the person of Jeremiah ; and, af
ter being carried as far as R.amiih with the
crowd of captives (xl. 1) , he was set free,
and Gedaliah made governor over the cities
of Judah. The feeling of the Chaldeans
towards him was shown yet more strongly
in the offer made him by Nebuzaradan (xl.
4, 5). For a short time there was an inter
val of peace (xl. 9-12), soon broken, how
ever, by the murder of Gedaliah by Ishmael
and his associates. The prophet escaped
from the massacre ; and the people, under
Johanan, who had taken the commiind on
the death of Gedaliah, turned to him for
counsel. His warnings aud assurances
were in vain, and did but draw on him and
Baruch the old charge of treachery (xliii.
3). The people followed their own coun
sel, and in order to escape the vengeance
of Nebuchadnezzar for the murder of Ged
aliah, they determined to take refuge in
Egypt. They carried with them Jeremiah
and his faithful friend and amanuensia
Baruch. [Baruch.] In Egypt, in the
city of Tahpanhes, we have the last clear
glimpses of the Prophet's life. His words
are sharper and stronger than ever. He
does not shrink, even there, from speaking
of the Chaldean king once more as " the

JEREMIAH

283

JERICHO

servant of Jehovah" (xliii. 10). Aft jr this
all is uncertain. If we could assume that
lii. 3 1 was written by Jeremiah himself, it
would show that he reached an extreme old
age, but this is so doubtful that we are left to
other sources. On the one hand there is
the Christi.an tradition, resting doubtless on
sorae earlier belief, that the Jews at Tah
panhes, irritated by his rebu.\es, at last
stoned him to death. On the other side
there is the Jewish statement that on the con
quest of Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar, he, vith
Baruch, made his escape to Babylon or
Tudaea, and died in peace. — The absence
of any chronological order in the present
structure of the collection of Jeremiah's
prophecies is obvious at the first glance,
In the present order we have two great
divisions : I. Ch. i.-xlv. Prophecies de
livered at various tiraes, directed mainly
to Judah, or connected with Jeremiah's
personal history. II. Ch. xlvi.-li. Proph
ecies connected with other nations. Ch.
lii. taken largely, though not entirely, from
2 K. XXV., may be taken either as a supple
ment to the prophecy, or as an introduction
to the Lamentations. Looking more closely
into each of these divisions we have the
following sections : 1. Chs. i.-xxi. Con
taining probably the substance of the book
of xxxvi. 32, and including prophecies
from the thirteenth year of Josiah to the
fourth of Jehoiakim : i. 3, however, indi
cates a later revision, and the whole of ch.
i. may possibly have been added on the
prophet's retrospect of his whole work
from this its first beginning. Ch. xxi. be
longs to a, later period, but has probably
found its place here as connected, by the
recurrence of the name Pashur, with ch.
XX. 2. Ch. xxii., xxv. Shorter prophecies,
delivered at different times, against the
kings of Judah and the fiilse prophets.
xxv. 13, 14, evidently marks the conclusion
of a series of prophecies ; and that which
follows, xxv. 15-38, the germ of the fuller
predictions in xlvi.-xlix., has been placed
here as a kind of completion to the prophecy
of the Seventy Years and the subsequent
fall of Babylon. 3. Ch. xxvi.-xxviii. The
two great prophecies of the fall of Jerusa
lem, and the history connected with them.
Ch. xxvi. belongs to the earlier, ch. xxvii.
and xxviii. to the later periodof the prophet's
work. Jehoiakim, in xxvii. 1, is evidently
(comp. ver. 3) a mistake for Zedekiah. 4.
Ch. xxix.-xxx.. The message of comfort
for the exiles in Babylon. 5. Ch. xxxii.-
xliv. The history of the last two years
before the capture of Jerusalem, and of
Jeremiah's work in them and in the period
that followed. The position of ch. xiv.,
unconnected with anything before or after
it, may be accounted for on the hypothesis
that Baruch desired to place on record so
memorable a passage iu his own hfe, and

inserted it where the direct narrative of
his mast.»r's life ended. The same expla
nation applies in part to ch. xxxvi. 6, Ch.
xlvi.-li. The prophecies against foreign
nations, ending with the great prediction
against Babylon, 7. The supplementary
narrative of ch. lii.
Jeremi'ah, Seven other persons bear
ing the same name as the prophet are
mentioned in the O, T. 1. Jeremiah of
Libnah, father of Hamutal wife of Josiah
(2 K. xxiii. 31). 2, 3, 4. Three warriors
— two of the tribe of Gad — in David's
army (1 Chr. xii. 4, 10, 13). 5. One of
the "mighty men of valor" of the trans-
Jordanic half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chr. v>
24). 6. A priest of high rank, head of
the second or third of the 21 courses which
are apparently enumerated in Neh. x. 2-8,
xii. 1, 12. This course, or its chief, took
part in the dedication of the wall of Jeru
salem (Neh. xii. 34). 7. 'The father of
Jazaniah the Rechabite (Jer. xxxv. 3).
Jeremi'as, the Greek form of tho
name of Jeremiah the prophet (Matt. xvi.
14). Jer emy, the prophet Jeremiah (Matt,
ii. 17, xxvii. 9).
Jer'ibai, one the Bene-Elnaan, named
among the heroes of David's guard (1 Chr.
xi, 46),
Jer'icho, a city of high antiquity, situ
ated in a plain traversed by the Jordan, and
exactly over against where that river was
crossed by the Israelites under Joshua
(Josh. iii. 16). It had a king. Its walls
were so considerable that houses were built
upon them (ii. 15), and its gates were shut,
as throughout the East still, "_when it was
dark " (v. 5). The spoil that was found in
it betokened its affluence. Jericho is first
mentioned as the city to which the two
spies were sent by Joshua from Shittira ;
they were lodged in the house of Rahab the
harlot upon the wall, and departed, having
first promised to save her and all that were
found in her house from destruction (ii.
1-21). As it had been left by Joshua it
was bestowed by him upon the tribe of Ben
jamin (Josh, xviii. 21), and from this time
a long interval elapses before Jericho ap
pears again upon the scene. The solemn
manner in which its second foundation
under Hiel the Bethelite is recorded (1 K.
xvi. 34) implies that up to that time its site
had been uninhabited. Once rebuilt, Jeri
cho rose again slowly into consequence.
In its immediate vicinity the sons of the
prophets sought retirement from the world ;
Elisha " healed the spring of the waters ; "
and over against it, beyond Jordan, Elijah
"went up by a whirlwind into heaven"
(2 K. ii. 1-22). In its plains Zedekiah fell
into the hands of the Chaldeans (2 K. xxv.
5; Jer. xxxix. 5). In the return under
Zerubbabel the " children of Jericho," 345

JEREEL

284

JEROBOAM

\.i i.umber, are comprised CEz. iii. 34 ; Neh.
vii. JG). Under Ilerod the Grejit it again
became an iniportant place. He built a
fort there, which he called "Cyprus" in
honor of his mother, a tower which he called
in honor of bis brother Phasaehs ; and a
number of new palaces, wliich he named
after his friends. He even founded a new
town, higher up the plain, which he called,
like the tower, Phasaelis. If he did not
make Jericho his habitual residence, he at
least retired thither to die, and it was in the
amphitheatre of Jericho that tho news of
his death was announced to the assembled
soldiers and people by Salome. Soon
afterwards tlie palace was burnt, and the
town plundered by </ne Simon, slave to
Herod; but Archelaus rebuilt the former
sumptuously, and founded a new town on
the plain, that bore his own name; and,
most important of all, diverted water from
a village called Neaera, to irrigate the plain
which he had planted with palms. Thus
Jericho was once more " a city of palms "
when our Lord visited it. Here He re
stored sight to the blind (Matt. xx. 30;
Miirk x. 46; Luke xviii. 35). Here the
descendant of Rahab did not disdain the hos-
pitiility of Zacchaeus the publican. Finally,
between Jerusalem and Jericho was laid
the scene of his story of the good Samari
tan. The city was destroyed by Vespasian.
The site of ancient (the first) Jericho is
placed by Dr. Robinson in the immediate
neighborhood of the fountain of Elisha ; and
that of the second (the city of the N. T.
and of Josephus) at the opening of the
Wady Kelt {Cherith), half an hour from
the fountain.
Je'riel, a man of Issachar, one of the
six heads ol t}.; house of Tola at the tirae
of the census in the time of David (1 Chr.
vii. 2 1-
Jer'emoth. 1. A Benjamite chief, a
eon of the house of Beriah of Elpaal (1
Chr. viii. 14; comp. 12 and 18). His fam
ily dwelt at Jerusalem. 2. A Merarite Le
vite, son of Mushi (1 Chr. xxiii. 23). 3.
Son of Heman ; head of the loth course of
musicians in the Divine service (1 Chr.
xxv. 22). 4. One of the sous of Elam,
.and, 5. One of the sons of Zattu, who had
taken strange wives (Ezr. x. 20, 27). 6.
The narae which appears in the same list
as "and Ramoth " (ver. 29).
Jeri'ah, a Koh.athite Levite, chief of
the great house of Hebron when David or-
(janized the service (1 Chr. xxiii. 19, xxiv.
23). The same man is mentioned again as
Jeri'jah, in l Chr. xxvi. 31.
Jer'imoth. 1. Son or descendant of
Bela (1 Chr, vii, 7), He is perhaps the
same as 2., who joined D.avid at Ziklag (1
Chr, xii. 5), 3. A son of Becher (1 Chr.
vii. 8), and head of another Benjamite
house. 4. Son of Mushi, the son of Me

rari (1 Chr. xxiv. 30). 5. Son of Heman,
head of the 15th wiird of musicians (1 Chr.
XXV 4 22). 6. Son of Azriel, ruler of
the tribe of Naphtali in the reign of David
(1 Chr, xxvii. 19). 7- Son of king David,
whose daughter Mahalath was one of the
wives of Rehoboam, her cousin Abihail be-
in" the other (2 Chr. xi. 18). 8, ALevite
inlhe reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr, xxxi. 13).
Jer'ioth, one of the elder Caleb's wives
(1 Chr. ii. 18) ; but according to the Vul
gate she was his daughter by his first wife
Azubah. Jerobo'am. 1. The first king of the
divided kingdom of Israel (e. c. 975-954),
was the son of an Epbraimite of the name
of Nebat. He was employed by Solomon
in the fortifications of Millo underneath the
citadel of Zion, and was raised to the rank
of superintendent over the taxes and labors
exacted from the tribe of Ephraim (1 K.
xi. 28) . He made the most of his position,
and at last was perceived by Solomon to be
aiming at the monarchy. .These ambitious
designs were probably fosteredjiy the sight
of the growing disaffection of the great
tribe over which he presided, as well as by
the alienation of the Prophetic order from
the house of Solomon. He was leaving Je
rusalem, and lie encountered, on one of the
black-paved roads wliich ran out of the
city, Ahijah, " the prophet" of the ancient
sanctuary of Shiloh. Ahijah, who was
dressed in a new outer garment, stripped it
off, and tore it into 12 shreds ; 10 of which
he gave to Jeroboam, with the assurance
that on condition of his obedience to His
laws, God would establish for hira a king
dom and dynasty equal to that of David (1
K. xi. 29-40). The attempts of Solomon
to cut short Jeroboam's designs occasioned
his flight into Egypt. There he remained
during the rest of Solomon's reign. On
Solomon's death, he demanded Shishak's
permission to return. The Egyptian king
seems, in his reluctance, to have offered
any gift whieh Jeroboam chose, as a reason
for his remaining, and the consequence was
the marriage with Ano, the elder sister cf
the Egyptian queen, Talipenes, and of an
other princess who had married the Edom
ite chief Hadad. A year elapsed, and a
son, Abijah (or Abijam), was born. Then
Jeroboam again requested permission to de
part, which was granted ; and on his return
to Shechem took place the conference with
Rehoboam, and the final revolt [Rehobo
am] ; which ended in the elevation of Jero
boam to the throne of the northern king
dom. From this noment one fatal error
crept, not unnaturally, into his- policy,
which undermined his dynasty and tar
nished his name as the first king of Israel.
The political disruption of the kingdom was
complete ; but its religious unity was as yet
unimpaired. He feared that tlie yearly

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JEROHAM

285

JERUSALEM

pilgrimages to Jerusalem would undo all
the work which he effected, and he took
the bold step of rending it asunder. Two
sanctuaries of venerable antiquity existed
already, one at the southern, the other at
the northern extremity of his dominions.
These he elevated into seats of the nation
al worship, wldch should rival the newly
established Temple at Jerusalem. But he
was not satisfied without another deviation
from the Mosaic idea of the national unity.
His long stay in Egypt had familiarized hira
with the outward forms under which the
Divinity was there represented. A golden
figure of Mnevis, the sacred calf of Heliop
olis, was set up at each sanctuary, with the
address, "Behold thy God which brought
thee up outof the land of Egypt." The sanc
tuary at Dan, as the most remote from Je
rusalem, was established first (IK. xii. 30).
The more important one, as nearer the cap
ital and in the heart of the kingdom, was
Bethel. The worship and the sanctuary
continued till the end ofthe northern king
dom. It was while dedicating the altar at
Bethel that a prophet from Judah suddenly
appeared, who denounced the altar, and
foretold its desecration by Josiah, and vio
lent overthrow. The king, stretching out
his hand to arrest the prophet, felt it with
ered and paralyzed, and only at the proph
et's prayer saw it restored, and acknowl
edged his divine mission. Jeroboam was at
constant war with the house of Judah, but
the only act distinctly recorded is a battle
with Abijah, son of Rehoboam, in which he
was defeated. The calamity was severely
felt; he never recovered the blow, and soon
after died, in the 22d year of his reign (2
Chr. xiii. 20), and was buried in his ances
tral sepulchre (1 K. xiv, 20). 2. Jeeobo-
AM II., the son of Joash, the 4th of the
dynasty of Jehu (b. c. 825-784). The
most prosperous of the kings of Israel,
He repelled the Syrian invaders, took their
capital city Damascus (2 K, xiv. 28 ; Am.
i. 3-5) , and recovered the whole of the an
cient dominion frora Hamah to the Dead Sea
(xiv. 25; Am. vi. 14). Ammon and Moab
were reconquered (Am. i. 13, ii. 1-3) ; the
tr.ans-Jordanic tribes were restored to their
territory (2 K. xiii. 5; 1 Chr. v. 17-22).
But it was merely an outward restoration.
Amos was charged by Amaziah with proph
esying the destruction of Jeroboam and
his house by the sword (Am. vii. 9, 17).
Jer'oham. 1. Father of Elkanah, the
father of Samuel, of the house of Kohath
(1 Chr. vi. 27, 34 ; 1 Sam. i. 1). 2. A Ben
jamite, and the founder of a family of Bene-
Jeroham (1 Chr. viii. 27). Probably ihe
sarae as, 3. Father (or progenitor) of Ib-
neiah (1 Chr. ix. 8; comp. S and 9). 4. A
descendant of Aaron, of the house of Im
mer, the leader of the sixteenth course of
priests ; son of Pashur, and father of Adaiah

(1 Chr. ix. 12). He appears to be meri»
tioned again in Neh. xi. 12). 5. Jeroham
of Gedor, some of whose sons joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 7). 6. A Danite,
whose son or descendiint Azareel was head
of his tribe in the time of David (1 Chr.
xxvii. 22). 7. Father of Azariah, one of
the " captains of hundreds " in the time ol
Athaliah (2 Chr. xxiii. 1).
Jerubba'al, the surname of Gideon,
which he acquired in consequence of de
stroying the altar of Baal, when his father
defended hira frora the vengeance of the
Abiezrites (Judg. vi. 32).
Jerub 'besheth, a narae of Gideon (2
Sara. xi. 21),
Jer'uel, The Wilderness of, thi;
place in whicli Jehoshaphat was inforraed
by Jahaziel the Levite that he should en
counter the hordes of Araraon, Moab, and
the Mehunims (2 Chr. xx. 16). The narae
has not been raet with.
Jeru'salem. I. The Place Itself.
The arguments for and against the identity
ofthe " Salem" of Melchizedek (Gen, xiv.
18) with Jerusalem — the " Salera " of a
late Psalmist (Ps. Ixxvi. 2) — are discussed
under Salem. The earliest notice of the
city is in Josh. xv. 8 and xviii. 16, 28, de
scribing the landmarks of the boundaries of
Judah and Benjamin. Here it is styled
Ha-Jebusi, i. e. " the Jebusite " (A. V.
Jebusi), after the name of its occupiers.
Next, we find the form Jebus (Judg. xix.
10, 11) — "Jebus, which is Jerusalem . . .
the city of the Jebusites ; " and lastly, we
have Jerusalem (Josh. x. 1, &c., xii. 10;
Judg. i, 7, &c,). Jerusalem stands in lati
tude 31° 46' 35" North, and longitude 35'^
18' 30" East of Greenwich. It is 32 miles
distant from the sea, and 18 from the
Jordan; 20 from Hebron, and 36 from
Samaria. "In several respects," says
Dean Stanley, " its situation is singular
among the cities of Palestine. .. Its eleva
tion is remarkable ; occasioned not from its
being on the summit of one of the numer
ous hills of Judaea, like most of the towns
and villages, but because it is on the edge
of one of the highest table-lands of the
country. Hebron indeed is higher still by
some hundred feet, and from the south, ac
cordingly (even from Bethlehem), the ap'
proach to Jerusalera is by a slight descent.
But from any other side the ascent is per
petual; and to the traveller approaching
the city from the E. or W. it must always
have presented the appearance beyond any
other capital of the then known world — we
may say beyond any iraportant city that has
ever existed on the 'earth — of a mountain
city ; breathing, as corapared with the sul
try plains of Jordan, a mountain air ; en
throned, as compared with Jericho or Da
mascus, Gaza or Tyre, on a mountain
fastness " {S. i P. 170, 1). The elevation

JERUSALEM

286

JERUSALEM

of Jerusalem is a subject of constant ref
erence and exultation by the Jewish writers.
Their fervid poetry abounds with allusions
to its height, to the ascent thither of the
tribes frora all p.arts of the country. It was
the habitation of Jehovah, from which
"He looked upon all the inhabitants of
the world " (Ps. xxxiii. 14) : its kings were
"higher than the kings of the earth" (Ps.
Ixxxix. 27). Jerusalera, if not actually in
the centre of Palestine, was yet virtually
so. " It was on the ridge, the broadest and
most strongly raarked ridge of the back
bone of the complicated hUls which extend
through the whole country from the Plain
of Esdraelon to the Desert. Every wan
derer, every conqueror, every traveller
who has trod the central route of Palestine
from N. to S. must have passed through the
table-land of Jerusalera. It was the water
shed between the streams, or rather the
torrent beds, which find their way eastward
to the Jordan, and those which pass west
ward to the Mediterranean." (Stanley, S. ^
P. 176.) This central position, as ex
pressed in the words of Ezekiel (v. 5), "I
have set Jerusalera in the midst of the
nations and countries round about her,"
led in later ages to a definite belief that the
city was actually in the centre of the earth
in the words of Jerome, " umbilicus ter-
rae," the central boss or navel of the world.
Roads. — There appear to have been but
two main approaches to the city, 1. From
the Jord.an valley by Jericho and the Mount
of Olives. This was the route commonly
taken from the north and east of the country
— as from Galilee by our Lord (Luke xvii.
11, xviii. 35, xix. 1, 29, 45, &c.), from
Damascus by Pompey, to Mahanaim by
David (2 Sam. xv., xvi.). It was also the
route from places in the centr.al districts
of the country, as Samaria (2 Chr. xxviii.
15) . The latter part of the approach, over
the Mount of Olives, as generally fol
lowed at the present day, is identical with
what it was, at least in one memorable
instance, in the time of Christ. 2. From
the great maritime plain of Philistia and
Sharon. This road led by the two Betli-
horons up to the high ground at Gibeon,
whence it turned south, and came to Jeru-
• salem by Ramah and Gibeah, and over the
ridge north of the city. Topography. —
To convey an idea of the position of Jeru
salem, we may say roughly, that the city
occupies the southern termination of a
table-land, which is cut off from the coun
try round it on its west, south, and east
sides, by ravines more than usually deep
and precipitous. These ravines leave the
level of the table-land, the one on the west
and the other on the north-east of the city,
and fall rapidly until they form a junction
below its south-east corner. The eastern
one — the Valley ofthe Kedron, commonly

called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rung
nearly straight from north to south. But
the western one — the Valley of Hinnom
— runs south for a time, and then takes a
sudden bend to the east until it meets the
Valley of Jehoshaphat, after wliich the two
rush off as one to the D.ead Sea. How
sudden is their descent may be gathered
from the fact, that the level at the point of
junction — about a mile and a quarter from
the starting-point of each — is more than
600 feet below that of the upper plateau
frora whieh they commenced their descent.
Thus, while on the north there is no ma
terial difference between the general level
of the country outside the walls, and that
of the highest parts of the city; on the
other three sides, so steep is the fall of the
ravines, so trench-like their character, and
so close do they keep to the promontory,
at whose feet tliey run, as to leave on the
beholder almost the impression of the ditch
at the foot of a fortress, rather than of val
leys formed by nature. The promontory
thus encircled is itself divided by a longi
tudinal ravine running up it from south to
north, called the valley of the Tyropoeon,
rising gradually from the south like the ex
ternal ones, till at last it arrives at the
level of the upper plateau, and dividing the
central mass into two unequal portions.
Of these two, that on the west is the higher
and more massive on which the city of Jeru
salem now stands, and in fact always stood,
The hill on the east is consider.ably lower
and smaller, so that, to a, spectator from
the south, the city appears to slope sharply
towards the east. Here was the Temple,
and here stands now the great Mohamrae-
daH sanctuary with its mosques and domes.
— The narae of Mount Zion has been ap
plied to the western hill from the time of
Constantine to the present -day ; but not
withstanding it seems certain that up to the
time of the destruction of the city by Titus,
the name was applied exclusively to the
eastern hill, or that on which the Temple
stood. From the passages in 2 Sam. v. 7,
and 1 Chr. xi. 5-8, it is quite clear that
Zion and the city of David were identical,
for it is there said, " David tookthe castle
of Zion, which is the city of David." " And
David dwelt in the castle, therefore they
called it the city of David. And he built
the city round about, even frora Millo
round about, and Joab repaired the rest of
the city." 'There are numberless passages
in which Zion is spoken of as a Holy place
in such terms as are never applied to Jeru
salem, and which can only be understood
as applied to the Holy Temple Mount (Ps.
ii. 6, Ixxxvii. 2, &c.). When from the Old
Testament we turn to the Books of the
Maccabees, we come to some passages
written by persons who certainly were ac
quainted with tJ.e localities, which seem

JERUSALEM

287

JERUSALEM

to fix the site of Zion with a considerable
amount of certainty (1 Mace. iv. 37 and
60, vii. 33). — The eastern hill, called
Mount Moriah in 2 Chron. iii. 1, was,
as already remarked, the site of the Tem
ple. It was situated in the south-west
angle of the area, now known as the
Haram area, and was, as we learn from
Josephus, an exact square of a stadium, or
000 Greek feet, on each side. Attached
to the north-west angle of the Temple was
the Antonia, a town or fortress. North of
the side of the Teraple is the building now
known to Christians as the Mosque of
Omar, but by Moslems called the Dorae
of the Rock. This building is, according
to Mr. Fergusson's theory, the identical
church which Constantine erected over the
rock containing the torab of Christ. Ac
cording to this view the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre, which stands on the western
hill, has no right to its name. The south
ern continuation of the eastern hill was
named Ophel, which gradually came to a
point at the junction of the valleys Tyro
poeon and Jehoshaphat; and the northern
Bezetha, "the New City," first noticed
by Josephus, which was separated from
Moriah by an artificial ditch, and over
looked the valley of Kedron on the E. ;
this hill was enclosed within the walls of
Herod Agrippa. Lastly, Acea lay west
ward of Moriah and northward of Zion,
and formed the "Lower City" in the time
of Josephus. Gates. — The following is a
complete list of those which are named in
the Bible and Josephus, with tho refer
ences to their occurrences : 1. Gate of
Ephraim. 2 Chr. xxv. 23; Neh. viii. 16,
xii. 39. This is probably the same as the,
2. Gate of Benjamin. Jer. xx. 2, xxxvii.
13 ; Zech. xiv. 10. If so, it was 400 cubits
distant fron;' the, 3. Corner gate. 2 Chr.
xxv. 23, xxvi. 9 ; Jer. xxxi. 38 ; Zech. xiv.
10. 4. Gate of Joshua, governor of the
city. 2 K. xxiii. 8. 5. Gate between the
two walls. 2 K. xxv. 4 ; Jer. xxxix. 4.
6. Horse gate, Neh. iii. 38 ; 2 Chr. xxiii..
15 ; Jer, xxxi. 40. 7. Ravine gate {i. e.
opening on ravine of Hinnom). 2 Chr.
xxvi. 9; Neh. ii. 13, 15, iii. 13. 8. Fish
gate. 1 Chr. xxxiii. 14 ; Neh. iii. 1 ; Zeph.
i. 10. 9. Dung gate. Neh. ii. 13, iii. 13.
10. Sheep gate. Neh. iii. 1, 32, xii. 39.
11. East gate. Neh. iii. 29. 12. Miphkad.
Neh. iii. 31. 13. Fountain gate (Siloara?).
Neh. xii. 37. 14. Water gate, Neh. xii.
37, 15. Old gate. Neh. xii, 39, 16, Pris
on giite. Neh. xii. 39. 17. Gate Harsith
(perhaps the Sun ; A. V. East gate). Jer.
xix. 2. 18. First gate. Zech. xiv. 10. 19.
Gate Gennath (gardens). Joseph. B. J. v.
4, § 4. 20. Essenes' gate. Jos. B. J. 4.
§ 2. To these should be added the follow
ing, gates of the Temple : Gate Sur. 2
K. xi. 6. Called also' Gate of foundation.

2 Chr. xxiii. 5. Gate of the guard, or be
hind the guard. 2 K. xi. 6, 19. Called the
High gate. 2 Chr. xxiii. 20, xxvii. 3; 2
K. XV. 35. Gate Shallecheth. 1 Chr. xxvi.
16. Walls. — These are described by Jose
phus. 'The first or old wall began on th&
north at the tower called Hippicus, the
ruins now called Kasr Jalud at the N. W.
angle of the present city, and, extending
to the Xystus, joined the council house,
and ended at the west cloister of t)-.e Tem
ple. Its southern direction is described as
passing the gate of the Essenes (probably
the modern Jaffa gate), and, bending above
the fountain of Siloara, it reached Ophel,
and was joined to the eastern cloister of
the Teraple. The second wall began at the
gate Gennath, in the old wall, probably
near the Hippicus, and passed round tho
northern quarter of the city, enclosing the
great valley of the Tyropoeon, which leads
up to the Damascus gate ; and then, pro
ceeding southward, joined the fortress An
tonia. The direction of this second wall
was identical with that of the modern wall ;
and some part at leiist of the northern por
tion of the western part of the Haram area
is probably built on its site. The third
wall was built by King Herod Agrippa, and
was intended to enclose the suburbs which
had grown out on the northern sides of the
city, which before this had been left ex
posed. It began at the Hippicus, and
reached as far as the tower Psephinus,
till it came opposite the monument of
Queen Helena of Adiabene ; it then passed
by the sepulchral monuments of the kings
— a well-known locality — and turning
south at the monument of the Fuller, joined
the old wall at the valley called the valley
of Kedron. After describing these walls,
Josephus adds that the whole circumfer
ence of the city was 33 stadia, or nearly
¦four English miles, wliich is as near as
may be the extent indicated by the locali
ties. He then adds that the number of
towers in the old wall was 60, the middle
wall 40, and the new wall 99. Pools and
Fountains. — Among the objects of interest
about Jerusalem the pools hold a conspicu
ous place. Outside the walls on the W.
side were the Upper and Lower Pools of
Gihon, the latter close under Zion, the
former more to the N. W. on the Jaffa
road. At the junction of the valleys of
Hinnom and Jehoshaphat was Eneogel,
the Well of .Job, in the midst of the king's
gardens. Within the walls, imraediately
N. of Zion, was the " Pool of Hezekiah."
A large pool existing beneath the Temple
(referred to in Ecclus. i. 3), was probably
supplied by some subterranean aqueduct.
The " King's Pool " was probably identical
with the Fountain of the Virgin, at the
southern angle of Moriah. It possesses the
peculiarity that it rises and falls at irregu-

JERUSALEM

288

JERUSALEM

lar periods; itis supposed to be fed from
the bistern below the Temple. From this
a subterranean channel cut through the
solid rock le.ads the water to the pool of
SiLOAH or Siloam, which has also acquired
the character of being an intermittent foun
tain. The pool to which tradition has as
signed the narae of Bethesda is situated
on the N, side of Moriah : it is now named
Birket Israil. Burial-grounds. — The
main cemetery of the city seems from an
early date to hjive been where it is still —
on the steep slopes of the valley of the
Kedron. The tombs of the kings were in
the city of David, that is. Mount Zion.
The royal sepulchres were probably cham
bers containing separate recesses for the
successive kings. Other spots also were
used for burial. Gardens. — The king's
gardens of David and Solomon seem to
liiive been in the bottom formed by the
confluence ofthe Kedron and Hinnom (Neh,
iii. 15). The Mount of Olives, as its naraia
and those of various places upon it seem
to imply, was a fruitful spot. At its foot
was situated the Garden of Gethseraane.
At the tirae of the final siege the space
north of the wall of Agrippa was covered
with gardens, groves, and pl.antations of
fruit-trees, enclosed by hedges and walls ;
and to level these was one of Titus's first
operiitions. We know that the gate Gennath
{i. e. "of gardens ") opened on this side of
the city. Streets, Houses, S;c.—_Ot the
nature of these in the ancient city we have
only the most scattered notices. The
'¦ East street" (2 Chr. xxix. 4) ; the " street
of the city " — i. e. the city of David
(xxxii. 6) ; the " street facing the • water
gate" (Neh. viii. 1,3) — or, according to
the parallel account in 1 Esdr. ix. 38, the
" broad place of the Temple towards the
East; " the " street of the house of God"
(Ezr. X. 9); the "street ofthe gate of
Ephraim" (Neh. viii. 16); and the "open
place of the first gate towards the East "
must have been not " streets " in our sense
of the word, so much as the open spaces
found in eastern towns round the inside of
the gates. Streets, properly so called, there
were (Jer. v. 1, xi. 13, &c.), but the name
cf only one, " the bakers' street " (Jer.
xxxvii. 21), is preserved to us. To the
houses we have even less clow ; but there
is no reason to suppose that in either
houses or streets the ancient Jerusalem
differed very materially frora the modern.
No doubt tho ancient city did not exhibit
that air of mouldering dilapidation which
is now so prominent there. The whole
of the slopes south of the Haram area
(the ancient Ophel), and the modern Zion,
and the west side of the valley of Jehosha
phat, present the appearance of gigantic
mounds of rubbish. In this point at least
the ancient city stood in favorable contrast

with the modern, but in many others the
resemblance raust have been strong. Pop
ulation.- TaMng the area of the city en
closed by the two old walls at 750,000 yards,
and that enclosed by the wall of Agrippa at
1,500,000, we have 2,250,000 yards for the
whole. 'Taking the population of the old
city at the probable nuraber of one pei son
to 50 yards we have 15,000, and at the ex
treme limit of 30 yards we should have
25,000 inhabitants for the old city. And at
100 yards to each individual in the new city
about 15,000 more; so that the population
of Jerusalem, in its days of greatest pros
perity, may have amounted to from 30,000
to 45,000 souls, but could hardly ever have
reached 50,000 ; and assuming that in tiraes
of festival one half were added to tliis
amount, which is an extreme estimate,
there may have been 60,000 or 70,000 in
the city when Titus came up against it.
Environs of the City. — The various spots in
the neighborhood of the city are described
under their own names, and to thera the
reader is accordingly referred. II. The
Annals of the Citt. In considering the
annals of the city of Jerusalem, nothing
strikes one so forcibly as the number
and severity of the sieges which it un
derwent, y^e catch our earliest glimpse
of it in the brief notice of the 1st
chapter of Judges, which describes how
the " children of Judah smote it with
tho edge of the sword, and set the city on
fire ; " and almost the latest mention of it
in the New Testament is contained in the
solemn warnings in which Christ foretold
how Jerusalem should be " compassed with
armies " (Luke xxi. 20), and the " abom
ination of desolation " be seen standing in
the Holy Place (Matt, xxiv; 15), In the
fifteen centuries which elapsed between
those two points the city was' besieged no
fewer than seventeen tiraes ; twice it was
razed to the ground; and on two other
occasions its walls were levelled. In this
respect it stands without a parallel in any
city, ancient or modern. The first siege
appears to have taken place almost imme
diately after the death of Joshua (cir. 1400
B. c). Judah and Simeon " fought again:- 1
it and took it, and smote it with the edge of
the sword, and set the city on fire" (Judg.
i. 8), To this brief. notice Josephus makes
a material addition. He tells us tl.at the
part which was taken at last, and in which
the slaughter was made, was the lower city ;
but that the upper city was so strong, that
they relinquished the attempt and moved
off to Hebron. As long as the upper (dly
remained in the hands of the Jebusites Ihey
practically had possession of the whole, and
a Jebusite city in fact it remained for a long
period after this. The Benjamites followed
the men of Judah to-Jerusalem, but with no
better result (Judg. i. 21). And this lasted

JERUSALEM

289

JERUSALEM

during the whole period of the Judges, the
reign of S.aul, and the reign of David at
Hebron. David advanced against the place
at the head of a, formidable array. No
doubt he approached the city from the
south. As before, the lower city was im
mediately taken — and as before, tha cita
del held out. The undaunted Jebusites,
believing in the impregnability of their for
tress, manned the battlements "with lame
and blind." But they little understood the
temper of the king or of those he command
ed. David's anger was thoroughly roused
by the insult, and he at once proclaimed to
Ills host that the first, man who would scale
the rocky side of the fortress and kill a
Jebusite should be made chief captain ofthe
host. A crowd of warriors rushed forward
to the attempt, but Joab's superior agility
gained him the day, and the citadel, the
fastness of Zion, was taken (1046 b. c). It
is the first time that that memorable narae
appears in history. The fortress, which
now became the capital of the kingdom, re
ceived the name of "the city of David; "
and David fortified its whole circuit round
about from Millo, while Joab repaired the
rest ofthe city, (2 Sam, v. 6-9 ; 1 Chr, xi,
4-8,) Until the time of Solomon we hear
of no additions to the city. His three great
works were the Temple, with its east wall
and cloister, his own Palace, and the Wall
of Jerusalera. One of the first acts of the
new king was to make the walls larger.
But on the completion of the 'Temple he
again turned his attention to the walls, and
both increased their height and constructed
very large towers along thera. Another
work of his in Jerusalem was the repair or
fortification of Millo (1 K. ix. 15, 24), The
city was taken by the Philistines and Arabi
ans in the reign of Jehoram (b, c. 886), and
by the Israelites in the reign of Araaziah (b.
c. 826). It was thrice taken by Nebuchadnez
zar, in the years b. c. 007, 597, and 586, in the
last of which it wiis utterly destroyed. Its
restoration commenced under Cyrus (b, o.
538), and was completed under Artaxerxes
I,, who'issued commissions for this purpose
to Ezra (b. o. 457) and Nehemiah (b. c.
445), In B. c. 332 it was captured by Al
exander the Great. Under the Ptolemies
and the Seleucidae the town was prosper
ous, until Antiochus Epiphanes sacked it
(b. c. 170). In consequence of his tyran
ny, the Jews rose under the Maccabees,
and Jerusalem became agiiin independent,
and retained its position until its capture by
the Romans under Pompey (b. c. 63). The
Temple was subsequently plundered by
Crassus (b. c. 54), and the city by the Par
thians (b. c. 40). Herod took up his resi
dence there as soon as he was appointed
sovereign, and restored the Temple with
great magnificence. On the death of Herod
it became the residence of the Roman proc-
19

urators, who occupied the fortress cf An
tonia. The greatest siege that it sustained,
however, was at the hands of the Romans
under Titus, when it held out nearly five
months, and when the town was completely
destroyed (a. d. 70). Hadrian restored it
as a Roman colony (a. d. 136), and among
other buildings erected a temple of Jiipittfr
Capitolinus on the site ofthe Temple. He
gave to it the narae of Aelia Ciipitolina,
thus combining his own faraily name with
that of the Capitoline Jupiter. The em
peror Constantine established the Christian
character by the erection of a church on
the supposed site of the holy sepulchre
(a. d. 336). Of the buildings which Con
stantine or his mother, Helena, erected,
Mr. Fergusson maintains that two of thtm
now remain, — the one the Anastasis, a
circular building erected over the torab it
self; the other the "Golden Gateway,"
which was the propylea described by Euse
bius as leading to the atrium of the basilica.

Interior of Golden Gateway. (From a photograph.^
Justinian added several churches and hos
pitals (about A. D. 532). Itwas taken by
the Persiiins under Chosroes II. in a. d.
614. After a struggle of fourteen ye.ars the
imperiiil arms were again victorious, and
in 628 Heraclius entered Jerusiilem on foot.
The dominion of the Christiiius in the Holy
City was now rapidly drawing to a close.
In A. B. 637 the patriiirch Sophronius sur
rendered to the Khalif Omar in person.
AVitli the fall of the Abassides the Holy
City passed into the hands of the Fati-
mite dynasty, under whom the sufferings of
the Christians in Jerusalem reached their
height. About the year 1084 it was be
stowed upon Ortok, chief of a Turkman
horde under his command. From this
tirae till 1091 Ortok was emir of the city,
and on his death it was Jield as a kind d£
fief by his sons Ilghazy and Bukmdn, whose
severity to the Christiana became the proxi-

JERUSHA

290

JESSE

mate cause of the Crusades. Jt was taken
by the Crusaders in 1099, and for eighty-
eight years Jerusalem remained in the
hands ofthe Christians. In 1187 itwas re
taken by Saladin after a siege of several
weeks. In 1277 Jerusalem was nominally
annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 1517
it 'passed under the sway of the Ottoman
Sultan Selim I., whose successor Suliraan
built the present walls of the city in 1542.
Moharamed Al'y, the Pasha of Egypt, took
possession of it in 1832 ; and in 1840, after
the bombardraent of Acre, it was again re
stored to the Sultan.
Jeru'sha, daughter of Zadok, and queen
of Uzziah (2 K. xv. 33).
Jeru'shah (2 Chr. xxvii. 1). The same
as the preceding.
Jesai'ah. 1. Son of Hananiah, brother
of Pelatiah, and grandson of Zerubbabel (1
Chr. iii. 21). 2. A Benjamite (Neh. xi. 7).
Jeshai'ah. 1. One of the six sons of
Jeduthun (1 Cbr. xxv. 3, 15). 2. A Le
vite in the reign of David, eldest son of Re-
iiabiah, a descendant of Araram through
Moses (1 Chr. xxvi. 25). [Isshiah.] 3.
The son of Athaliah, and chief of the house
of the Bene-Elara who returned with Ezra
(Ezr. viii. 7). [Josias.] 4. A Merarite
who returned with Ezra (Ezr, viii. 19).
Jesh'anah, a town which, with its de
pendent villages, was one of the three taken
from Jerobo.am by Abijah (2 Chr. xiii, 19),
Jeshar'elah, son of Asaph, and head
of the seventh of the 24 wards into which
the musicians of the Levites were divided
(1 Chr. xxv, 14). [ASARELAH,]
Jesheb'eab, head ofthe 14th course of
priests (1 Chr. xxiv, 13), [Jehoiarib.]
Je'sher, one of the sons of Caleb the
son of Hezron by his wife Azubah (1 Chr.
ii. 18).
Jesh'imon, "the waste," a name which
occurs in Num. xxi. 20, and xxiii. 28, in
designating the position of Pisgah and Peor ;
both described as "facing the Jeshimon."
Perhaps the dreary, barren waste of liills
lying immediately on the west of the Dead
Sea. Jeshish'ai, one of the ancestors of the
Gadites who dwelt in Gilead (1 Chr. v. 14).
Jeshohai'ah, a chief of the Simeon
ites, descended from Shimei (1 Chr. iv. 36).
Jesh'ua (another form of the name
Joshua or Jesus). 1. Joshua, the son of
'JNun (Neh. viii. 17), [Joshua.] 2. A
priest in the reign of David, to whom the
ninth course fell by lot (IChr, xxiv. 11).
3. One of the Levites in the reign of Heze
kiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 15). 4. Son of Jehoza
dak, flrst high-priest of the third series,
viz., of those after the Babylonish captivity,
and ancestor of the fourteen high-priests
his successors -down to Joshua or Jason,
and Onias or Menelaus, inclusive. [High-
PBIEST.] Jeshuai. like his contemporary

Zerubbabel, was probably born in Babylon,
whither his father Jehozadak had been ta
ken captive while young (1 Chr. yi. 15,
A v.). He came up from Babylon in the
first year of Cyrus with Zerubbabel, and
took a leading part with him in the rebuild
ing of the Temple, and the restoration of
the Jewish commonwealth. The two proph
ecies concerning him in Zech. iii. and vi.
9-15 point him out as an eminent type of
Christ. 5. Head of a Levitical house, one
of those which returned from the Babylo
nish captivity, and took an active part -un
der Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. The
name is used to designate either tho whole
family or the successive chiefs of it (Ezr.
ii. 40, iii. 9 ; Neh. iii. 19, viii. 7, ix. 4, 5,
xii. 8, &c.). 0. A branch ofthe family of
Pahath-Moab, one of the chief families,
probably, of the tribe of Judah (Neh. x.
14, vii. 11, &c. ; Ezr. x. 30).
Jesh'ua, one of the towns re-inhabited
by the people of Jud.ah after the return
from captivity (Neh. xi. 26). It is not
mentioned elsewhere.
Jesh'uah, a priest in the reign of Da
vid (1 Chr. xxiv. 11), the same as Jeshua,
No. 2.
Jesh'uirun, and once by mistake in
A. V. Jes'umn (Is. xliv. 2), a symboli
cal name for Israel in Deut. xxxii. 15,
xxxiii. 5, 26; Is. xliv. 2. It is most prob
ably derived from a root signifying " to be
blessed." With the intensive termination
Jeshurun would then denote Israel as su
premely happy or prosperous, and to this
signification the context in Deut. xxxii. 15
points. Jesi'ah. 1. A Korhite, one of the migh
ty men who joined David's standard at Zik
lag (1 Chr. xii. 6). 2. The second son of
Uzziel, the son of Kohath (1 Chr. xxiii. 20).'
[Jeshiah.] Jesim'iel, a Simeonite chief of the fam
ily of Shimei (1 Chr. iv. 36).
Jes'se, the father of David, was the son
of Obed, who again was the frurt of the
union of Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth.
Nor was Ruth's tho only foreign blood that
ran in his veins ; for his great-grandmother
was no less a person than Rahiib the Ca
naanite, of Jericho (Matt. i. 5). Jefse's
genealogy is twice given in full in the O. T.,
viz. Ruth iv. 18-22, and 1 Chr. ii. 5-12.
He is commonly designated as "Jesse the
Bethlehemite " (1 Sam. xri, 1, 18). So he
is called by his son David, then fresh from
home (xvii. 58) ; but his full title is " the
Ephrathite of Bethlehem Judah" (xvii. 12).
He is an " old man " when we first meet
with him (1 Sara, xvii. 12), with eight sons
(xvi. 10, xvii. 12), residing at Bethlehem
(xvi. 4, 5). Jesse's wealth seems to have
consisted of a flock of sheep and goats,
which were under the care of David (xvii!
11, xvii. 84, 35). AVhcn David's ruptura-

TIME ©FCHBISI^
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JESUI

291

JESUS CHRIST

with Saul had finally driven him -from the
court and he was in the cave of Adullam,
" his brethren and all his father's house "
joined him (xxii. 1). Anxious for their
safety, he took his father and his mother
into the country of Moab, and deposited
them with' the king, and there they disap
pear frora our view in the records of Scrip
ture. Who the wife of Jesse was we are
not told. His eight ^ons will be found dis
played under David.
Jes'ui, the son of Asher, whose descend
ants the Jeshites were numbered in the
plains of Moab at the Jordan of Jericho
(Num. xxvi. 44). He is elsewhere called
Isui (Gen. xlvi. 17) and Ishuai (1 Chr,
vii, 30).
Jes'uites, The. A famUy of the tribe
of Asher (Num. xxvi. 44).
Jes'urun. [Jeshurun.]
Je'sus. 1. The Greek form ofthe name
Joshua or Jeshua, a contraction of Jehosh-
ua, that is, " help of Jeliovah " or " Sa
viour" (Num. xiii. 16). 2. Joshua, son
of Nun (vii. 45; Heb. iv. 8). [Jehoshua.]
Jesus the Son of Sirach is described
in the text of Ecclesiasticus (i. 27) as the
author of that book, which in the LXX.,
and generally, except in the Western
Church, is called by his narae the Wisdom
of Jesus the Sen of Sirach, or simply the
Wisdom of Sirach. [Ecclesiasticus.]
Je'sus, called Justus, a Christian who
was with St. Paul at Rome (Col, iv, 11).
Je'sus Christ, I, Name, The
namo Jesus signifies Saviour. The narae
of Christ signifies Anointed. Priests were
anointed among the Jews, as their inaugura
tion to their office (1 Chr. xvi. 22; Ps.
cv. 15), and kings also (2 Mace. i. 24;
Ecclus. xlvi. 19.) In the New Testament
the name Christ is used as equivalent to
Messiah (.John i. 41), the name given to
the long-promised Prophet and King whom
the Jews had been taught by their prophets
to expect (Acts xix. 4; Matt. xi. 3). The
use of this name, as applied to the Lord,
has always a reference to the promises of
the Prophets. The name of Jesus is the
proper name of our Lord, and that of Christ
is .added to identify Him with the promised
3Iessiah. II. Birth and Early Life.
According to the received chronology,
which is in fact that of Dionysius Exigiius
in the 6th century, the Birth of Christ oc--
curred in the year of Rome 754 (a. d. 1) ;
but frora other considerations it is probable
that the Nativity took place some time be
fore the month of April, 750 {£S. 4), and
if it happened only a few months before
Herod's death, tlien Its date would be four
years earlier than tho Dionysian reckoning.
The salutation addressed by the Angel to
Mary His mother, "Hail! thou that art
highly favored," was thf: prelude to a new
act it di'ino creation. Mary received the

announcement of a rairacle, the full import
of which she could not have understood,
with the submission of one who knew that
the message carae from God; and the
Angel departed from her. 'The prophet
Micah had foretold (v. 2). that the future
king should be born in Bethlehem of Ju
daea, the place where the house of David
had its origin ; but Mary dwelt in Nazareth.
Augustus, however, had ordered a gentiral
census of the Roman empire. Frora the
well-known passage of St. Luke (ii. 2) it
appears that the taxing was not completed
till the time of Quirinus (Cyrenius), some
years later; and how far it was carried
now, cannot be determined : all that we
learn is, that it brought Joseph, who was
of the house of David, from his home to
Bethlehem, where the Lord was born. As
there was no room in the inn, a manger was
the cradle in which Christ the Lord was
laid. But signs were not wanting of the
greatness of the event that seemed so un
important. Lowly shepherds were the wit
nesses of the wonder that accompanied the
lowly Saviour's birth ; an angel proclaimed
to them "good tidings of great joy; " and
then the exceeding joy that was in heaven
amongst the angels about this mystery of
love broke through the silence of night with
the words, " Glory to God in the highest,
and on earth peace, good will toward men "
(Luke ii. 8-20). The child Jesiis is cir
cumcised in due time, is brought to the
Temple, and the mother makes the offering
for her purification, Simeon and Anna,
taught frora God that the object of their
earnest longings was before them, prophe
sied of His divine work: the one rejoicing
that his eyes had seen the salvation of God,
and the other speaking of Him " to all
that looked for redemption in Jerusalem "
(Luke ii, 28-38) . Thus recognized amongst
His own people, the Saviour was not with
out witness amongst the heathen. " Wise
men from the East " — that is, Persi.an
magi ofthe Zend religion, in which the idea
of a Zoziosh or Reedemer was clearly
known — guided miraculously by a star or
meteor created for the purpose, came and
sought out the Saviour to pay him homage.
A little child made the great Herod quake
upon his throne. When he knew that the
magi were come to hail their king and
Lord, and did not stop at his palace, but
passed ou to a humbler roof, and when he
found that they would not return to betray
this child to hira, he put to death all the
children in Bethlehem that were under two
years old. Joseph, warned by a dream,
flees to Eg;^t with the young child, beyond
the reach of Herod's arm. After the death
of Herod, in less than ayear, Jesus return
ed with his parents to their" own land, and
went to Nazareth, where they abode. Ex
cept as to one event, the Evangel'sts ar«

JESUS CHRIST

292

JESUS CHRIST

silent upon the succeeding years of our
Lord's life down to the commencement of
His ministry. When He was twelve years
old He was found in the Temple, hearing
tbe doctors and asking them questions
(Luke ii. 40-52). We are shown this one
fact that we may know that at the time
when the Jews considered childhood to
be passing into youth, Jesus was already
aware of His mission, and consciously pre
paring for it, although years passed before
its actual commencement. Thirty years
had elapsed frora the birth of our Lord to
the opening of His ministry. In that time
great changes had come over the chosen
people. Herod the Great had united under
him alraost all the original kingdom of Da
vid ; after the death of that prince it was
dismembered forever. It was in the fif
teenth year of Tiberius the Emperor, reck
oning from his joint rule with Augustus
(Jan. u. c. 765, A. D. 12), and not from his
sole rule (Aug. u. o. 767, a. d. 14), that
John the Baptist began to teach. He was
the last representative of the prophets of
the old covenant ; and his work was two
fold — to enforce repentance and the ter
rors of the old law, and to revive the al
most forgotten expectation of the Messiah
(Matt. iii. 1-10 ; Mark i. 1-8 ; Luke iii. 1-
18). The career of John seems to have
been very short. Jesus came to Jordan
with the rest to receive baptism at John's
hands : first, in order that the sacrament
by which all were hereafter to be admitted
into His kingdom- might not want His ex
ample to justify its use (Matt. iii. 15) ;
next, that John miglit have an assurance
that liis course as the herald of Christ was
now completed by his appearance (John i.
33) ; and last, that some public token might
be given that He was indeed the Anointed
of God (Heb. v. 5). Immediately after
this inauguration of His ministry Jesus was
led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to
be tempted ofthe devil (Matt. iv. 1-11;
Mark i. 12, 13 ;- Luke iv. 1-13). The three
temptations are addressed to the three
forms in which the disease of sin makes its
appearance on the soul — to the solace of
sense, and the love of praise, aud the de
sire of gain (1 John ii. 16), III, The
Lord's Ministry. Before entering upon
the history of our Lord's ministry, there
are two points that demand a few remarks :
(i.) the scene ofthe ministry; (ii.) its
duration, (i.) The scene df the ministry, r-
As to the scene of the ministry of Christ,
¦ BO less than as to its duration, the three
Evangelists seem at first sight to be at vari
ance with the fourth. Matthew,^ark, and
Luke record only our Lord's dftings in Gal
ilee ; if we put aside a few days before the
Passion, we find that they never mention
His visiting Jerusalem. John, on the other
hand, whilst he iccords some acts in Gali

lee, flevotes the chief part of ais Gospel
to the transactions in Judaea. JBut when
the supplemental character of John s Gos
pel is borne in mind there is httle difficulty
in explaining this. The three Evangelists
do not profess to give a chronology of the
ministry, but rather a picture of it : notes
of time are not frequent in their narrative.
And as they chiefly confined themselves to
Galilee, where the Redeemer's chief acts
were done, they might naturally omit to
mention the feasts, which, being passed by
our Lord at Jerusalem, added nothing to
the materials for His Giililcan ministry.
(ii.) Duration of the ministry. — It is im
possible to determine exactly from the Gos
pels the number of years during which the
Redeemer exercised His ministry before
the Passion : but the doubt lies between two
and three. The data are to be drawn from
St. John. This Evangelist mentions six
feasts, at five of which Jesus was present;
the Passover that followed His baptism (ii.
13) ; " a feast of the Jews " (v. 1) ; a Pass
over during which Jesus remained in Gal
ilee (vi. 4) ; the feast of Tabernacles to
which the Lord went up privately (vii.
2) ; the feast of Dedication (x. 22) ; and
lastly the feast of Passover, at which he
suffered (xii., xiii.). There are certain
ly three Passovers, and it is possible that
" a feast" (v. 1) may be a fourth. Upon
this possibility the question turns. But if
this feast is not a Passover, then no Pass
over is mentioned by John between tlie
first (ii. 13), and that which is spoken of
in the sixth chapter ; and the time between
those two must be assumed to be a single
year only. Now, although the record of
John of this period contains but few facts,
yet when all the Evangelists are compared,
the amount of labor compressed into tliis
single year would be too much for its com
pass. It is, to say the least, easier to sup
pose that the "feast" (John v. 1) was a
Passover, dividing the time into two, and
throwing two of these circuits into the sec
ond year of the ministry. Upon tho whole,
though there is nothing that amounts to
proof, it is probable that there were four
Passovers, and consequently that our Lord's
ministry lasted somewhat more than three
years, the "beginning of miracles" (John
ii.)- having been wrought before the first
Passover. 1. First year of the ministry. -
The year of the first of these Passovers
was u. c. 780 (a. d. 27), and the Baptism
of our Lord took place cither in the be
ginning of that year or the end of the
year preceding. Our Lord has now passed
through the ordeal of temptation, and
His ministry is begun. At Bethabara, to
which He returns, disciples begin to be •
drawn towards Hira; Andrew and anoth
er, probably John, the ^ sole narrator of
the fact, see Jesus, and hear the Baptist'!

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testimtmy concerning Him. Andrew brings
Simon Peter to see Him also ; and he re
ceives from the Lord the name of Cephas.
Then Philip and Nathanael are brought
into contact with our Lord. The two dis
ciples last nsimed saw Him as He was about
to s( t out for Galilee, on the third day of
His sojourn at Bethabara, The third day
after this interview Jesus is at Cana in
Galilee, and works. His first miracle, by
making the water wine (John i. 29, 35, 43 ;
ii. 1). He now betakes Himself to Caper
naum, and after a sojourn there of " not
many d.iys," sets out for Jerusalera lo the
Passover, which was to be the beginning
of His ministry in Judaea (John ii. 12, 13).
The. cleansing of the Temple is associated
by St. John with this first Passover (ii. 12-
22), and a similar cleansing is assigned to
the last Passover by the other Evangelists.
These two cannot be confounded without
throwing discredit on the historical charac
ter of one narrative or the other ; the notes
of time are too precise. The expulsion of
the traders was not likely to produce a per-
raanent effect, and at the end of three years
Jesus found the tumult and the traffic de
filing the court of the Temple as they had
done when He visited it before. The visit
of Nicoderaus to Jesus took place about the
first Passover. It iraplies that our Lord
had done more at Jerusalem than is record
ed of Hira even by John ; since we have
here a Master of Israel (John iii. .10), a
member of the Sanhedrim (John vii. 50)
expressing his belief in Him, although too
timid at this time to make an open profes
sion. The object of the visit, though not
directly stated, is still clear : he was one of
the better Pharisees, who were expecting
the kingdom of Messiah, aud having seen
the miracles that Jesus did, he came to in
quire more fully about these signs of its
approach. It has been well said that this
discourse contains the whole Gospel in
epitome. After a sojourn at Jerusalera of
uncertain duration, Jesus went to the Jor
dan with His disciples ; aud they there biip-
tized in His n.ame. The Baptist was now
at Aenon near Salim ; and the jealousy of
his disciples against Jesus drew from John
an avowal of his position, which is remark
able for its humility (John iii. 27-30). How
long this sojourn in Judaea lasted is un
certain. In the way to Galileo Jesus passed
by the shortest route, through Samaria.
In the tirae of our Lord the Samaritans
were hated by the Jews even more than if
they had been Gentiles. Yet even in Sa
maria were souls to be saved ; and Jesus
would not shiike off even that dust from
His feet. He came in His journey to
Siehem, which the Jews in mockery had
changed to Sychar. Wearied and athirst
He sat on the side of Jacob's well. A wo-
ttiia from the neighboring town came to

draw from the well, and was astonished that
a Jew should address her as a neighbor,
with a request for water. The conversation
that ensued raight be taken for an example
of the mode in which Christ leads to Him
self the souls of men. In this reraarkable
dialogue are raany tilings to ponder over.
The living water which Christ would give ;
the announceraent of a change in the wtu'-
ship of Jew and Samaritan; lastly, the
confession that He who speaks is truly the
Messiah, are all noteworthy. Jesus now
returned to Galileo, and carae to Nazareth,
His own city. In the Synagogue He ex
pounded to the people a passage frora Isaiah
(Ixi. 1), telling them that its fulfilment was
now at hand in His person. I'he same
truth that had filled the Samaritans with
gratitude, wrought up to fury the men of
Nazareth, who would have destroyed Him
if He had not escaped out of their hands
(Luke iv. 16-30). He came now to Caper
naum. On his way hither, when He had
reached Cana, He healed the son of one of
the courtiers of Herod Antipas (John iv.
46-54), who "himself believed, and his
whole house." This was the second Gali
lean miracle. At Capernaum He wrought
many miracles for them that needed. Here
two disciples who had known him before,
namely, Simon Peter and Andrew, wore
called from their fishing to become " fishers
of men" (Matt. iv. 19), and the two eons of
Zebedee received the same sumraons. After
healing on the Sabbath a deraoniac in the
Synagogue, He returned the sarae day to
Simon's house, and healed the mother-in-
law of Simon, who was sick of a fever. At
sunset, the multitude, now fully aroused by
what they had heard, brought their sick to
Simon's door to get them healed. Ho did
not refuse His succor, and healed thera all
(Mark i. 29-34). He now, after showering
down on Capernaum so many cures, turned
His thoughts to the rest of Galilee, where
other "lost sheep" were scattered: "Let
us go into the next towns that I may preac h
there also, for therefore came I forth "
(Mark i. 38). The journey through Galilee,
on which He now entered, must have been a
general circuit of that country. 2. Second
year of the ministry. — Jesus went up to
Jerusalem to "a feast of the Jews," which
was probably the Passover. At the poo,'
Bethesda (= house of mercy), which was
near the sheep-gate (Neh. iii. 1) on the
north-east side of the Teraple, Jesus saw
raany infirm persons waiting their turn for
the healing virtues of the water (John v. 1-
18). Among thera was a man who had an
infirmity, thirty-eight years : Jesus made
him whole by a word, bidding him t,ake up
his bed and walk. The miracle was done
on the Sabbath; and the Jews, who acted
against Jesus, rebuked the raan for carry ing
his bed. Itwas a labor, and as such for-

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biddon (Jer. xvii. 21). In our Lord's jus
tification of Himself, "My Father worketh
hitherto, and I work" (John v.' 17), there
is an unequivocal claim to the divine na
ture. Another discussion about the Sab
bath arose from the disciples plucking the
ears of corn as they went through the fields
(Matt. xii. 1-8). The time of this is some
what uncertain ; some would place it a year
later, just after the third Passover : but its
place is much' more probably here. Our
Lord quotes cases where the law is super
seded or set aside, because He is One who
has power to do the same. And the rise
of a new law is implied in those words which
St Mark alone has recorded: "The Sab
bat.: was made for man, and not man for
the Sabbath." The law upon the Sabb.ath
was made in love to men, to preserve for
them a due measure of rest, to keep room
for the worship of God. The Son of Man
has power to re-adjust this law, if its work
is done, or if men are fit to receive a high
er. This may have taken place on the way
to Jerusalem after the Passover. On an
other Sabbath, probably at Capernaum, to
which Jesus had returned, the Pharisees
gave a far more striking proof of the way in
which their hard and narrow and unloving
interpretation would turn the beneficence
of the Law into a blighting oppression. Our
Lord entered into the synagogue, and found
there a man with a withered hand — some
poor artisan perhaps whose handiwork was
his means of life. Jesus was about to heal
him — which would gi^e back life to the
sufferer — which would give joy to every
beholder who had one touch of pity in his
heart. The Pharisees interfere : " Is it
lawful to heal on the Sabbath-day ? " Their
doctors would have allowed them to pull a
sheep out of a pit ; but they will not have
a man rescued from the depth of misery.
Rarely is that loving Teacher wroth, but
here His anger, mixed with grief, showed
itself: He looked round about upon them
" with anger, being grieved at tho hardness
of their hearts," and answered their cavils
by healing the m.an (Matt, xii, 9-14 ; Mark
iii. 1-6; Luke vi. 6-11), In placing the
ordination or calling of the Twelve Apostles
just before the Sermon on the Mount, we
are under the guidance of St, Luke (vi, 13,
17), But this raore soleran separation for
their work by no means marks the time of
their first approach to Jesus. That which
takes place here is the appointment of
twelve disciples to be a distinct body, under
the name of Apostles, They are not sent
forth to preach until hater in the same year.
The number twelve raust have reference to
the number of the Jewish tribes : it is a
number selected on account of its symbol
ical moaning, for the work confided to them
might have been wrought by raore or fewer.
In the fo ir lists of the naraes of the Apos

tles preserved to us (Matt, x.. Mart iH.,
Luke vi.. Acts i.), thore is a certain ordet
preserved, amidst variations. The two
Piiirs of brothers, Simon and Andrew, and
the sons of Zebedee, are always named the
first- and of these Simon Peter ever holds
the first place. Philip and Bartholomew,
Thomas and Matthew, are always in the
next rank; and of them Philip is always the |
first. In the third rank James the son of
Alpheus is the first, as Judas Iscariot is
always the last, with Simon, the Zealot and
Thaddaeus between. Some of the Apostles
were certainly poor and unlearned men ; it
is probable that the rest were of the siilne
kind. Four of them were fishermen, not
indeed the poorest of their class ; and a fifth
was a " publican," one of the tax-gatherers,
who collected the taxes farmed by Romans
of higher rank. From henceforth the edu
cation of the twelve Apostles will be one
ofthe principal features of the Lord's min
istry. First He instructs them ; then He
takes them with Him as compiinions of His
wayfaring; then He sends them forth to
teach and heal for Him. The Sermon on
ihe Mount, g.lthough it is meant for all the
disciples, seems to have a special reference
to the chosen Twelve (Matt. v. 11). About
this tirae it was that John the Baptist, long
a prisoner with little hope of release, sent
his disciples to Jesus with the question,
" Art thou He that should corae, or do we
look for another?" In all the Gospels
there is no more touching incident. The
great privilege of John's life was that he
was appointed to recognize and bear wit
ness to the Messiah (John i. 31). After
languishing a year in a dungeon, after
learning that even yet Jesus had made no
steps towards the est.ablishaiBnt of His
kingdom of the Jews, and that His follow
ing consisted of only twelve poor Gahleans,
doubts began to cloud over his spirit.
Was the kingdom of Messiah as near
as he had thought? Was Jesus uot
the Messiah, but some forerunner of
that Deliverer, as he himself had been?
There is no unbelief; he does not suppose
that Jesus has deceived ; when the doubts
arise, it is to Jesus that he submits them.
But it was not without great depression and
perplexity that he put the question, " Art
thou He that should come?" Tho scope
of the answer given lies in its recalling
John to the grounds of his former confi
dence. Now coraraences the second circuit
of Galilee (Luke viii. 1-3), to which belong
the parables in Matt. xiii. ; the visit of our
Lord's mother and brethren (Luke viii. 19-
21), and the account of His reception at
Nazareth (Mark vi. 1-6). During this
time the twelve have journeyed with Him.
But now a third circuit in Galilee is record
ed, which probably occurred during tha
last three months of this year (Matt, ix

JESrrS CHLIST

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JESUS CHRIST

SB 38) ; and during this circuit, after re
minding them how great is the harvest and
how pressing the need of laborers, He car
ries uie training of the disciples one step
further by sending them forth by themselves
to teach (Matt, x., xi.). They went forth
two and two ; and our Lord continued His
own circuit (Matt, xi, 1), with what com
panions does not appear. After a journey
of psrhips two months' duration the twelve
returned to Jesus, and gave an account of
their ministry. The third Passover was
now driiwing near ; but the Lord did not go
up to it. He wished to commune with His
Apostles privately upon their work, and,
we may suppose, to add to the instruction
they had already received frora Him (Mark
vi. 30, 31), He therefore went with them
fi-om the neighborhood of Capernaum to a
mountain on the eastern shore of the Sea
of Tiberias, near Bethsaida Julias, not far
from the head of the sea. Great multi
tudes pursued them; and here the Lord
moved to compassion by the hunger and
weariness of the people, wrought for them
one of His most remarkable miracles. Out
of five barley loaves and two small fishes.
He produced food for five thousand men
besides women and children. After the
miracle the disciples crossed the sea, and
Jesus retired alone to a mountain to com
mune -with the Father. They were toiling
at the oar, for the wind was contrary, when,
as the night drew towards morning, they
saw Jesus walking to them on the sea, hav
ing passed the whole night on the moun
tain. They were amazed and terrified. He
carae into the ship and the wind ceased.
When they reached the shore of Gennesa
ret the whole people showed their faith in
-Him as a Healer of disease (Mark vi. 53-
66) ; and He performed very many mira
cles on thera. ' Yet on the next day the
great discourse just alluded to was uttered,
and " from that time many of His disciples
went back, and walked no more with Him "
(John vi. 66). 3. Third year of the m,in-
istry. — Hearing perhaps that Jesus was
not coming to the feast. Scribes and Phari
sees from Jerusalera went down to see Him
at Capernaum (Matt. xv. 1). Leaving the
neighborhood of Capernaum our Lord now
travels to the north-west of Galilee, to the
region of Tyre and Sidon. Tho time is not
strictly determined, but it was probably the
early summer of this year. It does not
appear that He retired into this heathen
country for the purpose of ministering;
more probably it was a retreat frora the
machinations of the Jews (Matt. xv. 21-
28,; Mark vii. 24-30). Returning thence
He passed round by the north.., ot the Sea
of Galilee to the region of Decapolis on its
eastern side (Mark vii. 31-37). Jnthis dis
trict he performed many miracles, and es
pecially the restoration of a deaf man who

had an irapediraent in his speech, remarka
ble for the seeming effort with which He
wrought it. To these succeeded the feed
ing of the four thousand with the seven
loaves (Matt. xv. 82). He now crossed the
Lake of Magdala, where the Pharisees and
Sadducees asked and were refused a "sign."
After they had departed Jesus crossed the
lake with his disciples. At Bethsaida ,Ju-
lias, He restored sight to a blind man ; and
here, as in a former case, the form and
preparation which He adopted are to bo re
marked (Mark viii. 22-26). Tho ministry
in Galilee is now drawing to its, close.
Through the length and breadth of that
country Jesus has proclaimed the kingdom
of Christ, and has shown by mighty works
that Ho is the Christ that was to corae.
Many thousands had actually been benefited
by the miracles ; and yet of all these there
were only twelve that really clave to Hira,
and one of them was Judas the traitor.
With this rejection an epoch of the history
is connected. He begins to unfold now the
doctrine of His passion more fully. The
doctrine of a sufi'ering Messiah, so plainly
exhibited in the prophets, had receded from
sight iu the current religion of that time.
The announcement of it to the disciples
was at once new and shocking. Turning
now to, the whole body of those who fol
lowed Him, He published the Christian
doctrine of self-denial. The Apostles had
just shown that they took the natural view
of suffering, that it was an evil to be shunned.
They shrank from confiict, and pain, and
death, as it is natural men should. But
Jesus teaches that, in comparison with the
higher life, the life of the soul, the life of
the body is valueless (Matt. xvi. 21-28;
Mark viii. 31-38; Luke ix. 22-27). The
Transfiguration, which took place just
a week after this conversation, is to be
understood in connection with it. The
minds of the twelve were greatly disturbed
at what they had heard. Now, if ever,
they needed support for their perplexed
spirits, and this their loving Master failed
not to give them. He takes with Him
three chosen disciples, Peter, John, and
James, who formed as it were a sraaller
circle nearer to Jesus than the rest, into a
high raountain apart by themselves. There
are no means of determining the position
ofthe mountain. The three disciples were
taken up with Him, who should afterwards
be the three witnesses of His agony in the
garden of Gethsemane : those who saw His
glory in the holy mount would be sustained
by the reraerabrance of it when they beheld
His lowest humiliation. Meantime amongst
the multitude below a scene was taking
place which formed the stronj;est contrast
to the glory and the peace which they had
witnessed, and which seemed to justify
Peter's remark, "It is good for us to ba

JESUS CHRIST

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JESUS CHRIST

here." A poor youth, lunatic and pos
sessed by a devil, was brought to the dis
ciples who were not with Jesus, to be
cured. They could not prevail ; and when
Jesus appeared amongst them the agonized
and disappointed father appealed to Him,
with a kind of complaint of the impotence
of the disciples. 'W'hat the disciples had
failed to do, Jesus did at a word. He then
explained to them that their want of faith
in their own power to heal, and in His
promises to bestow the power upon them,
was the cause of their inability (Matt. xvii.
14-21; Mark ix. 14-29; Luke ix. 37-43).
Once more did Jesus foretell His suffer
ings on their way back to Capernaura
(Mark ix. 30-32), Third year, from the
Fsati of Tabernacles. _ — The Feast of Tab
ernacles was now approaching. His breth
ren set out for the feast withdut Hira, and
He abode in Galilee for a few days longer
(John vii. 2-10). Afterwards He set out,
taking the more direct but less frequented
route by Samaria. St. Luke alone records,
in connection with this journey, the send
ing forth of the seventy disciples. This
event is to be regarded in a different light
frora that of the twelve. ¦ The seventy had
received no special education from our
Lord, and their commission was of a tem
porary kind. The number has reference to
the Gentiles, as twelve had to the Jews ;
and the scene of the work, Samaria, re
minds us that this is a raovecaent directed
towards the stranger. After '.^e.aling the
ten lepers in Samaria, He came about the
midst of the feast to Jerusalem. The Phar
isees and rulers sought to take Him ; some
of the people, however, believed in Him,
but concealed their opinion for fear of the
rulers. To this division of opinion we may
attribute the failure of the repeated at
tempts on tbe part of the Sanhedrim to
take One who was openly teaching in the
Temple (John vii. 11-53 : see esp. ver. 30,
32, 44, 45, 46). The officers were partly
afraid to seize in the presence of the peo
ple the favorite Teacher, and partly were
themselves awed and attracted by Him.
The history of the woman taken in adul
tery belongs to this time. To this place
belongs the account, given by John alone,
of the he.aling of one who was born blind,
and the consequences of it (John ix. 1-41,
X. 1-21). The well-known partible of the
good shepherd is, an answer to the calumny
of the Pharisees, that He was an impostor
and breaker of the law : " This raan is not
of God, because he keepeth not the Sab-
bath-diiy" (ix. 16). — We now approach a
difficult jiortion of the sacred history. The
note of time given us by John immediately
afterwards is the Feast of the Dedication,
which was celebrated on the 25th of Kisleu,
answering nearly to December. Accord
ing to this Evangelist our Lord does not

appear to have returned to Galilee between
the Feast of Tabernacles and that of the
Dedication, but to li.ave passed the time in
and near Jerusalem. Matthew and Mark
do not allude to the Feast of Tabernacles.
Luke appears to do so in ix. 51 : but the
words there used would imply that this
was the last journey to Jerusalem. Now
iu St. Luke's Gospel a largo section, from
ix. 51 to xviii. 14, seems to belong to the
time preceding the departure from Galilee;
and the question is. How is this to be ar
ranged, so that it shall harmonize with the
narrative of St. John ? In most Harmonies
a return of our Lord to Galilee has been
assumed, in order to find a place for thi?
part of Luke's Gospel. Perhaps this great
division of Luke (x. 17-xviii. 14) should
be inserted entire between John x. 21 and
22. Some of the most striking parables,
preserved only by Luke, belong to this
period. The parables of the good Samari
tan, the prodigiil son, the unjust steward,
the rich man and Lazarus, and the Pharisee
and publican, all peculiar to this Gospel,
belong to the present section. The in
structive account of Mary and Martha and
the miracle of the tea lepers belong to this
portion of the n.arrative. Besides these,
scattered sayings that occur in St. Matthew
are here repeated in a new connection.
The account of the bringing of young
children to Jesus unites again the three
Evangelists (Matt. xix. 13-15; Mark x.
13-16; Luke xviii. 15-17). On the way
to Jerusalem through Peraea, to the Feast
of Dedication, Jesus again puts before
the minds of the twelve whiit they are
never now to forget — the sufferings that
await Him. They "understood none of
these things," for they could not reconcile
this foreboding of suffering with the signs
and announcements of the coming of His
kingdom (Matt. xx. 17-19 ; Mark x, 32-34;
Luke xviii. 31-34). In consequence of this
new, though dark, intimation of the coming
of the kingdom, Salome, with her two
sons, James and John, came to bespeak
the two places of liighest honor in the
kingdom. Jesus tells thera that they know
not what they ask; that the places of honor
in the kingdom shall be bestowed, not by
Jesus in answer to a cha.ice request, but
upon those for whom they are prepared by
the Father. As sin ever provokes sin, the
ambition of the ten was uow aroused, and
they began to be much displeased w'th
James and John. Jesus once more recalls
the principle fhat the child-like disposition
is that whieh He approves (Matt. xx. 20-28 ;
Mark x. 35-45). The he.aUng of the two
blind men at Jericho is chiefly reraarkable
araong the ^miracles from the difflcvilty
which (Jtas ariseii ¦" \ harmonizing the ac
counts. Matthew speaks of two blind men,
and of the occasion as the departure 'roil

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JESUS CHRIST

/ericho; Mark of one, whom he names,
and of their arrival at Jericho ; and Luke
agrees with him. This point has received
much discussion; but the view of Light-
foot finds favor with many eminent exposi-
lors, that there were two blind men, and
both were healed under similar circum
stances, except that Bartimaeus was on one
lide of the city, and was healed by Jesus
te he entered, and the other was healed on
the other side as they departed (Matt. xx.
29-34; Mark x. 46-52; Luke xviii. 35-43).
The calling of Zacchaeus has more than a
mere personal interest. He was a publi
can, one of a class hated and despised
by the Jews. But he was one who sought
to serve God. From such did Jesus wish
to call His disciples, whether they were
publicans or not (Luke xix. 1-10). We
have reached now the Feast of Dedication ;
but, as has been said, the exact place of the
events in St. Luke about this part of tho
ministry has not been conclusively deter
mined. After being present at the feast,
Jesus returned to Bethabara beyond Jor
dan, where John had formerly baptized,
and .abode there. How long He remained
here does not appear. It was probably for
sorae weeks. 'The sore need of a faraily
in Bethany, who were what men call the
intimate friends of our Lord, called Him
thence. Lazarus was sick, and his sisters
sent word of it to Jesus, whose power they
well knew. It was not till Lazarus had
been four days in the grave that the Saviour
appeared on the scene. But with the power
of God He breaks the fetters of brass in
which Lazarus was held by death, and at
His word the man on whom corruption had
already begun to do its work, came forth
alive and whole (John xi. 1-45). A mir
acle so public, for Bethany was close to
Jerusalem, and the family of Lazarus
well known to many people in the Inother-
clty, could not escape the notice of the
Sanhedrim. A mooting of this Council
was called without loss of time, and the
matter discussed. We now approach the
final stage of the history, and every word
and act tend towards the great act of suf
fering. Each day is marked by its own
events or instructions. Our Lord entered
into Bethany on Friday the 8th of Nisan,
the eve of the Sabbath, and remained over
the Sabbath. — Saturday, the dth of Nisan
{April 1st). As He was at supper in the
house of ono Simon, surnamed " the leper,"
a relation of Lazarus, who was at table
with Him, Mary, full of gratitude for the
wonderful raising of her brother from the
dead, took a vessel containing a quantity
of -pure ointment of spikenard, and anointed
the feet of Jesus, and wiped HMfeet with
her hair, and anointed His head'^tewise.
- Passion Week. Sunday the lum day
of Nisam, {April 2d). When He arrives

at the Mount of Olives He commatics tM'O
of His disciples to go into the village near
at hand, where they would find an ass and
a colt tied with her. With 'Jiese beasts,
impressed as for the service of a king. He
was to enter into Jerusalem. The disciples
spread upon the ass their ragged cloaks for
Him to sit on. Aud t'.e multitudes cried
aloud before Him in t^e words of the 118th
Psalra, "Hosanna, Save now! blessed is
He that cometh iv. the name of the Lord."
All the city was moved. Blind and larae
came to the Temple when He arrived there
and were heriled. After working miracles
in, the Tcaple He returned to Bethany.
The 10th jt Nisan was the day for the sep
aration jf the paschal lamb (Ex. xii. 3).
Jesus, the Lamb of God, entered Jeru
salem and. the Temple on this day, and
although none but He knew that He was
the Paschal Lamb, the coincidence is not
undesigned (Matt. xxi. 1-11,14-17; Mark
xi. 1-11; Luke xix. 29-44; John xii. 12-
19). — Monday ihe llih of Nisan {April
3d. The next day Jesus returned to
Jerusalem, again to take advantage of the
mood of the people to instruct them. On
the way He approached one of the raany
fig-trees which grew in that quarter, and
found that it was full of foliage, but
without fruit. He said, " No raan eat
fruit of thee hereafter forever 1 " and the
fig-tree withered awiiy (Matt, xxi, 18, 19 ;
Mark xi. 12-14). Proceeding now to the
Temple, He cleared its court of the- crowd
of traders that gathered there (Matt. xxi.
12, 13; Markxi. 15-19; Luke xi.x. 45-48).
In the evening he returned again to Beth
any. — Tuesday ihe 12th of Nisan {April
ith). On this the third day of Passion
week Jesus went into Jerusalem as before,
and visited the Temple. The Sanhedrim
carae to Him to call Him to account for
the clearing of the Temple. ' ' By what
authority doest thou these things ? " The
Lord answered this question by another.
They refused to answer, and Jesus refused
in like manner to answer them. To this
time belong tbe parables of the two sons
(Matt. xxi. 23-32 ; Mark xi. 27-33 ; Luke
XX. 1-8), of the wicked husbandman, and
of the wedding garment (Matt. xxi. 33-46,
xxii, 1-14 ; Mark xii. 1-12 ; Luke xx. 9-
19). Another great discourse belongs to
this day, which, more than any other, pre
sents Jesus as the great Prophet of His
people. On leaving the Temple His disci
ples drew attention to the beauty of its
structure, its " goodly stones and gifts,"
their remarks probably arising from the
threats of destruction which had' so lately
been uttered by Jesus. Their Master an
swered that not one stone of the noble pile
should be left upon another. When they
reached the Mount of Olives, the disciples,
or rather the first four (Mark^, speaking

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JESUS CHRIST

iijT the rest, asked Him when this destruc
tion should be accomplished. To under
stand the answer it must be borne in mind
that Jesus warned them that He was not
giving them an historical account such as
would enable them to anticipate the events.
" Of that day and hour knoweth no man,
no, not the angels of heaven, but my Father
only." Exact data of time are to be pur
posely withheld frora thera. Accordingly
two events, analogous in character but
widely sundered by time, are so treated in
the prophecy that it is almost impossible to
disentangle them. The destruction of Je
rusalem and the day of ¦ judgment — the
national and the universal days of account
— are spoken of together or alternately
without hint of the great interval of time
that separates them. The conclusion which
Jesus drew from his own awful warning
was, that they were not to attempt to fix the
date of his return. The lesson of the par
able of the Ten Virgins is the same (Matt.
xxiv. 44, xxv. 13). And the parable ofthe
Talents, here repeated in a modified form,
teaches how precious to souls are the uses
of time (xxv. 14-30). In concluding this
momentous discourse, our Lord puts aside
the destruction of Jerusalem, and displays
to our eyes the picture of the final judg
ment (Matt. xxv. 31-46). With these
weighty words ends the third day. —
Wednesday the 13th of Nisan {April 5th) .
This day was passed in retirement with
the Apostles. Satan had put it into the
mind of one of them to betray Him ; and
Judas Iscariot made a covenant to betray
Him to the chief priests for thirty pieces of
silver (Matt. xxvi. 14-16; Mark xiv. 10,
11 ; Luke xxii. 1-6). — Thursday ihe lith
of Nisan {April Gth). On " the first day
of unleavened bread," the disciples asked
their Master where they were to eat the
Passover. He directed Peter and John to
go into Jerusalera, and to follow a man
whom they should see bearing a pitcher of
water, and to demand of hira, in their Mas
ter's narae, the use of the guest-charaber in
his house for this purpose. All happened
as Jesus had told them, and in the evening
they assembled to celebrate, for the last
time, the paschal meal. The sequence of
the events is not quite clear from a com
parison of the Evangehsts. The order
seems to be as follows. When they had
taken their places at table and the supper
had begun, Jesus gave them the first cup
to divide amongst themselves (Luke). It
Was customary to drink at the paschal sup
per four cups of wine mixed with water ;
and this answered to the first of them.
There now arose a contention among the
disciples which of them should be the
greatest; perhaps in connection with the
places which they had taken at this feast
(Luke). After a solemn warning against

pride and ambition Jesus performed an act
whicli, as one of the last of His hfe, must
ever have been remembered by the wit
nesses as a great lesson of humility. He
rose from the table, poured water into a
basin, girded himself with a towel, and
proceeded to wash the disciples' feet
(John). After all had been washed, the
Saviour explained to thera the meaning of
what He had done. " If I, your Lord and
Master, have washed your feet, ye also
ought to wash one another's feet. For I
have given you an exaraple, that ye shou'd
do as I have done to you " (Matt. xxvi. 17-
20; Mark xiv. 12-17; Luke xxii. 7-30 ; John
xiii. 1-20) . From this act of love it does
not seem that even the traitor Judas was
excluded. But his treason was thoroughly
known ; and now Jesus denounces it.- One of
them should betray Him. The traitor hav
ing gone straight to his wicked object, the
end of the Saviour's ministry seemed already
at hand. He gave them the new command
ment, to , love one another, as though it
were a last bequest to them (Matt. xxvi. 21
-25; Mark xiv. 18-21; Luke xxii. 21-23;
John xiii. 21-35). Towards the close ofthe
meal Jesus instituted the sacrament of the
Lord's Supper (Matt. xxvi. 26-29; Mark
xiv. 22-25 ; Luke xxii. 19, 20 ; 1 Cor. xi.
23-25). The denial of Peter is now fore
told, and to no one would such an .announce
ment be more incredible than to Peter him
self (M.att. xxvi. 31-35 ; Mark xiv. 27-31 ;
Luke xxii. 31-38 ; John xiii. 36-38). That '
great final discourse, which John alone has
recorded, is now delivered. Although in
the middle of it there is a mention of de
parture (John xiv. 31), this perhaps only
implies that they prepared to go ; and then
the whole discourse was delivered in the
house before they proceeded to Gethsema
ne (John xiv,-xvii,). — Friday the loth of
Nisan {April 7th), including part of the
eve of ii. " When they had sung a hymn"
which perhaps means, when they had sung
the second part of the Hallel, or song of
praise, which consisted of Psalms cxv.- •
cxviii,, the former part (Psalms cxiii,-cxiv,)
having been sung at an earlier part of the
supper, they went out into the Mount of
Olives. Jesus takes only his three proved
companions, Peter, James, and John, and
passes with them farther into the garden,
leaving the rest seated, probably near the
entrance. No pen can attempt to describe
what passed that night in that secluded spot.
He tells them, " My soul is exceeding sor
rowful, even unto death ; tarry ye here and
watch with rae," and then leaving even the
three He goes further, and in solitude
wrestlesj|ith an inconceivable trial. Tlie
wordsjKMark are still more expressive —
"HeijRantobe sore amazed, and to be
veryllavy " (xiv. 38). The former word
means that he was struck with a greivt

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299

JESUS CHRIST

dread ; not from the fear of physical suffer
ing, however excruciating, we may well
believe, but from the contact With the sins of
the w^orld, of which, in some inconceivable
way. He felt the bitterness and the weight.
He did not merely contemplate them, but
bear and feel them. It is impossible to
explain this scene in Gethsemane in any
other way. The disciples have sunk to
sleep. It was in search of consolation that
He came back tojhera. The disciple who
had been so ready to ask, " Why cannot I
follow thee now ? " must hear another ques
tion, that rebukes, his former confidence —
" Couldest not thou watch one hour?"
A second tirae He departs and wrestles in
prayer with the Father. A second time
He returns iind finds them sleeping. The
same scene is repeated yet a third time ; and
then all is concluded. Henceforth they
may sleep and take their rest; never more
shall they be asked to watch one hour with
Jesus, for His ministry in the ficsh is at an
end. This scene is in complete contrast
to the 'Transfiguration (Matt. xxvi. 36-46 ;
JIark xir. 32-42 ; Luke xxii. 39-46 ; John
xviii. 1). Judas now appeared to complete
his work. In the doubtful light of torches,
a kiss from him was the sign to the officers
whom they should take. Peter, whose
name is first given in John's Gospel, drew
a sword .and smote a servant of the high-
priest and cut off his e.ar ; but his Lord re
fused such succor, and healed the wounded
man. All the disciples forsook Him and
fled (Matt. xxvi. 47-56 ; Mark xiv. 43-52 ;
Luke xxii. 47-53 ; John xviii. 2 12). 'There
is some difficulty in arranging the events
that immediately follow, so as to embrace
all the four accounts. On the capture of
Jesus he was first taken to the house of
Annas, the father-in-l.aw of Caiaphas the
high-priest. It might appear from the
course of John's narrative, that the exam
ination of our Lord, and the first denial of
Peter, took place in the house of Annas
(John xviii. 13, 14). But the 24th verse
¦^s retrospective ; and probably all that oc
curred after verse 14 took place not at the
house of Annas, but at that of Caiaphas,
The house of the high-priest consisted
probably, like other Eastern houses, of an
open central court with chambers round it.
Into this court a gate admitted them, at
which a woman stood to open. As Peter
passed in, the portress took note of him ;
and afterwards, at the fire which had been
lighted, asked him, " Art not thou also one
"^f this man's disciples?" (John). All
the zeal and boldness of Peter seem to
have deserted him. He had come as in se
cret ; he is determined so to reraj^, and he
denies his Master 1 Feeling no™^e dan
ger of his situation, he went ou^feto the
porch, and there some one, or, losing at
aU the accounts, probably several persons,

asked him the question a second time, and
he denied more strongly. About an hour
after, when he had returned into the court,
the same question was put to him a third
time, with the same result. Then the cock
crew; and Jesus, who was within sight,
probably in some open room coraraunicat-
ing with the court, "turned and looked
upon Peter. And Peter rcraembered tho
word of the Lord, how He had said unto
him. Before the cock crow, thou shalt
deny Mc thrice. And Peter went out and
wept bitterly " (Miitt. xxvi, 57, 58, 69-75 ;
Mark xiv, 53, 54, 66-72; Luke x.xii, 54-62 ;
John xviii. 13 18, 24-27), The first inter
rogatory to which our Lord was subject
(John xviii, 19-24) was addressed to Him
by Caiaphas, probably before the Sanhe
drim had time to assemble. It was the
questioning of an inquisitive person who
had an iraportant criminal in his pres
ence, rather than a formal examination.
The Lord's refusal to answer is thus ex
plained and justified. When the more
regular proceedings begin He is ready to
answer. A servant of the high-priest,
knowing that he should thereby please his
master, smote the cheek of the Son of Goi?
with the palm of his hand. But this was
only the beginning of horrors. At the dawn
of day the Sanhedrim, summoned by the
high-priest in the course of the night, as
sembled, and brought their band of lalso
witnesses, whom they raust have had ready
before, 'These gave their testiraony, but
even before this unjust tribunal it could not
stand, it was so full of contradictions. At
last two false witnesses carae, aud their
testiraony was very like the truth. Even
these two fell into contradictions. The
high-priest now with a .solemn adjuration
asks Hira whether He is the Christ the Son
of God. He answers that He is, and fore
tells His return iu glory and power at the
last day. This is enough for their purpose.
They pronounce him guilty of a crime for
which death should be the punishment
(John xviii. 19-24 ; Luke xxii. 63-71 ; Matt.
xxvi. 59-68; Mark xiv. 55-65). Although
they had pronounced Jesus to be guilty of
death, the Sanhedrim possessed no power
to carry out such a sentence. As soon as
it was day they took Him to Pilate, the
Roman procurator. The hall of judgment,
or praetorium, was probably a part of the
tower of Antonia near the Temple, where
the Roman garrison was. Pilate, hearing
that Jesus was an offender under their law,
was about to give them leave to treat Hira
accordingly ; and this would have made it
quite safe to execute Him. Frora the flrst
Jesus found favor in the eyes of Pilate,
and he pronounced that he found no fault
in Hira. Not so easily were the Jews to be
cheated of their prey. They heaped up ac
cusations against Him as a disturber of tha

JESUS CHRIST

300

JESUS CHRIST

public peace (Luke xxiii. 5). Pilate was
no match for their vehemence. Finding
that Jesus was a Galilean, he sent Him to
Herod to be dealt with ; but Herod, after
cruel mockery and persecution, sent Him
back to Pilate. Now comraencod the fear
ful struggle between the Roraan procurator,
a weak as well as cruel man, and the Jews.
The well-known incidents of the second in
terview are soon recalled. After the ex
amination by Herod, and the return of
Jssus, Pilate proposed to release Him, as it
was usual ou the feast-day to release a
prisoner to the Jews out of grace. Pilate
knew well that the priests and rulers would
object to tlii= ; but it was a covert appeal to
the people. The multitude, persuaded by
the priests, preferred another prisoner,
called Barabbas. Now came the scourging,
and the blows and insults of the soldiers,
who, uttering truth when they were only
reviling, crowned Him and addressed Him
as King of the Jews. According to John,
Pilate now made one more effort for His
release. He still sought to release Je
sus : but the last argument, which had been
in the minds of both sides all along, was
now openly applied to hira : " If thou let
this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend."
This decided the question. He delivered
Jesus to be crucified (Matt, xxvii. 15-30 ;
Mark xv. 6-19; Luke xxiii. 17-25; John
xviii. 39, 40, xix. 1-16). John mentions
that this occurred about the sixth hour,
reckoning probably from midnight. In
Mark the Jewish reckoning from six in the
morning is followed. One Person alone
has been calm amidst the excitements of
that night of horrors. On Him is now laid
the weight of His cross, or at least of the
transverse beam of it ; and, with this press
ing Hira down, they proceed out of the city
to Golgotha or Calvary, a place the site of
which is now uncertain. As He began to
droop. His persecutors, unwilling to defile
themselves with the accursed burden, lay
hold of Simon of Cyrene and compel him
to carry the cross after Jesus. After offer
ing Him wine and myrrh, they crucified
Him between two thieves. Nothing was
wanting to His humiliation; a thief had
been preferred, before Hira, and two thieves
share His punishraent. Pilate set over Him
in three languages the inscription, "Jesus,
the King' of the Jews." The chief priests
took exception to this, that it did not de
nounce Him as falsely calling Himself by
that name, but Pilate refused to alter it.
One of the two thieves underwent a change
of heart even on tho cross : he reviled at
first (Matt.) ; and then, at the sight of the
constancy of Jesus, repented (Luke) (Matt.
xxvii. ; Mark xv. ; Luke xxiii. ; John xix.).
In the depths of His bodily suffering, Jesus
calmly comraended to John (?), who itood
near, the cire of Mary his mother. " Be

hold thy son I behold thy mother. ' From
the sixth hour to the ninth there was dark
ness over the whole land. At the ninth hour
(3 p. M.) Jesus uttered with a loud voice the
opening words ofthe 22d Psalm, all the in
spired words of which referred to the suffer
ing Messiah. One of those present dipped
a sponge in the common sour wine of the
soldiers and put it on a reed to moisten the
sufferer's lips. Again he cried with a loud
voice, "Itis finished "(John)," Father, into
thy hands I commend my spirit" (Luke),
and gave up the ghost (Matt, xxvii. 31-66 ;
Mark xv. 20-41 ; Luke xxiii. 33-49 ; John
xix. 17-30). On the death of Jesus the veil
which covered the most Holy Place of the
Temple, the place of the raore especial pres
ence of Jehovah, was rent in twain. There
was a great earthquake. Many who were
dead rose frora their graves, although they
returned to the dust again after this great
token of Christ's quickening power had
been given to many (Matt.). The Jews,
very zealous for the Sabbath In the midst
of their murderous work, begged Pilate
that he would put an end to the punishment
by breaking the legs of the crirainals that
they might be taken down and buried be
fore the Sabbath, for which they were pre
paring (Deut. xxi, 23 ; Joseph. B. J. iv. 5, .
§ 2). 'Those who were to execute this duty
found that Jesus was dead and the thieves
still living. The death of the Lord before
the others was, no doubt, partly tlie con
sequence of the previous mental suffering
which He had undergone, and partly be
cause His will to die lessened the natural
resistance of • the frame to dissolution.
Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the
Council but a secret disciple of Jesus, came
to Pilate to beg the body of Jesus, that he
might bury it. Nicoderaus assisted in this
work of love, and they anointed the body
and laid it in Joseph's new tomb (Matt.
xxvii. 50-61 ; Mark xv. 37-47 ; Luke xxiii.
46-56; John xix. 30-i2) .— Saturday tht
IGih of Nisan {April 8ih). The chief,,
priests and Pharisees, with Pilate's permis
sion, set a watch over the tomb, " lest His
disciples corae by night and steal Him away,
and say unto the people, He is risen from
the dead," (Matt, xxvii. 62-66). — Sunday
the nth of Nisan {April 9th). Th'j Sab
bath ended at six on the evening of Nisan
16th. Early the next morning the resur
rection of Jesus took place. The exact
hour of the resurrection is not mentioned
by any of the Evangelists. Of the great
mystery itself, the resumption of life by
Him who was truly dead, we see but little.
Thewomen, who had stood hy the cross of
Jesus, h^ prepared spices on the evening
beforagPthaps to complete the embalming
of ouMiOrd's body, already performed in
haste by Joseph and Nioodemus. They
came very early on the first day of th«

JETHER

301

JEW

week to the Sepulchre. 'When they arrive
they find the stone rolled away, and Jesus
no longer in the Sepulchre. He had risen
from the dead. Mary Magdtilene at this
point goes back in haste ; and at once,
believing that the body has been removed
by men, tells Peter and John that the Lord
has been taken away. The other woraen,
however, go into the Sepulchre, and they
see an angel (Matt. Mark). The two
angels, raentioned by St. Luke, arc prob
ably two separate appearances to different
members of the group; for he alone men
tions an indefinite nuraber of women. Thej
now leave the Sepulchre, and go in haste to
make known the news to the Apostles. As
they were going, " Jesus met them, saying,
AU hail." The eleven do not believe the
account when they receive it. In the mean
tirae Peter and John came to the Sepulchre.
They ran, in their eagerness, and John ar
rived first and looked in; Peter afterwards
came up, and it is characteristic that the
awe which had prevented the other disciple
from going in .appears to have been unfelt by
Peter, who entered at once, and found the
grave-clothes lying, but not Hira who had
worn thera. This fact must have suggested
that the removal was not the work of human
hands. They then returned, wondering at
what they had seen. Mary Magdalene',
however, remained weeping at the tomb,
and she too saw the two angels in the tomb,
though Peter and John did not. They ad
dress her, and she answers, still, however,
without any suspicion that the Lord is
risen. As she turns away she sees Jesus,
but in the tumult of her feelings does not
even recognize Hira at His first address.
But He calls her by narae, and then she
joyfully recognizes her Master. The third
appearance of our Lord was to Peter (Luke,
Paul) ; the fourth to the two disciples going
to Emmaus in the evening (Mark, Luke) ;
the fifth in the same evening to the eleven
as they sat at meat (Mark, Luke, John).
AU of these occurred on the first day of
the wsek, the very day of the Resurrec
tion. Exactly a, week after, He appeared
to the Apostles, and gave Thomas a con
vincing proof of His resurrection (John) ;
this was the sixth appearance. The seventh
was iu Galilee, where seven ofthe Apostles
were assembled, some of thera probably
about to return to their old trade of fishing
(John). The eighth was to the eleven
(Matt.), and probably to five hundred
brethren assembled with them (Paul) on
a mountain in Galilee. The ninth was to
James (Paul) ; and the last to the Apos
tles at Jerusalem just before the Ascension
(Acts). Je'ther. 1. Jethro, the fatner^in-law
of Moses (Ex. iv. 18). 2. The fir^grborn
of Gideon's seventy sons (Judg. viB. 20).
8. I'he father of Amasa, captain-general

of Absalom's army. Jether is uerely an
other form of Ithra (2 Sam. xvii. 25), the
latter being probably a corruption. He is
described in 1 Chr. ii. 17 as an Ishmaelite,
which again is raore likely to be correct
than the " Israelite " of the Heb. in 2 Sam.
xvii., or the " Jezreelite" ofthe LXX. aud
Vulg. in the same passage. 4. The son
of Jada, a .descendant of Hezron, of the
tribe of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 32). 5. The son
of Ezra, whose name occurs in a dislocated
passage in the genealogy of Judah (1 Chr.
iv. 17). 6. The chief of a family of war
riors of the line of Asher, and father of
Jephunneh (1 Chr. vii. 38). He is probably
the same as Ithrau in the preceding verse.
Je'theth, one of the phylarchs (A. V.
" dukes ") who came of Esau (Gen. xxxvi.
40; 1 Chr.i, 51). . This record of the Edom
ite phylarchs m.ay point specially to thy
places and habitations, or towns, named
after, or occupied by, them.
Jeth'lah, one of the cities of the tribe of
Dan (Josh. xix. 42).
Je'thro was priest or prince of Midian,
both offices probably being combined in one
person. Moses spent the forty years of his
exile frora Egypt with him, arid married his
daughter Zipporah. By the advice of Jeth
ro, Moses appointed deputies to judge the
congregation and share the burden of gov-
ernraent with himself (Ex. xviii.). On ac
count of his local knowledge he was entreat
ed to remain with the Israelites throughout
their journey to Canaan (Nura. x. 31, 33).
It is said in Ex. ii. 18 that the priest of
Midian whose daughter Moses married was
Reuel ; afterwards at ch. iii. 1 he is called
Jethro; as also in ch. xviii. ; but in Num. x.
29 "Hobab the son of Raguel the Midian
ite " is apparently called Moses' father-in-
law (comp. Judg. iv. 11). Some commen
tators take Jethro and Reuel to be identical,
and call Hobab the brother-in-law of Moses.
Je'tur, Gen. xxv- 15 ; 1 Chr. i. 31, v.
19. [Ituraea.]
Je'uel, a chief man of Judah, one of
the Bene-Zerah (1 Chr. ix. 6; comp. 2).
[Jeiel.] Je'ush. 1. Son of Esau, by Aholiba
mah, the daughter of Anah, the son of Ze-
beon the Hivite (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 1
Chr. i. 35). 2. A Benjamite, son of Bil
han (1 Chr. vii. 10, 11). 3. A Gershonite
Levite, of the house of Shimei (1 Chr. xxiii.
10,11). 4. Son of Rehoboam king of Ju
dah (2 Chr. xi. 18, 19). _
Je'uz, head of a Benjamite house, in an
obscure genealogy (1 Chr. viii, 10), appar
ently son of S'naharaim and Hodesh his
third wife, and born in Moab.
Jew. This narae was properly applied
to a member of the kingdom of Judah after
the separation of the ten tribes. The term
first makes its appearance just before the
captivity of the ten tribes (2 K. xvi. 6)

JEWEL

302

JEZIEL

After the Return the word received a larger
application. Partly from the predominance
of the members of the old kingdom of Ju
dah among those who returned to Palestine,
partly frora the identification of Judah with
the religious ideas aud hopes of the people,
all the members of the new state were called
Jews (Judaeans), and the narae was ex
tended to the remnants of tho race scattered
throughout the nations (Dan. iii. 8, 12 ; Ezr.
iv. 12, 23, &c. ; Neh. i, 2, ii, 16, v, 1, &c. ;
Esth. iii. 4, ff., &c.). Under the name
of "Judaeans," the people of Israel were
known to classical writers (Tac. H. v. 2,
&c.). The force of the title " Jew " is seen
particularly in the Gospel of St. John, who
very rarely uses any other term to describe
the opponents of our Lord. The narae,
indeed, appeared at the close of the apos
tle's life to be the true antithesis to Chris
tianity, as describing the limited and defi
nite form of a national religion ; but at an
earlier stage ofthe progress of the faith, it
was contrasted witli Greek as implying an
outward covenant with God (Rom. i. 16, ii.
9, 10; Col. iii. 11, &c.), which was the
correlative of Hellenist [Hellenist], and
marked a division of language subsisting
within the entire body, and at the same
time less expressive than Israelite, which
brought out with especial clearness the
privileges and hopes of the children of Ja
cob (2 Cor. xi. 22 ; John i. 47 ; 1 Mace. i.
43, 53, and often).
Jew'el. [Precious Stones.]
Jew'ess, a woman of Hebrew birth,
without distinction of tribe (Acts xvi. 1,
xxiv. 24).
Jew'ish, of or belonging to Jews ; an
epithet applied to their Rabbinical legends
(Tit. i. 14).
Jew'ry, the same word elsewhere ren
dered Judah and Judaea. It occurs sev
eral times in the Apoc. and N. T., but once
only in the O. T. (Dan. v. 13). Jewry
comes to us through the Norman-French,
and is of frequent occurrence in Old Eng
lish. Jezani'ah, the son of Hoshaiah, the
Maachathite, and one ofthe captains ofthe
forces who had escaped from Jerusalem
during the final attack of the beleaguering
army of the Chaldaeans. When the Baby
lonians had departed, Jezaniah, with the
men under his command, was one of the
first who returned to Gedaliah at Mizpah.
In the events which followed the assassina
tion of that officer Jezaniah took a promi
nent part (2 K. xxv. 23 ; Jer. xl, 8, xiii. 1,
xliii, 2),
Jez'ebel, wife of Ahab, king of Israel,
and mother of Athaliah, queen of Judah,
and A.h,aziah and Joram, kings of Israel.
She was a Phoenician princess, daughter
of "Ethbaal king of the Zidonians." In
her hands her husband became a mere pup

pet (1 K. xxi. 25). The flrst effect of her
influence was the immediate estabUshment
of the Phoenician worship on a grand scale
in the court of Ahab. At her table were
supported no less than 450 prophets of
Baal, and 400 of Astarte (1 K. xvi, 31, 32,
xviii. 19). The prophets of Jehovah, who
up to this time had found their chief refuge
in the northern kingdom, were attacked by
her orders and put to the sword (1 K. xviii.
13 ; 2 K. ix. 7). When at last the people,
at the instigation of Elijah, rose against her
ministers, and slaughtered them at the foot
of Carmel, and when Ahab was terrified
into submission, she alone retained her
presence of mind. The next instance of
her power is still more characteristic and
complete. When she found her husband
cast down by his disappointraent at being
thwarted by Naboth, she took the matter
into her own hands, with a spirit which re
minds us of Clytemnestra or Lady Macbeth
(1 K. xxi. 7). She wrote a warrant in
Ahab's name, and scaled it with his seal.
To her, and not to Ahab, was sent the an
nouncement that the royal wishes were ac-
coraplished (1 K. xxi, 14), and she bade
her husband go and take the vacant prop
erty; and on her accordingly fell the proph-'
ef's curse, as well as on her husbiind (1 K.
xxi. 23). We hear no more of her for a
long period. But she survived Ahab for 14
years, and still, as queen-mother (after tho
Oriental custom), was a great personage in
the court of her sons, and, as such, became
the special mark for the vengeance of Jehu.
She was looking out from the -window of
the palace, which stood by the gate of the
city, as Jehu approached. The new king
looked up from his chariot. Two or three
eunuchs of the royal harem showed their
faces at the windows, and at his command
dashed the ancient princess down frora the
chamber. She fell immediately in front
of the conqueror's chariot. The merciless
destroyer passed on ; and the last remains
of life were trampled out by the horses'
hoofs. The body was left in that open
space called in modern Eastern language
"the mounds," where offal is thrown from
the city w.alls. The dogs of Eastern cities,
which prowl around these localities, and
which the present writer met ,on this very
spot by the modern village which occupies
the site of Jezreel, pounced upon this un
expected prey.
Jeze'lus. 1. The" same as J.ihazibl
(1 Esd. viii. 32). 2. Jehiel, the father
of Obadiah (1 Esd. viii. 35).
Je'zer, the third son of Naphtali (Gen.
xlvi. 24 ; Num. xxvi. 49 ; 1 Chr. vii. 13),
and father of the family of the Jezerites.
Jezi'ah, a descendant of Parosh, who
had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 25).
Je'ziel, a Benjamite who joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 3).

JEZLIAH

303

JOAB

Jezli'ah, a Benjamite of the sons of
Elpaal (1 Chr. viii. 18).
Jez'oar, the son of Helah, one of the
wives of Asher (1 Chr. iv. 7).
Jezrahi'ah, a Levite, the leader of the
choristers at the solemn dedication of tho
wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh.
xii. 42).
Jez'reel, a descendant of the father or
founder of Etiim, of the line of Judah (1
Chr. iv. 3). But as the verse now stands,
we must supply some such word as "fami
lies;" "these (are the families of) the fa
ther of Etara."
Jez'reel. 1. A city situated in the
plain of the sarae name between Gilboa
and Little Hermon, now generally called
Esdraelon. [Esdraelon.] It appears in
Josh. xix. 18, but its historical importance
dates from the reign of Ahab, who chose it
for his chief residence. The situation of
the modern village of Zerin still remains
to show the fitness of his choice. In the
neighborhood, or within the town probably,
were a temple and grove of Astarte, with an
establishment of 400 priests supported by
Jezebel (IK. xvi. 33; 2 K. x. 11). The
palace of Ahab (1 K. xxi. 1, xviii. 46),
probably containing his "ivory house" (1
K. xxii. 39), was on the eastern side of the
city, forming part ofthe city wall (comp. 1
K. xxi. 1; 2 K. ix. 25, 30, 33). The se
raglio, in wliich Jezebel lived, was on the
city wall, and had a high window facing
eastward (2 K. ix. 30). Close by, if not
forming part of this seraglio, was a watch-
^awer, on which a sentinel stood, to give
notice of arrivals frora the disturbed district
beyond the Jordan (2 K. ix. 17). An an
cient square tower which stands among the
hovels of the modern village may be its
representative. The gateway of the city on
the east was also the gateway ofthe palace
(2 K. ix. 34). Whether the vineyard of
Naboth was here or at Siimaria is a doubt-
fiil question. Still in the same eastern
direction are two springs, one 12 minutes
from the town, the other 20 minutes. The
latter probably both frora its size and situa
tion, was known as " the Spring of Jez
reel" (raistranslated A. V. "a fountain,"
1 Sara, xxix.- 1) . With the fall of the house
of Ahab the glory of Jezreel departed. 2.
A town in Judah, in the neighborhood of
the southern Carmel (Josh. xv. 56). Here
David in his wanderings took Ahinoam the
Israelitess for his first wife (1 Sam. xxvii.
3, xxx. 5). 3. The eldest son of the
prophet Hosea (Hos. i. 4).
Jez'reelltess. A woman of Jezreel
(1 Sara, xxvii. 3, xxx. 5 ; 2 Sam. ii. 2, iii.
2; IChr. iii. 1).
Jib'sam, one of the sons of Tola, the
»on of Issachar (1 Chr. vii. 2).
Jid'laph, a son of Nahor (Gen. xxii. 22)
Jim'na, the firstborn of Asher (Num.

xxvi. 44). He is elsewhere called in the
A. V. JiMNAH (Gen. xlvi. 17) and Imnah
(1 Chr. vii. 30).
Jim'nah = Jimna == Imnah (Gen. xlvi.
17). Jim'nites, The, descendants- of the
preceding (Num. xxvi. 44).
Jiph'tah, one of the cities of Judah in
the maritime lowland, or Shefelah (Josh.
XV. 43). It has not yet been met with.
Jiph'thah-el, The 'Valley of, a val
ley which served as one of the landmarks
for the boundary both of Zebulun (Josh.
xix. 14) and Asher (27^. Dr. Robinson
suggests that Jiphthah-el was identical with
Jotapata, and that they survive in the mod
ern Jffat, a village in the mountains of
Galilee, half way between the Bay of Acre
and the Lake of Gennesareth.
Jo'ata, the most remarkable of the three
nephews ofDavid,the children of Zeruiah,
David's sister. 'Their father is unknown,
but seems to have resided at Bethlehem,
and to have died before his sons, as we find
mention of his sepulchre at that place (2
Sara, ii.32). Joab first appears after Da
vid's accession to the throne at Hebron.
Abner slew in battle Asahel, the younger
brother of Joab ; and when David after
wards received Abner into favor, Joab
treacherously raurdered hira. [Abner.]
There was now no rival left in the way of
Joab's advancement, and at the siege of
Jebus he was appointed for his prowess
commander-in-chief — " captain of the
host " — the same office that Abner had held
under Saul, the highest in the state after
the king (1 Chr. xi. 6 ; 2 Sam. viii. 16). In
this post he was content, and served the
king with undeviating fidelity. In the wide
range of wars which David undertook, Joab
was the acting general. He was called by
the almost regal title of "Lord" (2 Sam.
xi. 11), " the prince of the king's army"
(1 Chr. xxvii. 34.) 1. His great war was
against the Ammonites, which he conducted
in person. It was divided into three cam
paigns. At the siege of Rabbah, in the last
campaign, the ark was sent with him, and
the whole army was encamped in booths or
huts round the beleaguered city (2 Sam. xi.
1, 11). Joab took the lower city on the
river, and then sent to urge David to
come and take the citadel (2 Sam. xii. 26-
28). 2. The services of Joab to the king
were not confined to these military achieve
ments. In the entangled relations which
grew up in David's domestic life, he bore
an important part, {a) The first occasion
was the unhappy correspondence which
passed between him and the king during
the Ammonite war respecting Uriah the
Hittite (2 Sam. xi. 1-25.) (5) The next
occasion on which it was displayed was in
his successful endeavor to reinstate Absa
lom in David's favor, after the murder of

JOAH

304

JOASH

Amnon (2 Sam. xiv. 1-20). (c) The same
keen sense of his master's interests ruled
the conduct of Joab no less, when the rela
tions of the father and son were reversed
by the successful revolt of Absalom. His
former intimacy with the prince did not im
pair his fidelity to the king. He followed
hira beyond the Jordan, and in the final
battle of Ephraira assumed the responsibil
ity of taking the rebel prince's dangerous
life in spite of David's injunction to spare
him, and when no one else had courage to
act so decisive a part (2 Sam. xviii. 2, 11-
15), The king transferred the command
to A masa, {d) Nothing brings out more
strongly the good and bad qualities of Joab
than his conduct in this trying crisis of his
history. With his own guard and the
mighty men under Abishai he went out in
pursuit ofthe remnants of the rebellion. In
the heat of pursuit, he encountered his rival
Amasa, more leisurely engaged in the sarae
quest. At "the great stone" in Gibeon,
the cousins met. Joab's sword was at
tached to his girdle ; by design or accident
it protruded from the sheath,; Amasa rushed
into the treacherous embrace, to whic'n Joab
invited him, holding fast his beard by his
own right hand, whilst the unsheathed
eword in his left hand plunged into Amasa's
stomach ; a single blow frora that practised
arm, as in the case of Abner, sufficed to do
its work. 3. There :s something mournful
in the end of Joab. At the close of his long
life, his loyalty, so long unshaken, at last
wavered. " Though he had not turned
after Absalom he turned after Adonijah "
(1 K. ii. 28). This probably filled up the
measure of the king's- long-cherished re
sentment. The revival of the pretensions
of Adonijah after David's death was suffi-
f,ient to awaken the suspicions of Solomon.
Joab fled to the shelter of the altar at Gib
eon, and was there slain by Benaiah.
Jo'ah. 1. The son of Asaph, and
chronicler, or keeper of the records, to
Hezekiah (Is. xxxvi. 3, 11, 22). 2. The
son or grandson of Ziramah, a Gershonite (1
Chr. vi. 21). 3. The third son of Obed-
edora (1 Chr. xxvi. 4), a Korhite, and' one
of the doorkeepers appointed by David.
4. A Gershonite, the son of Ziramah, and
father of Eden (2 Chr. xxix. 12). 5, The
son of Joahaz, and keeper of the records,
or annalist to Josiah (2 Chr, xxxiv, 8),
Jo'ahaz, the father of Joab, the chron
icler or keeper ofthe records to king Josiah
(2 Chr. x.x.xiv. 8).
Joan'na. 1. Son of Rhesa, according
to the text of Luke iii. 27, and one of the
ancestors of Christ. But according to the
view explained in a previous article, son of
Zerubb.abel, and the same as Hananiah in
1 Chr. iii. 19. 2. Tho name of a woman,
occurring twice in Luke (viii. 3, xxiv. 10),
but evidently denoting the same person. In

the first passage she is expressly stated to
have been " wife of Chuza, steward of
Herod," that is, Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee.
Jo'ash, contr. from Jehoash, 1. Son
of Ahaziah, king of Judah, and the only
one of his children who escaped the mur
derous hand of Athaliah. After his father's
sister Jehoshabeath, the wife of Jehoiada
the high-priest, had stolen him from among
the king's sons, he was hidden fcr six years
in the chambers of the Temple. In the 7th
year of his age and of his concealment, a
successful revolution, conducted by Jehoi
ada, placed him on the throne of his ances
tors, and freed the country from the tyr
anny and idolatries of Athaliah. For at
least 23 years, while Jehoiada lived, this
reign was very prosperous. But, after the
death of Jehoiada, Joash fell into the hands
of bad advisers, at whose suggestion he re
vived the worship of Baal and Ashtaroth.
When he was rebuked for this by Zecha
riah, the son of Jehoiada, Joash caused him
to be stoned to death in the very court of
the Lord's house (Matt, xxiii. 35). The
vengeance imprecated by the murdered high-
priest was not long delayed. That very
year, Hazael king of Syria came up against
Jerusalem, and carried off a vast booty as
the price of his departure. Joash had
scarcely, escaped this danger, when he fell
into another and fatal one. Two of his ser
vants, taking advantage of his severe illness,
— some think of a wound received in bat
tle, — conspired against him, and slew him
in his bed in the fortress of Millo. Joash's
reign lasted 40 years, from 878 to 838 s. o.
2. Son and successor of Jehoahaz on the
throne of Israel from b. c. 840 to 825, and
for two full years a contemporary sovereign
with the preceding (2 K. xiv. 1, corap. with
xii. 1, xiii. 10). 'When he succeeded to
the crown, the kingdora was in a deplorable
state from the devastations of Hazael and
Benhadad, kings of Syria. On occasion
of a friendly visit paid by Joash to EUsha
on his death-bed, the prophet promised hira
deliverance from the Syrian yoke in Aphek
(1 K. XX. 26-30). He then bade him smite
upon the ground, and the king smote tliTice
and then stayed. The prophot rebuked
him for staying, and limited to three his
victories over Syria. Accordingly Joa^h
did beat Benhadad three times on the field
of battle, and recovered from him the cities
which Hazael had taken from Jehoahaz.
The other great military event of Joash's
reign was his successful war with Amaziiih
king of Judah, The grounds of this war are
given fully in 2 Chr. xxv. The two armies
met at Beth-shemesh ; that of Joash was
victorious, put the army of Araaziah to the
rout, took him prisoner, brought him to
Jerusalem, broke down the wall of Jeru
salem, and plundered the city. He died in
the 15th year of Amaziah king of Judabi

JOATHAM

305

JOB

und was succeeded by his son Jeroboam II.
S, The i'ather of Gideon, and a wealthy
man among the Abiezrites (Judg. vi. 11,
29, 30, 31, vu, 14, viu. 13, 29, 32). 4.
Apparently a younger son of Ahab, who
held a subordinate jurisdiction in the life
time of his father, or was appointed viceroy
(a»Chr. xviii. 25) during his absence in the
attack on Raraoth-Gilead (1 K. xxii. 26 ; 2
Chr. xviii. 25). Or he may have been
merely a prince of the blood-royal. 5. A
descendant of Shelah the son of Judah, but
whether his son or the son of Jokim, is not
clear (1 Chr. iv. 22). 6. A Benjamite, son
of Shemaah of Gibeah (1 Chr. xii. 3), who
resorted to David at Zikliig. 7. One of
the officers of David's household (1 Chr.
xxvii. 28). 8. Son of Becher, and head
of a Benjamite house (1 Chr. vii. 8).
Jo'atham = Jotham the son of Uzziah
(Matt. i. 9).
Job, the third son of Issachar (Gen.
xlvi. 13), called in another genealogy
¦>Jasudb (1 Chr. vii. 1)«
Job, the patriarch, the name of one of
the books of the O. T. His residence in
the land of Uz, wliich'to.ok its narae from a
son of Aram (Gen. x. 23), or Nahor (Gen.
xxii. 21), marks hira as belonging to a
- branch of the Araraaean race, which had
settled in the loiver part of Mesopotamia
(probably to the south or south-east of Pal
estine, in Idumaean Arabia), adjacent to
the Sabaeans and Chaldaeans. The opin
ions of Job and his friends are thus pecu
liarly interesting as exhibiting an aspect of
the patriarchal religion outside ofthe faraily
of Abrahara, and as yet uninfluenced by
the legislation of Moses. The form of
worsliip belongs essentially to the early
patriarchal type ; with little of ceremonial
ritual, without a separate priesthood, it is
thoroughly domestic in form and spirit.
Job is represented as a chieftain of im
mense wealth and high r.ank, blameless in
all the relations of life. 1. One question
could be raised by envy ; may not the good
ness which secures such direct and tangi
ble rewards be a refined form of selfish
ness ? Satan, the accusing angel, suggests
the doubt, " Doth Job fear God for nought ? "
and asserts boldly that if those external
blessings were withdrawn. Job would cast
off his allegiance — " he will curse thee to
thy face." The problem is thus distinctly
propounded which this book is intended
to discuss and solve. Can goodness exist
irrespective of reward? The accuser
receives permission to raake the trial. He
destroys Job's property, then his children ;
and afterwards, to leave no possible open
ing for a cavil, is allowed to inflict upon
him the most terrible disease known in the
East. Job's wife breaks down entirely
under the trial. Job remains steadfast.
He repcU his wife's suggestion with the
20

simple words, " What I shall wo receive
good at the hand of the Lord, and shall we
not receive evil?" "In aU this Job did
not sin with his lips." The question raised
by Satan was thus answered. 2. Still it is
clear that many points of deep interest
would have been left in obscurity. Entire
as was the submission of Job, he must have
been inwardly perplexed by events to which
he had no clew. An opportunity for tbe
discussion of the providential government
of the world is afforded by the introduction
of three men, representing the wisdom and
experience of the age, who came to condole
with Job on he.aring of his misfortunes.
The meeting is described with singular
beauty. At a distance they greet hira with
the wild demonstrations of sympathizing
grief usual in the East; coming near they
are overpowered by the sight of his wretch
edness, and sit seven days and seven nights
without uttering a word. This awful si
lence drew out all his anguish. In an ago
ny of desperation he curses the day of his
birth. With the answer to this outburst
begins a series of discussions, continued
probably with some intervals, during sever
al successive days. The results of the_^rs<
discussion (from ch. iii.-xiv.) may be thus
summed up.. We have on the part of Job's
friends a theory of the divine government
resting upon an exact and uniform corroia-
tion between sin and punishment (iv. 6, 11,
and throughout). Afflictions are always pe
nal, issuing in the destruction of those who
are radically opposed to God, or who do not
submit to His chastisements. They lead of
course to correction and amendment of life
when the sufferer repents and turns to Gou.
Still the fact o'f the suffering always proves
the commission of sorae special sin. These
principles are applied by thera to the case of
Job. In order to do justice to the position
and arguments of Job, it must be borne in
mind, that the direct object of the trial was
to ascertain whether he would deny or for
sake God, and -that his real integrity is as
serted by God Himself. He denies the
assertion that punishment follows surely on
guilt, or proves its commission. Still he
doubts not that God is just. There rera.ains
then but one course open to him, and that
he tiikes. He turns to supplication, im
plores God to give him a fair and open trial
(xiii. 18-28). . Believing that with death all
hope connected with this world ceases, he
prays that he may be hidden in the grave
(xiv. 13), and there reserved for the day
when God will try his cause and manifest
himself in love (ver. 15). In the second
discussion (xv.-xxi.) there is a more reso
lute, elaborate attempt on the part of Job's
friends to vindicate their theory of retribu
tive justice. Eliphaz (xv.), who, as usual,
lays down the basis of the argument, does
not now hesitate to in.pute to Job the worst

JOB

306

JOB

crimes of whic'i raan could be guilty. Bil-
dad (xviii.) takes up this suggestion of un
godliness, and concludes that the special
evils which had come upon Job are pecu
liarly the penalties due to one who is with
out God. Zophar not only accounts for
Job's present calamities, but menaces him
with still greater evils (xx.). In answer.
Job recognizes the hand of God in his af
flictions (xvi. 7-16, and xix. 6-20), but re
jects the charge of ungodliness ; he has
never forsaken his Maker, and never ceased
to pray. He argues that since in this life
tho righteous certainly are not saved from
evil, it follows that their ways are watched
and their sufferings recorded, with a view
to a future and perfect manifestation of the
divine justice. On the other h.and, stung
by the harsh and narrow-rainded bigotry of
his opponents, Job draws out (xxi.) with
terrible force the undeniable fact, that from
the beginning lo the end of their lives, un
godly men, avowed atheists (vers. 14, 15),
persons, in fact, guilty of the very crimes
imputed, out of mere conjecture, to him
self, frequently enjoy great and unbroken
prosperity. In the third dialogue (xxii.-
xxxi.) no real progress is made by Job's
opponents. Eliphaz (xxii.) makes a, Last
effort. The station in which Job was for
merly placed presented temptations to cer
tain crimes ; the punishments which he un
dergoes are precisely such as might be
expected had those crimes been committed ;
hence he infers they actually were comrait-
ted. In his two last discourses Job does
not alter his position, nor adduce any new
argument, but he states with incomparable
force and eloquence the chief points which
he regards as established (xxvi.). Then
follows (xxviii.) the grand description of
Wisdom. The remainder of this discourse
(xxix.-xxxi.) contains a singularly beauti
ful description of his former life, contrasted
with his actual misery, together with a full
vindication of his character from all the
charges made or insinuated by his opponents.
After this long discussion between Job and
his three friends, Elihu, a young man, who
had listened in indignant silence to the ar-'
guraents of his elders (xxxii, 7), now ad
dresses himself (xxxii. -xxxvii.) to both
parties in the discussion, and specially to
Job. He shows that they had accused Job
.iipon false or insufficient grounds, ,and failed
to convict hira or to vindicate God's justice.
Job again had assumed his entire inno
cence, and had arraigned thiit justice.
Jehovah at length appears in the midst of
a storm, and in language of inoorapar.able
grandeur He reproves and silences the raur-
murs of Job. He rebukes the opponents
of Job, and vindicates the integrity of the
patriarch. The restor.ation of Job's exter
nal prosperity, which is the result of God's
personal manifestation, symboUzos the ulti

mate compensation of the righteous for aH
sufferings undergone upon earth. -Ihe
great object of the book must surely ha
that which is distinctly intimated in the m-
troduction, and confirmed in the conclusion,
to show the effects of calamity in its worst
and most awful form upon a truly religious
spirit. Integrity of the book. — Fourpartjj
of the book have been most generally at
tacked. Objections have been, made to the
introductory and concluding chapters : 1.
On account of the style. Of course there
is an obvious and natural difference be
tween the prose of the narrative and the
highly poetical language of the colloquy.
Yet the best critics now acknowledge that
the style of these portions is quite as an
tique in its simple and severe gr.andour, as
thatof the Pentateuch itself. It is said again
that the doctrinal views are not in harmony
with those of Job. This is wholly un
founded. The form of worship belongs
essentially to the early patriarchal type.
2. Strong objections are made to the pas
sage xxvii. from vei^ 7 to the end of the
chapter. Here Job describes the ultimate
fate of the godless hypocrite in terras which
some critics hold to be in direct contradic
tion to the whole tenor of his arguments in
other discourses. The fact of the contra
diction is denied by able writers, who have
shown that it rests upon a misapprehension
of the patriarch's character and fundamen
tal principles. The whole chapter is thor
oughly coherent : the first part is admitted
by all to belong to Job ; nor can the rest be
disjoined from it without injury to the sense.
As for the style, M. Renan, a most compe
tent authority in a matter of taste, declares
that it is one of the finest developments in
the poem. 3. The last two chapters of the
address of the Almighty have been rejected
as interpolations by many writers, partly
because of an alleged inferiority of style,
partly as not having any bearing upon the
argument, 4. The speech of Elihu pre
sents greater difliculties, and has been re
jected by several, whose opinion, however,
is controverted not only by orthodox writers,
but by some of the most sceptical commen
tators. The former support their decision
chiefly on the manifest, and to a certain ex
tent the real, difference between this and
other parts of the book in tone of thought,
in doctrinal views, and more positively in
langu.age .and general style. Much stress
also is laid upon the facts that Elihu is not
mentioned in the introduction nor at the
end, and that his speech is unanswered by
Job, and unnoticed in the final address of
the Almighty. A candid and searching
examination, however, leads to a different
conclusion. It is proved that there is a '
close internal connection between this and
other parts of the book ; there aro refer
ences to numerous passages iu the dis-

JOB

307

JOB

courses of Job and his friends, so covert
as only to be discovered by close inquiry,
yet, when pointed out, so striking and nat
ural as to leave no room for doubt. Elihu
supplies exactly what Job repeatedly de
mands — a confutation of his opinions by
rational and human arguments. There is
no difficulty in accounting for the omission
of Eliliu's name in the introduction. No
persons are named in the book until they
appear as agents, or as otherwise Concerned
in the events. Again, the discourse, being
substantially true, did not need correction,
and is therefore left unnoticed in the final
decision of the Almighty. More weight is
to be attached to the objection resting upon
diversity of style and dialectic peculiari
ties. It may be accounted for on the sup
position that the Chaldaic forms and idioms
are such as peculiarly suit the style of the
young and fiery speaker. Historical char-
ader of the work. — Three distinct theories
have been maintained at various times ;
some believing the book to be strictly his
torical ; others a religious fiction ; others a
composition based upon facts. By some
the authorship of the work was attributed
to Moses. The fact of Job's existence, and
the substantial truth of the narriitive, were
not Ukely to be denied by Hebrews or
Cliristians, considering the terras iri which
the piitriarch is named in the 14tli of Eze
kiel and in the Epistle of St. Jaraes (v. 11).
Luther first suggested the theory, which,
in some form or other, is now most gener
ally received. He says, " I look upon the
book of Job as a true history, yet I do not
believe that all took place just as it is writ-
tEU, but that an ingenious, pious, and learned
man brought it into its present form." The
probable age, country, and position of ihe
author. — The date of the book is doubt
ful, and there have been many theories
upon the subject. The language approaches
far more nearly to the Arabic than any
other Hebrew production. On the other
hand, there are undoubtedly many Aramiiic
words, and grammatical forms, which some
critics have regarded as a strong proof that
tlie writer must have lived during, or even
after, the captivity. This hypothesis is now
universally given up as untenable ; and it
has been proved that these Aramaisms are
such as characterize the antique and highly
poetic style. It may be regarded as a set
tled point that the book was written long
before the exile ; while there is absolutely
nothing to prove a later date than the Pen
tateuch. 'TIiIb impression is borne out by
the style. All critics have recognized its
grand archaic character. Job is far more
remarkable for obscurity than any Hebrew
writing. Ewald, whose judgment in this
case will not be questioned, asserts very
positively that in all the descriptions of
manners and customs, domestic, social,

and political, and even in the indirect allu
sions and illustrations, the genuine coloring
of tho age of Job, that is, of the period be
tween Abraham and Moses, is very faith
fully observed ; that all historical examples
and allusions are taken exclusively from
patriarchal tiraes, .and that thore is a -jom-
plete and successful avoidance of direct
reference to later occurrences, whieh in his
opinion raay have been known to tho wri
ter. All critics concur in extolling the
fresh, antique simplicity of manners de
scribed in this book, tho genuine air ofthe
wild, free, vigorous life of the desert, the
stamp of hoar antiquity, and the thorough
consistency in the development of charac
ters, equally remarkable for originality
and force. These considerations lead of
cour,se to the conclusion that the book must
have been written before the promulgation
of the Law, by one speaking the Hebrew
language, and thoroughly conversant with
the traditions preserved in the family of
Abraham. One hypothesis which has been
lately brought forwiird, and supported by
very ingenious arguments, deserves a more
special notice. 'That supposition is, that
Job may have been written after the settle
ment of the Israelites by a dweller in the
south of Judaea, iu a district immediately
bordering upon the Iduraean desert. The
local coloring, so strikingly characteristic
of this book, and so evidently natural, is
just what might be expected from such a
writer. The people appear also to have
been noted for freshness and originality of
mind ; qualities seen in the woman of Te
koah, or still more remarkably in Amos,
the poor and unlearned herdman, also of
Jekoah. Some weight may also be attached
to the observation that the dialectic peculi
arities of Southern Palestine, especially the
softening of the aspirates and exchanges of
the sibilants, resemble the few divergencies
from pure Hebrew which are noted in the
book of Job. The controversy about the
authorship cannot ever bo finally settled.
From the introduction it may certainly be
inferred that the writer lived many years
after the death of Job. From the strong
est internal evidence it is also clear that he
must either have composed the work be
fore the Law was promulgated, or under
raost peculiar circumstances which exempt
ed him frora its influence. The total ab
sence of any allusion, not only to the Mo
saic Law, but to the events of the Exodus,
the farae of which must have reached the
country of Job, on any hypothesis respect
ing its locality, is a strong argument for
the early age of the patriarch and the book.
Jo'taab. 1. The last in order of the
sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 29; 1 Chr. i. 23).
2. One of the "kings" of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 33, 34; 1 Chr. i. 44, 45). 3. King
of Madon ; one of the northern chieftains

JOCHEBED

308

JOHN THE -.i-CSTLB

who altera] ted to oppose Joshua's con
quest, and were routed by hira at Meron
(Josh. xi. 1, only). 4, Head of a Benja
mite house (1 Chr. vui. 10).
Joch'ebed, the wife and at the same
time the aunt of Amram, and the mother
of Moses and Aaron (Ex. ii. 1, vi. 20;
Nura. xxvi. 59).
Jo'ed, a Benjamite, the son of Pedaiah
(Neh. xi. 7).
Jo'el. 1. Eldest son of Samuel the
prophet (1 Sam. viu. 2; 1 Chr. vi. 33, xv.
17). and father of Heman the singer. 2.
In i Chr, vi. 36, A. V., Joel seeras to be
merely a, corruption of Shaul in ver. 24,
3. The second of the twelve minor prophets,
the son of Pethuel, probably prophesied in
Jud.ah in the reign of Uzziah. We find,
what we should expect on the supposition
of Joel being the first prophet to Judah,
only a grand outline of the whole terrible
scene, which was to be depicted more and
more in detail by subsequent prophets.
The proximate event to which the prophe
cy related was a public calamity, then im
pending on Judah, of a twofold charac
ter : want of water, and ii plague of lo
custs, continuing for several years. The
prophet exhorts the people to turn to God
with penitence, fasting, and prayer; and
then (he says) the plague shall cease, and
the rain descend in its season, arid the land
yield her accustomed fruit. Nay, the time
will be a most joyful one ; for God, by the
outpouring of His Spirit, will extend the
blessings of true religion to heathen lands.
The prophecy is referred to in Acts ii. 4,
A Simeonite chief (1 Chr. iv. 35), 5. A
descendiint of Reuben. Junius and Tre-
mellius make him the son of Hanoch, while
others trace his descent throu.gh C'.armi (1
Chr. V. 4). 6. Chief of the Gadites, who
dwelt in the land of Bashan (1 Chr. v. 12).
7. The son of Izrahiah, of the tribe of Is
sachar (1 Chr. vii. 3). 8. The brother of
Nathan of Zobah (1 Chr. xi. 38), and one
of D.avid's guard. 9. The cliief of the
Gcrshoniites in the reign of David (1 Chr.
XV. 7, 11). 10. A Gershonite Levite in tho
reign of David, son of Jehiel, a descendiint
of La.id.an, .and probably the sarae as the
preceding (1 Chr. xxiii. 8, xxvi. 22). 11.
The son of Ped.aiah, and a chief of the
half-tribe of M.anasseh, west o^ Jordan, in
the reign of D.avid (1 Chr. xxvii. 20). 12.
A Koh.athite Levite in the reign of Hezeki
ah (2 Chr. xxix. 12). 13. One ofthe sons
of Nebo, who returned with Ezra, .and had
married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 43). 14.
The son of Zichri, a Benjamite (Neh. xi.
9). Joe'lah, son of Jeroham of Gedor (1
Chr. xii. 7).
Joe'zer, a Korhite, one of David's cap
tains (1 Chr. xii. 6).
Jog'behah, one of the cities on the

east of Jordan which were built and forti.
fied by tbe tribe of Gad when they took
possession of their territory (Num. xxxu.
^Jog'li, the father of Bukki, » Danite
chief (Num. xxxiv. 22). „ „ , ,
Jo'ha. 1- One of the sons of Beriah,
the Btnjamite (1 Chr. viii, 16), 2. The
Tizite, one of David's guard (1. Chr. xi.
45). Joha'nan, 1. Son of Azariah, and
grandson of Ahimaaz the son of Zadok,
and father of Azariah, 3 (1 Chr. vi. 9, 10,
A. v.). We may conclude without much
doubt that Johanan's pontificate fell in the
reign of Rehoboam. 2. Son of EUoenai,
the son of Neariah, the son of Shemaiah,.in
the line of Zembbabel's heirs (1 Chr. iii.
24). 3. The son of Kareah, and one of
the captains of the scattered remnants of
the army of Judah, who escaped in the
final attack upon Jerusalem by the Chal
deans. After the murder of Gedaliah, Jo
hanan was one of the foremost in the pui-
suit of his assassin, and rescued the cap
tives he had carried off from Mizpah (Jer.
xll. 11-1-6). Fearing the vengeance of the
Ch.aldeans, the captains, with Johanan at
their head, notwithstanding the warnings
of Jeremiah, retired into Egypt. 4. The
first-born son of Josiah king of Judah (1
Chr. iii. 15). 5. A valiant Benjamite who
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xu. 4), 6.
A Gadite warrior, who followed David (1
Chr. xii. 12). 7. The father of Azariiih,
an Epbraimite in the time of Ahaz (2 Chr,
xxviii, 12). 8. The son of Hakkatan, and
chief of the Bene-Azgad who returned witli
Ezra (Ezr. viii. 12), 9. The son of Elia
shib, one of the chief Levites (Neh. xii.
23; Ezr. x. 6). 10. The son of Tobiah
the Araraonite (Neh. vi. 18).
John, the sarae name as Johanan, a con
traction of Jehohanan, "Jehovah's gift."
1. The father of M.attathias, and griind-
father of the Maccabaean family (1 Mace,
ii, 1.). 2. The eldest son of Mattathi.as
surnamed Caddis, who was shiin by " the
children of Jambri" (1 M.acc. ii. 2, ix. 36-
38). 3. The father of Eupolemus, one of
the envoys whom Judas Maceabaeus scut
to Rome (1 Mace. viii. 17; 2 Mace. iv.
11). 4. The son of Simon, the brother of
Judas Maceabaeus (1 Mace. xiii. 53, xvi.
1). 5. One of the high-priest's faraily,
who, with Annas and Caiaphas, sat in judg
ment upon the Apostles Peter and John
(Acts iv. 6). e. 'The Hebrew name ofthe
Evangelist Mark (Acts xii. 12, 25, xiii. 5,
13, .XV, 37),
John the Apostle was the son of
Zebedee, a fisherman on the Lake of Gali
lee, and of Salome, and brother of James,
also an apostle. He was probably youngei
than his brother, whose name commonly
precedes his (Matt. iv. 21, x. 3, xvU 1.

JOHN THE APOSTLE

309

JOHN THE BAPTIST

&c.). younger than his friend Peter, possi
bly also than his Master. His call, and
that of his brother, to be first disciples and
then apostles of our Lord, are related un
der James. Peter and jaraes and John
come within the innermost circle of their
Lord's friends. Peter is throughout the
leader of that band ; to John belongs the
) et raore memorable distinction of being
the disciple whom Jesus loved. He hardly
sustains the popular notion, fostered by the
received typos of Christiiin art, of a nature
gentle, yielding, feminine. The name Bo
anerges (Mark iii. 17) implies a vehemence,
zeal, intensity, which gave to those who had
it the raight of Sons of Thunder. [James.]
The three are with Hira when none else are,
in the chamber of death (Mark v. 37), in the
glory ofthe transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 1),
when he forewarns thera of the destruction
of the Holy City (Mark xiii. 3, Andrew, iu
this instance, with them), in the agony of
Gethsemane. When the betrayal is accora-
plished, Peter and John, after the first mo
ment of confusion, follow afar off, while the
others siniply seek safety in a hasty flight
(John xviii. 15). The personal acquaint
ance which existed between John and Caia
phas eiiiibled him to gain access both for
himself and Peter, but the latter remains in
" the porch, with the officers and servants,
while John himself apparently is admitted
to the council-chamber, and follows Jesus
thence, even to the priietoriura of the Ro
man Procurator (John xviii. 16, 19, 28).
Thence he followed, accorapanied probably
by his own raother, M.ary the mother of
Jesus, and Mary Magdalene, to the place
of crucifixion. The 'Teacher who had been
to hira as a brother leaves to him a brother's
duty. He is to be as a son to the mother
who is left desolate (John xix, .26, 27).
The siibbath that followed was spent, it
would appear, in the siime corapany. He
receives Peter, in spite of his denial, on the
old terms of friendship. It is to them that
Mary Magdalene first runs with the tidings
of the emptied sepulchre (John xx. 2);
they are thef first to go together to see what
the strange words meant. Not without
some bearing on their respective characters
is the fact that John is the raore irapetuous,
running on most eagerly to the rock-torab ;
Peter, the least restrained by awe, the first
to enter in and look (John xx. 4-6). For
at least eight d.ays they continued in Jeru
salera (John XX. 26). Then, in the interval
between the resurrection and the ascension,
we find them still together on the sea of
GalUee (John xxi, 1). Here too there is a
characteristic difference. John is the first
to recognize in the dim form seen in the
morning twilight the presence of his risen
Lord; Peter the flrst to plunge into the
water and swim towards the shore where
IT? stood calUng to them- (John xxi. 7).

The last words of the Gospel reveal to us
the deep affection which united the two
friends. It is not enough for Peter to know
his own future. That at once suggests the
question, " And what shall this man do? "
(John xxi. 21). The history of the Acts
shows the same union. They are of course
together at the ascension and on tho day of
Pentecost. Together they enter the 'Tem
ple as worshippers (Acts iii. 1) aud protest
against the threats of the Sanhedrim (iv.
13). The persecution which was pushed on
by Saul of Tarsus did not drive him or any
of the apostles from their post (viii. 1).
The sharper though shorter persecution
which followed under Herod Agrippa
brought a great sorrow to hira in the raar-
tyrdora of his brother (Acts xii. 2). His
friend was driven to seek safety in flight.
Fifteen years after St. Paul's first visit he
Avas still at Jerusalem, and helped to take
part in the settlement of the great contro
versy between the Jewish and the Gentile
Christians (Acts xv. 6). His subsequent
history we know only by tradition. There
can be no doubt that he removed from
Jerusalera .and settled at Ephesus, though
at what time is uncertain. Tradition goes
on to relate that in the persecution under
Domitiiin he is taken to Rome, and there,
by his boldness, though not by death, gains
the crown of martyrdom. The boiling oil
into which he is thrown has no power to
hurt hira. He is -then sent to labor in the .
raines, and Patraos is the place of his exile.
The accession of Nerva frees him from
danger, and he returns to Ephesus. Here
sies continue to show themselves, but he
meets them with the strongest possible pro
test. The very time of his death lies with
in the region of conjecture rather than of
history, and the dates that h.ave been as
signed for. it range from a. d. 89 to A. d.
120. John the Baptist was of the priestly
race by both parents, for his father Zacha
rias was himself a priest of the course of
Abia, or Abijah (1 Chr. xxiv. 10), offering
incense at the very tirae when a son was
proraised to hira ; arid Elizabeth was of
the daughters of Aaron (Luke i. 5). His
birth — a birth not according to . the ordi
nary laws of nature, but through the mir.ac-
ulous interposition of almighty power —
was foretold by an angel sent from God,
and is related at length in the first chapter
of the Gospel of St. Luke. The birth of
John preceded by six months that of our
Lord. John was ordained to be a Nazarite
from his birth (Luke i. 15). Dwelling by
himself in the wild and thinly peopled
region westward of the Dead Sea, he pre
pared himself for the wonderful office to
which' he had been divinely called. The
very appearance ofthe holy Baptist was of
itself a lesson to his countryraen; lu,- dresj

JOHN THE BAPTIST

310

JOHN, GOSPEL or

wni tl.at of the old prophets — a garment
woven of camel's hair (2 K.'i. 8), attached
to the body by a leathern girdle. His
food was such as the desert afforded —
loc^usts (Lev. xi. 22) and wild honey (Ps.
lx.«xi. 16). And now the long secluded
hermit came forth to the discharge of his
office. His supernatural birth — his hard
ascetic life — his reputation for extraordina
ry sanctity — and the generally prevailing
expectation that some great one was about
to appear — these causes, without the aid
of miraculous power, for "John did no
mir.acle " (John x. 41), were sufficientto at
tract to hira a great multitude from " every
quarter" (Matt. iu. 5). Brief and startUng
was his first exhortation to them, "Repent
ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand."
Many of every class pressed forward to
confess their sins and to be baptized. The
preparatory baptism of John was a visible
sign to the people, and a distinct acknowl
edgment by them, that a hearty renuncia
tion of sin and a real amendment of life
were necessary for admission into the king
dom of heaven, which the Baptist pro
claimed to be at hand. But the fundamen
tal distinction between John's baptism unto
repentance, and that baptism accompanied
with the gift of the Holy Spirit wliich our
Lord afterwards ordained, is clearly marked
by John himself (Matt. iii. 11, 12). Jesus
himself came from Galilee to Jordan to be
b.aptized of John. [Jesus.] From inci
dental notices we learn that John and his
disciples continued to baptize some tirae
after our Lord entered upon his ministry
(see John iii. 23, iv. 1 ; Acts xix. 3). We
gather also that John instructed his disci
ples in certain moral and religious duties,
as fasting (Matt. ix. 14 ; Luke v. 33) and
prayer (Luke xi. 1). But shortly after he
had given his testiraony to the Messiah,
John's public ministry was brought to a
close. In daring disregard of tbe divine
laws, Herod Antipas had taken to himself
the wife of his brother Philip ; and when
John reproved him for this, as well as for
other sins (Luke iii. 19), Herod cast him
into prison. The place of his confinement
was the castle of Machaerus — a fortress
on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. It
was here that reports reached him of
the miracles which our Lord was working
in Judaea. Respecting the message which
John sent to our Saviour-, see Jesus, p. 294.
Nothing but the death of the Baptist would
satisfy the resentment of Herodias. A
court festival was kept at Machaerus in
honor of the king's birthday. After sup
per, the daughter of Herodias came in and
danced before tho company, and so charmed
was the king by her grace th.at he promised
with an oath to give her whatsoever she
should ask. Salorae, prompted by her
abandoned mother, demanded the head of

John the Biiptist. Herod gave instructioni
to an officer of his guard, who went and
executed John in the prison, and his head
was brought to feast the eyes of the adul-
teress whose sins he had denounced. His
death is supposed to have occurred just
before the third passover, in the course of
the Lord's ministry.
John, Gospel of. No doubt has been
entertained at any time in tbe Church,
either of the canonical authority of this
Gospel, or of its being written by St. John.
Ephesus and Patmos are the two places
mentioned by early writers as the place
where this gospel was written ; and the
weight of evidence seems to prepondeiate
in favor of Ephesus. The Apostle's sojourn
at Ephesus probably began after St. Paul's
Epistle to the Ephesians was written, i. e,
after a, d, 62, Eusebius specifies the
fourteenth year of Domitian, i. e. a. d. 95,
as the year of his banishment to Patmos.
Probably the date of the Gospel may lie
about midway between these two, about
a. d. 78. After the destruction of Jerusa--
lem A. D. 69, Ephesus probably became tho
centre ofthe active life of Eastern Christen
dom. It contained a large church of faith •
ful Christians, a multitude of zealous Jews,
an indigenous population devoted to the
worship of a strange idol whose image was
borrowed from the East, its name from
the West. The Gospel was obviously ad
dressed primarily to Christians, not to
heathens. There can be little doubt that
the main object of St. John, who wrote
after the other Evangelists, is to supple
ment their narratives, which were almost
confined to our Lord's life in Galilee. [See
further. Gospel.] The following is an
abridgment of its contents : A. The Pro
logue, i. 1-18. B. The History, i. 19-xx. 29.
a. Various events relating to our Lord's
ministry, narrated in connection with seven
journeys, i. 19-xii. 50 : 1. First journey,
into Judaea and beginning of his ministry,
i. 19-ii. 12. 2. Second journey, at the
Passover in the first year of His minist(y,
ii. 13-iv. 3. Third journey, in the second
ye.ar of His ministry, about the Passover,
V. 4. Fourth journey, about the Passover,
in the third year of His ministry, beyond
Jordan, vi. 5, Fifth journey, six months
before his death, begun at the Feast of
Tabernacles, vU.-x. 21. 6, Si.xth journey,
about the Feast of Dedication, x. 22r42, 7.
Seventh journey in Judaea towards Beth
any, xi, 1-54. 8, Eighth journey, before His
last Passover, xi, 55-xii, b. History of the
death of Christ, xiu.-xx. 29, 1. Preparation
for His Passion, xiii.-xvii. 2. The circum
stances of His Passion and Death, xviu.,
xix, 3, His Resurrection, and the ] roofs of
it, XX. 1-29. C. The Conclusion, ix. 30-
xxi. : 1. Scope of the foregoing his! -ry, xx
30, 31. 2. Confirmation ofthe aut)' rityof

JOHN, liPlSTLES OP

311

JOKTHEEL

the Evangelist by additional historical facts,
and by the testimony of the elders of the
Church, xxi. 1-24. 3. Reason of the ter
mination of the history, xxi. 25.
John, The First Epistle General
of. There can be no doubt that the Apos
tle John was the author of this Epistle.
Like the Gospel it was probably written
ftom Ephesus, and most likely at the close
of the first century. It was primarily meant
for tho churches of Asia under St, John's
' inspection, to whom he had already orally
delivered his doctrine (i, 3, u. 7), In the
introduction (i, 1-4) the Apostle states the
purpose of his Epistle, It is to declare the
Word of life to those whom he is address
ing, in order that he and they might be
united in true comiriunion with each other,
and with God the Father, and his Son Jesus
Christ. The first part of the Epistle may
be considered to end at ii. 28. The Apostle
begins afresh with the doctrine of sonship
or communion at ii. 29, and returns to the
same theme at iv. 7, His lesson through
out is, that the means of union with God
are, on the part of Christ, his atoning blood
(i. 7, ii. 2, iu. 5, iv. 10, 14, v. 6) and advo
cacy (ii. 1) — on the part of man, holiness,
(i. 6), obedience (ii. 3), purity (iii. 3),
faith (iii. 23, iv. 3, v. 5), and above all love
(ii. 7, iii. 14, iv. 7, v. 1). There are two
doubtful passages iu this Epistle, ii. 23,
" But he that acknowledgeth the Son hath
the Father also," and v. 7, " For there are
three that bear record in heaven, the Father,
the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these
three are one." It would appear without
doubt that they are not genuine.
John, The Second and Third
Epistles of. These two Epistles are
placed by Eusebius in the class of " dis
puted " books, and he appears himself to
be doubtful whether they were written by
the Evangelist, or by some other John.
The evidence of antiquity in their favor is
not very strong, but yet is considerable.
In the 5th century they were almost uni
versally received. The title and contents
of the Epistles are strong arguments
against, a fabricator, whereas they would
account for their non-universal reception
in early times. The Second Epistle is ad
dressed IxXexrrj xvQla. An individual wo
m.an who had children, and a sister and
nieces, is clearly indicated. Whether her
name is given, and if so, what it is, has
been doubted. According to one interpre
tation she is " the Lady Electa," to another,
" the elect Kyrta," to a third, " the elect
Lady." The English version is probably
right, though here too we should have ex
pected the article. The Third Epistle is
addressed to Gains or Caius. We have no
reason for identifying, him with Caius of
Macedonia (Acts xix. 29), or with Caius of
Derbe (Acts xx. 4), or with Caius of Cor-

intli (Rom. xvi. 23; 1 Cor. i. 14), or with
Caius Bishop of Ephesus, or witii Caius
Bishop of Thessalonica, or with Caius
Bishop of Pergamos. He was probably a
convert of St. John (Ep. iii. 4), and a lay
man of wealth and distinction (Ep. iu. 5)
in some city near Ephesus. The objed ot
St. John in writing the Second Epistle was
to warn the lady to whom he wrote against
abetting the teaching known as that of Ba
silides and his followers, by perhaps an
undue kindness displayed by her towards
the preachers of the false doctrine. The
Third Epistle was written for the purpose
of commending to the kindness and hospi
tality of Caius some Christians who were
strangers ih the place where he Uved. It
is probable that these Christians carried
this letter with thera to Caius as their in
troduction. Joi'ada, high-priest after his father EU-
ashib (Neh. xiii. 28).
Joi'akim, a, high-priest, son of the re
nowned Jeshua (Neh. xii. 10).
Joi'arita. 1. A layraan who returned
from Babylon with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 16). 2.
The founder of one of the courses of
priests, elsewhere called in full Jehoiarib
(Neh. xii. 6, 19). 3. A Shilonite — i.- e.
probably a descendant of Shelah the son
of Judah (Nell. xi. 5).
Jok'.deam, a city of Judah, in tho
mountains (Josh. xv. 56), apparently south
of Hebron.
Jo'kim, one of the sons of Shelah the
son of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 22), of whom
nothing further is known.
Jok'meam, a city of Ephraim, given
with its suburbs to the Kohathite Levites
(1 Chr. vi. 68). The situation of Jokmeara
is to a certain extent indicated in 1 K. iv.
12, where it is naraed with places which we
know to have been in the Jordan valley at
the extreme cast boundary of the tribe.
Jok'neam, a city of the tribe of Zebu
lun, allotted with its suburbs to the Mera
rite Levites (Josh. xxi. 34). Its modern
site is Tell Kaimon, an eminence which
stands just below the eastern termination
of Carmel.
Jok'shan, a son of Abriiham and Ketu
rah (Gen. xxv. 2, 3; 1 Chr. i. 32), whose
sons were Sheba and Dedan,
Jok'tan, son of Eber (Gen. x. 25; 1
Chr. i. 19), and the father of the Joktanite
Arabs. Scholars are agreed in placing the
settlements of Joktan in the south of thn
peninsula. The original limits are stated
in the Bible : " their dweMing was from Me-
sha, as thou goest unto Sephar, 6 mount of
the East" (Gen. x. 30), The ancestor of
the' great southern peoples was called Kah-
tin, who, say the Arabs, was the same as
Joktan. Jok'theel. 1. A city in the low coun
try of Judah (.Tosl xv. 38), named next to

JONA

312

JONATHAN

Laohish. 2. " God-subdued,"., the title
given by Amaziah to the cliff (A. V. Selah)
— the stronghold of the Edomites — after
he had captured it frora thera (2 K. xiv. 7).
The parallel narrative of 2 Chr. xxv. 11-13
supplies fuller details.
Jo'na, the father of the Apostle Peter
(John i. 42), who is hence addressed as
Simon Barjona {i. e. son of Jona) in Matt.
xvi. 17.
Jon'adab. 1. Son of Shimeah and
nephew of David. He is described as
"very subtU" (2 Sam. xiii. 3). His age
natur.ally made him the friend of his cousin
Amnon, heir to the throne (2 Sam. xiu. 3).
lie gave him the fatal advice for insnaring
his sister Tamar (5, 6). Again, when, in a
later stage of the same tragedy, Amnon
was murdered by Absalom, and the exag
gerated report reached David that all the
princes were slaughtered, Jonadab was al
ready aware of the real state of the case
(2 Siim. xiii. 32, 33). 2. Jer. xxxv. 6, 8,
10, 14, 16, 18, 19. [Jehonadab.]
Jo'nah, the fifth of the Minor Prophets,
according to the order of our Bible, was
the son of Amittai, and a native of Gath-
hepher, a town of Lower Giililee in Zebu
lun (2 K. xiv. 25). He Uved after the
reign of Jehu, when the losses of Israel (2
K. X. 32) began ; and probably not till the
latter part of the reign of Jeroboam II.
The general opinion is, that Jonah was the
first of the prophets. The king of Nine
veh at this time is supposed to have been
Pul, who is placed b. c. 750. Our English
Bible gives b. c. 862. Having already, as
it seems, prophesied to Israel, he was sent
to Nineveh. The time was one of political
revival in Israel ; but ere long the Assyr
ians were to be eraployed by God as a
scourge upon them. The prophet shrank
from a commission which he felt sure
would result (iv. 2) in the sparing of a
hostile city. He attempted therefore to es
cape to Tarshish. The providence of God,
however, watched over him, first in a
storm, and then in his being swallowed by
a large fish for the space of three days and
three nights. [On this subject see art.
Whale.] After his deliverance, Jonah ex
ecuted his coraraission; and the king, " be
lieving hira to be a minister from the su
preme deity of the n.ation," and h.aving
heard of his miraculous deliverance, ordered
a general fast, and averted the threatened
judgment. But the prophet, not frora per
sonal, but national feelings, grudged the
mercy shown to a heathen nation. He was
therefore taught, by the significant lesson
of the " gourd," whose growth and decay
brought the truth at once home to him-, that
lie was sent to testify by deed, as other
prophets would afterwards testify by word,
the capacity of Gentiles for salvation, and
the design of God to make them partaker-s

of it. This was " the sign of the prophc4
Jonas " (Luke xi. 29, 30). But the resur
rection of Christ itself was also shadowed
forth in the history of the prophet (Matt.
xii. 39, 41, xvi. 4). The mission of Jona,h
Wii's highly symbolical. The facts con
tained a concealed prophecy. The old tradi
tion made the burial-place of Jonah to be
Gathhepher : the modern tradition places it
at Nebi- Yunus, opposite Mosul.
Jo'nan, son of Eliiikim,. in the geneal
ogy of Christ (Luke iu. 30),
Jo'nas, 1. The prophet Jonah (Matt.
xii. 39, 40, 41, xvi. 4). 2, Father of Peter
(John xxi. 15-17). [Jona.]
Jon'athan, that is, "the gift of Jeho
vah," the eldest- son of king Saul. He was
regarded in his father's lifetime as heir to
the throne. Like Saul, he was a raan of
great strength and activity (2 Sam. i. 23).
He was also famous for the peculiar martial
exercises in which his tribe excelled — arch
ery and slinging (1 Chr. xii. 2). His bow
was to him what the spear was to his father :
" the bow of Jonathan turned not back "
(2 Sam. i. 22). Itwas always about him
(1 Sam. xviii. 4, xx. 35). His life may be
divided into two main parts. 1. The war
with the PhiUstines, comraonly called, frora
its locality, "the war of Michmash" (1
Sam. xiU. 21), The Philistines were still
in the general command of the country ; an
officer was stationed at Geba, either the
same as Jonathan's position or close to it.
In a sudden act of youthful daring Jona
than -slew this officer, and thus gave the
signal for a general revolt. But it was a
premature attempt. The Philistines poured
in from the plain, and the tyranny became
raore deeply rooted than ever. Frora this
oppression, as Jonathan by his forraer act
had been the first to provoke it, so now ho
was the first to deliver his people. With
out coraniunicating his project to any one,
except the young raan, whora, like all the
chiefs of that age, he retained as his arraor-
bearer, he sallied forth from Gibeah to at
tack the garrison of the PhiUstines stationed
on the other side of the steep defile of
Michmash (xiv. 1). A panic seized tho
garrison, thence spread to the camp, alid
thence to the surrounding hordes of marau
ders ; an earthquake combined with tho
terror of the moment. Saul and his little
band had watched in astonishment the wild
retreat from the heights of Gibeah : he now
joined in the pursuit. Jonathan had nok
heard of the riish curse (xiv. 24) which
Saul invoked on' any one»who ate before the
evening, and he tasted the honey which lay
on the ground as they passed through the
forest. Jephthah's dreadful sacrifice would
have been repeated; but the people inter
posed in behalf of the hero of that greal
day; and Jonathan was saved (xiv. 24-4t>).
2. But the chief interest of bis career i«

JONATH-ELEM-RECHOKIM 313

JORDAN

di rived from the friendship with David,
which beg.an on the day of David's return
from the victory over the champion of Gath,
and continued till his death. Their last
meeting was in the forest of Ziph, during
Saul's pursuit of David (1 Sara, xxiii. 16-
18). From this time forth we hear no
more till the battle of Gilboa. In that battle
he fell, with his two brothers and his father,
aud his corpse shared their fate (1 Sam.
xxxi, 2, 8), His ashes were buried flrst
at Jabesh-Gilead {ib. 13), but afterwards
removed with those of his father to Zelah
in Benjamin (2 Sam. xxi. 12). The news
of his death occasioned the celebrated elegy
of David. He left a son, Mephibosheth.
[Mephibosheth.] 2. Son of Shimeah,
brother of Jonadab, and nephew of David'
(2 Sam. xxi. 21 ; 1 Chr. xx. 7). Like Da
vid, he engaged in a single combat, and
slew a gigantic Philistine of Gath (2 Sara.
xxi. 21). 3. The son of Abiathar, the
high-priest, is the last descendant of Eli
of whom wo hear anything. He appears
on the day' of David's flight from Absalom
(2 Sam. XV. 36, xvii. 15-21), and on the
diiy of Soloraon's inauguration (I K. i. 42,
43). 4. The son of Shage the Hararite (1
Chr. xi. 34; 2 Sara. xxiu. 32). He was
one of David's heroes. 5. The son, or de
scendant, of Gershora the son of Moses
(Judg. xviii. 30). [Micah.] 6. One of
the Bene-Adin (Ezr. viii. 6). 7. A priest,
the sou of Asahel, in the tirae of Ezra
(Ezr, X. 15), 8. A priest of the family of
MelicUj iu the days of Joiakim, son of
Jeshua (Neh. xii. 14, 9. One of the sons
of Kareah, and brother of Johanan (Jer.
xl. 8). He was one of the captains of the
army who had escaped frora Jerusiilem in
the fiuiil assault by the Chaldeans, and
with his brother Johan.an resorted to Geda-
Uah at Mizpah : frora that tirae we hear
nothing more of liiin. 10. Son of Joiada,
and his successor in the high-priesthood
(Neh. xu. 11, 22, 23). 11. Father of
Zechariah, a priest who blew the trumpet
at the dedication ofthe wall (Neh. xii. 35.)
12. 1 Esdr. viu. 32. [See No. 6.]
Jo'nath-e'lem-re'ohokim, "a dumb
dove of (in) distant places," a phrase found
once only in the Bible as a heading to the
56th psalm. Aben Ezra, who regards Jo
nath Elem Rechokim as merely indicating
the modulation or the rhythm ofthe psalm,
appears to corae the nearest to the mean
ing of the passage.
Jop'pa, or Japho, now Jaffa, a town
on the S. W. coast of Palestine, in the por
tion of Dan (Josh. xix. 46). Having a har
bor attached to it — though always, as still,
a dangerous one — it became the port of
Jerusalem in the days of Soloraon, and has
been ever since. Here Jonah "took ship
to flee from the presence of his Maker."
Here, on tbe house-top of Simon the tan

ner, " by the seaside," St. Peter had hia
vision of tolerance (Acts xi. 5). The ex
isting town contains about 4000 inhabitants.
Jo'rah, the ancestor of a family of 112
who returned frora Babylon with Ezra (Ezr.
ii. 18). In Neh. vii. 24 he appears urder
the name Hariph, or raore correctly the
same family are represented as the Bcne-
Hariph. Jo'rai. One of the Gadites dwelling in
GUead in Bashan, in the reign of Jothan
king of Judah (] Chr. v. 13).
Jo'ram. 1. Son of Ahab; king of
Isriiel (2 K viU. 16, 25, 23, 29; ix. 14, 17,
21-23, 29). [Jehoram, 1.] 2. Son of
Jehoshaphat; king of Judah (2 K. viu. 21,
23, 24; IChr. iii. 11; 2 Chr. xxii. 6, 7;
Matt. i. 8). [Jehoram, 2,] 3. A priest
in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii,
8), 4. A Levite, ancestor of Shelomith in
the time of David (1 Chr, xxvi, 25). 5. Son
of Toi, king of Hamath (2 Sara, vUi, 10).
[Hadoram.] 6. 1 Esd. i. 9. {Jozab.vd, 3.]
Jor'dan, the one river of Palestine, has
a course of little more than 200 miles, from
the roots of Anti-Lebanon to the head of
the Dead Sea. It is the river of the " great
plain" of Palestine — the "Descender" —
if not " the river of God " in the book of
Psalms, at least that of His chosen people
throughout their history. There were fords
over against Jericho, to which point the
men of Jericho pursued the spies (Josh. ii.
7; comp. Judg. iii. 28). ¦ Higher up, per
haps over against Succoth, someway above
where the little river Jabbok {Zerka) enters
the Jordan, were the fords or passages of
Bethbarah (probably the Bethabara of the
Gospel), where Gideon lay in wait for the
Midianites (Judg. vii. 24), and where the
men of Gilead slew the Ephraimites (xii,
6). These fords undoubtedly witnessed
the first recorded passage of the Jordan in
the O. T. (Gen. xxxii. 10). Jordan was
next crossed, over against Jericho, by Josh
ua the son of Nun (Josh. iv. 12, 13).
From their vicinity to Jerusalera the lower
fords were ranch used ; David, it is proba
ble, passed over thera in one instance to
fight the Syrians (2 Sara. x. 17) ; and sub
sequently, when a fugitive hiraself, in his
way to Mahanaim (xvU. 22) on the east
bank. Thus there were two customary
places at which the Jordan was fordable ;
and it must have been at one of these, if
not at both, that baptism was afterwards ad-
rainistered by St. John, and by the disci
ples of our Lord. Where our Lord was
baptized is not stated expressly ; but it was
probably at the upper ford. 'These fords
were rendered so rauch the more precious
in those days frora two circumstances.
First, it does not appear that there were
then any bridges thrown over, or boats
regularly established on, the Jordan ; and
secondly, because " Jordan overflowed all

JORIM

314

JOSEPH

his banks all tho time of harvest " (Josh.
ui. 15). The channel or bed of the river
became brimful, so that the level of the
wiiter and of the banks was then the same.
The last feature which remains to be noticed
in the Scriptural account of the Jordan is
its frequent mention as a boundary : " over
Jordan," " this," and " the other side," or
" beyond Jordan," were expressions as fa
mihar to the Israelites as "across the wa
ter," "this," and "the other side ofthe
Channel," are to English ears. In one
seise indeed, that is, in so far as it was the
eastern boundary of the land of Canaan, it
was the eastern boundary of the promised
land (Nura. xxxiv. 12). The Jordan rises
from several sources near Paniura {Bd-
nids), and passes through the lakes of
Merom {HUleh) and Gennesaret. The two
principal features in its course are its de
scent and its windings. From its fountain-
tain heads to the Dead Sea, it rushes down
one continuous inclined plane, only broken
by a series of rapids or precipitous falls.
Between the lake of Gennesaret and the
Dead Sea there are 27 rapids ; the depres
sion of the lake of Gennesaret below the
level of the Mediterranean is 653 feet; and
that of the Dead Sea 1316 feet. Its sinu
osity is not so remarkable in the upper part
of its course. The only tributaries to the
Jordan below Gennesaret are the Yaj'muk
(Hieromax) and the Zerka (Jabbok), Not
a single city ever crowned the banks ofthe
Jordan. Still Bethshan and Jericho to the
W., Gerasa, Pella, and Gadara to the E. of
it, were iraportant cities, and caused a good
deal of traffic between the two opposite
banks. The physical features of the Ghor,
through which the Jordan flows, are treated
,,of under Palestine.
Jo'rim, son of Matthat, in the geneal
ogy of Christ (Luke ui. 29).
Jor'koam, either a descendant of Caleb
the son of Hezron, or the name of a place
in the tribe of Judah (1 Chr. u. 44).
Jos'abad. Properly Jozaead, the
Gederathite, one of the warriors of Ben
jamin who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr.
xii. 4),
Jos'aphat = Jehoshaphat king of Ju
dah (Matt, i, 8).
Jo'se, son of Eliezer, in the genealogy
of Jesus Christ (Luke iii. 29).
Jos'edech = Jehozadak the son 6t
Seraiah (Hag. i. 1, 12, 14, ii. 2, 4 ; Zech.
vi. 11),
Jo'seph, 1, The elder of the two sons
of Jacob by Rachel, is flrst raentioned when
a youth, seventeen years old, Jacob seeras
then to have staid at Hebron with the
aged Isaac, while his sons kept his flocks.
Joseph, we read, brought the evil report of
his brethren to his father, and they hated
hira because his father loved him more than
them, as the " son of his old age," and had

shown hia preference by making liun a dress
which appears to have been a long tumo
with sleeves, worn by youths and maidens
of the richer class (Gen, xxxvii, 2). The
hatred of Joseph's brethren was increased
by his telUng of a dream foreshowing
that they would bow down to him, which
was followed by another of the same import
¦They had gone to Shechem to feed the flock ;
and Joseph was sent thither from the vale of
Hebron by his father to bring hira word of
their welfare and that of the flock. They
were not at Shechem, but were gone to
Dothan, which appears to have been not
far distant, pasturing their flock Uke the
Arabs of the present day, wherever the
wild country was unowned. On Joseph's
approach, his brethren, except Reuben, re
solved to kill him ; but Reuben saved him,
persuading them to cast him into ii dry pit,
to the intent that he might restore him to
his father. Accordingly, when Joseph was
corae, they stripped him of his tunic and
cast him into the pit, "and they sat down
to eat bread ; and they lifted up their eyes
and looked, and, behold, a company ot
Ishraeelites came frora Gilead with their
camels," Judah suggested to his brethren
to sell Joseph to the Ishmeelites, and ac
cordingly they took him out of the pit and
sold him "for twenty [shekels] of silver"
(ver. 28). His brethren pretended to Jacob
that Joseph had been killed by some wUd
beast, taking to him the tunic stained with
a kid's blood. The Midianites sold Joseph
in Egypt to Potiphar, "an officer of Pha
raoh, captain of the executioners, an Egyp
tian" (xxxix. 1 ; comp. xxxvii. 36). Joseph
prospered in the house of the Egyptian,
who, seeing that God blessed hira, and
pleased with his good service, " set hira
over his house, and all [that] he had he
gave into his hand" (xxxix. 4, corap. 6).
His master's wife, with the well-known
profligacy of the Egyptian women, tempted
him, and failing, charged him with the
crime she would have made hira commit.
Potiphar, incensed against Joseph, cast him
into prison, where he remained for at least
two years, and perhaps longer. In the
prison, as in Potiphar's house, Joseph was
found worthy of complete trust, and the
keeper of the prison placed everything
under his control. After a wlule, Pharaoh
was incensed against two of his officers,
"the chief of the cup-bearers" and the
"chief of the bakers," and cast them into
the prison where Joseph was. Each dreamed
a prophetic dream, which Joseph interpret
ed. "After two years," Joseph's deliver
ance came. Pharaoh dreamed two pro
phetic dreams. "He stood by the river
[the Nile]. And, behold, coming up out
of the river seven kine [or 'heifers'], |
beautiful in appearance and fat-fleshed; |
and they fed in tiie marsh-grass. And, he* ^

JOSEPH

315

JLBEPfl

hold, seven other kine coming up after
them out of the river, evil in appearance,
arid lean-fleshed" (xii, 1-3). These, after
wards described still raore strongly, ate up
tho first seven, and yet, as is said in the
second account, when they had eaten thera
remained as lean as before (xii, 1-4, 17-21),
Then Pharaoh had a second dreara: "Be
hold, seven ears of corn coming up on one
stalk, fat [or 'fuU,' ver, 22] and good.
And, behold, seven ears, thin and blasted
with the east wind, sprouting forth after
them" (ver. 5, 6). These, also described
more strongly in the second account, de
voured the first seven ears (ver. 5-7, 22-
24). In the morning Pharaoh sent for the
"scribes "and the "wise men," and they
were unable to give him an interpretation.
Then the chief of the cup-bearers remem
bered Joseph, and told Pharaoh how a
young Hebrew, " servant to the captain of
the executioners," had interpreted his and
his fellow-prisoner's dreams. " Then Pha
raoh sent and called Joseph, and they made
him hasten out of the prison : and he shaved
[himself], and changed his raiment, and
came unto Pharaoh" (ver. 14). The king
then related his dreams, and Joseph, when
he had disclairaed huraan wisdora, declared
to hira that they were sent of God to fore
warn Pharaoh. There was essentially but
one dreara. Both kine and ears symbolized
years. There were to be seven years of
great plenty in Egypt, and after them seven
years of consuming and "very heavy fam
ine." On the interpretation it may be
remarked, that the kine represented the
aniraal products, and the ears of corn the
vegetable products, the most iraportant
object in each class representing the whole
class. Having interpreted the dream, Jo
seph counselled Pharaoh to choose a wise
man and set him over the country, in order
that he should take the fifth part of the
produce of the seven years of plenty against
the years of famine. To this high post the
king appointed Joseph, made him not only
governor of Egypt, but second only to the
sovereign. He also " gave hira to w-ife
Aseniith daughter of Potipherah, priest [or
' prince '] of On." Joseph's first actwas to
go throughout aU the land of Egypt. Dur
ing the seven plenteous years there was a
very abundant produce, and he gathered
the fifth part, as he had advised Pharaoh,
and laid it up. Before the year of famine
Asenath bare Joseph two sons. When the
seven j;ood years had passed, the famine
began (^Gen. xii. 54-57). Faraines are
not very unfrequent in the history of
Ji'gypt [Famine.] After the faraine had
lasted for a tirae, apparently two years,
Joseph gathered up all the money that
was found in the land of Egypt, and in
the land of Canaan, for the corn which
Ihey bought; and Joseph brought the

money into Pharaoh's house (xlvii. 13, 14)
When all the money of Epypt^ and Ca>
naan was exhausted, barter became neces-
sary. Joseph then obtained all the cattle of
Egypt, and in the next year, all the land,
except that of the priests, and apparently,
as a consequence, the Egyptians themselves.
He demanded, however, only a fifth part
of the produce as Pharaoh's right. Early
in the time of famine, which prevailed
equally in Canaan and Egypt, Jacob re
proved his helpless sons, and sent thera to
Egypt, where he knew there was corn to be
bought. Benjarain alone he kept with hira.
Joseph was now governor, an Egyptian in
habits and speech. His brethren did not
know hira, grown, from the boy they had
sold,into a raan. Joseph reraerabered his
dreams, and behaved to them as a stranger,
using, as we afterwards learn, an inter
preter, and spoke h.ard words to them, and
accused them of being spies. In defending
themselves they spoke of their liouseliold.
The whole story of Joseph's treatment of
his brethren is so graphically told in Gen.
xlii.-xlv., and is so familiar, that it is unne
cessary here to repeat it. After the re
moval of his faraily into Egypt, Jacob and
his house abode in the land of Goshen,
Joseph still ruUng the country. Here
Jacob, when near his end, gave Joseph a
portion above his brethren, doubtless in
cluding the "parcel of ground" at She-
chera, his future burying-place (corap. John
iv. 5). Then he blessed his sons, Joseph
raost earnestly of all, and died in Egypt.
"And Joseph fell upon his face, and wept
upon him, and kissed him" (1. 1). When
he had caused him to be embalmed by "his
servants the physicians," he carried him to
Canaan, aud laid him in the cave of Mach
pelah, the burying-place of his fathers.
'Then it was that his brethren feared that,
their father being dead, Joseph would pun
ish them, and that he strove to remove
their fears. We know no raore of Joseph
than that he lived " a hundred and ten
years," having been more than ninety in
Egypt ; that he " saw Ephraim's children
of the third" [generation], and that "the
children also of Machir the son of Manas
seh were borne upon Joseph's knees ; " and
that dying he took an oath of his brethren
that they should carry up his bones to the
land of promise : thus showing in his latest
action the faith (Heb. xi. 22) which had
guided his whole life. Like his father he
was embalmed, " and he was put in a cofiSn
in Egypt" (1.26). His trriSt Moses kept,
and laid the bones of Joseph in his inherit
ance in Shechem, iu the territory of Ephra
ira his offspring. As to the dynasty which
ruled in Egypt during Joseph's residence,
see Egypt. 2. Father of Igal who repre
sented the tribe of Issachar among the spies
(Num. xiii. 7). 3. A lay IsracUte of tha

JOSEPH

316

JOSHUA

family of Bani who was compelled by Ezra
to put away his foreign wife (Ezr. x. 42) .
4. Representative of the priestly family of
Shebaniah, in the next generation after
the Return from Captivity (Neh. xii. 14).
5. One of the ancestors of Christ (Luke iii.
30), son of Jonan. 6. Another ancestor
of Christ, son of Judah (Luke iii. 26). 7.
Another, son of Mattathias (Luke iu. 24).
8. Son of Heli, and reputed father of Jesus
Christ. All that is told us of Joseph in the
N. T. raay be summed up in a few words.
He was a just man, and of the house and
Lneage of David. The public registers
also contained his name under the reckon
ing of the house of David (John i. 45 ; Luke
iii. 23; Matt i. 20; Luke U. 4). He lived
at Nazareth in GaUlee, and it is probable
that his faraUy had been settled there for
at least two preceding generations, possibly
frora the tirae of Matthat, the coramon
grandfather of Joseph and Mary, since
Mary lived there too (Luke i. 26, 27). He
espoused Mary, the daughter and heir of
his uncle Jacob, and before he took her
horae as his wife received the angeUc com
munication Tocorded in Matt, i, 20, When
Jesus was 12 years old Joseph and Mary
took him with them to keep the Passover
at Jerusalera, and when they returned to
Nazareth he continued to act as a father to
the child Jesus, and was reputed to be so
indeed. But here our knowledge of Joseph
ends. That he died before our Lord's
crucifixion, is indeed tolerably certain, by
what is related, John xix, 27, and perhaps
Mark vi, 3 may imply that he was then
(lead. But where, when, or how he died,
we know not, 9. Joseph of Arima-
THAEA, a rich and pious Israelite, is denom
inated by Mark (xv, 43), an honorable
counsellor, by which we are probably to
Bnderstand that he was a member of the
Great Council, or Sanhedrim, He is fur
ther characterized as " a good man and a
just" (Luke xxiii. 50), one of those who,
bearing in their hearts tho words of their old
prophets, were waiting for the kingdora of
God (Mark xv. 43 ; Luke ii. 25, 38, xxiii.
51). We are expressly told that he did not
" consent to the counsel and deed " of his
colleagues in conspiring to bring about the
death of Jesus ; but he seems to have lacked
the courage to protest against their judg
ment. At all events we know that he
shrank, through fear of his countryraen,
frora professing himself openly a disciple
of our Lord. ^ The crucifixion seems to have
wrought in him the same clear conviction
that it wrought in the Centurion who stood
by the cross ; for on the very evening of
that dreadful day, when the triumph of the
chief priests and rulers seemed complete,
Joseph " went in boldly unto Pilate and
craved the body of Jesus," Pilate con
sented. Joseph ii id Nicoderaus then, hav

ing enfolded the safred body in the hnen
shroud which Joseph had bought, consigned
it to a tomb hewn in a rock, a tomb where
no human corpse had ever yet been laid.
The tomb was in a garden belonging tp
Joseph, and close to the place of cruci- ,
fixion. There is a tradition that he was
one of the seventy. disciples. 10. Joseph,
called Barsabas, and surnatned Justus;
one of the two persons chosen by the as
sembled church (Acts i. 23) as worthy to
fill the place in the Apostolic company from
which Judas h.ad fallen,
Jo'ses. 1. Son of Eliezer, in the gene
alogy of Christ (Luke Ui, 29), 2, One of
the Lord's brethren (M.att. xiii, 55 ; Mark
vi. 3), 3. Joses Barnabas (Acts iv. 36).
[Barnabas.] Jo'shah, a prince of the house of Sim
eon, son of Amaziah, in the days of Heze
kiah (1 Chr. iv. 34, 38-41).
Josh'aphat, the Mithnite, one of Da
vid's guard (1 Chr. xi. 43).
Joshavi'ah, the son of Elnaam, and
one of David's guards (1 Chr. xi. 46).
Joshbek'ashah, son of Heman, head
of the 17th course of musicians (1 Clir.
xxv. 4, 24).
Josh'ua. His name appears in the
various forms of Hoshea, Oshea, Jehosh
ua, Jeshua, and Jesus. 1. The son of
Nun, of the tribe, of Ephraim (1 Chr. vii.
27), and was nearly forty years old when
he shared in the hurried triumph of the Ex- 1
odus. He is mentioned first in connection
with the fight against Amalek at Rephidini, I
when he was chosen by Moses to lead the :
Israelites (Ex. xvii. 9). When Moses as
cended Mount Sinai to receive for the first
time the two Tables, Joshua, who is caUed
his minister or servant, accompanied him
part of the way, and was the first to accost
him in his descent (Ex. xxxii. 17). Soon
afterwards he was one of the twelve chiefs
who were sent (Num. xiii. 17) to explore
the land of Cana.an, and one of the two
(xiv. 6) who gave an encouraging report
of their journey. The 40 years of wander
ing were almost passed, and Joshua was
one of the few survivors, when Moses,
shortly before his death, was directe.l (Num.
xxvii. 18) to invest Joshua solemnly and
publicly with definite authority, in connec
tion with Eleazar the priest, over the peo
ple. And after this was done, God Him
self gave Joshua a charge by the mouth of
the dying Lawgiver (Deut. xxxi. 14, 23).
Under the direction of God again renewed
(Josh. i. 1), Joshua assumed the command
of the people at Shittim, sent jpies into Jer
icho, crossed the Jordanj fortified a camp
at GUgal, circumcised the people, kept the
passover, and was visited by the Captain
of the Lord's Host. A miracle made the fall
of Jericho more terrible to the Ciinaanites.
In the first attack upon Ai the Israelitei

JOSHUA, BOOK OF

617

JOSIAH

wers repulsed : it fell at the second assault,
and the invaders marched to the relief of
Gibeon. In the great battle of Bethhoron
the Araorites were signally routed, and the
south country was open to the Israelites.
Joshua returned to the camp at Gilgal,
master of half of Palestine. In the north,
at tho waters of Merora, he defeated the
Can.aanites under Jabin king of Hazor, and
pursued his success to the gates of Zidon
and into the valley of Lebanon under Her
mon. In six years, six tribes with thirty-
one petty chiefs were conquered ; araongst
others the Anakira — the old terror of Is
rael — are especially recorded as destroyed
everywhere except in Philistia. Joshua,
now stricken in years, proceeded in con
junction with Eleazar and the heads of the
tribes to complete the division of the con
quered land; and when all was allotted,
Timnath-serah in Mount Ephraim was as
signed by the people as Joshua's peculiar
inheritance. After an interval of rest,
Joshua convoked an assembly from all Is
rael. He delivered two soleran addresses,
reminding thera of the marvellous fulfil
ment of God's promises to their fathers, and
warning thera of the conditions on which
their prosperity depended; and lastly, he
caused thera to renew their covenant with
God at Shechem, a place already famous
in connection with Jacob (Gen. xxxv. 4),
and Joseph (Josh. xXiv. 32). He died at
the age of 110 years, and was buried in his
own city, Tiranath-serah. 2. An inhab
itant of Bethsheraesh, in whose land was
the stone at which the mUch-kine stopped,
when they drew the ark of God with the
offerings of the Philistines frora Ekron to
Bethsheraesh (1 Sara. vi. 14, 18). 3. A
governor of the city who gave his name to
a gate of Jerusalera (2 K. xxiii. 8). 4.
Jeshua the son of Jozadak (Hag. i. 14, ii.
1; Zech. in. 1, &c.).
Joshua, Book of. This book has
been regarded by many critics as a part of
the Pentateuch, forming with the latter one
complete work ; but there do not appear to
be suflicient grounds for this opinion. The
fiict that the first sentence of Joshua begins
with a conjunction does not show any closer
connection between it and the Pentateuch
than exists between Judges and it. The
references in i. 8, viu. 31, xxUi. 6, xxiv.
26, to the "book of the law" rather show
that that book was distinct from Joshua.
Other references to events recorded in the
Pentateuch tend in the same direction. No
quotation (in the strict modern sense of the
word) from the Pentateuch can be found in
Joshua. — The book raay be regarded as
consisting of three parts : (I.) The con
quest of Canaan; (II.) The partition of
Canaan ; (III.) Joshua's farewell. I. The
preparations for tlie war and the passage
of the .lordan, ch. 1-5 ; the capture of Jeri

cho, 6 ; the conquest of the south, 7-10 ; the
conque'st of the north, 11 ; recapitulation,
12. II. Territory assigned to Reuben
Gad, and half Miinasseh, 13 ; the lot of Ca
leb and of the tribe of Judah, 14, 15 ; Ephrar
im and half Manasseh, 16, 17; Benja
min, 18 ; Simeon, Zebulun, Iss.achar, Asher,
Naphtali, and Dan, 19 ; the appointment of
six cities of refuge, 20 ; the assignment of
forty-eight cities to Levi, 21 ; the departure
of the trans-Jordanic tribes to their homes,
22. This part of the book has been aptly
corapared to the Doraesday-book of the
Norman conquerors of England. The doc
uments of which it consists were doubtless
the abstract of such reports as were s-ipplied
by the men whora Joshua sent out to de
scribe the land. In the course of time it
is probable that changes were' introduced
into their reports by transcribers adapting
them to the actual state of the country in
later times, when political divisions were
modified, new towns sprang up and oH
ones disappeared. III. Joshua's convoci/-
tion of the people and first address, 23 ; h s
second address at Shechera, and his deatl <,
24. Nothing is really known as to the au •
thorship of the book. Joshua himself is
generally named as the author by the Je-n ¦
ish writers and the Christian Fathers ; bu {
no contemporary assertion or sufficient liis
torical proof of the fact exists, and it can ¦
not be maintained without qualification.
The last verses (xxiv. 29-33) were obvi
ously added at a Later time. Some events,
such as the capture of Hebron, of Debii
(Josh. XV. 13-19, and Judg. i. 10-15), of
Leshem (Josh. xix. 47, and Judg. xviu,
7), and the joint occupation of Jerusalem
(Josh. XV. 63, and Judg, i. 21) probably
did not occur till after Joshua's death.
Josi'ah. 1. The son of Amon and
Jedidah, succeeded his father B. o. 641, in
the eighth year of his age, and reigned 31
years. His history is contained in 2 K,
xxii.-xxiv. 30 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv., xxxv. ; anil
the first twelve chapters of Jeremiah throw
rauch light upon the general character of
the Jews in his days. He began, in the
eighth year of his reign to seek the Lord ;
and in his twelfth year, and for six years
afterwards, in a personal progress through
out all the land of Judah and Israfil, he
destroyed everywhere high places, groves,
images, and all outwaird signs and relics of
idolatry. The temple was restored under a
special coraraission ; and in the course of
the repairs Hilkiah the priest found that
book of the Law of the Lord which quick
ened so remarkably the ardent zeal of- the
king. The great day of Josiah's life was
the day of the Passover in the eighteenth
year of his reign. After this, his endeavors
to abolish every trace of idolatry and super
stition were still carried en. But the tirae
drew near which had been indicated bj

JOSIAS

318

JUDA

HuId»^ (2 K. xxii. 20). When Pharaoh-
Necho went frora Egypt to Carchemish to
carry on his war against Assyria, Josiah,
possibly in a spirit of loyalty to the As
syrian king, to whora he raay have been
bound, opposed his march along the sea-
coast. Necho reluctantly paused and gave
hira battle in the valley of Esdraelon. Jo
siah was raorta'.ly wounded, and died be
fore he could reach Jerusalera, He was
buried with extraordinary honors. 2. The
son of Zephaniah, at whose house the
prophet Zechariah was commanded to as
semble the chief raen of the captivity, to
witness the soleran and syrabolical crown
ing of Joshua the high-priest (Zech. vi. 9).
Josi'as. Josiah, king of Judah (Matt.
i, 10, 11).
Josibi'ah, the father of Jehu, a Simeon
ite (1 Chr. iv. 35).
Josiphi'ah, the father or ancestor of
Shelomith, who returned with Ezra (Ezr.
vui. 10).
Jot'bah, the native place of MeshuUe
meth, the queen of Manasseh (2 K. xxi. 19).
Jot'bath, or Jot'bathah (Deut. x. 7 ;
Num. xxxiii. 33), a desert station of the
Israelites. Jo'tham. 1. The youngest son of
Gideon (Judg. ix. 5), who escaped from the
massilcre of his brethren. His parable of
the reign of the bramble is the earliest ex
ample of the kind. 2. The son of king
Uzziah or Azariah and Jerushali. After
Siiministering the kingdora for some years
during bis father's leprosy, he succeeded to
the throne b, c, 758, when he was 25 years
eld, and reigned 16 years in Jerusiilem.
He was conteraporary with Pekah and with
the prophet Isaiah. His history is con
tained in 2 K. XV. and 2 Chr. xxvii. 3. A
descendant of Judah, son of Jahdai (1 Chr,
U, 47),
Joz'abad. 1. A captain of tho thou
sands of M.anasseh, who deserted to David
before the battle of Gilboa (1 Chr. xii. 20).
2. A hero of Manasseh, like the preceding
(1 Chr. xii. 20). 3. A Levite in the reign
of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 13), 4. A chief
Levite in the reign of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxv.
9). 5. A Levite, son of Jeshua, in the
days of Ezra (Ezr. viii. 33), Probably
identical with 7, 6. A priest of the sons
of Pashur, who had married a foreign wife
(Ezr. X. 22). 7. A Levite araong those
who returned with Ezra and had raarried
foreign wives. He is probably identical
with Jozabad the Levite (Neh. viii. 7) ;
and with Jozabad, who presided over the
outer work ofthe Teraple (Neh. xi. 16).
Joz'achar, the son of Shimeath the
Ammonitess, and one of tho murderers of
Joash king of Judah (2 K. xii. 21). The
writer of the Chronicles (2 Chr. xxiv. 20)
calls hira Zabad, which is nothing more
than a clerical error for Jozachar.

Joz'adak, Ezr. Ui. 2, 8 ; v. 2 ; x. 18 , Neh.
xU 26. The contracted form of Jehozadak.
ju'bal, a son of Lamech by Adah, and
the inventor of the "harp and organ"
(Gen. iv. 21), probably general terms for
stringed and wind instruments.
Jubilee, The Year of, the fiftieth
year after the succession of seven Sabbati
cal years, in which all the land which had
been alieuiited returned to the families of
those to whom it had been allotted in the
original distribution, and all bondmen of
Hebrew blood were liberated. The rela
tion in which it stood to the Sabbatical
year and the general directions for its ob
servance are given Lev. xxv. 8-16 and 23-
55. Its bearing on lands dedicated to Je
hovah is stated Lev. xxvii, 16-25. There
is no mention of the Jubilee in the book of
Deuteronomy, and the only other refer
ence to it in the Pentateuch is in Num,
xxxvi, 4, The year was inaugurated on
the Day of Atoneraent with the blowing of
trurapets throughout the land, and by a
proclam.ation of universal liberty. Jose
phus states that all debts were, reraitted in
the year of Jubilee; but the Scripture
speaks of the remission of debts only in
connection with the Sabbatical year (Deut.
XV, 1, 2), and the Jewish writers say ex
pressly that the remission of debts was a
point of distinction between the Sabbatical
year and the JubUee. The Jewish writers
in general consider that the JubUee was
observed till the destruction of the flrst
temple. But there is no direct historical
notice of its observance on any one occa
sion, either in the books ofthe O. T., or in
any other records. The only passages in
the Prophets which can be regarded with
much confidence, as referring to the Ju
bilee ill any way, are Is. v. 7, 8, 9, 10, Ixi.
1, 2; Ez. vU. 12, 13, xlvi. 16, 17, 18. The
Jubilee is to be regarded as the outer cir
cle of that great Sabb.atical system which
comprises within it the Sabbatical year,
the sabbatical month, and the sabbath day.
But the Jubilee is more immediately con
nected with the body politic; and it was
only as a member of the state that each
person concerned could participate in its
provisions. It was not distinguished by
any prescribed religious observance pecu
liar to itself, lUie the rites of the sabbath
day and of tho sabbatical ¦ month. As far
as legislation could go, its provisions tend
ed to restore that equality in outward cir-
curastances which was instituted in the
first scttleraent of the land by Joshua..
Ju'cal, son of Shelemiah (Jer. xxxviii.
1)- Ju'da. 1. Son of Joseph in the gen
ealogy of Christ (Luke iu. 30). 2. Son
of Joanna, or Hananiah [Hananiah, 8]
(Luko iii. 26). He seems to be certainly
the same person as Abiud in Matt i. 13*'

JUDAEA

319

JUDAH, KINGDOM OF

S. One of the Lord's brethren, enumerated
in Mark vl. 3. 4. The patriarch Judah
(Sus. 56 ; Luke Ui. 88 ; Heb. vu. 14 ; Rev,
T. 5, vii, 5).
Judae'a, or Jude'a, a territorial divis
ion which succeeded to the overthrow of
the ancient landmarks of the tribes of Is
rael and Judah in their respective captivi
ties. The word first occurs Dan, v. 13 (A.
V. "Jewry"), and the first mention of the
"province of Judea" is in the book of
Ezra (v. 8) ; it is alluded to in Neh, xi, 3
(A, V, "Judah"), and was the result of
the division of the Persian empire men
tioned by Herodotus (iii, 89-97), under
Darius (comp, Esth, viii, 9; Dan. vi. 1).
In the Apocryphal Books the word " prov
ince " is dropped, and throughout the
books of Esdras, 'Tobit, Judith, and Mac
cabees, the expressions are the "land of
Judaea," " Judaea " (A. V. frequently
"Jewry"), and throughout the N. T. In
a wide and more improper sense, the term
Judaea was soraetiraes extended to the
whole country of the Canaanites, its an
cient inhabitants ; and even in the Gospels
we seera to read of the coasts of Judaea
"beyond Jordan" (Matt xix. 1; Mark x.
1). Judaea was, in strict language, the
narae of the third district, west of the Jor
d.an, and south of Saraaria. It was made
a portion of the Roman province of Syria
upon the deposition of Archelaus, the eth
narch of Judea, in a. d. 6, and was gov
erned by a procurator, who was subject to
the governor of Syria.
Ju'dah, the fourth son of Jacob and the
fourth of Leah, the last before the tempo
rary cessation in the births of her children.
His whole-brothers were Reuben, Simeon,
and Levi, elder than hiraself — Issachar
and Zebulun, younger (see Gen. xxxv. 23).
Of Judah's personal character more traits
are preserved than of any other of the pa
triarchs, with the exception of Joseph. In
the matter of the sale of Joseph, he and
Reuben stand out in favorable contrast to
the rest of the brothers. When a second
¦visit to Egypt for corn had become inevita
ble, it was Judah who, as the mouthpiece
of the rest, headed the remonstrance against
the detention of Benjamin by Jacob, and
finally undertook to be responsible for the
safety of the lad (xliU. 3-10). And when,
through Joseph's artifice, the brothers were
brought back to the palace, he is again the
leader and spokesman of the band. So too
it is Judah who is sent before Jacob to
smooth the way for Mm in the land of Go
shen (xlvi. 28). This ascendency over
his brethren is reflected in the last words
addressed to him by his father. His sons
were five. Of these, three were by his
Canaanite wife Bath-shua. They are all
insignificant ; two died early ; and the third,
Shelah, does not come prominently for

ward, either in his person or his family.
The other two, Pharez and Zerah, were
illegitimiite sons by the widow of Er, the
eldest of the former faraily. As is not un
frequently the case, the illegitimate sons
surpassed the legitimate, and from Pharez,
the elder, were descended the royal and
other illustrious families of Judah, The
three sons went with their father into Egypt
at the tirae of the flnal removal thither
(Gen. xlvi, 12 ; Ex, i. 2), When we again
meet with the families of Judah they occu
py a position among the tribes similar to
that which their progenitor had taken
amongst the patriarchs. The numbers of
the tribe at the census at Sinai were 74,600
(Num, i, 26, 27), considerably in advance
of any of the others, the largest of which
— Dan — numbered 62,700, On the bor
ders of the Promised Land they were 76,500
(xxvi. 22), Dan being still the nearest.
During the march through the desert, Ju
dah's place was in the van of the host, on
the east side of the Tabernacle, with his
kinsmen Issachar and Zebulun (U. 3-9, x.
14). During the conquest of the country
the only incidents specially affecting the
tribe of Judah are — (1) the misdeed of
Achan, who was of the great house of Ze
rah (Josh. vii. 1, 16-18) ; and (2) the con
quest of the mountain district of Hebron
by Caleb, and of the strong city Debir,
in the sarae locality, by his nephew and
son-in-law Othniel (Josh. xiv. 6-15, xv. 13-
19). The boundaries and contents of the
territory allotted to Judah are narrated at
great length, and with greater minuteness
than the others, in Josh. xv. 20-63. The
north boundary, for the raost part coinci
dent with the south boundary of Benjarain,
began at the embouchure of the Jordan,
entered the hills .apparently at or about
the present road frora Jericho, ran west
ward to En-shemesh, probably the pres
ent Ain-Haud, below Bethany, thence, over
the Mount of Olives to Enrogel, in the
valley beneath Jerusalera ; went along the
ravine of Hinnora, under the precipices of
the city, climbed the hill in a N. W. direc
tion to the water of the Nephto.ah (probably
ii/ifa), and thence by Kirjath-Jearim (prob
ably Kurid-el-Enab), Bethsheraesh {Ain-
Shems), Timnath, and Ekron to Jabneel on
the sea-coast. On the east the Dead Sea,
and on the west the Mediterranean, formed
the boundaries. The southern line is hard
to determine, since it is denoted by places
raany of which have not been identified. It
left the Dead Sea at its extreme south end,
and joined the Mediterranean at the Wady
el-Arish. This territory is in average
length about 45 miles, and in average
breadth about 50.
Ju'dah, Kingdom of. When the dis
ruption of Soloraon's kingdom took place at
Shechem, only the tribe of Judah followed

JUDAH, KINGDOM OF

320

JUDAS :3CARI0T

the house of David. But almost immediately
afterwards, when Rehoboam conceived the
design of establishing his authority over
Israel by force of arms, the tribe of Ben
jamin also is recorded as obeying his sum
mons, and contributing its warriors to make
up his army. Two Benjamite towns. Bethel
and Jericho, were included in the northern
kingdom. A part, if not all, of the terri
tory of Simeon (1 Sam. xxvii. 6 ; IK. xix.
3 ; comp. Josh. xix. 1) and of Dan (2 Chr.
xi. 10; comp. Josh, xix, 41, 42) was recog-
nijed as belonging to Judah; and in the
reigns of Abijah and Asa the southern
kingdom was enlarged by some additions
taken out of the territory of Ephraira (2
Clir. xiu. 19, XV. 8, xvU. 2). The kingdom
of Judah possessed many advantages which
secured for it a longer continuance than
that of Israel, A frontier less exposed to
powerful enemies, a soil less fertile, a popu
lation hardier and more united, a fixed and
venerated centre of administration and re
ligion, an hereditary aristocr.acy in the sac
erdotal caste, an army always subordinate,
a succession of kings which no revolution
interrupted : — to these and other secon
dary causes is to he attributed the fact that
Judah survived her more populous and
more powerful sister kingdom by 135 years,
and lasted frora B. c, 975 to B, o, 536, {a.)
The first three kings of Judah seera to
have cherished the hope of re-cstablishing
their authority over the Ten Tribes ; for
sixty years there was war between them
and the kings of Israel. The victory
achieved by the daring Abijah brought to
Judah a temporary accession of territory.
Asa appears- to have enlarged it still fur
ther, {b.) Hanani's reraonstrance (2 Chr.
xvi. 7) prepares us for the reversal by Je
hoshaphat of the policy which Asa pursued
towards Israel and Damascus, A close
alliance sprang up with strange rapidity
between Judah and Israel. Jehoshaphat,
active and prosperous, repelled nomad in
vaders from the desert, curbed the aggres
sive spirit of his nearer neighbors, and
raade his influence felt even among the
PhiUstines and Arabians. Araaziah, flushed
with the recovery of Edora, provoked a
war with his raore powerful contemporary
Jehoash tho conqueror of the Syrians ; and
Jerusalem was entered and plundered by
the Israelites. Under Uzziah and Jothara,
Judah long enjoyed political and religious
prosperity, till Ahaz became the tributary
aud vassal of Tiglath-Pileser. (c.) Al
ready in the fatal grasp of Assyria, Judah
was yet spared for a checkered existence
of almost .another century and a, half after
the termination of the kingdora of Israel.
The consummation of the ruin came upon
them in the destruction of the Temple by
the hand of Nebuzartidan, araid the w.ail-
ings of prophets, and the taunts of heathen

tribes released at length from the yoke of
Ju'das, the Greek form of the Hebrew
name Judah, occurring in the LXX, and
N. T. 1. The Patriarch Judah (Malt i.
2, 3). 2. A man residing at Damascus, in
"'the street which is palled Straight," in
whose house Saul of Tarsus lodged after
his miraculous conversion (Acts ix. 11).
Ju'das, surnamed Bar'sabas, a lead
ing member of the Apostolic church at
Jerusalem (Acts xv. 22), endued with the
gift of prophecy (ver. 32), cliosen with
Silas to accompany Paul and Barnabas as
delegates to the church at Antioch, to raake
known the decree concerning the terras of
adraission of the Gentile converts (ver, 27).
After eraploying their prophetical gifts for
the confirraation of the Syrian Christians in
the faith, Judas went back to Jerusp.lem.
Ju'das of Galilee, the leader of a
popular revolt "in the days of the taxing"
{i. e. the census, under the prefecture of
P. Sulp. Quirinus, a. d. 6, a. u. c. 759), re
ferred to by Gamaliel in his speech before
the Sanhedrim (Acts v, 37), According
to Josephus, Judas was a Gaulonite of the
city of Gamala, probably taking his name
of Galilean from his insurrection having
had its rise in Galilee, His revolt had a
theocratic character, the watchword of
which was, "We h.ave no lord or master
but God." Judas himself perished, and his
followers were dispersed. With his fellow-
insurgent Sadoc, a Pharisee, Judas is rep
resented by Josephus as the founder of a
fourth sect, in addition to the Pharisees,
Sadducees, and Essenes. The Gaulonites,
as his followers were called, may be re
garded as the doctrinal ancestors of the
Zealots and Sicarii of later days.
Ju'das Iscar'iot. He is sometimes
called " the son of Simon " (John vi. 71,
xiu. 2, 26), but more coraraonly called (the
three Synoptic Gospels give no otlier name)
Iscariotes (Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. i9 ; Luke
vi. 16, &c.). In the three lists of- the
Twelve- there is added in each case the
fact that he was the betrayer. The name
Iscariot has received many interpretations
more or less conjectural. The most proba
ble are — (1) From Kerioth (Josh. xv. 25),
in the tribe of Judah, On this hypothesis
his position araong the Twelve, the rest of
whom belonged to Galilee (Acts U. 7),
would be exceptional ; and this has led to
(2) From Kartlia in GaUlee (Kart.an, A. V.
Josh, xxi. 22), (3) From scortea, a leath
ern apron, the name being applied to hira
as the bearer of the bag, and = Judas with
the apron, — Of the life of Judas, before
the appearance of his name in the lists of
the Apostles, we know absolutely nothing.
What that appearance implies, however,
is, that he had previously declared him
self a disciple. He was drawn, as the

JUDAS ISC.4.RI0T

321

JUDE

others were, by the preaching of the Bap
tist, or his own Messianic hopes, or the
" gracious words " of the new Teacher, to
leave his former life, and to obey the call of
tho Prophet of Nazareth. The choice was
not made, we mus; remember, without a
prevision of its issue (John. vi. 64). The
germs of the evil, in all likelihood, unfold
ed themselves gradually. The rules to
which the Twelve were subject in their
flrst journey (Matt, x, 9, 10) sheltered hira
from the temptation that would have been
raost dangerous to hira. The new form
of life, of which we find the flrst traces in
Luke viii. 3, brought that temptation with
it. As soon as the Twelve were recognized
OS a body, travelling hither and thither with
their Master, receiving money and other
offerings, and redistributing what they re
ceived to the poor, it became necessary that
sorae one should act as the steward and
almoner of tho small society, and this fell
to Judas (John xii. 6, xiu, 29), The Gal
ilean or Judaean peasant found hiraself
intrusted with larger sums of raoney than
before, and with this there came covetous-
ness, unfaithfulness, embezzlement. It
was irapossible after this that he could feel
at ease with One who asserted so clearly
and sharply the laws of faithfulness, duty,
unselfishness. The narrative of Matt, xxvi.,
Mark xiv., places this history in close con
nection with the fact of the betrayal. It
leaves the motives of the betrayer to con
jecture. The mere love of money may
have been strong enough to make him
clutch at the bribe offered hira. Mingled
with this there may have been some feeling
of vindictiveness, a vague, confused desire
to show that he had power to stop the
career of the Teacher who had reproved
him. There may have been the thought
that, after all, the betrayal could do no
harm, that his Master would prove his in
nocence, or by some supernatural manifes
tation effect his escape. Another motive
has been suggested of an entirely different
kind, altering altogether the character of
the act. Not the love of money, nor re
venge, nor fear, nor disappointment, but
policy, a subtle plan to force on the hour
of the triumph of the Messianic kingdom,
the belief that for this service he would re
ceive as high a place as Peter, or James, or
John ; this it was that ra.ade hiin the traitor.
Ingenious as this hypothesis is, it fails for
that very reason. Of the other motives
that have been assigned we need not care'
to fix on any one, as that which singly led
him on. During the days that intervened
between the supper at Bethany and the
Paschal or quasi-Paschal gathering, he ap
peared to have concealed his treachery. At
the last Supper he is present, looking for
ward to the consummation of his guilt as
Irawing nearer every hour. Then come
21

the sorrowful words which showed him that
his design was known. " One of you shall
betray rac." After this there comes on him
that paroxysm and insanity of guilt as of
one whose human soul was possessed by the
Spirit of Evil — " Satan entered into him "
(John xiu. 27). He knows that garden in
which his Master and his companions had
so often rested after the weary work of the
day. He comes, accompanied by a band
of Officers and servants (John xviii. 3), with
the kiss which was probably the usual salu
tation of the disciples. The words of Jesus,
calm and gentle as they were, showed that
this was what embittered tho treachery, and
raade tho suffering it inflicted more acute
(Luke xxii. 48). What followed in tho
confusion of that night the Gospels do not
record. -The fever of the crime passed
away. There carae back on hira the recol
lection of the sinless righteousness of the
Master he had wronged (Matt, x.xvii, 3),
He repented, and his guilt and all that had
tempted him to it became hateful. He car
ried back the thirty pieces of silver to the
chief priests, and confessed his sin, hoping
perhaps that good mightyet be done by this
assertion of Christ's innocence. Their only
answer was to throw the responsibility upon
him ; and casting down the money on the
paveraent of the Temple, he went and
hanged hiraself. His death was made raore
horrible to all the inhabitants of Jerusalera
by the circumstance recorded by St. Luke
in the Acts ; but raost awful of all is the
sentence which was more thiin once pro
nounced upon him by the Lord, and with
which Peter dismisses his name from the
Apostles' list, " from which Judas by trans
gression fell, that he might go io his own
place." With a scrupulousness which is the
raost striking example of religious forraal-
isra glossing over moral deformity, the
chief priests decided that the thirty silver
pieces, as the price of blood, raust not be
put back into the treasury; so they pur
chased with thera the potter's field, without
the city, as a burial-place for strangers. It
seems to be implied in the narrative that
the field thus purchased was also the place
where Judas committed suicide, and the
double memorial of the scene and the price
of blood was preserved by its name, Acel-
daraa, the field of blood (Matt, xxvii. 3-10;
Acts i. 18, 19). It is hardly necessary to
point out that "purchased" in the latter
passage is an instance of a common figure of
speech, implying indirect agency. [Acel
dama.] ¦
Ju'das Maecabae'us. [Maccabees.]
Jude, or Ju'das, Lebbe'us, and
Thadde'us (A. V. " Judas the brother ot
Jaraes"), one ofthe T'Velve Apostles; a
member, tojfCther with his namesake " Is
cariot," James the son of Alphaeus, and
Simon Z -dotes, of the last of the three aec-

JUDAS, THE LORD'S BROTHER 322

JUDGES

tions of the Apostolic body. The same
Judas only, without any distinguishing
mark, occurs in the lists given by St. Luke
vi. 16; Acts i. 13; and in John xiv. 22
(where we find " Judas not Iscariot "
among the Apostles), but the Apostle 'has
been generally identified with "Lebbeus
whose surname was Thaddeus " (Matt. x.
3 ; Mark iii. 18). Much difference of opin
ion has existed frora the earliest times as
to the right interpretation of the words
'lovSas 'laxtii§ov. The generally received
opinion is thiit the A. V. is right in trans
lating " Judas the brother of James." But
we prefer to follow nearly all the most em
inent critical authorities, and render the
words "Judas the .son of James." The
name of Jude occurs only once in the Gos
pel narrative (John xiv. 22). Nothing is
certainly known of the later history of the
Apostle. Tradition connects him with the
foundation ofthe church at Edessa.
Ju%as, the Lord's brother. Among
the brethren of our Lord mentioned by the
people of Nazareth (Matt. xiii. 55 ; Mark
vi. 3) occurs a "Judas," who has been
sometimes identified with the Apostle ofthe
same name. It has been considered with
more probability that he was the writer of
the Epistle which bears the name of " Jude
the brother of James."
Jude, Epistle of. Its author was prob
ably Jude, one of the brethren of Jesus,
the subject of the preceding article. Al
though the canonicity of this Epistle was
questioned in the earliest ages of the
Church, there never was any doubt of its
genuineness. The question was never
whether it was the work of an impostor,
but whether its author was of sufficient
weight to warrant its admission into the
Canon. This question was gr.adu.ally de
cided in its favor. There are no data from
which to determine its date or place of
writing. Ltirdner places the time between
A. D. 64 and 06, Davidson before a. d. 70,
Crednor a. d. 80, Calmet, Estius, Witsius,
and Nsander, after the death of all the
Apostlss but John, and perhaps after the
faU of Jerusalem. The object of tho Epistle
is plainly enough announced, ver. 3 : the
reason for this exhortation is given ver. 4.
The remainder of the Epistle is almost en
tirely occupied by a rainute depiction of the
adversaries of the faith. The Epistle closes
by briefly reminding the readers of the
oft-repeated prediction of the Apostles —
araong whom the writer seems not to rank
himself— that the faith would be ass.ailcd
by such enemies as he has depicted (ver.
17-19), exhorting them to maintain their
own steadfastness in the fiiith (ver. 20, 21),
while they earnestly sought to rescue others
from the corrupt example of those Ucontious
livers (ver. 22, 23), and commending them
to the p« wcr of God in language which for

cibly recaUs the closing benediction of the
Epistle to the Romans (ver. 24, 25; cf.
Rom. xvi. 25-27). This Epistle presents
one peculiarity, which, as we learn from
St. Jerome, caused its authority to be im
pugned in very early times — the supposed
citation of apocryphal writings (ver. 9, 14,
15). The former of these passages, con
taining the reference to the contest of the
archangel Michael and the devil " about
the body of Moses," was supposed by
Origen to have been founded- on a Jewish
work called the " Assumption of Moses."
As regards the supposed quotation from the
Book of Enoch, the question is not so clear
whether St. Jude is making a citation from
a work already in the hands of his readers,
or is employing a traditionary prophecy not
at that time committed to writing. The
larger portion of this Epistle (ver. 3-16) is
almost identical in language and subject
with a part of the Second Epistle of Peter
(2 Pet. ii. 1-19) . This question is examined
in the article Peter, Second Epistle op.
Judges. The Judges were temporary
and special deliverers, sent by God to de-
Uver the Israelites from their oppressors,
not supreme magistrates, succeeding to the
authority of Moses and Joshua. Their
power only extended over portions of the
country, and some of them were contempo
raneous. Their name in Hebrew is Sho-
pheiim, which is the same as that for ordi
nary judges ; nor is it applied to them in a
different sense.* For, though their first
work was that of deliverers and leaders in
wiir, they then administered justice to the
people, and their authority supplied the
want of a regular government. But tlu
only recognized central authority was still
the oracle at Shiloh, which sunk into a
system of priestly weakness and disorder
under Eli and his sons. Even whUe the
administration of Samuel gave something,
like a settled government to the South,
there was' scope for the irregular exploits
of Samson on the borders of the PhiUstines ;
and Samuel at last established his authority
as Judge and prophet, but still as the ser
vant of Jehovah, only to see it so .abused by
his sons as to exhaust the patience of the
people, who at length demanded a Kino,"
after the pattern ofthe surrounding nations. ,
The following is a list of the Judges, whose
history is given under their respeetivp
names : —
First Servitude, to Mesopotamia —
First Judge ; Othniel.
Second Servitude, to Moab —
Second Judge : Ehud ;
Third Judge .- Shamgar.
Third Servitude, to Jabin and Sisera -
Fourth Judge : Deborah and Barak.

* The Hcbre-w word is the same as that of the CarthBgin-
Inn " Siiffetca," the name of the magiatratea whom wo nni
in tho time of the Punic wore.

JUDGES, BOOK OF 323

JUDITH

Fourth Servitude, to Midian —
Fifth Judge .- Gideon ;
Sixth Judge : Abimelech
Seventh Judge : Tola ; '^
Eighth Judge ,- Jair.
Fifth Servitude, to Ammon —
Ninth Judge : Jephthah ;
Tenth Judge : Ibzan ;
Eleventh Judge .- Elon ;
Twelfth Judge : Abdon.
Sixth Servitude, to the Philistines —
Thirteenth Judge : Samson;
Fourteenth Judge .- Eli ;
Fifteenth Judge ; Samuel.
On the Chronology of the Judges, see the
following article.
Judges, Book of, of which the book of
Ruth formed originally a part, contains the
history from Joshua to Samson. As the his
tory of the Judges occupies by far the great
er part of the narrative, and is at the same
time the history of the people, the title of
the whole book is derived from that portion.
The book may be divided into two parts —
(I.) Ch. i.-xvi. The subdivisions are —
(a) i.-ii. 6, which may be considered as a
first introduction, giving a summary of the
results of the war carried on against the
Canaanites by the several tribes on the
west of Jordan after Joshua's death, and
forming a continuation of Josh. xu. (i) ii.
6-iU. 6. This is a second introduction,
st.anding in nearer relation to the following
history, (c) iii. 7-xvi. The words, " and
the chillren of Israel did evil in the sight
of the Lor J," which had been already used
ill ii. 11, are employed to introduce the his
tory of the thirteen Judges comprised in
this look. An account of six of these
thirteen is given at greater or less length.
The account of the remaining seven is
very short, and merely attached to the
longer narratives. We m.ay observe in
general on this portion of the book, that it
is almost entirely a history of the wars of
deliverance. (II.) Ch. xvii.-xxi. This
part has no formal connection with the
preceding, and is often called an appendix.
No mention of the Judges occurs iu it. It
contp.in3 allusions to " the house of God,"
the ark, and the high-priest. The period
to which the narrative relates is simply
marked by the expression, " when there
was no king in Israel " (xix. 1 ; cf. xviii. 1).
It records (a) the conquest of Laish by a
portion of the tribe of Dan, and the estab
lishment there of tho idolatrous worship
of Jehovah already instituted by Micah in
Mount Ephraim. (i) The almost total
extinction of the tribe of Benjamin. The
date is marked by the mention of Phin
ehas, the grandson of Aaron (xx. 28).
From the above account it will be observed
that the history ceases with Samson, ex
cluding EU and Samuel ; and then at this

point two historical pieces are added -^
xvU.-xxi., and the book of Ruth — inde
pendent of the general plan and of each
other. This is sufficiently explained by the
supposition that the books from Judges to
2 Kings formed one work. [Kings, Books
OF.] In this case the histories of EU and
Samuel, so closely united between them
selves, are only deferred on account of
their close connection with the rise of the
monarchy. And Judg. xvii.-xxi. is insert
ed both as an illustration of the sin of
Israel during the time of the Judges, in
which respect it agrees with i.-xvi., and as
presenting a contrast with the better order
prevailing in the time of the kings. If we
adopt the view, that Judges to 2 Kings
form one book, tbe flnal arrangement of
the whole must have been after the thirtj'-
seventh year of Jehoiachin's captivity, oi
b. o. 562 (2 K. xxv. 27). The time com
monly assigned to the period contained in
this book is 299 years. The dates which
are given amount to 410 years when reck
oned consecutively; and Acts xiu. 20
would show that this was the computation
comraonly adopted, as the 450 years seem
to result frora adding 40 years for Eli to tlie
410 of this book. But a difficulty is created-
by xi. 26, and in a stUl greater degree by
1 K. vi. 1, where the whole period frora the
Exodus to the building of the Temple is
stated as 480 years. On the whole, it
seems safer to give up the attempt to ascer
tain the chronology exactly. The succes
sive narratives give us the history of only
parts ofthe country, and some of the occur
rences may have been contemporary (x. 7).
Judgment-haU. The word Praeto
rium is so translated five times in the A.
V. of the N. T. ; and in those five pas
sages it denotes two different places. 1. In
John xviii. 28, 33, xxix. 9, it is the resi
dence which Pilate occupied when he visit
ed Jerusalera. The site of Pilate's prae
torium in Jerusalem has given rise to much
dispute, some supposing it to be the palace
of king Herod, others the tower of Anto
nia ; but it was probably the latter, which
was then and long afterwards the citadel of
Jerusalera. 2. In Acts xxiii. 35, Herod's
judgraent-hall or praetoriura in Caesarea
was doubtless a part of that magnificent
range of buildings, the erection of which
by king Herod is described in Josephus.
The word " palace," or " Caesar's court,"
in the A. V. of Phil. i. 13, is a translation
of the sarae word praetorium. It may
here have denoted the quarter of that de
tachment of the Praetorian Guards which
was in immediate attendance upon the em
peror, and had barracks in Mount Palatine.
Ju'dlth. 1, The daughter of Beeri the
Hittite, and wife of Esau (Gen, xxvi. 34).
2. The heroine of the apocryphal book
which bears her name, who appears as an

JUDITH, BOOK OF

324

KADESH

ideal type of piety (Jud. viii. 6), beauty
pri. 21), .courage, and chastity (xvi. 22, ff).
Ju'dith, The Book of, one of the
books of the Apocrypha, like that of Tobit,
'>,jlongs to the earliest specimens of his
torical fiction. The narrative of the reign
of " Nebuchadnezzar king of Nineveh" (i.
1), of the campaign of Holofernes, and the
deliverance of Bethulia, through the strat
agem and courage of the Jewish heroirie,
contains too many and too serious diffi
culties, both historical and geographical, to
allow of the supposition that it is either
hterally true, or even carefully moulded on
truth. It belongs to the Maccabaean peri
od, which it refiects not only in its general
spirit, but even in its smaller traits. The
text exists at present in two distinct recen
sions, the Greek and the Latin. The for
mer evidently is the truer representative
of the original, and it seems certain that
the Latin was derived, in the main, from
the Greek by a series of successive altera
tions. Ju'lia, a Christian woman at Rome,
prob.ably the wife, or perhaps the sister,
of Philologus, iu connection with whom she
is saluted by St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 15).
Ju'lius, the centurion of "Augustus'
biind," to" whose charge St. Paul was de
livered when he was sent prisoner from
Caesarea to Rome (Acts xxvii. 1, 3).
Ju'nia, a Christian at Rome, raentioned
by St. Paul as one of his kinsfolk and fel
low prisoners, of note araong the Apostles,
and in Christ before St. Paul (Rom.
xvi. 7).
Juniper (1 K. xix. 4, 5 ; Ps. cxx. 4 ;
Job xxx. 4). The word which is rendered
in A. V, juniper is beyond doubt a sort of
broom. Genista monosperraa, G, raetam of
Forskttl, answering to the Arabic Rethem.
It is very abundant in the desert of Sinai,
and affords shade and protection, both in
heat and storm, to travellers, Tho Rothera
is a leguminous plant, and bears a white
fiower. It is also found in Spain, Portugal,
and Palestine,
Ju'piter (the Greek Zeus), Antiochus
Epiphanes dedicated the Teraple at Jeru
salem to the service of Zeus Olyrapius (2
Mace. vi. 2) , and at the sarae tirae the rival
temple on Gcrizira was devoted to Zeus
Xcnius {Jupiter hospiialis, Vulg.). The
Olympian Zeus was the national god of the
Hellenic race, as well as the supreme ruler
of the heathen world, and as such forraed
the true opposite to Jehovah, The appli
cation of the second epithet, " the God of
hospitality," is raore obscure. Jupiter or
Zeus is raentioned in one passage of the N.
T; on the occasion of St. Paul's visit to
Lystra (Acts xiv. 12, 13), where the ex
pression " Jupiter, which was before their
city," means that his temple was outside
the city.

son of Zerubbabel

Ju'shab-he'sed,
(IChr, ui. 20). ,, „ J
Jus'tUS. 1, A surname of Joseph called
Barsabas (Acts i. 23). 2. A Christian at
Corinth, with whom St. Paul lodged (Acts
xviu. 7), 3- ^ surname of Jesus, a friend
of St, Paul (Col. iv. 11).
Jut'tah, a city in the mountain region
of Judah, in the neighborhood of Maon and
Carmel (Josh. xv. 65).

K.

"cities" of tha
21), the native

Kab'zeel, one of the
tribe of Judah (Josh. xv.
place of the great hero Benaiah-ben-Jehoi-
ada (2 Sam. xxUi. 20; 1 Chr. xi. 22).
After the captivity it was reinhabited by
the Jews, and appears as Jekabzebl.
Ka'desh, Ka'desh-bar'nea (Kadesh
means holy : it is the same word as the
Arabic name for Jerusalera, El-Khuds).
This place, the scene of Miriara's death,
was the farthest point which the Israelites
reached in their direct road to Canaan ; it
was also that whence the spies were sent,
and where; on their return, the people
broke out into murmuring, upon which
their strictly penal term of wandering be
gan (Num. xUi. 3, 26, xiv. 29-33, xx. 1 ;
Deut. ii. 14). It is probable that the term
" Kadesh," though applied to signify a
" city," yet had also a wider application to
a region, in which Kadesh-Meribah certain
ly, and Kadesh-Barnea probably, indicates
a precise spot. In Gen. xiv. 7, Kadesh is
identified with En-Mishpat, the "fountain
of judgment," and.is connected with Tamar
or Hazazon-Tamar. Precisely thus stands
Kadesh-Barnea in the Books of Numbers
and Joshua (corap. Ezek. xlvii. 19, xlviii.
28; Num. xxxiv. 4; Josh. xv. 3). The
name of the place to which the spies re
turned is "Kadesh" simply, in Num. xiii.
26, and is there closely connected with the
"wilderness of Paran; "yet the "wilder
ness of Zin " stands in near conjunction, as
the point whence the "search" ofthe spies
comraenced (ver. 21). Again, in Nura. xx,,
we find the people encamped in Kadesh
after reacliing the wilderness of Zin. Hence
it has been supposed that there were two
places of the name of Kadesh, one in tlie
wilderness of Paran, and the other in that
of Zin; but it is more probable that only
one place is meant, for whether these tracts
were contiguous, and Kadesh on their com
mon border, or ran into each other, and
embraced a common territory, to which the
name " Kadesh," in an extended sense,
raight be given, is comparatively unimpor
tant. Kadesh must be placed in a site near
where the mountain of the Amorites de
scends to the low region of the Arabah and

KADMIEL

325

KEMUEL

Dead Sea ; hut its exact locality cannot be
ascertained. Dean Stanley would identify
it with Petra.
Kad'mlel, one of the Levites who with
his family returned frora Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezr. U, 40; Neh, vU, 43)' He
and liis house are prominent in history on
three occasions (Ezr. Ui. 9 ; Neh. ix. 4, 5,
ji,9), Kad'monites, The, a people named in
Gen. XV. 19 only; one ofthe n-ations who at
that time occupied the land promised to the
descendants of Abram. The name is prob
ably a synonyme for the Benb-Kedem —
the " children ofthe East."
KaUa'i, a priest in the days of Joiakim
the son of Jeshua. He represented the
family of SaUai (Neh, xii, 20).
Ka'nah. 1, One of the places which
formed the landmarks of the boundary of
Asher ; apparently next to Zidon-rabbah, or
"great Zidon" (Josh, xix, 28), 2, The
River, a stream falling into the Mediterra
nean, which formed the division between
the territories of Ephraim and Manasseh,
the former on the south, the latter on the
north (Josh, xvi. 8, xvii. 9).
Kare'ah, the father of Johanan and
Jonathan, who supported Gedaliah's author
ity and avenged his murder (Jer. xl. 8, 13,
15, 16, xii, 11, 13, 14, 16, xUi, 1, 8, xUu.
2, 4, 5),
Eaika'a, one of the landmarks on the
south Djundary ofthe tribe of Judah (Josh.
XV. 3). Its site is unknown.
Kar'kor, the place in which Zebah and
Zalraunna were again routed by Gideon
(Judg. vUi. 10), must have been on the
east of Jordan.
Kar'tah, a town of Zebulun, allotted to
the Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi. 34).
Kar'tan, a city of NaphtaU, allotted to
the Gershonite Levites (Josh. xxi. 32). In
the parallel list of 1 Chr. vi. the name ap
pears in the more expanded form of KiR-
jathaim (ver. 76).
Kat'tath, one of the cities of the tribe
of Zebulun (Josh. xix. 15). . Schwarz seeks
to identify it with Kana /el-JelU, — most
probably the Cana of Galilee of the New
Testament. Ke'dar, the second in order of the sons
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 13; 1 Chr. i. 29),
and tho narae of a great tribe of the Arabs,
settled on the north-west of the peninsula
and the confines of Palestine. The " glory
of Kedar " is recorded by the prophet Isa
iah (xxi. 13-17) in the burden upon Ara
bia ; and its iraportance may also be inferred
from the "princes of Kedar " mentioned by
Ez. (xxvii. 21), as well as the pastoral char
acter of the tribe. They appear also to
have been, like the wandering tribes of the
present day, " archers " and " mighty men "
(Is. xxi. 17; comp. Ps. cxx. 5). That
they also settled in villages or towns, we

find from Isaiah (xiii. 11). The tribe
seems to have been one of the most coh-
spicuous of all the Ishraaelite tribes, and
hence the Rabbins call the Arabiiins uni-
vcrsiilly by this narae.
Ke'demah, the youngest of the sons
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15; 1 Chr. i. 31).
Ke'demoth, one of the towns in tho
district east of the Dead Sea allotted to the
tribe of Reuben (Josh. xiii. 18) ; given to
the Merarite Levites (Josh, xxi, 37 ; 1 Chr.
vi, 79), It possibly conferred its name on
the " wUderness," or uncultivated pasture
land, " of Kedemoth" (Num, x.xi, 23 ; Deut.
ii. 26, 27, &c.).
Ke'desh. 1. In the extreme south of
Judah (Josh. xv. 23). 2. A city of Issa
char, allotted to the Gershonite Levites (1
Chr. vi. 72) . The Kedesh mentioned among
the cities whose kings wore slain by Joshua
(Josh, xii, 22), in company with Megiddo
and Jokneara of Carmel, would seem to
have been this city of Issachar. 3. Ke
desh ; jtlso Kedesh in Galilee ; and once,
Judg. iv. 6, Kedesh-Naphtali. One of the
fortified cities of the tribe of Naphtali,
named between Hazor and Edrei (Josh,
xix. 37) ; appointed as a city of refuge, and
allotted with its " suburbs " to the Gershon
ite Levites (xx, 7, xxi, 32; 1 Chr, vi. 76).
It was the residence of Barak (Judg. iv. 0) ,
and there he and Deborah assembled the
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali before the
conflict, being probably, as its narae im
plies, a "holy place" of great antiquity.
It was taken by Tiglath-Pileser in the reign
of Pekah (2 K. xv. 29). It is identified
with the village Kades, which lies 4 miles
to the N. W. of the upper part of the Sea
of Merora.
Ked'ron, properly Kidron. [Kidron. J
Kehela'thah, a desert encarapraent of
the Israelites (Nura. xxxiii. 22), of which
nothing is known,
Ke'ilah, a city of the Shefelah, or low
land district of Judah (Josh, xv, 44), Its
raain interest consists in its connection with
David (1 Sam. xxiii. 7-13). It is repre
sented by Kila, a site with ruins, on the
lower road from Beit Jibrin to Hebron,
Ke'ilah the Garmite, apparently a
descendant of the great Caleb (1 Chr, iv,
19), There is no apparent connection with
the town Keilah,
Kelai'ah = Kelita (Ezr. x. 23).
Ke'lita, one of the Levites who returned
with Ezra (Ezr. x, 23), He assisted in
expounding the law (Neh, viii, 7), and
signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh.
X. 10).
Kem'uel. 1. The son of Nahor by
Milcah, and father of Aram (Gen. xxii, 21).
2. The son of Shiphtiin, and prince of tiie
tribe of Ephraim ; one of the twelve raen
appointed by Moses to divide the land of
Canaan (Num. xxxiv. 24). 3. A Levite,

KENAN

326

KIDRON

father of Has.iabiah, prince of the tribe in
the reign of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 17).
Ee'nan= Cainan, the son of Enos (1
Chr. i. 2).
Ke'nath, one of the cities on the east
of Jordan, with its " daughter-towns " (A. V.
"villages") taken possession of by a cer
tain NoEAH, who then caUed it by his own
name (Num. xxxii. 42).
TLe'^az. 1. Son of EUpliaz, the son of
Esau. He was one of the dukes of Edom
(Gen. x.xxvi. 15, 42 ; 1 Chr. i. 53). 2. One
of the same faraily, a grandson of Caleb,
according to 1 Chr. iv. 15, where, however,
the Hebrew text is corrupt.
Ke'nezite, or Ke'nizzite (Gen. xv.
19), an Edoraitish tribe (Num. xxxU. 12;
Josh, xiv. 6, 14),
Ke'nite, The, and Ee'nites, The, a
tribe or nation, first mentioned in company
with tbe Kenizzites and Kadmonites (Gen,
XV. 19). Their origin is hidden from us.
But we may fairly infer th.at they were a
branch of the larger nation of Midian, —
from 'jiie tact that Jethro, who in Exodus
(see ii. 15, 16, iv. 19, &c.) is represented
as dwelling in the land of Midian, and as
priest or prince of that nation, is in Judges
(i. 16, iv. 11) as distinctly said to have been
a Kenite. ' The important services ren
dered by the sheikh of the Kenites to Moses
during a time of great pressure and diffi
culty were rewarded by the latter with a
promise of firm friendship between the two
peoples. The connection then commenced
lasted as firmly as a connection could last
between a settled people like Israel and
one whose tendencies were so ineradicably
nomadic as the Kenites. They seem to
ha-ve accompanied the Hebrews during their
wanderings (Num. x,xiv. 21, 22; Judg. i.
16 ; comp. 2 Chr. xxviii. 15). But the wan
derings of Israel over, they forsook the
neighborhood of the towns, and betook
themselves to freer air, — to "the wilder
ness of Judah, which- is to the south of
Arad " (Judg. i. 16). But one of the sheikhs
of the tribe, Heber by name, had wandered
north instead of south (Judg. iv. 11). The
most remarkable development of this peo
ple is to be found in the sect or family of
tho Rechabites.
Ke'nizzite. (Gen. xv. 19). [Kene
zite.] Ke'ren-hap'puch, the youngest of the
daughters of Job, born to him during the
period of his reviving prosperity (Job xlU.
14). Ke'rioth. 1. A name which occurs
among the lists of the towns in the southern
district of Judah (Josh. xv. 25). 2. A city
of Moab, named by Jeremiah only (Jer.
xlviU. 24).
Ke'rOS, one of the Nethinira, whose
descendants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 44; Neh. vU. 47).

Kettle, a vessel for culinary or sacrifi
cial purposes (1 Sam. ii. 14). 'The Hebrew
word is also rendered "basket" in Jer.
xxiv. 2, " caldron" in 2 Chr. xxxv. 13, and
"pot" in JobxU. 20.
Ketu'rah, the wife whom Abraham
"added and took" (A. V. "again took")
besides, or after the death of, Sarah (Gen.
xxv. 1 ; 1 Chr. i. 32), Some critics think
that Abraham took Keturah , after Sarah's
death ; but it is more probable that he took
her during Sarah's lifetime (corap. Gen.
XVU. 17, xviii. 11; Rom. iv. 19; Heb. xi.
12). That she was strictly speaking liis
wife is also very uncertain. In the record
in 1 Chr. i, 32 she is called a " concubine "
(comp. Gen, xxv. 5, 6).
Key. The key of a native Oriental
lock is a piece of wood, from 7 inches to
2 feet in length, fitted with wires or short
naUs, which, being inserted laterally into
the hollow bolt which serves as a lock, raises
other pins within the staple so as to allow
the bolt to be drawn back. But it is not
difficult to open a lock of this kind even
without a key, viz. with the finger dipped
in paste or other adhesive substance. The
passage Cant, v. 4, 5, is thus probably ex
plained. Kezi'a, the second of the daughters of
Job, born to him after his recovery (Job
xiu. 14).
Ke'ziz, The "Valley of, one of the
" cities " of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 21) and
the eastern border of the tribe.
Kib'roth-hatta'avah, Num. xi. 34;
marg. "the graves of lust" (comp. xxxiii.
17). Frora there being no change of spot
mentioned between it and Taberah in xi. 3,
it is probably, like the latter, about three
days' journey from Sinai (x. 33), and near
the sea (xi. 22, 31), If IMdherd be Haze-
roth, then "the graves of lust" may be
perhaps within a day's journey thence in
tjie direction of Sinai,
Kibza'im, a city of Mount Ephraim,
given up with its " suburbs " to the Koljath-
ite Levites (xxi. 22), In the parallel list
of 1 Chr, vi. JoKMEAM is substituted for
Kibzaim (ver. 68).
Kid. [Goat.]
Kid'ron (or Ked'ron), The Brook,
a torrent or vaUey — not a " brook," as in
the A. V. — close to Jerusalem. It lay be
tween the city and the Mount of Olives,
and was crossed by David in his flight (2
Sara. XV. 23, comp. 30), and by our Lord
on His way to Gethsemane (John xviii. 1 ;
comp. Mark xiv. 26; Luke xxii. 39). Its
connection with these two occurrences is
alone sufficient to leave no doubt that the
Kidron is. the deep ravine on the east of Je
rusalem, now commonly known as the "Val
ley of Jehoshaphat." The distinguishing
peculiarity of the Kidron vaUey — that in
respect to which it is most frequently

KIN AH

827

KING

fnentibnoJ in the Old Testaraent — is the
ilnpurity which appears to have been as
cribed to it. In the time of Josiah it was
the coramon cemetery of the city (2 K.
xxUi. 6 , comp. Jer. xxvi. 23, " graves of
the comraon people "). At present it is
the favorite resting-place of Moslems and
Jews, the former on the west, the latter on
the east, of the valley. The channel of the
valley of Jehoshaphat is nothing more than
the dry bed of a wintry torrent, bearing
marks of being occasionally swept over by
a large volume of water.
Ki'nah, a city of Judah, on the extreme
south boundiiry of the tribe, next to Edom
(Josh. XV. 22).
Kindred. I. Of the special names de
noting relation by consanguinity, the prin
cip.al will be found explained under their
proper heads. Father, Brother, &c. It
will be there seen that the words which de
note near relation in.the direct line are used
also for the other superior or inferior de
grees in that line, as grandfather, grand
son, &c. II. The words which express col
lateral consanguinity are — 1. uncle; 2.
aunt; 3. nephew; 4. niece (not in A. "V.) ;
5. cousin. III. 'The terms of affinity are
— 1. (a) father-in-law, (6) mother-in-law;
2. {a) son-in-law, (5) daughter-in-law; 3.
{a) brother-ill-law, {b) sister-in-law. 'The
domestic and economical questions arising
out of kindred may be classed under the
tliree heads of Marriage, Inheritance,
and Blood -REVENGE, and the reader is
referred to- the articles on those subjects.
King. [Bull. |
King, the name of the Supreme Ruler
of the Hebrews during a period of about
800 years previous to the destruction of Je
rusalem, B. c. 586. Tho immediate occa
sion of the substitution of a regal form of
government for that of Judges, seeras to
have been the siege of Jabesh-Gilead by
Nahash, king of the Araraonites (1 Sam.
xi. 1, xii. 12), and the refusal to allow the
inhabitants of that city to capitulate, except
on Iiumiliating and cruel conditions (1 Sam.
xi, 2, 4-6), The conviction seems to have
forced itself on the Israelites that they
could not resist their formidable neighbor
unless they placed theraselves under the
sway of a king, like surrounding nations.
Concurrently -with this conviction, disgust
had been excited by the corrupt adrainistra-
tion of justice under the sons of Samuel,
and a radical change was desired by them
in this respect also (1 Sam. viii, 3-5). Ac
cordingly the original idea of a Hebrew
king was twofold : flrst, that he should lead
the people to battle in time of war ; and,
2dly, that he should execute judgment
¦ and ju-stice to them in war and in peace (1
Sam. viu. 20). In both respects the de
sired end was attained. To form a correct
ideicf a Hebrew king, we must abstract

ourselves frora the notions of modern Eu
rope, and realize the position of Oriental
sovereigns. Besides being commander-in-
chief of the army, supreme judge, and ab
solute-master, as it were, of the lives of his
subjects, the king exercised the power of
imposing taxes on them, and of exacting
from them personal service and labor. And
the degree to which the exaction of personal
labor raight be carried on a special occa
sion is illustrated by King Solomon's re
quirements for building the temple. In
addition to these earthly powers, the king
of Israel had a more awful claim to respect
and obedience. He was the vicegerent of
Jehovah (1 Sam, x, 1, xvi. 13), and as it
were His son, if just and holy (2 Sam. vu.
14; Ps. Ixxxix. 26, 27, U. 6, 7), He had
been set apart as a consecrated ruler. Upon
his head had been poured the holy anoint
ing oil, which had hitherto been reserved
exclusively for the priests of Jehovah, He
had become, in fact, emphatically " the
Lord's anointed," A ruler in whom so
much authority, human and divine, was
embodied, was naturally distinguished by
outward honors and luxuries. He had a
court of Oriental magniflcence.- When
the power of the kingdom was at its height,
he sat on a throne of ivory, covered with
pure gold, at the feet of which were two
flgures of lions. The king was dressed
in royal robes (1 K. xxii. 10; 2 Chr.
xviii, 9) ; his insignia were, a crown or
diadem of pure gold, or perhaps ra-
di.ant with precious gems (2 Sam. i. 10,
xu, 30; 2 K. xi, 12 ; Ps. xxi, 3), and a royal
sceptre. Those who approached him did
him obeisance, bowing down and touching
the ground with their foreheads (1 Sam.
xxiv. 8 ; 2 Sam, xix, 24) ; and this was
done even by a king's wife, the mother of
Soloraon (1 K, i. 16). Their officers and
subjects caUed themselves his servants or
slaves, though they do not seem habitually
to have given way to shch extravagant sal
utations as in the Chaldaean and Persian
courts (1 Sara. xvU. 32, 34, 36, xx. 8 ; 2
Sara. vi. 20; Dan. ii. 4). As in the East to
this day, a kiss was a sign of respect and
horaage (1 Sam. x. 1, perhaps Ps. U. 12).
He lived in a splendid palace, with porches
and columns (1 K. vii. 2-7). All his drink
ing vessels were of gold (1 K. x. 21). He
had a large harem, which in the time of
Solomon must have been the source of
enormous expense. As is invariably the
case in the great eastern monarchies at
present, his harem was guarded by eunuchs,
tr.anslated " officers " in the A. V. for the
raost parfr (1 Sara. vin. 15; 2 K. xxiv. 12,
15 ; 1 K. xxU. 9 ; 2 K. viii. 6, ix. 32, 33, xx.
18, xxiii. 11; Jer. xxxvui. 7). The law of
succession to the throne is soraewhat ob
scure, but it seeras raost probable that the
kirg during his lifetime named his succes-

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828

KINGS, BOOKS OF

sor. This was certainly the case with David
(1 K. i. 30, ii. 22), and with Rehoboara (2
Chr. xi. 21, 22). At the same time, if no
partiality for a favorite wife or son inter
vened, there would always be a natural bias
of affection in favor of the eldest son.
Kings, First and Second Books
of, originally only one book in the Hebrew
Canon, form in the LXX. and the Vulgate
the third and fourth Books of Kings (the
Books of Samuel being the first and second) .
It must also be reraerabered that the divis
ion betiveen the Books of Kings and Sam
uel is eipially .artificial, and that in point of
fact the historical books commencing with
Judges and ending with 2 Kings present
the appearance of one work, giving a con
tinuous history of Israel from the timo of
Joshua to the death of Jehoiachin. The
Books of Kings contain the history from
David's death and Soloraon's accession to
the destruction of the kingdom of Judah
and the desolation of Jerusalem, with a
supplemental notice -of an event that oc
curred after an interval of twenty-six years,
viz. the liberation of Jehoiachin from his
prison at Babylon, and a still further ex
tension, to Jehoiachin's death, the time of
which is not known, but which was proba
bly not long after his liberation. The his
tory therefore comprehends the whole time
of the Israelitish monarchy, exclusive of
the reigns of Siiul and David. As regards
the affairs of foreign nations, and the rela
tion of Israel to them, the historical notices
in these books, though in the earlier times
scanty, are most valuable, and in striking
accordance with the latest additions to our
knowledge of conteraporary profane his
tory. The raraes of Omri, Jehu, Mena
hem, Hoshea, Hezekiah, &c., are believed
to have been deciphered in the cuneiform
inscriptions, which also contain pretty full
accounts of the campaigns of Tiglath-Pile
ser, Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon :
Shalmaneser's name has not yet been dis
covered, though two inscriptions in the
British Muscura are thought to refer to
his. reign. Another most important aid to
a right understanding of the history in
these books, and to tho fllUng up of its
outline, is to be found in the prophets,
and especially in Isaiah and Jeremiah. It
. must, however, be admitted that the chron
ological detaUs expressly given in the books
of Kings form a remarkable contrast with
their striking historical accuracy. The
very first date of a decidedly chronological
character which is given, that of the foun
dation of Solomon's temple (1 K. vi. 1), is
manifestly erroneous, as being ii-reooncila-
ble with any view of the chronology of the
times ofthe Judges, or with St. Paul's cal
culation. Acts xUi. 20. It is in fact aban-
- doned by almost aU chronologists, to what
ever school they belong, whether ancient

or modern, and is utterly ignored by Jose-
phus As regards, however, these clirono-
logical difficulties, it must be observed they
are of two essentially different kinds. One
kind is merely the want of the data neces
sary for chronological exactness. But the
other kind of difficulty is of a totally differ
ent character, and embraces dates which
arc very exact in their mode of expression,
but are erroneous and contradictory. (1.)
When we sura up the years of all the
reigns of the kings of Israel as given in
the Books of Kings, and then all the years
of the reigns of the kings of Judah frora
the 1st of Rehoboam to the Gth of Heze
kiah, we find that, instead of the two sums
agreeing, there is an excess of 19 or 20
years in Judah; the reigns of the latter
amounting to 261 years, while the former
make up only 242. But we are able to get
somewhat nearer to the seat of this disa
greement, because it so happens that the
parallel histories of Israel and Judah touch
in four or five points where the synchro
nisms are precisely marked. These points
are, (1) at the simultaneous accessions of
Jeroboam aud Rehoboam ; (2) at the siraul-
t<aneous deaths of Jehoram and Ahaziah,
or, which is the same thing, the simultane
ous accessions of Jehu and Athaliah ; (3)
at the 15th year of Amaziah, which was the
1st of Jeroboam II. (2 K. .\iv, 17) ; (4) in
the reign of Ahaz, which was contemporary
with some part of Pekah's, viz., according
to the text of 2 K, xvi, 1, the three first
years of Ahaz with the three last of Pekah ;
and (5) at the 6th of Hezekiah, which was
the 9th of Hoshea, Beginning with the
sub-period which commences with the dou
ble accession of Rehoboam and Jeroboam,
a;:d closes with the double death of Aha
ziah and Jehoram, we find that the six
reigns in Judah make up 95 years, and the
eight reigns iu Israel make up 98 years.
Here there is an excess of 3 years in the
kingdom of Israel, which raay, however,
be readily accounted for by the frequent
changes of dynasty there, and the proba
bility of fragments of years being reckoned
as whole years, thus causing the same year
to be reckoned twice over. Beginning,
again, at the double accession of Athaliah
and Jehu, we have in Judah 7 -f- 40 -\- 14 first
years of Araaziah = 61, to correspond with
28 -f 17 -f- 16 = 61, ending with the last
year of Jehoash in Israel. Starting again
with the 13th of Amaziah = 1 Jeroboam
IL, we htivo 15 -j- 52 -f- 16 -t- 3 = 86 (to
the 3d year of Ahaz), to correspond with
41-fl-t-10H-2-f 20 = 74 (to the close
of Pekah's reign), where we at once detect
a deficiency on the part of Israel of (86 —
74 = ) 12 years, if at least tho 3d of Ahaa
really correspondod with the gOth of Pekah.
And lastly, starting with the year foUow
ing that last named, we have 13 \aeX yeari

KINGS, BOOKS OF

829

KINGS, BOOKS OF

of Ahaz -f- 7 first of Hezekiah = 20, to
correspond with the 9 years of Hoshea,
where we find another deficiency in Israel
of 11 years. The discrepance of 12 years
first occurs in the third period. We are
told in 2 K. xv. 8 that Zachariah began to
reign in the 38th of Uzziah, and (xiv. 23)
that his father Jeroboam began to reign in
tlie 15th of Araaziah. Jeroboara must,
tUcrafore, have reigned 52 or 53 years, not
41,; for the idea of an interregnum of 11 or
12 years between Jeroboam and his son
Zachariah is absurd. But the addition of
these 12 years to Jeroboam's reign exactly
equalizes the period in the two kingdoms,
which would thus contain 86 years. As
regards the discrepance of 11 years in the
last period, nothing can in itself be more
probable than that either during sorae part
of Pekah's lifetime, or after his death, a
period, not included in the regnal years
of either Pekah or Hoshea, should have
elapsed, when there was either a state of
anarchy, or the government was adminis
tered by an Assyrian officer. (2.) Turn
ing next to the other class of difficulties
' mentioned above, the following instances
will perhaps be thought to justify the opin
ion that the dates in these books which are
intended to establish u, precise chronology
are the work of a much later hand or
hands than the books themselves. The
date in 1 K, vi. 1 is one which is obviously
intended for strictly chronological pur
poses. If correct, it would, taken in con
junction with the subsequent notes of time
in the Books of Kings, supposing them to
be correct also, give to a year the length
of the time from the E.xodus to the Baby
lonian captivity, and establish a perfect
connection between sacred and profane
history. But so little is this the case,
that this date is quite irreconcilable with
Egyptian histo.y, and is, as stated above,
by almost universal consent rejected by
cironologists, even on purely Scriptural
grounds. 'This date is foUowed by pre
cise synchronistic definitions of the par
allel reigns of Israel and Judiih, the effect
of which would be, and must have been
designed to be, to supply the want of ac
curacy in stating tho length df the reigns
without reference to the odd months. But
these synchronistic definitions aro in con
tinual discord with the statement of the
length of reigns. According to 1 K, xxii.
51, Ahaziah succeeded Ahab in the 17th
year of Jehoshiiphat, But according to
the statement of the length of Ahab's reign
ill xvi, 29, Ahab died in the 18th of Jehosh
aphat; while according to 2 K. i, 17, Je
horam the son of Ahaziah succeeded his
brother (after his 2 years' reign) in the
second year of Jehoram the son of Je
hoshaphat, though, according to the length
Of tbe reigns, he nust have succeeded in

the 18th or 19th of Jehoshaphat (see 2 K.
Ui. 1), who reigned in all 25 years (xxii.
42). [Jehoram.] As regards Jehoram
the son of Jehoshaphat, the statements are
so contradictory that Archbishop Ussher
actually makes three distinct beginnings to
his regnal era. From the length of Araa-
ziah's reign, as given 2 K. xiv. 2, 17, 23, it
is manifest that Jeroboara II. began to
reign in the 15th year of Amaziah, aud
that Uzziah began to reign in the 16th of
Jeroboara. But 2 K. xv. 1 places the
comraenceraent of Uzziah's reign in the
27th of Jeroboam, and the accession of
Zachariah = the close of Jeroboam's reign,
in the 38th of Uzziah, statements utterly
contradictory and irreconcilable. Other
grave chronological difficulties seem to
have their source, in the same erroneous
calculations on the part of the Jewish
chronologist. — The peculiarities of diction
in the Books of Kings, and other features in
their literary history, raay be briefly dis
posed of. On the whole the peculiarities
of diction in these books do not indicate a
tirae afterthe captivity, or towards the close
of it, but on the contrary point pretty dis
tinctly to the age of Jeremiah. The gen
eral character of the language is, most dis
tinctly, that of the time befo.re the Babylon
ish captivity. Authorship. — As regards the
authorship of the books, but little difficulty
presents itself. The Jewish tradition, which
ascribes them to Jeremiah, is borne out by
the strongest internal evidence, in addition
to that of 'the language. The last chapter,
especially as compared with the last chap
ter of the Chronicles, bears distinct traces
of having been written by one who did not
go into captivity, but remained in Judaea
after the destruction of the Temple. This
suits Jeremiah. The events singled out
for mention in the concise narrative are
precisely those of which he had personal
knowledge, and iu which he took special
interest. 'The writer in Kings has nothing
more to tell us concerning the Jews or
Chaldees in the land of Judah, which ex
actly agrees with the hypothesis that he is
Jeremiah, who we know was carried down
into Egypt with tho fugitives. In fact, the
date of the writing and the position of the
writer seem as clearly marked by the ter
mination of the narrative at xxv. 26, as in
the case ofthe Acts of the Apostles. The
annexation of this chapter to the writing.!
of Jeremiah so as to forra Jer. lii. (with
the additional clause contained 28-30) ia
an evidence of a very ancient, if not a con
temporary belief, that Jeremiah was tha
author of it. Going back to the xxivth
chapter, we find in ver. 14 an enumeration
of the captives taken with Jehoiachin iden
tical with that in Jer. xxiv, 1 ; in vor. 13, a
reference to the vessels of the Temple
'pre"i5ely simUar to that inJ<ir, xxTJj. 18?

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330

KINGS, BOOKS OF

TO, xxviii. 3, 6. Brief as the narrative is.
It brings out all the chief points in the po
Utical events of the tirae which we know
were rauch in Jeremiah's mind ; and yet,
which is exceedingly reraarkable, Jeremiah
is never once naraed (as he is in 2 Chr.
xxxvi. 12, 21), although the manner of the
writer is frequently to connect the suffer
ings of Judah with their sins and their
neglect of the Word of God, 2 K. xvii.
13, seq., xxiv. 2, 3, &c. It must, how
ever, bo acknowledged that as regards Je
hoiakim's reign, and especially the latter
part of it, and the way in which he came
by his death, the narrative is much more
meagre than one would have expected frora
a conteraporary writer, living on the spot.
But exactly the sarae paucity of informa
tion is found in those- otherwise copious
notices of contemporary events with which
Jeremiah's prophecies are interspersed.
When it is borne in mind. that the writer
of 2 K. was a contemporary writer, dud,
if not Jeremiah, must have had indepen
dent means of information, this coincidence
wiU have great weight. Going back to the
reign of Josiah, in the xxiU. and xxii. chap
ters, the connection of the destruction of
Jerusalem with Manasseh's transgressions,
and the cotnparison of it to the destruction
of Samaria, ver. 26, 27, lead us back to
xxi. 10-13, and that passage leads us to
Jer. vii. 15, xv. 4, xix. 3, 4, &c. The par
ticular account of Josiah's passover, and his
other good works, the reference in ver. 24,
25, to the law of Moses, and the finding of
the Book by Hilkiah the priest, with the
fuller account of that discovery in ch.
xxii., exactly suit Jeremiah, who began
his prophetic office in the 13th of Josiah ;
whose xith chap, refers repeatedly to the
book thus found ; who showed his attach
ment to Josiah by writing a lamentation
on his death (2 Clir. xxxv. 25), and whose
writings show how rauch he made use of
the copy of Deuteronomy so found. With
Josiah's reign necessarily cease all strong
ly marked characters of Jeremiah's author
ship. But though the general unity and
continuity of plan lead us to assign the
whole history in a certain sense to one
author, yet it must be borne in mind that
the authorship of those parts of the history
of which Jeremiah was not an eye-witness
— that is, of all before the reign of Josiah
— would have Consisted merely in select
ing, arranging, inserting the connecting
phrases, and, when necessary, slightly
modernizing the old histories which had
been drawn up by conteraporary prophets
through the whole period of time. (See
e. g. 1 K. xiu. 32.) For, as regards the
sources of information, it may truly be
said that we have the narrative of contem
porary writers throughout. There was a
regular series ef state-annals both for the

kingdom of Judah and for that of Israel,
which embraced the whole time compre
hended in the Books of Kings, or at least
to the end of the reign of Jehoiakinj (2
K, xxiv, 5). These annals are constantly
cited by narae as "the Book ofthe Acts of
Solomon " (1 K. xi. 41) ; and after Solo
mon, "thelBook of the Chronicles ofthe
Kings of Judah, or, Israel " {e. g. 1 K.
xiv. 29, XV. 7, xvi. 5, 14, 20 ; 2 K. x. 34,
xxiv. 5, &c.) ; and it is manifest that the
author of Kings had thera both before him,
while he drew up his history, in which the
reigns of the two kingdoras are harmo
nized, and these annals constiintly ap
pealed to. But, in addition to these na
tional annals, there were also extant, at
the tirae that the Books of Kings were
corapiled, separate works of the several
prophets who had Uved in Judah and Is
rael. Thus the acts of Uzziah, written by
Isaiah, were very Ukely identical with the
history of his reign in the national chroni
cles ; and part of the- history of Hezekiah
we know is identicalin the Chronicles and
in the prophet. The chapter in Jeremiah
relating to the destruction of the Teraple
(lii.) is identical with that in 2 K. xxiv.,
xxv. Relation of the Books of Kings io
those of Chronicles. — It is manifest, and is
universally admitted, that the former is by
far the older work. The language, which
is quite free from the Persicisnis of the
Chronicles and their late orthography,
clearly points out its relative superiority
in regard to age. Its subject also, em
bracing the kingdom of Israel as well as
Judah, is another indication of its com
position before the kingdom of Israel was
forgotten, and before the Jewish enmity
to Samaria, which is apparent in such pas
sages as 2 Chr. xx. 37, xxv., and in those
chapters of Ezra (i.-vi.) which belong
to Chronicles, was brought to maturity.
While the Books of. Chronicles, there
fore, were written especially for the Jews
after their return from Babylon, the Book
of Kings was written for tho whole of Is
rael, before their common national exist
ence was hopelessly quenched. Another
comparison of considerable interest be
tween the two histories may be drawn in
respect to the raain design, that design
having a marked relation both to the indi
vidual station of the supposed writers, and
the peculiar circumstances of their coun
try at the time of their writing. Jeremiah
was himself a prophet. Ho lived while the
prophetic office was in full vigor, in his
own person, in Ezekiel, and Daniel, and
raany others, both true and false. Aftcord-
ingly, we find in the Books of Kings' great
prominence given to the prophetic office.
Ezra, on the contrary, was only a priest.
'In his days the prr photic office had wholly
fallen into abeyance. That evidence of th«

KINGS, BOOKS OF

331

KIRIOTH

Jews being the people of God, which con
sisted in the presence of prophets araong
them, was no more. But to the men of his
generation, the distinctive mark of the con
tinuance of God's favor to their race was
the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem,
the restoration of the daily sacrifice and the
Levitical worship, and the wonderful and
providential renewal of the Mosaic institu
tions. The chief instrument, too, for pre
serving the Jewish remnant from absorption
: into the mass of Heathenism, and for main
taining their national life till the coming of
Messiah, was the maintenance of the Tem
ple, its ministers, and its services. Hence
we see at o-nce that the chief care of a good
.and enlightened Jew of the age of Ezra —
and all the raore if he were hiraself a priest
— would naturally bo to enhance the value
of. the Levitical ritual, and the dignity of
the Levitical caste. And in compiling a
history of the past glories of his race, he
would as naturally select such passages as
especially bore upon the sanctity of the
priestly office, and showed the deep concern
taken by their ancestors in all that related
to the honor of God's House, and the sup
port of his 'ininistering servants. Hence the
Levitical character of the Books of Chroni
cles, and the presence of several detailed nar
ratives not found in the Books of Kings, and
the more frequent reference to the Mosaic
institutions, may most naturally and simply
be accounted for, without resorting to the
absurd hypothesis that the ceremonial law
was an invention subsequent to the captiv
ity. (2 Chr. xxix., xxx., xxxi., compared
with 2 K. xviii., is perhaps as good a speci
men as can be selected of the distinctive
spirit of the Chronicles. See also 2 Chr.
xxvi. 16-21, corapared with 2 K. xv. 5 ; 2
Chr. xi. 13-17, xiu. 9-20, xv. 1-15, xxiu. 2
-8, corapared with 2 K. xi. 5-9, and vers.
18, 19, compared with ver. .18, and many
other passages.) Moreover, upon the prin
ciple that the sacred writers were infiuenced
by natural feelings in their selection of their
materials,-, it seems most appropriate that
while the prophetical writer in Kings deals
very fully with the kingdom of Israel, in
which the prophets were much more illus
trious than in Judah, the Levitical writer,
on the contrary, should concentrate all his
thoughts round Jerusalera, where, alone the
Levitical caste had all its power and func
tions, and should dwell upon all the instan
ces preserved in existing muniments of the
deeds and even the minutest ministrations
of the priests and Levites, as well as of their
faithfulness and sufferings in the cause of
truth. From the comparison of parallel
narratives in the two books, it appears that
the results are precisely what would natu
rally arise from the circumstances of the
case. The writer of the Chronicles, having
the Books of Kings before liim, made those

books 10 a great extent the basis rf liis own.
But also having his own personal views,
predUections, and motives iu writing, com
posing for a different age, and for people
under very different circumstances ; and,
moreover, having before hira the original
authorities frora which the Books of I&ngs
were corapiled, as well as some others, he
naturally re-arranged the older narrative
as suited his purpose and his taste. lie
gave in full passages which the other had
abridged, inserted what had been wholly
omitted, omitted some things which the other
had inserted, including nearly everything re
lating to the kingdom of Israel, and showed
the color of his own mind, not only in the
nature of the passages which he selected.
from the ancient documents, but in the re
flections which he frequently adds upon the
events which he relates, and possibly also
in the turn given to some of the speeches
which he records.. The last point for our
consiQeration is the place of these books in
ihe Canon, and the references to thera in
the N. T. Their canonical authority having
never.been disputed, it is needless to bring
forward the testimonies to their authentici
ty which may be found in Josephus, Euse
bius, Jerome, Augustine, &c. 'They are
reckoned among the Prophets,' in the
threefold division of the Holy Scriptures ;
a position in accordance with the supposi
tion that they were compUed by Jeremiah,
and contain the narratives of the differ
ent prophets in succession. They are fre
quently cited by our Lord and by the
Apostles, Kir is mentioned by Amos (ix, 7,) 'as the
land from which the Syrians (Aramaeans)
were once " brought up ; " i. e. apparently
as the country where they had dwelt before
migrating to the region north of Palestine.
May not Kir be a variant for Kish or Kush
(Cush), and represent the eastern Ethiopia,
the Cissia of Herodotus f
Kir-har'aseth (2 K. iU. 25), Kir-
ha'resh (Is. xvi. 11), Kir-har'eseth
(Is. xvi. 7), Kir-he'res (Jer. xlviU. 31,
36). These four naraes are aU appUed to
one place, probably Kir-Moab.
Kir'iah, apparently an ancient or ar
chaic word, meaning a city or town. It
raay be corapared to the word " burg " or
" bury " in our own language. Closely re
lated to 5iriah is Kereth, apparently a
Phoenician forra, which occurs occasionally
(Job. xxix. 7; Prov. viii. 3). This is {»•
miliar to us in the Latin garb of Carthago,
and in the Parthian and Armenian naraes
Cirta, Tigraiio- Certa. As a proper name
it appears in the Bible under the forms of
Kerioth, Kartah, Kartan ; besides those im
raediately following.
Kiriatha'im. [Kiejathaim.]
Klr'ioth, a place in Moab, the palacea
of which were threatened by Au.os with do.-

KIRJATH

332

KISHON, THE RIVER

6tru( tion by fire (Am. ii. 2) ; unless isdeed
the word means simply "the cities," which
is probably the case also in Jer. xlviu. 4,
Kir'jathi the last of the cities enumer
ated as belonging to the tribe of Benjamin
(Josh, xviii. 28), probably identical with
the better known place Kirjath-Jearim,
Kirjatha'im. 1, On the east of the
Jordan, one of the places which were taken
possession of and rebuilt by the Reubenites,
and had fresh names conferred on thera
(Nura, xxxii. 37, and see 38), the first and
last of which are known with sorae tolerable
degree of certainty (Josh. xii. 19), It ex
isted in the tirae of Jereraiah (xlvUi. 1, 23)
and Ezekiel (xxv. 9 — in these three pas
sages the A. V. gives the name Kiriathaim),
By Eusebius it appears to have been weU
known. He describes it as a village en
tirely of Christians, 10 miles west of Mede-
ba, " close to the Baris," 2, A town in
Naphtali not mentioned in the original lists
of the possession allotted to the tribe (see
Josh, xix. 32-39), but inserted iu the list of
cities given to the Gershonite Levites, in 1
Chr, (vi. 76), in place of Kartan in the
parallel catalogue, Kartan being probably
only a contraction thereof.
Kir'jath-ar'ba, an early name of the
city which after the conquest is generally
known as Hebron (Josh. xiv. 15; -Judg. i,
10), The identity of Kirjath-Arba with
Hetron is constantly asserted (Gen, xxiii.
2, xxxv. 27 ; Josh. xiv. 15, xv. 13, 54, xx.
7, xxi, 11),
Kir'jath-a'rim, an abbreviated form
of the name Kirjath-Jearim, which oc
curs duly in Ezr. ii, 25,
Kir'jath-ba'al, [Kiejath-jeakim.]
Kir'jath-hu'zoth, a place to which
Balak accorapanied Balaara immediately
after his arrival in Moab (Num, xxii, 39),
and which is nowhere else mentioned. It
appears to have lain between the Arnon
( Wady Mojeb) and Bamoth-Baal (comp.
ver. 36 and 41),
Kir'jath-je'arim, first mentioned as
one of the four cities of the Gibeonites
i^Josh. ix. 17) : it next occurs as one of the
landmarks of the northern boundary of
Judah (xv. 9), and as the point at which
the western and southern boundaries of
Benjamin coincided (xviU. 14, 15) ; and in
the two last passages we find that it bore
another, perhaps earlier, uiirae — thatof tho
great Canaanite deity Baal, namely Baalah
and Kirjath-Baal, It is reckoned among
the towns of Judah (xv, 60), It is included
in the genealogies of Judah (1 Chr. U. 60,
63) as founded by, or descended frora,
Shobal, the sou of Calcb-ben-Hur. " Be
hind Ifirjath-jearim " the band of Danites
pitched their camp before their e.\pedition
to Mount Ephraim and Laish, leaving their
name attached to the spot for long after
CJudg. xiiU. 12). [Mahaneh-oan.] Hidi-

erto beyond the early sanctity implied in
its bearing the narae of Baal, there is
nothing remarkable in Kirjath-jearim. It
was no doubt this reputation for sanctity
which made the people of Bethsheraesh ap
peal to its inhabitants to relieve them of tiie
Ark of Jehovah, which was bringing such
calamities on their untutored inexperience
(1 Sam. vi. 20, 21). In this high place the
ark remained for twenty years (vii. 2).
At the close of that time Kirjath-jearim lost
its sacred treasure, on its removal by David
to the house of Obed-edom the Gittite (1
Chr. xiU. 5, 6 ; 2 Chr. i, 4 ; 2 Sara, vi, 2,
&c.). To Eusebius and Jerome it appears
to have been well known. They describe
it as a village at the ninth mile between
Jerusalem and Diospolis (Lydda). These
requirements are exactly fulfilled in the
modern village of Kuriet- el- Enab — now
usually known as Abii Gosh, from the rob
ber-chief whose head-quarters it was — on
the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem.
Kir'jath-san'nah. [Debir.]
Kir'jath-se'pher (Josh. xx. 15, 16;
Judg. i. 11, 12). [Debir.]
Kir of Moab, one of the two chief
strongholds of Moab, the other being Ar op
Moab. The name occurs only in Is. xv. 1,
though the place is probably referred to
under the naraes of Kir-hbres, Kir-haba-
SETH, &e. It is almost identical with the
name Kerak, by which the site of an im
portant city in a high and very strong
position at the S. E. of the Dead Sea is
known at this day. Its situation is truly
remarkable. It is built upon the top of a
steep hill, surrounded on all sides by a
deep and narrow valley, which again is
completely enclosed by mountains rising
higher than the town, and overlooking it
on all sides.
Kish. 1. The father of Saul; a Ben
jamite of the family of Matri, according to 1
Sam. X. 21, though descended from Becher
according to 1 Chr. vU. 8, compared with 1
Sam. ix. 1. 2. Son of Jehiel, and uncle
to the preceding (1 Chr. isc. 86). 3. A
Benjamite, great-grandfather of Mordecai
(Esth. ii. 6). 4. A Merarite, ofthe house
of Mahli, of the tribe of Levi. His song
married the daughters of his brother Elea
zar (1 Chr. xxUi. 21, 22, xxiv. 28, 29), ap
parently about the time of King Saul,-o.»
early in the reign of David, since Jedjthun
the singer was the son of Kish (1 Chr. vi,
44, compared with 3 Chr. xxix. 12).
Kish i, a Merarite, and father or ances
tor of Ethan the minstrel (1 Chr. vl. 44).
Kish'ion, one of the towns on the
boundary of the tribe of Issachar (Josh.
xix. 20), which with its suburbs was allot
ted to the Gershonite Levites (xxi. 28 ; A.
V. Kishon).
Ki'shon, The River, a torrent or
whter strean. oi central Palestine, the-

KISON

333

KOA

icene of two of the grandest achievements
ot Israelite history — the defeat of Sisera
(Judg. iv.), and the destruction of the
prophets of Baal by Elijah (1 K. xviii. 40).
The Nahr MukHtta, the modern represen
tative of the Kishon, is the drain by which
the waters of the plain of Esdraelon, and
of the mountains which enclose that plain,
find their way to the Mediterranean. Like
most of the so-called " rivers " of Pales
tine, the perennial stream forms but a
small part of the Kishon. During the
greater part of the year its upper portion
is dry, and the stream confined to a few
miles next the sea. The part of the Ki
shon at which the prophets of Baal were
slaughtered by Elijah was doubtless close
below the spot on Carmel where the sacri
fice had taken place.
Ki'son, an inaccurate mode of repre
senting tbe narae Kishon (Ps. Ixxxiii. 9),
Kiss. Kissing the lips by way of affec
tionate salutation was customary amongst
near relatives of both sexes, both in Patri-
archiil and in Later times (Gen. xxix, 11 ;
Cant. viii. 1) , Between individuals of the
same sex, and in a limited degree between
those of different sexes, the kiss on the
cheek as a mark of respect or an act of
salutation has at all tiraes been customary
in the East, and can hardly be said to be
extinct even in Europe, In the Christian
Church the kiss of charity was practised
not only as a friendly salutation, but as an
act symbolical of love and Christian broth
erhood (Roth, xvi. 16; 1 Cor. xvi. 20; 2
Cor. xiU. 12 ; 1 Thess. v. 26 ; 1 Pet. v. 14).
It w.as embodied in the earlier Christian
offices, and has been continued in sorae of
those now in use. Among the Arabs the
woraen and children kiss the beards of
their husbands or fathers. The "superior
returns the salute by a kiss on the fore
head. In Egypt an inferior kisses the
hand of a superior, generally on the back,
but soraetiraes, as a special favor, on the
palm also. To testify abject submission,
and in asking favors, the feet are often
kissed instead of the hand. The written
decrees of a sovereign are kissed in token
of respect ; even the ground is soraetiraes
Kissed by Orientals in the fulness of their
submission (Gen. xii. 40 ; 1 Sara. xxiv. 8 ;
Ps. Ixxu. 9 ; &c.). Kissing is spoken it in
Scripture as a mark of respect or adoration
to idols (1 K. xix. 18; Hos. xiu. 2).
Kite (Heb. ayydh). The Hebrew word
thus rendered occurs in three passages.
Lev. xi. 14, Deut. xiv. 13, and Job xxviu.
7 : in the two former it is translated " kite "
in the A. V., in the latter " vulture." It is
enumerated araong the twenty naraes of
birds mentioned in Deut. xiv. (belonging
for-the most part to the order Rapiores),
which were considered unclciin by the Mo-
laic Law, and Arbidden to be used as food

by the Israelites. The allusion in Job
alone affords a clew to its identification.
The deep raines in the recesses of the
mountains from which the labor of man
extracts the treasures of the earth are
there described as " a track which the bird
of prey hath not known, nor hath the eye
of the ayydh looked upon it." The ayydh
may possibly be the " kite," but there is
no certainty en the subject.
Kith'lish, one ofthe towns of Judah, in
the Shefelah or lowland (Josh. xv. 40).
Kit'ron, one ot the towns from which
Zebulun did not expel the Canaanites
(Judg. i. 30). In the Talraud it is identi
fied with "Zippori," i. e. Sepphoris, now
Seffurieh. Kit'tim. Twice written in the A. V.
for Chittim (Gen. x. 4; 1 Chr. i. 7).
Kneading-troughs, [Bread,]
Knife. 1. The knives of the Egyp
tians, and of other nations in early times,
were probably only of hard stone, and the
use of the flint 'or stone knife was some
times retained for sacred purposes after
the introduction of iron and steel. Herod
otus (ii. 86) mentions knives both of iron
and of stone in different stages of the sarae
process of embalraing. The sarae raay per
haps be said to some extent of the Hebrews.
2, In their meals the Jews, like other Ori
entals, made little use of knives, but they
were required both for slaughtering ani-
raals either for food or sacrifice, as well as
cutting up the carcass (Lev. v.u. 33, 34,
vui. 15, 20, 25, ix. 13 ; Num, xviu, 18 ; 1
Sam. ix. 24, &c.). 3. Sraaller knives were
in use for paring fruit (Joseph.), and for
sharpening pens (Jer. xxxvi, 23), 4. The
razor was often used for Nazaritic pur
poses, for which a. special chamber was
reserved in the Temple (Nura. vi, 5, 9, 19 ;
Ez, V, 1; &c,), 5, The pruning-hooks of
Is, xviii. 5 were probably curved knives.
6. The lancets of the priests of Baal were
doubtless pointed knives (1 K. xviii. 28).
Knop. A word eraployed in the A. V.
to translate two terms, which refer to some
architectural or ornamental object, but
which have nothing in common. 1. Caph
tor. This occurs in the description of the
candlestick of the sacred tent in Ex. xxv.
31-36, and xxxvii. 17-22. 2. The second
term, Peka'im, is found only in 1 K, vi. 18,
and vii. 24. 'I'he word no doubt signifies
some globular thing resembling a small
gourd, or an egg, though as to the character
of the ornament we are quite in the dark.
Ko'a is a word which occurs only in Ez.
xxiu. 23. It may perhaps designate a
place otherwise unknown, which we must
suppose to have been a city or district of
Babylonia. Or it may be a common noun,
signifying " prince " or " nobleman," as the
Vulgate takes it, and some of the Jewish
interpreters.

KOHATH

334

LACHISH

Ko'hath, second of the three sons of
Levi, from whom the three principal divis
ions of the Levites derived tlieir origin and
their name (Gen. xlvi. 11 ; Exod. vi. 16,
18; Num, in. 17; 2 Chr, xxxiv. 12, &c.).
Kohath was the father of Amrara, and he
of Moses and Aaron, Frora him, there
fore, were descended all the priests ; and
hence those of the Kohathites who were
not priests were of the highest rank of the
Levites, though not the sons of Levi's first
born. In the journeyijigs of the Taber
nacle the sons of Kohath had charge of the
most holy portions of tho vessels (Num,
iv.). It appears from Ex. vi. 18-22, com
pared with 1 Chr. xxiii. 12, xxvi. 23-32,
that there were four families of sons of
Kohath — Amramites, Izh.arites, Hebron
ites, and Uzzielites. Of the personal his
tory of Kohath we know nothing, except
that he came down to Egypt with Levi and
Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 11), that his sister was
Jochebed (Ex. vi. 20), and that he lived to
the age of 133 years (Ex. vi. 18).
Kolai'ah. 1. A Benjamite whose de
scendants settled in Jerusalem after the
return from the captivity (Neh. xi. 7). 2.
The father of Ahab the false prophet, who
was burnt by the king of Babylon (Jer.
xxix. 21).
Ko'rah. 1. Third son of Esiiu by
Aholibamah (Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18 ; 1 Chr.
i, 35). He was born in Canaan before
Esau migrated to Mount Seir (xxxvi. 5-9),
arid was one ofthe " dukes " of Edom. 2.
Another Edoraitish duke of this name,
sprung from Eliphaz, Esau's son by Adah
(Gen. xxxvi. 16). 3. One of the " sons
of Hebron," in 1 Chr, U. 43. 4. Son of
Izhar, the son Kohath, the son of Levi.
He was leader of the famous rebellion
against his cousins Moses and Aaron in the
wilderness, for which he paid the penalty
of perishing with his followers by an earth
quake and flames of flre (Nura, xvi,, xxvi,
9-11), The particular grievance which
rankled in the raind of Korah and his com
pany was their exclusion from the office of
the priesthood, and their being confined —
those among them who were Levites — to
the inferior service of the tabernacle. Ko-
rah's position as leader in this rebellion
was evidently the result of his personal
character, wMch was that of a bold, haugh
ty, and ambitious man. From sorae cause
which does not clearly appear, the children
of Korah were not involved in the destruc
tion of their father (Num. xxvi. 11). Per
haps the fissure of the ground which swal
lowed up the tsrats of Dathan and Abiram
did not extend beyond those of the Reu
benites. From ver. 27 it seems clear that
Korah himself was not with Dathan and
Abiram at the moment. He himself was
doubtless with the 250 men who bare cen
sers nearer the tabernacle (ver. 19); and

perished with them by the " fire -from 'Je-
hovah " which accompanied the earthquake.
In the N. T. (Jude 11) Korah is coupled
with Cain and Balaam.
Kor'ahite (l Chr, ix. 19, 31), Kor'-
hite, or Kor'athlte, that portion of the
Kohathites who were descended from Ko
rah, and are frequently styled by the synony-
raous phrase Sons of Korah. They were
an important branch of the singers (2 Chr.
XX. 19). Hence we find eleven Psalms (or
twelve, if Ps. 43 is included under the
same title as Ps. 42) dedicated or assigned
to the sons of Korah, viz. Ps. 42, 44-49, 84,
85, 87, 88.
Ko're. 1. A Korahite ancestor of Shal
lum and Meshelemiah, chief porters in the
reign of David (1 Chr. ix. 19, xxvi. 1). 2.
Son of Iranah, a Levite in the reign of
Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 14). 3. In the A.
V. of 1 Chr. xxvi. 19, "the sons of Kore"
(following the Vulg. Core), should proper
ly be " the sons of the Korhite."
Koz (Ezr. u. 61 ; Neh. iU. 4, 21) = Coz
= Hakkoz.
Kushai'ah. The same as Kish or
Kisni, the father of Ethan the Merarite (1
Chr. XV. 17). •
L.
Iia'adah, the son of Shelah, and grand
son of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 21).
La'adan. 1. An Epbraimite, ancestor
of Joshua the son of Nun (1 Chr. vii. 2G).
2. The son of Gershora, elsewhere called
LiBNi (1 Chr. xxiu. 7,8,9; xxvi. 21).
La'ban. 1. Son of Bethuel, brother of
Rebekah, and father of Leah and Rachel.
The elder branch of the family remaiued
at Haraft when Abraham reraoved to the
land of Canaan, and it is there that we
first raeet with Laban, as taking the lead
ing part in the betrothal of his sister Re
bekah to her cousin Isaac (Gren, xxiv, 10,
29-60, xxvii, 43, xxix. 4). The next time
Laban appears in the sacred narrative it is
as the host of his hephew Jacob at Haran
(Gen. xxix. 13, 14). The subsequent trans-'
actions by which he secured the valuable
services of his nephew are related under
Jacob. 2. Ono of the landmarks named
in the obscure and disputed passage Deut,
i, 1, The mention of Hezeroth has perhaps
led to the only conjecture regarding Laban
of which the writer is aware, namely, that it
is identical with Libnah (Num, xxxiii, 20).
The Syriac Peshito understands the name
as Lebanon.
Lacedemo'nians, the inhabitants of
Sparta or Lacedaemon, with whom the
Jews claimed kindred (1 Maec. xu. 2, 5, 6;
20, 21; xiv. 20, 23; xv. 23; 2 Mace. v. 9).
Iia'chish, a city ofthe Amorites, the king
of whieh joined with four others, at the

LAEL

335

LAMENTATIONS

Invitation of Adonizedek king of Jerusa
lem, to chastise the Gibeonites for their
league with Israel (Josh. x. 3, 5). They
were routed by Joshua at Bethhoron, and
the king of Lachish fell a victim with the
others under the trees at Makkedah (ver,
26). The destruction of the town shortly
foUowed the death ofthe king (ver. 31-33).
In the special statement that the attack
lasted two days, in contradistinction to the
other cities which were taken in one (see
ver. 35), we gain our first glimpse of that
strength of position for which Lachish was
afterwards remarkable. Lachish was one
of the cities fortified and garrisoned by Re
hoboara after the revolt of the northern
kingdom (2 Chr. xi. 9). It was chosen as
a refuge by Amaziah frora the conspirators
who threatened hira in Jerusalera, and to
whom he at last feU a victim at Lachish (2
K. xiv. 19; 2 Chr. xxv. 27). In the reign
of Hezekiah, it was one of the cities taken
by Sennacherib when on his way frora
Phoenicia in Egypt. This siege is consid
ered by Layard and Hincks to be depicted
on the slabs found by the former in one of
the chambers of the palace at Kouyunjik.
But though the Assyrian records appear to
assert the capture of Lachish, no statement
IS to be found either in the Bible or Jose
phus that it was taken. After the return
fl om captivity, Lachish with its surround-
iug "fields" was re-occupied by the Jews
(Neh. xi. 30). By Eusebius and Jerome,
in the Onomasticon, Lachish is raentioned
as " 7 miles from Eleutheropolis, towards
Daroma," i. e. towards the south.
Iia'el, tho father of EUasaph (Num. iii.
24). Iia'had, sou of Jahath, one of the de
scendants of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 2).
Laha'i-ro'i, The 'WeU. In this form
is given in the A. V. of Gen. xxiv. 62, and
xxv, 11, the name of the famous well of
Haigar's relief, in the oasis of verdure
round which Isaac afterwards resided,
Lah'mam, a town in the lowland dis
trict of Judah (Josh. xv. 40).
Iiah'ml, the brother of Goliath the Git
tite, slain by Elhanan the son of Zair, or
Zaor (1 Chr, xx, 5),
,La'ish, the city which was taken by the
Danites, and under its new name of Dan
became famous as the northern lirait of the
nation (Judg, xvui. 7, 14, 27, 29). [Dan.]
In the A. V, Laish is again mentioned in
the account of Sennacherib's march on Je
rusalem (Is. X. 36). This Laish is proba
bly the sraall village, Laishah, lying be
tween Gallira and Anathoth, and of which
hitherto no traces have been found.
La'ish, father of Phaltiel, to whom Saul
had given Michal, David's wife (1 Sam.
xxv. 44 ; 2 Sam. iu. 15).
Lakes. [Palestine.]
La'kum, properly Iiak'ktun, one of

the places which formed the landmarl'S
of the boundary of Naphtali (Josh, xb..
33). Xiambs formed an important part o'
almost every sacrifice (Ex. xxix. 38-41
Num. xxvui. 9, 11, xxix, 2, 13-40, &c,)
On the Paschal Larab, see Passover,
Xia'mech, properly Leraech, 1. Thi
fifth lineal descendant frora Cain (Gen, iv
18-24). He is the only one except Enoch,
of the posterity of Cain, whose history is
related with sorae detail. His two wives,
Adah and Zillah, and his daughter Naamah,
are, with Eve, the only antediluvian women
whose names are mentioned by Moses. His
three sons, Ja-bal, Jubal, and Tubal-cain,
are celebrated in Scripture as authors of
useful inventions. The remarkable poem
which Lamech uttered has not yet been ex
plained quite satisfactorily. It may be ren
dered, —
Adah and Zillah, -hear my voice ;
Ye wives of Lamech, pive ear unto my speech ;
For a man had I slain for smiting me.
And a youth for wounding me,
Surely seven-fold shall Cain be avenged,
But Lamech seventy and seven.
It may perhaps be regarded as Lamech'a
song of exultation on the invention of the
sword by his son Tubal-cain, iu the pos
session of which he foresaw a great advan
tage to himself and his faraily over any
enemies. 2, The father of Noah (Gen, v.
29). Lamentations of Jeremiah, The
Hebrew title of this book, f!cah, is taken,
like those of the five Books of Moses, from
the Hebrew word with which it opens. The
poems included in this collection appear
in the Hebrew canon with uo name at
tached to them, and there is no direct ex
ternal evidence that they were written by
the prophet Jeremiah earlier than tbe
date given in the prefatory verse which
appears in the Septuagint. The poems
belong unmistakably to the last days of
the kingdom, or the commencement of
the exile. They are written by one who
speaks, with the vividness and intensity of an
eye-witness, ofthe misery which he bewails.
It raight alraost be enough to ask who else
then living could have written with that
union of strong passionate feeUng aud en
tire submission to Jeliovah which char
acterizes both the Lamentations and the
Prophecy of Jeremiah, The evidences of
identity are, however, stronger and more
minute. Assuming this as sufficiently es
tablished, there come the questions — (1,)
When, and on what occasion, did he write
it? (2,) In what relation, did it stand to
his other writings? (3,) What light does
it throw on his personal history, or on that
of the time in which he lived? I, The
earUest statement on this point is that of
Josephus {Ant. x. 5, § 1), He finds among
the books, which were extant in his own

LAMENTATIONS

336

LAMP

time the lamentations on the death of Jo
siah, which arc mentioned in 2 Chr. xxxv,
25, As there are no traces of any other
poem of this kind in the later Jewish liter
ature, it has been inferred, natur.ally enough,
that he speaks of this. Against this wo have
to set (1) the tradition on the other side
embodied in the preface of the Septuagint,
(2) the contents of the book itself. We
look in vain for a single word distinctive of
a funeral dirge over a devout and zealous
reformer like Josiah, while we find, step by
step, the closest possible likeness between
the pictures of misery in the Lamentations
and the events of the closing years of the
reign of Zedekiah. At what period after
the capture of the city the prophet gave
this uttcr.ance to his sorrow we can only
conjecture, and the niiiterials for doing so
with any probability are but scanty. II.
The book consists of five chapters, each of
which, however, is a separate poem, com
plete in itself, and having a distinct sub
ject, but brought at the same time under a
plan which includes them all, A compli
cated alphabetic structure pervades nearly
the whole book, (1.) Ch. i., ii., and iv.
contain 22 verses each, arranged in alpha
betic order, each verse falling into three
nearly balanced clauses ; ii. 19- forms an
exception, as having a fourth clause. (2.)
Ch. iii. contains three short verses under
I each letter of the alphabet, the initial letter
biiing three tiraes repeated, (3,) Ch. v,
contains the same number of verses as
ch. i., ii., iv., but without the alphabetic
order. III. Jeremiah was not merely a
patriot-poet, weeping over the ruin of his
country. He was a prophet who had seen
all this coming, and had foretold it as inev
itable. He had urged svibraission to the
Chaldaeans as the only mode of diminish
ing the terrors of that "day of the Lord.'
AU feeling of exultation in which, as mere
prophet of evil, he might have indulged
at the fulfilment of his forebodings, was
swallowed up in deep, overwhelming sor
row, , Yet sorrow, not less than other
emotions, works on men according to
their characters, and a man with Jere
miali's gifts of utterance could not sit
down in the mere silence and stupor of a
hopeless grief. He was compelled to givt
expression to that which was devouring his
heart and the heart of his people. An ex
amination of the five poems will enable us
to judge how far each stands by itself, how
far they are connected as parts forming a
whole, I, The opening verse strikes the
key-note of the whole poem. That which
haunts the prophet's mind is the solitude
in which ho finds hiraself. She that was
"princess araong the nations" sits "sol
itary," "as a widow," Mingling with this
outburst of sorrow there are two thoughts
characteristic both of the miin and the time.

The calamities which the nation suffers are
the consequences of its sms. There must
be the confession of those sms. There
is also, at any rate, this glciim of con
solation—that Judah is not alone m her
sufferings. II. As the solitude of the city
was the subject of the first lamentation, so
the destruction that had laid it wastt is
that which is most conspicuous in the sec
ond, III. In the two preceding poems,
Jeremiah had spoken of the misery and
destruction of Jerusalem. In the third
he speaks chiefly, though not exclusively,
of his own. Here, as in the prophecies,
we flnd a Gospel for the weary and heavy-
laden, IV, It might seem, at first, as if
the fourth poem did but reproduce the
pictures and thoughts of the first and
second. Thus come before us once again
the faraine, the misery, the desolation,
that had fallen on the holy city, making
all faces gather blackness. V. One great
difference in the fifth and last section
of the poem has been already pointed
out. It obviously indicates either a de
liberate abandonment of the alphabetic
structure, or the unfinished character of
the concluding elegy. There are perhaps
few portions of the O. T. which appear
to have done the work they were meant to
do more effectually than this. The book
has supplied thousands with the fullest
utterance for their sorrows in the critical
periods of national or individual suffering.
We may well believe that it soothed the
weary years of the Babylonian exile. On
the ninth day of the month of Ab (July-Au
gust), the Lamentations of Jeremiah were
read, year by year, with fasting and weep
ing, to commemorate the misery out of
which the people had been delivered. It
enters largely into the order of the Latin
Church for the services of Passion-week,
The LXX, group the writings connected
with the name of Jeremiah together, but the
Book of Baruch comes between the prophe
cy and the Lamentation. On the hypothesis
of some writers that Jer, lii, was originally
the introduction to the poem, it would follow
that the arrangement of the Vulg. and the
A. V. corresponds more closely than any
other to that which we must look on as tho
original one.
Lamp, 1. That part of the golden can
dlestick belonging to the Tabernacle which
bore the light ; also of each of the ten can
dlesticks placed by Solomon in the Temple
before the Holy of Holies (Ex, xxv. 37 ; 1
K. vU. 49; 2 Chr, iv, 20, xiu. 11 ; Zech. iv.
2). The liinips were lighted every evening,
and cleansed every morning (Ex. xxx. 7,
8). 2, A torch or flambeau, such as was ,
carried by the soldiers of Gideon (Judg, vii.
16, 20; comp. xv. 4). The use of lamps fed
with oil in marriage processions is alluded
to in the parable of the ten virgins (Matt.

LANCET

337

LATTICE

xxv. 1). Modern Flgyptian lamps consist
of small glass vessels with a tube at the bot
tom containing a cotton-wick twisted round
a piece of straw. For night-travelling, a
lantern composed of waxed cloth strained
over a sort of cylinder of wire-rings, and a
top and bottom of perforated copper. This
would, in form at least, answer to the lamps
within pitchers of Gideon.

Egyptian Lamp.
Lancet. This word is found in 1 K.
xviu. 28 only. The Hebrew term is Romach,
which is elsewhere rendered, and appears
to mean, a javelin, or light spear. In the
original edition of the A. V. (1611) the
word is " lancers."
Language. [Tongues, Confusion of.]
Lantern occurs only in John xviu. 3.
See Did. of Ant. art. Laterna.
Laodice'a, a town in the Roman prov
ince of Asia, situated iu the valley of the
Maeander, on a small river called the
Lycus, with Colossae and Hierapolis a
few mUos distant to the west. Built, or
rather rebuilt, by one of the Seleucid mon
archs, and named in honor of his wife, Laod
icea became under the Roman government
a place of sorae iraportance. Its trade was
considerable : it lay on the line of a great
road ; End it was the seat of a conventus.
Frora the third chapter .and seventeenth
verse of Revelation we should gather it was
a place of great wealth. Christianity was
introduced into Laodicea, not, however, as
it would seem, through the direct agency of
St. Paul. We have good reason for be-
Ueving that when, in writing from Rome to
the Christians of Colossae, he sent a greet
ing to those of Laodicea, he had not per
sonally visited either place. But the
preaching of the Gospel at Ephesus (Acts
xviii. 19~xix. 41) must inevitably have re
sulted in the formation of churches in the
neighboring cities, especially where Jews
were settled; and there were Jews in Laod
icea. In subsequent times it became a
Christian city of erainence, the see of a
bishop, and a raeeting-place of councils.
The Mohammedan invaders destroyed it ;
and it is now a scene of utter desolation :
but the extensive ruins near Denislu justify
all that we read of Laodicea in Greek and
Roman writers. One Biblical subject of
interest is connected with Laodicea. From
Coh iv. 16 it appears that St. Paul wrote a
letter to this place when he wrote the letter
to Colossae. The question arises whether
22

we can give any account of this Laodicean
epistle, Wies.eler's theory is that the Epistle
to Philemon is meant. Another view, main
tained by Paley . and others, is that the
Epistle to .the Ephesians is intended,
Ussher's view is that this last epistle was a
circular letter sent to Laodicea araong other
places. The apocryphiil Epistola ad Lao-
dicenses is a late and clurasy forgery.
Laodice'aus, the inhabitants of Laod
icea (Col. iv, 16; Rev, iu. 14).
Lap'idoth, the husband of Deborah the
prophetess (Judg. iv, 4).
Lapwing (Heb, ductphath) occurs only
in Lev. xi. 19, and in the parallel pass.age
of Deut. xiv. 18, araongst the list of those
birds which were forbidden by the law of
Moses to be eaten by the Israelites. Cora-
mentators generally agree that the Hoopoe
is the bird intended. The hoopoe is not
now eaten except occasionally in those
countries where it is abundantly found —
Egypt, France, Spain, &c., &c. The hoopoe
is an occasional visitor to England, arriv
ing for the raost part in the autumn. Its
crest is very elegant ; the long feathers form
ing it are each of thera tipped with black.
Lase'a (Acts xxvii. 8), a city of Crete,
the ruins of which were discovered in 1856,
a few railes to the eastward of Fair Havens.
La'sha, a place noticed in Gen. x. 19
as marking the limit of the country of the
Canaanites. It lay somewhere in the south
east of Palestine. Jerome and other writers
identify it with Callirhofi, a spot famous for
hot springs, near the eastern shore of the
Dead Sea.
Lasha'ron, one of the Canaanite towns
whose kings were killed by Joshua (Josh.
xU. 18).
Latchet, the thong or fastening by
which the sandal was attached to the foot.
It occurs in the proverbial expression in
Gen. xiv. 23, and is there used to denote
something trivial or worthless. Another
semi-proverbial expression in Luke iii. 16
points to the fact that the office of bearing
and unfastening the shoes of great person
ages fell to the raeanest slaves.
Latin, the language spoken by the Ro
mans, is mentioned only in John xix. 20,
and Luke xxUi. 38,
Lattice. The rendering in A. V. of
three Hebrew words. 1. Eshndb, which
occurs but twice, Judg. v. 28, and Prov.
vii. 6, and in the latter passage is translat
ed " casement " in the A. V. In both in
stances it stands in parallelism with "win
dow." 2. Khdraccim (Cant. u. 9) is ap
parently synonymous with the preceding,
though a word of later date. 3. Sebdcdh,
is simply "a network" placed before a
window or balcony. Perhaps the network
through which Ahaziah fell and received
his mortal injury was on the parapet of
his palace (2 K. i. 2).

LAVER- 338 I-AW OF MOSES
Laver. 1. In the Tabernacle, a vessel to the whole of the Old Testament (as in
of brass containing water for.the priests to John x. 34, referring to is^ Ixxxu. b; iq
wash tlieir h.ands and feet before offering John xv. 25, referring. to Is. xxxv. 19;
sacrifioe. It stood in the court between and in 1 Cor. xiv. 21, referring to Is.

the alliir and the door of the Tabernacle
(Ex. xxx. 19, 21.) It rested on a basis,
i. e. a foot, though by some explained to
be a cover of copper or brass, which, as
well as the haver itself, was made frora the
mirrors of the women who assembled at the
door of the Tabernacle-court (Ex. xxxviii.
8). The form ofthe laver is not specifled,
but may be assumed to have been circular.
Like the other vessels belonging to the Tab
ernacle, it was, togetlier with its " foot,"
consecrated with oil (Lev, viu. 10, 11). 2.
In Solomon's 'Temple, besides the great
molten sea, there were ten lavers of brass,
raised on bases (1 K. vii. 27, 39), five on
the N. and S. sides respectively of the
court of the priests. Each laver contained
40 of the measures called "bath," They
were used for washing the aniraals to be
offered in burnt-offerings (2 Chr, iv, 6),
The dimensions of the bases with the la
vers, as given in the Hebrew text, are 4
cubits in length and breadth, and 3 in
height. There were to each 4 wheels of
14 cubit in diameter, with spokes, &c,, all
cast in one piece.
Law. 'Tiie word is properly used, in
Scripture as elsewhere, to express a defi
nite comraandment laid down by any rec
ognized authority. The commandment may
be general, or (as in Lev. vi. 9, 14, &c.,
" the law of the burnt-offering," &c.) par-
ticuhir in its bearing; the authority either
human or divine. But when the word is
used with the article, and without any
words of limitation, it refers to the ex
pressed will of God, and, in nine cases out
of ten, to the Mosaic Law, or to the Pen
tateuch, of which it forms the chief por
tion. The Hebrew word, tdrdh. Lays more
stress on its nioriil .authority, as teaching
the truth, and guiding in the right way;
the Greek nomas {riuoc), on its constrain
ing power, as imposed and enforced by a
recognized authority. Tho sense of the
word, however, extends its scope, and as
sumes 11 raore abstract character in the
writings- of St. Piiul. Nomos, when used
by him with the article, still refers in gen
eral to the Law of Moses ; but when used
without tho article, so as to embrace any
manifestation of " Law," it includes all
powers which act on the wUl of man by
compulsion, or by the pressure of external
motives, whether their commands be or be
not expressed in definite forms. The oc
casional use of the word "law" (as in
Rom. iiL 27, "law of faith") to denote
iu infernal principle of action, docs not
really militate against the general rule. It
should also be noticed that the title "the
Law " ia occasicnallv used loosely to refer

xxviii. 11, 12).
Law of Moses. It wUl be the object
of this article to give a brief analysis of its
substance, to point out its main principles,
and to explain the position which it occu
pies in the progress of Divine Revelation.
In order to do this the more clearly, it
seems best to speak of the Law, 1st, in re
lation to the past; 2dly, in its own intrin
sic character; .and, 3dly, in its relation to
the future, (i.) (a.) In reference to the
past, it is al?-important, for the proper un
derstanding of the Law, to remember its
entire depeni^ence on ihe Abrahamic Cove
nant, and its adaptation thereto (ste GaL
iu. 17-24). That covenant had a twofold
character. It contained the^ " spiritual
promise " of the Messiah, which was given
to the Jews as representatives of the whole
human race. But it contained also the
temporal promises subsidiary to the for
mer. These promises were special, given
distinctively to the Jews as a .nation. It
follows that there should be in the Law a
corresponding duality of nature. (5.) The
nature of this relation of the Law to tlie
promise is clearly pointed out. The belief
in God as the Redeemer of man, and the
hope of His manifestation as such in tl:".
person of the Messiah, involved the belief
that the Spiritual Power must be superior
to all carnal obstructions, and that there
was in man a spiritual eleraent which could
rule his life by coraraunion with a Spirit
from above. But it involved also the idea
of an antagonistic Power of Evil, from
which man was to be redeemed, existing
in each individual, and existing also in the
world at large, (c.) Nor is it less essen
tial to remark the period of the history
at which it was given. It raarked and de
termined the transition of Israel from the
condition of a tribe to that of a nation, and
its definite assumption of a distinct posi
tion and office in the history of the world.
((?.)_ Yet, though new in its general con
ception, it was probably not wholly new in
its materials. There must necessarily ha ve
been, before the law, commandments and
revelations of a fragmentary character, un
der which Israel had hitherto grown up.
So far therefore as they were consistent
with the objects ofthe Jewish law, the cus
toms of Palestine and the Laws of Egypt
would doubtless be traceable in the Mosaic
system, (e.) In close connection with, and
alniost in consequence of, this reference to
antiquity, we find an accommodation ofthe
Law to the temper and circumstances of
the Israelites, to which our Lord refers in
the case of divorce (Matt. xix. 7, 8) as ne
cessarily interfering with its absolute pel*

LAW OF MOSES

339

LAW OF MOSES

faction. Il many cases it rather should be
said to guide and modify existing usages
than actually to sanction thera ; and the ig
norance of their existence may lead to a
conception of its ordinances not only erro
neous, but actually the reverse of the truth.
Nor is it less noticeable that the degree of
prominence, given to each part of tho Mo
saic system, has a similar reference to the
period at which the nation had arrived.
The ceremonial portion is marked out dis
tinctly and with elaboration ; the moriil and
criminal law is clearly and sternly decisive ;
even the civil law, so far as it relates to in
dividuals, is systematic ; because all these
were called for by the past growth of the
nation, and needed in order to settle and
develop its resources. But the political
and constitutional law is comparatively im
perfect; a few leading principles are laid
down, to be developed hereafter; but the
law is directed rather to sanction the vari
ous powers of the state than to deflne and
"Dalauce their operations. (/.) In close con
nection with this subject we observe also
the gradual pi-ocess by which ihe Law was
revealed to the Israelites. In Ex. xx.-xxiii.,
in direct connection with the revelation
from Mount Sinai, that which may be called
the rough outline of the Mosaic Law is
given by God, solemnly recorded by Moses,
and accepted by the people. In Ex. xxv.-
xxxi. there is a similar outline, of the Mo
saic ceremonial. On the basis of these it
maj' bo conceived that the fabric of the
Mosaic system gradually grew up under the
requireraents of the time. 'The first reve
lation of the Law in anything like a perfect
form is found in the book of Deuteronomy.
Yet even then the revelation was not final ;
it Wiis the duty of the prophets to amend
and explain it in speciiil points (Ez. xviii.),
and to bring out more clearly its great prin
ciples, (ii.) In giving an analysis of the
substance of the Law, it will probably be
better to treat it, as any other system of
laws is usually treated, by dividing it into
— (I.) Laws Civil; (II.) Laws Criminal;
(III ; Laws Judicial and Constitutional;
fl'^' ) Laws Ecclesiiistical and Ceremonial.
(I.) LAWS CIVIL.
(A) Of Persons.
{a) Father and Son, — The power of a
Father to be held sacred ; cursing, or smit
ing (Ex, xxi, 15, 17; Lev, xx. 9), or stub-
¦ born and wilful disobedience, to be con
sidered capital crimes. But uncontrolled
power of life and death was apparently
refused to the father, and vested only in
the congregation (Deut. xxi. 18-21). Right
of the first-born to a double portion of the
inheritiince not to be set aside by partiaUty
(Deut. xxi. 15-17). Inheritance by Daugh
ters to be allowed in default of sons, pro

vided (Nura. xxvU. 6-8, comp. xxxvi.)
that heiresses married in their own tribe.
Daughters unmarried to bo entirely de
pendent on their father (Num. xxx. 3-5).
(i) Husband and ¦\VirE. — The power
of a Husband to be so great that a wife
could never be sui juris, or enter inde
pendently into any engageraent, even be
fore God (Num. -xxx. 6-15). A widow or
divorced wife becarae independent, and did
not again fall under her father's power
(ver. 9). Divorce (for uncleanness) al
lowed, but to be formal and irrevocable
(Deut. xxiv. 1-4). Marriage within cer
tain degrees forbidden (Lev. xviii., &c.).
A Slave Wife, whether bought or captive,
not to be actual property, nor to be sold ;
if ill-treated, to bo ipso facto free (Ex. xxi.
7-9; Deut. xxi. 10-14). Slander against
a wife's virginity to be punished by fine,
and by dcprival of power of divorce ; on
the other hand, ante-connubial unclean
ness in her to be punished by de.ath (Deut.
xxii. 13-21). The raising up of seed (Le-
virate law) a formal right to be claimed by
the widow, under pain of infamy, with a
view to preservation of families (Deut.
xxv. 5-10).
(c) Master and Slave. — Power of
Master so far limited, that death under
actual chastisement was punishable (Ex.
xxi. 20) ; and maiming was to give liberty
ipso f ado (ver. 26, 27). The Hebrew Slave
to he freed at the sabbatical year,* and pro
vided with necessaries (his wife and chil
dren to go with only if they came to his
master with him), unless by his own for
mal act he consented to be a perpetual slave
(Ex. xxL 1-6; Deut. xv. 12-18). In any
case, it would seem, to be freed at the
jubilee (Lev. xxv. 10), with his children.
If sold to a resident alien, to be always re
deemable, at a price proportional to the
distance of the jubilee (Lev. xxv. 47-5-4).
Foreign Slaves to be held .and inherited as
property forever (Lev. xxv. 45, 40) ; and
fugitive slaves from foreign nations not to
bo given up (Deut. xxiii. 15).
{d) Strangers. — They seem never to
have been sui juris, or able to protect them
selves, and accordingly protection and kind
ness towards them are enjoined as a sacred
duty (E.x. xxu. 21 ; Lev. xix. 33, 34).
(B) Law of Things.
(a) Laws of Land (and Property) . —
(1) All Land to be the property of God
alone, and its holders to be deemed His
tenants (Lev. xxv. 23). (2) All sold Land
therefore to return to its original owners
at the jubilee, and the price of sale to be
calculp.ted accordingly ; and redemption on
equitable terras to be allowed at .all times
(xxv. 25-27). A House sold to be redeem-

* The ditg»ulty of enforcing this lawUsesn inJer.ixiiv,
8-16.

LAW OF MOSES

340

LAW OF MOSES

able iiathin a year; and, if not redeemed,
to pass away altogether (xxv. 29, 30). But
the Houses of ihe Levites, or those in un
walled villiiges, to be redeeraable at all
times, in the same way as land; and the
Levitical suburbs to be inalienable (xxv.
31-34). (3) Land or Houses sandified, or
tithes, or unclean firstlings to be capable of
being redeemed, at six fifths value (calcu
lated according to the distance from the
jubilee-year by the priest) ; if devoted by
the owner and unredeemed, to be hallowed
at the jubilee forever, and given to the
priests ; if only by a possessor, to return to
the owner at the jubilee (Lev. xxvu. 14-34).
(4) Inheritance.

_L

(1) Som. I ^ I
(2) Daughters.* I
(3) Brothers. „ . , .„
(4) Uncles on the Father's side.
(6) A'ext Kinsmen, generally.
(6) Laws op Debt. — (1) All Debts (to
an Israelite to be released at the 7th (sab
batical) year ; a blessing promised to obedi
ence, and a curse on refusal to lend (Deut.
XV. 1-11). (2) Usury (frora Israelites)
not to be taken (Ex. x.xii. 25-27; Deut.
xxui, 19, 20). (3) Pledges not to be in
solently or ruinously exacted (Deut. xxiv.
6, 10-13, 17, 18).
{c) Taxation. — (1) Census-money, a
poll-tax (of a half shekel), to be paid for
ihe service of the tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 12-
16). All spoil in war to be halved ; ofthe
combatant's half, one five-hundredth, of the
people's, one fiftieth, to be paid for a
" heave-offering " to Jeliovah.
(2) Tithes, (a) Tithes of all produce to
be given for maintenance of the Levites
(Nura. xviU. 20-24). (Of this one tenth to
be paid as a heave-offering for maintenance
of the priests . . . 24-32.) (jS) Second Tithe
to be bestowed in religious feasting and
charity, either at the Holy Place, or every
3d year at home (?) (Deut. xiv. 22-28).
(y) First Fruits of corn, wine, and oil (at
least one sixtieth, generally one fortieth,
for the priests) to be offered at Jerusalera,
with a solemn declaration of dependence on
God the King of Israel (Deut. xxvi. 1-15;
Num, xviii. 12, 13). Firstlings ot clean
beasts ; the rederaption-raoney (5 shekels)
of man, and {h shekel, or 1 shekel) of un
clean beasts, to be given to the priests after
sacrifice (Nura. xvui. 15-18).
(3) Poor Laws, {a) Gleanings (in field
or vineyard) to be a legal right of the poor
(Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19-22). {(:)
Slight Trespass (eating on the spot) to be
allowed as legal (Deut. xxiU. 24, 25). {y)
Second Tithe (see 2 jS) to be given in chari
ty. {}) Wages to be paid day by day (Deut.
xxiv. 15).
(4) Maintenance of Priests (Num. xvUi.
'Heiresses to many In Iheir own tribe- (Num. xxvu. 8-
1, XXXTl.).

8-321 (o) Tenth of Levites' Tithe. (oe»
2 „> (s) The heave and wave-offerings
(breast iind right shoulder of all peace-
offerino-s). (y) The meat and sin-offerings,
to be eaten solemnly, and only in the holy
nlace {S) First Fruits and redemption
money. (See 2 y). (t) Price of (ill devoted
things, unless specially given for a sacred
service. A man's service, or that of his
household, to be redeemed at 50 shekels for
man, 30 for woman, 20 for boy, and 10 for
girl. (II.) LAWS CRIMINAL.
(A) Offences against God (of the nature
of treason).
1st Command. Acknowledgment of false
gods (Ex. xxu. 20), as e. g. Molech (Lev.
XX. 1-5), and generally aU idolatry (Deut.
xiU., XVU. 2-5).
2d Coraraand. Witchcraft and false
prophecy (Ex, xxU. 18 ; Deut. xvui. 9-22 ;
Lev. xix. 31).
3d Command. Blasphemy (Lev. xxiv
15, 16).
4th Command. Sabbath-breaking (Num.
XV. 32-36).
Punishment in aU cases, death by ston
ing. Idolatrous cities to be utterly de
stroyed. (B) Offences against Man.
5tb Command. Disobedience io or curs
ing or smiting of parents (Ex. xxi. 15, 17 ;
Lev. XX. 9; Deut. xxi. 18-21), to be
punished by death by stoning, publicly ad
judged and inflicted ; so also of disobedience
to the priests (as judges) or Supreme Judge.
Corap. 1 K. xxi, 10-14 (Naboth) ; 2 Chr.
xxiv. 21 (Zechariah).
6th Command, (l) Murder, to be pun
ished by death without sanctuary or re
prieve, or satisfaction, (Ex. xxi. 12, 14;
Deut. xix. 11-13). Death of a slave,
actually under the rod, to be punished (Ex,
xxi, 20, 21). (2) Death by negligence, to
be punished by death (Ex. xxi. 28-30).
(3) Accidental Homicide : the avenger of
blood to be escaped by flight to the cities
of refuge till the death- of the high-priest
(Num. xxxv. 9-28; Deut. iv. 41-43; xix.
4-10). (4) Uncertain Murder, to be ex
piated by formal disavowal and sacrifice by
the elders of the nearest city (Deut. xxi
1-9). (5) Assault to be punished by lex
ialionis, or damages (Ex. xxi. 18, 19, 22-
25 ; Lev. xxiv. 19, 20).
'7th Command. (1) Adultery to be pun
ished by death of both offenders ; the rape
of a married or betrothed woman, by death
of the offender (Deut. xxu. 13-27). (2)
Rape or Sedudion of an unbetrothed virgin;
to be compensated by marriage, with dowry
(50 shekels), and without power of divorce ;
or, if she be refused, by payment of full
dowry (Ex. xxu. 16, 17 ; Deut. xxii. 28,

LAW OF MOSES

341

LAW OF SiOSEa

'id). (3) Unlawful Marriages (incestu
ous, &c.), to be punished, sorae by death,
some by childlessness (Lev. xx.).
8th Command. (1) Theft to be punished
by fourfold or double restitution; a noc
turnal robber might be slain as an outlaw
(Ex. xjdi. 1-4). (2) Trespass and injury
of things lent to be compensated (Ex. xxiii.
6-15). (3) Perversion of Justice (by bribes,
threats, &c.), and especially oppression of
strangers, strictly forbidden (Ex. xxU. 9,
&c.). (4) Kidnapping to be punished by
death (Deut. xxiv. 7).
9tli Command. False Witness, to be
punished by lex ialionis (Ex. xxiu. 1-3 ;
Deut. xix. 16-21). Slander of a wife's
chastity, by fine and loss of power of di
vorce (D.eut. xxii. 18, 19).
A fuller consideration of the tables of the
Ten Coraraandraents is given elsewhere.
[Ten Commandments.]
(HI.) LAWS JUDICIAL AND CON
STITUTIONAL.
(A) Jurisdiction.
{a) Local Judges (generally Levites, as
more skilled in the Law) appointed, for
ordinary raatters, probably by the people
with approbation of the supreme authority
(as of Moses in the wilderness) (Ex. xviii.
25 ; Deut. i. 15-18) through all the land
(Deut. xvi. 18) . (4) Appeal to ihe Priests (at
the holy place), or to the judge; their
sentence final, and to be accepted under
pain of death. See Deut. xvii. 8-13 (comp.
appeal to Moses, Ex. xviu. 26). (c) Two
witnesses (at least) required in capital
matters (Nura. xxxv. 30 ; Deut. xvii. 6,7).
{d) Punishment (except by special cora
raand), to be personal, and not to extend to
the faraily (Deut. xxiv. 16). Stripes al
lowed and limited (Deut. xxv. 1-3), so as
to avoid outrage on the human frarae.
All this would be to a great extent set
aside — 1st. By the summary jurisdiction
of the king (see 1 Sam. xxii, 11-19 (Saul)
2 Sam. xii. 1-5, xiv. 4-11 ; 1 K. iU. 16-28),
which extended even to the deposition ofthe
high-prie^ (1 Sam. xxu. 17, 18 ; 1. K. U. 26,
27). The practical diflBculty of its being car
ried out is seen in 2 Sam. xv. 2-6, and would
lead of course to a certain delegation of his
power. 2d. By the appointment of the
Seventy (Nura. xl. 24-30) with a solemn
reUgious sanction. In later times there
was a local Sanhedrim of 23 in each city,
and two such in Jerusalera, as well as the
Great Sanhedrim, consisting of 70 members,
besides the president, who was to be the
high-priest if duly qualified, and controlling
even the king and high-priest. The members
were priests, scribes (Levites), and elders
(of other tribes). A court of exactly this na
ture is noticed, as appointed to supreme pow
er ty Jehoshaphat (See 2 Chr. xix. 8-11.)

(B) Royal I'ower.
The King's Power limited by the Liiw,
as written and formally accepted by the
king; and dircctl}' forbidden to be despotic *
(Deut. XVU. 14-20; corap. 1 Sara x, 25).
Yet he had power of taxation (to one tenth) ;
and of compulsory service (1 Sain, viii. 10-
18) ; the declaration of war (1 Sam. xu), &c.
There are distinct traces of a " mutual con
tract" (2 Sam. V. 3; a "league," 2 K. xi.
17) ; the reraonstrance with Rehobo.am
being clearly not extraordinary (1 K. xii.
1-6). T/ie Princes of ihe Congregation. The ¦
heads of the tribes (see Josh. ix. 15) seem
to have had authority under Joshua to act
for the people (corap. 1 Chr. xxvii. 16-22 ;
and in the later times " the princes. of Ju
dah " seem to have had power to control
both the king and the priests (see Jer. xxvi.
10-24, xxxvui. 4, 6, &c.).
(C) Royal Revenue.
(1) Tenth of produce. {2) Domain land
(1 Chr. xxvii. 26-29). Note confiscation
of criminal's land (1 K. xxi. 15). (3) Bond
service (1 K. v. 17, 18), chiefly on foreign
ers (1 K. ix. 20-22 ; 2 Chr. iL 16, 17), (4)
Flocks and herds (1 Chr. xxvii, 29-31).
(5) Tributes (gifts) from foreign kings.
(6) Commerce; especially in Solomon's
time (1 K. x. 22, 29, &c.).
(IV.) ECCLESIASTICAL AND CER
EMONIAL LAW.
(A) Law of Sacrifice (considered as the
sign and the appointed means of the
union with God, on which the holiness
of the people depended).
(1) Ordinary Sacrifices.
(a) The whole Burnt- Offering (Lev. 1)
of the herd or the flock ; to be offered
continually (Ex. xxix. 38-42) ; and the
fire on the altar never to be extin
guished (Lev. vi. 8-13).
((S) The Meat- Offering (Lev. U., vL 14-
23) of flour, oil, and frankincense, uii-.
leavened, and seasoned with salt.
(y) The Peace- Offering (Lev. iu., vu.
11-21) of the herd or the flock; either
a thank-offering, or a vow, or freewill
offering.
{S) The Sin- Offering, or Trespass-
Offering (Lev. iv,, v., vi.).
(a) For sins committed in ignorance
Lev. iv.).
(S) For vows unwittingly made and
broken, or uncleanness unwittingly
contracted (Lev. v.).
{c) For sins wittingly cbmraitted (Lev.
vi. 1-7).

* MilitaiT conquest discouraged by the prohibition of
the use of horsea. (See Josh, xi.^ 6.) For an example of
obedience to this law see 2 Sam. vtU. 4, and of dlsobeoienci
to it iu 1 K. X. 26-29.

LAW OF MOSES

34a

LAW OF MOSES

(2) Extraordinary Sacrifices.
(o) At the Consecration of Priests (Lev.
viii., ix.).
(;*) At the Purification of Women (Lev.
xii.).
(y) At ihe Cleansing of Lepers (Lev.
xiii., xiv.).
{i) On the Great Day of Atonement
(Lev. xvi.).
(t) On the great Festivals (Lev. xxiii.).
fB) Law op Holiness (arising from the
union with God through sacrifice).
(1) Holiness op Persons.
(o) Holiness of the whole people as
"children of God" (Ex. xix. 5, 6;
Lev. xi.-xv., XVU., xviu. ; Deut. xiv.
1-21), shown in
(a) The Dedication of the first-born (Ex.
xUi. 2, 12, 13, xxU. 29, 30, &c ; and the
offering of all firstlings and first-fruits
(Deut. xxvi., &c.).
(6) Distinction of clean and unclean food
(Lev. xi. ; Deut. xiv.).
{c) Provision for purification (Lev. xii.,
xiii., xiv., XV. ; Deut. xxiii. 1-14).
{d) Laws against disfigurement (Lev.
xix. 27 ; Deut. xiv. 1 ; comp. Deut.
xxv. Z, iigainst excessive scourging). -
(e) Laws against unn<atural marriages
and lusts (Lev. xviii., xx.).
(,S) Ilolin ess of the Priests {and Levites) .
(a) Their consecration (Lev. viu., ix. ;
Ex. xxix).
(b) Their special qualifications and re
strictions (Lev. xxi., xxii. 1-9).
{c) Their rights (Deut. xviii. 1-6 ; Num.
xviii.) and authority (Deut. xvii. 8-13).
1.2) Holiness of Places and Tuings.
(u) The Tabernacle with the ack, the
vail, the .altars, the laver, the priestly
robes, &c. (Ex. xxv. -xxviii., xx.x.).
((S) The Holy Place chosen for the perma
nent erection of the tabernacle (Deut.
xii., xiv., 22-29); where only all sacri
fices were to be offered, and all tithes,
first-fruits, vows, &c., to be given or
eaten. (3) Holiness of Times.
(b) The Sabbath (Ex. xx. 9-11, xxiu. 12,
&c.).
(i«) I'he Sabbatical Year (Ex. xxiii. 10,
11 ; Lev. xxv. 1-7, &c.).
(y) The Year of Jubilee {Lev. xxv. 8-lG,
&c.).
{i) The Passover (Ex. xii. 3-27; Lev.
(xiu. 4-14).
(t) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) (Lev.
xxiu. 15, &c.).
(0 The Feast of Tabernacles (Lev.
xxiu. 33-43).
(>() The Feast of Trumpets (Lev. xxiii.
23-25). ^
¦ («) The Day of Atonement (I ev. xxUi.
26-32, &c.). ^

Such is the substance of the Mosaic Law.
The leading principle of the whole is its
theocratic character, its reference (thiit
is) of all action and thoughts of men di-
redly and immediately to the wUl of God.
It follows from this, that it is to be regard
ed not merely as a law, tlmt is, a rule of
conduct, based on known truth and ac-|
knowledged authority, but also as a Revela
tion of God's nature and His dispensations.
But this theocratic character of the law de
pends necessarily on the belief in God, as
not only the Creator and Sustainer of the
world, but as, by special covenant, ihe head
ofthe Jewish nation. Tlus immediate ref
erence to God as their King is clearly seen
as the ' groundwork of their whole polity.
From this theocratic nature of the law fol
low important deductions with regard to (a)
the view which it takes of political society;
{b) the extent of the scope of the law; (c)
the penalties by which it is enforced ; and
{d) the character which it seeks to impress
on the people, {a.) The Mosaic Law seeks
the basis of its polity, flrst, in the absolute
sovereignty of God, next in the relation
ship of each individual to God, and through
God to his countryraen. It is clear that
such a doctrine, while it contradicts none
of the common theories, yet lies beneath
them all. {b.) The law, as proceeding di
rectly from God, and referring directly to
Him, is necessarily absolute in its suprem
acy and unlimited in its scope. It is su
preme over the governors, as being only
the delegates of the Lord, and therefore it
is incompatible with any despotic authority
in them. On the other hand, it is supreme
over the governed, recognizing no inhe
rent rights in the individual, as prevailing
against or limiting -the law. It regulated
the whole life of an Israelite. His actions
were rewarded and punished with great
minuteness and strictness ; and that ac
cording to the standard, not of their conse
quences, but of their intrinsic morality. His
religious worship was dcflned and enforced
in an elaborate and unceasing ceremonial.
(c.) Ttie penalties and 'rewards by which
the law is enforced are such as depend on
the direct theocracy. With regard to iudi-
vidu.al actions, it raay be noticed that, as
generally sorae penalties are inflicted by
the subordinate, and some only by the su
preme authority, so among the Israelites
sorae peuiilties came from the hand of man,
some directly from the providence of God,
The bearing of this principle on the inquiry
as to the revelation of a future life, in tht
Pentateuch, is easily seen. The sphere of
moral and religious action and thought to
which the law extends is beyond the cogni-
ziince of huraan laws, and the scope of
their ordinary penalties, and is therefore
left by thera to the retribution of God's in
scrutable justice, which, being but imper

LAW OF MOSES

343

LAW OF MOSEh

fectly ieen here, is contemplated especially
as exercised in a future state. Hence arises
the expectation of a direct revelation of this
future state in the Mosaic Law, Such a
revelation is certainly not given. The truth
seeras to be that, in a law which appeals
directly to God hiraself for its authority and
its sanction, thore cannot be that bf-oad line
of deraarcation between this life and the
next, which is drawn for. those whose power
is liitiitod by the grave, {d.) But perhaps
t!.B most important consequence of the the
ocratic nature of the law was the peculiar
character of goodness .which it sought to
impress on the people. The Mosaic Law,
beginning m ith piety, as its first object, en
forces most emphatically the purity essen
tial to those who, by their union with God,
have recovered the hope of intrinsic good
ness, while it views righteousness and love
rather as deductions frora these than as in
dependent objects. The appeal is not to
any dignity of human nature, but to the
obligations of communion with a Holy God.
The subordination, therefore, of this idea
also to the religious idea is enforced ; and
so long as the due supremacy of the latter
was preserved, all other duties would find
their places in proper harmony. But the
usurpation of that supremacy in practice
by the idea of personal and national sanc
tity was that which gave its peculiar color
to the Jewish character. It is evident that
this characteristic of the Israelites would
tend to preserve the seclusion wliich, under
God's providence, was intended for thera,
and would in its turn be fostered by it.
— In considering the relation of the Law
to the future, it is important to be guided
by tlie general principle laid down in Heb.
vii. 19, " The Law made nothing perfect."
This principle will be applied in different
degrees to its bearing {a) on the after-his
tory of the Jewish commonwealth before
the coming of Christ; {b) on the coming of
our Lord Himself; and (c) on the dispensa
tion of the Gospel, (a.) To that after-
history the Law was, to a gre.at extent, the
key. It was indeed often neglected, and
even forgotten ; yet still it formed the stan
dard from wliich the people knowingly
departed, and to which they constantly re
turned; and to it therefore all which was
peculiar in their national and individual
character was due. Its direct influence
was probably greatest in the periods be
fore the establishment of the kingdora,
and after the Babylonish captivity. The
last act of Joshua was to bind the Israel
ites to it..as the charter of their occupa
tion of the conquered land (Josh. xxiv.
24-27) ; and, in tlie semi-anarchioiil period
of the Judges, the Law and tho Tabernacle
were the ,only centres of anything like
nationiil unity. . The estiiblishraent of the
' kingdom was due to an impatience of this

position, and a desire for a visible aud per
sonal centre of authority, much the same
in nature as that which plunged them so
often in idolatry. In the kingdom of Is
rael, after the separation, the deliberate
rejection of the leading principles of the
Law by Jeroboam and his successors was
the beginning of a gradual declension into
idolatry and heathenism. But in the king
dom of Judah the very division of the
monarchy and consequent diminution of
its splendor, and tho need of a principle to
assert against the superior material power
of Israel, brought out the Law once more
in increased honor and influence. Far
more was this the case after the captivity.
The loss of the independent monarchy, and
the cessation of prophecy, both combined
to throw the Jews back upon the Law alone,
as their only distinctive pledge of nation
ality, iind sure guide to truth. Tliis love
for the Liiw, rather than any abstract
patriotism, was the strength of the Mac
cabaean struggle against the Syrians, and
the success of that struggle, enthroning a
Levitical power, deepened the feeling frora
which it sprang. The Law thus becarae
the moulding influence of the Jewish char
acter. The Pharisees, truly representing
the chief strength of the people, systeraa-
tized this feeling. Against this idolatry of
the Law there were two reactions. The
first was that of the Sadducees ; one which
had its basis in the idea of a higher love
and service of God, independent of the
Law and its sanctions. The other, that of
the Essenes, was an attempt to burst the
bonds of the formal law, and assert its ideas
in all fulness, freedom, and purity. {b.)
The relation of the Law to the advent of
Christ is also laid down clearly by St. Paul.
The law was the HaiSuymyui ilg Xoiorur,
the servant (that is), whose task it was to
guide the child to the true teacher (Gal. iii.
24); and Christ was "the end" or object
"ofthe Law" (Rom. x. 4). As being sub
sidiary to the promise, it had accomplished
its purpose when the promise was fulfilled.
In its national aspect it had existed to guard
the faith in the theocracy. The chief liin-
derance to that faith had been the diffi
culty of realizing the invisible presence of
God, and of conceiving a communion with
the infinite Godhead wljeh should not crush
or absorb the finite creature. This difliculty
was now to pass away forever, in the In
carnation of the Godhead in One truly and
visibly man. In its individuiil, or what is
usually called its "moral" aspfct, the
Law bore equally the st.amp of tvansitori-
ness and insufficiency. It had declared the
authority of truth and goodness over man's
will, and taken for granted in man the ex
istence of a spirit which could recognize
that authority ; but it had done no more.
Its presence had, therefore, detect ad ths

LAWYER

344

LAZARUS

existence and the sinfulness of sin, as alien
alike to God's will and man's true nature ;
but it had alsa brought out with more vehe
ment and desperate antagonism the power
of sin dwelling in man as fallen (Rom. vii.
7-25). The relation of the Law to Christ
in its sacrificial and ceremonial aspect, will
be more fully considered elsewhere. [Sac
rifice.] (c.) The question has been fre
quently discussed how far the Mosaic Law
has any obligation or existence under the
dispensation of the Gospel. As a means of
justification or salvation, it ought never to
have been regarded, even before Christ;
it needs no proof to show that still less can
this be so since He has come. But yet
the question reraains whether it is binding
on Christians, even when they do not de
pend on it for salvation. It seems clear
enough, that its formal coercive authority
as a whole ended wiih the close of the
Jewish di.opensation. It referred through
out to the Jewish covenant, and in many
points to the constitution, the customs, and
even tho local circumstances of the people.
That covenant was preparatory to the Chris
tian, in which it is now absorbed; those
custoras and observances have passed away.
It follows, by the very nature of the case,
that the formal obligation to the Law must
have ceased with the basis on which it is
grounded. But what then becomes of the
declaration of our Lord, that Jle carae " not
to destroy the Law, but to perfect it," and
that " not one jot or one tittle of it shall pass
away"? what of the fact, consequent upon
it, that the Law has been reverenced in all
Christian churches, and had an important
infiuence on much Christian legislation?
The explanation of the apparent contra
diction lies in the difference between posi
tive and moral obligation. To apply this
principle, practically there is need of much
study and discretion, in order to distinguish
what is local and temporary from what is
universal, and what is mere external form
from what is the essence of an ordinance.
Lawyer. The title " lawyer " is gener
ally supposed to be equivalent to tho title
" scribe," both on account of its etymolo
gical raeaning, and also because the man,
who is also called a " lawyer " In Matt.
xxii. 35 and Luke x. 25, is called " ono of
the scribes " in Mark xii. 28. If the com
mon reading in Luke xi. 44, 45, 46, be cor
rect, it will be decisive against this. By
the use of the word rofuxii (Tit. iii. 9) as a
simple adjective, it seems raore probable
that the title " scribe " was a legal and offi
cial designation, but that the name ronixi;
was properly a mere epithet signifying one
" learned in the Law," and only used as a
title in common parlance (comp. the use of
it in Tit. in. 13, " Zenas the lawyer ").
Laying on- of Hands. [Baptism.]
Laz'arus, another form of the Hebrew

name Eleazar. 1. Lazarus of Bethany,
the brother of Martha and Mary (Jolm xi.
1). AU that we know of him is derived
from the Gospel of St. John, and that re
cords little raore than the facts of his death
and resurrection ; but we may, with at least
sorae measure of probability, fill up these
scanty outUnes. (1.) The language of
John xi. 1, implies that the sisters were the
better known. Lazarus is "of Bethany,
of the village of Mary and her sister Mar
tha." From this, and from the order of
the three names in John xi. 5, we may rea
sonably infer that Lazarus was the youngest
of the faraily. {2.) In Luke x. 38 and
John xn. 1, 2, a feast is given to Jesus by
Martha and Mary; but in Matt. xxvi. 6,
Mark xiv. 3, the same feast appears as oc
curring in "the house of Simon the leper."
A leper, as such, would have been com
pelled to lead a separate life, and certainly
could not have given a feast and received a
multitude of guests. Among the conjectu
ral explanations which have been given of
this difference, the hypothesis that this Si
mon was the father of the two sisters and
of Lazarus, that he had been smitten with
leprosy, and th,at actual death, or the civil
death that followed on his disease, had left
his children free to act for themselves, is at
least as probable as any other, and has
some support in early ecclesiastical tradi
tions. (3.) All the circumstances of John
xi. and xu. point to wealth and social po
sition above the average, (4,) A compari
son of Matt, xxvi. 6, Mark xiv. 3, with
Luke vU. 36, 44, suggests another conjec
ture that harmonizes with and in part ex
plains the foregoing. If Simon the leper
were also the Pharisee, it would explain
the fact just noticed ol the friendship be
tween the sisters of Lazarus and the mem
bers of that party in Jc-usalem. It would
follow on this assumption that the Pharisee,
whom we thus far identify with the father
of Lazarus, was probably one of the raem-
bers of that sect, sent di^wn from Jerusalem
to watch the new teacher. (5.) One other
conjecture may yet be haz,arded. There
are some coincidences which suggest the
identification of Lazarns with the young
ruler that had great possessions, cf Matt. ,
xix., Mark x., Luke xviii. The age ;,Matt
xix, 20, 22) agrees with what has been be
fore inferred (see above, l),as does the fact
of wealth above the average with what we
know of the condition af the faraUy at Beth
any (see 2), If the father were an influ
ential Pharisee, if there were ties of some
kind uniting the faraily with that body, it
would be natural enough that the son, even
in coraparative youth, should occupy tho
position of a "ruler." But further, it is
of this rich young man that St. Mark uses
the emphatic word (" Jesus, beholding him,
loved him ") which is used of no others ia

LAZARUS

345

LEAD

the Gospel-history, save of the beloved
apostle and of Lazarus and his sisters (John
xi, 6). Combining these inferences then,
we get an insight into one aspect of the life
of the Divine Teacher and Friend, full of
living interest. The village of Bethany
and its neighborhood were a frequent re
treat from the controversies and tumults of
Jerusalem (John xviU. 2 ; Luke xxi. 37,
ixii. 39) . At some tirae or other one house-
hsld, wealthy, honorable, belonging to the
better or Nicoderaus section of the Phari
sees (see above, 1 , 2, 3) learns to know and
reverence him. Disease or death removes
the father frora the scene, and the two sis
ters are left with their younger brother to
do as they think right. In thera and in the
brother over whom they watch. He finds
that which is worthy of His love. But two
at least need an education in the spiritual
life. A few weeks pass away, and then
comes the sickness of John xi. One of
the sharp malignant fevers of Palestine
cuts off the life that was so precious. The
sisters know how truly the Divine Friend
has loved hira on whora their love and their
hopes centred. They send to Him in the
beUef that the tidings ofthe sickness will at
once draw Him to them (Johnxi. 3). Slowly,
and in words which (though afterwards
understood otherwise) must at the time have
seemed to the disciples those of one upon
whora the truth carae not at once but by de
grees. He prepares thera for the worst. "This
sickness is not unto death " — " Our friend
Lazarus sleepeth " — "Lazarus is dead."
The work which He was doing as a teach
er or a healer (John x. 41, 42) in Bethab
ara, or the other Bethany (John x. 40 and
i. 28), Wiis not interrupted, and continues
for two days after the message reaches
Him. Then conies the journey, occupying
two diiys more. When He and His disci
ples come, three days have passed since the
burial. 'The friends from Jerusalem, chief
ly of the Pharisee and ruler class, are
there with their consolations. The sisters
receive the Prophet, each according to her
character. His sympathy with their sorrow
leads Him also to weep. Then coraes the
work of might as the answer of the prayer
which the Son offers to the Father (John
xi. 41, 42). The stone is rolled away from
the mouth of tho rock-chamber in which
the body had been placed. "He that was
dead carae forth, bound hand and foot with
grave-clothes ; and his face was bound
about with a napkin." One scene more
meets us, and then the life of the faraily
which has come before us with such day! ight
clearness lapses again into obscurity. In
the house which, though it stUl bore the
father's name {sup. 1), was the dwelling of
the sisters and the brother, there is a sup
per, and Lazarus is there, and Martha
serves, no longer jealously, and Mary pours

out her love in the costly offeruig of tha
spikenard ointment, and finds herself once
again misjudged and hastily condemned.
After this all direct knowledge of Lazarus
ceases. The resurrection of Lazarus ia
recorded only by St. John. The writers
of the first three Gospels confined them
selves, as by a deliberate plan, to the mira
cles wrought in Galilee (that of the blind
man at Jericho being the only exception).
2. The narae of a poor raan in the well-
known parable of Luke xvi. 19-31. The
narae of Lazarus has been perpetuated in
an institution of the Christian Church. The
leper of the Middle Ages appears as a Laz-
zaro. Araong the orders, half military and
half monastic, ofthe 12th century, was one
which bore the title of the Knights of St.
Lazarus (a. d. 1119), whose special work
it was to mi,.jster to the lepers, flrst of Syr
ia, and afterwards of Europe. The use of
lazaretto and lazar-house for the leper-hos
pitals then founded in all parts of Western
Christendom, no less than that of lazzarone
fertile mendicants of Italian towns, are in
dications of the effect of the parable upon
the raind of Europe in the Middle Ages,
and thence upon its later speech.
Lead, one of the raost common of met
als, found generally in veins of rocks,
though seldom in a metallic state, and most
commonly in corabination with sulphur. It
was early known to the ancients, and the
allusions to it in Scripture indicate that the
Hebrews were well acquainted.with its uses.
The rocks in the neighborhood of Sinai
yielded it in large quantities, and it was
found in Egypt. That it was common in
Palestine is shown by the expression in
Ecclus. xlvii, 18 (comp, 1 K, x, 27), It
was among the spoils of the Midianites
which the children of Israel brought with
them to the pliiins of Moab, after their re
turn from the slaughter of the tribe (Nura.
xxxi. 22). The ships of Tarshish supplied
the market of Tyre with lead, as with other
metals (Ez. xxvii. 12). Its heaviness, to
which allusion is made in Ex, xv, 10, and
Ecclus. xxii. 14, caused it to be used for
weights, which were either in the forra of a
round flat cake (Zech. v. 7), or a rough
unfashioned lurap or "stone" (ver. 8);
stones having in ancient tiraes served the
purpose of weights (comp. Prov. xvi. 11).
In modern metallurgy lead is used with tin
in the composition of solder for fastening
metals together. That the ancient Hebrews
were acquainted with the use of solder is
evident frora Isaiah xii. 7. No hint is
given as to the coraposition of the solder;
but in aU probabiUty lead was one of the
materials employed, its usage for such a
purpose being of great antiquity. In Job
xix. 24 the allusion is supposed to be to the
practice pf carving inscriptions upon stone,
and pouring molten lead inh; the cavitiei

LEAF

346

LEBANON

ot the letters, to render them legible, and
at the sarae time preserve them fro'm the
action of the air. In modern metallurgy
lead is eraployed for the purpose of purify
ing silver frora other mineral products.
The alloy is mixed with lead, exposed to
fusion upon an earthen vessel, and submit
ted to a blast of air. By this means the
dross is consumed. This process is called the
cupeUing operation, with which the descrip
tion in Ez. xxu. 18-22 accurately coincides.
Leaf, Leaves. The word occurs in the
A. V. either in the singular or plural num
ber in three different senses. 1, Leap of
a tree. The olive-leaf is mentioned in Gen,
viu. 11. Fig-leaves formed the first cov
ering of our parents in Eden. The barren
fig-tree (Matt. xxi. 19 ; Mark xi. 13) on the
road between Bethany and Jerusalem "had
on it nothing but leaves." The oak-leaf is
mentioned in Is. i. 30, and vi.,13. The right
eous are often compared to green leaves
(Jer. xvii. 8), The ungodly, ou the other
hand, are "as an oak whose leaf fadetli"
(Is. i. 30). In Ez. xlvu. 12, Rev. xxii. 1, 2,
there is probably an allusion to some tree
whose leaves were used by the Jews as a
medicine or ointment; indeed, it is very
likely that many plants and leaves were thus
made use of by thom, iis by the old English
herbalists, 2, Leaves of doors. The He
brew word, which occurs very many times
in the Bible, and which in 1 K, vi. 32 (mar
gin) and 34 is translated "leaves" in the
A. v., signifies beams, ribs, sides, &c, 3,
Leaves of a book or roll occurs in this sense
only in Jer. xxxvi. 23. The Hebrew word
(literally doors) would perhaps be more
correctly translated columns.
Le an, the daughter of Laban (Gen.
xxix, 16). The duluoss or weakness of her
eyes was so notable, that it is mentioned as
a contrast to the beautiful form and appear
ance of her younger sister Rachel. Her
fatlier took advantage of the opportunity
which the local marriage-rite afforded to
pass her off in her sister's stead on the un
conscious bridegroom, and excused himself
to Jacob by alleging that the custom of the
country forbade the younger sister to be
given first in raarriage. Jacob's preference
of Rachel grew into hatred of Leah, after
he had married both sisters. Leah, how
ever, bore lo him in quick succession Reu
ben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, then Issachar,
Zebulun, and Dinah, before Rachel had a
child. She died some time after Jacob
reached the south country in which his
father Isaac lived. She was buried in the
fiiniily grave in Machpelah (ch. xlix. 31).
Leasing, " falsehood." This word is
retained in the A. V. of Ps. iv. 2, v. 6, from
the older English versions ; but the Hebrew
word of which it is the rendering is else
where almost uniformly translated "lies"
<J^a. xl. 4, Iviii. 8, &c.).

Leatlier. The notices of leather .L CJte
Bible are singularly few ; indeed the word
occurs but twice in the A. V., aud m each
instance in reference to the same object, a
girdle (2 K. i. 8 ; Matt. iu. 4). There are,
however, other instances in which the word
" leather " .might with propriety be substi
tuted for "skin" (Lev. xi. 32, xui. 48;
Nura. xxxi. 20).
Leaven. Various substances were
known to have fermenting qualities; but
the ordinary leaven consisted of a lump of
old dough in a high state of fermentation,
which was inserted into the mass of dough
prepared for baking. The use of leaven
was strictly forbidden in all offerings made
to the Lord by fire. It is in reference to
these prohibitions that Amos (iv. 5) iron
ically bids the Jews of his day to " offer a
sacrifice of thanksgiving with leaven." In
other instances, where the offering was to
be consumed by the priests, and not on the
altar, leaven might be used. Various ideas
were- associated with the prohibition of
leaven in the instances above quoted. But
the most prominent idea, and the one which
appUes equally to all the cases of pro
hibition, is connected with the corruption
which leaven itself had undergone, and
which it communicated to bread in the pro
cess of fermentation. Itis to this property
of leaven thiit our Saviour points when he
speaks of the " leaven {i. e. the corrupt
doctrine) of the Pharisees and of the Sad
ducees " (Matt. xvi. 6) ; and St. Paul, when
he speaks of the " old leaven " (1 Cor. v. 7).
Leta'ana, one of the Nethinim whose
descendants returned from Bahylon with
Zerubbabel (Neh. vu. 48). He is called
Leb'anah. in Ezr. U. 45.
Leb'anon, a mount.ain range in the
north of Palestine. The name Lebanon
signifies "white," and was applied either
on account of the snow, which, during a
great part of the year, covers its whole
summit, or on account of the white color of
its limestone cliffs and peaks. It is the
"white mountain" — the Mont Blanc of
Palestine. Lebanon is represented in Scrip
ture as lying upon the northern border of
the land of Israel (Deut. i. 7, xi. 24; Josh.
i. 4) . Two distinct ranges bear this name.
They run in parallel lines from S. W. to
N. E. for about 90 geog. miles, enclosing
between them a long fertile valley from 5
to 8. miles wide, anciently called Coele-
Syria. The western range is the "Liba
nus " of the old geographers, and the Leba
non of Scripture. The eastern riinge was
called " Anti-Libanus " by geographers,
and "Lebanon towiird the sun-rising"
by the sacred writers (Josh. xiii. 5). 1.
Lebanon — tho western ninge — commences
on the south of the deep ravine of the
Litdny, the ancient river Leontes, which
drains the valley of Coele-Syria, and faUl

LEBANON

347

LEEKS

into the Mediterranean five miles north of
Tyre. It runs N. E.in a straight line par
allel to the coast, to the opening from the
Mediterranean into the plain of Eracsa,
called in Scripture the " Entrance of Ha
math" (Num. xxxiv. 8). Here Nahr el-
Kebir — the ancient river Eleutherus —
s»fseps round its northern end, as the
Leontes does round its southern. The
average elevation of the range is from 6000
to 8000 ft. ; but two peaks rise considerably
higher. On the summits of both these
peaks the snow remains in patches during
the whole summer. The line of cultivation
runs along at the height of about 0000 ft. ;
and below this the features of the western
slopes are entirely different. The rugged
limestone banks are scantily clothed with
the evergreen oak, and the sandstone with
pines ; while every available spot is care
fully cultivated. The cultivation is won
derful, and shows what all Syria might be
if under a good government. Fig-trees
cling to the naked rock ; vines are trained
along narrow ledges ; long ranges of mul
berries, on terr.accs like steps of stairs,
cover the more gentle declivities ; and
dense groves of olives fill up the bot
toms of the glens. Hundreds of vil
lages are seen — here built araid laby
rinths of rocks, there clinging like swallows'
nests to the sides of cliffs ; while convents,
no less numerous, are perched on the top
of every peak. The vine is still largely
cultivated in every part of the mountain.
Lebanon also abounds in olives, figs, and
mulberries ; while some remnants exist of
the forests of iiine, oak, and cedar, which
formerly covered it (1 K. v. 6 ; Ps. xxix. 5 ;
Is. xiv. 8 ; Ezr. iii. 7). Considerable num
bers of wild beasts still inhabit its retired
glens and higher peaks ; the writer has seen
jackals, hyenas, wolves, bears, and pan
thers (2 K. xiv. 9 ; Cant. iv. 8 ; Hab. ii. 17).
Along the base of Lebanon runs the irreg
ular plain of Phoenicia ; nowhere more than
two miles' wide, and often interrupted by
bold rocky spurs, that dip into the sea.
The raain ridge of Lebanon is composed
of Jura limestone, and abounds in fossils.
Long belts of more recent sandstone run
along the western slopes, which is in places
largely impregnated with iron. Lebanon
was originally inhabited by the Hivites and
Giblites (Judg. iii. 3; Josh, xui^ 5, 6), The
whole mountain range was assigned to the
Israelites, but was never conquered by them
(Josh. xiii. 2-6; Judg. iu. 1-3). During
the Jewish monarchy it appears to have
been subject to the Phoenicians (1 K. v.
2-6; Ezr, ui. 7). From the Greek con
quest until modern times Lebanon had no
BCDarato history, 2. Anti-Libanus. — The
main chain of Anti-Libanus coraraences in
Tiie plateau of Bashan, near the parallel of
Caesarea- PhUippi, runs north to Hermon,

and then north-east in a straight line till it
sinks down into the great plain of Emesa,
not far from the site of Riblah, Hermon
is the loftiest peak ; the next highest is a
few miles north of the site of Abila, beside
the village of Bluddn, and has an elevation
of about 7000 feet. The rest of the ridge
averages about 5000 ft. ; it is in general
bleak and barren, with shelving gray de
clivities, gray cliffs, and gray rounded sum-
raits. Here and there we meet with thin
forests of dwarf oak and juniper. The
western slopes descend abruptly into the
Bukd'a ; but the features of the eastern
are entirely different. Three side ridges
here radiate from Hermon, like the ribs of
an open fan, and form the supporting walls
of three great terraces. Anti-Libanus is
only once distinctly mentioned in Scripture,
where itis accurately described as "Leba
non toward the sun-rising" (Josh xiu. 5).
" The tower of Lebanon which looketh
toward Damascus " (Cant. vii. 4) is doubt
less Herraon, which forms the most striking
feature in the whole panorama round that
city. Leto'aoth., a town which forms one of
the last group of the cities of "the South"
in the enumeration of the possessions of
Judah (Josh, xv, 32), probably identical
with Betii-leeaoth,
Lebbae'us, This name occurs in Matt,
X, 3, according to Codex D (Bezae) of the
sixth century, and in the received Text.
In Mark iii. 18, it is substituted in a few
unimportant MSS. for Th.addaeus. [Jude.]
Iieb'onah, a place named in Judg. xxi.
19 only. Lebonali has survived to our limes
under the almost identical form of el-Lub-
ban. It lies to the west of, and close to,
the Nahlus road, about eight railes north of
Beitin (Bethel), and two from Seilun (Shi
loh). Le'cah, a name mentioned in the gene
alogies of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 21 only) as
one of the descendants of Shelah, the third
son of Judah by the Canaanitese Bath-shua.
Leech. (Horse-Leech.)
Leeks (Heb. chdtsir). 'The word chdt-
sir, which in Num. xi. 5 is translated leeks,
occurs twenty times in the Hebrew text.
The Hebrew term, wluch properly denotes
grass, is derived from a root signifying " to
be green," and may therefore stand in this I
passage for any green food, lettuce, endive,
&c. ; it would thus be applied somewhat
in the same manner as we use the term
" greens; " yet as the chdtsir is mentioned
together with onions and garlic in the text,
and as the most ancient versions unani
mously understand leeks by the Hebrew
word, we raay be satisfied with our own
translation. There is, however, another
and a very ingenious in'.erpretation of
chdtsir, first proposed by Hengstenberg.
and received by Dr. Kitto {Pictor. Bible..

LEES

348

LEPER

Num. xi. 5), which adopts a more literal
translation of the original word, for, says
Dr. Kitto, " among the wonders in the nat
ural history of Egypt, it is mentioned by
travellers that the common people there eat
with special relish a kind of grass similar
to clover." This plant (of which the scien
tific name is Trigonella foenum Graecum) is
similar to clover, but its leaves more point
ed, and great quantities of it are eaten by
the people. The leek is too well known to
need description. Its botanical name is
Allium porrum.
Lees. The Hebrew shemer bears the
radical sense of preserpation, and was ap
plied to "lees" from the custom of allow
ing the wine to stand on the lees in order
that its color and body might be better pre
served. Hence the expression "wine on
the lees," as raeaning a generous, full-
bodied liquor (Is, xxv. 6). Before the
wine was consuraed, it was necessary to
strain off the lees ; such wine was then
terraed "well refined" (Is. xxv. 6). To
drink the lees, or "dregs," was an expres
sion for the endurance of extreme punish-
mert ("Ps. Ixxv. 8).
Legion, the chief subdivision of the
Roman army, containing about 6000 infan
try, with a contingent of cavalry. The
terra does not occur in the Bible in its pri
mary sense, but appears to have been
adopted in order to express any large
nuraber, wit".; the accessory ideas of order
and subordination (Matt. xxvi. 53 ; Mark
V.9). Le'habim, occurring only in Gen. x.
13, the narae of a Mizraite people or tribe.
There can be no doubt that they are the sarae
as the ReBU or LeBU of the Egyptian in
scriptions, and that from them Libya and the
Libyans derived their name. These primi
tive Libyans appear to have inhabited the
northern part of Africa to the west of Egypt,
though latterly driven from the coast by
the Greek colonists of the Cyrenaica.
Le'hi, a place in Judah, probably ou the
confines of the Philistines' country, between
it and the cliff Etam ; the scene of Sara-
son's well-known exploit with the jawbone
(Judg, XV, 9, 14, 19). It contained an erai
nence — Ramath-lelii, and a spring of great
and lasting repute — En-liak-kore. It may
perhaps be identified with Beit-Liktyeh, a
village about 2 miles below the upper Beth-
lioron. Lem'uel, the name of an unknown king
to whom his mother addressed the pruden
tial maxims contained in Prov. xxxi. 1-9.
The Rabbinical comraentators identified
Lerauel with Solomon. Others regard hira
as king or chief of an Arab tribe dwelling
on the borders of Palestine, and elder
brother of Agur, whose narae stands at the
head of Prov. xxx.
Lentils (Heb. 'dddshtm). The word

occurs in the four following passages ! —
Gen. xxv. 34, 2 Sam. xvU. 28, xxiu. 11,
and Ez. iv. 9. There are three or four
kinds- of lentils, all of which are still much
esteemed in those countries where they are
grown, viz. the South of Europe, Asia, and
North Africa; the red lentil is still a favor
ite article of food in the East ; it is a small
kind, the seeds of which, after being decor
ticated, are comraonly sold in the bazaars
of India. The modern Arabic name of this
plant is identical with the Hebrew; it is
known in Egypt and Arabia, Syria, &c., by
the name 'Adas. Lentil bread is still eat
en by the poor of Egypt.
Leopard (Heb. ndm^r) is invariably
given by the A. V. as the translation of the
Hebrew word, which occurs in the seven
following passages: — Is. xi. 6; Jer. v. 6,
xiu. 23 ; Dan. vu. 6 ; Hos. xiii. 7 ; Cant.
iv. 8 ; Hab. i. 8. Leopard occurs also in
Ecclus. xxviu. 23, and in Rev. xiii. 2. From
Cant. iv. 8, we learn that the hilly ranges
of Lebanon were in ancient times frequent
ed by these animals. They are now not un-
coraraonly seen in and about Lebanon, and
the southern maritime mountains of Syria.
Under the narae ndmer, which means
" spotted," it 13 not improbable that another
animal, namely, the cheetah {Gueparda
jubaick) , may be included ; which is tamed
by the Mohammedans of Syria, who employ
it in hunting the gazelle.
Leper, Leprosy. The predominant
and characteristic form of leprosy in Scrip
ture is a white variety, covering either the
entire body, or a large tract of its surface,
which has obtained the name of lepra Mo-
saica. Such were the cases of Moses,
Miriam, Naaman, and Gehazi (Ex. iv. 6;
Nura. xu. 10; 2 K. v. 1, 27; corap. Lev.
xiii. 13). But, reraarkably enough, in the
Mosaic ritual-diagnosis of the disease (Lev.
xiii., xiv.), this kind, when overspreading
the whole surface, appears to be regai;^ed
as "clean" (xUi. 12, 13, 16, 17). The
Egyptian bondage, with its studied degra
dations and privations, and especially the
work of the kiln under an Egyptian sun,
must have had a frightful tendency to gen
erate this class of disorders ; hence Mane
tho asserts that the Egyptians drove out
the IsraeUtes as infected with leprosy — a
strange refiex, perhaps, of the Mosaic nar
rative ofthe " plagues " of Egypt, yet prob
ably al^o conta-ning a gerra of truth. The
sudden and total change of fo. d, air, dwell
ing, and mode of life, caused by the Exodus,
to this nation of newly-emancipated slaves,
may possibly have had a further tendency
to produce skin-disor-Jers, and severe re
pressive measures may have been required
in the desert-moving camp to secure the
public health, or to allay the panic of infec
tion. Hence it is possible that nany , per
haps most of this repertory ot symptomi

LEPER

349

LEVIATHAN

may have disappeared with the period of
the Exodus, and the snow-white form,
which had pre-existed, may alone have
ordinarily continued in a later age. But
it is observable that, araongst these Leviti
cal symptoms, the scaUng, or peeling off
of the surface, is nowhere mentioned, nor
is theie any expression in the Hebrew text
which points i > exfoliation of the cuticle.
The principal morbid features are a rising
or swelUng, a scab or baldness, aud a
bright or white spot (xiii. 2). But espe
cially a white swelling in the skin, with a
change of the hair of the part from the
natural black to white or yellow (3, 4, 10,
20, 25, 30), or an appearance of a taint
going "deeper than the skin," or again,
" raw fiesh" appearing in the swelUng (10,
14, 15), were critical signs of pollution.
The mere swelling, or scab, or bright spot,
was remanded for a week as doubtful (4,
21, 26, 31), aud for a second such period,
if it had not yet pronounced (5). If it
then spread (7, 22, 27, 35), it was decided
as polluting. But if after the second peri
od of quarantine the trace died away and
showed no symptom of spreading, it was
a mere scab, and the patient was adjudged
clean (6, 23, 34), This tendency to spread
seems especially to have been relied on,
A spot most innocent in all other respects,
if it "spread much abroad," was unclean;
whereas, as before remarked, the man so
wholly overspread with the evil that it
could find no farther range, was on the
contrary "clean" (12, 13). These two
opposite criteria seem to show, that whilst
the disease manifested activity, the Mosaic
law imputed pollution to and imposed seg
regation on the sufl!ferer, but that the
point at which it might be viewed as hav
ing run its course was the signal for his
readraission to coraraunion. It is clear
that the leprosy of Lev. xui,, xiv., means
any severe disease spreading on the sur
face of the body in the way described, and
so shocking of aspect, or so generally sus
pected of infection, that public feeUng
caUed for separation. — It is now undoubt
ed that the "leprosy" of modern Syria,
and which has a wide range in Spain,
Greece, and Norway, is the Elephantiasis
Graecorum. It is said to have been brought
home by the crusaders into the various
countries of Western and Northern Eu
rope. It certainly was not the distinctive
white leprosy, nor do any of the described
symptoms in Lev. xiu. point to elephanti
asis. " White as snow " (2 K. v. 27) would
be as inapplicable to elephantiasis as to
smaU-pox. — There reraains a curious ques
tion as regards the leprosy of garments and
hoascs. Some have thought garments worn
by leprous patients intended. This class
ing of garments and house-walls with the
Human epidermis, as leprous, has moved

the mirth of some, and the wonder of
others. Yet modern science has estab-
lislied what goes far to vindicate the Mo
saic classification as more philosophical
than such cavils. It is now known that
there are some skin-diseases which origi
nate in an acarus, and others which pro
ceed from a fungus. In these we may
probably find the solution of the paradox.
The analogy between the insect which frets
the human skin and that which frets the
garment that covers it, between the fun
gous growth that lines the crevices of the
epidermis, and that which creeps in the
interstices of masonry, is close enough
for the purposes of a ceremonial law. It
is manifest also that a disease in the hu
man subject caused by an acarus or by a
fungus would be certainly contagious, since
the propagative cause could be transferred
frora person to person.
Le'shem, another form of Laish, after •
wards Dan, occurring in Josh. xix. 47.
Letu'shim, the name of the second of
the sons of Dedan, son of Jokshan (Gen
xxv. 3).
Leum'mim, the name of the third of
the descendants of Dedan, son of Jokshan,
Gen. xxv. 3, being in the plural form, like
his brethren, Asshurira and Letushira.
Le'vi. 1. The narae of the third son of
Jacob by his wife Leah. The narae, de
rived frora Idvdh, "to adhere," gave utter
ance to the hope of the mother that the af
fections of her husband, which had hitherto
rested on the favored Rachel, would at last
be drawn to her. " This tirae will my hus
band be joined unto me, because I have
borne him three sons " (Gen. xxix. 34).
The new-born child was to be a fresh link
binding the parents to each other more
closely than before. Levi, with his brother
Simeon, avenged with a cruel slaughter ihe
outrage of their sister Dinah. [Dinah.]
Levi, with his three sons, Gershon, Kohath,
Merari, went down to Egypt with his father
Jacob (Gen. xlvii. 11). When Jacob's
death draws near, and the sons are gathered
round hira, Levi and Simeon hear the old
crime brought up again to receive its sen
tence. They, no less than Reuben, the in
cestuous first-born, had forfeited the privi
leges of their birthright (Gen. xlix. 5-7).
[Levites.] 2. Son of Melehi, one of the
near ancestors of our Lord, in fact the
great-grandfather of Joseph (Luke iii. 34).
3. A more reraote ancestor of Christ, son
of Simeon (Luke iu. 29). 4. Son of Al
phaeus (Mark U. 14; Luke v. 27, 29).
[Matthew,] Levi'atlian occurs five times in the
text of the A. V., and once in the margin
of Job Ui. 8, where the text has " mourn
ing." In the Hebrew Bible the word livy-
athan, which is, with the foregoing excep
tion, always left untranslated in the A. V.i

LEVIS

350

LEVITES

is found only In the following passages :
Job in. 8, xii. 1 ; Ps. Ixxiv. 14, civ. 26 ; Is.
xxvii. 1. In the margin of Job iii. 8, and
text of Job xii. 1, the crocodile is most
clearly the animal denoted by the Hebrew
word. Ps. Ixxiv. 14 .also clearly points to
this same saurian. The context of Ps. civ.
26 seems to show that in this passage
the name represents some animal of the
whale tribe ; but it is somewhat uncertain
what animal is denoted iu Is. xxvu. 1.

Crocoi^ile of the Nile ( C vulgaris).
As the term leviathan is evidently used in
no liraited sense, it is not iraprobable that
the "leviathan the piercing serpent," or
" leviathan the crooked serpent," raay de
note some species of the great rock-snakes
which are common in South and West
Africa. Le'vis, improperly given as a proper
name in 1 Esd. ix. 14. It is simply a corrup
tion of " the Levite " in Ezr. x. 15.
Le'vites. The analogy of the names
of the other tribes of Israel would lead us
to include under these titles the whole
tribe thiit traced its descent from Levi.
The existence of another division, how
ever, within the tribe itself, in the higher
oSce of the priesthood as limited to " the
sons of Aaron," gave to the common form,
in this instance, a peculiar meaning. Most
frequently the Levites are distinguished, as
such, from the priests (1 K. viii. 4 ; Ezr.
ii. 70; John i, 19, &c.), and this is the
meaning which has perpetuated itself.
Sometimes the word extends to the whole
tribe, the priests included (Num, xxxv, 2 ;
Josh. .xxi. 3, 41 ; Ex. vi. 25 ; Lev. xxv. 32,
&c.). Sometimes ag.ain it is added as an
epithet of the sraaller portion of the tribe,
and we read of " the priests the levites "
(Josh, iu, 3; Ez, xUv, 15), The history
of the tribo and of the functions attached
to its several orders is essential to any
right apprehension of the history of Israel
as a people. It will fall naturally into four
great periods, I, The time of the Exodus.
— There is no trace of tho consecrated
character of the Levites till the institution
of an hereditary priesthood in the family
of Aaron, during the first withdrawal of

Moses to the solitude of Sinai v,xx|fiii, L).
The next extension of the idea of tha
priesthood grew out of the terrible crisis
of Ex, xxxii. The tribe stood forth, sepa
rate and apart, recognizing even in this
stern work the spiritual as higher than the
natural. From this time they occupied a
distinct position. The tribe of Levi was to
take the place of that earlier priesthood of
the first-born as representatives of the ho
liness of the people. As the Tabernacle
was the sign of the presence among the
people of their unseen King, so the Levites
were, among the other tribes of Israel, as
the roy.al guard that waited exclusively on
Him. When the people were at rest they
encamped as guardians round the sacred
tent (Nura. i. 51, xviii. 22). When on the
march no hands but theirs raight strike the
tent at the commencement of the day's
journey, or carry the parts of its structure
during it, or pitch the tent once again when
they halted (Num. i. 51). It was obvious
ly essential for such a work that there should
be a fixed assignment of duties ; and now
accordingly we meet with the first out
lines of the organiziition which afterwards
becarae jiermanent. The division of the
tribe into the three sections that traced
their descent from the sons of Levi, formed
the groundwork of it. The work which
they all had to do required a man's full
strength, and therefore, though twenty was
the starting-point for military service
(Num. i.), they were not to enter on their
active service till they were thirty (Niim.
iv. 23, 30, 35). At fifty they were to be
free from all duties but those of superin
tendence (Nura. viu. 25, 26). The Kohath
ites, as nearest of kin to the priests, held
from the first the highest offices. They
were to bear all the vessels of the sanctu
ary, the ark itself included (Num. iii. 31,
iv. 15 ; Deut. xx.xi. 25), after the priests had
covered them with tho dark-blue cloth wliich
w.as to hide them from all profime giizo.
The Gershonites had to carry the ' tent-
hangings and curtains (Num. iv. 22-26).
The heavier burden of the boards, bars, and
pUlars of the tabernacle fell on the sons of
Merari. The Levites were to have no ter
ritorial possessions. In place of them they
were to receive from the others the tithes
of the produce of the land, from which
they, in their turn, offered a tithe to the
priests, as a recognition of their higher con
secration (Num. xviU. 21, 24, 26; Neh.x.
37). When the wanderings of the people
should be over and the tabernacle have a
settled place, great part of the labor that had
fallen on them would corae to an end, and
they too would need a fixed abode. Dis
tinctness and diffusion were both to be
secured by the assignment to the whole
tribe of forty-eight cities, with au outlying
" suburb " (Nura. xxxv. 2) of meadow'land

LEVITES

351

LEVITICUS

for the pasturage of their flocks and herds.
The reverence of the people for them was
to be heightened by the selection of six of
these as cities of refuge. Through the
whole land the Levites were to take the
place of the old household priests, sharing
in all festivals and rejoicings (Deut. xii. 19,
xiv. 26, 27, xxvi. 11). Every third year
they were to have an additional share in
the produce of the land (Deut. xiv. 28,
xxvi. 12). To " the priests the Levites"
was to belong the office of preserving,
transcribing, and interpreting the law
(Deut. xvii. 9-12, xxxi. 26). II. The pe
riod of the Judges. — The successor of
Moses, though belonging to another tribe,
did faithfully all that could be done to con
vert this idea into a reaUty. The submis
sion of the Gibeonites enabled liim to re-
Ueve the tribe-divisions of Gershon and
Merari of tho most burdensome of their
duties. The conquered Hivites became
" hewers of wood and drawers of water"
for the house of Jeliovah and for the con
gregation (Josh. ix. 27). As soon as the
conquerors had adviinced far enough to
proceed to a partition of the country, the
forty-eight cities were assigned to them.
III. The Monarchy. — The rule of Samu
el, himself a Levite, tended to give thera
the position of a ruling caste. The reign
of Saul, in its later period, was the asser
tion of a self-willed power against the
priestly order. The reign of David, how
ever, wrought the change from persecution
to honor. When his kingdom was estab
lished, there came a fuller organization of
the whole tribe. Their position in relation
to the priesthood was once again deflnitely
recognized. When the ark was carried up
to its new resting-place in Jerus.alem, their
claim to be the bearers of it was publicly
acknowledged (1 Chr, xv. 2) . In the pro
cession wliich attended the ultimate con
veyance of the ark to its new resting-place
the Levites were conspicuous, wearing their
Unen t-phods, and appearing in their new
character as minstrels (1 Chr. xv. 27, 28).
In the worship of the tabernacle under Da-
viil, as afterwards in that of the Temple,
we may trace a development of the simpler
arrangements of the wilderness and of
Shiloh. The Levites were the gatekeepers,
vergers, sacristans, choristers of the cen
tral sanctuary of the nation. They were,
in.the language of 1 Chr, xxiii, 24-32, to
which we may refer as alraost the locus
classicus on this subject, "to wait ou the
sous of Aaron for the service of the house
of Jehovah, in the courts, and the chara-
bcrs, and the purifying of all holy things."
Tills included the duty of providing " for
the shew-lircad, and the flue flour for meat
offering, and for the unleavened bread."
They were, besides this, " to stand every
morning to thank and praise Jehovah, and

likewise at even." They were lastly "to
offer " — i. e. to assist the priest in offering
— "all burnt-sacrifices to Jehov.ah in the
sabbaths and on the set feasts." They
lived for the greater part of the year in
their own cities, and came up at flxed peri
ods to take their turn of work (1 Chr. xxv.,
xxvi,). The education which the Levites
received for their peculiiir duties, no less
than tlieir connection more or less intimate
with the schools of the prophets, would
tend to raake thera the teachers of the
others, the transcribers and interpreters of
the Law, the chroniclers of the times in
which they lived, AVe have some striking
instances of their appearance in this new
character. The two books of Chronicles
bear unmistakable marks of having been
written by men whose interests were all
gathered round the services of the Temple,
and who were familiar with its records. The
revolt of the ten tribes, and the policy pur
sued by Jeroboam, led to a great change in
the position of the Levites. They were the
witnesses of an appointed order and of a
central worship. He wished to make the
priests the creatures and instruments of the
king, and to establish a provincial and di
vided worship. The natural result was, that
they left the cities assigned to thera in the
territory of Israel, and gathered round the
metropolis of Judah (2 Chr. xi. 13, 14). In
the kingdora of Judah they were, from this
ti.Tie forward, a powerful body, politically,
as well as ecclesiastically, lY. After the
Captivity. — On the return frora Babylon,
the Levites take their old places in the Tem
ple and in the villages near Jerus.alem (Neh,
xU. 29), and arc present in full array at tbe
great feast of the Dedication of the Wall,
The two prophets who were active at the
time of the Return, Haggai and Zechariah,
if they did not belong to the tribe, helped it
forward in the work of restoration. The
last prophet of the O, T, sees, as part of his
vision of the latter days, the time when the
Lord " shall purify the sons of Levi " (Mal,
Hi, 3) . During the period that followed the
Captivity they contributed to the form.alion
of tho so-called Great Synagogue, They,
with the priests, forraed the majority ofthe
permanent Sanhedrim, and as such hiid a
liirge share in the administration of justice
even in capital cases. They take no prom
inent part in the Maccabaean struggles,
though they must have been present at the
great puriflcation of the Temple. They ap
pear but seldom in the history of the N. 'T.
Where we meet with their names it is aa
the type of a formal heartless worship,
without sympathy and withou t love (Luke
X. 32) , The mention of a Levite of Cyprus
in Acts iv, 36 shows that the changes of the
previous century had carried that tribe also
into " the dispersed among the Gentiles."
Levit'icus. The Book, which is so

LIBANUS

352

LIEUTENANTS

called because it relates principaUy to the
Levites and Priests, consists of the fol
lowing principal sections : I. The laws
touching sacrifices (chap, i,-vii.). II. An
historical section containing, flrst, the con
secration of Aaron and his sons (chap.
vui.); next, his first offering for himself
and his people (chap, ix.) ; and lastly, the
destruction of Nadab and Abihu, the sons
of Aaron, for their presumptuous offence
(chap. X.). III. The laws concerning pu
rity and irapurity, and the appropriate
sacrifices and ordiniinces for putting away
irapurity (chap, xi.-xvi.). IV. Laws chief
ly intended to mark the separation between
Israel and the heathen nations (chap, xvu.-
XX.). V. Laws concerning the priests
(xxi., xxu.), and certain holy days and
festivals (xxiu., xxv.), together with an
episode (xxiv.). The section extends from
cliap. xxi. 1 to xxvi. 2, VI. Promises and
threats (xxvi. 2-46). VII. An appendix
containing the laws concerning vows
(xxvii.)'. Integrity. — This is very gener
aUy admitted. Those critics even who are
in favor of different documents in the Pen
tateuch assign nearly the whole of this book
to one writer, the Elohist, or author of the
origin,al document. According to Knobel
the only portions which are not to be re
ferred to the Elohist are — Moses' rebuke
of Aaron because the goat of the sin-offer
ing had been burnt (x. 16-20) ; the group
of laws in chap, xvii.-xx. ; certain aiidi-
tional enactments respecting the Sabbath
andthe Feast of Weeks and of Tabernacles
(xxiU., part of ver. 2, and ver. 3, ver. 18,
19, 22, 39-44) ; the punishments ordained
for blasphemy, murder, &c. (xxiv. 10-23) ;
the directions respecting the Sabbatical year
(xxv. 18-22), and the promises andwarnings
contained in ch.ap. xxvi. We raust not quit
this book without a word on what may be
called its spiritual meaning. Th.at so elab
orate a ritual looked beyond itself we can
not doubt. It was a prophecy of things to
come ; a shadow whereof the substance was
Christ and His kingdora. We may not al
ways be able to say what the exact relation
is between the type and the antitype. But
we cannot read the Epistle to the Hebrews
and not acknowledge that the Levitical
priests " served the pattern and type of
heavenly things '' — that the sacrifices of
the law pointed to and found their interpre
tation in the Lamb of God — that the ordi
nances of outward purification signified the
true inner cleansing of the heart and con
science from dead works to serve the living
God, One idea moreover penetrates the
whole of this vast and burdensome ceremo
nial, anl gives it a real glory even apart
from any prophetic significance. Holiness
is its character.
Lib'anus, [Lebanon.]
Libertines, This word, which occurs

once only In the N. T. (Acts vi, 9), is the
Latin Libertini, that is, " freedmen," They
were probably Jews who, bavrag been taken
prisoners by Pompey and other Roman gen-
erals in the Syrian wars, had been reduced
to slavery, and had afterwards been eman
cipated, and returned, permanently or for
a time, to the country of their fathers.
Lib'nah. 1- A city which Lay in the
south-west part of the Holy Land, taken by
Joshua imraediately after the rout of Beth
horon. It belonged to the maritirae low
land of Judah, among the cities of wluch
district it is enumerated (Josh. xv. 42). It
was appropriated with its " suburbs" to the
priests (Josh. xxi. 13; 1 Chr. vi. 67). In
the reign of Jehoram the son of Jehoshaphat
it " revolted " from Judah at the sarae time
with Edora (2 K. viu. 22 ; 2 Chr. xxi. 10).
On completing or relinquishing the siege
of Lachish — which of the two is not quite
certain — Sennacherib laid siege to Libnah
(2 K. xix. 8; Is. xxxvU. •8). It was the
native place of Hamutal, or Hamital, the
queen of Josiah, and mother of Jehoahaz
(2 K. xxiU. 31) and Zedekiah (xxiv. 18;
Jer. lii. 1) . Its exact site is uncertain. 2.
One of the stations at which the Israelites
encamped, on their journey between the
wUderness of Sinai and Kadesh (Num.
xxxiii. 20, 21); and the only conjecture
which appears to have been made concern
ing it is, that itwas identical with Laban,
raentioned in Deut. i. 1.
Lib'ni. 1. The eldest son of Gershon,
the son of Levi (Ex. vi. 17 ; Nura. iu. 18 ;
1 Chr. vi. 17, 20), and ancestor of the fami
ly of the Libnites. 2. The son of Mahli,
or Mahali, son of Merari (1 Chr. vi, 29), as
the Text at present stands. It is probable,
however, that he is the sarae with the pre
ceding, and that something has been omit
ted (comp. ver. 29 with 20, 42).
Llb'ya occurs only in Acts ii. 10, in the
periphrasis " the parts of Libya about
Cyrene," which obviously means the Cyre
naica. The name Libya is applied by the
Greek and Roman writers to the African
continent, generally, however, excluding
Egypt. Lice (Heb. cinntm, cinndm). This word
occurs in the A. V. only in Ex. viu. 16-18,
and in Ps. cv. 31 ; both of wliich passages
have reference to the third great plague of
Egypt. The Hebrew word has given occa
sion to whole pages of discussion. Some
comraentators, and indeed modem writers
generally, suppose that gnats are the ani
mals intended by the original word ; while,
on the other hand, the Jewish Rabbis,
Josephus, and others, are in favor of the
translation of the A. 'V. Upon the whole it
appears that there is not sufficient authority
for departing from the translation of the
A.V. Lieutenants. The Hebrew achash-

LIGN ALOES

353

LINEN

darpan was the official title of the satraps
or viceroys who governed the provinces
of the Persian empire; it is rendered
" lieutenant " in Esth. Ui, 12, viu, 9, ix, 3 ;
Ezr. viii. 36, and " prince " in Dan. iu. 2,
vi. 1, &c.
Lign Aloes. [Aloes.]
Ligure (Heb. leshem), a precious stone
mentioned in Ex. xxvui, 19, xxxix. 12, as
the first iu the third row of the high-priest's
breastplate. It is impossible to say, with
any certainty, what stone is denoted by the
Hebrew terra ; but perhaps tourmaline, or
more definitely the red variety known as
rviellite has better clairas than that of any
other raineral. Rubellite is a hard stone,
and used as a gera, and is soraetiraes sold
for o-ed sapphire.
Lik'bi, a Manassite, son of Shemida,
the son of Manasseh (1 Chr. vii.il9).
Lily (Heb. shAshdn, shdshanndh). Al
though there is little doubt that the Hebrew
word denotes sorae plant of the lily species,
it is by no means certain what individual
of this "class it especially designates. If the
shUshdn or shdshanndh of the O. T. and
the xqivor of the Serraon ou the Mount be
identical, which there seeras no reason to
doubt, the plant designated by these terras
must have been a conspicuous object on the
shores of the Lake of Gennesaret (Matt, vi,
. 28 ; Luke xii, 27) ; it must have flourished
in the deep broad valleys of Palestine (Cant.
ii. 1), among the thorny shrubs {ib, ii. 2)
and pastures of the desert {ib. ii. 16, iv. 5,
vi. 3), and must have been remarkable for
its rapid and luxuriant' growth (Hos. xiv.
6; Ecclus. xxxix. 14). That its flowers
were brilliant in color would seem to be in
dicated m Matt. vi. 28, where it is compared

^N.r

> 1

-^

liiliam Chalcedonlcnm.

With the gorgeous robes of Solomon; and
that this color was scarlet or purple is im-
pUc'l in Cant. v. 13. There appears to be
23

no species of Uly which so completely
answers all these requirements as the
Lilium Chalcedonicum, or Scarloi Mar-
tagon, which grows in profusion in the
Levant. But direct evidence on the point
is still to be desired from the observation
of travellers. — The Phoenician architects
of Solomon's temple decorated the capitals
of the columns with "lily-work," that is,
with leaves and flowers ofthe lily (l K. vii.),
corresponding to the lotus-headed capitals
of Egyptian architecture. The rim of the
" brazen sea " was possibly wrought in the
form of the recurved margin of a lily flower
(1 K. vii. 26).
Lime. 'This substance is noticed only
three times in the Bible, viz. in Deut.
xxvii. 2, 4 (A. V, " plaister "), in Is. xxxiii ,
12, and in Am. ii. 1.
Linen. 1. As Egypt was the great cen
tre of the linen manufacture of antiquity,
it is in connection with that country that
we flnd the flrst allusion to it in the Bible.
Joseph, when promoted to the dignity of
ruler of the land of Egypt, was arrayed
" in vestures of fine linen " {shSsh, marg.
" silk," Gen, xii, 42), and among the off'er-
ings for the tabernacle of the things which
the Israelites had brought out of Egypt
were "blue, and purple, and scarlet, and
fine linen" (Ex. xxv, 4, xxxv, 6), ' 2, But
in Ex, xxviii, 42, and Lev, vi, 10, the
drawers of the priests and their flowing
robes are said to be of linen {bad) ; and
the tunic of the high-priest, his girdle and
raitre, which he wore on the day of atone
ment, were made of the same material
(Lev. xvi. 4). From a comparison of Ex.
xxviii. 42 with xxxix. 28 it seems clear that
bad and sMsh were synonymous. 3. Buts,
always translated "flue linen," except 2
Chr, V. 12, is apparently a late word, and
probably the same with the Greek i^i'ooo;, by '
which it is represented by the LXX. It
was used for the dresses of the Levite
choir in the temple (2 Chr. v. 12), for the
loose upper garment worn by kings over the
close-fitting tunic (1 Chr. xv. 27), and for
the vail of the temple, embroidered by the
skill ofthe Tyrian artificers (2 Chr. iii. 14).
The dress of the rich man in the parable was
purple and fine linen (/Srooos, Luke xvi.
19). "Fine linen," with purple and silk,
is enumerated in Rev. xviii. 12 as among
the merchandise of the mystical Babylon.
4, 5. Eiim (Prov. vii. 16) and sddtn
(Judg. xiv. 12, 13) also signify linen. But
the general term which included all those
already mentioned was pishieh, which w.as
employed — like our " cotton" — to denote
not only the flax (Judg. xv. 14), or raw
material from which the linen was made,
but also the plant itself (Josh. U. 6), and
the manufacture from it. It is generally
opposed to wool, as a vegetable product to
an animal (Lev. xiii. 47, 48, 52, fi9 ; Deut.

LINTEL

354

LOAN

xxii. 11; Prov. xxxi. 13; Hos, ii, 5, 9),
and was used for nets (Is. xix. 9), gir
dles (Jer, xiii, 1), and measuring-lines
(Ez. xl, 3), as well as for the dress of the
priests (Ez, xliv. 17, 18).
Lintel, The beam which forms the
upper part of the framework of a door.
Gesenius arrives at the conclusion that in
the singular it denotes the whole projecting
framework of a door or gateway. In the
plural it is applied to denote the projections
along the front of an ediflce ornamented
with columns or palra-trees, and with re
cesses or intercolumniations between them
sometimes flUed up by windows,
Li'nus, a Christian at Rome, known to
St, Paul and to Timothy (2 Tira, iv, 21),
who was the first bishop of Rorae after the
apostles. Lion. At present lions do not exist in
Palestine ; but they must in ancient times
have been numerous. The names Lebaoth
(Josh. XV. 32), Beth-Lebaoth (Josh. xix.
6), Arieh (2 K. xv. 25), and Laish (Judg.
xviii. 7; 1 Sam. xxv. 44), were probably
derived from the presence of or connection
with lions, and point to the fact' Jihat they
were at one time common. They had their
lairs in the forests which have vanished
with thera (Jer. v. 6, xii. 8 ; Am. ui. 4), in
the tangled bru.shwood (Jer. iv. 7, xxv. 38 ;
Job xxxviii. 40), and in the caves of the
mountains (Cant. iv. 8 ; Ez. xi.x. 9 ; Nah.
U. 12). The canebrake on the banks of
the Jordan, the "pride" of the river, was
their favorite haunt (Jer. xlix. 19, 1. 44;
Zech. xi. 3). The lion of Palestine was in
all probability the Asiatic variety, described
by Aristotle and Pliny as distinguished by
its short curly mane, and by being shorter
and rounder in shape, Uke the sculptured
lion found at Arban. It was less daring
than the longer named species, but when
driven by hunger it not only ventured to
attack the flocks in the desert in presence
of th6 shepherd (Is. x.xxi. 4 ; 1 Sam. xvii.
34), but liiid waste towns and villages (2
K. xvii. 25, 26; Prov. xxii. 13, xxvi. 13),
and devoured raen (1 K. xiii. 24, xx. 36 ; 2
K. xvU. 25 ; Ez. xix. 3, C). The shepherds
sometimes ventured to- encounter the lion
single-handed (1 Sam. xvu. 34) ; and the
vivid figure employed by Amos (iii. 12),
the herdsman of Tekoa, was but the tran
script of a scene which he must have often
witnessed. At other times they pursued
the animal in large bands, raising loud
shouts to intimidate hira (Is. xxxi. 4), and
drive him into the net or pit they had pre
pared to catch him (Ez. xix. 4, 8). Be-
naiiili, one of David's heroic body-guard,
had distinguished himself by slaying a lion
in his den (2" Sam. x.xUi. 20). The kings
of Persia had a menagerie of lions (Dan.
vi. 7, &c.). When captured alive they
were put in «. cage (Ez. xix. 9), but it does

not appear that they were tamed. Tho
strength (Judg. xiv. 18; Prov, xxx. 30; 2
Sam, i. 23), courage (2 Sam, xvii, 10;
Prov. xxviu. 1 ; Is. xxxi, 9 ; Nah. U. 11).
and ferocity (Gen. xlix. 9; Num. xxiv. 4)
of the lion were proverbial. The " Hon-
faced " warriors of Gad were araong David's
most valiant troops (1 Chr. xU. 8) ; and the
hero Judas Maceabaeus is described as "like
a lion, and like a lion's whelp roaring for
his prey" (1 Mace. iii. 4). Among the
Hebrews, and throughout the O. T., the
lion was the achievement of the princely
tribe of Judah, while in the closing book of
the canon it received a deeper significance
as the emblem of Him who ' ' prevailed to
open the book and loose the seven seals
thereof" (Rev. v. 5). On the other hand
its fierceness and cruelty rendered it an
appropriate metaphor for a fierce and ma
lignant enemy (Ps. vii. 2, xxu. 21, Ivii. 4;
2 Tim. iv. 17), and hence for the arch-flend
hiraself (1 Pet. v. 8). The figure of the
lion was employed as an ornament both in
architecture and sculpture.
Liz'ard (Heb. Utddh, Lev. xi, 30).
Lizards of various kinds abound in Egypt,
Palestine, and Arabia. The Uzard denoted
by the Hebrew word is probably the Fan-
Foot Lizard {Ptyodadylus (?ccAo),' which
is coramon in Egypt and in parts of Arabia,
and perhaps is also found in Palestine. It
is reddish brown, spotted with white. The

> 1 J^

The Fsn-Foot Lizard (Ptyodactylvi Oecho).
Geckos live on insects and worms, which
they swaUow whole. They derive their
name from the peculiar sound which some
of the species utter.
Lo-am'mi, -i. e. " not my people," the
figurative narae given by the prophet Hosea
to his second son by Gomer, the daughter
of Diblaim (Hos, i, 9), to denote the rejec
tion of the kingdom of Israel by Jehovah.
Its significance is explained in ver. 9, 10.
Loan, The Law strictly forbade any
interest to be taken for a loan to any poor
person, and iit first, as it seems, even in the
case of a foreigner ; but this prohibition was
afterwards limited to the Hebrews only,
from whom, nf whatever rank, not onlv

LOAVES

355

LO-DEBAR

was no usury on any pretence to be ex
acted, but relief to the poor by way of
loan was enjoined, and excuses for evading
this duty were forbidden (Ex, xxii, 25;
Lev, xxv, 35, 37 ; Deut, xv, 3, 7-10, xxiii,
19, 20) . As commerce increased, the prac
tice of usury, and so also of suretyship,
grew up ; but the exaction of it from a He
brew appears to have been regarded to a
late period as discreditable (Prov. vi, 1, 4,
xi, 15, xvii, 18 ; xx, 16, xxu. 26 ; Ps. xv. 5,
xxvu. 13 ; Jer. xv. 10 ; Ez, xviii. 13, xxii,
12), Systematic breach of the law in this
respect was corrected by Nehemiah after
the return from captivity (Neh. v. 1., 13),
The money-changers, who had seats and
tables iu the Temple, were traders whose
profits arose chiefly from the exchange of
money with those who came to pay their
annual half-shekel. The Jewish law did
not forbid temporary bondage in the case
of debtors, but it forbade a Hebrew debtor
to be detained as a bondsman longer than
the 7th year, or at farthest the year of Ju
bilee (Ex. xxi. 2 ; Lev. xxv. 39, 42 ; Deut.
XV. 9).
Loaves. [Bread,]
Lock, Where European locks have
not been introduced, the locks of Eastern
houses are usually of wood, and consist of
a partly hollow bolt from 14 inches to 2 feet
long for external doors or gates, or from 7
to 9 inches for interior doors. The bolt
passes through a groove in a piece attached
to the door into a socket in the door-post.
Locust, il well-known insect, which
commits terrible ravages on vegetation in
the countries which it visits. In the Bible
there are frequent allusions to locusts ; and
there are nine or ten Hebrew words which
aie supposed to denote different varieties
or species of this faraily. The most de
structive of the locust tribe that occur in the
Bible lands are the Oedipoda migratoria
and the Acridium peregrinum, and .as both
these species occur in Syria and Arabia,
&c., it is most probable that one or other is
denoted in those passages which speak of
the dreadful devastations committed by
these insects. Locusts occur in great num-

Locnst (.Oedipoda migratoria).
bers, and sometimes obscure the sun (Ex.
X. 15 ; Jer. xlvi, 23 ; Judg, vi, 5, vii, 12 ;
Joel ii. 10; Nah. iii. 15). Their voracity
is alluded to in Ex. x. 12, 15 ; Joel i. 4, 7,
12, and U. 3 ; Deut. xxviii. 38 ; Ps. IxxvUi.
46, cv. 34 ; Is xxxiU. 4. They are com
pared to horses — Joel u. 4; Rev. ix. 7.

They make a fearful noise in their flight
(Joel ii. 5 ; Rev. ix. 9). They have
no king (Prov, xxx. 27). Their irre
sistible progress is referred to in Joel ii.
8, 9, They enter dwellings, and devour
even the woodwork of houses (Ex. x, 6;
Joel U. 9, 10), They do not fly in the night
(Nah, iii. 17). The sea destroys the great
er nuraber (Ex, x, 19; Joel ii, 20). Their
dead bodies taint the air (Joel ii. 20). The
fiight of locusts is thus described by JI.
Olivier ( Voyage dans V Empire Othoman,
ii, 424) :¦' "With the burning south winds
(of Syria) there corae frora the interior of
Arabia and from the most southern parts
of Persia clouds of locusts {Acridium pere
grinum) , whose ravages to these countries
are as grievous and nearly as sudden as
those of the heaviest hail in Europe, We
witnessed them twice. It is difficult to ex
press the effect produced on us by the sight
of the whole atmosphere filled on all sides
and to a great height by an innuraer.able
quiintity of these insects, whose flight was
slow and uniforra, aud whose noise resem
bled that of rain : the sky was darkened,
and the light of the sun considerably weak
ened. In a moment tho terraces of the
houses, the streets, and all the flelds were
covered by these insects, and in two days
they had nearly devoured all the leaves of
the plants. Happily they lived but a short
time, and seemed to have migrated only to
reproduce themselves and die ; in fact, near
ly all those we saw the next day had"paired,'
and the day following the fields wero cov
ered with their dead bodies." Tho A. V.
is clearly in error in translating this word
" beetle ; " it occurs only in Lev. xi. 22, but
it is clear from tho context that it denotes
some species of winged insect which the
Israelites were allowed to use as food. Lo
custs were used as food (Lev. xi. 21, 22;
Matt. iii. 4; Mark i. 6). There are differ
ent ways of preparing locusts for food:
sometimes they are ground and pounded,
and then mixed with flour and water and

^-'-_—

V

Locust {Amdium Peregrinum).

made into cakes, or they are salted and then
eaten ; soraetiraes smoked ; boiled or roast
ed ; stewed, or fried in butter. From ig
norance of this fact, some persons have
erroneously asserted that the locusts which
formed part of the food of the Baptist were
not the insect of that name, but the long
sweet pods of the locust-tree, " St. John's
bread," as the monks of Palestine call it.
Lod. [Ltdda.]
Lo'-debar, a place named with Maha-

LODGE

356

LOxlD'S SUPPER

naim, Rogelim, aud other trans-Jordanic
towns (2 Sam. xvu. 27), and therefore no
doubt on the eastern side of the Jordan. It
was the native place of Machir-ben-Ammiel
(ix. 4, 5).
Lodge, To. This word in the A. V.
— with one exceptiot only — is used to
translate the Hebrew verb lim or liji, which
has, at least in the narrative portions of
the Bible, almost invariably the force of
" passing the night."
Log. [Weights and Measures.]
Lo'is, the grandmother of Timothy,
and doubtless the mother of his mother
Eunice (2 Tim. i. 5).' It seeras likely that
Lojs had resided long at Lystra ; and al
most certain that frora ber, as well as frora
Eunice, Tiraothy obtained his intiraate
knowledge of the Jewish Scriptures (2 Tim.
iU. 15).
Looking-glasses. [Mirrors.]
Lord. [God.]
Lord's Day, The {!/ KvQiaxli 'HhIqo,
Rev. i. 10 only), the weekly festival of our
Lord's resurrection, and identified with
" the first day of the week," or " Sunday,"
of every age of the Church. Scripture
says very little concerning this day. But
that little seeras to indicate that the divine
ly inspired apostles, by their practice and
by their precepts, marked the first day of
the week as a day for meeting together to
break bread, for coraraunicating and receiv
ing instruction, for laying up offerings in
store for charitable purposes, for occupa
tion in holy thought and prayer. The
first day of the week so devoted seeras also
to have been the day of the Lord's Resur
rection. The Lord rose on the first day of
the week, and appeared, on the very day of
His rising, to His followers on five distinct
occasions — to Mary Magdalene, to the
other women, to the two disciples on the
road to Emmaus, to St. Peter separately,
to ten Apostles collected together. After
eight days, that is, according to the ordi-
n.ary reckoning, on the first day of the next
week, lie appeared to the eleven. On the
day of Pentecost, which in that year fell
on ths first day of the week, "they were
all with one accord in one place," had spir
itual gifts conferred on them, and in their
turn began to communicate those gifts, as
accompaniments of instruction, to others.
At Troas (Acts xx. 7), raany years after
the occurrence at Pentecost, when Chris
tianity had begun to assume something like
a settled forra, St. Luke records the fol
lowing circumstiinces. St. Paul and his
companions arrived there, and " abode
seven days, and upon the first day of the
week, when tho disciples came together to
break bread, Paul preached unto thera."
In 1 Cor. xvi. 1, 2, that same St. Paul
writes thus : " Now concerning the collec
tion for the sauits, as I have given order to

the churches in Galatia, even so d.l ye.
Upon the first day of the week, let every
one of you lay by him in store, as God
hath prospered him, that there be no gath
erings when I corpe." In Heb. x. 25, the
correspondents of the writer are desired
" not to forsake the assembling of them
selves together, as the manner of some is,
but to exhort one another," an injunction
which seems to imply that a regular day
for such asserabling existed and was well
known ; for otherwise no rebuke would lie.
And lastly, in the passage given above, St.
John describes liimself as being in the
Spirit " on the Lord's Day." Taken sepa
rately, perhaps, and even all together, these
passages seera scarcely adequate to prove
that the dedication of the first day of the
week to the purposes above mentioned was
a matter of apostolic institution, or even
of apostolic practice. But it may be ob
served, that it is at any rate an extraordi
nary coincidence, that almost imraediately
we emerge from Scripture, we find the same
day mentioned in a similar manner, and
directly associated with the Lord's Resur
rection ; that it is an extraordinary fact
that we never find its dedication questioned
or argued about, but accepted as something
equally apostolic with Confirmation, with
Infant Haptism, with Ordination, or at least
spoken of in the same way. The results of
our examination of the principal writers
of the two centuries after the death of St.
John are as follows. The Lord's Day (a
name wliich has now come out more prom
inently, and is connected more explicitly
with our Lord's resurrection than before)
existed during these two centuries as a pari
and parcel of apostolical, and so of Scriptur
al Christianity. It was never defended, foi
it was never impugned, or at least only im
pugned as other things received from the
.apostles were. It was never confounded
with theS.abbath, but carefully distinguished
from it. Religiously regarded, it was a
day of solemn meeting for the Holy Eucha
rist, for united prayer, for instruction, for
alms-giving. [Sabbath.]
Lord's Supper {JCvQtaxbv SetTirov).
The words which thus describe the greal
centr.al act of the worship of the Christian
Church occur but in one single passage of
the N. T. (1 Cor. xi.-20). I. It was institut
ed on that night when Jesus and his disci
ples mot together to eat the Passover (Matt.
xxvi. 19; Mark xiv. 16; Luke xxii. 13).
The Paschal feast was kept by the Jews of
that period in the following order. (1)
The members of the corapany that were
joined for this purpose met in the evening
and recUned on couches (comp. Matt. xxvi.
20 ; Luke xxii. 14 ; and John xUi. 23, 25).
The head of the household, or celebraint,
began by a form of blessing " for the day
and for the wine," pronounced over a cup, of

LORD'S SUPPER

357

LORD'S SUPPER

which he and the others then drank. (2) All
who were present then washed their hands ;
this also having a special benediction. (3)
The table was then sot out with tho paschal
larab, unleavened broad, bitter herbs, and
the dish known as Charoseth, a sauce made
of dates, figs, raisins, and vinegar, and de
signed to commemorate the mortar of
their bondage in Egypt. (4) Tho cele
brant first, and then the others, dipped a
portion of the bitter herbs into the Charo
seth and ate them. (5) The dishes were
then removed, and a cup of wine again
brought. Then followed an interval which
was allowed theoretically for tho questions
that might be asked by children or prose
lytes, who were astonished at such a
strange beginning of a feast, and the cup
was passed round and drunk at the close
of it. (6) The dishes being brought on
again, the celebrant repeated the com
memorative words which opened what was
strictly the paschal supper, and pronounced
a solemn tiianksgiving, followed by Ps.
cxiii. and cxiv. (7) Then came a second
washing of the hands, with a short form of
blessing as before, and the celebrant broke
one of the two loaves or cakes of un
leavened bread, and gave thanks over it.
All then took portions of the bread; and
dipped them, together with the bitter herbs,
into the Charoseth, and so ate them. (8)
After this they ate the flesh of the paschal
lamb, with bread, &c., as they liked; and
after another blessing, a, tliird cup, known
especiaUy as the " cup -of blessing," ^.^as
handed round. (9) This was succeeded
by a fourth cup, and the recital of Ps.
cxv.-cxviii. followed by a prayer, and this
was accordingly known as the cup of the
Hallel, or of the Song. (10) There might
be, in conclusion, a fifth cup, provided that
the "great Hallel" (possibly Psalms cxx.-
cxxxviii.) was sung over it. — Comparing
the ritual thus gathered from Rabbinic
writers with the N. T., and assuming
that it represents substantially the com
raon practice of our Lord's tirae, and that
the meal of which He and His disciples
partook, was either the passover itself, or
au anticipation of it, conducted according
to the same rules, wc are able to point,
though not witli absolute certainty, to the
points of departure which the old practice
presented for the institution of the new.
To (1) or (3), or even to (8), we may re
fer the first words and the first distribution
of the cup (Luke xxU. 17, 18) ; to (2) or
(7), the dipping of the sop of John xiU. 26 ;
to (7), or to an interval during or after (8),
the distribution of the bread (Miitt. xxvi,
26; Mark xiv. 22; Luke xxii. 19; 1 Cor.
xi. 23, 24^; to (9) or (10) ("after sup
per," Luke xxu. 20) the thanksgiving, and
distribution of the cup, and the hymn with
which the whol» was ended. — The narra

tives of the Gospels sh jw how strongly the
disciples were impr'.;sseu with the words
which had given a new meaning to the old
faraUiar acts. They leave unnoticed all
the ceremonies of the Passover, except
those which had thus been transferred to
the Christian Church and perpetuated in
it. Old things were passing aw.ay, and all
things becoming new. They had looked
on the bread and the wine as memorials of
the deliverance from Egypt. They were
now told to partake of them " in remem
brance " of their Master and Lord. Tha
festival had been annual. No rule was
given as to the time and frequency of the
new feast that thus supervened on tho old,
but the coraraand, " Do this as offc as ye
drink it" (1 Cor. xi. 25), suggested the
raore continual recurrence of that which
was to be their memorial of one whom they
would wish never to forget. The words,
" This is ray body," gave to the unleavened
bread a new character. They had been
prepared for language that would other
wise have been so startling, by the teach
ing of John (vi. (52-68), aud they wore thus'
taught to see in the bread that was broken
the witness of the closest possible union
and incorporation with their Lord. The
cup which was " the new testament in His
blood," would remind them, in like man
ner, of the wonderful prophecy in which
that new covenant had been foretold (Jer.
xxxi. 31-34). II. In the account given by
the writer of the Acts of the life of the first
disciples at Jerusalera, a prominent place
is given to this act, and to the phrase which
indicated it. He describes the baptized
merabers of the Church as continuing
steadfast in or to the teaching of the apos
tles, in fellowship with them and witli each
other, and in breaking of bread and in
prayers (Acts U. 42). '\Ve can scarcely
doubt that this impUes that the chief actual
meal of each day was one in which they
met as brothers, and which was either
preceded or followed by the raore sol
eran "comraeraorative acts of the breaking
of the bread and the drinking of the
cup. It will be convenient to anticipate
the language and the thoughts of a sorae
what later date, and to say that, appar
ently, they thus united every day the
Agap6 or feast of Love with the celebration
of the Eucharist. It would be natural that
in a society consisting of raany thous.and
members there should be raany places of
raeeting. The congregation assembling in
each place would come to be known as " the
Church " in this or that man's house (Rom.
xvi, 5, 23 ; 1 Cor. xvi, 19 ; Col. iv. 15 ;
Pliilera. ver. 2). When they raet, the place
of honor would naturally be taken by one
of the apostles, or sorae elder representing
hira. It would belong to hira to pronounce
the blessing and thanksgiving, with which

LORD'S SUPPER

358

LOT

the raeals of devout Jews always began and
ended. The bread (unless the converted
Jews were to think of themselves as keeping
a perpetual passover) would be such as they
habitually used. The wine (probably the
common red wine of Palestine, Prov. xxiii.
81) would, according to their usual practice,
be mixed with water. At sorae time, before
or after the meal of which they partook as
such, the bread and the wine would be given
with some special form of words or acts, to
indicate its character. New converts would
need sorae explanation of the meaning and
origin of tho observance. What would be
BO fitting and so much in harmony with the
precedents of the Paschal feast as the nar
rative of what had passed on the night of its
institution (1 Cor. xi. 23-27) ?_ With this
there would naturally be associated (as in
Acts ii. 42) pra.yers for themselves and oth
ers. Their gladness would show itself in the
jisalms and hymns with which they praised
God (Heb. U. 46, 47; Jaraes v. 13), The
analogy ofthe Passover, the general feeling
of the Jews, and the practice of the Essenes
may possibly have suggested ablutions, par
tial or entire, as a preparation for the feast
(Heb, X. 22; John xiii. 1-15). At sorae
point in the feast those who were present,
men aud women sitting apart, would rise to
salute each other with the "holy kiss" (1
Cor, xvi, 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 12), The next
traces that meet us are in 1 Cor,, and the
fact that we find thera is in itself significant.
The commemoriitive fe.ast has not been
confined to the personal disciples of Christ,
or the Jewish converts whom they gathered
round them at Jerusalem. The title of the
"cup of blessing" (1 Cor, x. 16) has been
iraported into the Greek Church. The
synonyme of "the cup of the Lord" (1 Cor.
x. 21) distinguishes it from the other cups
that belonged to the Agap6, or Love-feast.
The word "fellowship" is passing by de
grees into the special signification of " Com
munion." The apostle refers to his own
office as breaking the bread and blessing
the cup (1 Cor. x, 16), The table on which
the bread was placed was the Lord's Table,
But the practice of the Agapfe, as well as
the observance of the comraeraorative feast,
had been transferred to Corinth, and this
called for a special notice, E vils had sprung
up which had to be checked at once. The
meeting of friends for a social meal, to
¦which all contributed, was a sufficiently fa
miliar practice in the comraon life of Greeks
of this period ; and the club-feasts were as
sociated with plans of mutual relief or char
ity to the poor. The Agape of the new
society would seera to them to be such a
feast, and hence came a disorder that alto
gether frustrated the object of the Church
in instituting it. What was to be the rem
edy for this terrible and growing evil St,
Paul does not state expUcitly. He reserves

formal regulations for a later personal vis-
it. In the mean time he gives a rule which
would make the union of the AgapC and
the Lord's Supper possible without the risk
of profanation. They were not to come
even to the former with the keen edge of
appetite. They were to wait till all were
met, instead of scrambling tumultuously to
help themselves (1 Cor. xi, 33, 34). In one '
point, however, the custom of the Church
of Corinth differed apparently from that of
Jerusalem, The meeting for the Lord's
Supper was no longer daily (1 Cor, xi. 20,
33). The directions given in 1 Cor. xvi. 2
suggest the constitution of a celebration on
the first day of the week. The meeting at
Troas is on the same day (Acts xx. 7). A
change gradually takes place. The Lord's
Supper is separated from the Agap6, and the
latter finally dies out. The morning celebra
tion ofthe Supper takes the place ofthe even
ing. In Acts XX. 1 1 we have an exaraple of
the way in which the transition raay have
been effected. The disciples at Troas raeet
together to break bread. The hour is not
definitely stated, but the fact that St. Paul's
discourse was protracted till past midnight,
and the mention of the many lamps, indicate
a later time than that commonly fixed for
the Greek SitTcvov. Then came the teach
ing and the prayers, and then, towards early
dawn, the breaking of bread, which consti
tuted the Lord's Supper, and for which they
were gathered together. If this midnight
meeting may be taken as indicating a com
mon practice, originating in reverence for
an ordinance which Christ had enjoined, we
can easily understand how the next step
would be to transfer the celebration of the
Eucharist permanently to the morning hour,
to which it had gradually been approxi-
raating. Lo-ruha'mah, i. e. "the uncompas-
sionated," the name of the daughter of Ho
sea the prophet, given to denote the utterly
ruined condition of the kingdom of Israel
(Hos. i. 6).
Lot, the son of Haran, and therefore
the nephew of Abraham (Gen. xi. 27, 31).
His sisters were Milcah the wife of Nahor,
and IsOAH, by some identified with Sarah.
Haran died before the emigriition of Te
rah and his faraily frora Ur of the Chaldees
(ver. 28), and Lot was therefore born there.
He reraoved with the rest of his kindred
to Charran, and again subsequently with
Abrah.ara and Sarai to Canaan (xii. 4, 5).
With thera he took refuge in Egypt frora a
famine, and with them returned, first to the
" South" (xiu. 1), and then to their origi
nal settlement between Bethel and Ai (ver.
3, 4). But the pastures of the hiUs of.
Bethel, which had with ease contained the
two strangers on their first arrival, were not
able any longer to bear thera, so much had
their possessions of sheep, goats, and cattlJ

LOT

859

LUCIUS

uicreased. Accordingly they separated,
Lot choosing the fertile plain of the Jor-;
dan, and advancing as far as Sodom (Gen.
xui, 10-14). The next o jcurrence in the
life of Lot is his capture by the four kings
of the East, and his rescue by Abram (Gen.
xiv.). For detaUs see Abraham. 'The
last scene preserved to us in the history of
Lot is too well known to need repetition.
He is still living in Sodora (Gen. xix.). But
in the raidstof the licentious corruption of
that city, he preserves some of the delight
ful characteristics of his wandering life, his
fervent and chivalrous hospitality (xix. 2,
8) , the unleavened bread of the tent of the
wilderness, the water for the feet of the
wayfarers, affording his guests a reception
identical with that which they had experi
enced that very morning in Abraham's tent
on the heights of Hebron (comp. xviU. 3,
6). His deliverance frora the guilty and
condemned city points the allusion of St.
Peter (2 Pet. U. 6-9). .Where Zoar was
situated, in which he found a temporary
refuge during the destruction of the other
cities of the plain, we do not know with
absolute certainty. The end of Lot's wife
is coraraonly treated as one of the difficul
ties of the Bible. But it surely need not
be so. It cannot be necessary, as sorae
have done, to create the details ofthe story
where none are given. On these points ths
record is silent. The value and the sig
nificance of the story to us are contained
in the allusion of Christ (Luke xvu. 32).
Later ages have not been satisfied so to leave
the matter, but have insisted on identifying
the " pillar " with some one of the fleeting
forms which the perishable rock of the
liouth end of the Dead Sea is constantly
assuming ih its process of decoraposition
and liquefaction. From the incestuous in
tercourse between Lot and his two daugh
ters sprang the nations of Moab aud Am
mon. Lot, The custom of deciding doubtful
questions by lot is one of great extent and
high antiquity. The religious estimate of
thera may be gathered from Prov. xvi. 33,
The following historical or ritual instances
are — 1, Choice of men for an invading
force'(Judg, i. 1, xx. 10). 2. Partition (a)
of the soil of Palestine among the tribes
(Num. xxvi. 65; Josh. xvui. 10; Acts xiii.
19). (5) of Jerusalem; i, b. probably its
spoil or captives among captors (Obad. 11) ;
of the land itself in a similar way (1 Mace.
iu. 36). {c) Apportionment of possessions,
or spoil, or of prisoners, to foreigners or
captors (Joel Ui. 3; Nah. iii. 10; Matt.
xxvii. 35). 3. (a) Settlement of doubtful
questions (Prov. xvi. 33, xvui. 18). (6) A
mode of divination among heathens by
means of arrows, two inscribed, and one
without mark (Hos. iv. 12; Ez. xxi. 21).
(cl Detection of a criminal (Josh. vu. 14,

18), {d) Appointment of persons to offices
or duties, as above in Achau's case, (c)
Selection of the scape-goat on the Day of
Atoneraent (Lev. xvi. 8, 10), 4, The use
of words heard or passages chosen at ran-
dora frora Scripture,
Lo'tan, the eldest son of Seir the Ho
rite (Gen, xxxvi, 20, 22, 29 ; 1 Chr. i. 38,
39), Lots, Feast of, [Purim,]
Love-feasts (Jude 12, aud 2 Pet. ii.
13.) [Lord's Supper,]
Lu'bim, a nation raentioned as contrib
uting, together with Cushites and Sukkiira,
to Shishak's array (2 Chr. xii. 3) ; and ap
parently as forming with Cushites the bulk
of Zerah's array (xvi. 8), spoken of by Na-
liura (iii, 9) with Put or Phut, as helping
No-Araon (Thebes), of wliich Cush and
Egypt were the strength; and by Daniel
(xi, 43) as paying court with the Cushites
to a conqueror of Egypt or the Egyptians.
Upon the Egyptian raonuraents we flnd
representations of a people called Rebu, or
Lebu, who correspond to the Lubim, and
who may be placed on the African coast to
the westward of Egypt, perhaps extending
far beyond the Cyrenaica.
Lu'eas (PhUem, 24), [Luke,]
Lu'cifer, found in Is. xiv, 12, coupled
with the epithet " son of the morning,"
clearly signifles a "bright star," and prob
ably what we call the morning star. In
this passage it is a symbolical representa
tion of the king of Babylon, in his splen
dor and in his fall. Its application, from
St, Jerome downwards, to Satan in his fall
from heaven, arises probably from the fact
that the Babylonian Empire is in Scripture
represented as the type of tyrannical and
self-idolizing power, and especially con
nected with the empire of the EvU One in
the Apocalypse.
Lu'cius, 1. A Roman consul who is
said to have written the letter to Ptolemy
(Euergetes), which assured Simon I. ofthe
protection of Rorae (cir. e. c. 139-8; 1
Maco. XV, 10, 15-24), The whole form of
the letter shows that it cannot be an accu
rate copy of the original document. The
imperfect transcription of the narae has led
to the identification of Lucius with throe
distinct persons — (1,) [Lucius] Furius
Philus, who was not consul till B. c, 136,
and is therefore at once excluded. (2.)
Lucius Caecilius Mctellus Calvus, who was
consul in B. c, 142. (3.) Lucius may per
haps be identified with Lucius Calpurnius
Piso, who was consul b, c, 139, — 2 , A kins
man or fellow-tribesman of St. Paul (Rom
xvi. 21) , by whora he is said by tradition to
have been ordained bishop of the church of
Cenchreae. He is thought by sorae to be
the sarae with Lucius of Cyrene. — 3 . Lu
cius OP Cyrene is flrst mentioned in tha
N. T. in company with Barnab,as, Simeon,

LUD

rf60

LUKE, GOSPEL OF

ealleA Niger, Manaen, and Saul, who are
described as prophets and teachers of the
church at Antioch (Acts xiii. 1). Whether
Lucius was one of the seventy disciples, is
quite a matter of conjecture ; but it is high
ly probable that he formed one of the con
gregation to whom St. Peter preached on
the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 10) ; and
there can hardly be a doubt that he was
one of " the men of Cyrene " who, being
" scattered abroad upon the persecution
that arose about Stephen," went to Antioch
preaching the Lord Jesus (Acts xi. 19, 20).
It is commonly supposed that Lucius is
the kinsman of St. P.aul, raentioned by that
Apostle as joining with him in his salutation
to the Roraan brethren (Rom. xvi. 21).
Lud, the fourth name in the list of the
children of Shem (Gen. x. 22; corap. 1
Chr. i. 17), supposed to have been the an
cestor of the Lydians.
Lu'dim (Gen. x. 13; 1 Chr. i. 11), a
Mizraite people or tribe. From their posi
tion at the head of the list of the Mizraites,
it is probable that the Ludim were settled
to the west of Egypt, perhaps farther than
any other Mizraite tribe. Lud and the
Ludira are mentioned in four passages of
the prophets (Is. Ixvi. 19 ; Jer. xlvi. 9 ; Ez.
xxvii. 10, xxxviii. 5). 'There can be no
doubt that but one nation is intended in
these passages, and it seems that the pre-
ponderRuce of evidence is in favor of the
Mizraite Ludim.
Lu'hith, The Ascent of, a place in
Moab, occurs only in Is. xv. 5, and the par
allel passage of Jeremiah (xlviii. 5). In
the days of Eusebius and Jerorae it was
still known, and stood between Areopolis
(Rabbath-Moab) and Zoar.
Luke, or Lu'eas, is an abbreviated forra
of Lucanus. It is not to be confounded
with Lucius (Acts xiii. 1 ; Rom. xvi. 21),
which belongs to a different person. The
name Luke occurs three times in the N. T.
(Col, iv. 14; 2 Tira. iv. II; Philem. 24),
and probably in all three, the third evangel
ist is the person spoken of. Combining the
traditional element with the scriptural, we
are able to trace the following dim outline
of the Evangelist's life. He was born at
Antioch in Syria, and was taught the science
of medicine. The well-known tradition
that Luke was also a painter, and of no
mean skiU, rests on the authority of late
writers. He was not born a Jew, for he is
not reckoned among them " ofthe circum
cision" by St. Paul (comp. Col. iv. 11 with
ver. 14), The date of his conversion is un
certain. He joined St, Paul at Troas, and
shared his journey into Macedonia, The
sudden transitioii to the first person plural
in Acts xvi, 9, is most naturally explained,
after all the objections that have been urged,
by supposing that Luke, the writer of the
Acts, formed one of St. Paul's company

from this point. As far as Philippi the
Evangelist journeyed with the Apostle. The
resumption of the third person on Paul's
depiirture from that place (xvu. 1) would
show that Luke was now left behind. Dur
ing the rest of St. Paul's second missionary
journey wc hear of Luke no more. But on
the third journey the same indication re
minds us that Luke is again ofthe company
(Acts XX. 5), having joined it apparently at
Philippi, where he had been left. With the
Apostle he passed through MUetus, Tyre,
and Caesarea to Jerusalera (xx.5, xxi. 18).
Between the two visits of Paul to Philippi
seven years had elapsed (a. d, 51 to A. d.
58), which the Evangelist may have spent
in Philippi and its neighborhood, preach
ing tbe Gospel. There remains one pas
sage, which, if it refers to St. Luke, raust
belong to this period. " We have sent with
him " {i. e. Titus) " the brother whose
praise is in the gospel throughout all the
churches " (2 Cor. viii, 18). The subscrip
tion of the Epistle sets forth that it was
"written from Philippi, a city of Macedonia,
by Titus and Lucas," and it is an old opinion
that Luke was the companion of Titus, al
though he is not named in the body of the
Epistle. If this be so, we are to suppose
that during the " three months " df Paul's
sojourn at Philippi (Acts xx, 3) Luke was
sent from that place to Corinth on this
errand. He again appears in the company
of Paul in the memorable journey to Rome
(Acts xxvii. 1). He remained at his side
during his first imprisonment (Col. iv; 14 ;
PhUem, 24) ; and if it is to be supposed that
the Second Epistle to Tiraothy was written
during the second iraprisonment, then the
testiraony of that Epistle (iv. 1 1) shows that
he continued faithful to the Apostle to the
end of his afflictions. After the death of
St. Paul, the acts of his faithful corapanion
are hopelessly obscure to us. In the well-
known passage of Epiphanius, we find that
Luke, receiving the commission to preach
the Gospel, preaches first in Dalmatia and
Gallia. As to his age and death, there is
the utmost uncertainty. He probably diea
a martyr, between a. d. 75 and a. d. 100.
Luke, Gospel of. The third Gospel
is ascribed, by the general consent of an
cient Christendom, to " the beloved phy
sician," Luke, the friend and companion of
the Apostle Paul. I. Date of the Gospel
of Luke. — From Acts i. 1, it is clear that
the Gospel described as " the former trea
tise " was written before the Acts of the
Apostles ; but how much earlier is uncer
tain. Perhaps it was written at Caesarea
during St. Paul's imprisonment there, A. D.
58-60. II. Place where ihe Gospel was
written. — If the time has been rightly
indicated, the place would be Caesarea.
Other suppositions are, that it was com
posed in Aohaia and the region o^ Boectw

LUKE, GOSPEL OF

361

LYCAONIA

(Jerome), in Alexandria (Syriac version) ,
in Rorae (Ewald, &c.), in Achaia and
Macedonia (HUgenfeld), and Asia Minor
(Kostlin) . It is irapossible to verify these
traditions and ^lonjectures. III. Origin
of ihe Gospel. — The preface, contained in
the firit four verses of the Gospel, describes
the object of its writer. Here are several
facts to be observed. There were raany
narratives ofthe life of our Lord current at
the early tirae when Luke wrote his Gospel.
The ground of fitness for the task St. Luke
places in his having carefully followed out
the whole course of events from the begin
ning. He does not claim the character of
an eye-witness from the first ; but passibly
he may have been a witness of some part
of our Lord's doings. The ancient opinion,
that Luke wrote his Gospel under the in
fluence of Paul, rests on the authority of
Irenaeus, TertuUian, Origen, and Eusebius.
/ The two first assort that we have in Luke
the Gospel preached by Paul ; Origen calls
it " the Gospel quoted by Paul," alluding
to Rom. ii. 16 ; and Eusebius refers Paul's
words, " according to ray Gospel " (2 Tim.
ii. 8), to that of Luke, in which Jerome
concurs. The language of the preface is
against the notion of any exclusive in
fiuence of St. Paul. The four verses could
not have been put at the head of a his
tory composed under the exclusive guid
ance of Paul or of any one apostle, and as
little could they have introduced a gospel
simply communicated by another. The
truth seems to be that St. Luke, seeking
information from every quarter, sought 'it
from the preaching of his beloved master,
St. Paul; and the apostle in his turn em
ployed the knowledge acquired from other
sources by his disciple. 'Upon the question
whether Luke made use of the Gospels of
Matthew and Mark, see Gospels, IV, Pur
pose for which the Gospel was written. —
The Evangelist professes to write that
Theophilus "might know the certainty of
those things wherein he had been instruct
ed " (i, 4) , This Theophilus was probably
a native of Italy, and perhaps an inhabitant
of Rorae, for in tracing St, Paul's journey
to Rome, places which an Italian might be
supposed not to know are described minute
ly (Acts xxvU. 8, 12, 16) ; but when he comes
to SicUy and Italy this is neglected. Hence
it would appear that the pefson for whom
Luke wrote in the flrst instance was a Gen-
tUe reader ; and accordingly we find traces
in the Gospel of a leaning towards Gentile
rather than Jewish converts. V. Lan
guage and Style of the Gospel. — It has nev
er been doubted that the Gospel was written
m Greek: Whilst Hebraisms are frequent,
classical idioms and Greek compound words
abound. The nuraber of words used by
Luke on'y is unusually great, and many of
them are compound words for which there

is classical authority. On comparing th«
Gospel with the Acts it is found that the
style of the latter is more pure and free
from Hebrew idioms. VI. Integrity of
the Gospel — the first two Chapters. — The
Gospel of Luke is quoted by Justin Martyr
and by»the author of the Clementine Homi
lies. The silence of the Apostolic fathers
only indicates that it was admitted into the
Canon somewhat late, which was probably
the case. The result of the Marcion con
troversy is, as we have seen, that our Gos
pel was in use before a. d, 120, A special
question, however, has been raised about
the flrst two chapters. But there is no real
ground for distinguishing between the first
two chapters and the rest.
Lunatics, This word is used twice in
the N, T, (Matt, iv, 24, xvii. 15). It is
evident that the word itself refers to sorae
disease, affecting both the body and the
raind, which might or might not be a sign
of possession. By the description of Mark
ix. 17-26, it is concluded that this disease
was epilepsy.
Luz. It seems impossible to discovei
with precision whether Luz and Bethel rep
resent one and the sarae town — the former
the Canaanite, the latter the Hebrew narae
— or whether they were distinct places,
though in close proxiraity. The latter is
the natural inference from two of the pas
sages in which Luz is spoken of (Gen.
xxviii, 19; Josh, xvi. 2, xviii. 13). Other
passages, however, seem to speak of the
two as identical (Gen. xxxv. 6 ; Judg, i, 23),
The most probable conclusion is, that the
two places were, during the times preceding
the conquest, distinct, Luz being the city
and Bethel the pillar and altar of Jacob ;
that after the destruction of Luz by the
tribe of Ephraim the town of Bethel arose,
2. When the original Luz was destroyed,
through the treachery of one of its inhab
itants, the man who had introduced the
Israelites into the town went into the " land
of the Hittites " and built a city, which he
naraed after the forraer one (Judg, i, 26).
Its situation, as well as that of the " land of
the Hittites," has never been discovered,
and is one ofthe favorite puzzles of Scrip
ture geographers,
Lycao'ula, a district of Asia Minor.
Prom what is said inActsxiv.il of "the
speech of Lycaonia," it is evident that the
inhabitants of the district, in St, Paul's day,
spoke something very different frora ordi
nary Greek. "\Vhether this language waa
some Syrian dialect, or a corrupt form of
Greek, has been much debated. The fact
that the Lycaonians were familiar with the
Greek mythology is consistent with either
supposition. Lycaonia is for the most part
a dreary plain, bare of trees, destitute of
fresh water, and with several salt Lakes.
After the provincial system of Rome had

LYCIA

362

LYSIAS

embraced the whole of Asia Minor, the
boundaries of the provinces were variable ;
and Lycaonia was, politically, sometimes
in Cappadocia, sometimes in Galatia. It is
interesting to see these rude country peo
ple, when Paul and Barnabas worked mir
acles among them, rushing to the conclusion
that the strangers were Mercury and Ju
piter, whose visit to this very neighborhood
forms the subject of one o'f Ovid's most
charming stories (Ovid, Mdam. viu. 626).
Nor can we fail to notice how admirably St.
Paul's address on the occasion was adapted
to a simple and imperfectly civUized race
(xiv. 15-17). This was at Lystra, in the
heart of the country. Farther to the east
was Derbe (ver. 6), not far frora the chief
pass which leads up through Taurus, frora
Cilicia and the coast, to the central table
land. At the western lirait of Lycaonia
was Iconium (ver. 1), in the direction of
Antioch in Pisidia. A good Roman road
intersected the district along the line thus
indicated. On St. Paul's first missionary
journey he traversed Lycaonia from west
to east, and then returned on his steps
(ver. 21; see 2 Tim. iu. 11). On the
second and third journeys he entered it
from the east ; and after leaving it, travelled
in the one case to Troas (Acts xvi. 1-8), in
the other to Ephesus (Acts xvUi. 23, xix. 1).
Lyc'ia is the name of that south-west
ern region of the peninsula of Asia Minor
which is imraediately opposite the island
of Rhodes. The Lycians were incorporat
ed in the Persian Empire, and their ships
were conspicuous in the great war against
the Greeks (Herod, vii. 91, 92). After the
death of Alexander the Great, Lycia was
included in the Greek Seleucid kingdom,
and was a part of the territory which the
Romans forced Antiochus to cede. It was
not till the reign of Claudius that Lycia be
came part of the Roman provincial system.
At first it was combined with Pamphylia.
Such seems to have been the condition of
the district when St. Paul visited the
Lyciau towns of Patara (Acts xxi. 1) , and
Myra (Acts xxvii. 5). A^ a later period of
the Roman empire Lycia was a separate
province, with Myra for its capital.
Lyd'da, the Greek forra of the narae
(Acts ix. 32, 35, 38), which appears in the
Hebrew records as Lod, a town of Benja
min, founded by Sharaed or Shamer (1
Chr. vUi. 12 ; Ezr. U. 33 ; Neh. vii. 37, xi.
35), Itis still called Lidd or lAdd, and
stands in part of the great maritime plain
which anciently bore the name of Sharon.
It is 9 miles from Joppa, and is the first
town on the northernmost of the two roads
between that place and Jerusalera. The
watercourse outside the town is said still
to bear the name of Abi-Buirus (Peter),
in memory of the Apostle. It was de
stroyed by Vespasian, and was probably

not rt-buUt tUl the tirae of Hadrian, when
it received the name of Di( spoUs. _ When
Eusebius wrote (a. d. 320-330) Diospohs
was a well-known and much-frequented
town. The modern town ts, for a Moham
medan place, busy and prosperous.
Lyd'ia, a maritime province m the west
of Asia Minor, bounded by Mysia on the
N.) Phrygia on the E,, and Caria on the S.
The name occurs only in 1 Mace. vui.. 8
(the rendering of the A. V. in Ez. xxx..5
being for Ludim) ; it is there enumerated
araong the districts which the Romans took
away from Antiochus the Great after the
battle Of Magnesia in B. c, 190, and trans-
ferre* to Eumenes II, king of Pergamus.
For the connection between Lydia and tha
Lud and Ludim of the O. T,, see Ludim.
Lydia is included in the " Asia " ofthe N. T.
Lyd'ia, the first European convert of
St. Paul, and afterwards his hostess during
his first stay at PhUippi (Acts xvi. 14, 15,
also 40). She wiis a Jewish, proselyte at
the time of the Apostle's coming ; and it
was at the Jewish Sabbath-worship by the
side of a stream (ver. 13) that the preach
ing of the Gospel reached her heart. Her
native place was Thyatira, in the province
of Asia (ver, 14; Rev, ii, 18). Thyatira was
famous for its dyeing-works ; and Lydia was
connected with tliis trade, either as a seUer
of dye, or of dyed goods. We infer that
she was a person of considerable wealth.
Lysa'nias, mentioned by St. Luke in
one of his chronological passages (iu. 1)
as being tetrarch of Abilene {i. e. the
district round Abila) in the 13th year of
Tiberius, at the time when Herod, Antipas
was tetrarch of Galilee, and Herod Philip
tetrarch of Ituraea and Trachonitis.
Lys'ias, a nobleman of the blood-royal'
(1 Mace, iii, 32; 2 Mace. xi. 1), who was
intrusted by Antiochus Epiphanes (cir.
B. c. 166) with the government of southern
Syria, and the guardianship of his son
Antiochus Eupator (1 Mace. iii. 32; 2
Mace. X. 11). He carried on the war
against Judas Maceabaeus. After the death
of Antiochus Epiphanes (b. c. 164), Lysias
assumed the government as guardian of
his son, who was yet a child (1 Mace. vi.
17). The war against the Jews was re
newed; and Lysias was besieging Jerusa
lem when he received tidings of the ap
proach of PHilip, to whom Antiochus had
transferred the gu.ardianship of the prince
(1 Miicc. vi. 18; 2 Mace. xiii.). He de
feated Philip (b. c. 163), and was supported
at Rome; but in the next year, together
with his ward, fell into the hands of De
metrius Soter, who put them both to death
(1 Mace. vii. 2-4; 2 Mace. xiv. 2).
Lys'ias, Clau'dius, " chief captain of
the band," that is, tribune of the Roman co
hort, who rescued St. Paul from the hands
of the infuriated mob at Jerusalem, and

LYSIMACHU8

363

MAASEIAH

sent him under a guard to Felix, the gov
ernor or proconsul of Caesarea (Acts xxi.
31, seq., xxiii. 26, xxiv. 7).
Lysim'achus. I. "A sou of Ptole
maeus of Jerusalem," the Greek translator
ofthe book of Esther (comp, Esth, ix, 20).
2. A brother of the high-priest Menelaus,
WHO was left by him as his deputy during
his absence at the court of Antiochus, He
fell a victim to the fury of the people (2
Mace, ir. 29-42),
Lys tra has two points of interest in
connection respectively with St. Paul's first
and second missionary journeys, (1) as the
place where divine honors were offered to
liim, and where he was pii<;sently stoned
(Acts xiv.) ; (2) as the home of his chosen
companion and fellow-missionary.TiMOTHE-
ws (Acts xvi. 1) . Lystra was in the east
ern part of the great plain of Lycaonia;
and its site may be identified with the ruins
called Bin-bir- Kilisseh, at the base of a
conical mountain of volcanic structure,
laraed the Karadagh.

M.

Ma'acah. 1. The mother of Absalom,
also called Maachah (2 Sara. iii. 3). 2.
Maaoah, and (in Chr.) Maachah. A
small kingdora in close proximity to Pales
tine, which appears to have lain outside
Argob (Deut. iii. 14) and Bashan (Josh.
xii. 5). These districts, probably answer
ing to the Lejah and Jauldn of modern
Syria, occupied the space from the Jordan
on the west to Salcah on the east and
Mount Herraon on the north. Maacah
must therefore be placed somewhere to
the east of the Lejah. The Ammonite
war was the only occasion on which the
Maacathites came into contact with Israel,
when their king assisted the Ammonites
against Joab with a force which he led
himself (2 Sam. x. 6, 8 ; 1 Chr. xix. 7).
Ma'aohah. 1. The daughter of Nahor
by his concubine Reuraah (Gen. xxii. 24).
2. The father of Achish, who was king of
Gath at the beginning of Soloraon's reign
(1 K. ii. 39). 3. The daughter, or raore
probably granddaughter, of Absalora, named
after his mother ; the third and favorite wife
of Rehoboam^ and mother of Abijah (1 K.
XV. 2; 2 Chr. xi. 20-22). The mother of
Abijah is elsewhere called " Michaiah, the
daughter of Uriel of Gibeah " (2 Chr. xiu.
3). It is probable that " Michaiah " is the
error of a transcriber, and that " Maa
chah " is the true reading in all cases. Dur
ing the reign of her grandson Asa she oc
cupied at the court of Judah the high
position of "King's Mother" (comp. 1 K.
fl. 19), which has been compared with that
Ot the Sultana Valide in Turkey. It may

be that at Abijah's death, after a short reign
of three years, Asa was left a minor, and
Maachah acted as regent, like Athaliah
under similar circumstances. If this con
jecture be correct, it would serve to ex
plain the influence by which she promoted
the practice of idolatrous worship. 4. The
concubine of Caleb the son of Hezron (1
Chr. ii. 48). 5. The daughter of Talmai
king of Geshur, and mother of Absalom (1
Chr. iii. 2) ; also called Maacah in A. V.
of 2 Sara. iu. 3. 6. The wife of Miichir
tho Manassite (1 Chr. vii. 15, 16). 7. The
wife of Jehiel, father or founder of Gibeon
(1 Chr. viU. 29, ix. 35). 8. The father of
Hanan, one of the heroes of David's body
guard (1 Chr. xi, 43). 9. A Simeonite,
father of Shephatiah, prince of his tribe in
the reign of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 16),
Maach'athi, and Maach'athites,
The. Two words which denote the in
habitants of the small kingdom of Maa
chah (Deut. Ui, 14 ; Josh, xii, 5, xiu, 11,
13). Individual Maachatliites were not
unknown among the warriors of Israel (2
Sam. xxiu. 34; Jer. xl. 8; 2 K. xxv. 23).
Maaida'i, one of the sons of Bani, who
had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 34).
Maadi'ah, one of the priests, or fam
ilies of priests, who returned with Zerub
babel and Jeshua (Neh. xii, 5) ; elsewhere
(ver, 17) called Moadiah,
Maa'i, one of the Bene-Asaph who took
part in the solemn musical service by which
the wall of Jerusalem was dedicated after
it had been rebuilt by Nehemiah (Neh. xu.
36.) Maal'eh-aerab'bim, the fuU form of
the name (Josh. xv. 3) which in its other
eccurrences is given in the. A. V. as "the
ascent of, or the going up to, Akrabbim."
[AlIRAEBlM.] Ma'arath, one of the towns of Judah,
in the district of the mountains (Josh. xv.
58). The places which occur in corapany
with it have been identified at a few miles
to the north of Hebron, but Maarath has
hitherto eluded observation.
Maasei'ah. The name of four persons
who had married foreign wives in the tirae
of Ezra. 1, A descendant of Jeshua the
priest (Ezr, x, 18). 2. A priest, of the sons
of Harim (Ezr. X. 21), 3. A priest, of the
sons of Pashur (Ezr. x. 22), 4, One of
the laymen, a descendant of Pahath-Moab
(Ezr. X. 30). 5. The father of Azariah,
one of the priests from the oasis of the
Jordan, who assisted Nehemiah in rebuild
ing the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 23).
6. One of those who stood on the right
hand of Ezra when he read the law to the
people (Neh. viU. 4). 7. A Levite who
assisted on the same occasion (Neh. viu.
7). 8. One of the heads of the people
whose descendants signed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 25). 9. San of

MAASIAI

364

MACCABEES, THE

Baruch and descendant of Pharez, the son
of Judah (Neh. xi. 5). 10. A Benjamite,
ancestor of Sallu (Neh, xi. 7). 11, Two
priests of this name are mentioned (Neh.
xii. 41, 42) as taking part in the musical
service which accorapanied the dedication
of the wall of Jerusalem under Ezra, One
of them is probably the sarae as No. 6. 12,
Father of Zepliaoiah, who was a priest in
the reign of Zedikiah (Jer, xxi. 1, xxix,
25, xxxvU, 3). 13. The father of Zede
kiah the false prophet (Jer, xxix, 21). 14.
One ofthe Levites of the second rank, ap
pointed by David to sound " with psalteries
on Alaraoth" (1 Chr. xv, 18, 20). 15.
The son of Adaiah, and one of the captains
of hundreds in the reign of Joash king of
Judah (2 Chr. xxiii. 1). 16. An officer
of high rank in the reign of Uzziah (2 Chr.
xxvi. 11). He was probably a Levite (comp,
1 Chr, xxiU, 4), and engaged in a semi-
mUitary capacity, 17, The " king's son,"
killed by Zichri the Ephrairaitish hero in
the invasion of Judah by Pekah ' king of
Israel, during the reign of Ahaz (2 Chr,
xxviU, 7). 18, The governor of Jerusa
lera in the reign of Josiah (2 Chr, xxxiv.
8), 19, The son of Shallura, a Levite of
high rank in the reign of Jehoialdm (Jer,
xxxv, 4; comp. 1 Chr. ix. 19). 20. A
priest; ancestor of Baruch and Seraiah,
the sons of Neriah (Jer, xxxii, 12, li, 59).
Maasi'ai, a priest who after the return
frora Babylon dwelt in Jerusalem (1 Chr.
ix. 12).
Ma'ath, son of Mattathias in the geneal
ogy of Jesus Christ (Luke iii. 26).
Ma'az, son of Ram, the first-born of
Jeriihmeel (1 Chr. u, 27).
Maazi'ah. 1, One of the priests who
signed the covenant with Nehemiah CNeh.
X. 8). 2. A priest in the reign of David,
head of the twenty-fourth course (1 Chr,
xxiv. 18).
Maeaabees, The. This title, which
was originally the surname of Judas, one
of the sons of Mattathias, was afterwards
extended to the heroic faraily of which he
was one of the noblest representatives.
The original term Maccabi was probably
formed from Makkdbdh, " a hararaer," giv
ing a sense not unUke that in which Charles
Martel derived a surname from his favorite
weapon. Although the name Maccabees has
gained the widest currency, that of As-
monaeans, or Hasmonaeans, is the proper
name of the family, which is derived frora
Cashmon, great-grandfather of Mattathias,
1. The causes of the Maccabaean war are
pointed out under Antiochus IV, (1 Mace.
V. 62). The standard cf independence was
flrst raised by Mattathias, a priest of the
course of Joiarib, which \i as the first of the
twenty-four courses (1 C hr. xxiv. 7), and
consequently of the noil lest blood. He
leeras, however, to have been already ad

vanced in years when the rising w as made,
and he did not long survive the fatigues
of active service. He died B. c. 166, iind
"was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers
at Modin." 2. Mattathias himself named
Judas — apparently his third son — as his
successor in directing the war of indepen
dence (1 Mace. U, 66). The energy and
skill of " THE Maccabeb," as Judas is of
ten called in 2 Mace, fully justified his
father's preference. After gaining several
victories over the other generals of Anti
ochus, and defeating Lysias, whom Anti
ochus Epiphanes left in the government of
the Palestinian provinces, Judas was able
to occupy Jerusalem, except the "tower"
(1 Mace. vi. 18, 19), and purified the
Temple (1 Mace. iv. 36, 41-53) on the 25th
of Cisleu, exactly three years after its prof
anation (1 Mace. i. 59), The accession
of Demetrius brought with it fresh troubles
to the patriot Jews. A large party of their
countrymen, with Alcimus at their head,
gained the ear of the king, and he sent
Nicanor against Judas. Nicanor was de
feated, first at Capharsalama, and again in
a decisive battle at Adasa, near to the
glorious field of Bethhoron (b. c. 161) on the
13th Adar (1 Mace, vii, 49 ; 2 Mace, xv.
36) , where he was slain. This victory was
the greatest of Judas's successes, and practi
cally decided the question of Jewish inde
pendence, but it was followed by an un
expected reverse. A new invasion under
Bacchides took place. Judas was able
only to gather a small force to meet the
sudden danger. Of this a large part de
serted him on the eve of the battle ; but the
courage of Judas was unshaken, and he feU
at Eleasa, the Jewish Thermopylae, fight
ing at desperate odds against the invaders.
His body was recovered by his brothers,
and buried at Modin "in the sepulchre
of his fathers " (b. c. 161). 3. After the
d.eath of Judas the patriotic party seems to
have been for a short tirae wholly dis
organized, and it was only by the pressure
of unparalleled sufferings that they were
driven to renew the conflict. For this
purpose they offered the coraraand to Jona
than, surnaraed Apphus {the wary), the
youngest son of Mattathias. After two or
three campaigns Bacchides accepted terras
which Jonathan proposed; and upon his
departure Jon.athan "judged the per pie at
Michmash" (1 Mace. ix. 73), and graduaUy
extended his power. The ciaira of Alex
ander Biilas to tlie Syrian crown gave a
new importanc* to Jonathan and his ad
herents. The success of Alexander led *"
the elevation of Jonathan, who assumed
the high-priestly office (1 Mace. x. 21);
and not long after he placed the king under
fresh obligations by the defeat of Apol
lonius, a general ofthe younger Denretrius
(1 Mace. X.). After the death of Alex-

MACCABEES, THE

365

MACCALEES, BOOKS OF

ander, Jonathan attached himself to Anti
ochus VI. He at last feU a victim to the
treachery of Tryphon, who put him to
death B. c. 144 (1 Maoc. xi. 8-xii. 4). 4.
As soon as Simon, the last remaining broth
er of the Maccabaean family, heard of the
detention of Jonathan in Ptolemais by Try
phon, he placed himself at the head of the
patriot party. He raade overtures to De
metrius II. (b. c. 143), which were favor
ably received, and the independence of the
Jews was at length forraally recognized.
The long struggle was now triumphantly
ended, and it remained only to reap the
fruits of victory. This Simon hastened to
do. The prudence and wisdom for which
he was already distinguished at the time of
his father's death (1 Mace. u. 65), gained
for the Jews the active support of Rome (1
Mace, XV, 16-21), in addition to the con
firraation of earlier treaties." After settling
the external relations ofthe new state upon
a sure basis, Siraon regulates its internal
administration. With two of his sons he
was murdered at Dok by Ptolemaeus, B, c.
135 (1 M.acc. xvi, 11-16), 5. The treason
of Ptolemaeus failed in its object. Johan
nes Hyrcanus, one of the sons of Siraon,
escaped from the plot by which his life was
threatened, and at once assumed the govern
ment (b.c. 135). At first he was hard
pressed by Antiochus Sidetes, and only
able to preserve Jerusalem on condition of
disraantling the fortifications and submitting
to a tribute, b. c. 133. He reduced Idu
maea, confirmed the alliance with Rome,
and at length succeeded in destroying Sama
ria, the hated rival of Jerusalera, b. c. 109.
The external splendor of his government
was marred by the growth of internal divis
ions ; but John escaped the fate of all the
older merabers of his faraily, and died in
peace, b. c, 106-5, His eldest son Aristo
bulus I., who succeeded, was the first who
assuraed the kingly title, though Simon had
enjoyed the fulness of the kingly power.
The great outlines of the Maccabaean con
test, which are- somewhat hidden in the
annals thus briefly epitomized, admit of
being traced with fair distinctness. The
disputed succession to the Syrian throne
(b,c, 153) was the political turning-point
of the struggle, which raay thus be divided
into two great periods. During the flrst
period (b, c. 168-153) the patriots main
tained their cause with varying success
against the whole strength of Syria : during
the second (b. c. 153-139) they were court
ed by rival factions, and their independence
was acknowledged from time to time, though
pledges given in time of danger were often
broken when the danger was over. The
war, thus brought to a noble issue, if less
famous is not less glorious than any of those
in which a few brave men have successfully
maintamed the cause of freedom or reUgion

against overpowering might. For it is not-
only in their victory over external diffi
culties that the heroism of the Maccabees
is conspicuous ; their real success was as
much imperilled by internal divisions as by
foreign force. The view of the Maccabaean
war which regards it only as a civil and not
as a, religious conflict, is essentially one
sided. If there were no other evidence
than the book of Daniel — whatever opinion
be held as to the date of it — that alone
would show how deeply the noblest hopes
of the theocracy were centred in the success
of the struggle. When the feeUngs of the
nation were thus again turned with fresh
power to their ancient faith, we might ex
pect that there would be a new creative
epoch in the national literature ; or, if the
form of Hebrew composition was already
flxed by sacred types, a prophet or psalmist
would express the thoughts of the new age
after the models of old time. Yet in part
at least the leaders of Maccabaean tiraes felt
that they were separated by a real chasm
frora the tiraes of the kingdora or of the
exile. If they looked for a prophet in the
future, they acknowledged that the spirit
of prophecy was not araong thera. The
volurae of the prophetic writings was com
pleted, and, as far as appears, no one
ventured to imitate its contents. But the
Hagiographa, though they were already
long flxed as a definite collection, were not
equally far removed from imitation. The
apocalyptic visions of Daniel served as a
pattern for the visions incorporated in the
book of Enoch ; and it has been commonly
supposed that the Psalter contains com
positions of the Maccabaean date. This
supposition, which is at variance with the
best evidence which can be obtained on the
history of the Canon, can only be received
upon the clearest internal proof; and it
may well be questioned whether the hy
pothesis is not as much at variance with
sound interpretation as with the history of
the Canon.
Maccabees, Books of. Four books
which bear the common title of "Macca
bees" are found in sorae MSS. of the
LXX. Two of these were included in
the early current Latin versions of the
Bible, and thence passed into the Vul
gate. As forming part of the Vulgate
they were received as canonical by the
council of Trent, and retained araong the
apocrypha by the reforraed churches. 'The
two other books obtained no such wide
circulation, and have only a secondary
connection with the Maccabaean history.
1. The First Book op Maccabees con
tains a history of the patriotic struggle,
from the first resistance of Mattathias to
the settled sovereignty and death of Simon,
a period of thirty-three years (b. c. 168-
135). The opening chapter gives a short

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF

366

MACEDONIA

Bumiiary of the conquests of Alexander the
Great, and describes at greater length the
oppression of Antiochus Epiphanes. The
great subject of- the book begins with the
enumeration of the Maccabaean faraily (ii.
1-5), which is followed by an account of
the part which the aged Mattathias took in
rousing and guiding tlie spirit of his coun
tryraen (ii. 6-70). The reraainder of the
narrative is occupied with the exploits otr
his five sons. Each of the three divisions
into which the m.ain portion of the book
thus niiturally falls, is stamped with an
individual character derived from its spe
cial hero. The great marks of trustwor
thiness are everywhere conspicuous. Vic
tory and failure and despondency are, on
the whole, chronicled with the same candor.
There is no attempt to bring into open dis-,
play, the working of Providence. The tes
timony of antiquity leaves no doubt but
that the book was first written in Hebrew.
Its whole structure points to Piilcstine as
the place of its composition. There is,
however, considerable doubt as to its date.
Perhaps we may place it between e. c. 120-
100. The date and person of the Greek
translator are wholly undetermined. 2.
The Second Book op Maccabees. — The
history of the Second Book of the Macca
bees begins sorae years earlier than that of
the First Book, and closes with the victory
of Judas Maceabaeus over Nicanor, It
thus embraces a period of twenty years,
from B. c. 180 (?) to b. c. 161. For the
few '.vents noticed during the earlier years
it is the chief authority ; during the remain
der of the time the narrative goes over the
same ground as 1 Mace, but with very con
siderable differences. The first two chap
ters are taken up by two letters supposed
to be addressed by the Palestinian to the
Alexandrine Jews, and by a sketch of the
author's plan, which proceeds without any
perceptible break from the close of tho sec
ond letter. The main narrative occupies
the remamder of the book. 'This presents
several natural divisions, which appear to
coincide with the " five books " of Jason
on which it was based. Tho first (c. iii.)
contains the history of Heliodorus (cir, b, c,
180). The second (iv.-vU.) gives varied
details of the beginning and course of the
great persecution (b. c, 175-107), The
third (viii,-x, 9) follows the fortunes of Ju
das to the triumphant restor.ation of the
Temple service (b. c, 166, 165), The
fourth (x. 10-xiu.) includes the reign "of
Antiochus Eupator (b. c. 164-162), The
fifth (xiv,, XV,) records the treachery of
Alcimus, the mission of Nicanor, and the
crowning success of Judas (b, o, 162, 161),
The writer himself distinctly indicates the
source of his narrative — " the five bocks
of Jason of Cyrene " (U. 23), of which he
designed to furnish a short and agreeable

epitome for the benefit of those who woula
be deterred from studying the larger work.
His own labor, which he describes m strong
terms (ii. 26, 27; comp. xv. 38, 39), was
entirely confined to condensation and selec
tion ; all investigation of detail he declares
to be the pecuUar duty of the original his
torian. Of Jason himself nothing more is
known than may be gleaned frora this men
tion of hira. The district of Cyrene was
most closely united with that of Alexandria.
In both the predominance of Greek litera
ture and the Greek language was absolute.
The work of Jason must therefore have
been composed in Greek ; and the style of
the epitome proves beyond doubt that the
Greek te.xt is the original. It is scarcely
less certain that the book was compiled at
Alexandria. — The Second Book of Mac
cabees is not nearly so trustworthy as the
First. In the Second Book the ground
work of facts is true, but the dress in which
the facts are presented is due iu part at
least to the narrator. It is not at aU im
probable that the error with regard to the
first campaign of Lysias arose from Iba
mode in which it was introduced by Jason
as a prelude to the more important meas
ures of Lysias in the reign of Antiochus
Eupator. In other places (as very obvi
ously in xiU. 19, ff.) the compiler may have
disregarded the historical dependence of
events while selecting those which were
best suited for the support of his theme.
The latter half of the book (cc. vUi,-xv.)
is to be regarded not as a connected and
complete history, but as a series of special
incidents from the life of Judas, illustrating
the providential interference of God in be
half of His people, true in substance, but
erabellislied in form, 3, The Third Book
OF the Maccabees contains the history of
events which preceded the great Macca
baean struggle, beginning with b. c, 217.
4, The Fourth Book op Maccabees con
tains a rhetorical narrative of the martyr
dom of Eleazar and of the " Maccabaean
family," following in the main the same
outline as 2 Mace.
Maeedo'nia, the flrst part of Europe
which received the Gospel directly from St.
Piiul, and an important scene of his subse
quent missionary labors and those of his
companions. It was bounded by the range
of Haenius or the Balkan northwards, by
the chain of Pindus westwards, by the Cam-
bunian hiUs southwards, by which it is 'sep
arated frora Thessaly, and is divided on the
east from Thrace by a less definite moun
tain-boundary running southwards from
Haemus. Of the space thus enclosed, two
of the most remarkable physical features
are two great plains, one watered by the
Axius, which comes lo the sea at the Ther-
raiiic gulf, not fiix from Thessalonica; the
other by the Strymon, wh*ch, afiter passing

MACEDONIAN

367

MADON

near PhUippi, flows out below AuiBliipoUs.
Between the mouths of these two rivers a
remarkable peninsula projects, dividing it
self into three points, on the farthest of
which Mount Athos rises nearly into the
region of perpetual snow. Across the neck
of this peninsula St. Paul travelled more
than once with his companions. This gen
eral sketch sufficiently describes the Mace
donia which was ruled over by Philip and
Alexander, and which the Romans con
quered from Perseus. At first the con
quered country was divided by Aemilius
Paulus into four districts. This division
was only teraporary. The whole of Mace
donia, along with 'Thessiily and a large tract
along the Adriatic, was made one province
and centralized under the jurisdiction of a
proconsul, who resided at Thessalonica,
We have now reached the definition which
corresponds with the usage of the terra in
the N, T, (Acts xvi, 9, 10, 12, &c,). Three
Roraan provinces, all very faraiUar to us in
tho writings of St. Paul, divided the whole
space between the basin of the Danube and
Cape Matapan. The border town of II-
lyricum was Lissus on the Adriatic. The
boundiiry line of Achaia nearly coincided,
except in the western portion, with that of
the kingdora of raodern Greece, and ran in
ati irregular line frora the Acroceraunian
proraontory to the bay of Therraopylae and
the north of Euboea. By subtracting these
two provinces, we define Macedonia. The
account of St. Paul's first journey through
Macedonia (Acts xvi. 10-xvii. 15) is raarked
by copious detail and well-defined inci
dents. At the close of this journey he re
turned frora Corinth to Syria by sea. On
the next occasion of visiting Europe,
though he both went and returned through
Macedonia (Acts xx. 1-6), the naAative is
a very slight sketch, and the route is left
uncertain, except as regards Philippi. The
character of the Macedonian Christians is
set before us in Scripture in a very favor
able light. The candor of the Bereans is
highly commended (Acts xvii. 11) ; the
Thessalonians were evidently objects of St.
Paul's peculiar affection (1 Thess. ii. 8, 17-
20, in. 10) ; and the Philippians, besides
their gener.al freedom from blame, are
noted as reraarkable for their liberality and
self-denial (PhU. iv. 10, 14-19 ; see 2 Cor,
ix, 2, xi, 9).
Maeedo nian occurs in A, V. only in
Acts xxvU, 2; Esth. xvi. 10, 14. In the
other cases (Acts xvi. 9, xix. 29, 2 Cor, ix.
2, 4) our translators render it "of Mace
donia," Mach'banai, one of the lion-faced war
riors of Gad, who joined the fortunes of
David when living in retreat at Ziklag (1
Chr, xii, 13) ,
Maeh'benah, Sheva, the father of
Machbena, is named in the genealogical list

of Judah as the offspring of Maachah, the
concubine of Caleb ben-Hei!ron (1 Chr, u.

:a'chi, the father of Geuel the Gadite,
who went with Caleb and Joshua to spy out
the land of Canaan (Num, xiii, 15).
Ma'Chir. 1. The eldest son (Josh, xvU.
1) of the patriarch Manasseh by an Ara
mite or Syrian concubine (1 Chr. vii. 14).
His children are commemorated as having
been caressed by Joseph before his death
(Gen. I, 23), At the time of the conquest
the family of Machir had become very pow
erful, and a large part of the country on
the east of Jordan was subdued by them
(Num, xxxii, 39; Deut. iii, 15), So great
was their power that the narae of Machir
occasionally supersedes that of Manasseh.
2, The son of Araraiel, a powerful sheikh
of one of the trans-Jordanic tribes, who
rendered essential service to the cause of
Saul and of David successively — in each
case when they were in difficulty (2 Sam,
ix. 4, 5, xvU. 27-29).
Ma'chirites, The, the descendants of
Machir the father of Gilead (Num. xxvi. 29).
Machnade'bai, one of the sons of Ba
ni who put away his foreign wife at Ezra'.f
coraraand (Ezr. x. 40).
Maehpe'lah. [Hebron.]
Mad'ai (Gen. X. 2) is usually called the
third son of Japhet, and the progenitor of
the Medes. But probably all that is in
tended is, that the Medes, as well as th?
Goraerites, Greeks, Tabareni, Moschi, &c.,
descended frora Japhet.
Ma'dlan, Acts vU. 29. [Midian.]
Madman'nah, one of the towns in tho
south district of Judah (Josh. xv. 31). In
the tirae of Eusebius and Jerorae, it was
called Menols, and was not far from Gaza.
The first stage southward frora Gaza is now
el-Minydy, which is perhaps the modern
representative of Menols, and therefore of
Madmannah. Mad'men. a place in Moab, threatened
with destruction in the denunciations of
Jeremiah (xlviii. 2), but not elsewhere
naraed, and of which nothing is yet known.
Madme'nah, one of the Benjamite vil
lages north of Jerusale.n, the inhabitants
of which were frightened away by the ap
proach of Sennacherib along the northern
road (Is. x. 31).
Madness. In Scripture "raadness"
is recognized as a derangeraent, proceed
ing either from weakness and misdirection
of intellect, or from ungovernable violence
of passion. In one passage alone (John x.
20) is madness expressly connected with
demoniacal possession by the Jews in their
cavil against our Lord; in none is it re
ferred to any physical causes.
Ma'don, one of the principal cities of
Canaan before the conquest, probably in
the north. Its king joined Jabin and his

MAGBISH

368

MAGI

confederates in their attempt against Josh
ua at the waters of Merora, and like the
rest was killed (Josh. xi. 1, xii. 19).
Mag'bish, a proper name in Ezr. ii. 30,
but whether of a man or of a place is doubt
ful ; probably the latter, as all the names
from Ezr. ii. 20 to 34, except Elam and Ha
rira, are naraes of places.
Mag'dala. The narae Magdala does
not really exist in the Bible. Itis found in
the received Greek text and the A. V. of
Matt. XV. 39 only ; but the chief MSS. and
versions exhibit the narae as "Magadan."
Into the limits of Magadan Christ came by
boat, over the lake of Gennesareth, after
His miracle of feeding the four thousand
on the raountain of the eastern side (Matt.
XV. 39) ; and from thence, after a short en
counter with the Pharisees and Sadducees
He returned in the same boat to the oppo
site shore. In the present text of the par
allel narrative of St. Mark (vui. 10) we
find the " parts of Dalmanutha," on the
western edge of tbe lake of Gennesareth.
The JMagdala, which conferred her narae
on " Mary the Magdal-ene," one of the
numerous Migdols, i. e. towers, which stood
in Palestine, was probably the place of that
name which is mentioned in the Jerusalem
Talraud as near Tiberias, and this again is
as prob.ably the modern el-Mejdel, a miser
able little Muslim viUage, on the water's-
edge at the south-east corner of the plain
of Gennesareth. By the Jews the word
megaddeld is used to denote a person who
platted or twisted hair, a practice then
much in use amongst woraen of loose char
acter. Magdalum is raentioned as between
Tiberias and Capernaura, as early as by
Willibald, a. d. 722.
Mag'diel, one of the " dukes " of Edom,
descended from Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 43; 1
Chr. i. 54).
Magi (A. V. "wise raen"). I. In the
Hebrew text of the O. T. the word occurs
but twice, and then only incidentally. In
Jer. xxix. 3 and 13 we raeet, among the
Chaldaean officers sent by Nebuchadnezzar
to Jerusalem, one with the name or title of
Rab-niag. 'This word is interpreted as
equivalent to chief of the Magi, Histori
cally the Magi aro conspicuous chiefly as a
Persi iin religious caste,- Herodotus con
nects them with another people by reckon
ing them among the six tribes of the Medes
(i, 101), They appear in his history of
Astyages as interpreters of dreams (i, 120),
the name having apparently lost itsi ethno
logical and acquired a caste signiflcance.
But as they appear in Jeremiah araong the
retinue of the Chaldaean king, we raust
suppose Nebuchadnezzar's conquests led
him to giither round hira the wise raen and
religious teachers of the nations which he
subdued, and that thus the sacred tribe of
the Meies rose under his rule to favor

and power. The Magi took their places
araong " the astrologers and star-gazers and
raonthly prognosticators." It is with such
men that we have to think of Daniel and
his fellow-exiles as associated. The office
which Daniel accepted (Dan. v. 11) was
probably identical with that of the Rab-mag
who flrst came befo're us. The name of the
Magi does not meet us in the Biblical ac
count of the Medo-Persian kings. II. The
word presented itself to the Gr&jks as con
nected with a foreign system of divination,
and it soon became a by-word for the worst
form of imposture. This is the predomi
nant raeaning of the word as it appears in
the N. T. The noun and the verb derived
from it are used by St. Luke in describing
the impostor, who is therefore known dis-,
tinctively as Simon Magus (Acts viu. 9).
Another of the same class (Bar-jesus) ia
described (Acts xiii. 8) as having, in his
cognomen Elymas, a title which was equiv
alent to Magus. Ill, In one raeraorable
insta«ce, however, the word retains its bet
ter raeaning. In the Gospel of St, Matthew
(ii. 1-12) the Magi appear as "wise men"
— properly Magians — who were guided
by a star from ' ' the East " to Jerusalem,
where they suddenly appeared in the days
of Herod the Great, inquiring for the. new
born king of the Jews, whom they had come
to worship. As to the country from which
they came, opinions vary greatly ; but their
following the guidance of a star seems to
point to the banks of the Tigris and Eu
phrates, where astronomy was early culti
vated by the Chaldaeans. The religion of
Zoroaster remaining pure from the grosser
forms of idolatry preserved the hope of a
great deliverer, who should reforra the
world, and establish a reign of universal
peace. That some tradition, influenced
possiby by the Jews of the dispersion, went
so far as to make this deliverer a ' ' king of
the Jews," seems a fair inference from the
direct form of their inquiry for Him, As
to the sign which guided thera, the chief
difficulties have arisen from the attempt to
find a natural explanation; for the plain
narrative of St, Matthew evidently repre
sents it as a miracle vouchsafed for the oc
casion. The ingenious conjecture of cer
tain astronomers that the appearance of the
star was caused by a remarkable conjunc
tion of Jupiter and Saturn is now exploded.
The .approach of the two planets was not at
all near enough for them to be mistaken for
a single star ; nor could habitual observers
of the heavens fail to recognize the positions
of such well-known planets. Beside', their
" standing over the place where the young
child was," so as to define the spot ou the
surface of the earth, is utterly inconceiva
ble. It only remains for us to be content
with the obvious explanation that some new
luminary, whether meteoric or celestial)

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was made to appear, in a luanner distinct
enough to the eyes of practised astronomers,
expressly to guide the sages on their way.
Their arrival and inquiries threw Jerusa
lem into commotion. With his usual craft,
Herod sumraoned the Sanhedrim, and learnt
that the Messiah was to be born at Beth
lehem. Having inquired from the Magi
the time of the star's appearance, as a guide
to that of the child's birth, he professed his
desire to worship the newborn king, and
sent them on to discover his abode. The
star again guided them over the five miles
fr.ini Jerusalem to Bethlehem, and at length
stood still above the house where Jesus
was. They paid Him their willing homage,
and presented their costly gifts, the first-
fruits of the wealth and wisdom of the Gen
tile world. By means of a dream, a forra
of divination wliich they were wont to follow
with implicit faith, they were warned by
God not to return to Herod, and they de
parted- into their own country by another
route, perhaps by Hebron and round tho
southern end of the Dead Sea, According
to a late tradition, the Magi are represented
as three kings, named Gaspar, Melchior,
aud Belthazar, who take their place among
the objects of Christian reverence, and are
honored as the patron saints of travellers.
Among other relics supplied to meet the
demands of the market which the devotion
01 Helena had created, the bodies of the
Magi were discovered somewhere in the
East, were brought to Constantinople, were
thence transferred to Milan, .and were in
1162 finally deposited in the cathedral of
Cologne, where the shrine of the Three
liings is shown as the greatest of its many
treasures. Magic, Magicians. The magical arts
spoken of in the Bible aro those practised
by the Egyptians, the Canaanites, and their
neighbors, the Hebrews, the Chaldaeans,
and probably the Greeks. With the lowest
race magic is the chief part of reUgion.
The Nigritians, or blacks of this race, show
this in their extreme use of amulets and
tlieir worship of objectswhich hiive no other
value in their eyes but as having a sup
posed magical character through the influ
ence of supernatural agents. With the
Turanians, or corresponding whites of the
same great faraily, — we use the word
white for a group of nations mainly yellow,
in contradistinction to black, — incanta
tions and witchcraft occupy the sarae place,
shamanism characterizing their tribes In
both hemispheres. The ancient Egyptians
show their partly-Nigritian origin not alone
in their physical characteristics and lan
guage, but in their religion. With the
Shemites magic takes a lower place. Among
many of the Sheraite peoples there linger
the remuiints of a primitive fetishism. Sa-
ered trees and stones are reverenced from
24

an old superstition, of which they do not
always know the meaning, derived'from the
nations whose place they hiive taken. The
Hebrews had no magic of their own. It
was so strictly forbidden by the Law that
it could never afterwards have had any
recognized existence, save in times of gen
eral heresy or apostasy, and the same was
doubtless tho case in the p.atriarchiil ages.
The magical practices which ob(,ained
among the Hel«-ews were therefore bor
rowed from the nations around. I'Vom the
first entrance into the Land of Promise
until the destruction of Jerusalem we have
constant glimpses of magic practised in
secret, or resorted to, not alone by the
comraon, but also by the great. The Tal
mud abounds in notices of contemporary
magic among the Jews, showing that it
survived idolatry notwithstanding their
original connection, and was supposed to
produce real effects. The Kur-tin in like
manner treats charms and incantations as
capable of producing evil consequences
when used against a man. It is a distinc
tive characteristic of the Bible that from
first to last it warrants no such trust or
dread... In ex.amining the mentions of magic
in the Bible, we raust keep in view the cu
rious inquiry whether there be any reality
in the art. We would at the outset protest
against the idea, once very prevalent, th.at
the conviction that the seen and unseen
worlds were often raore raauifestly in con
tact in the Biblical ages than now, necessi
tates a belief in the reality of the raagic
spoken of in the Scriptures. The tlieft
and carrying away of Laban's teraphim by
Rachel, seems to indicate the practice of
magic in Padan-aram at this early time.
It appears that Labiin attached great value
to these objects, frora what he said as to
the theft and his determined search for
them (Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 32-35). T'he
most important point is, that Laban calls
them his "gods" (ibid. 30,32), although
he was not without belief in the true God
(24, 49-53) ; for this makes it almost cer
tain that we have here not an indication of
the worship of strange gods, but the first
notice of a superstition that afterwards ob
tained among those IsraeUtes who added
corrupt practices to the true religion.
'The derivation of the name teraphim is
extremely obscure. We should prefer, if
no other etymology be found, to suppose
that the name might mean " dancers " or-
" causers of dancing," with reference either
to priraitive nature-worship or its magi
cal rites of the character of shamanisra,
rather than that it signifies, as Gesenius
suggests, " givers of pleasant life." There
is no description of these images ; but from
the account of Michal's stratagem to de
ceive Saul's messengers, it is evident, if
only one image be there meant, as is very

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370

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probable, that they were at least sometimes
of the size of a man, and perhaps in the
head and shoulders, if not lower, of human
shape, or of a similar form (1 Sam. xix. 13
-16). The worship or use of teraphim
after the occupation of the Promised Land
cannot be doubted to have been one of the
corrupt practices of those Hebrews who
leant to idolatry, but did not ab.andon their
belief in the God of Israel. The account of
Micah's images in the Book pf Judges, com
pared with a passage in Hosea (iii. 4, 5),
shows our conclusion to be correct. We pass
to the magical use of teraphim. By the Is
raelites they were consulted for oracular
answers. This was apparently done by the
Danites who asked Micah's Levite to in
quire as to the success of their spying ex
pedition (Judg. xviii. 5, 6). In later tiraes
this is distinctly stated of the Israelites
where Zechariah says, " For the Teraphira
have spoken vanity, and the diviners have
seen a lie, and have told false dreams " (x.
2). The only account of the act of divin
ing by teraphim is in a reraarkable passage
of Ezekiel relating to Nebuchadnezzar's
advance agiiinst Jerusalem. " Also, thou
son of man, appoint thee two ways, that
the sword of the king of Babylon may
come : both twain [two swords] shall come
forth out of one land : and choose thou a
pl.ace, choose [it] at the head of the, way
to the city. Appoint a way, that the sword
may come to Rabbath of the Ammonites,
and to Judah in Jerusalem the defenCed.
For the king of Babylon stood at the part
ing of the way, at the head of the two
ways, to use divination ; he shuffled arrows,
he consulted with teraphim, he looked in
the liver. At his right hand was the divi
nation for Jerusalem" (xxi. 19-22). The
mention together of consulting teraphim
and looking into the liver, may not indicate
that the victim was offered to teraphim and
its liver than looked into, but may raean
two separate acts of divining. Before
speaking of the notices of the Egyptian
magicians in Genesis and Exodus, there is
ono passage that may be examined out of
the regular order. Joseph, when his breth
ren left after their second visit to buy corn,
ordered his steward to hide his silver cup
in Benjamin's sack, and afterwards sent hira
after them, ordering him to claim it, thus :
" [Is] not this [it] in which my lord drink-
eth, and whereby indeed he divineth?"
(Gen. xliv. 5). Two uses of cups or the like
for magical purposes have obtained in the
East from ancient times. In one use either
the cup itself bears engraved inscriptions,
supposed to have a magical influence, or it
iS plain, and such inscriptions are written
on its inner surface in ink. In both cases
water poured into the cup is drunk by those
wishing to derive benefit, as, for instance,
the cure o' diseases, froih the inscriptions.

which, if written, are dissolved. This use,
in both its forras, obtains among the Arabs
in the present dtiy. In the other use the
cup or bowl was of very secondary impor
tance. It was merely the receptacle for
water, in which, after the performance of
magical rites, a boy looked to see whiit
the magician desired. This is precisely
the same as the practice of the modern
Egyptian magicians, where the difference
-that ink is employed and is poured into the
palm of the boy's hand is merely accidental.
As this latter use only is of the nature of
divination, it is probable that to it Joseph
referred. The magicians of Egypt are
spoken of as a class in the histories of Jo
seph and Moses. When Pharaoh's officers
were troubled by their dreams, being in
pris.on they were at a loss for an interpret
ter. Before Joseph explained the dreams
he disclairaed the power of interpreting
save by the Divine aid, saying, " [Do] not
interpretations [belong] to God? tell me
[them], I pray you " (Gen. xl. 8). In Uke
manner when Pharaoh had his two dreams
we find that he had recourse to those who
professed to interpret dreams. Joseph, be
ing sent for on the report of the chief of
the cup-bearers, was told by Pharaoh that
he had heard that he could intei-p'ret a
dreara. From the expectations of tho
Egyptians and Joseph's disavowals, we see
that the interpretation of dreams was a
branch of the knowledge to which the an
cient Egyptian magicians pretended. We
again hear of the magicians of Egypt in
the narrative of the events before the Exo
dus. They were summoned by Pharaoh to
oppose Moses. The account of what they
effected requires to be carefully examined,
from its bearing on the question whether
magic bean imposture. We read: "And
the Lord spake unto Moses and unto Aaron,
saying. When Pharaoh shall speak unto -
you, saying. Show a miracle for you : then
thou shalt say unto Aaron, Take thy rod, and
cast [it] before Pharaoh, [and] it shall be
come a serpent." It is then related that
Aaron did thus, and afterw.ards : " Then
Pharaoh also called tho wise raen and the
enchanters : now they, the scribes of Egypt,
did so by their secret arts : for they cast
down every man his rod, and they became
serpents, but Aaron's rod swaUowed up
their rods" (Ex. vn. 8-12). The rods^
were probably long staves like those rep
resented on the Egyptian raonuments, not
much less than the height of a man. If
the word used mean here a serpent, the
Egyptian magicians may have feigned a
change : if it signify a crocodUe, they could
scarcely have done so. The names by
which the magicians are designated are to
be noted. That which we render ' ' scribes "
seems here to have a general signification,
including wise men and enchanters. Tha

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last term is more definite in its meaning,
denoting users of incantations. On the
occasion of the fiist plague, the turning
the rivers and waters of Egypt into blood,
the opposition of the magicians again oc
curs. " And the scribes of Egypt did so
by their secret arts " (vii. 22). 'When the
second plague, that of frogs, was sent, the
magicians again made the same opposition
(viii. 7). Onco raore they appear in the
history. The plague of lice came, and we
read that when Aaron had worked the won
der the magicians opj)osed him : " And the
scribes did so by their secret arts to bring
forth the lice, but they could not : so there
were lice upon man and upon beast. And
the scribes said unto Pharaoh, This [is]
the finger of God; but Pharaoh's heart was
hardened, and he hearkened not unto them,
as the Lord had said" (vUi, 18, 19, Heb.
14, 15). After this we hear no more of
the magicians. All we can gather frora
thj narrative is, that the appearances pro
duced by thera were sufficient to deceive
Pharaoh ou three occasions. — The Law
contains very distinct prohibitions of all
magical arts. Besides several passages
conderaning thera, in one place there is a
specification which is so full that it seeras
evident that its object is to include every
kind of magical art. The Israelites are
commanded in the place referred to not to
.learn the abominations of the peoples of
tho Promised Land. Then follows this
prohibition :." There shall not be found
with thee one who offereth his son or his
daughter by fire, a practiser of divinations
{kdsSm kesdmim), a worker of hidden arts
{me'dnen), an augurer {menachSsh), an
enchanter {mecdssheph), or a fabricator of
charms {chdber chdber), or an inquirer by
a familiar spirit {shdel db), or a wiziird
{yidde'dni), or a consulter of the dead
{ddrSsh el hammiihim)." Itis added that
these are abomin.ations, and that on ac
count of their practice the nations of Cana.an
were to be driven out (Deut. xviii. 9-14,
Esp, 10, 11), The history of Balaam shows
the belief of some ancient n.ations in the
powers of soothsayers. When the Israel
ites had begun to conquer the Land of
Promise, Balak the king of Moab and the
elders of Midian, resorting to Pharaoh's
expedient, sont by messengers with " the
rewards of divination in their hands "
(Num, xxii, 7) for Balaam the diviner
(Josh, xiii, 22), whose fame was known to
ttiem though he dwelt in Ar.am, Balak's
message shows what he beUeved Balaam's
powers to be (Num. xxii. 5, 6). We are
told, however, that Balaara, warned of God,
first Said that he could not speak of him
self, and then by inspiration blessed those
whom he had been sent for to curse. The
account of Saul's consulting the witch of
En lor is the foremost place in Scripture of

those which refer to magic. The super
natural terror, with which itis full, cannot,
however, be proved to be due to this art,
for it has always been held by sober critics
that the appearing of Samuel was permitted
for the purpose of declaring the doom of
Saul, and not that it was caused by the in
cantations of a sorceress. As, however,
the narrative is allowed to be very difficult,
we may look for a moment at the evidence
of its authenticity. The details are strictly
iu accordance with the age : there is a sim
plicity in the manners described that is
foreign to a later time. The circum
stances are agreeable with the rest of the
history, and especiaUy with all we know
of Saul's character. Here, as ever, he is
seen resolved to gain his ends without
caring what wrong he does : he wishes to
consult a prophet, and asks a witch to call
up his shade. From the beginning to the
end of this strange history we have no
warrant for attributing supernatural power
to m.agicians. Viewed reasonably, it refers
to the question of apparitions of the dead
as to which other places in the Bible leave
no doubt. The connection with ra.agic
seeras purely accidental. The witch is no
raore than a bystander after the first : she
sees Sarauel, and that is all. The appa
rition may have been a terrible fulfilment
of Saul's desire, but this does not prove
that the measures he used were of any
power. We have examined the narrative
very carefully, from its detail and its re
markable character : the result leaves the
raain question unanswered. In the later
days of the two kingdoras raagical prac
tices of many kinds prevailed araong the
Hebrews, as we especially learn frora the
conderanation of thera by the prophets.
Every forra of idolatry which the peo
ple had adopted in succession doubtless
brought with it its raagic, which seeras al
ways to have reraained with a strange tena
city that probably made it outlive the false
worship with wliich it was connected.
Ezekiel, as we should have expected,
affords some remarkable details of the
raagic of his time, in the clear and forcible
descriptions of his visions. From him wa
le.arn that fetishism was among the idol
atries whieh the Hebrews, in the latest days
of the kingdora of Judah, had adopted
from their neighbors, like the Romans in
the age of general corruption that caused
the decline of their empire (viii. 7-12).
This idolatry was probably borrowed from
Egypt, for the description perfectly an
swers to that of the dark sanctuaries of
Egyptian temples, with the sacred animals
portrayed upon their walls, and does not
accord with the character of the Assyrhan
sculptures, where creeping things are not
represented as objects of worship. With
this low form of idolatry an equaUy low

MAGOG

372

MAHANAIM

kind of magic obtained, practised by proph
etesses, who for small rewards made amu
lets by which the people were deceived
(xiii. 17 ad fin.). The notice of Nebuchad
nezzar's divination by arrows, where it is
said "he shuffled arrows " (xxi. 21), must
refer to a practice the same as or similar to
the kind of divination by arrows called El-
Meysar, in use araong the pagan Arabs,
and forbidden in the Kur-Au, After the
Captivity it is probable that the Jews grad
ually abandoned the practice of magic. In
the N. T. we read very little of magic.
Our Lord is not said to have been opposed
by magicians, and the Apostles and other
early teachers of tlie Gospel seem to Have
rarely encountered them, Philip the dea
con, when he preached at Samaria, found
there Simon, a famous magician, commonly
known as Simon Magus, who had had great
power over the people ; but he is not said
to have been able to work wonders, nor,
had it been so, is it likely that he would
have soon been admitted into the Church
(viii. 9-24), Our examination of the v.ari
ous notices of magic in the Bible gives us
this general result : They do not, as far as
we can understand, once state positively
that any but illusive results were produced
by magical rites. They therefore afford no
evidence that man can gain supernatural
powers to use at his will. This conse
quence goes some way towards showing
that we may conclude that there is no such
thing as real magic ; for although it is dan
gerous to reason on negative evidence, yet
in a case of this kind it is especially strong.
[Divination; Magi.]
Ma'gog. In Gen. x. 2 Magog appears
as tho second son of Japheth in connection
with Gomer (the Cimmerians) and Madai
(the Medes) : in Ez. xxxviii. 2, xxxix. 1, 6,
it appears as a country or people of which
Gog was the prince, in conjunction with
Meshech (the Moschici), Tubal (the Tiba-
reni), and Rosh (the Roxolani). In the
latter of these senses there is evidently im
plied an etymological connection between
Gcg and Ma-gog, the Ma being regarded
hy Ezekiel as a prefix significant of a coun
try. In this case Gog contains the original
element of the name, which may possibly
have its origin in sorae Persian root. The
notices of Magog would lead us to fix a
northern locality : it is expressly stated by,
Ezekiel that he was to come up from " the
sides of the north" (xxxix. 2), frora a
country adjacent to that of Togiirmah or
Armenia (xx.xviii. 6), and not far frora
" the isles" or maritune regions of Europe
(xx.xix. 6). The people of Magog further ap
pear as having a force of cavalry (xxxvUi.
15), and as armed with the bow (xxxix. 3),
From tho above data, we may conclude
that Magog represents the iraportant race
ofthe Scythians,

Ma'gor-mls'sabib, literally, "lerror
on every side ; " the name given by Jere
miah to Pashur the priest, vvhen he sraote
him and'put him in the stocks for proph
esying against the idolatry of Jerusalem
(Jer, XX. 3),
Mag'piash, one of the heads of the peo
ple who signed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh, X, 20). The same as MAGBisuin
Ezr, ii. 30.
Ma'halah, one of the three children of
Haramolek'eth, the sister of Gilead (1 Chr.
vU. 18), .
Mahal'aleel, 1. The fourth in descent
from Adam, according to the Sethite gene
alogy, and son of Cainan (Gen, v, 12, 13,
15-17; 1 Chr. i. 2). 2. A descendant of
Perez, or Pharez, the son of Judali (Neh.
xi. 4).
Ma'halath, the daughter of Ishmael,
and one of the wives of Esau (Gen. xxviu.
9). Ma'halath, one of the eighteen wives
of king Rehoboam, apparently his flrst "(2 .
Chr. xi. 18 only). She was her husband's
cousin, being the daughter of king David's
son Jerimoth.
Ma'halath, the title of Ps. Iiii., and
Ma'halath-lean'noth, the title of Ps.
Ixxxviii. The meaning of these words is
uncertain. The conjecture is, that Maha
lath is a guitar, and that Leannoth has
reference to the character of the Psalm,
and might be rendered ' ' to humble, or
afflict," in which sense the root occurs in
ver. 7.
Ma'hali, Mahli, the son of Merari.
His name occurs in the A. V. but once in
this form (Ex. vi. 19).
Mahana'im, a town on the east of the
Jordan, signifying two hosts or two camps, a
name given to it by Jacob, because he there
met " the angels of God " (Gen, xxxU, 1, 2).
We next meet with it in the records of the
conquest (Josh, xiii, 26 and 29). Itwas
within the territory of Gad (Josh. xxi. 38,
89), and therefore on the south side ofthe
torrent Jiibbok. The town with its " sub
urbs " was .allotted to the service of tho
Merarite Levites (Josh. xxi. 39 ; 1 Chron.
vi. 80), From some cause — the sanctity
of its original foundation, or the strength
of its position — Mahanaim h,ad become in
the time of the monarchy a place of mark
(2 Sara, U. 9, 12, iv. 6). The sarae causes
which led Abner to flx Ishbosheth's resi
dence at Mahanaim probably induced David -
to take refuge there when driven out of th§
western p.art of lus kingdom by Absalora
(2Sam. xvU, 24; 1 K. n, 8). Mahanaim
was the seat of one of Soloraon's commis
sariat officers (1 K, iv, 14) ; and it is al
luded to in the Song whieh bears his name
(vi, 13), There is a place called Mahneh
araong the villages of the east of Jordfn,
though its exact position is not certain.

MAHANEH-DAN

373

MALACHI

Ma'haneh-dan (the "camp-of-Dan"),
the position of which is specifled with great
precision, as " behind " Kirjath-jearira "
(Judg. xviii, 12), .and as "between Zorah
andEshtaol" (xiii. 25).
Mahar'ai (2 Sam. xxiii. 28 ; 1 Chr. xi.
80, xxvii. 13), an inhabitant of Netophiih in
the tribe of Judah, and one of David's cap
tains, Ma'hath, 1, The son of Amasai, a
Kohathite ofthe house of Korah (1 Chr, vi,
35), 2, Also a Kohathite, sonof Amasai,
m the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr, xxix. 12).
lie was apparently tho same who is men
tioned 2 Chr. xxxi. 13,
Ma'havite, The, the designation of
Eliel, one of the warriors of king David's
guard, whose name is preserved in the cata
logue of 1 Chr, only (xi, 46),
Mahaz'ioth, one of the 14 sous of He-
man the Kohathite (1 Chr, xxv, 4, 30).
Ma'her-sha'lal-hash-baz, i, e. has-
tey,-booty, speed-spoil, wliose name was
given by Divine direction, to indicate that
Damascus and Saraaria wore soon to be
plundered by the king of Assyria (Is, vUi,
1-4). ,
Mah'lah, the eldest of the flve daughters
of Zelophehad, the grandson of Manasseh
(Nura. xxvu. 1-11).
Mah li. 1. Son of Merari, the son of
Levi, and ancestor of the faraily of the
Mahlites (Nura. iu. 20 ; 1 Chr, yi, 19, 29,
xxiv. 26). 2. Son of Mushi, and grand
son of Merari (1 Chr. vi. 47, xxui. 23, xxiv.
30), Mah'loU, the flrst husband of Ruth,
H(- and his brother Chiiion were sons of
Elimelech and Naomi, and are described
as " Ephrathites of Bethlehem-judah (Ruth
i, 2, 6 ; iv, 9, 10; comp, 1 S.am, xvii. 12).
Ma'hol, the father of Ethan the Ez
rahite, and Heman, Chalcol, and Darda,
the four raen raost famous for wisdom next
to Soloraon hiraself (1 K. iv. 31), who in 1
Chr. ii. 6 are the sons and iramediate de
scendants of Zerah.
Ma'kaz, a place, apparently a town,
named once only (1 K. iv. 9), iu the speci
fication of the jurisdiction of- Solomon's
commissariat officer, Ben-Dekar. Makaz
has not been discovered.
Makhe'loth, a place only mentioned
in Num. xxxiii, 25 as that of a desert en
carapraent of the IsraeUtes.
Makke'dah, a place memorable in the
annals of the conquest of Canaan as the
Bceno of the execution by Joshua of the flve
confederate kings (Josh, x, 10-30), It un
questionably occurred in the afternoon of
that tremendous day, which "was like no
day before or after it," After the execution
of the chiefs Joshua turns to the town itself.
To force the waUs, to put the king and aU
thn inhabitants to the sword (ver, 28), is to

that indomitable energy, still fresh afterthe
gigantic labors and excitements of the last
twenty-four hours, the work of an hour or
two. And now the evening has arrived, the
sun is at last sinking, — the flrst sun that lias
set since the departure from Gilgal, ¦ — and
the tragedy is terminated by cutting down
the five bodies from the trees, and restoring
them to the cave, whieh is then so blocked
up with stones as henceforth never again to
become refuge for friend or foe of Israel,
The taking of Makkedah was the first in
that series of sieges and destructions by
which the Great Captain possessed himself
of the main points of defence throughout
this portion ofthe country. The cat.alogue
of the cities of Judah in Joshua (xv, 41)
place it in the maritirae plain, but its site
is uncertain,
Mak'tesh, a place, evidently in Jeru
salem, the inhabitants of which are de
nounced by Zephaniah (i, 11). Ewald "
conjectures that it was the "Phoenician
quarter " of the city. The meaning of
" Maktesh " is probably a deep hollow, ht
erally a " mortar." This the Targum iden
tifies with the torrent Kedron.
Mal'achi (that is, the angel or messen
ger of Jehovah) is the last, and is therefore
called " the seal " of the prophets, and his
prophecies constitute the closing book of
the canon. Of his personal history nothing
is known. That Malachi was conteraporary
with Neheraiah is rendered probable by a
comparison of ii. 8 with Neh. xiii, 15; li.
10-16 with Neh, xiu. 23, &c. ; and iii. 7-12
with Neh. xiii. 10, &c. That he propliesied
after the times of Haggai and Zechariah is
inferred from his omitting to mention the
restoration of the Temple, and from no
allusion being made to him by Ezra. The
captivity was already a thing of the long
past, and is not referred to. The existence
of the Temple-service is presupposed in i.
10, iii, 1, 10, The Jewish nation had still
a political chief (i, 8), distinguished by the
sarae title as that borne by Neheraiah (Neh.
xii, 26). Hence we raay conclude that Mal
achi delivered his prophecies after the sec
ond return of Nehemiah from Persia (Neh.
xiu. 6), and subsequently to the 32d year
of Artaxerxes Longimanus (b, c, .420)»
Frora the striking parallelism between tha
state of things indicated in Malachi's proph
ecies and that actually existing on Nehe
miah's return from the court of Artaxerxes,
it is on all accounts highly probable that
the efforts of the secular governor were ou
this occasion seconded by the preaching of
" Jehovah's messenger," and that Malachi
occupied the same position with reg.ard to
the reformation under Nehemiah, which
Isaiah held in the time of Hezekiah, and
Jeremiah hi that of Josiah. The last chap
ter of canonical Jewish history is the key

MALCHAM

374

MANAEN

10 the last chapter of its prophecy. The
whole prophecy naturally divides itself into
three sections, in the flrst of which Jehovah
is represented as the loving father and ruler
of His people (i, 2-ii. 9) ; in the second, as
the supreme God and Father of all (ii, 10-
16) ; and in the third, as their righteous and
flnal Judge (ii, 17-end), The prophecy of
Malachi is alluded to in the N, T. (corap,
Miirk i. 2, ix. 11, 12; Luke i. 17; Rom.
ix. 13).
Mal'eham. 1. One of the heads of
the fathers of Benjamin, and son of Shaha
raim by his wife Hodesh (1 Chr. viU. 9).
2, The idol Molech, as some suppose (Zeph,
i, 5), The word literally signifles " their
king," as the margin of our version gives
it, iind is referred by Gesenius to an idol
generally, as invested with regal honors by
its worshippers.
Malchi'ah. 1, A descendant of Ger
shom, the son of Levi, and ancestor of
Asaph the minstrel (1 Chr, vi, 40). 2, One
of the sons of Parosh, who had married a
foreign wife (Ezr, x, 25). 3, Enumerated
among the sons of Harira, who lived in the
time of Ezra (Ezr. x. 31), 4, Son of Re
chab, and ruler of the circuit or environs
of Bethhaccerem (Neh, iu, 14), 5, "The
goldsraith's son," who assisted Nehemiah
in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh,
iu. 31), 6, One of the priests who stood
at the left hand of Ezra when he read the
law to the people in the street before the
water-gate (Neh, viii. 4). 7. A priest, the
father of Pashur = Malohijah 1 (Neh. xi.
12; Jer. xxxviU. 1), 8. The son of Hara-
melech (or "the king's son," as itis trans
lated in 1 K, xxU, 26 ; 2 Chr. xxviU. 7), into
whose dungeon or cistern Jeremiah was
cast (Jer. xxxviU. 6). It would seem th.at
the title "king's son" was official, like that
of " king's mother," and applied to one of
the royal faraily, who exercised functions
soraewhat similar to those of Potiphar in
the court of Pharaoh.
Mal'chiel (Gen. xlvi. 17), the son of
Beriah, the son of Asher, and ancestor of
, the family of theMALCHiELiTES (Nura. xxvi.
45), In 1 Chr, vii, 31 he is called the
father, that is, founder, of Birzavith,
Malchi'jah, 1, A priest, the father of
Pashur (1 Chr. ix. 12) ; the same as Mal-
chiah 7, and Melchiah. 2, A priest, chief
of the fifth of the twenty-four courses ap
pointed by David (1 Chr, xxiv, 9). 3, A
layman of the sons of Parosh, who put away
hi? foreign wife (Ezr, x, 25). 4. Son, that
is, descendiint, of Harim (Neh. iu, 11), 5,
One of the priests who sealed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 3), e. One of
the priests who assisted in the soleran dedi
cation of the wall of Jerusiilem under Ezra
and Nehemiah (Neh. xii. 42).
Malchi'ram, one of the sons of Jeco
niah, or Jelioiachm (1 Chr. ui. 18).

Mal'ehi-shu'a, one ofthe sons of king
Saul (I.Sam, xiv. 49, xxxi. 2; 1 Chr. vUi
33, ix. 39).
Mal'chus, the name of the servant of
the high-priest whose right ear Peter cut
off at the time of the Saviour's apprehen
sion in the garden (Matt. xxvi. 61 ; Mark
xiv. 47 ; Luke xxii. 49-51 ; John xviii. 10).
He was the personal servant of the high-
priest, and not one of the bailiffs or appari
tors of the Sanhedrim. It is noticeable
that Luke the physician is the only one of
the writers who mentions the act of healing.
Mal'eleel, Mahalaleel, the son of
Cainan (Luke iii. 37 ; Gen. v. 12, marg.).
Mal'lothi, a Kohathite, one of the four
teen sons of Heman the singer (1 Chr. xxv.
4, 26).
MaUows (Job xxx. 4) . By the Hebrew
word malluach we are no doubt to under
stand some species of Orache, and in al)
probability the Atriplcx halimus of bota
nists. Mal'luch. 1, A Levite of the family
of Merari, and ancestor of Ethan the singer
(1 Chr, vi, 44), 2, One of the sons of
Bani (Ezr, x. 29), and, 3. One of the de
scendants of Harim (Ezr. x, 32), who had
married foreign wives. 4. A priest or fam
ily of priests (Neh. x. 4), and, 5, One of
the " heads " of the people who signed the
covenant with>Nehemiah (Neh, x, 27). 6.
One of the families of priests who returned,
with Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 2) ; probably
the sarae as No. 4.
Mamai'as, apparently the same with
Shemai.ih in Ezr. vui. 16.
Mam'mon (Matt. vi. 24 ; Luke xvi. 9),
a word which often occurs in the Chaldee
Targums of Onkelos, and later writers, and
in the Syriac Version, and which signifies
" riches." It is used in St. Matthew as a
personification of riches.
Mam're, an ancient Amorite, who with
his brothers, Eshcol and Aner was iu alli
ance with Abram (Gen. xiv. 13, 24), and
under the shade of whose oak-grove the
patriarch dwelt in the interval between hia
residence at Bethel and at Beersheba (xiu.
18, xviii. 1). In the subsequent chapters
Mamre is a mere local appellation (xxiu.
17, 19, xxv. 9, xlix. 30, 1. 13).

Man. Four Hebrew terms are ren
dered "man" in the A. V. 1. Adam. The
narae of the raan created in the image of
God. It appears to be derived from ddam,
"he or it was red or ruddy," like Edom. 2.
Ish, " man," " woman," " raen." 3. Geber,
" a raan," from gdbar, "to be strong,"
generiiUy with reference to his strength. 4.
Mlihim, " men,'! always masculine. Per
haps it may be derived from the root mHih,
" he died."
Man'aen is mentioned in Acts xui. 1 as
one of the teachers and prophets in the
church at Antioch at the time of the appcmt

MANAHATH

375

MANASSEH

ment of Sisul and Barnabas as missionaries
to the heathen. He is said to have been
brought up {avvTQoipo?) with Herod, that is,
Herod Antipas. There are two interpreta
tions ot auvx^otpog ; one, that it means edu
cated with another ; and the second, that it
denotes foster-brother, brought up at the
same bi oast, so that Manaen's mother would
have been also Herod's nurse.
Man'ahath, a place named in 1 Chr.
riii. 6 only, in connection with the geneal
ogies of the tribe of Benjamin.
Man'abath, one of the sons of Shobal,
and descendant of Seir the Horite (Gen.
xxxvi. 23; 1 Chr. i. 40).
Mana'hethites, The. "Half the
Manaliethites " are named in the genailo-
gies of Judah as descended from Shobal,
the father of Kirjath-jearim (1 Chr. ii. 52),
and half from Salma, the founder of Beth
lehem ("er. 54).
Manas'seh, that is, forgetting, the eld
est son of Joseph, by his wife Asenath (Gen.
xii. 51, xlvi. 20), so called by Joseph be
cause " God liath-made-rae-forget all my
toil and all my father's house." Both he
and Ephraim were born before the com
mencement of the famine. Whether the
elder of flie tw o sons was inferior in forra
or proraise to the younger, or whether
there was any external reason to justify the
preference of Jacob, we are not told.
[Ephraim.] The position of the tribe of
Manasseh during the raarch to Canaan was
with Ephraira and Benjamin on the west
side of the sacred Tent. The chief of the
tribe at the time of the census at Sinai was
Gamaliel ben-Pedahzur, and its numbers
were then 32,200 (Num. i. 10, 35, ii. 20, 21,
vu. 54-59). In the division of the Prora
ised Land half of the tribe of Manasseh
settled east of the Jordan, in the district
embracing the hills of Gilead with their in
accessible heights and impassable ravines,
and the alraost irapregnable tract of Argob
(Josh. xiU. 29-33). Here they throve ex
ceedingly, pushing their way northward
over the rich plains of Jauldn and JedAr to
the foot of Mount Herraon (1 Chr. v-, 23),
But they gradually assimilated themselves
to the old inhabitants of the country, and
ou them descended the punishment which
was ordained to be the inevitable conse
quence of such misdoing. They, first of
all Israel, were carried away by Pul and
Tiglath-PUeser, and settled in the Assyrian
territories (1 Chr. v. 25, 26). The other
half tribe settled to the west of the Jordan,
north of Ephraim (Josh. xvu,). For fur
ther particulars see Epiiraim,
Manas'seh. 1. The thirteenth king
of Judah, son of Hezekiah and Hephzibab
(2 K. xxi. 1), ascended the throne at the
age of 12. His accession was the signal
for an entire change in the religious admin
istration of the kingdom. Idolatry was

again established, and he consecrated idol
atrous altars in the Sanctuary itself (2 Chr.
xxxiU. 4). Every faith was tolerated but
the old faith of Israel. This was aban
doned and proscribed. The aged Isaiah,
according to the old Jewish tradition, was
put to death. [Isaiah.] But the perse
cution did not stop there. It attacked the
whole order of the true prophets, and those
who followed them. Retribution carae soon
in the natural sequence of events. The
Babylonian alliance, which the king had
formed, bore the fruits which had been pre
dicted. The rebellion of Merodach-Bala
dan was crushed, and then the wr.atli of the
Assyrian king fell on those who had sup
ported him. Judaea was again overrun
by the Assyrian armies, and this time the
invasion was more successful than that of
Sannacherib. The city apparently was
taken. The king himself was made pris
oner aud carried off to Babylon in tho 22d
year of his reign, according to a Jewish tra
dition. There his eyes were opened, and
he repented, and his prayer was heart', and
the Lord delivered him (2 Chr, xxiii, 12, 13).
The period that followed is dwelt upon by
the writer of 2 Chr. as one of a great change
for the better. The compassion or death of
Esarhaddon led to his release, and he re
turned after sorae uncerlRiiu interval of tirae
to Jerusalem. The old faith of Israel was no
longer persecuted. Foreign idolatries were
no longer thrust, in all their foulness, into the
Sanctuary itself. The altar of the Lord
was again restored, and peace-offerings and
thank-offerings sacrificed to Jehovah (2
Chr. xxxiii. 15, 16). But beyond this the
reformation did not go. The other facts
known of Manasseh's reign connect them
selves with the state of the world round
him. The Assyrian monarchy was totter
ing to its fall, andthe king of Judah seeras
to have thought that it was still possible
for him to rule as the head of a strong and
independent kingdom. He fortified Jeru
salem (2 Chr, xxvii. 3), and put captains
of war in all the fenced cities of Judah.
There was, it must be remembered, a spe
cial reason. Egypt was become strong and
aggressive under Psammitichus. About
this time we find the thought of an Egyptian
alliance again beginning to gain favor. The
very name of Manasseh's son, Amon, iden
tical in form and sound with that of the
great sun-god of Egypt, is probably au in-
dicaticvn of the gladness with whicn the al
liance of Psararaitichus was welcoraed. As
one of its consequences, it involved prob
ably, the supply v-f troops from Judah to
serve in the armies of the Egyptian king.
If this was the close of Manasseh's reign,
we can understand how it vpas that on his
death he was buried as Ahaz had been, not
with the burial of a king, in the sepulchres
of the house of David, but in the garden ot

MANASSES

376

MANNA

Uzza (2 K, xxi, 26), and that long after
wards, in spite of his repentance, the Jews
held his name in abhorrence. He was suc
ceeded by his son Amon, b, c, 642, Little
is added by Later tradition to the O, T. nar
rative of Manasseh's reign. The prayer
that boars his narae in the Apocrypha can
not be considered as identical with that re
ferred to in 2 Chr, xxxiii. The original is
extant in Greek, and is probably the result
of an attempt to work out the hint there
supplied rather th.an the reproduction of an
older document. 2. One of the descend
ants of Pahath-Moab, who in the days of
Ezra had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x.
30). 3. One of the laymen, of the family
of Hashura, who put away his foreign wife
at Ezra's command (Ezr. x. 33). 4. In the
Hebrew text of Judg. xviu. 30 the name of
the priest of the graven image of the Danites
is given as "Jonathan, the son of Gershom,
the son of Maiiiisseh."
Manas'^es. 1. Manasseh, king of
Judah (Miitt. i. 10), to whom the apocryphal
prayer is attributed. 2. Manasseh, the son
of Joseph (Rev, vu. 6).
Manasses, The Prayer of. The
repentance and restoration of Manasseh (2
Chr, xxxiii, 12, ff.) furnished the subject
of miiny legendary stories. "His prayer
unto hi^God" was still preserved "in the
book of the kings of Israel" when the
Chronicles were compiled (2 Chr. xxxiii.
18), and, after this record was lost, the sub
ject was likely to attract the notice of later
writers. " The Prayer of Manasseh," which
is found in some MSS. of the LXX., is the
work of one who has cndeavoredto express,
not without true feeling, the thoughts of the
repentant king.
Manas' sites, The, that is, the members
of the tribe of Manasseh. The word occurs
but thrice in the A. V., viz. Deut. iv. 43 ;
Judg. xii. 4 ; and 2 K. x. 33.
Mandrakes (Heb. duddim) are men
tioned in Geu. xxx. 14, 15, 16, and in Cant.
vii. 13. Frora the forraer passage we learn
that they were found in the flelds of Meso
potaraia, whore Jacob and his wives were
at one tirae living, and that the fruit was
gathered "in the days of wheat-harvest,"
i. e. in May. From Cant. vii. 13 we learn
that the plant in question was strong-scent
ed, and that it ,grew in Palestine. The
translation in the A. V. is probably correct.
It has been objected that the mandrake is
far from odoriferous, the whole plant being,
in European estimation at all events, very
fetid. But, on the other hand, it is well
known that the mandrakes are prized by
the Arabs for their odor, and that Orien
tals set an especial value on strongly-smell
ing things that to more delicate European
senses are unpleasing. That the fruit was
fit to be gathered at the time of wheat-har
vest is clear from the testimony of several

travellers. Schultze found mandrake-ap-
pies on the 15tb of May. Hasselquist saw
them at Nazareth early in May.
son found mandrakes ripe on

Dr. Thom-
the lower

Tbe Mandrake (.Alropa Standragora).
ranges .of Lebanon and Herraon towards
the end of April. The mandrake {Atropa
mandragorct) is closely allied to the well-
known deadly nightshade {A. belladonna),
and belongs to the order Solanaceae.
Ma'neh. [Weights and Measures.]
Manger. This word occurs only in
connection with the birth of Christ in Luke
ii. 7, 12, 16. The original terra is (jiuTrij,
which is found but once besides in the N. T,,
viz, Luke xiii. 15, where it is rendered by
" stall," The word in classical Greek un
doubtedly means a manger, crib, or feeding
trough; but according to Schleusner its
real signifloation in the N, T, is tho open
court-yard, attaclied to the inn or khan, into
which the cattle would be shut at night, and
where the poorer travellers might unpack
their animals and tiike up their lodging,
when they were either by want of room or
want of means excluded from the house,
Manna (Heb, mdn). The raost impor
tant passages of the O. T, on this topic are
the following: Ex. xvi. 14-36; Num. xi.
7-9; Deut. viu. 3, 16; Josh. v. 12; Ps.
IxxvUi. 24, 25 ; Wisd. xvi. 20, 21. From
these passages we learn that the mama

MANNA

377

MANTLE

came every morning except the Sabbath,
in thu form of a sraall round seed resem
bling the hoar frost ; that it raust be gath
ered early, before the sun became so hot as
to melt it ; that it must be "gathered every
day except the Sabbath ; that the attempt
to lay aside for a succeeding day, except
on til 1 day immediiitely preceding the Sab
bath, failed by the substance becoming
wormy and offensive ; that it was prepared
for food by grinding and baking ; that its
taste was like fresh oil, and like w.afers
made with honey, equaUy agreeable to all
palates ; that the whole nation subsisted
upon it for forty years ; that it suddenly
ceased when they first got the new corn
of the laud of Canaan ; and that it was al
ways regarded as a miraculous gift directly
from God, and not as a product of nature.
The natural products of the Arabian deserts
and other Oriental regions, which bear the
name of manua, have not the quaUties or

Tamarix GaUica.

uses ascribed to the manna of Scripture.
The manna of Scripture we regard as
wholly miraculous, and not in any respect
• product of nature. The Hebrew word

mdn, by which this substance is always
designated in the Hebrew Scriptures, is
the neuter interrogative pronoun (what?);
and the name is derived frora the inquiry
{mdn hu, whiit is this?) which the He
brews raade when they first saw it upon
the ground. The substance now called
manna in the Araljian desert through which
the Israelites passed, is collected in the
month of June from the tarfa or tamarisk
shrub {Tamarix gallica). According to
Burckhardt it drops frora the thorns on the
sticks and leaves with which the ground is
covered, and raust be gathered early in the
day, or it will be melted by the sun. The
Arabs cleanse and boil it, strain it through
a cloth, and put it in leathern bottles ; and
in this way it can be kept uninjured for
several ye.ars. They use it Uke honey or
butter with their unleavened bread, but
never make it into cakes or eat it by it
self. The manna of European commerce
coraes mostly from Calabria and Sicily, It
is gathered during the months of June and
July from some species of ash {Ornus
Europaea and Ornus rotundifolid), from
which it drops in consequence of a punc
ture by an insect resembling the locust,
but distinguished from it by having a sting
under its body. The substance is fluid at
night, and resembles the dew, but in the
morning it begins to harden,
Mano'ah, the father of Samson; a
Danite, native ofthe town of Zorah (Judg.
xiii. 2). [Samson,]
Manslayer, The cases of manslaugh
ter mentioned appear to be a sufficient
example of. the intention of the lawgiver,
a. Death by a blow in a sudden quarrel
(Num. xxxv. 22). b. Death by a stone or
missile thrown at randora {ib. 22, 23). v.
By the blade of an axe flying frora its han
dle (Deut, xix, 5), d. Whether the case
of a person killed by falling from a roof
unprovided with a parapet involved the
guilt of manslaughter on the owner, is not
clear ; biit the law seems intended to pre
vent the imputation of raalice in any such
case, by preventing as far as possible the
occurrence of the fact itself (Deut, xxii,
8), In all these and the like cases the
manslayer was allowed to retire to a city
of refuge. Besides these the following may
be mentioned as cases of homicide, a. An
animal, not known to be vicious, causing
death to a human being, was to be put to
death, and regarded as unclean. But if it
was known to be vicious, the owner also
was liable to flue, and even death (Ex, xxi.
28, 31). b. A thief overtaken at night in
the act raight lawfully be put to death, but
if the sun had risen the act of kUling him
was to be regarded as murder, (Ex. xxii.
2, 3).
Mantle, the word employed in the A.
V. to translate no less than four Hebrew

MAOCH

378

Mark

terras, entirely distinct and independent
both in derivation aud meaning. 1. S'mi-
cah. This word occurs but once, viz.
Judg. iv. 18, where it denotes the thing
with which Jael covered Sisera. 2 . Meil.
(Rendered "mantle" in 1 Sam. xv. 27,
xxviu. 14; Ezr. ix. 3, 5, &c,). This word is
in other passages of tjje A, V, rendered
"coat," "cloak," and "robe." 3, Ma'a
idphdh (Is. iu. 22 only). Apparently sorae
article of a lady's dress, 4. Addereth {ren
dered " raantle " in 1 K. xix. 13, 19 ; 2 K,
U, 8, 13, 14 ; elsewhere " garment " and
"robe"). By it, and it only, is denoted
the cape or wrapper which, with the ex
ception of a strip of skin or leather round
his loins, formed, as we have every reason
to believe, the sole garment of the prophet
Elijah. It was probably of sheepskin, such
as is worn by the modern dervishes.
Ma'oeh, the father of Achish, king of
Gath, with whom David took refuge (1
Sara, xxvii. 2).
Ma'on, one of the cities of the tribe of
Judah, in the district of the mountains
(Josh. 'XV. 55). Its interest for us Ues in
its conuriction with David (1 Sam. xxiu.
24, 25). The name of Maon still exists in
Main, a tofty conical hill, south of, and
about 7 milris distant from, Hebron.
Ma'onites, The, a people mentioned
in one of the addresses of Jehovah to the
repentant Israelites (Judg. x. 12). The
name agrees with that of a people residing
in the desert far south of Palestine, else
where in the A. V. called Mehunim. The
reading of the LXX. — " Midian " — is re
markable as being found in both the great
MSS., and having ou that account a strong
claim to be considered as the reading of
the ancient Hebrew text.
Ma ra, the name which Naomi adopted
in the exclamation forced from her by the
recognition of her fellow-citizens at Beth
lehem (Ruth i. 20), "CaU me not Naomi
(pleasant), but call me Mara (bitter), for
Shaddai hath dealt-very-bitterly {ham&r)
with me."
Ma'rah, that is, bitterness, a place which
lay in the wJlerness of Shur or Etham,
three d.ays' journey distant (Ex. xv. 23, 24,
Num. xxxiu. 8) from the place at which
the Israelites crossed the Red Sea, and
where was a spring of bitter water, sweet
ened subsequently by the casting in of a
tree which "the Lord showed" to Moses.
£t has been suggested that Moses made use
of the berries of the plant Gh^rkitd. Howa-
rah, distant 164 hours frora Ayoun Mousa,
has been by raany identifled with it, appar
ently because it is the bitterest water in the
ueighborhood. Mar'alah, one of the landraarks on the
boundary of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh.
xix. 11).
Marauath'a, an expression used by St.

Paul at the conclusion of his First Epist t to
the Corinthians (xvi. 22). It is. a Grecised
forra of the Araraaic words mdran ctthd,
" our Lord cometh."
Marble, The Heb, sMsh, the generic
term for marble, may probably be taken to
mean almost any shining stone. The so-
caUed marble of Solomon's architectural
works, which Josephus calls ^i6og i.ivx6g,
may thus have been limestone. There can
be no doubt that Herod, both in the Teraple
and elsewhere, employed Parian or other
marble. The marble pillars and tesserae
of various colors of the palace at Susa came
doubtless from Persia itself (Esth. i. 6).
Marcheshvan. [Months,]
Mar'cus, the Evangelist Mark (Col. iv.
10 ; PhUem. 24 ; 1 Pet. v. 13). [Mark.]
Mar'eshah, one of the cities of Judah
in the district of the Shefelah or low coun
try (Josh. XV. 44). It was one of the cities
fortified and garrisoned by Rehoboam after
the rupture with the northern kingdom (2
Chr. xi. 8). It is mentioned once or twice
in the history of the Maccabaean struggles
(1 Mace. V, 66 ; 2 Mace, xU, 35). About
110 B. c. it was taken from the Idumaeans
by John Hyrcanus. It was in ruins in the
4th century, when Eusebius and Jerome
describe it as in the second mile from Eleu
theropolis. S, S. W. of Beitjibrin — in aU
probability Eleutheropolis — and a httle
over a Roman mile therefrom, is a site
called Marash, which is very possibly the
representative of the ancient Mareshah,
Mark. Mark the Evangelist is, prob
ably the same as " John whose suruame
was Mark " (Acts xii. 12, 25). John was
the Jewish name, and Mark (Marcus), a
name of frequent use among the Romans,
was adopted afterwards, and gradually su
perseded the other. John Mark was the
son of a certain Mary, who dwelt at Jeru
salem, and was therefore probably born in
that city (Acts xii, 12). He was the cousin
of Barnabas (Col, iv. 10) . It was to Mary's
house, as to a familiar haunt, that Peter
came after his deliverance from prison
(Acts xu, 12), and there found " raiiny
gathered together praying ; " and probably
John Mark was converted by Peter from
meeting him in his mother's house, for he
speaks of "Marcus my son" (1 Pet. v.
13). The theory that he was one of the
seventy disciples is without any warrant.
Another theory, thiit an event of the night
of our Lord's betrayal, related by Mark
alone, is one that befell himself, must not
be so promptly dismissed (Mark xiv. 51,
52). 'The detail of facts is remarkably
minute ; the name only is wanting. The
most probable view is, th.at St. Mark sup
pressed his own name, whilst telling a story
which he had the best means of knowing.
Anxious to work for Christ, he went wi5»
Paul and Barnabas as theii " ministei " on

MARK, GOSPEL OF

379

MARK, Ut)SPEL Or'

their flrst journey ; but at Perga. he turned
back (Acts xii. 25, xiu. 13). On the second
journey Paul w;ould not accept him again
as a companion, but Biirnabas his kinsman
was more indulgent ; and thus he became
tie cause of the memorable " sharp con
tention " between them (Acts xv. 36-40).
Whatever was the cause of Mark's vacilla
tion, it did not separate him forever from
Paul, for we flnd lum by the side of that
Apostle in his flrst imprisonraent at Rome
(Col. iv. 10; PhUera. 24). In the former
place a possible journey of Mark to Asia is
spoken of. Somewhat later he is with Peter
at Babylon (1 Pet. v. 13). On his return
to Asia he seems to have been with Timothy
at Ephesus when Paul wrote to him during
his second imprisonraent (2 Tira, iv, 11). —
The relation of Mark to Peter is of great
importance for our view of his Gospel.
Ancient writers with one consent make the
Evangelist the Interpreter of the Apostle
Peter. Some explain this word to mean
that the office of Mark was to translate into
the Greek tongue the Aramaic discourses
ofthe Apostle ; whilst others adopt the more
probable view that Mark wrote a Gospel
which conformed more exactly than the
others to Peter's preaching, and thus "in
terpreted" it to the church at large. The
report that Mark was the companion of
'' Peter at Rome, is no doubt of great anti
quity. Senton a mission to Egypt by Peter,
Mark there founded the church of Alexan
dria, and preached in various places, then
returned to Alexandria, of which church he
was bishop, and suffered a martyr's death.
But none of these later detaUs rest on sound
authority, Mark, Gospel of. The characteristics
of this Gospel, the shortest of the four in
spired records, will appear from the discus
sion of the various questions that have been
raised about it, I. Sources of this Gospel. —
The tradition that it gives the teaching of
Peter rather than ofthe rest of the Apostles,
has been alluded to above. Moreover there
are peculiarities in the Gospel which are
best explained by the supposition that Peter
in some way superintended its coraposition.
WhUst Mark goes over the sarae ground
for the raost part as the other Evangelists,
and especially Matthew, there are many
facts thrown in which prove that we are
listening to an independent witness. Thus
the humble origin of Peter is made known
through him (i. 16-20), and his connection
with Capernaum (i. 29) ; .he tells us that
Levi was "the son of Alphaeus" (u. 14),
that Peter was the name given by our Lord
to Siraon (iU, 16), and Boanerges a sur
name added by Him to the names of two
others (Ui, 17) ; he assuraes the existence
of another body of disciples wider than the
Twelve (Ui. 32, iv. 10, 36, viu. 34, xiv. 61,
¦2) : we owe to him the name of Jairus (v.

22), the word "carpenter" appUed to oui
Lord (vi. 3), the nation of the " Syrophoe-
nician " woman (vU. 26) ; he substitutes
Dalmanutha for the "Magdala" of Matthew
(vUi. 10) ; he names Bartimaeus (x, 46) ;
he alone mentions that our Lord would not
suffer any man to carry any vessel through
the Temple (xi. 16),; and that Simon of
Cyrene was the father of Alexander and
Rufus (xv. 21). All these are tokens of an
independent writer, different frora Matthew
and Luke, and in' the absence of other tra
ditions it is natural to look to Peter. II.
Relation of Mark io Matthew and Luke. —
The results of criticism as to the relation
of the three Gospels are soraewhat huraili-
ating. Up to this day three views are main
tained with equal ardor : {a) that Mark's
Gospel is the original Gospel out of which
the other two have been developed ; (6)
that it was a compilation from the other two,
and therefore was written last ; and {c) that
it was copied frora that of Matthew, and
forras a link of transitioii between the other
two. It is obvious that they refute one an
other; the same internal evidence suffice
to prove that Mark is the flrst, and the last
and the intermediate. Let us return to tht
facts, and, taught by these contradictioni
what is the worth of " internal evidence,''
let us carry our speculations no further than
the facts. The Gospel of Mark containa
scarcely any events that are not recited by
the others. There are verbal coincidences
with each of the others, and sometimes pe
culiar words frora both raeet together in the
paraUel place in Mark. On the other hand,
there are unmistakable'raarks of indepen
dence. The hypothesis which best meets
these facts is, that whilst the matter common
to all three Evangelists, or to two of them,
is derived from the oral teaching of the
Apostles, which they had purposely reduced
to a comraon forra, our Evangelist writes af
an independent witness to the truth, and no
as a compiler ; and that the tradition tha
the Gospel was written under the sanction
of Peter, and its matter in some degree
derived from him, is made probable by the
evident traces of an eye-w^ess in many
of the narratives. III. This Gospel writ
ten primarily for Gentiles. — The Evan
gelist scarcely refers to the O. T. in his
own person. The word Law does not once
occur. The genealogy of our Lord is like
wise omitted. Other matters interesting
chiefly to the Jews are Ukewise omitted;
such as tlie references to the O. T. and Law
in Matt, xu, 5-7, the reflections on the
request ofthe Scribes and Pharisees for a
sign. Matt, xU. 38-45 ; the parable of the
king's son, Matt. xxii. 1-14 ; and the awful
denunciation of the Scribes and Pharisees
in M-att. xxui. Explanations are given in
some places which Jews could not require ;
thus, Jordan is a "river" (Mark i. 6,

MARK, GOSPEL OF

380

MARRIAGE

Jffiatt. ui. 8) ; the Pharisees, &c., " used to
fast" (Markii. 18; Matt. ix. 14), and other
custc ms of theirs are described (Mark vU.
1-4 ; Matt. XV. 1,2); " the time of flgs was
yet," i. e. at the season of the Passover
(Mark xi. 13 ; Matt. xxi. 19) ; the Saddu
cees' worst tenet is mentioned (Mark xii.
18) ; the Mount of Olives is " over against
the temple " (Mark xiU. 3 ; Matt. xxiv. 3) ;
at the Passover men eat " unleavened
bread" (Mark xiv. 1, 12; Matt. xxvi. 2,,
17), and explanatious are given which Jews
would not need (Mark xv. 6, 16, 42 ; Matt.
xxvii. 15, 27, 57), From the general testi
mony of these and other places, whatever
may be objected to an inference from one or
other amongst them, there is little doubt but
that the Gospel was meant for use in the
first instance amongst Gentiles, IV, Time
when the Gospel was written. — This is un
certain. It is not likely that it dates before
the reference to Mark in the Epistle to the
Colossians (iv. 10), whore ho is only intro
duced as a relative of Barnabas, as if this
were his greatest distinction ; and this
epistle was written about a. d. 62. On the
other hand it wiis written before the de
struction of Jerusalem (xiU. 13, 24-30, 33,
&c.). Probably, therefore, it was written
between a. d. 63 and 70. V. Place where
ihe Gospel was written. — The place is as
uncertain as the time. Clement, Eusebius,
Jerome, and Epiphanius, pronounce for
Rome, and many moderns take the same
view. Chrysostom thinks Alexandria ; but
this ia not conflrmed by other testimony.
VI. Language. — The Gospel was written
in Greek ; of this there can be no doubt if
ancient testiraony is to weigh. Baronius
indeed, on the authority of an old Syriac
translation, asserts that Latin was the ori
ginal language. VII. Genuineness of the
Gospel. — All ancient testimony makes
Mark the author of a certain Gospel, and
that this is the Gospel which has "come down
to us, there is not the least historical ground
for douljting. Owing to the very few sec
tions peculiar to Mark, evidence frora pa
tristic quotation is somewhat difficult to pro
duce. Justin Martyr, however, quotes ch,
ix, 44, 46, 48, xu, 30, and iU, 17, and
Irenaeus cites both the opening and closing
words (iii., x. 6) — an importiint testimony
in any case, but doubly so from the doubt
that has been cast on the closing verses
(xvi. 9-19). With the exception of these
few verses the genuineness of the Gospel Is
placed above the reach of reasonable doubt.
VIII. Style and Didion. — The purpose
of the Evangelist seems to be to place before
us a vivid picture of the earthly acts of
Jesus. The style is peculiarly suitable to
ihis. Ho uses the present tense, instead of
the narrative aorist, almost in every chap
ter. Precise and rainute detaUs as to per-
iions, places, and numbers, ab(.und in the

narrative. All these tend to give force and
vividness to the picture of the human life
of our Lord. On the other side, the facts
are not very exactly arranged. Its concise
ness sometimes makes this Gospel more ob
scure than the others (i. 13, ix. 6, 6, iv. 10-
34). Many peculiarities of diction may be
noticed; amongst them the following: 1.
Hebrew (Aramaic) words are used, but ex
plained for Gentile readers (iu, 17, 22, v.
41, vu, 11, 34, ix, 43, x, 46, xiv, 36, xv. 22,
34). 2. Latin words are very frequent.
3, Unusual words or phrases are found here.
4. Diminutives are frequent. 5, The sub
stantive is often repeated instead of the pro
noun ; al*(to cite from ch. ii. only) ii. 16,
18, 20, 22, 27, 28. 6. Negatives are accu
mulated for the sake of emphasis (vii. 12,
ix. 8, xU. 34, XV. 5, i. 44). 7. Words are
often added to adverbs for the sake of em
phasis (ii, 20, V, 5, vi, 25, also vii, 21, viu.
4, x; 20, xiU, 29, xiv. 30, 43). 8, The same
idea is often repeated under another ex
pression, as i. 42, U. 25, viii, 15, xiv, 68,
&c, 9. And sometimes the repetition is
effected by means of the opposite, as in i.
22, 44, and many other places. 10. Some
times emphasis is given by simple reitera
tion, as in ii. 15, 19. 11. 'The elliptio
use of t'va, like thiit of ojim; in classical
writers, is found, v. 23. 12. The word
IntQwrSv is used twenty-flve times in this
Gospel. 13. Instead otavfi^ovXtov Xau^amy
of Matt. Mark has avfi^uvXmv noiav, iii, 6,
XV. 1, 14. There are many words peculiar
to Mark. The diction of Mark presents the
difficulty that whilst it abounds iu Latin
words, and in expressions that recall Latin
equivalents, it is still much more ak'n to
the Hebraistic diction of Matthew than to
the purer style of Luke. IX. Contents of
ihe Gospel. — Though this Gospel has little
historical matter which is not shared with
some other, it would be a great error to
suppose that the voice of Mark-could have
been silenced without injury to the divine
harraony. It is the history of the war of
Jesus against sin and evil in the world dur
ing the tirae that He dwelt as a Man among
men. Its motto might well be, as Lai-ge
observes, those words of Peter: "How
God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the
Holy Ghost and with power; who went
about doing good, and healing all that were
oppressed of the devU; for Godwaswi'h
Him" (Acts X. 88).
Ma'roth, one of the towns of the west
ern lowland of Judah whose names are al
luded to or played upon by the prophet
Micah (i. 12)/
Marriage. The topics which this sub
ject presents to cur consideration in con
nection with Biblical literature may be ar-
riinged under five heads : I . Jis origin
and history. — The institution of marriage
dates from tbe time of man's original ere*

MARRIAGE

381

MARRIAGE

tion. No sooner was the formation of wo
man effected, than Adam recognized in that
actthe will of the Creator as to man's social
condition. " Therefore shall a raan leave
his father and his mother, and shall cleave
unto his wife : and they shall be one
flesh " (ii. 24) . Frora these words, coupled
with the circurastances attendant on the
formation of the first woraan, we may
evolve the following principles : (1) -The
unity of raan and wife, as implied in her
being formed out of man, and as expressed
in the words "one flesh"; (2) the indis-
solubleness of the marriage bond, except
oh the strongest grounds (corap. Matt. xix.
9) ; (3) monogamy, as tho original law of
marriage ; (4) the social equality of man
and wife ; (5) the subordination of the wife
to the husband (1 Cor. xi. 8, 9 ; 1 Tim. ii.
13) ; and (6) the respective duties of man
and wife. In the patriarchal age Polygamy
prevailed (Gen. xvi. 4, xxv. 1, 6, xxviii, 9,
xxix. 23, 28; 1 Chr. vU. 14), but to a great
extent divested of the degradation which in
modern times attaches to that practice. Di
vorce also prevailed in the patriarchal age,
though but one instance of it is recorded
(Gen, xxi, 14), The Mosaic law aimed at
mitigiiting rather than removing evils which
were inseparable frora the state of society
in that day. Its enactments were directed,^
(1) to the discouragement of polygamy;"
(2) to obviate the injustice frequently con
sequent upon the exercise of the rights of
a father or a master ; (3) to bring divorce
under some restriction ; and (4) to enforce
purity of life during the maintenance of
the matrimonial bond. In the post-Baby
lonian period monogamy appears to have '
become more prevalent than at any previ
ous time : indeed we have no instance of
polygamy during this period on record in
the Bible, all the marriages noticed being
with single wives (Tob. i, 9, U. 11 ; Susan,
vers. 29, 63 ; Matt. xvui. 25 ; Luke i. 5 ^
Acts V, 1), The practice of polygamy nev
ertheless still existed ; -Herod the Great had
no less than nine wives at one tirae. The
abuse of divorce continued unabated. Our
Lord and His Apostles re-est<ablished the
integrity and sanctity of the marriage-bond
by the following measures : (1) by the
confirmation of the original charter of
marriage as the basis on which all regula
tions were to be framed (Matt, xix, 4, 5) ;
">¦) by the restriction of divorce to the case
of fornication, and the prohibition of re
marriage in all persons divorced on improp
er grounds (Matt, v, 32, xix. 9 ; Rom. vii.
3; 1 Cor. vu. 10, 11) ; and (3) by the en
forcement of moral purity generally (Heb.
xiu. 4, &c.), and especially by the formal
Condemnation of fornication, which appears
to have been classed araong acts morally
- indifferent by a certain party in the Church
(Acts XV. 20). II. The conditions of legal

marriage are decided by the prohibitions
which the law of any country imposes upon
its citizens. In the Hebrew commonwealth
these prohibitions were of two kinds, ac
cording as they regulated marriage (i.) be
tween an Israelite and a non-Israelite, and
(ii.) between an Israelite and ono of his
own _ community. — (i.) The prohibitions
relating to foreigners were based on that
instinctive feeling of exclusiveness, which
forras one of the bonds of evory social
body, and which prevails with peculiar
strength in a rude state of society. The
only distinct prohibition in the Mosaic law
refers to the Canaanites, with whora the Is
raelites were not to marry, on the ground
that it would lead them into idolatry (Ex.
xxxiv. 16; Dout. vu. 3, 4). But beyond
this, the logiil disabilities to which the
Araraonites and Moabites were subjected
(Deut. xxiii. 3), acted as a virtual bar to
interraarriage with thera, totally prevent
ing the marriage of Israelitish woinen with
Moabites, but permitting that of Israelites
with Moabite women, such as that of Mah
lon with Ruth. The prohibition against
marriages with the Edoraites or Egyptians
was less stringent, as a male of those na
tions received the right of marriage on his
admission to the full citizenship iu the thir(?
generation of proselytism (Deut. xxiii. 7-
8). There were thus three grades of pro
hibition — total iu regard to the Canaanites
on either side ; total on the side of the
males in regard of the Ammonites and
Moabites ; and temporary on the side of
the males in regard of the Edomites' and
Egyptians, marriages with fem.ales in the
two latter instances being regarded as legal.
The progeny of illegal raarriages between
IsraeUtes and non-Israelites was described
under a peculiar term, mamztr, (A^ V.
"bastard"; Deut. xxiu. 2). (U.) Tho
regulations relative to marriage between
Israelites aud Israelites was based on con
siderations of relationship. The most im
portant passage relating to these is con
tained in Ley. xvUi. 6-18, wherein we have
in the first place a general prohibition
against marriages, between a man and the
" flesh of his flesh," and in the second place
special prohibitions against marriage with a
mother, step-mother, sister, or half-sister,
whether " born at home or abroad," grand
daughter, aunt, whether by consanguinity
on cither side, or by marriage on the fa
ther's side, daughtei--in-law,brother'3 wife,
step-daughter, wife.'s mother, step-grand
daughter, or wife's sister during the lifetime
of the wife. An exception is subsequently
raade (Deut, xxv, 5-9) in favor of marriage
with a brother's wife in the event of his hav
ing died childless. The law which regu
lates this has been named the "Levirate,"
frora the Latin levir, "brother-in-law."
The first instance of this custom occurs in

MARRIAGE

382

MARRIAGE

the p.atriarchal period, where Onan is called
upon to marry his brother Er's widow (Gen.
xxxviii. 8) . The Levirate marriage was not
pecul iar to the Jews ; it has been found to
exist in many Eastern countries, particular
ly in Arabia, and among the tribes of the
Caucasus. III. The modes by which mar
riage was effeded. — The customs of the
Hebrews and of Oriental nations in regard
to marriage, differ in many respects from
those with which we are familiar. In tho
first place, the choice of the bride devolved
not on the bridegroom himself, but on his
relations or on a friend deputed by the
bridegroom for this purpose. The consent
of the maiden was sometimes asked (Gen.
xxiv. 58) ; but this appears to have been
subordinate to tho previous consent of the
father and the adult brothers (Gen. xxiv. 51,
xxxiv. 11). Occasionally the whole busi
ness of selecting the wife was left in the
hands of a friend. The selection of the bride
was foUowed by the espousal, which was a
formal proceeding, undertaken by a friend
or legal representative on the part of the
bridegroora, and by the parents on the part
of the bride ; it was conflrmed by oaths,
and accompanied with presents to the bride.
These presents wero described by different
terras, that to the bride by mohar (A. V.
"dowry"), and that to the relations by
mattdn. Thus Shechem offers "never so
much dowry and gift" (Gen. xxxiv. 12),
the former for the bride, the latter for the
relations. It would undoubtedly be ex
pected that the mohar should bo pro
portioned to the position of the bride, and
that a poor man could not on that account
afford to marry a rich wife (1 Sara, xviii.
23). The act of betrothal was celebrated
by a _fe.ast, and araong the raore modern
Jews "it is the custom in some parts for the
bridegroora to place a ring on the bride's
finger. Some writers h.ave endeavored to
prove that the rings noticed in the O. T.
(Ex, x.xxv. 22; Is. iU. 21) were nuptial
rings, but there is not the slightest evidence
of this. The ring was nevertheless re
garded araong the Hebrews as a token of
fidelity (Gon. xU. 42), and of adoption into
a famUy (Luke xv. 22). Between the be
trothal and the maj:riage an interval elapsed,
varying from a few d.ays in the patriarchal
age (Gen. xxiv. 55), to a fuU year for
virgins and a month for widows in later
times. During this period the bride-elect
lived with her friends, and all commu
nication between herself and her future
husband was carried on through the medium
of a friend deputed for the purpose, termed
the " friend of the bridegroom " (John iii.
29). She was now virtually regarded as
the wife of her future husband. Hence
faithlessness on her part was punisha'.jle
with death (Deut. xxu. 23, 24), the husband
having, however, the option of "putting her

away" (Matt. i. 19; Deut. xxiv. 1). Wa
now come to the wedding itself; and in this
the most observable point is, that there
were no definite religious ceremonies con
nected with it. It is probable, indeed, that
some formal ratification of the espousal
with an oath took place, as implied in some
allusions to marriage (Ez. xvi. 8 ; Mal. ii.
14), particularly in the expression, "the
covenant of her God".. (Prov. U. 17), as
applied to the marriage bond, and that a
blessing was pronounced (Gen. xxiv. 60;
Ruth iv. 11, 12), sometimes by the parents
(Tob. vii. 13). But the essence of the
marriage ceremony consisted in the re
moval of the bride from her father's house
to that of the bridegroom or his father.
The bridegroom prepared hiraself for the
occasion by putting on a festive dress, and
especially by placing on his head the hand
some turban described by the term peSr
(Is. Ixi. 10; A. V. "ornaments"), and a
nuptial crown or garland (Cant. iii. 11) :
he was redolent of myrrh and frankincense
and " all powders of the raerchant" (Cant.
iii. 6). The bride prepared herself for the
cereraony by taking a bath, generally on
the day preceding the wedding. The
notices of it in the Bible are so few as to
have escaped general observation (Ruth iii.
S; Ez. xxiii. 40; Eph. v, 26, 27), .Tha
distinctive feature of the bride's attire was
the " veil" — a light robe of araple dimen
sions, which covered not only the face but
the whole person (Gen. xxiv. 65; comp. ,
xxxviu, 14, 15). This was regarded as the
syrabol of her subraission to her husband
(1 Cor. xi. 10). She also wore a peculiar
girdle, named kishshurim, the "attire"
(A, v.), which no bride could forget (Jer,
u. 32) ; and her head was crowned with a
chaplet, which was again So distinctive of
the bride, that the Hebrew terra calldh,
"bride," originated from it. If the bride
were a virgin, she wore her hair flowing. ,
Her robes were white (Rev. xix, 8), and
sometimes embroidered with gold thread
(Ps, xiv. 13, 14), and covered with per
fumes (Ps. xiv. 8) : she was further decked'
out with jewels (Is. xlix, 18, Ixi, 10; Rev. .
xxi_, 2), When tho flxed hour arrived,
which was generally late in the evening,
the bridegroom set forth from his house, ,,,
attended by his groomsmen (A, V, "com
panions," Judg, xiv. 11; "children of the
bride-chamber," Matt, ix, 15), preceded by
a band of rausicians or singers (Gen. xxxi.
27 ; Jer. vu. 34, xvi, 9 ; 1 Mace. ix. 89),,
and accompanied by persons bciiring flam
beaux (2 Esdr. X. 2 ; Matt, xxvi 7 ; com
pare Jer, xxv, 10; Rev, xviu, 23, "the
light of a candle"). Having reached the
house of the bride, who with her maidens
.anxiously expected his arrival (Matt. xxv.
0), he conducted the whole party back to
his own or his father's house, with e'V "sry

MARRIAGE

383

MARS' HILL

demonstration of gladness (Ps. xiv. 15).
On their way back they were joined by a
party of maidens, friends of the bride and
bridegroora, who were in waiting to catch
the procession as it passed (Matt, xxv, 6),
The inhabitants of the place pressed out
into the streets to watch the procession
(Cant, iii, 11), At the house a feast was
prepared, to which all the friends and
neighbors were invited (Gen, xxix, 22;
Matt, xxii , 1-10 ; -Luke xiv, 8 ; John ii. 2) ,
and the festivities were protracted for
seven, or even fourteen days (Judg. xiv.
12; Tob. viii. 19). The guests were pro
vided by the host with fltting robes (Matt.
xxu. 11), and the feast was enlivened with
riddles (Judg, xiv, 12) and other amuse
ments, 'The bridegroom now entered into
direct communication with the bride, and
the joy of the friend was "fulfilled" at
hearing the voice of the bridegroom (John
iii, 29) conversing with her, which he re
garded as a satisfactory testimony of the
success of his sliare in the work. The last
act in the ceremonial was the conducting
of the bride to the bridal chamber (Judg.
XV. 1; Joel u. 16), where a canopy was
prepared (Ps. xix. 5; Joel ii. 16). The
bride was still completely veiled, so that
the deception practised on Jacob (Gen.
xxix. 23) was very possible, A newly
married man was exempt from military
service, or from any public business which
might draw hira away from his home, for
the space of a year (Deut, xxiv, 5) ; a
similar privilege was granted to hira who
was betrothed (Deut. xx. 7). IV. The
social and domestic conditions of married
life. - - We must in the first place take
into account the position assigned to women
generaUy in their social scale. There is
abundant evidence that women, whether
married or unmarried, went about with
their faces unveiled (Gen. xii. 14, xxiv. 16,
65, xyix. 11; 1 Sam. i. 13). Woraen not
unfrequently held important offices. They
took their part in matters of public iuterest
(Ex.xv. 20 ; 1 Sam. xvUi. 6, 7) : in short,
they enjoyed as much freedoiu in ordinary
life as the women of our own country. If
such was her general position, it is certain
that the wife raust have exercised an ira
portant influence in her own home. She
appears to have taken her part in family
affairs, and even to have enjoyed a con
siderable amount of independence (2 K. iv.
8; Judg. iv. 18; 1 Sam. xxv. 14, &c.).
In the N. T. the mutual relations of hus
band and wife are a subject of frequent
exhortation (Eph. v. 22, 33 ; Col. Ui. 18,
19; Tit. ii. 4, 5 ; 1 Pet. Ui. 1-7), The
duties of tho wife in the Hebrew house
hold were multifarious : in addition to the
general superintendence of the domestic
arrangements, such as cooking, frora which
even womcu of rank were not exempted

(Gen. xviu. 6; 2 Sara. xiii. 8), and tha
distribution of food sit meal tim_es (Prov.
xxxi. 15), the manufacture of the clotliing
and the various textures required in an
Eastern establishment devolved upon her
(Prov. xxxi. 13, 21, 22), and if she were a
model of activity and skill, she produced a
surplus of fine linen shirts and girdles,
which she sold, and so, like a well-freighted
raerchant-ship, brought in wealth to her
husband frora afar (Prov. xxxi. 14, 24).
The legal rights of the wife are noticed in
Ex. xxi. 10, under the three heads of food,
rairaent, and duty of marriage or (conju
gal right. V. The allegorical and typi
cal allusions to marriage have exclusive
reference to one subject, viz., to exhibit tbe
spiritual relationship between God and his
people. The earliest forra, in which the
iraage is implied, is in the expressions "to
go a whoring," and " whoredom," as descrip
tive of the rupture of that relationship by
acts of idolatry. These expressions have by
some writers been taken iu their primary
and literal sense, as pointingto the licentious
practices of idolaters. But tliis destroys
the whole point of the comparison, and is
opposed to the plain language of Scripture.
The direct comparison with marriage is
confined in the O. T. to the prophetic
writings, unless we regard the Canticles as
an allegorical work. In the N. T. the
image of the bridegroom is transferred
from Jehovah to Christ (M.att. ix. 15 ; John
Ui. 29), and that ofthe bride to the Church
(2 Cor. xi, 2 ; Rev. xix. 7, xxi. 2, 9, xxii.
17), and the comparison thus established
is converted by St, Paul into an illustration
of the position and mutual duties of man
and wife (Eph. v. 23-32), The breach of
the union is, as before, described as for
nication or whoredom in reference to the
mystical Babylon (Rev, xvii, 1, 2, 5).
Mars' Hill, the HUl of Mars or Ares,
better known by the name of Areopagus,
of which the Hill of Mars or Ares is a
translation. The Areopagus was a rocky
height in Athens, opposite the western end
ofthe Acropolis, from which it is separated
-only by a:n elevated valley. It rises grad
ually from the northern end, and termi
nates abruptly on the south, over against the
Acropolis, at which point it is about fifty
or sixty feet above the valley already men
tioned. According to tradition it was called
the Hill of Mars (Ares), because this god
was brought to trial here before the as
sembled gods by Neptune (Poseidon), on
account of his murdering Halirrhothius,
the son of the latter. The spot is memora
ble as the place of raeeting of the Council
of Areopagus, frequently called the Upper
Council, to distinguish it from the Council
of Five Hundred, which held its sittings in
the vaUey below the hill. It existed as a
criminal tribunal before the time of Solon,

MARSENA

384

MARY MAGDALENE

aud was the most ancient and venerable
of all the Athenian courts. It consisted
of all persons who had held the office of
Arcliou, and who were members of it for
life, unless expelled for misconduct. It
enjoyed a high reputation, not only in
Athens, but throughout Greece, Before
the time of Solon the court tried only
cases of wilful murder, wounding, poison,
and arson ; but he gave it extensive powers
of a censorial and political nature. 'The
Council continued to e.\:ist even under the
Roman emperors. Its raeetings were held
ou the south-eastern summit of the rock.
There are still sixteen stone steps cut in the
rock, leading up to the hill from tbe valley
of the Agora below; and imraediately
above the steps is a bench of stones exca
vated in the rockj forming three sides of a
quadrangle, and facing the south. Here
the Arcopagites sat as judges in the open
air. On the eastern and western side is
a raised block. The Areopagus possesses
peculiar interest to the Christian, as the spot
from which St. Paul delivered liis raeni-
OTiible address to the men of Athens (Acts
xvii. 22-31). It has been supposed by some
commentators that St. Paul was brought
before the Council of Areopagus ; but there
is no trace in the narrative of any judicial
proceedings, St. Paul "disputed daily"
in the " market " or Agora (xvir. 17), which
was situated south of the Areopagus in the
yalley lying between this hill and those of
the Acropohs, the Pnyx and the Museum.
Attracting more and more attention, " cer
tain philosophers of the Epicureans and
Stoics " brought him up from the valley,
prob.ably by the stone steps already men
tioned, to the Areopagus above, that they
might listen to hira more conveniently.
Here the philosophers probably took their
seats on the stone benches usually occu
pied by the members of the Council, while
the multitude stood upon the steps and in
the valley below.
Mar'sena, one of the seven princes of
Persia, " wise men which knew the times,"
which s,aw the king's face and sat first in
the kingdom (Esth. i. 14),
Mar'tlia, the sister of Lazarus and
Mary, [Lazarcs,] The facts recorded
In Luke x. and John xi. indicate a charac
ter devout after the customary Jewish type
Bt devotion, sharing in Messianic hopes and
accepting Jesus as the Christ. When she
first conies before us in Luke x, 38, as re
ceiving her Lord into her house, she loses
the calmness of her spirit, is "cumbered
with rauch serving," is " careful and trou
bled about many things," She needs the
reproof, "One thing is needful;" but her
love, though imperfect in its forra, is yet
recognized as true, and she too, no less
than Lazarus and Mary, has tho distinction
of being one whom Jesus loved (John xi, 3),

Her position here, it may be noticed, is ob
viously that of the elder sister, the head and
manager of the household. In the supper
at Bethany (John xU, 2), the old character
shows itself still, but it has been freed from
evil. She is no longer " cumbered," no
longer impatient. Activity has been calmed
by trust. When other voices are raised
against her sister's overflowing love, hers
is not heard among thera.
Mary of Cleophas. So in A, V.,
but accurately " of Clopas." In St, John's
Gospel we read that "there stood by the
cross of Jesus His mother, and His raother's
sister, Mary of Clopas, and Mary Magda
lene " (John xix. 25), The same group of
women is described by St. Matthew as con
sisting of. " Mary Magdalene, and Mary of
James and Joses, and the mother of Zebe-
dee's children " (Matt, xxvii. 56) ; and by
St. Mark, as " Mary Magdalene, and Mary
of James the Little and of Joses, and Sa
lome " (Mark xv. 40). From a comparison
of these passages, it appears' that Mary of
Clopas, and Mary of Jaraes the Little and
of Joses, are the sarae person, and that
she was the sister of St. Mary the Virgin.
Mary of Clopas was prob.ably the elder
sister of the Lord's mother. It would seera
that she had married Clopas or Alphaeus
while her sister was still a girl. She had
four sons, and at least three daughters.
The names of the daughters are unknown
to us : those of the sons are James, Joses,
Jude, Siraon, two of whom became enrolled
among the twelve apostles [James], and a
third [Simon], may Imve succeeded his
brother in the charge of the Church of Je
rusalera. Of Joses and the daughters we
know nothing. Mary herself is brought
before us for the first time on the day of
the Crucifixion — in the parallel passages
already quoted from St. Matthew, St.
Mark, and St. John. In the evening of
the same day we find her sitting desolately
at the torab with Mary Magdalene (Matt.
xxvii. 61 ; Mark xv. 47), and .at the dawn
of Easter raorning she was again therb
with sweet spices, which she had prepared
on the Fridiiy night (Matt, xxviii. 1 ; Mark
xvi. 1 ; Luke xxiii. 56), and was one of
those who had " a vision of angels, which
said that He was alive " (Luke xxiv. 23).
These are all the glimpses that we have of
her. Clopas or Alphaeus is not mentioned
at all, except as designating Mary and
Jaraes. It is probable that' he was dead
before the ministry of our Lord commenced.
Joseph, the husband of St. Mary the Vir
gin, was likewise dead ; and the two wid
owed sisters, as was natural both for comr
fort and for protection, were in the custom
of living together in one house.
Mary Magdale'ne. Different expla
nations have been given of this name ; but
the most natural is, that she came from the

MARY MAGDALENi!

385 MARY, SISTER OF LAZARUS

town of Majrdala. She appears before us.
for the first time in Luke viii. 2, araong the
women who ." ministered unto Hira of their
substance.". All appear to have occupied a
position of coraparative wealth. With all
the chief raotive was that of gratitude for
their deUveriince frora " evil spirits and in
firmities." Of Mary it is said specially that
" seven devils went out of her," and the
number indicates, as in Matt. xii. 45, and
t'ne " Legion " ofthe Gadarene demoniac
(Mark v. 9) , a possession of m ore than ordi
nary malignity. This life of ministration
must have brought Mary Magdalene into
companionship of the closest nature with
Salome the raother of Jaraes and John
(Mark xv. 40), and even also with Mary
the raother of the Lord (John xix. 25).
The women who thus devoted themselves
are not prominent in the history : we have
no record of their mode of life or abode,
or hopes or fears, during the few momentous
days that preceded the crucifixion. They
" otood afar off, beholding these things "
(Luke xxiii. 49) during the closing hours
of the Agony on the Cross. The same
close association which drew thera together
there is seen afterwards. She reraains by
the cross till all is over, waits tiU the body
is taken down, and wrapped in the linen
cloth and placed in the garden-sepulchre
of Joseph of Arimathea (Matt, xxvii. 61 ;
Mark xv. 47; Luke xxiii. 55). The sab
bath that followed brought an enforced rest,
but no sooner is the sunset over than she,
with Salorae and Mary the mother of
James, " bought sweet spices that they
might come and anoint" the body (Mark
xvi. 1). The next morning accordingly, in
the eailiest dawn (Matt, xxviii. 1 ; Mark
xvi. 2) they come with Mary, the raother of
James, to the sepulchre. Mary Magdalene
had been to the torab and had found it
empty, had seen the "vision of angels "
(Matt, xxviii. 5; Mark xvi. 5). She went
with her cry of sorrow to Peter and John
(John XX. 1, 2). But she returns there.
She follows Peter and John, and remains
when they go back. The one thought that
fills her mind is still that the body is not
there (John xx. 13). The utter stupor of
her grief is shoM n in hor want of power to
recognize at first either the voice or the
forra of the Lord to whora she had rainis-
tered (John xx. 14, 15). At last her own
narae, uttered by her Lord, recalls her to
conscioususss; and then follows the cry of
recognition, with the strongest word of
reverence which a woman of Israel could
use, " Rabboni," and the rush forward to
cUng to His feet. — (1) Mary Magdalene
has become the type of a class of repentant
sinners ; but there is no authority for iden
tifying her with the " sinner " who anoints
the feet of Jesus in Luke vU. 36-50. When
the name of Mary Magdalene appears in
25

Luke viii. 3 there is not one word to con
nect it with the history that imraediately
precedes. Never, perhaps, has a figment
so utterly baseless obtained so wide an ac
ceptance as that which we connect with the
narae of the " penitent Magdalene." It is
to be regretted that the chapter-heading of
the A. V. of Luke vii. should seera to give
a quasi-authoritative sanction to a tradition
so utterly uncertain, and that it should have
been perpetuated in connection with a g^eat
work of mercy. (2) It has also been be
lieved that Mary Magdalene is the same as
the sister of Lazarus. But this supposition
is still raore startling. Not one single cir
cumstance, except that of love and rever
ence for their Master, is comraon. The
epithet Magdalene, whatever miiy be its
meaning, seems chosen for the express
purpose of distinguishing her from all other
Marys. No one Evangelist gives the slight
est hint of identity. The Gospels record
two anointings of our Saviour, one by the
"sinner," in some city unnamed during our
Lord's Giililean ministry (Luke vii.), the
other at Bethany, by Mary, the sister of
Lazarus, before the last entry into Jerusa
lem (Matt. xxvi. ; Mark xiv. ; John xii.).
The only passage adduced in favor of the
supposition that in these two narrations one
woman is intended, is John xi. 2. But tbe
words which we find there, "It was that
Mary which anointed the Lord witii oint
ment  whose brother Lazarus was
sick," evidently refer by anticipation to the
history which was about to follow in ch.
xii. Moreover there is not the slightest
trace of the life of Mary of Bethany ever
having been one of open and fliigrant im
purity. Mary, Mother of Mark, The woman
known by this description must have been
among the earliest disciples. We learn
from Col, iv, 10 that she was sister to Bar
nabas, and it would appear from Acts iv.
37, xii. 12, that, while tlio brother gave up
his land and brought the proceeds of the
sale into the common treasury of tho
Church, the sister gave up her house to be
used as one of its chief places of meeting.
The fact that Peter goes to that house on
his release from prison, indicates that there
was some special intimacy (Acts xii. 12)
between them, and this is confirmed by the
language wliich he uses towards Mark as
being his "son" (1 Pet. v. 13).
Mary, Sister of Lazarus. She and
her sister Martha appear in Luke x. 40, as
receiving Christ in their house. Mary sat
listening eagerly for every word that fell
from the Divine Teacher. She had chosen
the good part, the life that has found its
unity, the " one thing needful," in rising
from the earthly to the heavenly, no longer
distracted by the "many things" of earth.
The same character shows itself in the liis-

MARY THE VIRGIN

386

MARY THE VIRGIN

tory of John xi. Her grief is deeper, but
less active. Her first thought when she
sees the Teacher in whose power and love
she- had trusted, is one of complaint. But
the groat joy and love which her brother's
return to life calls up in her, pour them
selves out in larger measure than had been
seen before. The treasured alabaster-box
of ointment is brouglit forth at the final
feast of Bethany, John xU. 3. [See fur
ther, Mart Magdalene.]
Mary the 'Virgin, the mother of our
Lord. There is no person perhaps in sa
cred or in profane literature around whom
so many legends have been grouped as the
Virgin Mary ; and there are few whose au
thentic history is more concise. We are
wholly ignorant of the name and occupa
tion of St. Mary's parents. She was, like
Joseph, of the tribe of Judah, and of the
lineage of David (Ps. exxxii. 11; Luke i.-
32; Rom. i. 3). Slie had a sister, named,
like herself, Mary (John xix. 25), and she
was connected by marriage (Luke i. 36)
with Elizabeth, who .was of the tribe of
Levi and of the lineage of Aaron. This is
all that wc know of her antecedents. Her
betrothal to Joseph, and the circumstances
connected with her becoming the mother
of our Lord, are related elsewhere. [Jesus
Christ.] From the time at which our
Lord's ministry oomraenced, St. Mary is
withdrawn almost wholly frora sight. Four
times only is the veil removed. These four
occasions are — 1. 'The marriage at Cana
of Galilee (John ii.). 2. The attempt
which she and his brethren made "to speak
with him" (Matt. xu. 46; Mark Ui. 21 and
31; Luke viu. 19). 3. The Crucifi.xion.
4. The days succeeding the Ascension
(Acts i. 14). If to these we add two refer
ences to her, the first by her Nazarene fel
low-citizens (Matt. xiu. 64, 55; Mark yi.
. 1-3), tho second by a woman in the multi
tude (Luke xi. 27),, we have specified
every event known to us in her life. It
is noticeable that, on every occasion of
our Lord's addressing her, or speaking of
hor, there is a sound of reproof in His
words, with the exception ofthe last words
spoken to her from the cross. 1. The
marrifige at Cana in Galilee took place in
the three months which intervened between
the baptism of Christ and the passover of
the year 27. When Jesus was found by
his mother and Joseph in tho Temple in
the year 8, we find him repudiating the
name of "father" as applied to Joseph
(Luke ii. 48, 49). Now, in like manner,
at His first miracle which inaugurates His
ministry. He solemnly withdraws himself
fpjm the authority of His earthly mother.
2. Capernaura (John U. 12) and Nazareth
(Matt. iv. 13, xui. 54 ; Mark vi. 1) appear
to have been the residence of St. Mary for
a cf-osiderablo period. The next time that

l^he is brought before us we find her at Ca
pernaum. It is the autumn of the year 28,
more than a year and a half after the mir
acle wrought at the marriage-feast in Cana.
Mary was still living with her sister, and
her nephews and nieces, James, Joses, Si
raon, Jude, -and their three sisters (Matt.
xiii. 55) ; and she and they heard of the
toils which he was undergoing, and they
understood that He was denying himself
every relaxation from his labors. Their
huraan affection conquered theirfaith. They
therefore sent a message, begging him to
allow thera to speak to Hira. Again he
reproves. Again he refuses to admit any
authority on the part of his relatives, or
any privUege on account of their relation
ship. 3. The next scene in St. Mary's life
brings us to the foot of the cross. She was
standing there with her sister Mary and
Mary Magdalene, and Salome, and other
women, having no doubt followed her Son
as she was able throughout the terrible
raorning of Good Friday. It was about
three o'clock in the afternoon, and he was
about to give up His spirit. Standing near
the company o:^ the women was St. John;
and, with almost His last words, Christ
comraended His mother to the care of him
who had borne the narae of the disciple
whora Jesus loved. " Woraan, behold thy
son." And from that hour St. John assures
us that he took her to his own abode. 4. A
veil is drawn over her sorrow and over her
joy which succeeded that sorrow. Medi
aeval imagination has supposed, but Scrip
ture does not state, that her Son appeared
to Mary after his resurrection frora the
dead. She was doubtless living at Jerusa
lera with John, cherished with the tender
ness which her tender soul would have
specially needed, and which undoubtedly
she found pre-eminently in St. John. Wo
have no record of her presence at the As
cension, or at tho descent of the Holy Spirit
on the da,y of Pentecost. What we do read
of her is, that she remained steadfiist in
prayer in the upper room at Jerusalem with
Miiry Magdalene and Salome, and those
known as the Lord's brothers and the apos
tles. This is the last view that we have of
her. Holy Scripture leaves her engaged in
prayer. From this point forwards we know
nothing of her. It is probable that the rest
of her life was spent in Jerusalem with St.
John. According to one tradition the be
loved disciple would not leave Palestine
until she had expired in his arms. Other
traditions make her journey with St. John
to Ephesus, and there die in extreme old
age. The character of St. Mary is not
driiwn by any of the Evangelists, but soma
of its lineaments are incidentally manifested
in the fragmentary record which is given
of her. It is clear from St, Luke's account,
though without any such intimation we

MARY 'IHB VIRGIN

387

MARY

might rest assured of the fact, that hor
youth had been spent in the study of the
Holy Scriptures, and that she had set be
fore her the example of the holy women of
the Old Testament as her model. This
would appear from the Magnificat (Luke i.
46). Her faith and humility exhibit them
selves in her immediate surrender of her
self to the Divine will, though ignorant
how that will should be accomplished (Luke
i. 36) ; her energy and earnestness, ih her
journey from Nazareth to Hebron (Luke i.
89) ; her happy thankfulness, in her song
of joy (Luke i. 48) ; her silent musing
thoughtfulness, in her pondering orer the
shepherd's visit (Luke ii. 19), and in her
keeping her Son's words in her heart (Luko
ii. 51), though she could not fully under
stand their iraport. In a word, so far as
St. Mary is portrayed to us in Scripture,
she is, as we should have expected, the
most tender, the most faithful, humble, pa
tient, and loving of women, but a woman
still. We do not enter into the theological
bearings of the worship of St. Mary ; but
we shall have left our task incomplete if we
do not add a short historical sketch of the
origin, progress, and present state of the
devotion to her. What was its origin?
Certainly not the Bible. There is not a
word there from which it could be inferred ,
nor in the Creeds ; nor in the Fathers of the
first five centuries. Whence, then, did it
arise ? There is not a shadow of doubt that
the origin of the worship of St. Mary is to
be found in the apocryphal legends of hor
birth and of her death. In these we m.ay
find the germ of what afterwards expanded
into its present portentous proportions.
Some of the legends of her birth are as
early as tho 2d or 3d century. They were
the production of the Gnostics, and were
unanimously and firmly rejected by the
Church of the flrst five centuries as fabulous
and heretical. Down to the time of the
Nestorian controversy the cultus of the
Blessed Virgin would appear to have been
wholly external to the Church, and to have
been regarded as heretical. But tho Nesto-
riiiu controversies produced a great change
of sentiment in men's minds. Nestorius
had maintained, or at least it was the ten
dency of Nestorianism to maintain, not only
that our Lord had two natures, the divine
and the human (which was right), but also
that lie was two persons, in such sort that
the child born of Mary was not divine, but
merely an ordin.ary human being, until the
divinity subsequently united itself to Hira.
'This was conderaned by the Council of
Ephesus in the year 431; and the title
©EoTuzo;, loosely translated " Mother of
God," was sanctioned. The object of the
Council and of the Anti-Nestorians was in
no sense to tid honor to the mother, but

to raainlain the true doctrine with respect to
the Son. Nevertheless, the result was to
magnify the mother, and, after a time, at
the expense of the Son. The legends too
were no longer treated so roughly as before.
The Gnostics were not now objects of
dread. Nestorians, and afterwards Icono
clasts, were objects of hatred. From this
tirae the worship of St. Mary grew apace.
We learn the present state of the religious
regard in which she is held throughout
the south of Europe from St. Alfonso de'
Liguori, whose every word is vouched for
by the whole weight of his Church's author
ity. Thus in the worship of the Blessed
Virgin there .are two distinctly-marked pe
riods. The first is that which coraraences
with the apostolic tiraes, and brings us down
to the close of the century in which the
Council of Ephesus was held, during which
tirae the worship of St. Mary was wholly
external to the Church, and was regarded
by the Church as heretical, and confined
to Gnostic and CoUyridian heretics. The
second period commences with the 6th cen
tury, when iti began to spread within the
Church ; and in spite of the shock given it
by the Reformation, has continued to spread,
and is spreading still. The legend of the
Assumption of St. Mary first appears in an
insertion (now jecognized on all hands to be
a forgery) in Eusebius' Chronicle, to the
effect th.at " in the year a. d. 48 Mary the
Virgin was taken up into heaven, as some
wrote that they had had it revealed to, them."
Thus the legend crept into the Church during
the 6th and 7th centuries, and was finally
ratified by the authority both of Rorae and ¦
Constantinople. The sinlessness of St,
Mary, which has issued in the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception, was likewise of late
origin. Down to the close of the 5th cen
tury the sentiment with respect to her was
identical with that which is expressed by
theologians of the Church of England, At
this time the change of raind before referred
to, as originated by the Nestorian contro
versies,, was spreading withiii the Church;
and it became more and more the general
belief that St. Mary was preserved from
actual sin by the grace of God. It became
almost universal in tho 12th century. It
was maintained by St. Bernard that St,
Mary was conceived in original sin, but that
before her birth she was cleansed from it,
like John the Baptist and Jeremiah, This
was the sentiment of the 13th century.
Early in the 14th century died J. Duns
Scotus, and he is the flrst theologian or
schoolman who threw out as a possibility
the idea of an Immaculate Conception,
which would exempt St. Mary from origi
nal as well as actual sin. This doctrine was
affirmed by the Papal decree of Dec, 8, 1854.
Mary, a Roman Chrisf'anwho is greeted

MASCHIL

388

MATTHEW, GOSPEL 01

bj St, Paul in his Epistle to the Romans
(xvi. 6) as having tbiled hard for hira,
Mas'chil, The title of thirteen Psalras :
xxxii., xiii,, xliv,, xiv,, lU,-lv., Ixxiv,, Ixxviii,,
Ixxxvui., Ixxxix,, cxiii. Ewald regards Ps,
xlvU, 7 (A, V. " sing ye praises with lun-
dersianding ; " Heb. maschil) as the key to
the raeaning of Maschil, which in his opin
ion is a musical terra, denoting a raelody
requiring great skill in its execution.
Mash, one of the sons of Aram (Gen,
X, 23), In 1 Chr, i, 17 the name appears
as Meshech, The name Miisli is probably
represented by the Mons Masius of classi
cal writers, a range which forms the north
ern boundary of Mesopotamia, between the
'Tigris and Euphrates.
Ma'shal. The same as Misheal or
Mislial (1 Chr. vi. 74).
Mas'rekah, an ancient place, the native
spot of Samlah, one of the old kings of the
Edoraites (Gen, xxxvi. 86; 1 Chr. i. 47).
Mas'sa, a sou of Ishmael (Gen. xxv.
14; 1 Chr, i, 30), His descendants were
not improbably the Masani, placed by Ptol
emy in tbe east of Arabia, near the borders
of Babylonia.
Mas'sah, i. e. " temptation," a name
given to the spot, also called Meribah,
where the Israelites tempted Jehovah (Ex.
xvi. 7; Ps. xcv. 8, 9; Heb, in. 8).
Mastieh-tree occurs only in the Apoc
rypha (Susan, ver. 54), where the margin
of the A. V. has lentisk. 'The fragrant resin
known in the arts as " mastich," and which
is obtained by incisions raade in the trunk
in the month of August, is the produce of
this tree, whose scientific name is Fistachia
lentiscus. It is used witli us to strengthen
the teeth and guras, and was so applied by
the ancients, by whora it was much prized
on this account, and for its many supposed
medical virtues.
Mathu'sala = Methuselah, the son
of Enoch (Luke iu. 37).
Ma'tred, a daughter of Mez.ahiib, and
mother of Mehetabel, who was wife of Ha
dar (or Hadad) of Pan, king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 39; 1 Chr. i. 50).
Ma'tri, a family of the tribe of Benja
min, to which S.aul the king of Israel be-
lon.ged (1 Sam. x. 21).
Mat'tan. 1. The priest of Baal slain
before his altars in the idol teraple at Jeru
salem (2 K. xi. 18; 2 Chr. xxiU. 17). He
probably accorapanied Athalia from Sama
ria. 2. The father of Shephatiah (Jer.
xxxviii. 1).
Mat'tanah, a stiition in the latter part
ol the wanderings of the Israelites (Num.
xxi. 18, 10). It was probably situated to
the S. E. ofthe Dead Se.a.
Mattani'ah. 1. The original narae of
Zedekiah king of Judah, which wiis changed
when Nebuchadnezzar placed hira on the
throne (2 K. xxiv. 17). 2. A LevUe

singer of the sons of Asaph (1 Chr. ix. 15)
He is described as the son of Micah, Mieha
(Neh. xi. 17), or Michaiah (Neh. xU. 35),
and .after the return frcm Babylon lived in
the vUlages of the Netophathites (1 Chr.
ix. 10) or Netophathi (Neh. xii. .28), which
the singers had built in the neighborhood
of Jerusalera (Neh. xii, 29). As leader of
the Temple choir after its restoration (Neh.
xi. 17, xii. 8) in the tirae of Neheraiah, he
took part in the musical service which ac
companied the dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh. xii, 25, 35). We find hira
among the Levites of the second rank,
" keepers of the thresholds," an office which
fell to the singers (comp, 1 Chr. xv. 18,
21). 3. A descendant of Asaph, and an
cestor of Jahaziel the Levite in the reign of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xx, 14), 4, One of
the sons of Elam (Ezr, x. 20). 5. One of
the sons of Zattu (Ezr. x, 27), 6, A de
scendant of Pahath-Moab (Ezr. x. 30).
And, 7. One of the sons of Bani (Ezr. x.
37), who all put away their foreign wives
at Ezra's command. 8. A Levite, father
of Zaccur, and ancestor of Hanan the under-
treasurer who had charge of the offerings
for the Levites in the time of Nehemiah
(Neh. xiii. 13). 0. One of the fourteen
sons of Heman, whose office it was to blow
the horns in the Teraple service as appoint
ed by David (1 Chr. xxv. 4, 16). 10. A
descendant of Asaph, the Levite minstrel,
who assisted in the purification of the Tem
ple in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix.
13). Mattathi'as. 1. The father of the
Maccabees (1 Mace. U. 1, 14, 16, 17, 19,
24, 27, 39, 45, 49, xiv. 29). 2, The son of
Simon Maceabaeus who was treacherously
raurdered, together with his father and
brother, in the fortress of Docus, by Ptole-
nieus the son of Abubus (1 Mace, xvi, 14),
[Maccabees.] Mat'thew. M<atthew the Apostle and
Evangelist is the same as Levi (Luke v,
27-29) the son of a certain Alphaeus (Mark
ii. 14). His call to be an .apostle is related
by all three Evangelists in the same words,
except that Matthew (ix. 9) gives the for
mer, and Mark (U. 14) and Luke (v, 27)
the latter name. The publicans, properly so
called (pi(HicaBj), were persons who farmed
the Roraan taxes, and they were usually,
in later times, Roman knights, and persons
of wealth and credit. They eraployed un
der them inferior officers, natives of the
province whore the taxes were collected,
called properly portitores, to which class
Miitthew no doubt belonged. The traditions
respecting the later life of St, Matthew are
various; but nothing whatever is really
known, Matthew, Gospel of. The Gospel
which bears the name of St, Matthew was
written by the Apostle, according to the

MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF

389

MATTOCK

testimony of all antiquity. I. Language in
which it was first written. — Every early
writer who mentions that St. Matthew wrote
' a Gospel at all says that he wrote in He
brew (that is, in tho Syro-Chaldaic) and in
Palestine in the first century. Moreover
every early writer that has come down to
us uses the Greek of St. Matthew, and this
with the definite recognition that it is a
translaUon ; hence we may be sure that the
Greek copy belongs to the Apostolic age,
having been thus authoritatively used from
and up-to that time. Thus the question is
not the authority of the Greek translauon,
which comes from the time when the
Churches enjoyed Apostolic guidance, but
whether there was a Hebrew origin.al from
wliich it had been translated. The wit
nesses to the Hebrew original were men
sufiicieutly competent to attest so simple a
fact, especially seeing that they are relied
on in what is far more important, — that
St, Matthew wrote a Gospel at all, JThere
is in fact no evidence whatsoever that
St, Matthew wrote in Greek, II. Style
and Didion. — 1. M.atthew uses the ex
pression, " that it might be fulfilled which
was spoken of the Lord by the prophet "
(i. 22, U. 15). In ii. 5, and in later passiiges
of Matt, it is abbreviated (ii. 17, iii. 3, iv.
14, viu. 17, xii. 17, xiii. 14, 35, xxi. 4, xxvi.
56, xxvii. 9). 2. The reference to the
Messiah under the name " Son of D.avid,"
occurs in Matthew eight times ; and three
times each in Mark and Luke. 3. Jeru
salem is called "the holy city," " the holy
place" (iv. 5, xxiv. 15, xxvii. 55). 4. The
ctpression avvTlieta Totj atairog is used five
t'unes ; in the rest of the N. T. only once,
in Ep. to Hebrews. 5. The phrase " king
dom of heaven," about thirty-three tiraes ;
other writers use "kingdora of God," which
is found also in Matthew. 6. "Heavenly
Father," used about six times ; and " Father
in heaven " about sixteen, and without ex
planation, point to the Jewish mode of
speaking in this Gospel. III. Genuineness
of the- Gospel. The genuineness of the
first two chapters of the Gospel has been
questioned, but is established on satisfactory
grounds. 1, AU the old MSS, and versions
contain thera ; and they are quoted by the
Fathers of the 2d and 3d centuries. 2.
Their contents would naturally form part
of a Gospel intended prim.arily for the Jews .
3. The comraencement of ch. iii. is depen
dent on ii. 23 ; and in iv. 13 there is a refer
ence to ii. 23. 4. In constructions and
expressions they are similar to the rest of
the Gospel. IV. Time when and place
where ihe Gospel was written. — Nothing
can be said on this point with certainty,
1 he raost probable supposition is that it
was written between 50 and 60, and in Pal
es tme. V. Purpose ofthe Gospel. — The
Go'pel itself tells us ^y plain internal evi

dence that it was written for Jewl=h oon>
verts, to show thera in. Jesus of Nazareth
the Messiah of the O. T. whora they ex
pected. . Jewish converts over all the world
seem to have been intended, and not mere
ly Jews in Palestine. It is pervaded by one
principle, the fulfilment of the Law and of
the Messianic prophecies in the person of
Jesus. Matthi'as, the Apostle elected to fill
the placo of the traitor Judas (Acts i. 26).
All beyond this that we know of him for
certainty is, that he had been a constant
attendant upon the Lord Jesus during the
whole course of His ministry ; for such was
declared by St. Peter to be the nocess.ary
qualification of one who was to be a witness
of the resurrection. It is said that he
preached the Gospel and suffered raartyr-
dora i.i Ethiopia,
Mattithi'ah, 1. A Levite, the first
born of ShiiUura the Korhite, who presided
over the offerings raade in the pans (1 Chr.
ix. 31; comp. Lev. vi. 20 [12], &c.). 2.
One of the Levites of the second rank under
Asaph, appointed by David to minister be
fore the ark in the musical service (1 Chr.
xvi. 5), "with harps upon Sheminith"
(corap. 1 Chr. xv. 21), to lead the choir.
3. One of the faraily of Nebo, who had
married a foreign wife in the days of Ezra
(Ezr. X. 43). 4. Probably a priest, who
stood at the right hand of Ezra when he read
the law to tho people (Ezr. vui. 4). 5. The
same as 2, the Hebrew being in the length
ened forra (1 Chr. xv. 18, 21). He was one
of the six sons of Jeduthun (1 Chr, xxv. 3,
21). .
Mattock (Is, vu, 25). The tool used

Egyptian Hoea. (From Wilkineon.)
in Arabia for loosening the ground, de
scribed by Niebuhr, answers generally to
our mattock or grubbing-axe, i. r. a single-

MAUl

390

MEALS

hiajed pickaxe, the sarculus simplex, as
opposed to bicornis pf Palladius. The an
cient Egyptian hoe was of wood, and an
swered for hoe, spade, and pick.
Maul {i.e. a hararaer ; a variation of raall,
from malleus), a word employed by our
translators to render the Hebrew term
mephtts. The Hebrew and English alike
occur in Prov. xxv. 18 only. But a deriv
ative from the sarae root, and differing but
slightly in forra, viz. mappets, is found in
Jer. 11. 20, and is there translated by " bat
tle-axe." ¦>
Mauz'zim. The marginal note to the
A. V. of Dan. xi. 38, "the God ot forces,"
gives, as the equivalent of tbe last word,
" Miiuzzira, or gods protectors, or muni
tions." The Geneva version renders the
Hebrew as a proper narae both in Dan. xi.
38 and 39, where the word occurs again
(marg. of A. V. " munitions "). In the
Greek version of Theodotion it is treated as
a proper name, as well as in the Vulgate.
There can be little doubt that " M.auzzim "
is to be taken in its literal sense of " for
tresses,"' just as in Dan. xi. 19, 39; "the
god of fortresses " being then the deity who
presided over strongholds. But beyond
this it is scarcely possible to connect an
appellation so general with any special ob
ject of idolatrous worship. Calvin suggest
ed that it denoted " raoney," the strongest
of all powers. By others it has been sup
posed to be Mars. The opinion of Gese
nius is raore probable, that " the god of
fortresses " was Jupiter Capitolinus, for
whom Antiochus built a temple at Antioch
(Liv. xii. 20). A suggestion made by Mr.
Laird {Nin. ii. 450, ji.ote) is worthy of being
recorded. After describing Hera, the As
syrian Venus, as " standing erect on a Uon,
and crowned with a tower or mural coronet,
which, we learn from Lucian, was peculiar
to the Seraitic flgure of the goddess," he
adds in a note, "May she be connected
with the ' El Maozcm,' the deity presiding
over bulwarks and fortresses, the ' god of
forces' of Dan. xi. 38? "
Maz'zaroth. The margin of the "A. V:
of Job xxxviii. 32 gives " the twelve signs "
as the equiviilent of" M.azzaroth," and this
is in all probability its true meaning.
Meadow. This word, so poculi.arly
English, is used in the A. V. to translate
two words which are entirely distinct and
independent of each other. 1. Gen. xU. 2
and 18. Here the word in the original is
ha-Achil. It appears to be an Egyptian
term. ItsuseinJobviu.il (A.V. "flag")
seems to show thiit it is not a " meadow,"
but some kind of reed or water-plant. But
as during high inundations of the Nile -^
such inundiitions as .are the cause of fruitful
years — the whole of the Land on either side
is a marsh, and as the cultivation, extends
up to the very lip ofthe river, is it not pos

sible that Acliu may denote the herbage of
the growing crops? 2. Judg. xx. 33 only:
" the meadows of Gibeah." Here the word
is Maareh, which occurs nowhere else with
the same vowels attached to it. The sense
is thus doubly uncertain. The most plau
sible interpretation is that of the Peshito-
Syriac, which by a slight difference in the
vowel-points makes the word meairah, " the
cave." Me'ah, The Tower of, one of the
towers of the wall of Jerusalera when re
built by Nehemiah (iii. 1, xii. 39), s-ppeara
to have been situated somewhere at the
north-east part of the city, outside of the
walls of Zion.
Meals. Our information on this subject
is but scanty : the early Hebrews do not -
seem to have given special naraes to their
several meals, for the terms rendered
"dine" and " dinner" in the A. V. (Gen.
xliii. 16 ; Prov. xv. 17) are in reality gen
eral .expressions, which might more cor
rectly be rendered " eat " and " portion of
food." In the N. T. we have the Greek
terms ai^inroy and Seinvor, which the A. V.
renders respectively " dinner " and " sup
per" (Luke xiv. 12; John xxi. 12), but
which are more properly "breakfast " and
" dinner." There is sorae uncertainty .as
to the hours at which the meals were taken :
the Egyptians undoubtedly took their prin
cipal meal at noon (Gen. xliii. 16) ; labor
ers took a light meal at that tirae (Ruth ii.
14 ; corap. ver. 17) ; and occasionally that
early hour was devoted to excess and revel
ling (1 K. XX. 16). It has been inferred
frora those passages (somewhat too hastily,
we think) th.at the principal meal generiiUy
took place at noon : the Egyptians do indeed
still make a substanti.al meal at that time;
but there are indications that the Jews
rather followed the custom that prevails
among the Bedouins, and made their prin
cipal meal after sunset, and a Ugliter racal
at about 9 or 10 a. m. The posture at meals
varied at various periods : there is sufficient
evidence that the old Hebrews were in the
habit ot sitting (Gen. xxvii. 19; Judg. xix.
6; 1 Sam. xx. 5, 24; 1 K. xiU. 20), but it
does not hence follow that they siit on
chairs; they may liaye squatted on the
ground, as was the occasional, though not
perhaps the gener.al custom of the ancient
Egyptians. The t.able was in this case bvt
slightly elevated above the ground, as is stUl
the case in Egypt. As luxury increased,
the practice of sitting was exchanged for
that of reclining: the flrst intimation of
this occurs in the prophecies of Amos (iii.
12, vi. 4). The custom may have been
borrowed in the first instance from the
Babylonians and Syrians, among whom it
prevailed at an early period (Esth. i. 6, vu.
8). In the time of our Saviour, reclining
was the universal custom, as is impUed in

MEALS

391

MEALS

6 7 «
An Ancient Egyptian Dinner Party. (Willtinaon.)

a,/, n, r. Tahlea with various dishea.
rig. 4 liolda ajoiQt of meat.

&, p. Figa. d, e, g, and s. BasVeta of fji-apea. Fig. 3 is taking a wing from a ROoae;
Figs. 5 and 7 are eating fisli. Fig. G is about to drlnlc water from an earthen vcsael.

the terms used for "sitting at meat," as
the A. 'V. incorrectly has it. The couch
itself is only once mentioned (Mark vii. 4 ;
A.V." table ") , but there can he little doubt
that the Koman triclinium had been intro
duced, and that the arrangements of the ta
bles resembled those described by classical
writers. Generally speaking, only three per
sons reclined on each couch, but occasional
ly four, or even five. The couches were pro
vided with cushions, on which the left elbow
rested in support of the upper part of the
body, while the right arm reraained free ; a
room provided with these was described as
iaxQainhor, lit. " spre.ad " (Mark xiv. 15;
A. 'V. " furnished "). As several guests re
clined on the same couch, each overlapped
his neighbor, as it were, and rested his
head on or near the breast of the one who
lay behind him ; he was then said to " lean
on the bosora " of his neighbor (John xiii.
23, xxi. 20). The ordinary arrangeraent
of the couches was in three sides of a
square, the fourth being left open for the
servants to bring up the dishes. Sorae
doubt attends the ^question whether the fe
males took their meals along with the
n«tles. Tho cases of Ruth araid the reap
ers (Uuth ii. 14), of Elkanah with his
wives (1 Sara. i. 4), of Job's sons and
daughters (Job i. 4), and the general inter
mixture of the sexes in daily life, make it
more than probable that they did so join;
at the same time, as the duty of attending
upon the guests devolved upon them (Luke
X. 40), they probably took a somewhat
irregular and briefer repast. Before com
mencing the meal the guests washed their
hands. This custom was founded on nat
ural decorum ; not only was the hand the

substitute for our knife and fork, but the
hands of all the guests were dipped into
one and the same dish. Another prelimi
nary step was the grace or blessing, of
which we have but one instance in the 0. T.
(1 Sam. ix. 13), and raore than one pro
nounced by our Lord Himself -in the N. T.
(Matt. XV. 36; Luke ix. 16; John vi. 11).
¦irhe mode of taking the food differed in no
raaterial point from the modern usages of
the East ; generally there was a single dish,
into which each guest dipped his hand
(Matt. xxvi. 28) ; occasionally separate
portions were served out to each (Gen.
xliii. 34; Euth ii. 14; 1 Sam. i. 4). A
piece of bread was held between the thumb
and two fingers of the right h.and, and was
dipped either into a bowl of melted grease
(in which case it was termed "a sop,"
John xiii. 26), or into the dish of meat,
whence a piece was conveyed to the mouth
between the layers of bread. At the con
clusion of the meal, grace was again said
in conforraity with Deut. viii. 10, and the
hands were again washed. Thus far we
have described the ordinary raeal ; on state
occasions more ceremony was used, and
the meal was enlivened in various ways.
Such occasions were numerous, in connec
tion partly with public, partly with private
events.^ On these occasions a sumptuous
repast was prepared ; the guests were pre
viously invited (Esth. v. 8; Matt. xxii. 3),
and on the day of the feast a second invi
tation w.as issued to those that were bidden
(Esth. vi. 14 ; Prov. ix. 3 ; Matt. xxii. £>.
The visitors were received with a kiss
(Tob. vii. 6 ; Luke vii. 45) ; water was pro
duced for 'hem to wash 'heir feet with
(Luke vi' 44) ; the head, the beard, tb«

MEARAH

392

MEDES

feet, and soraetiraes the clothes, were per
fumed with ointment (Ps. xxiii. 5 ; Am. vi.
6 ; Luke vii. 38 ; John xii. 3) ; on special
occasions robes were provided (Matt. xii.
11) ; and the head was decorated with
wreaths (Is. xxviii. 1 ; 'Wisd. ii. 7, 8 ; Jo
seph. A7if. xix. 9, § 1). The regulation
of the feast was under the superintendence
of a speci.al officer (John ii. 8 ; A. "V. " gov
ernor of the feast"), whose business it was
to taste the food and the liquors before they
were placed on the table, .and to settle
about the toasts -and amusements ; he w.as
generally one of the guests (Ecclus. xxxii.
1, 2), and might therefore take part in the
conversation. The places of the guests
were settled according to their respective
rank (Gen. xliii. 33 ; 1 Sam. ix. 22 ; Luke
xiv. 8; Mark xii. 39; John xiii. 23); por
tions of food were placed before each (1
Sara. i. 4; 2 S.am. vi. 19; 1 Chr. xvi. 8),
the raost honored guests receiving either
larger (Gen. xliii. 34; corap. Herod, vi.
67) or raore choice (1 Sam. ix. 24) por
tions than the rest. The meal was enliv
ened with music, singing, and dancing (2
Sam. xix. 35 ; Ps. Ixix. 12 ; Is. v. 12 ; Am.
vi. 5), or with riddles (Judg. xiv. 12) ;
and amid these entertainments the festival
was prolonged for several days (Esth.
i. 3, 4).
Msa'rah., a place named in Josh. xiii. 4
only. The word means in Hebrew a cave,
and it is commonly assumed that the refer
ence is to sorae remarkable cavern in the
neighborhood of Zidon.
Measures. ["Weights and Measubes.]
Meat. It does not appear that the word
" meat " is used in any one instance in the
A. V. of either the O. or N. Testament, in
the sense which it now almost exclusive
ly bears of animal food. The latter is de
noted uniformly by " flesh." The only
possible exceptions to this assertion in the
O. T. are — (a.) Gen. xxvii. 4, &c., "sa
vory meat." (J.) Ib. xiv. 23, "corn and
bread and meat." The only real and in
convenient ambiguity caused by the ch.ange
which has taken place in the meaning of
ths word is in the case of the " meat-oflfer-
ing." [Meat-offeking.]
Meat-offering. The word minchdh
signifies originally a gift of any kind, and
appears to be used generally of a gift from
an inferior to a superior, whether God or
man. The law or ceremonial ofthe meat-
oflTering is described in Lev. ii. and vi. 14-
23. It was to be coraposed of fine fiour,
seasoned with salt, and raixed with oil and
frankincense, but without leaven; and it
was generally accorapanied by a drink-of
fering of wine. A portion of it, including
all the frankincense, was to be burnt on the
altar as "a memorial ;" the rest belonged
to the priest ; but the raeat-ofi'erings offered
by the priests theraselves were to be wholly

burnt. Its meaning appears t: be exactly
expressed in the words of David (1 Chr.
xxix. 10-14). It will be seen that this
rae.aning involves neither of the main ideas
of sacrifice — the atoneraent for sin and
self-dedication to God. It takes them for
granted, and is based on them. According
ly, the meat-ofTering, properly so-called,
seems- .always to have been a subsidiary of
fering, needing to be introduced by the sin-
offering, which represented the one idea,
and forming an appendage to the burnt-
offering which represented the other. The
ttnbloody offerings offered alone did not
properly belong to the regular meat-offer
ing.. ''They were usually substitutes for
other offerings (comp. Lev. v. 11 ; Num. v.
15). [Meat.]
Mebunna'i. In this form appears, in
one passage only (2 Sam. xxiii. 27)., the
name of one of David's guard, who is else
where called Sibbechai (2 Sam. xxi. 18;
1 Chr. XX. 4) or Sibbecai (1 Chr. xi. 29,
xxvii. II) in the A. "V. The reading " Sib
bechai " is evidently the true one.
Meeh'erathite, The, th.at is, the na
tive or inhabitant of a' place called Meche-
rah (1 Chr. xi. 3G). In the parallel list of
2 Sam. xxiii. the name appears,. with other
variations, as " the Maachathite" (ver. 34).
Me'dad. [Eldad and Medad.]
Me'dan, a son of Abraham and Keturah
(Gen. xxv. 2; 1 Chr. i. 32). It has been
supposed, from the similarity of the narae,
that the tribe descended frora Medan was
raore closely allied to Midian than by raere
blood-relation, and that it was the s.ame as,
or a portion of, the latter. There is, how
ever, no ground for this theory beyond iti
plausibility. Med'etaa, a town on the eastern side of
Jordan, first alluded to in Num. xxi. 30.
Here it seems to denote the limit of the ter
ritory of Heshbon. It next occurs in the
enumeration of the country divided araongst
the trans-Jordanic tribes (Josh. xiii. 9), as
giving its narae to a district of level downs
called " the Mishor of Medeba," or " the
Mishor on Medeba." At the time of the
conquest Medeba belonged to the Amor
ites, apparently one of the towns taken from
Moab by them. In the- time of Ahaz Me
deba was a sanctuary of Moab (Is. xv. 2).
It has retained its narae down to our own
times, and lies 4 miles S. E. of Heshbon,
on a rounded but rocky hill.
Medes, Me'dia. Media lay north-wesi
of Persia Proper, south and south-west of
the Caspian, east of Armenia and Assyria,
west and north-west of the great salt des
ert of Irani. Its greatest length was frora
north to south, and in this direction it ex
tended from the 32d to tho 40th parallel, a
distance of 650 miles. In width it reached
from about long. 45° to 53''; but its aver
age breadth was not more than from 25o to

MEDES

393

MEDES

8u0 miles. The division of Media com
monly recognized by the Greeks and Ro
mans was that into Media Magna and Media
Atropatene. 1. Media Atropatene corre
sponded nearly to the modern Azerbijan,
being the tract situated between the Caspi
an and the mountains which run north from
Zagros. 2. Media Magna lay south and
east of Atropatene. It contained great
part of Kurdistan and Luristan, with all
Ardelan and Irak Ajemi. It is indicative ot
the division, that there were two Eobatanas
— one, the northern, at Takht-i- Suleiman ;
the other, the southern, at Hamadan, on
the flanks of Mount Orontes — respective
ly the capitals of the two districts. [Ec
batana.] Next to the two Eobatanas, the
chief town iu Media was undoubtedly Rha-
ges, the Raga ot the inscriptions. — It may
be gathered from the mention ofthe Medes,
by Moses, araong the races descended from
Japhet [Mad.\i], that they were a nation
of very high antiquity ; and it is in accord
ance with this view that we find a notice
of them in the primitive Babylonian history
of Berosus, who says that the Medes con
quered Babylon at a very remote period
(cir. 'B. c. 2468), and that eight Median
monarchs reigned there consecutively, over
a space of 224 years. The deepest obscu
rity hangs, however, over the whole history
of the Medes from the time of their bearing
sway in Babylonia (e. c- 2458-2234) to
their first appearance in the cuneiform in
scriptions among the enemies of Assyria,
about b. c. 880. They then inhabit a por
tion of the region whieh bore their name
down to the Mohamraedan conquest of Per
sia; but whether they were recent irarai-
. grants into it, or had held it frora a remote
antiquity, is uncertain. However tliis was,
it is certain that at first, and for a long
series of years, tliey were very inferior in
power to the great empire established upon
their flank. Herodotus represents the de
cadence of As.'syria as greatly accelerated by
a formal revolt of the Medes, and places this
revolt about b. c. 708. He gives a succes
sion of king's — Deioces, Phraortes, Cyax
ares, and Astyages. But the cuneiform
records of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar
haddon clearly show that the Median king
dora did not commence so early as Herodo
tus imagined.- These three princes, whose
reigns cover the space extending from e. c.
720 to B. c. 660, all carried their arms deep
Jito Media, and found it, not under the
dominion of a single powerful monarch,
but under the rule of a vast number of
petty chieftains. It cannot have been till
near the middle of the 7th century b. c.
that ths Mediiin kingdom was consolidated,
and becam.e formidable to its neighbors.
Cyaxares, the third Median monarch, took
Nineveh and conquered Assyria, b. c. 625.
The limits of the Median Empire cannot

be definitely fixed. From north to south
its extent was iu no place great, since it
was certainly confined between the Persian
Gulf and the Euphrates on the one side,
the Black and Caspian Seas on the other.
From cast to west it had, however, a wide
expansion, since it reached frora the Halys
at least as far as the Caspian Gates, and
possibly farther. It was separated from
Babylonia either by the Tigris, or more
probably by a line running about half way
between that river and the Euphrates. Its
greatest length raay be reckoned at 1500
railes frora N. W. to S." E., and its average
breadth at 400 or 450 miles. Its area would
thus be about 600,000 square miles, or
soraewhat greater than that of modern
Persia. 'With regard to the nature of the
government established by the Medes over
the conquered nations, we possess but lit
tle trustworthy evidence. Herodotus in
one place compares, somewhat vaguely,
the Median with the Persian systera (i.
134) ; but on the whole it is perhaps most
probable that the Assyrian organization
was continued by the Medes, the subject-
nations retaining their native monarchs,
and merely acknowledging subjection by
the payraent of an annual tribute. The
satrapal organization was apparently a
Persian invention, begun by Cyrus, con
tinued by. Cambyses, his son, but first
adopted as the regular governmental sys
tem by Darius Hystaspis. Of all the an
cient Oriental monarchies the Median was
the shortest in duration. It was over
thrown by the Persians under Cyrus, b- c.
558. After many partial engagements, a
great battle was fought between the two
armies, and the result was the complete
defeat of the Medes, and the capture of
their king, Astyages, by Cyrus. The treat
ment of the Medes by the victorious Per
sians was not that of an ordinary conquered
nation. According to some writers (as
Herodotus and Xenophon) there was a close
relationship between Cyrus and the last
Median monarch, who was therefore natu
rally treated with more than comraon ten
derness. The two nations were closely
akin ; they had the same Aryan or Iranic
origin, the sarae early traditions, the same
language, nearly the same religion, and ul
timately the same manners and customs,
dress, and general mode of life. Medes
were advanced to stations of high honor
and importance under Cyrus and his suc
cessors. The original religion of the Medes
must undoubtedly have been that simple
creed which is placed before us in the
earlier pcjrtions of the Zendavesta. Its
peculiar characteristic was Dualism, the
belief in the existence of two opposite
principles of good and evil, nearly if not
quite on a par with one another. Orraazd
and Ahriman were both self-c?used and

MEDES

394

MEDiCLNE

gelf-txistent, both indestructible, both po
tent to work their will. Besides Orraazd,
the Aryans worshipped the Sun and Moon,
under the names of Mithra and Horaa ; and
they believed in the existence of nuraerous
spirits or genii, sorae good, some bad, the
subjects and ministers respectively of the
two powers of Good and Evil. Their mi
gration brought them into contact with the
fire-worshippers of Armenia and Mount
Zagros, araong whom Magisra had been
established from a remote antiquity. The
result was either a corabination of the two
religions, or in some cases an actual con
version of the conquerors to the faith and
wbrship of the conquered. So far as can
be gathered from the scanty materials in
our possession^ the latter was the case with
the Medes. — The customs of the Medes
nearly resembled those of their neighbors,
the Arraenians and the Persians ; but they
were regarded as the inventors, their
neighbors as the copyists. They were
brave and warlike, excellent riders, and
remarkably skilful with the bow. The
flowing robe, so well known from the
Persepolitan sculptures, was their native
dress, and was certainly among the points
for which the Persiiins were beholden to
them. References io the JHedes. — The
references to the Medes in the canonical
Scriptures are not very numerous, but they
are striking. "We first hear of certain
" cities of the Medes," in which the cap
tive Israelites were placed by " the king of
Assyria " on the destruction of Samaria,
B. 0. 721 (2 K. xvii. 6, xviii. 11). This
implies the subjection of Media to Assyria
at the time of Shalmaneser, or of Sargon,
his successor, and accords very closely
with the account given by the latter of cer
tain military colonies which he planted in
the Median country. Soon afterwards
Isaiah prophesies the part which the Medes
shall take in the destruction of Babylon
(Is. xiii. 17, xxi. 2) ; which is again still
more distinctly declared by Jereraiah (li.
II and 28), who sufficiently indicates the
independence of Media in his day (xxv. 25).
Daniel relates the fact of the Medo-Persic
conquest (v. 28, 31), giving an account of
the reign of Darius the Mede, who appears
to have been made viceroy by Cyrus (vi.
1-28). In Ezra we have a mention of
Achmetha (Ecbatana), "the palace in the
province of the Medes," where the decree
of Cyrus was found (vi. 2-5) — a notice
which accords with the known facts that
the Median capital was the seat of govern
ment under Cyrus, but a royal residence
only, and not the seat of govermtlent under
Darius Hystaspis. Finally, in Esther, the
high rank of Media under the Persian
kings, yet at the same time its subordinate
position, are marked by the frequent com
bination of the two names in phrases of

honor, t'. c precedency being in every case
assigned to the Persians. In the Apocry
pha the Medes occupy a more prominent
place. The chief scene of one whole book
(Tobit) is Media; and in another (Judith)
a very striking portion of the narrative be
longs to the same country. The mention
of Khages in both narratives as a Median
town and region of importance is geograph
ically correct; and it is historically true
that Phraortes suffered Ms overthrow in
the Ehagian district-
Me'dian. Darius, " the son of Ahas
uerus, of the seed of the Medes " (Dan.
ix. 1) or "the Mede" (xi. 1), is thus de
scribed in Dan. v. 31.
Medicine. Next to care for food,
clothing, and shelter, the curing of hurts
takes precedence even amongst savage na
tions. At a later period comes the treat
ment of sickness, and recognition of states
of disease ; and these mark a nascent civ
ilization. From the most ancient testi
monies, sacred and secular, Egypt, from
whatever cause, though perhaps from ne
cessity, was foremost among the nations in
this most huraan of studies purely physical.
Egypt was the earliest home of medical and
other skill for the region of the Mediter
ranean basin, and every Egyptian raummy
of the more expensive and elaborate sort
involved a process of anatomy. Still wa
have no trace of any philosophical or ra
tional system of Egyptian origin; and med
icine in Egypt was a mere art or profes
sion. Of science the Asclepiadae of Greece
were the true originators. Hippocratcfj
who wrote a book on " Ancient Medicine,"
and who seems to have had many oppor
tunities of access to foreign sources, gives
no prorainence to Egypt. Compared with
the wild countries around thera, at . any
rate, the Egyptians must have seemed in
calculably advanced. Representations of
early Egyptian surgery apparently occur
ou some of the monuments of Beni-Has-
san. Flint knives used for embalming have
been recovered — the "Ethiopic stone" of
Herodotus (ii. 86 ; comp. Ex. iv. 25) w.as
probably either black tlint or agate; and
those who have assisted at the opening of
a niumray have noticed that the teeth ex
hibited a dentistry not inferior in execution
to the work of the best modern experts.
This confirms the statement of Herodotus
that every part of the body was studied, by
a distinct practitioner. Pliny (vii. 57) as
serts that the Egyptians claimed the inven-
tion of the healing art, and (xxvi. 1) thinks
them subject to many diseases. Their
" many medicines " are mentioned (Jer.
xlvi. 11). Athothmes IL, king of the
country, is said to have written on the sub
ject of anatomy. The various recipes
known to have been beneficial were record
ed, with their peculiar cases, in the me*

MEDICINE

895

MEDICINE

moirs of physic, inscribed among the laws,
and deposited in the principal temples of
tlie place ("Wilkinson, iii. 896, 397). The
reput.ation of its practitioners in historical
tunes was such that both Cyrus and Darius
sent to Egypt for physicians or surgeons.
Of midwifery we have a distinct notice (Ex.
i. 15), and of women as its practitioners,
which fact may also be verified from the
sculptures. The physicians had salaries
from the public treasury, and treated al
ways according to established precedents,
or deviated frora these at their peril, in case
of a fatal terniination ; if, however, the pa
tient died under accredited treatment no
blame was attached. The Egyptians who
lived in the corn-growing region are said by
Herodotus (ii. 77) to have been specially
attentive to health. 'The scrupulous atten
tion paid to the dead was favorable to the
health of the living. But, to pursue to
later times this merely general question, it
appears that the Ptolemies theraselves prac
tised dissection, and that, at a period when
Jewish intercourse with Egypt was com
plete and reciprocal, there existed in Alex
andria a great ze.al for anatomical study.
In comparing the growth of medicine in the
rest of the ancient world, the high rank of
its practitioners — princes and heroes —
settles at once the question as to the esteem
in which it was held in the Homeric and
pre-Horaeric period. The practice of physic
was not araong the Jews a privilege of
the priesthood. Any one raight practise it,
and this publicity raust have kept it pure-
Nay, there was no Scriptural bar to its
practice by resident aliens. 'We read of
"physicians," " healing," &c-, in Ex. xxi.
19; 2 K. viii. 29; 2 Chr. xvi. 12; Jerem.
viii. 22. At the same time the greater lei
sure of the Levites and their other advan
tages would raake them the students of the
nation, as a rule, in all science, and their
constant residence in cities would give them
tlie opportunity, if carried out in fact, of a
far wider field of observation. The reign
of peace of Solomon's days must have
opened, especially with renewed Egyptian
intercourse, new facilities for the study. He
himself seems to have included in his fa
vorite natural history some knowledge of
the medicinal uses of the creatures. His
works show him conversant with the notion
of remedial treatment (Prov. iii. 8, vi. 15, xii.
18, xvii. 22, XX. 30, xxix. 1 ; Eccles. iii. 3) ;
and one passage indicates considerable
knowledge of anatomj'. The statement that
king Asa (2 Chr. xvi- 12) " sought noi to Je
hovah but to the physicians," may seem to
countenance the notion that a rivalry of actu
al worship, based on some medical fancies,
nad been set up. The captivity at Baby
lon brought the Jews in contact with a
new sphere of thought. "We know too little
ofthe precise state of medicine in Babylon,

Susa, and the " cities of the Medes," to de
termine the direction in which the impulse
so derived would have led the exiles. The
book of Ecclesiasticus shows the increased
regard given to the distinct study of medi
cine, by the repeated mention of physicians,
&c., which it contains, and-frhich, as prob
ably belonging to the period of the Ptole
mies, it might be expected to show. Rank
and honor are said to be the porti(m of the
physici.an, and his office to be from the
Lord (xxxviii. 1, 3, 12). The repeated al
lusions to sickness in vii. 35, xxx. 17, xxxi.
22, xxxvii. 30, xxxviii. 9, coupled with the
former recognition of merit, have caused
some to suppose that this author was him
self a physician. In AVisd. xvi. 12, plaister
is spoken of; anointing, as a means of
healing, in Tob. vi. 8. To bring down tho
subject to the period of the N. T., St
Luke, " the beloved physician," who prac
tised at Antioch whilst tho body was his
care, could hardly have failed to be con
versant with all the leading opinions cur
rent down to his own time. The medicine
and surgery of St. Luke were probably
not inferior to those commonly in demand
among educated Asiatic Greeks, and raust
have been, as regards their basis, Greek,
and not Jewish. Before proceeding to the
examination of diseases in detail, it may
be well to observe that the question of
identity between any ancient mfilady known
by description, and any raodern one known
by experience, is often doubtful. Sorae
diseases, just as some plants and some ani
mals will exist almost anywhere ; others can
only be produced within narrow liraits de
pending on the conditions of climate, habit,
&c. Eruptive diseases of the acute kind
are more prevalent in the East than in
colder cliraes. They also run their course
more rapidly. Disease of various kinds is
commonly regarded as a divine infliction,
or denounced as a penalty for transgres
sion; "the evil diseases of Egypt" are
especially so characterized ; so the emerods
ofthe Philistines (1 Sara. v. 6); the severe
dysentery (2 Chr. xxi. 15, 19) of Jehoram,
which was also epidemic; so the sudden
deaths of Er, Onan, the Egyptian first
born, Nabal, Bathsheba's son, and Jero
boam's are ascribed to the action of Jeho
vah immediately, or through a prophet.
Pestilence (Hab. iii- 5) attends His path,
and is innoxious to those whom he shelters
(Ps. xci. 3-10) . It is by Jereraiah, Ezekiel,
and Amos associated (as historically in 2
Sam. xxiv. 13) with "the sword" aud
"famine." The sicknesses of the widow's
son of Zarephath, of Ahaziah, Benhadad,
the ISprosy of Uzziah, the boil of Hezekiah,
are also noticed as diseases sent by Jeho
vah, or in which He interposed. In 2 Sam.
iii. 29, disease is invoked as a curse, and in
Solomon's prayer, 1 K. viii. 37 (comp. %

MEDICINE

396

MEDICINE

Chr. XX. 9), anticipated as a chastisement.
Satanic agency appears also as procuring
disease (Job ii. 7; Luke xiii. 11, 16).
Diseases are also raentioned as ordinary
calamities. Among special diseases naraed
in the O. T. are, ophthalmia (Gen. xxix.
17), which is* perhaps more coramon in
Syria and Egypt than anywhere else in the
world; especially in the fig season, the
juice of the newly-ripe fruit having the
power uf giving it. It raay occasion par
tial or total blindness (2 K. vi. 18). The
eye-salve (Rev. iii. 18) was a reraedy
coramon to Orientals, Greeks, and Romans.
Several diseases are mentioned, the naraes
of which are derived from various words,
signifying to burn or to be hot (Lev. xxvi.
IG; Deut. xxviii. 22). The "burning
boil," or " of a boil " (Lev. xiii. 23) is
merely marked by the notion of an effect
resembling that of fire, like our " carbun
cle ; " it raay possibly find an equivalent
in the Damascus boil of the present
tirae. The diseases rendered " scab " and
" scurvy" in Lev. xxi. 20, xxii. 22, Deut.
xxviii. 27, may oe almost any skin disease.
Some of these may be said to approach the
type of leprosy. The " h/otch {shechin)
of Egypt " (Deut. xxviii. 27) is so vague a
terra as to yield a most uncertain sense ;
the pi igue as known by its attendant bubo,
has been suggested. It is possible that the
Elephantiasis Graecorum raay be intended.
The same word is used to express the
¦' boil" of Hezekiah. In Deut. xxviii. 35,
. 5 mentioned a disease attacking the " knees
fcnd legs," consisting in a " sore botch which
c.tnnot be healed," but extended, in the se
quel of the verse, frora the " sole of the foot
to the top of the head." The latter part of
the quotation would certainly accord with
Elephantiasis Graecorum. The Elephanti
asis Graecorum is what now passes under
the narae of " leprosy " — the lepers, e. g.
ot the huts near the Zion gate of modern
Jerusalem are elephantiasiacs. [Lepkosy.]
The disease of king Antiochus (2 Maec.
ix. 5-10, &c.) is that of a boil breeding
worms. There is some doubt whether this
disease be not allied to phthiriasis, in which
lice are bred, and cause ulcers. In Deut.
xxviii. 65, it is possible that a palpitation
of the heart is intended to be spoken of
(comp. Gen. xiv. 26). In Markxi. 17 (comp.
Luke ix. 38) we have an apparent case of
epilepsy. The expression of Ex. ix. 10, a
"boil" flourishing, or ebullient with blains,
may perhaps be a disease analogous to
phlegmonous erysipelas, or even coraraon
erysipelas. The " withered hand " of Jero
boara (1 K. xiii. 4-6), and of the raan.
Matt. xii. lJ-13 (corap. Luke vi. l8), |,is
such an eflect as is known to follow frora
me obliteration of the main artery cf any
•nember, or torn paralysis of the principal
nerve, either through disease or th-ough

injury. The case of the widow's son
restored by Elisha (2 K. iv. 19) was proba
bly one of sunstroke. The disease of Asa
"in his feet" which attacked him in his
old age (1 K. xv. 23 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 12), anu
became exceeding great, may have been
either oedema, swelling, or podagra, gout.
The disease of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. iv.
33) may be viewed as a species of the
melancholy known as Lycanthropia. Per
sons so affected wander like wolves in sep
ulchres by night, and imitate the howling
of a wolf or a dog. Here should be noticed
the mental malady of Saul. His melan
choly seeras to have had its origin in his
sin. Music, which soothed hira for a while,
has entered largely into the milder raodern
treatraent of lunacy. The palsy meets us
in the N. T. only, and in features too famil
iar to need special remark. Gangrene, or
mortification in its various forms, is a to
tally different disorder frora the " canker"
of the A. V. in 2 Tim. ii. 17. Both gan
grene and cancer were comraon in all the
countries farailiar to the Scriptural writers,
and neither differs frora the modern disease
of the same name. The bite or sting of
venomous beasts can hardly be treated as a
disease ; but in connection with the " fiery
{i. e. venomous) serpents " of Num. xxi. 6,
and the deliverance from death of those
bitten, it deserves a notice. The brazen
figure was syrabolical only. It was custom
ary to consecrate the iraage of the affliction,
either in its cause or in its effect, as iu the
goldan emerods, golden mice, of 1 Sam. vi.
4, 8, and in the ex-votos comraon in Egypt,
even before the Exodus ; and these may be
compared with this setting up ofthe brazen
serpent. The scorpion and centipede are
natives ofthe Levant (Rev. ix. 5, 10), and,
with a large variety of serpents, swarm
there. The disease Of old age has acquired
a place in Biblical nosology chiefly owing
to the elegant allegory into which "Tlie
Preacher " throws the successive tokens of
the ravage of tirae on man (Eccl. xii.).
The course of decline is marked in meta
phor by the darkening of the great lights
of nature, and che ensuing period of life is
compared to the broken wjather of the
wet season, setting in when suraracr is
gone, when after every shower fresh clouds
are in the sky, as contrasted with the
showers of other seasons, which pass away
into clearness. The "keepers of the
house" are perhaps the ribs which support
the frarae, or the arms and shoulders which
enwrap and protect it. The ' ' strong raen "
are its supporters, the lower limbs "bowing
themselves " under the weight they once so
lightly bore. The "grinding " hardly aeeds
to be explained of the teeth, now become
"few." The "lookers from the windows"
are the pupils of the eyes, now " darkened."
The "doors shut" represent the d ulness of

MEDICINE

397

MEGIDDO

those other senses which are the portals of
knowledge. The "rising up at the voice
of a bird " portrays the light, soon-fleeting,
easily-broken sluraber of the aged man ; or
possibly, and more literally, actual waking
in tho early morning, when first the cock
crows, m.ay be intended. Tho "daughters
of music brought low," suggest the
" big manly voice
Now turned again to cliiidisli treble ; "
and also, as illustrated by Barzillai, the
failure in the discernment and the utterance
of musical notes. The fears of old age are
next noticed: "They shall be afraid of
that which is high ; " an obscure expression,
perhaps, for what are popularly called
" nervous " terrors, exaggerating and mag
nifying every object of alarm. "Fear in
the way " is at first less obvious ; but we
observe that nothing unnerves and agitates
an old person more than the prospect of a
long journey. Thus regarded, it becoraes
a fine aud subtile touch in ths description
of decrepitude. All readiness to haste is
arrested and a numb despondency succeeds.
The "flourishing" of "the alraond-trce "
is still raore obscure ; but we observe this
tree in Palestine blossoming when others
show no sign of vegetation, and when it is
dead winter all around — no ill type, per
haps, of the old man who has survived his
own contemporaries and many of his juniors.
Youthful lusts die out, and their organs,
of which "the grasshopper" is perhaps a
figure, .are relaxed. 'The "silver cord"
may be that of nervous sensation, or mo
tion, or even the spinal marrow itself.
Perhaps sorae incapacity of retention raay
be signified by the " golden bowl broken ; "
the " pitcher broken at the well," suggests
sorae vit.al supply stopping at the usual
source — derangement perhaps of the di
gestion or of the respiration; the "wheel
shivered at tbe cistern," conveys, through
the iraage of the water-lifting process fa
miliar in irrigation, the notion ofthe blood,
pumped as it were, through the vessels,
and fertilizing the whole systera; for " the
blood is tho life." This careful register of
the tokens of decline raight lead us to ex
pect great care for the preservation of
health and strength; and this indeed is
found to mark the Mosaic system, in the
regulations concerning diet, the "divers
washings," aud the pollution imputed to a
"orpse — nay, even in circumcision itself.
These served not only the ceremonial pur
pose of imparting self-consciousness to the
Hebrew, and keeping him distinct frora
alien adraixture, but had a sanitary aspect
of rare wisdom, when we regard the coun
try, the cliraate, and the age. Araong
surgical instruments or pieces of apparatus
the following only are alluded to in Scrip
ture. A cutting instrument, supposed a
¦• 6harp-s tout " (Ex. iv. 25) . The ' ' knife "

of Josh. V. 2 was probably a more refined
instrument for the sarae purpose. An
"awl" is raentioned (Ex. xxi. 6) as used
to bore through the ear of the bondraan
who refused release, and is supposed to
have been a surgical instruraent. The
" roller to bind " of Ez. xxx. 21 was for a
broken limb, as still used. A scraper, for
which the "potsherd" of Job was a sub
stitute (Job ii. 8). Ex. xxx. 23-25 is a
prescription in form. An occasional trace
occurs of some chemical knowledge, e. g.
the calcination of the gold by Moses ; the
effect of "vinegar upon natrum" (E.x.
xxxii. 20; Prov. x.xv. 20; comp. Jer. ii.
22) ; the mention of " the apothscary "
(Ex. xxx. 35; Eccles. x. 1), and ofthe
merchant in "powders" (Cant. iii. 6),
shows that a distinct and iraportant branch
of trade was set up in these wares, in
which, as at a modern druggist's, articles
of luxury, &c., are combined with the
remedies of sickness. Araong the most
favorite of external remedies has always
been the bath. There were special oc
casions on which the bath was ceremonially
enjoined. The Pharisees and Essenes
airaed at scrupulous strictness of all such
rules (Matt. xv. 2 ; Mark vii. 5 ; Luke
xi. 38). River-bathing was common, but
houses soon began to include a bath-room
(Lev. XV. 13 ; 2 K. v. 10 ; 2 Sam. xi. 2 ;
Susanna 15).
Megid'do was in a very marked position
on the southern rim of the plain of Es
draelon, on the frontier-line of the ter
ritories of the tribes of Issachar and
Manasseh, and coraraanding one of those
passes frora the north into the hill-country
which were of such critical iraportance on
various occasions in the history of Judaea
(Judith iv. 7). The first mention occurs in
Josh. xii. 21, where Megiddo appears as
the city of one of the kings whom Joshua
defeated on the west of the Jordan. The
song of Deborah brings the place vividly
before us, as the scene of the great conflict
between Sis'era and Barak. The chariots
of Sisera were gathered "unto the river of
Kishon ",(Judg. iv. 13) ; Barak went down
with his men " from Mount Taboe" into
the plain (iv. 14) ; " then fought the kings
of Canaan in Taanach by the waters of
Megiddo" (v. 19). The chief historical
interest of Megiddo is concentrated in
Josiah's death. 'When Pharaoh-Necho
carae from Egypt against the king of
Assyria, Josiah joined the latter, and was
slain at Megiddo (2 K. xxiii. 29), and his
body was carried from thence to Jerusalem
(ib. 30). The story is told in the Chronicles
iu more detail (2 Chr. xxxv. 22^4). There
the fatal action is said to have taken place
" in the valley of Megiddo." This calamity
made a deep and permanent impression on
tho Jews. Thus, in the language of the

MEGIDDON

398

MELCHIZEDEK

prophets (Zech. xii. 11), "the mourning of
Hadadrimmon in the valley of Megiddon "
becoraes a poetical expression for the
deepest and raost despairing grief; as in
the Apocalypse (Rev. xvi. 16) Armaged
don, in continuance of the sarae imagery,
is presented ag the scene of terrible and
final conflict. Megiddo is the modern el-
Lejjun, which is undoubtedly tho Legio of
Eusebius and Jerome. There is a copious
streara flowing down the gorge, and turn
ing some mills before joining the Kishon.
Here -are probably the "waters of Megid
do " of Judg. V. 19.
Megid'don, The Valley of. The
extended form of the preceding name. It
occurs only in Zech. xii. 11.
Mehet'abeel. Another and less cor
rect form of Mehetabel. The ancestor
of Shemaiah the prophet who was hired
against Nehemiah by 'Tobiah and Sanballat
(Neh. vi. 10).
Mehet abel, the daughter of M.atred,
and wife of Hadad, or Hadar, the eighth
and last-mentioned king of Edom (Gen.
xxxvi. 39).
Mehi'aa, a family of Nethinira, the de
scendants of Mehida, returned from Baby
lon with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 52 ; Neh. vii.
64). Me'hir, the son of Chelub, the brother
of Shuah (1 Chr. iv. 11).
Meh.ol'atMte, The, a word occurring
once only (1 Sam. xviii. 19). It no doubt
de-iotes that Adriel belonged to a place
called Meholali, but whether that was Abel-
Melio'..ah, afterwards the native place of
Elisha, or another, is uncertain.
Mehu'jael, the son of Irad, and fourth
in descent from Cain (Gen. iv. 18).
Mehu'man, one of the seven eunuchs
(A. V. " charaberlains ") of Ahasuerus
(Esth. i. 10).
Mehu'nim, Ezr. ii. 50. Elsewhere
called Mehunims and Meunim.
Mehu'nims, The, a people against
whom king Uzzhah waged a successful w.ar
(2 Chr. xxvi. 7). Although so different in
its English dress, yet the name is in the
original merely the plural of Mami [Maon].
Another notice of the Mehunims in the
reign of Hezekiah (cir. n. c. 726-697) is
found in 1 Chr. iv. 41. Here they are
spoken of as a pastoral people, either
themselves Karaites, or in alliance with
Hamites, quiet and peaceable, dwelling in
tents. Here, however, tho A. V. treats the
word as an ordinary noun, and renders it
" habitations." A third notice of the Me
hunim, corrobor.ative of those already men
tioned, is found in the narrative of 2 Chr.
XX. TherS is every reason to believe that
in ver. 1 " the Ammonites " should be read
as " the Maonites," who in that case a-.e
the "men of Mount Seir" mentioned later
in the narrative (ver. 10, 22). In all these

passages, including the last, the LXX. reu.
der the name by of Mnvatoi — the Minae-
ans — a nation of Arabia renowned for ,
their traffic in spices, who are named by
Strabo, Ptolemy, and other ancient geogra
phers, and whose seat is now ascertained to
have been the S. 'W. portion of the groat
Arabian peninsula, the western half of the
modern Hadramaut. The latest appear
ance of the name Mehunims in the Bible
is in the lists of those who returned from
the Captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 50,
A- V- "Mehunim;" Neh. vii. 52, A. "V.
" Meunim ").
Me-jar'kon, a town in the territory of
Dan (Josh. xix. 46 only) ; named next in
order to Gathrimmon, and in the neighbor
hood of Joppa or Japho.
Mek'onah, one of the towns which
were re-inhabited after the captivity by the
men of Judah (Neh. xi. 28).
Melati'ah, a Gibeonite, who assisted in
rebuilding the wall of Jerusalera (Neh.
iii. 7).
Mel'chl. 1. The son of Janna, and an
cestor of Joseph in the genealogy of Jesus
Christ (Luke iii. 24). 2. Tho son of Addi
in the same genealogy (Luke iii. 21).
Melchi'ah, a priest, the father of Pashur
(Jer. xxi. 1).
Melchis'edec, the forra of the name
Melchizedek adopted in the A. ^V". of the
New Testament (Hob. v., vi., vii.).
Mel'chi-shu'a, a son of Saul (1 Sam.
xiv- 49 , xxxi . 2) . Elsewhere correctly given
Maloiiishua. Melchiz'edek, king of Salem .and priest
of the Most High God, who met Abram in
the valley Of Shaveh, which is the king's
valley, brought out bread and wine, blessed
Abram, and received tithes from him (Gen.
xiv. 18-20). The other places in which
Melchizedek is mentioned are Ps. ex. 4,
where Messiah is described as a priest for-.
ever, " after the order of Melchizedek,"
and Heb. v., vi., vii., where these two pas
sages of the O. T. are quoted, and the
typical relation of Melchizedek to our Lord
is st.ated at groat length. There is some
thing surprising and mysterious in the first
appearance of Melchizedek, and in the sub
sequent reference to hira. Bearing a title
which Jews in after ages would recognize
as designating their own sovereign, bearing
gifts which recall to Christi.ans the Lord's
Supper, this Canaanite crosses for a mo
ment the path of Abram, and is unhesitat
ingly recognized as a person of higher
spiritual rank th.an the friend of God. Dis
appearing as suddenly as he carae in, he is
lost to the sacred writings for a thousand
years. The faith of early ages ventured to
invest his person with superstitious awe.
Jewish tradition pronounces Melchizedek
to be a survivor of tins Deluge, the patri
arch Shem. The way in which he is meu'

MELEA

899

MELONS

Ironed in Genesis would rather lead to the
inference that Melchizedek was of one
blood with the children of Ham, among
whom he lived, chief (like the King of
Sodom) of a settled Canaanitish tribe. And
as Balaam was a prophet, so Melchizedek
was a priest araong the corrupted heathen,
not self-appointed, but constituted by a spe
cial gift from God, and recognized as such
by Him. The ' ' order of Melchizedek," in
Ps. ex. 4, is explained to mean " manner"
= likeness in official dignity = a king and
priest. 'The relation between Melchizedek
and Christ as type and antitype is made in
the Ep. to the Hebrews to consist in the
following particulars. Each was a priest,
(1) not of the Levitical tribe ; (2) superior
to Abrahiira ; (3) whose beginning and end
are unknown ; (4) who is not only a priest,
but also a king of righteousness and peace.
— A fruitful source of discussion has been
found in the site of Salem. [Salem.]
Mele'a. The son of Menan, and an
cestor of Joseph in the genealogy of Jesus
Christ (Luke iii. 31).
Me'lech. The second son of Micah;
the son of Merib-baal or Mephibosheth (1
Chr. viii. 35, ix. 41).
Mel'icu. The same as Mallttch 6
(Neh. xii. 14; corap. ver. 2).
Mel'ita, the modern Malta. This island
has an illustrious place in Scripture, as the
scene of that shipwreck of St; Paul which
is described in such minute detail in the
Acts of the Apostles (Acts xxvii.). The
wreck probably happened at the place tra
ditionally known as St. Paul's Bay. (1.)
'We t.ake St. Paul's ship in the condition in
which we find her about a day after leaving
F^iK Havens, i. e. when she was under the
lee of Clauda (Acts xxvii- 16), laid-to on
the starboard tack, and strengthened with
" undergirders," the boat being just taken
on board, and the gale blowing hard from
the E. N. E. (2.) Assuraing (what every
practised sailor would allow) that the ship's
direction of drift would be about 'W. by N.,
and her rate of drift about a mile and a
half an hour, we come at once to the con
clusion, by measuring the distance on a
chart, that she would be brought to the
coast of Malta on the thirteenth day (see
ver. 27). (3.) A ship drifting in this di
rection to the place traditionally known as
St. Paul's Bay would come to that spot on
the coast without touching any other part
ofthe island previously. The coast, in fact,
trends from this b.ay to the S. E. (4.) On
Koura Point, wliich is the south-easterly
extremity of the bay, there must infallibly
have heen breakers, with the wuid blowing
from the N. E. Now the alarm was cer
tainly caused by breakers, for it took place
in the night (ver. 27), and it does not ap
pear that the passengers were at first aware
of the danger which became sensible to the

quick ear of the " sailors." (5.) Yet the
vessel did not strike : and this corresponds
with the position of the point, which would
be some little distance on the port side, or
to the left of the vessel. (6.) Off this
point of the coast the soundings are 20
fathorus (yer. " 28), and a little farther, j'ra
the direction of ihe supposed drift, they
are 15 fathoms (ib.). (7.) Though the
danger was imminent, we shall find from
examining the chart that there would stil]
bo time to anchor (ver. 29) before striking
on tho rocks ahead. (8.) "With bad hold
ing ground there would have been great
risk of the ship dragging her anchors.
The bottom of St. Paul's Bay is remark
ably tenacious. (9.) The other geological
characteristics of the place are in harmony
with the narrative, which describes the
creek as having in one place a sandy or
muddy beach (ver. 39), and which states
that the bow of the ship was held fast in
the shore, while the stern was exposed to
the action of the waves (ver. 41). (10.)
Another point of local detail is of consid
erable interest — viz. that as. the ship took
the ground, the place was observed to be
Stdalaanoi, i. e. a ci nnection was noticed
between two apparcLtly separate pieces of
water. "We shall see, on looking at a chart,
that this would be the case. (11.) Malta
is in the track of ships between Alexandria
and Puteoli: and this corresponds with the
fact that the " Castor and Pollux," an Alex
andrian vessel,'which ultiraately conveyed
St. Paul to Italy, had wintered in the island
(Acts xxviii. 11). (12.) Finally, the course
pursued in this conclusion of the- voyage,
first to Syracuse, and then to Rhegiura,
contributes a last link to the chain of argu-
racnts by which we prove that Melita is
Malta. The question has been set at rest
forever by Mr. Smith of Jordan HiH, in
his Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paid,
the first published work in which it was
thoroughly investigated frora a sailor's
point of view. As regards the condition
of the island of Melita, when St. Paul was
there, it was a dependency of the Roman
province of Sicily. Its chief officer (under
the governor of Sicily) appears from in
scriptions to have had the title of nQiorog
Mti-naimv, or Primus Melitensium, and this
is the very phrase which St. Luke uses
(xxviii. 7). Melita, frora its position in
the Mediterranean, and the excellence of
its harbors, has always been iraportani
both in commerce and war. It was a set
tlement of the Phoenicians at an early pe
riod, and their language, in a corrupted
forra, continued to be spoken there in St.
Paul's day.
Melons (Heb. abaitichtm) are men
tioned only in Num. xi. 5- By the Hebrew
word we are probably to understand both
the Melon {Oucwmds melo) and the water

melzar

400

MENELAUS

Melon {Cucurbita citrullus). The water
melon, which is now extensively cultivated
in all hot countries, is a fruit not unlike the
common melon, but the leaves are deeply
lobed and gashed, the flesh is pink or
white, and contains a large quantity of cold
watery juice without much flavor : the seeds
are black.
Mel'zar. The A. "V. is wrong iri regard
ing Melzar as a proper name ; it is r.ather
an official title, as is implied in the addition
of the article in each case where the name
occurs (Dan. i. 11, 16) ; the marginal read
ing, " the steward," is therefore raore cor
rect. Mem'phis, a city of ancient Egypt,
situated on the western bank of the Nile, in
latitude 30^ 6' N. It is mentioned by
Isaiah (xix. 13), Jereraiah (ii. 16, xlvi. 14,
19), and Ezekiel (xxx. 13, 16), under the
name of Noph ; and by Hosea (ix. 0) un
der the name of Morn in Hebrew, and
Memphis in our English version. Though
some regard Thebes as the raore ancient
city, the raonuments of Memphis are of
higher antiquity than those of Thebes.
Herodotus dates its foundation from Menes,
the first king of Egypt. The city is said
to have had a circumference of about 19
miles. The temple of Apis was one of the
most noted structures of Memphis. It
stood opposite the southern portico of the
temple of Ptah; and Psammetichus, who
built that gateway, also erected in front of
the sanctuary of Apis a raagnificent colon
nade, supported by colossal statues or Osi-
ride pilars, such as may still be seen at the
temple of Medeenet Habou at Thebes (He
rod, ii. 153). Through this colonnade the
Apis was led with great pomp upon state oc
casions. At Memphis was the reputed bu
rial-place of Isis ; it had also a temple to
that-" myriad-named " divinity. Memphis
had also its Serapeiura, which probably stood
in the western quarter of the city. The
sacred cubit .and other symbols used in
measuring the rise of tli^i Nile, were de
posited in the temple of Se--apis. The Ne
cropolis, adjacent to Memphis, was on a
scale of grandeur corresponding with the
city itself. The " city of the pyramids " is
a title of Memphis in the hieroglyphics upon
the raonuraents. Memphis long held its
place as a capital ; and for centuries a
Memphite dynasty ruled over all Egypt.
Lepsius, Bunsen, and Brugseh, agree in
regarding the 3d, 4th, 6th, 7th, and 8th
dynasties of the Old Empire as Memphite,
reaching through a period of about 1000
years. The city's overthrow was distinctly
predicted by the Hebrew prophets (Is. xix.
13; Jer. xlvi. 19). The latest of these
predictions was uttered nearly 600 years be
fore Christ, and half a century before the
invasion of Egypt by Carabyses (cir. b. c.
525). Herodotus informs us that Camby

ses, enraged at the opposition he encoun
tered at Meraphis, comraitted many out
rages upon the city. The city never re
covered from the blow infiicted by Cam
byses. The rise of Alexandria hastened
its decline. The Caliph conquerors found
ed Fostdt (Old Cairo) upon the opposite
bank of the Nile, a few railes north of
Meraphis, and brought materials from (he
old city to build their new capital (a. d,
638). At length so complete was the ruin
of Meraphis, that for a long tirae its very
site was lost- Recent explorations have
brought to light many of its antiquities.
Memu'can. One of the seven princes
of Persia in the reign of Ahasuerus, who
" saw the king's face,'" and sat first in the
kingdom (Esth. i. 14, 16, 21). They were
" wise men who knew the times " (skilled
in the planets, according to Aben Ezra),
and appear to have formed a council of
state ; Josephus says tliiit one of their of
fices was that of interpreting the laws {Ant.
xi. 6, § 1).
Men'ahem, son of Gadi, who slew the
usurper Shallum, and seized the vacant
throne of Israel, b. c. 772. His reign,
which lasted ten years, is briefiy recorded
in 2 K. XV. 14-22. It has been inferred
from the expression in verse 14, " i'rom
Tirzah," that Menahem was a general un
der Zechariah stationed at Tirzah, and that
he brought up his troops to Samaria, and
avenged the murder of liis master by Shal
lum. He maintained the calf-worship of
Jeroboara. The contemporary prophets,
Hosea and Araos, h.ave left a melancholy
picture of the ungodliness, demoralization,
and feebleness of Israel. In the brief his
tory of Menahem, his ferocious treatment
of Tiphsah occupies a conspicuous place.
But the raost remarkable event in his reign
is the first appearance of a hostile force of
Assyrians on the north-east frontier of Is
rael. King Pul, however, withdrew, hav
ing been converted from an enemy into .in
ally by a timely gift of 1000 talents of
silver. Me'nan. The son of Mattatha, one of
the ancestors of Joseph in the genealogy
of Jesus Christ (Luke iii. 31).
Mene (lit. "numbered"). The first
word of the mysterious inscription written
upon the wall of Belshazzar's palace, ui
which Daniel rea^ the doom of the king
and his dynasty (Dan. v. 25, 26).
Menela'us, a usurping high-priest who
obtained the office frora Antiochus Epiph
anes (about n. c. 172) by a large bribe (2
Maec. iv. 23-25), and drove outjason, who
had obtained it not long before by sim
ilar me.ans. He met with a violent death
at the hands of Antiochus Eupator (cir.
B. c. 163), which seemed in a peculiar
manner a providential, punishment of his:
sacrilege (xiii. 3, 4). According to Jose-

MENI

401

MEPliIBOSHETH

phuj he was a younger brother of Jason
and Onias, and, like Jason, changed his
, t proper name Onias for a Greek name. In
2 Maccabees, on tho other hand, he is
called a brother of Simon the Benjamite
(2 Mace. iv. 23).
Me'ni. The last clause of Is. lxv. 11
is rendered in the A. V. " and that furnish
tho drink-offering unto that number," the
marginal reading'for the last word being
" Meni." That the word so rendered is a
proper name, and also the proper name ot'
an object of idolatrous worship cultivated
by the Jews in Babylon, is a supposition
which there seems no reason -to question,
as it is in accordance with the context, and
has everj' probability to recommend it.
But the identification of Meni with any
known heathen god is still uncertain.
Meon'enim, The Plain of, an oak,
or terebinth, or other great tree — for the
translation ofthe Hebrew Elon by "plain"
is raost probably incorrect. [Plain.] It
is raentioned — at least under this narae —
only in Judg. ix. 37. The meaning of
Meouenim, if interpreted as a Hebrew word,
is enchanters or " observers of times," as
it is elsewhere rendered (Deut. xviii. 10,
14; in Mic. v. 12 it is "soothsayers").
This connection of the name with magical
.arts has led to the suggestion that the tree
in question is identical with th.at beneath
which Jacob hid the foreign idols and amu
lets of his household, before going into the
presence of God at the consecrated ground
of Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 4). But the infer
ence seems hardly a sound one, for meo-
nenim does not mean " enchantments," but
" enchante^-s ; " nor is there any ground for
conneoting it in any way with amulets or
images ; and there is the positive reason
against the identification that while this
tree seems to have been at a distance frora
the town of Shechera, that of Jacob was in
it, or in very close proximity to it. It is
perhaps possible that Meonenira raay have
originally been Maonim, that is, Maonites
or Mehunim ; a tribe or nation of non-Is
raelites elsewhere mentioned.
Meonotha'i. One of the sons of Othr
niel, thu younger brother of Caleb (1 Chr.
iv. 14).,
Mepha'ath, a city of the Reubenites,
one of the towns dependent on Heshbon
(Josh. xiii. 18), lying in the district of the
Mishor (comp. 17, and Jer. xlviii. 21, A.
'V. "plain"), which probably answered to
the modern Belka. It was one of the cities
allotted with their suburbs to the Merarite
Levites (Josh. xxi. 37 ; 1 Chr. vi. 79). Its
site is uncertain.
Mephita'osheth, the name borne by
two members of the family of Saul — his
son and his grandson. 1. Saul's son by
Rizpah the daughter of Aiah, his concu
bine (2 '5am. xxi. 8). He and his brother

Arraoni were araong the seven victims who
were surrendered by David to the Gibeon
ites, and by them crucified in sacrifice to
Jehovah, to avert a famine from which the
country was suff'ering. 2. Tho son of
Jonathfin, grandson of Saul, and nephew
of the preceding. His life seems to have
been, from beginning to end, one of trial
and discomfort. The name of his mother
is unknown. "When his father and grand
father were slain on Gilboa he was an in
fant but five years old. He was then liv
ing under the charge of his nurse, probably
at Gibeah, the regular residence of Saul.
The tidings that the army was destroyed,
the king and his sons slain, and that the
Philistines were sweeping all before them,
reached the royal household. The nurse
fled, carrying the child on her shoulder.
But in her panic and hurry she stumbled,
and Mephibosheth was precipitated to the
ground with such force as to deprive him
for life of the use of both feet (2 Sam. iv.
4). After the accident which thus embit
tered his whole existence, Mephibosheth
was carried with the rest of his family be
yond the Jordan to the mountains of Gil
ead, where he found a refuge in the house
of Machir ben-Ammiel, a powerful Gadite
or Manassite sheikh at Lo-debar, not far
from Mahanaim, which during the reign of
his uncle Ishbosheth was the headquarters
of his family. By Machir he wiis brought
up, there he raarried, and there ho was liv
ing at a later period, when David, having
completed the subjugation of tho adversa
ries of Israel on every side, heard of his
existence from Ziba. David invited hira
to Jerusalem, and there treated him and
his son Mieha tvith the greatest kindness.
From this time forward he resided at Jeru
salem. Of Mephibosheth's behavior dur
ing the rebellion of Absalom we possess
two accounts — his own (2 Sam. xix. 24-
30), and that of Ziba (xvi. 1-4). They are
naturally at variance with each other. In
consequence of the story of Ziba, he was
rewarded by the possessions of his master.
Mephibosheth's story — which, however, he
had not the opportunity of telling until
several days later, when he met David re
turning to his kingdom at the western
bank of Jordan — was very different from
Ziba's. That David did not disbelieve it
is shown by his revoking the judgment he
had previously given. That he did not
entirely reverse his decision, but allowed
Ziba to retain possession of half the lands
of Mephibosheth, is probably due partly to
weariness at the whole transaction, but
mainly to the conciliatory frarae of mind.
in which he was at that moment. " Shall
there any man be put to death this day? "
is the key-note of the whole proceeding.
The writer is aware that this is not the view
generally taken of Mephibosheth's conduct,

MERAB

402

MEREMOTH

and in particular the opposite side h.as been
maintained with much cogency and ingenu
ity by the late Professor Blunt in his Unde
signed Coincidences. But when the cir
curastances on both sides are weighed,
there seems to be no escape from the con
clusion come to above.
Me'rab, the eldest daughter of king
Saul (1 Sara. xiv. 49). In accordance
with the promise which he made before the
engageraent with Goliath (xvii. 25), Saul
betrothed Merab to David (xviii. 17).
Before the marriage Merab's younger sis
ter Michal had displayed her attachment
for David, and Merab was then married to
Adriel th6 Meholathite, to whom she bore
five sons (2 Sam. xxi. 8).
Merai'ah. A priest in the days of
Joiakim, the son of Jeshua, and represen
tative of the priestly family of Seraiah
(Neh. xii. 12).
Mera'ioth. 1. A descendant of Eleazar
the son of Aaron, and head of a priestly
house (1 Chr. vi. 6, 7, 52). It is appar
ently another Meraioth who comes in be
tween Zadok ^nd Ahitub in the genealogy
of Azariah (1 Chr, ix. 11; Neh. xi. 11)",
unless the names Ahitub and Meraioth are
transposed, whieh is not improbable- 2.
The head of one of the houses of priests,
which in the tirae of Joiakim the son of
Jeshua was represented by Helkai (Neh.
xii. 15).
Mer'ari, third son of Levi, .and head of
the third great division of the Levites, the
Merarites. He was born before the de
scent of Jacob into Egypt, and was one of
the seventy who accompanied Jacob thither
(Gen. xlvi. 8, 11). At the time of the Ex
odus, and the nurabering in the wilderness,
the Merarites consisted of two farailies,
the Mahlites and the Mushites, Mahli and
Mushi being either the two sons, or the son
and grandson, of Merari (1 Chr. vi. 19, 47).
'Their chief at that tirae was Zurich 'Their
charge was the boards, bars, pillars, sock
ets, pins, and cords of the tabernacle and
the court, and all the tools connected with
setting them up. Owing to the heavy
natu^'e of the materials, which they had to
carry, four wagons and eight oxen were
assigned to them ; and in the raarch both
they and the Gershonites followed imme
diately after the standard of Judah, and
before that of Reuben, that they might set
up the tabernacle against the arrival of the
Kohathites (Nura. iii. 20, 33-37, iv. 29-33,
42-45, vii. 8, x. 17, 21). In the division
of the land by Joshua, the Merarites had
twelve cities assigned to them, out of Reu
ben, Gad, and Zebulun, of which one was
Ramoth-Gilead, a city of refuge, and in
later times afrequent subjectof war between
Israel and Syria (Josh. xxi. 7, 34-40; 1
Chr. vi. 63, 77-81). In the days of Heze
kiah the Merarites were still flourishing (2

Chr- xxix. 12, 15). After the return from
captivity Shemaiah represents the sons of
Merari, in 1 Chr. ix. 14, Neh. xi. 15. There
were also at that tirae sons of Jeduthun
under Obadiah or Abda, the son of Shem
aiah (1 Chr. ix. 16; Neh. xi. 17).
Meratha'im, The Land of, that is,
" of double rebellion," al.luding to the coun
try of the Chaldeans, and to the double cap
tivity which it had infiio^pd on the nation
of Israel (Jer. L 21).
Merou'rius, properly Hermes, the
Greek deity, whom the Romans identified
with their Mercury, the god of commerce
and bargains. Hermes was the son of Zeus
(Jupiter) and Mala the daughter of Atlas,
and is constantly represented as the com
panion of his father iu his wanderings upon
earth. The episode of Baucis and Philemon
(Ovid, Metam. viii. 620-724) appears to
have formed part of the folk-lore of Asia
Minor, aud strikingly illustrates the read
iness with which the simple people of Lys
tra recognized in Barnabas and Paul the
gods who, according to their wont, had come
down in the likeness of men (Acts xiv. 11).
They called Paul " Mercurius, because he
was the chief speaker ; " identifying in liim,
as they supposed, by this characteristic the
herald of the gods and of Jupiter, the elo
quent orator, inventor of letters, music, and
the arts.
Mercy-seat (Ex. xxv. 17, xxxvii. 0,
Heb. ix. 5). This appears to have been
merely the lid of the Ark of the Covenant,
not another surface affixed thereto. It was
that whereon the blood ofthe yearly atone
ment was sprinkled by the high-priest; and
in this relation it is doubtful w^hether the
sense of the word in the Heb. is based on
the material fact of its " covering " the Ark,
or derived from this notion of its reference
to the ' ' covering " {i. e. atoneraent) of sin.
Me'red. This name occurs in a frag
mentary genealogy in 1 Chr. iv. 17, 18, as
that of one of the sons of Ezra. Tradition
identifies him with Caleb and Moses.
Mer'emoth. 1. Son of Uriah, or Uri
jah, the priest, of the family of Koz or
Hakkoz, the head of the seventh course of
priests as established by David. In Ezr.
viii. 33, Meremoth is appointed to weigh
and register the gold and silver vessels be
longing to the Temple. In the rebuilding
of the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah
we find Meremoth taking an active part,
working between MeshuUam and the sons
of Hassenaah who restored the fish-gate
(Neh. iii. 4), and hiraself restoring the por
tion of the Temple wall on which abutted
the house of the high-priest Eliashib (Neh.
iii. 21). 2. A layman of the sons of Bani,
who had married a foreign wife (Ezr. x.
36). 3. A priest, or more probably a fam
ily of priests, who scaled the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x. 5).

MERES

403

MESHA

Me'res, one of the seven counsellors
of Ahasuerus, king of Persia, " wise men
which knew the times " (Esth. i. 14).
Mer'ibah. In Ex. xvii. 7 we read, " he
called the narae of tho place Massah and
Meribah," where the people raurraured, and
the reck was smitten. [For the situation
sec Eephidim.] The name is also given
to Kadesh (Num. xx. 13, 24, xxvii. 14 ;
Deut. xxii. 51, " Meribah-kadesh), because
there also the people, when in want of
water, strove with God.
Merib-ba'al, son of Jonathan the son
of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 34, ix. 40), doubtless
the same person who in the narrative of 2
Samuel is called MEPiiinosHETH.
Mero'dach is raentioned once only in
Scripture, namelj^, in Jer. 1. 2, and was
really identical with the famous Babylonian
Bel or Belus, tbe word being probably at
first a mere epithet of the god, which by
degrees superseded his proper appella
tion. Mero'dach-bal'adan is mentioned as
king of Babylon in tbe days of Hezekiah,
both in the second book of Kings {xx. 12)
and in Isaiah (xxxix. 1). In the former
place he is called Berodach-Baladan. The
orthography "Merodach" is, however, to
be preferred. The narae of Merodach-
Baladan has been recognized in the Assyr
ian inscriptions. It appears there were two
reigns of this king, the first frora b. c. 721
to B. c. 709, when he was deposed ; and the
second, after his recovery of tho throne in
B. O- 702, which lasted only half a year.
There is some doubt as to the time at which
he sent his ambassadors to Hezekiah, for the
purpose of inquiring as to the astronom
ical marvel of which Judaea had been the
scene (2 Chr. x.x.fii. 31), but it appears to
have been n. c. 713. The real object of the
mission was most likely to effect a league
between Babylon, Judaea, and Egypt (Is.
XX. 5, 6), in order to check the growing
power of the Assyrians. The league, how
ever, though designed, does not seem to
have taken effect. Sargon sent expeditions
both into Syria and Babylonia — seized the
stronghold of Ashdod in the one, and com
pletely defeated Merodach-Baladan in the
other. That monarch sought safety in
flight, and lived for eight years in exile. At
last he found an opportunity to return. In
B. c. 703 or 702, Babylonia was plunged in
anarchy — the Assyrian yoke was thrown
off, and various native leaders struggled for
the raastery. Under these circurastances
the exil-ed raonarch seems to have returned,
and recovered his throne. Merodach-
Baladan had obtained a body of troops from
his ally, the king of Susi.ana; but Sen
nacherib defeated the combined array in a
pitched battla Merodach-Baladan fled to
" the islands at the mouth of the Euphrates ."
He lost his recovered ci iwn after wearing

it for about six months, and spent the re-
m.ainder of his days in exile and obscurity.
Me'rom, The "Waters of, a place
raeraorable in the history ofthe conquest of
Piilestine. Here, after Joshua had gained
possession of the southern portions of
the country, a confederacy of the northern
chiefs asserabled under the leadership of
Jabin, king of Hazor (Josh. xi. 5), and here
they were encountered by Joshua, and com
pletely routed (ver. 7). It is a remarkable
fact that though by coramon consent the
" waters of Merom" ar§ identified with the
Lake through which the Jordan runs be
tween Banias and the Sea of Galilee — the
Bahr el-HAleh of the modem Arabs — yet
that identity cannot be proved by any an
cient record. In form the lake is not far
from a triangle, the base being at the north
and the apex at the south. It measures
about 3 miles in, each direction. The water
is clear and sweet; it is covered in parts
by a broad-leaved plant, and abounds in
water- fowl -
Meron'othite, The, that is, the na
tive of a place called probably Meronoth,
of which, however, no further traces have
yet been discovered. Two Meronothites are
named in the Bible — 1. Jehdeiah (1 Chr.
xxvii. 30) ; and 2. Jadon (Neh. iii. 7).
Me'roz, a place mentioned only in the
Song of Deborah and Barak in Judg. v.
23, and there denounced because its inhab
itants had refused to take any part in the
struggle with Sisera. Meroz must have
been in* tlie neighborhood of the Kishon
but its real position is not known : possibly
it was destroyed in obedience to the curse-
Me'sech, Me'shech, a son of Japheth
(Gen. X. 2; 1 Chr. i. 5), and the progenitor
of a race frequently noticed in Scripture in
connection with Tubal, Magog, and other
northern nations. They appear as allies of
Gog (Ez. xxxviii. 2, 3, xxxix. 1), and as
supplying the Tyrians with copper and
slaves (Ez. xxvii. 13); iu Ps. cxx. 5, they
are noticed as one of the remotest, and at
the same time rudest nations of the world.
Both the narae and the associations are in
favor of the identification of Meshech with
the Moschi, a people on the borders of Col
chis and Arraenia.
Me'sha. 1. The narae of one of the
geographical limits of the Joktanite s when
they first settled in Arabia (Gen. x. 30),
probably in'north-western Yemen. 2. The
king of Moab in the reigns of Ahab and his
sons Ahaziah and Jehoram, kings of Israel
(2 K. iii. 4), and tributary to the first.
"When Ahab had fallen in battle at Ramoth-
Gilead, Mesha seized the opportunity af
forded by the confusion consequent upon
this disaster, and the feeble reign of Ahaziah,
to shake off the yoke of Israel aud free him
self from the burdensome tritute of " a
hundred thousand wethers and a hu idrcd

MESHACH

404

MES HULL AM

thousand rams with their wool." "Wh.n
Jehoram succeeded to the throne of Israel,
one of his first acts was to secure the as
sistance of Jehoshaphat, his father's ally, in
reducing the Moabites to their former con
dition of tributaries. The united arraies
of the two kings marched, by a circuitous
route, round the Dead Sea, and were joined
by the forces of the king of Edom. 'The
Moabites were defeated, and the king took
refuge in his last stronghold, and defended
hiraself with the energy of despair. "\"V^ith
700 fighting men he made a vigorous at
tempt to cut his way through the beleaguer
ing army, and when beaten back, he with
drew to the wall of his city, and there, in
sight of the allied host, off'ered his first
born son, his successor in the kingdom, as a
burnt-offering to Chemosh, the ruthless fire-
god of Moab. His bloody sacrifice had so
far the desired effect that tlie besiegers re
tired from hira to their own land. 3. The
eldest son of Caleb the son of Hezron by
his wife Azubah, as Kimchi conjectures (1
Chr. ii. 42). 4. A Benjamite, son of Sha
haraim, by his wife Hodesh, who bare him
iu the land of Moab (1 Chr. viii. 9).
Me'shach. The n.ame given to Mishael,
one of the companions of Daniel, and like
him of the blood-roy.al of Judah, who with
three others was chosen from among the
captives to be t.aught "the learning and
the tongue of the Chaldeans " (Dan. i. 4),
so that they might be qualified to "stand
before " king Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. i. 5)
as his personal attendants and advisers
(i. 20). But, notwithstanding their Chal
dean education, these three young Hebrews
were strongly attached to the religion of
their fathers; and their refusal to join in
the worship of the image on the plain of
Dura gave a handle of accusation to the
Ch.aldeans. The rage of the king, tho
swift sentence of condemnation passed
upon the three offenders, their miraculous
preservation from the fiery furnace heated
seven times hotter th.an usual, tho king's
acknowledgment of the God of Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego, with their restor.a
tion to office, are written in the 3d ch.apter
rf Daniel, aud there the history leaves
fiera. Meshelemi'ah. A Korhite, son of
Kore, of the sons of Asaph, who with his
seven sons and his .brethren, "sons of
might," were porters or gate-kcJepers of the
house of Jehovah in the reign of David
(I Chr. ix. 21, xxvi. 1, 2, 9).
Meshez'abeel. 1. Ancestor of Me
shuUam, who assisted Nehemiah in rebuild
ing the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. i). 2.
¦One ot the "heads of the people," proba
bly a family, who sealed the covenant with
Ke-Uemiah (Neh. x. 21). 3. The father of
Pethahiah, and descendant of Zerah the son
of Judah (Neh. xi. 24).

Meshil'lemith. The son »f Immer,
a priest, and ancestor of Amashai oi
Maasijii, according to Neh. xi. 13, and of
Pashur and Adaiah, according to 1 Chr
ix. 12.
Meshil'lemoth. 1. An Ephraimitf
ancestor of Berechiah, one of the chiefj
of the tribe in the reign of Pekah (2 Chr,
xxviii. 12). 2. Neh. xi. 13. The same as
Meshillemith. Meshul'lam. 1. .^.ncestor of Shaphan
the scribe (2 K. xxii. 3). 2. The son of
Zerubbabel (1, Chr. iii. 19). 3. A Gadite,
one of the chief men of the tribe, who dwelt
in Bashan at the time the genealogies were
recorded in the reign of Jotham king of
Judah (1 Chr. v. 13). 4. A Benjaraite, of
the sons of Elpaal (1 Chr. viii. 17). 5. A
Benjamite, the son of Hodaviah or Joed,
and father of Sallu (1 Chr. ix. 7 ; Neh. xi.
7). 6. A Benjamite, son of Shephathiah,
who lived at Jerusalem after the captivity
(1 Chr. Lx. 8). 7. The sarae as Shallum,
who was high-priest prob.ably in the reign
of Amon, and fiither of Hilkiah (1 Chr. ix.
11; Neh. xi. 11). 8. A priest, son of
Meshillemith, or Meshillemoth, the son
of Imraer, and ancestor of Maasiai or
Amashai (1 Clir. ix. 12; comp. Neh. xi.
13). 9. A Kohathite, or faraily of Ko
hathite Levites, in the reign of Josiah (2
Chr. xxxiv. 12). 10. One ofthe "heads"
(A. "V". " chief men ") sent by Ezra to Iddo,
" the head," to gather together the Levites
to join the caravan about to return lo Jeru
salem (Ezr. viii. 16). 11. A chief man i-i
the time of Ezra, probably a Levite, wl o
assisted Jonathan and Jahaziah in abol
ishing the marriages which some of the
people had contracted with foreign wives
(Ezr. X. 15). 12. One of the descendants
of Bani, who had raarried a foreign wife
and put her away (Ezr. x. 29). 13. (Ncli.
iii. 30, vi- 18). 'The son of Berechiah,
who assisted in rebuilding the wall of Jeru
salem (Neh. iii. 4), as well as the 'Temple
wall, adjoining which he had his "cham
ber" (Neh. iii. 30). He was prob.ably a
priest, and his daughter was married to
Joh.anan the son of Tobiah the Ammonite
(Neh. vi. 18). 14. The son of Besodeiah :
he assisted Jehoiada the son of Paseah in
restoring the old gate of Jerusalera (Neh.
iii. 6). 15. One of those who stood at the
left baud of Ezra when he read the law
to the people (Neh. viii. 4). 16. A priest,
or family of priests, who sealed the cove
nant with Nehemiah (Noh. x. 7). 17.
One of the hoads of the people who sealed
the eovenjint with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 20).
18. A priest in the days of Joiakim the
son of Jeshua, and representative of the
house of Ezra (Neh. xii. 13). 19. Like
wise a priest at the same time as the pre
ceding, and head of the priestly family of
Ginnethon (Neh. xii. 16). 20. A family

MESHULLEMETH

405

MESSIAH

ot porters, descend.ants of Jleshullara
(Noh. xii. 25), who is also called Meshel
emiah (1 Chr. xxvi. 1), Shelemiah (1 Chr.
xxvi. 14), and Sh.allum (Neh. vii. 45). 21.
One of the princes of Judah at the dedica
tion of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii.
33). Meshul'lemeth. The daughter of
Ilaruz of Jotbah, wife of Manasseh king
of Judah, and mother of his successor
Araon (2 K. x.xi. 19). .
Mes'obaite, The, a title which occurs
only once, and then attached to tho name
of Jasiel (1 Chr. xi. 47.) The word re
tains strong traces of Zobah, one of the
petty Aramite kingdoms. But on this it
is irapossible to pronounce with any cer
tainty. Mesopota'mia is the ordinary Greek
rendering of the Hebrew Aram-Naharaim,
or " Syria of the two rivers." If we look
to the signification of the name, we must
regard Mesopotamia as the entire country
between the two rivers — the Tigris and
the Euphrates. This is a tract nearly 700
miles long, and from 20 to 250 miles broad,
extending in a south-easterly direction from
Telek (lat. 38° 23', long. 39"^ 18') to Kurnah
(lat. 31°, long. 47° 30'). The Arabian
geographers terra it "the Island," a narae
which is alraost literally correct, since a
few railes only intervene between the source
of the Tigris and the Euphrates at TeleJc.
But the region which bears the name of
Mesopotamia, par exceUence, both in Scrip
ture aud in the classical writers, is the
north-western portion of this tract, or the
country between tho great bend of the
Euphrates (lat. 35° to 37° 30') and the up
per Tigris. We first hear of Mesopotamia
in Scripture as the country where Nahor
and his family settled after quitting Ur of
the Chaldees (Gen. xxiv. 10). Here lived
Bethuel and Laban; and hither Abraham
sent his servant, to fetch Isaac a wife "of
his own kindred" (ib. ver. 38). Hither
too, a century hater, came Jacob on the
same errand ; and hence he returned with
his two wives after an absence of 21 years.
After this we have no raention of Mesopo
tamia, till the close of the wanderings in
the wilderness (Deut. xxiii. 4). About
half a century later, we find, for the first
and last tirae, Mesopotamia the seat of a
powerful monarchy (Judg. ill.). Finally,
the children of Ammon, having provoked a
war with David, "sent a thousand talents
of silver to hire thera chariots and horse
men out of Mesopotamia, and out of Syria-
Maachah, and out of Zobah " (1 Chr. xix.
6). According to the Assyrian inscriptions
Mesopotamia was inh.abited in the early
times of the empire (b. c. 1200-1100) by a
vast number of petty tribes, each under its
owu prince, and all quite independent of
one an/"lhir. ""he Assyrian monarchs con

tended with these chiefs at great advantage,
and by the time of Jehu (b. c. 880) hud
fully established their dominion over thera.
On the destruction ofthe Assyrian euipire,
Mesopotamia seems to h.ave been divided
between the Modes and the Babylonians.
The conquests of Cyrus brought it wholly
under the Persian yoke; and thus it con
tinued to the time of Alexander.
Messi'ah- This word {Mashiach),
which answers to the word Christ {Xiiimo;)
in tho N. T., means anointed, and is appli
cable in its first sense to any one anointed
with the holy oil. It is applied to the high-
priest in Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16. The kings of
Israel were called anointed, frora the mode
of their consecration (1 Sam. ii. 10, 35, xii.
3, 5, &c.). This word also refers to the
expected Prince of the chosen people who
was to complete God's purposes for them,
and to redeem them, and of whose coming
the prophets of the old covenant in all time
spoke. It is twice used in the N. T. of .Je
sus (John i. 41, iv. 25, A. 'V. " Messias ") ;
but the Greek equivalent, ihe Christ, is
constantly applied, at first with the article
as a title, exactly the Anointed One, but
later without the article, as a proper name,
Jesus Christ. The present article contains
a brief survey of the expectation of a Mes
siah among the Jews. The earliest gleara
of the Gospel is found in the account of
the fall (Gen. iii. 15). Many interpreters
would understand by the seed of the woman
the Messiah, only ; but it is easier to think
with Calvin that mankind, after they aro
gathered into one array by Jesus the Chritt
the Head of the Church, are to achieve a
victory over evil. The blessings in store
for the children of Shem are remarkably
indicated in the words of Noah, "Blessed
be Jehovah the God of Shem" (Gen. ix.
26). Next follows the proraise to Abraham,
wherein tho blessings to Shem are turned
into the narrower channel of one family
(Gen. xii. 2, 3). The promise is still in
definite ; but it tends to the undoing of the
curse of Adam, by a blessing to all the
earth through the seed of Abraham, as
death had corae on the whole earth through
Adara. A great step is made in Gen. xlix.
10, " The sceptre shall not depart from Ju
dah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet,
until Shiloh come ; and unto him shall the
gathering of the people be." This is the
first case in which the promises distinctly
centre in one person. The next pass.age
usually quoted is the prophecy of Balaam
(Num. xxiv. 17-19). The star points iu-
deed to the glory, as the sceptre denotes
the power of a king. But it is doubtful
whether the prophecy is not fulfilled in Da
vid (2 Sara. viii. 2, 14) ; and though David
is hiraself a type of Christ, the direct Mes
sianic application of this place is by no
means certain. The prophecy of Moses

MESSIAH

406

METALS

(Deut. xviii. 18) claims attention. Does
this refer to the Messiah? The reference
to Moses in John-v. 45-47, " He wrote of
me," seeras to point to this passage. The
passages in the Pentateuch which relate to
" the Angel of the Lord " have been thought
by many to bear reference to the Messiah.
The second period of Messianic prophecy
would include the tiine of David. Passages
in the Psalms are numerous which are ap
plied to tho Messiah in the N. T. ; such as
Ps. ii., xvi., xxii., xl., ex. The advance in
clearness in this period is great. The name
of Anointed, i. e. King, comes in, and the
Messiah is to corae of the lineage of David.
He is described in His exaltation, with His
great kingdora that shall be spiritual rather
than teraporal, Ps. ii., xxi., xl., ex. In
other places He is seen in suffering and
hurailiation, Ps. xxii., xvi., xl. After the
tirae of David the predictions of the Mes
siah ceased for a tirae ; until those prophets
arose whose works we possess in the canon
of Scripture. The Messiah is a King and
Ruler of David's house, who should corae
to reform and restore the Jewish nation and
purify the church, as in Is. xi., xl.-lxvi.
The blessings of the restoration, however,
w^ill not be confined to Jews ; tho heathen
are made to sh.are thera fully (Is. ii., Ixvi.).
The passage of Micah v. 2 (corap. Matt. ii.
6) left no doubt in the raind of the Sanhe
drim as to the birthplace of the Messiah.
The lineage of David is again alluded to in
Zechariah xii. 10-14. The tirae of the sec
ond Temple is fixed by Haggai ii. 9 for
Messiah's coming; and the coming of the
Forerunner and of the Anointed are clearly
\revealed in Mal. iii. 1, iv. 5, 6. The fourth
period after the close of the canon of the
O. T. is known to us in a great measure
frora allusions in the N. T. to the expecta
tion of the Jews. The Pharisees and those
of the Jews who expected Messiah at all,
looked for a teraporal prince only. The
Apostles theraselves were infected with this
opinion till after the Resurrection, Matt.
XX. 20, 21 ; Luke xxiv. 21 ; Acts i. 6. Gleams
of a purer faith appear, Luke ii. SO, xxiii.
42 ; John iv. 25. On the other hand there
was a sceptical school which had discarded
the expectation altogether. The expecta
tion of a golden age that should return upon
the earth was comraon in heathen nations.
'This hope the Jews also shared ; but with
thera it was associated with the coraing of
a particular Person, the Messiah. It has
bsen asserted that in Him the Jews looked
for ail earthly king, and that the existence
of the hope of a Messiah may thus be ac
counted for on natural grounds, and with
out a divine revelation. But the prophe
cies refute this : they bold out not a Prophet
only, but a King and a Priest, whose busi
ness it sli ould be to set the people free from
sin, and to teach them the ways of God, as

in Ps. xxii., xl., ex.; Is. ii., xi-, Iiii. In
these and other places too the power ofthe
coraing One reaches beyond the Jews and
embraces all the Gentiles, which is contrary
to the exclusive notions of Judaism. A
fair consideration of all the passages will
convince th.at the growth of the Messianic
idea in the prophecies is owing to revela
tion from God.
Messi'as, the Greek form of Messiah
(John i. 41; iv. .25).
Metals. The H'febrews, in common with
other ancient nations, were acquainted with
nearly all the metals known to modern met
allurgy, whether as the products of their
own soil or the results of intercourse with
foreigners. One of the earliest geographi
cal definitions is that which describes the
country of Havilah as the land which
abounded in gold, and the gold of which
was good (Gen. ii. 11, 12). The first artist
in metals was a Cainite, Tubal Cain, the
son of Lamech, the forger or sharpener of
every instrument ot copper (A. V. "brass")
and iron (Gen. iv. 22). " Abram was very
rich iu cattle, in silver, and in gold " (Gen.
xiii. 2) ; silver, as will be shown hereafter, .
being the medium of commerce, while gold
existed in the shape of ornaments, during
the patriarchal ages. Tin is first mentioned
araong the spoils of the Midianites which
were taken when Balaara was slain (Num.
xxxi. 22), and lead is used to heighten the
imagery of Moses' triumphal song (Ex. xv.
10). "Whether the ancient Hebrews were
acquainted with steel, properly so called, is
uncertain; the words so rendered in the
A. V. (2 Sam. xxii. 35 ; Job xx. 24 ; Ps.
xviii. 34; Jer. xv. 12) are in all other pas
sages translated brass, and would be more
correctly copper. The " northern iron " of
Jer. XV. 12 is believed by commentators to
be iron hardened and tampered by some
peculiar process, so as more nearly to cor
respond to what we call steel [Steel] ; and
the " flaming torches " of Nah. ii. 3 are
probably the flashing steel scythes of the
war-chariots which should come against
Nineveh. Besides the simple metals, it is
supposed that the Hebrews used the mix
ture of copper and tin known as bronze.
We have no indications of gold streams or
mines in Palestine. The Hebrews obtained
their principal supply from the south of
Arabia, and the commerce of the Persian
Gulf. It was probably brought in form of
ingots (Josh. vii. 21 ; A. "V". " wedge," lit.
" tongue "). The great abundance of gold
in early times is indicated by its entering
into the composition of every article of or
nament and alraost all of domestic use.
Araong the spoils of the Midianites taken
by the Israelites in their bloodless victory
when Balaara was slain, were ear-rings and
jewels to the amount of 16,750 shekels of
gold (Num. xxxi. 48-54), equal in value to

METLEG-AMMAH

407

MICAH

tiori. than 30,000Z. ol English money.
1700 shekels of gold (worth more than
300OZ.) in nose jewels (A. V. "ear-rings")
alone were taken by Gideon's army from
the slaughtered Midianites (Judg. viii. 26).
These numbers, though large, are not in
credibly great, when we consider that the
country of the Midianites was at that tirae
rich in gold streams which have been since
exhausted, and that like the Malays of the
present day, and the Peruvians of the time
of Pizarro, they carried raost of their wealth
about thera- But the araount of treasure
accumulated by David from spoils taken in
war, is so enormous, that we are terapted
to conclude the numbers exaggerated.
Though gold was thus common, silver
appears to have been the ordinary medium
of commerce. The first commercial trans
action of which we possess the details was
the purchase of Ephron's field by Abraham
for 400 shekels of silver (Gen. xxiii. 16).
The accumulation of wealth in the reign of
Solomon was so great that silver was but
little esteemed ; "the king raade silver to
be in Jerusalera as stones " (1 K. x. 21, 27) .
With the treasures which were brought out
of Egypt, not only the ornaraents but the
ordinary metal-work of the tabernacle were
made. Brass, or more properly copper,
was a native product of Palestine, " a land
whose stones are iron, and out of whose
hills thou mayest dig copper " (Deut. viii.
9; Job xxviii. 2). It was so plentiful in
the days of Solomon that the quantity era
ployed iu the Teraple could not be estiraated,
it was so great (1 K. vii. 47). There is
strong reason to believe that brass, a mix
ture of copper and zinc, was unknown to
the ancients. To the latter metal no allu
sion is found. But tin was well known,
and from the difficulty which attends the
toughening pure copper so as to render it
fit for hiimmering, it is probable that the
mode of deoxidizing copper by the adraix
ture of small quantities of tin had been
early discovered. Arms (2 Sam. xxi. 16 ;
Job XX. 24; Ps- xviii. 34) and armor (1
Sam. xvii. 6, 0, 38) were made of this
ir.etal, which was capable of being so
wrought as to admit of a keen and hard
edge. The Egyptians employed it in cut
ting the hardest granite. Iron, Jike copper,
was found iu the hills of Palestine. Iron-
mines are still worked by the inhabitants
of Kefr Huneh in the S. of the valley Za-
ha/rdni. Me'theg-am'mah, a place which Da
vid took from the Philistines, apparently in
his last war with them (2 Sara. viii. 1).
Amraali raay be taken as meaning " mother-
city" or "metropolis" (comp. 2 Sara. xx.
19), and Metheg- ha- Ammah "the bridle of
the mother-city " — viz. of Gath, the chief
town of the Philistines.
Methu'sael, the son of Mehujael, fourth

in descent from Cain, and father of Lamech
(Gen. iv. 18).
Methu'selah, the son of Enoch, sixth
in descent from Seth, and father of Lamech
(Gen. V. 25-27).
Meunim, Neh. vii. 52. Elsewhere given
in A. V. as Mehunim and Mei-idnims.
Meu'zal, Ez. xxvii. 19, marg. [UzAl.]
Mez'ahata. The father of Matred and
grandfather of Mehetabel, who was wife of
Hadar or Hadad, the last-named king of
Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 39 ; 1 Chr. i. 50). His
narae, which, if it be Hebrew, signifies
" waters of gold," has given rise to much
speculation. Mi'amin. 1. A layman of Isrjiel of
tl7e sons of Parosh, who had married a for
eign wife and put her away at the bidding
of Ezra (Ezr. x. 25). 2- A priest or faraily
of priests who went up from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Neh. xii. 5).
Mib'har. " Mibhar the son of Hag
geri " is the name of one of David's heroes
in the list given in 1 Chr. xi. The verse
(38) in which it occurs appears to be cor
rupt, for in the corresponding catalogue of
2 Sam. xxiii. 36 we find, instead of " Mib
har the son of Haggeri," " of Zobah, Bani
the Gadite."
Mib'sam. 1. A son of Ishmael (Gen.
xxv. 13; 1 Chr. i. 29), not elsewhere men
tioned. The signification of his name has
led some to propose an identification of the
tribe sprung from him with some one of
the Abrahamic tribes settled in Arabia Aro-
raatifera. 2. A son of Siraeon (1 Chr. iv.
25), perhaps naraed after the Ishmaelite
Mibsam. Mib'zar. One of the phylarchs or
"dukes" of Edom (1 Chr.'i. 53) or Esau
(Gen. xxxvi. 43) after the death of Hadad
or Hadar.
Mi'cah (the same name as Micaiah)
[Micaiah]. 1. An Israelite whose familiar
stpry is preserved in the xviith .and xviiith
chapters of Judges. From this interesting
narrative we see (1.) how completely some
of the raost solemn and characteristic en
actments of the Law had become a dead
letter. Micah was evidently a devout be
liever in Jehovah. His one anxiety is to
enjoy the favor of Jehovah (xvii. 13) ; the
formula of blessing used by his mother and
his priest invokes the sarae awful name
(xvii. 2, xviii. 6) ; and yet so completely
ignorant is he of the Law of Jehovah, that
the mode which he adopts of honoring Him
is to toake a molten and graven image, tera
phim or images of domestic gods, and to
set up an unauthorized priesthood, first in
His own faraily (xvii. 5), and then in the
person of a Levite not of the priestly line
(ver. 12). (2.) The story also throws a
light on the condition of the Levites. Here
we have a Levite belonging to Bethlehem-
judah, a town not allotted 'o his tr'ibo,

MICAH

408

MICAH

nest wandering forth to take up his abode
wherever he could find a residence ; then
undert.aking the charge of Micah's idol-
chapel; and lastly, carrying, off the prop
erty of his master and benefactor, and
becoming the first priest to another system
of false worship. But the transaction be
comes still raore remarkiible when we con
sider, (3.) that this was no obscure or ordi
n.ary Levite. He belonged to the chief
family in the tribe, n.ay, we raay say to the
chief family of the nation, for though not
hiraself a priest, he was closely allied to the
priestly house, and vvas the grandson of no
les3 a person than the great Moses himself.
(4.) 'The narrative gives us a most vivid
idea of the terrible anarchy in which the
country was placed, when " there was no
king in Israel, and every man did what was
right in his own eyes," and shows how ur
gently necessary a central authority had
become. A body of si.x hundred men com
pletely armed, besides the train of their
families and cattle, traverses the length and
breadth of the land, not on any mission for
the ruler or the nation, as on later occasions
(2 Sam. ii. 12, &c., xx. 7, 14), but simply
for their private ends. Entirely disregarding
the rights of private property, they burst in
wherever they please along their route, and
plundering the valuables and carrying off
persons, reply to all remonstrances by taunts
and threats. As to the date of these interest
ing events, the narrative gives us no direct
information ; but we may at least infer that it
was also before the time of Samson, because
in this narr.ative (xviii. 12) we meet with
the origin ofthe name Mahaneh-dan, a place
which alreadv bore that name in Sarason's
childhood (xiii. 25) . 2 . The sixth in order of
the minorprophets. To distinguish him from
Micaiah the son of Imlah, the conterapo
rary of Elijah, he is called the Morasthite,
that is, a native of Moresheth, or sorae place
of similar name, which Jerome and Eijse-
bius call Morasthi and identify with a small
village near Eleutheropolis to the east,
where formerly the prophet's torab was
shown, though in the days of Jerome it had
been succeeded by a church. It is stated
in the superscription to his prophecies
that Micah exercised the prophetical office
during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah, kings of Judah, giving thus a
maximum limit of 59 years (b. c. 756-697),
from the accession of Jotham to the de.ath
of Hezekiah, and a minimura lirait of 16
years (u. c. 742-726), frora the death of
Jotham to the accession of Hezekiah. In
either case he would bo contemporary with
Hosea aud Araos during part of their rain-
istry in Israel, and with Isaiah in Judah.
With respect to one of his prophecies (iii.
12) it is distinctly assigned to the reign of
Hezekiah (Jer. xxvi. 18), and was probably
delivered before the great passover which

inaugurated the reformation in Judah. Ac
cording to the most probable arrangement,
ch. i. was dehvered in the contemporary
reigns of /otham king of Judah and of
Pekah king of Israel ; ii. 1-iv. 8, in those
of Ahaz, Pekah, and Hosea ; iii. 12 being
assigned to the last year of Ahaz, and thu
remainder of the book to the reign of Heze
kiah. But, at whatever time the several
prophecies were first delivered, they appear
in their present form as an organic whole,
marked by a certain regularity of developr
ment. Three sections, omitting the super
scription, are introduced by the same phrase,-
" hear ye," and represent three natural
divisions ofthe prophecy — i., ii., iii.-v.,
vi.-vii. — each commencing with rebukes
and threatenings and closing with a promise.
The first section opens with a magnificent
description of the coming of Jehovah to
judgment for the sins and idolatries of Israel
and Judah (i. 2-4), and the sentence pro
nounced upon Saraaria (5-9) by the Judge
Hiraself. 'The prophet sees the danger which
threatens his country, and traces in imagina
tion the devastating march of the Assyrian
conquerors (i. 8-10). The impending pun
ishraent suggests its cause, and the prophet
denounces a woe upon the people generally
for the corruption and violence which were
rife araong them, arid upon tho false proph
ets who led them astray by pandering to
their appetites and lu.xury (ii. 1-11). 'The
sentence of captivity is passed upon them
(10), but is followed instantly by a promise
of restoration and triumphant return (ii. 12,
13). The second section is addressed es
pecially to the princes and heads of the
people ; their avarice and rapacity are re
buked in strong terms. But the threatening
is again succeeded by a promise of restora
tion, and in the glories of the Messianic
kingdom the prophet loses sight ofthe deso
lation -which should befall his country. The
predictions in this section form the climax
of the book, and Ewald arranges thera in
four strophes, consisting of frora seven to
eight verses each (iv. 1-8, iv. 9-v. 2, v. 3-
9, V. 10-15), with the exception ofthe la.st,
which is shorter. In the last section (vi.,
vii.) Jehovah, by a bold poetical figure, is
represented as holding a controversy with
His people, pleading with them in justifica
tion of His conduct towards them and the
reasonableness of His requireraents. The
dialogue form in which ch.ap. vi. is cast
renders the picture very dramatic and strik
ing. The whole concludes with a triumphal
song of joy at the great deliverance, like that
frora Egypt, which Jehovah will achieve, and
a full acknowledgment of His mercy and
faithfulness to. His pror'ses (16-20). The
last verse is reproduced in the song of
Zacharias (Luke i. 72, 73) The predic
tions uttered by Micah relate to the inva
sions pt Shalraaneser (i. 6-8 ; 2 K. xvii.

MICAIAH

409

MICHAIAH

t, G) and Sennacherib (i. 9-16; 2 K. xviii.
13), tho destruction of Jerusalem (iii. 12,
vii. 13), the captivity in Babylon (iv. 10),
the return (iv. 1-8, vii. 11), the establish
ment of a theocratic kingdom in Jerusalem
(iv. 8), aud the Ruler who should spring
from Bethlehem (v. 2). The destruction
of Assyria and Babylon is supposed to be
leferred to in v. 5, 6, vii. 8, 10- It is re
markable that tho prophecies commence
» ilh the last words recorded of the proph
et's namesake, Micaiah the son of Imlah,
"Hwrken, O people, every one of you"
(1 K. xxii. 28). The style of Micah has
been compared with that of Hosea and
Isaiah. His diction is vigorous and forcible,
soraetiraes obscure from the abruptness of
its transitions, but varied and rich in figures
derived from the pastoral (i. 8, ii. 12, v. 4,
5, 7, 8, vii. 14) and rural life of the lowland
country (i. 6, iii. 12, iv. 3, 12, 13, vi. 15),
whose vines and olives and fig-trees were
celebrated (1 Chr. xxvii. 27, 28), and sup
ply the prophet with so many striking allu
sions (i. 6, iv. 3, 4, vi. 15, vii. 1, 4), as to
suggest that, like Amos, he may have been
cither a herdsman or a vine-dresser, who
had heard the howling of the jackals (i. 8,
A. "V. " dragons ") as he watched his flocks
or his vines by night, and had seen the lions
slaughtering the sheep (v. 8) . Tho language
of liicali is quoted in Matt. ii. 5, 6, and his
prophecies aro alluded to in Matt. x. 35,
36 ; Mark xiii. 12 ; Luke xii. 53 ; John vii.
42. 3. A descen jant of Joel the Reuben
ite (1 Chr. V. 5). 4. The son of Merib-
baal, or Meijhibosheth, the son of Jonathan
(1 Chr. viii- 34, 35, ix. 40, 41). 5. A
Kohathite Levite, eldest son of Uzziel the
brother of Amr.ara (1 Chr. xxiii. 20). 6.
The father of Abdon, a man of high station
in the reign of Josiah (2 Chr. x.x.xiv. 20).
Mica'iah, the same name as Micah, both
meaning the same thing. " Who like Je
hovah ? " ^ Micaiah, the son of Imlah, was
a prophet of Samaria, who, in the last year
of the reign of Ahab, king of Israel, pre
dicted his defeat aud death, b. c. 897 (1 K.
xxii. 1-35; 2 .Chr. xviii.).
Mi'eha. 1. The son of Mephibosheth
(2 Sam. ix. 12). 2. A Levite, or family
of Levites, who signed the covenant with
Nehemiah (Neh. x. 11). 3. The father of
Mattaniah, a Gershonite Levite and de
scendant of As.aph (Neh. xi. 17, 22). 4. A
Simeonite, father of Ozias, one ofthe three
governors of tho city of Bethulia in the time
of Judith (Jud.vi. 15).
Mi'chael. 1. An Asherite, father of
Sethur, one of the twelve spies (Num. xiii.
13). 2. The son of Abihail, one of the
Gadites who settled in the land of Bashan
(1 Chr. V. 13). 3. Ariother Gadite, ances
tor of Abihail (1 Chr. v. 14). 4. A Ger
shonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph (1 Chr.
vi. 40). 5. Cue of the five sons of Izra

hiah ofthe tribe of Issachar (1 Chr, vii. 3).
6. A Benjamite of th'e sons of Beriah (1
Chr. viii. 16). 7. One of the captains of
the " thousands " of M.anasseh who joined
David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 20). 8. The
father or ancestor of Omri, chief of the
tribe of Issachar in the reign of David (1
Chr. xxvu. 18). 9. One of the sons of
Jehoshaphat who were murdered by their
elder brother Jehor.am (2 Chr. xxi. 2, 4).
10. The father or ancestor of Zebadiah of
the sons of Shephatiah (Ezr. vui. 8). 11.
" One," or " the first of the chief princes "
or archangels (Dan. x. 13; comp. Jude 9),
described in D.an. x. 21 as the " prince "
of Israel, and in xii. 1 as " the great prince
which standeth" in time of conflict "for
the children of thy people." All these pas
sages in the O. T. belong to that late period
of its revelation, when, to the general
declaration of the angelic office, was added
the division of that office into parts, and
the assignment of them to inclividu.al angels.
As Gabriel represents the ministration of
the angels towards man, so Michael is the
type and leader of tlieir strife, in God's
name and His strength, against the power
of Satan. In the 0. T. therefore he is the
guardian of the Jewish people in their an
tagonism to godless power and heathenism.
In the N. T. (see Rev. xii. 7) he fights in
heaven against the dragon— " that old ser
pent called the Devil and Satan, which de-
ceiveth the whole world ; " and so takes part
in that struggle, which is the work of the
Church on earth. There remains one pas
sage (Jude 9 ; comp. 2 Pet. ii. 11) in which
we are told that " Michael the archangel,
when contending with the devil he disputed
about the body of Moses, durst not bring
against him a railing accusation, but said.
The Lord rebuke thee." The allusion seeras
to bo to a Jewish legend attached to Deut.
xxxiv. 6.
Mi'chah, eldest sou of Uzziel, the sou
of Kohath (1 Chr. xxiv. 24, 25), elsewhere
(1 Chr. xxiii. 20) called Micah.
Mieha'iah. 1. The father of Achbor,
a man of high rank in the reign of Josiah
(2 K. xxii. 12). He is the same as Micah
the father of Abdon (2 Chr. xxxiv. 20.) 2.
The son of Zaccur, a descendant of Asaph
(Neh. xii. 35). He is the same as Micah
the son of Zichri (1 Chr. ix. 15) and Micha
the son of Zabdi (Neh. xi. 17); 3- One of
the priests at the dedication of the wall of
Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 41). 4. The daugh
ter of Uriel of Gibeah, wife of Rehoboam,
and mother of Abijah king of Judah (2 Chr.
xiii. 2). [Maachah, 3.] 5. One of the
princes of Jehoshaphat whom he sent to
teach the law of Jehovah in the cities of
Judah (2 Chr. xvii. 7). 6. The son of
Geraariah. He is only mentioned on one
occasion. After Baruch had read, iu pub
lic, prophecies of Jenmiah anuou 2cii g im-

MICHAL

410

lViL.5DIN

mment calamities, Michaiah went and de
clared thera to all the princes assembled in
king Jehoiakim's house; and the princes
forthwith sent for Baruch to read the proph
ecies to thera (Jer. xxxvi. 11-14).
Mi'chal, the younger of Saul's two
daughters (1 Sam. xiv. 49). The king had
proposed to bestow on David his eldest
daughter Merab ; but before the marriage
could be arranged an unexpected turn was
given to the matter by the behavior of
Michal, who fell violently in love with the
young hero. The marriage with her elder
sister was at once put aside. Saul eagerly
caught at the opportunity which the change
afforded him of exposing his rival to the risk
of death. The price fixed on Michal's hand
was no less than the slaughter of a hundred
Philistines. David by abrilliant feat doubled
the tale of victims, and Michal became his
wife. Shortly afterwards she saved David
from the assassins wliom her father had sent
to take his life (1 Sam. xix. 11-17). Saul's
rage raay be iraagined : his fury was such
that Michal was obliged to fabricate a story
of David's having attempted to kill her.
This was the last time she saw her husband
for many years ; and when the rupture be
tween Saul and David had become open
and incurable, she was married to another
man, Phalti or Phaltiel of Gallim (1 Sam.
xxv. 44). After the death of her father
and brothers at Gilboa, David compelled
her new husband to surrender Michal to
him (2 Siim. iii. 13-16). It is on the road
leading up from the Jordan valley to the
Mount of Olives that we first encounter her
with her husband, Michal under the joint
escort of David's messengers aud Abner's
twenty men, en route to David at Hebron,
the submissive Phaltiel behind, bewailing
the wife thus torn frora him. It was at least
fourteen years since David and she had
parted at Gibeah, since she had watched
him disappear down the cord into the dark
ness and had perilled her own life for his
against the rage of her insane father- That
David's love for his absent wife had under
gone no change in the interval seems cer
tain from the eagerness with which he re
claims her as soon as the opportunity is
afforded him. The meeting took place at
Hebron. How Michal comported herself
in the altered circurastances of David's
household we are not told ; but it is plain
from the subsequent occurrences that some
thing had happened to alter the relations
of herself and David. It was the day of
David's greatest triumph, when he brought
the ark of Jehovah frora its temporary rest
ing-place to its home in the newly-acquired
city- Michal watched the procession ap
proach from the window of her apartment ;
the motions of her husband shocked her as
undignified and indecent ; " she despised him
in her heart." After the exertions of the

long day were over, the king was reciived
by his wife with a bitter taunt. David's re
tort was a tremendous one, conveyed in
words which once spoken could never be
recalled. All intercourse between her and
David ceased from that date (8 Sam. vi.
20-23). Her name appears (2 Sam. xxi.
8) as the mother of five of the grandchil
dren of Saul. But it is probably raore cor
rect to substitute Merab for Michal in this
place. Mich'mas, a variation, probably a later
form, of the name Michmash (Ezr. ii. 27;
Neh. vii. 31). . .
Mich'mash, a town which is known to
us almost solely by its connection with the
Philistine war of Saul and Jonathan (1
Sam- xiii., xiv.). It has been identified
with great probability in a village which
still bears the name of Mitkhmas, about 7
miles north of Jerusalem- The place was
thus situated in the very middle of the tribe
of Benjamin. In the invasion of Sen
nacherib in the reign of Hezekiah, it is
mentioned by Isaiah (x. 28). After the
captivity the men of the place returned
(Ezr. ii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 31). At a later date
it becarae the residence of Jonathan Mac
eabaeus, and the seat of his government
(1 Maec. ix. 73). In the tirae of Eusebius
and Jerome it was "a very large village
retaining its ancient name, and lying near
Ramah in the district of Aelia (Jerusar
lem) at 9 miles' distance therefrora." Im
mediately below the village the great wady
spreads out to a considerable width — per
haps half a mile ; and its bed is broken up
into an intricate mass of hummocks and
mounds, some two of which, before the tor
rents of 3000 winters had reduced and
rounded their forms, were probably the
two " teeth of cliff" — the Bozez and Seneh
of Jonathan's adventure. Right opposite is
Jeba (Geba) on a curiously terraced hill.
Mieh'methah, a place which formed
one of the landmarks of the boundary of
the territories of Ephraira and Manasseh on
the western side of Jordan (Josh- xvii. 7).
The position of the place must be some
where on the east of and not far distant
frora Shechem.
Mlch'ri, ancestor of Elah, one of the
heads of the fathers of Benjamin (1 Chr.
ix. 8) after the captivity.
Mich'tam. This word occurs in the
titles of six Psalius (xvi., Ivi.-lx.), all of
which are ascribed to David . The marginal
reading of our A. V. is "a golden Psalm,"
while in the Geneva version it is described
as " a certain tune." From the position
which it occupies in the title we may infer
that michiam is a term applied to these
Psalms to denote their musical character,
but beyond this everything is obscure.
Mid'dlU, a city of Judah (Josh. xv. 61),
one of the six specified as situated in tlia

MIDiAN

4U

MIGDOL

district of "the midbar" (A. "7. "wilder
ness"). .
Mid'ian, a sonof Abraham and Keturah
(Gen. xxv. 2 ; 1 Chr. i. 32) ; progenitor of
the. Midianites, or Arabi.ans dwelling prin
cipally in the desert north of the peninsula
of Arabia. Southwards they extended
along the eastern shore of the Gulf of
Eyleh {Sinus Aelaniiicus) ; and north
wards they stretched along the eastern
frontier of Palestine. Midian is first raen
tioned, as a people, when Moses fled, hav
ing killed the Egyptian, to the " land of
Midian " (Ex. ii. 15), and married a daugh
ter of a priest of Midian (21). The " land
of Midian," or the portion of it specially
referred to, was probably the peninsula of
Sinai. The next occurrence of the name
of this people in the sacred history marks
theu: northern settlement on the border of
the Promised Land, "on this side Jordan
[by] Jericho " in the plains of Moab (Num.
xxii. 1-4). It was " on this side Jordan "
that the chief doings of the Midianites with
the Israelites' took place. The infiuence
of the Midianites on the Israelites was
clearly raost evil, and directly tended to
lead them from the injunctions of Moses.
The events at ShittiiA occasioned the in
junction to vex Midian and smite them.
Twelve thousand raen, a thousand from
each tribe, went up to this war, a war in
which all the males of the enemy were slain.
After a lapse of some years, the Midianites
appear again as the enemies ofthe Israehtes.
They had recovered frora the devastation of
the forraer war, probably by the arrival of
fresh colonists frora the desert tracts over
which their tribes wandered ; and they now
were sufficiently powerful to become the
oppressors of the children of Israel. Alhed
with-the Araalekites and the Bene-Kedem,
they drove them to make dens in the moun
tains and caves and strongholds, and wasted
their crops even to Gaza, on the Mediter
ranean coast, in the land of Simeon. The
Midianites had oppressed Israel for seven
years, but were finally defeated with great
slaughter by Gideon. [Gideon.] The
Midianites are described as true Arabs —
now Bedawees, or "people of the des
ert;" anon pastoral, or settled Arabs — the
" flock " of Jethro ; the cattle and fiocks of
Midian, in the later days of Moses ; their
camels without number, as the sand of the
sea-side for multitude when they oppressed
Israel in the days of the Judges — all agree
with such a description. Like Arabs, who
are predominantly a nomadic people, they
seem to have partially settled in the land
of Moab. The only glimpse of their habits
is found in the vigorous picture of the camp
in the valley of Jezreel (Judg. vii. 13).
The spoil taken in both the war of Moses
and that of Gideon is remarkable. The
gold, silver, bra.is, iron, tin, and lead (Num.

I xxxi. 22), the "jewels of gold, chains, and
bracelets, rings, earri-^gs, and tablets " (50)
taken by Moses, is especially noteworthy ;
and it is confirmed by the booty taken by
Gideon (Judg. viii. 21, 24-26). We have
here a wealthy Arab nation, living by plun
der, delighting in finery ; and, where forays
were impossible, carrying on the traffic
southwards into Arabia, the land of gold —
if not naturally, by trade — and across te
Chaldaea, or into the rich plains of Egypt.
Mid"Wife. Parturition in the East is
usually easy. The office of a midwife is
thus, in many eastern QountrieB, in little
use, but is performed, when necessary, by
relatives. Mig'dal-el, one of the fortified towns
of the possession of Naphtali (Josh. xix.
38 only), possibly deriving its name frora
some ancient tower — the "tower of El,
or God."
Mig'dal-gad, a city of Judah (Josh.
XV. 37) in the district of the Shefelah, or
maritirae lowland.
Mig'dol, the narae of one or two places
on the eastern frontier of Egypt, cognate
to Migdal, which appears properly to sig
nify a military watch-tower, or a shepherd's
lookout. 1. A Migdol is mentioned in the
account of the Exodus (Ex. xiv. 2 ; Nura
xxxiii. 7, 8). We suppose that the positio;i
of the encarapraent was before or at Piht -
hiroth, behind which was Migdol, and on the
other hand Baal-zephon and the sea, these
places being near together. The place of
the encarapraent and of the passage of
the sea we believe to have been not far
frora the Persepohtan monument, which is
raade in Linant's map the site of the Sera-
peura. 2. A Migdol is spoken of by Jere
raiah and Ezekiel. The latter prophet raen-
tions it as a boundary-town, evidently on the
eastern border, corresponding to Seveneh,
Syene, on the southern (xxix. 10, xxx. 6).
In the prophecy of Jereraiah the Jews in
Egypt are spoken of as dwelling at Migdol,
Tahpanhes, and Noph, and in the country
of Patliros (xliv. 1) ; and in that foretell
ing, apparently, an invasion of Egypt by
Nebuchadnezzar, Migdol, Noph, and Tah
panhes are again mentioned together (xlvi.
14). It seems plain, from its being spoken
of with Memphis, and from Jews dwelling
there, that this Migdol was an important
town, and not a mere fort, or even military
settlement. After this tirae there is no
notice of any place of this name in Egypt,
excepting of Magdolus, by Hecataeus of
Miletus, .and in the Itinerary of Antoninus,
in which Magdolo is placed twelve Roman'
miles to the southward of Pelusiura, in the
route from the Serapeum to that town.
This latter place most probably represents
the Migdol mentioned by Jeremiah and
Ezekiel. Its position on the route to Pales
tine would make it both strategically impor-

MIGRON

412

MILL

taut and populous, neither of which would
be the case with a t3wn in the position of
the Migdol of the Pentateuch.
Mig'ron, a town or a spot — for there is
nothing to indicate which — in the neigh
borhood of Saul's city, Gibeah, on the very
edge of the district belonging to it (1 Sam.
.xiv. 2). Migron is, also mentioned in the
list of the places disturbed by Sennache
rib's approach to Jerusalem (Is. x. 28)-.
But here its position seems a little farther
north than that indicated in the former pas
sage. In Hebrew, Migron raay mean a
"precipice," and.it is not impossible, there
fore, that two places of the same name are
intended. Mi'jamin. 1. The chief of the sixth
of the 24 courses of priests established by
D<avid (1 Chr. xxiv. 9). 2. A family of
priests who signed the covenant with Nehe
raiah; prob.ably the descendants of the
preceding (Neh. x. 7).
Mik'loth- 1. One of the sons of Jehiel,
the father or prince of Gibeon, by his wife
Maachah (1 Chr. viii. 32, ix. 37, 38). 2.
The leader of the second division of David's
army (1 Chr. xxvii. 4).
Miknei'ah. One of the Levites of the
secorid rank, gatekeepers of the ark, ap
pointed by David to play in the Temple
band " with harps upon Sheminith " (1 Chr.
XV. 18, 21).
Milala'i. Probably a Gershonite Levite
of the sons of Asaph, who assisted at the
dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh.
xii. 36).
Mil'eah. 1. D.aughter of Haran and
wife of her uncle Nahor, Abrahara's brother,
to whora she bore eight children (Gen- xi.
29, xxii. 20, 23, x.xiv. 15, 24, 47), 2. The
fourth daughter of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi.
33, xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 11; Josh. xvii. 3).
MH'com. The ''abomination" of the
children of Ammon, elsewhere called Mo-
L,':CH (1 K. xi. 7, &c.) and Malcham (Zeph.
i 5, raarg. " their king"), of the latter of
which it is probably a di.alcctical variation.
Mile, a Roraan measure of length, equ.al
to 1618 English yards. It is only once
naticed in the Bible (Matt. v. 41), the'usual
method of reckoning both in the N. T. and
to Josephus being by the stadiura. The
mile of the Jews is said to have been of
two kinds, long or short, dependent on tho
length of the pace, which varied in differ
ent p.arts, tho long pace being double the
length of the short one.
Mile'tus (Acts XX. 15, 17, less correctly
called MiLETUM in 2 Tira. iv. 20). In the
context of Acts xx. 6, we have the geograph
ical relations of Miletus brought out as dis
tinctly as if it were St. Luke's purpose to
state them. In the first place it lay on the
coast to the S. of Ephesus. Next, it was
a day's sail frora Trogyllium (ver. J 5).
Moreo er, to those who are sailing from the

north, it is in the direct line for Cos. All
these details correspond with the geograph
ical facts of the case. The site of Miletus
has now receded ten miles from the coast,
and even in the Apostle's time it must^iave
lost its strictly maritime position. The
passage in.the Second Epistle to Tiraothy,
v/here Miletus is raentioned, presents a
very serious difficulty to the theory that
there was only one Roman iraprisonment.
As to the history of Miletus itself, it was
far more famous five hundred years before
St. Paul's day, than it ever became after
wards. In early times it was the most
flourishing city of the Ionian Greeks. In
the natural order of events, it was absorbed
in the Persi.an empire. After a brief peri
od of spirited independence, it received -a
blow from which it never recovered, in the
siege conducted by Alexander, when on his
Eastern campaign. But still it held, even
through the Roman period, the rank of a
second-rate trading town, and Strabo men
tions its four harbors. At this tirae it was
politically in the province of Asia, though
Caria was the old ethnological name of
the district in which it was situated.
Milk. As an article of diet, milk holds
a more important position in Eastern coun
tries than with us. It is not a more adjunct
in cookery, or restricted to the use of the
young, although it is naturally the charac
teristic food of childhood, both from its
simple and nutritive qualities (1 Pet. u. 2),
and particularly as contrasted with meat
(1 Cor. iii. 2 ; Heb. v. 12) : but beyond
this it is regarded as substantial food
adapted alike to all ages and classes. Not
only the milk of cows, but of sheep (Deut.
xxxii. 14), of camels (Gen. xxxii. 15), and
of goats (Prov. xxvii. 27) was used; the
latter appears to have been most highly
prized. Milk was used sometimes in its
natural state, and soraetiraes in a sour,
coagulated state : the former was named
chdldb, and the latter chema. In the A. 'V.
the latter is rendered " butter," but there
can be no question that in every case (ex
cept perhaps Prov. xxx. 33) the term refers
..o a, preparation cf railk well known in East
ern countries under the name of leben.
The method now pursued n its preparation
is to boil the milk over a slow flre, adding
to it a small jiiece of old leben or some
other acid in order to make it coagulate.
The refreshing draught which Jael offered
" in a lordly dish " to Sisera (Judg. v.
25) was leben. Leben is still extensively
used in the East : at certain seasons of the
year the poor almost live upon it, while the
upper classes eat it with salad or meat.
It is still offered in hospitality to the puss-
ing stranger, exactly as of old in Abra
ham's tent (Gen. xviii. 8).
MiU. The mills ofthe ancient Hebrews
probably differed but littlu from tliose a!

MILLET

413

MINES

present m use in the East. These consist
of two circular stones, about 18 inches or
two feet iu diameter, tho lower of which is
flxed, and- has ' its upper surface slightly
convex, fitting into a corresponding con
cavity in: the upper stone. The latter has
a hole iu it, through which the grain passes,
immediately above a pivot or shaft which
rises from the centre of the lower stone,
and about which the upper stone is turned
by means of an upright handle fixed near
the edge. It is worked by women, some
times singly and sometimes two together,
who are usually seated on the bare ground
(Is. .xlvii. 1, 2) "facing each other; both
have hold ofthe handle by which the upper
is turned round on the ' nether ' millstone.
The one whose right hand is disengaged
throws in the grain as occasion requires
through the hole in the upper stone. It is
not correct to say that one pushes it half
round, an,d then the other seizes the han
dle. This would be slow work, and would
give a spasmodic motion to the stone. Both
retain their hold, and pull io or push from,
as men do with the whip or crosscut saw.
The proverb of our Saviour (Matt. xxiv.
41) is true to life, for women only grind. I
cannot recall an instance in which men
wcreatthe'mill." (Thomson, Tlie Land and
ihe Book, c. 34.) 'The labor is very hard,
and the task of grinding in consequence per
formed only by the lowest servants (Ex.
xi. 5) and captives (Judg. xvi. 21 ; Job
xxxi. 10; Is. xlvii. 1, 2; Lam. v. 13). So
essential were millstones for daily domes
tic use, that they were forbidden to be taken
in pledge (Deut. xxiv. 6), in order that a
man's family might not be deprived of the
means of preparing their food. The hand-
mills of the ancient Egyptians appear to
have been of the same character. "They
had also a large mill on a very similar prin
ciple; but the stones were of far greater
power and dimensions ; .and this could only
have been -turned by cattle or asses, like
those of the .ancient Romans, and of the
modern Cairenes " (Willcinson). It was
the millstone of a mill of this kind, driven
by an ass, which is alluded to in Matt, xviii.
6. With the movable upper millstone of
the hand-mill the woman of Thebez broke
Abimelech's skull (Judg. ix. 53).
MiUet (Heb. ddchan) occurs only in
Ez. iv. 9. Dr. Royle maintains that the
irue dukhun of Arab authors is the Pani-
cum miliaceum, which is universally culti
vated in the East. It is probable that both
the Sorghum vulgare and the Panicum
miliaceum were used by the ancient He
brews and Egyptians, and that the Heb.
ddchan may denote either of these plants.
Mil'lo, a place in ancient Jerusalem.
Both name and place seem to have been al
ready in existence when the city was taken
from the Jebusites by David (2 Sam. v. 9 ;

1 Chr. xi. 8). Its repair or restoration wai
one of the great works for which Solomon
raised his " levy" (1 K. ix. 15, 24, xi. 27) ;
and it formed a prominent part of the forti
fications by whieh Hezekiah prepared for
the approach of the Assyrians (2 Chr.
xxxii. 5). 'The last passage seems to show
that " the Millo " was part of the " city of
David," that is, of Zion (comp. 2 K. xii.
20). If "Millo" be t.aken as a Hebrew
word, it would be derived from a root which
has the force of "filling;" but the only
ray of light which we can obtain as to the
meaning of the word is from the LXX.
Their rendering in every case (excepting
only 2 Chr. xxxii. 5) is j; lix^a, a word
which they employ nowhere else in the 0. T.
Now 1/ a*ga means "the citadel," and itis
reraarkable that it is tho word used with un
varying persistence throughout the Books
of Maccabees for the fortress on Mount
Zion. It is therefore perhaps not ton rauch
to assume that the word Millo was employed
in the Hebrew original of 1 Maccabees.
Mil'lo, The House of. 1. Apparently
a family or clan, moutioned in Judg. ix. 6,
20, only, in connection with the men or lords
of Shechera. 2. The " house of Millo that
goeth down to Silla " was the spot at which
king Joash was murdered by his slaves (2
K. xii. 20). There is nothing to lead us to
suppose that the murder was not committed
in Jerusalera, and in that case the spot
must be connected with the ancient Millo
(see prgceding article).
Mines, Mining. " Surely there is a
source for the silver, and a place for the
gold which they refine. Iron is taken out
of the soil, and stone m,an raelts (for) cop
per. He hath put an end to darkness, and
to all perfection {i. e. most thoroughly) ;
he searcheth the stone of thick darkness
and of the shadow of death. He hath sunk
a shaft far from the wanderer; they that
are forgotten of the foot are suspended,
away from raan they waver to and fro. (As
for) the earth, frora her cometh forth bread,
yet her nethermost parts are upturned as
(by) fire. The place of sapphire (are) her
stones, and dust of gold is his- A tracl<
which the bird of prey hath not known, noi
the eye of the falcon glared upon ; which
the sons of pride {i. e. wild beasts) h.-ive
not trodden, nor the roaring lion gone
over ; in the flint, man hath thrust his hand,
he hath overturned mountains frora the
root; in the rocks he hath cleft channels,
and every rare tiling hath his eye seen : the
streams hath he bound that they weep not,
and that which is hid he bringeth forth to
light" (Job xxviii. 1-11). Such is the
highly poetical description given by the
author ofthe book of Job of the operations
of mining as known in his day, the only
record of the kind which we inherit from
the ancient Hebrews. It may be fairly in-

MINES

414

MINES

ferred from the description that a distinc
tion is made between gold obtained in the
manner indicated, and that which is found
in the natural state in the alluvial soil,
among the d6bris washed down by the tor
rents. This appears to be implied in the
expression "the gold they refine," which
presupposes a process by which- the pure
gold is extracted frora the ore, and sepa
rated from the silver or copper with which
it may have been mixed. What is said of
gold may bo equally applied to silver. In
the Wady Magh^rah, "the valley of the
Cave," are still traces of the Egyptian
colony of miners who settled there for the
purpose of extracting copper from the free
stone rocks, and left their hieroglyphic in
scriptions upon the face of the cliff. The
ancient furnaces are still to be seen, and on
the coast of the Red Sea are found the piers
and wharves whence the miners shipped
their metal in the harbor of Abu Zelimeh.
The copper-mines of Phaeno in Idumaea,
according to Jerome, were between Zoar
and Petra ; in the persecution of Diocletian
the Christians were condemned to work
thera. The gold-raines of Egypt in the
BishAree desert, the principal station of
which was Esliuranib, about three days'
jfurney beyond Wady AUaga, have been
discovered within thfe last few years by M.
Linant and Mr. Bonomi. According to the
account given by Diodorus Siculus (iii.
13-14), the mines were worked by gangs of
convicts and captives in fetters, who were
kept day and night to their task by the
soldiers set to guard them. The harder
rock was split by the application of fire, but
the softer was broken up with picks and
chisels. The miners were quite naked,
their bodies being painted according to the
color of the rock they were working, and in
order to see in the dark passages of the
mine they carried lamps upon their heads.
The stone as it fell was carried offby boys ;
it was then pounded in stone mortars with
iron pestles by those who were over 30
years of age till it was reduced to the size
of a lentil. 'The women and old men after
wards ground it in mills to a fine powder.
The final process of separating the gold
from the pounded stone was intrusted to
the engineers who superintended the work.
They spread this powder upon a broad
slightly-inclined t.able, and rubbed it gently
with the hand, pouring water upon it from
time to tirae so as to carry away all the
earthy raatter, leaving the heavier particles
upon the board. This was repeated several
times ; at first with the hand and afterwards
with fine sponges gently pressed upon the
earthy substance, till nothing but the gold
was left. It was then collected by other
workmen, and placed in earthen crucibles
with a mixture of lead and salt in certain
proportions, together with a little tin and

some barley bran. The crucibles were
covered and carefully closed with clay, and
in this condition baked in a furnace for flve
days and nights without intermission. Of
the three methods which have been em
ployed for reflning gold and silver, 1. by
exposing the fused metal to a current of
air ; 2. by keeping the alloy in a state of
fusion and throwing nitre upon it ; anl 3.
by mixing the alloy with lead, exposing the
whole to fusion upon a vessel of bone-ashes
or earth, and blowing upon it with bellows
or other blast : the latter appears most
nearly to coincide with the description of
Diodorus. To this process, known as the
cupelling process, there seems to be a refer
ence in Ps. xii. 6 ; Jer. vi. 28-30 ; Ez. xxii.
18-22. The chief supply of silver in the
ancient world appears to have been brought
frora Spain. A strong proof of the ac
quaintance possessed by the ancient He
brews with the manipulation of metals is
found by some in the destruction of the
golden calf in the desert by Moses. "And
he took the calf which they had made, and
burnt it in fire, and ground it to powder, aud
strewed it upon the water, and made the
children of Israel drink" (Ex. xxxii. 20).
As the highly malleable character of gold
would render an operation like .that which
is described in the text alraost impossible,
an explanation has been sought in the sup
position that we h.ave here an indication
that Moses was a proficient in the process
known in modern times as calcination. The
whole difficulty appears to have arisen from
a desire to find too much in the text. The
m.ain object of the destruction of the calf
was to prove its worthlessness .and to throw
contempt upon idolatry ; and all this might
have been done without any refined chemi
cal process like that referred to. How far
the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with
the processes at present in use for extract
ing copper frora the ore it is impossible to
assert, as there are no references in Scrip
ture to anything of the kind, except in the
passage of Job already'quoted. The Egyp
tians evidently possessed the art of working
bronze in great perfection at a very early
time, and much of the knowledge of metals
which the Israelites had must have been
acquired during their residence araong
thera. Of tin there appears to have been
no trace in Pjilestine. The hills of Pales
tine are rich in iron, and the mines are still
worked there, though in a very simple, rude
manner, Uke that of the anc'ient Saraothra-
ci.ans : ofthe method employedby the Egyp
tians and Hebrews we have no certain infor
mation. It may have been similar to that in
use throughout the whole of India from
very early tiraes, which is thus described
by Dr. Ure : — " The furUace or bloomary
in which the ore is smelted is frora four to
five feet high; it is somewhat pe?r-shaped,

MINGLED PEOPLE

415

MINSTREL

being about five feet wide at bottom and one
foot at top. It is built entirely of clay. . . .
There is an opening in front about a foot or
more in height, which is buUt up with clay
at the commencement and" broken down at
the end of each smelting operation. The
bellows are usually raade of goat's skin. . . .
The baraboo nozzles of the bellows are in
serted into tubes of cl.ay, which pass into
the furnace. . . . The furnace is filled v/ith
charcoal, and a lighted coal being intro
duced before the nozzles, the mass in the
'interior is soon kindled. As soon as this is
accomplished, a small portion of the ore,
previously moistened with water to prevent
it from running through the charcoal, but
without any fiux whatever, is laid on the
top of the coals and covered with charcoal
to fill up the furnace. In this manner ore
and fuel are supplied, and the bellows are
urged for three or four hours. When the
process is stopped and the temporary wall
in front broken down, the bloom is removed
with a pair of tongs from the bottom ofthe
furnace." It has seemed necessary to give
this account of a very ancient method of
iron-smelting, because, from the difficulties
which attend it, and the intense heat which
is required to separate the metal from the
ore, it has been asserted that the allusions
to iron and iron manufacture in the Old
Testament are anachronisras. But if it
were possible among the ancient Indians in
a very primitive state of civilization, it
might have been known to the Hebrews,
who raay have acquired their knowledge by
working as slaves in the iron furnaces of
Egypt (corap. Deut. iv. 20).
Mingled People- This phrase, like
that of " the mixed multitude," which the
Hebrew closely resembles, is applied in Jer.
xxv. 20, and Ez. xxx. 5, to denote the mis
cellaneous foreign population of Egypt and
its frontier-tribes, including every one, says
Jerorae, who was not a native Egyptian,
but was resident there. It is difficult to
attach to it any precise meaning, or to iden
tify with tho mingled people any race of
which we have knowledge. " The kings of
the mingled people that dwell in the desert,"
are the same apparently as the tributary
kings (A. V. "kings of Arabia") who
brought presents to Solomon (1 K. x. 15) ;
the Hebrew in the two cases is identical.
The "mingled people" in the midst of
Babylon (Jer. I. 37), were probably the
foreign soldiers or mercenary troops, who
lived among the native population.
Mini'amin. 1. A Levite in the reign
of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 15). 2. The
same as Miamin 2 and Mijamin 2 (Neh.
xu. 17). 3. One of the priests at the dedica-
¦ tion of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. xii. 41).
Minister. This term is used in the A.
y. to describe various officials of a religious
and civil ch;.raoter. In the 0. T. it answers

to the Hebrew meshdrSih, which is applied
(1) to an attendant upon a person of high
rank (Ex. xxiv. 13 ; Josh. i. 1 ; 2 K. iv. 43) ;
(2) to the attaches of a royal court (1 K. x.
5 ; 2 Chr. xxii. 8 ; comp. Ps. eiv. 4), where,
it maybe observed, they are distinguished
from the "servants" or officials of higher
rank ; (3) to the Priests and Levites (Is. Ixi.
6 ; Ez. xliv. 11 ; Joel i. 9, 13 ; Ezr. viii. 17 ;
Neh. X. 36). In the N. T. we have three
terms, each with its distinctive meaning —
JsiTovQyog, vmiqiriig , and Siuxovog. ¦ The
first answers most nearly to the Hebrew
meshdreth, and is usually employed iu the
LXX. as its equivalent- It betokens a sub
ordinate public administrator (Rom. xiii. 6,
XV. 16 ; Heb. viii. 2). In all these instances
the original and special meaning of the
word, as used by the Athenians of one who
performs certain gratuitous public services,
is preserved. The second term, vnijQhiig,
differs from the two others iu that it con
tains the idea of actual and personal attend
ance upon a superior. Thus it is used of
the attendant in the synagogue, the chazan
of the Talmudists (Luke iv. 20), whose duty
it was to open and close the building, to
produce and replace the books employed in
the service, and generally to wait ou the
officiating priest or teacher. The idea of
personal attendance comes prominently for
ward in Luke i. 2 ; Acts xxvi. 16. In all
these cases the etymological sense of the
word {vii'o iQtryis, literally a, "sub-rower,"
one who rows under command of the steers
man) comes out. 'The third terra, Siitxorog,
is the one usually employed in relation to
the ministry of the Gospel : its application ia
twofold, in a general sense to indicate min
isters of any order, whether superior or in
ferior, and in a special sense to indicate an
order of inferior ministers. [Deacon,]
Min'nl, a country raentioned in connec
tion with Ararat and Ashehenaz (Jer. li.
27) . It has been already noticed as a por
tion of Armenia. [Armenia.]
Min'nith, a place on the east of the
Jord.an , named as the point to which Jeph
thah's slaughter of the Ammonites extendr
ed (Judg. xi- 33.) A site bearing the name
Menjah, is marked in Van de Velde's Map,
at 7 Roman miles east of Heshbon. The
" wheat of Minnith " is mentioned in Ez-
xxvii. 17, as being supplied by Judah and
Israel to Tyre ; but there is nothing to indi
cate that the same place is intended, aud
indeed the word is thought by some not to
be a proper name.
Minstrel. The Hebrew word in 2 K.
iii. 15 properly Signifies a player upon a
stringed instrument Uke the harp or kinnor
[Harp], whatever its precise character
may have been, on which David played be
fore Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 16, xviii. 10, xiv. 9),
and which the harlots of the great cities
used to carry with them as they, walked, to

MINT

416

MIRACLES

attract notice (Is. xxiii. 16). The passage
in which it occurs has given rise to much
conjecture ; Elisha, upon being consulted
by Jehoram as to the issue of the war with
Moab, at first indignantly refuses to answer,
and is only induced to do so by the presence
of Jehoshaphat. He calls for a harper,
apparently a camp follower ; "and it came
to pass as the harper harped that the hand
of Jehovah was on him." Other instances
of the same divine influence or impulse
connected with music, are seen in the case
of Saul and the young prophets in 1 Sam.
A. 5, 6, 10, 11. In the 'present piissage the
reason of Elisha's appeal is variously ex
plained. According to Keil, " Elisha calls
for a minstrel, in order to gather in his
thoughts by the soft tones of music from
the impression of the outer world, and by
repressing the life of self and of the world,
to be tr.ansferred into the state of internal
vision, by which his spirit would be pre
pared to receive the divine revelation."
The " minstrels " in Matt. ix. 23, were the
flute-pl.ayers who were employed as profes
sional mourners, to whom frequent allusion
is made (Eccl. xii. 5 ; 2 Chr. xxxv. 25 ; Jer.
ix. 17-20).
Mint occurs only in Matt, xxiii. 23, and
Luke -xi. 42, as. one of those herbs, the tithe
of whieh the Jews were most scrupulously
exact in paying. The horse mint (J/. Syl-
vestri.'!) is common in Syria.
Miph'kad, The Gate, one of the gates
of Jerusalem at the time of the rebuilding
of the wall after the return frora captivity
(Nell. iii. 31). It was probably not in the
wall of Jerusalem proper, but in that of the
city of David, or Zion, and somewhere
near to the junction of the two on the
north side.
Miracles. The word "mir<acle" is
the ordinary translation, in our Authorized
English Version, of the Greek word Se-
meion {trr,fieiov) , which signifies "a sign."
The habitual use of the terra "miracle"
has tended to fix attention too much on the
physical strangeness, ot the facts thus de
scribed, and to divert attention from what
niij' be called their signality. A rairacle
miy be defined to be a plain and manifest
exercise by a man, or by God at the call of
a man, of those powers which belong only
to the Creator and Lord of nature ; and
this for the declared object of attesting
that a divine mis'sion is given to that man.
It is not, therefore, the wonder, the excep
tion to common experience, that constitutes
the miracle, as is assuraed both in tlie
popular use ot the word, and by raost ob
jectors against rairacles. No phenoraenon
in nature, however unusual, no event in the
course of God's providence, however unex
pected, is a rairacle unless it can be traced
to the agency of raan (including prayer
under the term agency), and unless it be

put forth as a proof of divine missioa.
Prodigies and special providences are not
miracles. On the other hand, it is a mere
petitio principii, to argue against all mira
cles, on the ground that if we could see the
secret manner of God's working, we raight
find them to be consistent with some higher
law unknown to our experience. For it is
not so much the violation of law, as the
manifest application of it to a special octia-
sion, that attests the immediate power of
God. The peculiar improbability of Mira
cles is resolved by Hume, in his famous
Essay, into the circumstance that they.
are " contrary to experience." This ex
pression is, as has often been pointed out,
strictly speaking, incorrect. In strictness,'
that only can be said to be contrary to ex
perience, which is contradicted by the im
mediate perceptions of persons present at
the time when the fact is alleged to have
occurred. But the terms " contrary to
experience" are used for " contrary to the
analogy of our experience ; " aud it must
be admitted that, in this latter, less strict
sense, miracles are contrary to general ex
perience, so far as their mere physical
circumstances , visible io us, are concerned.
This should not only be adraitted, but
strongly insisted upon, by the maintenance
of rairacles, because it is an essential ele
ment of their signal character. And this
leads us to notice one grand difference be
tween Divine Miracles and other alleged
facts that seem to vary from the ordinary
course of nature. It is manifest that there
is an essential difference between alleging
a case in which, all the real antecedents or
causes being similar to those which we have
daily opportunities of observing, a conse-'
quence is said to have ensued quite different
from that which general experience finds
to be uniformly conjoined with thera, and
alleging a case in which there is supposed
and indicated by all the circumstances, the
intervention of an invisible antecedent, or
cause, which we know to exist, and to be
adequate to the production of such result;
for the special operation of which, in this
case, we can assign probable reasons, and
also for its not generally operating in a
similar manner. This latter is the caso of
the Scripture miracles. Even if wo do not
regard the existence of God, in the proper
sense of that term, as proved by the coarse
of nature, still if wo admit His existence to
be iu any degree probable, or even possible,
the occurrence of miracles will not be in
credible. For it is surely going too far to
say, that, because the ordinary course of
nature leaves us in doubt whether the
author of it be able or unable to alter it. or
of such a character as to be disposed to
alter it for sorae great purpose, it is there
fore incredible that he should ever have
actually altered it. It will be proper to

MIRACLES

417

MIRACLES

eay a f6w words here upcm some popular
forms of expression which tend greatly to
increase, in many minds, the natural preju
dice against miracles. One of these is the
usual dbjcription of a miracle, as, "a viola
tion of the laws of nature." This meta
phorical expression suggests directly the
idea of .latural agents breaking, of their
own accord, sorae rule which has the au
thority and sanctity of a law to them.
Such a fig jre can only be applicable to the
case of a supposed causeless and arbitrary
variation from the uniform order of se
quence in natural things, and is wholly in
applicable to a change in that order caused
by God himself. The word "law," when
applied to material things, ought only to be
understood as denoting a nuraber of ob
served aud anticipated sequences of phe
nomena, taking place with such a resera-
blance or analogy to each other as if a
rule had been laid down, whieh those
phenoraena were constantly observing. But
the rule, in this case, is nothing different
from the actual order itself; and there is
no cause of these sequences but the will
of God choosing to produce those phenom
ena, and choosing to produce them in a
certain order. Again, the term " nature "
suggests to many persons the idea of a
great system of things endowed with powers
aud forces of its own — - a sort of machine,
set a-going originally by a first cause, but
continuing its motions of itself. Hence
we are apt to imagine that a change in the
motion or operation of any p.art of it by
God, would produce the sarae disturbance
or the other parts, as such a change would
be likely to produce in them, if made by
us, or any other natural agent. But if the
motions and operations of material things
be produced really by the divine will, then
His choosing to change, for a special pur
pose, the ordinary motion of one part, does
uot necessarily, or probably, infer His
choosing to change the ordinary raotions
of other parts in a way not at all requisite
for the accoraplishmcnt of th.at special pur
pose. It is as easy for Him to continue
the ordinary course of tho rest, with the
change of one part, as of all the phenomena
without any change at all. 'Thus, though
the stoppage of the motion of the earth in
the ordinary course of nature would be
attended with terrible convulsions, the
stoppage of the earth miraculously, for a
special purpose to be served by that only,
would not of itself be followed by any
such consequences. Frora the sarae con
ception of nature, as a raachine, we are apt
to think of interferences with the ordinary
-course of nature as implying some imper
fection in it. But it is manifest that this
is a false analogy; for the reason why
machines are made is, to save us trouble ;
and, therefore, they • are more perfect in
27

proportion as they answer this purpose.
But no one can seriously imagine that the
universe is a machine for the purpose of
saving trouble to the Almighty. Again,
when miracles are described as " inter
ferences with the laws of nature," this
description m.akes them appear improbable
to raany minds, from their not sufficiently
considering that the laws of nature inter
fere with one another ; and that we cannot
get rid of " interferences " upon any hypcith-
esis consistent with experience. Further
more, whatever ends may be contemplated
by the Deity for the laws of nature in
reference to the rest of the universe, — in
which question we have as little informa
tion as interest, — we know that, in respect
of us, they answer discernible moral ends
— that they place us, practically, under
government, conducted in the way of re-
w.ards and punisliraents, — a government of
which the tendency is to encourage virtue
and repress vice, — and to form in us a
cert.ain character by discipline ; which char
acter our moral nature corapels us to con
sider as the highest and worthiest object
which we can pursue. Since, '¦therefore,
the laws of nature have, in reference to us,
raoral purposes to answer, which, as far as
we can judge, they have not to serve in
other respects, it seeras not incredible that
these peculiar purposes should occasionally
require modifications of those Laws in rela
tion to us, which are not necessary in
relation to other parts of the universe.
After all deductions and abatements have
been made, however, it must be allowed
that a certain antecedent improbability
must always attach to miracles, considered
as events varying from the ordinary ex
perience of mankind as known to us ; he-
cause likelihood, versimilitude, or resem
blance to what we know to have occurred,
is, by the constitution of our minds, the
very ground of probability ; and, though
we can perceive reasons, frora the raoral
character of God, for thinking it likely th.ac
He raay have wrought rairacles, yet we
know too little of His ultiraate designs, and
ofthe best mode of accomplishing thera, to
argue confidently from His character to His
acts, except where the connection between
the character and the acts is demonstrably
indissoluble, as in the case of .acts rendered
necessary by the attributes of veracity and
justice. But, in order to form a fair judg
ment, we must take in all the circumstances
ofthe case, and, araongst the rest, the tesit-
mony on which the rairacle is reported to
us. Our belief, indeed, in huraan testimony
seems to rest upon the same sort of in
stinct on which our belief in the testimony
(as it may be called) of nature is built, and
is to be checked, modified, and confirmed
by a process of experience similar to that
which is applied in the other case. Tbe

MIRACLES

418

MIRACLES

circumstances of our condition for.ce us
daily to make ooutinual observations upon
the phenomena of huraan testiraony ; and
it is a raatter upon which we can raake
such experiments with peculiar advantage,
because every man carries within his own
breast the whole sum of the ultiraate mo
tives which can ''ifiuence huraan testimony.
Hence arises the aptitude of human testi
mony for overcoming, and more than over-
coraiug, almost any antecedent improbabil
ity in the thing reported. So manifest,
indeed, is this inherent power of testiraony
to overcome antecedent improbabilities, that
.Hume is obliged to allow that testimony
may be so circumstanced as to require us
to believe, in some cases, the occurrence
of things quite at v.ariauce with general
experience ; but he pretends to show that
testimony to such facts when conneded with
religion can never be so circumstanced.
Over and above the direct testimony of
human witnesses to the Bible-miracles, we
have also what may be called the indirect
testimony of events confirraing the forraer,
and raising a distinct presumption that
some such miracles rausthavebecn wrought.
'Thus, for example, we know, by a copious
induction, th.at in no nation of the ancient
world, and in no nation of the modern
world unacquainted with the Jewish or
Christiau' revelation, has the knowledge
of the one true God as the Creator and
Governor of the world, and the public wor
ship of Him, been kept up by the mere
Ught of nature, or formed the groundwork
of such religions as raen iiave devised for
theraselves. Yet we do find that. In the
Jewish people, though no way distinguished
above others by mental power or high
civilization, .and with as strong natural ten
dencies to idolatry as others, this knowl
edge and worship were kept up from a very
early period of their history, and, accord-.
ing to Iheir uniform historical tradition,
kept up by revelation attested by undeni
able miracles. Ag.ain, the existence of the
Christiau religion, as the beUef of the raost
considerable and intelligent part of the
world, is an undisputed fact ; and it is also
certain that this religion originated (as far
as human mean's are concerned) with a
handful- of Jewish peasants, who went
about preaching, on the very spot where
Jesus was crucified, that He had risen
frora the dead, and had been seen by, and
had conversed with them, and afterwards
ascended into heaven. This miracle, at
tested by them as eye-witnesses, was the
very ground and foundation of the religion
which ti.cy preached, and it was plainly
one so circumstanced that, if it had been
false, it could easily have been proved to bo
false. Yet, though the preachers of it were
ever J where persecuted, they had gathered,
before they died, large churches in the

country where the facts were best known,
and through Asia Minor, Greece, Egypt,
and Italy; and these churches, notwith
standing the severest persecutions, went on
increasing, till, in about 300 years after,
this religion — i. e. a religion which taught
the worship of a Jewish peasant who had
been ignominiously executed as a male
factor — became the established religion
of the Roman empire, and has ever sinco
continued to be the prevailing religion of
the civilized world- It is manifest that, if
the miraculous facts of Christianity did not
really occur, the stories about them must
have originated either in fraud or in fancy.
The coarse explanation of them by the hy
pothesis of unlimited fraud, has been gen
erally abandoned in modern times : but, in
Germany especially, many persons of great
acuteness have long labored to account for
them by referring them to fancy. In the
case of the Old Testament Miracles, in or
der fully to understand their evidential
character, we must consider the general
nature and design of the dispensation with
which they were connected- The general
design of that dispensation appears to have
been to keep up in one particular race a
knowledge of the one true God, and of the
promise of a Messiah in whom ' ' aU the
farailies ofthe earth" should be " biassed"
And ih order to this end, it appears to
have been necessary that, for some time,
God should have assuraed the character of
the local tutelary Deity and Prince of that
p.articular people. And frora this peculiar
relation in which He stood to the Jewish
people resulted the necessity of frequent
miracles, to manifest and m.ake sensibly
perceptible His actual presence araong
and governraent over them. The mira
cles, therefore, of the Old Testament are
to be regarded as evidential of the theo-
cr.atic government ; and this again is to be'
conceived of as subordinate to the further
purpose of preparing the way for Christian
ity, by keeping up in the world a knowl
edge of the true God and of His promise
of a Redeemer. With respect to the char-
ader of the Old Testament miracles, we
must also remember that the whole struc
ture of the Jewish economy had referencfl
to the peculiar exigency of the circura
stances of apeople imperfectly civilized, and
is so distinctly described in the New Testa
ment, as dealing with mon according to the
" hardness of their hearts," and being a
system of ."weak and beggarly element*,"
and a rudimentary instruction for "cliil
dren " who were in the condition of " slaves."
— The New Testament jy[iracles do not seem
to have been generally denied by the op
ponents of Christianity. They appear to
have preferred adopting the expedient of
ascribing them to art, magic, and the pow
er of evil spirits. 'W^ know that in two

MIRACLES

419

MIRROR

Instan jes, in the Gospel narrative, the cure
of the man born blind, and the Resurrec
tion, the Jewish priests were unable to
pretend such a solution, and were driven to
maintain unsuccessfully a charge of fraud.
'The circumstances of the Christian mirti-
cles are utterly unlike those of any pre
tended instances of magical wonders. This
difference consists in, (1.) The greatness,
number, completeness, and publicity of the
miracles. (2.) The natural beneficial ten
dency of the doctrine they attested. (3.)
The connection of them with a whole
scheme of revelation extending from the
first origin of the human race to the time
of Christ. This evasion of the force of the
Christian miracles, by referring thera to
the power of evil spirits, has seldora been
seriously recurred to in modern times ; but
the EngUsh infidels of the last century em
ployed it as a kind of argumentum ad hom-
ihem, to tease and embarrass their oppo
nents, contending that, as the Bible speaks
of " lying,wonders " of Antichrist, and re
lates a long contest of apparent miracles
between Moses and the Egyptian raagicians.
Christians could not, on their ovm princi
ples, have any certainty that miracles were
not wrought by evil spirits. The Ecclesias
tical Miracles are not delivered to us by
inspired historians ; nor do they seem to
form any part of the same series of events
as the miracles of the New Testament.
The rairacles of the New Testament (set
ting aside those wrought by Christ Him
self) .appear to have been worked by a
power conferred upon particular persons
according to a regular law, in virtue of
which that power was ordinarily transmit
ted fi'oni one person to another, and the
only persons privileged thus to transmit
that power were the Apostles. The only
exceptions to this rule were, (1.) the Apos
tles themselves, and (2.) the family of
Cornelius, who were the first-fruits of the
Gentiles. In all other cases, miraculous
gifts were corjferred only by the laying on
of the Apostles' hands. By this arrange
raent, it is evident that a provision was
made for the total ceasing of that miracu
lous dispensation within a limited period :
because, on the death of the last of the
Apostles-, the ordinary channels would be
all stopped through which such gifts were
transmitted in the Church. One passage
has, indeed, been appealed to as seeming
to indicate the permanent residence of
miraculous powers in the Christian Church
through all ages, Mark xvi. 17, 18. But —
(1.) 'That passage itself is of doubtful au
thority, since we know that it was omitted
in most ofthe Greek MSS. which Eusebius
was able to examine in the 4th century;
and it is still wanting in sorae of the most
important that remain to us. (2.) It does
not IQ' essarily imply more than a promise

that such miraculous powers should exhibit
theraselves .among the iramediate converts
of the Apostles. And (3.) this latter in
terpretation is supported by what follows
— " And they went forth, and preached
everywhere, the Lord working with them,
and confirming the word with the accom
panying signs." Moreover, the ecclesias
tical miracles are improbable, (1.) as vary
ing from the analogy of nature ; (2.) as
varying frora the analogy of the Scripture
miracles ; (3.) as resembling those legen
dary stories which are the known product
of the credulity or imposture of mank'md.
Mir'iam, the sister of Moses, was the
eldest of that sacred faraily ; and she first
appears, probably as a young girl, watch
ing her infant brother's cradle in the Nile
(Ex. ii. 4), and suggesting her mother as a
nurse (ib. 7). The independent and high
position given by her superiority of age she
never lost. " 'The sister of Aaron" is her
Biblical distinction (Ex. xv. 20). In Nura.
xii. 1 she is placed before Aaron ; and in
Mic. vi. 4 reckoned as araongst the Three
Deliverers. She is the first personage in
that household to whora the prophetic gifts
are directly ascribed — " Miriam the proph
etess " is her acknowledged title (Ex. xv.
20). The prophetic power showed it
self in her under the same forra as that
which it assumed in the days of Samuel
and David, — poetry, accompanied with
music and processions (Ex. xv. 1-19). She
took the lead, with Aaron, in the complaint
against Moses for his marriage jvitli a Cush
ite. "Hath Jehovah spoken by Moses?
Hath He not also spoken by us?" (Num.
xii. 1,' 2.) A stern rebuke was adminis
tered in front of the sacred Tent to botli
¦Aaron and Miriam. But the punishment
fell on Miriam, as the chief offender. The
hateful Egyptian leprosy, of which for a
moment the sign had been seen on the hand
of her younger brother, broke out over the
whole person of the prciud prophetess.
How grand was her position, and how heavy
the blow, is iipplied in the cry of -anguish
which goes up froin both her brothers.
And it is not less evident in the silent grief
of the nation (Num. xii. 10-15). This
stroke, and its removal, which took place
at Hazeroth, forra the last public event of
Miriam's life. She died towards the close
of the wanderings at Kadesh, and was
buried there (Num. xx. 1). Her tomb w.as
shown near Petra in the days of Jerome.
According to Josephus, she was married to
the famous Hur, and, through him, was
grandmother of the architect Bezaleel.
Mir'ma. A Benjamite, " chief of the
fathers," son of Shaharaim by his wife
Hodesh; born in the land of Moab (1 Chr.
viii. 10).
Mirror. Two Hebrew words iu Ex.
xxxviii. 8, aud Job xxxvii. 18, are rendered

MISGAB

420

MIXED MULTITUDE

" looking-glass " in the A. V., but from the
context evidently denote a mirror of pol
ished metal. The Hebrew woraen on com
ing out of Egypt probably brought with
them mirrors like those which were used by
the Egyptians, and were made of a mixed
metal, chiefly copper, wrought with admi
rable skill, and susceptible of a bright lus
tre. 'The metal of which the mirrors were
composed, being liable to rust and tarnish,
required to be constantly kept bright (Wisd.
vii. 26; Ecclus. xu. 11). 'The obscure im
age produced by a tarnished or imperfect
mirror, appears to be alluded to in 1 Cor.
xiii. 12.
Mis'gab, a place in Moab named in
company with Neeo and Kiriathaim in the
denunciation of Jeremiah (xlviii. 1). It
appears to be mentioned also in Is. xxv. 12,
though there rendered in the A. V. " high
fort." It is possibly identical with Mizpeh
OF Moab, named only in 1 Sam. xxiii. 3.
Mish'ael. 1. One of the sons of Uz
ziel, the uncle of Aaron and Moses (Ex.
vi- 22). When Nadab and Abihu were
struck dead for offering strange fire, Mish
ael and his brother Elzaphan, at the com
mand of Moses, removed their bodies frora
the sanctuary, and buried thera without the
camp, their loose-fitting tunics serving for
winding-sheets (Lev. x. 4, 5). 2. One of
those who stood at Ezra's left hand when
he read the law to the people (Neh. viii. 4).
[Meshach.] Mi'shal, and Mi'sheal, one of the
towns in the territory of Asher (Josh.
xix. 26), allotted to the Gershonite Levites
(xxi. 301.
Mi'sham. A Benjamite, son of Elpaal,
and descendant of Shaharaim (1 Chr. viii.
12). Mish'ma. 1. A son of Ishmael and
brother of Mibsam (Geu. xxv. 14; 1 Chr.
i. 30). The Masaraani of Ptolemy may
represent the tribe of Mishraa. 2. A son
of Simeon (1 Ghr. iv. 25), brother of Mib
sam. These brothers were perhaps named
after the older brothers, Mishma and Mib
sam. Mishman'nah. The fourth of the
twelve lion-faced Gadites who joined David
at Ziklag (1 Chr. xii. 10).
Mish'raites, The, the fourth of the
four "farailies of Kirjath-jearim," i. e. col
onies proceeding therefrom and founding
towns (1 Chr. u. 53).
Mis'per-eth. One of those who re
turned with Zerubb.abel and Jeshua from
Babylon (Neh. vii. 7).
Mis'rephoth-ma'im, a place in north
ern Palestine, in close connection with
Zidon-rabbah, i. e. Sidon (Josh. xi. 8, xiii.
6). Taken as Hebrew, the literal moaning
of the narae is " burnings of waters," and
accordingly it is taken by the old interpret
ers to mean " warm waters," whether nat

ural,—)', e, hot baths or springs — or ar
tificial, i. e. salt, glass, or sraelting works.
Dr. Thorason treats Misrephoth-raaim as
identical with a collection of springs caUed
Ain-Musheirifeh, on the sea shore close
under the Ras en-Nakhura; but this has
the disadvantage of being very far from
Sidon. May it not rather be the place with
which we are familiar in the later history a»
Zarephath ?
Mite, a coin current in Palestine in the
tirae of our Lord (Mark xii. 41-44 ; Luke
xxi. 1-4). It seems in Palestine to have
been the smallest piece of raoney, being
the half of the farthing, which was a coin
of very low value. From St. Mark's ex
planation, "two mites, which make a far
thing" (ver. 42), it m.ay perhaps be inferred
that the farthing was the commoner coin.
In the Graeco-Roman coinage of Palestine,
the two smallest coins, of which the assa-
rion is the more common, seem to corre
spond to the farthing and the mite, the
larger weighing about twice as much as the
sraaller. Mith'cah, the name of an unknown
desert encampment of the Israelites, raean
ing, perhaps, "place of sweetness" (Num.
xxxiii. 28, 29).
Mith'nite, The, the designation of
Joshaphat, one of David's guard in the
catalogue of 1 Chr. xi. (ver. 43).
Mith'redath. 1. The treasurer of Cy
rus king of Persia, to whom the king gave
the vessels of the Temple, to be by him
transferred to the hands of Sheshbazzar
(Ezr. i. 8). 2. A Persian officer stationed
at Saraaria, in the reign of Artaxerxes, or
Sraerdis the Magian (Ezr. iv. 7).
Mitre. [Crown.]
Mityle'ne, the chief town of Lesbos,
and situated on the east coast of the island.
Mitylene is the interraediate place where
St. Paul stopped for the night between
Assos and Chios (Acts xx. 14, 15). The
town itself was celebrated in Roman times
for the beauty of its buil/lings. In St.
Paul's d.ay it had the privileges of a free
city. Mixed Multitude. When the Israel
ites journeyed from Rameses to Succoth,
the first stage of the Exodus from Egypt,
there went up with them "a mixed multi
tude" (Ex. xii. 38; Num. xi. 4). They
were probably the offspring of marriages
contracted between the Israelites and the
Egyptians ; and the term may also include
all those who were not of pure Israelite
blood. In Exodus and Numbers it probar
bly denoted the miscellaneous hangers-on
of the Hebrew camp, whether they were
the issue of spurious marriages with Egyp
tians, or were themselves Egyptians, or be
longing to other nations. The same hap
pened on the return from Biibylon, and In
Neh. xiu. 3 (comp. 23-30) a slight clew ii

MIZAR

421

MIZRAIM

given by which the meaning of the " mixed
multitu le " may be more definitely ascer
tained. Mi'zar, The Hill, a mountain appar
ently in the northern part of trans-Jordanic
Palestine, fr^m which the author of Psalm
xiii. utters his pathetic appeal (ver. 6).
Miz'pah, and Miz'peh, "a watch-tow
er," the n.ame of several places iu Pales
tine. 1. The earliest of all, in order of the
narrative, is tho heap of stones piled up by
Jacob and Laban (Gen. xxxi. 48) on Mount
Gilead (ver. 25), to servo both as a witness
to the covenant then entered into, and also
as a landmark of the boundary between
them (ver. 52). This heap received a name
from each of the two chief actors in the
transaction — Galeed and Jegar Saua-
DtJTHA. But it had also a third, viz. Miz
pah, which it seems from the terms of the
narrative to have derived frora neither par
ty, but to have possessed already. The
narae remained attached to the ancient
meeting-place of Jacob and Laban, and the
spot where their conference had been held
became a sanctuary of Jehovah, and a
pl.ace for solemn conclave and deliberation
in tiraes of difficulty long after. On this
natural " watch-tower" did the children of
Israel assemble for the choice of a leader
to resist tho children of Araraon (Judg. x.
17) ; ani when the outlawed Jephthah had
been prevailed on to leave his exile and
take the head of his people, his first act
was to go to " the Mizpah," and on thiit
consecrated ground utter all his words
" before Jehovah." At Mizpah he seems
to have henceforward resided ; there the
fatal raeeting took place with his daughter
on his return from the war (xi. 34) , and we
can hardly doubt that on the altar of that
sanctuary the father's terrible vow was con-
Buraraated. It seems most probable that the
" Mizpeh-Gilead " which is mentioned here,'
and here only, is the sarae as the liam-Miz-
pah of the other parts of the narrative ; and
both are probably identical with the Ra-
math-Mizpeii and Ramoth-Gilead, so fa
mous in the later history. Mizpah still re
tained its name in the days of the Macca
bees, by whora it was besieged and taken
with the other cities of Gilead (1 Mace. v.
85). 2. A second Mizpeh, on the east
of Jordan, was the Mizpeh-Moab, whefe
the king of that nation was living when
David coraraitted liis parents to his care
(1 Sara. xxii. 3). 3. A third was The
"Land or Mizpeh, or more accurately "op
Mizpah," the residence of the Hivites who
joined the northern confederacy against
Israel, headed by Jiibin king of Hazor
(Josh. xi. 3). No otbcT mention is found
of this district in the Bible, unless it be iden
tical with— 4. The Valley op Mizpeh, to
which the discomfited hosts of the same
confederao]- were cba=ed by Joshua (xi. 8),

perhaps identical with the great country uf
Coele-Syri.a. 5. Mispeh, a city of Judah
(Josh. XV. 38), in the district of the Shefe
lah or maritime lowland. 6. Mizpeh, in
Joshua and Samuel ; elsewhere Mizpah, a
"city" of Benjamin, n.amed in the list of
the allotment between Beeroth .and Che-
phira, and in appjirent proxiraity to Ramah
and Gibeon (Josh, xviii. 26). Its connec
tion with the two last-named towns is also
implied iu the later history (1 K. xv. 22 ; 2
Chr. xvi. 6 ; Neh. iii. 7). It was one of tho
places fortified by Asa against the incur
sions of the kings ofthe northern Israel (1
K. XV. 22 ; 2 Chr. xvi. 6 ; Jer. xii. 9) ; and
after the destruction of Jerusalem it became
the residence of the superintendent ap
pointed by the king of Babylon (Jer. xl. 7,
&c.), and the scene of his murder and of
the romantic incidents connected with the
name of Ishmael the son of Nethaniah.
But Mizpah was raore than this. In the
earlier periods of the history of Israel, at
the first foundation ofthe raonarchy, it was
one of the three holy cities which Samuel
visited in turn as judge of the people (vii.
6, 16), the other two being Bethel and Gil
gal. But, unlike Bethel and Gilgal, no
record is preserved of the cause or origin
of a sanctity so abruptly announced, and
yet so fully asserted. With the conquest
of Jerusalem and the establishment there
of the Ark, the sanctity of Mizpah, or at
least its reputation, seeras to have declined.
We hear of no religious act in connection
with it tUl that afl'ecting assepibly called
together thither, as to the ancient sanctuary
of their forefathers, by Judas Maceabaeus,
" when the Israelites asserabled theraselves
together and carae to Massepha over against
Jerusalera ; for in Maspha was there afore-
tirae a place of prayer for Isr.ael" (I Mace.
iii. 46). The expression "over against,"
no less than the circurastances of the story,
seeras to require that from Mizpah the City
or the Temple was visible. These condi
tions are satisfied by the position of Scopus,
the broad ridge which forms the continua
tion of the Mount of Olives to the north
and east, from which the traveller gains,
like Titus, his first view, and takes his last
farewell, of the domes, walls, and towers
of the Holy City.
Miz'par- Properly Mispak, as in the
A. V. of 1611 and the Geneva version; tha
same as Mispereth (Ezr. ii. 2).
Miz'peh- [Mizpah.]
Miz'raim, the usual name of Egypt in
the O. T., the dual of Mazor, which is less
frequently employed. It is probably de
rived frora tho Arabic word Mizr, which
signifles " red earth or mud." Mizraim
first occurs in the account of the Hamites
in Gen. x,„ where we read, " And the sons
of Ham ; Cush, and Mizraira, and Phut, and
Canaan" (ver. 6; comp. 1 Chr. i. 8). In

MIZZAII

422

MOAB

the ase of the narae Mizraira for Egypt there
can be no doubt that the dual indicates the
two regions (Upper and Lower Egypt) into
which the country has always been divided
by nature as well as by its inhabitants.
Miz'zah. Son of Reuel and gr.andson
of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 13, 17; 1 Chr. i. 37).
Mna'son is honorably raentioned in
Scripture, like Gains, Lydia, and others, as
one of the hosts of the Apostle Paul (Acts
xxi. 16). It is raost likely that his resi-
dc-nce at this time was not Caes.area, but
Jerusalem. He was a Cyprian by birth, and
may have been a friend of Barnabas (Acts
iv. 36), and possibly brought to the knowl
edge of Christianity by him.
Mo'ab, Mo abites. Moab was the son
of Lot's eldest d.aughter, the progenitor of
, the Moabites, and the elder brother of Ben-
Ararai, the progenitor of the Araraonites
(Gen. xix. 37). Zo.ar was the cradle of the
race of Lot. Frora this centre the-brother-
tribes spread themselves. The Moabites
first inhabited the rich highlands which
crown the eastern side of the chasm of the
Dead Sea, extending .as far north as the
mountain of Gilead, from which country
they expelled the Emiras, the original in
habitants (Deut. ii. 11). But they them
selves were afterwards driven southwards
by the warlike Amorites, who had crossed
the Jordan, and were confined to the coun
try south of the river Arnon, which formed
their northern boundary (Num. xxi. 13;
Judg. xi. 18). The territory occupied by
Moab at the period of its greatest extent,
before the invasion of the Amorites, divided
itself naturally into three distinct and inde
pendent portions. Each of these portions
appears to have had its narae, by which it is
alraost invariably desiguiited. (1) The en
closed corner or canton south of the Arnon
was the " field of Moab" (Ruth i. 1, 2, 6,
&c.). (2) The raore open rolling country
north of the Arnon, opposite Jericho, and
up to the hills of Gilead, was the " land of
Moab " (Deut. i. 5, xxxii. 49, &c.). (3)
The sunk district in the tropical depths of
the Jordan valley, taking its narae from
that of the great valley itself — the Arabah
— was the Arboth-Moab, the dry regions
— in the A. V. very incorrectly rendered
the " pl.ains of Moab " (Num. xxii. 1, &c.).
The Israelites, in entering the Promised
Land, did not pass through the Moabites (1
Judg. xi. 18), but conquered the Araorites,
who occupied the country from which the
Moabites had been so lately expelled. Af
ter the conquest of Canaan the relations of
Moab with Israel were of a mixed ch.arac
ter. With the tribe of Benjamin, whose
possessions at their eastern end were sepa
rated from those of Moab only by the Jor-
' dan, they had at least one severe struggle.
In union with their kindred, the Ammonites
(Judg. iu. 12-30). The feud continued

with true Oriental pertinacity to tbe time
of Saul. Of his slaughter of the Ammon
ites we have full details in 1 Sam. xi., aud
amongst his other conquests Moab is espe
cially mentioned (1 Sam. xiv. 47). But
while such were their relations to the tribe
of Benj<arain, the story of Ruth, on the otlier
hand, testifies to the existence of a friendly
intercourse between Moab and Bethlehem,
one ofthe towns of Judah. By his descent
from Ruth, David may be said to have had
Moabite blood in his veins. The relation
ship was sufficient to warrant his visiting
the land, and committing his parents to the
protection of the king of Moab, when hard
pressed by Saul (1 Sam. xxii. 3, 4). But
here all friendly relations stop forever. The
next time the name is mentioned is in the
account of David's war, who made them
tributary (2 Sam. vui. 2; 1 Chr. xviii. 2).
So signal a vengeance can only have been
occasioned by some act of perfidy or insult,
like that which brought down a similar
treatment on the Ammonites (2 Sam. x.)
It has been conjectured that the king of
"Moab betrayed the trust which David re
posed in him, and either hiraself killed Jesse
and his wife, or surrendered them to Saul.
It must have been a considerable time be
fore Moab recovered from so severe a blow.
At the disruption of the kingdora, Mo.ab
seeras to have fallen to the northern realm.
At the death of Ahab, eighty years later,
we find Moab piiying hira the enormous
tribute, apparently annual, of 100,000 rams,
and the same number of wethers, with their
fleeces. It is not surprising th.at the Moab
ites should have seized the moment of
Ahab's death to throw off so burdensome a
yoke (1 K. i. 1, iii. 4) ; but it is surprising,
that notwithstanding such a drain on their
resources, they were ready to incur the risk
and expense of a war witii a state in every
respect far their superior. Their first step,
after asserting their independence, was to
attack the kingdora of Judah (2 Chr. xx.).
The army was a huge heterogeneous horde
of ill-assorted elements, and the expedition
contained within itself the elements of its
own destruction. As a natural consequence
of the late events, Israel, Judah, and Edom,
united in an attack on Moab. The three
confederate armies approached not as usual
iiy the north, but round the southern end
of the Dead Sea, through the parched val
leys of Upper Edom. As the host carae
near, the king of Moab, doubtless the same
Mesha who threw off the yoke of Ahab, as
sembled tho whole of his people on tha
boundary of his territory. Here they re
mained alL night on the watch. With the
approach of raorning the sun rose suddenly
above the horizon of the rolling plain, and
shone with a blood-red glare on a mul
titude of pools in the bed of the wady at
their feet. To them the conclusion waa in-

MOADIAH

423

MOLECH

evitable. The army had, like their own on
the late occasion, fallen out in the night;
these rod pools were the blood of the slain ;
those who were not killed had fled, and
nothing stood between them and the pillage
ofthe camp. The cry " Moab to the spoil ! "
was raised. Down the slopes they rushed
in headlong disorder. Then occurred one
of those scenes of carnage which can hap
pen but once or twice in the existence of a
nation. The Moabites fled back in confu
sion, followed and cut down at every step
by their enemies. Far inwards did the pur
suit reach, among the cities and farms and
orchards of that rich district; nor when the
slaughter was over was the horrid work of
destruction done. At last the struggle col
lected itself at KiR-HARASETH. Here Mesha
took refuge with his family, and with the
remnants of his army. The heights around
were covered with slingers, who discharged
their volleys of stones on the town. At
length the annoyance could be borne no
longer. Then Mesha, collecting round him
a forlorn hope of 700 of his best warriors,
made a desperate sally, with the intention
of cutting his way through to his special foe
the king of Edom. But the enemy were
too strong for hira, and he was driven back.
And then carae a fitting crown to a tragedy
already so terrible. An awful spectacle
araazed and horrified the besiegers. 'The
king and his eldest son, the heir to the
throne, mounted the wall, and, in the sight
of the thjusands who covered the sides of
that vast amphitheatre, tho father killed and
burnt liis child as a propitiatory sacrifice to
the cruel gods of Ms country. Isaiali (xv.,
xvi., xxv. 10-12) predicts the utter annihi
lation of Moab ; and they are frequently
denounced by the subsequent prophets. For
the religion of the Moabites see Chemosh,
MOLECII, Peoe.
Moadi'ah. A priest, or faraily of priests ,
who returned with Zerubbabel. The chief
of the house in the time of Joiakim the son
of Jeshua was Piltai (Neh. xii. 17)- Else
where (Neh. xii. 5) called Maadiah.
Mo'din, a place not mentioned in either
Old or New Testament, though rendered
immortal by its connection with the history
of the Jews in the interval between the two.
It was the native city of the Maccabaean
faraily (1 Mace. xiii. 25), and as a necessary
consequence contained their ancestral sep
ulchre (ii. 70, ix. 19, xiii. 25-30). At Modin
the Maccabaean arraies encamped on the
eves of two of their most memorable vic
tories — that of Judas over Antiochus Eu
pator (2 Mace. xiii. 14), and that of Simon
over Cendebeus (1 Mace. xvi. 4), the last
battle of the veteran chief before his assas
sination. The only indication of the posi
tion of the place to be gathered from the
above notices is contained in the last, frora
which we may infer that it was near " the

plain," i. c. the great maritime lowland of
Philistia (ver. 5). By Eusebius and Jerome
it is specified as near Diospolis, i. e. Lydda;
while the notice in the Mishna states that it
was 1 (Roman) mile from Jerusalera. At
the same time the description of the monu
ment seems to imply that the spot was so
lofty as to be visible from the sea, and so
near that even the details of the sculpture
were discernible therefrom. All these con
ditions, excepting the last, are tolerably
fulfilled in either of the two sites called
LatrAn and Kubdb. The mediaeval aud
raoderii tr.adition places Modin at Soba, an
erainence south of Kuridel-cnab ; but this
being not more than 7 railes frora Jerusalem,
while it is as much as 25 from Lydda and 30
from the sea, and also far removed frora the
plain of Philistia, is at variance with every
one of the conditions iraplied in the records.
Mol'adah, a city of Judah, one of those
which lay in the district of " the south,"
next to Edora (Josh. xv. 26, xix. 2). In
the latter tribe it remained at any rate till
the reign of David (1 Chr. iv. 28), but by
the time of the captivity it seems to have
corae back into the hands of Judah, by
whom it was reinhabited after the captivity
(Neh. xi. 26). In the Onomasticon a place
named Malatha is spoken of as in the interior
of Daroma; and further it is mentioned as
4 miles frora Arad and 20 frora Hebron. It
raay be placed at el-Milh, which is about 4
English railes from Tell Arad, 17 or 18 from
Hebron, and 9 or 10 due east of Beersheba.
Mole. 1. Tinshemeth (Lev. xi. 30). It
is probable that the animals mentioned with
the tinshemeth in the above passaj,.* denote
different kinds of lizards ; perhaps, there
fore, the chameleon may be the animal in
tended. 2. Chlphdr pSrdih is rendered
"moles" in Is. ii-
Mo'leeh- The fire-god Molech was the
tutelary deity of the children of Araraon,
and essentially identical with the Moabitish
Cheraosh. Fire-gods appear to have been
common to aU the Canaanite, Syrian, and
Arab tribes, who worshipped the destructive
element under an outward symbol, with the
most inhuman rites. Among these were
human sacrifices, purifications and ordeals
by fire, devoting of the first-born, mutila
tion, and vows of perpetual celibacy and
virginity. The root of the word Molech is
the same as that of melee or "king." The
first direct historical allusion to Molech-
worship is I 1 1 le des jription of SolouKm's
idolatry in his old age (1 K. xi. 7). Two
verses before, the sarae deity is called Mil
com. Most of the Jewish interpreteis say
that in the worship of Molech the children
were not burnt, but made to pass between
two burning pyres, as a purificatory rite.
But the allusions to the actual slaughter are
too plain tp be mistaken. Compare Deut.
xii. 31 ; Ps. cvi. 37, 38 ; Jer. vii. 31, xix. 5^

MOLI

424

MONEY

Ez. xvi 20, 21, xxiii. 87. The worship of
Molech is evidently alluded to, though not
expressly mentioned, in connection with
star-worship and the worship of Baal in 2
K. xvii. 16, 17, xxi. 5, 6, which seems to
show that Molech, the flame-god, and Baal,
the sun-g od, were worshipped with the same
rites. According to Jewish tradition, the
image of Molech was of brass, hollow with
in, and was situated without Jerusalem.
Kimchi (on 2 K. xxiii. 10) describes it as
" set within seven chapels, and whoso of
fered fine flour, they open to him one of
them ; (whoso offered) turtle-doves oryoung
pigeons, they open to him two ; a lamb, they
open to hira three ; a ram, they open to hira
four ; a calf, they open to him five ; an ox,
they open to him six ; and so whoever of
fered his son, they open to him seven. And
his face was (that) of a calf, and his hands
stretched forth like a man who opens his
hands to receive (something) of his neigh
bor. And they kindled it with fire, and
the priests took the babe and put it into the
hands of Molech, and tho babe gave up the
ghost." " The tabernacle of Moloch " men
tioned in Acts vii. 43, was more probably a
shrine or ark in which the figure of the god
was carried in processions. Many instances
of human sacrifices are found in ancient
writers, which may be corapared with the
description in the Old Testament of the
nianuer in which Molech was worshipped.
The Carthaginians, according to Augustine,
offered children to Saturn. Araong the
Rhodians a man was offered to Kronos
on the 6th July. According to Manetho,
Amosis abolished the same practice in
Egypt at Heliopolis, sacred to Juno. San-
choniatho related that the Phoenicians, on
the occasion of any great calamity, sacri
ficed to Saturn one of their relatives. Dio
dorus Siculus (xx. 14) records that the Car
thaginians, when besieged by Agathocles,
tyrant of Sicily, offered in public sacrifice
to Saturn 200 of their noblest children,
while others voluntarily devoted themselves
to the number of 300. His description of
the statue of the god differs but slightly
from that of Molech, which has been quoted.
Molech, " the king," was the lord and mas
ter of the Araraonites ; their country w.as
his possession (Jer. xlix. 1), as Moab was
the heritage of Cheraosh; the princes of
the land were the princes of Malchara (Jer.
xlix. 3; Am. i. 15). His priests were raen
of rank (Jer. xlix. 3), taking precedence
of the. princes. The priests of Molech, like
those of other idols, were called Chemarim
(2 K. xxiii. 5 ; Hos. x. 5 ; Zeph. i. 4).
Mo'li. Maiili, the son of Merari (1
Esdr. viii. 47; comp. Ezr. viii. 18).
Mo'lid, the son of Abishur by his wife
Abihail, and descendant of Jerahmeel (1
Chr. ii. 29).
Moloch, tho same as Molech.

Money. I- Uncoined Monet. _ I. Un
coined Money in general. — It is ¦well
known that ancient nations that wore with
out a coinage weighed the precious metals,
a practice represented on the Egyptian
raonuments, on which gold and silver are
shown to have been kept in the form of
rings. Wo have no certain record of the
use of ring-money or other uncoined money
in antiquity excepting among tbe Egyptians.
It can scarcely be doubted that the Assyr
ians and Babylonians adopted, if they did
not originate, this custom. 2. The An-.
iiquity of Coined Money. — Respecting the
origin of coinage there are two accounts
seemingly at variance; some saying that
Phidou king of Argos first struck money,
and according to Ephorus, in Aegina; but
Herodotus ascribing its invention to the
Lydians. The former statement probably
refers to the origin of the coinage of Euro
pean Greece, the latter to that of Asiatic
Greece. On the whole it seems reasonable
to carry up Greek coinage to the 8th cen
tury B- c- Purely Asiatic coinage cannot
be taken up to so early a date. The more
archaic Persian coins seem to be of the tirae
of Darius Hystaspis, or possibly Cyrus, and
certainly not much older ; and there is no
Asiatic money, not of Greek cities, that can
he reasonably assigned to an earlier period.
3. Notices of Uncoined Money in the 0. T.
— We have no evidence of the use of coined
money before the return from the Babylo
nian captivity ; but silver was used foi
money, in quantities determined by weight,
at least as early as the time of Abraham;
and its earliest mention is in the generic
sense of the price paid for a slave (Gen.
xvii. 13) . The 1000 pieces of silver paid by

Egyptian weighing Rini;8 for Money.
Abimelech to Abraham (Gen. xx. 16), antl
the 20 pieces of silver for which Joseph was
sold to the Ishmeelites (Gen. xxxvii. 28)
were probably rings such as we see on tho
Egyptian monuments in the act of facing

MONEY-

425

MONEY-CHANGERS

weighed. In the first recorded transaction
of commerce, the cave of Machpelah is pur
chased by Abr,ahani for 400 shekels of sil
ver, and it was this just weight that was
recognized as current with the merchant
("money" is not -in the original: Gen.
xxiii. 15, 10). The shekel weight of silver
was the unit of value through thp whole
age of Hebrew history, down to the Baby
lonian captivity. In only one place is there
a mention of so many shekels of gold as a
sum of raoney (1 Chr. xxi. 25), and even
here, in the older parallel passage, silver
only is mentioned (2 Sam. xxiv. 9). In the
transaction between Naaman and Gehazi,
the "six thousand of gold" (2 K. v. 5,
where pieces is not in the original) probably
denotes shekels, like the " six hundred of
gold " in 1 K. X. 16. II. Coined Money.
1. The Principal Monetary Systems of
Antiquity. — The earliest Greek coins, by
which wo here intend those struck in the
age -before the Persian war, are of three
talents or standards : the Attic, the Aegine-
tan, and the Macedonian or earlier Phoe
nician. The oldest coins of Athens, of
Aegina, and of Macedon and Thrace, we
should select as typical respectively of these
standards ; obtaining as the weight of the
Attic drachm about 67-5 grains troy ; of the
Aeginetan, about 96; and ofthe Macedo
nian, about 58, or 116, if its drachm be
what is now generally held to be the di-
drachm. 2. Coined Money mentioned in
ihe Bible. — After the Captivity we have the
earliest mention of coined money, in allu
sion, as riWglit have been expected, to the
Persian coinage, the gold Daric (A. V.
dram : Ezra ii. 69, viii. 27 ; Neh. vii. 70,
71, 72). [Daric] No native Jewish coin
age appears to have existed till Antiochus
VII. Sidetes granted Simon Maceabaeus
the license to coin money (n. c. 140) ; and
it is now generally agreed that the oldest
Jewish silver coins belong to this period.
They are shekels and half-shekels of the
weight of 220 and 110 grains. With this

^^^^h ^piy, " Shclcel of Israel." 'VaBC, above irhich
5< [Yearl.] R. ilEID ObSTl"!, "Jerusnlem the
holy." Branch bearing three flowers, AR.
silver there was associated a copper coin
age, some pieces of which have been sup
posed to reach as high as Judas Macea
baeus ; but probably none are really older
than John Hyrcanus (b. c. 185), from whom

the series is continued, almost without in
terruption, to the end of the Asmonaean
house. Most of them are marked as the
half or quarter (doubtless of the shekel),
their average weight being 235i aud 132
grains ; and there is a third piece of about
82 grains, which seeras to be the sixth of a
shekel. The abundant raoney of Herod the
Great, which is of a thoroughly Greek char
acter, and of copper only, seeras to have
been a continuation of the copper coinage
of the Maccabees, with sorae adaptation to
the Roraan standard. In the raoney of the
New Testaraent we see the native copper
coinage side by side with the Graeco-Roraan
copper, silver, and gold. An interesting
illustration occurs in our Lord's first cora
raission to the Apostles. St. Matthew (x.
9), with comprehensive generality, mentions
all the three metals, "Provide neither gold,
nor silver, nor brass, in your girdles." St.
Mark (vi. 8) names only the copper {xaX-
xov), whieh formed the common native cur
rency. St. Luke (ix. 3) uses the general
word for money {aQyiQiov). ¦ — The coins
mentioned by the Evangelists, and first
those of silver, are the following : — The
stater is spoken of in the account of the
rairacle of the tribute-money- The receiv
ers of didrachms demanded the tribute, but
St. Peter found in the fish a stater, which
he paid for our Lord and himself (Matt.
xvii. 24-27). The stiiter was therefore a
tetradrachm; and it is noteworthy that at
this period almost the only Greek Imperial
silver coin in the East was a tetradrachm,
the didrachra being probably unknown, or
very little coined. The didrachm is raen
tioned as a raoney of account in the passage
above cited, as the equivalent of the He
brew shekel. The denarius, or Roman
penny, as well as the Greek drachm, then
of about. the sarae weight, are spoken of p-s
current coins (Matt. xxU. 15-21; Luke xx.
19-25). Of copper coins the farthing and
its half, the mite, are spoken of, and these
pri'hably forraed the chief native currency.
The proper Jewish series closes with the
money ofthe famous Barkobab, who headed
the revolt in the tirae of Hadrian. His
most iraportant coins are shekels, of which
we here engrave one.

Money-changers (Matt. xii. 12 ; Mark
xi. 15; John ij. ]i), According to Ex.

MONTH

426

MOON

xxx. 13-15, every Israelite who had reached
or passed the age of twenty raust pay into
the sacred treasury, whenever the nation
was nu!iibered, a half shekel as an offering
to Jehovah. The money-changers whom
Christ, for their impiety, avarice, and fraud
ulent dealing, expelled from the Teraple,
were the dealers who supplied half-shekels,
for such a premium as they might be able
to exact, to the Jews frora all parts of the
world, who assembled at Jerusalem during
the great festivals, and were required to
paj their tribute or ransom raoney in the
Hebrew coin.
Month. The terras for "month" and
"moon" have the same close connection
in the Hebrew language as in our own.
The most important point in connection
with the month of the Hebrews is its length,
and the mode by which it was calculated.
The difficulties attending this inquiry are
considerable in consequence of the scanti
ness of the data. Though it raay fairly be
presumed from the terms used that the
month originally corresponded to a luna
tion, no reliance can be placed on the mere
verbal argument to prove the exact length
of the month iu historical times. From the
time of the institution of the Mosaic law
downwards the month was a lunar one.
f he cycle of religious feasts commencing
with the Passover, depended not simply on
the month, but on the raoon ; the 14th of
Abib was coincident with the full moon ;
and the new moons theraselves were the
occasions of regular festivals (Nura. x. 10,
Jcxviii. 11-14). The coraraencement ofthe
month was generally decided by observa
tion of the new moon. The usual nuraber
of raonths in a year was twelve, as irapUed
in 1 K. iv. 7 ; 1 Chr. xxvii. 1-15 ; but inas
much as the Hebrew raonths coincided
with the seasons, it follows as a matter of
course that an additional month must have
been inserted about every third year, which
would bring the number up to thirteen.
No notice, however, is taken of this month
in the Bible. • In the modern Jewish cal
endar the intercalary month is introduced
seven times in every 19 years. The usual
method of designating the months was by
their numerical order, e.g. "the second
month" (Geu. vu. 11), " the fourth month "
(2 S. xxv. 3) ; and this was generally re
tained even when the names were given,
e. g. " in the month Zif, which is the second
month " (1 K. vi. 1), " in the third month,
that is, the month Sivan " (Esth. viii. 9).
An exception occurs, however, in regard to
Abib in the early portion of the Bible (Ex.
xiii. 4, xxiii. 15 ; Deut. xvi. 1), which is
always mentioned by name alone. The
practice of the writers of the post-Babylo
nian period in this respect varied ; Ezra,
Esther, and Zechariah specify both the
names and the numerical order ; Nehemiah

only the former ; Daniel and Haggai 3nly
the latter. The naraes of tht months be
long to two distinct periods; in the first
place we have those peculiar to the period
of Jewish independence, of which four
only, even including Abib, which we hardly
regard as a proper name, are mentioned,
viz. -. 'Abib, in which the Passover fell (Ex.
xiii. 4, xxiii. 15, xxxiv. 18; Deut. xvi. 1),
and wliich was established as the first
month in commemoration of the Exodus
(Ex. xu. 2) ; Zifc the second month (1 K.
vi. 1, 37) ; Bui, the eighth (1 K. vi. 38) ;
and Ethanim, the seventh (1 K. viii. 2).
In the second place we have the names
which prevailed subsequently to the Baby
lonish Captivity; of these the following
seven appear in the Bible : — Nisan, the
first, in which the Passover was held (Neh.
ii. 1 ; Esth. iii. 7) ; Sivan, the third (Esth.
viii. 9 ; Bar. i. 8) ; Elul, the sixth (Neh. vi.
15 ; 1 Mace. xiv. 27) ; Chisleu, the ninth
(Neh. i. 1 ; Zech. vii. 1 ; 1 Mace. i. 54) ;
Tebeth, the tenth (Esth. ii. 16) ; Sebiit, the
eleventh (Zech. i. 7 ; 1 Mace. xvi. 14) ;
and Adar, the twelfth (Esth. iii. 7, viii. 12 ;
2 Mace. XV. 36). The naraes of the re
maining five occur in the Talmud and other
works ; they were, ly.ar, the second (Tar
gum, 2 Chr. xxx. 2) ; Tamrauz, the fourth;
Ab, the fifth ; Tisri, the seventh ; and Mar
cheshvan, the eighth. The narae of the
intercalary month was Veadar, i. e. the
additional Adar. — Subsequently to the
establishment of the Syro-Macedonian Em
pire, the use of the Macedonian calendar
was gradually adopted for purposes of lit
erature or intercoramunication with other
countries. The only instance in wliich the
Macedonian naraes appear in the Bible is
in 2 Mace. xi. 30, 33, 38, where we have
uotice of Xanthicus in combination with
another n.amed Dioscorinthius (ver. 21),
which does not appear in the Macedonian
calendar. It is most probable that the
author of 2 Mace, or a copyist was familiar
with the Cretan calendar, which contained
a month named Dioscurus, holding tlie
Siime place in the calendar as the jMacedo-
niiiu Dystrus, i. e. imraediately before Xan
thicus, and that he substituted one for the
other. — The identification of the Jewish
raonths with our own cannot be effected
with precision on account of the variations
that raust inevitably exist between the lunar
and the solar month. Nisan (or Abib) an
swers to March ; Zif or lyar to May ; Si
van to June ; 'Tamrauz to Jul}' ; Ab to
August; Elul to Septeraber; Ethanim or
'Tisri to October ; Bui or Marcheshvan to
November ; Chisleu to December ; Tebeth
to January; Sebat to February; and Adar
to March.
Moon. The moon held an iraportant
place in the kingdom of nature, as known
to the Hebrews. In the history of tha

MOON, NEW

427

MORDECAI

creation (Gen. i. 14-16), it appears simul
taneously with the sun. Conjointly with
the sun, it was .appointed " for signs and
for seasons, and for days and years;"
though in this respect it exercised a more
important influence, if by the "seasons"
we understand the great religious fes.tivals
of the Jews, as is particularly stated in Ps.
cir. 19, and raore at length in Ecclus. xliii.
6, 7. Besides this, it had its special office
iri the distribution of light ; it was .appoint
ed "to rule over the night," as the sun
over the day, and thus the .appearance of
the two founts of light served " to divide
between the day and between the night."
The inferiority of its light is occasionally
noticed, as in Gen. i. 16; in Cant. vi. 10;
and in Is. xxx. 26. The coldness of the
night-dews is prejudicial to the health, and
particularly to the eyes, of those who are
exposed to it, and the idea expressed in Ps.
cxxi. 6 may have reference to the general
or tho particular evil effegt. The worship
of tlie raoon was extensively practised by
the nations of the East, and under a varie
ty of aspects. In Egypt it was honored
under the form of Isis, and was one of the
only two deities which commanded the rev
erence of all the Egyptians. In Syria it
was represented by that one of the Ashta
roth, surnamed " Karnaim," frora the horns
of the crescent raoon by which she was
distinguished. There are indications of a
very early introduction into the countries
adjacent to Palestine of a species of wor
ship distinct from any that we have hither
to noticed, viz. of the direct homage of
the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, .and stars,
which is the characteristic of Sabianism.
The first notice we have of this is in Job
(xxxi. 26, 27), and it is observable that the
warning of Moses (Deut. iv. 19) is directed
against this nature-worsliip, rather than
against the form of moon-worship, which
the Israelites raust have-witnessed in Egypt.
At a later period, however, the worship of
the moon in its grosser form of idol-wor
ship was introduced from Syria. In the
figurative language of Scripture, the moon
is frequently noticed as presaging events
of the greatest importance through the
temporary or permanent withdrawal of its
Ught (Is. jxiii. 10 ; Joel ii. 31 ; Matt. xxiv.
29; Mark xiii. 24).
Moon, Tfe'W- [New Moon.]
Morasthite, The, that is, the native of
a place named Moresheth. It occurs twice
(Jer. xxvi. 18; Mic. i. 1), each time as the
description of the prophet Micah.
Mor'decai, the deliverer, under Divme
Providence, of the Jews from the destruc
tion plotted against them byHaraan the
chief minister of Xerxes ; the institutor of
the feast of Purim. The incidents of lus
historv are too well known to need to be
dweUupan. [Esther.] t. ,..„,,. ,.„..

It will be more

useful to poin. out his place in sacred, pro
fane, and rabbinical history respectively.
Three things are predicated of Mordecai in
the .Book of Esther : (1) that he lived in
Shushfin ; (2) that his narae was Mordecai, .
son of Jair, son of Shiraei, son of Kish the
Benjamite who was taken captive with Je
hoiachin; (3) th.at he brought up E,sther.
This genealogy does then flx with great cer
tainty the age of Mordecai. He was great
grandson of a contemporary of Jehoiachin.
Now four generations cover 120 years —
and 120 years from B/ o. 599 bring us to b.
c. 479, i. e. to the 6th year of the reign of
Xerxes. It is probable that the Jlordecai
mentioned in Ezr. ii. 2; Neh. vii. 7, as one
of the leaders of the captives who returned
from time to time from Babylon to Judaea,
was the same . as Mordecai of the Book
of Esther. As regards his place in profane
history, the domestic annals of tlrS reign
of Xerxes are so scanty, that it would not
surprise us to find no mention of Mordecai.
But there is a person named by Ctesias,
who probably saw the very chronicles of
the kings of Media and Persia referred to
in Esth. A. 2, whose name and character
present some points of resemblance with
Mordecai, viz. Matacas, or Natacas, whora
he describes as Xerxes' chief favorite, and
the raost powerful of them all. He relates
of him, that when Xerxes, after his return
frora Greece, had coraraissioned Megabyzus
to go and plunder the teraple of Apollo at
Delphi, upon his refusal, he sent Matacas
the eunuch, to insult the god, and to plun
der his property, which Matacas did, and
returned to Xerxes. The known hatred of
Xerxes to idol-worship makes his selec
tion of a Jew for his prime minister very
probable, and there are strong points of
resemblance in what is thus related of M.at-
aeas, and what we know frora Scripture of
Mordecai. Again, that Mordecai w.as,
what Matacas is related to have been, a
eunuch, seeras not improbable from his
having neither wife nor child, from his
bringing up his cousin Esther in his own
house, from his situation in the king's gate,
from his access to the court of the women,
and from his being raised to the highest
post of power by the king, which we know
frora Persian history was so often the case
with the king's eunuchs. If we suppose
the original forra of the narae to have been
Matacai, it would easily in the Chaldee or
thography becorae Mordecai. As regards
his place in Rabbinical estimation, Morde
cai, as is natural, stands very high. The
interpolations in the Greek book of Esther
are one indication of his popularity with hia
countryraen- The Targura (of late date)
shows that this increased rather than di
minished with the lapse of centuries. It is
said of Mordecai that he knew the seventy
languages, i. e. the langmges of all the

MOREH

428

MORTAB

iiations mentioned in Gen. x., which the
Jevt-T, ..ount as seventy nations, and that his
age exceeded 400 years. He is continually
designated by the appellation " the Just."
Benjamin of Tudela places the tomb of
Mordecai and Esther at Hamadan, or Ecbat
ana. Others, however, place the tomb of
Mordecai in Susa.
Mo'reh. 1. The Plain, or Plains (or,
as it should rather be rendered, the Oak
or Oaks), op Moreh. The Oak of Moreh
was the first recorded halting-place of
Abram after his entrance into the land of
Canaan (Gen. xu. 6) . It was at the "place
of Shechem" (xii. 6), close to the moun
tains of Eb.al and Gerizim (Deut. xi. 30).
There is reason for believing that this place,
the scene of so important an occurrence in
Abrara's early residence in Canaan, may
have been also that of one even more im-
portaiit, the crisis of his later life, the of
fering of Isaac, on a raountain in " the
land of Moriah." Whether the oaks of
Moreh had any connection with — 2. The
Hill op Mokeh, at the foot -of which the
Midianites and Araalekites were encamped
before Gideon's attack upon them (Judg.
vii. 1), seeras, to say the least, raost uncer
tain. But a comparison of Judg. vi. 33
with vii. 1 makes it evident that it lay in
the valley of Jezreel, rather on the north
side of the valley, and north also of the
erainence on which Gideon's little band of
heroes was clustered. These conditions
are most accurately fulfilled if wc assume
Jibcl ed-Duhy, the "Little Hermon" of
the modern travellers, to be Moreh, the
Ain-Jalood to be the spring of Harod, and
Gideon's position to have been on the north
east slope of Jebel FukAa (M^unt Gilboa),
between the village of Nuris and the last-
mentioned spring.
Mor'esheth-gath, a place named by
the prophet Micah only (Mic. i. 14), in
comp.any with Lachish, Achzib, Mareshah,
and other towns of the lowland district of
Judah- Micah was hiraself the native of
a place called Moresheth- Eusebius and
Jerome, in the Onomasticon, describe Mo
rasthi as a moderate-sized village near
Eleutheropolis, to the east.
Mori'ah. 1. The Land op Moriah.
On " ono of the mountains " in this district
took place the sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. xxii.
Z). What the name of the mountain was
we are not told ; but it was a conspicuous
one, visible from " afar off" (ver. 4). Nor
do^3 the narrative afford any data for ascer
taining its position. It is raost natural to
take the "land of Moriah" as the sarae
district with that in which the " Oak (A.
V. ' plain ') of Moreh " was situated, and
not as that which contains Jerusalera, as
the modern tra lition, which would identify
the Moriah of Sen. xxii. and that of 2 Chr.
iii. 1, affirms, 2. Mount Moriah. Tbe

name ascribed, in 2 Chr. ni. 1 only, to_ the
eminence on which Solomon built the Tem
ple; "where He appeared to David his
father, in a place which David prepared in
the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebu
site." From the mention of Araunah, the
inference is natural that the " appearance"
alluded to occurred at the time of the pur
chase of the threshing-floor by David, and
his erection thereon of the altar (2 Sam.
xxiv.; 1 Chr. xxi.). But it will be ob
served that nothing is said in the narratives
of that event of any " appearance " of Je
hovah. A tradition which first appears in
a definite shape in Josephus, and is now
almost universally accepted, asserts that
the " Mount Moriah " of the Chronicles is
identical with the " mountain " in " the land
of Moriah " of Genesis, and that the spot
on which Jehovah appeared to David, and
on which the Temple was built, was the
very spot of the sacrifice of Isaac. But
the single occurrence of the name in this
one passage of Chronicles is surely not
enough to establish a coincidence, which if
we consider it, is little short of miraculous.
Except in the case of Salera — and that is
by no means ascertained — the name of
Abraham does not appear once in connec
tion with Jerusalem or the later royal or
ecclesiastical glories of Israel. Jerusalem
lies out of the path of the patriarchs, and
has no part in the history of Israel till the
establishment of the monarchy. But iu
addition to this, Jerusalem is incompatible
¦with the circurastances of the narrative of
Gen. xxii. To name only two instances —
(1.) The Temple raount cannot be spoken
of as a conspicuous eminence. It is not
visible till the traveller is close upon it at
the southern edge of the valley of Hinnom,
from whence he looks down upon it as on a
lower erainence. (2.) If Salera was Jeru
salera, then the triiil of Abraham's faith,
instead of taking place in the lonely and
desolate spot implied by the narrative,
where not even fire was to be obtained, and
where no help but thatof the Almighty waa
nigh, actually took place under the very
walls of the city of Melchizedek. But,
while there is no trace excetit in the. single
passage quoted of Moriah being attached
to any part of Jerusalem — on the other
hiind, in the slightly diff'erent form of Mo
reh, it did exist attached to the town and
the neighborhcod of Shechem, the spot of
Abram's first residence in Palestine.
Mortar. The simplest aud probably
most ancient method of preparing corn for
food was by pounding it between two stones.
The Israelites in the desert appear to have
possessed mortars and handmills araong
their necessary domestic utensils. When
the manna fell they gathered it, and either
ground it in the raiU or pounded it in the
mortar till it was flt for use (Num. d 8),

MORTER

429

MOSES

So In the present day stone mortars are
used by the Arabs to pound wheat for their
¦aational dish kihby. Another word occur
ring in Prov. xxvii. 22, probably denotes a
mortar of a larger kind in which corn was
pounded. " Though thou bray the fool in
the mortar araong the bruised corn with the
pestle, yet will not his folly depart frora
hira." Corn may be separated from its
husk and all its good properties preserved
by siich an operation, but the fool's folly is
so essential a part of himself that no anal
ogous process can remove it from him.
Such seeras the natural interpretation of
this remarkable proverb. The language is
intentionally exaggerated, and there is no
necessity for supposing an allusion to a
"mode of punishment by which criminals
were put to death by being pounded in a
mortar. A custom of this kind existed
among the Turks, hut there is no distinct
trace of it among the Hebrews. Such,
however, is supposed to be the reference in
the proverb by Mr. Roberts, who illustrates
it from his Indian experience.
Morter (Gen. xi. 3 ; Ex. i. 14 ; Lev. xiv.
42, 45; Is. xU. 25; Ex. xiii. 10, 11, 14, 15,
xxii. 28 ; Nah. iii. 14). The various com
pacting substances used in Oriental build
ings appear to be — 1. bitumen, as in the
Babylonian structures ; 2. common mud or
moistened clay ; 3. avery firm cement com-
¦ pounded of sand, ashes, and lime, in the
proportions respectively of 1, 2, 3, well
pounded, soraetiraes raixed and sometimes
coated with oil, so as to form a surface al
most impenetrable to' wet or the weather.
In Assyrian and also Egyptian brick build
ings, stubble or straw, as hair or wool among
ourselves, was added to increase the te
nacity. Mo'serah, Deut. x. 6, apparently the
same as Moseroth, Num. xxxiii. 30, its
plural form, the narae of a place near Mount
Hor. Mo'ses (Heb. Mdsheh= "drawn"), the
legislator of the Jewish people, and in a
certain sense the founder of the Jewish
religion. His birth and education. The
iramediate pedigree of Moses is as fol
lows : — Levi I

Gershon

Kohath
Amram = Jochebed
I 

Hur — Maliam Aaron =Eliahcha MOSKS = Zipporah
-'  '  i  i i i I
Nadab Abihu Eleazar Ithamar Oerehom EUezer
Fhineaa Jonathan
The fact that he was of the tribe of Levi
no doubt contributed to the selection of
that tribe as the sacred caste. The story
of his birlh is thoroughly Egyptian in its

scene. The beauty of the new-born babe
induced the mother to raake extraordinary
efforts for its preservation from the general
destruction of the male children of Israel.
For three months the child -was concealed
in the house. Then his raother placed hira
in a small boat or basket of papyrus, closed
against the water by bitumen. This was
placed among the aquatic veget.atioii by the
side of one of the canals of the Nile. The
raother departed as if un.able to bear the
sight. The sister lingered to watch her
brother's fate. The Egyptian princess came
down, after the Homeric simplicity of the
age, to bathe in the sacred river. Her at
tendant slaves followed her. She saw the
basljet in the flags, and despatched divers
after it. The divers, or one of the feraale
slaves, brought it. It was opened, and the
cry ofthe child moved the princess to com
passion. She determined to rear it as her
own. The sister was at hand to recom
mend a Hebrew nurse. The child was
brought up as the princess's son, and the
memory of the incident was long cherished
in the name given to the foundling of the
water's side — whether according to its He
brew or Egyptian form. Its Hebrew form
is Mdsheh, from Mdshdh, " to draw out" —
" because I have drawn hira out of the
water." But this is probiibly the Hebrew
forra given to a foreign word. In Coptic,
mo = water, and «sA« = saved. This is the
explanation given by Josephus. The child
was adopted by the princess. From this
tirae for many years Moses must be con
sidered as an Egyptian. In the Pentateuch
this period is a blank, but in the N. T. he
is represented as " educated in all the wis
dom of the Egyptians," and as " mighty in
words and deeds " (Acts vii. 22). But the
time at last arrived when he was resolved
to reclaim his nationality (Heb. xi. 24-26).
Seeing an Israelite suffering the bastina
do from an Egyptian, and thinking that
they were alone, he slew the Egyptian, and
buried the corpse in the sand. The fire of
patriotism which thus turned him into a
deliverer from the oppressors, turns hira
into the peace-raaker of the oppressed. It
is characteristic of the faithfulness of the
Jewish records that his flight is there occa
sioned rather by the malignity of his coun
trymen than by the enmity of the Egyptians
Ho fled into Midian. Beyond the fact that
it was in or near the peninsula of Sinai, its
precise situation is unknown. There was
a famous well (" the well," Ex. ii. 15) sur
rounded by tanks for the watering of the
flocks of the Bedouin herdsmen. By this
well the fugitive seated himself, and watched
the gathering of the sheep. There were
the Arabian shepherds, and there were also
seven maidens, whom the shepherds rudely
drove away from the water. The chival
rous spirit which had already broken forth

MOSES

430

MOSES

in behalf of his oppressed countrymen
broke forth again in behalf of the distressed
maidens. They returned unusually soon to
their father, and told hira of their adven
ture. Moses, who up to this time had been
"an Egj'ptian " (Ex. ii. 19), now became
for forty years (Acts vii. 30), an Arabian.
He married Zipporah, daughter of his host,
to whom he also became the slave and
shepherd (Ex. ii. 21, iii. 1). But the chief
effect of this stay in Arabia is on Moses
liimself. It was in the seclusion .and sim
plicity of his shepherd-life that he received
his call as a prophet. The traditional scene
of this great event is in the valley of Shoayb,
or Hobab, on the N. side of Jebel Musa.
The original indications are too slight to
enable us to flx the spot with any certainty.
It was at " the b.ack of the wilderness "
at Horeb (E.x. iii. 1), "the raountain of
God." Upon the raountain was a well-
known acacia, the thorn-tree of the des
ert, spreading out its tangled branches
thick set with white thorn, over the rocky
ground. It was this tree which becarae the
symbol of tho Divine Presence ; a flarao
of fire in the midst of it, in which the dry
br.anches would naturally have crackled
and burnt in a moment, but wliich played
around it without consuming it. The rocky
ground at once became "holy," and the
shepherd's sandal was to be taken off no
less than on the threshold of a palace or a
temple. The call or revelation was two
fold — 1. The declaration_ of the Sacred
Name expresses the eternal self-existence
ofthe One God. 2. The mission was given
to Moses to deliver his people The two
signs are characteristic — the one of his
past Egypti.an life — the other of his active
shepherd life. In the rush of leprosy into
his hand is the link between him andthe
people whom the Egyptians called a nation
of lepers. In the transformation of his
ehepherd's staff is the gloriflcation of the
simple pastoral life, of wliich that staff was
the syrabol, into the great career which lay
before it. He returns to Egypt frora his
exile. His Arabian wife and her two infant
sons are with hira. She is seated with them
on the ass. He apparently walks by their
<ide with his shepherd's staff. On the
journey back to Egypt a mysterious in
cident occurred in the family. The most
probable explanation seeras to he, that at
the car.avanserai either Moses or Gershora
was struck with wh.at seeraed to be a mortal
illness. In sorae way this illness was con
nected by Zipporah with the fact that her
son had not been circuracised. She in
stantly performed the rite, and threw the
sharp instruraent, stained with the fresh
Wood, at the feet of her husband, exclaira-
ing in tho agony of a mother's anxiety fur
the life of her child — " A bloody husband
thou art, to cause the death of my son."

Then, when the recovery from the illness
took place, she exclaims again, "A bloody
husband still thou art, but not so as to cause
the child's death, but only to bring about his
circumcision." It would seem to have been
in consequence of this event, whatever it
was, that the wife and her children were
sent back to Jethro, and remained with him
till Moses joined them at Repbidim (Ex.
xviii. 2-6). After this parting he advanced
into the desert, and at the same spot ¦»'here
he had had his vision encountered Aaron
(Ex. iv. 27). From that meeting and co
operation we have the first distinct indi
cation of his personal appearance and
character. But beyond the slight glance at
his infantine beauty, no hint of this grand
personality is given in the Bible- What is
described is rather the reverse. The only
point there brought out is a singular and
unlooked-for infirmity. " I am slow of
speech and of a slow tongue." In the solu
tion of this difficulty which Moses offers,
we read both the disinterestedness, which is
the most distinct trait of his personal
character,, and the future relation of the
two brothers. Aaron spoke and acted for
Moses, and was the permanent inheritor of
the sacred staff of power. But Moses was
the inspiring soul behind. The history of
Moses henceforth is the history of Israel for
forty years. It is important to trace hi«
relation to his immediate circle of followers.
In the Exodus, he takes the decisive lead
on the night of the fiight. Up to that point
he and Aaron appear almost on an equality.
But after that, Moses is usually mentioned
alone. Aaron still held the second place.
Another, nearlj' equal to Aaron, is HuR, of
the tribe of Judah. Miriam always held
the independent position to which hor age
entitled her. Her part was to supply the
voice and song to her brother's prophetic
power. But Moses is incontdstably the
chief personage of the history, in a sense in
which uo one else is described before or
since. He was led into a closer com
munion with the invisible world than was
vouchsafed to any other in the O. T. There
are two main characters in which he ap
pears — as a Leader and as a Prophet, {a.)
As a Leader, his life divides itself into the
three epochs — of the march to Sinai ; the
march frora Sinai to Kadesh ; and the con
quest of the Trans-Jordanic kingdoms. Of
his natural gifts in this capacity, wo have
but few means of judging. The two main
difficulties which he encountered were tha
reluctance of the people to submit to his
guidance, and the impracticable nature of
the country which they had to traverse.
The incidents with which his narae was
especially connected both in the sacred nar
rative, and in the Jewish, Arabian, and
heathen traditions, were those of supplying
water, when most wanted. In the j?en«

MOSES

431

MCSE8

tateuch these suppUes of water take place
at Marah, at Horeb, at Kadesh, and in the
land of Moab. Of the three first of these
incidents, traditional sites, bearing his
name, are shown in the desert at the
present day, though most of them are re
jected by modern travellers. The route
through the wilderness is described as hav
ing been made under his guidance. 'The
particular spot of the encampment is fixed
by the cloudy pillar. But the direction of
the people first to the Red Sea, and then
to Mount Sinai, is communicated through
Moses, or given by him. On approaching
Palestine the office of the leader becomes
blended with that of the general or the con
queror. By Moses the spies wero sent to
explore the country. Against his advice
took place the first disastrous battle at
Hormah. To his guidance is ascribed the
circuitous route by which the nation ap
proached Palestine frora tho east, and to his
generalship the two successful campaigns
in which Sihon and Oo were defeated.
'The narrative is told so shortly, that we
are In danger of forgetting that at this last
stage of his life Moses must have been as
much a conqueror and victorious soldier as
Joshua. ¦ {b.) His character as a Prophet
is, from the nature of the case, more dis
tinctly brought out- He is the first as he
is the gr latest example of a prophet in the
O. T. In a certain sense, he appears as
the centre of a prophetic circle, now for
the first tirae named. His brother and
sister were both endowed with prophetic
gifts. The seventy elders, and Bldad and
Medad also, all "prophesied" (Num. xi.
25-27). But Moses rose high above all
these. With him the Divine revelations
were made, " mouth to raouth, even ap
parently, and not in dark speeches, and the
sirailitude of Jehovah shall he behold"
(Nura. xii. 8) . Of the especial modes of this
more direct communication, four great ex
amples are given, corresponding to four
critical epochs in his historical career. (1.)
The appearance of the Divine presence in
the flaming acacia-tree has been already
noticed. No form is described. " The
Angel," or " Messenger," is spoken of as
being "in the flame" (Ex. iii. 2-6). (2.)
In the giving of the Law from Mount Sinai,
the outward form of the revelation was a
thick darkness as of a thuiider-cloud, out
of which proceeded a voice (Ex. xix. 19,
XX. 21). The revelation on this occasion
was especially of the Name of Jehovah.
On two occasions he is described as h.aving
penetrated within the darkness, and re
mained there successively, for two periods
of forty days, of which the«econd was spent
in absolute seclusion and fasting (Ex. xxiv.
18 xxxiv. 28). (3.) It was nearly at the
close of those communications in the moun
tains of Sinai that an especial revelation

was made to hira personally. In the de
spondency produced by the apostasy of the
molten calf, he besought Jehovah to show
him " His glory." The Divine answer an
nounced that an actual vision of God was
impossible. " Thou canst not see my face ;
for there shall no raan see my face and live."
He was comraanded to hew two blocks of
stone, like those which he had destroyed.
He was to corae absolutely-alone. He took
his place on a well-known or prominent
rock (" the rock ") (.xx.xiii. 21). The cloud
passed by (x.x.xiv. 5, xxxiii. 22). A voice
proclaimed tho two imrautable attributes
of God, Justice and Love — in words which
becarae part of the religious creed of Israel
and of the world (xxxiv. 6,7). (4.) The
fourth raode of Divine manifestation was
that which is described as commencing at
this juncture, and which continued with
raore or less continuity through the rest of
his career. Immediately after the catas
trophe of the worship of the calf, and ap
parently in consequence of it, Moses re
moved the chief tent outside the carap, and
invested it with a sacred character under
the narae of " the Tent or Tabernacle ofthe
congregation" (xxxiii. 7). This tent be
came henceforth the chief scene of his com
munications with God. It was during these
communications that a peculiarity is men
tioned which apparently had not been seen
before. It was on his final descent from
Mount Sinai, after his second long seclu
sion, that a splendor shone on his face, as
if from the gloi-y of the Divine Presence.
There is another form of the prophetic gift,
in which Moses more nearly resembles the
later prophets. It is clear that the pro
phetical office, as represented in the history
of Moses, included the poetical forra of
coraposition which characterizes the Jewish
prophecy generally. Th'ese poetical utter
ances, whether connected with Moses by
ascription or by actual authorship, enter so
largely into the full Biblical conception of
his character, that they raust be here raen
tioned. 1. " The song which Moses and
the children of Israel sung " (after the pas
sage of the Red Sea, Ex. xv. 1-19). 2. A
fragraent of a war-song against Araalek
(Ex. xvii. 16). 3. A fragment of a lyrical
burst of indignation (Ex. xxxii.. 18). 4.
Probably, either from him or his iraraediate
prophetic followers, the fragments of war-
songs in Nura. xxi. 14, 15, 27-30, preserved
in the " book of the wars of Jehovah," Nura.
xxi. 14 ; and the address to the well, xxi.
16, 17, 18. 5. The Song of Moses (Deut
xxxii. 1-43), setting forth the greatness and
the failings of Israel. 6. The blessing of
Moses on the tribes (Deut. xxxiii. 1-29),
7. The 90th Psalra, "A. prayer of Moses,
the raan of God." The title, like all the
titles of the Psalms, is of loubtful authority,
and the Psalm has often been referred t'' a

MOSES

432

MOSES

later author. How far the gradual devel
opment of these revelations or prophetic
utterances had any connection with his own
character and history, the materials are not
such as to justify any decisive judgment.
Ills Egyptian education must, on the one
hand, have supplied him with much of the
ritual of the Israelite worship. The coin
cidences between the arrangements of the
priesthood, the dress, tte sacrifices, the ark,
in the two countries, are decisive. On the
other hand, the proclamation of the Unity
of God implies distinct antagonism, almost
a conscious recoil against the Egyptian sys
tem. And the absence ofthe doctrine of a
future state proves at least a remarkable
independence of the Egyptian theology, in
which that great doctrine held so promi
nent a pl.ace. 'The prophetic office of Moses
can only be fully considered in connection
with his whole character and appearance
(Hos. xii. 13). He was in a sense peculiar
to himself the founder and representative
of his people. And in accordance with this
coraplete identification of himself with his
nation is the only strong personal trait
which wo are able to gather from his his
tory (Nura. xii. 3). 'The word " meek " is
hardly an adequate reading of the Hebrew
term, which should be rather "rauch en
during." It represents wliiit we should now
designate by the word " disinterested." All
that is told of hira indicates a withdrawal
of hiraself, a preference of the cause of his
nation to his own interests, which raakes
him the raost coraplete exaraple of Jewish
patriotisra. In exact conformity with his
life is the account of his end. The Book
of Deuteronomy describes, and is, the long
last farewell of the prophet to his people.
It takes place on the first day of the
eleventh month of- the fortieth year of the
wanderings, in the plains of Moab (Deut. i.
3, 5). He is described as 120 years of age,
but with his sight and his freshness of
strength unabated (Deut. xxxiv. 7). The
address from ch. i. to ch. xxx- contains the
recapitulation of the Law. Joshua is then
appointed his successor. The Law is writ
ten out, and ordered to be deposited in the
Ark (ch. xxxi.). The song and the blessing
of tho tribes conclude the farewell (ch.
xxxii., xx.xiii.). And then comes the mys
terious close. As if to carry out to the las*
the idea that the prophet was to live, not for
hiraself, but for his people, he is told that
he is to see the good land beyond the Jor
dan, but not to possess it himself. The sin
for which this penalty was imposed on the
prophet is difficult to ascertain clearly. lie
ascends a mountain in the range which rises
above the Jordan valley. The raountain
tiacl was known by the general narae of
the Pisgah. Its suraraits apparently were
dedicated to different divinities (Num. xxiii.
1 4) . On one of these, consecrated to Nebo,

Moses took his stand, and surveyed the four
great raasses of Palestine west of the Jordan
— so far as it could te discerned from that
height. The view has passed into a prov
erb for all nations. " So Moses the ser
vant of Jehovah died there in the land of
Moab, according to the word of Jeliovah,
and He buried him in a ' ravine ' in the land
of Moab, ' before ' Beth-peor — but no raan
knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day. . . .
And the children of Israel wept for Moses
in the plains of Moab thirty days " (Deut.
xxxiv. 5, 8). This is all that is said in the
sacred record. Jewish, Arabian, and Chris
tian traditions have labored to fill up the
detail. His grave, though studiously con
cealed in the sacred narrative, is shown by
the Mussulmans on the west (and therefore
the wrong) side of the Jordan, between the
Dead Sea and St. Saba. In the O. T. the
name of Moses does not occur so frequent
ly, after the close of the Pentateuch, as
might be expected. In the Psalras and the
Prophets, however, he is frequently naraed
as the chief of the prophets. In the N. T.
he is referred to partly as the representative
of the Law — as in the nuraerous passages
cited above — and in the vision of the
'Transfiguration, where he appears side by
side with Elijah- As the author ofthe Law
he is contrasted with Christ, the Author
of the Gospel : " The Law was given by
Moses" (John i. 17). The ambiguity and
tr.ansitory nature of his glory are set against
the permanence and clearness of Christian
ity (2 Cor. iii. 13-18), and his mediatorial
character against the unbroken coraraunica-
tion of God in Christ (Gal. iu. 19). His " ser
vice " of God is coYitrasted with Christ's son-
.ship (Heb. iii. 5,6). But he is also spoken of
as a likeness of Christ ; and as this is a point
of view which has been almost lost in the
Church, compared with the more famihar
comparisons of Christ to Adara, David,
Joshua, .and yet has as firra a basis in fact
as any of them, it may be well to draw it
out in detail. 1. Moses is, as it would
seera, the only character of the O. T. to
whom Christ expressly likens Hiraself :
"Moses wrote of me" (John v. 46). It
suggests three main points of likeness :
{a.) Christ was, like Moses, the great
Prophet of the people — the last, as Moses
was the flrst. (J.) Christ, like Moses, is
a Lawgiver: "Him shall ye hear." (c)
Christ, like Muses, was a Prophet out of
the midst of the nation, " from their breth
ren." As Moses was the entire represen
tative of his people, feeling for them raore
than for hiraself, absorbed in tlieir iuter-
ests, hopes, and fears, so, -with reverence
be it said, was Christ. 2. In Heb. iii. 1-19,
xii. 24-29, Acts vii. 37, Christ is described,
though more obscurely, as the Moses of
the new dispensation — as the Apostle, or
Messenger, or Mediator, of God to the peo-

'44 - n^

'"i^'fcs '^i5?n s? «3

s d

^

MOTH

433

MOURNING

pic — as the C mtroUer and Leader of the
Bock or household of God. 3. The details
of their lives are sometimes, though not
often, compared (Acts vii. 24-28, 35). In
Jude 9 is an allusion to an altercation be
tween Michael and Satan over the body of
Moses. It probably refers to a lost apoc
ryphal book, mentioned by Origen, called
the " Ascension, or Assumption of Moses."
— Respecting the books of Moses, see Pen
tateuch. Moth. By the Hebrew word we are
certainly to understand some sjiccies of
clothes-moth {tinea). Reference to the
destructive habits of the clothes-moth is
made in Job iv. 19, xiu. 28; Ps. xxxix. 11,
&e. In Job xxvii. 18, "He buildeth his
house as a moth," it is clear that allusion is
made either to the well-known case of the
Tinea pellionella, or some alhed species,
or else to the leaf-building larvae of some
other member of the Lepidoptera. The
clothes-moths belgng to the group Tineina,
order Lepidoptera.
Mother. The superiority of the He
brew over all contemporaneous systems of
legislation and of morals is strongly shown
in the higher estimation of the mother in
the Jewish faraily, as contrasted with mod
ern Oriental, as well as ancient Oriental
and classical usage. The king's mother,
as appears in the case of Bathsheba, was
treated with especial honor (1 K. ii. 19 ;
Ex. XX. 12 ; Lev. xix. 3 ; Deut. v. 16, xxi.
18, 21 ; Prov. x. 1, xv. 20, xvii. 25, xxix.
15, xxxi. 1, 30).
Mount (Is. xxix. 3; Jer. vi. 6, &c.).
[Siege.] Mount, Mo'untain. The Hebrew word
har, like the English " mountain," is em
ployed both for single eminences raore or
less isolated, such as Sinai, Gerizira, Ebal,
Zion, and Olivet, and for ranges, such as
Lebanon. It is .also applied to a mountain
ous country or district. The frequent oc
currence throughout the Scriptures of per
sonification of the natural features of the
country is very remarkable. The follow
ing are all the words used with this object
in relation to mountains or hills : 1. Head,
Rdsh, Gen. viii. 5; Ex. xix. 20; Deut.
xxxiv. 1; IK. xvdii. 42; (A. V- "top").
2. Ears, Azndth, Aznoth-Tabor, Josh.
xix. 34 ; possibly in allusion to some pro
jection on the top of the mountain. 3.
Shoulder, Cdth&ph. Deut. xxxiii. 12;
Josh. XV. 8, and xviii. 16 ("side"). 4.
Side, Tsad. Used in reference to a moun
tain in 1 Sam. xxiii. 26; 2 Sam. xiii. 34.
5. Loins of Flanks, Cistdth. Cliisloth-
Tabor, Josh. xix. 12. It occurs also in the
name of a village, probably situated on this
part? of the mountain, Ha-CesuUoth, i. e.
the "loins" (Josh. xix. 18). 6. Rib,
Tsild. Only used once, in speaking of the
Mouat of Olives, 2 Sam. xvi. 13, and there
28

translated " side." 7. Back, Shecem. Pos
sibly the root of the name of the town She-
chem, which may be derived from its situa
tion, as it were on the back of Gerizim. 8.
Thigh, Jarcdh. Applied to Mount Ephra
im, Judg. xix. 1, 18; and to Lebanon, 2
K. xix. 23 ; Is. xxxvii. 24. Used also for
the " sides " of a cave, 1 Sam. xxiv. 3. 9.
The word translated "covert "in 1 Sam.
xxv. 20 is SHher, from sdthar, "to hide,"
and probably refers to the shrubbery or
thicket through which Abigail's path lay.
In this passage " hill" should be " raoun
tain." The Chaldee iAr is the narae still
given to the Mount of Olives, the Jebel et-
TAr. Mountain of the Ammorites, spe
cifically mentioned Deut. i. 19, 20 (comp.
44). It seems to be the range which rises
abruptly frora the plateau of et- Tih, run
ning from a little S. "of W. to the N. of E.,
and of which the extremities are the Jebel
Araif en-Nakah westward, and Jebel el-
Mukrah eastward, and frora which line the
country continues mountainous all the way
to Hebron.
Mourning. The numerous list of
words eraployed in Scripture to express
the various actions which are characteris
tic of raourning, shows iu a great degree
the nature of the Jewish custoras in this
respect. They appear to have consJiteJ
chiefly in the following particulars : 1.
Beating the breast or other parts of the
body- 2. Weeping and screaming in an
excessive degree- 3. Wearing sad-colored
garraents. 4. Songs of lamentation. 5.
Funeral feasts. 6. Employment of per
sons, especially women, to lament. (1.)'
One marked feature of Oriental mourning
is what may be called its studied pubUcity,
and the careful observance of the pre
scribed ceremonies (Gen. xxiii. 2; Job i.
20, ii. 8 ; Is. xv. 3, &c.). (2.) Araong the
liarticular forms observed the following
raay be raentioned : a. Rending the clothes
(Gen. xxxvii. 29, 34, xliv. 13, &c.). b.
Dressing in sackcloth (Gen. xxxvii. 34;
2 Sam. iii. 31, xxi. 10, &c.). c. Ashes,
dust, or earth sprinkled on the person (2
Sam. xiu. 19, xv. 32, &c.). d. Black or
sad-colored garments (2 Sam. xiv. 2 ; Jer.
viii. 21, &c.). e. Removal of ornamenta
or neglect of person (Deut. xxi. 12, 13,
&c.). /. Shaving the head, plucking out
the hair of the head or beard (Lev. x. 6 ;
2 Sara. xix. 24, &c.). g. Laying bare some
part of the body (Is. xx. 2, xlvii. 2, &o.).
h. Fasting or abstinence in meat and drink
(2 Sam. i. 12, iii. 35, xu. 16, 22, &c). i.-
In the sarae direction may be mentioned
diminution in offerings to God, and prohi
bition to partake in sacrificial food (Lev.
vii. 20; Deut. xxvi. 14). k. Covering the
" upper lip," i. e. the lower part of the face.
aud sometimes the head, in token of silence

MOURNING

434

MULE

¦^

i Lev . xiii. 45 ; 2 Sam.' xv. 30, xix. 4). I.
Cutting the flesh (Jer. xvi. 6, 7, xii. 5).
Beating Uie body (Ez. xxi. 12 ; Jer. xxxi.
19). m. Emplbyment of persons hired for
the purpose of mourning (Eccl. xii. 6 ; Jer.
ix. 17; Am. v. 16; Matt. ix. 23). n. Akin
to this usage the custom for friends or pass
ers-by to join in the lamentations of be
reaved or afflicted persons (Gen. I. 3 ; Judg.
xi. 40; Job ii. 11, xxx. 25, &c.)- o. The
sitting or lying posture in silence indicative
of grief (Gen. xxiii. 3; Judg. xx. 26, &c-).
p. Mourning feast and cup of consolation
(Jer. xvi. 7, 8). The period of mourning
varied. In the case of Jacob it was seventy
days (Gen. 1. 3) ; of Aaron (Num. xx. 29)
and Moses (Deut. xxxiv. 8), thirty. A fur
ther period of seven days in Jacob's case.
Gen. I. 10. Seven days for Saul, which
may have been an abridged period in time
cf national danger, 1 Sam. xxxi. 13. (3.)
In the last place we may mention — a. 'The
idol.atrous "mourning for Tamrauz," Ez.
viii. 14, as indicating identity of practice
in certain cases araong Jews and heathens ;
and the custora in later days of offerings
of food at graves, Ecclus. xxx. 18. b. The
prohibition, both to the high-priest and to
Nazarites, against going into mourning even
for a father or mother, Lev. xxi. 10, 11;
Nura. vi. 7. The inferior priests were lira
ited to the cases of their near relatives,
Lev. xxi. 1, 2, 4. c. The food eaten dur
ing the tirae of mourning was regarded as
impure, Deut. xxvi. 14 ; Jer. xvi. 5, 7 ; Ez.
xxiv. 17 ; Hos. ix. 4. — With the practices
above mentioned. Oriental and other cus
toras, ancient and raodern, in great meas
ure agree. Arab men are silent in grief,
but the women scream, tear their hair,
hands, and face, and throw earth or sand
on their heads. Both Mohamraedans and
Christians in Egypt hire wailing woraen,
and wail at stated times. Burckhardt says
the woraen of Atbara in Nubia shave their
heads on the death of their nearest rela
tives — a custora prevalent also among sev
eral of the peasant tribes of Upper Egypt.
He also mentions wailing women, and a
man in distress besmearing his face with
dirt and dust in token of grief. In the
Arabian Nights are frequent allusions to
similar practices. They also mention ten
days and forty days as periods of mourn
ing. Lane, speaMng of the modern Egyp
tians, says, "After death the women ofthe
faraily raise cries of laraentation called wel-
weleh or wilwdl, uttering the most piercing
shrieks, and calling upon the name of the
deceased, ' O, my master! O, my resource 1
O, my misfortune I 0, my glory 1 ' (see Jer.
xxii. 18) . The females of the neighborhood
come to join with thera in this conclaraation :
generally, also, the family send for two or
more nedddbehs, or public wailing women.
Each brings a tambourine, and beating them

they exclaim, 'Alas for him I ' The f emals
relatives, domestics, and friends, with theil '
hair dishevelled, and sometimes with rent
clothes, beating their faces, cry in like man
ner, ' Alas for hira ! ' These make no al
teration in dress, but women, in some cases,
dye their shirts, head-veils, and handker
chiefs of a dark-blue color. They visit the
tombs at stated periods " {Mod. Eg. iii. 152,
171, 195).
Mouse occurs in Lev. xi- 29 ; 1 Sam. vi.
4, 5 ; Is. Ixvi. 17. The Hebrew word is in
all probability generic, and is not intended
to denote any particular species of mouse.
The original word denotes a field-ravager,
and may therefore coraprehend any destruc
tive rodent. It is probable, however, that
in 1 Sam. vi. 5, " the mice that mar the
land" may include and more particularly
refer to the short-tailed field-mice {arvicola
agrestis, Flem.), which cause great destruc
tion to the corn-lands of Syria.
MO'wing. As the great heat of the cli
mate in Palestine and other similarly situ
ated countries soon dries up the herbage
itself, hay-making in our sense of the term
is not in use. The term " hay," therefore,
in Prov. xxvii. 25 and Is. xv. 6, is incorrect.
The "king's mowings" (Am. vii. 1), i. e.
mown grass (Ps. Ixxii. 6), may perhaps re
fer to sorae royal right of early pasturage
for the use of the cavalry.
Mo'za. I. Sonof Caleb the son of Hez
ron (1 Chr. ii. 46). 2. Son of Zirari, and
descendant of -Saul (1 Chr. viii. 36, 37, ix.
42, 43).
Mo'zah, one of the cities in the allot
ment of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 26) only,
named between hac-Cephirah and Rekem.
No trace of any name resembling Mozah
has hitherto been discovered.
Mulberry-trees (Heb. becdtm) occur
only in 2 Sam. v> 23 and 24, and 1 Chr.
xiv. 14. We are quite unable to determine
what kind of tree is denoted by the Hebrew
word. Roseumflller follows the LXX. of 1
Chr. xiv. 14, and heUeves " pear-trees " are
signified. As to the claim of the raulberry-
tree to represent the becdim of Scripture,
it is difficult to see any foundation for such
an interpretation. The explanation given
by Royle, that sorae poplar is signified, is
untenable; for the Hebrew bdcd and the
Arabic baka are clearly distinct both in
form and signification, as is evident from
the difference of the second radical letter in
each word. Though there is no evidence to
show that the mulberry-tree occurs in the
Hebrew Bible, yet the fruit of this tree ia
mentioned in 1 Mace. vi. 34.
M\lle. It is an interesting fact that we
do not read of mules till the time of David,
just at the time when the Israelites were
becoming well acquainted with horses. After
this time horses and mules are in Scripture
often mentioned together. In So/ omen's

MUPPIM

435

MUSIC

time it is possible that mules frora Egypt
occasionally accompanied the horses which
we know the king of Israel obtained from
that country; for though the mule is not of
frequent occurrence in the raonuraents of
Egypt, yet it is not easy to believe that the
Egyptians were .not well acquainted with
this animal. It would appear that kings
and great men only rode on mules. We
do not read of mules at all in the N. T. ;
perhaps therefore they had ceased to be
imported. Mules are mentioned in Gen.
xxxvi. 24 : " This was that Anah that found
the mules in the wilderness as he fed the
asses of Zibeon his father:" but the A. V.
is certainly incorrect ; and the Hebrew word
y&mim, here translated "mules," probably
means " warm springs," as the 'Vulg. has it.
Mup'pim, a Benjaraite, and one of the
fourteen descendants of Rachel who be
longed to the original colony of the sons
of Jacob in Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 21). In
Num. xxvi. 39 the name is written Shu-
pham. In 1 Chr. vii. 12, 15, itis Shuppim
(ths sarae as xxvi. 16), and viu. 5 Shephu-
phan. Hence it is probable that Muppira
is a corruption of the text, and that Shu-
pham is the true form.
Murder. The principle on which the
act of taking the life of a human being was
regarded by the Almighty as a capital of
fence is stated on its highest ground as an
outrage on the likeness of God in man,, to
be punished even when caused by an ani
mal (Gen, ix- 6, 6; see also John viii. 44;
1 John iii. 12, 15). The Law of Moses,
while it protected the accidental homicide,
defined with additional strictness the crime
of murder. It prohibited compensation or
reprieve of the murderer, or his protection
if he took refuge in the refuge city, or even
at the altar of Jehovah (Ex. xxi- 12, 14 ;
Lev- xxiv. 17, 21 ; IK. u. 5, 6, 31)- If an
animal known to be vicious caused the death
of any one, not only was the animal de
stroyed, but the owner also, if he had taken
no steps to restrain it, was held guilty of
murder. (Ex. xxi. 29, 31). The duty of
executing punishment on the murderer is
in the Law expressly laid on the " revenger
of blood ; " but the question of guilt was to
be previously decided by the Levitical tri
bunal. In regal times the duty of execu
tion of justice on a murderer seeras to have
been assumed to sorae extent by the sover
eign, as well as the privilege of pardon (2
Sam. xiii. 39, xiv. 7, 11; 1 K. ii. 34). It
was lawful to kill a burglar taken at night
in the act, but unlawful to do so after sun
rise (Ex. xxii. 2, 3).
Mu'shi, the son of Merari the son of
Kohath (Ex. vi. 19; Num. ill'. 20; 1 Chr.
vi. 19, 47, xxiii. 21, 23, xxiv. 26, 30).
Music. The inventor of musical in
struments, like the first poet and the flrst
forger of ir.etals, was a Cainite. We learn

from Gen. iv. that Jubal the sou of Lamech
was " the father of all such as handle the
harp and organ," that is, of all players upon
stringed and wind instruments. The first
mention of music in the tiraes after the
Deluge is in the narrative of Laban's inter
view with Jacob (Gen. xxxi. 27). So that,
in whatever way it was preserved, the prac
tice of music existed iu the upland coun
try of Syria ; and of the three possible kinds
of musical instruments, two were known
and employed to accompany the song. The
three kinds are alluded to in Job xxi. 12.
On the banks of the Red Sea Moses and
the children of Israel sang their triumphal
song of deliverance from the hosts of
Egypt ; and Miriam, in celebration of the
sarae event, exercised one of her functions
as a prophetess by leading a procession of
the woraen of the camp, chanting in chorus
the burden to the song of Moses, " Sing
ye to Jehovah, for He hath triumphed glo
riously ; the horse and his rider hath He
thrown into the sea." The triumphal hymn
of Moses had unquestionably a religious
character about it; but the employment of
music in religious service, though idola
trous, is more distinctly raarked in the fes
tivities which attended the erection of the
golden calf. The silver trurapets raade by
the raetal workers of the tabernacle, which
were used to direct the raovements of the
camp, point to rausic of a very siraple kind
(Nura. x. 1-10). The song of Deborah and
Barak is cast in a distinctly metrical forra,
and was probably intended to be sung with
a musical accompaniment as one of the
people's songs. The simpler iraproraptu
with which the woraen from the cities of
Israel greeted David after the slaughter of
the Philistine, was apparently struck off
on the spur of the moraent, under the in
fluence of the wild joy with which they wel
coraed their national champion, " the dar
ling of the songs of Israel" (1 Sam. xviii.
6, 7). Up to this time we raeet with noth
ing like a systeraatic cultivation of music
among the Hebrews, but the establishment
of the schools of the prophets appears to
have suppUed this want. Whatever the
students of these schools may have been
taught, music was an essential part of their
practice. Professional rausicians soon be
came attached to the court. David seeras
to have gathered round hira " singing men
and singing women" (2 Sam. xix. 35).
Soloraon did the sarae (Eccl. ii. 8), adding to
the luxury of his court by his patronage of
art, and obtaining a reputation himself as no
mean composer (1 K. iv. 32). But the
Temple was the great school of music, and it
was consecrated to its highest service in the
worship of Jehovah. Before, however, the
elaborate arrangements had been made by
David for the temple choir, there raust have
been a considerable body of musiciana

MUSIC

436 musii:;al instruments

throughout the country (2 Sam. vi. 5), and
in the procession which accorapanied the
ark from the house of Obed-edom, the
Levites, with Chenaniah at their head, who
had acquired skill frora previous training,
played on psalteries, harps, and cymbals,
to the words of the psalm of thanksgiving
which David had composed for the occasion
(1 Chr. XV., xvi.). It is not improbable that
the Levites all along had practised music,
and that sorae rausical service was part of
the worship ofthe tabernacle. The position
which they occupied araong the other
tribes naturally favored the cultivation of
an art which is essentially characteristic of
a leisurely and peaceful life. The three
great divisions of the tribe had each a rep
resentative family in the choir. Asaph
hiraself appears to have played on the cym
bals (1 Chr. xvi. 5), and this was the case
with the other leaders (1 Chr. xv. 19), per
haps to mark the time more distinctly,
while tho rest of the band played on psal
teries and harps. The singers were dis
tinct from both, as is evident in Ps. Ixviii.
25, " the singers went before, the players
on instruments followed after, in the midst
ofthe damsels playing with tirabrels." The
" pliiyers on instruments" were the per
formers upon stringed instruments, like the
psaltery and harp. The " players on in-
struraents " in Ps. Ixxxvii. 7, were different
frora these last, and were properly pipers or
performers on perforated wind-instruments
(see 1 K. i. 40). "The damsels playing
with timbrels " (comp. 1 Chr. xiii. 8) seem to
indicate that woraen took p.art in the teraple
choir. The trumpets which are mentioned
among the instruments played before the
ark (1 Chr. xiii. 8), appear to have been
reserved for the priests alone (1 Chr. xv. 24,
xvi. 6). As they were also used in royal
proclamations (2 Kxi. 14), they were prob
ably intended to set forth by way of cymbal
the royalty of Jehovah, the theocratic King
of His people, as well as to sound the alarm
• against Ills enemies (2 Chr. xiii. 12). In
the private as well as in the religious life
of the Hebrews rausic held a prominent
place. 'The kings had their court musi
cians (Eccl. ii. 8), who bewailed their death
(2 Chr. xxxv. 25), and iu the luxurious
times of the later monarchy the effeminate
gall.ants of Israel, reeking with perfuraes
and stretched upon their couches of ivory,
were wont at their banquets to accompany
the song with the tinkling of the psaltery
or guitar (Am. vi. 4-6), and .amused them
selves with devising musical instruments
while their n.alion was perishing. But
while music was thus made to minister to
debauchery and excess, it was the legiti
mate expression -)t mirth and gladness, and
the indication of peace and prosperity. It
was only when a curso was upon the land
that the prophet could say, "The mirth

of tabrets ceaseth, the noise of them thai
rejoice endeth, the joy of the harp ceaseth,
they shall not drink wiie with a song" (Is.
xxiv. 8, 9). The bridal processions as they
passed through the streets were accom
panied with music and song (Jer. vii. 34),
and these ceased only when the land waa
desolate (Ez. xxvi. 13). The music ofthe
banquets was accorapanied with songs and
dancing (Luke xv. 25). The triumphal
processions which celebrated a victory were
enlivened by minstrels and singers (Ex.
XV. i. 20; Judg. v. 1, xi; 34; 1 Sam. xviii
6, xxi. 11; 2 Chr- xx. 28; Jud. xv- 12, 13),
and ou extraordinary occasions they even
accompanied armies to battle. Besides
songs of triumph there were also religious
songs (Is. xxx. 29 ; Am. v. 23 ; Jam. v.
13), " songs of the teraple " (Am. viii. 3),
and songs which were sung in idolatrous
worship (Ex. xxxii. 18). Love songs are
alluded to in Ps. xiv. title, and Is. v. 1.
There were also the doleful songs of the
funeral procession, and tho wailing chant
of the mourners who went about the streets,
the professional "keening" of those who
were skilful in lamentation (2 Chr. xxxv.
25; Ecch xii. 5; Jer. ix. 17-20; Am. v.
16). The -grape-gatherers sang as they
gathered in the vintage, and the wine
presses were trodden with the shout of a
song (Is. xvi. 10 ; Jer. xlviii. 33) ; the
women sang as they toiled at the mill, and
on every occasion the land of the Hebrews
during their national prosperity was a land
of music and melody. The instruments
of rausic which have been represented in
our version by some modern word, are
treated under their respective titles.
Musical Instruments. In addition
to the instruments of music whieh have
been represented in our version by some
modern word, and are treated under their
respective titles, tliere are other terms
which are vaguely or generally rendered.
These are — 1. Dachdvdn, Chald., rendered
"instruments of music" in Dan. vi. 18.
The margin gives " or table, perhaps lit.
concubines." The last-mentioned rendering
is that approved by Gesenius, and seems
raost probable. 2. Minnim, rendered with
great probability "stringed-instruments"
in Ps. cl. 4. It appears to be a general
term, but beyond this nothing is known
of it. 3. 'Asdr, " an instrument of ten
strings," Ps. xcii. 3. The full phrase is
nebel 'dsdr, "a ten-stringed psaltery," as in
Ps. xxxiii. 2, cxliv. 9 ; and the true render
ing of the flrst-mentioned passage would
be " upon an instrument of ten strings,
even upon the psaltery." 4. Shidddh, in
Eccl. ii. 8 only, ' ' I gat me men-singers and
women-singers, and the ' delights of the
sons of men, musical instruments, and ihat
of all sorts." The words thus rendered
have received a great variety of meanings

MUSTARD.

437

MYRA

But the most probable interpretation to be !
put upon them is that suggested by a usage
of the Talmud, where shiddh denotes a
"palanquin "or "litter" for women. 5. Shd-
lishim, renderpd "instruments of music"
iu the A. V. of 1 Sara, xviii. 6, and in
the margin "three-stringed instruments."
Roediger translates " triangles," which are
said to have been invented in Syria, from
the same root. We liave no means of de
ciding which is the more correct.
Mustard occurs in Matt. xiii. 31, xvii.
20; Mark iv. 31; Luke xiii. 19, xvii. 6.
The mustard-tree of Scripture is main
tained by Dr. Royle to be the Salvadora
persica, which he supposes to be the same
d,s the tree called Khardal (The Arabic for
mustard), seeds of which ¦ are employed
throughout Syria as a substitute for mus
tard, of which they have the taste and
properties. Thi.,s tree is found all along
the banks of the Jordan, near the lake
of Tiberias, and near Damascus, and is
said to be generally recognized in Syria
as the mustard-tree of Scripture. .But
notwithstiinding all that has been adduced
by Dr. Royle in support of his argument,
it will be well to consider whether some
mustard-plant {Sinapis) may uot after all
be the mustard-tree of the parable. — The
objection commonly made against any
Sinapis being the plant of the parable is,
that the seed grew into " a tree," or, as St.
Luke has it, " a great tree," in the branches
of which the fowls of the air are said to
come and lodge. Now, in answer to the
above objection, it is urged with great truth
that the expression is figurative and Orien
tal, and that -in a proverbial simile no lit
eral accuracy is to be expected. It is an
error, for which the language of Scripture
is not accountiible, to assert, as Dr. Royle
jnd some others have done, that the pas
sage implies that birds "built their ne'sti "
in the tree : the Greek word has no such
meaning; the word merely means " to set-
tle-or rest upon" anything for a longer or
shorter timo ; nor is there any occasion to
r.uppose that the expression "fowls of the
air " denotes any other than the sraaller in-
sessorial kinds — linnets, finches, &c. Hil-
ler's explanation is probably the correct
one ; that the birds carae and settled on the
mustard-plant for the sake of the seed, of
which they are very fond. Again, what
ever the Sinapis may be, it is expressly
s.aid to be an herb, or more properly " a gar
den herb." Irby and Mangles mention the
large size which the mnstard-plant attains
in Palestine. In their journey from Bysan
to Adjeloun, in the Jordan valley, they
crossed a small plain very thickly covered
with herbage, particularly the niustard-
plant, which reached as high as their horses'
heads. Dr. Thomson also says he has seen
the Wil^ Mustard on the rich plain of

Akkar as tall as the horse and the rider.
If, then, the wild plant on the rich plain of
Akkar grows as high as a man on horse
back, it might attain to the same or a greater
height when in a cultivated garden. Tho
expression " which is indeed the least cf ill
seeds " is in >all probability hyperbolical,
to denote a very sraall seed indeed, as there
are many seeds which are smaller than
mustard. " The Lord in his popular teach
ing," says Trench {Notes on Parables. 108),
"adhered to the popular language;" and
the must.ard-seed was used proverbially to
denote anything very minute.
Muth-lab'taen.' "To the chief musi
cian upon Muth-labben " is the title of Ps.
ix., which has given rise to infinite conjec
ture. Two difficulties in connection with
it have to be resolved ; first, to determine
the true reading of the Hebrew, and then
to ascertain its meaning. Neither of these
points has been satisfactorily explained-
'The Targura renders the title of the psalm,
— " on the death of the man who carae
forth frora between the caraps," alluding
to Goliath, the Philistine champion (1 Sara.
xvii. 4). Others render it " on the death
of the son," and apply it to Abs.alom.
Rashi's words are — "but" I say that this
song is of the future to come, when the
cliildhood and youth of Israel shall be
made white, and their righteousness be re
vealed, and their salvation draw nigh, when
Esau and his seed shall be blotted out."
Donesh supposes that labben was the name
of a raan who warred with David in those
days, and to whom reference is made as
" the wicked" in verse 5. Ar.ama (quoted
by Dr. Gill in his Exposition) identifies
liim with Saul. There still remain to be
noticed the conjectures of Delitzsch that
Muth-labben denotes the tune or melody,
with the words of the song associated with
it ; of others that it was a musical instru
ment, and of Hupfeld that it was the com
raenceraent of an old song, either signify
ing "die for the son," or "death to the
son." On all accounts it seems extremely
probable that the title in its present forra is
only a fragraent of the original, which may
have been in full what has been suggested
above. Myn'dus, a town on the coast of Caria,
between Miletos and Halicarnassus.
We find in 1 Mace. xv. 23, that it was the
residence of a Jewish population.
My'ra, an important town in Lycia, and
interesting to us as the place where St.
Paul, on his voyage to Rorae (Ai:;ts xxvii.
5), was removed from the Adrarayttian ship
which had brought him from Caesarea, and
entered the Alexandrian ship in which he
was wrecked on the coast of Malta. Myra
(called Dembra by the Greeks) is remark
able still for its reraains of various periodi
of history.

MYERH

438

NAAEAN

Myrrh is mentioned, in Ex. xxx. 23, as
one of the ingredients of the " oil of holy
ointment ; " in Esth. ii. 12, as one of the
substances used in the purification of wo
men ; in Ps. xiv. 8, Prov. vii. 17, and in
several passages in Canticles, as a perfume.
The Greek occurs in Matt. ii. 11 amongst
the gifts brought by the wise men to the in-
fiint Jesus, and in Mark xv. 23, it is said
that " wine mingled with myrrh " was of
fered to, but refused by, our Lord on the
cross- Myrrh was also used for embalm
ing (see John xix- 39, and Herod, ii. 86)
The Balsamodendron myrrha, which pro
duces the myrrh of coramerce, has a ¦wood
and bark which emit a strong odor ; the
gum which exudes from the bark is at first
oily, but becomes hard by exposure to the
air : it belongs to the natural order Tere-
binthaceae. For the "wine mingled with
myrrh," see Gall. The " myrrh " men
tioned in the A. V. in Gen. xxxvii. 25,
xUii. 11, is a translation of the Hebrew
word Idt, and is generally considered to de
note the odorous resin which exudes from
the branches of the Cistus creticus, known
by the name of ladanum, or labdanum. It
is clear that Idt cannot signify " rayrrh,"
which is not produced in Palestine. There
can be no doubt that the Hebrew Idt, the
Arabic ladan, the Greek Xi'iSuvot, the Latin
and English ladanum, are identical.
Myrtle is raentioned in Neh. viii. 15 ;
Is. xU. 19, Iv. 13; Zech. i. 8, 10, 11. The
raodern Jews still adorn witli myrtle the
booths and sheds at the Feast of Taberna
cles. Formerly, as we learn from Nehe
miah (viii. 15), myrtles grew on the hills
about Jerusalera. " On Olivet," says Dean
Stanley, " nothing is now to be seen but
the olive and the fig-tree : " on sorae of the
hills, however, near Jerus.alera, Hasselquist
observed the myrtle. Dr. Hooker says it
is not uncommon in Samaria and Galilee.
The Myrtus communis is the kind denoted
by the Hebrew word.
Mys'ia (Acts xvi. 7, 8) was the region
about the frontier of the provinces of Asia
and Bithynia. The term is evidently used
in an ethnological, not a political sense.

IN".
ITa'am. One of the sons of Caleb, the
son of Jephunneh (1 Chr. iv. 15).
Na'amah {loveliness). 1. One of the
four women whose names are preserved in
the records of the world before the Flood ;
all except Eve being Cainites. She was
daughter of Laraech by his wife Zillah, and
sister, as is e.-cpressly mentioned, to Tubal-
cain (CJen. iv. 22 only). 2. Mother of king
Rehoboara (1 K. xiv. 21, 31; 2 Chr. xii.
13). On each occasion she is distinguished

bytlie title " the (not ' an,' as in A. 'V.) Am»
monite." She was therefore one of the for
eign woraen whom Solomon took into Mg
establishment (1 K. xi. 1).
Wa'amah, one of the towns of Judah
in the district of the lowland or Shefelah
(Josh. XV. 41).
Na'aman {pleasantness). 1. "Naaman
the Syrian " (Luke iv. 27). A Jewish tra
dition, at least as old as the time of Jose
phus, and which may very well be a genuine
one, identifies him with the archer whose
arrow, whether at random or not, struck
Ahab with his mortal wound, and thus
" gave deliverance to Syria." The expres
sion in 2 K. V. 1, is remarkable — " because
that by him Jehovah had given deliverance
to Syria." The most natural explanation
perhaps is, that Naaman, in deUvering his
country, had killed one who was the enemy
of Jehovah not less than he was of Syria.
Whatever the particular erxploit referred to
was, it had given Naaman a great position
at the court of Benhadad. He was com
mander-in-chief of the array, and was near
est to the person of the king, whom he ac
companied officially, and supported, when
he went to worship in the temple of Rim
mon (ver. 18). He was afSicted with a
leprosy of the white kind (ver. 27), which
had hitherto defied cure. The circum
stances of his visit to Elisha are related
elsewhere. [Elisha, p. 172.] His request
to be allowed to take away two mules' bur
den of earth is not easy to understand. The
natural explanation is that, with a feeling
akin to that which prompted the Pisan in
vaders to take away the earth of Aceldama
for the Campo Santo at Pisa, the grateful
convert to Jehovah wished to take away
sorae of the earth of His country, to forra an
altar. But in the narrative there is no raen
tion of an altar. How long Naaraan lived to
continue a worshipper of Jehovah while as
sisting officially at the worship of Rimmon,
wearenottold- 2. Oneofthefamily of Ben
jamin who came down to Egypt with Jacob,
as read in Gen. xlvi. 21. He was the son
of Bela, and head of the family of the Naam-
ites. (Num. xxvi. 40 ; 1 Chr. viii. 3, 4).
IN'a'amathite, the gentUio name of one
of Job's friends, Zophar the Naaraathite
(Job ii. 11, xi. 1, XX. 1, xiii. 9). There is no
other trace of this narae in the Bible, and
the town whence it is derived is unknown.
Na'amites, The, the family descended
frora Naaman, the grandson of Benjamin
(Nura. xxvi. 40 only).
Ifa'arah, the second wife of Ashur, a
descendant of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 5, 6).
M" a'arai, One of the valiant men of
David's armies (1 Chr. xi. 37). In 1 Chr.
he is called the son of Ezbai, but in 2 Sam.
xxiii. 35 he appears as " Paarai the Arbite."
Kennicott decides that the former is correct.
ITa'aran, a city of Ephraim, which m a

NAAEATH

439

NADAB

tery ancient record (1 Chr. vn. 28) is men
tioned as the eastern lirait of the tribe. It
is very probably identical with Naaeath, or
more accurately Naarah.
Na'arath (the Heb. is = to Naarah,
which is therefore the realformof the name),
a place named (Josh. xvi. 7, only) as one
of the landmarks on the (southern) boun
dary of Ephraim. It appears to have lain
between Ataroth and Jericho. Eusebius
and Jerome speak of it as if well known to
them — "Naorath, a small village ofthe
Jews, five miles from Jericho."
Uaash'on. [Nahshon.]
Naas'son. The Greek form of the name
Nahshon (Matt. i. 4; Luke iii. 32, only).
Ifa'bal {fool) was a sheepmaster on the
confines of Judaea and the desert, in that
part of the country which bore from its
great conqueror the name of Caleb (1
Sam. xxx. 14, xxv. 3). His residence was
on the southern Carmel, in the pasture lands
of Maon. His wealth, as might be expected
from his abode, consisted chiefly of sheep
and goats. It was the custom of the shep
herds to drive them into the wild downs on
the slopes of Carmel ; and it was whilst they
were on one of these pastoral excursions,
that they met a band of outlaws, who showed
them unexpected kindness, protecting them
by day and night, and never themselves
committing any depredations (1 Sam. xxv.
7, 15, 16). Once a year there was a grand
banquet, on Carmel, " like the feast of a
king" (xxv. 2, 4, 36). It was on one of
these occasions that Nabal came across the
path of the man to whom he owes his place
in history. Ten youths frora the cliief of
the freebooters approached hira with a triple
salutation — enuraerated the services of
their master, and ended by claiming, with a
mixture of courtesy and defiance character
istic of the East, " whatsoever cometh into
thy hand for thy servants and for thy son
David." The great sheepmaster was not
disposed to recognize this unexpected pa
rental relation. On hearing the demand of
the ten petitioners, he broke out into fury
— " Who is David? and who is the son of
Jesse ? " " What runaway slaves are these
to interfere with ray own domestic arrange
ments?" (xxv. 10, 11). The raoraent that
the messengers were gone, the shepherds
that stood by perceived the danger that their
master and themselves would incur. To
Nabal himself they durst not speak (xxv.
17). To his wife, as to the good angel of
the household, one of the shepherds tsjd the
state of affairs. She, with the offerings
usual on such occasions, loaded the asses
of NabaTs large estabUshment — herself
mounted one of them, .and, with her attend
ants running before her, rode down the hill
towards David's encarapraent. David had
already made the fatal vow of extermination
(xxv. 22). At this moment, as it would

seem, Abigail appeared, threw herself on
her face before him, and poured forth her
petition in language which both in form and
expression almost assumes the tone of
poetry. She returns with the news of
David's recantation of his vow. N<ab,al is
then at the height of his orgies, aud his
wife dared not communicate to hira either
his danger or his escape (xxv. 36). At
break of day she told him both. The stupid
reveller was suddenly roused to'a sense of
that which impended over hira. " His heart
died within hinl, and he became as a stone."
It was as if a stroke of apoplexy or paraly
sis had fallen upon him. Ten days he
lingered, " and the Lord smote Nabal, and
he died" (xxv. 37, 38).
Na'both, victim of Ahab and Jezebel,
was the owner of a small vineyard at Jezreel,
close to the royal palace of Ahab (1 K. xxi.
1, 2). It thus becarae an object of desire to
the king, who offered an equivalent in raoney
or another vineyard in exchange for this.
Naboth, in the independent spirit of a Jew
ish landholder, refused. " Jehovah forbid
it to rae that I should give the inheritance
of my fathers unto thee." Ahab was cowed
by this reply ; but the proud spirit of Jeze
bel was roused. She took the matter intt
her own hands. A solemn fast was pro
claimed, as on the announcement of some
great calamity. Naboth was " set on high "
in the pubhc place of Samaria ; two men of
worthless character accused him of having
" cursed God and the king." He and his
children (2 K. ix. 26) were dragged out of
the city and despatched the same night.
The place of execution there, was by the
large tank or reservoir, which etill remains
on the slope of the hill of Samaria, imrae
diately outside the walls. The usual pun
ishment for blasphemy was enforced. Na
both and his sons were stoned; and the
blood frora their wounds ran down into the
waters of the tank below.
Wabuchodon'osor. [Nebuchadnez
zar.] Na'chon's Threshing-floor, the
place at which the ark had arrived in its
progress frora Kirjath-jearira to Jerusalem,
when Uzzah lost his life in his too hasty _,.
zeal for its safety (2 Sam. vi 6.)
Ifa'ohor. [Nahor.]
Ifa'dab {liberal). 1. The eldest son of
Aaron and Elisheba (Ex. vi. 23 ; Num. iii.
2). He, his father and brother, and seven
ty old men of Israel were led out from the
midst of the asserabled people (Ex. xxiv
1), and were commanded to stay and wor
ship God " afar off," below the lofty sum
mit of Sinai, where Moses alone was to
come near to the Lord. Subsequently (Lev.
X. 1) Nadab and his brother were struck
dead before the sanctuary by fire from the
Lord. Their offence was, kindling the in
cense in their censers with " strange ' flre.

NAGGE

440

NAHSHON

I, e. not taken from that which burned
perpetually (Lev. vi. 13) on the altar. 2.
King Jeroboam's son, who succeeded to the
throne of Israel B. c. 954, and reigned two
years (1 K, xv. 25-31). At the siege of
Gibbethon a conspiracy broke out in the
midst of the army, and the king was slain
by Baasha, a man of Issachar. 3. A son
of Shamraai (1 Chr. ii. 28), ofthe tribe of
Judah. 4. A son of Gibeon (1 Chr. viii.
30, ix. 36), of the tribe of Benjarain.
ITag'ge, one of the ancestors of Christ
(Luke iii. 25). It represents the Heb. No-
gah (1 Chr. iii. 7). Nagge must have lived
about the time of Onias I., and the com
mencement of the, Macedonian dynasty.
ITahal'al, one of the cities of Zebulun,
given with its " suburbs " to the Merarite
Levites (Josh. xxi. 35). It is. the same
which in Josh. xix. 15 is inaccurately given
in the A. V. as Nahallal, the Hebrew be
ing in both cases identical. Elsewhere it is
called Nahalol (Judg. i. 30). The Jeru
salem Talmud asserts that Nahalal was in
post-biblical times called Mahlul ; and this
is identified witli the modern Malul, a vil
lage in the pl.ain of Esdraelon.
Naha'liel {torrents of God), one of the
halting-places of Israel in the latter part
of their progress to Canaan (Num. xxi. 19).
It lay "beyond," that is, north of the Ar
non (ver. 13), and between Mattanah and
Bamoth, the next after Bamoth being Pis
gah. Its name seems to imply that it was
a streara or wady, and it is not impossibly
preserved 4n that of the Wady Encheyle,
which runs into the Mojeb, the ancient Ar
non, a short distance to the east of the
place at which the road between Rabba and
Aroer crosses the ravine of the latter river.
Na'halol. [Nahalal.]
Na'ham. The brother of Hodiah, or
Jehudijah, wife of Ezra (1 Chr. iv. 19).
JN'aham'ani. A chief man araong those
who returned frora Babylon with Zerubba
bel and Jeshua (Neh. vii. 7).
Ifahar'ai. 'The arraor-bearer of Joab,
caUed in the A. V. of 2 Sara, xxiii. 37, Na
hari. He was a native of Beeroth (1 Chr.
xi- 39).
Na'hari. The sarae as Naharai (2 Sam.
xxiii. 37). In the A- V. of 1611 tho name
is printed " Naharai the Berothite."
Na'hash (.serperai). 1. Kingof the Ara
raonites, who dictated to the inhabitants of
Jabesh-Gilead that cruel alternative of the
loss of their right eyes or slavery, which
roused the swift wrath of Saul, and caused
the destruction of the Araraonite force (1
Sara. xi. 1, 2-11). " Nahash" would seera
to have heen the title of the king of the
Araraonites rather than tho "name of an in
dividual. Nahash the father of Hanun had
rendered David some special and valuable
service, wliich David w.as anxious for an
opportunity of requiting (3 Sam. x. 2). —

2. A person mentioned once only (2 Sam.
xvu. 25) in stating the parentage of Amasa,
the commander-in-chief of Absalom's army.
Amasa is there said to have been the son
of a certain Ithra, by Abigail, " daughter
of Nahash, and sister to Zeruiah." By the
genealogy of 1 Chr. ii. 16 it appears that
Zeruiah and Abigail were sisters of David
and the other children of Jesse. The ques
tion then arises. How could Abigail have
been at the same tirae daughter of Nahash
and sister to the children of Jesse? To
this, three answers may be given: 1. The
universal tradition of the Rabbis that Na
hash and Jesse were identical. 2. That
Nahash was the king of the Ammotites,
and that the same woman had first been his
wife or concubine — in which capacity she
had given birth to Abigail and Zeruiah —
and afterwards wife to Jesse, and the mother
of his children. 3. A third possible expla
nation is, that Nahash was the name not of
Jesse, nor of a former husband of his wife,
but of his wife herself;
Na'hath. 1. One of the " dukes " or
phylarchs in the land of Edom, eldest son
of Reuel the son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 13,
17; 1 Chr. i. 37). 2. A Kohathite Levite,
son of Zophai (1 Chr. vi. 26). 3. A Le
vite in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi.
13). Nah'bi. The son of Vophsi, a Naph-
talite, and one of the twelve spies (Num.
xiu. 14).
Na'hor, the name of two persons in the
family of Abraham. 1. His grandfather;
the son of Serug and father of Terah (Gen.
xi. 22-25). 2. Grandson of the preceding,
son of Terah and brother of Abraham and
Haran (Gen. xi. 26, 27). The order of the
ages of the faraily of Terah is not iraprob-
ably inverted in the narrative ; in which
case Nahor, instead of being younger than
Abraham, was really older. He raarried
Milcah, the daughter of his brother Haran ;
and when Abraham and Lot migrated to
Canaan, Nahor reraained behind in the land
of his birth, on the eastern side of the Eu
phrates. Like Jacob, and also like Ishmael,
Nahor was the father of twelve sons, and
further, as in the case of Jacob, eight of
thera were the children of his wife, and
four of a concubine (Geu. xxii. 21-24).
Special care is taken in speaking of the
legitiraate branch to specify its descent
frora Milcah — " the son of Milcah, which
she hare unto Nahor." It was to this pure
and .unsullied race that Abraham and Re
bekah in turn had recourse for wives for
their sons. But with Jacob's flight from
Haran the intercourse ceased.
Nah'shon, or Naash'on, son of Am
minadab, and prince of the children of Ju
dah (as he is styled in the genealogy of
Judah (1 Chr. u. 10), at the timr of tha
first numberirg in the wUderuesu (Exod.

NAHUM

441

NAPHISH

Tl. 23; Num. i 7, &c.). His sister, Elish
eba, was wife to Aaron, and his son, Sal
mon, was husband to Rahab after the taking
of Jericho. He died in the wilderness,
according to Num. xxvi. 64, 65.
Ifa'hum {consolation). Nahun "the
ETioslute," the seventh in order nt the
minor prophets. His personal history is
quite unknown. The site of Elkosh, his
native place, is disputed, some placing it
m GaUlee, others in Assyria.' Those who
maintain the latter view assume that the
prophet's parents were carried into cap
tivity by Tiglath-pileser, and that the
prophet was born at the village of Al
kush, on the east bank of the Tigris, two
miles north of Mosul. But there is noth
ing in the prophecy of Nahum to indicate
that it was written in the immediate neigh
borhood of Nineveh, and in full view of the
scenes which are depicted, nor is the lan
guage that of an exUe in an enemy's country.
No allusion is made to the captivity ; while,
on the other hand, the imagery is such as
would be natural to an inhabitant of Pales
tine (i. 4), to whom the rich pastures of
Bashan, the vineyards of Carrael, and the
blossom of Lebanon, were emblems of all
that was luxuriant and fertile. 'The lan
guage employed in i. 15, ii. 2, is appropriate
to one who wrote for his countrymen in
their native land. In fact, tho sole origin
of the theory that Nahum flourished in
Assyria is the name of the village Alkush,
which contains his supposed tomb, and from
its similarity to Elkosh was apparently
selected by mediaeval tradition as a shrine
for pilgrims. The date of Nahum's proph
ecy can be determined with as little pre
cision as his birthplace. It is, however,
certain that the prophecy was written be
fore the final downfall of Nineveh, and its
capture by the Medes and Chaldaeans (cir.
B.C. 625). The allusions to the Assyrian
power imply that it was still unbroken (i.
12, ii. 13, 14, iii. 15-17). It is raost proba
ble that Naliura flourished in the latter half
of the reign of Hezekiah, and wrote his
prophecy either in Jerusalem or its neigh
borhood. 'The subject of the prophecy is,
in accordance with the superscription, " the
burden of Nineveh," the destruction of
which he predicts. As a poet, Nahum oc
cupies a high placo in the first rank of
Hebrew literature. In proof of this it is
only necessary to refer to the opening
verses of his prophecy (i. 2-6), and to the
magnificent description of the siege and de
struction of Nineveh in ch. ii. His style is
clear aud uninvolved, though pregnant and
forcible; his diction sonorous and rhyth
mical, the words re-echoing to the sense
(comp. u. 4, iii. 3).
Nail. I. (of finger). 1. A nail or claw
of raan or anunal. 2. A point or style, e. g.
for writing- see Jer. xvii. I, II, 1. A

nail (Is. xU. 7), a stake (Is. xxxui. 20),
also a tent-peg. Tent-pegs are usually of
wood and of large size ; but soraetiraes, as
was the case with those used to fasten the
curtains of the Tabernacle, of raetal (Ex,
xxvii. 19, xx.xviii. 20). 2. A naU, primarily
a point. We are told that David prepared
iron for the nails to be used in the Temple ;
and as the Holy of Holies was plated with
gold, the nails also for fastening the plates
were probably of gold.
Na'in, a village of Galilee, the gate of
which is made illustrious by the raising of
the widow's son (Luke vii. 12) . The mod
ern Nein is situated on the north-western
edge ofthe "Little Hermon," or Jebel- cd-
Duhy, where the ground falls into the plain
of Esdraelon. The entrance to the place,
where our Saviour met the funeral, raust
probably always have been up the steep
ascent frora the plain ; and here, on the
west side of the village, the rock is fuU of
sepulchral caves.
Ifa'ioth, or raore fuUy, "Naioth in R.a-
mah," a place in which Samuel and David
took refuge together, after the latter h.ad
made his escape from the jealous fury of
Saul (1 Sam. xix. 18, 19, 22, 23, xx. 1). It
is evident frora ver. 18, that Naioth was not
actually in Raraah, Sarauel's habitual resi
dence. In its corrected forra the narae sig
nifies "habitations," and probably means
the huts or dwellings of a school or college
of prophets over -which Samuel presided,
¦as Elisha did ever those at Gilgal and
Jericho. KTane'a. The last act of Antiochus
Epiphanes was his attempt to plunder the
temple of Nanea at Elymais, which had
been enriched by the gifts and trophies of
Alexander the Great (1 Mace, vi- 1-4; 2
Mace. i. 13-16). The Persian goddess
Nanea is apparently the Moon-goddess.
Elphinstone in 1811 found coins ofthe Sas-
sanians with the inscription NANAIA, and
on the reverse a figure with nimbus and
lotus-flower. In consequence of a con
fusion between the Greek and Eastern my
thologies, Nanea has been identifled with
Artemis and Aphrodite, the probability
being that she corresponds with the Tauric
or Ephesian Artemis, who was invested
with the attributes of Aphrodite, and repre
sented the productive power of nature.
Ua'oml, the wife of Elimelech, and
mother-in-law of Ruth (Ruth i. 2, &c., ii.
1, &c.", iii. 1, iv. 3, &c.). The name is de
rived from a root signifying sweetness or
pleasantness ; whence we read : " Call
me not Naorai (pleasant), caU me Mara
(bitter) . . . why call ye me Naomi, when
Jehovah had testified against me ? "
Ha'phish, the last but one of the sons
of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 15; 1 Chr. i. 31).
The tril»e descended from Nodab was sub
dued, by the Keubeuites, the Gadites, vni

NAPHTALI

442

NATHANAEL

the half of the tribe of Manasseh, when
" they made war with the Hagarites, with
Jetur, and Nephish, and Nodab" (1 Chr.
V. 19).
Naph'tall {wrestling). The fifth son
of Jacob; the second child borne to him by
Bilhah, RacheTs slave. His birth and the
bestowal of his narae are recorded in Gen.
xxx. 8 : " aud Rachel said, ' Wrestlings (or
contortions — naphiAlc) of God have I
wrestled {niphialti) with my sister, and
have prevailed.' And she called his narae
Naphtali." At the migration to Egypt four
sons are attributed to Naphtali (Gen. xlvi.
24; Ex. i. 4; 1 Chr. vii. 13). When the
census was taken at Mount Sinai the tribe
numbered no less than 53.400 fighting men
(Nura. i. 43, ii. 30). But when the borders
of the Proraised Land were reached, its
numbers were reduced to 45,400 (Num.
xxvi. 48-50). During the m.arch through
the wilderness Naphtali occupied a position
on the north of the Sacred 'Tent with Dan
and Asher (Num. u. 25-31). In the ap
portionment of the land, the lot of Naphtali
was enclosed on three sides by those of
other tribes. On the west lay Asher; on
the south , Zebulun, and on the east the
trans-.Torda"ic Manasseh. The north ter
minated with ths ravine of the Litdny or
Leontes, and opened into the splendid val
ley which separates the two ranges of
Lebanon. The south boundary was prob
ably very much the sarae as th.at which at
a later time separated Upper frora Lowei'
Galilee. In the reign of Pekah king of
Israel (cir. b. c. 730), Tiglath-Pileser over
ran the whole of the north of Israel, swept
off the population, and bore them away to
Assyria. But though the history of the
tribe of Naphtali ends here, yet under the
title of Galilee the district which they had
formerly occupied was destined to become
in every way far more iraportant than it
had ever before been.
Naph'tall, Mount. The mountainous
district which forraed the raain part of the
inheritance of Naphtali (Josh. xx. 7), an
swering to " Mount Ephraira " in the centre
and "Mount Judah" in the south of Pales
tine. Naph'tuhim, a Mizraite nation or
Iribe, raentioned only in the account of the
4escendants of Noah (Gen. x. 13 ; 1 Chr.
I. 11). If we may judge from their posi-
lion in the Ust of the Mizraites, the Naph-
tuhira were probably settled, at first, either
In Egypt or imraediately to the west of it.
Narcis'sus, a dweller at Rorae (Rom.
xvi. 11), sorae raembers of whose house
hold were known as Christians to St. Paul.
Some have assuraed the identity of this
Narcissus with the secretary of the Emperor
Claudius ; but this is quite uncertain.
Ward. [Spikenard.]
XTa'than {a giver). 1. An eminent

Hebrew prophet in the reigns of David aud
Solomon. He first appears in the consul
tation with David about the building of the
Temple (2 Sam. vii. 2, 3, 17). He next
coraes forward as the reprover of David
for the sin with Bathsheba ; and his faraous
apologue on the rich man and the ewe
larab, which is the only direct example of
his prophetic power, shows it to have been
of a very high order (2 Sam. xii. 1-12).
On the birth of Solomon he was either
specially charged with giving him his name,
Jedediah, or else with his education (2
Sam. xii. 25). At any rate, in the last
years of David, it is Nathan who, by taking
the side of Soloraon, turned the scale in his
favor. He advised Bathsheba ; he liimself
ventured to enter the royal presence with a
reraonstrance against the king's apathy;
and at David's request he assisted in the in
auguration of Solomon (1 K. i- 8, 10, 11,
22, 23, 24, 32, 34, 38, 45). This is the last
tirae that we hear directly of his interven
tion in the history. He left two works be
hind him — a Life of David (1 Chr. xxix.
29), and a Life of Solomon (2 Chr- ix. 29).
The last of these may have been incom
plete, as we cannot be sure that he outlived
Solomon. But the biography of David by
Nathan is, of all the losses which antiqui
ty, sacred or profane, has sustained, the
most deplorable. His grave is., shown at
Halhul, near Hebron- 2- A son of David ;
one of the four who were born to him hy
Bathsheba (1 Chr. iii. 5 ; comp. xiv. 4; and
2 Sam. V. 14). Nathan appears to have
taken no part in the events of his father's
or his brother's reigns. He is interesti'ng
to us from his appearing as one of the fore
fathers of Joseph in the genealogy of St.
Luke (iii. 31). 3. Son, or brother, of one
of the members of David's guard (2 Sam.
xxiii. 36; 1 Chr- xi. 38). 4. One of the
head men who returned frora Babylon with
Ezra on his second expedition (Ezr. viii.
16; 1 Esdr. viii. 44). It is not impossible
that he may be the same with the " son of
Bani" (Ezr. x. 39).
Nathan' ael, a disciple of Jesus Christ,
concerning whom, under that name at least,
we learn from Scripture little more than
his birthplace, Cana of GaUlee (John xxi.
2), and his simple truthful character (John
i. 47). The narae does not occur in the
first three Gospels. But it is commonly
believed that Nathanael and Bartholomew
are the sarae person. The evidouce for
that belief is as follows : St. John, who
twice mentions Nathanael, never introduces
the name of Bartholomew at all. St. Matt.
X. 3 ; St. Mark iii. 18 ; and St. Luke vi. 14,
all speak of Bartholoraew, but never of
Nathaniel. It may be that Nathaniel was
the proper name, and Bartholomew (son of
Tholmai) the surname of the same disciple,
just as Simon was called Bar-Joua, and

NATHAN-MELECH

443

NAZARI'TB

Joses, Barnabas. It was Philip who first
brought Nathanael to Jesus, just as Andre-«'
had brought his brother Simon; and Bar
tholomew is naraed by each of the first
three Evangelists immedhately .after Philip,
while by St. Luke he is coupled with Philip
precisely in the same way as Simon with
his brother Andrew, and James with his
brother John.
Na'than-me'leoh, a eunuch (A. V.
" charaberlain ") in the court of Josiah (2
K. xxiii. 11).
Na'um, son of Esli and father of Araos,
in the genealogy of Christ (Luke iii. 25),
about contemporary with the liigh-priest-
hood of Jason and the reign of Antiochus
Epiph.anes. Nave. The Heb. gav conveys the no
tion of convexity or protuberance. It is
rendered in A. V- boss of a shield. Job xv.
26 ; the eyebrow. Lev. xiv. 9 ; an eminent
place, Ez. xvi. 31 ; once only in plur. naves,
1 K. vu. 33 ; but in Ez. i. 18, twice " rings,"
aud raarg. " strakes."
HTaz'arene, an inhabitant of Nazareth.
This appellative is applied to Jesus in
many passages in the N. T. Its applica
tion to Jesus, in consequence of the provi
dential arrangements by which His parents
were led to take up their abode in Naza
reth, was the filling out of the predictions
in -whicb tho promised Messiah is described
as a NHser, i. e. a shoot, sprout, of Jesse,
a humble and despised descendant of the
decayed royal family. Whenever men
spoke of Jesus as the Nazarene, they ei
ther consciously or unconsciously pro
nounced one of the names of the predict
ed Messiah, a name indicative both of
his royal descent and his humble condi
tion. Once (Acts xxiv. 5) the term Naza
renes is applied to the followers of Jesus
by way of contempt. The name still exists
in Arabic as the ordinary designation of
Christians. Naz'areth, the ordinary residence of
our Saviour, is not mentioned in the O. T-,
but occurs first in Matt. ii. 23. It derives
its celebrity from its connection with the
history of Christ, and in that respect has a
hold on the imagination and feeUngs of
men which it ^shares only with Jerusalem
and Bethlehem. It is situated among the
hiUs wldch constitute the south ridges of
Lebanon, just before they sink down into
the Plain of Esdraelon. Of the identifica
tion of the ancient site there can be no
doubt. The narae of the present viUage is
en-Ndzirah, the same, therefore, as of old ;
it is formed on a liill or raountain (Luke
iv 29) • it is within the limits of the prov
ince of GaUlee (Mark i- 9) ; it is near Cana,
according to the implication iu John u. 1,
i 11 • a precipice exists in the neighbor
hood "(Luke iv. 29) ; and, finally, a series
of testimonies reaches hack to Eusebius, the

father of Church history, which represent
tl^e place as having occupied an invariable
position. The modern Nazareth belongs to
the better class of eastern villages. It has
a population of 3000 or 4000; a few are
Mohammedans, the rest Latin and Greek
Christians. The origin of the disrepufri in
which Nazareth stood (John i. 47) is not
certainly known. All the inhabitants of
Galilee were looked upon with contempt
by the people of Judaea because they spoke
a ruder dialect, were less cultivated, and
were more exposed by their position to
contact with the heathen. But Nazareth
labored under a special opprobrium, for it
was a Galilean and not a southern Jew who
asked the reproachful question -whether
" any good thing " could come frora that
source. — Araong the " holy places " which
the legends have sought to connect with
events in the life of Christ, two localities
are of special interest. One of these is
the " Fountain of the Virgin," situated at
the north-eastern extremity of the town,
where, according to one tradition, the
mother of Jesus received the angel's salu
tation (Luke i. 28). The other place is
that of the attempted Precipitation. Above
the town are several rocky ledges, over
which a person could not be thrown with
out alraost certain destruction. But there
is one very reraarkable precipice, almost
perpendicular, and forty or fifty feet high,
near the Maronite church, which raay well
be supposed to be the identical one over
which His infuriated townsmen attempted
to hurl Jesus.
Naz'arite, more properly Waz'irite
{one separated), one of either sex who was
bound by a vow of a peculiar kind to be set
apart from others for the service of God.
The obligation was either for life or for a
defined tirae. There is no notice in the
Pentateuch of Nazarites for life ; but the
regulations for the vow of a Nazarite of
days are given Nura. vi. 1-21. The Naz
arite, during the terra of his consecration,
was bound to abstain frora wine, grapes,
with every production of the vine, and
frora every kind of intoxicating drink. He
was forbidden to cut the hair of his head, or
to approach any dead body, even that of his
nearest relation. When the period of his
vow was fulfilled, he was brought to the door
of the tabernacle, and was required to offer
a he larab for a burnt-offering, a ewe lamb
for a sin-offering, and a ram for a peace-of
fering, with the usual accompaniments of
peace-offerings (Lev. vn. 12, 13) and of the
offering made at the consecration of priests
(Ex. xxix. 2), "a basket of unleavened
bread, cakes of fine fiour mingled with oU,
and wafers of unleavened bread anointed
with oil " (Num. vi. 15). He brought a?-5o a
meat-offering and a drink-offering, w'-ich
appear to have been presented by tb-^

NAZARITE

444

NEBO

r^\ 's as a distinct act of service (ver. 17).
Me -v.ia to cut off the hair of " the head of
his separation " (that is, the hair which had
grown during the period of his consecra
tion) at the door of the tabernacle, and to
put it into the fire under the sacrifice on
the altar. The priest then placed upon his
hands the sodden left shoulder of the ram,
with one of the unleavened cakes and one
of the wafers, and then took them again
and waved them for a wave-offering. Of
the Nazarites for life three are mentioned
in the Scriptures : Samson, Sarauel, and
St. John the Baptist. The only one of
these actually called a Nazarite is Samson.
We do not know whether the vow for life
was ever voluntarily taken by the individ
ual. In all the cases mentioned in the
sacred history, it was raade by the parents
before the birth of the Nazarite himself. —
The consecration of the, Nazarite bore a
striking resemblance to that of the high-
priest (Lev. xxi. 10-12). In one particu
lar, thi3 is brought out raore plainly in the
Hebrew text than it is in our version, in
the LXX., or in the Vulgiite. One word
{n^.zer), derived from the same root as
Naz.arite, is used for the long hair of the
Nazarii''? (Num. vi. 19), where the A. V.
has " hair of his separation," and for the
anointed head it the high-priest (Lev. xxi.
12), where it is rendered " crown." Of
the two vows recorded of St. Paul, that in
Acts xviii. 18 certainly cannot be regarded
IS a regular Nazarite vow. All that we
are told of it is that, on his way frora Cor
inth to Jerusalera, he " shaved his head in
Cenchreae, for he had a vow." It is raost
Ukely that it was a sort of vow raodified
frora the proper Nazarite vow, which h<ad
come into use at this time araongst tlio re
ligious Jews who had been visited by sick
ness, or any other calaraity. The other
reference to a vow taken by St. Paul is in
Acts xxi. 24, where we find the brethren
at Jerusalem exhorting him to take part
with four Christians who had a vow on
thera, to sanctify (not purify, as in A. V.)
himself with them, and to be at charges
with thera, that they raight shave their
heads. It cannot be doubted that this was
a strictly legal Nazarite vow. — The mean
ing of the Nazarite vow has been regarded
in different lights. It may be regarded as
an act of self-sacrifice. That it was essen
tially a sacrifice of the person to the Lord
is obviously in accordance with the terms
ofthe Law (Nura. vi. 2). As the Niizarite
was a witness fi5r the straitness of the Law,
as distinguished from the freedom of the
Gospel, his sacrifice of hiraself was a sub
mission to the letter of the rule. Its out
ward raanifestations were restraints and
eccentricities. The raan was separated
from his brethj 'en that he might be pecu
liarly devoted to the Lord. 'This was con

sistent with the purpose of divine wisdom
for the tirae for which it was ordained.
BTe'ah, a place which was one of the
landmarks on the boundary of Zebulun
(Josh. xix. 13 only). By Eusebius and
Jerome it is mentioned merely with a cau
tion that there is a place of the same name,
10 miles S. of Neapolis. It has not yet
been identified.
Neap'olls is the place in northern
Greece where Paul and his associates first
landed in Europe (Acts xvi. 11) ; where, no
doubt, he landed also on Ms second visit to
Macedonia (Acts xx. 1), and whence cer
tainly he embarked on his last journey
through that province to Troas and Jeru
salem (Acts XX. 6). Philippi being an in
land town, Neapolis was evidently the port,
and is represented hy the present Kavalla.
Neari'ah. 1. One of the six sons of
Shemaiah in the line of the royal family of
Judah after the captivity (1 Chr. iu. 22, 23).
2. A son of Ishi, and one of the captains
of the 500 Simeonites who, in the days of
Hezekiah, drove out the Amalekites from
Mount Seir (1 Chr. iv. 42).
Neba'i, a family of the heads of the
people who signed the covenant with Nehe
miah (Neh. x. 19). The LXX. followed
the written text, while the Vulgate adopted
the reading of the margin.
Neba'ioth, Neba'joth, the " first-born
of Ishmael" (Gen. xxv. 13; 1 Chr. i. 29),
and father of a pastoral trihe naraed after
him, the " rams of Nebaioth " being men
tioned by the prophet Isaiah (lx. 7) with
the flocks of Kedar. From the days of
Jerome this people had been identified with
the Nabathaeans, of whom Petra was the
capital, until M. Quatremere first investi
gated the origin of the latter, their language,
religion, and history. It is possible that
Nebaioth went to the far east, to the country
of his grandfather Abraham, intermarried
with the Chaldaeans, and gave birth to a
raixed race, the Nabat. It is, however,
safest to leave unsettled the identification
of Nebaioth and Nabat until another link
be added to the chain that at present seems
to connect them.
Nebal'lat, a town of Benjamin, one of
those which the Benjamites reoccupied
after the captivity (Neh. xi. 34).
Ne'taat, the father of Jeroboam (1 K.
xi. 26, xii. 2, 15, &c.), is described as an
Ephrathite, or Epbraimite,- of Zereda.
Ne'bo, Mount, the mountain from
which Moses took his first and lust view of
the Promised Land (Deut. xxxii. 49, xxxiv.
1). It is described as in the land of Moab,
facing Jericho ; tho head or summit of a
mountain called the Pisgah; but notwith
standing the minuteness of this description,
no one has ,yet succeeded in pointing out
any spot wliich answers to Nebo.
Ne'bo. 1. A towc of Reuben on tha

NEBUCHADNEZZAR

445-

NEBUCHADNEZZAR

eastern side of Jordan (Num. xxxii. 8, 88).
In the reraarkable prophecy adopted bv
Isaiah (xv- 2) and Jereraiah (xlviii. 1, 22)
concerning Moab, Nebo is mentioned in the
same connection as before, but in the hands
of Moab. Eusebius and Jerome identify it
with Nobiih or Kenath, and place it 8 miles
south of Heshbon, where the ruins of el-
Habis appear to stand .at present. 2. The
chUdren of Nebo returned frora Babylon
-«-ith Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 29, x. 43 ; Neh.
vii. 33). The narae occurs between Bethel
and Ai, and Lydda, which impUes that it
was situated in the territory of Benjamin
to-the N. W. of Jerusalem. 'This is pos
sibly the modern Beit-NAbah, about 12 railes
N. W. by W. of Jerusalem, 8 frora Lydda.
3. Nebo, which occurs both in Isaiah (xlvi.
1) and Jeremiah (xlviii. 1) as the name of
a Chaldaean god, is a well-known deity of
the Babylonians and Assyrians. He was
the god who presided over learning and let
ters. His general character corresponds to
that of the Egyptian Thoth, the Greek
Hermes and the Latin Mercury. Astro
nomically he is identified with the planet
nearest the sun. In Babylonia Nebo held
a prominent place from an early tirae. The
.ancient town of Borsippa was especially
under his protection, and the great teraple
there (the raodern Birs-Nimrud) was ded
icated to him from a very remote age. He
was the tutelar god of the most important
Babylonian kings, in whose names the word
Nabu, or Nebo, appears as an element.
Nebuehadnez'zar, or Nebuehad-
rez'zar, the greatest aud most powerful
of the Babylonian kings. His name is ex-
pliiined to mean "Nebo is the protector
against misfortune." He was the son and
successor of Nabopolassar, the founder of
the Babylonian Empire. In the lifetime
of his father, Nebuchadnezzar led an army
against Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, de
feated him at 'Carchemish (b. c. 605) in a
great battle (Jer. xlvi- 2-12), recovered
Coele-syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, took
Jerusalera (Dan. i. 1, 2), pressed forw.ard
to Egypt, and was engaged in that country
or upon its borders when intelligence ar
rived which recalled him hastily to Babylon.
Nabopolassar, after reigning 21 years, had
died, .and the throne was vacant. In some
alarm about the succession he hurried back
to the capital, accorapanied only by his light
.troops; and crossing tlie desert, probably
by way of Tadmor or Palmyra, reached
Babylon before any disturbance had arisen,
and entered peaceably on his kingdom (b. c.
604). Within three years of Nebuchadnez-
zai-'s first expedition into Syria and Pales
tine, disaffection again showed itself in
those countries. Jehoiakim, who, although
threatened at first with captivity {2 Chr.
xxxvi. 6) had been finally maintained on
ihe throne as a Babylonian vassal, after]

three years of service " turned and rebelled '
against his suzerain, probably tioisting to be
supported by Egypt (2 K. xxiv. 1). Not
long afterwards Phoenicia seeras to have
broken into revolt; and the Chaldaean
raonarch, -ndio had previously endeavored
to subdue the disaffected by his generals
(ib. ver. 2), once more took the field in
person, and marched first of all against
Tyre. Having invested that city, and left a
portion of his army there to continue the
siege, he proceeded against Jei'.:ss.icm,
which submitted without a struggle. Ac
cording to Josephus, who is here our chief
authority, Nebuchadnezzar punished Jehoi
akim with death (comp. Jer. xxu. 18, 19,
and xxxvi. 30), but placed his son Jehoi-
acliiu upon the throne. Jehoiachin reigned
only three months ; for, on his showing
symptoms of disaffection, Nebuchadnezzar
came up against Jerusalem for the thir''
time, deposed the young prince (whora hi
carried to Babylon, together with a large
portion of the population of the city, and
the chief of the Teraple treasures), and
raade his uncle, Zedekiah, king in his room.
Tyre still held out ; and it was not till the
thirteenth year frora the tirae of its first
investment that the city of merchants fell
(b.c. 585). Ere this happened, Jerusalem
had been totally destroyed. This consura-
raation was owing to the folly of Zedekiah,
who, despite the warnings of Jeremiah,
made a treaty with Apries (Hophra), king
of Egypt (Ez. xvii. 15), and on the strength
of this alliance renounced his allegiance
to the king of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar
commenced the final siege of Jerusalem in
the ninth year of Zedekiah, — his own sev
enteenth year (b. c. 588), and took it two
years later (e. c. 586). One effort to carry
out the treaty seems to have been made by
Apries- An Egyptian army crossed the
frontier, and began its march towards Jeru
salem ; upon which Nebuchadnezzar raised
the siege, and set off to meet the new foe.
According to Josephus a battle was fought,
in which Apries was completely defeated ;
but the Scriptural account seems rather to
imply that the Egyptians retired on the ad
vance of Nebuchadnezzar, and recrossed
the frontier without risking an engagement
(Jer. XXXVU- 5-8)- After an eighteen
months' siege Jerusalem fell. Zedekiah
escaped from the city, but was captured
near Jericho (ib. xxxix. 5), and brought to
Nebuchadnezzar at Riblah in the territory
of Haraath, where his eyes were put out by
the king's order, while his sons and his chief
nobles were slain- Nebuchadnezzar then
returned to Babylon with Zedekiah, whom
he iraprisoned for the remainder of his life ;
leaving Nebuzar-adan, the captain of his
guard, to complete the destructio:i of the
city and the pacification of Judaea. Gcda-
li.ah, a Jew, was appointed governor buthi

NEBUSHASBAN

446

NEHEMIAH

wras shortly murdered, and the rest of the
lews cither fled to Egypt or were carried
by Nebuzar-adan to Babylon. The military
successes of Nebuchadnezzar cannot be
traced minutely beyond this point. It raay
be gathered from the prophetical Scriptures
and, from Josephus, th.at- the conquest of
Jeru salem was rapidly followed by the fall
of Tyre and the complete submission of
Phoenicia (Ez. xxvi.-xxviii.) ; after which
the Babylonians carried their arms into
Egypt, and inflicted severe injuries on that
fertile country (Jer. xlvi. 13-26 ; Ez- xxix.
2-20). We are told that the flrst care of
Nebuchadnezzar, on obtaining quiet pos
session of his kingdora after the first Syrian
expedition, was to rebuild the teraple of
Bel {Bel- Merodach) at Babylon out of the
spoils of the Syrian war. He next pro
ceeded to strengthen and beautify the city,
which he renovated throughout, and sur
rounded with several lines of fortification,
hiraself adding one entirely new quarter.
Having finished the walls and adorned the
gates magnificently, he constructed a new
palace. In the grounds of this palace he
forraed the celebrated " hanging garden."
But he did not confine his efforts to the or-
naraentation andiraproveraentof his capital.
Throughout the empire, at Borsippa, Sip
para, Cutha, Chilraad, Duraba, Teredon,
and a multitude of other places, he built or
rebi-ilt cities, repaired temples, constructed
quays, reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts,
on a scale of grandeur and magnificence
Burjia-ssi'ig cverytliing of the kind recorded
in history, unless it be the constructions of
one or two of the greatest Egyptian raon-
archs. The wealth, greatness, and general
prosperity of Nebuchadnezzar are striking
ly placed before us in the book of Daniel.
Towards the close of his reign the glory
of Nebuchadnezzar suffered a temporary
eclipse. As a punishraent for his pride and
vanity, that strange forra of madness was
sent upon hira which the Greeks called Ly-
canlhropy, wherein the sufferer iraagines
hiraself a heast, and quitting the haunts of
men, insists on leading the life of a beast
(Dan. iv. 33). After an interval of four
or perhaps seven years (Dan. iv. 16), Neb-
uchadnezz.ar's malady left him. 'We are
told that " his reason returned, a,nd for the
glory of his kingdom his honor and bright
ness returned ; " and he " was established
in his kingdora, and excellent majesty was
added to him" (Dan. iv. 36). He died in
tho year n. c. 561, at an advanced age (eigh
ty-three, or eighty-four), having reigned
forty-three years. A son, Evil-Merodach,
succeeded him.
Nebushas'ban, one of the officers of
Nebuchadnezzar at the time of the capture
of Jerusalem. He was Rab-saris, i. e. chief
of the eunuchs (Jer. xxxix. 13). Nebu-
shasban's office and title were the same as

those of Ashpenaz (Dan. i. 3), whom he
probably succeeded.
Nebuzar'adan, the Eab-tabbachim.
i. e. chief of the slaughterers (A. V. " cap
tain of the guard"), a high officer in the
court of Nebuchadnezzar. On the capture
of Jerusalem he was left by Nebuchadnez
zar in charge of the city (corap. Jer. xxxix.
11). He seeras to have quitted Judaea when
he took down the chief people of Jerusalem
to his master at Riblah (2 K. xxv. 18-20).
In four years he again appeared (Jer. Ui.
30). Nebuchadnezzar in his twenty- third
year made a descent on the regions east of
Jordan, including the Ammonites and Moab
ites, who escaped when Jerusalem was de
stroyed. Thence he proceeded to Egypt,
and, either on the way thither or on the re
turn, Nebuzar-adan again passed through
the country and carried off more captives
(Jer. lii. 30).
Ne'chO, 2 Chr. xxxv. 20, 22 ; xxxvi. 4,
[Pharaoh-Necho.] Nedabi'ah. Apparently one of the
sons of Jeconiah, or Jehoiachin, king of
Judah (1 Chr. iu. 18).
Neg'inah, properly Neginath, occuiB
in the title of Ps. Ixi., " to the chief musi
cian upon Neginath." The LXX. and
Vulg. evidently read "Neginoth" in the
plural, which occurs in the titles of Ps. iv.,
vi., liv., Iv., Ixvii., Ixxvi., and the margin of
Hab. iii. 19, and is perhaps the true reading.
Whether the word be singular or plural, it
is the general term by which all stringed
instruments are described. " The chief
musician on Neginoth" was therefore the
conductor of that portion of the Temple-
choir who played upon the stringed instru
ments, and who are mentioned in Ps. Ixviii.
25. Neg'inoth. [NEomAii.]
Nehel'amite, The. The designation
of a man named Shemaiah, a false prophet,
who went with the captivity to Babylon
(Jer. xxix. 24, 31, 32). The name is no
doubt formed from that either of Shemaiah's
native place, or the progenitor of his fam
ily ; which of the two is uncertain.
Nehemi'ah. 1. Son of HachaUah, and
apparently of the tribe of Judah. All that
we know certainly concerning hira is con
tained in the book which "bears his narae.
We first find hira at Shushan, the winter
residence of the kings of Persia, in high of
fice as the cupbearer of king Artaxerxes^
Longimanus. In the 20th year of the king's
reign, i. e. b. c. 445, eertain Jews arrived
from Judaea, and gave Nehemiah a deplora
ble account ofthe state of Jerusalem. He
immediately conceived the idea of going
to Jerusalem to endeavor to better their
state, and obtained the king's consent to
his mission. Having received i is appoint
ment as governor of Judaea, he started
upon his journey, being under promise to

NEHEMIAH

447

NEHEMIAH, BOOK OV

return to Persia within a given time. Ne
hemiah's great work was rebuilding, for the
first time since their destruction by Nebu
zaradan, the walls of Jerusalem, and restor
ing that city to its former state and dignity
as a fortified town. It is irapossible to over
estimate the importance to the future polit
ical and ecclesiastical prosperity of the Jew
ish nation of this great achievement of their
patriotic governor. How low the comrau-
nity of the Palestine Jews had fallen is ap
parent frora the fact that from the 6th of
Darius to the 7th of Artaxerxes there is no
history of them whatever. The one step
which could resuscitate the nation, preserve
the Mosaic institutions, and lay the founda
tion of future independence, was the resto
ration of the city walls. To this great ob
ject therefore Nehemiah directed his whole
energies without an hour's unnecessary de
lay. In a wonderfully short time the walls
seemed to emerge from the heaps of burnt
rubbish, and to encircle the city as in the
days of old. It soon became apparent how
wisely Nehemiah had acted in hastening on
the work. On his very first arrival, as
governor, Sanballat and Tobiah had given
unequivocal proof of their mortification at
his appointment. But when the restoration
was seen to be rapidly progressing, their
indignation knew no bounds. They made
a great conspiracy to fall upon the builders
-with an armed force aud put a stop to the
undertaking. The project was defeated by
the vigilance and prudence of Nehemiah.
Various stratagems were then resorted -to
to get Nehemiiih away from Jerusalem, and
if possible to take his life. But that which
most nearly succeeded was the attempt to
bring him into suspicior with the king of
Persia, as if he intended to set himself up
as au independent king as soon as the
walls were completed. The artful letter
of Sanballat so far wrought upon Arta
xerxes that he issued a decree stopping the
work till further orders. It is probable
that at the sarae tirae he recalled Nehemi
ah, or perhaps his leave of absence had pre
viously expired- But after a delay, perhaps
of several years, he was permitted to return
to Jerusalera, and to crown his work by
repairing the Teraple and dedicating the
walls. Nehemiah does not indeed mention
this adverse decree ; nor should we have
suspected his absence at all from Jerusalem
but for the incidental allusion in ch. ii. 6,
xui. 6, coupled with the long interval of
years between the earlier and later chap
ters of the book. It seems that the work
stepped immediately after the events nar
rated in vi. 16-19, and that chapter vii.
goes on to relate the measures adopted by
him upon his return with fresh powers. —
During his government Nehemiah firmly
repressed the exactions of the nobles, and
the usury of the rich, and rescued the poor

Jews from spoliation and slavery. He re
fused to receive his lawful allowance as
governor from the people, in consideration
of their poverty, during the whole twelve
years that he was in office, but kept at his
own charge a table for 150 Jews, at which
any who returned frora captivity were wel-
corae. He raade raost careful provision for
the maintenance of the ministering priests
and Levites, and for the due and constant
celebration of Divine worship. He insisted
upon the sanctity of the precincts of the
Temple being preserved inviolable, and per
emptorily ejected the powerful Tobiah from
one of the chambers which Eliashib had
assigned to him. He then replaced the
stores and vessels which had heen removed
to raake roora for him, and appointed proper
Levitical officers to superintend and distrib
ute them . With no less firmness and impar
tiality li.e expelled from all sacred functions
those of the high-priest's family who had
contracted heathen raarriages, and rebuked
and punished those of the common people
who had likewise intermarried with for
eigners ; and lastly, he provided for keeping
holy the Sabbath day, which was shame
fully profaned by many, both Jews and for
eign merchants, and by his resolute con
duct succeeded in repressing the lawless
traffic on the day of rest. Beyond the 32d
year of Artaxerxes, to which Nehemiah's
own narrative leads us, we have no account
of him whatever. 2. One of the leaders
of the first expedition from Babylon to Je
rusalem under Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 2 ; Neh.
vii. 7). 3. Son of Azbuk, and ruler ofthe
half part of Beth-zur, who helped to repair
the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 16) .
Nehemi'ah, Book of, like the pre
ceding one of Ezra, is clearly and certainly
not all by the same hand.* [Ezra, Book
OF.] By far the principal portion, indeed,
is the work of Nehemiah ; but other por
tions are either extracts from various chron
icles and registers, or supplementary nar
ratives and reflections, some apparently by
Ezra, others, perhaps, the work of the same
person who inserted the latest genealogical
extracts from the public chronicles. — The
raain history contained in the book of Ne
hemiah covers about 12 years, viz., from
the 20th to the 32d year of Artaxerxes
Longimanus, i. e. from b. c. 445 to 433.
The whole narrative gives us a graphic and
interesting account of the state of Jerusa
lem and the returned captives in the writer's
times, and, incidentally, of the nature of
the Persian government and the condition
of its reraote provinces. The documents
appended to it also give some further infor
mation as to the times of Zerubbabel, on the
one hand, and as to the continaation of the
genealogical registers and the succession
of the high-priesthood to the close of the
Persian empire on the other. The view

NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF

448

NEPHISH

given of the rise of two factions among the
Jews — the one the strict religious party,
the other the gentilizing party — sets before
us the germ of rauch that we meet with in
a more developed state in later Jewish his
tory. Again, in this history as well as in
the book of Ezra, we see the bitter enmity
between the Jews and Samaritans acquir
ing strength and deflnitive form on both
religious and political grounds. The book
also throws rauch light upon the domestic
institutions of the Jews. Some, of its details
give us incidentally information of great
historical importance, {a.) The account
of the building and dedication of the wall,
iii., xii., contains the most valuable mate
rials for settling the topography of Jerusa
lem to be found in Scripture, {b.) The
list of returned captives who came under
different leaders from the time of Zerubba
bel to that of Neheraiah (amounting in all
to only 42,360 adult males, and 7337 ser
vants), which is given in ch. vii., conveys
a faithful picture of the political weakness
of the Jewish nation as compared with the
times when Judah alone numbered 470,000
fighting men (1 Chr. xxi. 5). (c.) The
lists of leaders, priests, Levites, and of
those who signed the covenant, reveal inci
dentally much of the national spirit as well
as- of the social h.abits of the captives, de
rived from older tiraes. Thus the fact that
twelve leaders are naraed iu Neh. vii. 7 in
dicates the feeling of the captives that they
represented the twelve tribes, a feeUng fur
ther evidenced in the expression "the raen
of the people of Israel." {d.) Other miscel
laneous information contained in this book
embraces the hereditary crafts practised by
certain priestly farailies, c. g. the apothe
caries, or raakers of the sacred ointraents
and incense (iif. 8), and the goldsmiths
(ui. 8), and who raay have been the ances
tors, so to speak, of the money-changers in
the Temple (John ii. 14, 15) ; the situation
of the g.arden of the kings of Judah by wliich
Zedekiah escaped (2 K. xxv. 4), as seen ui.
15 ; and statistics, reminding one of Doraes-
day-Book. In respect to language and
style, this book is very similar to the Chron
icles and Ezra. Nehemiah' has, it is true,
quite his own manner, and certain phrases
and modes of expression pecuUar to him
self. He has also some few words and
forms not found elsewhere in Scripture ;
hut the general Hebrew style is exactly th.at
of the books purporting to be of the same
age. The Book of Neheraiah has always
had an undisputed place in the Canon, be
ing included by the Hebrews under the
general head of the Book of Ezra, and as
Jerome tolls us in the Prolog. Gal. by the
Greeks and Latins under the name of the
second Book of Ezra. There is no quota
tion from it in the N. T., and it has been

comparatively neglected by both the Greek
and Latin fathers.
Ne'hiloth. The title of Ps. v. in the
A. V. is rendered " to the chief musician
upon Nehiloth." It is raost likely that
Nehiloth is the general terra for perfor.ited
wind-instruraents of all kinds, as NegiLOth
denotes all manner of stringed instruments.
Ne'hum. One of those who returned
from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. vii. 7).
Nehush'ta. The daughter of Elna
than of Jerusalem, wife of Jehoiakim, and
mother of Jehoiachin, kings of Judah (2 K.
xxiv. 8).
Nehush'tan, the name by which the
brazen serpent, made by Moses in the wil
derness (Num. xxi. 9), was worshipped in
the time of Hezekiah (2 K. xviu. 4). It is
evident that our translators by their ren
dering, " and he called it Nehushtan," un
derstood that the subject of the sentence is
Hezekiah, and that when he destroyed the
brazen serpent he gave it the name Ne
hushtan, " a brazen thing," in token of his
utter contempt. But it is better to under
stand the Hebrew as referring to the name
by which the serpent was generally known,
the subject of tlie verb being indefinite —
" and one called it ' Nehushtan.' "
Ne'iel, a place which forraed one of the
landmarks ofthe boundaryof the tribe of
Asher (Josh. xix. 27 only). It occurs be
tween Jiphthah-el and Cabul. If the
former of these be identified with Jefdt, and
the latter with KabAl, 8 or 9 miles E. S. E.
of Akka, then Neiel raay possibly be repre
sented hy Mi'ar, a village conspicuously
placed on a lofty raountain brow, just half
w.ay between the two.
Ne'keb, one of the towns on the boun
dary of Naphtali (Josh. xix. 33). It lay
between Adami and Jabneel. A great
nuraber of comraentators have taken this
narae as being connected with the pre
ceding. Neko'da. 1. The descendants of Nek-
oda returned araong the Nethinira after the
captivity (Ezr. ii. 48; Neh. vii. 50). 2.
The sons of Nekoda were among those
who went up after the captivity from Tcl-
melah, Tel-harsa, and other places, but
were unable to prove tiieir descent from
Israel (Ezr. u. 60; Neh. vn. 02).
Nemu'el. 1. A Reubenite, son of Eliab,
and eldest brother of Dathan and Abirara
(Nura. xxvi. 9). 2. The eldest son of
Simeon (Num. xxvi. 12; 1 Chr. iv. 24),
from whora were descended the family of
the NemueUtes. In Gen. xlvi. 10 he is
called Jemuel.
Ne'pheg. 1. One of the sons of Izhar
the son of Kohath (Ex. vi. 21). 2. One
of David's sons born to hira in Jerusalem
(2 S.ara. V. 15; 1 Chr. iu. 7, xiv. 6).
Ne'phish- An inaccurate variation

NEPHISHESIM 449
Chr. V. 19 only) of the name

NETHINIM

(found in 1
HArmsH. Nephish'eslm. The children of Ne-
phishesira were araong the Nethinira who
returned with Zerubbjibel (Neh. vu. 52).
Noph'thalim. A form of the n.ame
Naphtah (Tob. vii. 3; Matt. iv. 13, 15;
Rev. vii. 6).
Neph'toah, The "Water of. The
spring or source of the water or (inaccu
rately) waters of Nephtoah, was one of the
landraarks in the boundary-line which sep
arated Judah from Benjamin (Josh. xv. 9,
xviu. 15). It lay N. W. of Jerusiilem, in
which direction it seeras to have been satis
factorily identified in Ain Lifta, a spring
situated a little distance above the viUage
of the sarae name.
Nephu'sim The same as Nephishb-
8IM, of which i.aiue according to Gesenius
it is the proper form (Ezr. ii. 50).
Ner, son of Jehiel, according to 1 Chr.
viii. 33, father of Kish and Abner, and
grandfather of king Saul. Abner was,
therefore, uncle to Saul, as is expressly
stated 1 Sam. xiv. 50.
Ne'reus, a Christian at Rorae, saluted
Oy St. Paul, Rora. xvi. 15. According to
tradition ho was beheaded at 'Terracina,
probably in the reign of Nerva.
Ner'gal, one of the chief Assyrian and
Babylonian deities, seems to have corre
sponded closely to the classical Mars (2 K.
xvii. 30). He was of Babyloni.an origin,
and his name signifies, in the early Cushite
dialect of that country, " the great raan,"
or " the great hero." His raonuracntal titles
are — " the storm- ruler," " the king of bat
tle," "the champion of the gods,", "the
male principle " (or "the strong begetter"),
" the tutelar god of Babylonia," and " the
god of the chase." It is conjectured that
he raay represent the deified Nimrod.'
Ner'gal-share'zer occurs only in Jer.
xxxix. 3 and 13. There appear to have
been two persons of the name among the
" princes of the king of Biibylon," who
accompanied Nebuchadnezzar on his last
expedition against Jerusalera. One of these
is not marked by any additional title ; but
the other has the honorable distinction of
Rabmiig, and it is to hira alone that any
particular ' interest attaches. In sacred
Scripture he appears among the persons,
who, by command of Nebuchadnezzar, re
leased Jeremiah from prison : profane his
tory gives us reason to believe that he was
a personage of great importance, who not
long afterwards mounted the Babylonian
throne. This identification depends in part
upon the exact resemblance of narae, which
is found on Babylonian bricks in the form
of Nergal-shar-uzur ; but mainly it rests
upon the title of Rubu-emga, or Rah-M.ag,
which this king bears in his inscriptions.
De is tlie same as the monarch called Neri

glissar or NerigUssoor, who murderod Evil-
Merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, ;ind
succeeded him upon the throne. His reign
lasted from B. c. 559 to b. o. 556.
Nethjinim. As applied specifically to
a distinct body of men connected with the
services of the Temple, this name first
meets us in the later books of the O. T. ; in
1 Chr., Ezra, and Nehemiah. The word,
and the ideas embodied in it, may, however,
be traced to a much earlier period. As de
rived from the verb ndthan {= give, set
apart, dedicate), it was applied to those
who were specially appointed to the litur
gical offices of the Tabernacle. We raust
not forget that the Levites were given to
Aaron and his sons, i. e. to the priests as
an order, and were accordingly, the flrst
Nethinira J^Nura. iii. 9, viu. 19). At first
they were the only attendants, and their
work raust have been laborious enough.
The first conquests, however, brought them
their share of the captive slaves of the
Midiiinites, and 320 were given to them as
having charge of the Tabernacle (Num.
xxxi. 47), while 32 only were assigned spe
cially to the priests. This disposition to
devolve the more laborious offices of their
ritual upon slaves of another race showed
itself again in the treatment of the Gibeon
ites. No addition to the nuraber thus em
ployed appears to have been made during
the period of the Judges, and they contin
ued to be known by their old name as the
Gibeonites. Either the massacre at Nob
had involved the Gibeonites as ^ell as the
priests (1 Sara, xxu- 19), or else they had
fallen victims to sorae other outburst of
Saul's fury, and, though there were survi
vors (2 Sara. xxi. 2), the number was likely
to be quite inadequate for the greater state-
liness of the new worship at Jerusalera. It
is to this period accordingly that the origin
of the class bearing this narae may be
traced- The Nethinim were those " whom
David and the princes appointed (Heb.
gave) for the service pf the Levites " (Ezr.
viii. 20). Analogy would lead us to con
clude that, in this as in the former in
stances, these were either prisoners taken
in war, or else some of the remnant of the
Canaanites. From this tirae the Nethinira
probably lived within the precincts of the
Teraple, doing its rougher work, and so
enabling the Levites to take a higher posi
tion as the religious representatives and
instructors of the people. The example
set by David was followed by his successor.
Assuraing, as is probable, that the later
Rabbinic teaching' represents the traditions
of an earlier period, the Nethinira appear
never to have lost the stigraa of their Ca
naanite origin. They were all along a ser
vile and subject caste. The only period at
which they rise into anything like prorai
nence is that of the return from the cap-

NETOPHAH

450

NEW TESTAMENT

tivity. In that return the priests -were
conspicuous and«numerous, but the Levites,
for some reason unknown to us, hung back.
The services of the Nethinira were conse
quently of raore importance (Ezr. viii. 17),
but in their case also, the small number of
those that joined (392 under Zerubbabel,
220 under Ezra, including " Solomon's ser
vants ") indicates that many preferred re
maining in the land of their exile to return
ing to their old service. Those that did
come were consequently thought worthy of
special mention.
Neto'phah, a town the name of which
occurs only in the catalogue of those who
returned with Zerubbabel from the Captivi
ty (Ezr. u. 22 ; Neh. vii. 26 ; 1 Esdr. v. 18).
But, though not directly mentioned till so
late a period, Nctophah was really a much
older place. Two of D.avid's guitrd (1 Chr.
xxvii. 13, 15) wero Netophathites. The
" villages of the Netophathites " were the
residence of the Levites (1 Chr. ix. 16).
Frora another notice we learn that the par
ticular Levites who inhabited these villages
were singers (Neh. xii. 28). To judge frora
Neh. vii- 26 the town was in the neighbor
hood cf, or closely connected with, Bethle-
hem- Netoph'athi, Neh. xii. 28. The same
word which in other passages is rendered
" the Netophathite."
Netoph'athite, The, 2 Sara. xxUi. 28,
29 ; 2 K. xxv. 23 ; 1 Chr. xi. 30, xxvu. 13,
15 ; Jer. xl. 8. The plural form, the Ne
tophathites (the Hebrew word being the
same as above) occurs in 1 Chr. ii. 54,
ix. 16.
Nettle. The Hebrew word so translat
ed in Job xxx. 7; Prov. xxiv- 31, was per
haps some species of wild mustard. The
Hebrew word translated nettle in Is. xxxiv.
13; Hos. ix. 6; Prov. xxiv. 31, maybe un
derstood to denote some species of nettle
{Urtica). New Moon. The first day of the lu
nar raouth was observed as a holy day. In
addition to the daily^ sacrifice there were.
offered two young bullocks, a rara, and sev
en larabs of the first year as a burnt-offer
ing, with the proper meat-offerings and
drink-offerings, and a kid as a sin-offering
(Num. xxviii. 11-15). As on the Sabbath,
trade and handicraft work were stopped
(Am. viii. 6), and the Temple was opened
for public worship (Ez. xlvi. 3; Is. IxVi.
23). The trumpets were blown at the of
fering of the speci.al sacrifices for the day,
as on the solemn festivals (Num. x- 10; Ps.
Ixxxi. 3). It was an occasion for stiite-
banquets (1 Sam. xx. 5-24). In later, if
not in earlier tiraes, fasting was interraitted
at the new moons (Jud. viu. 6). The new
moons are generally mentioned so as to
show that they were regarded as a peculiar
class of holy d.ivs -iisfluguished from the

solemn feasts andthe Sabbaths (Ez.xlv. 17;
1 Chr. xxiii. 31 ; 2 Chr. ii. 4, viii. 13, xxxi.
3; Ezr. iii- 5; Neh- x. 33). The seventh
new raoon of the religious year, being that
of Tisri, commenced the civil year, and
had a significance and rights of its own. Il
was a day of holy convocation. By what
method the commencement of the month
was ascertained in the tirae of Moses is un
certain. The Mishna describes the man
ner in which it was determined seven timea
in the year by observing the first appear
ance of the moon, which, according to
Maimonides, derived its origin, by tradition,
from Moses, and continued in use as long
as the Sanhedrim existed. On the .Wth
day of the month watchraen were placed
on commanding heights round Jerusalem to
watch th(J sky. As soon as each of them
detected the raoon, he hastened to a house
in the city, which was kept for the purpose,
and was there examined by the president
of the Sanhedrim. When the evidence of
the appearance was deemed satisfactory,
the president rose up and formally an
nounced it, uttering the words, " It is con
secrated." The information was immedi
ately sent throughout the land from the
Mount of Olives, by beacon-fires on the
tops of the hills. The reUgious observance
of the day of the new moon may plainly be
regarded as the consecration of a natural
division of time.
Ne'W Tes'tament. The origin, his
tory, and characteristics of the constituent
books and of the great versions of the N.
T., the mutual relations of the Gospels,
and the formation of the Canon, are dis
cussed in other articles. It is proposed
now to consider the Text of the N. T.
The subject naturally divides itself into
the following heads, which will be exam
ined in succession : I. The history of the
written Text. II. The history of the print
ed Text. III. The language of the New
Testaraent.
I. The History of the Written Text.
1. The early history of the Apostolic writ
ings externally, as far as it can be traced,
is the same as that of other contemporary
books. St. Paul, like Cicero or Pliny, of
ten eraployed the services of an amanuen
sis, to whora he dictated his letters, affixing
the salutation " with his own hand" (1 Cor.
xvi. 21 ; 2 Thess. iu. 17 ; Col. iv. 18). In
one case the scribe has added a clause in
his own name (Rom. xvi. 22). If we pass
onwards one step, it does not appear that
any special care was taken in the first age
to preserve the books ofthe N. T. from the
various injuries of tirae, or to insure per
fect accuracy of transcription. They were
given as a heritage to man, and it waa
some time before meu felt the full value
of the gift. The original copies seem to
have soon perished. 2. In the natural

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451

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course of things the Apostolic autographs
would be likely to perish soon. The ma
terial which was commonly used for let
ters, the papyrus-paper, to which St. John
incidentally alludes (2 John 12; comp. 3
John 13), was singularly fragUe, and even
the stouter kinds, likely to be used for the
historical hooks, were not fitted to bear con
stant use. The papyrus fragments which
have come down to the present time have
been preserved under peculiar circum
stances, as at Herculaneum or in . the
Egyptian tombs. 3. In the time of the
Diocletian persecution (a. d. 303) copies
of the Christian Scriptures were sufficient
ly numerous to furnish a special object for
persecutors, and a characteristic narae to
renegades who saved themselves by sur
rendering the sacred books. Partly, per
haps, owing to the destruction thus caused,
but still more from the natural effects of
tirae, no MS. of the N. T. of the first three
centuries reraains. But though no frag
ment of the N. T. of the first century still
remains, the Italian and Egypti.an p.apyri,
which are of that date, give a clear notion
of the caligraphy of the period. In these
the text is written in columns, rudely di
vided, in somewhat awkward capital letters
{uncials), without any punctuation or di
vision of words. The iota, which was
afterwards subscribed, is commonly, but
not always, adscribed ; and there is no trace
of accents or breathings. 4. In addition
to the later MSS-, the earliest versions and
patristic quotations give very important tes
timony to the character and history of the
ante-Nicene text. Express statements of
readings which are found in some of the
most ancient Christian writers are, indeed,
the first direct evidence which we have,
and aro ;onsequcntly of the highest im
portance Biit till the last quarter of the
second century this source of information
fails us. Not only are the reraains of
Christian literature up to that time ex
tremely scanty, but tho pr.actice of verbal
quotation frora the N. 'T. was not yet prev
alent. As soon as definite controversies
arose among Christians, the text of the N.
T. assumed its. true importance. 5. Sev
eral very important conclusions follow frora
this earUest appearance of textual criticisra.
It is in the first place evident that various
readings existed in the books of tho N. T.
at a time prior to all extant authorities.
History affords no trace of the pure Apos
tolic originals. Again, frora the preserva
tion of the flrst variations noticed, which
are jften extreracly minute, in one or more
of the priraary documents still left, we may
be certain that no important changes have
been made in the sacred text wliich we
cannot now detect. 6. Piissing from these
isolated quotations we flnd the first great
witnesses tJ the apostolic text in the early

Syriac and Latin versions, and in the rich
quotations of Clement of Alexandria (f cir.
A. D. 220) and Origen (a. d. 184-254).
From the ext.ant works of Origen alone no
inconsiderable portion of the whole N. T.
raight be transcribed. 7. Two chief causes
contributed especially to corrupt the text
of the Gospels, the atterapts to harmonize
parallel narratives, and the influence of
tradition. 8. But Origen stands as far
first of all the ante-Nicene fathers in criti
cal authority as he does in comraiinding
genius, and his writings are an alraost in
exhaustible storehouse for the history of
the text. 9. In thirteen cases Orjgen has
expressly noticed varieties of reading in
the Gospels (Matt. vui. 28, xvi. 20, xviii.
1, xxi. 5, xxi. 9, 15, xxvii. 17; Mark iii.
18 ; Luke i. 46, ix. 48, xiv.- 19, xxiii. 45 ;
John i. 3, 4, 28). In three of these pas
sages the variations which he notices are
no longer found in our Greek copies. Matt.
xxi. 9 or 15 ; Mark ui. ^8 (ii. 14) ; Luke
i. 46 ; in seven our copies are still divided ;
in two (Matt. viii. 28 ; John i. 28) the read
ing which was only found in a few MSS.
is now widely spread : in the remaining
place (Matt, xxvii. 17), a few copies of no
great age retain the interpolation which was
found in his tirae " in very ancient copies."
10. There can be no doubt that in Origon's
time the variations in the N. T. MSS. were
beginning to lead to the formation of specific
groups of copies- 11. The most ancient
MSS. and versions now extant exhibit the
characteristic differences which have been
found to exist in different parts of tho
works of Origen. These cannot have had
their source later than the beginning of
the third century, and probably were rauch
earlier. Bengel was the first (1734) who
pointed out the affinity of certain groups
of MSS., wluch, as he rcraarks, must have
arisen before the first versions were raade.
The honor of carefully determining the re
lations of critical authorities for tho N. T.
text belongs to Qriesbach. According to
him two distinct recensions of the Gospels
existed at the beginning of the third cen
tury: the Alexandrine and the Western.
12. From the consideration of the earliest
history -of the N. T. text we now pass to
the aera of MSS. The quotations of
Dionysius Alex, (f A. d. 264), Petrus
Alex, (t c. A. d. 312), Methodius (t A. d.
311), and Eusebius (f a. d- 340), confirm
the prevalence of the ancient type of text ;
but the public establishment of Christianity
in the Roman empire necessarily led to im
portant changes. The nominal or real ad
herence of the higher ranks to the Christian
faith must have largely increased the de
mand for costly MSS. As a natural con
sequence the rude Hellenistic forms gave
wiiy before the current Greek, and at the
same Jimo it is reasonable to beUe-e th-'?*

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452

NEW TESTAMENT

snioothor .and fuller constructions were sub
stituted for the rougher turns of the apos
tolic language. In this way the foundation
of the Byzantine text was laid. Meanwhile
the multiplication of copies in Africa and
Syria was checked by Mohamraedan con
quests. 13. The appearance of the oldest
MSS. h.as been already described (§3).
The MSS- of the 4tli century, of which
Codex Vaticanus may be taken as a type,
present a close resemblance to these. The
writing is in elegant continuous (capitals)
uncials, in three columns, without initial
letters or iota subscript, or adscript. A
small interval serves as a simple punctua
tion ; and there are no accents or breath
ings by the hand of the first writer, though
these h.ave been added subsequently. Un
cial writing continued in general use till
the middle of the lOtli century. From the
lltli century downwards cursive writing
prevailed. The earliest cursive Biblical
MS. is dated 964 a. d. The MSS. of the
14th and 15th centuries abound in the con
tractions which afterwards passed into the
early printed books. The oldest MSS- are
written on the thinnest and finest vellura :
in later copies the parchment is thick and
coarse- Piipyrus was very rarely used
after the 9tb century. In the 10th century
cotton paper was generally eraployed in
Europe ; and one example at least occurs
of its use in the 9th century. In the 12th
century the common linen or rag paper
came into use. One other kind of raateri
al requires notice — re-dressed parchment.
Even at a very early period the original
text of a parchment MS. was often erased,
tliat the material might be used afresh. In
Lapse of time the original writing frequent
ly re-iippears in faint lines below the later
text, and in this way many precious frag
ments of Biblical MSS., which had been
once obliterated for the transcription of
other works, have been recovered. 14. 'The
division of the Gospels into "ch.apters"
must have come into general use sorae
tirae before the Sth century. The divis
ion of the Acts and Epistles into chapters
came into use at a later time. It is com
monly referred to Euthalius, who, how
ever, says thiit he borrowed the divisions
of the Pauline Epistles frora an earlier
father; and there is reason to believe that
the division of tlie Acts and Catholic Epis
tles which he pubUshed wiis originally the
work of Paraphilus the Martyr. The Apoc
alypse was divided into sections by Andre
as of Caesarea about a. d. 600. 'The titles
of the sacred books are frora their nature
additions to the original text. The distinct
names of the Gospels imply a collection,
and the titles of the Epistles are notes by
the possessors, and not addresses by tho
writers. 15. Very few MSS. contain the
whole N. T., twenty-seven in all out of the

vas: mass of extant documents. I3es)..c(
the MSS- of the N. T., or of parts of i;^
there are also Lectionaries, wliich contain
extracts arranged for. the Church-services.
16. The number of uncial MSS. remain
ing, though great when compared with the
ancient MSS. extant of other writings, is
inconsiderable. Tischendorf reckons 40
in the Gospels. To these raust be added
Cod. Sinait., which is entire ; a new MS.
of Tischendorf, which is nearly entire ; and
Cod' Zacynth., wliich contains consider
able fragments of St. Luke. In the Acts
there are 9. In the Catholic Epistles
5. In the PauUne Epistles there are 14.
In the Apocalypse 3. 17. A complete de
scription of these MSS. is given in the
great critical editions of the N. T. : here
those only can be briefly noticed which are
of primary importance, the first place be--
ing given to the latest discovered and most
coraplete Codex Sinaiticus. — Codex Si
naiticus {= Cod. Frid. Aug. ot LXX.),
at St. Petersburg, obtained by Tischen
dorf frora the convent of St. Catherine,
Mount Sinai, in 1859. The N. T. is entire,
and the Epistle of Barnabas and parts of
the Shepherd of Hernias are added. It is
probably the oldest of the MSS. of the N.
T., and of the 4th century. Codex Alex-
andrinus (Brit. Mus.), a MS. ofthe entire
Greek Bible, with the Epistles of Clement
added. It was given by Cyril Lucar, patri
arch of Constantinople, to Charles I. in
1628, and is now in the British Museum.
It contains the whole of the N. T. with
some chasms. It was probably written in
the first half of the 5th century. Codex
Vaticanus (1209), a MS. of -the entire
Greek Bible, which seeras to have been in
the Vatican Library alraost from its coni-
menceraent (c. a. d. 1450). It contains
the N. T. entire to HeW. ix. 14, xa6a : the
rest of the Epistle to the Hebrews, the
Pastoral Epistles, and the Apocalypse were
added in the 15th century. 'The MS. is
assigned to the 4tli century. Codex Ephra-
emi rescriptus (Piiris, Bibl. Imp. 9), a
palirapscst MS. which contains fragmtnts
of the LXX. and of every part of the N. T.
In the 12th century the original writing
was effaced, and some Greek writings of
Ephraem Syrus were written over it. The
MS. was brought to Florence from the
East at the beginning of the 16tli century,
and: carae thence to Paris with Catherine
de' Medici. The only entire hooks which
have perished are 2 Thess. and' 2 John,
&c._ 18. The nuraber of the cursive MSS.
{minuscules) in existence cannot be accu
rately calculated. Tischendorf catalogues
about 500 of the Gospels, 200 of the Acts
and Catholic Epistles, 250 of the PauUne
Epistles, and a little less than 100 of the
Apocalypse (exclusive of lectionaries) ; but
this enumeration can only be accepted a<

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453

NEW TESTAMENT

a rough approximation. 19. EWing sur
veyed in outline the history of the trans
mission of the written text, and the chief
characteristics of the MSS. ih which it. is
preserved, we are in a position to consider
the extent and nature of the variations
which exist in different copies. It is im-
Iiossible to estiraate the number of these ex
actly, but they cannot be less than 120,000
in all, though of these a very large pro
portion consists of differences of spelling
and isolated aberration.'s of scribes, and of
the reraainder comparatively few altera
tions are sufficiently well supported to cre
ate reasonable doubt as to the final judg
ment.- Probably there are not raore than
1600-2000 places in which the true reading
is a matter of uncertainty. 20. Various
Teadings are due to different causes : some
arose from accidental, others from inten
tional alterations of the original text. 21.
Other variations are due to errors of sight.
Others raay be described as errors of im
pression or memory. The co'pyist, after
reading a sentence frora the text hefore
him, often failed to reproduce it exactly.
Variations of order are the raost frequent,
and very commonly the most puzzling
questions of textual criticisra. E.xaraples
occur in every page, alraost in every verse,
of the N. T. 22. Of intentional changes
sorae affect the expression, others the sub
stance of the passage. 23. The nuraber
of readings which seera to have been al
tered for distinctly dogmatic reasons is ex
tremely sraall. In spite of the groat revo
lutions in thought, feeling, and practice
through which the Christian Church passed
In fifteen centuries, the copyists of the N.
T. faithfully preserved, according to their
ability, tho sacred trust committed to them.
There is not any trace of intentional re
vision designed to give support to current
opinions (Matt, xvu. 21; Mark ix. 29; 1
Cor. vii. 6, need sciircely be noticed). 24.
The great mass of various readings are
simply variations in form. There are,
however, one or two greater variations of
a different character. The most iraportant
of these are John vii. 53-viii. 12; Mark
xvi. 9-end; Rom. xvi. 25-27. The first
stands quite by itself; and there seeras to
be little doubt that it contains an authentic
narrative, but not by the hand of St. John.
The two others, taken in connection with
tlie last chapter of St. John's Gospel, sug
gest the possibility that the apostolic writ
ings may have undergone in sorae eases
authoritative revision. 25. Manuscripts,
it must be remembered, are but one of the
three sources of textual criticism. The ver
sions and patristic quotations are scarcely
less important in doubtful eases.
II. The History op the Printed
Text. — 1. The histoiy of the printed text
W the N T. may be divided into three pe

riods. The first of these extends flora the
labors of the Coraplutensian editors to those
of Mill ; the second from MiU to Schok ;
the third from Lachraann to the present
tirae. The criticisra of the first period was
necessarily tentative and partial : the mate
rials available for the construction of the
text were few, and imperfectly known. 'The
second period marks a great progress : the
evidence of MSS., of versions, of Fathers,
was collected with the greatest diligence and
success ; authorities were corapared and
classified; principles of observation and
judgment were laid down. But tlie in
fiuence of the former period still lingered.
The third period was introduced by tlio dec
laration of a new and sounder law. It was
laid down that no right of possession could
be pleaded against evidence. 'The " re
ceived " text, as such, was allowed no
weight whatever. Its authority, on this
view, raust depend solely on critical worth.
Frora first to last, in rainute details of order
and' orthography, as well as in graver ques
tions of substantial alteration, the text raust
be forraed by a free and unfettered judg
ment. Earliest Editions. 1. Tlie Com-
plutensian Polyglot. — The glory of print
ing the first Greek Testament is due to the
princely Cardinal Ximenes. This great
prelate as early as 1502 engaged the ser
vices of a number of scholars to superintend
an edition ofthe whole Bible in the original
Hebrew and Greek, with the addition of
the Chaldee Targum of Onkelos, the LXX.
version, and the Vulgate. The volume
containing the N- 'T. was printed first, and
was completed on Jan. 10, 1514. The whole
work was not finished till July 10, 1517.
2. The edition of Erasmus. — The edition
of Erasmus was the first published edition
of the N. T. Erasmus had paid consider
able attention to the study of the N. 'T.,
when he received an application from
Froben, a printer of Basle with whom he
Wiis acquainted, to prepare a Greek text for
the press. The request was made on April
17, 1515, while Erasmus was in England.
The details of the printing were not settled
in September in the same year, and the
whole work was finished in February, 1516.
3. The edition of Stephens. — The scene
of our history now changes from Basle to
Paris. In 1543, Simon de Colines (Coi.i-
NAEUs) published a Greek text of the N. T.,
corrected in about 150 places on fresh MS.
authority. Not long after it appeared, Ii.
Estienne (Stephanos) published his first
edition (1546), which was based on a colla
tion of MSS. in the Royal Library with the
Coraplutensian text. 4. The editions of
Beza and Elzevir. — Nothing can illustrate
raore clearly the deficiency araong schol.ars
of the first eleraents of the textual criticisra
of the N. T. than the annotations of Beza
(1556). This great divine obtained from

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454

NICODEMUS

H. Stephens a copy of the N. T. in which
he had noted down various readings from
about twenty-five MSS. and from the early
editions, but he used the collection rather
for exegetical than for critical purposes.
The Greek text of Beza (dedicated to Queen
Elizabeth) was printed by H. Stephens in
1565, and again in 1576 ; but his chief edi
tion was the third, printed in 1582, which
conlained readings from the Codices Bezae
and Ctaromontanus.
III. The Language or the New Tes
tament. — 1. The eastern conquests of
Alexander opened a new field for the devel
opment of the Greek language. 2. At no
place could the corruption have been great
er or raore rapid than at Alexandria, where
a motley population, engaged in active com
raerce, adopted Greek as their common
medium of communication. And it is in
Alexandria that we must look, for the origin
of the language of the New Testament.
Two distinct elements were combined in
this marvellous dialect, whieh was destined
to preserve forever the fullest tidings of
the Gospel. On the one side there was
Hebrew conception, on the other Greek
expression. The thoughts of the East were
wedded to the words of the 'VVest. This
was accomplished by the gradual translation
of the Hebrew Scriptures into the vernac
ular Greek. 3. The Greek of the LXX.,
like the English of the A. V. or the German
of Luther, naturally determined the Greek
dialect of the mass of the Jews. It is raore
correct to call the N. T. dialect Hellenistic
than Alexandrine, though the form by
whieh it is characterized raay have been
peculiarly Alexandrine at first. 4. 'The
position of Palestine was peculiar. The
Araraaic (Syro-Chaldaic), which was the
national dialect after the Return, existed
side by side with the Greek. It was in this
language, we may believe, that our Lord
was accustomed to teach the people ; and it
appears that He used the same in the more
private acts of His life (Mark iii. 17, v. 41,
vu. 34; Matt. xxvu. 46; John i. 43; cf.
John XX. 16). But the habitual use of the
LXX. is a sufficient proof of the familiarity
of ths Palestinian Jews with the Greek dia
lect; and the judicial proceedings before
Pilate must have been conducted in Greek.
5. The literal sense of the Apostolic writ
ings must be gained hi the same way as the
literal sense of any other writings — by the
fullest use of every appliance of schojar-
ship, and the most coraplete confidence in
the necessary and absolute connection of
words and thoughts. No variation of phrase,
no peculiarity of idiom, no change of tense,
no change of order, can be neglected. The
truth lies in the whole expression, and no
one can presume to set aside any part as
trivial or indifferent, fi. The importance

of investigating most patiently and most
faithfully the literal meaning of the sacred
text must be felt with tenfold force, when
it is remembered that the literal sense is
the outward embodiment of a spiritual
sense, which lies beneath and quickens
every part of Holy Scripture. [Bible.]
New Year. [Trumpets, Feast of.]
Nezi'ah. The descendants of Neziah
were among the Nethinim who returned
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 54 ; Neh. yii. 56).
Ne'zib, a city of Judah (Josh. xv. 43
only), in the district of the Shefelah or
Lowland, one of the same group with Kei
lah and Mareshah. '?o Eusebius and Jer
ome it was evidently known- They place
it on the road between Eleutheropolis and
Hebron, 7 or 9 (Euseb.) miles from the
former, and there it still stands under the
almost identical name of Beit Nitsib, oi
Chirbeh Nasib.
Nib'haz, a deity of the Avites, intro
duced by them into Samaria in the time of
Shalmaneser (2 K. xvii- 31). There is no
certain information as to the character of
the deity, or the form of the idol so named.
The Rabbins derived the narae from a He
brew root n&bach, "to bark" and hence
assigned to it the figure of a dog, or a dog-
headed man. There is no h priori improb
ability in this : the Egyptians worshipped the
dog. Some indications of the worship of
the dog have been found in Syria, a colos
sal figure of a dog having forraerly existed
between Berytus and Tripolis.
Nib'shan, one of the six cities of Ju
dah (Josh. XV. 62) which were in the dis
trict of the Midbar (A. V. " wilderness ").
Nica'nor. 1. Son of Patroclus (2
Mace. viu. 9), a general who was engaged
in the Jewish wars under Antiochus Epiph
anes and Demetrius I.. (1 Mace. iu. 38, iv.,
vii. 26, 49). 2. One of the first seven dea
cons (Acts vi. 5).
Nicode'mus, a Pharisee, a ruler of the
Jews, and teacher of Israel (John iii. 1, 10),
whose secret visit to our Lord was the oc
casion of the discourse recorded only by
St- John. A constitutional timidity is dis
cernible in the character of the inquiring
Pharisee- Thus the few words wliich he
interposed against the rash injustice of his
colleagues are cautiously rested on a gen
eral principle (John vii. 50). And even
when the power of Christ's love, manifested
on the cross, had made the most timid dis
ciple hold, Nicoderaus does not corae for
ward with his splendid gifts of affection
until the exaraple had been set by one of his
own rank, and wealth, and station in society
(xix. 39). In these three notices of Nico
deraus a noble candor and a simjile love of
truth shine out in the midst of hesitation
and fear of man. We can therefore easily
beUeve the tradition that after the resurrcc

a

NICOLAITANS

455

NILE

f on he ber, ume aprofessed disciple of Christ,
ana received baptism at the hands of Peter
and John.
Nicola'itans. It will here be consid
ered how far we can get at any distinct
notion of what tlui sect itself was that is
mentioned by this name in Rev. ii. 6, 15,
and in wha,t relation it stood to the life of
the Apostolic age. It has been suggested
as one step towards this result that the name
before us was symbolic rather than histor
ical. The Greek NixiXaog is, it has been
said, an approximate equivalent to the He
brew- Balaam, the lord, or, according to
another derivation, the devourer of the
people. We are now in a position to form
a clearer judgment of the characteristics of
the sect. It comes before us as presenting
the ultiiEate phase of a great controversy
which threatened at one time to destroy the
unity of the Church, and afterwards to taint
its purity. The controversy itself was in
evitable as soon as the Gentiles were admit
ted in any large numbers into the Church
of Christ. Were the new converts to be
brought into subjection to the whole Mosaic
law ? The apostles and elders at Jerusalem
met the question calmly and wisely. The
burden of the Law was not to be imposed on
the Gentile disciples. They were to abstain,
among other things, frora " meats offered
to idols " and from " fornication " (Acts xv.
20, 29), and this decree was welcomed as
the great "ehar,tet.of the Church's freedom.
The two sins were very closely allied, often
even in the closest proximity of time and
place. The messages to the Churches of
Asia and the later Apostolic Epistles (2
Petei ani Jude) indicate that the two evils
appeared at that period also iu close alliance.
The teachers of the Church branded them
with a narae which expressed their true
character. The men who did and taught
such things were followers of Balaam (2
Pet. u. 15 ; Jude 11). They, Uke the false
prophet of Pethor, united brave words with
evU deeds. In a time of persecution, when
the eating or not eating of things sacrificed
to idols was more than ever a crucial test
of faithfulness, they persuaded men more
than ever that it w.as a thing indifferent
(Rev. ii. 13, 14). This was bad enough,
but there was a yet worse evil. Mingling
themselves in the orgies of idolatrous feasts,
they brought the impurities of those feasts
into the meetings of the Christian Church.
And all this was done, it must be remem
bered, not simply as an indulgence of appe
tite, but as part of a systera, supported by a
" doctrine," accompanied by the boast of a
prophetic Uluminatioii (2 Pet. ii. 1). These
were the characteristics of the followers, of
Balaam, and, worthless as most of the tra
ditions about Nicolas may be, they point to
the sarae distinctive evils. It confirras the
view which has been taken of their char

acter to flnd that stress is laid in the flrjt
instance on the " deeds " of the Nicolaitans.
To hate those deeds is a sign of life in a
Church that otherwise is weak and faithless
(Rev. u. 6). To tolerate thera is well nigh
to forfeit the glory of having been faithful
under persecution (Rev. u. 14, 15). [Nico-
LASj Nic'olas (Acts vi. 5), a native of An
tioch, and a proselyte to the Jewish faith.
When the church was still confined to Jeru
salera, he becarae a convert; and being a
man of honest report, full of the Holy Ghost
and of wisdom, he was "chosen by the whole
multitude of the disciples to be one of the
first seven deacons, and he was ordained by
the apostles. A sect of Nicolaitans is men
tioned in Rev. u. 6, 15 ; but there is no
reason except the similarity of name for
identifying Nicolas with the sect which our
Lord denounces, for the traditions on the
subject are of no value. It would seem from
Rev. ii. 14, that the Nicolaitans held that il
was lawful " to eat things sacrificed to idols,
and to commit fornication," in opposition to
the decree of the church rendered in Acts
XV. 20, 29).
Nioop'olis is mentioned in Tit. iii. 12,
as the place where St. Paul was intending
to pass the coming winter. Nothing is to
be found in the Epistle itself to determine
which Nicopolis is hero intended. One
Nicopolis was in Thrace, near the borders
of Macedonia. The subscription (which,
however, is of no authority) fixes on this
place, calling it the Macedonian Nicopolis.
But we little doubt that Jerome's view is
correct, and that tlie Paulino Nicopolis was
the celebrated city of Epirus. This city
(the "City of Victory") was built by
Augustus in raeraory of the battle of Ac
tium. It was on a peninsula to the west of
the bay of Actium.
Ni'ger is the additional or distinctive
name given to the Siipeon who was one of
the teachers and prophets in the Church at
Antioch (Acts xiii. 1).
Night. [Day.]
Night-ha-wrk. The Hebrew word so
translated (Lev. xi. 16; Deut. xiv. 15)
probably denotes some kind of owl.
Nile', the great river of Egypt. The
word Nile nowhere occurs in the A. V. ;
but it is spoken of under the name of SihoJ
[Sihor], and "the river of Egypt" (Gen.
XV. 18). We cannot as yet determine the
length of the Nile, although recent dis
coveries have narrowed the question. Thei e
is scarcely a doubt that its largest conHuent
is fed by the great lakes ou and south of the
equator. It has been traced upwards for
about 2700 miles, measured by its course,
not iu a direct Une, and its extent is proba
bly upwards of 1000 miles more, making it
longer than even the Mississippi, ,nd the
longest of rivers. On the inundatiuu of tha

NIMRAH

456

NIMROD

Nile, see Egypt. The great difference
between the Nile of Egypt in the present day
and in ancient tiraes is caused by the failure
of sorae of its branches, and the ceasing of
sorae of its. chief vegetable products; and
the cliief change in the aspect of the cul
tivable land, as dependent on the Nile, is
the result of the ruin of the fish-pools and
their conduits, and the consequent decline
of the fisheries. The river was faraous for
its seven brauclies, and under the Roman
dominion eleven were counted, of which,
however, there were but seven principal
ones. The monuments and the narratives
of sncient writers show us in the Nile of
Egypt in old tiraes a streara bordered by
flags and reeds, the covert of abundant

wUd-fowl, and bearing on its waters the
fragrant flowers of the various-ctdored
lotus. Now in Egypt scarcely any reeds or
water-plants — the famous papyrus being
nearly if not quite extinct, and the lotus
alraost unknown — are to be seen, except
ing in the marshes near the Mediterranean.
Of old the great river must have shown a
more fair and busy scene than now. Boats
of many kinds were ever passing along it,
by the painted walls of temples, and the
gardens that extended around the Ught
summer pavilions, from the pleasure-galley,
with one great square sail, white or with
variegated pattern, and many oars, to the
little papyrus skiff, dancing on the water,
and carrying the seekers of pleasure wheie

Boat of the Nile, showing how the sail was fastened to the yards, and the nature of the-rlgging. (Wilkinson.)

they eouM shoot with arrows, or knock
down with the throw-stick, the wild-fowl
that abounded among the reeds, ' or en
gage in the dangerous chase of the hip
popotamus or the crocodile. The Nile is
constantly before us in the history of Israel
in Egypt. Into it the male children were
cast ; in it, or rather in sorae canal or pool,
was the ark of Moses put, and found by
Pharaoh's daughter when she went down to
bathe. When the plagues were sent, the
sacred river — a main support of the peo
ple — and its waters everywhere were
turned into blood.
Nim'rah, a place raentioned by this
name in Num. xxxii. 3 only. If it is the
s'arae as Beth-nimrah (ver. 36) it belonged
to the tribe of Gad. By Eusebius, however,
it is cited as a " city of Reuben in Gilead."
A wady and a town, both called Nimreh,
have been raet with in Betheniyeh, east
of the Lejah, and flve miles north-west of
Kunawdi. Nim'Tim, The "Waters of, a stream
or brook within the country'of Moab, which
is raentioned in the denunciations of that
nation by Isaiah (xv. 6) and Jeremiah
(xlviii. 34). We should perhaps look for
the site of Nimrim in Moab proper, i. e. on
the south-eastern shoulder of the Dead Sea.

Nim'rod, a son of Cush and grandson
of Ham. The events of his Ufe are re
corded in Gen. x. 8, ff., from which we
learn (1) that he was a Cushite ; (2) that
he established an empire in Shinar (the
classical Babylonia), the chief towns being
Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh ; and (3)
that he extended this empire northwards
along the course ofthe Tigris over Assyria,
where he founded a second group of capi
tals, Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen.
(In verse 11 instead of " out cf that land
went forth Asshur," we ought to read " out
of that land he went forth to Assyria," as
in the margin.) These events may be held
to represent the salient historical facts con
nected with the earliest stages of the great
Babylonian empire. 1. In the first place,
there is abundant evidence that the race
that first held sway in the lower Babylonian
plain was of Cushite or Hamitic extraction.
The name Cush itself was preserved in Baby
lonia and the adjacent countries under the
forms of Cossaei, Cissia, Cuthah, and Susi
ana or Chuzistan. 2. In the second place,
the earliest seat of empire was in the south
pert of the Babylonian plain. The large
mounds which for a vast nuraber of cen
turies have covered the ruins of ancient
cities, have already yielded some eviimiet

NIMSHI

457

NINEVEH

of the dates and names of their founders,
and wo can assign the highest antiquity to
the towns represented by the raounds of
Niffer (perhaps the early Babel, though
also identified with Calneh), Warka (the
Biblical Erech), Mugheir (Ur), and Sen
kereh (EUasar), while the name of Accad
is preserved in the title Kinzi-Akkad,
by Wiich the founder or erabelUsher of
Ihf'sc towns was distinguished. The date
of their foundation may be placed at
atout B. c. 2200. 3. In the third place,
the Babylonian empire extended its sway
northwards along the course of the Ti
gris at a period long anterior to the rise
of the Assyrian empire in the 13tli centu
ry B. c.
Nim'shi. The grandfather of Jehu,
who is generally called " the son of Nim-
shi" (i K. xix. 16; 2 K. ix. 2, 14, 20; 2
Chr. xxii. 7).
Niu'e-veh,- the capital of the ancient
kingdora and empire of Assyria. 'The
name appears to be compounded from
that of an Assyrian deity, "Nin," corre
sponding, it is conjectured, with the Greek
Hercules, and occurring in the naraes of
several Assyrian kings, as in " Ninus,"
the mythic founder, according to Greek
tradition, of the city. Nineveh is first
mentioned in the 0. T. in connection with
the primitive disperseracnt and migrations
of the human race- Asshur, or, accord
ing to the marginal reading, which is gen
erally preferred, Nimrod, is there described
(Gen- X. 11) as extending his kingdom
from the land of Shinar, or B<abylonia,
in the south, to Assyria in the north, and
founding four cities, of which the raost
famous w.as Nineveh. Hence Assyria was
subsequently known to the Jews as " the
land of Nimrod " (cf. Mic. v. 6), and was
believed to have been first peopled by a
colony from Babylon. The kingdom of
Assyria and of tlie Assyrians is referred to
in the O. T. as connected with the Jews at
a very early period ; as in Num. xxiv. 22,
24, and Ps. Ixxxiii. 8 ; but after the notice
ofthe foundation of Nineveh in Genesis no
further mention is raade of the city until the
tirae of the book of Jonah, or the 8th cen
tury B. c. In this book neither Assyria nor
the Assyrians are mentioned, the king to
whom the prophet was sent being termed
the "king of Nineveh," and his subjects
" the people of Nineveh." Assyria is first
called a kingdom in the time of Menahpra,
about B. c. 770. Nahura ( ? e. o. 645) di
rects his prophecies against Nineveh ; only
once against the king of Assyria, eh. iii. 18.
In 2 K. (xix. 36) and Is. xxxvii. 37, the city
is first distinctly raentioned as the residence
of the monarch. Sennacherib was slain
there when worshipping in the temple of
Nisroch his god. Zephaniah, about b. c.
630. couples the capital and the kingdom

together (ii. 13) ; and this is the last men.
tion of Nineveh as an existing city. The
destruction of Nineveh occurred B. c. 606.
The city was then laid waste, its monu
ments destroyed, and its inhabitants scat
tered or carried away into captivity. It
never rose again from its ruins. 'This total
disappearance of Nineveh is fully confirmed
by the records of profane history. Herod
otus (i. 193) speiiks of the Tigris as " the
river upon which the town of Nineveh
formerly stood." The historians of Alex
ander, with the exception of Arrian, do not
even allude to the city, over the ruins of
which the conqueror raust have actually
raarched. It is evident that the later Greek
and Roraan writers, such as Strabo, Ptolemy,
and Pliny, could only have derived any in
dependent knowledge they possessed of
Nineveh frora traditions of no authority.
The political history of Nineveh is that of
Assyria, of which a sketch has already been
given. [Assyria.] — Previous to recent
excavations and researches, the ruins which
occupied the presumed site of Nineveh
seemed to consist of mere shapeless heaps
or mounds of earth and rubbish- Unlike
the vast masses of brick masonry which
mark the site of Babylon, they showed ex
ternally no signs of artificial construction.
except perhaps here and there the traces of
a rude wall of -sun-dried bricks. Sorae of
these mounds were of enormous dimensions
— looking in the distance rather like natural
elevations than the work of men's hands.
They differ greatly in form, size, and height.
Some are mere conical heaps, varying frora
50 to 160 feet high ; others have a broad fiat
summit, and very precipitous cliff-like sides,
furrowed by deep ravines worn by the win
ter rains. Such mounds are especially nu-
menous in the region to the east of the
Tigris, in which Nineveh stood, and sorae
of thera m ast mark the ruins of the Assyrian
capital. The only difficulty is to determine
which ruins are to be comprised within
the actual limits of the ancient city. The
principal ruins are — 1, the group imraedi
ately opposite Mosul, including the great
raounds of Kouyunjik and Nebbi Yunus ;
2, that near the junction of the Tigris and
Zab, coraprising the raounds of Nimroud
and Athur ; 3, .ffAorsaSat?, about 10 railes to
theeastof theforraerriver; 4, Shereef Khan,
about 54 railes to the north of Kouyunjik ;
and 5, Selamiyah, 3 miles to the north
of Nimroud. We will describe the most ira
portant- The ruins opposite Mosul consist
of an enclosure forraed by a continuous line
of mounds, resembling a vast embankment
of earth, but marking the remains of a wall,
the western face of which is interrupted by
the two great mounds of Kouyunjik and
Nebbi Yunus . To the east of this enclosure
are the remains of an extensive line of de
fences, consisting of moats and ran-pait^

NINEVEH

458

NINEVEH

The inner wall forras an irregular quad
rangle with very unequal sides — the north
ern being 2333 yards, the western, or the
river face, 4533, the eastern (where the wall
Is almost the segment of a circle) 6300
yards, and the southern but little more than
1000; altogether 13,200 yards, or 7 EngUsh
DiUes 4 furlongs. The present height of

this earthen wall is between 40 anl 60 feet.
Nimroud consists of a similar enclosure of
consecutive mounds — the remains of an
cient waUs. The system of defences is
however very inferior in importance and
completeness to that of Kouyunjik. The
indications of towers occur at regular in
tervals ; 108 may still be traced on the N

¦i^^^d,

Mound of Nimroud.

and E. sides. The area forms an irregular
square, about 2331 yards by 2095, contain
ing about 1000 acres. The N. and E. sides
were defended by moats, the W. and S-
walls by the river, which once fiowed im
mediately beneath thera. On the S. W.
face is a great mound, 700, yards by 400,
and covering about 60 acres, with a cone or
pyramid of earth, about 140 feet high, rising
in the N. W. corner of it. At the S- E.
angle of the enclosure is a group of lofty
mounds, called by the Arabs, after Nim-
roud's lieutenant, Athur (cf. Gen. x. 11).
The first tr.aveller who carefully exarained
the supposed site of Nineveh was Mr. Rich,
formerly political agent for the East India
Company at Bagdad ; but his investigations
were almost entirely confined to Kouyunjik
and the surrounding mounds, of which he
made a survey in 1820. In 1843 M. Botta,
the French consul at Mosul, fully explored
the ruins. They consisted of the lo-wer
part of a number of halls, rooms, and pas
sages, for the most part wainscoted with
slabs of coarse gray alabaster, sculptured
with figures in relief, the principal en
trances being formed by colossal human-
headed winged bulls. No remains of exterior
architecture of any great iraportance were
discovered. The calcined limestone and
tli6 great accumulation of charred wood and
charcoal showed that the building had been
destroyed by fire. Its upper part had en
tirely disappeared, and its general plan
could only be restored by the remains ofthe
lower story. The collection of Assyrian
sculptures in the Louvre came from these
ruins. M. Botta's discoveries at Khorsabad
wero followed by those of Mr. Layard at
Nimroud and Kouyunjik, made between the
years 1845 and 1850. The mound of Niin-
loud was found to contain the ruins of sev

eral distinct edifices, erected at different
periods. In general plan and in construc
tion they resembled the ruins at Khorsabad
— consisting of a number of haUs, cham
bers, and giilleries, panelled with sculptured
and inscribed alahaster slabs, and opening
one into the other by doorways generally
formed by pairs of colossal human-headed
winged bulls or lions. The exterior archi
tecture could not be traced. — The Assyrian
edifices were so nearly alike in general
plan, construction, and decoration, that one
description will suffice for all. They were
built upon artificial raounds or platforms,
varying in height, but generally from 30 to
50 feet above the level of the surrounding
country, aud solidly constructed of regular
layers of sun-dried bricks, as at Niraroud,
or consisting merely of earth and rubbish
heaped up, as at Kouyunjik. This platform
was probably faced with stone m.asonry, re
mains of which were discovered .at Niraroud,
and broad flights of steps or inclined ways
led up to its summit. Although only the
general plan of the ground-floor can now be
traced, it is evident that the palaces had
several stories built of wood and sun-dried
bricks, which, when the building was de
serted and allowed to fall to decay, gradu
ally buried the lower chambers with their
ruins, and protected tlio sculptured slabs
from • the effects of the weather. The
deiTth of soil and rubbish above the alar
baster slabs varied from a few inches to
about 20 feet. It is to this accumulation
of rubbish above them that the bass-reliefs
owe their extraordinary preservation. The
portions of the edifices still remaining con
sist of halls, chambers, and galleries, open
ing for the most part into large uncov
ered courts. The wall, above the wain
scoting of alabaster, was plastered, and

NINEVEH

459

NINEVEH

painted with figures and ornaments. The
sculptures, with the exception of the hu
man-headed lions and bulls, were for the
most part in low relief. The colossal fig
ures usually represent the king, his attend
ants, and the gods; the smaller sculptures,
which either cover the whole face of the
slab, or are divided into two corapart-
ments by bands of inscriptions, repre
sent battles, sieges, the chase, single com
bats with wild beasts, religious ceremo
nies, &c., &c. All refer to public or na
tional events ; the hunting-scenes evidently
recording the prowess aud personal valor
of the king as the head of the people —
" the mighty hunter before the Lord." The
Bcvdptures appear to have been painted —
remains of color having been found on
most of thera. Thus decorated, without
and within, the Assyrian palaces must have
displayed a barbaric magnificence, not how
ever devoid of a certain grandeur and beau
ty which no ancient or modern edifice has
probably exceeded. These great edifices,
the depositories ofthe national records, ap
pear to have been at the same tirae the
abode of the king and the teraple of the
gods. — Site of ihe City. — Much diversity
of opinion exists as to the identification of
the ruins which raay be properly included
within the site of ancient Nineveh. Ac
cording to Sir H. Rawlinson and those who
concur in his interpretation of the cuneiform
ch.aracters, each group of raounds already
mentioned represents a separate and dis
tinct city. On the other hand, it has been
conjectured, with much probabiUty, that
these groups of mounds are not ruins of
separate cities, but of fortified royal resi
dences, each combining palaces, temples,
propylaea, gardens, and parks, and having
its peculiar name ; and that they all formed
part of one great city built and added to at
different periods, and consisting of distinct
quarters scattered over a very large area,
and frequently very distant one frora the
other. Nineveh might thus be compared
with Damascus, Ispahan, or perhaps raore
appropriately with Delhi. It is thus alone
that the ancient descriptions of Nineveh, if
any value whatever is to be attached to
them, can be reconciled with existing re
mains. As at Babylon, no great consec
utive wall of enclosure coraprising all the
ruins has been discovered at Nineveh, and
no such wall ever existed. — Prophecies re
lating to Nineveh, and Illustrations of the
O. T. — These are exclusively contained
In the books of Nahum and Zephaniah;
for although Isaiah foretells the -downfall
of the Assyrian empire (ch. x. and xiv.),
he makes no mention of its capital. Na
hum threatens the entire destruction of the
nity, so that it -shall not rise again from its
ruins : " With an overrunning flood he
will make an utter end of the place there

of." " He wiU make an utt ir end ; afHic-
tion shall not rise up the second tin e " (i.
8, 9). "Thy people is scattered upcn the
mountains, and no one gathereth thera
There is no healing of thy bruise " (in. 18,
19). Some comraentators believe that
"the overrunning flood" refers to the
agency of water in the destruction of the
walls by an extraordinary overflow of the
Tigris, and the consequent exposure of
the city to assault through a breach ; others,
that it applies to a large and devastating
army. Most ofthe edifices discovered had
been destroyed hy fire, but no part of the
walls of either Nimroud or Kouyunjik ap
pears to have been washed away by the
river. , The likening of Nineveh to " a
pool of water " (ii. 8) has been conjectured
to refer to the moats and dams by which a
portion of the country around Nineveh
could bo flooded. Tlie city was to be part
ly destroyed -by fire. "The fire shall de
vour thy bars," " then shall the fire devour
thee" (iii. 13, 16). The gateway in the
northern wall of the Kouyunjik enclosure
had been destroyed by fire as well as the
palaces. The population was to be sur
prised when unprepared, " while they are
drunk as drunkards they shall be devoured
as stubble fully dry " (i. 10). Diodorus
states that the last and fatal ass.ault was
made when they were overcome with wine.
The captivity of the inhabitants and their
removal to distant provinces are predicted
(iii. 18). The palace-temples were to be
plundered of their idols : " Out of the house
of thy gods will I cut off the graven iraage
and the molten image " (i. 14), and the city
sacked of its wealth : " Take ye the spoil
of silver, take the spoil of gold"(ii. 9).
For ages the Assyrian edifices have been
despoiled of their sacred images. Only
one or two fragments of the precious met
als were found in the ruins. Nineveh,
afterits fall, was to be " empty, and void,
and waste " (ii. 10) ; "it shall come to
pass, that all they that look upon thee shaU
flee frora^ thee, and say, Nineveh is laid
waste " (ui. 7). These epithets describe the
present state of the site of the city. But
the fullest and the most vivid and poetical
picture of its ruined and deserted condi
tion is that given by Zephaniah, who prob
ably lived to see its fall (ii. 13, 14, 15).
The canals which once fertilized the soil are
now dry. Except when the earth is green
after the periodical rains, the site of the city,
as well as the surrounding country, is an
arid yellow waste. Many allusions in the
O. T. to. the dress, arms, modes of warfare,
and customs of the people of Nineveh, as
well as of the Jews, are explained by the
Nineveh monunients. Thus (Nah. ii. 3),
" The shield of his mighty men is made red,
the valiant men are in scarlet." The shields
and the dresses of the warriors are general-

NINEVEH

460

NINEVEH

ly painted rod in the sculptires. The mag
nificent description of the assault upon the
city (iii. 1, 2, 3) is illustrated in almost
every particular. The mounds built up
against the walls of a besieged town (Is.
xxxvii. 33; 2 K. xix. 32; Jer. xxxii. 24;
&,c.), the battering-rara (Ez. iv. 2), the
various kinds of armor, helmets, shields,
spears, and swords, used in battle during a
siege ; the chariots aud horses (Nah. ui. 3),
aro all seen iu various bafs-reliefs. The
interior decoration of the Assyrian palaces
is described by Ezekiel, himself a captive
in Assyria and an eye-witness of their
magnificence (xxiii. 14, 15) ; a description
strikingly illustrated by the sculptured Uke-
nesses of the Assyrian kings and warriors.
The mystic figures seen by the prophet in
his vision (ch. i.), uniting the man, the Uon,
the ox, and the eagle, may h.ave heen sug
gested by the eagle-headed idols, and man-
headed bulls and lions, and the ' s.acred
emblem ofthe "wheel within wheel" by
the winged circle or globe frequently repre
sented in the bass-reliefs. Arts. — The
origin of Assyrian art is a subject at present
involved in mystery, and one which offers a
wide field for speculation and research.
Those who derive the civilization and polit
ical system of the Assyrians from Babylonia
would trace their arts to the same source.
Oie of the principal features of their archi
tecture, the artificial platform serving as a
substructure for their national edifices, raay
have been taken from a people inhabiting
plains perfectly flat, such as those of Shi
nar, r.ather than an undulating country in
which natural elevations are not uncom-
raon, such as Assyria proper. In none of
the arts of tho Assyrians have any traces
hitherto been found of progressive change.
In sculpture, as probably in painting also,
if we possessed the means of comparison,
the same thing is observable as in the re
mains of ancient Egypt. The earliest works
hitherto discovered show the result of a
lengthened period of gradual development,
which, judging from the slow progress made
by untutored raan in the arts, must have
extonded over a vast nuraber of years.
Thoy exhibit the arts of the Assyrians af
the highest stage of excellence they prob
ably ever attained. The only change we
can trace, as in Egypt, is one of decline or
" decadence." The arts of the Assyrians,
especially their architecture, spread to sur
rounding nations, as is usually the case
whon one race is brought into contact with
another in a lower state of civilization.
They appear to have crossed the Euphrates,
and to have had raore or less influence on
the countries between it and the Mediter
ranean. The Assyrian inscriptions seera
to indicate a direct dependence of Judaea
upon Assyria frora a very early p? riod.
From the descriptions of the temple and

" houses " of Solomon (cf. 1 IC. vi., vii. ; 2
Chr. iii., iv.), it would appear that there was
much similarity between them and the pal
aces of Nineveh, if not in the exterior arch
itecture, certainly in the interior decora
tions. The Jewish edifices were, ho-.vever,
very rauch inferior in size to the Assyrian.
Of objects of art (if we may use the terra)
contained in the Teraple we have the de
scription of the pillars, of the brazen sea,
and of' various bronze or copper vessels.
The Assyrian character of these objects is
very reraarkable. The influence of Assyria
to the eastward was even raore considerable,
extending far into Asia. Amongst the As
syrians, the arts were principally employed,
as amongst all nations in their earlier
stages of civilization, for religious and
national purposes. The colossal figures at
the doorw.ays of the palaces were mythic
combinations to denote tho attributes of a
deity. The "Man-BuU" and the "Man-
Lion," are conjectured to be the gods
" Nin " and " Nergal," presiding over war
and the chas e ; the eagle-headed and fish-
headed figures so constantly repeated in the
sculptures, and as ornaments of vessels of
metal, or in embroideries — Nisroch and
Dagon. The bass-reliefs almost invariably
record sorae deed of the king, as head of
the nation, in war, and in corabat with wild
beasts, or his piety in erecting vast palace-
temples fo the gods. Hitherto no sculp
tures specially illustrating the priva-te life
of the Assyriiins have been discovered,
e.xcept one or two incidents, such as men
baking bread or tending horses. This may
bo partly owing to the fact that no traces
whatever have yet been found of their burial
places, or even of their mode of dealing with
the dead. Writing and Language. — The
ruins of Nineveh have furnished a vast
collection of inscriptions partly carved on
marble or stone slabs, and piirtly impressed
upon bricks, and upon clay cyUnders, or
six-sided and eight-sided prisms, barrels,
and tablets, which, used for the purpose
when still moist, were afterwards baked in
a furnace or kiln. (Corap- Ez. iv. 4.) The
character employed 'was the arrow-headed
or cuneiform — so called from each letter
being forraed by marks or elements resera-
bling an arrow-head or a wedge. 'This
raode of writing, believed by some to be
of Turanian or Scythic origin, prevailed
throughout the provinces comprised in the
Assyrian, Babylonian, and the eastern por
tion of the ancient Persian empires, from
the earliest times to which any known
record belongs, or at least 20 centuries be
fore the Christian era, down to tho period
of the conquests of Alexander. The Assyr
ian and Babylonian alphabet (if the term
raay be applied to above 200 signs) is of the
most ccmpUcated, imperfect, and arbitrary
nature — some characters being phonetioi

NINE VITES

461

NOAH

others syllabic, others ideographic — the
same character being frequently used in
differently. 'The people of Nineveh spoke
a Shemitic dialect, connected with the He
brew and with the so-called Chaldee of the
Books of Daniel and Ezra. This agrees with
the testimony of the O. T. The Assyrian
inscriptions usually contain the chronicles
of the king who built or restored the edifice
hi which they are found, records of his wars
and expeditions into distant countries, of
the amount of tribute and spoil taken from
conquered tribes, of the building of temples
and palaces, and invocations to the gods of
Assyria. These inscribed bricks are of the
greatest value in restoring the royal dynas
ties. The most important inscription hith
erto discovered in connection with Bibli
cal history, is that upon a pair of colossal
human-headed bulls from Kouyunjik, now
in the British Museum, containing the
records of Sennacherib, and describing,
amongst other events, his wars with Heze
kiah. It is accompanied by a series of bass-
reliefs believed to represent the siege-and
capture of Lachish. A list of nineteen or
twenty kings can already bo corapiled, and
the annals of the greater nuraber of thera
will probably be restored to the lost history
of one of the most powerful empires of the
ancient world, and of one which appears to
have exercised perhaps greater infiuence
than any other upon the subsequent condi
tion and development of civilized raan.
Nin'evites, the inhabitants of Nineveh
(Luke xi. 30).
Ni'san. [Months.]
Nis'rooh, an idol of Nineveh, in whose
temple Sennacherib was worshipping when
assassinated by his sons, Adrammelech and
Sharezer (2 K. xix- 37; Is. x.xxvii. 38)-
The word signifies " the great eagle." It is
identified with the eagle-headed human
figure, which is one of the raost prorainent
on the earUest Assyrian raonuraents, and is
always represented as contending with and
conquering the lion or the bull.
Nitre occurs in Prov. xxv. 20, " and as
vinegar upon nitre ; " and in Jer. ii. 22.
The substiince denoted is not that which we
now understand by the terra nitre, i. e.
nitrate of potassa — " saltpetre " — but the
nitrum ot the Latins, and the natron or
native carbonate of soda of modern chemis
try. The latter part of the passage in Prov
erbs is well explained by Shaw, who says
(Trav. ii. 387), "the unsuitableness ofthe
tinging of songs to a heavy heart is very
finely compared to the contrariety there is
between vinegar and natron.
No. [No-AMON-.l
Noadi'ah. 1. A Levite, sonof Binnui,
who with Meremoth, Eleazar, and Jozabad,
weighed tho vessels of gold and sUver be
longing to the Temple wliich were brought
back from Babylon (Ezr. viii- 33). 2. The |

prophetess Noadiah joined Saiballat aud
'Tobiah in their attempt to intimidate Ne
hemiah (Neh. vi. 14).
No'ah, the tenth in descent frora Adam,
in the line of Seth, was the son of Lamech,
and grandson of Methuselah. In the reason
which Lamech gives for calling his son
Noah, there is a play upon the name which
it is impossible to preserve in English. He
called his name No.ah (Noach, rest), saying,
" 'This same shall comfort us." Of Noah
himself we hear nothing till he is 500 years
old, when it is said he begat three sons,
Shera, Hara, and J.aphet. In consequence
of the grievous and hopeless wickedness of
the world at this time, God resolved to de
stroy it. "My Spirit," He says, "shall
not always ' dwell ' or ' bear sway ' in raau
— inasmuch as he is but flesh." 'The raean
ing of which seems to be, that whilst God
had put His Spirit in man, i. e. not only the
breath of life, but a spiritual part capable
of recognizing, loving, and worshipping
Him, man had so much sunk down into the
lowest and most debasing of fleshly pleas
ures, as to have iilraost extinguished the
higher light within hira. Then follows,
" But his days shall be a hundred and
twenty years," which has been interpreted
by sorae to mean, that still a time of grace
shall be given for repentance, viz. 120 years
before the Flood shall corae ; and by others,
that the duration of huraan life should iu
future be limited to this terra of years,
instead of extending over centuries as
before. This last seeras the raost nat
ural interpretation of the Hebrew words-
Of Noiih's life during this age of alraost
universal apostasy we are told but little.
It is merely said, that he was a, right
eous raan and perfect in his genera
tions {i. e. amongst his contemporaries),
.and that he, like Enoch, walked with God.
St. Peter calls him " a preacher of right
eousness " (2 Pet. ii. 5). Besides this we
are merely told that he had three sons, each
of whom had married a wife ; that he built
the Ark in accordance with Divine direc
tion ; and th.at he was 600 years old when
the flood carae (Gen- vi., vii.). Both about
the Ark and the Flood so raany questions
have been raised, that we raust consider
each of these separately. The Ark. — The
precise meaning of the Hebrew word
{tSbdh) is uncertain- The word occurs
only in Genesis and in Exodus (ii. 3). In
all probability it is to the old Egyptian that
we aro to look for its original form. Bun
sen, in his vocabulary, gives tba,' " a chest,"
tpt, " a boat," and in the Copt. Vers, of
Exod- ii. 3, 5, thebi is the rendering of
tSbdh. This " chest," or " boat," was to be
raade of gopher {i. e. cypress) wood, a kind
of timber which both for its lightness and its
durability was employed by the Phoenicians
f-jr building their vessels. The plauks of

NOAH

462

NOAH

tho ark, after being put together, were to
be protected by a coating of pitch, or rather
bitumen, which was to be laid ou both in
side and outside, as the raost effectual
means of making it water-tight, and per
haps also as a protection against the attacks
of m.ariiie animals. The ark was to consist
of a number of " nests " or small compart
ments, with a view, no doubt, to the con
venient distribution of the different animals
and their food. These were to be arranged
iu three tiers, one above another; "with
lower, second, and third (stories) shalt thou
make it." Means -were also to be provided
for letting light into the ark. In the A. V.
we read, " A windoio shalt thou make to
the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish it
above " — words which, it must be con
fessed, convey no very intelligible idea.
The original, however, is obscure, and has
been differently interpreted. 'What the
" window," or " light-hole " was, is very
puzzling. It was to be at the top of the
ark, apparently. If the words " unto a
cubit shalt thou finish it above," refer to
the window, and not to the ark itself, they
seem to imply that this aperture, or sky
light, extended to the breadth of a cubit the
whole length of the roof. But if so, it
could not have been raerely an open slit,
for that would have adraitted the rain. Are
we then to suppose that' some transparent,
.or at least translucent, substance was em
ployed? It would almost seera so. But
besides the window there was to be a door.
This was to be placed in the side of the
ark. Of the shape of the ark nothing is
said ; but its dimensions are given. It was
to be 300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth,
and 30 iu height. Taking 21 inches for the
cubit, the ark would be 525 feet in length,
87 feet 6 inches in breadth, and 52 feet 6
inches in height. This is very considerably
larger than the largest British man-of-war.
It should be remembered that this huge
structure was only intended to fioat on the
water, and was not in the proper sense of
the word a ship. It had neither mast, sail,
nor rudder ; it was in fact nothing but an
enormous floating house, or oblong box
rather. Two objects only were aimed at
in its construction : the one was that it
should have ample stowage, and the other
that it should be able to keep steady upon
the water. After having given Noah the
necessary instructions for the building of
the ark, God tells him the purpose for
which it was designed. The earth is to be
destroyed "by w.ater. " And I, behold I do
bring the flood — waters upon the earth —
to destroy all flesh wherein is the breath of
Ufe . . . but I will establish my covenant
with thee," &c. (vi. 17, 18). The inmates
of the ark are then specified. 'They are to
be Noah and his wife, and his three sons
with their 'wives. Noah is also to take a

pair of each kind of animal into the ark
with him that he may preserve them alive ;
birds, domestic animals, and creeping things
are particularly mentioned. He is to pro
vide for the wants of each of these stores
" of every kind of food that is eaten." It
is added, "Thus did Noah; according to
all that God cominanded him, so did he."
A reraarkable addition to these directions
occurs in the following chapter. The pairs
of aniraals are now limited to one of unclean
animals, whilst of clean animals and birds
(ver. 2), Noah is to take to him seven pairs.
Are we then to understand that Noah lit
erally conveyed a pair of all the animals of
the world into the ark ? This question vir
tually contains in it another, viz., whether
the deluge was universal, or only partial?
If it was only partial, then of course' it was
necessary to find room but for a corapara-
tively sraall nuraber of animals ; and the
dimensions of the ark are ample enough for
the required purpose. But it is not only
the inadequate size of the ark to contain
all, pr anything like all, the progenitors of
our existing species of animals, which is
conclusive against a universal deluge. An
other fact points with stUl greater force, if
possible, in the same direction, and that is
the manner in which we now find these an
imals distributed over the ^rth's surface.
We now know that every great continent
has its own peculiar fauna ; that the origi
nal centres of distribution must have been
not one, but raany ; further, that the areas
or circles around these centres raust have
been occupied by their pristine aniraals in
ages long anterior to that of the Noachian
Deluge. It is quite plain, then, that if all
the animals of the world were literally
gathered together in the ark, and so saved
from the waters of a universal deluge, this
could only have been effected (even sup
posing there was space for thera in the
ark) by a most stupendous miracle. But
the narrative does not compel us to adopt
so tremendous an hypothesis. We shall
see more clearly when we come to con
sider the language used with regard to
the Flood itself, that even that language,
strong as it undoubtedly is, does not oblige
us to suppose that the Deluge was uni
versal. The Flood. — The ark was fin
ished, and all its living freight was gathered
into it as in a place of safety. Jehovah
shut hira in, says the chronicler, speaking
of Noah- And then there ensued a solemn
pause of seven days before the threatened
destruction was let loose. At last the Flood
came ; the waters were upon the earth. The
narrative is vivid and forcible, though en
tirely wanting in that sort of description
which in a raodern historian or poet would
have occupied the largest space- But one
impression is left upon the mind with pecu
Uar vividness, from the very simpU'iity of

NOAH

463

NOAH

the narrative, and it is that of utter desola
tion. From vu. 17 to the end of the chap
ter a, very simple but very powerful and
impressive description is given ofthe appall
ing catastrophe. The waters of the Flood
increased for a period of 190 days (40-|-loO,
compariug vii. 12 and 24). And then " God
reinembered Noah," and made a wind to
pass over the earth, so that the waters were
assuaged. The ark rested on the seventeenth
day of the seventh month on the mountains
of Ararat. After this the waters gradually
decreased till the first day of the tenth
month, when the tops of the raountains were
seen. It was then that Noah sent forth, first,
the raven, which fiew hither' and thither,
resting probably on the mountain-tops, but
not returning to the ark ; and next, after an
interval of seven days (cf. ver. 10), the
dove, " to see if thewaters were abated from
the ground" {i. e. the lower plain country).
" But the dove found no rest for the sole of
her foot, and she returned unto hira into the
ark." After waiting for another seven days
he again sent forth the dove, which returned
this time with a fresh olive-leaf in her
mouth, a sign that the waters were still
lower. And once more, after another inter
val of seven daj's, he sent forth the dove,
and she " returned not again unto hira any
more," having found a home for herself upon
the earth — "VVhether the Flood was univer
sal or purtial has given rise to rauch contro
versy ; but there can be no doubt that it was
universal, so far as man was concerned : we
mean that it extended to all the then known
world. The literal truth of the narrative
obliges us to believe that the whole human
race, except eight persons, perished by the
waters of the Flood. In the New Testaraent
our Lord gives the sanction of His own au
thority to the historical truth of the narra
tive (Matt. xxiv. 37; Luke xvii. 26), declar-
it a; that the state of the world at His second
coni,..-^ ^hall be such as it was in the days
of Nci-. St. Peter speaks of the " long-
suffering of God," which "waited in the
days of Noah while the ark was a preparing,
wherein few, that is, eight souls, were saved
by water," and sees in the waters of the
Flood by which the ark was borne up a type
of Baptism, by which the Church is separat
ed from the world (1 Pet. iii. 20, 21). And
again, in his Second Epistle (2 Pet. ii. 5),
he cites it as an instance of the righteous
judgraent of God, who spared not the old
world. But the language of the Book of
Genesis does not corapel us to suppose thtit
the whole surface of the globe was actually
covered with water, if the evidence of geol
ogy requires us to adopt the hypothesis of a
partial deluge. It Is natural to suppose that
the writer, when he speaks of " all flesh,"
" all in whose nostrils was the breath of
life," refers only to his own locality. This
sort of language is common enough in the

Bible when only a small part of tho globe is
intended. Thus, for instance, it is said that
" all countries carae into Egypt to Joseph
to buy corn ; " and that " a decree went out
from Caesar Augustus that all the world
should be ta.xed." In these and many simi
lar passages the expressions of the writer
aro obviously not to be taken in an exactly
literal sense. Even the apparently very
distinct phrase " all the high hills that were
under the whole heaven were covered " may
be matched by another precisely similar,
where it is said that God would put the fear
and the dread of Israel upon every nation
under heaven. — The truth cf the Biblical
narrative is confirmed by the numerous tra
ditions of other nations, which have pre
served the raeraory of a great and destruc
tive flood, frora which but a sraall part of
raankind escaped. They seera to point back
to a coraraon centre, whence they were car
ried by the different farailies of raan, as they
wandered east and west. The traditions
which come-nearest to the Biblical account
are those of the nations of Western Asia.
Foremost araong these is the Chaldean. It
is preserved in a fragraent of Berosus, and
tells how Xisuthrus built a vessel in which
he was saved frora a great deluge, with
different aniraals, birds, and quadrupeds.
Other notices of a Flood may be found {a)
in the Phoenician mythology, where the
victory of Pontus (the sea) over Demaroua
(the earth) is mentioned : {b) in the Sibyl
line Oracles, piirtly borrowed no doubt frora
the Biblical narrative, and partly perhaps
frora sorae Babylonian Story. To these
must be added (c) the Phyrgian story of
king Annakos or Nannakos (Enoch) in
Iconium, who reached an age of more than
300 years, foretold the Flood, and wept and
prayed for his people, seeing the destruction
that was coming upon them- There is a
medal of Apamea in Phrygia, struck as late
as the tirae of Septiraius Severus, in which
the Phrygian deluge is comraemorated.

Medal of Apamea in Phrygia, representing the Deluge
This medal represents a kind of square
vessel floating in the water. Through an
opening in it are seen two persons, a man
and a woraan. Upon the top of this chest
or ark is perched a bird, whilst another flie»

NOAH

464

NON

towards it carrying a branch between its
feet. Before the vessel are represented the
sarae pair as having just quitted it, and got
upon the dry land. Singularly enough,
too, on some specimens of this raed'al the
letters NH, or Nnis, have been found on
the vessel, as in the preceding cut. After
the i'7(joi^. — Noah's first act after he left
the ark was to build iln altar, and to offer
sacrifices. This is the first altar of which
we read in Scripture, and the first burnt
lacrifice. Then foUows the blessing of God
apon Noah and his sons. All living crea
tures are now given to man for food ; but
express provision is made that the blood (in
which is the Ufe) should not be eaten.
Next, God raakes provision for the security
of huraan life. The blood of man, in which
is his life, is yet more precious than the
blood of beasts. Hence is laid the first
foundation of the civil power. Thus with
(he beginning of a new world God gives, on
the one hand, a promise which secures the
stability of the natural order oi the uni
verse, and, on the other hand, consecrates
hura.an life with a special sanctity as resting
upon these two pillars — the brotherhood
of men, and man's likeness to God. Of
the seven precepts of Noah, as they are
called, tho observance of which was re
quired of all Jewish proselytes, three only
are here expressly mentioned. It is in tbe
terms of the blessing and tbe covenant
made with N'oali after the Flood that we
find the strongest evidence that it extend
ed to all the then known world. Noah, is
clearly the head of a new human family,
the representative of the whole race. It is
as such that God makes his covenant with
him ; and hence selects a natural phenom
enon as the sign of that covenant. The
bow in the cloud, seen by every nation un
der heaven, is an unfailing witness to the
truth of God. — Noah now for the rest of
his life betook himself to agricultural pur
suits. It is particularly noticed that he
planted a vineyard. Whether in ignorance
of its properties or otherwise, we are not in
formed, but he drank of the juice of the
grape till he became intoxicated and sharae-
I'liUy exposed himself in his own tent. One
of his sons. Ham, mocked openly at his
father's disgrace. The others with dutiful
care and reverence, endeavored to hide it.
When he recovered from the effects of his
intoxication, he declared that a curse should
rest upon the sons of Ham.. With the curse
on his youngest son was joined a blessing
on the other two. After this prophetic
blessing we hear no more of the patriarch
but the sum of his years.
No'ah. One of the five daughters of
Zelophehad (Num. xxvi. 33, xxvii. 1, xxxvi.
11 ; Josh. xvu. 3.)
No-a'mon (Nah. iii. 8), No (Jer. xlvi.
25; Ez. xxx. 14, 15, 16), a city of Egypt,

better known under the name of Thebes,
or Diospolis Magna. . The second part of
the first form is the narae of Amen, the
chief divinity of Thebes, mentioned or al- '
luded to in connection with this place in
Jereraiah, " Behold, I will punish Araon
in No, and Pharaoh, and Egypt, with their
gods and their kings;" and perhaps also
alluded to in Ezekiel (xxx. 15). TlicTe is
a difficulty as to the raeaning of No. It
seeras raost reasonable to suppose that No
is a Shemitic name, and that Amon ii add
ed in Nahum {I. c.) to distinguish Thebes
from some other place bearing the sarae
name, or on account of the connection of
Amen with that city. The description of
No-Araon, as " situate araong the rivers,
the waters round about it" (Nah. I. 4.),
remarkably characterizes Thebes.
Nob (1 Sam. xxiii. 11; Neh. xi. 32), a
sacerdotal city in the tribe of Benjamin,
and situated on sorae eminence near Jeru
salem. It was one of the places where the
tabernacle, or ark of Jehovah, was kept for
a time during the days of its wanderings (2
Sara. vi. 1, &c.). But the event for which
Nob was most noted in the Scripture annals,
was a frightful massacre which occurred
there in the reign of Saul (1 Sam. xxu.
17-19). No'bah, an Israelite warrior (Num.
xxxii. 42), who during the conquest of the
territory on the east of Jordan possessed
himself of the town of Kenath and the
villages or haralets dependent upon it, and
gave thera his own name. For a certain
period after the establishment' of the Isra
elite rule the new name remained (Judg.
viii. 11). But it is no't again heard of, and
the original appellation, as is usual iu such
cases, appears to have recovered its hold,
which it has since retained; for iu the
slightly raodified form of Kunawdt it is the
name of the place to the present day.
Nod. [Cain.]
No'dab, the name of au Arab tribe
mentioned only in 1 Chr. v. 19, in the ac
count of the war of the Reubenites, t-ho
Gadites, and the half of the tribe of Ma-
nagseh, against the Hagarites (verses 9-2 '2,
ver. 19). It has been supposed that Nodab
was one of the sons of Ishmael. But we
have no other mention of Nodab, and it is
probable that he was a grandson or othei
descendant of the patriarch, and that the
name, in the time of the record, was that
of a tribe sprung from such descendant.
No'e, the patriarch Noah (Tob. iv. 12;
Matt. xxiv. 37, 38 ; Luke iii. 36, xvu. 26, 27)!
No'gah. One of the thirteen sons ol
David who were born to him iu Jerusalem
(1 Chr. ui. 7, xiv. 6j.
No'hah. The fourth son of Benjainin
(1 Chr. viii. 2).
Non. Nun, the father of Joshua (1
Chr. vii. 27).

NOPH

465

NUMBERS

Noph. [Memphis.] I
No phah, a place mentioned only in
Num. xxi. 30, in the remarkable song ap
parently composed by the A-.norites after
their conquest of Heshboii from the Moab
ites, and therefore of an earUer date than
the Israelite jnvasion. It is named with
Dibon and Medeba, and was possibly in
the neighborhood of Heshbon. A narae
very similar to Nophali is Nobah, which is
t-svice raentioned. Ewald decides that No
phali is identical with the latter of these.
Nose-je"wel (Gen. xxiv. 22 ; Ex. xxxv.
22, "ear-ring;" Is. iii. 21; Ez. xvi. 12,
"jewel on the forehead"), a ring of raetal,
sometimes. of gold or silver, passed usually
through the right nostril, and worn by way
of ornament by woraen in tho East. Upon
it are strung beads, coral, or jewels. In
Egypt it is now almost confined to the
lower cl.asses.
Numbsr. Like most Oriental nations,
it is probiible that the Hebrews in their
written calculations raade use of the letters
of the alphabet. That they did so in post-
Babylonian times we have conclusive evi
dence in the Jlaccabaean coins ; and it is
highly proliable that this was the case also
in earlier times. But though, on the one
hand, it is certain that in all existing MSS.
of the Hebrew text of the 0. T. the nu
merical expressions aro written at length,
yet, on the other, tbe variations in the
several versions between theraselves .and
from the Hebrew text, added to the evident
inconsistencies in nuraerical stateraent be
tween certain passages of thiit text itself,
seem to prove that some shorter mode of
writing was originally in vogue, liable to
be misunderstood, and in fact misunder
stood by copyists and translators. These
variations appear to have proceeded frora
the alphabetic method of writing numbers.
There can be little doubt, however, that
some at least of the numbers mentioned in
Scripture are intended to be representative
rather than determinative. Certain num
bers, as 7, 10, 40, 100, were regarded as
giving the idea cf completeness. Without
entering into St. Augustine's theory of this
usage, we may remark that the notion of
representative numbers in certain cases is
one extremely common .among Eastern
nations, who h.ave a prejudice against
counting their possessions accurately ; that
it enters largely into many ancient systems
of chronology, and that it is found in tho
philosophical and metaphysici-il speculations
not only of tho Pythagorean .and otlier
ancient schools of philosophy, both Greek
and Roraan, but also in those of the later
Jewish writers, of the Gnostics, and also
of such Christian writers as St. Augustine
himself. We proceed to give sorae instances
of numbers used, {a) representatively, and
thus probably by design indefinitely, or,
30

{b) dcfinitelj-, but, as we raay say, prefer
entially, i. e. because some meaning (which
we do not in all cases u.iderstand) was
attached to them. 1. Seven, as denoting
either plurality or completeness, is so fre
quent as to make a selection only of in
stances necessary, c. g. seven-fold. Gen. iv.
24 ; seven times, i. v. completely. Lev. xxvi.
24 ; Ps. .xii. 0 ; seven {i. e. many) wcys,
Dout. xxviii. 25. 2. Ten as a preferential
number is exemplified in the Ten Com
mandments and the law of Tithe. 3.
Seventy, as compounded of 7X10, .appears
frequently, e. g. seventy fold (Gen. iv. 24;
Matt, xviii. 22). Its definite use appears
in the off'erings of 70 shekels (Num. vu.
13, 19, and foil.) ; the 70 elders (.xi. 10) ;
70 years of captivity (Jer. x.xv. 11). 4.
Five .appears in the t<able of punishments,
of legal requirements (Ex. xxii. 1 ; Lev. v.
16, xxii. 14, x.xvii. 15; Num. >. 7, xviii.
16), and in the five empires of D.aniel
(D.an. ii.). 5. Four is used in reference
to the 4 winds (D.an. vii. 2) ; and the so-
caUed 4 corners of the earth; the 4 crea
tures, each with 4 wings and 4 faces, of
Ezekiel (i. 5, and foil.) ; 4 rivers of Para
dise (Gen. ii. 10) ; 4 beasts (Dan. vii., .and
Rev. iv. 6) ; the 4 equal-sided Temple-
chamber (Ez. xl. 47). 6. Three was re
garded, both by the Jews and other nations,
as a specially complete and mystic number
7. Twelve (3 X 4) appears in 12 tribes, 12
stones in the high-priest's breastplate, 12
Apostles, 12 foundation-stones, and 12
gates (Rev. x.xi. 19-21). 8. Lastly, the
mystic number 666 (Rev. xiii. IS).
Numbering. [Census.]
Numbers, the Fourth Book of the Law
or Pentateuch. It takes its name in tho
LXX. and Vulg. (whence our " Numbers ")
frora the double numbering or census of the
people ; the first of which is given in chaps.
i.-iv., and the second in ch.ap. xxvi. — A.
Contents. — The Book may be said to con
tain generally tho history of the Israelites
from the timo of their leaving Sinai, in
the second year after the Exodus, till their
arrival at the borders of the Promised Laad
in the fortieth year of their journeyings. It
consists of the following princip.al divisions :
I. The prejiarations for the departuife- from
Sinai (i. 1-x. 10). II. 'The jouri-Kiy from
Sin.ai to the borders of Canaan (x. 11 -xiv.
45). III. A brief notice of laws given, .and
events which transpired, during- the tliirty-
seven years' wandering in the wilderness
(xv. 1-xix. 22). IV. Tho history of the last
year, from the second arrival of the Israel
ites in Kadesh till they reach "the plains
of Moab by Jordan near Jericho " (xx. 1-
xxxvi. 13). I. {a.) The object of the en
campment at Sinai has been accomplished.
It is now tirae to depart in order that the ob
ject raay be achieved for which Israel has
been sanctified. That abject is the occupar

NUMBERS

466

NYMPHAS

tion ofthe Promised Land. Therefore Israel
must be organized as Jehovah's army ; and to
this end a mustering of all who are capable
of bearing arms is necessary. Hence the
book opens with the nurabering of the peo
ple, chapters i.-iv. These contain, first,
the census of all the tribes or clans (chap.
i.) ; secondly, the arrangement of the carap,
and the order of raarch (chap, ii.) ; thirdly,
the special and separate census of the Le
vites (chaps, in., iv.). (6.) Chapters v.,
vi. Certain laws apparently suppleraentary
to the legislation in Leviticus, {c.) Chiip-
ters vii. 1-x. 10. Events occurring at this
time, and regulations connected with thera.
II. March from Sinai to the borders of Ca
naan, {a.) We have here, first, the order
of march described (x. 14-28) ; the appeal
of Moses to his father-in-l<aw, Hobiib, to
accompany thera in their journeys ; and the
chant which accompanied the moving and
the resting of the .ark (vers. 35, 36). {b.)
An account of several of the stations and
of the events which happened at them (x.
11-xii. 15) ; the sending of the spies frora
the wilderness of Paran {d Tyh), their re
port, the refusal of the people to enter Ca
naan, their rejection in consequence, and
their rash attack upon the Araalekites,
which resulted in a defeat (xii. 16-xiv. 45).
III. What follows must be referred appar
ently to the thirty-seven years of wander
ings; but we have no notices of timo or
place (xv. 1-xix). IV. (a.) Tho narr.ative
returns abruptly to the second encampment
of the Israelites in Kadesh. Here Miriam
dies, and the people murmur for water, and
Moses and Aaron are not allowed to enter
the Promised Land (xx. 1-13). They in
tended perhaps, as before, to enter Canaan
frora the south. They therefore desired a
passage through the country of Edora. The
Edoraites refused the request, and turned
out in arms to defend their border. 'The
Israelites abandoned the attempt as hope
less and turned southward, keeping along
the western borders of Idumaea till they
reached Ezion-geber (xx. 14-21). On their
way southward they stop at Mount Hor,
or rather at Moserah, on the edge of the
Edomite territory; and frora this spot it
would seem that Aaron, accompanied by
his brother Moses and his son Eleazar,
quitted the camp in order to ascend the
mountain. After Aaron's death the march
is continued southward, (i.) There is again
a gap in the narrative. We are told noth
ing of the march along the eastern edge of
Edom, but suddenly find ourselves trans
ported to the borders of Moab. Here the
Israelites successively encounter and defeat
the kings of the Araorites and of Bashan
(xxi. 10-35). Their successes al.arra the
king of Moab, who, distrusting his supe
riority in the field, sends for a magician to
curse his enemies; t^nce the episode of

Balaam (xxii. 1-xxiv. 25). Other artifices
are eraployed by the Moabites to weaken
the Israelites, especially through tho influ
ence of the Moabitish women (xxv. 1). The
book concludes with a recapitulationof the
various encampments of the Israelites in
the desert (xxxiii. 1-49) ; the command to
destroy the Canaanites (xxxiii. 50-56) ; the
boundaries of the Promised Land, and the
raen .appointed to divide it (xxxiv.); the
appointraent of the cities of the Levites and
the cities of refuge (xxxv.) ; and further
directions respecting heiresses. B. Integ-
,^Hy_ — This, like the other books of the
Pentateuch, is supposed by miiny critics
to consist of a compilation from two or
three, or raore, earlier docuraents. But the
grounds on which this distinction of docu
ments rests are in every respect most un
satisfactory. The Book of ' Numbers is
rich in fragments of ancient poetry, some
of them of great be.auty, and all throwing
an interesting Uglrt on the character of the
times in which they were composed- Such,
for instance,-;s the blessing of the high-
priest (vi. 24-26). Such too are the chants
which were the signal for the Ark to move
when the people journeyed, and for it to
rest when they were about to encarap. In
chap. xxi. we have a passage cited from a
book called the "Book of the Wars of Je
hovah." This was probably a collection of
ballads and songs coraposed on different
occasions by the watch-fires of the carap,
and for the raost part, though not perhaps
exclusively, in coramenioration of the vic
tories ofthe Israelites over their enemies.
Nun, the father of the Jewish captain
Joshua (Ex. xxxiii. 11, &c.) His genealo
gical descent from Ephraim is recorded in
1 Chr. vii.
Nurse. It is clear, both from Scrip
ture and frora Greek and Roraan writers,
that in ancient times the position of the
nurse, wherever one was maintained, was
one of much honor and importance. (See
Gen. xxiv- 59, xxxv. 8 ; 2 Sam. iv. 4 ; 2
K. xi. 2; 3 Mace. i. 20). The same term
is applied to a foster-father or mother,
e. g. Num. xi. 12; Ruth iv.l6; Is. xlix. 23.
Nuts are mentioned among the good
things of the laud which the sons of Israel
were to take as a present to Joseph in
Egypt (Gen. xliii. 11). There can scarcely
be a doubt that the Hebrew word, here
translated "nuts," denotes the fruit of the
Pistachio tree {Pistacia vera), tor- which
Syria and Palestine have been long famous.
In Cant. vi. 11, a different Hebrew word is
translated "nuts." In all probability it
here refers to the Walnut-tree. According
to Josephus the walnut-tree was forraerly
common, and grew most luxuriant /y around
the lake of Gennesareth.
Nym'phas, a wealthy and zealous
Christian in Laodicea , Col. iv. J5.

OAK

467

OBADIAH

o.

Oak. The following Hebrew words,
which appear to be merely various forms
¦ of the sarae root, occur in the O. T. as
the names of sorae species of oak. Viz. SI,
ildh, 6ldn, ildn, alldh, and allon. 'There is
much difficulty in deterraining the exact
meanings of the several varieties of the
term mentioned above. Celsius has en
deavored to show that &l, Bim, Hdn, ildh,
and alldh, all stand for the terebinth-tree
{Pistacia terebinthus), while alldn denotes
au oiik. RosenmuUer gives the terebinth
to M, and ildh, and the oak to alldh, alldn,
and eldn. If we examine the clairas of the
terebinth to represent the Sldh, we shall see
that in point of size it cannot corapete with
some of the oaks of Palestine. Dr. Thomson
{The Land and the Boole, p. 243) remarks
on this point : " There are more mighty
oaks here iu this immediate vicinity {Mej
del es-Shems) than there are terebinths in
all Syria and Palestine together." Two
oaks {Quercus p'seudo-coccifera and Q.
aegilops) are well worthy of the name of
mighty trees ; though it is equally true
that over a greater part of the country
the oaks of Palestine are at present mere
ly bushes.
Oath- The principle on which an oath
is held to be binding is incidentally laid
down in Heb. vi. 16, viz. as an ultimate
appeal to divine authority to ratify au
assertion. There the Alraighty is repre-
sente/i as proraising or denouncing with an
oath, i. e. doing so in the most positive and
solo um manner. On the same principle,
that oath has always been held most bind
ing which appealed to the highest authority,
both as regards individuals and communi
ties. As a consequence of this principle,
appeals to God's narae ou the one hand,
and to heathen deities on the other, are
treated in Scripture as tests of allegiance
(Ex. xxiii. 13, xxxiv. 6 ; Deut. xxix. 12,
&c.). So also the sovereign's narae is
soraetiraes used as a forra of obligation
(Gen. xiii. 15 ; 2 Siira. xi. 11, xiv. 19). Oth
er forms of oath, serious or frivolous, are
raentioned, sorae of which are conderaned
by our Lord (Matt. v. 33, xxiii. 16-22 ; and
see Jara. v. 12). The forms of abjuration
mentioned in Scripture are — 1. Lifting up
the hand. Witnesses laid their hands on
the head of the accused (Gen. xiv. 22 ;
Lev. .xxiv. 14; Deut. xxxiii. 40; Is. iii. 7).
2. Putting the hiind under the thigh of the
person to whom the promise was made
(Gen. xxiv. 2, xlvu- 29). 3. O.aths were
soraetiraes taken before the altar, or, as
some understand the passagi;, if the per
sons were not in Jerusalem, in a position
looking towards the Temple (I K. viu. 31 ;

2 Chr. vi. 22). 4. Dividing a victim and
passing between or distributing the pieces
(Gen. XV. 10, 17; Jer. xxxiv- 18). — As
the sanctity of oaths was carefully incul
cated by the Law, so the crime of perjury
was strongly condemned; and to a fiilse
witness the same punishment was assigned
which was due for the crime to which he tes
tified (Ex. XX. 7 ; Lev. xix. 12 ; Deut. xix.
16-19; Ps. XV. 4; Jer. v. 2, vu. 9; Ez.
xvi. 59; Hos. x. 4; Zech. viu. 17). — The
Christian practice in the m.atter of oaths
was founded in great measure on tho
Jewish. Thus the oath on the Gospels
was an imitation of the Jewish practice of
placing the hands on the book of the Law.
— The stringent nature of the Roman
military oath, and the penalties attached to
infraction of it, are .alluded to, more or less
certainly, in several places in the N. T., e. g.
Matt. viii. 9 ; Acts xii. 19, xvi. 27, xxvii. 42.
Obadl'ah. 1. The sons of Obadiah are
enumerated in a corrupt passage of the
genealogy of the tribe of Judah (1 Chr.
iu. 21). 2. According to the received
text, one of the five sons of Izrahiah, a
descendant of Issachar and a chief raan of
his tribe (1 Chr. vii. 3). 3. One of the
six sons of Azel, a descendant of Saul
(1 Chr. viu. 38, ix. 44). 4. A Levite, son
of Sheraaiah, and descended from Jeduthun
(1 Chr. ix. 16). He appears to have been
a principal musician in tho Teraple choir in
the time of Nehemiah (Neh. xii. 25). 5.
The second of the lion-faced Gadites, who
joined David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xu. 9). 6.
One of the princes of Judah in the reign of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 7). 7.. The son
of Jehiel, of the sons of Joab, who came
up in the second caravan with Ezra (Ezr.
viu. 9). 8. A priest, or family of priests,
who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh. X. 5). 9. {Servant of the Lord),
the fourth of the twelve minor prophets.
We know nothing of him except what we
can g.ather frora the short book which bears
his name. The Hebrew tradition that he
is the sarae person as the Obadiah of Ahab's
reign (1 K. xviii. 7-16), is destitute of all
foundation. The question of his date must
depend upon the interpretation of the lltli
verse of his prophecy. He there speaks
of the conquest of Jerusalem and the cap
tivity of Jacob. If he is referring to the
well-known captivity by Nebuchadnezzar,
he must have lived at the tirae of the Baby
lonish captivity, and have prophesied subse
quently to the year B. c. 588. If, further,
his prophecy ag.ainst Edom found its first
fulfilment in the conquest of that country by
Nebuchadnezzar in' the year e. c. 583, we
have its date fixed. It raust have been
uttered at sorae time in the flve years
which intervened between those two dates.
The only argument of any weight for the
early date of Obadiah is his position in tha

OBAL

468

0(3

Ust of the books of the minor prophets.
Why should he have been inserted between
Ainos and Jonah if his date is about b. c.
685 ? The answer seems to be, that the
prophecy of Obadiah is an amplification of
the lait five verses of Amos, and was there
fore placed next after the book of Amos.
The book of Obadiah is a sustained denun
ciation of the Edomites, melting into a
vision of the future glories of Zion, when
the arm of the Lord should have wrought
her deliverance and have rep.aid double
upon her enemies. 10. An officer of high
rank in (ho court of Ahab, who is described
as " over the house," that is, apparently,
lord high chamberlain, or mayor of the
palace (1 K. xviii. 3). His influence with
the king must have been gre.at to enable
hin to retain his position, though a devout
'worshipper of Jehovah, during the fierce
persecution of the prophets by Jezebel.
At tho peril of his life he concealed a hun
dred of them in caves, and fed them there
with bread and water. But he himself does
not seem to have been suspected (1 K.
xviu. 4, 13). The occasion upon which
Obadiiih appears in the history shows the
confidential nature of his office (1 K.
xviu. 7-16). 11. The father of Ishm.aiah,
who was chief of the tribe of Zebulon in
David's reign (1 Chr. xxvii. 19). 12. A
Merarite Levite in the reign of Josiah, and
on; of the overseers ofthe workmen in the
restoration of the Temple (2 Chr. xxxiv.
12). O'bal. A son of Joktan, and, Uke the
rest of his faraily, apparently the founder
of an Ar.ah tribe (Gen. x. 28), wliich h.as
not yet been identified. In 1 Chr. i. 22 the
naino is written Ebal, which has been
corapared with the Avalitae and the Geba-
nitae. O'bed. .1. Son of Boaz and Ruth the
Moabitess (Ruth iv. 17). The circura
stances of his birth, which make up all that
we know about him, are given with rauch
beauty in the book of Ruth, and form a
most interesting specimen of the religious
and social life of the Israelites in the days
of Eli. The name of Obed occurs only
liutli iv. 17, and in the four genealogies,
Rulh iv. 21, 22; 1 Clir. ii. 12; Matt. i. 5;
Luke iii. 32. In all these five pass.ages,
and in the first with peculiar emphasis, he
is said to be the father of Jesse. 2. A de-
doendant of Jarha, the Egypti.an sliive of
Sheshan in the line of Jer.ahmeel. He was
gr.andson of Zabad, one of David's niiglities
(1 Chr. ii. 37, 38). 3. One of David's
mighty men (1 Chr. xi. 47). 4. One of
the gate-lteepers of the Temple ; son of
Shemaiah the first-born of Obed-edom (1
Clir. xxvi. 7). 5. Father of Azariah, one
of tho captains of hundreds who joined
with .Tehoiada in the revolution by which
Athaliah foil (2 Chr. xxiii. 1).

O'bed-e'dom. 1. A Lc ite, described
as a Gittite (2 Sara. vi. 10, 11), that is,
probably, a native of the Levitical city of
Gath-Rimmon in Manasseh, which was as
signed to the Kohathites (Josh. xxi. 45).
After the death of Uzzah, the ark, whicb
was being conducted from the house of
Abinadab in Gibeah to the city of D.avid,
was carried aside into the house of Obed-
edom, where it continued three raonths.
It was brought thence by David (1 Chrr
XV. 25; 2 Sam. vi. 12). 2. "Obed-edom
tbe son of Jeduthun " (1 Chr. xvi. 38), a
Merarite Levite, appears to bo a different
person from the last-mentioned. He was a
Levite of the second degree and a gate
keeper for the ark (1 Chr. xv. 18, 24), .ap
pointed to sound " with li.arps on the Shem
inith to excel" (1 Chr. xv. 21, xvi. 5).
O'bil. An Ishraaelite who was apiiro
priately appointed keeper of the herds of
camels in the reign of David (1 Chr. xxvu.
30). Oblation. [Saciiifice.]
O'both, one of the encampments of the
Israelites, east of Moab (Num. xxi. 10,
xxxiii. 43). Its exact site is unknown.
Oo'ran. An Asherite, father of Pagiel
(Num. i. 13, u. 27, vu. 72, 77, x. 26).
O'ded. 1- The father of Az.ariah the
prophet in the reign of Asa (2 Chr. xv. 1).
2. A prophet of Jehoviih in Samaria, at the
tirae of Pekah's invasion of Judah (2 Chr.
x-xviii. 9).
Odol'lam. [Adullam.]
Offerings. [Sacrifice.]
Ofl3.cer. It is obvious that most, if not
all, of the Hebrew words rendered " offi
cer," are either of an indefinite character,
or are synonymous terms for function.aries
known under other and more specific names,
as " scribe," " eunuch," &c. The two words
so rendered in the N. T. each bear in ordi
nary Greek a special sense. In the case ot
v7ir]niTiic this is of no very definite kind, but
the word is used to denote an inferior ofScer
of a coui't of justice, a messenger or bailiff,
like the Roman viator or lictor. TIoaxroQsg
at Athens were officers whose duty it was
to register and collect fines imposed by
courts of justice ; and " deliver to the offi
cer " means, give in the name of the debtor
to the officer of the court.
Og, an Amoritish king of Bashan, whose
rule extended over sixty cities (Josh. xui.
12). He was one of the last representatives
of the giant race of Rephaira, and was, with
his children and his people, defeated and
exterminated by the Israelites at Edrei, im
raediately after the conquest of Sihon (Deut.
iii. 1-13 ; Num. xxxu. 33. Also Deut. i. 4,
iv. 47, xxxi. 4; Josh. ii. 10, ix. 10, xiii. 12,
30). Tho belief in Og's enormous stature
is corroborated by an appeal to his iron bed
stead preserved iu " Rabbath of the children
of Ammon" (Deut. iii. 11). Some have

OIL

469

OINTMENT

supposed that this was one of the common
fiat bods used sometimes on the housetops of
Eastern cities, but made of iron instead of
palm-branches, which would not have sup
ported the giant's weight. It is more prob
able that the words raean a " sarcophagus
of black basalt," a rendering of which they
undoubtedly admit.
Oil. Ofthe numerous substances, — an
imal aud vogct.able, — which Vere known
to the .ancients as yielding oil, the olive-
berry is the one of which most frequent
mention is raade in the Scriptures. 1.
Gathering. — Great care is necessary, in
gathering-, not to injure eith-er the fruit it
self or the boughs of the tree ; and with this
view it was either gathered by hand or
shaken off carefully with a light reed or
stick. 2. Pressing. — In order to make
oil, tho fruit was either bruised in a mortar,
crushed in ii press lo.aded with wood or
stones, ground in a mill, or trodden with the
feet. 'The "beaten" oil of Ex. x.xvii. 20;
Lev. x.xiv. 2, and Ex. x.xix. 40 ; Num. xxviii.-
5, was probably made by bruising in a mor
tar. The principal uses of olive-oil may be
thus stated. 1. As food. — Dried wheat,
boiled with either butter or oil, but more
comraonly the former, is a coraraon dish for
all classes in Syria. 2. Cosmetic. — As is
the case generally in hot climates, oil was
used by the Jews for anointing the body,
e. g. after the bath, and giving to the skin
and hair a smooth and comely .appear.ance,
c. g. before an entertainment. 3. Funereal.
— The bodies of the dead were anointed
with oil by the Greeks and Rom.ans, proba
bly as a partial antiseptic, and a similar
custora appears to have prevailed .araong the
Jews. 4. Medici7ial. — The prophet Is.aiah
(i. 6) all'udes to the use of oil as ointment
in medical tre.atraent ; and it thus furnished
a fitting symbol, perhaps also an efficient
remedy, when used by our Lord's disciiilos
in the miraculous cures which they were
enabled to perform (Mark vi. 13). With a
similar intention, no doubt, its use was en
joined by St. Jaraes (v. 14). 5. Oil for
light. — The oil for "the light" was ex
pressly ordered to be olive-oil, beaten. In
the same manner the great lamps used at
the Feast of Tabernacles were fed. 6.
Ritual. — Oil was potu-ed on, or mixed with
the flour or meal used in offerings. On the
other hand, certain offerings were to be de
void of oil; the sin-offering, Lev. v. 11,
and tho offering of jealousy, Num. v. 15.
The principle on which both the presence
and the absence of oil were prescribed is,
clearly, that as oil is indicative of gladness,
so its absence denoted sorrow or humilhation
(Is. l.xi. 3; Joel ii. 19; Rev. vi. 6). Kings,
priests, and prophets wero anointed with
oil or ointment. 7. As so important a ne
cessary of life, the Jew was required to
raclvie oil among his first-fruit offerings

(E.x. xxii. 29, x.xiii. 16; Nura. xviii. 12;
Deut. xviii. 4; 2 Chr. xxxi. 5). 'Tithes of
oil were also required (Deut. xu. 17; 2
Chr. .xx.xi. 5, &c.). [Olive.]
Oil-tree (Heb. gts shemcn). Tho He
brew words occur in Neh. vui. 15 {A. V.
" pine-br.anches "), 1 K. vi. 23 ("olive-
tree"), and in Is. xii. 19 ("oil-tree").
From tho passage in Nehemiah, where tire
Sis shemen is mentioned as distinct from the
"olive-tree," it raay perhaps be identilied
with the zackum-tree of the Arabs, the
Balanites Aegyptiaca, a well-known and
abundant shrub or sraall tree in the plain
of Jordan. The zackum-oil is held in high
repute by the Arabs for its me(Uciniil prop
erties. [Olive.]

Balanites Aegyptiaca.
Ointment. 1. Cosmetic. — TheGreek
and Roman priietice of anointing the head
and clothes on festive occasions prevailed
also among the Egyptiiins, and appears to
have hiid place among the Jews (Ruth iii.
3 ; Eccl. vii. 1, ix. 8 ; Prov. xxvU. 9, 16,
&c.). Oil of rayrrh, for like purposes, is
mentioned Esth. ii. 12. 2. Funereal,— ¦ Oint
ments as well as oil were used to anoint
dead bodies and the clothes in '(vliicli they
were wrapped (Matt, x.xvi. 12; -M.ark xiv.
3, 8; Luke xxiii. 56; John xii. 3, 7, xix.
40). 3. Medicinal. — Ointment formed an
important feature in ancient medical treat
ment (Is. i. 6). 'The mention of balm of
Gilead and of eye-salve {collyrium) pointH
to the same method (Is. i. 6; John ix. 6;
Jer. viii. 22; Rev. iii. 18, &c.). 4. Ritual.
^rr Besides the oil used in many cereraoniai

OLD TESTAMENT

470

OLD TESTAMENT

obsei vances, a special ointment was appoint
ed to be used in consecration (Ex.xxx. 23, 33,
xxix. 7, xxxvii.- 29, xl. 9, 15). Strict prohi
bition was issued against using this unguent
for any secular purpose, or on the person of
a foreigner, and against imitating it in any
way whatsoever (Ex. xxx. 32, 33): — A per
son whose business it was to compound oint
ments in general was called an "apothe
cary" (Neh. iii. 8; Eccl. x. 1; Ecclus.
xlix. 1). The work was sometimes carried
on by women " confectionaries " (1 Sara.
viii. 13). In the Christian Church the an
cient usage of anointing the bodies of the
dead was long retained. The ceremony of
Chrism or anointing was also added to bap
tism. Old Testament. A. Text of the
Old Testament. 1. History of the Text.
— A history of the text of the O. T. should
properly commence from the date of the
completion of the canon. As regards the
form in which the sacred writings were
preserved, there can be little doubt that the
text was ordinarily written on skins,' rolled
up into voluraes, like the modern syna
gogue-rolls (Ps. xl. 7 ; Jer. xxxvi. 14 ;
Zech. V. 1; Ez. ii. 9). The original char
acter in which the text was expressed is
that still preserved to us, with the excep
tion of four letters, on the Maccabaean
coins, and having a strong affinity to the
Samaritan character. At what date this
was exchanged for the present Araraaic
or square character is still as undetermined,
as it is at what d.ate the use of the Aramaic
language in Palestine supersedgd that of
the Hebrew. The Old Jewish tradition,
idpciited by Origen and Jerome, ascribed
the change to Ezra. [Wkiting.] Of any
logical division, in the written text, of the
prose of the O. T. into Pesukim, or verses,
wo find in the Talmud no raention ; and
even in the existing synagogue-rolls such
division is generally ignored. In the poet
ical books, the Pesukim mentioned in the
Talmud correspond to the poetical lines,
not to our modem verses. Of the docu
ments which directly bear upon the history
of the Hebrew text, tho two earliest arc
the Samaritan copy of the Pentateuch, and
the Greek translation of the LXX. [Sa-
iiAEiTAN Pentateuch ; Septuagint.] In
the translations of Aquila and the other
Greek interpreters, the fragments of whose
works remain to us iu the Hexapla, we
have evidence of the existence of a text
diff'ering but little frora our own : so also
in the 'Targuins of Onkelos and Jonathan.
A few centuries later we h.ave, in the Hex
apla, additional evidence to the same effect
in .Origen's tr.anscriptions of the Hebrew
text. And yet more iraportant are the
proofs of the firra establishment of t-lie
text, and of its subst.antial identity with
our own, suppUed by tho translation of Jer

ome, who was instructed by the PalostiO"
ian Jews, and mainly relied upon their
authority for acquaintance not only with
the text itself, but also with the traditional
unwritten vocalization of it. This brings
us to the middle of the Talmudic period.
The care of the Talmudic doctors for the
text is shown by the pains with whtch they
counted up the number of verses in the
different books, and computed which were
the middle verses, words, and letters in the
Pentateuch and in the Psalms. The scru
pulousness with which the Talmudists noted
what they deemed the truer readings, and .
yet abstained from introducing them into
the text, indicates at once both the diligence
with which they scrutinized the text, and
also the care with which, even wliile ac
knowledging its occasional imperfections,
they guarded it. Critical procedure is also
evinced in a mention of their rejection of
manuscripts wliich were found not to agret,
with others in their readings ; aud the ruleii
given with reference to the transcription
and adoption of manuscripts attest the cam
bestowed upon them. It is evident from
the notices of the Talraud that a number
of oral traditions had been gradually accu
mulating respecting both the integrity of
particular passages of the text itself, and
also the manner in which it was to be read.
This vast heterogeneous mass of traditions
and criticisms, compiled and embodied in
writing, forras what is known as the Maso-
rah, i. e. Tradition. From the end of the
Masoretic period onward, the Masorah be
came the great authority by which the
text given in all the Jewish MSS. was set
tled. 2- Manuscripts. — We must now
give an account of the O. T. MSS. known
to us. They fall into two main classes :
Synagogue-rolls and MSS. for private use.
Of the latter, some are written in the
square, others in the rabbinic or cursive
character. The synagogue-rolls contain,
separate from each other, the Pentateuch,
the Haphtaroth, or appointed sections of
the Prophets^ and the so-called Megilloth,
viz. Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Eocle
siastes, and Esther. -Private MSS. in the
square character are in the book-form,
either on parchment or on paper, and of
various sizes, from folio to 12mo. Some
contain the Hebrew text alone ; others add
the Targura, or an Arabic or other trans
lation, either interspersed with the text or
in a separate coluran, occasionally in the
raargin. The upper and lower margins
are generaUy occupied by the Masorah,
sometimes by rabbinical commentaries, &c.
The date of a MS. is ordinarily given in the
subscription ; but as tlie subscriptions are
often concealedintheMasorah or elsewhere,
it is occasionally difficult to find them : occa
sionally also it is difficult to decipher thom.
No satisfactory criteria have been yet estab-

OLD TESTAMENT

471

OLD TESTAMENT

lisheil by whieh the ages of MSS. are to
be determined. Pew existing MSS. are
supposed to be older than the 12th century.
Kcmicott and Bruns assigned one of their
collation (No. 590) to the 10th century;
De Rossi dates it A. d. 1018 ; on the other
hand, one of his own (No. 634) he adjudges
to the 8th century. Since the days of
Kenuitott and Do Rossi raodern research
has Jicovered various MSS. beyond the
limits of Europe. Of raany of these there
seems no reason to suppose that they will
add much to our knowledge of the Hebrew
text. It is different with the MSS. exam
ined by Pinner at Odessa. One of these
MSS. (A. No. 1), a Pentateuch roll, un
pointed, brought from Derbend in Daghes-
tan, appears by the subscription to have
been written previously to the year a. d.
680 ; and, if so, is the oldest known Bibli
cal Hebrew MS. in existence. The forms
of the letters are reraarkable. Another
MS. (B. No. 3) contiiining the Prophets,
on parchment, in sraall folio, although only
dating, according to the inscription, from
A. D. 916, and furnished with a Masorah, is
a yet greater treasure. Its vowels and ac
cents are wholly different from those now
in use, both in form and in position, being
all above the letters : they have according
ly been the theme of much discussion
amung Hebrew scholars. 3. Printed Text.
— The history of the printed text of the
Hebrew Bible commences with the early
Jewish editions of the separate books.
First appeared the Psalter, in 1477, proba
bly at Bologna, in 4to., with Kiraclu's com
mentary interspersed ampng the verses.
Only the first four psalms had the vowel-
points, aud these but clumsily expressed.
At Bologna there subsequently appeared,
in 14S2, the Pentateuch, in folio, pointed,
with the Targura and the commentary of
Rashi ; and the five Megilloth (Ruth — Es
ther), in folio, with the commentaries of
Rashi and Aben Ezra. From Soncino, near
Cremona, issued in 1486 the Prophetae
priorcs (Joshua — Kings), folio, unpoint
ed, with Kimchi's coraraentary. The hon
or of printing the first entire Hebrew Bible
belongs to the above-racntioned town of
Soncino. The edition is in folio, pointed
and accentuated. Nine copies only of it
are now known, of which one belongs to
Exeter Ccllege, Oxford. This was followed,
in 1494, by the 4to. or 8vo. edition printed
by Gersom at Brescia, reraarkable as being
tho edition from which Luther's German
translation was m.ade. After the Brescian,
the next primary edition was that contained
in the Coraplutensian Polyglot, published
at Coraplutum (Alcala) in Spain, at the ex
pense of CarSin.al Ximenes, dated 1514-17,
but not issued till 1522. To this succeeded
an edition which has had more influence
than any on the text of later times — the

Second Rabbinicid Bible, printed by Bom-
berg at Venice, 4 vols, fol., 1525-6. The
editor was the learned Tunisian Jew, R.
Jacob ben Chaini. The great feature of
his work Lay ip the correction of the text
by the precepts of the Masorah, in which
he was profoundly skilled, and on which,
as well as on the text itself, his labors were
employed. The Hebrew Bible which be
came the standard to subsequent generations
was that of Joseph Athias, a learned rabbi
and printer at Amsterdam. His text was
based on a comparison of the previous edi
tions with two MSS. ; one bearing date
1299, the other a Spanish MS., boasting an
antiquity of 900 years. It appeared at
Arasterdara, 2 vols. 8 vo. 1661. 4. Prin
ciples of Criticism. — The method of pro
cedure required in the criticism of the O.
T. is widely different frora that practised in
the criticisra of the N. T. Our O. T. tex-
tus receptus is a far raore faithful represen
tation ofthe genuine Scripture, but, on the
other hand, the raeans of detecting and
correcting the errors contained in it are
raore precarious, the results are more un
certain, and the ratio borne by the value of
the diplomatic evidence of MSS. to that of
a good critical judgment and sagacity is
greatly diminished- It is indeed to the d.
rect testimony of the MSS. that, in endeav
oring to establish the true te.xt, we. raust
first have recourse. The comparative puri
ty of the Hebrew text is probably difl'erent
in diff'erent parts of the O. T. In the re
vision of Dr. Davidson, who has generally
restricted himself to the admission of cor
rections warranted by MS., Masoretic, or
Talmudic authority, those in the book of
Genesis do. not exceed 11 ; those in tho
Psalms are proportionately three times as
numerous ; those in the historical books and
the Prophets are proportionately raore nu
raerous than those in the Psalms.
B. Intekpketation of the Old Testa
ment. 1. History of ihe Interpretation. —
At the period of the rise of Christianity two
opposite tendencies had manifested them
selves in the interpretation of the O. 'i.'
araong the Jews ; the one to an extreme lit
eralism, the other to an arbitrary allegorism.
The former of these was mainly develrped
in Palestine, where the Law of Moses was,
from the nature of things, most completolj
observed. On the other hand at Alexan
dria the allegorizing tendency prevailed.
Germs of it had appeared in the apocryphal
writings, as where in the Book of Wisdom
(xviii. 24) the priestly vestments "- f Aaron
had been treated as symbolical of the uni
verse. The Alexandrian interpreters were
striving to vindicate for the Hebrew Scrip
tures a new dignity in the eyes of the
Gentile world, by showing that Moses had
anticipated all the doctrines of the phUoso-
phers of Greece. The earUest Christian

OLD TESTAMENT

472

OLD TJISTAMENT

non-apostolic treatment of the 0. T. was
necessarily much dependent on that which
it had received from the Jews. TertuUian
well laid it down as a canon that the words
of Scripture were to be interpreted only in
their logical connection, and with reference
to the occasion on whieh they wore uttered.
The Christian interpreters by their belief
iu Christ stood on a vantage-ground for the
comprehension of the whole burden of the
O. T. to wliich the Jews had never reached ;
and thus, however they may have erred in
the details of their interpretations, they were
generally conducted by them to the right
conclusions in regard of Christian doctrine.
It was at Alexandria, which tljrough her
previous learning had already exerted the
deepest influence on the interpretation of
the 0. T., that definite principles of inter
pretation were by a new order of raen,
the raost illustrious and influential teachers
in the Christian Church, first laid down.
Clement here led the w;iy. He was suc
ceeded by his scliolar Origen. With hira
biblical interpretation showed itself more
decidedly Christian. Origen recognizes in
Scripture, .as it were, a body, soul, and
spirit, answering to the body, soul, and
spirit of raan : tbe first serves for the edifi
cation of the aimple, the second for that of
the more advanced, the third for that of the
perfect. The influence of Origen's writings
was supreme in the Greek Church for a
hundred years after his death. Augustine
stood somewhat in advance of Origen ; care
fully preserving in its integrity the literal
sense of the historical narrative of Scrip
ture as the sub.structure of the mystical,
lest otherwise the latter should prove to be
but a biiildiug in the air. In the interpre
tation whicli prevailed through the middle
ages, the mystical sense of Scripture was
entirely divorced from the literal. The flrst
impulse to the new investigation of the lit
eral raeaning of the text of the. 0. T. carae
from the great Jewish commentators, most
ly of Spanish origin, of the 11th and follow
ing coijl-urios ; R.ashi (f 1105), Aben Ezra
(t 1167), Kimchi (f 1240), and others.
2. Principles of Interpretation. — From the
foregoing sketch it will have appeared that
it has been very generally recognized that
the interpretation of the 0. T. embraces the
discovery of its litor.al, moral, and spiritual
raeaning. It has given oooasion to mis
representation to speak of the existence in
Scripture of raore than a single sense ;
rather, then, let it be said that there arc in
it three elements, co-existing and coalescing
with each other, and generally requiring
each other's presence in order tliat they may
be severally niiinifested. Correspondingly
too there are throe portions of the O. T.
in which the respective elements, each in
its turn, shine out with peculiar lustro.
The Uteral (and historical) element is most

obviously displayed in the historical narra
tive : the moral is specially honored in tho
Law, and in the hortatory addresses of the
Prophets : the predictions of the Prophet*
bear emphatic witness to the prophetical or
spiritual. With these preliminary observa
tions we may glance at the several branches
of the interpreter's task. First, then. Scrip
ture has its outward form or body, all the
several details of which he will have to ex
plore and to analyze- He must ascertain
the thing outwardly asserted, comraanded,
foretold, prayed for, or the like ; and this
with reference, so far as is possible, to the_
historical occasion and circumstances, the
tirae, the place, the -political and social posi
tion, the manner of life, the surrounding
influences, the distinctive character, and
the object in view, alike of the writers, the
persons addressed, and the persons who ap
pear upon the scene. From the outward
form of the O. T. we proceed to it! moral
element or soul. It was with reference to
this that St. Paul declared that all Scripture
was given by inspiration of God, and was
profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for cor
rection, for instruction in righteousness (2
'Tim. iii. 10) ; and it is in the implicit recog
nition ofthe essentially moral ch.aracter of
the whole, that our Lord and His apostles
not only appeal to its direct precepts {e. g.
Matt. XV. 4; xix. 17-19), and set forth the
fulness of their bearing (e. g. Matt. ix. 13),
but also lay bare raoral lessons in O. T.
passages wliich lie rather beneath the sur
face than upon it (Matt. xix. 5, 6, xxii. 32 ;
Jolm X. 34, 35 ; Acts vii. 48, 49 ; 1 Cor. ix.
9, 10; 2 Cor. viu. 13-15). With regard
more particul.arly to the Law, our Lord
shows in His Sermon on the Mou-at how
deep is the moral teaching implied in its
letter ; .and in His denunciation of the Phar
isees, upbraids them for their omission of
its weightier matters — judgment, mercy,
and faith. But the O. T. has further its
spiritual and therefore prophetical eleraent.
Our attention is here first attracted to tho
avowedly predictive parts of the O, T., of
the prospective reference of which, at the
time that they were uttered, no question can
exist, and the majority of which still await
ed their fulfilment when tho Kedoemor of
the world v/as born. With Christ the new
era of the fulfilment of prophecy com
menced. C. Qdotations rnoM the Old Testa
ment IN THE Nk-w Testajient. — 'The New
Testament quotations from the Old form
one of tho outward bonds of connection be
tween the two parts of the Bible. They
are manifold in kind. In tho quotations
of all kinds from the Old Testament in tho
New, we find a continual variation from the
Idter of tho older Scriptures. To this vari
ation three causes m.ay be specified as
having contributed: First, all he N. T.

OLIVE

478

OLIVE

writers quoted from the Septuagint; cor
recting it uideedmore or less by the Hebrew,
especially when it was needful for their
purpose ; occasionally deserting it altogeth
er; still abiding by it to so large an extent
as Jo show that it was the primary source
whence their quotations were dr.awn. Sec
ondly, the N. 'T. writers raust have frc-
iiuently quoted frora memory. Thirdly,
combined with this, there was an alteration
of conscious or unconscious design. Sorao
tiraes the object of this was to obtain in
creased force. Soraetiraes an 0. T. passage
is abridged, and in the abridgment so adjust
ed, by a little alteration, as to present an
aspect of completeness, and yet omit what
is foreign to the iramediate purpose (Acts
i. 20; 1 Cor. i. 31). At other tiraes a p.as-
siige is enlarged by the incorporation of a
p.assage from another source : thus in Luke
iv. 18, 19, although the contents are pro
fessedly those read by our Lord from Is.
Ixi.", we have the words " to set at liberty
them that are bruised," introduced from Is.
Iviii. 6 (Sept.) : sirailarly in Rom. xi. 8,
Deut. x.xix. 4 is combined with Is. x.xix.
10. In sorae cases still greater liberty of
alteration is assuraed. In some pl.aces
agiiin, the actual words of the original are
taken up, but employed with a new mean
ing. Almost more rem.arkable than any
alteration in tho quotation itself, is the cir
cumstance that in Matt, xxvii. 9, Jeremiah
should be naraed as the author of a proph
ecy really delivered by Zechari.ah ; the
reason being that the prophecy is based
upon that in Jer. xviii., .xix., and that with
out a refer .'noe to this origin.al source the
most essential features of the fulfilment of
Zechariah's prophecy would be misunder
stood. [Bible.]
Oli'Ve. No tree is more closely associ
ated with the history and civilization of
man. Many of the Scriptural associiitions
of the olive-tree are singularly poetical.
It has this reraarkable interest, i'n the first
place, that its foliage is the earliest that is
mentioned by niiiiie, when tlie vvaters ofthe
flood began to retire (Gen. viii. 11). Next
we find it tiie most prorainent tree in the
earliest allegory (Judg. ix. 8, 9). With
David it is tho emblem of prosperity and
the divine blessing (I's, lii. 8, cxxviii. 3).
So with the later prophets it is the symbol
of beauty, luxuriance, -and strength. We
must bear in mind, in reading this imagery,
that the olive was among tlie most abun
dant and characteristic vegetation of Ju
daea. Turning now to ths mystic imagery
of Zechariah (iv. 3, 11-14), and of St.
John in the Apocalypse (Rev. xi. 3, 4), we
flnd the olive-tree used, in both cases, in a
very remarkable wiiy. Finally, in the
argumentation of St. Piiul concerning the
relative positions of the Jews and Gentiles
in the counsels of God. this tree supplies

the basis of one of his raost forcible alle
gories (Rora. xi. 16-25). The Gentiles
iire the "wild olive " grafted in upon the
" good olive," to which once the Jews be
longed, and with which they may again be
incorporated. The olive-tree grows freely
almost everywhere on the shores of the
Mediterranean, but it was peculiarly abun
dant in Palestine (see Deut. vi. 11, viii. 8,-
xxviu. 40). Olive-yiirds arc a matter of
course in descriptions of the country, Uke
vineyards and cornfields (Judg. xv. 5 ; 1
Sam. viii. 14). The kings h.ad very exten
sive ones (1 Chr. xxvii. 28). Even now
the tree is very abundant in the country.
Alraost every village has its olive-grove.
Certain districts m.ay be specified where af
various times this tree has been very lux
uriant. The cultivation of the olive-tree
had the closest connection with the ihmies-
tic life ofthe Israelites (2 Chr. ii. 10), their
trade (Ez. xxvii. 17; Hos. xii. 1), and even
their public ceremonies and religious wor
ship. 'The oil Wiis used in coromitions :
thus it was an emblem of sovereignty (1
Sam. X. 1, xii. 3, 5). It was also mixed
with the offerings in sacrifice (Lev. ii. 1, 2,
6, 15). For the burning of it in common
lamps see Matt. xxv. 3, 4, 8. The use of
it on the hair and skin was customary, and
indicative of cheerfulness (Ps. xxiii. 5 ;
Matt. vi. 17). It was also employed me
dicinally in surgical cases (Luke x. 34).
See again Mark vi. 13 ; J.am. v. 14, for its
use in combination with priiyer on behalf
of the sick. In Soloraon's temple the
cherubim were " of olive-tree" (1 K. vi.
23), .as also the doors (vers. 31, 32) and
the posts (ver. 33). As to the berries
(J.am. iii. 12; 2 Esd. xvi. 29), which pro
duce the oil, they were sometimes gathered
by shaking the tree (Is. xxiv. 13), some
times by beating it (Deut. xxiv. 20). Then
followed the treading of the fruit (Deut.
xxxiii. 24; Mic. vi. 15). Hence the men
tion of " oil-fats " (Joel u. 24). The wind
was dreaded by the cultivator of the olive,
for the least ruffling of a breeze is apt to
cause the flowers to fall (Job xv. 33). It
is needless to add that tlie locust was a
formidable enemy of the olive (Amos iv.
9). It happened not unfrequently that
hopes were disappointed, and that " the
labor of the olive failed" (Hab. ui.' 17).
As to the growth of the tree, it thrives
best in warm and sunny situations. It is
of a moderate height, with knotty gnarled
trunks, and a smooth ash-colored bark. It
grows slowly, but it lives to an immense
age. Its look is singularly indicative of
tenacious vigoi ,- and this is the force of
what is said in Scripture of its "green
ness," as emblematic of strength and. pros
perity. The leaves, too, are not deciduous.
Those who see olives for the first time are
occasionally , disappohited by the dustj

OLIVES, MOUNT OF

474

OLI"VES, MOUNT OF

color of their foiiage; but those who are
familiar with them find an inexp f essible
charm in the rippling changes of their
slender gray-green leaves.
Olives, Mount of. The exact ex
pression " the Mount of Olives " occurs in
the O. T. in Zech. xiv. 4 only ; in the other
places of the O. T. in which it is referred
to, the form eraployed is the " ascent of
the olives " (2 Sam. xv. 30 ; A. V- inaccu
rately "the ascent of Mount Olivet"), or
simply "the Mount" (Neh. viu. 15), "the
mount facing Jerusalem" (1 K. xi. 7), or
" the mountain which is on the east side of
the city" (Ez. xi. 23). In the N. T. three
forms of the word occur: 1. The usual
one, "the Mount of Olives." 2. By St.
Luke twice (xix. 29, xxi. 37), " the mount
caUed the Mount of Olives." 3- Also by
St. Luke (Acts i. 12), the "mount called
Olivet." But in the Greek text, both in
the Gospel and the Acts, the same word is
used, triinslated by the Vulgate " Olive-
turn," that is, the Mount of Olives- — It is
the well-known eminence on the east of
Jerusalem, intimately connected with some
of the gravest events of the history of the
Old Testaraent and the New Testament, the
scene of the flight of David and the trium
phal progress of the Son of David, of the
idolatry of Soloraon, and the agony and
betrayal of Christ. It is not so much a
" raount" as a ridge, of rather raore than a
mile in length, running in general direction
north and south, covering the whole eastern
side of the city. At its northern end the
ridge bends round to the west, so as to forra
an enclosure to the city on that side also.
But there is this difference, that whereas
on the north a space of nearly a raile of
tolerably level surface intervenes between
the walls of the city and the rising ground,
on the east the mount is close to the walls,
parted only by that which from the city it
self seeras no parting at all — the narrow
ravine of the Kidron- It is this portion
which is the real Mount of Olives of the
history. In general height it is not very
much above the city : 300 feet higher than
the Temple Mount, hardly more than 100
above the so-called Zion- The word "ridge "
has been used above as the only one avail
able for an erainence of sorae length and
even height ; but that word is hardly accu
rate. There is nothing " ridge-like " in the
appearance of the Mount of Olives, or of
any other of the liraestone hills of this dis
trict of Palestine ; all is rounded, swelling,
and regular iu forra. At a distance its out
line is almost horizontal, gradually sloping
away at its southern end; but when seen
from below the eastern wall of Jerusalem,
it divides itself into three, or rather per
haps four, independent suraraits or emi
nences. Proceeding from north to south,
these occur in the foUowing orilor : Galilee,

or Viri Galilaei; Mount of the Ascension;
Prophets, subordinate to the last, and al
most a part of it; Mount of Offence- 1.
Of these the central one, distinguished by
the minaret and domes ofthe Church ofthe
Ascension, is in every way the most impor
tant. Three paths lead from the valley to
the summit. The first passes under the
north wall of the enclosure of Gethsemane,
and follows the line of the depression be
tween the centre and the northern hill.
The second parts frora the first about 50
yards beyond Gethsemane, and striking off
to the right up the very breast of the hill,
surmounts the projection on which is the
traditiouiil spot of the Lamentation over
Jerusalem, and thence proceeds directly
upwards to the village. The third leaves
the other two at the N. E. corner of Geth
semane, and making a considerable detour
to the south, visits the so-called " 'Tombs
of the Prophets," and, following a very ,
slight depression which occurs at that part
of the mount, arrives in its turn at the vil
lage. Of these three paths, the first, from
the fact that it follows the natural shape
of the ground, is unquestionably older than
the others, which deviate in pursuit of cer
tain artificial objects. Every consideration
is in favor of its being the road taken by
David in his flight. It is, with equal proba
bility, that usually taken by our Lord and
His disciples in their morning and evening
transit between Jerusalem and Bethanj',
and that also by which the Apostles re
turned to Jerusalem after the Ascension.
The central hill, which we are now con
sidering, purports to contain the sites of
sorae of the most sacred and impressive
events of Christian history. The majority
of these sacred spots now command little
or no attention ; but three still remain, suf
ficiently sacred — if authentic, — to conse
crate any place. These are: (1.) Geth
semane, at the foot of the mount- (2.)
The spot from which our Saviour ascend
ed on the sumniit. (3.) The place of the
Lamentation of Christ over Jerusalera, half
way up. Of these, Gethsera.ane is the only
one which has any claim to be authentic.
[Gethsemane.] 2. We have spoken of
the central aud principal portion of the
raount- Next to it on the southern side,
separated from it by a slight depression,
up which the path mentioned above as the
third takes its course, is a hill which ap
pears neither to possess, nor to have pos
sessed, any independent name. It is re
markable only for the fact that it contains
the " singular catacorab " known as the
"Torabs of the Prophets," probably in al
lusion to the words of Christ (Matt. xxui.
29). 3. The most southern portion of
the Mount of Olives is that usually known
as the "Mount of Offence," Mons Of-
fensionis. It rises next to that last men*

OLIVES, MOUNT OF

475

OMRI

tioned; and in the hollow between the two,
more marked than the depressions between
the more northern portions, runs the road
from Bethany, which was without doubt the
road of Christ's entry to Jerusalem. The
title Mount of Offence, or Scandal, was be
stowed on the supposition that it is the
" Mount of Corruption " on which Solomon
erected the high pl.aces for the gods of his
foreign wives (2 K. xxui. 13; IK. xi. 7).
The southern summit is considerably lower
than the centre one. 4. The only one ofthe
four summits reraaining to be considered is
that on the north of the " Mount of Ascen
sion " the Karerh es Seyad, or Vineyard of
the Sportsman; or, as it is called by the
modern Latin and Greek Christians, the Viri
Galilaei. This is a hill of exactly the same
character .as the Mount of the Ascension,
and so neiirly its equal in height that few
travellers agree as to which is the more
lofty. The suraraits of the two are about
400 yards apart- It stands directly oppo
site the N. E. corner of Jerusalera, and is
approached by the path between it and the
Mount of Ascension, which strikes at the
top into a cross-path leading to el-Isawiyeh
and Anata. 'The Arabic narae well reflects
the fruitful character of the hill, on which
there aro several vineyards, besides rauch
cultivation of other kinds. The Christian
narae is due to the singular tradition, that
here the two angels addressed the Apostles
after our Lord's ascension — " Ye raen of
GaUlee 1 " This idea, which is so incom
patible, on account of the distance, even
with the traditional spot of the Ascension,
is of late existence -and inexplicable origin.
— The presence of the crowd of churches
and other edifices must have rendered the
Mount of Olives, during the early and
middle ages of Christianity, entirely unlike
what it was in the timo of the Jewish king
dora or of our Lord. Except the high places
on the suramit, the only buildings then to
be seen were probably the walls of the
vineyard-s and gardens, and the towers and
presses which were their invariable accom
paniment. But though the churches are
nearly all demolished, there must be a con
siderable difference between the aspect of
the mountain now and in those days when
it received its name frora the abundance of
its olive-groves. It does not now stand so
pre-eraincnt in this respect araong the hills
in the neighborhood of Jerusalem- It is
only in the deeper and more secluded slope
leading up to the northernmost summit that
these venerable trees spread into anything
like a forest- The cedars coraraeraorated
by the Talmud, and the date-palms implied
in the name Bethany, have fared still worse ;
there is not one of either to be found within
many miles. Two reUgious ceremonies per
formed there must have done much to in
crease the numbers who resorted to the

mount. The appearance cf the new mo in
was probably watched for, jcrtainly pro
claimed, frora the surarait. The second
cereraony referred to was the burning of
the Red Heifer. Tliis solemn ceremonial
was enacted on the central mount, and in a
spot so carefully specified that it would
seem not difficult to flx it. It was due east
of the sanctuary, and at such an elevation
on the raount that the officiating priest,
as he slew the aniraal and sprinkled her
blood, could see the facade of the sanctuary
through the east gate of the Teraple. To
this spot a viaduct was constructed across
tlie vaUey on a double row of arches, so as
to raise it far above all possible proxiraity
with graves or other defileraents. It was
probably demolished by the Jews them
selves on tlie approach of Titus, or even
earlier, when Pompey led his army by Jer
icho and over the Mount of Olives. This
would account satisfactorily for its not be
ing alluded to by Josephus.
Ol'ivet (2 Sam. XV. 30; Acts i. 12).
[Olives, Mount of.]
Olym'pas, a Christian at Rome (Rora.
xvi. 15), perhaps of the household of Phi
lologus. O'mar, son of Eliphaz the firstborn of
Esau, and " duke " or phylarch of Edom
(Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15; 1 Chr. i. 36).
OmQ'gS, the last letter of the Greek al
phabet, as Alpha is the first. It is used
metaphorically to denote the end of any
thing : " I am Alpha and Omega, the begin
ning and the ending, . . . the first and the
last" (Rev. i. 8, 11).
O'mer. [Weights and Measukes.]
Om'ri. 1. Originally " captain of the
host" to Elah, was afterwards hiraself king
of Israel, and founder of the third dynasty.
When Elah was raurdered by Zirari at Tir
zah, then capital of the northern kingdora,
Orari was engaged in the siege of Gibbe
thon, situated in .the tribe of Dan, which
had been occupied by the Philistines. As
soon as the army heard of Ehili's' death,
they proclaimed Omri king. Thereupon he
broke up the siege of Gibbethon, and at
tacked 'Tirzah, where Zimri was holding
his court as king of Israel. The city was
taken, and Zimri perished in the flames of
the palace, after a reign of seven days.
Orari, however, was not allowed to estab
lish his dynasty without a struggle against
Tibni, whom " half the people " (1 K. xvi.
21) desired to raise to the throne. The
civil war lasted four years (cf. 1 K. xvi. 15,
with 23). . After the defeat and death of
Tibni, Omri reigned for six years in Tir
zah ; but at the end of that time he trans
ferred his residence, probably frora the
proved inability of Tirzah to stand a siege,
to the raountain Shomron, better known by
its Greek narae Samaria, which he bought
for two talents of silver from a rich man,

ON

476

ONIAS

otherwise unknown, called Shemer. At
Saraaria Omri reigned for six years more.
He seems lo have been a vigcrous and un-
Bcruiiulous ruler, anxious to strengthen his
dynasty by intercourse and alliances with
foreign states. The probable date of Omri's
accession {i. e. of the deaths of Elah and
Zirari) was b. c. 935 ; of Tibni's defeat and
the beginning of Omri's sole reign b. o. 931,
and of his death b. c. 919. 2. One of the
sons of Becher the son of Benjamin (1 Chr.
vii. 8). 3. A descendant of Pharez the son
of Jud.ah(lChr. ix. 4). 4. Son of Michael,
and chief of the tribe of Issachar in the
reign of David (1 Chr. xxvi. 18).
On, the son of Peleth, and one of the
chiefs ofthe tribe of Reuben, who took p.art
with Korah, Dathan, and Abirara in their
revolt against Moses (Num. xvi. 1). His
name does not again appear in the narra
tive of the conspiracy, nor is he alluded to
when reference is made to tho final catas-
tropl'«- On, a town of Lower Egypt, which is
mentioned in tho Bible under at least two
names, Betii-Siiemesii (Jer. xlui. 13),
corresponding to the ancient Egyptian
sacred narae Ha-ra, " the abode of the
sun," and that above, corresponding to the
common name An. On is better known
under its Greek name Heliopolis. It was
situate on the cast side of the Pelusiac
branch of the NUe, just below the point of
the Delta, asd about twenty miles north
east of Meraphis. The chief object of
worship at Heliopolis was the sun, whose
temple, described by Strabo, is now only
represented by the single beautiful obelisk,
which is of red granite, 68 feet 2 inches
high above the pedestal. Heliopolis was
anciently faraous for its learning, and Eu-
doxus and Plato studied under its priests.
The first mention of this place in the Bible
is in the history of Joseph, to whora we
read Pharaoh gave "to. wife Asenath the
daughter of Potipherah, priest of Ou "
(Gen. xii. 45, comp. ver. 50, and xlvi. 20).
O'nam. 1. Ono of the sons of Shobal
the son of Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 23 ; 1 Chr. i.
40). 2. Tho son of Jerahmeel by his wife
At.arah (1 Chr. ii. 26, 28).
O'nan, the second son of Judah by the
Canaanitess, "the dauffhter of Shua " (Gen.
xxxviii. 4; 1 Chr. ii. '3). "What he did
was evil in the eyes of Jehovah, and He
slew him also," as Ho had slain his elder
brother (Gen. xx.xviii. 9). His dciith took
place before tho family of Jacob went down
into Egypt (Gen. xlvi. 12; Num. xxvi. 19).
Ones'imus is the name of the servant
or slave in whose behalf Paul wrote the
EpisJe to Philemon. He was a native, or
certainly an inh.abitant, of Colossae, since
Paul in .writing to the Church there speaks
of him (Col. iv. 9) as " one of you."
Slaves were n imerous iu Phrygia, and tbe

narae itself of Phrygian was almost synon
ymous with thiit of slave. Onesimus was
one of this unfortunate class of persons,
as is evident both from the manifest impli
cation in Phil. 16, and from the general
tenor of the Epistle. The man escaped
from his master and fled to Rome, where in
the midst of its vast population he could
hope to be concealed. Though it raay be
doubted whether Onesimus heard the gos
pel for the first time at Rome, it is beyond
question that he was led to embrace the
gospel there through the apostle's instru
mentality. The language in ver. 10 of the
letter is explicit on this point. After his
conversion, the most happy and friendly
relations sprung up between the teacher
and the disciple. The situation of the
apostle as a captive and an indefatigable
laborer for the promotion of the gospel
(Acts xxviii. 30, 31) must have made him
keenly alive to the sympathies of Christian
friendship, and dependent upon others for
various services of a personal nature,, im
portaut to his efficiency as a minister of the
word. Onesimus appears to have supplied
this twofold want in an eminent degree.
Whether Paul desired his presence as a
personal attendant or as -a minister of the
gospel, is not certain from ver. 13 of the
Epistle. Onesiph'orus is n.amed twice only in
the N. T., viz. 2 Tim. i. 16-18, and iv- 19.
In the former passage Piiul mentions him
in terms of grateful love, as having a noble
courage and generosity in his behalf, araid
his trials as a prisoner at Rome, when others
from whom he expected better things had
deserted him (2 Tim. iv. 16) ; and in the
latter piissage be singles out "the house
hold of Onesiphorus " as worthy of a special
greeting. It has been made a question
whether this friend of the apostle was still
Uving when the letter to Timothy was writ
ten, because in both instances Paul speaks
of "tho household" (in 2 Tira. i. KJ) and
not separately of Onesiiihorus hiraself.
The probability is, that other raembers of
the family were also active Christians ; iind
as Paul wished to remember thom at the
same time, he grouped thera togethtr (2
'Tim. iv. 19), and thus delicately recognized
the common merit, as a sort of faraily dis
tinction. It is evident frora 2 'Tira. i. 18,
that Onesiphorus had his home at Ephesus ;
though if we restrict the salutation near the
closeof the K;iistlo (iv. 19) to h s faraily
he himself may possibly have been with
Paul at Rome when the latter wrote to
Timothy. Oni'as, the name of five high-priests in
the period between the Old and New Testa
ments. 1. The son and successor of Jad
dua, about' B. c. 330-309. According to
Josephus he was father of Siraon the Just
2. The son of Simop the J'jst. He was a

ONIAS, CITY OP

477

OPHIR

minor at the time of his father's death
(about B. c. 290), and the high-priesthood
was occupied in succession by his uncles
Eleazar and Manasseh to his exclusion.
He entered fn the office about b. c. 240,
and retained it till his death, about b. c.
226, when he was succeeded by his son
Simon II. 3. 'The son of Simon IL, who
succeeded his father in the high-priesthood,
about E. c. 198. Seleucus Philop.ator was
informed by Simon, governor of the Tem- -
pie, of the riches contained in the sacred
treasury, and he made an attempt to seize
them by force. At the prayer of Onias, ac
cording to the tradition (2 Mace, iii.), the
sacrilege was averted ; but the high-priest
was obliged to appeal to the king himself
for support against the machinations of
Simon. Not long afterwards, Seleucus died
(b. c. 175), and Onias found himself sup
planted in the fiivor of Antiochus Epiphanes
by his brother Jason, who received the
high-priesthood- from the king. Jason, in
turn, was displaced by his youngest brother
Menelaus, who procured the murder of
Onias (about b. c. 171). 4. The youngest
brother of Onias IIL, who bore the same
name, which he afterwards exchanged for
Menelaus. 5. The son of Onias III., who
sought a refuge in Egypt from the sedition
and sacrilege which disgraced Jerusalem.
The immediate occasion of his flight was
the triumph of "the sons of 'Tobias,"
gained by the interference of Antiochus
Epiphanes. Onias, receiving the protec
tion of Ptol. Philometor, endeavored to
give a unity to the Hellenistic Jews. With
this object he. founded the temple at Le-
ontopolis. Oni'as, The City of. The Region
of Onias, the city in which stood the tem
ple built by Oniiis, and the region of the
Jewish settlements in Egypt.
Onions occur only in Num- xi. 5, as
one of the good things of Egypt of which
the Israelites regretted the loss- Onions
have been from time immemorial a favorite
article of food amongst the Egyptians. The
onions of Egypt are much milder in flavor
aud less pungent than those of this country.
O'no, one of the towns of Benjamin, is
first found in 1 Chr. viii. 12, where Shamed
or Shamer is said to have built Ono and
Lod with their " daughter villages." A
plain was attached to the town, called " the
plain of Ono" (Neh. vi. 2), perh.aps identi
cal with the "valley of craftsraen" (Neh.
xi. 36).
Onycha occurs only in Ex. xxx. 34, as
one i;f tho ingredients of the sacred per
fume. In Ecclus. x.xiv. 15, Wisdom is
compared to the pleasant odor yielded by
"galbanum, onyx, and sweet storax." It
is probably the operculum of a Strombus,
perhaps S. leniiginosus.
Onyx, the translation of the Heb. sA^-

ham ; but there is nothing in the contexts
of the several passages (Gen. ii. 12; Ex.
xxviu. 9, 20 ; 1 Chr. xxix. 2 ; Ez. xxviu 13)
where tfee Hebrew term occurs to help us
to determine its signification. Some wri
ters beUeve that the "beryl" is intended;
but the balance of authority is in favor of
some variety of the onyx.
O'phel, a p.art of ancient Jerusalem.
The narae is derived by the lexicogriiphers
frora a root of similar sound, which has the
force of a swelling or tumor. It does not
come forward till a Late period of Old 'Test.
history. In 2 Chr. xxvii. 3, Jothara is said
to have built rauch " on the wall of Ophel."
Manasseh, .araongst his other defensive
works, "compassed about Ophel" {Ibid.
xxxiii. 14). Frora tloc catalogue of Nehe
miah's repairs to the w.all of Jerusalera, it
appears to have been near the "water-
gate" (Neh. iii. 26) and the "great tower
that lieth out" (ver. 27). Lastly, the for
mer of these two passiiges, and Neh. xi. 21,
show that Ophel was the residence of the
Levites. Josephus in his account of tie
last days of Jerusalem mentions it foiir
times as Ophla. Ophel was the swelling
declivity by which the Mount of the Teu^
pie slopes off on its southern side into the
V.alley of Hinnora — a long, narrowish,
rounded spur or promontory, which inter
venes between the mouth of the central
valley of Jerusalem (the Tyropoeon) and
the Kidron, or Valley of Jehoshaphat. Half
way down it on its eastern face is the
"Fount of the Virgin," so called; and at
its foot the lower outlet of the same spring
— the Pool of Siloam.
O'phir. 1. The eleventh in order of
the sons of Joktan, coming imraediately
after Slieba (Gen. x. 29 ; 1 Chr. i. 23).
From the way in which the sons of Joktan
are here described, it is evident that this
Ophir corresponds to some city, region, or
tribe in Arabia. 2. A seaport or region
from which the Hebrews in the time of Sol
omon ohtiiined gold, in vessels which wentj
thither in conjunction with Tyrian ships
from Ezion-geber, near Elath, on that
branch of the Red Sea 'K'hich is now called
the Gulf of Akabah. The gold 'B-as pro-
verbiiil for its fineness, so that " gold of
Ophir" is several times used as an expres
sion for fine gold (Ps. xiv. 10; Job xxviii.
16 ; Is. xiii. 12 ; 1 Chr. xxix. 4) ; and in one
passage (Job xxii. 24) the word "Ophir"
by itself is used for gold of Ophir, and for
gold generally. In addition to gold, the
vessels brought from Ophir almug-wood
and precious stones. The precise geograph
ical situation of Ophir has long been a
subject of doubt and discussion. The two
countries which have divided the opinions
of the learned have been Arabia and India,
while some have placed it in Africa. There
are only five passages in the historical hooka

OPHIR

478

ORGAN

which mention Ophir by name ; three in the
Books of Kings (1 K. ix., 26-29, x. 11, xxu.
48), and two in the Books of Chronicles
(2 Chr. viu. 18, ix. 10). The latter were
probably copied from the former. In addi
tion to these passages, the following verse
in the Book of Kings has very frequently
been referred to Ophir : " For the king {i. e.
Solomon) had at sea a navy of Tharshish
with the navy of Hiram : once in three years
came the navy of Tharshish bringing gold
and silver, ivory, and apes, and peacocks "
(1 K. X. 22). But there is not sufficient
evidence to show that the fleet mentioned
in this verse was identical with the fleet
mentioned in 1 K. ix. 26-29, and 1 K. a. 11,
as bringing gold, alraug-trees, and precious
stones frora Ophir. , If the three passages
of the Book of Kings are carefully exara
ined, it will be seen that all the information
given respecting Ophir is, that it was a
place or region accessible by sea from
Ezion-geber on the Red Sea, frora 'Vhich
imports of gold, alraug-trees, and precious
stones were brought back by the Tyrian and
Hebrew sailors. Now we have seen above
that the author of the 10th chiipter of Gen
esis certainly regarded Ophir as the narae
of sorae city, region, or tribe in Arabia.
And it is alraost equally certain that the
Ophii jf Genesis is the Ophir of the Book
of Kings. There, is no mention, either in
the Bible or elsewhere, of any other Ophir ;
an'l the idea of there having been two
Ophirs evidently arose from a perception of
the obvious meaning of the 10th chapter of
Genesis, on the one hand, coupled with the
erroneous opinion, on the other, th.at the
Ophir of the Book of Kings couM not have
been in Arabia. Hence the burden of
proof Ues on any one who denies Ophir to
have been in Arabia. There do not, how
ever, appear to be sufficient data for deter
mining in favor of any one emporium or of
any one locality rather than another in
Arabia, as having been the Ophir of Solo
mon. Tho Book of Kings certainly suggests
the inference that there was sorae connec
tion between the visit ofthe Queen of Sheba
and the voyage to Ophir, but this would be
consistent with Ophir being either contig
uous to Sabaea, or situated on any point
of the southern or eastern coasts of Arabia ;
as in either of these cases it would hiive
been politic in Solomon to concili.ate the
good -will of the Sabaeans, who occupied a
long tract of the eastern coast of the Red
Sea, and who raight possibly have cora-
manded the Straits of Bab-,el-mandeb. In
answer to objections against the obvious
raeaning of the tenth chapter of Genesis,
the alternatives raay be stated as follows.
Either Ophir, although in Arabia, produced
gold and precious stones ; or, if it shall Le
hereafter proved in the progress of geologi
cal investigation that this could not have

been the case, Ophir furnished gold and
precious stones as an emporium.
Oph'ni, a town of Benjamin, mentioned
in Josh, xviii. 24, the same as the Gophna
of Josephus, a place which at the time_ of
Vespasian's invasion was apparently so im
portant as to be second only to Jerusalem.
It stUl survives in the raodern Jifna or
Jufna, 24 raUes north-west of Bethel.
Oph'rah. 1. A town in the tribe of
Benjarain (Josh- xviu. 23; 1 Sara, xiii- 17).
Jerorae places it 5 miles east of Bethel. It
is perhaps et- Taiyibeh, a small village on
the crown of a conspicuous hill, 4 miles
Y,.'S.'E,.ot Beitin {Bethel). 2. More fully
Ophkah op the Abi-ezkites, the native
place of Gideon (Judg. vi. 11) ; the scene
of his exploits against Baal (ver. 24) ; his
residence after his accession to power (ix.
5), and the place of his burial in the family
sepulchre (viu. 32). It was probably in
Manasseh (vi. 15), and not far distant from
Shechem (ix. 1, 5). 3. The son of Meono-
thai (1 Chr- iv. 14).
Orator. 1. The A. V. rendering in Is.
iii. 3, for what is literally " skilful in whis •
per, or incantation." 2. The title applied
to 'TertuUus, who appeared as the advocate
or patronus of the Jewish accusers of St.
Paul before Felix (Acts xxiv. 1 ) .
Orchard- [Gakden.]
O'reb, the " raven " or " crow," the com
panion of Zeeb, the "wolf," was one ofthe
chieftains of the Midi.anite host which in
vaded Israel, and was defeated and driven
back by Gideon. The defeat is but slightly
touched upon in the narrative of Judges,
but the terras in which Isaiah refers to it
(x. 26) are such as to imply that it was a
truly awful slaughter. He places it in the
same rank with the two raost tremendous
disasters recorded in the whole of the his
tory of Israel — the destruction of the Egyp,-
tians in the Red Sea, and of the army of
Sennacherib (corap. Ps. Ixxxiii.). The
slaughter was concentrated round the rock
at which Oreb fell, and which was long
known by his narae (Judg. vii. 25 ; Is. x. 26).
0'j:eb, The Rock, the "raven's crag,"
the spot, E. of Jordan, at which the Mid
ianite chieftain Oreb, with thousands of his
countrymen, fell by the hand of the Ephra
imites, and which probably acquired its
name therefrom. It is mentioned in Judg-
vu. 25 ; Is. X. 26- Perhaps the place called
'Orbo, which in the Bereshith Rabba is
stated to have been in the neighborhood
of Bethshean, may have some connection
with it.
O'ren. One of the sons of Jerahmeel,
the first-born of Hezron (1 Chr. ii. 25).
Organ (Gen. iv. 21 ; Job xxi. 12, xxx.
31; Ps. cl. 4). The Hebrew word 'Agdb
or 'uggdb, thus rendered in our version,
probiibly denotes a pipe or perforated wind-
instrument, as the root of the w ord indicates.

ORION

479

OSTRICH

In Gen. if. 21 it appears to be a general
term for all wind-instruraents. In Job xxi.
12, are enumerated the three kinds of musi
cal instruments which are possible, under
the general terras of the timbrel, harp, and
organ. Some identify it with the Pandean
pipes, or syrinx, an instruraent of unques-
tion.ably ancient origin, and comraon in the
East. Ori'on. That the constellation known
to the Hebrews by the narae cesil is the
same as that which the Greeks called Orion,
and the Arabs " the giant," there seems
little reason to doubt (Job ix. 9, xxxvui.
31; Am. v. 8). The "giiint"of Oriental
astronomy was Nimrod, the mighty hunter,
who was fabled to have been bound in the
sky for his impiety. The two dogs and the
hare, which are among the constelliitions in
the neighborhood of Orion, made his train
complete. There is possibly an allusion to
this belief in " the bands of cesil " (Job
xxxviii. 31).
Ornaments, Personal. The num
ber, viiriety, and weight of the ornaments
ordinarily worn upon the person form one of
tho characteristic features of Oriental cos
tume, both in ancient and modern times.
The raonuraents of ancient Egypt exhibit the
hands of ladies loaded with rings, earrings-
of very great size, anklets, arralets, bracelets
of the raost varied character, richly orna
mented necklaces, and chains of various
kinds. There is sufficient evidence in the
Bible that the inhabitants of Palestine were
equally devoted to finery. In tbe Old
Testament, Isaiah (iu. 18-23) supplies us
with a detailed description of the articles
with which the luxurious woraen of his
day were decorated, and the picture is filled
up by incidental notices in other places.
The notices which occur in the early books
of the Bible imply the weight and abun
dance of the ornaments worn at that period.
Eliezer decor.ated Rebekah with "a golden
nose-ring of half a shekel weight, and two
bracelets for her hands of ten skekels
weight of gold " (Gen. xxiv. 22). Earrings
were worn by Jacob's wives, apparently as
charms, for they are raentioned in connec
tion with idols (Gen. xx.xv. 4). The orna
ments worn by the patriarch Judah were a
" signet," which was suspended by a string
round the neck, and a " staff" (Gen.
xxxviii. 18) ; the staff itself was probably
ornaraented. The flrst notice of the ring
occurs in reference to Joseph, when he
was made ruler of Egypt (Gen. xii. 42).
The nuraber of personal ornaraents worn
by the Egyptians, particularly by the fe
males, is incidentally noticed in Ex. in. 22.
The poetical portions of the O. T. contain
numerous references to the ornaments worn
by the Israelites in the time of their high
est prosperity- The appearance of the
bride is thus described iu the book of the

Canticles: " Thy cheeks are comely with
beads, thy neck with perforated {pearls) ;
we will make thee beads of gold with studs
of silver " (i. 10, 11). Her neck rising tall
and stately, " like the tower of David builded
for an armory," was decorated with vari
ous ornaments hanging like the "thousand
bucklers, all shields of mighty men, on the
walls of the armory " (iv. 4) ; her hair
falling gracefully over her neck is de
scribed figuratively as a "chain " (iv. 9) ;
and " the roundings " (not as in the A. "V".
"the joints") of her thighs are likened to
the pendant of an earring, which tapers
gradually downwards (vii. 1). The pas
sage of Isaiah (iu. 18-23) may be rendered
as. follows: (18) "In that day the Lord
will tiike away the bravery of their anklets,
and their lace caps, and their necklaces;
(19) the ear-pendants, and the bracelets,
and the light veils ; (20) the turbans, and
the step-chains, and the girdles, and the
scent-bottles, and the amulets; (21) the
rings and nose-rings ; (22) the state-dresses,
and the cloaks, and the shawls, and the
purses; (23) the mirrors, and the fine
linen shirts, and the turbans, and the light
dresses." Or'nan, the sarae as Araunah (1 Chr.
xxi. 15; 2 Chr. iii. 1). [Aeaunah.]
Or'pah, a Moabite woman, wife of Chii
ion, son of Naomi, and thereby sister-in-
law to Ruth (Ruth i. 4, 14).
O'shea. [Joshua.]
. Ospr ay {Heh.ozniyydh). The Hebrew
word occurs in Lev. xi. 13, and Deut. xiv.
12, as the name of some unclean bird. It
is probably either the ospray {Pandion
haliaeetus) or the white-t.ailed eagle {Ha-
liaectus albicella).
Ossifrage (Heb. peres). The Hebrew
word occurs, as the name of an unclean
bird, in Lev. xi. 13, and Deut. xiv. 12. If
much weight is to he allowed to etyraology,
the peres ot the Hebrew Scriptures may
well be represented by the ossifrage or
bone-breaker ; for peres in Hebrew means
"the breaker." And tho ossifrage {Gy-
paetus barbatus) is well deserving of his
name. The Lammergeyer, or bearded vul
ture, as it is sometimes called, is one of
the largest of the birds of prfey.
Ostrich- There can be no doubt that
the Hebrew words bath haya'andh, yd'Sn,
and rdndn, denote this bird of the desert.
1- Bath haya'andh occurs in Lev. xi.
16, Deut. xiv. 15, in the list of unclean
birds ; and in other passages of Scripture.
The A. V- erroneously renders the Jlebrew
expression, which signifies either " daughter
of greediness " or " daughter of shouting," by
'.' owl," or, as in the raargin, by " daughter
of owl." In Job xxx. 29, Is. xxxiv. J-3,
and xliu. 20, the margin of the A V. cor
rectly reads " ostriches." The loud crying
of the ostrich sesms to be rsferred to iu

OSTRICH

480

OTHNIEL

Mic. i. 8. 2. Yd'Sn occurs in Lara. iv. 3,
where the context shows that the ostrich is
intended. 3. Rdndn occurs in Job xxxix.
13, where it is clear from the whole p.as
sage (13-18) that ostriches are intended by
the word. The A. V. erroneously trans
lates the word "peacocks;" but there is
a different Hebrew name for peacocks,
and this bird was probably not known to
the people of Arabia or Syria before the
time of Solomon. The "ostrich" ofthe
A. V. in Job xxxix. 13 is the represen
tative of the Hebrew ndtseh, "feathers."
— The fuUowing short .account of the
nidific.ation of the ostrich {Struthio came-
lus) will elucidate those passages of Scrip
ture which ascribe cruelty to this bird in
neglecting her eggs or young. Ostriches
are polygamous : the hens lay their eggs
promiscuously in one nest, which is merely
a hole scratched rin tho sand; the eggs are
then covered over to the depth of about a
foot, and are, in the case of thosS birds
which are found within the tropics, gen
erally left for the greater part of the day
to the heat of tho sun, the parent-birds
taking their turns at incubation during the
night. But in those countries which h.ave
not a tropical sun, ostriches frequently incu-
b.ate during the day, the male taking his
turn at night, and watching over the eggs
with great care .and affection, as is evi
denced by the fact that jackals and other
of the sraaller carnivora are occasionally
found dead near the nest, having been
killed by tho ostrich in defence of the eggs
or young. The habit of the ostrich leaving
its eggs to be matured by the sun's boat is
usually appealed to in order to confirm the
Scriptural account, " she leaveth her eggs
to the earth ; " but this is probably the case
only with the tropical birds. And even if
tlie Hebrews were acquainted with the hab
its of the tropical ostriches, how can it be
said that " she forgetteth that the foot may
crush " the eggs, when they .are covered a
foot deep or more in the sand ? We believe
the true explanation of this passage is to be
found in the fact that the ostrich deposits
some of her eggs not in the nest, but around
it; these lie about on the surface of the
eand, to all appearance forsaken ; they are,
however, designed for the nourishment of
the young birds. And this remark will hold
good in the passage of Job which spe.aks of
the ostrich being without understanding. It
is a general belief araongst the Arabs that
the ostrich is a very stupid bird ; indeed
they have a proverb, " Stupid as an ostrich."
But it by no "leans deserves such a charac
ter, as travellers have frequently testified.
" So wary is the bird," says Mr. Tristr.am,
" and so open are the vast plains over which
it roaras, that no arabuscades or artifices
can be eraployed, and the vulgar resource
of dogged perseverance is the only mode

of pursuit.'' The ostrich is the largest of
all known birds, and perhaps the swiftest
cf all cursorial animals. The feathers so
much prized are tho long -white plumes of
the wings. The best come to us from Bar
bary and the west coast of Africa.
Oth'ni, son of Shemai.ah, the first-boin
of Obed-Edom (1 Chr. xxxi. 7).
Oth'niel, son of Kenaz, and younger
brother of Caleb, Josh. xv. 17; Judg. i. 13,
iii. 9 ; 1 Chr. iv. 13. But these passages all
leave it doubtful whether Kenaz was his
father, or, as is more probable, the more
remote ancestor and head of the tribe,
whose descendants were called Kenezites
(Num. XXXU. 12, &c.), or sons of Kenaz.
If Jephunneh was Caleb's father, then prob
ably he was father of Othniel ateo. The
first mention of Othniel is on occasion of
the taking of Kirjath-Sepher, or Debir, as
it was afterwards called. Debir 'vvas in
cluded in the mountainous territory near
Hebron, within the border of Judah, as
signed to Caleb the Kenezite (Josh. xiv.
12-14) ; and in order to stimulate the valor
of the assailants, Caleb promised to give
his daughter Achsah to whosoever should
assault and take the city. Othniel won the
prize. The next mention of him is in Judg.
iii. 9, where he appears as the first judge of
Israel after the death of Joshua, and their
deliverer from the oppression of Chushan-
Rishathaira. This with his genealogy, 1
Chr. iv. 13, 14, which assigns hira a son,
Hathath, is all that we know of Othniel.
But two questions of some interest arise
concerning him. (1) As regards his relii-
tionship to Caleb, the doubt arises from the
uncertainty whether the words in Judg. iii.
9, " Othniel the son of Kenaz, Caleb's
younger brother," indicate tliat Othniel him
self, or that Kenaz, was the brother of Ca
leb. The most natural rendering makes
Othniel to be Caleb's brother- And this is
favored by the probability that Kenaz was
not Othniel's father, but the father and head
of the tribe. (2) And this leads to the sec
ond question, viz. the tirae of Othniel's
judgeship. Supposing Caleb to be about
the same age as Joshua, wo should have to
reckon about 25 years frora Othniel's mar
riage with Achsah till the dealh of Joshua
at the age of 110 years (85+25=110).
And if we t.ake Africanus's allowance of 30
years for the elders after Joshua, in whose
lifetime " the people served the Lord "
(Judg. ii. 7), and then allow 8 years for
Chushan-Rishathaim's dominion, and 40
years of rest under Othniel's judgeship, and
suppose Othniel to have been 40 years old
at his marriage, we obt.ain (40-|-25-f-30-f-
8+40 =) 143 years as Othniel's age at his
death. 'This, we are quite sure, cannot be
right. Nor does any escape from the diffi
culty very readily offer itself. If we judge
only by ordinary probabUities, we shall sup-

OVEN

481

OX

pose Othniel to have survived Joshua not
more tlian 20, or at the outside, 30 years.
O'ven. The Eastern oven is of two kinds
- fixed and portable. The former is found
only in towns, where regular bakers are
employed (Hos. vii. 4). The latter is
adapted to the nomad state. It consists
of a large jar made of clay, about three
feet liigh, and widening towards the. bot
tom, with a hole for the extraction of the
ashes. Each household possessed such an
article (Ex. viii. 3) ; and it was only in
times of extreme dearth that the same
oven sufficed for several families (Lev.
xxvi. 26). It was heated with dry twigs
and grass (Matt. vi. 30) ; and the loaves
were placed both inside and outside of it.

EgypHan Oven.
Owl, the representative in the A. V. of
the Hebrew words bath haya'andh, yan-
shAph, cds, kippdz, andlilith. 1. Bathha-
ya'andh. [Ostrich.] 2. YanshAph, or
yanshdph, occurs in Lev. xi. 17, Deut. xiv.
16, as the name of some unclean bird, and

Otus ascalaphus.

in Is. xxxiv. 11, in the description of deso
late Edom, "the yanshAph and the raven
shaU dwell in it." The A. V. translates
yanshAph by " owl," or " great owl." The
LXX. and Vulg. read ibis, i. e. the Ibis re-

ligiosa, the sacred bird of Egypt. 3. Cdi,
the name of au unclean bird (Lev. xi. 17 ;
Deut. xiv. 16) ; it occurs again in Ps. cii.
6. The passage in Ps. cii. 6 points de
cidedly to some kind of owl. The owl we
figure is the Otus ascalaphus, the Egyptiiin
and Asiatic representative of our great
horned owl {Bubo maximus). 4. Kippdz
occurs only in Is. xxxiv. 15 : " There {i. e.
in Edora) the kippdz shall make her nest,
and lay and hatch and gather under her
shadow." It is hopeless to attempt to iden
tify the aniraal denoted by tliis word ; but it
may denote some species of owl. 5. .Ltlith.

Athene meridUmatis.
The A. V. renders this word by "screech-
owl " in the text of Is. xxxiv. 14, and by
" night-monster " in the raargin. Accord
ing to the Rabbins the liltth was a noctur
nal spectre in the forra of a beautiful wo
man that carried off children at night and
destroyed thera. If, however, sorae aniraal
be denoted by the Hebrew term, the screech-
owl {strix flammea) raay well be supposed
to represent it, for this bird is found in the
Bible lands, and is, as is well known, a fre
quent inhabiter of ruined places.
Ox. There was no aniraal in the rural
econoray ef the Israelites, or indeed in that
of the ancient Orientals generally, that was
held in higher esteem than the ox ; and de
servedly so, for the ox was the animal upon
whose patient labors depended all the ordi
nary operations of farming. Oxen were usei?
for ploughing (Deut. xxii. 10; 1 Sam. xiv.
14, &c.) ; for treading out corn (Deut. xxv.
4; Hos. X. 11, &c.); for draught purposes,
when they were generally yoked in pairs
(Nura. vii. 3 ; 1 Sara. vi. 7, &c.) ; as beasts
of burden (1 Chr. xii. 40) ; their flesh was
eaten (Deut. xiv. 4 ; 1 K. i. 9, &c.) ; they
were used in the sacrifices ; cows supplied
railk, butter, &c. (Deut. xxxii. 14 ; Is. vii.
22; 2 Sam. xvii. 29). Connected with the

OZEM

482

PAINT

importance of oxen in the rural econoray
ofthe Jews is the strict code of laws which
was mercifully enacted by God for their
protection and preservation. The ox that
threshed the corn was by no means to be
muzzled; he was to enjoy rest on the Sab
bath as well as his master (Ex. xxiii. 12 ;
Deut. v. 14). The law which prohibited
the slaughter of any clean animal, except
ing as " an offering unto the Lord before
the tabernacle," during the time that the
Israelites abode in the wilderness (Lev.
xvu. 1-6), no doubt contributed to tho pres
ervation of their oxen and sheep. It seems
clear frora Prov. xv. 17, and 1 K. iv. 23,
that cattle were sometimes stall-fed, though
as a general rule it is probable that they
fed in the plains or on the hUls of Pales
tine. The cattle that grazed at large in the
open country would no doubt often become
fierce and wild, for it is to be remembered
that in primitive times the lion and other
wild beasts of prey roamed about Pales
tine. Hence the force of the Psalmist's
complaint of his eneraies (Ps. xxii. 13).
O'zem. 1. The sixth son of Jesse, the
next eldest above David (1 Chr. ii. 15).
2. Son of Jerahmeel (1 Chr- U. 25).
Ozi'as. 1. Uzzi, one of the ancestors
of Ezra (2 Esd. n. 2). 2. Uzziah, king
of Jud.ah (M.att. i. 8, 9).
Oz'ni. One of the sons of Gad (Num.
xxvi. 16), and founder of the family of the
Oznites, Num. xxvi. 16.

P.
Pa'arai. In the list of 2 Sam. xxiii.
35, "Paarai the Arbite" is one of David's
mighty men. In 1 Chr. xi. 37, he is called
" Naarai the son of Ezbai," and this in
Kennicott's opinion is the true reading.
Pa'dan. Padan-Aram (Gen. xlviu. 7).
Pa'dan-a'ram. By this name, which
signifies " the table-land of Aram," the
Hebrews designated the tract of country
which they otherwise called Aram-naha-
raira, "Aram ofthe two rivers," the Greek
Mesopotamia (Gen. xxiv. 10), and " the
field (Ai V. 'country') of Aram" (Hos.
xii. 13). The term was perhaps more espe
cially applied to that portion which bor
dered on the Euphrates, to distinguish it
from the mountainous districts in the N.
and N. E. of Mesopotamia. It is elsewhere
called Padan simply (Gen. xlviu. 7).
Pa'don. The ancestor of a famUy of
Nethinira who returned with Zerubbabel
(Ezr. u, 44; Neh. vu. 47).
Pa'giel. Tho sou of Ocran, and chief
of tho tribe of Asher at the time of the
Exodus (Nura. i. 13, u. 27, Tii. 72, 77, x.
26). Pa'hath -mo'ab. Hsad -A one of the

chief houses of the tribe of Judah- Of the
individual, or the occasion of his receiving
so singular a name, nothing is known cer
tainly. But as we read, in 1 Chr. iv. 22, ot
a family of ShUonites, of the tribe of Ju
dah, who in very early times " had domin
ion in Moab," it may be conjectured that
this was the origin of the name. That this
family was of high rank in the tribe of
Judah we learn from their appearing /owrtA
in order in the two Usts, Ezr. u. 6 ; Neh.
vii. 11, and from their chief having signed
second among the lay princes, in Neh. x.
14. It was also the most numerous (2818)
of all the families specified, except the
Benjamite house of Senaah (Neh. vii. 38). '
Pa'i- [Pau.]
Paint (as a cosmetic). The use of cos
metic dyes has prevailed in all ages in
Eastern countries. We have abundant evi
dence of the practice of painting the eyes
both in ancient Egypt and in Assyria ; and
in modern times no usage is more general. ^
It does not appear, however,, to have been
by any means universal among the He
brews. The notices of it are few ; and in
each instahce it seems to have been used
as a meretricious art, unworthy of a woman
of high character. Thus Jezebel " put her
eyes in painting " (2 K. ix. 30, margin) ;
Jeremiah says of the harlot city, "Though
thou rentest thy eyes with painting" (Jer.
iv. 30) ; and Ezekiel again makes it a char
acteristic of a harlot (Ez. xxui. 40). The
expressions used in these passages are
worthy of observation, as referring to the
mode in which the process was effected.
It is thus described by Chandler ( Travels,
ii. 140) : "A girl, closing one of her eyes,
took the two lashes between the forefinger
and thumb of the left hand, pulled them
forward, and then thrusting in at the ex
ternal corner a bodkin which had been im
mersed in the soot, and extracting it again,
the particles before adhering to it remained
within, and were presently ranged round
the organ." The eyes were thus literally
" put in paint," and were "rent" open in
the process. A broad line was also drawn
round the eye. The effect was an appar
ent enlargement of the eye ; and the ex
pression in Jer. iv. 30 has been by some
understood in this sense. The Bible gives
no indication of the substance out of which
the dye was formed. The old versions
agree in pronouncing the dye to have been
produced from antimony. Antimony is
still used for the purpose in Arabia and in
Persia, but in Egypt the kohl is.a soot pro
duced by burning either a kind of frankin
cense or the shells of almonds. The dye-
stuff was moistened with oil, and kept in a
sraall jar, which we may infer to have been
raade of horn, from the proper name Ker-
en-happuch, "horn for paint" (Job xln.
14). Whether the custom of staining tho

PALACE

483

PALESTINE

hands and feet, particularly the nails, now
60 prevalent in the East, was known to the
Hebrews, is doubtful. The plant henna,
which is used for thiit purpose, was cer
tainly known (Cant. i. 14 ; A. V. " cam
phire "), and the expressions in Cant. v. 14
may possibly refer to the custom.
Palace. There are few tasks more
difficult or puzzling than the attempt to re
store an ancient building of which we pos
sess nothing but two verbal descriptions ;
and these difficulties are very much en
hanced when one account is written in a
language like Hebrew, the scientific terms
in which are, from our ignorance, capable
of the widest latitude of interpretation, and
the other, though written in a language
of which we have a raore definite knowl
edge, was coraposed by a person who never
could have seen the buildings he was de
scribing. The site of the Palace of Solo
mon was almost certainly in the city itself,
' on the brow opposite to the Temple, and
overlooking it and the whole city of David.
It is impossible, of course, to be at all cer
tain what was either the form or the exact
disposition of such a palace ; but, as we
have the dimensions of the three principal
buildings given in the Book of liings, and
confirmed by Josephus, we may, by taking
these as a scale, ascertain pretty nearly
that the building covered somewhere about
150,000 or 160,000 squiire feet. Whether
it was a square of 400 feet each way, or an
oblong of about 550 feet by 300, must al
ways be more or less a raatter of conjec
ture. The principiil building situated with
in the palace was, as in all Eastern palaces,
the great hall of state and audience, called
" The House of the Forest of Lebanon,"
apparently frora the four rows of cedar pil
lars by which it was supported. It was 100
cubits long, 50 wide, and 30 high. Next in
importance was the Hall or "Porch of
Judgment," a quadrangular building sup
ported by columns, -as we learn frora. Jose
phus, which apparently stood on the other
side of the great court, opposite the House
of the Forest of Lebanon. The third edi
fice is raerely called a " Porch of Pillars."
Its diraensions were 50 by 30 cubits. Its
use cannot be considered as doubtful, as it
was an indispensable adjunct to an Eastern
palace. It was the ordinary place of busi
ness of the palace, and the reception-room
when the king received ordinary visitors,
and sat, except on great state occasions, to
transact the business of the kingdom. ISe-
hind this, we are told, was the inner court,
adorned with gardens and fountains, and
surrounded by cloisters for shade; and
there were other courts for the residence
of the attendants and guards, and for the
woraen of his harem. Apart from this pal
ace, but attached, as Josephus tells us, to
the HaU of Judgment, was the palace of

Pharaoh's daughter — too proud and im
portant a personage to be grouped with
the ladies of the harem, and requiring a
residence of her own. 'The recent discov
eries at Nineveh have enabled us to under
stand many of the architectural details of
this palace, which before they were raade
were nearly wholly inexplicable. Solomon
constructed an ascent from his own house
to the Temple, " the house of Jeliovah " (1
K. X. 5), which Wiis a subterranean passage
250 feet long by 42 feet wide, of which the
remains may still be traced.
Pa'lal, the son of Uzai, who assisted in
restoring the walls of Jerusalem in the
tirae of Neheraiah (Neh. iii. 25).
Palesti'na and Palestine. These two
forms occur in the A. V. but four times in
all, always in poetical passages; the first
in Ex. XV. 14, and Is. xiv>i 29, 31 ; the sec
ond, Joel iii. 4. In each case the Hebrew
is Pelesheth, a word found, besides the
above, only in Ps. lx. 8, Ixxxiii. 7, Ixxxvii.
4, and cvUi. 9, in all which our translators
have rendered it by " PhiUstia" or " Philis
tines." Palestine in the A. V. really means
nothing but Philistia. The original He
brew word Pelesheth, to the Hebrews, sig
nified merely the long and broad strip of
maritime plain inhabited by their encroach
ing neighbors ; nor does it appear that at
first it signifies more to the Greeks. As
lying next the sea, and as being also the
high roiid from Egypt to Phoenicia and the
richer regions north of it, the Philistine
plain becarae sooner known to the western
world than the country farther inland, and
was called by them Syria Palaestina — Phi
listine Syria. From thence itwas gradual
ly extended to the country farther inland,
till in the Roman and Ir^er Greek authors,
both heathen and Christian, it becomes the
usual appellation for the whole country of
the Jews, both west and east of Jordan.
The word is now so coraraonly employed
in our more familiar language to designate
the whole country of Israel, that, although
biblically a misnomer, it has been chosen
here as the most convenient heading under
which to give a general description of the
Holt Land, embracing those points which
have not been treated under the separate
headings of cities or tribes. This descrip
tion will most conveniently divide itself into
three sections : I. 'The Names applied to
the country of Israel in the Bible and else
where. II. The Land : its situation, as
pect, cliraate, physical characteristics, in
connection with its history ; its structure,
botany, and natural history. III. The His
tory of the country is so fully given under
its various headings throughout the work,
that it is unnecessary to recapitulate it
here. I. The Names. — ;?alesline, then, is des
ignated in the Bible by more than ono

PALESTINE

484

palestinf:

name , 1. During the Patriarchal period,
the Conquest, and the age of the Judges,
and also where those early periods are re
ferred to in the later literature (as Ps. cv. 11),
it is spoken of as " Canaan," or more fre
quently " the land of Canaan," meaning
thereby the country west of the Jordan, as
opposed to "the land of Gilead " on the
cast. 2. During the monarchy the narae
usually, though not frequently, eraployed,
is "hand of Israel" (1 Siini. xiu. 19; 2 K.
V. 2, 4, &c.)- It is Ezekiel's favorite ex
pression. The pious and loyal aspirations
of Ilosea find vent in the expression, " land
of Jehovah" (Hos. ix. 3). In Zechariah
it is " tho holy land " (Zech. u. 12) ; and in
Daniel "the glorious land" (Dan. xi. 41).
In Araos (ii. 10) alone it is "the land of
the Araorite." Occasionally it appears to
be mentioned simply as "the land;" as
in Ruth i. 1 ; Jer. xxii. 27 ; 1 Mace. xiv. 4 ;
Luke iv. 25, and perhaps even xxiii. 44. 3.
Between the Captivity and the time of our
Lord the n.ame " Judaea" had extended it
self frora the southern portion to the whole
of the country, even that beyond Jordan
(Matt. xix. 1 ; Mark x. 1). In the book of
Judith it is applied to the portion between
the plain of Esdraelon and Samaria (xi.
19), as it is in Luke xxiii. 5; though it is
also used in the stricter sense of Judaea
proper (John iv. 3, vii. 1). In this nar
rower sense it is eraployed throughout 1
Mace, (see especially ix. 50, x. 30, 38, xi.
34). 4- The Roraan division of the coun
try hardly coincided with the Biblical one,
and it does not appear that the Romans had
any distinct name for that which we un
derstand by Palestine. 5. Soon after the
Christian era we find the name Palaestina
in possession of the country. G. The name
raost frequently used throughout the middle
ages, and down to our owu time, is Terra
Sanda — the Holy Land. II. The Land.
— The Holy Land is not in size or physi
cal characteristics proportioned to its moral
and historical position, as the theatre of
the most momentous events in the world's
history- It is but a strip of country about
the size of Wales, less than 140 railes in
length, aud barely 40 in average breadth, on
the very frontier of the East, heraraed in be
tween the Mediterranean Sea on the one
hand, and the enormous trench ofthe Jordan
valley on the otlier, by which it is effec
tually cut off from the raain land of Asia
behind it. On the north it is shut in by the
high ranges of Lebanon and anti-Lebanon,
and by the chasm of the Litany. On the
south it is no less enclosed by the arid and
inhospitable deserts of the upper .part of
the peninsula of Sinai. 1. Its position ou
tlie Map of the World — as the world was
when the Holy Land first made its appear
ance in history — is a remarkable one.
(i.) It is on the very outpost — on the ex-

tremest western edge of tho Ea^t. On the
shore ofthe Mediterranean it stands, as if
it had advanced as far as possible towards
the West, separated therefrom by that
which, when the tirae arrived, proved to be
no barrier, but the readiest medium of
communication — the wide waters oi the
" Great Sea." Thus it was open to all the
gradual influences of the rising communi
ties of the West, while it was saved from
the retrogression and decrepitude 'which
have ultimately been the doom of all pure
ly Eastern States whose connections were
limited to the East only, (u.) There was
however one channel, and but one, by which
it could reach and be reached by the great
Oriental empires. The only road by which
the two great rivals of the ancient world
could approach one another — by which
alone Egypt could get to Assyria, and As
syria to Egypt — lay along the broad flat
strip of coast which formed the maritirau
portion of the Holy Land, and thence b-t ¦
the Plain ofthe Lebanon to the Euphrates
(ui.) After this the Holy Land becami!
(like the Netherlands in Europe) the con
venient arena on which in successive ages
the hostile powers who contended for the
empire of the East fought their battles.
2. It is essentially a mountainous country.
Not that it contains independent mountain
chains, as in Greece, for example, but that
every part of the highland is in greater oi
less undulation. But it is not only a moun
tainous country. The mass of hills which
occupies the centre of the country is bor
dered or framed on both sides, east and
west, by a broad belt of lowland, sunk deep
below its own level. The slopes or cliffs
which form, as it were, tho retaining walls
of this depression, are furrowed and cleft
by the torrent beds which discharge the
waters of the hills, and form the means of
communication between the upper and low
er level. On the west this lowland inter
poses between the mountains and the sea,
and is the Plain of Philistia and of Sha
ron. On the east it is the broad bottom of
the .loBDAN Valley, deep down in which
rushes the one river of Piilestine to its gr.ave
in the Dead Sea. Such is the first general
impression of the physiognomy ofthe Holy
Land. It is a physiognomy compounded
of the three main features already named
— the plains, the highland hills, and''the
torrent beds : features which aro marked in
the words of its earliest describers (Num.
xiu. 29; Josh. xi. 16, xU. 8), and which
must be coraprchended by every one who
wishes to understand the country, and the
intiraate connection existing between its
structure and its history. 3. About half
way up the coast the maritime plain
is suddenly interrupted by a long ridge
thrown out from the central mass, rising
considerably above tbe general level, and

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PALESTINE

485

PALESTINE

terminating in a bold promontory on the
Vi^ry edge of the Mediterranean. This ridge
is Mount Cakmel. On its upper side, the
plain, as if to compensate for its teraporary
displaceraent, invades the centre of the
cpuntrj', and forras an undulating hollow
right across it from the Mediterranean to
the Jordan valley. This central lowland,
which divides with its broad depression the
mountains of Ephraim frora the mountains
of Galilee, is the Plain of Esdraelon or
Jezreel, the great battle-field of Palestine.
North of Carmel the lowland resumes its
position by the sea-side till it is again in
terrupted and finally put an end to by the
northern raountains, which push their way
out of the sea, ending in the white proraon
tory of the Ras NakhAra. Above this is
the ancient Phoenicia. 4. The country
thus roughly portrayed, and which, as be
fore stated, is less than 140 railes in length,
and not raore than 40 in average breadth,
is to all intents and purposes the whole land
of Isr.ael. The northern portion is Gali
lee ; the centre, Samaria ; the south, Ju
daea. This is the land of Canaan which
was bestowed on Abrahara ; the covenanted
home of his descendants. The two tribes
and a half reraained on the uplands beyond
Jordan; and the result was, that these tribes
soon ceased to have any close connection
with the others, or to forra any virtual part
of the nation. But even this definition
might without impropriety be further cir
cumscribed ; for during the greater part of
the Old Testaraent tiraes the chief events of
the history were confined to the district
south of Esdraelon, which contained the
cities of Hebron, Jerusalem, Bethel, Shiloh,
Shechera, and Samaria, the Mount of Olives,
and Mount Carmel. The battles ofthe Con
quest and the early struggles of the era of
the Judges once passed, Galilee subsided
into obscurity and unimportance till the
tirae of Christ. 5. The highland district,
. surrounded and intersected by its broad
lowland plains, preserves frora north to
south a remarkably even and horizontal
profile. Its average height may be taken
as 1500 to 1800 feet .above the Mediterra
nean. It can hardly be denominated a
plateau, yet so evenly is the general level
preserved, and so thickly do the liUls stand
behind and between one another, that, when
seen from the coast or the western part of
the maritime plain, it has quite the appear
ance of a wall. This general monotony of
profile is, however, accentuated at intervals
by certain centres of elevation.* Between
these elevated points runs the watershed
of the country, sending oflT on either hand
* Beefnning from the eouth, these elevations are Hebron.
802!) ie&i allovG tho Mediterranean; Jerusalem, 2610, and
Mniint of Olives, 2724, with Neby Samwil on the north, 2650 i
Bethel MW i Wi'I, 2683; Ebel and Gerizim, 2700 ; •' Little
Hermon" and 'J.'abpr (on the north side of Hie F'aiBOf ^B-
Sxaeion). ISO" i ^J^' 27?5 i Jebel Jurnmk, tfOO

— to the Jordan valley on the east .and the
Mediterranean on the west — the long, tor
tuous arms of its many torrent bods. The
valleys on the two sides of the watershed
differ considerably in character. Those on
the east are extremely steep and rugged.
This is the case during the whole lengUi of
the southern and middle portions of tha
country. It is only when the junction be
tween the Plain of Esdraelon and the .fordiin
Valley is reached, th.at the slopes become
gradual and the ground fit for the manoeu
vres of anything but detached bodies of foot
soldiers. But, rugged and difiicult as they
are, they form the only access to the upper
country from this side, and every man or
body of men who reached the territory of
Judah, Benjarain, or Ephraira, frora the
Jordan Valley, must have clirabed one or
other of them. The western valleys are
raore gradual in their slope. Tho level of
the external plain on this side is higher,
and therefore the fall less, while at the
sarae tirae the distiince to be traversed is
much greater. Here again the valleys are
the only means of communication between
the lowland and the highland. From .Tafl'a
and the centr.al part of the plain tliere are
two of these roads " going up to Jerusalem ;"
the one to the right by Ramleh iind the
Wady Aly ; the other to the left by Lydda,
and thence by the Beth-borons, or the Wady
Suleiman, and Gibeon. The former of these
is raodern, but the latter is the scene of
many a famous incident in the ancient his
tory. 6. 'When the highlands of the coun
try are more closely exarained, a consider
able diflTerence will be found to exist in the
natural condition and appearance of their
diflTerent portions. The south, as being
nearer the arid desert, and farther removed
frora the drainage of the raountains, is drier
and loss productive than the north. The
tract below Hebron, which forras the link
between the hills of Judah and tho desert,
was known to the ancient Hebrews by a
term originally derived frora its dryness
{Negeb). This was the south couutrj'.
As the traveller advances north of this tract
there is an improvement; but perhaps no
country equally cultiv.ated is more monoto
nous, bare, or uninviting in its aspect, than
a great part of the highlands of Judah iind
Benjamin during the largest portion of the
year. The spring covers even those bald .
gray rocks with veidure and color, and fills
the ravines with torrents of rushing water ;
but in summer and autumn the look of the
country frora Hebron up to Bethel is very
dreary and desolate. At Jerusalera this
reaches its climax. To the west and north
west ofthe highlands, where the sea-breezes
are felt, there is considerably raore vegeta
tion. 7. Hitherto we have spoke'n of the
central aud northern portions of Judaoa.
Its eastern portion --a tract some nuif or

PALESTINE

486

PALESTINE

ten miles in width by aboD.t thirty-flve in
length — which intervenes between the cen
tre and the abrupt descent to the Dead Sea,
is far more wild and desolate, and that not
for a portion of the year only, but through
out it. This must have been always what
it is now — an uninhabited desert, because
uninhabitiible. 8. No descriptive sketch
of this part of the country can be complete
which does not allude to the caverns, char
acteristic of all limestone districts, but'here
existing in astonishing numbers. Every
hill and ravine is pierced with thera, some
very large and of curious formation —
perhaps partly n.atural, partly artificial —
others mere grottos. Many of them are
connected with raost iraportant and inter
esting events of the ancient history of the
country. Especially is this true of the dis
trict now under consideration. Machpelah,
Makkedah, AduUara, Engedi, names in
separably connected with the lives, adven
tures, and deaths of Abraham, Joshua,
David, and other Old Testament worthies,
are all within the small circle of the terri
tory of Judaea. Moreover, there is perhaps
hardly one of these caverns, however sraall,
'B'hich has not at sorae tirae or other fur
nished a hiding-place to some ancient
Hebrew from the sweeping incursions of
I'liilistine or Amalekite. 9. The bareness
.and dryness which prevail more or less
111 Judaea are owing partly to the ab
sence of wood, partly to its proxiraity to
the desert, and partly to a scarcity of
water, arising frora its distiince frora the
Lebanon. But to this discouraging as
pect there are sorae iraportant exceptions.
The valley of Urtds, south of Bethlehera,
contains springs which in abundance and
excellence rival even those of Nablus ; the
huge " Pools of Solomon " are enough to
supply a district for many miles round
them ; and the cultivation now going on in
that neighborhood shows what might be
done with a soil which requires only irriga
tion and a moderate araount of labor to evoke
a boundless produce. 10. It is obvious
that in the ancient days of the nation, when
Jud.ah and Benjarain possessed the teeming
population indicated in the Bible, the con
dition and aspect of the country must have
been very different. Of this there are not
wanting sure evidences. There is no coun
try in which the ruined towns bear so large
a proportion to those still existing. Hardly
a hill-top of the manj' within sight that is
not covered with vestiges of some fortress
or city. But, besides this, forests appear
to have stood in many parts of Judaea
until the repeated invasigns and sieges
caused their fall ; and all this vegetation
must have reacted on the moisture of the
cliraatS, and, by preserving the water in
raany a ravine and natural reservoir where
DOW it is rapidly dried hy the fierce sun of

the early sumraer, must have influenced
materially the look and the resources ot tne
country. 11. Advancing northwards trom
Judaea, the country (Samaria) becomes
gradually more open and pleasant. Plains
of good soil occur between the hills, at
first small, but afterwards comparatively
large. The hUls assume here a more varied
aspect than in the southern districts, springs
are more abundant and more permanent,
untU at last, when the district of Jebel
NablAs is reached — the ancient Mount
Ephraim — the traveller encounters an at
mosphere and an araount of vegetation and
water which are greatly superior to anything
he has met with in Judaea, and even suffi
cient to recall rauch of the scenery of the
¦West. Perhaps the springs are the only
objects which in themselves, and apart
from their associations, really strike an
English traveller with astonishment and
admiration. Such glorious fountains a?
those of Ain-jaliid or the Ras el-Mukdiia —
where a great body of the clearest water
wells silently but swiftly out from deep
blue recesses worn in the foot of a low
cliff of liraestone rock, and at once forras
a considerable stream — are very rarely to
be met with out of irregular, rocky, moun
tainous countries, and being such unusual
sights, can hardly be looked on by the
traveller without surprise and emotion.
The valleys which lead down from the
upper level in this district to the valley
of the Jordan, are less precipitous than in
Judaea. The eastern district ofthe -lebel
NablAs contain some of the most fertile
and valuable spots in the Holy Land.
Hardly less rich is the extensive region
which lies north-west of the city of Shechem
{NablAs), lietween it and Carmel, in which
the mountains gradually break down into
the Plain of Sharon. But with all its rich
ness, and all its advance on the southern
part of the coimtry, there is a strange
dearth of natural wood about this central
district. It is this which m.akes the wooded
sides of Carmel and the park-like scenery
of the adjacent slopes and plains so re
markable. 12. No sooner, however, is the
Plain of Esdraelon passed, than a consid
erable iraproveraent is perceptible. The
low hills which spread down from the moun
tains of Galilee, and form the barrier
between the plains of Akka and Esdraelon,
.are covered with timber, of moderate size,
it is true, but of thick, vigorous growth, and
pleasant to the eye. Eastward of these
hiUs rises the round mass of Tabor, diirk
with its copses of oak, and set off by con
trast with the bare slopes of Jebel ed-Duhy
(the so-called "Little Hermon") and the
white hills of Nazareth. North of Taboi
and Nazareth is the plain of el-Battauf, ap
upland tract hitherto very imperfectly do-
scribed, but apparently of a similar nature

PALESTINE

487

PALESTINE

to Esdraelon, though much more elevated.
The notices of this roraantio district in the
Bible are but scanty^ in fact, till the date
of the New Testaraent, when it had ac
quired the narae of Galilee, it may be said,
fo.r all purposes of history, to be hardly
mentioned. And even in the New Testa
ment tiraes the interest is confined to a
very small portion — the south and south
west corner, containing Naz.areth, Cana,
and Nain, on the confine^ of Esdraelon,
Capernaura, Tiberias, and Gennesareth, on
the margin of the Lake. 13. Pew things
are a more constant source of surprise to
the stranger in the Holy Land than the
manner in which the hill- tops are, through
out, selected for habitation. A town in a
valley is a rare exception. Ou the other
hand, scarce a single erainence of the multi
tude always in sight but is crowned with its
city or village, inhabited or in ruins, often so
placed as if not accessibility, but inaccessi-
bUity, had been the object of its buUders.
And indeed such was their object. These
groups of naked, forlorn structures, piled
irreguliirly one over the other on the curve
of the hill-top, are the lineal descendants, if
indeed they do not soraetiraes contain the
actual remains, ofthe "fenced cities, great
and -walled up to heaven," which are so fre
quently mentioned in the records of the Is
raelite conquest. These hill-towns were not
what gave the Israelites tlieir main difficulty
in the occupation of the country. Wherever
strength of arm and fieetness of foot availed,
there those hardy warriors, fierce as lions,
sudden and swift as eagles, sure-footed and
fleet as the wild deer on the hills (1 Chr. xii.
8; 2 Sam. i. 23, ii. 18), easily conquered.
It was in the plains, where the horses and
chariots of the Canaanites and Philistines
had space to manoeuvre, that they failed
in dislodging the aborigines. " Judah drove
out the inhabitants of the raountain, but
could not drive out the inhabitants of the
valley, because they had chariots of iron
. . . neither could Manasseh drive out the
inhabitants of Bethshean . . . nor Megid
do," in the Plain of Esdraelon ..." nor
could Ephraira drive out the Cauaanites that
dwelt in Gezer," on the raaritirae plain near
Earaleh ..." nor <;ould Asher drive out
the inhabitants of Accho " . . . " and the
Amorites forced the children of Dan into
the mount.ain, for they would not suffer
them to come down into the valley " (Judg.
i. 19-35). Thus in this case the ordinary
conditions of conquest were reversed — the
conquerors took the hills, the conquered
kept the plains. To a people so exclusive
as the Jews there must have been a con
stant satisfaction in the elevation and in
accessibility of their highland regions. This
is evident in every page of their literature,
which is tinged throughout with a high
land coloring. The " mountains " were to

"bring peace," the " little lulls, justice to
tho people : " when plenty came, the corn
was to flourish on the " top of the moun
tains " (Ps. Ixxii. 3, 16). In like manner
the raountains were to be joyful before
Jehovah when He carae to judge liis people
(Ps. xcviU. 8). "What gave its keenest
sting to tile Babylonian conquest, was the
consideration that the " raountains of
Israel," the " ancient high places," were
becorae a "prey and a derision;" while,
on the other hand, one of the most joyful
circumstances ofthe restoration is, that the
mountains " shall yield their fruit as before,
and be settled after their old estates " (Ez.
xxxvi. 1, 8, 11). "W"e have the testimony
of the heathens that in their estimation Je
hovah was the " God ofthe mountains " (I
K. XX. 28), and they showed their apprecia
tion of the fact by fighting, when possible,
in the lowlands. The contrast is strongly
brought out in the repeated expression of
the psalmists. " Some," like the Canaan
ites and PhiUstines of the lowlands, " put
their trust iu chariots, and some in horses ;
but we " — we mountaineers, from our
" sanctuary " on the heights of our " Zion "
— " wUl remember the name of Jeliovah
our God," " the God of Jacob our father,"
the shepherd warrior, whose only weapons
were sword and bow — the God who is now
a high fortress for us — "at whose com
mand both chariot and horse are fiillen,"
" who burneth the chariots in the fire "
(Ps. XX. 1, 7, xlvi. 7-11, Ixxvi. 2, 6). — 14.
A few words must be said in general de
scription of the maritime lowland, which in
tervenes between the sea and the highlands.
This region, only slightly elevated above
the level of the Mediterranean, extends
without interruption from el-Arish, south
of Gaza, to Mount Carmel. It naturaUy
divides itself into two portions, each of
about half its length; the lower one the
wider, the upper one the narrower. The
lower half is the Plain of the Philistines
— PhiUstia, or, as the Hebrews called it,
the Shefelah or Lowland. The upper half
is the Sharon or Saron of the Old and New
Testaments. The Philistine Plain is on
an average 15 or 16 miles in widtli from the
coast to the first beginning of the belt of
hills which forms the gradual approach to
the high land of the mountains of Judah.
The larger towns, as Gaza and Ashdiid,
which stand near the shore, are surround
ed with huge groves pf olive, sycamore,
and palm, as in the days of King Davil (1
Chron. xxvU. 28). The whole plain ap
pears to consist of brown loamy soil, light,
but rich, and alraost without a stoue. It is
now, as it was when the Philistines pos
sessed it, one enormous cornfield ; au ocean
of wheat covers the wide expanse between
the hills and the sand dunes of the sea
shore, without interruption of any kind---

PALESTINE

488

PALESTINE

no break or hedge, h.ardly even a single
olive-tree. Its fertility is marvellous ; for
the prodigious crops which it raises are pro
duced, .and prob.ably have been produced
almost year by ye.ar for the last forty cen
turies, without any of the appliiinces which
we find necessary for success. Tho Plain
OF Sharon is much narrower tjian Philis
tia. It is .about 10 miles wide from tho sea
to the foot of the raountiiins, -(vliich are here
of a more abrupt character than those of
Philistia, and without the intermediate hilly
region there occurring. 15. The one an
cient port of the Jews, the " beautiful " city
of Joppa, occupied a position centr.al be
tween the Shefelah .and Sharon. Koads led
frora these various cities to each other, to
Jerusalera, Neapolis, and Sebaste in the in
terior, and to Ptolemtiis and Gaza on the
north .and south. Tho comraerce of Damas
cus, and, beyond Damascus, of Persia and
India, passed this w.ay to Egypt, Rome, and
the infant colonies ofthe west ; and that traf
fic and the constant movement of troops
backwards and forwards must have m.ade
this plain one of the busiest and most popu
lous regions of Syria at the time of Christ.
16. The characteristics already described are
hardly peculiar to Palestine. But there is
one feature, as yet only alluded to, in which
she stands alone. This feature is the Jor-
nAN — the one river of the country. The
river is elsewhere described [Jordan] ; but
it and the valley through which it rushes
down its extraordinary descent must be
here briefly characterized. This valley
begins with the river at its reraotest springs
of Ilasbeiya on the N. W. side of Herraon,
and accompanies it to the lower end of the
Dead Sea, a length of about 150 miles.
During the whole of this distance its course
is straight, and its direction nearly due
north and south. The springs of Hasbeiya
are 1700 feet above the level of the Blediter-
ranean, and the northern end of the Dead
Sea is 1317 feet below it, so that between
these two points the valley falls with more
or less regularity through a height of more
than 3000 feet. But though the river dis
appears at this point, the valley still con
tinues its descent below the waters of the
Dead Sea till it reaches a farther depth of
1308 feet. So that the bottora of this ex
traordinary crevasse is actually raore than
2600 feet below the surface of tho ocean.
In width the valley varies. In its upper
and shallower portion, as between Banias
and the lake of Merora {IIAleh), it is about
five mUes across. Between the lake of
Merom and the sea of Galilee it contracts,
and becoraes raore of an ordinary ravine or
glen. It is in its third and lower portion
that the valley assuraes its more definite and
regular character. During the greater part
of this portion, it is about seven railes wide
from the one wall to the other. The east

ern mountains preserve their strai.ght hne
of direction, and their massive horizontal
wall-like aspect, during almost tbe whole
distance. The western mountains are more
irregular in height, their slopes less verti
cal." North of Jericho they recede in a
kind of wide amphitheatre, and the valley
becoraes twelve miles broad — a breadth
which it thenceforward retains to the south.
ern extremity of the Dead Sea. Buried as
it is between such lofty ranges, and shielded
from every breeze, the climate of the Jor
dan valley is extremely hot and relaxing.
Its enervating influence is shown by the
inhabitants of Jericho. All the irrigation
necessary for the cultivation which formerly
existed is obtained frora the torrents of the
western mountains. For all purposes to
which a river is ordinarily applied tlie Jor
dan is useless. The Dead Sea, which is
the flnal receptacle of the Jordan, is de
scribed elsewhere. [Sea, The Salt.] 17.
Monotonous and uninviting as much of the
Holy L.and will appear, from the above de
scription, to readers accustomed to the con
stant verdure, the succession of flowers, last
ing almost throughout the year, the ample
streams and the varied surface of the south
ern part of our country — we raust remem
ber that its aspect to the Israelites after that
weary raarch of forty years through the
desert, and even by the side of the bright
est recollections of Egypt that they could
conjure up, must have been very different.
They entered the country at the time of
the Passover, when it was arrayed in the
full glory and freshness of its brief spring
tide, before the scorching sun of sumraer
had had tirae to wither its flowers and em
brown its verdure. Taking all these cir
cumstiinces into accoun_t, and allowing for
the bold metaphors of Oriental speech, it is
impossible not to feel that those way-worn
travellers could have chosen ho fitter words
to express what their new country was to
them than those which they so often employ
in the accounts of tho conquest — " a land
flowing with milk and iioney, the glory of
all lands." 18. In the preceding descrip
tion, allusion has been made to raany ofthe
characteristic features of the Holy Land.
But it is impossible to close this account
without mentioning a defect which is even
more characteristic — its lack of monu
ments and personal relics of the nation who
possessed it for so many centuries, .and
g.ave it its claim to our veneration and affbc-
tion. 'When corapared with other nations
of equal antiquity, — Egypt. Ireece, As
syria — the contrast is truly retnarkable. In
Egypt and Greece, and also In Assyria, as
far as our knowledge at present extends,
wc flnd a series of buUdings, reaching down
from the most remote and mysterioi a anti
quity, a chain, of which h.ardly a link is
wanting, and which records the progresj of

PALESTINE

489

PALMER-WORM

the people in civilization, art, and religion,
as certainly as the buildings of the mediae
val architects do that of the various nations
of raodern Europe. But in Palestine it is
not too much to say that there does not
exist a, single ediflce, or p.art of an edifice,
of which wo can be sure that it is of a date
anterior to the Christian era. And as with
the buildings, so with other memorials.
With one exception, the museuras of Eu
rope do not possess a single piece of pot
tery or metal work, a single weapon or
household -itensil, an orn.ament or a piece
of armor, of Israelite make, which can
give us the least conception of the manners
or outwird .appliances of the nation before
the date ofthe destruction of Jerusalem by
Titus. The coins form the single excep
tion. M. Renan has named two circum
stances which raust have had a great effect
in suppressing art or architecture araongst
the ancient Israelites, while their very ex
istence proves that the people had no genius
in that direction. These are (1) the pro
hibition of sculptured representations of
living creatures, and (2) the coraraand not
to build a- teraple anywhere but at Jeru
salem. The Geology. — Of tho geological
structure of Palestine it has been said with
truth that our information is but imper
fect and indistinct, and that much tirae
must elapse, and many a cherished hy
pothesis bo sacrificed, before a satisfactory
explanation can be arrived at of its raore
remarkable phenomena. The Botany. —
The botany of Syria and Palestine differs
hut little from that of Asia Minor, which is
one df the raost rich and varied on the.
globe. What differences it presents are due
to a slight admi.\;ture of Persian forms on
the eastern frontier, of Arabian and Egyp
tian on thu southern, and of Arabian and
Indiiin tropical plants in the low torrid de
pression of the Jordan and Dead Sea. On
the other hand, Palestine forms the south
ern and eastern limit of the Asia Minor
flora, and contains a multitude of trees,
""shrubs, and herbs that adviince no farther
south and east. Araongst trees, oaks are
by far the most prevalent, and are the only
ones that forra continuous woods, except the
Pinus maritima and P. Halepensis (Alep
po Pine). The trees of the genus Pistacia
rank next in abundance to the Oak, and of
these there are three species in Syria. The
Carob or Locust-tree {Ceratonia Siliqua),
ranks perhaps next in abundance to the
foregoing trees, -The Sycaraore-fig is com
mon in the neighborhood of towns, and at
tains a large size ; its wood is much used,
especi^ly in Egypt, whS're the mummy-
cases were forraerly made of it. Poplars,
especially the aspen and white poplar, are
extremely common by streams. The Wal
nut is more common in Syria than in Pal
estine. Of planted trees and largo shrubs,

.the flrst in importance is the Vine, whieh
is most abundantly cultiv.ated all over the
country, and produces, as in the time ofthe
Canaanites, enormous bunches of grapes.
This is especially the case in the southern
districts, those of Eshcol being stiU partic
ularly famous. Next to the vine, or even
iu some respects its superior in importance,
ranks the Olive, which nowhere grows in
greater luxuriance and abundance than in
Palestine, where the olive oBchards form
a prominent feature throughout the land
scape, and have done so frora time im
memorial. The Fig forms another most
iraportant crop in Syria and Palestine.
Zoology. — It will be sufliciont in this
article to give a general survey of the
fauna of Palestine, as the reader will find
more particular inlormation in the sev
eral articles which treat of the various
aniraals under their respective names.
Jackals and foxes are common ; the hyena
and wolf are also occasionally observed;
the lion is no longer a resident in Pal
estine or Syria. A species of squirrel
which the Arabs terra Orkidaun, " the
leaper," has been noticed on the lower and
middle parts of Lebanon : two kinds of
hare ; rats and mice, which are said to
abound; the jerboa; the porcupine; the
short-tailed field-mouse, may be considered
as the representatives of the Rodentia. Of
the Pachydermata, the wild boar, which is
frequently met with on Tabor and Little
Hermon, appears to be the only Uving wild
example. 'There does not appear to be at
present any wild ox in Palestine. Of do
mestic animals we need only raention the
Arabian or one-humped carael, asses, and
raules, and horses, all of which are in gen
eral use. The buffalo {Bubalus buffalo) is
common. The ox of the country is sraall
and unsightly in the neighborhood of Jeru
salera, but in the richer pastures the cattle,
though small, are not unsightly ; the com
mon sheep of Palestine is the broad-tiiil,
with its varieties ; goats are extremely
comraon everywhere. Palestine .abounds in
nuraerous kinds of birds. Vultures, eagles,
falcons, kites, owls of different kinds, rep
resent the Raptorial order. In the south
of Palestine especially, reptiles of various
kinds abound. It has been remarked that
in its physical character Palestine presents
on a smaU scale an epitome of the natural
features of all regions, mountainous and
desert, northern and tropical, maritirae and
inland, pastoral, arable, and volciinic.
Pal'Iu. The second son of Reuben,
father of EUab (Ex. vi. 14 ; Num. xxvi. S,
8 ; 1 Chr. V. 3) and founder of the farai
ly of
Pal'lultes, The (Num. xxvj. 5).
Palmer-worm (Heb. gdzdm) occurs
Joel i. 4, ii. 25 ; Am. iv. 9. It is maintained
by many that gdzdm deuote"! some species

PALM-TREE

490

PALSi

oi (ocust, hut it is more probably a cater
pillar. Palm.-tree (Heb. tdmdr). Under this
generic term many species are botanically
Included ; but we have here only to do with
the Date-palm, the Phoenix Dadylifera of
Linnaeus. WhUe this tree was abundant
generiilly in the Levant, it was regarded
by the ancients as peculiarly characteristic
of Palestine and the neighboring regions.
The following places may be enuraerated
from the Bible as having sorae connection
with the palra-tree, either in the derivation
of the narae, or in the mention of the tree
as growing on the spot. (-1.) At Elim, one
of the stations of the Israelites between
Egypt and Sinai, it is expi-essly stated that
there were " twelve wells (fountains) of
water, and threescore .and ten palm-trees "
(Ex. XV. 27; Num. xxxiii. 9). (2.) Next,
it should be observed that Elath (Deut. ii.
8 ; 1 K. ix. 26 ; 2 K. xiv. 22, xvi. 6 ; 2 Chr.
viii. 17, xxvi. 2) is anoth'er plural form of
the sarae word, and may likewise mean
^' the palm-trees." (3.) No place in Scrip
ture is so closely associated with the sub
ject before us as Jericho. Its rich palm-
groves are connected with two very different
periods, — with that of Moses (Deut. xxxiv.
3; Judg. i. 16) and Joshua, on the one
hand, and that of the Evangelists, on the
other. What the extent of these palm-
groves raay have been in the desolate pe
riod of Jericho we cannot tell; but they
were renowned in the time of the Gos
pels and Josephus. The Jewish historian
mentions the luxuriance of these trees
again and again. (4.) The name of Haze-
zon-Tamar, ''the felling ofthe palm-tree,"
is clear in its derivation. This place is
mentioned in the history both of Abraham
(Gen. xiv. 7) and of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr.
XX. 2). (5.) Another place having the
same element in its narae, and doubtless
the sarae characteristic in its scenery, was
Baal-Tamab (Judg. XX. 33). (6.) We
must next raention the Tamar, " the palm,"
which is set before us in the vision of Eze
kiel (xlvii. 19, xlviii. 28). (7.) There is
Uttle doubt that Solomon's Tadmor, after
wards the famous Paluyra, on another des
ert frontier far to the N. E. of Taraar, is
priraarily the same word. (8.) Nor, again,
are the places of the N. T. without their
associittions with this characteristic tree of
Palestine. Bethany raeans " the house
of dates ; " and thus we are reminded that
the palm grew in the neighborhood of the
Mount of Olives. Tliis helps our realiza
tion of our Saviour's entry into Jerusalera,
when the people "took branches of palm-
trees and went forth to meet Him " (John
xu. 13; comp. Neh. viu. 15). (9.) The
word Phoenicia, wliich occurs twice in the
N. T. (Acts xi. 19, XV. 3) is in all proba
bility derived from the Greek word for a

palm. (10.) Lastly, Phoenix in the island
of Crete, the harbor which St. Paul was
prevented by the storm from reaching (Acts
xxvu. 12), has doubtless the same deriva
tion. —I'rom the passages where there is
a Uteral reference to the palm-tree, we may
pass to the emblematical uses of it in Scrip
ture. Under this head may be classed the
following: (1.) The striking appearance of
the tree, its uprightness and beauty, would
naturally suggest the giving of its narae
occasionally to women (Gen. xxxviii. 6;
2 Sam. xiu. 1, xiv. 27). (2.) We have
notices of the employraent of this form in
decorative art,- both in the real temple of
Solomon and in the visionary temple of
Ezekiel. This work seems to have been in
reUef. It was a natural and doubtless cus
tomary kind of ornaraentation in Eastern
architecture. (3.) With a tree so abundant
in Judaea, and so marked in its growth and
appearance, as the palm, it seems rather
remarkable that it does not appear more
frequently in the imagery of the O. T.
There is, however, in the Psalms (xcii. 12)
the familiar comparison, "The righteous
shaU flourish like the palm-tree," which
suggests a world of illustration, whether
respect be had to the orderly and regular
aspect of the tree, its fruitfulness, the per
petual greenness of its foliage, or the height
at which the foliage grows, as far as possi
ble from earth and as near as possible tc
heaven. Perhaps no point is more worth/
of mention, if we wish to pursue the com
parison, than the elasticity of the fibre of
the palm, and its determined growth up
wards, even when loaded with weights
(4.) The passage in Rev. vu. 9, where the
glorified of all nations are describecf "as
" clothed with white robes and palms in
their hands," might seera to us a purely
classical image. But palm-branches were
used by Jews in token of victory and peace
(1 Mace. xiu. 51; 2 Mace. x. 7, xiv. 4).
As to the industrial and domestic uses, of
the palm, it is well known that they are
very numerous : but there is no clear allu
sion to them iu the Bible. That the ancient
Orientals, however, made use of ivine and
honey obtained from the palm-tree is evi
dent from Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny.
It is indeed possible that the honey men
tioned in some places may be palra-sugar.
(In 2 Chr. xxxi. 5 the margin has "dates.")
There may also iu Cant. vu. 8, "I wiU go
up to the palm-tree, I wUl take hold of the
boughs thereof," be a reference to climbiug
for the fruit. So in ii. 3 and elsewhere
{e. g. Ps. i. 8) tlu; fruit of tho palm may be
intended : but this cannot be proved. It is
curious tihat this tree, once so abundant in
Judaea, is now comparatively raie, except
in the Philistine plain, and in the old Phoe
nicia about Beyroui.
Palsy. The palsy meets us in tl* N.

PALTI

491

PARABLE

T. only, and in features too famUiar to need
special remark. The words " grievously
tormented" (Matt. viii. 6) may refer to
pamlysis agitans, or even St. Vitus' dance,
iu both of which the patient, being never
still for a moment save when asleep, might
well be so described. The woman's case
who was "bowed together" by "a spirit
of iufirmity," raay probably have been that
of a paralytic (Luke xiii. 11).
Pal'ti. The Benjamite spy ; son of
llapliu (Num. xiii. 9).
Pal'tiel. The son of Azzan and prince
of the tribe of Issachar (Nura. xxxiv. 26).
He was one of the twelve appointed to di
vide the land of Canaan araong the tribes
west of Jordan.
Partite, The. Helez " the Paltite" is
naraed in 2 Sara. xxiu. 26 among David's
mighty men.
Pamphyl'ia, one of the coast-regions
in the south of Asia Minor, having Cilicia
on the east, and Lycia on the west. In
St. Paul's time it was not only a regular
province, but the Emperor Claudius had
united Lycia with it, and probably also a
good part of Pisidia. It was in Pamphylia
that St. Paul first entered Asia Minor, after
preaching the Gospel in Cyprus. He and
Barnabas sailed up the river Oestrus to
Pekoa (Acts xiii. 13). The two mission
aries finally left Pamphylia by its chief
seaport, Attalia. Many years afterwards
St. Paul sailed near the coast (Acts xxvii. 5).
Pan. Of the six words so rendered in
A. v., two, machabath and masr&th, seem
to imply a shallow pan or plate, such as is
used by Bedouins and Syrians for baking
or dressing rapidly their cakes of meal,
such as were used iu legal oblations ; the
others, especially sir, a deeper vessel or
caldron for boiling meat, placed during the
process on three stones.
Pan'nag, an article of comraerce ex
ported from Palestine to Tyre (Ez. xxvii.
17), the n.ature of which is a pure matter
of conjecture, as the term occurs nowhere
else. A comparison of the passage iu Eze
kiel with Gen. xlui. 11, leads to the suppo
sition that pannag represents some of the
spices grown in Palestine.
Paper. [Writing.]
Pa'phos, a town at the west end of
Cyprus, connected by a road with Sal-
amis at the east end. Paul and Barnabas
travelled on their first missionary expedi
tion, "through the isle," from the latter
place to the former (Acts xui. 6). The
great characteristic of Paphos was the wor
ship of Aphrodite or Venus, who was here
fabled to have risen from the sea. Her
temple, however, was at " Old Paphos,"
now called Kuklia. The harbor and the
chief town were at " New Paphos," at
some Uttle distance. The place is stiU
called Baffa.

Papyrus. [Reed.]
Parable. The word Parable, in Gr.
Parabole {nuna^oXt'i), does not of itself im
ply a narrative. The juxtaposition of two
things, differing in raost points, \iut agree
ing iu sorae, is sufficient to bring the cora-
parison thus produced within the etyraology
of the word. In Hellenistic Greek it ac
quired a meaning co-extensive with that
of the Hebrew mdshdl. That word (= si
militude) had a large rahge of application,
and was applied sometimes to the shortest
proverbs (1 Sam. x. 12, xxiv. 13; 2 Chr.
vii. 20), sometimes to dark prophetic utter
ances (Num. xxiu. 7, 18, xxiv. 3 ; Ez. xx.
49), sometimes to enigmatic raaxiras (Ps.
Ixxvui. 2; Prov. i. 6), or raetaphors ex
panded into a narrative (Ez. xii. 22). In
the N. T. itself the word is used with a like
latitude. By the Jewish Rabbis the para
ble was made the instrument for teaching
the young disciple to discern the treasure <
of wisdora, of which tho " accursed " mul
titude were ignorant. Th© teaching of
our Lord at the comraenceraent of His
rainistry was, in every way, the opposite
of this. The Serraon on the Mount raay be
taken as the type ofthe "words of g.ace"
which he spoke, "not as the scribes." So
for some months He taught in the syna
gogues and on the sea-shore of Galilee, as
He had before taught in Jerusalem, and
as yet without a parable. But then there
comes a change. The direct teaching was
met with scorn, unbelief, hardness, and He
seems for a tirae to ahandon it for that
which took the form of parables. The
question of the disciples (Matt. xiii. 10)
impUes that they were astonished. Their
Master was speaking to the raultitude in
the parables and dark sayings which the
Rabbis reserved for their chosen disciples
Here, for them, were two grounds of won
der. Here, for us, is the key to the expla
nation wliich He gave, that He had chosen
this form of teaching because the people
were spiritually blind and deaf (Matt. xiu.
13), and in order that they raight reraain
so (Mark iv. 12). The worth of parables,
as instruraents of teaching, lies iu their be
ing at once a test of character, and in their
presenting each forra of character with that
which, as a penalty or blessing, is ada-pted
to it. They withdraw the light from those
who love darkness. They protect the truth
which they enshrine frora the raockery of
the scoffer. They leave soraething even
with the careless which may be interpreted
and understood afterwards. They reveal,
on the other hand, the seekers after truth.
These ask the meaning of the parable, and
will not rest till the teacher has explained
it. In this way the parable did its work,
found out the fit hearers, and led them on.
In the parables which reraain it is possible
to trace sometliing like an order. (A.)

PARABLE

492

PARADISE

There is (he group which have for their
subject the laws of the Divine Kingdora.
Under this head we have — 1. The Sower
(Matt. xiii. ;'Mark iv. ; Luke viu.). 2. The
AVheat and the Tares (Matt. xiu.). 3. The
Btustard- Seed (Matt. xiu. ; Mark iv.). 4.
The Seed cast into the Ground (Mark iv.).
5. The Leaven (Matt. xiu,). C. The Hid
Treasure (Matt. xiu.). 7. The Pearl of
Great Price (Matt. xiu.). 8. The iSTet cast
into the Sea (Matt. xiu,). (B.) When the
next parables meet us they are of a diff'erent
type and occupy a different position. They
are drawn from the life of men rather than
frora the world of nature. They are such
as these — 9. The Two Debtors (Luke
vu.). 10. The Merciless Servant (Matt.
xviii.). 11. The Good Samaritan (Lukex.).
12. The Friend at Midnight (Luke xi.). 13.
The Rich Fool (Luke xu.). 14. The Wed
ding Feast (Luke xu.). 15. The Fig-Tree
(Luke xiii.). 16. The Great Supper (Luke
xiv.). 17. The Lost Sheep (Matt, xviii.;
Luke XV.). 18. The Lost Piece of Money
(Luke .XV.). 19. The Prodigal Son (Luke
XV.). 20. TheUnjust Steward (Luke xvi.).
21. The Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke xvi.) .
22. The Unjust Judge (Luke xviu.). 23. The
Pharisee and the Publican (Luke xviii.).
24. The Laborers in the Vineyard (Matt.
XX.). (C.) Towards the close of our Lord's
rainistry, the parables are again theocratic,
but the phase of the Divine Kingdom, on
which they chiefly dwell, is that of its final
c-onsumraation. To this class wc may refer
25. The Pounds (Luke xix.). 26. The
Two Sons (Matt. xxi.). 27. The Vineyard
let out to Hiisbandraen (Matt. xxi. ; Mark
xu. ; Luke XX.). 28. The Marriage-Feast
(Matt. xxii.). 29. The Wise and FooUsh
Virgins (Matt. xxv.). 30. The Talents
(Matt. XXV.). 31. The Sheep and the
Goats (Matt. xxv.). It is characteristic of
the several Gospels that tho greater part
of the parables of the first and third groups
belong to St. Matthew, emphatically the
Evangelist of the kingdom. Those of the
second are found for the most part in St.
Luke. — Lastly, there is the law of inter
pretation. It has been urged by some wri
ters, that there is a scope or purpose for
each parable, and that our aira must be to
discern this, not to find a, special signifi
cance in each circumstance or incident. It
may be questioned, however, whether this
canon of interpretation is likely to lead us
to the full rae.aning of this portion of our
'.ord's teaching. It must be remembered
that in the great patterns of interpretation
which He himself has given us, there is
more than this. Not only the sower and
the seed and the several soils hiive their
counterparts in the spiritual life, but the
birds of the air, the thorns, the scorching
heat, have each of them a significance. It
maj be inferred from these two instances

that we are, at least, justified iu lookinfffoT
a meaning even in the seeming accessories
of a parable. The very form ol the teach
ing makes it probable that there may be, in
any case, more than one legitimate expla
nation. A parable may be at once etlucal,
and in the highest sense of the term pro
phetic. There is thus a wide field open to
the discernment of the interpreter. There
are also restraints upon the mere fertility
of his imagination. (1.) The analogies
must be real, not arbitrary. (2.) The p.ar-
ables are to be considered as parts of a
whole, and the interpretation of one is not
to override or encroach upon the lessons
taught by others. (3.) The direct teaching
of Christ presents the standard to which all
our interpretations are to be referred, and
by which they are to be measured.
Paradise is a word of Persian origin,
and is used in the Septuagint as the trans
lation of Eden. [Eden.] It is a matter
of sorae interest to ascertain with what as
sociations the word was connected in the
minds of the Jews of Palestine .and other
countries at the tinie of our Lord's teach
ing; what sense therefore we may attach to
it in the writings of the N. T. In this as
in other instances we may distinguish three
modes of thought. (1.) To the Idealist
school of Alexandria, of which Philo is the
representative. Paradise was nothing more
than a symbol and an allegory. Spiritual
perfection was the only paradise. Tho trees
thiit grew in it were the thoughts of the
spiritual man. (2.) The R.abbis in the time
of our Saviour taught that there was a re
gion of the world of the dead, of Sheol, in
the heart of the earth. Gehenna was on
one side, with its flaraes and torments;
Paradise on the other, the intermediate
home of the blessed. (3.) Out of the dis
cussions and theories of the Rabbis, there
grew a broad popular belief, fixed in the
hearts of men,. accepted without discussion,
blending with their best hopes. In the cora
mon belief Paradise was a far-off hand, a
region where there was no scorching heat,
no consuming cold ; and the common prayer
for the dying or the dead was that their
souls raight rest in Paradise, in the garden
of Eden. It is with this popular belief
that the language of the N. T. connects
itself. The old word is kept, and is raised
to a new dignity or power. It is significant,
indeed, that tho word " Paradise " noivhere
occurs in the public teaching of our Lord,
or iu His intercourse with His own disci
ples. Connected as it had been with the
thoughts of a sensuous happiness, it was
not the fittest or t'le best word for those
whom He was training to rise out of sensu
ous thoughts to the higher regions of the
spiritual life. For them, accordingly, tha
kingdom of Jleaven, the kingdom of God,
are tbe words most dwelt on. With the

PARAH

493

PARTHIANS

thief dying (jn the cross the case was dif
ferent (Luke xxiii. 43.). We can assume
nothing in the robber-outlaw but the most
rudimentary forms of popular belief. The
answer to his prayer gave him what he
needed most, the assurance of iraraediate
rest and peace. The word Paradise spoke
to him, as t!o other Jews, of repose, shelter,
joy — the greatest contrast possible to the
thirst, and agony, and shame of the hours
upon the cross. 'There is a like significance
in the general absence of the word from
the languiiige of the Epistles. Here also it
is found nowhere in the direct teaching. It
occurs only in passages that are apocalyp
tic, and therefore almost of necessity sym
bolic (2 Cor. xii. 3 ; corap. Rev. ii. 7). (4.)
The eager curiosity which prorapts raen to
press on into the things behind the veil, has
led thera to construct hypotheses more or
less definite as to the intermediate -state,
and these have affected the thoughts which
Christian writers have connected with the
word Paradise. The word enters largely,
as raight be expected, into the apocryphal
literature of the early Church. 'Where the
true Gospels are most reticent, th'e mythical
are most exuberant.
Pa'rah, one of the cities in the territory
allotted to Benjamin, naraed only in tlie
lists of the conquest (Josh, xviii. 23).
Pa'ran, El-pa'ran. 1. The name Pa
ran corresponds probably in general outline
with the desert Et-Tih. [Kadesh.] Be
tween the wilderness of Paran and that of
Zin no strict demarcation exists in the nar
rative, nor do the natural features of the
region yield a well-defined boundary. The
name of P.aran seems, as in the story of
Ishmael (Gen. xxi. 21), to have predomi
nated towards the western extremity of the
northern desert frontier of Et-Tih, and in
Num. xxxiv. 4 the wilderness of Zin, not
Paran, is spoken of as the southern border
of the land or of the tribe of Judah (Josh.
XV. 3). Was there, then, a Paran proper,
or definite spot to which the name was ap
pUed? From Deut. i. 1 it would seem'
there must h.ave been. This is confirmed
by 1 K. xi. 18, from which we further learn
the fact of its being an inhabited region ;
and the position required by the context
here is one between Midian and Egypt.
Padan proper is probably the Wady Feiran.
2. " Mount " Par.an occurs only in two
poetic passages (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Hab. iii.
3). It probably denotes the north-western
member of the Sinaitic mountain-group,
which lies adjacent to the Wady Feiran.
Par'bar. A word occurring in Hebrew
and A. V. only in 1 Chr. xxvi. 18. It would
seem that Parbar was some place on the
west side of the Temple enclosure, the
same side with the causeway and the gate
Shallecheth. The latter was close to the
causeway. Parbai .herefore must have been

south of Shallecheth. As to the meaimg
of tbe name, the Rabbis generally agree in
translating it " the outside place;" while
modern authorities take it as equivalent to
the parvdrim in 2 K. xxiii. 11 (A. V. " sub
urbs ") . Accepting this interpretation, there
is no difficulty in identifying the Parbar
with the suburb mentioned by Josephus in
describing Herod's Temple, as lying in the
deep valley which- separated the west wall
of the Temple from the city opposite it.
Parchm.eilt. [Writing.]
Parlor. A word in English usage mean
ing the common room of the faraily, and
hence probably in A. V. denoting the king's
audienoe-charaber, so used in reference to
Eglon (Judg. Ui. 20-25).
Parmash'ta. One of the ten sons of
Haman, slain by the Jews in Shushan (Esth.
ix. 9).
Par'm.enas. One of the seven dea
cons, "men of honest report, full of the
Holy Ghost and wisdom " (Acts vi. 5)
There is a tradition that he suffered raai-
tyi-dora at Philippi in the reign of Trajan.
Par'naeh, father or ancestor of Eliza
plian prince of the tribe of Zebulun (Num
xxxiv. 25).
Pa'rosh. The descendants of Parosh,
in nuraber 2172, returned frora Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 3; Neh. vii. 8).
Another detachment of 150 males, with
Zechariah at their head, accompanied Ezra
(Ezr. viii. 3). They assisted in the build
ing of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 25),
and signed the covenant with Nehemiah
(Neh. X. 14).
Parshau'datha, the eldest of Haman's
ten sons who were slain by the Jews in
Shushan (Esth. ix. 7).
Parthians occurs only in Acts ii. 9,
where it designates Jews settled in Parthia.
Parthia Proper was the region stretching
along the southern flank of the mountains
which separate the great Persian desert from
the desert of Kharesm. It lay south of
Hyrcania, east of Media, and north of Sa-
gartia. The ancient Parthians are called a
" Scythic" race, and probably belonged to
the great Turanian faraily. After being
subject in succession to the Persians and
the Seleucidae, they revolted in b. c. 256,
and under Arsaces succeeded in establish-
ingtheirindependence. Parthia, in the mind
of the writer of the Acts, would designate
this empire, which extended frora India to
the Tigris, and from the Chorasmian desert
to the shores of the Southern Ocean.
Hence the prominent position of the name
Parthians in the Ust of those present at
Pentecost. Parthia was a power almost
rivalling Rome — the only existing power
which had tried its strength against Rome
and not been worsted in the encounter.
The Parthian dominion lasted for nearly
five centuries,' commencing in the thud

PARTRIDGE

century before, and terminating in the third
century after, our era.
Partridge (Heb. kdr&) occurs only 1
Sara. xxvi. 20, and Jer. xvii. 11. The
" hunting this bird upon the mountains " (1
Sam. xxvi. 20) entirely agrees with the
habits of two well-known species of par
tridge, viz. Caccabis saxatilis (the Greek
partridge) and Ammoperdix Ileyii. The
expression in Ecclus. xi. 30, " like as a
partridge taken (and kept) in a cage,"
clearly, refers to "a decoy partridge."
Our common partridge {Perdix cmerea)
does not occur in Palestine.

494 PASSOVER
Pashur ioined with several other chief men
fn'peSioning the king *-* ^ ^-^,^',^5],? ^'
be put to death as a traitor (Jer. xxxvui.).
2. Another person of this name, also a
priest, and " chief governor of the house

Fartrldge. (Caccabis saxatilts.)
Par'uah, the father of Jehoshaphat,
Miyloraon's commissariat officer in Issachar
1.1 K. iv. 17).
Par-va'im, the name of an unknown
place or country whence the gold was pro
cured for the decoration of Solomon's Tera
ple (2 Chr. iii. 6). We may notice the
conjecture that it is derived from the San
scrit ^ilrt-a, "eastern," and is a general
terra for the East.
Pa'saeh, son of Japhlet, of the tribe of
Asher (1 Chr. vu. 33).
Pas-dam'mim. [Ephes-dammim.]
Pase'ah. 1. Son of Eshton, in an ob
scure fragment of the genealogies of Ju
dah (1 Chr. iv. 12). 2. The "sons of
Paseah " were araong the Nethinim who
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 49).
Pash'-ur. 1. One of the families of
priests of the chief house of Malchijah
(Jer. xxi. 1, xxxvui. 1 ; 1 Chr. ix. 12, xxiv,
9; Neh. xi. 12). In the time of Nehemiah
this fiiraily appears to have becorae a chief
house, and its head the head of a course
(Ezr. U. 38; Neh. vii. 41, x. 3). The in
dividual frora whom the family was named
was probably Pashur, the son of Malchiah,
who in the reign of Zedekiah was one of
the chief princes of the court (Jer. xxxviii.
1). He was sent, with others, by Zedekinh
to Jeremiah at the time when NebuchiJ-
nezzar was prfeparing his attack upon Jeru-
•alem (Jer. xxi.). Again, somewhat later.

est, ana •• cniei guvci""^ _«- - — 
of the Lord," is mentioned m Jer. xx. 1.
He is described as " the son of Imraer
(1 Chr. xxiv. 14), probably the same as
Amariah (Neh. x. 3, xii. 2, &c.). In the
reign of Jehoiakim he showed himself as
hostUe to Jeremiah as his namesake the son
of Malchiah did afterwards, and put him in
the stocks by the gate of Benjamin. For
this indignity to God's prophet, Pashur was
told by Jeremiah that his name was changed
to Magor-missabib {Terror on every side),
and that he and all his house should be car
ried captives to Babylon and there die
(Jer. XX. 1-6).
Passage. Used in plur. (Jer. xxii. 20),
probably to denote the mountain region of
Abarim, on the east side of Jordan. It also
denotes a river-ford or a mountain gorge
or pass.
PasSO'Ver, the first of the three great
annual Festivals ofthe Israelites, celebrated
in the month Nisan, from the 14th to the
21st, The following are the principal pas
sages in the Pentateuch relating to the
Passover; Ex. xii. 1-51, xiu. 3-10, xxui.
14-19, xxxiv. 18-26 ; Lev. xxui. 4-14 ; Num.
ix. 1-14, xxviu. 16-25 ; Deut. xvi. 1-6. I.
Institution and First Celebration oe
THE Passover. — When the chosen people
were about to be brought out of Egypt, the
word of the Lord came to Moses and Aaron,
commanding them to instruct all the con
gregation of Israel to prepare for their
departure by a solemn religious ordinance.
On the tenth day of the month of Abib, the
head of each family was to select from the
flock either a- lamb or a kid, a male of the
first year, without blemish. If his family
was too small to eat the whole of the lamb,
he was permitted to invite his nearest neigh
bor to join the party. On the fourteenth
day of the month he was to kill his lamb,
while the sun was setting. He was then to
take blood in a tasin, and with a sprig of
hyssop to sprinkle it on the two side-posts
and the lintel of the door of the house. The
lamb was then thoroughly roasted, whole.
It was expressly forbidden that it should be
boiled, or that a bone of it should bo broken.
Unleavened bread and bitter herbs were to
be eaten with the fiesh. No male who was
uncircumcised was to join the company.
Each one was to have his loins girt, to hold
a staff in his hand, and to have shoes on his
feet. He was to eat in haste, and it would
seem that he was to stand during the meal.
The nuraber of the party was to be calcu
lated as nearly as possible, so that all the
flesh of the lamb might be eaten ; but if any
portion of it happened to remain, it was to
be burned in the morning. No morsel of it

PASSOVER

495

PASSOVER

was to he carried out of the house. The
legislator was further directed to inform
the people of God's purpose to smite the
flrst-boru of the Egyptians, to declare that
the Passover was to 'be to them an ordi
nance forever, to give them directions
respecting the order and duration of the
festival in future times, and to enjoin upon
them to teach their children its raeaning,
from generation to generation. When the
message was delivered to the people they
bowed their heads in worship. The larabs
were selected, on the fourteenth they were
slain, and the blood sprinkled, and in the
following evening, afterthe flfteenth day of
the month had commenced, the flrst paschal
meal was eaten. At midnight the first-born
of the Egyptians were smitten. The king
and his people were now urgent that the
Israelites should start immediately, and
readily bestowed on them supplies for
the journey. In such haste did the Israel
ites depart, on that very day (Num. xxxiii.
8), thiit they packed up their kneading-
troughs containing the dough prepared fbr
the morrow's provisions, which was not yet
leavened. II. Observance op the Pass
over IN later times. — 1. In the twelfth
and thirteenth chapters of Exodus there are
not only distinct references to the obser
vance of the festival in future ages (e. g. xii.
2, 14, 17, 24-27, 42, xiu. 2, 5, 8-10), but
there are several injunctions which were
evidently not intended for the first Passover,
and which indeed could not possibly have
been observed. In the later notices of the
festival in the books of the law there are
particulars added which appear as modifi
cations of the original institution (Lev.
xxiii. 10-14 ; Num. x.\vui. 16-25 ; Deut.
xvi. 1-6). He_nce it is not without reason
that the Jewish writers have laid great
stress on the distinction between " the
Egyptian Passover" and "the perpetual
Passover." 2. The following was the gen
eral order of the observances of the Pass
over in later tiraes : On the 14th of Nisan
every trace of leaven was put away from
thejiouses, and on the same day every male
Israelite not laboring under any bodily in
firmity or cereraoniai impurity, was com
manded to appear before the Lord at the
national sanctuary with an offering of money
in proportion to his means (Ex. xxiii. 15 ;
Dent. xvi. 16, 17). Devout woraen some
times attended, as is proved by the instances
of Hannah and Mary (1 Sara. i. 7 ; Luke ii.
41, 42). As the sun was setting, the lambs
were slain, and the fat and blood given to
the priests (2 Chr. xxxv. 5, 6). The lamb
was then roasted whole, and eaten with
unleavened bread and bitter herbs ; no por
tion of it was to be left until the morning.
The same night, after the 15th of Nisan had
commenced, the fat was burned by the priest
and the blood sprmkled on the altar (2 Chr.

xxx. 16, xxxv. 11). On the 15lh, the night
being passed, there was a holy convocation,
and during that day no work might be done,
except the preparation of necessary food
(Ex. xu. 16). On this and the six following
days an offering in addition to the daily sac
rifice was made of two young bullocks, a
ram, and seven larabs of the first year, with
meat-offerings, for a burnt-offering, and a
goat for a sin-offering (Num. xxviii. 19-23).
On the 16th of the month, " the morrow after
the sabbath" {i. e. after the day of holy
convocation), the flrst sheaf of harvest
was offered and waved by the priest before
the Lord, and a male lamb was off'ered as a
burnt sacrifice with a meat and drink offer
ing. Nothing necessarily distinguished the
four following days ofthe festival, except the
additional burnt and sin-offerings, and the
restraint frora some kinds of labor. On the
seventh day, the 21st of Nisan, there was a
holy convocation, and the day appears to
have been one of peculiar solemnity. As
at all the festivals, cheerfulness was to pre
vail during the whole week, and all care
was to be laid aside (Deut. xxvii. 7). 3.
(a.) The Paschal Lamb. — After the first
Passover in Egypt there is no trace of the
lamb having been selected before it was
wanted. In later times we are certain that
it was soraetiraes not provided before the
14th of the month (Luke xxii. 7-9 ; Mark
xiv. 12-16) . The law formally allowed the
alternative of a kid (Ex. xii. 5), but a lamb
was preferred, and was probably nearly
always chosen. It was to be tiiultless, and
a male, in accordance with the established
estimate of animal perfection (see Mal. i.
14). Either the head of the family, or any
other person who was not ceremonially
unclean (2 Chr. xxx. 17), took it into the
court of the Temple on his shoulders. As
the paschal lamb could be legally slain, and
the blood and fat offered, only in the na
tional sanctuary (Deut. xvi. 2), it of
course ceased to be offered by the Jews
after the destruction of Jerusalem. The
spring festival of the modern Jews strictly
consists only of the feast of unleavened
bread, (i.) The Unleavened Bread. — It
might be made of wheat, spelt, barley,
oats, or rye, but not of rice or millet. It
appears to have been usually made of the
finest wheat flour. It was probably formed
into dry, thin biscuits, not unlike those
used by the modern Jews, (c.) The Bitter
Herbs and ihe Sauce. — According to the
Mishna the bitter herbs (Ex. xii. 8) might
be endive, chicory, wild lettuce, or nettles.
These plants were important iirticles of
food to the ancient Egyptians. The sauce
into which the herbs, the bread, and the
meat were dipped as they were eaten (John
xui. 26 ; Matt. xxvi. 23) is not mentioned
in the Pentateuch, {d.) The Four Cups
of Wine. — There ia no mention of wine

PASSOVER

496

PASSOVER

in connection with the Passover in the
Pentateuch; but the Mishna strictly en
joins that there should never be less than
four cups of it provided at the paschal
meal even ef the poorest Israelite. Two
of them appear to be distinctly mentioned
Luke xxu. 17, 20. " The cup of blessing "
(1 Cor. X. 16) was probably the latter one
of these, and is generally considered to
have been the third of the series, after
which a grace was said ; though a compar
ison of Luke xxu. 20 (where it is called
" the cup after supper ") with a passage in
the Talmud, and the designation "cup of
the Hallel," suggests that it was the fourth
and last cup. (e.) The Hallel. — The ser
vice of praise sung at the Passover is not
mentioned in the Law. The name is con
tracted from Hallelujah. It consisted of
the series of Psalras from cxiii. to cxviii.
The first portion, comprising Ps. cxUi. and
cxiv., was sung in the early part of the
meal, and the second part after the fourth
cup of wine. This is supposed to have been
the " hymn " sung by our Lord and His
Apostles (Matt. xxvi. 30; Mark xiv. 26).
(/.) Mode and Order ofthe Paschal Meal. —
Adopting as much from Jewish tradition as
is not inconsistent or improbable, the fol
lowing appears to have been the usual cus
tora : All work, except that belonging to a
few trades connected with daily life, was
suspended for sorae hours before the even
ing of the 14th Nisan. It was not lawful
to eat any ordinary food after midday.
No male was admitted to the table unless
he was circumcised, even if he was of the
seed of Israel (Ex. xii. 48). It was cus
tomary for the number of a party to be not
• less than ten. AVhen the raeal was pre
pared, the family was placed round the
table, the paterfamilias taking a place of
honor, prob.ably somewhat raised above the
rest. There is no reason to doubt that the
ancient Hebrews sat as they were accus
tomed to do at their ordinary raeals. Our
Lord and His Apostles conformed to the
usual custora of their tirae, and recUned
(Luke xxii. 14, &c.). When the party .was
arranged tho first cup of wine was filled, and
a blessing was asked by the head of the fara
ily on the feast, as well as a special one on tho
cup. The bitter herbs were then placed on
the table, and a portion of them eaten, either
with or without the sauce. The unleavened
bread was handed round next, and after
wards tho lamb was placed on the table in
front of the head of the family. Before the
lamb was eaten the second cup of wine was
fiUcd, and the son, in accordance with Ex.
xii. 26, asked his father the meaning of the
feast. In reply, an account was given of
the sufferings of the Israelites in Egypt, and
of their deliverance, with a particular expla
nation of Deut. xxvi. 5, and the first part of
the HaUcl (Ps. cxiii., cxiv.) was sung. This

being gone through, the larab was carved
and eaten. The third cup of wine was
poured out and drunk, and soon afterwards
the fourth. The second part of the Hallel
(Ps. cxv. to cxviii.) was then sung. A fifth
wine-cup appears to have been occasionally
produced, but perhaps only in later times.
What was terraed the greater Ilallcl (Ps.
cxx. to cxxxviii.) was sung on such occa
sions. The Israelites who lived in the
country appear to have been accommodated
at the feast by the inhabitants of Jerusalem
in their houses, so far as there was room
for them (Luke xxii. 10-12; Matt. xxvi.
18). Those who could not be received into
the city encamped without the walls in
tents, as the pilgrims now do at Mecca.
{g.) The first Sheaf of Harvest. — The
offering of the Omer, or sheaf, is mentioned
nowhere in the Law except Lev. xxiii. 10-
14. It is there commanded that when the
Israelites reached the land of promise, they
should bring, on the 16th of the raouth,
" the raorrow after the sabbath " {i. e. the
day of holy convocation), the first sheaf of
the harvest to the priest, to be waved by
hira before the Lord. The sheaf was of
barley, as being the grain which was first
ripe (2K. iv. 42). {h.) The Chagigah.—
The daily sacrifices are enuraerated in the
Pentateuch only in Nura. xxviii. 19-23, but
reference is raade to them Lev. xxiii. 8.
Besides these public offerings, there was
another sort of sacrifice connected with the
Passover, as well as with the other great
festivals, called in the Talmud Chagigah,
i. e. " festivity." It was a voluntary peace-
offering made by private individuals. The
victim might be taken either frora the flock
or the herd. It might be either male or
female, but it raust be without bleraish-
The offerer laid his hand upon its head, and
slew it at the door of the sanctuary. The
blood was sprinkled on the altar, and the
fat of the inside, with the kidneys, was
burned by the priest. The breast was given
to the priest as a wave-offerrag, and the
right shoulder as a heave-offering (Lev. iii.
1-5, vii. 29-34). What reraained of the
victim might be eaten by the offerer and
his guests on the day on which it was slain.
and on the day following ; but if any por
tion was left till the third day it was burned
(Lev. vii. 16-18). The eating of the Clia-
gigiih was an occasion of social festivity
connected with the festiviils, and especially
with the Passover, (i.) Release of Prison
ers. — It is a question whether the release
of a prisoner at the Passover (Matt. xxvu.
15 ; Mark xv. 6 ; Luke xxiu. 17 ; John xviu.
39) was a custora of Roraan origin reseiu-
bUng what took place at the lectisterniuiu
(Liv. V. 18), and, in later times, on the
birthday of an emperor, or whether it was
iin old Hebrew usage belonging to the fes
tival, which PUate aUowed the Jews to re-

PASSOVEK

497

PASSOVER

tain, (ft.) The Second, or Little Passover.
— When the Passover was celebrated the
second year, in the wilderness, certain raen
were prevented from keeping it, owing to
their being defiled by contact with a dead
body. Being thus prevented frora obeying
the Divine coraraand, they came anxiously
to Moses to inquire what they should do.
He was accordingly instructed to institute
a second Passover, to be observed on the
14tli of the fo.llowing month, for the benefit
of any who had been hindered from keep
ing the regular one in Nisan (Nura. ix.
11). The Talraudists called this the Little
Passover. {I.) Observances of the Pass
over recorded in Scripture. — Of these,
seven are of chief historical importance :
1. The first Passover iu Egypt (Ex. xii.).
2. The first kept in the desert (Num. ix.).
3. That celebrated by Joshua at Gilgal
(Josh. v.). 4. That which Hezekiah ob
served on the occasion of his restoring the
national worship (2 Chr. xxx.). This Pass
over was not held till the second month,
the proper time for the Little Passover. 5.
The Passover of Josiah, iu the eighteenth
year of his reign (2 Chr. xxxv.). 6. That
celebrated by Ezra after the return frora
Babylon (Ezr. vi.) 7. The last Passover
of our Lord's life. III. The Last Sup
per. — 1. Was the supper which our Lord
ate with his disciples on the Thursday eveu-
icg the true Paschal Supper, ordid the latter
fall on the following evening, the same as
that of His crucifixion? No point in the
Gospel history has been raore disputed.
The truth of the former view could never
have been questioned, had we possessed the
first three Gospels only. They expressly
call the Supper of the Thursday evening the
Passover; and even if St. John does not
so call it, no inference can be drawn from
his silence, any more than from his not
mentioning the institution of the Lord's
Supper, considering the supplementary na
ture of his Gospel. There are, however,
¦ other passages in St. John's narrative of
our Saviour's passion, which seem to sug
gest the inference that the Passover was yet
to be eaten on the Friday evening ; but all
these passages admit of another explaniition.
If we admit that the last supper was on the
13th of Nisan, our Lord raust have been
crucified on tho 14th, the day on which the
paschal larab w.as sl.ain and eaten. He lay
in the grave on the 15tli (which was a
"high day" or double sabbath, because the
fl'eekly sabbath coincided with the day of
holy convocation), and the Sunday of the
resurrection was the 16th. It is not sur
prising that some modern critics should
have given up as hopeless the task of rec
onciling this difficulty. 2. Tho reconcili
ations which have been attempted fall under
three principal heads : i. Those which re
gard the supper at which our Lord washed
32

the feet of His disciples (John xiu.), aa
having been a distinct raeal e.aten one or
raore days before the regular Passover, of
which our Lord partook in due course
according to th'e synoptical narratives, ii.
Those in which it is endeavored to establish
that the raeal was eaten on the 13th, and
that our Lord was crucified on the evening
of the true paschal supper, iii. Those in
which the most obvious view of the first
three narratives is defended, and in which it
is attempted to explain the apparent con
tradictions in St.. John, and the difficulties
in reference to the law. (i.) The first
method has the advantage of furnishing the
most ready way of accounting for St.
John's silence on the institution of the Holy
Communion ; but any explanation founded
on the supposition of two meals appears to
be rendered untenable by the context, (ii.)
The current of opinion in modern tiraes has
set in favor of taking the more obvious
interpretation of the passages in St. John,
that the supper was eaten on the 13tli, a,nd
that our Lord was crucified on the 14th.
Those who thus hold th.at the supper was
eaten on the 13th day of the month have
devised various ways of accounting for the
circumstance, of which the following are
the raost important : {a.) It is .assumed
that a party ofthe Jews, probably the Sad
ducees and those who inclined towards them,
used to eat the Passover one day before the
rest, and that our Lord approved of their
pr.actice. (J.) It has been conjectured that
the great body of the Jews had gone wrong
in calculating the true Passover-day, pla
cing it a day too late, and that our Lord ate
the Passover on what was really the 14th,
but what coraraonly passed as the 13th.
{c.) Calvin supposed that on this occasion,
though our Lord thought it right to adhere
to the true legal tirae, the Jews ate the Pass
over on the 15thinstead of the 14th, in order
to escape from the burden of two days of
strict observance (the day of holy convoca
tion and the weekly sabbath) comirng to
gether, {d.) Grotius thought that the raeal
was a Ttan^a firrifiortvTixCv (like the paschal
feast of the raodern Jews, and such as raight
have been observed dulring the Babylonian
captivity), not a naaya 6vnniov. {e.) A view
which has been received with favor far
more generally than either ofthe preceding
is, that the Last Supper was instituted by
Christ for the occasion, in order that He
might Himself suffer on the proper evening
on which the paschal larab was slain . Eras
mus and others have called it an " antici
patory Passover ; " but if this view is. to
stand, it seems better^ in a formal treat
ment of the subject, not to call it a Passover
at all. (iii.) They who take the facts as
they appear to lie on the surface of the
synoptical narratives «tart from a simpler
point. They have td show that the passages

PASSOVER

498

PASSO'VER

in St. John may be fairly interpreted in
such a manner as not to interfere with their
own conclusion, {a.) John xiii. 1, 2. Does
ttq'o t)Ts io^Ti'g lirait the time only of the
proposition in the first verse,- or is the limi
tation to be carried on to verse 2, so as to
refer to the supper? In the latter case the
natural conclusion is, that the raeal was one
eaten before the paschal supper. Others
take nUaya to mean the seven days of un
leavened bread as not including the eating
of the lamb, and justify this limitation by
St. Luke xxii. 1 ; but not a few of those
who take this side of the main question
regard the first verse as coraplete in itself.
On the whole, Neander himself admits that
nothing can safely be 'inferred from John
xiu. 1, 2, in favor of the supper having
taken place on the 13th. (6.) John xiii.
29. It is urged that the things of which
they had " need against the feast," might
have been the provisions for the Chagigah,
perhaps with what else was required for the
seven days of u nleavened bread. The usual
day for sacrificing the Chagigah was the
15th, which was then commencing. But
there is another difficulty in the disciples
thinking it likely either that purchases
could be made, or that alms could be given
to the poor, on a day of holy convocation.
It is highly probable that the letter of the
law ill regard to trading was habitually re-
l.axed in the case of what was required for
religious rites or for burials, (c.) John xvui.
28. The Jews refused to enter the praetori
um lest they should be defiled, and so dis
qualified from eating the Passover. Neander
and others deny that this passage can possi
bly refer to anything but the paschal supper.
But it is alleged that the words may either
be taken in a general sense as meaning ' ' that
they might go on keeping the passover," or
that -10 jiaaya. may be understood specifical
ly to denote the Chagigah. {d.) John xix.
14. " The preparation of the Passover " at
first sight would seem as if it must be the
preparation for the Passover on the 14th, a
time set apart for making ready for the
paschal week, and for the paschal supper
in particular. It is naturally so understood
by those who advocate the notion that the
last supper was eaten on the 13th. But
-they who take the opposite view affirm that,
though there was a regular " preparation"
for the sabbath, there is no raention of
any "preparation" for the festivals. It
seems to be essentially connected with the
sabbath itself (John xix. 31). The phrase
in John xix. 14 may thus be understood as
tli3 preparation of the sabbath which fell
iu the Passover week. If these arguments
are admitted, the day of the prepiiration
mentioned in the Gospels might have fallen
on the day of holy convocation, the 15th of
Nisan. (e.) John xijc. 31. " Thiit sabbath
day was a high day." It is assumed by

those who fix the supper on the 13th tl.at
the term was applied, owing to the letlj
being " a double sabbath," from the coin
cidence of the day of holy convocation -with
the weeklv festivtil. Those, on the ether
hand, who identify the supper with the
paschal meal, contend that the special dig
nity of the day resulted from its being that
on which the Omer was offered, and fiom
which were reckoned the fifty days to Pen
tecost. (/.) The difficulty of supposing
that our Lord's apprehension, trial, and
crucifixion took place on the day of holy
convocation has been strongly urged. But
the statements which refer to Jewish usage
in regard to legal proceedings on sacred
days as are very inconsistent with each
otlier. Some of them make the difficulty
equally great whether we suppose the trial
to have taken place on the 14th or the 15th.
In others there are exceptions permitted
which seem to go farto meet the case he-
fore us. But we have better proof than
either the Mishna or the Gemara can afford
that the Jews did not hesitate, in the time
of the Roman domination, to carry arms
and to apprehend a prisoner ou a solemr
feast day. We find them at the feast of
Tabernacles, on the "great day of the
feast," sending out officers to take our
Lord, and rebuking them for uot brining
Him (John vii. 32-45) . St. Peter also was
seized during the Passover (Acts xu. 3, 4).
And, again, the reason alleged by the rulers
for not apprehending Jesus was, not the
sanctity of the festival, but the fe.ar of an
uproar among the raultitude which was
asserabled (Matt. xxvi. 5). On the whole,
notwithstanding the express declaration of
the Law and of the Mishna that the days
of holy convocation were to be observed
precisely as the sabbath, except in the
preparation of food, it is highly probable that
considerable lioense was allowed iu regard
to them, as we have already observed. 3. It
raust be admitted th.at the" narrative of St.
John, as far as the mere succession qf
events is concerned, bears consistent testi
mony in favor of the last supper having
been eaten on the evening before the Pitss-
over. That testimony, however, does not
.appear to be so distinct, and so incapable
of a second interpretation, as that of the
synoptical Gospels, iu fiivor of the meal
having been the paschal supper itself, at
the legal tirae (see especially Matt. xxvi.
17; Mark xiv. 1, 12; Luke xxU. 7). IV.
Meaning op the Passover. — 1. Each of
the three great festivals contained a refer
ence to the annual course of nature. Two
atleast of them — the first and the last —
also coraraeraorated events in the history of
the chosen people. It must be admitted
that the relation to the natural year ex
pressed in the Passover was less marked
than that in Pentecost or Tabernacles, vhilo

PASSOVER

499

PASSOVER

Its historical import was deeper and more
pointed. That part of its ceremonies which
has a direct agricultural reference — the
offering of the Omer — holds a very sub
ordinate place. 2. The deliverance from
Egypt was regarded as the starting-point
of the Hebrew nation. The Israelites were
then raised from the condition of bondmen
under a foreign tyrant to tli.at of a free
people owing aUegiance to no one but Je
hovah. The prophet in a later age spoke
of the event as a creation and a redemption
of the nation. God declares Hiraself to be
" the Creator of Israel." The Exodus was
thus looked upon as the birth of the nation ;
the Passover wa.s its annual birthday feast.
It was the yearly memorial of the dedica
tion of the people to Him who had saved
their first-born from the destroyer, in order
that they might be made holy to Himself.
8. (a.) The paschal lamb must of course
be regarded as the leading feature in the
ceremonial of the festival. Sorae Protes
tant divines during the last two centuries
(CaJov, Carpzov) have denied that it was a
sacrifice in the proper sense of the word.
But most of their contemporaries (Cud-
worth, Bochart, Vitringa), and nearly all
modern critics, have held that it was in the
strictest sense a sacrifice. The chief char
acteristics of a sacrifice are all distinctly
ascribed to it. It was offered in the holy
place (Deut. xvi. 6, 6) ; the blood was
sprinkled on the altar, and the fat was
burned (2 Chr. xxx. 16, xxxv. 11). The
language of Ex. xu. 27, xxiii. 18, Num. ix.
7, Di ut. xvi. 2, 5, together with 1 Cor. v.
7, would seera to decide the question be
yond the reach of doubt. As the original
institution of the Passover in Egypt pre
ceded the establishment of the priesthood
and tlie reguhition of the service of the
tabernacle, it necessarily fell short in
several particulars of the observance of
the festival according to the fully devel
oped ceremonial law. The head of the
family slew the larab in his own house, not
in the holy place ; the blood was sprinkled
on the doorway, not on the altar. But
when the law was perfected, certain partic
ulars were altered in order to assimilate
the Passover to the accustomed order of
religious service. It can hardly be doubted
that the paschal lamb was regarded as the
great annual peace-offering of the family,
a thank-offering for the existence and pres
ervation of the nation (Ex. xui. 14-16),
the typical sacrifice of the elected and rec
onciled children of the promise. A ques
tion, perhaps not a wise one, has been raised
regarding the purpose of the sprinkling of
the blood on the lintels and door-posts.
Some have ' considered that it was meant
as a mark to guide the destroying angel.
Others suppose that it was merely a sign
to confirm the faith of the Israelites in

their safety and deliverance. Surely nei
ther of these views can stand alone. Tha
sprinkling must have been an act of faith
and obedience which God accepted with
favor. That it also denoted the purifica
tion of the children of Israel from tha
aborainations of the Egyptians, and so had
the accustomed significance of the sprin
kling of blood under the law (Heb. ix. 22),
is evidently in entire consistency with this
view. No satisfactory reason has been as
signed for the command to choose the lamb
four days before the paschal supper. That
the lamb was to be roasted, and not boUcd,
has been supposed to comraeraorate thu
haste of the departure of the Israelites.
It is not difficult to determine the reason
of the command, " Not a bone of him shall
be broken." The lamb was to be a symbol
of unity ; the unity of the family, the unity
of the nation, the unity of God with His
people whom He had taken into covenant
with Hiraself. (6.) The unleavened bread
ranks next in importance to the paschal
lamb. The notion has been very generally
held, or taken for granted, both by Chris
tian and Jewish writers of all ages, that
it was intended to remind the Israelites
of the unleavened cakes which they were
obliged to eat in their hasty flight (Ex. xii.
34, 39) ; but there is not the least intiraa-
tiou to tills effect in the sacred narrative.
It has been considered by some that the
unleavened bread and the bitter herbs alike
owe their meaning to their being regarded
as unpalatable food ; but this seems to be
wholly inconsistent with the pervading joy
ous nature of the festival. On the whole
we are warranted in concluding that un
leavened bread had a peculiar sacrihcial
character, according to the Law. It seems
more reasonable to accept St. Paul's refer
ence to the subject (1 Cor. v. 6-8) as fur
nishing the true meaning of the symbol.
Fermentation is decomposition, a dissolu
tion of unity. The pure dry biscuit would
be an apt erablera of unchanged duration,
and, in its freedora from foreign mixture,
of purity also, {c.) The bitter herbs are
generiiUy understood by the Jewish writers
to signify the bitter sufferings which the
Israelites had endured (Ex. i. 14). But
it has been remarked by Abenezra that
these herbs are a good and wholesome ac
companiment for meat, and are now, and
appear to have been in ancient times, cora
raonly so eaten, {d.) The offering of the
Oraer, though it is obviously that part of
the festival which is iramediately connected
with the course of the seasons, bore a dis
tinct analogy to its historical significance.
It raay have denoted a deliverance from
winter, as the lamb signified deliverance
from the bondage of Egypt, which might
well be considered as a winter iu the his
tory of the rition. Again, the con.omra.

PATARA

500

PATBIAilCHS

tion of the first-fruits, the first-born of the
soil, is an easy type of the consecration of
the first-born of the Israelites. 4. No other
shadow of good things to come contained
in the Law can vie with the festival of the
Passover in expressiveness and coraplete-
ness. Hence we are so often rerainded of
it, more or less distinctly, in the ritual and
Language of the Church. -Its outline, con
sidered in reference to the great deliver
ance of the Israelites which it commemo
rated, and many of its minute details, have
been appropriated as current expressions
of the truths which God has revealed to us
in the fulness of time in sending His Son
upon earth. It is not surprising that eccle
siastical writers should have pushed the
comparison too far, and exercised their
fancy in the application of trifling or ac
cidental particulars either to the facts of
our Lord's life or to truths connected with
it. But, keeping within the liraits of sober in
terpretation indicated by Scripture itself, the
application is singularly full and edifying.
The crowning application of the paschal
rites to the truths of which they were the
shadowy promises appears to be that which
is afforded by the fact that our Lord's
death occurred during the festival. Ac
cording to the Divine purpose, the true
Lamb of God was slain at nearly the same
time as " the Lord's Passover," in obedience
to the letter of the law. It does not seem
needful that, in order to give point to this
coincidence, we should (as some have done)
draw from it an d priori argument in favor
of our Lord's crucifixion having taken place
on the 14th of Nisan. It is enough to
know thiit our own Holy Week and Easter
stand as the anniversary of the sarae great
facts as were foreshown in those events of
wiiich the yearly Passover was a com
memoration. As compared with tlie other
festivals, tbe Passover was remarkably dis
tinguished by a single victim essentially its
own, sacrificed in a very peculiar manner.
In this respect, as well as in the place it
held in the ecclesiastical year, it had a for
mal dignity and character of its own. It was
the representative festival of the year, and
in this unique position it stood in a certain
relation to circuracision as the second sac-
riiment of the Hebrew church (Ex. xii. 44).
Pat'ara, a Lycian city situated on the
south-western shore of Lycia, not far frora
the left bank of the river Xanthus. The
coast here is very mountainous and bold.
Immediately opposite is the island of
Rhodes. Patara was practically the sea
port of the city of Xanthus, which was ten
miles distant. These notices of its posi
tion and maritime importance introduce us
to the single mention of the place in the
Bible (Acts xxi. 1, 2).
Path'ros, gent, noun Pathrusim, a
part of Egypt, and a Mizraite tribe. In the

list of the Mizraites, the Pathruliiit. occur
after the Naphtuhim, and before the ..-aslu-
hira ; the latter being followed by the uotice
of the PhiUstines, and by the Caphtorim
(Gen. X. 13, 14; 1 Chr. i. 12). Pathros is
raentioned in the prophecies of Isaiah (xi.
11), Jeremiah (xliv. 1, 15), and Ezekiel
(xxix. 14, xxx. 13-18). It was probably
part of or all Upper Egypt, and we may
trace its name in the Pathyrite nome, in
whieh Thebes was situate.
'Pathru'sim. [Pathros.]
Pat'mos (Rev. i. 9), a rugged and bare
island, is one of the Sporades, and in that
part of the Aegean which is called the Ica-
rian Sea. Such a scene of banishment for
St. John in the reign of Domitian is quite
in harmony with what we read of the cus
tom of the period. Patmos is divided into
two nearly equal parts, a northern and a
southern, by avery narrow isthmus, where,
on the east side, are the harbor and the
town. On the hill to the south, crowning
a commanding height, is the celebrated
monastery, which bears the narae of " John
the Divine." Half way up the ascent is the
cave or grotto where tradition says th.at St.
John received the Revelation.
Patriarchs. The name Patriarch is
applied iu the N. T. to Abrahara (Heb. vii.
4), to the sons of Jacob (Acts vii. 8, 9),
and to Dsivid (Acts u. 29) ; and is appiir-
ently intended to be equivalent to the
phrase, the " head" or " prince of a tribe,"
so often found in the 0. T. It is used in
this sense by the LXX. in 1 Chr. xxiv. 31,
xxvu. 22; 2 Chr. xxiii. 20, xxvi. 12. In
coraraon usage the title of patriarch is as
signed especially to those whose lives are
recorded in Scripture previous to tbe time
of Moses. The patriarchal times are nat
urally divided into the ante-diluvian and
post-diluvian periods. 1. In the forraer
the Scripture record contains little except
the Ust of the line from Seth, through Enos,
Cainan, Mahalaleel, Jared, Enoch, Methu
selah, and Lamech, to Noah ; with the ages
of each at their periods of generation and
at their deaths. To sorae extent parallel to
this, is given the line of Cain ; Enoch, Irad,
Mehujael, Methusael, Laraech, and the sons
of Laraech, Jabal, Jubal, and Tubal-Cain.
To the latter line are attributed the first
signs of material civiUzation, the building
of cities, the division of classes, and the
knowledge of mechanical arts ; while the
only raoral record of their history obscurely
speaks of violence and bloodshed. One of
the main questions raised as to the antedilu
vian period turns on the longevity assigned
to the patriarchs. With the single excep
tion of Enoch (whose departure frora the
earth at 365 years of age is exceiJtional in ev
ery sense), their ages vary from 777 (La
raech) to 969 (Methuselah). This statenient
of ages is clear and definite. If the Divine

PATRIARCHS

501

PAUL

origin of Scripture be believed, its author
ity must be accepted in this as iu other
cases, and the list of the ages of the patri
archs be held to be (what it certainly claims
to be) a statement of real facts. 2. It is in
the post-diluvian periods that more is gath
ered as to the nature of the patriarchal his
tory. It is at first general in its scope.
The "Covenant" given to Noiih is one,
free from all condition, and fraught with
natural blessings, extending to all alike.
But the history soon narrows itself to that
of a single tribe or family, and afterwards
touches the general history of the ancient
world and its empires only so far as it bears
upon this. It is in this last stage that the
principle of the patriarchal dispensation is
most clearly seen. It is based on the sa
credness of family ties and paternal author
ity. This authority, as the only one which
is natural and original, is inevitably the
foundation of the earliest forra of society,
and is probably seen most perfectly in wan
dering tribes, where it is 'not affected by
local attachraents and by the. acquisition of
wealth. Iu Scripture this authority is con
secrated by an ultiraate reference to God,
as the God of the patriarch, the Father
(that is) both of him and his children. At
the sarae tirae, this faith was not allowed to
degenerate, as it was prone to do, into an
appropriation of God, as the mere tutelary
God of the tribe. Still the distinction and
preservation of the chosen family, and the
maintenance of the paternal authority, are
the special purposes, which give a key to
Ihe meaning of history, and of the iustitu-
(ions recorded. The type of character
formed under this dispensation is one im
perfect in intellectual and spiritual growth,
'lecause not yet tried by the subtler terap-
lations, or forced to contemplate the deeper
questions of life ; but it is one reraarkably
simple, affectionate, and free, such as would
grow up under a natural authority, derived
from God and centring in Hira, yet allow
ing, under its unquestioned sacredness, a
familiarity and freedora of intercourse with
Him, which are strongly contrasted with the
stern and awful charactor of the Mosaic
dispensation. We see in it the gerras of the
future — of the future revelation of God, and
the future trials and development of man. It
is on this fact that the typical interpretation
of its history depends. In the post-diluvian
history of the chosen faraily is seen the dis
tinction of the true believers, possessors
of a special covenant, special revelation,
and special privileges, from the world with
out. In it is therefore shadowed out the
history of the Jewish Nation and Christian
Church, as regards the freedom of their
covenant, the gradual unfolding of their
revelation, and the peculiar blessings and
temptations which bplong to their distinc
tive position.

Pat'robas, a Christian at Rome to whom
St. Paul sends his salutation (Rom. xvi.
14). Like many other naraes mentioned in
Rom. xvi., this was borne by at least one
member of the emperor's household (Suet.
Galba, 20; Martial, Ep. ii. 32, 3).
Pau, but in 1 Chr. i. 50, Pai, the capital
of Hadar, king of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 39).
Its position is unknown.
Pa^ul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ to the .
Gentiles. Original Authorities. — Nearly
all the original materials for the Life of St.
Piiul arc contained in the Acts of the Apos
tles and in the Pauline Epistles. Out of
a comparison of these authorities the biog
rapher of St. Paul has to construct liis ac
count of the really important peiioil of the
Apostle's life. The early traditions of tlie
Church appear to have left almost un
touched the space of time for which we
possess those sacred and abundant sources
of knowledge ; and tl»ey aim only at sup
plying a few particulars in the biography
beyond the points at which the narrative
of the Acts begins and terminates. We
shall assume the Acts of the Apostles to be
a genuine and authentic work of St. Luke,
the companion of St. Paul, and shall sjieak
of the Epistles at the places which w^e be
lieve them to occupy in the history. Prom
inent Points in ihe Life. — Foremost of all
is his Conversion. This was the raain root
of his whole life, outward and inwanl.
Next after this, we may specify his Labors
ai Antioch. From these we pass to the
First Missionary Journey, in the eastern
part of Asia Minor. The Visit to Jerusa
lem was a critical point, both in the history
of the Church and of the Apostle. The in
troduction of the Gospel into Europe, with
the memorable visits to Philippi, Athens,
and Corinth, was the boldest step in the
carrying out of St. Paul's mission. A third
great missionary journey, chiefly charac
terized by a long stay at Ephesus, is further
interesting frora its connection with four
leading Epistles. This was imracdiiitely
followed by the apprehension of St. Paid
at Jeruscdem, and his imprisonment at
Caesarea'^ And the last event of which
we have a full narrative is the Voyage io
Rome. Saul of Tarsus, before his Con
version. — Up to the time of his going
forth as an avowed preacher of Christ to
the Gentiles, the Apostle was known by the
name of Saul. This was the Jewish name
which he received frora his Jewish parents.
But though a Hebrew of the Hebrews, he
was born in a Gentile city. Of his parents
we know nothing, except that his father
was of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil. iii. 5),
and a Pliarisee (Acts xxiu. 6), that he had
acquired by sorae means the Roman fran
chise ("I was free born," Acts xxii. 28),
and that he was settled in Tarsus. " I am
a Jew of Tarsus, a city in CiUcia , a citizen

PAUL

502

PAUL

of no mean city" (Acts xxi. 89). At Tar
sus he must have learnt to used the Greek
language with freedom and ra.astery in both
epeahing and writing. At Tarsus also he
learnt that trade of " tent-maker " (Acts
xviii. 3), at which he afterwards occasion
ally wrought with his own hands. There
was a goat's-hair cloth called Cilicium,
manufactured in Cilicia, and largely used
for tents. Saul's trade was probably that
of making tents of this hair-cloth. When
St. Paul raakes his defence before his
countryraen at Jerusalem (Acts xxii.), he
tells thera that though born in Tarsus, he
had been " brought up " in Jerusalem. He
must, therefore, have been yet a boy when
he was reraoved, in all probability for the
sake of his education, to the Holy City of
his fathers. He learnt, he says, " at the
feet of Gamaliel." He who was to resist
so stoutly the usurpations of the law, had
for his teacher one af the most eminent of
all the doctors of the law. Saul was yet
" a young man " (Acts vii. 58), when the
Church experienced that sudden expansion
which was connected with the ordaining of
the Seven appointed to serve tables, and
with the special power and inspiration of
Stephen. Amongst those who disputed
with Stephen were sorae " of them of
Cilicia." We naturally think of Saul as
having been one of these, when we find
hira afterwards keeping the clothes of those
suborned witnesses .who, according to the
law (Deut. xvii. 7), were the first to cast
stones at Stephen. " Saul," says the sacred
writer, significantly, " was consenting unto
his death." Saul's Conversion. — The per
secutor was to be converted. Having un
dertaken to follow up the believers " unto
strange cities," Saul naturally turned his
thoughts to Daraascus. What befell him as
he journeyed thither, is related in detiiil
three times in the Acts, first by the his
torian in his own person, theu in the two
addresses made by St. Paul at Jerusalem
and before Agrippa. St. Luke's statement
is to be read in Acts ix. 3-19, where, how
ever, the words "it is hard for thee to kick
against the pricks," included in the English
version, ought to be oraitted. The sudden
light frora heaven; the voice of Jesus
speaking with authority to His persecu
tor; Saul struck to the ground, blinded,
overcorae; the three days' suspense; the
coming of Ananias as a messenger of the
Lord ; and Saul's baptism ; — these were
the leading features of the great event, and
in these we must look for the chief signifi
cance of the conversion. For we must
not forget that, -n'hatever we hold as to the
external nature of the phenomena we are
considering, the whole transaction was es
sentially, in any case, a spiritual communi
cation. That the Lord Jesus manifested
Hiraself as a Living Person to the man

Saul, and spoke to him so that His very
words could be understood, is the substan-
tial fact declared to us. The purport of
the three narratives is that an actual con
versation took place between Saul and the
Lord Jesus. It is remarkable that in none
of them is Saul said to have seen Jesus.
How it was that Saul " saw " and " heard "
we are quite unable to determine. That
the light, and the sound or voice, wore
both diff'erent from any ordinary phenom
ena with which Saul and his companions
were farailiar, is unquestionably implied in
the narrative. It is also impUed that they
were specially significant to Saul, and not
to those with hira. The only mention in
the Epistles of St. Paul of the outward
phenomena attending liis conversion is that
in 1 Cor. xv. 8, " Last of all He wiis seen
of me also." But there is one important
passage in which he speaks distinctly of
his conversion itself. In the Epistle to the
Galatians (i.15,16) St. Paul has these words :
" When it pleased God, who separated me
from my mother's womb, and called rae by
His grace, io reveal His Son in mc, that I
might preach Hira araong the heathen . . ."
What words could express more exactly
than these the spiritual experience which
occurred to Saul on the way to Damascus ?
The manifestation of Jesus as the Son of
God is clearly the main point in the narra
tive. It would be groundless to assume
that the new convictions of that midday
immediately cleared and settled theraselves
in Saul's mind. It is sufficient to s.ay that
he was then converted, or turned round.
For a while no doubt his inward stat.e was
one of awe and expectation. Thus enter
ing Damascus as a servant of the Lord
Jesus, he sought the house of one whom he
had, perhaps, intended to persecute. The
fame of Saul's coming had preceded liira ;
and Ananias, " a devout man according to
the law," but a believer in Jesus, when di
rected by the Lord to visit hira, wonders
at what he is told concerning the notori
ous persecutor. He obeys, however ; and
going to Saul in the name of " the Lord
Jesus, who had appeared to him in the
w.ay," he puts his hands on hira that he
raiiy receive his sight and be filled with
the Holy Ghost. Thereupon Saul's eyes
are iramediately purged, and his sight is re
stored. After the recovery of sight, Saul
received biiptism as a sign of " the washing
of regeneration." He then broke his three
days' fast, and was strengthened. It Wiis
in Daraascus that he was received into
the Church hy Ananias, and hero, to the
astonishment of all his hearers, he pro
claimed Jesus in the synagogues, declar
ing him to be the Son of God. The h.ar-
rative in the Acts tells us simply that he
was occupied in this work, with increasing
vigor, for " many days," up to the time

PAUL

&03

PAUL

wl eu imminent danger drove him from . a-
mascus. From the Epistle to the Galatians
(i. 17, 18) we learn that the many days
were at least a good part of " three years,"
and that Saul, not thinking it necessary to
procure authority to preach from the Apos
tles that were before hira, went after his
conversion into Arabia, and returned frora
thence to Daraascus. We know nothing
whritever of this visit to Arabia ; but upon
his departure from Damascus, we are again
upon historical ground, and have the double
evidence of St. Luke in the Acts, and of
the Apostle in his 2d Epistle to the Corin
thians. According to the former, the Jews
lay in wait for Saul, intending to kill him,
and watched the gates of the city that he
might not escape from them. Knowing
this, the disciples took hira by night and let
him down in a basket from the wall. Ac
cording to St. Paul (2 Cor. xi. 32) it was
the ethnarch under Aretas the king who
watched for him, desiring to apprehend him.
There is no difficulty in reconciling the two
statements. Having escaped frora Damas
cus, Saul betook hiraself to Jerusalera, and
there "assayed to join hiraself to-the disci
ples ; but they were all afraid of hira, and
believed not th.at he w.as a disciple." Bar
nabas becarae his sponsor to the Apostles
and Church at Jerusalem, assuring them —
frora sorae personal knowledge, we raust
presume — of the facts of Saul's conver
sion and subsequent behavior at Damas
cus. Barnabas's introduction reraoved the
fears of the Apostles, and Saul "was with
them coming in and going out at Jeru
salem." His Hellenistical education raade
hira, like Stephen, a successful disputant
against the "Grecians;" and it is not
strange that the former persecutor was
singled out from the other believers as the
object of a murderous hostility. He was,
therefore, again urged to flee ; and by w.ay
of Caesarea betook himself to his native city
Tarsus. In the Epistle to the Galatians
St. Paul adds certain particulars. He tells
us that his motive for going up to Jerusa
lem rather than anywhere else was that he
might see Peter ; that he abode with hira
fifteen days ; that the only Apostles he saw
were I'oter and Jaraes the Lord's brother ;
and that afterwards he carae into the re
gions of Syria and Cilicia, reraaining un
known by face, though well known for his
conversion to the Churches in Judaea which
were in Christ. St. Paul ai Antioch. —
While Saul was at Tarsus, a raovement
was going on at Antioch, which raised that
city to an importance second only to that
of Jerusalem itself in the early history of
the Church. It was there that the Preach
ing of the Gospel to the Gentiles first took
root, and from thence that itwas afterwards
propagated. There came to Antioch, when
the persecution which arose about Stephen

scattered upon their different routes the dis
ciples who had been assembled at Jerusalera,
men of Cyprus and Cyrene, eager to tell all
who would hear them the good news con
cerning the Lord Jesus. A great number be
lieved ; and when this was reported at Jeru
salem, Barnabas was sent on a special mis
sion to Antioch. As the work grew under liis
hands, he felt the need of help, went himself
to Tarsus to seek Saul, and succeeded in
bringing him to Antioch. There they la
bored together unremittingly for " a whole
year." All this time Saul was subordinate
to Barnabas. An opportunity soon occurred
for proving the affection of these new dis
ciples towards their brethren at Jerusalera.
There came "prophets" from Jerusalem
to Antioch: "and there stood up one of
thera, naraed Agabus, and signified by the
Spirit that there should be great dearth
throughout all the world." It is obvious
that the fulfilraent followed closely upon
the intiraation of the coraing faraine. For
the disciples at Antioch determined to send
contributions imraediately to Jerusiilera ;
and the gift was conveyed to the elders of
that Church by the hands of Barnabas and
Saul. Having discharged their errand,
Barnabas and Saul returned to Antioch,
bringing with them another helper, John
surnaraed Mark, sister's son to Barnabas.
The work of prophesying and teaching was
resuraed. Antioch was in constant com
munication with Cilicia, with Cyprus, with
all the neighboring countries. "The ques
tion musthave forced itself upon hundreds
of the " ChristLans " at Antioch, " What is
the meaning of this faith of ours, of this
baptism, of this incorporation, of this king
dom of the Son of God, for ihe world ?
The Gospel is not for Judaea alone : here
are we called by it at Antioch. Is it meant
to stop here ? " The Church was preg
nant with a grea,t movement, and the time
of her delivery was at hand. Something
of direct expectation seems to be implied
in what is said of the leaders of the Church
at Antioch, that they were " ministering
to the Lord, and fasting," when the Holy
Ghost spoke to them. " Separate me Bar
nabas and Saul for the work whereunto I
have called thera." Everything was done
with orderly gravity in the sending forth of
the two missionaries. Their brethren after
fasting and prayer, laid their hands on i hem,
aud so they departed. The first Mission
ary Journey. — As soon as Barnabas and
Saul reached Cyprus, they began to " an
nounce the word of God," but at first they
delivered their message in the synagogues
of the Jews only. "When they had gone
through the island, from Sa'arais to Paphos,
they were called upon to explain their doc
trine to an erainent Gentile, Sergius Paulus,
the proconsul. A Jew, naraed Barjesus,
or Elymas, a magus and false prophet, had

PAUL

504

PAUL

attached himself to the governor, and had
no doubt Interested his raind with what he
had told hira of the history and hopes of
the Jews. Accordingly when Sergius Pau
lus heard of the strange teachers who were
announcing to the Jews the advent of their
tr.ie Mcssiiih, he wished to see them, and
sent for them. The impostor, instinctive
ly hating the Apostles, and seeing his in
fluence over the proconsul in danger of
perishing, did what he could to withstand
them. Then Saul, "who is also called
Paul," denoaincing Elymas in remarkable
terras, declared against him God's sentence
of temporary blindness. The blindness
immediately falls upon hira ; and the pro
consul, moved by the scene and persuaded
by the teaching of the Apostle, becomes a
believer. This point is raade a special crisis
hi the history of tbe Apostle by the writer of
the Acts. Saul now becoraes Paul, and be
gins to take precedence of Barnabas. Noth
ing is said to explain the change of name.
No reader could resist the temptation of sup
posing that there must be sorae connection
between Saul's new narae and that of his
distinguished Roraan convert. But on re
flection it does not seem probable that St.
Paul would either have wished, or have
consented, to change his own name for thiit
of -a distinguished convert. There is no
reason, therefore, why Saul should not
have borne frora infancy the other narae
of Paul. In that case he would be Saul
amongst his own countrymen, Paulus
araongst the Gentiles. The conversion of
Sergius Paulus may be said, perhaps, to
mark the beginning of the work amongst
the Gentiles ; otherwise, it was not in Cy
prus that .any change took place in the
method hitherto followed by Barnabas and
Saul in preaching the Gospel. Their pub
lic addresses were as yet confined to the
synagogues ; but it was soon to be other
wise. Frora Paphos "Paul and his cora
pany " set sail for the mainland, and arrived
at Perga in Pamphylia. Here the heart of
their companion John failed him, and he
returned to Jerusalem. From Perga they
travelled on to a place, obscure in secular
history, but most memorable in the history
of the kingdora of Christ, — Antioch in
Pisidia. Here " they went into the syna
gogue on the sabbath-day, and sat down."
Small as the place was, . it contained its
colony of Jews. What took place here in
tho synagogue and in the city, is interesting
lo us not only on account of its bearing on
the history, but also because it rep"esents
more or less exactly what afterwards oc
curred in many other places. The Apostles
of Christ sat still with the rest of the assem
bly, whilst the Law and the Prophets were
read. Then the rulers of the synagogue sent
to invito thera, as strangers but brethren, to
speak any word of exhortation which might

be in thera to the people. Paul stood up,
and beckoning with his hand, he spoke. 1 ha
speech is given iu Acts xiii. 16-41. The dis
course produced a strong impression ; and
the hearers (not "the GentUes "), requested
the Apostles to repeat their message on the
next sabbath. During the week so much
interest was excited by the teaching of the
Apostles, that on the s.abbath-diiy " alraost
the whole city carae together, to hear the
Word of God." It was this concern of
the Gentiles wliich appears to have first
alienated the minds of the Jews from what
they had heard. They wore filled with
envy, and set thr^mselves to oppose bitterly
the words which Paul spoke. The new
opposition brought out new action on the
part of the Apostles. Rejected by the Jews,
they became bold and outspoken, and
turned from them to the Gentiles. At
Antioch now, as in every city afterwards,
the unbelieving Jews used their infiuence
with their own ai^herents amongst the Gen
tiles, to persuade the authorities or the
populace to persecute the Apostles and to
drive them frora tho place. Paul and Bar
nabas now travelled on to Iconiura, where
the occurrences at Antioch were repeated,
and from thence to the Lycaouian country
which contained the cities Lystra and
Derbe'. Here they had to deal with un
civilized heathens. At Lystra the healing
of a cripple took place. 'Thereupon these
pagans took the Apostles for gods, calling
Barnabas, who was of the more imposing
presence, Jupiter, and Paul, who was the
chief speaker, Mercurius. This mistake,
followed up by the attempt to offer sacri
fices to thera, gives occasion to the record
ing of an address, in which we see a type of
what the Apostles would say to an ignorant,
pagan audience. Although the people of
Lystra had been so ready to worship Paul
aud Barnabas, the repulse of their idola
trous instincts appears to have provoked
thera, and they allowed themselves to be
persuaded into hostility by Jews who came
from Antioch and Iconium, so that they
attacked Paul with stones, and thought they
had killed him. He recovered, however,
as the disciples were standing round hiii),
and went agiiin into the city. The next
day he left it wiUi Barnabas, and went to
Derbe, and thence they returned once more
to Lystra, aud so to Iconium and Antioch.
In order to establish the Churches after
their departure they solemnly .appointed
" elders " in every city. Then they came
down to the coast, and from Attalia they
sailed home to Antioch in Syria, where
they related the successes which had been
granted to them, and especially the " open
ing of the door of faith to tho Gentiles."
And so the First Missionary Journey end
ed. The Council at Jerusalem, (Acts xv. ;
Galatians ii). — Upon that missionary joH^

PAUL

505

PAUL

ney follows most naturally the next impor
tant scene which the historian sets before
us — the council held at Jerusalem to de
termine the relations of Gentile believers
to the Law of Moses. In following this
portion of the history, we encounter two
of the greater questions which the biogra
pher of St. Paul has to consider. One of
these is historical : What were tho relations
between the Apostle Paul and the Twelve?
The other is critical : How is Galatians ii.
to be connected with the narrative of the
Acts ? The relations of St. Paul and the
Twelve will best be set forth in the narra
tive. But we raust explain here why we
accept St. Paul's stateraeiits in the Galatian
Epistle as additional to the history in Acts
XV. The first impression of any reader
would be a supposition that the two writers
might be referring to the same event. The
one would at least bring the other to his
mind. On looking more closely into both,
the second impression upon the reader's
mind may possibly be that of a certain in
compatibility between the two. Another
view will remain, that St. Paul refers to a
visit not recorded in the Acts at all. This
is a perfectly legitimate hypothesis ; and it
is recommended by the vigorous sense of
Paley. But where are we to place the visit ?
The only possible place for it is some short
time before the visit of ch. xv. But it can
scarcely hi denied, that the language of ch.
XV. decidedly implies that the visit there
recorded was the first paid by Paul and
Barnabiis to Jerusalem, after their great
success in preaching the Gospel amongst
the Gentiles. We suppose the reader,
therefore, to recur to his flrst impression.
He will then have to ask himself, " Grant
ing the considerable differences, are there,
after all, any plain contradictions between
the two narratives, taken to refer to the
same occurrences ? " The answer raust be,
" There are no plain contradidions." We
proceed then to combine the two narratives.
Whilst Paul and Barnabas were staying at
Antioch, " certain men frora Judaea" carae
there, and taught the brethren that it was
necessary for the Gentile converts to be
circuracised. This doctrine was vigorously
opposed by the two Apostles, and it was
determined th.at the question should be re
ferred to the Apostles and elders at Jeru
salem. Paul and Barnabas themselves, and
certain others, were selected for this mis
sion. The Apostles and elders carae to
gether, and there was rauch disputing.
After they had done, St. James, with in
comparable simplicity and wisdom, binds
up the testiraony of recent facts with the
testimony of ancient prophecy, and gives
a practical judgment upo.i the question.
The judgment was a decisive one. The
injunction that the Gentiles should abstain
from poUutions of idols and fxom fornica

tion explained itself. The abstinence from
things strangled and from blood is desired
as a concession to the custoras of the Jews,
who were to be found in every city, and
for whom it was still right, when they had
believed in Jesus Christ, to observe the
Law. St. Paul had completely gained his
point. The older Apostles, Jaraes, Cephas,
and John, perceiving the grace which had
been given hira (his effectual Apostleship),
gave to him and Barnabas the right hand
of fellowship. At this point it is very im
portant to observe 'precisely what was the
matter at stake between the contending
parties. The case stood thus : Circumcis
ion and the ordinances of the Law were
witnesses of a separation of the chosen race
from other nations. The Jews were proud
of that separation. But the Gospel of the
Sou of Miin proclaimed that the time had
come in which the separation was to bo
done away, and God's good will manifested
to all nations alike. It spoke of a union
with God, through trust, which gave hope
of a righteousness that the Law had been
powerless to produce. Therefore to insist
upon Gentiles being circumcised would
have been to deny the Gospel of Christ,
If there was to be simply an enlarging of
the separated nation by the receiving of
individuals into it, then the other nations of
the world remained as much on the outside
of God's covenant as ever. Then there
was no Gospel to mankind ; no justiflcation
given to men. The loss, in such a case,
would have been as much to the Jew as to
the Gentile. St. Piiul felt this the most
strongly ; but St. Peter also saw that if the
Jewish believers were thrown back on the
Jewish Law, and gave up the free and
absolute grace of God, the Law becarae a
mere burden, just as heavy to the Jew as it
would be to the Gentile. The only hope
for the Jew was in a Saviour who must be
tho Saviour of mankind. It implied there
fore no difference of beUef when it was
agreed that Paul and Barnabas should go
to the heathen, while James and Cephas and
John undertook to be the Apostles of the
Circumcision. The judgraent ofthe Church
was immediately recorded in a letter ad
dressed to the Gentile brethren in Antioch
and Syria and Cilicia. Second Missionary
Journey. — The most resolute courage, in
deed, was required for the work to which
St. i?aul was now publicly pledged. He
would not associate with hiraself in that
work one who had already shown a want
of constancy. This was the occasion of
what must have been a most painful differ
ence between him and liis comrade in the
faith and in past perils, Barnabas (Acts xv.
85-40). SUas, or Silvanus, becomes now
a chief companion of the Apostle. The
two went together through Syria and CiU
cia, visiting the churches, and so 'lauis to

PAUL

Derbe and Lystra. Here they flnd Timo
thens, who had become a disciple on the
former visit of the Apostle. Him St. Paul
took and eircumcised. Paul and Silas were
actually delivering the Jerusalera decree
to all the churches they visited. They
were no doubt triuraphing in the freedom
secured to the GentUes. Yet at this very
tirae our Apostle had the wisdora and large
ness of heart to consult the feelings of the
Jews by circumcising Timothy. St. Luke
now steps rapidly over a considerable space
of the Apostle's life and' labors. " They
went throughout Phrygia and the region of
Galatia" (xvi. 6). At this time St. Paul
was founding "the churches of Galatia"
(Gal. i. 2). He himself gives us hints of
the circumstances of his preaching in that
region, of the reception he met with, and
of the ardent, though unstable, character
of the people (Gal. iv. 13-15). St. Paul
at this tirae had not indulged the arabition
of preaching his Gospel in Europe. His
views were liraited to the peninsula of Asia
Minor. Having gone through Phrygia
and Galatia, he intended to visit the
western coast; but "they were forbidden
by the Holy Ghost to preach the word"
there. Then, being on the borders of
Mysia, they thought of going back to the
north-east into Bitliynia; but again the
Spirit of Jesus " suffered them not." So
they passed by Mysia, and came down to
Troas. St. Paul saw iu a vision a, raan
of Macedonia, who besought hira, saying,
" Corae over into Macedonia and help us."
The vision was at once accepted as a heav
enly intimation; the help wanted by the
Macedonians was believed to be the preach
ing of the Gospel. It is at this point that
the historian, speaking of St. Paul's cora
pany, substitutes "we" for "they." He
says nothing of hiraself; we can only mfer
that St. Luke, to whatever country he be
longed, became a corapanion of St. Paul at
Troas. The party, thus re-enforced, im
mediately set sail from Troas, touched at
Samothrace, then landed on the continent
at Neapolis, and frora thence journeyed to
Philippi. There -were a few Jews, if not
many, at Philippi; and when the sabbath
came round, the Apostolic corapany joined
their countryraen at the place by the river
side where prayer was wont to be made.
The narrative in this part is very graphic
(xvi. 13). The first convert in Macedonia
was but an Asiatic woraan wlio already
worshipped the God of the Jews ; but she
was a very earnest believer, and besought
the Apostle and his friends to honor her by
staying in her house. They could not re
sist her urgen ly, and during their stay at
Philippi they were the guests of Lydia
(ver. 40). But a proof was given before
long that the preachers of Christ were come
to grapple with the powers in the spiritual

506 ^^^
worid to which heathenism was thc-l iloing
homage. A female slave, who brought gain

to her masters by her powers of prediction
when she was in the possessed state, beset
Paul and his company. Paul was vexed
by her cries, and addressing the spirit in
the girl, he said, " I coraraand thee in the
narae of Jesus Christ to come out of her."
The girl's masters saw that now the hope
of their gains was gone. Paul and Silas
were dragged before the magistrates, the
multitude clamoring loudly against them,
upon the vague charge of "troubling the
city," and introducing observances which
were unlawful for Romans. The magis
trates yielded without inquiry to the clam
or of the inhabitants, caused the clothes of
Paul and Silas to be torn from them, and
themselves to be beaten, and then comrait
ted them to prison. This cruel wrong was
to be the occasion of a signal appearance
of the God of righteousness and deUver-
ance. The narrative tells of the earth
quake, the jailor's terror, his conversion,
and baptism (xvi. 26-34). In the morn
ing the magistrates sent word to the prison
that the men might be let go. But St.
Paul denounced plainly their unlawful acts,
informing thera moreover that those whom
they had beaten and imprisoned without
trial were Roraan citizens. The magis
trates, in great alarm, saw the necessity of
humbUng theraselves. They carae and
begged thera to leave the city. Paul and
Silas consented to do so, and, after p.aying
a visit to " the brethren " in the hiuse of
Lydia, they departed. Leaving St. Luke,
and perhaps Timothy for a short time, at
Philippi, Paul and Silas travelled through
Amphipolis and ApoUonia, and stopped
again at Thessalonica. At this important
city there was a synagogue of the J^s.
True to his custom, St. Paul went in to
them, and for three sabbath-days pro
claimed Jesus to be the Christ, as he
would have done in a city of Judaeai
Again, as in Pisidian • Antioch, the envy
of the Jews was excited. The raob as
saulted the house of Jason, with whom
Paul and Silas were staj'ing as guests,
and, not finding them, dragged Jason him
self and some othoi- brethren before the
magistrates. But the magistrates, after
taking security of Jason and the rest, let
them go. After these signs of danger the
brethren immediately sent away Paul and
Silas by night. They next came to Be-
roea. Here they found the Jews raore no
ble than those at Thessalonica had been.
Accordingly they gained many converts,
both Jews and Greeks ; but the Jews of
Thessalonica, hearing of it, sent emissaries
to stir up the people, and it was thought
best that St. Paul should himself leave the
city, whilst Silas and Timothy remained
behind. Some of "the brethren" went

PAUL

507

PALTi

with St. Paul as far as Athens, where they
left him, carrying back a request to Silas
and Timothy that they would speedily join
him. There he witnessed the most profuse
idolatry side by side with the most preten
tious philosophy. Either of these would
have been enough to stimulate his spirit.
To idolaters and philosophers he felt equal
ly iirged to proclaim his Master and the
Living God. So he went to his own coun
trymen and the proselytes in the syna
gogue, and declared to thera that the
Messiah had conic; but he also spoke,
like another Socrates, with people in the
market, and with the followers of the two
great schools of philosophy. Epicureans and
Stoics, naming to all Jesus and the Resur
rection. The philosophers encountered
him with a mixture of curiosity and con
tempt. But any one with a novelty was
welcome to those who " spent their time in
nothing else but either to hear or to tell
sorae new thing." They brought hira,
therefore, to the Areopagus, that he might
make a formal exposition of his doctrine to
an assembled audience. Here the Apostle
delivered that wonderful discourse, reported
in Acts xvii. 22-31. He gained but few
converts at Athens, and he soon took his
departure and came to Corinth. Athens
still retained its old intellectual predomi
nance ; but Corinth was the poUtical and
commercial capital of Greece. Here, as at
Thessalonica, he chose to earn his own sub
sistence by working at his trade of tent-
making. 'This tr.ade brought him into close
connection with two persons who became
distinguished as believers in Christ, Aquila
and Priscilla. Laboring thus on the six
days, the Apostle went to the synagogue
on the sabbath, .and there by expounding
the Scriptures sought to win both Jews and
proselytes to the belief that Jesus was the
Christ. He was testifying with unusual
effort and anxiety, when Silas and Timothy
carae frora Macedonia and joined him.
Their arrival was the occasion of the writ
ing of the First Epistle to the Thessalo
nians. This is the first extant example of
that work by which the Apostle Paul has
served the Church of all ages in as erainent
a degree as he labored at the founding of
it in his lifetime. It is notorious that the
order of the Epistles in the book of the
N. T. is not their real or chronological
order. The two Epistles io the Thessalo-
nia'ns belong — and these alone — to the
present Missionary Journey. The Epistles
to the Galatians, Romans, and Corinthians,
were written during the next journey.
Those to Philemon, the Colossians, the
Ephesians, and the PhiUppians, belong to
the captivity at Rome. — When Silas and
Tlmotiieus came to Corinth, .St- Paul was
testifying to the Jews with great earnest
ness, but with Uttle success. So "when

they opposed theraselves and hlafpnemed,
he shook out his rairaent," and said to them,
in words of warning taken from their own
prophets (Ezek. xxxiu. 4), "Your blood
be upon your own heads ; I am clean, and
henceforth will go to the Gentiles." The
Apostle went, as he threatened, to the Gen
tiles, and began to preach in the house of a
proselyte named Justus. Corinth was the
chief city of the province of Achaia, and
the residence of the proconsul. During
St. Paul's stay, we find the proconsular
office held by Gallio, a brother of the phi
losopher Seneca. Before hira the Apostle
was suramoned by his Jewish enemies, who
hoped to bring the Roman authority to bear
upon him as an innovator in religion. But
Gallio perceived at once, before Paul could
" open his mouth" to defend himself, that
the movement was due to Jewish prejudice,
and refused to go into the question. " If
it be a question of words and names and
of your law," he said to the Jews, speaking
with the toler.ance of a Roraan raagistrate.,
" look ye to it; for I will be no judge of
such raatters." Then a singular scene oc
curred. The Corinthian spectators, either
favoring St. Paul, or actuated only by anger
against the Jews, seized on the principal
person of those who had brought the charge,
and beat hira before the judgraent-seat.
Gallio left these religious quarrels to settle
themselves. The Apostl:, therefore, was
not allowed to be " hurt," and remained
some time longer at Corinth unmolested.
Having been the instrument of accomplish
ing this work, St. Paul took his departure
for Jerusalem, wishing to attend a festival
there. Before leaving Greece, he cut off
his hair at Cenchreae, in fulfilraent of a
vow (Acts xviii. 18). He may have fol
lowed in this instance, for sorae reason not
explained to us, a custom of his country
raen. [See Nazarite, p. 443.] When he
sailed from the Isthmus, Aquila and Pris
cilla went with hira as far as Ephesus.
Paul paid a visit to the synagogue at Ephe
sus, but would not stay. Leaving Ephesus,
he sailed to Caesarea, and frora thence
went up to Jerusalem and " saluted the
Church." It is argued, from considerations
founded on the suspension of navigation
during the winter raonths, that the festival
was probably the Pentecost. From Jeru
salem, alraost iramediately, the Apostle went
down to Antioch, thus returning to the same
place from which he had started with Silas.
Third Missionary Journey, including the
stay at Ephesus (Acts xviii. 28-xxi. 17). —
The great Epistles which belong to this
period, those to the Galatians, Corinthians,
and Romans, show how the "Judaizing"
question exercised at this time the Apostle's
mind. St. Paul " spent some time " at An
tioch, and, during this stay, as we are in
cUned to beUeve, his collision with St. Petei

PAUL

508

PAUL

(Gal. ii. 11-14) took pla;e. 'When he left
Antioch, he " went over all the country of
Galatia and Phrygia in order, strengthen
ing all the disciples," and giving orders
concerning the collection for the saints
(1 Cor. xvi. 1). It is probable that ihe
Epistle io ihe Galatians was written soon
after this visit. This Letter was, in all prob
ability, sent from Ephesus. This was the goal
of the Apostle's journeyings through Asia
Minor. He came down to Ephesus, from the
upper districts of Phrygia. Here he entered
upon his usual work. He went into the
synagogue, and for three months he spoke
openly, disputingand persuading concerning
"the kingdom of God." At the end of this
tirae the obstinacy .and opposition of some
of the Jews led him to give up frequenting
the synagogue, and he established the be
lievers as a separate society, meeting " in
the school of 'Tyrannus." This continued
for two years. During this time many
things occurred, of which the historian of
the Acts chooses two examples, the triumph
over magical arts, andthe great disturbance
r.aised by the silversmiths who raade shrines
for Diana ; amongst which we are to note
further the writing of the First Epistle io ihe
Corinthians. Before leaving Ephesus he
went into Macedonia, where he met Titus,
who brought him news of the state of the
Corinthian church. Thereupon he wrote
the Second Epistle to ihe Corinthians, and
sent it by the hands of Titus and two other
brethren to Corinth. 'The particular nature
of this Epistle, as an appeal to facts in fa
vor of his own Apostolic authority, leads
to the mention of many interesting features
of St. Paul's life. His summary, in xi. 23
-28, of the hardships and dangers through
wliich he had gone, proves to us how little
the history in the Acts is to be regarded as
a complete account of what he did and suf
fered. The mention of " visions and reve
lations ofthe Lord," and ofthe " thorn (or
rather stake) in the flesh," side by side, is
peculiarly characteristic both of the mind
and of the experiences of St. Piiul. As au
instance of the visions, he alludes to a
trance which had befallen him fourteen
years before, in wliich he had been caught
up into paradise, and had heard unspeak
able words. But he would not, even in
wardly with hiraself, glory in visions and
revelations without remembering how tho
Lord hal guarded him from being puffed
up by thera. A thorn in the flesh was given
hira, a racssenger of S.atan to buffet him,
lest he should be exalted above meas
ure. Different interpretations have pre
vailed of this " thorn ; " but it is almost the
unanimous opinion of modern divines that
the " stake " represents some vexatious
bodily infirmity. After writing this Epistle,
St. Paul travelled through Macedonia, per
haps to the borders of Ulyricum (Rom. xt.

'19"), and then came to Corinth. The nsir-
ratiVe in the Acts tells us that " when he
had gone over those parts (Macedonia),
and had given them much exhortation, he
came into Greece, and there abode three
months " (xx. 2, 8). There is only one in
cident which we can connect with this visit
to Greece, but that is a very important one
 the writing of his Epistle to the Romans.
That this was written at this time from
Corinth appears from passages in the Epistle
itself, and has never been doubted. The
letter is a substitute for the personal visit
which he had longed "for many years"
to pay. Before his departure from Corinth,
St. Paul was joined again by St. Luke, as
we infer from the change in the narrative
from the third to the first person. He was
bent on making a journey to Jerusalem, for
a special purpose and within a limited tirae.
With this view he was intending to go by
sea to Syria. But he was made aware of
some plot of the Jews for his destruction,
to be carried out through this voyage<; and
he determined to evade their malice by
changing his route. Several brethren were
associated with him in this expedition, the
bearers, no doubt, of the collections made
in all the Churches for the poor at Jeru
salem. These were sent on by sea, and
probably the money with them, to Troas,
where they were to await St. Paul. He,
accorapanied by St. Luke, went northwards
through Macedonia. During the stay at
Troas there was a meeting on the first day
of the week " to break bread," and Paul
was discoursing earnestly and at length
with the brethren. He was to depart the
next morning, and midnight found them
listening to his earnest speech. A youth
named Eutychus was sitting in the window,
and was gradually overpowered by sleep,
so that at last he fell into the street or court
from the third story, and was taken up
dead. The meeting was interrupted by
tills accident, and Paul went down and fell
upon him and embraced him, saying, "Be
not disturbed; his life is in him." His
friends then appear to have taken charge
of him, whilst Paul went up ag.ain, first
presided at the breaking of bread, after
wards took a meal, and continued con
versing until daybreak, and so departed.
Whilst the vessel which conveyed the rest
of the party sailed from Troas to Assos,
Paul gained some time by making the jour
ney by land. At Assos he went on board
again. Coasting along by Mitylene, Chios,
Saraos, and Trogyllium, they arrived at
Miletus. At Miletup, howr rer, there was
time to send to Ephe»us , and the elders of
the Church were invited to come down to
hira there. This meeting is made the oc
casion for recording another characteristic
and representative address of St. Paul
(Acts XX. 18-35). This spoken address ta

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PAUL

509

PAUL

the elders of the Ephesian Church may be
ranked with the Epistles, and throws the
same kind of light upon St. Paul's Apos-
toUcal relations to the Churches. The
course of the voyage from Miletus was by
Coos and Rhodes to Patara, and from Pat
ara in another vessel past Cyprus to Tyre.
Here Paul and his corapany spent seven
days. From Tyre they sailed to Ptole
mais, where they spent one day, and from
.Ptolemais proceeded, apparently by land, to
Caesarea. In this pl.ace was settled Philip
the Evangelist, one of the seven, and he be-
- carae the host of Paul and his friends. Philip
had four unmarried daughters, who" proph
esied," and who repeated, no doubt, the
warnings already heard. They now "tarried
many d.ays " at Caesarea. During this in
terval the prophet Agabus (Acts xi. 28) came
do-«'n frora Jerusalem, and crowned the pre
vious intimations of danger with a prediction
expressively delivered. At this stage a final
effort was made to dissuade Paul from go
ing up to Jerusalera, by the Christians of
Caesarea, and by his travelling companions.
After a while, they went up to Jerusalera,
and were gladly received by the breth
ren. This is St. Paul's fifth and last visit
to Jerusalera, St. Paul's Imprisonment:
Jerusalem and Caesarea. — He who was
thus conducted into Jerusalera by a'cora-
pany of anxious friends had become by this
tirae a raan of considerable fame araongst
his countryraen. He was widely known as
one who had taught with pre-eminent bold
ness that a way into God's favor was opened
to the GentUes, and that this way did not
lie through the door of the Jewish Law.
He had thus roused against hiraself the
bitter enmity of that unfathomable Jewish
pride which was almost as strong in some
of those who had professed the faith of
Jesus, as in their unconverted brethren.
He was now approaching a crisis in the long
struggle, and the shadow of it has been made
to rest upon his mind throughout his jour
ney to Jerusalera. He carae " ready to die
for the name of the Lord Jesus," but he
came expressly to prove himself a faithful
Jew, and this purpose emerges at every
point of the history. St. Luke does not
mention the contributions brought by Paul
and his companions for the poor at Jeru
salem. As on forraer occasions, the believ
ers at Jerusalem could not but glorify God
for what they heard ; but they had been
alarmed by the prevalent feeling concerning
St. Paul. In order to dispel this impression
they ask him to do publicly an act of hora
age to the Law and its observances. They
Iiad four men who were under the Nazarite
vow. The completion of this vow involved
(Num. vi. 13-21) a considerable expense
lOr the offerings to be presented in the
Temple ; and it was a meritorious act to
provide these offerings for the poorer Naz

arites. St. Paul was requested to put nim-
self under the vow with those other four,
and to supply the cost of their offerings.
He at once accepted the proposal. It ap
pears that the whole process undertaken by
St. Paul required seven days to coraplete it.
Towards the end of this tirae certain Jews
from " Asia," who had come up for the
Pentecostal feast, and who had a personal
knowledge both of Paul himself and of
his corapanion Trophiraus, a Gentile from
EphesUs, saw Paul in the Temple. They
imraediately set upon him, and stirred up
the people against hira, crying out, "Men
of Israel, help ; this is the man that teacheth
all men everywhere against the people, and
the law, and this place ; and further brought
Greeks also into the Temple, and hath pol
luted this holy place." 'Phe latter charge
had no more truth in it than the first ; it was
only suggested by their having seen 'Trophi
raus with liira, not in the Temple, but in thij
city. They raised, however, a great con.-
motion; Paul was dragged out ofthe Tem
ple, of which the doors were iramediateljr
shut, and the people, having him in their
hands, were proposing to kill hira. But
tidings were soon carried to the coraraander
ofthe force which was serving as a garrison
in Jerusalera, that "all Jerusalem was in
an uproar ; " and he, taking with him sol
diers and centurions, hastened to the scene
of the tumult. Paul was rescued from the
violence of the multitude by the Romiin
officer, who made hira his own prisoner,
causing hira to be chained to two soldiers,
and then proceeded to inquire who he was
and what he had done. "The inquiry only
elicited confused outcries, and the " chief
captain " seeras to have imagined that the
Apostle might perhaps be a certain Egyp
tian pretender who had recently stirred up
a considerable rising of the people. The
account in the Acts (xxi. 34-40) tells us
with graphic touches how St. Paul obtained
leave and opportunity to address the people
in a discourse which is related at length.
This discourse was spoken in Hebrew; that
is, in the native dialect of the country, and
was on that account listened to with the
more attention. It is described by St. Paul
hiraself, in his opening words, as his
" defence," addressed to his brethren and
fathers. It is in this Uglit that it ought to
be regarded. Until the hated word of a
raission to the Gentiles had been spoken,
the Jews had listened to the speaker.
"Away with such a fellow frora the earth,"
the multitude now shouted; "it is net fit
that he should live." The Roman cora
raander, seeing the turault that arose, might
well conclude that St. Paul had comraitted
sorae heinous offence ; and carrying him
off, he gave orders that he should be forced
by scourging to confess his crime. Again
the Apostle took advantage of his Romiin

PAUL

510

PAUL

citizenship to protect himself from such an
outrage. The Roman officer was bound to
protect a citizen, and to suppress turault;
but it was also a part of his policy to treat
with deference the religion and the custoras
of the country. St. Paul's present history
is the resultant of these two principles.
The chief captain set hira free frora bonds,
out on the next day called together the chief
priests and the Sanhedrira, and brought
Paul as a prisoner before them. We need
not suppose that this was a regular legal
proceeding ; it was probably an experiment
of policy and courtesy. If, on the one hand,
the commandant of the garrison had no
power to convoke the Sanhedrira, on the
other hand he would not give up a Roman
citizen to their judgment. As it was, the
affair ended In confusion, and with no sem-
blauce of a jiulicial termination. The inci
dents selected by St. Luke frora the history
of this raeeting form striking points in the
biography of St. Piiul, but they are not easy
to be understood. St. P<aul appears to have
been put upon his defence, and witli the
peculiar habit, raentioned elsewhere also
(Acts xiii. 9), of looking steadily when
about to speak, he began to say, "Men
and brethren, I have lived in all good con
science (or, I have lived a conscientiously
loyal life) unto God, until this day." Here
the High-Priest Ananias coraraanded thera
thiit stood by hira to smite him on the mouth.
With a fearless indignation, Paul exclaimed,
" God shell smite thee, thou whited wall;
for sittest thou to judge me after the law,
and ccmraandest me to be smitten contrary
to the law?" The bystanders said, " Re-
vUest thou God's High-Priest?" P.aul an
swered, " I knew not, brethren, that he was
. tho High-Priest ; for it is written, Thou shalt
not speak evil of the ruler of thy people."
How was it possible for him not to know that
he who spoke was the High- Priest? The
least objectionable solutions seem to be,
that for some reason or other, — either be
cause his sight was not good, or because
he was looking another way, — he did not
know whose voice it was that ordered hira
to be sraitten; and that he wished to correct
the irapression which he saw was made
upon some of the audience by his threaten
ing protest, and therefore took advantage of
the fact that he really did not know the
speaker to be the High-Priest, to explain
the deference ho felt to be due to the person
holding that office. The next incident which
St. Luke records seeras to sorae, who can
not think of the Apostle as remaining still a
Jew, to cast a sliadow upon his rectitude.
He perceived, we are told, that the council
was divided into two parties, the Sadducees
and Pharisees, and therefore he cried out,
" Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the
son of a Pharisee ; concerning the hope and
resurrection of the dead I ara called in

question." Those who impugn the authen
ticity of the Acts point triumphantly to ihia
scene as an utterly irapossible one ; otheis
consider that the Apostle is to be blamed
for using a disingenuous artifice. But it is
not so clear that St. Paul was using au arti
fice at all, at least for his own interest, in
identifying hiraself as he did with the pro
fessions of the Pharisees. The creed of the
Pharisee, as distinguished from that of the
Sadducee, was unquestionably the creed of
St. Paul. His belief in Jesus seemed to him
to supply the ground and fulfilraent of that
creed. He wished to lead his brother Phar
isees into a deeper and more living appre
hension of their owu faith. The iraraediate
consequence of the dissension which oc
curred in the asserably was that Paul was
like to be torn in pieces, and was carried
off by the Roman soldiers. On the next
day a conspiracy was formed, which the
historian relates with a singular fulness
of details. More than forty of the Jews
bound themselves under a curse neither
to eat nor to drink until they had killed
Paul. The plot was discovered, and St.
Paul was hurried away from Jerusalem.
The chief captain, Claudius Lysias, de
termined to send hira to Caesarea, to
Felix the governor, or procurator, of
Judaea. He therefore put him in charge
of a strong guard of soldiers, who
took him by night as far as Antipatris.
From thence ' a smaller detachment con
veyed him to Caesarea, where tliey deUv-
ered up their prisoner into the hands of the
governor. Imprisonment at Caesarea. —
St. Paul was henceforth, to the end of the
period Embraced in tlie Acts, if not to the
end of his life, in Roman custody. This
custody was in fact a protection to him,
without which he would have fallen a vic
tim to the animosity of the Jews. He
seems to have been treated throughout with
hum.onity and consideration. The governor
before whora he was now to be tried, ac
cording to Tacitus and Josephus, was a
raean and dissolute tyrant. After hearing
St. Paul's accusers, and the Apostle's de
fence, Felix raade an excuse for putting off
the matter, and gave orders that the pris
oner should be treated -with indulgence, and
that his friends should be .allowed free ac
cess to him. After a while, he heard him
again. St. Paul remained in custody until
Felix left the province. The unprincipled
governor had good reason to seek to ingra
tiate himself with the Jews ; and to please
thera, he hiinded over Paul, as au untried
prisoner, to his successor Festus. Upon
his arrival in the province, Festus went up
without delay from Caesarea to Jerusalem,
and the leading Jews seized the opportunity
of asking that Paul might be brought up
thore for trial, intending to assassinate him
by the way. But Festus weald not comply

PAUL

511

PAUL

with their request. He invited them to fol
low him ou bis speedy return to Caesarea,
and a trial took place there, closely resem
bling that before Felix. " 'They had certain
questions against liim," Festus says to
Agrippa, " oi their own superstition (or
reUgion), and of one Jesus, who was dead,
whom Paul affirmed to be alive. And being
puzzled for my part as to such inquirii;s, I
asked hira whether he would go to Jerusa
lem to be tried there." This proposal, not
a very likely one to be accepted, was the
occasion of St. Paul's appeal to Caesar.
The appeal having been allowed, Festus
reflected that he must send with the pris
oner a report of " the crimes laid against
hira." He therefore took advantage of an
opportunity which offered itself in a few
days to seek sorae help in the raiitter. The
Jewish prince Agrippa arrived with his sister
Berenice on a visit to the new governor.
To hira Festus coraraunicated his perplex
ity. Agrippa expressed a desire to hear
Paul hiraself. Accordingly Paul conducted
his defence before the king ; and when it
was concluded Festus and Agrippa, and
their corapanions, consulted together, and
carae to the conclusion that the accused
Was guilty of nothing that deserved death
or imprisonraent. And Agrippa's final an
swer to the inquiry of Festus was, " This
man mi^ht have been set at liberty, if he
had not appealed unto Caesar." The Voy
age to Rome. — No formal trial of St. Paul
had yet taken place. After a while arrange-
nients were raade to carry " Paul and cer
tain other prisoners," in the custody of a
centurion naraed Julius, into Italy; and
amongst the company, whether by favor or
frora any other reason, we find the historian
of the Acts. The narrative of this voyage
is accordingly rainute and circurastantial ;
but we must refer the reader to articles in
this Dictionary on the names of places
which occur in the narrative. The land
on which the wreck took place was found
to belong to Malta. The inhabitants of the
island received the wet and exhausted voy
agers with no ordinary kindness, aud im
mediately lighted a fire to warm them. This
particular kindness is recorded on account
of a curious incident connected with it. The
Apostle was helping to make the fire, and
had gathered a bundle of sticks and laid
them on it, when a viper came out of the
heat and fastened on his hand. When the
natives saw the creature hanging from his
hand they beUeved him to be poisoned by
the bite, and said amongst themselves, " No
doubt this man is a murderer, whom, though
he has escaped from the sea, yet Vengeance
suffers not to live." But when they saw
that no harm came of it, they changed their
minds, and said th.it he was a god. This
circumstance, as well as the honor in whieh
he was held by JuUus, would account for

St. Paul being invited with some others to
stay at the house of the chief raan of the
island, whose name was Publius. After a
three months' stay in Malta the soldiers and
their prisoners left in an Alexandrian ship
for Italy. They touched at Syracuse, where
they stiiid three days, and at Rhegium,
frora which place they wero carried ivith a
fair wind to Puteoli, where they left their
ship and the sea. At Puteoli they found
" brethren," for it was an important place,
and especially a chief port for the traffic be
tween Alexandria and Rome ; and by these
brethren they were exhorted to stay a while
with them. Ipermission seeras to have been
granted by the centurion ; and whilst they
were spending seven days at Puteoli news of
the Apostle's arrival was sent on to Rome.
St. Paid at Rome. — On their arrival at Rome
the centurion delivered up liis prisoners into
the proper custody, that of the praetorian
prefect. Paul was at once treated with spe
cial consideration, and was allowed to dwell
by himself with the soldier who guarded him.
He was now therefore free " to preach the
Gospel to them that were at Rome also ; "
and proceeded without delay to act upon his
rule — " to the Jew first." But, as of old,
the reception of his message by the Jews
was not favorable. He turned, therefore,
again to the Gentiles, and for two years he
dwelt in his own hired- house. 'These are
the last words of the Acts. But St. Paul's
career is not abruptly closed. Before he
himself fades out of our sight in the twilight
of ecclesiastical tradition, we have letters
written by hiraself, which contribute some
particulars to his biography. Period of
the later Epistles. — To that iraprisonment
to which St. Luke has introduced us — the
imprisonraent which lasted for such a tedi
ous time, though tempered by rauch in
dulgence — belongs the noble group of
Letters to Philemon, io ihe Colossians, io
ihe Ephesians, and to the Philippians. 'The
three forraer of these were written at one
time, and sent by the sarae messengers.
Whether that to the PhiUppians was writ
ten before or after these, we cannot deter
mine ; but the tone of it seems to imply
that a crisis was approaching, and there
fore it is comraonly regarded as the latest
of the four. — In tliis Epistle St. Paul. twice
expresses a confident hope that before long
he raay be able to visit the Philippians in
person (i. 25, ii. 24). Whether this hope
was fulfilled or not, has been the occasion
of much controversy. According to the
general opinion, the Apostle was liberated
from his imprisonraent, and left Rorae, soon
after the writing of the letter to the Philip
pians, spent some time in visits to Greece,
Asia Minor, and Spain, returned again aa
a prisoner to Rome, and was put to death
there. From the Pastoral Epistles we may
draw the following conclusions: (1.) St.

PAUL

512

PAUL

Paul must have left Rome, and visited Asia
Minor and Greece ; for he says to Timo
thy (1 Tim. i. 3), "I besought thee to
abide still at Ephesus, when I was setting
out for Macedonia." After being once at
Ephesus, he was purposing to go there
again (1 Tim. iv. 13), and he spent a con
siderable time at Ephesus (2 'Tim, i. 18).
(2.) He paid a visit to Crete, and left Titus
to organize Churches there (Tit. i. 5).
.He w.as intending to spend a winter at one
ofthe places named Nicopolis (Tit. iu. 12).
(3.) He travelled by Miletus (2 Tim. iv.
20), Troas (2 Tim. iv. 13), where he left a
cloak or case, and some books, and Corinth
(2 Tim- iv. 20). (4.) He is a prisoner at
Rome, " suffering unto bonds as an evil
doer " (2 Tira. ii. 9), and expecting to be
soon condemned to death (2 Tira. iv. 6).
At this time he felt deserted and solitary,
having only Luke of his old associates to
keep him company ; and he was very anx
ious that Timothy should come to him with
out delay from Ephesus, and bring Mark
with him (2 Tira. i. 15, iv. 16, 9-12). We
conclude then, that after a wearing impris
onment of two years or more at Rome, St.
Paul Wiis set free, and spent some years in
various journeyings eastwards and west-
wiirds. Towards the close of this time he
pours out his warnings in the Letters to
Timothy and Titus. The first to' Tiraothy
and that to Titus were evidently written at
very nearly the same time. After these
were written, ho was apprehended again
and sent to Rome. The Apostle appears
now to have been treated, not as an honor
able state prisoner, but as a felon (2 Tim.
ii. 9). But he was at least allowed to write
this Second Letter to his " dearly beloved
son " Tiiuothy ; and though he expresses a
confident expectation of his speedy death,
he yet thought it sufficiently probable that
it raight be delayed for some time, to war
rant hira in urging Timothy to come to
him frora Ephesus. Meanwhile, though
he felt his isolation, he was not in the least
daunted by his danger. He was more than
ready to die (iv. 6) , and had a sustaining
experience of not being deserted by his
Lord. Once already, in this second im
prisonment, he had appeared before the
authorities ; and " the Lord then stood by
liira and strengthened hira," and gave him
a favorable opportunity for the one thing
always nearest to his heart, the public dec
laration of his Gospel. This Epistle, sure
ly no unworthy utterance at such an age
and in such an hour even of a St. Paul,
brings us, it raay well be presumed, close
to the end of his Ufe. For what reraains,
we have tho concurrent testiraony of eccle
siastical antiquity, that he was beheaded at
Rome, about the same time that St. Peter
was crucified there. Dionysius, bishop of
Corinth (a. d. 170), says that Peter and

Paul went to Italy and taught there to-
sether, and suffered martyrdom about the
lame time. Eusebius himself adopts the
tradition that St. Paul was beheaded under
Nero at Rome. Chronology of St. Paul s
l^ifg^ — There are two principal events which
serve as fixed dates for determining the
P.auline chronology — the death of Herod
Agrippa, and the accession of Festus. Now
it has been proved almost to certainty that
Felix was recalled from Judaea, and suc
ceeded by Festus in the year 60. In the
autumn, then, of a. d. 60 St. Paul left
Caesarea. In the spring of 61 he arrived
at Rome. There he lived two years, that
is, till the spring of 63, with much freedom
in his own hired house. After tliis we de
pend upon conjecture; but the Pastoral
Epistles give us reasons for deferring the
Apostle's death until 67, with Eusebius, or
68, with Jerome. Similarly we can go
backwards from A. B. 60. St. Paul was
two years at Caesarea (Acts xxiv. 27) ;
therefore he arrived at Jerusalem on his
last visit by the Pentecost of 58. Before
this he had wintered at Corinth (Acts xx. 2,
3), having gone from Ephesus to Greece.
He left Ephesus, theu, in the latter part of
57, and as he staid 8 years at Ephesus
(Acts XX. 31), he must have come thither
in 54. Previously to this journey he had
spent " sorae tirae " at Antibch (Acts xviii.
23), and our chronology becomes indeter
minate. We can only add together the
tirae of a hasty visit to Jerusalera, the
travels of the great second missionary
journey, which included Ij year at Corinth,
another indeterminate stay at Antioch, the
iraport.ant third visit to Jerusalera, an
other "long" residence at Antioch (Acts
xiv. 28), the first missionary journey, again
an indeterminate stay at Antioch (Acts xii.
25) — until we corae to the second visit to
Jerusalera, which nearly synchronized with
the death of Herod Agrippa in a. d. 44.
Within this interval of some 10 years the
most important date to fix is that of the
third visit to Jerusalem; and there is a
great concurrence of the best authorities
in placing this visit in either 60 or 51. St.
Piiul himself (Gal. ii. 1) places this visit
" 14 years after " either his conversion or
the first visit. In the former case we have
37 or 38 for the date of the conversion.
The conversion was followed by 3 years
(Gal. i. 18) ^pent in Arabia and Damascus,
and ending with the first visit to Jerusa
lem ; and the space between the first visit
(40 or 41) and the second (44 or 45) is
filled up by an indeterminate time, pre
sumably 2 or 3 years, at Tarsus (Acts ix.
30), .and 1 year at Antioch (Acts xi. 26).
The date of the martyrdom of Stephen can
only be conjectured, and is very variously
placed between A. d. 30 and the year of
St. Paul's conversion. In the account of

PAVEMENT

513

PELATIAH

the death of Stephen St. Paul is called "a
young man" (Acts vii. 58). It is not ira
probable therefore that he was horn be
tween A. D. 0 and A. D. 5, so that he raight
be past 60 y ears of age when he calls him
self " Paul the aged" in Philemon 9.
Pavement. [Gabbatha.]
Pa'Vilion. 1. Sdc, properly an enclosed
place, also rendered "tabernacle," "cov
ert," and "den," once only "pavUion"
(Ps. xxvii. 5). 2. Succdh, usually "tab
ernacle" and "booth." 3. ShaphrAr and
Shaphrir, a word used once only, in Jer.
xliii. 10, to signify glory or splendor, and
hence probably to be understood of the
splendid covering of the royal throne.
Peacocks {ileh.tucciyyim). Amongst
the natural products of the land of Tarshish
which Soloraon's fleet brought home to Je
rusalem, mention is made of "peacocks"
(I K. X. 22; 2 Chr. ix. 21), which is proba
bly the correct translation. The Hebrew
word may be traced to the Tamul or Mala-
baric togei, "peacock."
Pearl (Heb. gdbtsh). The Heb. word
in Job xxviii. 18, probably means " crys
tal." Pearls, however, are frequently men
tioned in the N. T. (Matt. xiii. 45 ; 1 Tira.
ii. 9; Rev. xvii. 4, xxi. 21). "The pearl
of great price" is doubtless a fine speciraen
yielded by the pearl oyster {Avicula mar-
ga/ritifera), still found in abundance in the
Persian Gulf, which has long been cele
brated for its pearl fisheries.
Ped'ahel, the son of Aramlhud, and
prince of the tribe of Naphtali (Num.
xxxiv. 28).
Pedah'zur, father of Gamaliel, the
chief of the tribe of Manasseh at the time
of the Exodus (Num. i. 10, U. 20, vu. 54,
59, X. 23).
Peda'iah. 1. The father of Zebudah,
mother of king Jehoiakim (2 K. xxiii. 36).
2. The brother of S.alatliiel, or Shealtiel,
and father of Zerubbabel, who is usually
called the "son of Shealtiel," being, as
Lord A. Hervey conjectures, in reality his
uncle's successor and heir, in consequence
of the failure of issue in the direct line (1
Chr. iu. 17-19). 3. Son of Parosh, that
is, one of the family of that name, who as
sisted Neheraiah in repairing the -{vails of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 25). 4. Apparently
a priest; one of those who stood on the
left hand of'Ezra when he read the law to
the people (Neh. viii. 4). 5. A Benjamite,
ancestor of Sallu (Neh. xi. 7). 6. A Le
vite in the time of Neheraiah (Neh. xiii.
13). 7. The father of Joel, prince of the
half tribe of Mauiisseh in the reign of Da
vid (1 Chr. xxvu. 20).
Pe'kah, son of Remaliah, originally a
captain of Pekahiah king of Israel, mur
dered his master, seized the throne,, and
became the 18th sovereign of the northern
kingdom (b. c. 757-740). Under his pred-
33

ecessors Israel had been much weakened
through the payraent of enorraous trib
ute to the Assyrians (see especially 2
K. XV. 20), and by internal wars and
conspiracies. Pekiih seems steadily to
have applied himself to the restoration
of its power. For this purpose he sought
for the support of a foreign alliance,
and fixed his mind on the plunder of tho
sister kingdora of Judah. He raust have
raade the treaty by which he proposed to
share its spoil with Rezin king of Daraas
cus, when Jotham was still on the throne
of Jerusalem (2 K, xv. 37) ; but its execu
tion was long delayed, probably in conse
quence of that prince's righteous aud vigor
ous .administration (2 Chr. xxvii.). When,
however, his weak son Ahaz succeeded to
the crown of David, the allies no longer
hesitated, and forraed the siege of Jeru
salera (b. 0. 742). The history of the war
is found in 2 K. xvi. and 2 Chr. xxviii. It
is faraous as the occasion of the great -
prophecies in Is. vii.-ix. Its chief result
was the Jewish port of Elath on the Rod
Sea; but the unnatural alliance of Dara.as-
cus and Saraaria was punished through
the final overthrow of the ferocious con
federates by Tiglath-pileser. The kingdom
of Damascus was finally suppressed, and
Rezin put to death, while Pekah was de
prived of at least half his kingdom, includ
ing all the northern portion, and the whole
district to the east of Jordan. Pekah him
self, now fallen into the position of an As
syrian vassal, was of course compelled to
abstain from further attacks on Judah.
Whether his continued tyranny exhausted
the patience of his subjects, or whether his
weakness emboldened thera to attack hira,
we do not know; but, from one or the
other cause, Hoshea the son of El.ah con
spired against him, and put him to death.
Pekahi'ah, son and successor of Mena
hem, was 'the 17th king of the separate
kingdom of Israel (b. c. 759-757). After
a brief reign of scarcely two years a con
spiracy was organized against hira by Pe
kah, who raurdered hira and seized tho
throne. Pe'kod, an appellative applied to thu
Chaldiieans (Jer. I. 21; Ez. xxiii. 23).
Authorities are undecided as to the mean
ing of the t(jrm.
Pelai'ah. 1. A son of Elioenai, of the
royal line of Judah (1 Chr. iii. 24). 2.
One of the Levites who assisted Ezra in
expounding the law (Neh. viii. 7). He
afterwards sealed the covenant with Nelie-
raiah (Neh. x. 10).
Pelali'ah, the son of Amzi, and ances
tor of Adaiah (Neh. xi. 12).
Pelati'ah. I. Son of Hananiah the
son of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii. 21). 2.
One of the captains of the marauding band
of Simeonites, who in the reign of Heze-

PELEG

514

PENTATEUCH

kiah raade an expedition to Mount Seir, and
sraote the Araelekites (1 Chr. iv. 42). 3.
One of the heads of the people, and prob
ably the name of a family, who sealed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 22). 4.
The son of Benaiah, and one of the princes
of the people against whom Ezekiel was
directed to utter the words of doora record
ed in Ez. xi. 5-12.
Pe'leg, son of Eber and brother of Jok
tan (Gen. X. 25, xi. 16). The only inci
dent connected with his history is the state
ment thiit " in his days was the earth di
vided"— an event which was embodied m
his narae, Peleg meaning "division." This
refers to a division of the family of Eber
himself, the younger branch of whom (the
Joktanids) migrated into southern Arabia,
while the elder remained in Mesopotamia.
Pe'let. 1- A son of Jahdai in an ob
scure genealogy (1 Chr. u. 47). 2. The
son of Azmaveth, that is, either a native
of the place of that name, or the son of one
of David's heroes (1 Chr. xu. 3).
Pe'leth. 1. The father of On, the Reu
benite, who joined Dathan and Abiram in
their rebellion (Num. xvi. 1). 2. Son of
Jonathan, and a descendant of Jerahmeel
(1 Chr. n. 33).
Pe'Iethites. [Cherethites.]
Pelican (Heb. kdath). Amongst the
unclean birds mention is made of the kd
ath (Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut. xiv. 17). The sup
pliant psalmist compares his condition to
"a kdath in the wilderness" (Ps. cii. 6).
As a mark of the desolation that was to
come upon Edora, it is said that "the
kdath and the bittern should possess it "
(Is. xxxiv. 11). The sarae words are
spoken of Nineveh (Zeph. u. 14). In these
two last places the A. "V". has " corraorant"
in the text and " pelican " in the margin.
The best authorities are in favor of the
pelican being the bird denoted by kdath.
The psalmist, in coraparing his pitiable
condition to the pelican, probably has refer
ence to its general aspect as it sits in ap
parent melancholy mood, with its biU rest
ing on its breast.
Pel'onite, The. Two of David's
mighty men, Helez and Ahijah, are called
Pelonites (1 Chr. xi. 27, 36). From 1 Chr.
xxvii. 10, it appears that the former was
of the tribe of Ephraim, and ." Pelonite "
would therefore be an appellation derived
frora his place of birth or residence. " Ahi
jah the Pelonite " appears in 2 Sam. xxiii.
84 as "Eliam the son of Ahithophel the
Gilonite," of which the former is a corrup
tion. Pen. [Writing.]
Pen'iel, the name which Jacob gave to
the place in which ha had wrestled with
God: "He called the narae of the place
' Face of El,' for I have seen Elohim face
to face" (G'-u. ."cxxu. 30). In xxxii. 31,

and the other passages in which the name
occurs, its form is cuanged to Penubi-.
From Ihe narrative it is evident that Pemel
lay somewhere between the torrent Jabbok
and Succoth. - ^, j. ¦ j,
Penln'nah, one of the two wives of
Elkanah (1 Sara, i- 2). , .u a- -it-
Penny, Pennyworth. In the A. V.
of the N. T. " penny," either alone or in
the corapound " pennyworth," occurs as the
rendering of the Roman denarius (Matt.
XX. 2, xxii. 19; Mark vi. 87, xu. 15; Luke
XX. 24; Johnvi. 7; Rev. vi. 6). The de
narius was the chief Roraan silver coin, and
was worth about dd.
Pentateuch, The, is the Greek name
given to the five books comnionly called
the " Five Books of Moses." * In the tirae
of Ezra and Nehemiah it was called " the
Law of Moses " (Ezr. vu. 6) ; or " the book
of the Law of Moses " (Neh. viu. 1) ; or
simply " the book of Moses " (Ezr. vi. 18 ;
Neh. xiii. 1 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 4, xxxv. 12).
This was beyond all reasonable doubt out
existing Pentateuch. The book which was
discovered in the temple in the reign of
Josiah, and which is entitled (2 Chr. xxxiv.
14) " the book of the Law of Jehovah by
the hand of Moses," was substantially, it
would seem, the same volume, though it
may afterwards have undergone some re
vision by Ezra. The present Jews usually
called the whole by the name pf Torah, i. e.
"the Liiw," or Torath Mosheh,." the Law
of Moses." The division of the whole
work into five parts was probably raade by
the Greek translators ; for the titles of the
several books are not of Hebrew but of
Greek origin. The Hebrew naraes are
merely taken from the first words of each
book, and in the first instance only desig
nated particular sedions, and not whole
books. The MSS. of the Pentateuch form
a single roll or volume, and are divided, not
into books, but into the larger and smaller
sections called Parshiyoth and Sedarim.
The Five Books of the Pentateuch foim a
consecutive whole. The work, beginning
with the record of creation, and the hi;itory
of the primitive world, passes on to deal
more especially with the early history of
the Jew'ish family. It gives at length the
personal history of the three great Fathers
of the family; it then describes how the
faraily grew into a nation in Egypt, tells us
of its oppression and deliverance, of its
forty years' wandering in the wilderness,
of the giving of the Law, with all its enact
ments, both civil and religious, of the con
struction- of the tabernacle, of the num
bering of the people, of the rights and du
ties of the priesthood, as well as of many
* fl itsvTnTevxoS.BC. 1^10^05 ; PentateuchuB,BC. liber; thf
fivefold book; from t£u>;os, which meaningoriginally •'veB-
sel, instrument," &c,, came ia Alexandrine Greek to mean
*' book,"

PENTATEUCH

515

PENTATEUCH

important events which befell them before
their entrance into the Land of Canaan,
aud finally concludes with Moses' liist dis
courses and his death. The unity of the
work in its existing forra is now generally
recognized. It is not a raere collection of
loose fragments carelessly put together at
different times, but bears evident traces
of design and purpose in its composition.
Even those who discover different authors
in the earlier books, and who deny that
Deuteronomy was written by Moses, are
StiU of opinion that the wOrk in its present
form is a connected whole, and was at least
reduced to its present shape by a single
reviser or editor. Till the middle of last
century it was the general opinion of both
Jews and Christians that the whole of the
Pentateuch was written by Moses, with the
exception of a few manifestly later addi
tions — such as the 34th chapter of Deuter^
onomy, which gives the account of Moses'
death. The first attempt to call in question
the popular belief was raade by Astruc,
Doctor and Professor of Medicine in the
Royal College at Paris, and Court Physi
cian to Louis XIV."" He had observed that
throughout the book of Genesis, and as far
as the 6tli chapter of Exodus, traces were
to be found of two original documents,
each characterized by a distinct use of the
names of God ; the one by the narae Elo
him, and the other by the narae Jehovah
[God]. Besides these two principal docu
ments, he supposed- Moses to have made
use of ten others in the composition of the
earlier part of his work. The path traccd-by
Astruc has been followed by numerous
German writers ; but the various hypoth
eses which have been forraed upon the
subject cannot be presented in this Dic
tionary. It is sufficient here to state
that there is sufficient evidence for believ
ing that the raain bulk of the Pentateuch,
at any rate, was written by Moses, though
he probably availed hiraself of existing
documents in the coraposition ofthe earUer
part of the work. Some detached portions
would appear to be of later origin; and
when we' reraeraber how entirely, during
some periods of Jewish history, the Law
seera to have been forgotten, and again how
necessary it would be after the seventy
years of exile to explain sorae of its ar
chaisms, and to add here and there short
notes to make it more intelligible to the
people, nothing can be more natural than
to suppose that such Latter additions were
made by Ezra and Nehemiah. On care
fully weighing all the evidence, we can hard
ly question, without a Uterary scepticisra,
which would be most unreasonable, that the
Pentateuch is to a very considerable extent
* nifl work was published at Brussels in 175.3, under the
title of " Conjectures sur les Memoires origiuaux, dont il
Earoit que Mojse s'est servi pour composer le Livre de
ferese.

as early as the tirae of Moses, though it raay
have undergone raany later revisions and
corrections, the last of these being certainly
as late as the tirae of Ezra. But as regards
any direct and unimpeachable testiraony to
the composition of tho whole work by Moses
we have it not. Only one book out of the
five — that of Deuteronomy — claims iu
express terms to be from his hand. And
yet, strange to say, this is the very
book in which modern criticisra refuses
raost pereraptorily to admit the claim.
It is of importance therefore to consider
this question separately. All allow that
the Book of the Covenant in Exodus, per
haps a great part of Leviticus and some
part of Nurabers, were written by Israel's
greatest leader and prophet. But Deuter
onomy, it is alleged, is in style and purpose
so utterly unlike the genuine writings of
Moses that it is quite impossible to believe
that he is the author. But how then set
aside the express testimony of the book
itself? How explain the fact that Moses is
there said to have written all the words of
this Law, to have consigned it to the cus
tody ofthe priests, and to have charged the
Levites sedulously to preserve it by the
side of the ark? Only by the bold asser
tion that the fiction was invented by a later
writer, who chose to personate the great
Lawgiver in order to give the more color
of consistency to his work ! But, besides
the fact that Deuteronomy claims to have
been written by Moses, there is other evi
dence which establishes the great antiquity
of the book. 1. It is remarkable for its
allusions to Egypt, which are just what
would be expected supposing Moses to have
been the author. In xx. 5 there is an allu
sion to Egyptian regulations in time of
war ; in xxv. 2 to the Egyptian bastinado ;
in xi. 10 to the Egyptian mode of irriga
tion. Again, among the curses threatened
are the'sicknesses of Egypt, xxviii. 60 (corap.
vii. 15). According to xxviii. 68, Egypt is
the type of all the oppressors of Israel.
Lastly, references to the sojourning in
Egypt are nuraerous (vi, 21-23; see also
vii. 8, 18, xi. 3). The phr.aseology of the
book, and the archaisms found in it,
st.amp it as of the sarae age -with the rest of
the Pentateuch. 2. A fondness for the use of
figures, is another peculiarity of Deuterono-
ray. See xxix. 17, 1,8, xxviii. 13, 44, i. 31, 44,
viii. 5, xxviii. 29, 49. The results are raost
surprising when we corapare Deuteronomy
with the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xix.-
xxiv.) on the one hand, and with Ps. xc.
(which is said to be Mosaic) on the other.
In addition to all these peculiarities which
are arguments for the Mosaic authorship
of the Book, we have here, too, the evi
dence strong and clear of post-Mosaic times
and writings. The attempt by a wrong inter
pretation of 2 K. xyii. and 2 Chr. xxxiv. to

PENTECOST

516

PENIECOST

bring down Deuteronomy as low as the time
of Manasseh fails utterly. A century ear
lier the Jewish prophets borrow their words
and their thoughts from Deuteronomy.
Since, then, not only Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
but Amos and Hosea, Isaiah and Micah,
speak in the words of Deuteronomy, as
well as in words borrowed from other por
tions of the Pentateuch, we see at once
how untenable is the theory of those who,
like Ewald, maintain that Deuteronoray
was composed during the reign of Manas
seh, or, as Vaihinger does, during that of
Hezekiah. But, in truth, the Book speaks
for itself. No imitator could have written
iu such a strain. We scarcely need the
express testimony of the work to its own
authorship. But, having it, we find all the
internal evidence conspiring to show that
it carae from Moses. We -therefore de
clare unhesitatingly for the Mosaic author
ship of Deuteronoray. Briefly, then, to
sura up the results of our inquiry : 1. The
Book of Genesis rests chiefly on docuraents
much earlier than the time of Moses,
though it was probably brought to very
nearly its present shape either by Moses
hiraself, or by one of the elders who acted
under hira. 2. The Books of Exodus, Le
viticus, and Numbers, are to a great extent
Mosaic. Besides those portions which are
expressly declared to have been written by
him, other portions, and especially the legal
sections, were, if not actually written, in
all probability dictated by hira. 3. Deu
teronoray, excepting the concluding part,
is entirely the work of Moses, as it professes
to be. 4. It is not probable that this was
written before the three preceding books,
because the legislation in Exodus and
Leviticus, as being the raore forraal, is man
ifestly the earlier, whilst Deuteronoray is
the spiritual interpretation and application
of the Law. But the letter is always
before the spirit; the thing before lis inter
pretation. 5. The first composition of the
Pentateuch as a whole could not have taken
place till after the Israelites entered Canaan.
It is probable that Joshua, and the elders who
were associated with hira, would provide for
its forraal arrangeraent, custody iind trans
mission. 6. The whole work 'did not fi.nally
assume its present shape till its revision
was undertaken by Ezra after tho return
frora the Babylonish . Captivity. For an
account of the separate books see Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuter
onomy. Pentecost, that is, the fiftieth day,* or
Harvest Feast, or Feast of Weeks, m.ay
be regarded as a supplement to the Pass
over. It lasted only for one day ; but the
.„!, 1^" ^'^^Y, "?I"° j' "o' ""^ 'ronsktion of any oorrc-
?r« wfi^r'''' '." "'i? ''""'"'""ehi l!ut the later name of the
Un"'.'l f,om'\h?i.^2i;^er" °"' "' "" "'"°'"'"'°'' "' "' '¦>-

modern Jews; extend it over two. The peo
ple having at the Passover presented before
God the first sheaf of the harvest, departed
to their homes to gather it in, and then
returned to keep the harvest-feast before
Jehovah. -From the sixteenth of Nisan
seven weeks were reckoned inclusively, and
the next or fiftieth day was the Day of
Pentecost, which fell on the sixth of Sivan
(about the end of May) (Ex. xxiu. 16,
xxxiv. 22 ; Lev. xxiii. 15-22 ; Num. xxviu.
26-31; Deut. xvi. 0-12; 2 Mace. xU. 32;
Acts n. 1, XX. 16; 1 Cor. xvi. 8). The
intervening period included the whole of
the grain harvest, of which the wheat was
the latest crop. Its commencement is also
marked as from the tirae when "thoube-
ginnest to put the sickle to the corn." The
Pentecost w.as the Jewish harvest-home,
and the people were esjpecially exhorted to
rejoice before Jeliovah with their families,
their servants, the Levite within their gates,
tbe stranger, the fatherless, and the widow,
in the place chosen by God for His name,
as they brought a freewill-offering of their
hand to Jehovah their God (Deut. xvi. 10,
11). The great feature of the celebration'
was the presentation ofthe iwo loaves, made
from the first-fruits of the wheat-harvest,
and leavened, that is, in the state fit for
ordinary food. In this point, as contrasted
with the unleavened bread of the Passover,
we see the more homely and social nature
ofthe Feast; while its bounty to the poor is
connected with the law which secures them
plenty of gleanings (Lev. xxiii.. 22). With
the loaves two lambs were offered as a
peace-offering ; and all were waved before
Jehoviih, and given to the priests ; the
loaves, being leavened, could not be offered -
on the altar. The other sacrifices were, a
burnt-offering of a young bullock, two rams,
and seven lambs, with a meat and drink-
offering, and a kid for a sin-offering (Lev.
xxiii. 18, 19). Till the pentecostal loaves
were offered, the produce of the harvest
raight not be eaten, nor could any other
first-fruits be offered. The whole ceremony
was the completion of that dedication of the
harvest to God, as its giver, and to whom
both the land and the people were holy,
which was begun by the offering of the
wave-sheaf at the Passover. The interval
is stjU reg.arded as a religious season. The
Pentecost is the only one of the three great
feasts which is not mentioned as the memo
rial of events in tlie history of the Jews.
But such a significance has been found in
the fact, that the Law was given frora Sin.ai
on the fiftieth d.ay afterthe deliverance from '
Egypt (corap. Ex. xu. and xix.). In tlie
Exodus, the people were offered to God, as
living first-fruits ; at Sinai their consecration
to Him as a nation was completed. Tho
typical significance ofthe Pentecost is made
clear from the events of the day recorded

PENUEL

517

PERGAMOS

In the Acts of tho Apostles (Acts ii.). The
preceding Passover had been marked by
the sacrifice upon the cross of the true
Paschal Lamb, and by his offering to his
Father as "the first-fruits of thera that
slept." The day of Pentecost found his
disciples asserabled at Jerusalera, like the
Israelites before Sinai, waiting for " the
promise of the Father." Again did God
descend from heaven in fire, to pour forth
that Holy Spirit which gives the spiritual
discernment of His law ; and the converts
to Peter's preaching were the first-fruits of
the spiritual harvest, of which Christ had
long before assured his disciples. Just as
the appearance of God on Sinai was the
birthday of the Jewish nation, so was that
Pentecost the birthday of the Christian
Church. If the feast of Pentecost stood
without an organic connection with any
other rites, we should have no certain war-
riiut in the Old Testaraent for regarding it
as more than the divinely appointed soleran
thanksgiving for the yearly supply of the
most useful sort of food. But itwas, as we
¦ have seen, essenti.ally linked on to the Pass
over, that festival, which, above all others,
expressed the fact of a race chosen and
separated frora other nations. It was not
an insulated day. It stood as the culmi
nating point of the Pentecostal season. If
the offering' of the omer was a supplication
for the Divine blessing on the harvest which
was just commencing, and the offering of
the two loaves was a thanksgiving for its
completion, each rite was brought into a
higher significance in consequence of the
omer forming an integral part of the Pass
over. The Pentecost was the last Jewish
feast that Paul was anxious to keep (1 Cor.
xvi. 8), and Whitsuntide, its successor, was
the first annual festival adopted in the
Christian Church.
Penu'el. [Peniel.]
Pe'or. 1. A raountain in Moab, frora
whence, after having ascended the lower or
less sacred summits of Bamoth-Baal and
Pisgah, the prophet Balaara was conducted
hy Biilak for his final conjurations (Num.
xxiii. 28 only). Peor was "facing Jeshi
mon." The Siirae thing is said of Pisgah.
But unfortunately we are as yet ignorant
of the position of all three, so that nothing
can be inferred frora this specification. In
the Onomasticon it is stated to be above the
town of Libias (the ancient Beth-arara),
and opposite Jericho. 2. In four passages
(Nura. xxv. 18 twice ; xxxi. 16 ; Josh. xxii.
17) Peor occurs as a contraction for Baal-
peor. I^Baal.]
Per'azim, MO'Unt, a name which oc
curs in Is. xxviu. 21 only, -r- unless the
place which it designates be identical with
tlie Baal-Perazim mentioned as the scene
of one of David's victories over the PhiUs-
tin;-!.

Pe'resh. The son of Machir by hia
wife Maachah (1 Chr. vii. 16).
Pe'rez. The "children of Perez,'' or
Pharez, the son of Judah, appear to have
been a faraily of iraportance for many cen
turies (1 Chr. xxvii. 3; Neh. xi.-4, 6).
Pe'rez-UZ'Za, 1 Chr. xiu. ll ; and
Pe'rez-uz'zah, 2 Saml.vi. 8. The title
which David conferred on the thresliing-
floor of Nachon, or Qidon, in coraraeraora-
tion of the sudden death of Dzzali.
Perfunies. The free use of perfumes
was peculiarly grateful to the Orientals
(Prov. xxvii. 9), whose olfactory nerves are
raore than usually sensitive to the offensive
smells engendered by the heat of their
climate. The Hebrews manufactured their
perfuraes chiefly from spices iraported frora
Arabia, though to a certain extent also from
aromatic plants growing in their own coun
try. Perfumes entered largely into the
Teraple service, in the two forms of incense
and ointment (Ex. xxx. 22-38). Nor wero
they less used in private life ; not only were
they applied to the person, but to garments
(Ps. xiv. 8; Cant. iv. 11), and to articles
of furniture, such as beds (Prov. vii. 17).
On the arrival of a guest the same corapli-
raeiits were probably piiid in ancient as in
modern times (Dan. ii. 46). When a royal
personage went abroad in his litter, attend
ants threw up " pillars of smoke " about his
path (Cant. iii. 6). The use of perfumes
was oraitted in tiraes of raourning, whence
the allusion in Is. iii. 24.
Per'ga, a city of Paraphylia (Acts xui.
13), situated on the river Cestius, at a dis
tance of 60 stadia from its mouth, and cele
brated in antiquity for the worship of Arte
mis (Diana).
Per'gamos, a city of Mysia, about &
miles to the N. of the river Caicus, and 20
railes frora its present mouth. The name
was originally given to a remarkable hill,
presenting a conical appearance when
viewed from the plain. It was the resi
dence of a dynasty of Greek princes, found
ed after the time of Alexander the Great,
and usu.ally called the Attalic dynasty, from
its founder Attalus. This Attalic dynasty
terminated B. c. 133, when Attalus III., dy
ing at an early age, raade the Romans his
heirs. His dominions forraed the province
of Asia. The sumptuousness of the At
talic princes had raised Pergaraos to the
rank of the first city in Asia as regards
splendor. It becarae a city of temples,
devoted to a sensuous worship ; and being
in its origin, according to pagan notions,
a sacred place, might not unnaturally be
viewed by Jews and Jewish Christians as
one "where was the -throne of Satan"
(Rev. ii. 13). After the extinction of its
independence, the sacred character' of Per
gamos seeras to have been put even mora
prominently forward. In the time of Mar-

PERIDA

518

PERSIA

tial, Aesculapius had acquired so much
prominence that he is called Pergameus
deus. From the circumstance of this no
toriety of the Pergamene Aesculapius, and
from the serpent being his characteristic
erablera, it has been supposed that the
expressions " the throne of Satan " and
" where Satan dwelleth," have an especial
reference to this one pagan deity, and not
to the whole city as a .sort of focus of idol^
.atrous worship. But although undoubtedly
the Aesculapius worship of Pergaraos was
tlie raost famous, yet an inscription of the
time of Marcus Antoninus distinctly puts
Zeus, Athenfe, Dionysus, and Asclepius in
a co-ordinate rank, as all being special
tutelary deities of Pergamos. It seems
unlikely, therefore, that the expressions
above quoted should be so interpreted as
to isolate one of thera from the rest. It
may be added, that tbe charge against a
portion of the Pergamene Church, that
some araong them were of the school of
B.alaam, whose policy was to put a stum
bling-block before the children of Israel,
by inducing them to eat things sacrificed
to idols and to commit .fornication (Rev. ii.
14), is in both its particulars very inappro
priate to the Aesculapian ritual. It points
rather to the Dionysus and AphroditS wor
ship. Peri'da. The children of Perida re
turned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh.
vu. 57).
Per'izzite, The, and Per'izzites, one
of the nations inhabiting the Land of Prora
ise before and at the time of its conquest
by Israel. They are continually mentioned
in the formula so frequently occurring to
express the Proraised Land (Gen. xv. 20;
Ex. iii. 8, 17, xxiii. 23, xxxiii. 2, xxxiv. 11 ;
Deut. vii. 1, xx, 17; Josh. iii. 10, i.x. 1,
x.xiv. 11; Judg. iu. 5; Ezr. ix. 1; Neh, ix.
8). They appear, however, with soraewhat
greater distinctness on several occasions
(Gen. xiii. 7, xxxiv. 30 ; Judg. i. 4, 5 ; 2
Esdr. i. 21). The notice in the book of
Judges locates them in the southern part
of the Holy Land. The signification of
the name is not by any means clear. It
possibly meant rustics, dwellers in open,
unwalled villages, wlijch are denoted by a
similar word.
Persep'olis, mentioned only in 2 Mace.
ix. 2, was the capital of Persia Proper, and
the occasional residence of the Persian
court frora the time of Darius Hystaspis,
who seems to have been its founder, to the
invasion of Alexander. Its wanton destruc
tion by that conqueror is well known. Its
site is now called the Ohehl-Minar, or Forty
Pillars. Here, on a platform hewn out of
tbe solid rock, the sides of wliich face the
four cardinal points, are the reraains of two
great palaces, built respectively by Diirius
Hystaspis and his son Xerxes, besides a

number of other edifices, chiefly temples
They are of great extent and magnificence,
covering an area of many acres.
iPer'seus, the eldest son of Philip V.
and last king of Macedonia (b. c. 179-168).
The defeat of Perseus by the Romans put
an end to the independence of Macedonia,
and extended even to Syria the terror of
the Roman name (1 Mace. vui. 5).
Per'sia, Persians. Persia Proper was
a tract of no very large diraensions on the
Persian Gulf, which is stUl known as Fcirs,
or Farsistan, a corruption of the ancient
appellation. This tract was bounded, on
the west, by Susiana or Elara, on the north
by Media, on tho south by the Persian Gulf,
and on the east by Carmania. But the narae
is more commonly applied, both in Scrip
ture and by profane authors, to the entire
tract which came by degrees to be included
within the limits of the Persian Empire.
This empire extended at oue time from
India on the east to Egypt and Thracp
upon the west, and included, besides por
tions of Europe and Africa, the whole of
Western Asia between the Black Sea, the .
Caucasus, the Caspian, and the Jaxartes
upon the north, the Arabian desert, the
Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean upon
the south. 'The only passage in Scripture
where Persia designates the tract which has
been called above " Persia Proper " is Ez.
xxxviii. 5. Elsewhere the Empire is in
tended. The Persians were of the same
race as the Medes, both being branches of
the great Aryan stock. 1. Charader of
the nation. — The Persians were a people
of lively and impressible minds, brave and
impetuous in war, witty, passionate, for
Orientals truthful, not without sorae spirit
of generosity, .and of more intellectual ca
pacity than the generality of Asiatics. In
the times anterior to Cyrus they were noted
for the simplicity of their habits, which
offered a strong contrast to the luxurious-
ness of the Medes ; but from the date of
the Median overthrow, this simplicity began
to decline. Polygamy was commonly prac
tised among them. 'They were fond of the
pleasures of the table. In war they fought
bravely, but without discipline. 2. Reli
gion. — The religion which the Persians
brought with thera into Persia Proper
seems to have been of a very simple char
acter, differing from natural religion in
little, except that it was deeply tainted
ivith Dualism. Like the other Aryans, the
Persians worshipped oue Supreme God,
whora they called Aura-mazda (Ororaas-
des) — a term signifying (as is, believed)
" the Great Giver of Life." The royal in
scriptions rarely mentioned any other god.
Occasionally, however, they indicate a slight
.and modified polytheism. Oromasdes is
" the chief of the gods," so that there are
other gods besides him; and the liighest

PERSIA

519

PERSIA

of thtse is evidently Mithra, wlm Is some
times invoked to protect the monarch, and
is beyond a doubt identical with " the sun."
Entirely separate from these — their active
resister and antagonist — was Ahriman
(Al?imanius) " the Death-dealing " — the
powerful, and (probably) self-existing Evil
Spirit, from whom war, disease, frost, hail,
poverty, sin, death, and all other evils, had
their origin. The character of the original
Persian worship was siraple. They were
not destitute of teraples, as Herodotus as
serts ; but they had probably no altars, and
certainly no iraages. Neither do they ap
pear to have had any priests. 8. Language.
— Their language was closely akin to the
Sanscrit, or ancient language of India.
Modern Persiiin is its degenerate repre
sentative, being, as it is,^a raotley idiora,
largely impregnated with* Arabic. 4. Di
vision into tribes, ^c. — Herodotus tells us
that the Persians were divided into ten
tribes, of which three were noble, three ag
ricultural, and four nomadic. 5. History. —
The history of Persia begins with their re
volt from the Medes and accession of Cyrus
the Great, b, o. 558, Its success, by trans
ferring to Persia the dominion previously
in the possession of the Medes, placed her
at the head of an empire, the bounds of
which were the Halys upon the west,
the Euxine upon the north. Babylonia
upon the south, and upon- the east the
salt desert of Iran. As usual in the
East, this success led on to others. Cyrus
defeated Croesus, and added the Lydian
empire to his dominions. This conquest
was followed closely by the submission of
the Greek settlements on the Asiatic coast,
and by the reduction of Caria and Lycia.
The empire was soon afterwards extended
greatly towards the north-east and east.
In B. c. 539 or 538, Babylon was attacked,
and after a stout defence fell before his irre
sistible bands. This victory first brought
the Persians into contact with the Jews.
The conquerors found in Babylon an op
pressed race — like theraselves, abhorrers
of idols — and professors of a religion in
which to a great extent they could sympa
thize. This race Cyrus determined to re
store to their own country ; which he did
by the remarkable edict .recorded in the
first chapter of Ezra (Ezr. i. 2-4). He
was slain in an expedition against the Mas
sagetae or the Derbices, after a reign of
twenty-nine years. Under his son and
successor, Carabyses, the conquest of Egypt
took place (b. c. 525). This prince ap
pears to be the Ahasuerus of Ezra (iv. 6).
In the absence of Carabyses with the army,
a conspiriicy was formed against hira at
court, and a Magian priest, Goraates by
name, profi-issing to be Smerdis, the son of
Cyrus, whom his brother, Carabyses, had
put to death secretly, obtained quiet pos

session of the throne. Carabyses, despair
ing of the recovery of his crown, ended his
life by suicide. His reign had lasted seven
years and five raonths. Goraates the Ma
gian found hiraself thusj without a strug
gle, raaster of Persia (b. c. 522). His sit
uation, however, was one of great danger
and difficulty. There is reason to believe
that he awed his elevation to his fellow-
religionists, whose object in placing hira
upon the throne was to secure the triumph
of Magianism over the Dualism of the
Persians. He reversed the policy of Cyrus
with respect to the Jews, and forbade by au
edict the further building of the Temple
(Ez. iv. 17-22). Darius, the son of Hys
taspis, headed a revolt against hira, which
in a short tirae was crowned with coraplete
success. The reign of Goraates lasted
seven raonths. The first efforts of Darius
were directed to the re-establishraent of
the Ororaasdian religion in all its purity.
Appealed to, in his second year, by the
Jews, who wished to resume the construction
of their Temple, he not only allowed'thera,
confirraing the decree of Cyrus, but assist
ed the work by grants frora his own reve
nues, whereby the Jews were able to com
plete the Temple as early as his sixth year
(Ezr. vi. 1-15). During the first part of
the reign of Darius the tranquilUty of the
empire was disturbed by numerous revolts.
After five or six years of struggle, he be
came as firmly seated on his throne as any
previous monarch. Thfe latter part of his
reign was, however, clouded by reverses.
The disaster of Mardonius at Mount Athos
was followed shortly by the defeat of Datis
at Marathon ; and before any attempt could
be made to avenge that blow, Egypt rose
in revolt (b. c. 486), massacred its Persian
garrison, and declared itself independent.
When, after a reign of thirty-six years,
the fourth Persian raonarch died (b. c. 485),
leaving his throne to a young prince of
strong and ungoverned passions, it w.as ev
ident that the erapire had reached its high
est point of greatness, and was already
verging towards its decline. The first act
of Xerxes was to reduce Egypt to subjec
tion (b. c. 484), after which he began at
once to raake preparations for his invasion
of Greece. It is probiible that he -was the
Ahasuerus of Esther. It is unnecessary to
give an account of the well-known expedi
tion against Greece, which ended so disas
trously for the invaders. A conspiracy in
.he seraglio having carried off Xerxes (b.
c, 165), Artaxerxes his son, called by the
Greeks " Long-Handed," succeeded hira,
after an interval of seven months, during
which the conspirator Artabauus occupied
the throne. This Artaxerxes, who reigned
forty years, is beyond a doubt the king of
that name who stt-jd in such a friendly re
lation towards Ezra (Ezr. vii 11-28) and

PERSIS

520

PETER

Nehemiah (Neh. ii. 1-9, &c.). He is the
last of the Persian kings who had any
special connection with the Jews, and the
last but one mentioned in Scripture. His
successors were Xerxes II., Sogdianus,
Darius Nothus, Artaxerxes Mneraon, Arta
xerxes Ochus, and Darius Codoraannus,
who is probably the "Darius the Persian"
of NEhemi,'-.h (xii. 22). These^ monarchs
reigned frora b. c. 424 to e. c.*330. The
collapse of the erapire under the attack of
Alexander is weU known, and requires no
description here. On the division of Alex
ander's dorainions araong his generals, Per
sia feU to the Seleucidae, under whom it
continued till after the death of Antiochus
Epiphanes, when the conquering Parthians
advanced their frontier to the Euphrates,
and the Persians became included araong
their subject-tribes (b. c. 164), Still their
uiitionality was not obliterated. In A, d,
226, the Persians shook off the yoke of
their oppressors, and once more became a
nation. Per'sis, a Christian woraan at Rome
(Rora. xvi. 12) whora St. Paul salutes.
Peru' da. The same as Perida (Ezr.
u. 55).
Pestilence. [Plague.]
Pe'ter. His original name was Simon,
t. e. " hearer." He was the son of a man
naraed Jonas (Matt. xvi. 17 ; John i. 43,
xxi, 16), and was brought up in his father's
occupation, a fisherraan on the sea of Ti
berias. He and hfs brother Andrew were
partners of John and James, the sons of
Zebedee, who had hired servants. The
Apostle did not live, as a mere laboring
man, in a hut by the sea-side, but first at
Bethsaida, and afterwards in a house at
Capernaum, belonging to hiraself or his
raother-in-law, which must have been rath
er a large one, since he received in it not
' only our Lord and his fellow-disciples, but
multitudes who were attracted by the rair
acles and preaching of Jesus. It s not
probable that he and his brother were whol
ly uneducated. The stateraent in Acts iv,
13, that "the council perceived they {i. c.
Peter and John) were unlearned and igno
rant raen," is not incorapatiblo with this as-
suraption. The translation of the passage
in the A. V. is rather exaggerated, the
word rendered " unlearned " being nearly
equivalent to " laymen," i. e. men of ordi
nary education, as contrasted with those
who were speci.ally trained in the schools
of the Rabbis. It is doubtful whether our
Apostle was acquainted with-Greek in early
life. Within a few years after his call he
seeras to hiive conversed fluently in Greek
with Cornelius. The style of both of Pe
ter's Epistles indicates a considerable knowl
edge of Greek — it is pure and accurate,
and in graramatical structure equal to that
of Paul. That may, however, be account

ed for by the fact, for which there is very
iincient authority, that Peter employed an
interpreter in the composition of his Epis
tles, if not in his ordinary intercourse with
foreigners. It is on the whole probable
that he had some rudimental knowledge of
Greek in early life, which may have been
afterwards extended when the need was
felt. That he was an affectionate husband,
married in early life to a wife who accom
panied hira in his Apostolic journeys, are
facts inferred from Scripture, while very
ancient traditions, recorded by Clement of
Alexandria and by other early but less
trustworthy writers, inform us that her name
was Perpetua, that she bore a daughter, or
perhaps other children, and suffered mar
tyrdom. He was probably between thirty
and forty years of age at the date of his
call. That call' was preceded by a special
preparation. Peter and his brother Andrew,
together with their partners James and
John, the sons of Zebedee, were disciples
of John the Baptist, when he was first called
by our Lord. The particulars of this caU
are related with graphic minuteness by St.
John. It was upon tliis occasion that Jesus
gave Peter the name Cephas, a Syriac
word answering to the Greek I'eter, and
signifying a stone or rock (John i. 35-42).
This first call led to no immediate change
in Peter's external position. He and his
fellow-disciples looked henceforth upon our
Lord as their teacher, but were not com
raanded to follow hira as regular disciples.
They returned to Capernaum, '«'liere they
pursued tlieir usual business, waiting for a
further intiraation of His wiU. The second
call is recorded by the other three Evange
lists ; the narrative of Luke being apparently
supplementary to the brief, and, so to speak,
offici.al accounts given by Matthew and Mark.
It took place on the sea of Galilee near Ca
pernaum — where the four disciples, Peter
and Andrew, Jaraes and John, were fishing.
Peter and Andrew were first called. Our
Lord then entered Siraon Peter's boat and
addressed the raultitude on the shore. Im
mediately iifter that call our Lord went to the
house of Peter, where He wrought the mir
acle of healing on Peter's wife's mother.
Some time was passed afterwards in attend
ance upon our Lord's pubUc ministrations
in Galilee, Decapolis, Peraea, and Judaea.
The special designation of Peter and his
eleven fellow-disciples took place some
time afterwards, when they were set apart
as our Lord's iraraediate attendants (see
M.att. X. 2-4 ; Mark ui. 13-19, — the most
detailed account, — Luke vi. 13). 'They ap
pear then first to have received forraally
the narae of Apostles, .and frora that time
Simon bore publicly, and as it would teem
all b- t exclusively, the name Peter, which
had hitlierto been used rather as a charao-
teristic appellation than as a proper rame.

PETER

521

PETER

From this time there can be no doubt that
Peter held the first place among the Apos
tles, to whatever cause his precedence is to
be attributed. He is named first in every
list of- the Apostles; he is generally ad
dressed by our Lord as their representa
tive ; and on the most solemn occasions he
speaks in their name. Thus when the first
great secession took place in consequence
of the offence given by our Lord's mystic
discourse at Capernaum (see John vi. 66-
69), " Jesus said unto the twelve, WiU ye
also go away? Then Simon Peter an
swered Him, Lord, to whom shall we go ?
Thou hast the words of eternal Ufe : and
we believe and are sure that Thou art that
Christ, the Son of the living God." Thus
again at Caesarea PhUippi, St. Peter
(speaking as before in the name of the
twelve, though, as appears from our Lord's
words, with a peculiar distinctness of per
sonal conviction) repeated that declaration,
" Thou ,art the Christ, the Son of the liv
ing God." The confirraation of our Apostle
in his special position in the Church, his
' identification with the rock on which that
Church is founded, the ratification of the
powers and duties attached to the apostolic
office, and the proraise of permanence to
;he Church, followed as a reward of that
;onfession. The early Church regarded
St. Peter generally, and raost especially on
this occasion,.as the representative of the
apostolic body, a very distinct theory frora
that which raakes him their head, or gov-^
ernor in Christ's stead. Primus inter pares
Peter held no distinct office, and certainly
never claimed any powers which did not
belong equiiUy to all his fellow-Apostles.
This great triumph of Peter, however,
brought other points of his character into
strong relief. The distinction which he
then received, and it may be his conscious
ness of ability, energy, zeal, and absolute
devotion to Christ's person, seem to have
developed a natural tendency to rashness
and forwardness bordering upon presump
tion. On tills occasion the exhibition of
such feelings brought upon him the strong
est reproof ever addressed to a disciple by
our Lord. In his affection and self-confi
dence Peter ventured to reject as impossible
the announceraent of the sufferings and hu
miliation which Jesus predicted, and heard
the sharp words — " Get thee behind rae, Sa
tan ; thou art an offence unto rae ; for thou
eavorest not the things that be of God, but
those that be of men." It is remarkable that
on other occasions when St. Peter signal
ized his faith and devotion, he displayed
at the time, or imraediately afterwards, a
more than usual deficiency in spiritual dis
cernment and consistency. Thus a few
days after that fall he was selected together
with John and James to witness the trans
figuration of Christ ; but the words which

he then uttered prove that he was complete
ly bewildered, and unable at the tirae to
comprehend the raeaning of the transaction.
Thus again; when his zeal and courage
prompted him to leave the ship and walk
on the water to go to Jesus (Matt. xiv. 29),
a sudSen failure of faith withdrew the sus
taining power ; ho was about to sink, '«'hen
he was at once reproved and saved by his
Master. Towards the close of our Lord's
ministry Peter's characteristics become
especially prominent. Together with his
brother, and the two sons of Zebedee, he
listened to the last awful predictions and
warnings delivered to the disciples, in ref
erence to the second advent (Matt. xxiv.
3 ; Mark xiii. 3, who alone mentions these
names ; Luke xxi. 7). At the last supper
Peter seems to hiive been particularly ear
nest in the request 'that the traitor might be
pointed out. After the supper his words
drew out the raeaning of the significant act
of our Lord in washing His disciples' feet.
Then too it was thiit he made those repeat
ed protestations of unalterable fidelity, so
Soon to be falsified by his miserable fall.
On the morning of the'resurrection we have
proof that Peter, though humbled, was not
crushed by his fall. He and John were the
first to visit the sepulchre ; he w.as the first
who entered it. We are told by Luke and
by Paul that Christ appeared to him first
among tba Apostles. It is observable, how
ever, that oil that occasion he is called by
his original narae, Simon, not Peter; the
higher designation was not restored until
he had been publicly reinstituted, so to
speak, by his Master. That reinstitution
took place at the sea of Galilee (John xxi.),
an event of the very highest import. Slower
than John to recognize their Lord, Peter
was the first to reach Him ; he brought the
net to land. The thrice-repeated question
of Christ referring doubtless to the three
protestatioBS and denials, was thrice met
by answers full of love aud faith. He then
received the formal commission to feed
Christ's sheep, rather as one who had for
feited his place, and could not resume it
without such an authorization. Then fol
lowed the prediction of his martyrdora, in
which he was to find the fulfilment of his
request to be permitted to follow the Lord.
With this event closes the first part of
Peter's history. Henceforth, he and his
colleagues were to establish and govern the
Church founded by their Lord, without the
support of His presence. The first part of
the Acts of the Apostles is occupied by the
record of transactions, in nearly all of
which Peter stands forth as the recognized
leader of the Apostles. He is the most
prominent person in the greatest event after
the resurrection, when on the day of Pente
cost the Church was first invested with the
plenitude of gifts and powers. The first

PETEB

522

PETER, FIRST EPISTLE OF

miracle after Pentecost was wrought by
him (Acts Ui.). Tliis flrst miracle of heal
ing was soon followed by the first miracle
of judgraent. Peter was the minister in
that transaction. [Ananias.] When the
Gospel was flrst preached beyond the pre
cincts of Judaea, he and John were at once
sent by the Apostles to confirm the converts
at Samaria. Henceforth he remains prom
inent, but not exclusively prominent, among
the propagators ofthe Gospel. At Samaria
he was confronted with Simon Magus, the
first teacher of heresy. About three years
later (compare Acts ix. 26, and Gal. i. 17,
18) we have two accounts of the fir.st meet
ing of Peter and Paul. This interview was
foUowed by other events marking Peter's
position — a general apostolical tour of vis
itation to the Churches. hitherto established
(Acts ix. 33), in the course of which' two
great miracles were wrought on Aeneas and
Tabitha, and in connection with which the
most sign.al transaction after the day of
Pentecost is recorded, the baptism of Cor
nelius. That was the crown and consum
mation of Peter's ministry. The estabUsh"-
ment of a Church in -great part of GentUe
origin at Antioch, and- the mission of Bar
nabas, between whose family and Peter
there were the bonds of ne.ar intimacy, set
the seal upon the work thus inaugurated by
Peter. This transaction was soon followed
by the imprisonment of our Apostle. His
miraculous deliverance marks the close of
this second great period of his ministry.
The special work assigned to him was com
pleted. From that tirae we h<ave no con
tinuous history of hira. It is quite clear
that he retained his rank as the chief Apos
tle, equally so that he neither exercised nor
clairaed any right to control their proceed
ings. He left jerusalera, but it is not said
where he went. Certainly not to Rorae,
where there are no traces of his presence
before the last years of his life ; he probably
reraained in Judaea ; six years later we find
him once more at Jerusalem, when the
Apostles and elders carae together to consid
er the question whether- converts should be
circumcised. Peter took the lead in that
discussion, and urged with remarkable co
gency the principles settled in the case of
Cornelius. His arguments, adopted and
enforced by Jaraes, decided that question
at once and forever. It is a disputed point
whether the meeting between Paul and
Peter, of which we have an account in the
Galatians (u. 1-10) took place at this tirae,
or on St. Paul's return from his great Mis
sionary Journey. The only point of real
importance was certainly determined before
the Apostles separated, the work of con
verting the Gentiles being henceforth spe
cially intrusted to Piiul and Barnabas,
while the charge of preaching to the cir
cumcision was assigned to the elder Apos

tles, and more particularly to Peter (GaL
ii. 7-9). This arrangement cannot, how-
e'ver, hiive been an exclusive one. Paul
always addressed himself first to the Jews
in every city : Peter and his old colleagues
undoubtedly admitted and sought to make
converts araong the Gentiles. It may hare
been in full force only when the old and
new apostles resided in the same city.
Such at least was the case at Antioch,
where Peter went soon afterwards. From
this time until the date of his Epistles, we
have no distinct notices in Scripture of
Peter's abode or work. Peter was prob
ably eraployed for the most part in build
ing up, and completing the organization of
Christian communities in Palestine and the
adjoining districts. There is, however,
strong reason to believe that he visited
Corinth at an early period. The name of
Peter as founder, or joint founder, is not
associated -with any local Church save those
of Corinth, Antioch, or Rome, ^y early
ecclesiastical tradition. It may be con
sidered as a settled point that he did not,
visit Rorae before the last year of his Ufe ;
but there is satisfactory evidence that he
aud Paul were the founders of that Church,
and suffered death in that city. The time
and manner of the Apostle's "martyrdom
are less certain. According to the early
writers, he suffered at or about the sarae
tirae with Paul, and in the -Neronian per
secution. All agree that he was crucified,
— The Apostle is said to have employed
interpreters. Of far more importance is
the stateraent that Mark wrote his Gospel
under the teaching of Peter, or that he
embodied in that Gospel the substance of
our Apostle's oral instructions, [Mark.]
The only written docuraents which Peter
has left, are the First Epistle, about which
no doubt has ever been entertained in the
Church ; and the Second, which has been
a subject of earnest controversy.
Peter, First Epistle of. The exter
nal evidence of authenticity is of the strong
est kind; and the internal is equally strong.
It was addressed to the Churches of Asia
Minor, which had for the most part been
founded by Paul and his corapanions. Sup
posing it to have been written at Babylon,
it is a probable conjecture that Silvanus, by
whom itwas transmitted to those Churches,
had joined Peter after a tour of visitation,
and that his account of the condition of the
Christians in those districts determined the
Apostle to write the Epistle. The objects
of the Epistle were — 1. To comfort and
strengthen the Christians in a season of
severe trial. 2. To enforce the practical
and spiritual duties involved in their call
ing. 3. To warn them against special
temptations attached to their position. 4.
To remove all doubt as to the soundness
and completeness of the religious system

PETER, SECOND EPISTLE OF 523

PHALTI

which they had already received. Such an
attestation was especially needed by the
Hebrew Christians, who wer? wont to ap
peal from Paul's authority to that of the
elder Apostles, and above all to that of
Peter. The last, which is perhaps the very
principal object, is kept in view throughout
the Epistle, and is distinctly stated, ch. v.
ver. 12. The harmony of such teaching
with that of Paul Is sufficiently obvious ;
but the indications of originality and in
dependence of thought are at least equally
conspicuous. He dwells more frequently
than Paul upon the future manifestation of
Christ, upon which he bases nearly all his
exhortations to patience, self-control, and
the discharge of all Christian duties. The
Apostle's mind is full of one thought — the
realization of Messianic hopes. In this he
is the true representative of Israel, moved
by those feelings which were best calculated
to enable him to do his work as the Apos
tle of the circumcision. But while Peter
thus shows himself a genuine Israelite,
his 'teaching is directly opposed to Judaiz
ing tendencies. He belongs to the school,
or, to speak more correctly, is tbe leader
of the school, which at once vindicates the
unity of the Law and Gospel, and puts the
superiority of the latter on its true basis —
that of spiritual development. The Apos
tle of the circumcision says not a word in
this Epistle of the perpetual obligation, the
dignity, or even the bearings of the Mosaic
Law. He is fuU of the Old Testament;
his style and thoughts are charged with its
iinagery; but he contemplates and appUes
its teaching in the light of the Gospel ; he
regards the privileges and glory of the
ancient people of God entirely in their
spiritual development in the Church of
Christ. Peter, Second Epistle of. The fol
lowing is a brief outline of its contents :
The customary opening salutation is fol
lowed by an enumeration of Christian
blessings and exhortation to Christian du
ties (i. 1-13). Referring then to his ap
proaching death, the Apostle assigns as
grounds of assurance for believers his own
personal testimony as eye-witness of the
transfiguration, and the sure word of proph
ecy — that is, the testimony of the Holy
Ghost (14-21). The danger of being mis
led by false prophets is dwelt upon with
great earnestness thro'ughout the second
chapter, which is almost identical in lan
guage and subject with the Epistle of
Jude. The overthrow of all opponents of
Christian truth is predicted in connection
with prophecies touching the second ad-
irent of Christ, the destruction of the world
by fire, and the promise of new heavens
and a new earth wherein dwelleth right
eousness (iii.). — This Epistle of Peter
presents questions of difficulty. We have

few references to It in the writings of the
e.arly Fathers; the style diffurs ma.arially
from that of the First Epistle; aud the
resemblance, amounting to a studied imi
tation, between this Epistle and that of
Jude, seeras scarcely reconcilable with the
position of Pater. Doubts as to its genu
ineness were entertained by the early
Church; in the tirae of Eusebius it was
reckoned among the disputed books, and
was not forraally adraitted into the Canon
until the year 393, at the Council of Hippo.
These difficulties, however, are insufficient
to justify raore than hesitation in admitting
its genuineness. Supposing, as some erai
nent critics have believed, that this Epistle
was copied by St. Jude, we should have
the strongest possible testiraony to its . au
thenticity; but if, on the other hapd, we
accept the more general opinion of modern
critics, that the writer of this Epistle copied
St. Jude, the following considerations have
great weight. It seems quite incredible
that a forger, personating the chief among
the Apostles, should select the least ira-
p'ortant of all the Apostolical writings for
imitation ; whereas it is probable that St.
Peter might choose to give the stamp of
his personal authority to a docuraent bear
ing so powerfully upon practical and doc
trinal errors in the Churches which lie ad
dressed. The doubts as to the genuineness
of the Epistle appear to have originated with
the critics of Alexandria, where, however,
the Epistle itself was formally recognized
at a very early period. The opinions of
modern commentators raay be suraraed up
under three heads. Many reject the Epis
tle altogether as spurious. A few consider
that the first and last chapters were written
by Peter or under lus dictation, but that the
second chapter was interpolated. But a
majority of names may be quoted in sup
port of the genuineness and authenticity
of this Epistle.
Pethahi'ah. 1. A priest, over the
19th course in the reign of David (1 Chr.
xxiv. 16). 2. A Levite in the time of
Ezra, who had married a foreign wife (Ezr.
X. 23). He is probably the same who is
raentioned in Neh. ix. 5. 3. The son of
Meshezabeel, and descendant of Zerah
(Neh. xi. 24).
Pe'thor, a town of Mesopotamia, where
Balaam resided (Nura. xxii. 5 ; Deut. xxiu.
4). Its position is wholly unknown.
Pethu'el. The father of the prophet
Joel (Joel i. 1).
Peultha'i. Properly ' ' Peullethai ; " the
eighth son of Obed-edom (1 Chr. xxvi. 6).
Pha'lee. Peleg the son of Eber (Luko
iu. 35).
Phal'lu. PaUu the son of Reuben is so
called in the A. V. of Gen. xlvi. 9.
Phal'ti. The son of Laish of Gallim,
to whom Saul gave Michal in marriage

PHALTIEL'

624

PHARAOH

after his mad jealousy hal driven David
forth as an outlaw (1 Sam. xxv. 44). In 2
Sam. iii. 15 he is called Phaltiel. With
the exception of thi-s brief mention of his
name, and the touching little episode in 2
Sam. iii. 16, nothing more is heard of
Phalti. Phal'tiel. The same as Phalti (2
Sam. iii. -15).
Phanu'el. The- father of Anna, the
prophetess of the tribe of Aser (Luke u.
36). Pha'raoh. the common title nt the na
tive kings of Egypt in the Bible, corre
sponding to p-ra or PH-RA, "the. Sun," of
the hieroglyphics. As several kings are
only mentioned by the title " Pharaoh " in
the Bible, it is important to endeavor to
discriminate them : 1. The Pharaoh of
Abraham. — At the time at which the pa
triarch went into Egypt, it is generally held
that the country, or at least Lower Egypt,
was ruled by the Shepherd kings, of whom
the first aud most powerful line was the
xvth dynasty, the undoubted territories of
which would be first entered by one com
ing from the east. The date at which
Abrahara visited Egypt was about b. c.
2081, which would accord with the tjrae of
Salatis, the head of -the xvth dynasty, ac
cording to our reckoning. 2. The Pharaoh
of Joseph. — The chief points for the iden
tification of the line to which this Pharaoh
belonged, are that he was a despotic raon
arch, ruling all Egypt, who followed Egyp
tian custoras, but did not hesitate to set
theu aside when he thought fit; that he
seems u. have desired to gain complete
power over the Egyptians ; and that he fa
vored strangers. These particulars cer
tainly lend support to the idea that he was
an Egyptianized foreigner rather than an
Egyptian. Baron Bunsen supposed that
he was Sesertesen I., the head of the xiith
dynasty, on account of the mention in a
hieroglyphic inscription of a famine in that
king's reign. This identification, although
receiving sorae support from the statement
of Herodotus, that Sesostris, a name rea
sonably traceable to Sesertesen, divided
the land and raised his chief revenue from
the rent paid by the holders, must be
abandoned, since the calamity recorded
does not approach Joseph's famine in char
acter, and the age is almost certainly too
remote. If, discarding the idea that Jo
seph's Pharaoh was an Egyptian, we turn
to the :)ld view that he was one of the
Shepherd kings, a view almost inevitable
if we infer that he ruled during the Shep
herd-period, we are struck with the fitness
of all the circumstances of the Biblical nar
rative. It is stated by Eusebius that the
Pharaoh to whom Jacob came was one of
the Shepherd kings, perhaps Apophis, who
oelonged to the xvth dyj asty. He appears

to have reigned from Joseph's appointment
(or, perhaps, somewhat earUer) until Ja
cob's death, a period of at least twenty-sU
years, from 'about B. c. cir. 1876 to 1850,
and to have been the fifth or. sixth king of
the xvth dynasty. 3. The Pharaoh of the
Oppression. — 'The first persecutor of the
Israelites may be distinguished as the Pha
raoh of the Oppression, from the second,
the Pharaoh of -the Exodus, especially as
he commenced, and probably long carried
on, the persecution. The general view is
that he was an Egyptian. He has been
generally supposed to have been a king of
the xviiith or xLxth dynasty : we believe
that he was of a line earlier than either.
If a Shepherd, he must have been of the
xvith or the xviith dynasty. The reign of
this king probably commenced a little be
fore the birth of Mases, which we place
B. c. 1782, and seeras to have lasted up
wards of forty years, perhaps much more.
4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus. — What is
known of the Pharaoh of the Exodus is
rather biographical than historical. " He
was reigning for about a year or more be
fore the Exodus, which we place b. c. 1652.
5. Pharaoh, father-in-law of Mered. — In
the genealogies of the tribe of Judah, men
tion is raade of the daughter of a Pharaoh,
raarried to an Israelite; " Bitluah the
daughter of Pharaoh, which Mered took "
(1 Chr. iv. 18). This raarriage may tend to
aid us in deterraining the age of the sojourn
in Egypt. It is perhaps less probable that
an Egyptian Pharaoh would have given his
daughter in marriage to an Israelite, than
that a Shepherd king would have done so,
before the oppression. 6. Pharaoh, brother-
in-law of Hadad ihe Edomite. — 'This king
gave Hadad as his wife the sister of his owu
wife Tahpenes (1 K. xi. 18-20). He was
probably a Tanite of the xxist dynasty. 7.
Pharaoh, father-in-law of Solomon. — The
raention that the queen was brought into
the city of David, while Soloraon's house,
and the Teraple, and the city-waU were
building, shows that the marriage took place
not later than the eleventh year of the
king, when the Temple was finished, hav
ing been commenced in the fourth year (1
K. vi. 1, 37, 38). He was probably also a
Tanite ofthe xxist dynasty, but it seems cer
tain not the Pharaoh who was reigning when
Hadad left Egypt. This Pharaoh led an
expedition into Palestine (1 K.. ix. 16). 8.
Pharaoh, ihe opponent of Sennacherib.-
This Pharaoh (Is. xxxvi. 6) can only be
the Sethos whom Herodotus mentions as
the opponent of Sennacherib, and who m'jy
reasonably be supposed to be the Zet of
Manetho, the last king of his xxiiid dy
nasty. Tirhakah, as an Etliiopian, whether
then ruUng in Egypt or not, is, like So,
apparently not called Pharaoh. 9. PAo-
raoh Nechi . — Tho flrst mention in tha

PHARAOH

525

PHARISEES

Bible of a proper narae with the title
Pharaoh is the case of Pharaoh Necho,
who is also caUed Necho, siraply. This king
was of the Salte xxvith dynasty, of which
Manetho makes him either the fifth ruler
or the sixth. Herodotus calls him Nekos,
and assigns to him a reign of 16 years,
which is confirmed by the monuments.
He seems to have been an enterprising
king, as he is related to have attempted to
complete the canal connecting the Red Sea
with the Nile, and to have sent an expedi
tion of Phoenicians to circumnavigate Af
rica, which was successfully accomplished.
At the comraenceraent of his reign (b. o.
610) he made war against the king of As
syria, and, being encountered on his way
by Josiah, defeated and slew the king of
Judah at Megiddo (2 K. xxui. 29, 30; 2
Chr. xxxv. 20-24). Necho seems to have
soon returned to Egypt. Perhaps he was
on his way thither when he deposed Jehoa
haz. The army was probably posted at
Carchemish, and was -there defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar in the fourth year of
Necho (b. c. 607), that king not being, as it
seeras, then at its head (Jer. xlvi. 1, 2, 6,
10). This battle led to the loss of all the
Asiatic dorainions of Egypt (2 K. xxiv. 7).
10. Pharaoh Hophra. — The next king of
Egypt raentioned in the Bible is Pharaoh
Hophra, the second successor of Necho,
from whom he was separated by the six
years' reign of Psammetichus II. He came
to the throne about e. o. 589, and ruled 19
years. Herodotus, who calls hira Apries,
makes hira son of Psammetichus II., whora
he calls Psammis, and great-grandson of
Psammetichus I. In the Bible it is related
that Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, was
aided by a Pharaoh against Nebuchad
nezzar, in fulfilment of a treaty, and that
an array came out of Egypt, so th.at the
Chaldeiins were obUged to raise the siege
of Jerusalem. The city was first besieged
in the ninth year of Zedekiah, b. c. 590,
and was captured in his eleventh year, b. c.
588. It was evidently continuously invested
for a length of time before it was taken, so
that it is most probable that Pharaoh's ex
pedition took place during 590 or 689.
There may, therefore, be some doubt
whether Psammetichus II. be not the king
here spoken of; but it must be remembered
that the siege may be supposed to have
lasted some time- before the Egyptians
could have heard of it and marched to
relieve the city, and also that Hophra raay
have come to the throne as early as b. c. 590.
The Egyptian army returned without effect
ing its purpose (.Ter. xxvii. 5-8 ; Ez. xvU.
11-18; comp. 2 K. xxv. 1-4). No subse
quent Pharaoh is mentioned in Scripture,
but there are predictions doubtless refer
ring to the misfortunes of later princes
jintil the second Persian conquest, when

the ].rophecy, " There shall hi no more a
prince of the land of Egypt " (Ex. xxx.
13), was fulfilled.
Pharaoh's Daughter. Three Egyp
tian princesses, daughters of Pharaohs,
are mentioned in the Bible. 1. The pre
server of Moses, daughter of the Pharaoh
who first oppressed the Israelites (Ex. u
5-10). 2. Bithiah, wife of Mered, an Is
raelite, daughter of a Pharaoh of an uncer
tain age, probably of about the time of the
Exodus (1 Chr. iv. 18). [Pharaoh, No.
5.] 3. A wife of Solomon, most probably
daughter of a king of the xxist dynasty
(1 K. in. 1, vU. 8, ix. 24). [Pharaoh, 7.]
Pharaoh, The "Wife of The wife of
one Pharaoh, the king who received Hadad
the Edomite, is mentioned in Scripture.
She is called "queen," and her name,
Tahpenes, is given. Her husband waf
most probably of the xxist dynasty. [Tah ¦
PENES ; Pharaoh, 6.]
Pha'res, Pharez or Perez, the son of
Judah (Matt. i. 3; Luke iii. 33).
Pha'rez (Perez, 1 Chr. xxvii. 8 ; Pha-
kes. Matt. i. 3; Luke iii. 33; 1 Esd. v. 5),
twin son, with Zarali or Zerah, of Judah
and Tamar his daughter-in-law. The cir
cumstances of his birth are detailed in
Gen. xxxviii. Pharez seeins to have kept
'the right of priraogeniture over his brother,
as, in the genealogical lists, his narae comes
first. The house also which he founded
was far more numerous and illustrious
thiin that of the Zarhites. Its remarkiible
fertility is alluded to in Ruth iv. 12, "Let
thy house be like the house of Pharez,
whom Tamar bare unto Judah." After the
death of Er and Onan without chUdren,
Pharez occupied the rank of Judah's second
son, and from two of his sons sprang two
new chief houses, those of the Hezronites
and Hamulites. Frora Hezron's second son
Ram, or Aram, sprang David and the kings
of Judah, and eventually Jesus Christ. In
the reign of David the house of Pharez
seems to have been eminently distin
guished. Pharisees, a religious party or school
amongst the Jews at the tirae of Christ, so
called from Perlshin, the Aramaic form of
the Hebrew word PerAshim, " separated."
The name does not occur either in the Old
Testament or in the Apocrypha ; but it is
usually considered that the Pharisees were
essentially the same with the Assideans
(i. e. chasidim =- godly men, saints) men
tioned in the 1st Book of Maccabees ii. 42,
vu. 13-17, and in the 2d Book xiv. 6). A
knowledge of the opinions and practices of
this party at the tirae of Christ is of great
iraportance for entering deeply into the
genius of the Christian religion. A cursory
perusal of the Gospels is sufficient to show
that Christ's teaching was in some respects
thoroughly antagonistic to theirs. He de-

PHARISEES

526

PHARISEES

nounced them in the bitterest language.
(See Matt. xv. 7, 8, xxiu. 5, 13, 14, 15, 23 ;
Mark vii. 6 ; Luke xi. 42-44, and corapare
Miitt. vu. 1-5, xi. 29, xu. 19, 20; Luke vi.
28, 37-42.) Indeed, it is difficult to avoid
the conclusion that His repeated denuncia
tions of the Pharisees mainly exasperated
them into taking measures for causing his
death; so that in one sense He raay be said
to have shod His blood, and to h.ave laid
down His lite, in protesting against their
practice and spirit. (See especially Luke
xi. 53, 54.) Hence, to understand the
Pharisees is, by contrast, an aid towards
understanding the spirit' of uncorrupted
Christiiinity. Authorities. — The sources
of inforraation respecting the Pharisees are
mainly threefold. 1st. The writings of
Josephus, who was himself a Pharisee
( Vit. 2), and who in each of his gre.at
works professes to .give a direct account of
their opinions {B. J. n. 8, § 2-14 ; Ant. xvui.
1, § 2, and comp.are xui. 10, § 5, 6, xvii. 2,
§4, xiii. 16, §2, and Vit. 38). The value
of Josephus' accounts would be rauch
greater i*' he had not accoraraodated them,
raore or less, to Greek ideas. 2dly. The
New Testiiraent, including St. Paul's Epis
tles, in addition to the Gospels and Acts
of the Apostles. 3dly. The first portion
ofthe Talraud, called the Mishna, or "sec
ond IfvW." This is by far the most impor
tant source of inforraation respecting the
Pha'iisees; and it raay safely be asserted
that it is nearly irapossible to have adequate
conceptions respecting thera, without con-
sultii-g that work. It is a digest of the
Jewish traditions, and a corapendiura of the
whole ritual law, reduced to writing in its
present forra by Rabbi Jehudah the Holy,
a Jew of great wealth and influence, who
flourished in the 2d century. Referring to
the Mishna for details, itis proposed in this
article to give a general view of the pecu
liarities of the Pharisees. 1. The funda
mental principle of the Pharisees comraon
to them with all orthodox raodern Jews is,
that by the side of the written law regarded
as a summary of the principles and general
laws of the Hebrew people, there was an
oral law to coraplete and to explain the
written haw. It was au article of faith that
in the Pentateuch there was no precept,
and no regulation, ceremonial, doctrinal,
or legal, of which God had not given to
Moses all exijlanations necessary fol- their
application, with the order to transmit them
by word of mouth. It is not to be supposed
that iiU the traditions which bound the Phar
isees were believed to be direct revelations
to Moses oh Mount Sinai. Viewed as a
whole, they treated men like children, for-
m.aUzing and deflning the minutest particu
lars of ritual observiinccs. The expressions
of " bondage," of " weak and beggarly ele
ments," and of " burdens too heavy for men

to bear," faithfully represent the impres
sion produced by their multiplicity. [Tal
mud.] I. The Pharisees formed a kind of
society. A member was called a chdbir,
and those among the middle and lower
classes who were not members were called
"the people of the land," or the vulgar.
Each member undertook, in the presence
of three other members, that he would re
main true to the laws of the association.
Perhaps sorae of the most characteristic
laws of the Pharisees related to what was
clean and unclean. According to the Levit
ical law, every unclean person was cut off
from all religious privileges, and was re
garded as defiling the sanctuary of Jehovah
(Num. xix. 20). On principles precisely
similar to those of the Levitical laws (Lev.
XX. 25, xxii. 4-7), it was possible to incur
these awful religious penalties either by
eating or by touching what was unclean
in the Pharisaical sense. One point alone
raised an insuperable barrier between tho
free social intercourse of Jews and other
nations. This point is, " that anything
slaughtered by a heathen should be deemed
unfit to be eaten, like the carcass of an
animal that had died of itself, and like such
carcass should pollute the person who
carried it." On the reasonable assumption
that under such circumstances aniraals used
for food would be killed by Jewish slaugh
terers, regulations the most minute are laid
down for their guidance. In reference,
likewise, to touching what is unclean, the
Mishna abounds with prohibitions and dis
tinctions no less minute. To any one fresh
from the perusal of the regulations upon
this subject in the Mishna, the words
" Touch not, taste not, handle not," seem a
correct but almost a pale summary of their
drift and purpose (Col. ii. 21) ; and the
stern antiigonism becomes vividly visible
between them and Him who proclaimed
boldly that a raan was defiled not by any
thing he ate, but by the bad thoughts ofthe
heart alone (Matt. xv. 11) ; and who, even
when the guest of a Pharisee, pointedly
abstained from washing his hands before a
meal, iu order to rebuke the superstition
which attached a moral value to such a cer
emonial act (see Luke xi. 87-40). It is
proper to add that it would be a great mis
take to suppose that the Pharisees were
wealthy and luxurious, much more that
they had degenerated into the vices which
were imputed to some of the Romiin popes
and cardinals during the 200 years preced
ing the Reformation. Josephus compared
the Pharisees to the sect of the Stoics. He
siiys that they lived frugally, in no respect
giving in to luxury, but that they followed
the leadership of reason in what it had se
lected and transmitted as a good. Although
there would' be hypocrites among thera, it
would be unreasonable to charge all the

PHARISEES

527

PHICHOL

Pharisees as a body with hypocrisy, in the
sense wherein we at the present day use the
word. They raust be regarded as having
been some of the most intense formalists
whom the world has ever seen. It was
aUeged against thera, ou the highest spir
itual authority, that they " raade the word
of God of no effect by their traditions."
This would be true in the largest sense,
from the purest form of religion in the Old
Testament being almost incompatible with
such endless forms (Mic. vi. 8) ; but it was
true in another sense, from some of the
traditions bei'ng decidedly at variance with
genuine religion. II. One of the funda
mental doctrines of the Pharisees was a
belief in a future siate. They appear to
have believed in a resurrection of the dead,
very much in the same sense as the early
Christians. This is in accordance with St.
Paul's statement to the chief priests and
council (Acts xxiii. 6), that he was a Phar
isee, the son of a Pharisee, and that he was
called in question for the hope and res
urrection of the dead; and it is Ukewise
alraost iraplied in Christ's teaching, which
does not insist on the doctrine of a future
Ufe as anything new, but assuraes it as
already adopted by his hearers, except by
the Sadducees, although he conderans some
unspiritual conceptions of its nature as er
roneous (Matt. xxU. 30 ; Mark xii. 25 ; Luke
XX. 34-36). III. In reference to the opinions
of the Pharisees concerning the freedom of
the will, a difficulty arises from the very
prominent position which they occupy in
the accounts of Josephus, whereas nothing
vitally essential to the peculiar doctrines
of the Pharisees seems to depend on those
opinions, and some of his expressions are
Greek, rather than Hebrew, " There were
three sects of the Jews," he says, "which
had different conceptions respecting huraan
affairs, of which one was called Pharisees,
the second Sadducees, and the third Es
senes. The Pharisees say that sorae things,
and not all things, are the work of Fate ; but
that sorae things are in our own power to
be and not to be. But the Essenes declare
that Fate rules all things, and that nothing
happens to raan except by its decree. The
Sadducees, on the other hand, take away
Fate, holding that it is a thing of nought,
and that huraan affairs do not depend upon
it; but in their estimate all things are in
the power of ourselves, as being ourselves
the causes of our good things, and meeting
with evils through our own inconsiderate-
ness." In reference to this point, the opin
ion of Graetz seeras not improhable, that
the real diff'erence between the Pharisees
and Sadducees was at first practical and
political. [Sadducees.] IV. In reference
to the spirit of proselytisra among the Phar
isees, there is indisputable authority for the
statement that it prevailed to a very great

extent at the time of Christ (Matt, xxiii
15) ; and attention is now called to it on
account of its probable importance in hav
ing paved the wiiy for the early diffusion
of Christi.anity. Jews at the time of Christ
had become scattered over the fairest por
tions of the civilized world. On the day
of Pentecost, Jews are said to have been
assembleil with one accord in one place
at Jerusalera, "frora every region under
heaven." Moreover, the then existing regu
lations or cu.storas of synagogues alforded
facilities which do not exist now either in
synagogues or Christian churches for pre
senting new views to a congregation (Acte
xvii. 2 ; Luke iv. 16). Under such auspices
the proselytizing spirit of the Pharisees
inevitably stiraulated a thirst for inquiry,
and accustomed the Jews to theological
controversies. Thus there existed prece
dents and favoring circurastances for efforts
to make proselytes, when the greatest of
all missionaries, a Jew by race, a Pharisee
by education, a Greek by language, and a
Roman citizen by birth, preachiiig"the res
urrection of Jesus to those who for the
most part already believed in the resurrec
tion of the dead, confronted the elaborate
ritual-systera of the written and oral law by
a pure spiritual religion, and thus obtained
the co-operation of many Jews themselves
in breaking down every barrier between
Jew, Pharisee, Greek, and Roraan, and in
endeavoring to unite all mankind by the
brotherhood of a coraraon Christianity.
Pha'-rosh. Elsewhere Parosh (Ezr.
viu. 3).
Phar'par, the second of the " two riv
ers of Daraascus " — Abana and Pharpar
— alluded to by Naaman (2 K. v. 12) . The
two principal streams in the district of
Daraascus are the Barada and the Awaj .
the forraer being the Abana, and the latter
the Pharpar. 'The Awaj rises on the S. E.
sfopes of Herraon, and flows into the raost
southerly of the three lakes or swaraps of
Damascus. Phar'zites, The. The descendants of
Pharez, the son of Judah (Num. xxvi. 20).
Pha'seah. Paseah 2 (Neh. vii. 51).
Phase'lis, a town on the coast of Asia
Minor, on the confines of Lycia and Para
phylia, and consequently ascribed by the
ancient writers soraetiraes to one and some
times to the other (1 Maco. xv. 23).
Phe'be. [Phoebe.]
Pheni'ce. 1. See Phoenice, Phoe
nicia. 2. (Acts xxvii. 12), more pioperly
Phoenix, the narae of a haven in Crete on
the south coast. The name was doubtless
derived from the Greek word for the palm-
tree, which Theophrastus says was indi
genous in the island. It is the modern
Luiri. Phi'chol, chief captain of the army of
Abimelech, king of the Philistines of Gera*

PHULADELPHIA

528

PHILIP THE APOSTLE

in the days of both Abraham (Gen. xxi. 22,
32) and Isaac (xxvi. 26),
Philaderphia, a town on the confines
of Lydia and Phrygia Catacecaumene, built
by Attalus II., king of Pcrgiiraus. It was
situated on the lower slopes of Traolus,
aud is still represented by a town called
Allah-shehr (city of God). Its elevation is
952 feet above the sea. 'The original popu-
hiliiii of Philadelphia seems to hiivo been
Macedonian : but there was, as appears from
Rev. iii. 9, a synagogue oL Hellenizing
Jews there, as well as a Christian Church.
The locality was subject to constant earth
quakes, which in the time of Strabo ren
dered even the town-walls of Philadelphia
unsafe. The expense of reparation was
constant, and hence perh.aps the poverty of
the raembers of the Christian Church (Rev.
iii, 8).
Phile'mon, the narae of the Christian
to whora Paul addressed his Epistle in be
half of Onesiraus. He was a native prob
ably of Colossae, or at all events lived in
that city when the Apostle wrote to hira ;
first, because Onesiraus was a Colossian
(Col. iv. 9) ; and secondly, because Archip
pus was a Colossian (Col. iv. 17), whora
Paul associiites with Philcraon at the be
ginning of his letter (Philem. 1, 2). It is
related that Philemon becarae bishop of
Colossae, and died as a martyr under Nero.
It is evident from the letter to him that
Philemon was a miin of property and infiu
ence, since he is represented as the head of
a numerous household, and as exercising
an expensive liberality towards his friends
and the poor in general. He was indebted
to the Apostle Paul as the raediura of his
personal participation in the Gospel. It is
not certain under what circumstances they
becarae known to each other. It is evident
that on becoming a disciple, he gave no
coraraon proof of the sincerity and power
of his faith. His character, as shadowe'd
forth in the epistle to hira, is one of the
noblest which the sacred record makes
known to us.
Philemon, The Epistle .of Paul
1,0, is one of the letters which the Apostle
wrote during his flrst captivity at Rome.
The time when Paul wrote may be fixed
with much precision. The Apostle at the
close of the letter expresses a hope of his
speedy liberation. Presuming, tlierefore,
that he had good reasons for such an ex
pectation, we may conclude that this letter
was written by him about the year A. d, 63,
or earh in a, d, 64. Nothing is wanted
to confij-m the genuineness of the epistle.
The external testimony is unimpeachable.
The Canon ot Muratori enumerates this as
one of Piiul's epistles. Origen and Euse
bius include it among the universally ac
knowledged writings of the early Christian
times. Nor does the epistle itself offer

anything to conflict with this decision. Baur
would divest it of its historical character,
and make it the personified illustratioi,
from some later writer, of tlie idea that
Christianity unites and equalizes in a higher
sense those whom outward circumstances
have separated. He does not impugn the
external evidence. But, not to leave his
theory wholly unsupported, he suggests
some linguistic objections to Paul's author
ship of the letter, which must be pro
nounced unfounded and frivolous. Our
knowledge respecting the occasion and
object of the letter we must derive from
declarations or inferences furnished by the
letter itself. Paul, so intimately connected
with the master and the servant, was anx
ious naturally to effect a reconciliation be
tween them. Paul used his influence with
Onesiraus (in ver. 12) to induce him to re
turn to Colossae, and place himself again
at the disposal of his master. On his de
parture, Paul put into his hand this letter
as evidence that Onesimus was a true and
approved disciple of Christ, and entitled
as such to be received, not as a servant,
but above a servant, as . a brother in the
faith. He intercedes for him as his own
child, promises reparation if he had done
any wrong, demands for him not only a re
mission of all penalties, but the reception
of sympathy, affection. Christian brother
hood. The result of the apjieal cannot be
doubted. It may be assumed . from the
character of Philemon that the Apostle's
intercession for Onesimus was not unavaU-
ing. The Epistle to Philemon has one
peculiar feature — its aesiheiical charader
it may be termed — which distinguishes it
from all the other epistles. The writer had
peculiar difficulties to overcome ; but Paul,
it is confessed, has shown a degree of self-
denial and a tact in dealing with them,
which in being equal to the occasion could
hardly be greater.
Phile'tus was possibly a disciple of Hy
menaeus, with whora he is associated in 2
Tim. ii. 17, and who is named without him
in an earlier Epistle (1 Tim. i. 20). They
appear to have been persons who belitived
the Scriptures of the O. T., but mismter-
preted them, allegorizing away the doctrine
of the Resurrection, and resolving it all into
figure and metaphor. The delivering over
unto Satan seeras to have been a form of
excomraunication declaring the person re
duced to the state of a heathen ; and in the
Apostolical age it was accompanied with
supernatural or miraculous effects upon
the bodies of the persons so delivered.
PhUip the Apostle was of Beth
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter (John
i; 44), and apparently was among the Gali-
laean peasants of that district who flocked
to hear the preaching of the Baptist. The
manner iu which St. John speaks of liim,

PHILIP THE EA^ANGELIST 529

PHILIPPI

the repetition by him of the selfsame words
with which Andrew had brought to Peter
the good news that the Christ had at last
appeared, all indicate a previous friendship
with the sons of Jona and of Zebedee, and
a consequent, participation in their Messi
anic hopes. The close union of the t'*-o in
John vi. and xii. suggests that he may have
owed to Andrew the flrst tidings that the
hope had been fulfilled. The statement
that Jesus found him (John i. 43) iraplies
a, previous seeking. To hira flrst in the
whole circle of the disciples were spoken
the words so full of meaning, " Follow
me " (Ibid.). As soon as he has learnt to
know his "Master, he is eager to comrauni-
cate his di-icovery to another who had also
shared the sarae expectations. He speaks
to Nathanael, probably on his arrival in
Cana (comp. John xxi. 2), as though they
had not seldom comrauned together, of the
intiraations of a better tirae, of a divine
kingdora, which they found in their sacred
books. In the lists of the twelve Apostles,
in the Synoptic Gospels, his narae is as
uniformly at the head of the second group
of four, as the narae of Peter is at that of
the flrst (Matt. x. 3 ; Miirk iii. 18 ; Luke
vi. 14) ; and the facts recorded by St. John
give the reason of this priority. Philip
apparently wa^ among the first company
of disciples who were with the Lord at the
comraencement of His ministry, at the
marriage of Cana, on His first appearance
as a prophet in Jerusalem (John ii.). When
John was cast into prison, and the work of
declaring the glad tidings of the kingdora
required a new company of preachers, we
may believe that he, like his corapanions
and friends, received a new call to a raore
constant, diicipleship (Matt. iv. 18-22).
When the Twelve were specially set apart
for their oflice, he was numbered among
them. The lirst three Gospels tell us noth
ing more of him individually. St. John,
with his chai acteristio fulness of personal
reminiscences, records a few significant ut
terances (John vi. 5-9, xii. 20-22, xiv. 8).
No other fact connected with the narae of
Philip is recorded in the Gospels. He is
among the company of disciples at Jerusa
lera after the Ascension (Acts i. 13), and
on the dn.y of Pentecost. After this all is
uncertain and apocryphal.
Philip the Evangelist is first raen
tioned in the account of the' dispute be
tween the Hebrew and Hellenistic disciples
in Acts vi. He is one of the Seven ap
pointed to superintend the daily distribu
tion of food and alms, and so to remove all
suspicion of partiality. Whether the office
to which he was thus appointed gave hira
the position and the title of a Deacon of the
Church, or was special and extraordinary
in its character, raust remain uncertain.
The after-history of Philip warrants the
34

beaef, in any case, th.at his office was not
siraply that of the later Diaconate. The
persecution of which Saul was the leader
must have stopped the "daily ministra
tions " of the Church. The teachers who
had been most prominent were compelled
to tiike to flight, and Philip was araong
thera. It is noticeable that the city of Sa
maria is the first scene of his activity
(Acts viii.). He is the precursor of St.
Paul in his work, as Stephen had been in
his teaching. It falls to his lot, rather
than to that of an Apostle, to take that first
step iu the victory over Jewish prejudice
and the expansion of the Church, accord
ing to its Lord's command. The scene
which brings Philip and Simon the Sorcerer
into contact with each other, in which the
magician has to acknowledge a power over
nature greater than his own, is interesting,
rather as belonging to the life of the liere-
siarch than to that of the Evangelist. This
step is followed by another. He is directed
by an angel of the Lord to take the road
that led down from Jerusalem to Gaza on
the way to Egypt. Here he met the Ethio
pian eunuch (Acts vi. 26, foil.). The his
tory that follows is interesting as one of
the few records in the N. T. of the process
of individual conversion. A brief sen
tence tells us that Philip continued his
work as a preacher at Azotus (Ashdod), and
among the otlier cities' that had forraerly
belonged to the PhiUstines, and, following
the coast-line, carae to Caesarea. Then
for a long period, not less th.an eighteen or
nineteen years, we lose sight of hira. The
last glirapse of him in the N. T. is in the
account of St. Paul's journey to Jerusalem.
It is to his house, as to one well known to
them, that St. Paul and his corapanions
turn for shelter. He has four daughters,
who possess the gift of prophetic utterance,
and who apparently give theraselves to the
work of teaching instead of entering on
the Ufe of horae (Acts xxi. 8, 9). He is
visited by the prophets and elders of Jeru
salera. One tradition places the scene of
his death at Hierapolis in Phrygia. Ac
cording to another, he died Bishop of
Tralles. The house in which he and his
daughters had lived was pointed out to
travellers in the time of Jerome.
Philip Herod I., II. [Herod.]
Philip'pi, a city of Macedonia, abou*
nine miles frora the sea, to the N. W. of
the island of Thasos, which is twelve railes
distant frora its port Neapolis, the modern
Kavalla. It is situated in a plain between
the ranges of Pangaeus and Haeraus. St.
Paul, when, on his first visit to MiicetJooia
in corapany with Silas, he embarked at
Troas, made a straight run to Samothrace,
and the next day to Neapolis, and from
thence to Philippi (Acts xvi. 11, 12). The
Philippi which St. Paul visited was a Ro-

PHILIPPIANS

530

PHILIPPIANS

man colony founded by Augustus, and the
remains which strew the ground near the
modern Turkish village Bereketli are no
doubt derived from that city. The original
town, built by Philip of Macedonia, was
probably not exactly on the same site.
Philip, when he acquired possession of the
site, found there a town named Datus or
Datum, whicli was in all probability in its
origin a factory of the Phoenicians, who
were the first that worked the gold-mines
in the mountains here, as in the neighbor
ing Thasos. The proxiraity of the gold-
raines was of course the origin of so large
a city as Philippi, but the plain in which it
lies is of extraordinary fertility. The posi
tion, too, was on the main road from Rome
to Asia, the Via Egnatia, which frora Thes
salonica to Constantinople followed the
sarae course as the existing post-road. On
St. Paul's visits to PhiUppi, see the follow
ing article.
Philippians, Epistle to the, was
written by St. Paul from Rome in a. d. 62
or 63. 1. The canonical authority, Pauline
authorship and integrity of this Epistle were
unanimously acknowledged up to the end
of the 18th century. Marcion (a. d. 140)
in the earliest known Canon held common
ground with the Church touching the au
thority of this. Epistle : it appears in the
Muratorian Fragment ; among the' " ac
knowledged " books in Eusebius ; in the
lists of the Council of Laodicea, A. d. 365,
and the Synod of Hippo, 393 ; and in .all
subsequent lists, as well as in the Peshito
and later versions. Even contemporary
evidence may be claimed for it. Philippian
Cliristians who had contributed to the col
lections for St. Paul's support at Rorae,
who had been eye and ear-witnesses of the
return of Epaphroditus and tho first read
ing of St. Paul's Epistle, may have been
still alive at Philippi when Polycarp wrote
(a. d. 107) his letter to them, in which (ch.
2, 3) he refers to St. Paul's Epistle as a
well-known distinction belonging to the
Philippian Church. It is quoted as St.
Paul's by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria,
and TertuUian. A quotation frora it (PhU.
u. 6) is found iu'the Epistle of the Churches
of Lyons and Vienne, a. d. 177. The tes
timonies of later writers are innuraerahle.
But F. C. Baur, followed by Schwegler,
has argued frora the phraseology of the
Epistle and other internal marks, that it is
the work not of St. Paul, but of some
Gnostic forger in the 2d century. 2. Where
written. — The constant tradition that this
Epistle was written at Rorae by St. Paul in
his captivity, was irapugncd first by Oeder
(1731), who, disregarding the fact that the
Apostle was iu prison (i. 7, 13, 14) when
he wrote, iraagined that he was at Corinth ;
and then by Piiulus (1799), Schulz (1829),
Battger (1837) and RiUiet (1841), in whose

opinion the Epistle was written during tha
Apostle's confinement at Caesarea (Acts
xxiv. 23); but the' references to the "pal
ace" (praetoriura, i. 13), and to " Caesar's
household " (iv. 22), seem to point to Rome
rather than to Caesarea. St. Paul's con
nection with Philippi was of a peculiar
character, which gave rise to the writing
of this Epistle. St. Paul entered its walls,
A. D. 52 (Acts xvi. 12). There, at a greater
distance from Jerusalem than any Apostle
had yet penetrated, the long-restrained en
ergy of St. Paul Wiis again employed in lay
ing the foundation of a Christian Church.
Philippi was endeared to St. Paul, not only
by the hospitality of Lydia, -the deep sym
pathy of the converts, and the remarkable
miracle which set a seal on his preaching,
but also by the successful exercise of -his
missionary activity after a long suspense,
and by the happy consequences df his un
daunted endurance of ignominies, which
remained in his memory (Phil. i. 30) after
the long interval of eleven years. Leaving
Timothy and Luke to watch over the infant
Church, Paul and Silas went to Thessalo
nica (1 Thess. ii. 2), whither they were fol
lowed by the alms of the PhiUppians (Phil.
iv. 16), and thence southwards. After the
lapse of .five years, spent chiefly at Corinth
and Ephesus, St. Paul passed through Mace
donia, A. D. 57, on his way to Greece, and
probably visited PhUippi for the second
tirae, and was there joined by Timothy. He
wrote at Philippi his second Epistle to the
Corinthians. On returning from Greece
(Acts XX. 4), he again found a refuge
araong his faithful Philippians, where he
spent some days at Easter, a. d. 58, with
St. Luke, who accompanied him when he
sailed from Neapolis. Once more, in his
Roman captivity (a. d. 62) their care of
him revived again. They sent Epaphro
ditus, bearing their alms for the Apostle's
support, and ready also to tender his per
sonal service (Phil. ii. 25). St. Paul'p ai-.n
in writing is plainly this : while ackD iwl-
edging the alms of the Philippians and the
personal services of their messengei, to
give them some information respecting liis
own condition, and sorae advice respect! Jg
theirs. After the inscription (i. 1, 2) in
which Tiraothy as the second father of the
Church is joined with Paul, he sets foith
his own condition (i. 3-26), his prayers,
care, .and wishes for his Plulippians, w'ltli
the troubles and uncertainty of his impi is-
onment, and his hope of eventually seeinj
thera agiiin. Theu (i. 27-ii. 18) he exhorts
them to those particular virtues which ha
would rejoice, to see them practising at (he
present time. He hopes soon to hear a
good report of them (ii. 19-30), either by
sending Timothy, or by going himself to
them, as he now sends Epaphroditus, whosa
dUigent service is highly commended. R&

PHILISTIA

531

PHHJSTINES

verting (ui. 1-21) to the tone of joy whicb
runs through the preceding descriptions and
exhortations — as in i. 4, 18, 25, ii. 2, 16, 17,
18, 28 — he bids them take heed that their
joy be iii-the Lord, and warns them against
admitting itinerant Judaizing teachers, the
tendency of whose doctrine was towards a
vain confidence in mere earthly things ; in
contrast to this, he exhorts them to'foUow
him ill placing their trust hurably but en
tirely in Christ, and in pressing forward
in their Christian course, with the Resur
rection-day constantly before their rainds.
Again (iv. 1-9), adverting to their position
in the midst of unbelievers, he beseeches
them, even with person.al appeals, to be
firra, united, joyful in the Lord ; to be full
of prayer and peace ; and to lead such a Ufe
as' must approve itself to the moral sense
of all raen. Lastly (iv. 10-23) he thanks
thera for the contribution sent by Epaphro
ditus for his support, and concludes with
salutations and a benediction. Though we
cannot trace the iramediate effect of St.
Paul's Epistle on the Philippians, yet no
one can doubt that it contributed to form
the character of their church, as it was in
tho time of Polycarp. It is evident from
Polycarp's Epistle that the Church, by the
grace of God and the guidance of the Apos
tle, had passed through those trials of which
St. Paul warned it, and had not gone back
from the high degree of Christian attain
ments which it reached under St. Paul's
oral and written teaching (Polyc. i., iii., ix.,
xi.). Strangely full of joy and thanksgiv
ing amidst adversity, like the Apostle's mid
night hymn from the depth of his Philippian
dungeon, this Epistle went forth from his
prison at Rorae. In raost other epistles he
writes with a sustained effort to instruct,
or with sorrow, or with indignation ; he is
striving to supply imperfect, or to correct
erroneous teaching, to put down scandalous
irapurity, or to heal schism in the Church
which he .addresses. But in this Epistle,
though he knew the Philippians intimately,
and was not blind. to the faults and tenden
cies to fiiult of some of them, yet he raen-
tions no evil so characteristic of the whole
Church as to call for general censure on
his part, or araendraent on theirs. Of all
his Epistles to Churches, none has so little
of an official character as this.
Philis;tia (Heb. Pelesheth). The word
thus translated (in Ps. Ix. 8, Ixxxvii. 4,
cviU. 9) is in the original identical with
that elsewhere rendered Palestine.
Phills'tines. The origin of the Philis
tines is nowhere expressly stated in the
Bible ; but as the prophets describe thera
as "the Philistines frora Caphtor" (Ara. ix.
7), and " the reranant of the maritime dis
trict of Caphtor " (Jer. xlvii. 4), it isprimd
facie probable that they were the " Capli-
lirims which came )ut of Caphtor" who

expelled the Avim frora their territory and
occupied it in their place (Deut. U. 23),
and that these again were the Caphtorim
raentioned in the Mosaic genealogical table
araong the descendants of Mizraim (Gen. x.
14). But in estiiblishing this conclusion a
difficulty arises out of the language of the
Philistines ; for while the Caphtorim were
Hamitic, the Philistine language is held to
have been Semitic. This difficulty, howev
er, raay be raet by assuming either that the
Caphtorim adopted the language of the
conquered Avim, or that they diverged
from the Hamitic stock at a period when
the distinctive features of Haraitisra and
Seraitism were yet in embryo. It has
been generally assumed that Caphtor rep
resents Crete, and that the Philistines mi
grated frora that isliind, either directly or
through Egypt, into Palestine. But the
narae Caphtor is raore probably identified
with the Egyptian Coptos. [Caphtor.]
The Cretan origin ofthe Philistines has been
deduced, not so rauch frora the narae Caph
tor, as frora that of the Cherethites. This
narae in its Hebrew form bears a close re
semblance to Crete, and is rendered Cretaui
in the LXX. But the mere coincidence of
the names cannot pass for much without
some corroborative testiraony. Without'
therefore asserting that raigrations may not
have taken place frora Crete to Philistia,
we hold that the evidence adduced to prove
that they did is insufficient. — The Philis
tines raust have settled in the land of
Canaan before the time of Abraham; for
they are noticed in his day as a pastor<al
tribe in the neighborhood of Gerar (Gen.
xxi. 32, 34, xxvi. 1, 8). Between the times
of Abraham and Joshua, the Philistines had
changed their quarters, and had advanced
northwards into the plain of Philistia.
This plain has been in all ages remark
able for the extreme richness of its soil.
It was also adapted to the growth of mill
tary power; for while the plain itself per-
raitted the use of war-ch.ariots, which were
the chief arm of offence, tha occasional
elevations which rise out of it offered se
cure sites for towns and strongholds. It
was, morever, a coraraercial country : frora
its position it raust have been at all tiraes
the great thoroughfare between Phoenicia
and Syria in the north, and Egypt and
Arabia in the south. They had at an early
period attained proficiency in the arts of
peace. Their wealth was abundant (Judg.
xvi. 5, 18), and they .appear iu all respects
to have been a prosperous people. Pos
sessed of such eleraents of power, the
Philistines had attained in the time of the
Judges an iraportant position among East
ern niitioiis. About B. c. 1209 wo find
them engaged in successful war with the
Sidonians (Justin, xviii. 3). The territorj
of the Philistines, having been once OG-

PBILISTINES

532

PHILISTINES

cupied by the Canaanites,;orraed a portion pe^Kle^-ies^C l^ Slerp'rIJatio'n o^lhe'bscW

of' the promised land, and was assigned to
tho tribe of Judah (Josh, xv. 2, 12, 45-47).
No portion, however, of it was conquered
in the lifetime of Joshua (Josh. xiii. 2), and
even after his death no permanent con
quest was effected (Judg. iii. 3), though
we are inforraed that the three cities of
Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ekron were taken
(Judg. i. 18). 'The Philistines soon recov
ered these, and coraraenced an aggressive
policy against the Israelites, by which they
gained a complete ascendency over them.
Individual heroes were raised up frora tirae
to tirae, such as Shamgar the son of Anath
(Judg. ui. 31), and stUl raore, Sarason
(Judg. xiii.-xvi.) ; but neither of these raen
succeeded in perraanently throwing off the
yoke. Under EU there was an organized
but unsuccessful resistance to the encroach
ments of the Philistines, who were met at
Aphek (1 Sara. iv. 1). The production of
the ark on this occasion demonstrates the
greatness of the emergency, and its loss
marked the lowest depth of Israel's degra
dation. The next action took place under
Samuel's leadership, and the tide of suc
cess turned in Israel's favor. The Israel
ites now attributed their past weakness to
their want of unity, and they desired a
king, with the special object of leading
thera ag.ainst the foe (1 Sara. viii. 20).
Saul threw off the yoke ; and the Philis
tines were defeated with great slaughter at
Geba (1 Sara, xui., xiv.). They made no
attempt to regain their supremacy for about
25 years, and the scene of the next con
test shows the altered strength of the two
parties : it was no longer in the central
country, but in a ravine leading down to
the Philistine plain, the valley of Elah, the
position of which is about 14 miles S. W.
of Jerusalem : on this occasion the prowess
of young David secured success to Israel,
and the foe was pursued to the gates of
Gath and Ekron (1 Sam. xvii.). The pow
er of the Philistines was, however, still in
tact on their own territory. The border
warfare was continued. The scene of the
next conflict was far to the north, in the
valley of Esdraelon. The battle on this
occasion proved disastrous to the Israelites ;
Saul himself perished, and the Philistines
penetrated across the Jordan, and occupied
ths forsaken cities (1 Sam. xx.xi. 1-7). On
the appointment of David to bo king, he
twice attacked thera, and on each occasion
with sigi.al success, in the first case cap
turing their ira.ages, in the second pursuing
tlicm "from Geba until thou come to
Gazer" (2 Sam. v. 17-25; 1 Chr. .xiv.
8-16). Henceforth the Israelites appear
as the aggressors : about seven years after
the defeat at Rephaim, David, who had now
consolidated his power, attacked them on
their own soil, and took Gath with its de-

expression " Metheg-araraah " in 2 Sam.
viii 1) "he took the arm-bridle out ot the
hand ofthe Philistines," meaning that their
ascendency was utterly broken. The ifhole
of Philistia was included in Solomcn's em
pire. The division of the empire at Sol
omon's death was favorable to tl e Phi
listine cause: Rehoboam secured li.iraself
against them" by fortifying Gath an. 1 other
cities bordering on the plain (2 Chr. si. 8) :
the Israelite monarchs were either not so
prudent or not so powerful, for they al
lowed the PhUistines to get hold (if Gib
bethon (1 K. XV. 27, xvi. 15). Judah
meanwhile had lost the tribute (2 Chr. xvu.
11). The increasing weakness ofthe .Tewish
monarchy under the attacks of Hazael led
to the recovery of Gath, which was after
wards dismantled and probably destroyed by
Uzziah (2 Chr. xxvi. 6; 2 K. xu. 17). We
have reason to suppose that the Philistine.i
were kept in subjection until the tirae oi
Ahaz (2 Chr. xxviii. 18). A few years
later, the Philistines, in conjunction with
the Syrians and Assyrians, and perhaps as
the subject-allies of the latter, carried on a
series of attacks on the kingdora .ot Israel
(Is. ix. 11, 12). Hezekiah forraed an. aUi-
ance with the Egyptians, as a counterpoise
to the Assyrians, and the possession of Phi
listia became henceforth the turning-point of
the struggle between the two great empires
of the East. The Assyrians under Tartan,
the general of Sargon, made an expedition
against Egypt, and took Ashdod, as the
key of that country (Is. xx. 1, 4, 5). Un
der Sennacherib Philistia was again the
scene of iraportant operations. The ^s-
syri.an supremacy was restored by Esar
haddon, and it seems probable that the As
syrians retained their hold on Ashdod until
its capture, .after a long siege, by Psammet
ichus. It was about this time that Philis
tia was traversed by a vast Scythian horde
on their way to Egypt. The Egyptian as
cendency was not as yet re-established, for
we find the next king, Neco, compelled to
besiege Gaza on his return from the battle
of Megiddo. After the death of Neco, the
contest was renewed between the Egyptians
and the Chaldaeans under Nebuchadnezzar,
and the result was specially disastrous to
the Philistines. The "old hatred" that
the Philistines bore to the Jews was exliib-
ited in acts of hostility at the tirae of the
B.ibylonis!i captivity (Ez. xxv. 15-17) ; but
on the return this was soraewhat abated,
for some of the Jews married Philistian
woraen, to the great scandal of their rulers
(Neh; xiii. 23, 24). From this time the
history of PhUistia is absorbed in the strug
gles of the neighboring kingdoms. The
latest notices of the Philistines as a nation
occur in 1 Mace, ui.-v With regard to

PHILOLOGUS

533

PHILOSOPHY

the institutions of the Philistines our infor
mation is very scanty. The five chief
cities had, as early as the days of Joshua,
constituted themselves into a confederacy,
restricted, however, in all probability, to
matters of offence and defence. Each w.as
under the government of a prince (Josh. xiii.
3; Judg. id. 3, &c.; 1 Siini. xviii. 30, xxix.
6), and each possessed its own territory.
The PhUistines appear to have been deep-
Ij imbued with superstition : they carried
their idols with them on their campaigns (2
Sam. V. 21), and proclaimed their victories
in their presence (1 Sam. xxxi. 9). The
gods whora they chiefly worshipped were
Dagon (Judg. xvi. 23 ; 1 Sam. v. 3-5 ; 1
Chr. X. 10; 1 Mace. x. 83); Ashtaroth (1
Sara. xxxi. 10 ; Herod, i. 105) ; and Baal
zebub (2 K. i. 2-6).
Philol'OgUS, a Christian at Rorae to
whora St. Paul sends his salutation (Rora.
xvi, 15),
Philosophy. It is the object of the
following article to give sorae account (I.)
of that development of thought among the
Jews which answered to the philosophy
of the West; (II.) of the recognition of
the preparatory (propaedeutic) office of
Greek philosophy in relation to Christian
ity ; (III.) of the systematic progress of
G,reek philosophy as forming a complete
whole; and (IV.) of the contact of Chris-
tiaj-ity with philosophy. I. The Philo-
Boruic Discipline op the Jews. — Phi
losophy, if we lirait the word strictly to de
scribe the free pursuit of knowledge of which
truth is the one complete end, is essentially
of Western growth. In the East the search
after wisdom has always been connected
with practice. The history of the Jews
offers no exception to this remark : there
is no Jewish philosophy, properly so called.
The raethod of Greece was to proceed frora
life to God; the raethod of Israel (so to
speak) was to proceed from God to life.
The axioms of one system are the conclu
sions of the other. 'The one led to the suc
cessive abandonment of the noblest domains
of science which man had claimed original
ly as his own, till it left bare systems of
morality ; the other, in the fulness of time,
prepared many to welcome the~ Christ —
the Truth. The philosophy of the Jews,
using the word in a large sense, is to be
sought for rather in the progress of the
aational life than in special books. Step
by step the idea of the family was raised
into that of the people ; £nd the kingdora
furnished the basis of those wider promises
which included all nations in one kingdom
of heaven. Tlie social, the political, the
cosmical relations of man were traced out
gradually in relation to God. The philoso
phy of the .lews is thus essentially a moral
philosophy, resting on a definite connection
with (rod. The doctrines of Creation and

Providence, of an Infinite Divine Person,
and of a responsible hura.an wiU, which
elsewhere forra the ultimate liraits of spec
ulation, are here assuraed at the outset.
The Psalms, which, among the other in
finite lessons which they convey, give a
deep insight into the need of a personal
¦apprehension of truth, everywhere declare
the absolute sovereignty of God over the
material and moral worlds. One raan
among all is distinguished .among the Jews
as "the wise man." The description which
is given of his writings serves as a cora
raentary on the national view of philosophy
(1 K. iv. 30-83). Tlie lesson of practical
duty, the full utterance of " a large heart "
(Ibid. 29), the careful study of God's creii-
tures : this is the sum of wisdom. Yet in
fact the very practical aira of this philoso
phy leads to the revelation of the raost siib-
lirae truth. Wisdora was gradually felt to
be a Person, throned by God, and holding
converse with raen (Prov. viii.). She was
seen to stand in open enmity with "the
str.ange woraan," who sought to draw them
aside by sensuous attractions ; and thus a
new step was raade towards the central
doctrine of Christianity — the Incaruiition
of the Word. Two books of the Bible,
Job and Ecelesiastcs, of which the hitter
at any rate belongs to the period of the
close of the kingdora, approach raore near
ly than any others to the type of philo
sophical discussions. But in both the prob
lem is moral, and not metaphysical. The
one deals with the evils which afflict " the
perfect and upright;" the other -with the
vanity of all the pursuits and pleasures of
earth. The Captivity necessarily exercised
a profound influence upon Jewisli thought.
The teaching of Persia seeras to have been
designed to supply important elements in
the education of the chosen people. But it
did yet raore than this. The contact of the
Jews with Persia thus gave rise to a tra
ditional mysticism. Their contact with
Greece was raarked by the rise of distinct
sects. In the third century b. c. the great
doctor Antigonus of Socho bears a Greek
name, and popular belief pointed to hira as
the teacher of Sadoc and Boethus, the sup
posed founders of Jewish rationalism. At
any rate, we may date from this time the
twofold division of Jewish speculation.
The Sadducees appear as the supporters of
human freedom in its widest scope ; the
Pharisees of a religious Stoicism. At a
later time the cycle Of doctrine was com
pleted, when by a natural reaction the Es
senes established a mystic Asceticism. II.
The Patristic Recognition of the Pro
paedeutic Office of Greek Philosophy.
— The Divine discipline of the Jews was
in nature essentially raoral. The lessons
which it was designed to teach were em
bodied in the family and the nation. Yet

PHILOSOPHY

534

PHILOSOPHr

this was not in itself a complete discipline
of our uature. The reason, no less thiin
the will and the affections, "had an office to
discharge in preparing man for the Incar
nation. The process and the issue in the
two cases were widely different, but they
were in some sense complementary. Phi
losophy failed as a religious teacher prac
tically (Rom. i. 21, 22), but it bore noble
witness to an inward law (Rom. ii. 14, 15).
Ill its purest and grandest forms it was " a
schoolmaster to bring raen to Christ." This
function of ancient philosophy is distinctly
recognized by many of the greatest of the
fathers. The use which was made of
he.athen speculation by heretical writers
Wiis one great cause of its disparagement
by their catholic antagonists. This variety
of judgment in the heat of controversy was
inevitable. The full importance of the
history of ancient Philosophy was then first
seen when all rivalry was over, and it be
came possible to contemplate it as a whole,
.animated by a great law, often trembling
on the verge of Truth, and sometimes by
a " bold venture" claiming the heritage of
Faith. III. The Development of Greek
Philosophy. — The various attempts which
iiave been made to derive Western Phi
losophy from Eastern sources have signal
ly failed. It is true that in some degree
the character of Greek speculation may
have been influenced, at least in its earliest
stages, by religious idciis which were origi
nally introduced frora the East ; but this
indirect infiuence docs not affect the real
originality of the great Greek teachers.
The very value of Greek teaching lies in
the fact that it was, as far as is possible, a
result of simple Reason, or, if Faith as
serts its prerogative, the distinction is
sharply marked. Of the various classifi
cations of the Greek schools which have
been proposed, the simplest and truest
seeras to be that which divides the history
of PhUosophy into three great periods, the
first reaching to the era of the Sophists,
the next to the death of Aristotle, the third
to the Christian era. In the first period
the world objectively .is the great centre
of inquiry : in the second, the " ideas " of
things, truth, and being ; in the third, the
chief interest of philosophy falls back upon
the practical conduct of life. After the
Christian era philosophy ceased to have
any. true vitality in Greece, but it made
fresh efforts to meet the changed conditions
of life at Alexandria and Rome. 1. The
pre-Socraiic Schools. — The first Greek phi
losophy was little more than an attempt to
follow out in thought the mythic cosmogo
nies of earlier poets. What is the one per
manent eleraent which underlies the chan
ging forms of things? — this was the pri
raary inquiry, to which the Ionic school en
deavored to find an answer. Thalf.s ('cir.

E. c. 639-543) pointed to moisture (water)
as the one source and supporter of life.
Anaximenes (cir. b. o. 520-480) substitut
ed air for water. At a much later date
fcir. B. c. 450) Diogenes of ApoUonia
represented this elementary "air" as en
dowed with intelligence. 2. The Socratie
Schools. — In the second period of Greek
phUosopliy the scene and subject were both
changed. A philosophy of ideas, using
the term in its widest sense, succeeded a
philosophy of nature. In three genera
tions Greek speculation reached its great
est glory in the teaching of Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle. The famous sentence in
which Aristotle characterizes the teach
ing of Socrates (b. c. 468-399) places his
scientific position .in the clearest light.
There are two things, he says, which we
may rightly attribute to Socrates — induc
tive reasoning and general definition. By
the first he endeavored to discover the per •
mancnt element which underlies the chan '
ging forms of appearances and the varietiei
of opinion : by the second he fixed the truth
which he had thus gained. But, besiden
this, Socrates rendered another service to
truth. Ethics occupied in his investiga
tions the primary place which had hitherto
been held by Physics. The great aim of
his induction was to establish the sover
eignty of Virtue. He affirmed the exist
ence of a universal law of right and wrong.
He' connected philosophy with action, both
in detail and in general. On the one side
he upheld the supremacy of Conscience, on
the other the working of Providence. 3.
The post- Socratie Schools. — After Aris
totle, Philosophy took a new direction.
Speculation became mainly personal. Ep
icurus (b. c. 352-270) defined the object
of Philosophy to be the attainment of a
happy life. The pursuit of truth for its-
own Siike he regarded as superfluous. He
rejected dialectics as a useless study, and
accepted the senses, in the widest accepta
tion of the terra, as the criterion of truth.
But he differed widely from the Cyrenaics
in his view of happiness. The happiness
at which the wise man aims is to be found,
he siiid, not in momentary gratification, but
in life-rlong pleasure. All things were sup
posed to come into being by chance, and so
pass away. Tbe individual was left master
of his own life. While Epicurus asserted
in this raanner the claims of ono part of
man's nature in the conduct of life, Zeno,
of Citium (cir. e. c. 280), with equal par
tiality, advocated a purely spiritual (intel
lectual) morality. The opposition between
the two was complete. The infinite, chance-
formed worlds ofthe one stand over against
the one harmonious world of the other.
On the one side are Gods regiirdless of
material things, on the other a Being per
meating and vivifying all creation. Tliii

ffilNEHAS

535

PHOENICE

difference necessarily found its chief ex
pression in Ethics. IV. Christianiti- in
Contact with Ancient Philosophy. —
The only direct trace of the contact of
Christianity with Western Philosophy in
the N. T. is in the account of St. Paul's visit
to Athens (Acts xvii. 18), and there is noth
ing in the apostolic writings to show that
it exercised any important influence upon
the early Church (comp. 1 Cor. i. 22-24).
But it was otherwise with Eastern specula
tion, wliich penetrated more deeply through
the mass of the people. The "philoso
phy " against which the Colossians were
warned (Col. ii. 8) seems undoubtedly to
hav3 been of Eastern origin, containing
Blcments simUar to those which were after-
wards erabodied in various shapes of
Gnosticism, .as a selfish asceticism, and a
superstitious reverence for angels (Col. ii.
16-23) ; and in the Epistles to Timothy, ad
dressed to Ephesus, in which city St. Paul
anticipated the rise of false teaching (Acts
XX. 30) , two distinct forras of error may be
traced in addition to Judaism, due raore or
less to the same influence. The writings
of the sub-apostolic age, with the exception
of the famous anecdote of Justin Martyr
{Dial. 2-4), throw little light upon the
relations of Christianity and Philosophy.
Christian Philosophy may be in one sense
a contradiction in terms, for Christianity
confessedl}'' derives its first principles from
revelation, and not from simple reason ;
but there is no less a true Philosophy of
Christianity, which aims to show how com
pletely these meet the instincts and aspira
tions of all ages. The exposition of such
a Philosophy would be the work of a mod
ern Origen.
Phin'ehas. 1. Son of Eleazai- and
grandson of Aaron (Ex. vi. 25). He is raera
orable for having while quite a youth, by
his zeal and energy at the critical moraent
of the licentious idolatry of Shittim, ap
peased the divine wrath, and put a stop to
the plague which was destroying the nation
(Nura. xxv. 7). For this he was rewarded
by the special approbation of Jehovah, and
by a proraise that the priesthood should
remain in his faraily forever (10-18) . He
was appointed to accorapany as priest the
expedition by which the Midianites were
destroyed (xxxi. 6). Many years later he
also headed the party who were despatched
from Shiloh to remonstrate against the
Altar which the trans-Jordanic tribes were
reported to have built near Jordan (lOsh.
xxii. 18-32). In the p.artition of the coun
try he received an allotment of his own —
a liill on Mount Ephraira which bore his
name. After Eleazar's death he became
Ugh-pricst — the 3d of the series. In this
capacity he is introduced as giving the
oracle to the nation during the whole strug
gle w'.tli the Benjamites on the matter of

Gibe.ah (Judg. xx. 28). The verse whieh
closes the Book of Joshua is ascribed to
Phinehas, as the description of the death
of Moses at the end of Deuteronoray is io
Joshua. The torab of Phinehas, a place
of great resort to both Jews and Saraari-
tans, is shown at Awertah, four mUes S. E.
ot' Nablus. 2. Second son of EU (1 Sam.
i. 3, u. 34, iv. 4, 11,17, 19, xiv. 3). Phinehas .
was killed with his brother by the Philis
tines when the ark was captured. [Eli.]
3. A Levite of Ezra's tirae (Ezr. viU. 33),
unless the raeaning be that Eleazar was of
the faraily of tho great Phinehas.
Phle'gon. A Christian at Rome whom
St. Paul salutes (Rora. xvi. 14). Pseudo-
Hippolytus makes liira one of ther seventy
disciples and bishop of Marathon.
Phoe'tae, the first, and one of the most
important, of the Christian persons the de
tailed raention of whom fills nearly all the
last chapter of the Epistle to the Romans.
What is s.aid of her (Rom., xvi. 1, 2) is
worthy of especial notice, because of its
bearing on the question of the deaconesses
of the Apostolic Church.
Phoeni'ce, Phoenie'ia, a tract of
country, of which Tyre and Sidon were the
principal cities, to the north of Palestine,
along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea ;
bounded by that -sea on the west, and by the
mountain range of Lebanon on the east.
The name was not the one by which its
native inhabitants called it, but was given
to it by the Greeks, frora the Greek word
for the palm-tree. The native name of
Phoenicia was Kcnaan {Canaan) or Knd,
signifying lowland, so named in contrast-
to the adjoining Aram, i. e. highland, thu
Hebrew name of Syria. The length of
coast to which tbe name of Phoenicia was
applied varied at different tiraes. 1. What
raay be termed Phoenicia proper was a nar
row undulating plain, extending frora the
pass otRds el-Beydd or Abyad, the " Prora-
ontorium Album " of the ancients, about
six miles south of Tyre, to the Nahr el-
Auly, the ancient Bostrenus, two miles
north of Sidon. 'The plain is only 28 miles
in length. Its average breadth is about a
raile ; but near Sidon, the raountains retreat ,
to a distatice of 2 railes, and near Tyre to
a distance of 5 railes. 2. A longer district,
¦which afterwards becarae entitled to the
name of Phoenicia, extended up the coast
to a point raarked by the island of Aradus,
and by Antaradus towards the north ; the
southern boundary reraaining the sarae as
in Phoenicia Proper. Phoenicia, thus de
fined, is estiraated to have been about 120
railes in length; while its breadth, betwsen
Lebanon and the sea, never exceeded 20
miles, and was generally much less. Scai ce-
ly 16 geographical miles farther north than
Sidon was Berytus, with a roadstead so
weU suited for the purposes cf modern

PHOENICE

536

PHOENICE

navigatioii, that, under the modem narae
of Beirout, it has eclipsed both Sidon iind
Tyre as an cmporiura for Syria. Still far
ther north was Byblus, the Gebal of the
Bible (Ez. xxvii. 9), inhabited by seamen
and caikers. It still retains in Arabic the
kindred name of Jebeil, Then carae Trip
olis (now Tardbulus), said to have been
founded by colonists from Tyre, Sidon, and
Aradns, with three distinct towns. And
lastly, towards the extreme point north was
Aradus itself, the Arvad of Gen. x. 18, and
Ez. xxvu. 8 ; situated, like Tyre, on a small
island near the mainland, and founded by
exiles from Sidon. The whole of Phoe
nicia Proper is well watered by various
streams from the adjoining hills. The
havens of Tyre and Sidon afforded water
of sufficient depth for all the requireraents
of ancient navigation, and the neighboring
range of the Lebanon, in its extensive for
ests, furnished wh.at then seeraed a nearly
inexhaustible supply of tiraber for ship
building. In reference to the period when
the Phoenicians had lost their independence,
scarcely any two Greek and Roman writers
give precisely the same geographical boun-'
daries to Phoenicia. In the Apocrypha, it
is not defined, though spoken of as being,
with Coele-Syria, under one military cora
raander (2 Miicc. iii. 5, 8, viii. 8, x. 11 ;
3 Mace. iii. 15). In the New Testament,
the word occurs only in three passages.
Acts xi. 19, XV. 3, xxi. 2 ; and not one
of these affords a clew as to how far the
writer deemed Phoenicia to extend. The
Phoenicians spoke a branch of the Semitic
language so closely allied to Hebrew, that
Phoenician and Hebrew, though different
dialects, may practically be regarded as the
same language. Concerning the original
race to which the Phoenicians belonged,
nothing can be known with certainty, be
cause they are found already established
along the Mediterranean Sea at the earliest
dawn of authentic history, and for centuries
afterwards there is no record of their origin.
According to Herodotus (vu. 89), they said
of themselves in his time that they carae in
days of old frora the shores of the Red Sea ;
and in this there would be nothing in the
slightest degree improbable, as *hey spoke
a language cognate to that of the Arabians,
who inhabited the east coast of that sea.
StUl neither the truth nor the falsehood of
the tradition can now be proved. But there
is one point respecting their race which can
be proved to be in the highest degree prob
able, and which has pecuUar interest as
bearing on the Jews, viz, that the Phoeni
cians were of the same race as the Ca
naanites. In regard to Phoenician trade,
connected with the Israelites, it must be
recollected that up to tho time of David,
not one of tho twelve tribes seems to have
possessed a single harbor on the sea-coast ;

it was impossible therefore that they could
become a commercial people. But from
the time that Diivid hiid conquered Edom,
.an opening for tr.ade was afforded to the
Israelites. The command of Ezion-geber
near Elath, in the liind of Edora, enabled
tlieni to engage in the navigiition of the Red
Sea. As they were novices, however, at
saUing, and .as the Phoenicians, during the
period of the independence of Edom, were
probably allowed to trade from Ezion-geber,
it was politic in Solomon to permit the
Phoenici.ans of Tyre to have docks, and
build ships at Ezion-geber on condition
that his sailors and vessels might have the
benefit of their experience. The results
seem to have been strikingly successful.
The religion of the Phoenicians, opposed
to Monotheism, was a Pantheistical person
ification of the forces of nature, and in its
most philosophical shadowing forth of the
Supreme powers, it miiy be said to have
represented the male and female principles
of production. In its popular form, it was
especially a worship of the sun, moon, and
five planets, or, as it might have been ex
pressed according to ancient notions, of
the seven planets — the most beautiful, and
perhaps the most natural, form of idolatry
ever presented to the human imagination.
These planets, however, were not regard
ed as lifeless globes of raatter, obedient to
physical laws, but as intelligent animated
powers, infiuencing the human will, and
controlling human destinies. It will be
proper here to point out certain effects
which the circurastance of their being wor
shipped in Phoenicia produced upon the
Hebrews, 1, In the first place, their wor
ship was a constant temptation to Poly
theism and idolatry. It can scarcely be
doubted that the Phoenicians, as a great
commercial people, were more gener.ally
intelligent, and as we should now say civil
ized, than the inland agricultural popula
tion of Palestine. When the simple-mind
ed Jews, therefore, carae in contact with a
people more versatile, and, apparently, more
enlightened than themselves, but who nev
ertheless, either in a phUosophical or in a
popular form, admitted a system of Poly-
theisra, an influence would be exerted on
Jewish rainds, tending to raake them regard
their exclusive devotion to their own one
God, Jehovah, however transcendent His
attributes, as unsocial and morose, 2. Th-?
Phoenician religion was likewise in other
respects deleterious to the inhabitants of
Palestine, being in some points essentially
demoralizing. For exaraple, it sanctioned
the dreadful superstition of burning children
as sacriflces to a Phoenician god. Agaip,
parts of the Phoenician religion, especially
the worship of Astarte, tended to encourage
dissoluteness in the relations of the sexes,
and even to f auctify impurities of the raost

PHRYGIA

537

PIETY

abominable description. The only other
fact respecting the Phoenicians that need
be mentioned here is, that the invention
of letters was universally asserted by the
Greeks and Romans to have been corarau
nicated by the Phoenicians to the Greeks.
The names of the letters in the Hebrew
alphabet are in accordance with this belief.
Moreover, as to Vriting, the ancient Hebrew
letters, substantially the sarae as Phoenician,
agree closely with ancient Greek letters.
For further details respecting the Phoeni
cians, see Tyre and Zidon.
Phryg'ia. Perhaps there is no geo
graphical term in the New Testament which
is less capable of an exact definition. In fact
there was no Roraan province of Phrygia
till considerably after the first establish
ment of Christianity in the peninsula of
Asia Minor. The word was rather eth
nological than political, and denoted, in a
vague manner, the western part of the
central region of that peninsula. Accord
ingly, in two of the three places where it
is used, it is mentioned in a raanner not
intended to be precise (Acts xvi. 6, xviii.
23). By Phrygia we must understand an
extensive district in Asia Minor, which con
tributed portions to several Roraan prov
inces, and varying portions at different
times. Phu'rah, Gideon's servant, probably
his armor-bearer (corap. 1 Sam. xiv. 1),
who accompanied him in his midnight visit
to the camp of the Midianites (Judg. vii.
10, 11).
Phu'rim, Esth. xi. 1. [Purim.]
Phut, Put, the third name in the list
of the sons of Hara (Gen. x. 6 ; 1 Ghr. i. 8),
elsewhere applied to an African country or
people. The few mentions of Phut in the
Bible clearly indicate a country or people
of Africa, and, it must be added, probably
not far from Egypt (Is. Ixvi. 19 ; Nah. iii.
9 ; Jer. xlvi. 9 ; Ez. xxvii. 10, xxx. 5,
xxxviii. 5), Frora these passages we can
not infer anything as to the exact position
of this country or people ; unless indeed
in Nahum, Cush and Phut, Mizraim and
Lubim, are respectively connected, which
might indicate a position south of Egypt
Phu'vah, one of the sons of Issachar
(Gen. xlvi, 13), and founder of the faraily
of the PUNITES.
Phygel'lus. [Hermogenes.]
Phylactery. [Frontlets.]
Pi-be'seth„a town of Lower Egypt,
mentioned in Ez. xxx. 17, the sarae as Bu-
bastis, which was situate on the west bank
of the Pslusiac branch of the NUe, about 40
miles from Memphis.
Picture. In two of the three passages
in which "picture " is used in the A. V. it
denotes idolatrous representations, either
independent images, or more usually stones
" portrayed," i. e. sculptured in low relief,

or engraved and colored (Ez. x.xiii. 14 j
Layard, Nin. ^ Bab. ii. 306-, 308). Mov
able pictures, in the raodern sense, were
doubtless unknown to the Jews. The
" pictures of silver " of Prov. xxv. 11, were
probably wall-surfaces or cornices with car
vings. •
Piece of Gold. The A. V. in render
ing the elliptical expression " six thousand
of gold," in a passage respecting Naaraan,
relating that he " took with hira ten talents
of silver, and six thousand of gold, and ten
changes of rairaent " (2 K. v. 5), supplies
" pieces " as the word understood. The
rendering " pieces of gold" is very doubt
ful; and "shekels of gold," as designating
the Viilue of the whole quantity, not indi
vidual pieces, is preferable.
Piece of Silver. The passages in the
O. T. and those in the N. T. in which the
A. V. uses this terra, must be separately
considered. I. In the O. T. the word
" pieces " is used in the A. V. for a word
understood in the Hebrew, if we except one
case to be afterwards noticed. The phrase
is always "a thousand" or the like " of
silver " (Gen. xx. 16, xxxvU. 28, xiv. 22 ;
Judg. ix. 4, xvi. 5 ; 2 K. vi. 25 ; Hos. iii. 2 ;
Zech. xi. 12, 13). In similar passages the
word "shekels" occurs in the Hebrew.
There are other passages in which the A.
V. supplies the word " shekels " instead of
"pieces" (Deut. xxu. 1.9, 29; Judg. xvii.
2, 3, 4, 10; 2 Sam. xviU. 11, 12), and of
these the first two require this to he done.
The shekel, be it reraerabered, was the
coraraon weight for raoney, and therefore
raost likely to be understood in an elliptical
phrase. ''The exceptional case in which a
word corresponding to "pieces" is found
in the Hebrew is in the Psalras (Ixviii. 30,
Heb. 31). The word rais^ which occurs
nowhere else, if it preserve its radical
meaning, must signify a piece broken off,
or a fragment; there is no reason to sup
pose that a coin is meant. II. In the N. T.
two words are rendered by the phrase
" piece of silver : " 1. Drachma (Luke
XV. 8, 9), which was a Greek silver coin,
equivalent, at the time of St.'Luke, to the
Roman denarius. 2. Silver only occurs in
the account of the betrayal of our Lord for
" thirty pieces of silver " (Matt. xxvi. 15,
xxvii. 3, 5, 6, 9). It is (Ufficult to ascertain
what coins are here intended. If the most
common silver pieces be meart, they would
be denarii. The parallel passage in Zech
ariah (xi. 12, 13) raust) however, be taken
into consideration, where shekels must he
understood. It is more probable that the
thirty pieces of silver were tetradrachms
than that they were denarU.
Piety. This word ooaurs but once in
the A. 'V. ; " Let them learn first to show
piety at horae," better, " towards their own
household '' (1 Tun. v. 4) Tho ch lico o*

PIGEON

538

PILLED

this word here instead of the more usual
equivalents of " godliness," "reverence,"
and the like, was probably determined by
the special sense of pistas, as " erga pa-
rentes," i. e. towards parents.
Pigeon. [Turtle-Dove.]
Pi-hahi'roth, a place' before or at
which the Israelites encamped, at the close
of the third march frora Raraeses, when
they went out of Egypt (Ex. xiv. 2, 9;
Num. xxiii. 7, 8). It is an Egyptian word,
signifying "the place where sedge grows."
Pi'late, Pon'tius. The name indi
cates that he was connected, by descent or
adoption, with the gens of the PontU, first
conspicuous in Roman history in the person
of C. Pontius Telesinus, the great Samnite
general. He was the sixth Roraan procu
rator of Judaea, and under hira our Lord
worked, suffered, and died, as we learn,
not only from Scripture, but from Tacitus
{Ann. XV. 44). He was appointed A. d.
25-6, in the 12th ye&.r of Tiberius. His
arbitrary administration nearly drove the
Jews to insurrection on two or three occa
sions. One of his first acts was to remove
the headquarters of the army from Caesarea
to Jerusalera. ~ The soldiers of course took
with thera their standards, bearing the im
age of the eraperor, into the Holy City. No
previous governor had ventured on such
an outrage. The people poured down in
crowds to Caesarea, where the procurator
was then residing, and besought him to
remove the iraages. After five days of dis
cussion he gave the signal to some concealed
soldiers to surround the petitioners, and put
them to death unless they ceased to trouble
him ; but this only strengthened their de
termination, aud they declared themselves
ready rather to submit to death than forego
their resistance to an idolatrous innovation.
Pilate then yielded, and the standards were
by his orders brought down to Caesarea.
His slaughter of certain Galileans (Luke
xiii. 1) led to some remarks frora our Lord
on the connection between sin and calara
ity. It must have occurred at some feast
at Jerusalem, in the outer court of the
Temple. It was the custora for the procu
rators to reside at Jerusalera during the
great feasts, to preserve order, and accord
ingly, at the time of our Lord's last pass-
over, Pilate was occupying his official res
idence in Herod's palace. The history
of his condemnation of our Lord is related
fully elsewhere,^ [Jesus Christ, p. 291.]
We learn frora Josephus that Pilate's anxi
ety to avoid giving offence to Caesar did
not save hira frora political disaster. The
Samaritans were unquiet and rebellious —
Pilate led his troops against thera, and de
feated them easily enough. The Samari
tans complained to Vitellius, now president
of Syria, and he sent Pilate to Rome to
answer their accusations before the emper

or When he reached It he found Tiberius
dead, and Caius (CaUgula) on the throne,
A. D. 86. Eusebius adds that soon after
wards, "wearied with misfortunes," he
kUled himself. As to the scene of his
death there are various traditions. One
is, that he was banished to Vienna AUoh-
rogum (Vienne on the Rhone), where a
singular monuraent — apyraraid on aquad-
rangular base, 52 feet high — is called Pon
tius Pilate's torab. Another is, that he
sought to hide his sorrows on the moun
tain by tlie Lake of Lucerne, now called
Mount Pilatus ; and there, after spending
years in its recesses, in remorse and de
spair rather than penitence, plunged into
the dismal lake which occupies its sum
mit. We learn frora the Fathers that
Pilate made an official report to Tiberius
of our Lord's trial and condemnation ; but
the Ada Pilati now extant in Greek, and
two Latin epistles from hira to the emperor,
are certainly spurious.
Pil'dash, one of the eight sons of Na
hor, Abraham's brother, by his wife and
niece, Milcah (Gen. xxii, 22).
Pil'eha, the name of one of the chief
of the people, probably a family, who
signed the covenant with Neheraiah (Neh.
X. 24).
Pillar. The notion of a pillar is of a
shaft or isolated pile, either supporting or
not supporting a roof. But perhaps the
earliest application of the pillar was the vo
tive or raonuniental. This in early timea
consisted of nothing but a single stone, or
pile of stones (Gen. xxviii. 18, xxxi. 46,
&c.). The stone Ezel (1 Sara. xx. 19)
was probably a terrainal stone, or a way-
raark. The "place" set up by Saul (1
Sara. XV. 12) is explained by St. Jerorae to
be a trophy. So also Jacob set up a pillar
over Rachel's grave (Gen. xxxv. 20), The
raonolithic tombs, and obelisks of Petra are
instances of similar usage. Lastly, the
figurative use of the term "pillar," in ref
erence to the cloud and fire accompanying
the Israelites on their raarch, or as in Cant.
iii. 6, and Rev. x. 1, is plainly derived frora
the notion of au isolated column not sup
porting a roof.
Pillar, Plain of the, or rather " oak
of the pillar " — that being the real signifi
cation of the Hebrew word eldn. A tree
which stoo4 near Shechem, and at which
the raen of Shechciu and the house of MUlo
asserabled to crow.i Abiraeleth son of Gid
eon (Judg. ix. 6).
PUled (Gen, xxx. 87, 38) : Peeled
(Is. xviu. 2; Ez. xxix. 18). The verb
"to pill" appears in old Eng. as identicsil
in meaning with "to peel = to strip," and
in this sense is used in the above passages
from Gen. Of the next stage in its mean
ing as = plunder, we have traces in tho
words "pUlage," "pUfer." In the Eng-

PILTAI

&39

PITCH

lisn of the 17th century " peel " was used
for the latter signification.
Pil'tai, the representative of the priestly
house of Moadiah, or Maadiah, in the time
of Joiakim the son of Jeshua (Neh. xu. 17).
Pine-tree. l. Heb. Tidhdr (Is. xii.
19, lx. 13). What tree is intended is not
certain ; but the rendering " pine " seeras
least probable of any. 2. Shemen (Neh.
viu. 15) is probably the wild olive.
Pinnacle of the Temple (Matt. iv. 5 ;
Luke iv. 9). The Greek word ought to be
rendered not a pinnacle, but ihe pinnacle.
The only part of the 'Temple which answered
to the modern sense of pinnacle was the
-golden spikes erected on the roof to pre
vent birds from settling there. Perhaps
the word means the battlement ordered by
law to be added to every roof.
Pi'non, one of the " dukes " of Edom ;
that is, head or founder of a tribe of that
nation (Gon. xxxvi. 41 ; 1 Chr. i. 52).
Pipe (Heb. chdlil). The Hebrew word
so rendered is derived from a root signify
ing " to bore, perforate," and is represent
ed with sufficient correctness by the Eng
lish " pipe "or " fiute," as in the raargin
of 1 K. i. 40. It is one of the siraplest, and
therefore probably one of the oldest of
musical instruments. It is associated with
the tabrct as an instruraent of a peaceful
and social character. The pipe and tabret
were used at the banquets of the Hebrews
' (Is. V. 12), and accorapanied the simpler
religious services, when the young prophets,
returning from the high-place, caught their
inspiration from the harmony (1 Sam, x,
6) ; or the pilgrims, on their way to the
great festivals of their ritual, beguiled the
weariness of the march with psalms sung
to the siraple music of the pipe (Is. xxx.
29). The sound of the pipe was apparent
ly a soft wailing note, which made it appro
priate to be used in mourning and at funer
als (Matt. ix. 23), and in the lament of the
prophet over the destruction of Moab (Jer.
xlviii. 36). It was even used in the 'Tem
ple choir, as appears from Ps. Ixxxvii. 7,
where "the players on instruments" are
properly "pipers." Twelve days in the
year, according to the Mishna, the pipes
sounded before the altar. They were of
reed, and uot of copper or bronze; because
the former gave a softer sound. Of these
aiere were not less than two nor more than
twelve. In later times the funeral and
death-bed were never without the profes
sional pipers or flute-players (Matt. ix.
23), a custom which still exists. In the
social and festive life of the Egyptians the
pipe played as prominent a part as among
the Hebrews.
Pi'ram. The Amorite king of Jarmuth
at the time of Joshua's conquest of Canaan
(Josh. X. 3, 27).
Pir'athon, " in the land of Ephraim in

the moujt of the Amalekite , " a place in
Judg. xU. 15. Its site, now caUed Fer'ata,
is .about one raile and a half S. of the road
frora Jaffa, by Hableh, to NablAs. Pira-
thonites are mentioned in Judg. xU. 18, 16,
and 1 Chr. xxvii. 14.
Pir'athonite, the native of, or dweller
in, Pirathon. Two such are named in the
Bible. 1- Abdon ben-HiUel (Judg. xii.
18, 15). 2. From the same place came
" IBenaiah the Pirathonite of the children
of Ephraira" (1 Chr. xxvii. 14).
Pis'gah (Num, xxi, 20, xxui. 14 ; Deut.
iii. 27, xxxiv. 1), a mountain range or dis
trict, the same as, or a part of, that called
the raountains of Abarim (comp. Deut.
xxxii. 49 with xxxiv. 1). It lay on the
east of Jordan, contiguous to the field of
Moab, and immediately opposite Jericho.
Its highest point or surarait — its "head"
— was the Mount Nebo. If it was a proper
name, we can only conjecture that it de
noted the whole or part of the range of the
highlands on the east of the. lower Jordan.
No traces of the name Pisgah have been
met with in later times on the east of Jor
dan, but in the Arabic garb of Ras el-Fesh-
kah (almost identical with the Hebrew
Rosh hap-pisgab) it is attached to a well-
known headland on the north-western end
of the Dead Sea, a mass of mountain on
which is situated the great Mussulman
sanctuary of Neby Musa (Bloses). This
association of the names of Moses and Pis
gah on the west side of the Dead Sea is
extremely startling. No explanation of it
has yet been offered. — Ashdoth-Pisgah is
noticed under its own head.
Pisid'ia was a district in Asia Minor, N.
of Pamphylia, and reached to,- and was
partly included in, Phrygia. Thus Anti
och IN Pisidia was soraetiraes called a
Phrygian town. St. Paul passed through
Pisidia twice, with Barnabas, on the first
raissionary journey, i. e. both iu going from
Perga to Iconium (Acts xui. 13, 14, 51),
and in returning (xiv. 21, 24, 25; corapare
2 Tira. iii. 11). It is probable also that he
traversed the northern part of the district,
with Silas and Timothens, on the second
raissionary journey (xvi. 6) : but the word
Pisidia does not occur except in reference
to the former journey.
Pi'son. [Eden.]
Pit. [Hell.]
Pitch. The three Hebrew words all
represent the same object, viz. mineral
pitch or asphalt, in its different aspects.
Asphalt is an opaque, inflammable sub
stance, which bubbles up frora subterranean
fountains in a liquid state, and hardens by
exposure to the air, hut readily uielts under
the influence of heat. In the latter state it
is very tenacious, and was used as a ceraent
in lieu of mortar in Babylonia (Gen. xi. 3),
as well as for coating the outsides of vesseU

PITCHER

540

PLAGUES

(Gen. vi. 14), and particularly for making
the papyrus boats of the Egyptians water
tight (Ex. ii. 8), The Jews and Arabians
got their supply iu large quantities from
the Dead Sea, which hence received its
classical narae of Lacus Asphaltites.
Pitcher. The word " pitcher " is used
in A. V. to denote the water-jars or pitchers
with one or two handles, used chiefly by
women for carrying water, as in the story
of Rebekah (Gen. xxiv. 15-20; but see
Mark xiv. 13; Luke xxu. 10). This prac
tice has been, and is stUl usual both in the
East and elsewhere. The vessels used for
the purpose are generally carried on the
head or the shoulder. The Bedouin woraen
coraraonly use skin-bottles. Such was the
"bottle" carried by Hagar (Gen. xxi. 14).
The sarae word is used of the pitchers em
ployed by Gideon's 300 men (Judg. vii. 16).
Pi'thom, one of the store-cities built
by the Israelites for the first oppressor, the
Pharaoh " which knew not Joseph " (Ex. i,
11). It is probably the Patumus of Herod
otus (ii. 159), a town on the borders of
Egypt, near which Necho constructed a
caiiiil from the Nile to the Arabi.an Gulf.
Pi'thon. One of the four sons pf Mi
cah, the son of Mephibosheth (1 Chr. viii.
35, ix. 41).
Plague, The. Several Hebrew words
ate translated " pestilence " or " plague ; "
but not one of these words can be consid
ered as designating by its signification the
disease now called the Plague. Whether
the disease be mentioned must be judged
from the sense of passages, not from the
sense of words. Those pestilences which
were sent as special judgments, and were
either supernaturally rapid in their effects,
or in addition directed against particular
culprits, aro beyond the reach of huraan
inquiry. But we also read of pestilences
which, although sent as judgments, have
the characteristics of raodern epidemics,
not being rapid beyond nature, nor directed
against individuals (Lev. xxvi. 25 ; Deut.
xxviii. 21). In neither of these passages
does it seem certain that the Plague is
specified. The notices in the prophets
present the same difficulty. Hezekiah's
disease has heen thought to have been the
Plague, and its fatal nature, as well as the
mention of a boil, makes this not improba
ble. On the other hand, there is no men
tion of a pestilence among his people at the
tirae. Plagues, The Ten. The occasion on
which the plagues were sent is described in
Ex.iU.-xU. 1. ThePlagueof Blood.— When
Moses and Aaron carae before Pharaoh, a
miracle was required of thera. Then Aaron's
rod becarae " a serpent" (A. V.), or rather
" a crocodile." Its being changed into an
Rnim.al reverenced by all the Egyptians, or
by some of them, would have been an espe

cial warning to Pharaoh. The Egyptian
magicians called by the king produced what
seemed to be the same wonder, yet Aaron's
rod swallowed up the others (vu. 3-12).
This passage, tiiken alone, would appear to
indicate that the magicians succeeded in
working wonders, but, if it is compared
with the others which relate their opposi
tion on the occasions of the first three
plagues, a contrary inference seeras more
reasonable. A comparison with other pas
sages strengthens us in the inference that
the raagicians succeeded raerely by jug
gling. After this warning to Pharaoh, Aaron,
at the word of Moses, waved his rod over the
Nile, and the river was turned into blood,
with all its canals and reservoirs, and every
vessel of water drawn frora thera ; the fish
died, and the river stank. The Egyptians
could not drink of it, and digged around it
for water. This plague was doubly humil
iating to the religion of the country, as tho
Nile was held sacred, as well as some kinds
of its fish, not to speak of the crocodiles,
which probably were destroyed (Ex. vu.
16-25). Those who have endeavored to
explain this plague by natural causes, have
referred to the changes of color to which
the Nile is subject, the appearance of the
Red Sea, and the so-called rain and dew
of blood of the middle ages ; the last two
occasioned by small fungi of very rapid
growth. But such theories do not explain
why the wonder happened at a time of year
when the Nile is most clear, nor why it
killed the fish and made the water unfit to
be drunk. 2. The Plague of Frogs.— Vfhen
seven days had passed after the first plague,
the river and all the open waters of Egypt
brought forth countless frogs, which not
only covered the land, but filled the houses,
even in their driest parts and vessels, for
the ovens and kneading-troughs are speci
fied. This must have been an especially
trying judgment to the Egyptians, as frogs
were included among the sacred anim.als
(Ex. viU. 1-15). 3. The Plague of Lice.—
The dry land was now smitten by the rod,
and its very dust seemed turned into minute
noxious insects, so thickly cUd they swarm
on man and beast, or rather "in" them.
The scrupulous cleanliness of the Egyp
tians woul'J add intolerably to the bodily
distress of tnis plague, by which also they
.again incurred religious defilement. As to
the species of the vermin there seeras no
reason to disturb the authorized translation
of the word. The magicians, who had im
itated by their encliantraents the two previ
ous miracles, were now foiled. They struck
the ground, as Aaron did, and repeated their
own incantations, but it was without effect
(Ex. vui. 16-19). 4. The Plague of Flies.
— After tl-e river and the land, the air was
sraitten, being filled with winged insects,
which swarmed in the houses and devoured

PLAGUES

541

PLAINS

the land, but Goshen was exempted from
the plague. The word translated " sw.arms
of flies " raost probably denotes the great
Egyptian beetle {scarabaeus- sacer), which is
constantly represented in their sculptures.
Besides the annoying and destructive hab
its of its tribe, it was an object of worship,
and thus the Egyptians were again scourged
by their own superstitions (Ex. viii. 20-
32). 5. The Plague of the Murrain of
Beasts. — Still coraing closer and closer to
the Egyptians, God sent a disease upon
the cattle, which were not only their prop
erty, but their deities. At the precise tirae
ai which Moses forewarned Pharaoh, all
the cattle of the Egyptians were sraitten
with a raurrain and died, hut not one of
the cattle of the Israelites suffered (Ex. ix.
1-7). 6. The Plague of Boils. — From the
cattle, the hand of God was extended to
their own persons. Moses and Aaron were
cominanded to take ashes of the furnace,
and to " sprinkle it toward the heaven in
the sight of Pharaoh." It was to become
" small dust " throughout Egypt, and " be
a boil breaking forth [with] blains upon
man and upon beast" (Ex. ix. 8-12).
This accordingly carae to pass. The plague
seeras to have been the black leprosy, a
fearful kind of elephantiasis, which was
long remembered as " the botch of Egypt"
(Deut. xxviU. 27, 35). 7. The Plague of
Hail. — Tho account of the seventh plague
is preceded by a warning, which Moses
was commanded to deliver to Pharaoh, re
specting the terrible nature of the plagues
that were to ensue if he remained obsti
nate. Man and beast were sraitten, and
the herbs and every tree broken, save in
the land of Goshen. The ruin caused by
the hail was evidently far greater than that
effected by any of the earlier plagues.
Hail is now extreraely rare, but not un
known, in Egypt, and it is interesting that
the narrative seeras to iraply that it some
times falls there (Ex. ix. 13-34). 8. The
Plague of Locusts. — The severity of this
plague can be well understood by those
who have been in Egypt in a part of the
country where a flight of locusts has alight
ed. In this case the plague was greater
than an ordinary visitation, since it extend
ed over a far wider space, rather than be
cause it was more intense ; for it is irapos
sible to iraagine any more coraplete de
struction than that always caused by a
swarra of locusts (Ex. x. 1-20). 9. The
Plague of Darkness. — " There was a thick
darkness in all the land of Egypt three
days;" wlule "all the children of Israel
had light in their dwellings." It has been
illustrated by reference to the Sainoom and
the hot wind of the KliaraAseen. The for
mer -is a sand-storm which occurs in the
desert, seldom lasting more than a quarter
of an iiour or twenty minutes, but for the

time often causing the darkness of twilight,
and affecting man and beast. The hot
wind of the Khamiseen usually blows for
three days and nights, and carries so much
sand with it, that it produces the appear
ance of a yellow fog. It thus resembles
the Saraoora, though far less powerful and
far less distressing in its effects. It is not
known to cause actual darkness. The
plague may have been an extremely severe
sand-storm, miraculous in its violence and
duration, for the length of three days does
not make it natural, since the severe storms
are always very brief (Ex. x. 21-29). 10.
The Death of ihe Firstborn. — Before the
tenth plague Moses went to warn Pharaoh.
" Thus saith the Lord, About midnight will
I go out into the midst of Egypt ; and aU
the firstborn in the land of Egypt shall die,
from the firstborn of Pharaoh that sitteth
upon his throne, even to the firstborn of
the maidservant that is behind the mill;
and all the firstborn of beasts " (Ex. xi. 4,
6). The clearly rairaculous nature of this
plague, in its severity, its falling upon man
and beast, and the singling out of the first
born, puts it wholly beyond comparison with
any natural pestilence, even the severest
recorded in history, whether of the peculiai-
Egyptian Plague, or other like epidemics.
The history of the ten pl.agues strictly endir
with the death of the firstborn. The grad
ual increase in severity of the plagues is
perhaps the best key to their meaning.
They seem to have been sent as warnings
to the oppressor, to afford him a means of
seeing God's will and an opportunity of
repenting before Egypt was ruined. The
lesson that Pharaoh's career teaches us
seems to be, that there are raen whora the
raost signal judgments do not affect so as to
cause any lasting repentance.
Plains- This one term doesduty in the
Authorized Version for no less^than seven
distinct Hebrew words. 1. AbH. — This
word perhaps answers more nearly to our
word " meadow " than any other. It occurs
in the names of Abel-maim, Abel-meho
lah, Abel-shittim, and is rendered "plain "
in Judg. xi. 33, " plain of vineyards." 2.
Bik'dh. — Fortunately we are able to iden
tify the most remarkable of the Bik'dhs of
the Bible, and thus to ascertain the force
of the terra. The great Plain or Valley
of Coele-Syria, the "hollow land" of the
Greeks, wluch separates the tvro ranges of
Lebanon and Antilebanon, is the most re
raarkable of thera all. Out of Palestine
we find denoted by the word Bik'dh the
"plain ofthe land of Shinar" (Gen. xi. 2),
the "plain of Mesopotamia" (Ez. iii. 22,
23, viii. 4, xxxvii. 1, 2), and the " plain in
the province of Dura" (Dan. iii. 1). 3.
Ha-Shefelah, the invariable designation of
the depressed, flat or gently undulating re
gion which intervened between the higu-

PLEDGE

542

POETRY

lands of Judah and the Mediterranean, and
was commonly in possession of the Philis
tines. 4. Eldn. — Our translators have uni
formly rendered this word " plain." But this
is not the verdict of the majority or the most
trustworthy ofthe ancient versions. They
regard the word as meaning an " oak" or
" grove of oaks," a rendering supported by
nearly all the comraentators and lexicogra
phers of the present day. The passages in
which the word occurs erroneously trans
lated "plain," are as follows : — Plain of
Moreh (Gen. xu. 6 ; Deut. xi. 30), Plain of
Mamre (Gen. xiu. 18, xiv. 13, xviu. 1),
Plain of Zaanaim (Judg. iv. 11), Plain of
the Pillar (Judg. ix. 6), Plain of Meonenira
(ix. 37), Plain of Tabor (1 Sara. x. 3).
Pledge. [Loan.]
Ple'iades. The Heb. word {cimdh) so
rendered occurs in Job ix. 9, xxxviu- 31,
and Ara. v. 8. In the last passage our A.
V. has " the seven stars," although the Ge
neva version translates the word "Pleia
des " as in the other cases.
Plough. [Agriculture.]
Poch'ereth. The children of Poch-
ereth of Zebaini were among the children of
Soloraon's servants who returned with Ze-.
rubbabel (Ezr. U. 57 ; Neh. vU. 59).
Poetry, Hebre'W. The attributes
which are coramon to all poetry, and which
the poetry of the Hebrews possesses in a
higher degree perhaps than the literature
of any other people, it is unnecessary
here to describe. But the points of con
trast are so numerous, and the peculiarities
which distinguish Hebrew poetry so re
markable, that these alone require a full
and careful consideration. Of the three
kinds of poetry which are illustrated by
the Hebrew Uterature, the lyric occupies
the foremost place. The Sheraitie nations
have nothing approaching to an epic poem,
and in proportion to this defect the lyric
element prevailed more greatly, comraen-
cing in the pre-Mosaic times, flourishing in
rude vigor during the earlier periods of the
Judges, the heroic age of the Hebrews,
growing with the nation's growth and
strengthening with its strength, till it
reached its highest excellence in David,
the warrior-poet, and from thenceforth be
gan slowly to decline. Gnomic poetry is
the product of a more advanced age. It
arises from the desire felt by the poet to
express the results of the accumulated ex
periences of life in a form of beauty and
permanence. It gives expression, not Uke
the lyric to the sudden aud impassioned
feelings of the moraent, but to calm and
philosophic reflection. Being less sponta
neous in its origin, its forra is of a neces
sity more artificial. We meet with it at
intervals up to the time of the Captivity,
aud, as it is chiefly characteristic of the age
of the monarchy, Ew.ald has appropriately

designated this era the " artifici&l period"
of Hebrew poetry. From the cud of the
Sth century b. c. the decline of the nation
was rapid, and with its glory departed the
chief glories of its literature. After the
Captivity we have nothing but the poems
which formed part of the liturgical services
of the Temple. Whether dramatic poetry,
properly so called, ever existed among the
Hebrews, is, to say the least, extreraely
doubtful. In the opinion of some writers
the Song of Songs, in its external forra, is
a rude drama, designed for a simple stage.
But the evidence for this view is extreraely
slight. I. Lyrical Poetry. — The litera
ture of the Hebrews abounds with Ulus-
trations of all forms of lyrical poetry, in
its most manifold and wide-embracing com
pass, from such short ejaculations as the
songs of the two Lamechs and Ps. xv.,
cxvii., and others, to the longer chants of
victory and thanksgiving, like the songs of
Deborah and David (Judg. v. ; Ps. xvUi.).
II. Gnomic Poetry. — The second grand
division of Hebrew poetry is occupied by a
class of poems which are peculiarly She
mitic, and which represent the nearest ap
proaches made by the people of that race
to anything like philosophic thought. Rea
soning there is none : we have only results,
and those rather the product of observation
and reflection than of induction or argu
mentation. As lyric poetry is the expres
sion of the poet's own feelings and im
pulses, so gnomic poetry is the form in
which the desire of communicating knowl
edge to others finds vent. Its germs are
the floating proverbs which pass current in
the mouths of the people, and embody the
experiences of many with the wit of one.
The utterer of sententious sayings was to
the Hebrews the wise man, the philosopher.
Of the earlier isolated proverbs but few
examples remain. III. Dramatic Podry.
— It is impossible to assert that no form of
the drama existed araong the Hebrew peo
ple. It is unquestionably true, as Ewald
observes, that the Arab reciters of ro
mances will many times in their own per
sons act out a complete drama in recitation,
changing their voice and gestures with the
change of person and subject. Something
of this kind may possibly have existed
among the Hebrews ; but there is no evi
dence that it did exist, nor any grounds for
making even a probable conjecture with re
gard to it. But the mere fiict of the exist
ence of these rude exhibitions among the
Arabs and Egyptians of the present day is
of no weight when the question to be de
cided is, whether the Song of Songs was
designed to be so represented, as a simple
pastoral drama, or whether the Book of
Job is a dramatic poem or not. Inasmuch
as it represents an action and a progress,
it is a drama ns truly and really, as auy

POETRY

543

PONTUS

poem can be which develops the working
of passion, and the alternations of faith,
hope, distrust, triumphant eonflderice, and
black despair, in the struggle which it de
picts the human mind as engaged in, while
attempting to solve oue of the most in
tricate probleras it can be called upon to
regard. It is a drama as life is a drama,
the most powerful of all tragedies; but
that it is a dramatic poem, intended to be
represented upon a stage, or capable of
being so represented, raay be confidently
denied. One characteristic of Hebrew poe
try, not indeed peculiar to it, but shared
by it in coraraon with the literature of other
nations, is its intensely national and local
coloring. The writers were Hebrews of
the Hebrews, driiwing their inspiration from
the mountains and rivers of Palestine,
which they have immortalized in their poetic
flgures, and even while uttering the sub-
limest and raost universal truths never for
getting their own nationality in its nar
rowest and intensest form. Examples of
this remarkable characteristic of the He
brew poets stand thick upon every page
of their writings, and in striking contrast
to the vague generalizations of the Indian
philosophic poetry. But the form of He
brew poetry is its distinguishing charac-
. teristic, ancl what this form is, has been a
vexed question for raany ages. The Tlier-
jtpeutae, as described by Philo, sang hymns
and psalms of thanksgiving to God, in
divers measures and strains ; and these
were either new or ancient ones composed
by the old poets, who had left behind
them measures and melodies of trimeter
verses. According to Josephus, the Song
of Moses at the Red Sea (Ex. xv.) was
composed in the hexameter measure ; and
again, the song in Deut. xxxii. is described
as a hexameter poem. The Psalms of
David wejce in various metres, some trime
ters and some pentameters. Eusebius char
acterizes the great Song of Moses and the
118th (119th) Psalm as metrical compo
sitions in what the Greeks call the heroic
mette. They are said to be hexameters of
sixteen syllables. The other verse compo
sitions of the Hebrews are said to be in
trimeters. The opinions of Lowth, with
regard to Hebrew metre, are summed up
by Jebb {Sacr. Lit. p. 16) as follows : " He
begins by asserting, that certain of the He
brew writings are not only animated with
the true poetic spirit, but, iu some degree,
couched in poetic numbers ; yet he allows
that the quantity, the rhythm, or modulation
of Hebrew poetry not only is unknown,
but admits of no investigation by human
art or industry ; he barely maintains the
credibility of attention having been paid to
numbers or feet in their compositions ; and,
at the same time, he confesses the utter
impossibUity of determining whether He

brew poetry was modulated by the ear
alone, or according to any definite and set
tled rules of prosody."
Pol'lux. [Castor and Pollux.]
Polygamy. [Marriage.]
Pomegranate. The pomegranate was
early cultivated in Egypt; hence the com
plaint of the Israelites in the wilderness of
Zin (Nura. xx. 5), this " is no place of figs,
or of vines, or of pomegranates." The
tree, with its characteristic calyx-crowned
fruit, is easily recognized on the Egyptian
sculptures. Mention is made of " an or
chard of pomegranates " in Cant. iv. 13.

W^-^^i

if' /

Pomegranate (Punica ffranatwn).
Carved figures of the pomegranate adorned
the tops ofthe pillars in Solomon's Temple
(1 K. vii. 18, 20, &c.) ; and worked repre
sentations of this fruit, in blue, purple, and
scarlet, oruiimented the hem of the robe of
the ephod (Ex, xxviii. 83, 34), The pome
granate-tree {Punica granatum) derives
its narae from the Latin pomum granatum,
" grained apple," The Romans gave it the
narae of Punica, as the tree was introduced
frora Carthage.
Pommels, only in 2 Chr. iv. 12, 13. In
1 K. vu. 41, " bowls." The word signifies
convex projections belonging to the capi
tals of pillars.
Pond. The ponds of Egypt (Ex. vii.
19, viii. 5) were doubtless water left by the
inundation of the Nile. Ponds for fish are
mentioned in Is. xix. 10.
Pon'tius Pi'late. [Pilate.]
Pon'tus, a large district in the north of
Asia Minor, extending along the coast of
the Pontus Euxinus, from which circum
stance the name was derived. It is three
times mentionsd in the N. T. (Acts u. 9,
10, xvui. 2; 1 Pet. i. 1). AU these pas-

POOL

544

POTIPHAR

sages agree in showing that there were
many Jewish residents in the district. As
to the annals of Pontus, tbe one brilliant
passage of its history is the life of the
greiit Mithridates. Under Nero the whole
region was made a Roman province, bear
ing the name of Pontus.
Pool. Pools, Uke the tanks of Iiidi.a,
are in niiiny parts of Palestine and Syria
the only resource for water during the dry
season, and. the failure of them involves
drought and calamity (Is. xUi. 15). Of
the various pools mentioned in Scripture,
perh.aps the raost celebrated are the pools
of Soloraon near Bethlehera, called by the
Arabs el-Burak, from which an aqueduct
Wiis carried which still supplies Jerusalem
with water (Eccl. ii. 6 ; Ecclus. xxiv. 30,
81), Poor. The general kindly spirit of the
law towards the poor is sufficiently shown
by such passages as Deut. xv. 7, for the
reason that (ver. 11) " the poor shaU
never cease out of the land." Among the
special enactments in their favor the fol
lowing must be mentioned : 1- The right
of gleaning (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv.
19, 21). 2. From the produce of the land
in sabbatical years, the poor and the stran
ger were to have their 'portion (Ex. xxiii.
11 ; Lev. xxv. 6). 8. Re-entry upon land
in the jubilee year, with the limitation as to
town homes (Lev. xxv. 25-30)'. 4, Prohi
bition of usury, and -of retention of pledges
(Lev. xxv, 35, 37; Ex, xxu. 25-27, &c.).
5. Permanent bondage forbidden, and manu
mission of Hebrew bondsmen or bondswo
men enjoined in the sabbatical and jubilee
years (Deut. xv. 12-15 ; Lev. xxv. 39-42,
47-54). 6. Portions frora the tithes to be
shared bv the poor afterthe Levites (Deut.
xiv. 28," xxvi. 12, 13). 7. The poor to
partake in entertaiuraents at the feasts of
Weeks and Tabernacles (Deut, xvi, 11, 14 ;
see Neh. vui. 10). 8, Daily payraent of
wages (Lev. xix, 18). Principles similar
to those laid down by Moses are incul
cated in the New Testament, as Luke iii.
11, xiv. 13; Acts vi. 1; Gab u. 10; James
u. 15.
Poplar, the renderiiig of the Hebrew
word libneh, which occurs in Gen. xxx. 37,
and Hos. iv. 13. Several authorities are in
favor of the rendering of the A, V., and
think the "white poplar" {Populus alba)
is the tree denoted ; others understand the
"stor.ax tree" {Styrax officinale, Linn.).
Both poplars and styrax or storax trees are
coraraon in Palestine, and either would suit
the passages where the Heb. term occurs.
Storiix is mentioned in Ecclus. xxiv. 15, to
gether with other aromatic substances. The
Styrax officinale is a shrub from nine to
twelve feet high, with ovate leaves, -which
are white underneath; the fiowers are in
racemes, and are white or cream-colored.

The white appearance agrees with the ety
mology of the Heb. v.^neh.
T>or'atha One of the ten sons of
Haman slain by tbe Jews in Shushan the

palace (Esth- ix. 8).
-Porch. 1. Via;

Porch- 1- Ulam, or «Mot (1 Chr.
xxviii- 11)- 2. Misderdn Ulam (Judg. iii.
23) strictly a vestibule, was probably a
sort of veranda chamber in the works of
Solomon, open in front and at the sides,
but capable of being enclosed with awn
ings or curtains. The porch (Matt. xxvi.
71) -may have been the passage frora the
street into the first court of the house, in
which, in Eastern houses, is the m,astdbah
or stone bench, for the porter or persons
waiting, and where also the master of the
house often receives visitors and transacts
business. Por'cius Fes'tus. [Festus.]
Porter- This word when used in the
A. V- does not bear its modern signification
of a carrier of burdens, but denotes in
every case a gate-keeper, from the Latin
portarius, tbe man who attended to the
porta, or gate.
Possession. [Demoniacs.]
Post. Probably, as Gesenius argues,
the door-case of a door, including the
lintel and side-posts. The posts of the
doors of the Temple were of olive-wood
(1 K. vi. 33).
Pot- The term "pot" is applicable to
so raany sorts of vessels, that it can scarce
ly be restricted to any one in particular.
1. AsAc (2 K. iv. 2), an earthen jar, deep
and narrow, without handles, probably Uke
the Roman and Egyptian amphora, insert
ed in a stand of wood or stone. 2. Cheres,
an earthen vessel for stewing or seething
(Ez. iv. 9 ; Lev. vi. 28). 3. Diid, a vessel
for culinary purposes, perhaps of sraaller
size (1 Sara. u. 14). The " pots " set be
fore the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv. 5) were
probably bulging jars or bowls. The water-
pots of Cana appear to have been large
amphorae, such as are in use at the present
day in Syria. These were of stone or hard
earthen ware. The water-pot of the Sa
maritan woman raay have been a leathern
bucket, such as Bedouin women use.
Pot'iphar, an Egyptian name, also
written Potipherah, signifies "Belonging
to the Son." Potiphar, with whom the his
tory of Joseph is connected, is described
as " an officer of Pharaoh, chief of the
executioners, an Egyptian " (Gen. xxxix.
1; comp. xxxvU. 36). He is called au
Egyptian, though his master was probably
a Shepherd-king of the xvth dynasty. He
appears to have been a wealthy man (xxxix.
4-6). The view we have cf Potiphar's
household is exactly in accordance with the
representations on the monuments. When
Joseph was accused, his raaster contented
himself with casting him into prison (19.

POTIPHERAH

545

PRAETORIUM

20). After this we hear no raore ol Poti
phar. [Joseph.]
Potiph'erah was priest or prince of
On, and his daughter Asenath was given
Joseph to wife by Pharaoh (Gen. xU. 45,
50, xlvi. 20).
Potsherd, also in A, V. " sherd," a
broken piece of earthen ware (Prov. xxvi.
23). Potter's Field, The. A piece of
ground which, according to the statement of
St. Matthew (xxvii. 7), was purchased by
the priests w ith the thirty pieces of silver
rejected by Judas, and converted into a buri
al-place for Jews not belonging to the city.
St. Matthew adduces this (ver. 9) as a ful
filment of an ancient prediction. What that
prediction was, and who made it, is not,
however, at all clear. St. Matthew names
Jeremiah; but there is no passage iu the
Book of Jeremiah, as we possess it, re
sembling that which he gives ; and that in
Zechariah (xi. 12) which is usually sup
posed to be alluded to, has only a very im
perfect likeness to it. Three explanations
suggest theraselves : 1. That the Evangel
ist unintentionaUy substituted the narae of
Jereraiah for that of Zechariah, at the same
tune altering the passage to suit his imme
diate object. 2. That this portion of the
Book of Zechariah was iu the time of St.
Matthew attributed to Jeremiah. 3. That
the reference is to sorae passage of Jere
miah which has been lost frora its place in
hia book, and exists only in the Evangelist,
Some support is afforded to this view by
the fact that potters and the localities oc

cupied by them are twice alluded to by
Jeremiah. Its partiiil correspondence with
Zech- xi. 12, 13, is no argument against its
having at one time formed a part of the
prophecy of Jeremiah : for it is well known
to every student of the Bible that similar
correspondences are continually 'found in
the prophets. See, for instance, Jer. xlviii.
45, comp. with Nura. xxi, 27, 28, xxiv. 17;
Jer. xlix. 27, corap. with Ara. i. 4. [Acel
dama.] Pottery. The art of pottery is one cif
the raost coraraon and raost ancient of all
manufactures. It is abundantly evident,
both that the Hebrews used earthen- ware
vessels in the wilderness, and that the
potter's trade was afterwards carried on
in Palestine. They Bad theraselves been
concerned in the potter's trade in Egypt
(Ps. Ixxxi- 6), and the wall-paintings mi
nutely illustrate the Egyptian process- The
clay, when dug, was trodden by men's feet
so as to form a paste (Is. xii. 25 ; Wisd.
XV. 7) ; then placed by the potter on the
wheel b'eside which he sat, and shaped by
hira with his hands. How early the wheel
came iu use in Palestine we know not, but
it seems likely that it was adopted from
Egypt (Is. xiv. 9; Jer. xvui. 3). The
vessel was then smoothed and coated with
a glaze, and finally burnt iu a furnace.
There was iit Jerusalem a royal establish
ment of potters (I Chr. iv. 23), from
whose employraent, aud from the frag
ments cast away in the process, the Pot
ter's Field perhaps received its name (Is.
xxx. 14).

Egyptian Pottery. (WilicineOD.)

Pound. 1. A weight. See Weights
,VND Measures. 2. A money of account,
mentioned in the parable of the Ten Pounds
(Luke xix. 12-27), as the talent is in the
parable of the Talents (Matt, xxv, 14-30).
The reference appears to be to a Greek
pound, a weight used as a money of ac
count, of which sixty went to the talent,
the weight depending upon the weight of
the talent.
PraetO'rium. The headquarters of
the Roman miUtary governor, wherever
he happened to be. In time of peace
some one of the best buildings of the city,
wluch was the residence of the proconsul
or praetor, was selected for this purpose.
35

Thus at Caesarea that of Herod the Great
was occupied -by Felix (Acts xxiii. 35) ;
and at Jerusalem the new palace erected
by the sarae prince was tbe residence of
Pilate. After the Roman power was es
tablished in Judaea, a Roraan guard was
always maintained in the Antonia, the
coraraander of which for the tirae being
seeras to he the official terraed arqarriyhg
ToO itoou in the Gospels and Acts. 'The
Praetorian camp at Rome, to which St.
Paul refers (Phil. i. 13), was erected by
the Emperor Tiberius, acting under the
advice of Sejanus. It stood outside the
walls, at some distance short of the fourth
milestone, and near either to the Salarian

PRAYEI^

546

PRAYER

or the Nomentane road. From the first,
buildings must have sprung up near it for
sutlers and others- St. Paul appears to
have been permitted, for the space of two
years, to lodge, so to speak, " within the
rules" ofthe Praetorium (Acts xxviii. 30),
although still under the custody of a sol
dier. Prayer. The object of this article will
be to touch brieily on, (1.) The doctrine of
Scripture, as to the nature and eficacy of
Iirayer ; (2.) Its directions as to time, place,
and milliner of prayer ; (3.) Its types and
examples of prayer. (1.) Scripture does
not give any theoretical explanation of the
mystery which attaches to priiyer. The
difficulty of understanding its real efficacy
arises chiefly from two sources : from the
belief that man lives under general laws,
which in all cases must be fulfilled unal
terably ; and the opposing belief that he is
master of his own destiny, and need pray
for no external blessing. Now, Scripture,
while, by the doctrine of spiritual infiu
ence, it entirely disposes of the latter diffi
culty, does not so entirely solve that part
of the mystery which depends on the na
ture of God. It places it clearly before
us, and emphasizes most strongly those
doctrines on which the difficulty turns.
Vet, while this is so, on the other hand the
instinct of prayer is solemnly sanctioned
and enforced in every page. Not only is
its subjective effect asserted, but its real
objective efficacy, as a means appointed by
God for obtaining blessing, is both implied
and expressed in the plainest terms. Thus,
as usual in the case of such mysteries, the
two apparently opposite truths are* empha
sized, because they are needful to raan's
conception of his relation to God ; their
reconcileraent is not, perhaps cannot be,
fully revealed. For, in fact, it is involved
in that inscrutable mystery which attends
on the conception of any free action of
raan as necessary for the working out of
the general laws of God's unchangeable
win. At the same tirae it is clearly im
plied that such a reconcilement exists, and
that all the apparently isoLated and inde-
'^^endent exertions of man's spirit in prayer
are in some way perfectly subordinated to
the one supreme will of God, so as to forra
a part of His scheme of providence. It is
also implied that the key to the mystery
lies in the fact of man's spiritual unity with
God in Christ, and of the consequent gift
of the Holy Spirit. So also is it said of
the spiritual influence of the Holy Ghost
on each individual mind, that while "we
know not what to pray for," the indwelling
" Spirit mak23 intercession for the s.aints,
according to ihe will of God" (Rora. -viii.
26, 27). Here, as probably in aU other
cases, the acUon of the Holy Spirit on the
Boal is to free agents what the laws of na

ture are to things inanimate, and is the
power which harmonizes free individual
action with the universal wUl of God. (2.)
There are no directions as to prayer given
in the Mosaic law : the duty is rather taken
for granted, as an adjunct to sacrifice, than
enforced or elaborated. It is hardly con
ceivable that, even from the beginning,
pubUc prayer did not follow every pubUc
sacrifice. Such a practice is alluded to as
comraon in Luke i. 10; and in one in
stance, at the offering of the first-fruits, it
was ordained in a striking form (Deut.
xxvi. 12-15). In later times it certainly
grew into a regular service, both iu the
Temple and in the Synagogue. But, be
sides this public prayer, it was the custora
of all at Jerusalem to go up to the Temple,
at regular hours if possible, for private
prayer (see Luke xviii. 10 ; Acts Ui. 1) ;
and those who were absent were wont to
" open their windows towards Jerusalem,"
and pray "towards" the place of God's
Presence (1 K. vUi. 46-49; Dan. vi- 10;
Ps. V. 7, xxviii. 2, cxxxviU. 2). The regu
lar hours of prayer seem to have been three
(see Ps. Iv. 17; Dan. vi. 10), "the even
ing," that is, the ninth hour (Acts iii. 1, x.
3), the hour of the evening sacrifice (Dan.
ix. 21) ; the " morning," that is, the third
hour (Acts ii. 15), that ofthe morning sac
rifice; .andthe sixth hour, or "noonday.'
Grace before meat would seera to have
been a common practice (see Matt. xv. 36 ;
Acts xxvii. 35). The posture of prayei
among the Jews seems to have been most
often standing (1 Sam. i. 26 ; Matt. vi. 5 ;
Mark xi. 25; Luke xviii. 11); unless the
prayer were offered with especial solem
nity, and humiliation, which was naturally
expressed by kneeling (1 K. viii. 54;
corap. 2 Chr. vi. 13; Ezr. ix, 5; Ps, xcv.
6; Dan. vi. 10), or prostration (Josh.
vu. 6; 1 K. xviii. 42; Neh. viii. 6),—
The only Form of Prayer given for per
petual use in the O, T. is the one in Df ut.
xxvi. 5-15, connected with the offering of
tithes aud first-fruits, and containing in
simple form the important elements of
pr.ayer, ackno\\'ledgment of God's mercy,
self-dedication, and prayer for future bless
ing. To this may perhaps be added the
threefold blessing of Num. vi. 24-26,
couched as it is in a precatory form, and
the short pr.ayer of Moses (Num. x. 35,
36) at the moving and resting of the chmd,
the former of which was the germ of the
68th Psalra. But of the jirayers recorded
in the 0. T., the two most reraarkable are
those of Solomon at the dedication of the
Teraple (1 K. viu. 23-53), and of Joshua
the high priest, and his colleagues, aftci
the captivity (Neh. ix. 5-38). — It appears
from the question of the disciples in Luke
xi. 1, and frora Jewish tradition, that the
chief teachers of the day gave special forms

PRESENTS

547

PRIEST

of prayer to their disciples, as the badge
of their discipleship aud the best fruits of
their learning. All Christian prayer is,
of course, based on the Lord's Prayer ; but
its spirit is also guided by that of His
prayer in Gethseraane, and of the prayer
recorded by St. John (ch. xvii.), the begin
ning of His great work of intercession.
The influence oi these prayers is raore dis
tinctly traced in the prayers contained in
the Epistles (sec Eph. iii. 14-21 : Rora.
xvi. 25-27; PhU. i. 8-11; Col. i. 9-15;
Heb. xiii. 20, 21; 1 Pet. v. 10, 11, &c.),
than in those recorded in the Acts. The
public prayer probably in the flrst instance
took much of its form and style from the
prayers of the synagogues. In the record
pf prayers accepted and granted by God,
we observe, as always, a special adaptation
to the period of His dispensation to which
they belong. In the patriarchal period,
they have the siraple and chUd-like tone of
domestic supplication for the siraple and
apparently trivial incidents of domestic
life. In the Mosaic period they assume a
more solemn tone and a national bearing,
chiefly that of direct intercession for the
chosen people. More rarely are they for
individuals. A special class are those
which precede and refer to the exercise of
miraculous power. In the New Testament
they have a raore directly spiritual bearing.
It would seera the intention of Holy Scrip
ture to encourage all prayer, raore espe
cially intercession, in all relations, and for
all righteous objects.
Presents. [Gifts.]
President. Sdrac, or Sdricd, only
used Dan. vi., the Chaldee equivalent for
Hebrew ShdtSr, probably from Sara, Zend.
a " head."
Priest. The English word is derived
from the Greek Presbyter, signifying an
" elder" (Heb. cdhfn). Origin. — 'Theidea
of a priesthood connects itself, in all its
forras, pure or corrupted, with the con
sciousness, more or less distinct, of sin.
Men feel that they have broken a law.
The power above them is holier than they
are, and they dare not approach it. They
crave for the intervention of some one of
whora they can think as likely to be more
acceptable than themselves. He must offer
up their prayers, thanksgivings, sacriflces.
He becomes their representative in " things
pertaining unto God." He may become
also (though this does uot always follow)
the representative of God to m.an. The
functions of tbe priest and prophet may
exist in the same person.- No trace of an
liereditary or caste-priesthood meets us in
the worship of the patriarchal age. Once,
and once only, docs the word Cdhtn meet
us as belonging to a ritual earlier than the
time of Abraham. Melchizedek is " the
priest of the most high God " (Gen. xiv.

18). In the worship ofthe patriarchs them
selves, the chief of the faraily, as such,
acted as th^ priest. The office descended
with the birthright, and might apparentl)
be transferred with it. The Priesthood
was first established in thefamily of Aaron,
and all the sons of Aaron were priests.
They stood between the High Priest on the
one hand and the Levites on the other.
[High Priest ; Levites,] The ceremony
of their consecration is described in Ex,
xxix.. Lev. viii. The dress which they
wore during their ministrations consisted
of linen drawers, with a close-fitting cas
sock, also of linen, white, but with a dia
mond or chess-board pattern on it. This
carae nearly to the feet, and was to be worn
in its garraent shape (comp, John xix. 23).
The white cassock was gathered round the
body with a girdle of needlework, into
which, as in tbe more gorgeous belt of the
High Priestj.hlue, purple, and scarlet, were
intermingled with white, and worked in the
form of flowers (Ex. xxviii. 39, 40, xxxix.
2; Ezek. xliv. 17-19). Upon their heads
they were to wear caps or bonnets in the
form of a cup-shaped flower, also of fine
linen. In all their acts of ministration they
were to be barefooted. Before they en-

Dress of Egyptian High-priest.
tered the Tabernacle they were to wash
their hands and their feet (Ex. xxx. 17-21,
xl. 30-32). During the time of their min
istration they were to drink no wine or
strong drink (Lev. x. 9 ; Ez. xliv. 21). Ex
cept in the case ofthe nearest relationships
(six degrees are specifled. Lev. xxi. 1-5 ; Ez.
xliv. 25), they were to make no mourning
for the dead. They were not to shave their
heads. They were to go through their
ministrations with the serenity of a rever
ential awe, not with the orgiastic wildness
which led the priests of Baal in their despair
to make cuttings 'n their flesh (Lev. xia

PRIEST

548

PRIEST

28; IK. xviii. 28). They were forbidden to
marry an unchaste woman, or one who had
been divorced, or the widow of any but a
priest (Lev. xxi. 7, 14; Ezek. xUv. 22).
Their chief duties were to watch over the
fire on the altar of burnt- offerings, and to
keep it burning evermore both by day and
night (Lev. vi. 12; 2 Chr. xiu, 11), to feed
the golden lamp outside the vail with oil
(Ex, xxvu, 20, 21 ; Lev. xxiv. 2), to offer
the raorning and evening sacrifices, each
accorapanied with a meat-offering and a
drink-offering, at the door of the tabernacle
(Ex, xxix, 88- 44) . They were also to teach
the ChUdren of Israel the statutes of the
Lord (Lev. x. 11; Deut. xxxiu. 10; 2 Chr.
XV. 8; Ezek. xliv. 23, 24). During the
journeys in the wilderness it belonged to
them to cover the ark and all the vessels
of the sanctuary with a purple or scarlet
cloth before the Levites might approach
thera (Num, iv. 5-15). As the people
started on each day's march they were to
blow " an alarm " with long silver trumpets
(Num, x, 1-8). Other instruments of rausic
raight be used by the more highly-trained
Levites and the schools ofthe prophets, but
the trurapets belonged only to the priests.
The presence of the priests on the field of
battle (1 Chr. xu. 23, 27; 2 Chr. xx. 21,
22) led, in the later periods of Jewish his
tory, to the special appointraent at such
tiraes of a war-priest. Other functions were
hinted at in Deuteronoray which raight have
given thera greater influence as the educa
tors and civilizers of the people. They were
to act (whether individually or collectively
does not distinctly appear) as a court of
appeal in the more difficult controversies in
criminal or civil cases (Deut. xvii. 8-13).
It raust remiiin doubtful, however, how far
this order kept its ground during the storms
and changes that followed. Functions
such as these were clearly incompatible with
the common activities of men. On these
grounds therefore a distinct provision was
made for them. This consisted — (1) of
one tenth of the tithes which the people
paid to the Levites, i. e. one per cent, on the
whole produce of the country (Num. xviii
26-28). (2) Of a special tithe every third
year (Deut. xiv, 28, xxvi. 12). (3) Of the
redemption-money, paid at the fixed rate
of five shekels^ a head, for the first-born of
man or beast (Num. xviii, 14-19). (4) Of
the redemption-money paid in like manner
for men or things specially dedicated to the
Lord (Lev. xxvu.). (5) Of spoil, captives,
cattle, and the like, taken in war (Num.
xxxi. ^5-47). (6) Of the shew-bread, the
flesh of the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings,
trespass-offerings (Nura. xviii. 8-14; Lev.
vi. 26, 29, vu. 6-10), and, in particular, tho
heave-shoulder and the wave-breast (Lev.
X. 12-15). (7) Of an undefined araount
of the first-fruits of corn, wine, and oil

(Ex. xxui- 19; Eev. U. 14; Deut. x.^vi 1-
10) Of some of these, as " most holy,
none but the priests were to partake (Lev.
vi 29). Itwas lawful for t_eir sous and
daughters (Lev. x. 14), and even in some
cases for their home-born slaves, to eat of
others (Lev. xxii- 11)- The stranger and
the hired servant were in all cases excluded
(Lev. xxu. 10). (8) On their settlement
in Canaan the priestly famiUes had thirteen
cities assigned them, with " suburbs " or
pasture-grounds for their flocks (Josh. xxi.
13-19). These provisions were obviously
intended to secure the religion of Israel
against the dangers of a caste of pauper-
priests, needy and dependent, and unable
to bear their witness to the true faith. They
were, on the other hand, as far as possible
reraoved from the condition of a wealthy
order. The standard of a priest's income,
even in the earliest days after the settle
ment in Canaan, was miserably low (Judg.
xvii. 10). The earUest historical trace of '
any division of the priesthood, and cor
responding cycle of services, belongs to the
time of David. The priesthood was then
divided into the four and twenty "courses"
or orders (1 Chr. xxiv- 1-19 ; 2 Chr. xxiu.
8; Luke 1. 5), each of which was to serve
in rotation for one week, while the further
assignment of special services during the
week was determined by, lot (Luke i. 9).
Each course appears to have comraenced
its work on the Sabbath, the outgoing
priests taking the morning sacriflce, and
leaving that of the evening to their succes
sors (2 Chr. xxiu. 8). In this division,
however, the two great priestly houses did
not stand on an equality. The descendants
of Ithamar were found to have fewer rep
resentatives than those of Eleazar, and
sixteen courses accordingly were assigned
to the latter, eight only to the forraer (1
Chr. xxiv. 4). The division thus instituted
was confirmed by Solomon, and continued
to be recognized as the typical number of
the priesthood. On the return from the
captivity there were found but four courses
out of the twenty-four, each containing, in
round numbers, about a thousand (Ezr. ii.
36-39). Out of these, however, to revive
at least the idea of the old organization, the
four and twenty courses were reconstituted
(comp. Luke i. 5), bearing the same naraes
as before, and so continued till the destruc
tion of Jerusalem. If we may accept the
numbers given by Jewish writers as at all
trustworthy, the proportion of the priest
hood to the population of Palestine, during
the last century of their existence as an
order, must have been far greater than that
of the clergy has ever been in any Christian
nation. Over and above those that were
scattered in the country and took their turn,
there were not fewer than 24,000 stationed
nerraanentlv at Jerusalem, and 12,000 at

PRIEST

549

PROCURATOR

(Crloho. It was almost inevitable that the
great mass, of the order, under such cir
cumstances, should sink in character and
reputation. The reigns of the two kings
David and Solomon were the culminating
period of the glory of the Jewish priest
hood. The position of the priests under
the monarchy of Judah deserves a closer
examination than it has yet received. For
every week of service in the Temple there
were twenty-three weeks in which they had
no appointed work. To what employraent
could they turn? (1) The raore devout
and thoughtful found, probably, in the
schools of the prophets that which satisfied
them. They becarae teaching priests (2
Chr. XV. 3), students, and interpreters of
the Divine Law. (2) Some perhaps served
in the king's army. (3) A few chosen ones
might enter more deeply into the divine
life, and so receive, like Zechariah, Jere
miah, Ezekiel, a special call to the office
of a prophet. (4) We can hardly escape
the conclusion that many did their work in
the Teraple of Jehovah with a divided aUe
giance, and acted at other times as priests
of the high-places. Those who ceased to
be true shepherds of the people found noth
ing in their ritual to sustain or elevate them.
They became as sensual, covetous, tyran
nical, as ever the clergy of the Christian
Church becarae in its darkest periods ; con
spicuous as drunkards and adulterers (Is,
xxviU. 7, 8, Ivi. 10-12), The prophetic
order, instead of acting as a check, becarae
sharers in the corruption (Jer, v. 31; Lam.
iv. 13; Zeph. iii. 4). It will be interesting
to bring together the few facts that indicate
their position in the N. T. period of their
history. The nuraber scattered throughout
Palestine was, as has been stated, very
large. Of these the greater number were
poor and ignorant. The priestly order, like
the nation, was divided between contending
sects. In the scenes of the last tragedy of
Jewish history the order passes away, with
out honor, "dying as a fool dieth." The
high-priesthood is given to the lowest and
vilest of the adherents of the frenzied Zeal
ots. Other priests appear as deserting to
the enemy. The destruction of Jerusalem
deprived the order at one blow of all but
an honorary distinction. Their occupation
was gone. Many farailies raust have alto
gether lost their genealogies. The lan
guage of the N. T. writers in relation to
the priesthood ought not to be passed over.
They recognize in Christ, the first-born, the
king, the Anointed, the representative of
the true primeval priesthood after the or
der of Melchizedek (Heb. vU., viii.), frora
which that of Aaron, however necessary
for the time, is now seen to have been a
deflection. But there is no trace of an
order in the new Christian society, bearing
tbe name and ex'rcising functions like those

of the priests of the older Coveniint. The
idea which pervades ' the teaching of the
Epistles is that of a universal priesthood.
It was the thought of a succeeding age that
the old classification of the high-priest,
priests, and Levites was reproduced in ths
bishops, priests, and deacons of the Chris
tian Church.
Prince, Princess. The only spechal
uses of the word "prince" are — 1.
" Princes of provinces" (1 K. xx. 14), who
were probably local governors or magis
trates. 2. The "princes" mentioned iu
Dan. vi. 1 (see Esth. i. 1) were the prede
cessors ofthe satraps of Darius Hystaspis.
Pris'ca (2 Tim. iv. 19) or Priscil'la.
[Aquila.] 'To what has' been said else
where under the head of Aquila the follow
ing raay be added. We find th.at the name
ofthe wife is placed before that of the hus
band in Rom. xvi. 3, 2 Tira. iv. 19, and
(according to sorae of the best MSS.) in
Acts xviii, 26. Hence we should be dis
posed to conclude that Priscilla was the
raore energetic character of the two. In
fact we raay say that Priscilla is the ex
araple of what the married woman may do
for the general service of the . Church, in
conjunction with home duties, as Phoebe
is the type of the unmarried servant of the
Church, or deaconess.
Prison. For imprisonment as a pun
ishment, see Punishments. During the
wandering in the desert we read on two
occasions of confinement "in ward" (Lev.
xxiv. 12 ; Num. xv- 34) ; but as iraprison
ment was not directf d by the Law, so we
hear of none till the time of the kings, when
the prison appears as an appendage to the
palace, or a special part of it (1 K. xxii. 27).
Proch'orus, one of the seven de.acous,
being the third on the list,' and named next
after Stephen and Philip (Acts vi. 5) .
Proconsul- The Greek arSi'Tiarog, for
which this is the true equivalent, is ren
dered uniformly ' ' deputy "in the A. V. of
Acts xiii. 7, 8, 12, xix. 38 ; and the derived
verb ar6vnaTei'm in Acts xviii. 12, is trans
lated "to be deputy." At the di-vision of
the Roman provinces by Augustus, in tho
year b. o. 27, into Senatorial and Imperial,
tho emperor assigned to the senate such
portions of territory as were peaceable, and
could be held without force of arms. Over
these senatorial provinces the senate ap
pointed by lot yearly an officer, who was
called " proconsul," and who exercised
purely civil functions. The provinces were
in consequence called " proconsular."
Procurator. The Greek i/yt/ueir, ren
dered "governor" in the -A. V., is appUed
in the N. T. to the officer who presided over
the iinperial province of Judaea. It is used
of Pontius Pilate (Matt, xxvii.), of Felix
(Acts xxiu., xxiv.), and of Festus (Acts
xxvi. 30). In all these cases the Vulgata

PROPHET

550

PROPHET

equivalent is praeses. The office of proc
urator is mentioned' in Luke iii. 1. It is
explained, under Proconsul, that after the
battle of Actium (b. c. 27) the provinces
of the Roman empire were divided by
Augustus into two portions, giving some to
the senate, and reserving to himself the
rest. The imperial provinces were admin
istered by Legaii. No quaestor came into
the emperor's provinces, but the property
and revenues of the imperial treasury were
administered by Procuratores. Sometimes
a province was governed by a procurator
-with the functions of a Legatus. This
was especially the case with the sraaller
provinces and the outlying districts of
a larger province; and such is the re
lation in which Judaea stood to Syria.
The headquarters of the procurator were
at- Caesarea (Acts xxiii. 23), where he
had a judgraent-seat (Acts xxv. 6) in
the audience chamber (Acts xxv. 23),
and was assisted by a council (Acts xxv.
12), whom he consulted in cases of diffi
culty. In the N. T. we see the procurator
only in his judicial capacity. Thus Christ
is brought before Pontius Pilate as a poUti
cal offender (Matt, xxvii. 2, 11), and the
accusation is heard by the procurator, who
is seated on the judgment seat (Matt.
xxvii. 19). Feli.x heard St. Paul's accusa
tion and defence from the judgment seat at
Caesarea (Acts xxiv.) ; and St. Paul calls
him "judge" (Acts xxiv. 10), as if this
term described his chief functions. The
procurator is again alluded to in his judicial
capacity in 1 Pet. ii. J4. He was attended
by a cohort as body-guard (Matt, xxvii, 27),
and apparently went up to Jerusalem at the
tirae of tbe high festivals, and there resided
at the palace of Herod, in which was the
praetorium, or '"judgment hall," as it is
rendered in the A. V. (Matt. xxvU. 27;
Mark XV. 16; comp. Acts xxiu. 85).
Prophet. The ordinary Hebrew word
for prophet is ndbi^ derived frora a, verb
signifying " to bubble forth " like a foun
tain. Hence the word raeans one who an
nounces or pours forth the declarations of
God. The English word coraes frora the
Greek Prophites (jreo^i^'rij;), which signi
fies in classical Greek one who speaks for
another, specially one who speaks for a
god, and so interprets his will to raan.
Hence its essential raeaning is " an inter
preter." The use of the word in its modern
sense as " one who predicts " is post-clas
sical. The larger sense of interpretation
has not, however, been lost. In fact the
EngUsh word Prophet has always been used
in a larger and in a closer sense. The dif
ferent meanings, or shiides of meaning, in
which the abstract noun is eraployed in
Scripture, have been drawn out by Locke
as follows : — " Prophecy comprehends
tiiree thinss: prediction; singing by the

dictate of the Spirit; and underst-andirg
andexplainingthe mysterious, hidden sense
of Scriptirre, by an immediate illuraination
and motion of the Spirit." — The sacerdotal
order was originally the instrument by
which the members of the Jewish Theoc
racy were taught and governed in things
spiritual. Teaching by act and teaching
by word were alike their task. But during
the time of the Judges, the priesthood sank
into a state of degeneracy, and the people
were no longer affected hy the acted les
sons of the ceremonial service. They re
quired less enigmatic warnings and exhor
tations. Under these circumstances a new
moral power was evoked — the Prophetic
Order. Sarauel, himself a Levite, of the
family of Kohath (1 Chr. vi. 28), and al
raost certainly a priest, was the instrument
used at once for effecting a reforra iu the
sacerdotal order (1 Chr. ix. 22), and for
giving to the prophets a position of ira
portance which they had never before held.
Nevertheless, it is not to be supposed that
Samuel created the prophetic order as a
new thing before unknown. The germs
both of the prophetic and of the regal
order are found in the Law as given to the
Israelites by MoseS (Deut. xiii. 1, xviii. 20,
xvii. 18), but they were not yet developed,
because there was not yet the demand for
them. Sarauel took raeasures to make his
work of restoration permanent as well as
effective for the moment. For this purpose
he instituted Corapanies, or Colleges of
Prophets. One we find in his lifetime at
Ramah (1 Sam. xix. 19, 20) ; others after
wards at Bethel (2 K. ii. 3), Jericho (2 K.
ii. 5), Gilgal (2 K. iv. 38), and elsewhere
(2 K. yi. 1). 'Their constitution and object
were similar to those of Theological Col
leges. Into them were gathered proraising
students, and here they were trained for
the office which they were afterwards des
tined to fulfil. So successful were these
institutions, that from the time of Samuel
to the closing of the Canon of the Old
Testament, there seeras never to have been
wanting a due supply of men to keep up
the line of official prophets. Their chief
subject of study was, no doubt, the Law
and its interpretation ; oral, as distinct frora
syrabolical, teaching being henceforth tacit
ly transferred frora the priestly to the pro
phetical order. Subsidiary subjects of in
struction were music and sacred poetry,
both of which had been connected with
prophecy from the time of Moses (Ex, xv.
20) and the Judges (Judg. iv. 4, v. 1). But
to belong to the prophetic order and to pes- '
sess the prophetic gift are not converti
ble terras. Generally, the inspired proph
et came frora the College of the Proph
ets, and belonged to the prophetic order;
but this was not always the case. Thus
Amos, though called to the prophetic ofice,

PROPHET

551

PROPHET

did ni.l be.ong to the prophetic order (Am.
vii, 14). 'The sixteen prophets whose books
are in the Canon have therefore that place
cf honor, because they were endowed with
the prophetic gift as well as ordinarily (so
far as we know) belonging to the prophetic
erder. What then are the characteristics
ofthe sixteen prophets, thus called and com
missioned, and intrusted with the messages
ff God to His people? (1.) They were the
national poets of Judaea. (2.) 'Phey were
annalists and historians. A great portion
of Isaiah, of Jereraiah, of Daniel, of Jonah,
ot Haggai, is direct or indirect history. (3.)
They were preachers of patriotism; their
patriotism, being founded on the religious
moti\'e. (4 .) They were preachers of morals
a, id of spiritual reUgion. The systera of
ra,)ral's put forward by the prophets, if not
higher, or sterner, or purer than that of the
Law, is more plainly declared, and with
greater, because now more needed, vehe
mence of diction. (5.) They were extraor
dinary, but yet authorized exponents of
the Ljw. (6.) They held a pastoral or
quasi-pastoral office. (7.) They were a
political power in the state. (8.) But the
prophets were something more than na
tional poets and annalists, preachers of
patriotisra, moral teachers, exponents of
the Law, pastors, and politicians. Their
most essential characteristic is, that they
were instruments of revealing God's will
to man, as in other ways, so specially by
predicting future events, and, in particular,
by foretelling the incarnation of the Lord
Jesus Christ, and the redemption effected
hy Hira We have a series of prophecies
which aie a; applicable to the person and
earthly Iffe of Jesus' Christ as to be thereby
shown to have been designed to apply to
Him. And if they were designed to
apply to Him, prophetical prediction is
proved. Objections have been urged.- We
notice only one, viz. vagueness. It has
been said that the prophecies are too darkly
and vaguely worded to be proved predic
tive by the events which they are alleged to
foretell. But to this might be answered,
1. That God never forces men to beliCve,
hut that there is such a union of definite-
ness aud vagueness in the prophecies as to
enable those who are willing to discover
the truth, while the wilfully blind are not
forcibly constrained to see it. 2. That,
had the prophecies been couched in the
form of direct declarations, their fulfilment
would have thereby been rendered impos
sible, or, at least, capable of frustration.
3. That tho effect of prophecy would have
been far less beneficial to believers, as
being less adapted to keep them in a state
of constant expectation. 4. That the Mes
siah of revelation could not be so clearly
portrayed iu his varied character as God and
Man, as Prophet, Priest and King, if he had

been the raere " teacher." 5. That tho state
of the Prophets, at the tirae of receivhig
the Divine revelation, was such as neces
sarily to make their predictions fragmen
tary, figurative, and abstracted frora the
relations of time. 6. That some portions
of the prophecies were intended to be of
double application, and some portions to
be understood only on their fulfilment (cf.
John xiv. 29; Ez. xxxvi. 33). We le.arn
frora Holy Scripture that it was by the
agency of the Spirit of God that the proph
ets received the divine communication.
But the means by which the Divine Spirit
communicated with the human spirit, and
the conditions of the human spirit under
which the Divine coramunications were rt-
ceived, have not been clearly declared to
us. 'They are, however, indicated. In
Num. xii. 6-8 we have an exhaustive di
vision of the different ways in which the
revelations of God are raade to man. 1.
Direct declaration and manifestation: "I
will speak raouth to mouth, apparently,
and the similitude of the Lord shall he be
hold." 2. Vision. 3. Dream. But though
it must be allowed that Scripture language
seeins to point out the state of dream and
of trance, or ecstasy, as a coniiitiou in
which the human instrument received the
Divine coramunications, it does not follow
that all the prophetic revelations were. thus
made. Had tho prophets a full knowledge
of that which they predicted? It follows
from what we have already s.aid that they
had not, and could not have. They were
the "spokesmen" of God (Ex. vii. 1), the
" raouth " by which His words were uttered,
or they were enabled to view, and empow
ered to describe, pictures presented to their
spiritual intuition ; but there are no grounds
for believing that, conteraporaueously with
this miracle, there was wrought another
miracle, enlarging the understanding of
the prophet so as to grasp the whole of the
Divine counsels which -he was gazing into,
or which he was the instrument of enun
ciating. Of the sixteen Prophets, four
are usually called the Great Prophets,
naraely, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, an(l
Daniel ; and twelve the Minor Propliets,
namely, 'Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah,
Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zeph
aniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. They
raay be divided into four groups : the
Prophets of the Northern Kingdom — Ho
sea, Amos, Joel, Jonah; the Prophets of
the Southern Kingdom — Isaiah, Jeremiah,
Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk.., Zeph
aniah; the Prophets' of the Captivity —
Ezekiel and Daniel; the Prophets of the
Return — Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
They may be arranged in the foUowing
chronological order : namely, Joel, Jona'ti,
Hosea, Amos, Isaiah, Micah, Nahum, Zeph
aniah, Habakkuk, Obadiah, Jeremiah. Eja-

PROPHET

552

PROSELYTES

kiel, Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
Use of Prophecy. — Predictive prophecy is
at once a p.art and an evidence of revela
tion : at tbe time that it is delivered, and
until its fulfilraent, a part ; after it has been
fulfilled, an evidence. St. Peter (2 Ep. i-
19) describes it as "a light shining in a
d.irk place," or " a taper gliraraering where
there is nothing to reflect its rays," that is,
throwing sorae light, but only a feeble light
as corapared with what is shed from the
Gospel history. But after fulfllment, St.
Peter saysj "the word of prophecy" be
comes " more sure " than it was before ;
that is, it is no longer merely a feeble light
to guide, but it is a firm ground of confi
dence, and, combined with the apostolic
testiraony, serves as a trustworthy evidence
of the faith. As an evidence, fulfiUed
prophecy is as satisfactory as anything can
be ; for who can know the future except tbe
Ruler who disposes future events? and
from whom can come prediction except
from Him who knows the future ? Devel
opment of Messianic Prophecy. — Predic
tion, in the shape of proraise and threaten
ing, begins with the Book of Genesis.
Imraediately upon the Fall, hopes of re
covery and salvation are held out, but the
manner in which this s.alvation is to be
effected is left altogether indefinite. All
that is at first declared is, that it shall come
through a child of woman (Gen. iii. 15).
By degrees the area is limited : it is to
come through the family of Shera (Gen. ix.
26), through the family of Abraham (Gen.
vu. 3), of Isaac (Gen. xxii. 18), of Jacob
(Gen, xxviu, 14), of Judah (xlix. 10).
ISalaam seeras .to say that it will be wrought
by a warlike Israelitish King (Num. xxiv.
17) ; Jacob, by a peaceful Ruler of the earth
(Gen. xlix. 10) ; Moses, by a Prophet like
himself, i. e. a revealer of a new religious
dispensation (Deut, xviii. 15). Niithan's
.announcement (2 Sam. vii. 16) determines
further that the salvation is to come through
the house of David, and through a descend
ant of David who shall be himself a king.
This promise is developed by David him
self in the Messianic Psalms. Pss. xviii.
and Ixi. are founded on the proraise cora
raunicated by Nathan, and do not go beyond
the announceraent made by Nath.an. The
same may be said of Ps. Ixxxix., which
was coraposed by a later writer. Pss. ii.
and ex. rest upon the sarae proraise as their
foundation, but add new features to it.
The Son of David is to be the Son of God
(U. 7), the Anointed ofthe Lord (U. 2), not
only the King of Zion (ii. 6, ex. 1), but the
Inheritor and Lord of the whole earth (ii.
8, ex. 6), and besides this, a Priest forever
after the order of Melchizedek (ex. 4). At
the same time, he is, as typified by his pro
genitor, to be full of suffering and affliction
(Pss. xxu., lx.\i., cU., cix.) ; brought down

to the grave, yet raised to life without
seeing corruption (Ps. xvi.). In Pss. xiv.,
Ixxu., the sons of Korah and Solomon
describe his peaceful reign. Between Solo
mon and Hezekiah intervened some 200
years, during which the voice of prophecy
was silent. The Messianic conception en
tertained at this time by the Jews might
have been that of a King of the royaj
house of David, who would arise, and gather
under his peaceful sceptre his own people
and strangers- Sufficient allusion to his
prophetical and priestly offices had been
made to create thoughtful consideration,
but as yet there was no clear delineation of
him in these characters- It was reserved
for the Prophets to bring out these features
more distinctly. In this great period of
prophetism there is no longer any chrono
logical development of Messianic Prophecy,
as in the earlier period previous to Solo
raon. Each prophet adds a feature, one
raore, another less clearly : combine the
feature, and we have the portrait; but it
does not grow gradually and perceptibly
under the hands of the several artists.
Its culminating point is found in the
prophecy contained in Is. lii. 13-15, and Iiii.
Prophets of ihe New Testament. — So far
as their predictive powers are concerned,
the Old 'Testament prophets find their New
Testament counterpart in the writer of the
Apocalypse ; but in their general character,
as specially illumined revealers of God's
will, their counterpart will rather be found,
first in the Great prophet of the Church,
and his forerunner John the Baptist, and
next in all those persons who were endowed
with the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit
in the Apostolic age, the speakers with
tongues and the interpreters of tongues, the
prophets and the discerners of spirits, the
teachers and workers of miracles (1 Cor.
xu. 10, 28). That predictive powers did
occasionally exist in the N. T. prophets is
proved by the case of Agabus (Acts xi. 28),
but this was not their characteristic. The
prophets of the N. T. were supernaturally-
illuminated expounders and preachers.
Proselytes. The Hebrew word thus
transliited is in the A. V. commonly ren
dered "sti-iinger" (Gen. xv. 13; Ex. ii.
22 ; Is. V. 17, &c.). In the N. T. the A. V.
has taken the word in a more restricted
raeaning, and translated it .accordingly (Matt.
xxiu. 15; Acts U. 10, vi. 5). The Chere
thites and Pelethites consisted prohably
of foreigners who had been attracted to the
service of David, and were content for it
to adopt the religion of their master. A
convert of another kind, the type, as it has
been thought, of the later proselytes of th*i
gate, is To-und in Naaraan the Syrian (2 K.
V. 15, 18), recognizing Jehovah as his God,
yet not binding hiraself to any rigorous
observance of the Law. The Dispernion

PR0SE1.YTES

553

PROSELYTES

of the Jews in foreign countries, which has
been spoken of elsewhere [Dispersion,
The], enabled thera to make raany con
verts to their faith. The converts who
where thus attracted, joined, with varying
strictness, in the worship of the Jews. ' In
Pa]£Stine itself, even Roraan centurions
learnt to love the conquered nation, built
synagogues -for them (-Luke vii. 5), fasted
iud prayed, and gave alms after the pattern
of the strictest Jews (Acts x. 2, 30), and
became preachers of the new faith to the
soldiers under them {ib. v. 7). Such men,
drawn by what was best in Judaism, were
naturally among the readiest receivers of
the new truth which rose out of it, and
became, in many cases, the nucleus of a
Gentile Church. Proselytisra had, how
ever, its darker side. The Jews of Pales
tine were eager to spread their faith by the
same weapons as those with which they
had defended it. The Idumaeans had the
alternative offered thera by John Hyrca
nus of death, exile, or circuracision. The
Ituraeans were converted in the sarae wiiy
by Aristobulus. Where force was not in
their power, they obtained their ends by
the most unscrupulous fraud. Those who
were raost active in proselytizing were pre
cisely those frora whose teaching all that
was most true and living had departed.
The vices of the Jew were ingrafted on
the vices of the heathen. A repulsive
casuistry released the convert frora obli
gations which he had before recognized,
while iu other things he was bound, hand
aud foot, to £Mi unhealthy superstition. It
was no wonder that he becarae " twofold
more the child of hell " (Matt, xxiii. 15)
than the Pharisees theraselves. The posi
tion of such proselytes was indeed every
way pitiable. At Rorae, and in other large
cities, tihey becarae the butts of popular
scurrility.* Among the Jews themselves
their case was not much better. For the
most part the convert gained but little
honor, even from those who gloried in hav
ing brought him over to their sect and party.
The popular Jewish feeUng about them was
like the popular Christian feeUng about a
converted Jew, The better Rabbis did
their best to guard against these evils.
Anxious to exclude all unworthy converts,
they grouped them, according to their
motives, with a soraewhat quaint classifica
tion. (1.) Love-proselytes, where they
were drawn by the hope of gaining the
beloved one. (2.) Man-for-Woman or
Woman-for-Mau proselytes, where the
husband followed the religion of the wife,
or conversely. (8.) Esther-proselytes,
where conforraity was assumed to escape
danger, as in the original Purim (Esth.
vui. 17). (4.) King's-table-proselytes, who
• The words " curtua," " verpes," met tliem at every cor
ner (Hor. Sat, 1. 4, 142 i Mart. vii. 29, 34, 81, xi. 95, xii. 37;. I

were led by the hope of court favor and
promotion, like the converts under David
and Soloraon. (5). Lion-proselytcs, where
the conversion originated in a superstitious
dread of a divine judgment, as with the
Samaritans of 2 K. xvu. 26. None of these
were regarded as fit for admission within
the covenant. — We find in the Talmud a
distinction between Proselytes of the Gate
and Proselytes of Riglueousness. 1. The
term Proselytes of the Gate was derived
frora the frequently occurring description
in the Law, " the stranger that is within
thy gates " (Ex. xx. 10, &c.). Converts of
this class were not bound by circumcision
and the other special laws of the Mosaic
code. It was enough for them to observe
the seven precepts of Noah — i. e. tho six
supposed to have been given to Adam, (1)
against idolatry, (2) against blaspheming,
(3) against bloodshed, (4) against unclean
ness (5) against theft, (6) of obedience, with
(7) the prohibition of " fiesh with the blood
thereof" given to Noah. The proselyte
was not to claim the privileges of an
Israelite, raight not redeem his first-born,
or pay the half-shekel. He was forbidden
to study the Law under pain of death.
The later Rabbis insisted that the profes
sion of his faith should be made solemnly
in the presence of three witnesses. The
Jubilee was the proper season for his
adraission. All this seems so full and pre
cise that it has led raany writers to look
on it as representing a reality ; and raost
coraraentators accordingly have seen these
Proselytes of the Gate in the " religious
proselytes," " the devout persons," " de
vout men " of the Acts (Acts xiii. 43, xvu.
4, 17, U. 5). It remains doubtful, however,
whether it was ever more than a paper
scheme of what ought to be, disguising
itself as having actually been. 2. The
Proselytes of Righteousness, known also as
P] oselytes of the Covenant, were perfect
Israelites. We learn from the Talmud
that, in addition to circuracision, baptisra
was also required to complete their admis
sion to the faith. The proselyte was placed
in a tank or pool, up to his neck in water.
His teachers, who now acted as his spon
sors, repeated the great coraraandraents of
the Law. The baptisra was followed, as
long as the Teraple stood, by the offering
or Corban. — This account suggests many
questions of grave interest. '\Vas this rit
ual observed as early as the comraence
ment of the first century ? If so, was the
baptisra of John, or that of the Christian
Church, in any way derived from, or con
nected with, the baptism of proselytes ? If
not, was the latter in any way borrowed
from the forraer? It will be enough to
sum up the conclusions which seem fairly
to be drawn from the controversy on this
subject. (1.) There is no direct evidenca

PROVERBS, BOOK OF

554

PROVINCE

of the jiractice being in use before the de
struction of Jerusalem. (2.) The negative
argument drawn from the silence of the O.
T,, of the Apocrypha, of Philo, and of Jo
sephus, is almost decisive against the be
Uef that there was, in their time, a baptism
of proselytes with as much importance at
tached to it as we flnd in the Talmudists.
(3.) It is probable, however, that there
was a baptisra in use at a period consider
ably earlier than that for which we have
direct evidence. (4.) The history of the
N. T. itself suggests the existence of such
a custom. A sign is seldom chosen unless
it already has a meaning for those to whom
it is addressed. The fitness of the sign in
this case would be in proportion to the as
sociations already connected with it. The
question of the Priests and Levites, " Why
'.saptizest thou then ? " (John i. 25) iraplies
*hat they wondered, not at the thing itself,
but at its being done for Israelites by one
who disclairaed the naraes which, in their
eyes, would have justified the introduction
of a new order.
Proverbs, Book of. The canonicity
of the Book of Proverbs has - never been
disputed except by the Jews theraselves.
It appears to have been one of the points
urged by the school of Shararaai, that the
contradictions in the Book of Proverbs ren
dered it apocryphal. It occurs in all the
Jewish lists of canonical books, and is
reckoned araong what are called the " writ
ings " {cethAbim) or Hagiographa, which
form the third great division of the Hebrew
Scriptures. The superscriptions which are
affixed to several portions of the Book, in
i. 1, X. 1, xxv. 1, attribute the authorship
of those portions to Solomon, the son of
David, king of Israel. With the exception
of the last two chapters, wluch are distinct
ly assigned to other authors, it is probable
that the stateraent of the superscriptions is
in the raain correct, and that the majority
of the Proverbs cont.ained in the book were
uttered or collected by Solomon. Speak
ing roughly, the book consists of three raain
divisions, with two appendices. 1. Chaps.
i.-ix. form a connected didactic poem, in
which Wisdora is praised and. the youth
exhorted to devote hiraself to her. This
portion is preceded by an introduction and
title describing the character and general
aira of the book. 2. Chaps, x.-xxiv,, with
the title, "The Proverbs of Solomon," con
sist of three parts : x, 1,-xxii, 16, a collec
tion of single proverbs, and detached sen
tences out of the region of moral teaching
and worldly prudence; xxii. 17-xxiv. 21, a
more connected didactic poem, with an in
troduction, xxu 17-22, which contains pre
cepts of righteousness and prudence : xxiv.
23-34, with the inscription, "These also be
long to the wise," a collection of uncon
nected maxims, which serve as an appendix

to the preceding. Then foUows the third
division, xxv.-xxix., which, according to
the superscription, professes to be a collec
tion of Solomon's proverbs, consisting of
single sentences, which the men of the
court of Hezekiah copied out. The first
appendix, ch. xxx., " 'The words of Affur,
the son of Jakeh," is a collection of pifftly
proverbial and partly enigmatical sayings ;
the second, ch. xxxi., is divided into two
parts, "The words of king Lemuel" (1-6),
and an alphabetical acrostic in praise of a
virtuous woman, which occupies the rest of
the chapter. Who was Agur, and who was
Jakeh, are questions which have been often
asked, and never satisfactorily answeicd.
All th.at can be said of him is, that he is an
unknown Hebrew sage, the son of an equal
ly unknown Jakeh, and that he lived after
the time of Hezekiah. Lemuel, like Agur,
is unknown. It is even uncertain whether
he is to be regarded as a real personage, or
whether the nam'e is merely symbolical.
If the present text be retained, itis difficult
to see what other conclusion can be arrived
at. If Lerauel were a real personage, he
raust have been a foreign neighbor-king, or
the chief of a, nomade tribe; and in this
case the proverbs attributed to him must
have come to the Hebrews from a foreign
source, which is highly improbable, and
contrary to all we know of the people.
'The Proverbs are frequently quoted or al
luded to in the New Testament, and the
canonicity of the book thereby confirmed.
The following is a Ust of the principal pas
sages : —
Prov. i. 1ft compare Rora. iii. 10, 15.
iii, 7 " Kora, xii, 16.
iii. 11, 12 " Urb. xii. 5, 6; see also Bev. IU.
-19.
iii. 34 " Jam. iv. 6.
X. 12 " 1 Pet. iv. 8.
xl. 33 "1 Pet iv. IS.
xvii.I3 " Bora. xii.I7; IThess. V.U; IFet.
iii. 9.
xvii. 27 " Jam. i. 19.
XX. 9 "I John i. 8.
XX. 20 " Mott. XV. 4: Mark Tii. la.
xxii. 8 (LXX.) " 2 Cor. ix. 7.
xxv. 21, 22 " Rom. xii. 20,
xxvi. U " 2 Pet. ii. 22.
xxvu. 1 " Jam. iv. 13, 14.
Province. It is not intended here to
do more than indicate the points of contact
which this word presents with Biblical his
tory and literature, (1,) In the 0. T- it
appears in connection with the w<ars be
tween Ahab and Benhadad (1 K. xx. 14,
15, 19). The victory of the former is
gained chiefly "by the young men of the
princes of the provinces," i. e., probably, of
the chiefs of tribes in the Gilead country.
(2.) More comraonly the word is used of
the divisions of the Chaldaean (Dan. ii. 49,
iii. 1, 30) and the Persian kingdoms (Ezr.
U. 1 ; Neh. vu. 6 ; Esth. i. 1, 22, U. 8, &c.).
In the N. T. we are brought into contact
with the administration of the provinces of
the Roman empire. The classification ot

PSALMS, BOOK OF

555

PSALMS, BOOK OF

provinces supposed to need military con
trol, and therefore placed under the im
mediate government of the Caesar, and
those still belonging theoretically to the
republic, and administered by the senate ;
and of the latter again into proconsular
and praetorian, is recognized, more or less
distinctly, in the Gospels and the Acts [Pro
consul; Procurator.] The oTQairiyoiot
Acts xvi. 22 (" magistrates," A. V.), on the
other hand, were the duumviri, or praetors
of a Roman colony. The right of any Ro
man citizen to appeal from a provincial gov
ernor to the emperor meets us as asserted'
by St. Paul (Acts xxv. 11). In the coun
cil of Acts xxv. 12 we recognize the assess
ors who were appointed to take part in the
judicial functions of the governor.
Psalms, Book of. The present He
brew narae of the Book is Tehillim,
" Praises," But in the actual superscrip
tions of the psalras the word Tehilldh is
applied only to one, Ps. cxiv., which is in
deed eraphatically a praise-hymn. The
LXX. entitled them rpaifioi, or "Psalms."
The Christian Church obviously received
the Psalter frora the Jews not only as a
constituent portion of the sacred volume
of Holy Scripture, but also as the liturgi
cal hymn-book which the Jewish Church
had regularly used in the Temple. The
book contains 150 Psalms, and may be
divided into flve great divisions or books,
which raust have been originally forraed at
tlifferent periods. This is by various fur
ther considerations rendered all but certain.
Thus, there is a reraarkable difference be
tween the several books in their use of the
divine names Jehovah and Elohim, to des
ignate Almighty God. In Book I. (i.-xli.)
the former name prevails : it is found 272
tiraes, while Elohira occurs but 15 times.
In Book II. (xlii.-lxxii.), Elohim is found
more than five tiraes as often as Jehovah.
In Book III. (Ixxiii.-lxxxix,), the prepon
derance of Elohim in the earlier is balanced
by that of Jeliovah in the latter psalms of
the book. In Book IV. (xc.-cvi,) the
name Jehovah is exclusively employed;
and so also, virtually, iu Book V, (cvii,-
cl,), Elohim being there found only in two
passages incorporated frora earUer psalms.
We find the several groups of psalms which
forra the respective five books distinguished,
in great measure, by their superscriptions,
from each other. Book I, is, by the super
scriptions, entirely Davidic ; nor do we find
in it a trace of any but David's authorship.
We 3iay well believe that the compilation
of the book was also Dawid's work. Book
II. appears by the date of Its latest psalm,
Ps. xlvi., to have been compiled in the
reign of king Hezekiah. It would natural
ly comprise, 1st, several or most of the
I-^vitical psalms anterior to that date; and
2dly, tlie remainder of the psalms of David

previously uncompilei. To these latt>!r the
collector, after prope;rly appending uiie sin
gle psalm of Solomon, has affixed the notice
that-" the prayers of David the son of Jesse
are ended" (Ps. Ixxii, 20); evidently im
plying, at least on the primd facie view,
that no more compositions of the royal
psalmist reraained. How then do we find,
in the later Books III., IV., V., further
psalms yet marked with David's narae?
The narae David is used to denote, in
other parts of Scripture, after the original
David's death, the then head of the Davidic
faraily; and so, in prophecy, the Messiah
of the seed of David, who was to sit on
David's throne (1 K, xii, 16; Hos. iii. 5;
Is. Iv. 3; Jer. xxx. 9; Ez. xxxiv. 28, 24).
And thus then we may explain the raean
ing of the later Davidic superscriptions in
the Psalter. The psalms to which they be
long were written, by Hezekiah^ by Josiah,
by Zerubbabel, or others of David's pos
terity. The above explanation removes all
serious difficulty respecting the history of
the later 'books of the Psalter. Book IIL,
the interest of which centres in the times
of Hezekiah, stretches out, by ils last two
psalras, to the reign of Manasseh : it was
probably corapiled in the reign of Josiah.
Book IV. contiiins the remainder of the
psalras up to the date of the captivity;
Book V. the psalms of the Return. There
is nothing to distinguish these two books
frora each other in respect of outward dee-
oration or arrangement, and they may have
been -compiled together in the days of Nehe
miah. Connedion of .the Psalms with tht
Israelitish History. — The psalra of Moses,
Ps, xc, which is in point of actual date the
earliest, faithfully reflects the long, weary
wanderings, the multiplied provocations,
and the consequent punishraents' of the
wilderness. It is, however, with David
that Israelitish psalraody may be said vir-
tuiiUy to coraraence. Previous mastery
over his harp had probably already pre
pared the way for his future strains, when
the anointing oil of Samuel descended upon
hira, and he began to drink in special raeas-
ure, frora that day forward, of the Spirit of
the Lord. It was then that, victorious at
home over the mysterious melancholy of
Saul, and in the field over the vaunting
champion of the Philistine hosts, he sang
how from even babes and sucklings God
had ordained strength because of His ene
mies (Ps. viii.). His next psalras are of
a different character; his persecutions at
the hands of Saul had commenced. When
David's reign has begun, it is stUl with the
most exciting incidents of his history, pri
vate or public, that his psalms are mainly
associated. There are none to which tha
period of his reign at Hebron can lay ex
clusive claim. -But after the conquest of
Jerusalem his psalmody opened afresh with

PSALMS, BOOK OF

556

PSALMS, BOOK OP

the solemn removal of the ark to Mount
Zion ; and in Pss. xxiv.-xxix., which be
long together, we have the earliest deflnite
instance of David's systematic composition
or arrangeraent of psalras for public use.
Even of those psalras which cannot be re
ferred to any deflnite occasion, several re
flect the general historical circumstances
of the times. Thus Ps, ix, is a thanksgiv
ing for the deliverance of the land of Israel
from its former heathen oppressors. Ps.
X. is a prayer for the deliverance of the
Church from the high-handed oppression
exercised from within. The succeeding
psalms dwell on the sarae theme, the vir
tual, internal heathenism by which the
Church of God was weighed down. So
that there remain very few, e. g. Pss. xv.-
xvii., xix., xxxii. (with its choral appen
dage xxiii.), xxxvii., of which some histori
cal account may not be. given. A season
of repose near the close of his reign in
duced David to compose his grand person
al thanksgiving for the deliverances of his
whole life, Ps. xviu. ; the date of which is
approximately determined by the place at
which it is inserted in the history (2 Sam.
xxii.). It was probably at this period that
he finally arranged for the sanctuary-ser
vice that collection of his psalms which
now constitutes the First Book of the Psal
ter. The course of David's reign was not,
liowever, as yet coraplete. The solemn
assembly convened by him for the dedica
tion of the materials of the future Temple
vl Chr. xxvUi., xxix.) would naturally call
forth a renewal of his best efforts to glorify
the God of Israel in psalms ; and to this
occasion we doubtless owe the great festal
hymns Pss. Ixv.-lxvii., Ixviii.', containing
a large review of the past history, present
position, and prospective glories of God's
chosen people. Tlie supplications of Ps.
IxLx. suit best with the renewed distress
occasioned by the sedition of Adonijah.
Ps. Ixxi., to which Ps. Ixx., a fragraent of
a former psalra, is introductory," forras
David's parting strain. Yet that the psalrao
dy of Israel raay not seem finally to ter
minate with him, the glories of the future
are forthwith anticipated by his. son in Ps.
Ixxii. Por a time the single psalm of Sol
omon remained the only addition to those
of David. If, however, religious psalraody
were to revive, soraewhat might be not un
reasonably anticipated from the great as
sembly of king Asa (2 Chr. xv.) ; and Ps.
1, suits so exactly with the circumstances
of that occasion, that it may well be as-
Bigned to it. The great prophetical ode Ps.
xiv. connects itself most readily with the
splendors of Jehoshaphat's reign. And
after that psalmody had thus definitely re
vived, there would be no reason why it
should not thenceforward manifest itself in
•easons of anxiety, aa weU as of festivity

and thanksgiving. Hence Ps. xlix. Yet
the psalms ef this period flow but sparing
ly. Pss. xUi--xliv., Ixxiv., are best as
signed to the reign of Ahaz. The reign
of Hezekiah is naturally rich in psalmody.
Pss. xlvi., IxxiU., Ixxv,, Ixxvi., connect
themselves with the resistance to the su
premacy of the Assyrians and the divine
destruction of their host. We are now
brought to a series of psalms of peculiar
interest, springing out of the political and
religious history of the separated ten tribes.
In date of actual coraposition they cora
raence before the times of Hezekiah. The
earliest is probably Ps. Ixxx., a supplica
tion for the Israelitish people at the time
ofthe Syrian oppression. All these psalms
(Ixxx.-lxxxiii.) are referred by their super-
scjiptions to the Levite singers, and thus
bear witness to the efforts of the Levites to
reconcile the two branches of the chosen
nation. The captivity of Manasseh him
self proved to be but temporary; but the
sentence which his sins had provoked upon
Judah and Jerusalem still remained to be
executed, and precluded the hope that
God's salvation could be revealed till after
such an outpouring of His judgments as
the nation never yet had known. Labor
and sorrow must be the lot of the present
generation ; through these mercy raight oc
casionally gleam, but the glory which was
eventually to be manifested raust be for
posterity alone. The psalms of Book IV.
bear generally the impress of this feeling.'
We pass to Bonk V. Ps. cvii. is the open
ing psalm of the return, sung probably at
the first Feast of Tabernacles (Ezr. iii.).
The ensuing Davidic psalras may well be
ascribed to Zerubbabel. We here pass
over the questions connected with Ps.
cxix. ; but a directly historical character
belongs to Pss. cxx.-oxxxiv. , styled in our
A. V. " Songs of Degrees." Internal evi
dence refers these to the period when the
Jews under Nehemiah were, in the very
face of the enemy, repairing the walls of
Jerusalem, and the title may well signify
" Songs of goings up upon the 'Halls," the
psalms being, from their brevity, well
adapted to be sung by the workmen and
guards while engaged in their respective
duties. Of somewhat earlier date, it may
be, are Ps. cxxxvii. and the ensuing Da
vidic psalms. Of '/hese, Ps. cxxxix. is a
psalm of the new birth of Israel, frora the
womb of the Babylonish captivity, to a life
of righteousness ; Pss. cxl.-cxlUi. may be
a picture of thi trials to 'wtich tho unre-'
stored exiles wei* still exposed in the
realms of the GentUes. Henceforward,
as we approach the close of the Psalter,
its _ strains rise in cheerfulness ; and it
fittingly terminates with Pss. cxlvu.-cl.,
which were probably sung on the occasion
of the thanksgiving procession of Neh. 3iii.|

PSALMS, BOOK OP

557

PTOLEMEE

after the rebuUding of the waUs of Jerusa
lem had been completed. Moral Charac
teristics of tho Psalms. — Foremost among
these meets us, undoubtedly, the universal
recourse to coraraunion with God. Con
nected with tills is the faith -by which the
.psalmist everywhere lives in God rather
than in himself. It is of the essence of
such faith that his view of the perfections
of God should be true and vivid. The
Psalter describes God as He is : it glows
with testimonies to His power and prov
idence. His love and faithfulness, His holi
ness aud righteousness. Tho Psalms not
only set forth the perfections of God : they
proclaim also the duty of worshipping Hira
. by the acknowledgment and adoration of
His perfections. They encourage all out
ward rites and means of worslup. Among
these they recognize the ordinance of sac
rifice as an expression of the worshipper's
consecration of himself to God's service.
But not the less dothey repudiate the out-
wiird rite when separated frora that which
it was designed to express. Sirailar depth
is observiible in the view taken by the
psalmists of human sin. In regard to the
law, the psalmist, while warmly acknowl
edging its exceUence, feels yet that it can
not so effectually guide his own unassisted
exertions as to preserve him frora error
(Ps. xix.). The Psalms bear repeated tes
timony to the duty of instructing others in
the ways of holiness (Pss. xxxii., xxxiv.,
li.). 'This brings us to notice, lastly, the
faith of the psalmists iu a righteous recora-
. pense to all men according to their deeds
(Ps. xxxvii., &c.). Prophdical Charader
of the Psalms. — The moral struggle be
tween godliness and ungodliness, so vividly
depicted in the Psalras, culrainates, in Holy
Scripture, in the life of the Incarnate Son
of God upon earth. It only remains to
show that the Psalras themselves definitely
anticipated this culraination. Now there
are in the Psalter at least three psalms of
which the interest evidently centres in a
person distinct from the speaker, and which,
since they cannot without violence to the
language he interpreted of any but the Mes
siah, raay be termed directly and exclusively
Messianic. We refer to Pss. ii., xiv., ex. ;
to which raay perhaps be added Ps. Ixxii.
It would be strange if these few psalms
stood, in their prophetical significance, ab
solutely alone araong the rest. And hence
5ie impossibility of viewing the psalms gen-
jrally, notwithstanding the historical dra
pery in which they are outwardly clothed,
as siraply the past devotions of the histor
ical David or the historical Israel. The
national hymns of Israel are indeed also
jjirospective ; but in general they anticipate
rather the struggles and the triumphs of
the Christian Church than those of Christ
Himself.

Psaltery was a stringed instrument of
music to accorapany the voice. The He
brew n&bel, or nebel, is so rendered in the
A. V. in all passages where it occurs, ex
cept in Is. V. 12, xiv. 11, xxii. 24 raarg. j
Ara. V. 23, vi. 5, where it is translated viol.
The ancient viol was a six-stringed guitar.
In the Prayer Book version of the Psalms,
the Hebrew word is rendered " lute." This
instrument resembled the guitar, but waa
superior in tone, being larger, and having
a convex back, soraewhat like the vertical
section of a gourd, or more nearly resem
bling that of a pear. These three instru
raents, the psaltery or sautry, the viol, and
the lute, are frequently associated in the old
English poets, and were clearly instruments
resembling each other, though still differ
ent. The Greek Psalierium (i/iaArijgijv)
from which our word is derived, denotet
an instrument played -with the fingers in
stead of a plectrum or quill, the verb being
used of twanging the bow-string. It ia
impossible to say positively with what in -
struraent the nebel of the Hebrew exactly
corresponded. From the fact that nebel ia
Hebrew also signifies a wine-bottle or skiii,
it has been conjectured that the term whe a
applied to a musical instrument denotes a
kind of bagpipe. The psalteries of David
were made of cypress (2 Sam. vi. 5), those
of Solomon of algum or alraug-trees (2 Chr.
ix. 11). Araong the instruraents of the
band which played before Nebuchadnezzar's
golden image on the plains of Dura, we
again meet with the psaltery (Dan. iU. 5,
10, 15; pescmi&rin). The Chaldee word
appears to be merely a modification of the
Greek psalierium.
Ptol' emee and Ptoleme'us. 1. "The
son of Dorymenes" (1 Mace. iii. 38 ; 2 Mace.
iv. 45 ; comp. Polyb. v, 61), a courtier who
possessed great influence with Antiochus
Epiphanes, He was induced by a bribe to
support the cause of Menelaus (2 Mace. iv.
45-50) . Ptolemy . took part in the great
expedition which Lysias organized against
Judas (1 Mace. iu. 38). 2. The sou of
Agesarchus, a Megalopolitan, surnamed
Macron (2 Mace. x. 12), who was gov
ernor of Cyprus during the minority of
Ptolemy Philometor, He afterwards de
serted the Egyptian service to join Antio
chus Epiphanes. He stood high in the
favor of Antiochus, and received frora him
the government of Phoenicia and Coele-
Syria (2 Mace. viu. 8, x. 11, 12). On the
accession of Antiochus Eupator, his con
ciliatory policy towards the Jews brought
him into suspicion at court. He was de
prived of his government, and in conse
quence of this disgrace he .poisoned himself
c. B, o. 164 (2 Maec, x, 13), 3. The son
of Abubus', who married the daughter of
Simon the Maccabee. He was a man of
i great wealth, and being invested with tha

PTOLEMAEUS

558

PTOLEMAEUS

governraent ofthe district of Jericho, formed
the design of usurping the sovereignty- of
Judaea, Ptolemae'us I. So'ter, the son of La-
gus, a Macedonian of low rank, distin
guished himself greatly during the cam
paigns of Alexander ; at whose (death, he
secured for himself the government of
Egypt, where he proceeded at once to lay
the foundations of a kingdom (b, o. 323).
He abdicated in favor of his youngest son
Ptol, II. Philadelphus, two years before his
death, which took place in b. c. 283. Ptol.
Soter is described very briefly in Daniel
(xi. 5) as one of those who should receive
part of the empire of Alexander when it
was " divided toward the four winds of
heaven." Ptolemae'us II- Philadel'phus
(b. c- 285-247) the youngest son of Ptol.
I., was made king two years before his
death, to conflrra the irregular succession.
The conflict between Egypt and Syria was
renewed during his reign in consequence
of the intrigue of his half-brother Magas.
" But in the end of years ihey [the kings
of Syria and Egypt] joined themselves to
gether [in friendship]. For the king's
daughter of the south [Berenice, the daugh
ter of Ptol, Philadelphus] came [as bride]
to ihe king ofthe north [Antiochus II-], io
gnake an agreem,ent " (Dan, xi, 6), In other
respects, however, this reign was a critical
epoch for the developracnt of Judaism, as
il w.as for the intellectual history of the
aDi.itnt world. The liberal encouragement
'which Ptolemy bestowed on literature and
science gave birth to a new school of writ
ers "ind thinkers. The critical faculty was
called forth in place of the creative, and
learning in some sense supplied the place
of original speculation. It was irapossible
that the Jew, who was now becorae as true
a citizen of the world as the Greek, should
remain passive in the conflict of opinions.
It is enough now to observe the greatness
of the consequences involved in the union
of Greek language with Jewish thought.
From this tirae the Jew was familiarized
with the great types of Western literature,
aud in some degree aimed at imitating them.
An elder Pbjlo celebrated Jerusalem in a
long hexameter poem. Another epic poem,
" on the Jews," was written by 'Theodotus,
The work of Aristobulus on tho interpre
tation of tlif Law, was a still more impor
tant result of the combination of the old
faith with Greek culture, as forming the
groundwork of later allegories. A second
time and in a new fashion Egypt disciplined
a people of God. It first impressed upon a
nation the firm unity of a family, and then
in duo time reconnected a matured people
with the world from which if had been
called out.
Ptolemae'us III. Euer'getes (b. c.

247-222) was the eldest son of Ptol. Philad.
and brother of Berenice the wife of Antio
chus II. The repudiation and murder of
his sister furnished hira with an occasion
for inviiding Syria (c. b. c. 246). He " stood
up, a branch out of her stock [sprung from
the s.ame parents] in his [father's] estate ;
and set himself at [the head of] his army,
and came against the fortresses ofthe king
of the north [Antiochus], and dealt agaimt
them and prevailed " (Dan. xi. 7). He ex
tended his conquests as far as Antioch, and
then eastwards to Babylon, but was recalled
to Egypt by tidings of seditions which had
broken out there. His success was brilliant
and coraplete. " He carried captive into
Egypt the gods [of the conquered nations]
with their molten images, and with iheir
precious vessels of silver and gold " (Dan.
xi. 8). This capture of sacred trophies
earned for the king the narae Euergetes —
" Benefactor." After his return to Egypt
(cir. B. c. 243) he suffered a great part of
the conquered provinces to fall again under
the power of Seleucus, But the attempts
which Seleucus made to attack Egj'pt ter
minated 'disastrously to himself. He first
collected a fleet, which was alraost totally
destroyed by a storm ; and then, as if by
some judicial infatuation, " he came against
the realm of ihe king of ihe south, and
[being defeated] returned io his own land
[to Antioch] " (Dan, xi, 9 ; Justin xxvii.
2). After this Ptolemy " desisted some
years from, [attacking] the king of the
north" (Dan. xi. 8).
Ptolemae'us I'V". Ptulop'ator (b, c.
222-205). After the death of Ptol. Euer
getes the line of the Ptolemies rapidly
degenerated. Ptol. Philopator, his eldest
son, who succeeded hira, was to the last
degree sensu.al, effeminate, and debased.
But externally his kingdom retained its
power and splendor; and when circum
stances forceii him to action, Ptolemy him
self showed abiUty not unworthy of his
race. The description of the campaign of
Raphia (n, c, 217) in the Book of Daniel
gives a vivid description of his character.
" 'The sons of Seleucus [Seleucus Ceraunus
and Antiochus the Great] were stirred up,
and assembled a multitude of great forces ;
and one of them [Antiochus] came and
overflowed and passed through [even to
Pelusiura : Polyb. v. 62] ; and he returned
[frora Seleucia, to which he had retired
during a faithless truce: Polyb, v. 66];
and they [Antiochus and Ptolemy] were
stirred up [in war] even to his [Antiochus']
fortress. And the king of the south [Ptol.
Philopator] was moved wiih choler, and
came forth and fought with him [at Ra
phia] ; and he set forth a great multitude;
and the multitude was given into his hand
[to lead to battle] ; and ihe multitude raised
itself [proudly for the conflict] and his

PTOLEMAEUS

559

PTOLEMAEUS

heart was lifted up, and he cast down ten
thousands [cf. Polyb. v. 86] ; but he was
not vigorous " [to reap the fruits of his
victory] (Dan. xi. 10-12; cf. 8 Mace. i.
1-5). After this decisive success Ptol. Phi
lopator visited the neighboring cities of
Syria, and araong others Jerusalem. After
offering sacriflces of thanksgiving in the
Temple he attempted to enter the sanc
tuary. A sudden paralysis hindered his
design ; but when he returned to Alexan
dria he determined to inflict on the Alex
andrine Jews the vengeance for his dis
appointraent. He was succeeded by his
only child, Ptol. V, Epiphanes, who was at
the timo only four or five years old,
Pbolemae'us 'V. Epiph'anes (b. c.
205-181). The reign of Ptol, Epiphanes
was il critical epoch iu the history of the
Jews. The riv.alry between the Syrian and
Egypti.an parties, which had for some time
divided the people, carae to an open rup
ture in the struggles which marked his mi
nority. In the strong language of Daniel,
" The robbers of ihe people exalted them
selves to establish the vision " (Dan. xi. 14),
The accession of Ptolemy and the confu
sion of a disputed regency furnished a
favorable opportunity for foreign invasion,
" Many stood up against ihe king of the
south" under A.ntiochus the Great aud
Philip III, of Macedonia, who formed a
league for the dismemberraent of his king
dora, "So the king of ihe north [Antio
chus] came, and cast up a mount, and took
ihe most fenced city [Sidon], and ihe arms
of the south did not withstand " [at Pa
neas, B, 0. 198] (Dan. xi. 14, 15). The
Romans interfered, and in order to retain
the provinces of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia;
and Judaea, Antiochus " gave him [Ptol
emy, his daughter Cleopatra] a young
maiden " [as his betrothed wife] (Dan. xi.
17) . But in the end his policy only partial
ly succeeded. After the marriage of Ptol
emy and Cleopatra was consummated (b.
c, 193), Cleopatra did' " not stand on his
side," but supported her husband in main
taining the alUance with Rome, The dis
puted provinces, however, remained in the
possession of Antiochus ; and Ptolemy was
poisoned at the time when he was prepar
ing an expedition to recover them frora
Seleucus, the unworthy successor of An
tiochus, Ptolemae'us "VI. PMlome'tor (b. c.
181-145). On the death of Ptol. Epiphanes,
his wife Cleopatra held the regency for her
young son, Ptol, Philoraetor, and preserved
peace with Syria till she died, b. c. 173.
The governraent then fell into unworthy
hands, and an atterapt was made to recover
Syria (comp. 2 Mace. iv. 21). Antiochus
Epiphanes seems to have made the claim a
pretext for invading Egypt. The gener
als of Ptolemy were defeated near Pelusi

ura, probably at the close of n, c. 171 (1
Mace. i. 16, ff.) ; and in the next year An
tiochus, having secured the person of the
young king, reduced almost the whole of
Egypt (comp. 2 Mace, v, 1). Meanwhile
Ptol, Euergetes II,, the younger brother of
Ptol. Philometor, assumed the supreme.
power at Alexandria ; and Antiochus, under
the pretext of recovering the crown for
Philometor, besieged Alexandria in b. c.
169. By this time, however, his selfish
designs were apparent : the brothers were
reconciled, and Antiochus was obliged to
acquiesce for the time in the arrangement;
which they made. But while doing so he
prepared for another invasion of Egypt,
and was already approaching Alexandria,
when he was met by the Roman embassy
led by C. Popillius Laenas, who, iu the
name of the Roraan senate, insisted ou his
immediate retreat (e. c. 168), a coraraand
which the late victory at Pydna made it
impossible to disobey. These campaigns,
which are intimately connected with the
visits of Antiochus to Jerusalem in b. c.
170, 168, are briefly described in Dan. xi.
25-30. After the discomfiture of Antio;
chus, Philometor was for some time occu
pied in resisting the arabitious designs of
his brother, who made two attempts to add
Cyprus to the kingdom of Cyrene, which
was allotted to him. Having effectually
put down these atterapts, he turned his at
tention again to Syria. During the brief
reign of Antiochus Eupator he seeras to
have supported Philip against the regent
Lysias (corap. 2 Maec, ix. 29). After the
raurder of Eupator by Demetrius I., Phil
ometor espoused the cause of Alexander
Balas, the rival claimant to the throne, be
cause Demetrius had made an atterapt on
Cyprus ; and when Alexander had defeat
ed and slain his rival, he accepted the over
tures which he raade, and gave hira his
daughter Cleopatra in marriage (b. c, 150;
1 Mace. X. 51-58). But, according to 1
Mace. xi. 1, 10, &c,, the alliance was not
made in good faith, but only as a raeans
towards securing possession of Syria, Ac
cording to others, Alexander himself raade
a treacherous atterapt on the life of Ptoleray
(comp, 1 Mace, xi, 10), which caused liim
to transfer his support to Demetrius II.,
to whom also he gave his daughter, whom
he had taken frora Alex.ander. The whole
of Syria w.as quickly subdued, and he was
crowned at Antioch king, of Egypt and
Asia (1 Mace, xi, 13). Alexander made
an effort to recover his crown, but was de
feated by the forces of Ptolemy and Deme
trius, and shortly afterwards put to death
in Arabia. But Ptolemy did not long en
joy his success. He fell from his horso in
the battle, and died within a few days (1
Mace. xi. 18). Ptolemaeus Philometor ia
tliB last king of Egypt who is noticed in

PTOLEMAIS

560

PULSE

sacred history, and his reign was marked
also by the erection of the Temple at
Leontopolis. Ptolema'is. [Accho.]
Pu'a, properly Puvvah, Phuvah -the
son of Issachar (Nura. xxvi. 23).
Pu'ah. I. The father of Tola, a raan
of the tribe of Issachar, and judge of Is
rael after Abimelech (Judg, x, 1). 2. The
son of Issachar (1 Chr. vii, 1), elsewhere
called Phuvah and Pua, 3, One of the
'two raidwives to whora Pharaoh gave in
structions to Mil the Hebrew male children
at their birth (Ex. i. 15). In the A. V.
they are called " Hebrew raidwives," a
rendering which is not required by the
original. We may translate Ex. i, 18 in
this way : " And the king of Egypt said to
the women who .acted as raidwives to the
Hebrew women," The two, Shiphrah and
Puah, are supposed to have been the chief
and representatives of their profession.
Publican. The class designated by
this word in the N. T. were eraployed as
collectors of the Roman revenue. The
Roman senate farmed tho vedigalia (direct
taxes) and the psrtoria (customs) to cap
italists who undertook to pay a given sum
into the treasury {in publicum), and so re
ceived the name of publicani. Contracts
of this kind fell naturaUy into the hands of
the equiies, as the richest class of Roraans.
They appointed raanagers, under whora
were the portitores, the actual custom
house officers, who ex.amined each bale of
goods, exported or imported, assessed its
value more or less arbitrarily, wrote out
the ticket, and enforced payment. The
latter were coraraonly natives of the prov
ince in which they were stationed, as
being brought daily into contact with all
classes of th^ population. The name publi
cani was used popularly, and in the N.
T. exclusively, of the portitores. The
systera was essentially a vicious one. The
portitores were encouraged in the most
vexatious or fraudulent exactions, and a
reraedy was all but impossible. They over
charged whenever they had an opportunity
(Luke Ui. 13). They brought false charges
of smuggling in the hope of extorting hush-
money (Luke xix. 8). They detained .and
opened letters on mere suspicion. It was
the basest of all livelihoods. All this was
enough to bring the class into ill^favor
everywhere. In Judaea and GaUlee there
were special circurastances of aggravation.
The eraployment brought out all the beset
ting vices of the Jewish character. Tho
strong feeling of many Jews as to the abso
lute unlawfulness of paying tribute at all
made matters worse. The Scribes who
discussed ths question (Matt. xxU. 15) for
the most part answered it in the negative.
In addition to their other faults, according
ly, the pubUcans of the N. T. were regard

ed as traitors and apostates, defiled by their
frequent intercourse with the heathen, will
ing tools of the oppressor. The class thus
practically excommunicated furnished tome
of the earliest disciples both of the Baptist
and of our Lord. The position of Zac
chaeus as a " chief among the publicans "
(Luke xix. 2), implies a gradation of
some kind araong the persons thus em
ployed. Pub'lius, the chief man — probably
the governor — of Melita, who received
and lodged St. Paul and his companions on
the occasion of their being shipwrecked off
that island (Acts xxviii. 7). Publius may
perhaps have been the delegate of the Ro
man praetor of Sicily to whose jurisdiction
Melita or Malta belonged.
Pu'dens, a Christian friend of Timothy
at Rome (2 Tim. iv. 21). According to
legend he was the host of St. Peter and
friend of St. Paul, and was martyred under
Nero. Pu''llites, The. According to 1 Chr.
U. 53, the "Puhites" or " Puthites " be
longed to the families of Kirjath-jearim.
Pul, a country or nation mentioned in
Is. Ixvi. 19. It is spoken of with distant
nations, and is supposed by sorae to repre
sent the island Pliilae in Egypt.
Pill, an Assyrian king, and the first of
those monarchs mentioned in Scripture.
He made an expedition against Menahem,
king of Israel, about B. c. 770. Meuahem
appears to have inherited a kingdora which
was already included among the dependen
cies of Assyria. Under the Assyriiiu sys
tem the monarchs of tributary kingdoms,
on ascending; the throne, applied for " con
firmation iu their kingdoms " to the Lord
Paramount, and only became established
ou receiving it. We may gather from 2 K.
XV. 19, 20, that Menahem neglected to
raake any such application to his liege lord,
Pul — a neglect which would have been re
garded as a plain act of rebellion. Possi
bly, he was guilty of more overt and fia-
grant hostility. " Menahem smote Tiphsah"
(2 K. XV. 16), we are told. However this
may have been, it is evident that Pul looked
upon Menahem as a rebel. He conse
quently marched an army into Palestine
for the purpose of punishing his revolt.
The Assyrian monuments have a king,
whose narae is read very doubtfully as Vul-
lush or Iva-lush, at about the period when
Pul must have reigned. His probable date
is B. o. 800-750, while Pul, as we have
seen, ruled over Assyria in b. c. 770. The
Hebrew name Pul is undoubtedly cur
tailed ; for no Assyrian name consists of a
single element.
Pulse occurs only in the A. V. in Dan.
i. 12, 16, as the translation of Words, the
literal -ueaning of which is " seeds " of any
kind, ^robably the term denotes uncooked

PUNISHMENT*

061

PUNITES

grain of any kind, whether barley, wheat,
millet, vetches, &c.
Punishments. The earliest theory
ot. punishraent current among mankind is
doubtless the one of simple retaliation,
"blood for blood." Viewed historically?
the first case of punishraent for crime raen
tioned in Scripture, next to the Fall itself,
is that of Cain, the first murderer. ' That
death was regarded as the fitting punish
ment for murder appears plain from the
remark of Lamech (Gen. iv, 24). In the
post-diluvian code, if we may so call it,
retribution by the hand of man, even in the
case of an offending aniraal, for blood shed,
is clearly laid down (Gen. ix. 5, 6) , Pass
ing onwards to Mosaic times, we find the
set tence of capital punishment, in the .case
of murder, plainly laid down in the Law.
The murderer was to be put to death, even
if he should have taken refuge at God's
altar or in a refuge city, and the sarae prin
ciple Wiis to be carried out even in the case
of an aniraal, I, The following offences
also are mentioned in the Law as liable to
the punishraent of death : 1. Striking, or
even reviling, a parent (Ex. xxi. 15, 17).
2. Blaspheray (Lev. xxiv. 14, 16, 23). 3.
Sabbath-breaking (Nura, xv, 32-36; Ex.
xxxi. 14, xxxv. 2). 4, Witchcraft, and
false pretension to prophecy (Ex, xxii. 18 ;
Lev. XX. 27; Deut. xiii. 6, xviii. 20). 5.
Adultery (Lev. xx. 10; Dout. xxu. 22). 6.
Unchastity (Deut. xxii. 21, 23 ; Lev. xxi.
9). 7. Rape (Deut. xxii. 25). 8. Inces
tuous and unnatural connections (Lev. xx.
11, 14, 16; Ex. xxii. 19). 9. Miin-stealing
(Ex. xxi. 16; Deut. xxiv. 7). 10. Idolatry,
actual or virtual, in any shape (Lev. xx. 2 ;
Deut. xiii. 6, 10, 15, xvii. 2-7 : see Josh.
vii. and xxii. 20, and Num. xxv,_ 8). 11.
False witness in certiiin cases (Deut. xix.
16, 19). II. But there is a large nuraber
of offences, some of thera included in this
list, which are naraed in the L.aw as involv
ing the penalty of " cutting off from the
people." On the meaning of this expres
sion some controversy has arisen. There
are altogether thirty-six or thirty-seven
cases in the Pentateuch in which this for
mula is used. We raay perhaps conclude
that the prim.ary meaning of " cutting off"
is a sentence of death to be executed in
some cases without remission, but in others
voidable: (1.) by immediate atonement on
the offender's part; (2.) by direct interposi
tion of the Almighty, i. e. a sentence of
death always "recorded," but not always
executed. III, Punishments are twofold,
Cafital find Secondary, I, (A,) Of the
former kind, the following only aire pre
scribed by the Law. 1. Stoning, which
was the ordinary mode of execution (Ex.
xvii. 4 ; Luke xx. 6 ; John x, 81 ; Acts xiv,
6). In the case of idolatry, and it may be
presumed iu other cases also, the witnesses,
36

of whom there were to be at least two, were
required to cast the first stone (Deut, xiii.
9 ; Acts vu, 58), 2, Hanging is mentioned
as a distinct punishment (Num. xxv. 4 ; 2
Sara. xxi. 6, 9). 3, Burning, in pro-Mosaic
times, was the punishment for unehiistity
(Gen, xxxvUi. 24). Under the Law it ia
ordered in the case of a priest's daughter
(Lev. xxi. 9). 4, Death by ihe sword or
spear is naraed in the Law (Ex. xix, 13,
xxxii. 27 ; Num. xxv. 7) ; and it occurs
frequently in regal and post-Babylonian
times (1 K. U. 25, 34, xix. 1 ; 2 Chr. xxi. 4,
&c.). 5, Strangling is said by the Rab
bins to have been regarded as the most
coraraon but least severe of the capital pun
ishraents, and to have been performed by
immersing the convict in clay or mud, and
then strangling him by a cloth twisted
round the neck, (B,) Besides these or
dinary capital punishments, we read of
others, either of foreign introduction or
of an irregular kind. Among the forraer,
1, Crucifixion is treated elsewhere. 2.
Drowning, though not ordered under the
Law, was practised at Rorae, and is said
by St. Jerorae to have been in use araong
the Jews. 3. Sawing asunder or ernshing
beneath iron instruraents (2 Sam. xii, 31,
and perhaps Prov, xx, 26 ; Heb, xi, 37). 4^.
Pounding in a mortar, or beating io death,
is alluded to in Prov. xxvii, 22, but not as
a legal punishment, and cases are described
(2 Mace. vi. 28, 30). 5. Precipitation,
atterapted jn the case of our Lord atNiiza-
reth, and carried outin that of captives frora
the Edomites, and of St. James, who .is
said to have been cast frora " the pinnacle "
of the 'Teraple. Criminals executed by law
were buried outside the city-gates, and
heaps of stones were flung upon their
graves (,Tosh. vii, 25, 26 ; 2 Sara, xviii, 17 ;
Jer, xxii. 19). II, Of secondary punish
ments araong the Jews the original prin
ciples were, 1. Retaliation, " eye for eye,"
&c, (Ex, xxi, 24, 25), 2. Compensation,
identical (restitution) , or analogous ; pay
raent for loss of time or of power (Ex. xxi.
18-36; Lev, xxiv. 18-21; Deut. xix. 21).
Slander against a wife's honor was to be
compensated to her parents by a flue of
100 shekels, and the traducer himself to be
punished with stripes (Deut. xxii. 18, 19).
3. Stripes, whose number was not to ex
ceed forty (Deut. xxv. 3) ; whence the
Jews took care not to exceed thirty-nine
(2 Cor, xi. 24). 4. Scourging with thorns
is mentioned Judg. viii. 16. The stocks
are mentioned Jer. xx. 2 ; passing through
fire, 2 Sara. xii. 31 ; mutilation, Judg. i, 6 ;
2 Mace, vii. 4 ; and see 2 Sam. iv. 12 ;
plucking oui hair. Is. I. 6 ; in later times,
imprisonment, and confiscation or exile,
Ezr. vii. 26 ; Jer, xxxvii. 15, xxxviU. ti ;
Acts iv. 3, V. 18, xii. 4.
P-U'nites, The. The descendants of

PUNON

562

PYGARG

Pua, or Puvah, the son of Issachar (Num,
xxvi. 23).
Pu'non, one of the halting-places of the
Israelite host during the last portion of the
Wandering (Num. xxxui, 42, 43), ^By
Eusebius and Jerome it is identified with
Phaeno, which contained the copper-mines
so notorious at that period, and was situ
ated between Petra and Zoar.
Purification, in its legal and technical
sense, is applied to the ritual observances
whereby an Israelite was forraally absolved
frora the taint of uncleanness. The essence
of purification, in all cases, consisted in the
use of water, whether by way of ablution
or aspersion; but in the majora delida
of legal uncleanness, sacrifices of various
kinds were added, and the ceremonies
throughout bore an expiatory character.
Ablution of the person and of the clothes
was required in the cases mentioned in Lev.
XV. 18, xi. 25, 40, xv. 16, 17. In cases of
childbirth the sacrifice was increased to a
lamb ofthe first year, with a pigeon or tur
tle-dove (Lev. xu. 6). The ceremonies of
purification required in cases of contact with
a corpse or a grave are detailed in Num.
xix. The purification of the leper was a
yet more formal proceeding, and indicated
the highest pitch of uncleanness. The rites
are described in Lev. xiv. 4-82. The ne
cessity of purification was extended in the
post-Babylonian period to a variety of un
authorized cases. Cups and pots, brazen
vessels and couches, v/ere washed as a mat
ter of ritual observance (Mark vii. 4) . The
washing of the hands before meals was con
ducted in a. formal manner (Mark vii. 3).
What may have been the specific causes
of uncleanness in those who came up to
purify themselves before the Passover (John
xi. 55), or in those who had taken upon
themselves the Nazarite's vow (Acts xxi.
24, 26), we are not informed. In conclu
sion it may be observed, that the distinctive
feature in the Mosaic rites of purification
is their expiatory character. The idea of
uncleanness -was not peculiar to the Jew.
But with all other nations simple ablution
sufficed ; no sacrifices were demanded. The
Jew alone was taught by the use of expi
atory offerings to discern to its full extent
the connection between the outward sign
and the inward fount of impurity.
Purim {Lots), the annual festival insti
tuted to commemorate the preservation of
the Jews in Persia from the massacre with
which they were threatened through the
machiiations of Haman (Esth. ix.). Itwas
probably called Purim by the Jews in irony.
Their great enemy Haman appears to have
been very superstitious, and rauch given to
casting lots (Esth. in, 7). They gave the
narae Purira, or " Lots," to the commem-
oi-iiUve festival, because he had thrown lots
to ascertain what day would be auspicious

for him to carry into effect the bloody de
cree which the king had issued at his in
stance (Esth. ix. 24). The festival lasted
two days, and was regularly observed on
the 14th and 15th of Adar. According to
modern custom, as soon as the stars begin
to appear, when the 14th of the month has
commenced, candles are lighted up in token
of rejoicing, and the people assemble in
the synagogue. After a short prayer and
thanksgiving, the reading of the book of
Esther commences. The book is written
in a peculiar raanner, on a roll called " the
Roll " {Megillah). 'When the reader comes
to the name of Haman, the congregation cry
out, "May his name be blotted out," or,
"Let the name of the ungodly perish."
When the Megillah is read through, the
whole congregation exclaim, " Cursed be
Haman; blessed be Mordecai; cursed be
Zoresh (Uie wife of Haman) ; blessed be
Esther ; cursed be all idolaters ; blessed be
all Israelites, and blessed be Harbonahwho
hanged Haman." In the morning service i
in the synagogne, on the 14th, after the
prayers, the passage is read from the Law
(Ex. xvii. 8-16) which relates the destruc
tion ofthe Amalekites, the people of Agag
(1 Sam. XV. 8), the supposed ancestor of
Haman (Esth. iii. 1). 'The MegiUah is theu
read again in the same manner. The 14th
of Adar, as the very day of the deliverance
ofthe Jews, is more solemnly kept than the
13th; but when the service in the synagogue
is over, all give themselves up to merry
making. Purse. The Hebrews, when on a jour
ney, were provided with a bag, in which
they carried their money (Gen. xiii. 35;
Prov. i. 14, vii. 20; Is. xlvi. 6),and, if they
were merchants, also their weights (Deut.
xxv. 18 ; Mic. vi. 11). This bag is described
in the N. T. by the terras ^aXavrtov (Luke
X. 4, xii. 83, xxii. 35, 36), and yXmaaixouay
(John xii. 6, xiu. 29). The girdle also
served as a purse (Matt, x; 9; Mark vi.
8). Ladies wore ornamental purses (Is. i
iii. 23). '
Put (1 Chr. i. 8 ; Nah. iu. 9). [Phut.]
Pute oli, the great landing-place of
travellers to Italy frora the Levant, and the
hiirbor to which the Alexandrian corn-ships
brought their cargoes (Acts xxvu. 13).
The celebrated bay which is now " the bay
of Naples," was then called " Sinus Putc-
ol.anus." The city was at the north-^eastern
angle ofthe bay. The name Puteoli arose
frora tho strong mineral springs which are
characteristic of the place. I* is now a
fourth-rate Italian town, -still retaining the
name of Pozzuoli.
Pu'tiel. One of the daughters of Putiel
was wife of Eleazar the son of Aaron, and
mother of Phinehas (Ex. vi. 25).
Pygarg occurs (Deut. xiv. 5) iv <he Ust
of clean animals as the renderinjr o'f the

QUAILS

5C3

QUIVER

Heb. dtshdn, the name apparently of s me
species of antelope, though it is hy Bo
means easy to identify it.

Q.

Quails (Heb. sildv, slldiv). 'There
san be no doubt that the Hebrew word in
the Pentateuch (Ex. xvi. 13 ; Num. xi. 31,
S2) and the 105th Ps. denotes the coramon
quail {Coturnix -dadylisonans). The ex
pression " as it were two cubits (high) upon
the face of the earth " (Num. xi. 31) refers
probably to the height at which- the quails
flew above the ground, in their exhausted
condition frora their long flight. As to the
enorraous quantities which the least suc
cessful Israelite is said to have taken, viz.
" ten homers," in the space of a night and
two days, there is every reason for believ
ing that the " homers " here spoken of do
not denote strictly the measure of that
narae, but siraply " a heap." The Israel
ites vvould have had little difficulty in cap
turing large quantities of these birds, as
they are known to arrive at places sorae
tiraes so completely exhausted by their
flight as to be readily taken, not in nets
only, but by the hand. They " spread the
quails round about the camp ; " this was for
the purpose of drying thera. The Egyptians
similarly prepared these birds. The ex
pression " quails frora the sea " (Nura. xi.
31) must not be restricted to denote that the
birds came from the sea as their starting-
point, but it raust be taken to show the
direction from which they were coming.
The quails were, at the tirae of the event
narrated in the sacred writings, on their
spring journey of migration northwards. It
is interesting to note the time specified; " it
was at even " that they began to arrive ;
and they no doubt continued to come all
the night. Many observers have recorded
that the quail migrates by night.
Quar'tus, a Christian of Corinth (Rom.
xvi. 23), said to have been one of the
Seventy disciples, and afterwards bishop
of Berytus.
Quaternion, a mUitary term, signify
ing a guard of four soldiers, two of whom
were attached to the person of a prisoner,
while the other two kept watch outside the
door of his cell (Acts xii. 4).
Queen. This title is properly applied
to the queeu-raother, since in an Oriental
household, it is not the wife but the mother
of the raaster who exercises the highest
authority. Strange as such an arrange-
men at first sight appears, it is one of the
inrvitable results of polygamy. The extent
of the influence of the queen-mother is
well Uliistrated by the narritive of the in
terview of Solomon and Bathsheba, as

given in 1 K. ii. 19, ff. The term ia
applied to Maachah, Asa's mother, who
was deposed from her dignity in conse
quence of her idolatry (1 K. xv. 13; 2
Chr. XV. 16) ; to Jezebel as contrasted with
Joram (2 K. x. 13, " the children of the
king, and the children of the queen");
and to the mother of Jehoiachin or Jeco
niah (Jer. xiii. 18; compare 2 K. xxiv. 12;
Jer. xxix. 2).
Queen of Hea'ren (Jer. vii. 18, xliv.
17, 18, 19, 25) is the moon, worshipped as
Ashtaroth or Astarte, to whora the Hebrew
woraen offered cakes in the streets of Jeru
salera. Quicksands, The, more properly the
Syrtis (Acts xxvii. 17), the broad and deep
bight on the North African coast between
Carthage ajid Cyrene, The n.ame is de
rived from Sert, an Arabic word for a desert.
For two reasons this region was an object
of peculiar dread to the ancient navigators
ofthe Mediterranean, partly because ofthe
drifting sands and the heat along the shore
itself, but chiefly on account of the shal
lows and the uncertain currents of water
in the bay. There were properly two
Syrtes : the eastern or larger, now called
the Gulf of Sidra ; and the western or
smaller, now the Gulf of Cabes. It is the
former to which our attention is directed in
this passage of the Acts.
Quiver. Two distinct Hebrew terms
are represented by this word in the A. V.
(1.) ThUi. — This occurs only in Gen.
xxvii. 8. It is derived from a root which
has the force of hanging. It may there
fore signify either a quiver or a suspended

AsByrian Cliariot witii Quiver.
weapon — for instance, such a sword as in
our own language was formerly called a
"hanger." (2.) Ashpdh^— The root of

RAAMAH

564

RABMAG

this word is uncertain. It is connected
with arrows only in Lara. iii. 13. Its other
occurrences are Job xxxix. 23, Is. xxu. 6,
and Jer. v. 16. In each of these the LXX.
translate it by " quiver," with two e.Kccp-
lions. Job xxxix. 28, and Ps. cxxvii. 5. As
to ths thing itself, there is nothing in the
Bible to indicate either its form or material,
nr iu what way it was carried.

R.
Ha'amah, a son of Cush, and father of
the Cushite Sheba and Dedan (Gen. x. 7).
The tribe of Raamah becarae afterwards
renowned as traders (Ez. xxvU. 22). They
were settled on the Persian Gulf.
Raami'ah, one of the chiefs who re
turned with Zerubbiibel (Neh. vu. 7). In
Ezr, ii. 2 he is called Reelaiah.
Kaam.'ses, Ex. i. 10. [Rameses.]
Eab'bah. 1, A very strong place on
the east of the Jordan, and chief city of
the Ammonites. In flve pas^ges (Deut. iii-
1 1 ; 2 Sam, xU, 26, xvii. 27 ; Jer. xlix. 2 ;
Ez, xxi, 20) it is styled at length Rabbath
OF THE Ammonites, or children of
Ammon ; but elsewhere (Josh. xiii. 25 ; 2
Sam. xi, 1, xU. 27, 29; 1 Clir, xx, 1 ; Jer,
xlix, 3 ; Ez, xxv, 6 ; Amos i. 14) simply
Rabbah. When flrst named it is men
tioned as containing the bed or sarcophagus
of the giant Og (Deut. iii. 11). David
sent Joab to besiege Rabbah (2 Sam. xi. 1).
The siege must have lasted two years.
The sallies of the Ammonites appear to
have formed a main feature of the siege
(2 Sara. xi. 17, &c.). At the end of that
tirae Joab succeeded in capturing a portion
ofthe place — the "city of waters," that
is, the lower town, so called frora its con
taining the perennial streara which rises
in and still flows through it. But the cita
del, which rises abruptly on the north side
of the lower town, a place of very great
strength, still remained to be taken ; and
the honor of this capture Joab insists on
reserving for the king. Shortly after Da
vid's arrival the fortress was taken (2 Sam.
xii. 26-31). We are not told whether the
city was deraolished, or whether David was
satisfied with the slaughter of its inraates.
In the tirae of Araos, two centuries and
a half later, it had again a " wall " and
" palaces," and was stiU the sanctuary of
Molech — " the king " (Am. i. 14). So it
was also at the date of the invasion of
Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xlix. 2, 3), when its
dependent towns are mentioned, and when
it is named in such terms as imply that
it was of equal importance with Jerusalem
(Ez. xxi. 20). At Rabbah, no doubt BaaUs,
kingof the Ajnmonites (Jer. xl. 14), held
such court as he could rauster ; and within

its wall,! was plotted tho attack of Ishmael,
which cost GedaUah his life, and drove Jer
emiah into Egypt. In the period between
the Old and New Testaments, Rabbiith-
Ammon appears to have been a place of
much importance, and the scene of many
contests. From Ptolemy PhUadelphus (n. c.
285-247) it received the name of Phila
delphia. It was one of the cities of the
Decapolis, and became the seat of a Chris
tian bishop. Its ruins, which are consider
able, are found at Amm(tn, about 22 miles
from the Jordan. It lies in a valley which
is a branch, or perhaps the main course, of
the Wady Zerka, usually identified with
the Jabbok. The public buildings are said
to be Roraan, except the citadel, which is
described as of large square stones put
together without cement, and which is
probably more ancient than the rest. 2. A
city of Judah, naraed with Kirjath-jearim
in Josh. XV. 60 only. No trace of its ex
istence has yet been discovered. 3. In one
passage (Josh. xi. 8) Zidon is mentioned
with the affix Rabbah — Zidon-rabbah. This
is preserved in the margin of the 'A. V.,
though in the text it is translated " great
Zidon." Eab'bath Moab. [Ar.]
Eab'bath of the Children of Am
mon, and R. of the Ammonites. This
is the full appellation of the place commonly
given as Rabbah. It occurs only in Deut.
iii. 11, and Ez. xxi. 20.
Rab'tai, a title of respect, signifying
Master, Teacher, g'iven by the Jews to their
doctors and teachers, and often addressed
to our Lord (Matt. xxui. 7, 8, xxvi. 25, 49 ;
Mark ix. 5, xi. 21, xiv. 45 ; John i. 39, 50,
ui. 2, 26, iv. 31, vi. 25, ix. 2, xi. 8). An
other form of the title was Rabboni .(Mark
X. 51 ; John xx. 16). The i which is added
to these titles has been thought to be the
pronominal affix "My;" but it is to be
noted that St. John does not translate
either of these by " My Master," but simply
" Master," so that the i would seera to have
lost any especial significance as a posses
sive pronoun intiraating appropriation or
endearment, and, like the " my " in titles
of respect among ourselves, or in such
terms as ilfonseigneur, Monsieur, to be
merely part of the formal addreS. The
title Rabbi is not known to have been used
before the reign of Herod the Great, and is
thought to have taken its rise about the
time of the disputes between the rival
schools of Hillel and Shammai. Rabbi
was considered a higher title than Rab, and
Rabban higher than Rabbi.
Rab'bith, a town in the territory, per
haps on the boundary, of Issachar (Josh.
xix. 20 only).
Rabbo'ni, John xx. 16. [Rabbi.]
Rab-m.ag (Jer. xxxix. 3, 13), a title
borne by Nergal-sharezer, prob.ably iien-

EABSARIS

565

RAHAB

Ileal with tho king, called by the Greeks
Neriglissar. [Nergal-sharezer.] This
king, as well as certain other iraportant
personages, is found to bear the title in the
Babylonian inscriptions. It is written in
deed with a soraewhat different vocaliz.ation,
being read as Rabu-Emga. The significa
tion is somewhat doubtful. Rabu is most
certainly " great,"' or " chief;" but Mag,
or Emga, is an obscure term. It has
been commonly identified with the word
" Magus," but this identification is very
uncertain, Rab'saris. 1. An officer of the king
of Assyria sent up with Tartan and Rab
shakeh against Jerusalem in the time of
Hezekiiih (2 IC, xviii. 17). 2. One of the
princes of Nebuchadnezzar, who was pres
ent at the capture of Jerusalem, b, o, 588
(Jer. xxxLx. 3, 13). Rabsaris is probably
rather the uiime of an office than of an in-
dividuiil, the word signifying cliief. eunuch.
In Dan. i. 3, Ashpenaz is called the master
of the eunuchs (Rab-sarisira). It is not
improbable that in Jeremiah xxxix. we have
not only the title of the Rabsaris given, but
his name also, either Sarsechim (ver. 3)
or (ver. 13) Nebushasban (worshipper of
Nebo, Is. xlvi. 1).
Rab'shakeh (2 K. xviU., xix.; Is.
xxxvi., xxxvii.), one of the officers of the
king of Assyria sent against Jerusalem in
the reign of Hezekiah, [Hezekiah.] Many
have imagined, from the familiarity of Rab
shakeh with Hebrew, that he either was a
Jewish 'deserter or an apostate captive of
[srael. The English version takes Rabsha-
«eh as the name of a person ; but it is raore
irobably the name of the office which he
•leld at the court, that of chief cupbearer.
Raca, a, term of reproach used by the
Jews of bur Saviour's age (Matt. v. 22),
derived from the Chaldee rSkd, "worth
less." Race. [Games.]
Ra'chab. Rahab the harlot (Matt.
i. 5).
Ra'ohel, the younger of the daughters
of Laban, the wife of Jacob, and mother of
Joseph iind Benjarain. The incidents of
her life may be found in Gen. xxix.-xxxi ii.,
xxxv. The story of Jacob and Rachel has
always had a peculiar interest. The beauty
of Rachel, the deep love with which she w.as
loved by Jacob from their first meeting by
the well of Haran, when he showed to her
the simple courtesies of the desert life, and
kissed her and told her he was Rebekah's
son; the long servitude with which he
patiently served for her, in which the seven
years " seeraed to him but a few days, for
the love he had to her ; " their raarriage at
last ; and the death of Rachel at the very
time when in giving birth to another son her
own long-delayed hopes were accomplished,
aud slie had bccr-<ne stiU more endeared to

her husband; his deep grief and evEr-living
regrets for her loss (Gen. xlviu. 7) : these
things raake up a touching tale of personal
and domestic history which has kept alive
the memory of Rachel. Yet frora whiit is
related to us concerning her character there
does not seera rauch to claira any high de
gree- of admiration and esteem. The dis
content and fretful impatience shown in her
grief at being for a tirae childless, moved
even her fond husband to anger (Gen. xxx.
1, 2). She appears moreover to have shared
all the duplicity and falsehood of her family.
See, for instance, Rachel's stealing her
father's images, and the xpady dexterity and
presence of mind with which she concealed
her theft (Gen, xxxi,), Frora this incident
we may alio infer that she was not alto
gether free from the superstitions ami idol
atry which prevailed in the land whence
Abraham had been called (Josh, xxiv. 2,
14), Rachel's tomb. — " Rachel died and
was buried in the way to Ephrath, which is
Bethlehem, And Jacob set a pillar upon
her grave ; that is the pillar of Rachel's
grave unto this day " (Gen, xxxv, 19, 20).
The site of Rachel's torab, " on the way to
Bethlehem," " a little way to come to Eph
rath," "in the border of Benjarain," has
never been questioned. It is about two
railes S. of Jerusalera, and one raile N. of
Bethlehera. Rad'dal, one of David's brothers, fifth
son of Jesse (1 Cbr. ii. 14). Ewald con
jectures that he is identical with Rei, but .
this does not seera probable.
Ra'gau. One of the ancestois of our
Lord, son of Phalec (Luke iii. 35). He is
the same person with Reu, son of Peleg.
Ra'ges, an important city in north-east
ern Media, where that country bordered
upon Parthia. It is not mentioned in the
Hebrew Scriptures, but occurs frequently.
in the Book of Tobit (i. 14, v. 5, vi. 10 and
12, &c.), and twice in Judith (i. 5 and 15).
Its ruins, still known by the name of Rhey,
lie about five mUes S. E. of Teheran.
Raguel, or Reu'el. 1. Probably the
same as Jethro. [Jethro and Hobab.]
2. A pious Jew of "Ecbatane, a city of
Media," fiither of Sara, the wife of Tobiii-s
(Tob. iu. 7, 17, &c.).
Ra'hab, or Ra'ehab, a celebrated wo
raan of Jericho; who received the spies sent
by Joshua to spy out the land, hid thera in
her house frora the pursuit of her country
raen, was saved with all her faraily when
the Israelites sacked the city, and became
tho wife of Salmon, and the ancestress of
the Messiah (Josh. ii. 1 ; Matt. i. 5). She
was a " harlot," and probably combined
the trade of loclging-keeper for wiiyfaring
men. She seems also to have been en
gaged in the manufacture of linen and the
art of dyeing, for which the Phoenicians
were early famous ; since we find the flat

RAHAB

566

BAIN

roof of her house covered with stalks of
flax put there to dry, and a stock of scarlet
or crimson line in her house. Her house
was situated on the wall, probably near the
town gate, so as to be convenient for per
sons coming in and going out of the city.
We raay conjecture that Rahab therefore
had been well informed with regard to the
events ofthe Exodus. The eflect upon her
mind had been what one would not have
expected in a person of her way of life- It
led her to a flrm faith in Jehovah as the
true God, and to the conviction that He
purposed to give the land of Canaan to the
Israelites. 'When, therefore, the two spies
sent by Joshua carae to her house, they
found themselves under the roof of one
who, alone probably of the whole popula
tion, was friendly to their nation. Her re
ception of the spies, the artifice by which
she concealed them frora the king, their
escape, and the saving of Rahab and her
family at the capture of the city, in accord-
iince with their promise, are all told in the
narrative of Josh. ii. The narrator adds,
" and she dwelleth in Israel unto this day,"
not necessarily implying that she was alive
at the time he wrote, but that the family of
strangers of which she was reckoned the
head, continued to dwell among the chil
dren of Israel. As regards Rahab herself,
we learn from Matt. i. 5, that she became
the wife of Salmon the son of Naasson, and
the mother of Boaz, Jesse's grandfather.
The suspicion naturally arises that Salraon
may lia-ve been one. of the spies whose life
she saved, and that gratitude for so great a
benefit led in his case to a more tender
passion, and obliterated the memory of any
past disgrace attaching to her narae. But,
however this raay be, it is certain, on the
'authority of St. Matthew, that Rahab be-
'came the mother of the Une from which
sprung D.avid, and eventually Christ; for
that the Rachab mentioned by St. Matthew
is Rahab the harlot, is as certain as that
David in the genealogy is the same person
as Da 'id in the Books of Sarauel. The
atterapts that have been raade to prove
Rachab different from Rahab, in order to
get out of the chronological difficulty, are
singularly absurd. We may .also dismiss,
lis inconsistent with truth, the attempt to
clear her character of stain by saying that
she was only an innkeeper, and not a har
lot; but it is very possible that to a woraan
of her country and religion such a calling
m.ay have iraplied a far less deviation from
the standard of morality than it does with
us ; and, moreover, with a purer faith she
seems to have entered upon a pure life.
As a case of casuistry, her conduct in do-
ceivhi,' the king of Jericho's messengers
with a false tale, and above all, in taking
part against her own countrymen, has
been much discussed. With regard to the

flrst, strict truth, either iu Jew or heathen,
was a virtue so utterly unknown before the
promulgation of the gospel, that, as far as
Rahab is concerned, the discussion is quite
superfluous. With regard to her taking
part against her own countrymen, it can
only be justified, but is fully justified, by
the circumstance that fidelity to her coun
try would in her case have been infidelity
tc> God, and that the higher duty to her
Maker eclipsed the lower duty to her na
tive land. If her own Ufe of shame was
in any way connected with that idolatry,
one can readily understand what a further
stimulus this would give, now that her
heart was purified by faith, to her desire
for the overthrow of the nation to which
she belonged by birth, and the establish
ment of that to which she wished to belong
by a community of faith and hope. This
view of Rahab's conduct is fully borne out
by the references to her in the N. T. The.
author of the Epistle to the Hebrews tellii
us that " by faith the harlot Rahab perished
not with them that believed not, when she
had received the spies with peace " (Heb.
xi. 31) ; and St. James fortifies his doc
trine of justification by works, by asking,
" Was not Rahab the harlot justified by
works, when she had received the messen
gers, and had sent them out another way ? '
(James ii. 25).
Ra,'hab, a poetical name of Egypt (Ps.
Ix.xxix. 10; Is. li. 9), signifying -" fierce
ness, insolence, pride." Rahab, as a name
of Egypt, occurs once only without refer
ence to the Exodus : this is in Ps. Ixxxvii.
4. In Is. xxx. 7 the name is alluded to.
Ra'ham. In the genealogy of the de
scendants of Caleb the son of Hezron (1
Chr. ii. 44), Raham is described as the son
of Shema and father of Jorkoam.
Ra'hel, the more accurate forra of the
familiar name elsewhere rendered Rachel
(Jer. x.xxi. 15).
Rain. In the Bible Early Rain signi
fies the rains of the autumn (Deut. xi. 14 ;
Jer. V. 24) ; also mdreh (Joel ii. 23) ; and
Latter Rain, the rain of spring (Prov.
xvi. 15 ; Job xxix. 28 ; Jer. ui. 3 ; Hos. vi.
3 ; Joel U. 23 ; Zech. x. 1). The early and
latter rains are mentioned together (Dout.
xi. 14; Jer. v. 24; Joel ii. 23; Hos. vi. 3;
James v. 7), In a country comprising so
many varieties of elevation as Piilestine,
there must of necessity occur correspond
ing varieties of climate. For six months
in the year no rain falls, and the harvests
are gathered in without any of the anxiety
with which we are so familiar lest the work
be interrupted by unseasonable storms.
There are, however, very considerable,
and perh.aps more than compensating, dis
advantages occasioned by this long ab
sence of rain : the whole land becomes dry,
parched, and brown, the cisterns are empty.

BAIN

067

RAM

the springt and fountains fail, aud the au
tumnal rill is are eagerly looked for, to
prepare the earth for the i:eccption of the
eeel. These, the early rains, coraraence
abtrat the latter end of October or begin-
nipg of November, in Lebanon a month
earlier; not suddenly, but by degrees; the
husbandman has thus the opportunity of
sowing his fields of wheat and barley. The"
rains come mostly from the west or south
west (Luke xii. 54), continuing for two or
three dajts at a time, and falling chiefly dur
ing the night ; the wind then shifts round
to the north or east, and several days of fine
weather succeed (Prov. xxv, 23). JJuring
the months of Noveraber and Deceraber
the rains continue to fall heavily, but at in
tervals ; afterwards they return, only at
longer intervals, and are less heavy; but
at no period during the winter do they en
tirely cease. January and February are the
coldest months, and snow falls, soraetiraes
to the depth of a foot or more, at Jeru
salem, but it does not lie long; it is very
seldom seen along the coast aud in the low
plains. ..Rain continues to fall more or less
during the month of March; it is very rare
in April, and even in Lebanon the showers
that occur are generally light. In the
valley of the Jordan the biirley harvest
begins as early as the middle of April,
and the wheat a fortnight later; in Leb
anon the grain is seldom ripe before the
middle of June. With
respect to the distinction
between the early and
the latter rains, Robinson
observes that there are
not, at the present day,
" any particular periods
of rain or succession of
showers, which might be
regarded as distinct rainy
seasons. The whole pe
riod from October to
March now constitutes
only one continued sea
son of rain, without any
regularly intervening
terra of prolonged fine
'' -ather- Unless, there-
tore, there has been
sorae chiinge in the cli
raate, the early and the
latter rains for which the
husbandraan waited with
longing, seem riither to
have implied the first
showers of autumn which
revived the parched and
thirsty soil, and prepared
it for the seed ; and the
later showers of spring,
which continued to re
fresh aud forward both
the ripening crops and

the vernal products of the fields (James ?.
7; Prov. xvi, 15),"
Rainbow, the token of the covenant
which God raade with Noah when he carae
forth frora the ark, that the waters should
no raore become a flood to destroy all flesh.
The right interpretation of Gen, ix, 13
seeras to be, that God took the rainbow.
which had hitherto been but a beautiful
object shining in the heavens when the
sun's rays fell on falling rain, and conse
crated it as the sign of His love and the
witness of His proraise* (Ecclus. xliu. 11),
The figurative and syrabolical use of the
rainbow as an emblem of God's mercT' and
faithfulness raust not be passed over. In
the wondrous vision shown to St. John in
the Apocalypse (Rev, iv. 3), it is said that
"there was a rainbow round about the
throne, in sight like unto an eraerald : "
araidst the awful vision of surpassing glory
is seen the syrabol of Hope, the bright em
blem of Mercy and of Love.
Raisins. [Vine.]
Ram, Battering, is mentioned in Ez.
iv. 2, xxi. 22 ; and both references are to
the battering-rams in use among the As
syrians aud Babylonians. In attacking the
walls of a fort or city, the first step ap
pears to have been to form an inclined
plane or bank of earth (comp. Ez. iv. 2,
" cast a raount against it "), by which the
besiegers could bring their battering-rama

8>tt«iiii(-ram.

RAMA

568

RAMATII

and other engines to the foot of the w.alls.
"The battering-rams," says Mr, Layard,
" were of several kinds. Some were joined
to movable towers which held warriors
and armed raen. The whole then formed
one great terapor.ary building, the top of
which is represented in sculptures as on a
level with the w.alls, and even turrets, of
the besieged city. In sorae h.as-reliefs the
battering-rara is without wheels : it was
then perhaps constructed upon the spot,
and was not intended to be moved."
Ra'ma, Matt; U. 18, rsferring to Jer.
xxxi. 15. The original passage .alludes to
a massacre of Benjamites or Ephraimites
(comp. ver. 9, 18),' at the Ramah in Ben
jamin or in Mount Ephraim. This is
seized by the Evangelist and turned into a
touching reference to the slaughter of the
Innocents .at Bethlehem, near to which was
(and is) the sepulchre of Rachel.
Ra'mah, a word signifying " a hill,"
and which in its simple or compound shape
forms the name of several places in the
Holy Land. 1. One of the cities of the
allotment of Benjamin (Josh, xviii. 25).
Its site is at er-Rdm, on the elevation which
its ancient narae iraplies, about five miles
frora Jerusalem. This position is in close
agreement with the notices of the Bible
(Judg. iv. 5, xix. 13; 1 K, xv. 17, 21, 22;
2 Chr. xvi. 1, 5, 6; Is. x. 29; Jer. xl, 1,
&c,). Its proximity to Gibeah is impUed
in 1 Sara, xxii. 6 ; Hos, v. 8 ; Ezr, ii. 26 ;
Neh. vii. 30 ; the last two of which passages
show also that its people returned after
the Captivity. The Ramah in Neh, xi. 38
occupies a different position in the list, and
raay be a distinct place, situated farther
west, nearer the plain, 2. The home of
Elkanah, Samuel's father (1 Sara. i. 19, ii.
11), the birthplace of Samuel himself, his
home and official residence, the site of his
altar (vii. 17, viii, 4, xv. 34, xvi. 13, xix.
18), and' finally his burial-place (xxv. 1,
xxviu. 3). It is a, contracted forra of Ra-
MATHAiM-zoPHiM. All that is directly said
as to its situation is that' it was in Mount
Ephraira (1 Sara. i. 1), and this would
naturally lead us to seek it in the neighbor
hood of Shechem. But the whole tenor of
the narrative of the publio life of Samuel
(in connection with which alone this Ramah
is mentioned) is so restricted to the region
of the tribe of Benjarain, and to the neigh-
oorhood of Gibeah, the residence of Saul,
that it seems irapossible not to look for
Sarauel's city in the same locality. On
the other hand, the boundaries of Mount
Ephraim are nowhere distinctly set forth.
In tho mouth of an ancient Hebrew the
expression would mean that portion of the
mountainous district which was at the tirae
of speaking in the possession of the tribe
of Ephraim. In this district, tradition
places the residence of Samuel on the lofty

.and remarkable eminence ot Neby Samwi\
which rises four.niiles to the N. W. of Jcru-
salcifi, and which its height (greater tli.in
that of Jerusalera itself), its comniiinding
position, and its peculiar shape, render the
most conspicuous obiect in all the land
scapes of th.at district, and make the
names of Ramah and Zophini exceedingly
appropriate to it. Since the days of Arculf
the tradition appears to have been continu
ous. Here, then, we are inclined, in the
present state of the evidence, to »place the
Ramah of Samuel. 3. One of the nineteen
fortified pl.aces of Niiphtali (Josh. xix. 36)
named- between Adamah and Hazor. It
would appear to have been in the moun
tainous country N. W . of the Lake of Gen
nesareth. In this d strict a jiliico bearing
the name of Rameh h is been discovered by
Dr. Robinson. It lies on the m.ain track
between Akka and the north end of the
Sea of Galilee, and about 8 miles E. S. E.
of Safed. 4. One of the landmarks on
the boundary (A. V. "coast") of Asher
(Josh. xix. 29), apparently between Tyre
and Zidon. Tv?6 places of the same name
have been discovered in the district allotted
to Asher ; the oue east of Tyre, and with
in about three railes of it, the other raore
than ten miles off, and south-east of the
same city. If either of these places repre
sent the Ramah in question, it certainly
seems safer to identify it with that nearest
to Tyre and the sea-coast. 5. By this
name in 2 K. viii. 29 and 2 Chr. xxii. 6,
only, is designated Ramoth-Gilead. 6.
A place mentioned in the catalogue of
those re-inhabited by the Benjaraites after
their return from the Captivity (Neh. xi.
33). It raay be the Ramah of Benjamin ¦
(above. No. 1) or the Raraah of Samuel,
but its position in the list (remote from
Geba, Michmash, Bethel, ver. 31, corap.
Ezr. U. 26, 28), seeras to remove it farther
west, to the neighborhood of Lod, Hadid,
and Ono. The situation of the raodern
Ramleh agrees very well with this, a town
too iniportant and too well placed not to
have existed in the ancient times.
Ra'math-le'hl, the name bestowed by
Samson on the scene of his slaughter of
the thousand Philistines with the jaw-bone
(Judg. XV. 17). "He cast away the jaw
bone out of his lumd, .and called that place
I Ramath-lehi,' " — as if "heaving of the
jaw-bone." But Gesenius has pointed out
that, as they at present stand, the words
are exactly parallel to Ramath-mizpeh and
Ramath-negeb, and raean the " height of
Lechi." Ra'math-miz'peh. [Ramoth-Gil
ead.] Ra'math of the South, more accu
rately Raraah of the South, one of the
towns in the aUotment of Simeon (Josh.
xix. 8), apparent at its extreme south limit

RAMATHA IM-ZOPHIM

569

RAVEN

It appears from this passage to have been
another name for Baalath-Beer. It is in
all probability the sarae place as South
Ramoth (1 Sara. xxx. 27).
Ramatha'im-zo'pmm. [Ramah, 2.]
Ra'mathite, The. Shimei the Ra-
mathite had charge of the royal vineyards
of king David (1 Chr. xxvU. 27). The
narae implies that he was native of i place
called Raraah, but there is no tradition or
other clew by which the particular Raraah
to wliich this worthy belonged can be iden
tified. Rame'ses, or Raam'ses, a city .and
district of Lower Egypt, is first raentioned
in the narrative of the settling by Joseph
of his fiither and brethren in Egypt, where
it is related that a possession was given
them "in the land of Raraeses" (Gen.
xlvii. 11). This land of Raraeses either
corresponds to the land of Goshen, or was
a district of it, raore probably the forraer,
as appears from a comparison with a paral
lel passage (6). The name next occurs as
that of one of the two store-cities built for
the Pharaoh who first oppressed the chil
dren of Israel (Ex. i. 11). In the narrative
of the Exodus itis the starting-point of the
journey (Ex. xii. 37 ; see also Num. xxxiu,
3, 5)'. Rameses seems to correspond to the
western part of the land of Goshen, since
two full marches, and part at least of a
third, brought the Israelites from this town
to the Red Sea ; and the narrative appears
to indicate a route for the chief part directly
towards tbe sea.
Ra'moth-gil'ead, the " heights of
Gilead," one of the great fastnesses on the
eiist of Jordan, and the key to an irapor
tant district, as is evident not only from the
direct stateraent of 1 K. iv, 13, that it cora-
manded the regions of Argob and of the
towns of Jair, but also from the obstinacy
with which it was attacked and defended
by the Syrians' and Jews in the reigns of
Ahab aud Joram. It seeras probable that
itwas identical with Ramath-Mizpeh (Josh.
xiii, 26), which, again, there is every reason
to believe occupied the spot on which Jacob
had raade his covenant with Laban, It was
the city of refuge for tho tribe of Gad
(Deut. iv. 43; Josh. xx. 8, xxi. 38). We
next encounter it as the residence of one of
Soloraon's coraraissariat officers ¦(! K. iv.
13). In the second Syrian war Raraoth-
Gilead pl.ayed a conspicuous part. During
the invasion related in 1 K. xv. 20, or some
subsequent incursion, this important place
had been seized by Benhadad I. from Omri.
The incidents of Ahab's expedition are well
known. [Ahab.] During Ahaziah's short
reign we hear nothing of it : it probably re
mained in possession of the Syrians till the
suppression of the Moabite rebellion gave
Joriim time to renew the siege. He was
more fortunate than Ahab. The town was

taken by Israel, and held in spite if all the
efforts of Hazael (who was now on the
throne of Daraascus) to regain it (2 K. ix.
14) . Henceforward Ramoth- Gilead disap
pears from our view. Eusebius and Jer
ome specify the position of Ramotli as 15
miles from Philadelphia {Ammdn) . It may
correspond to the site bearing the narae of
Jel'dd, exactly identical with the ancient
Hebrew Gilead, which is four or fivij miles
north of es-Salt.
Ra'moth in Gil'ead, Deut. iv. 43;
Josh. XX. 8, xxi- 38 ; 1 K. xxii. 3. Else
where the shorter form, Ramoth-Gilead,
is used.
Rams' Horns. [Cornet ; Jubilee.]
Rams' Skins dyed red formed part
of the materials that the Israelites were
ordered to present as offerings for the
making of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxv. 5) ;
of which they servp'l as one of the inner-
coverings. 'There is no doubt th.at the
A. v., following the LXX. and Vulgate,
and the Jewish interpreters, is correct.
The original words, it is true, admit of
being rendered thus — " skins of red rams."
Ra'pha. Son of Binea, among the de
scendants of Saul (1 Chr. viii. 37).
Ra'phael. " One of the seven holy
angels which . . . go in and out before the
glory of the Holy One" (Tob. xii. 15).
According to another Jewish tradition,
Raphael was one of the four angels which
stood round the throne of God (Michael,
Uriel, Gabriel, Raphael). In Tobit he
appears as the guide and counsellor of
Tobias. Ra'phon, a city of Gilead (1 Mace. v.
87), perhaps identical with Raphana, which
is mentioned by Pliny as one of the cities
of the Decapolis.
Ra'phu. The father of Palti, the Ben
jaraite spy (Num. xiii. 9).
Ra'ven (Heb. 'dr^b), from a root signi
fying " to be black." A raven was sent
out by Noah from the ark to see whether
the waters were abated (Gen. viii. 7). This
bird was not allowed as food by the Mosaic
law (Lev. xi. 15). Ravens were the
means, under the Divine command, of sup
porting the prophet Elijah at the brook
Cherith (1 K. xvii. 4, 6). They are ex
pressly mentioned as instances of God's
protecting love and goodness (Job xxxviii.
41, Luke xii, 24, Ps. cxlvU. 9). They are
enuraerated with the owl, the bittern,
&c., as raarking the desolation of Edom
(Is. xxxiv. 11). "The locks of the be
loved " are corapared to the glossy black
ness of the raven's plumage (Cant. v. 11).
The raven's carnivorous habits, aud espe
cially his readiness to attack the eye, are
alluded to in Prov. xxx. 17. To the fact
of the raven being a common bird in Pales
tine, and to its habit of flying restlessly
about in constant search for food tn s.itis''y

RAZOB

570

RECHAB

its voracious appetite, may perhaps bo
traced tbe reason for its being selected by
our Lord and the inspired writers as the
especial object of God's providing care.
The raven belongs to the order Incessores,
family Corvidae.
Razor. Besides other usages, the prac
tice of shaving the head after the comple
tion of a vow, raust have created araong
the J^ws a necessity for the special trade
of a barber (Nura. vi.- 9, 18, vui. 7; Lev.
xiv, 8 ; Judg, xiii. 5 ; Is, vii. 20 ; Ez. v. 1 ;
Acts xviii. 18). The instruraents of his
work were probably, as in modern tiraes,
the razor, the basin, the mirror, and per
haps also the scissors (see 2 Sam. xiv. 26).
Like the Levites, the Egyptian priests
were accustomed to shave their whole
bodies. Reai'a. A Reubenite, son of Micah,
.and apparently prince of his tribe (1 Chr.
V, 5), The name is identical with
Reai'ah- 1- A descendant of Shubal,
the son of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 2). 2. The
children of Reaiah were a family of Nethi
nim who returned from Babylon with
Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 47; Neh. vU. 50).
Re'ba, one of the five kings of the
Midianites slain by the children of Israel in
their avenging expedition when Balaara feU
(Num. xxxi. 8 ; Josh. xiii. 21).
Rebeo'ea. The Greek form of the
name Rebekah (Rom. ix. 10 only),
Rebek'ah, daughter of Bethuel (Gen.
sxii, 23) and sister of Laban, married to
Isaac, her father's cousin. She is first pre
sented to us in the account of the mission
of Eliezer to Padan-aram (Gen, xxiv,), in
which his interview with Rebekah, her con
sent and raarriage, are related. For nine
teen years she was childless : then, after
the prayers of Isaac and her journey to
inquire of the Lord, Esau and Jacob were
born ; and while the younger was raore par
ticularly the corapanion and favorite of his
mother (xxv. 19-28), the elder becarae a
grief of raind to her (xxvi. 35), When
Isaac 'was driven by a famine into the law
less country of the Pliilistines, Rebekah's
beauty became, as was apprehended, a
source of danger to her husband. It was
probably a considerable tirae afterwards
when Rebekah suggested the deceit that
was practised by Jiicob on his blind father.
She directed and aided hira in carrying it
out, foresaw the probable consequence of
Esau's anger, and prevented it by moving
Isaac to send Jacob .away to Pad<an-aram
(xxvii.) to her own kindred (xxix. 12). It
has been conjectured that she died during
Jacob's sojourn in Padan-aram. St. Paul
(Rom. ix, 10) refers to her as being made
acquainted with the purpose of God re
garding her children before they were
born. Re'chata {rider). \. One of the two

"captains of bunds," whom Ishbosheth
took into his service, and who conspired to
raurder him (2 Sam. iv. 2). 2. 'The father
of Miilchi.ah, ruler of p.art of Bcth-hac-
cereni (Neh. Ui. 14). 3. The father or
.ancestor of Jehonadiib (2 K. X. 15, 23 ; 1
Chr. ii. 55; Jer. xx.kv. 6-19), identified by
some writers with Hobab. It ivas frora
this Kechiib th.at the tribe of. the Re
chabites derived their name. Nothing ia
known of his personal history. In 1 Chr.
ii. 55, the house of Rechab is identified
with a section of the Kenites, who came
into Canaan with the Israelites, and re
tained their nomadic habits. It h.as heen
inferred from this passage that the descend
ants of Rechiib belonged to a branch of the
Kenites settled from the first at Jabez in
Judah. But it is more probable that this
passage refers to the locality occupied by
the Rechabites after their return from
the captivity. The real founder of the
tribe was Jehonadab, whose history has
been given elsewhere. [Jehonadab.] He
and his people had all along been worship
pers of Jehovah, circumcised, though not
reckoned as belonging to Israel, and proba
bly therefore not considering themselves
bound hy the Mosaic law and rituiil. The
worship of Baal was accordingly not
less offensive to them than to the Israel
ites. The luxury and license of Phoeni
cian cities thre.atened the destruction ofthe
simplicity of their noraadic life (Araos ii.
7, 8, vi. 3-6). A protest w.as needed against
both evils, .and as in the case of Elijah, and
ofthe Nazarites of Araos ii. 11, it took the
form of asceticism. There was to be a more
rigid adherence than ever to the old Arab
life. They were to drink no wine, nor build-
house, nor sow seed, nor plant vineyard,
nor have any. All their days they were tc
dwell in tents, as remerabering that they
were strangers in. the land (Jer. xxxv. 6,
7). This was to be the condition of their
retaining a (Ustinct tribal existence. For
two centuries and a half they adhered faith
fully to this rule. The N.abathaeans ani
Wahabys supply us with a striking paralleh
The invasion of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar
in B. c. 607, drove the Rechabites from their
tents. Some inferences may be safely drawn
from the facts of Jer. xxxv. Tho names
of the Rechabites show that they continued
to be worshippers of Jehovah. They are
already known to tho prophet. One of them
(ver. 3) bears the same name. Their rigid
Nazarite life gained for them admission into
the house of the Lord, into one of the cham
bers assigned to priests and Levites, within
its precincts. Here they are tempted, ai i
are proof against the temptation. The his
tory of this trial ends with a special bless
ing: "Jonadab, the son of Rechab, shall
not want a man to stand before me forever"
(ver. 19). The words "to stand befors

RECHABITES

671

Ri-D SEA

me," are essentially liturgical. The Re
chabites were solemnly adopted into the
families of Israel, and were recognized as
incorporated into the tribe of Levi. It
remains for us to see whether there are-any
traces of their after-history in the Biblical
or later writers. (1,) We have the singu
lar heading of Ps, Ixxi. in the LXX. ver
sion, indicating that the " sons of Jonadab"
shared the captivity of Israel. (2.) There
is the sigiificant mention of a son of
Rechab in Neh. iii. 14, as co-operating with
the priests, Levites, and princes in the res
toration of the w.all of Jerusalem. (3.)
The mention of the house of Rechab in 1
Chr. ii. 55, though not without difficulty,
points, there can be Uttle doubt, to the sarae
conclusion. The Rechiibites have become
Scribes. 'They give themselves to a calling
which, at the time of the.return from Baby
lon, was chiefly, if not exclusively, in the
hands of Levites. (4.) The account of the
martyrdora of Jiimes the Just given by
Hegesippus brings the name of the Rechab
ites once more before us, and in a very
strange connection. While the Scribes and
Pharisees were stoning hira, " one of the
priests of the sons of Rechab, the son of
Rechabim, who are mentioned by Jereraiah
the prophet," cried out, protesting against
the crime. We may accept Hegesippus as
an additional witness to the existence of the
Rechabites as a recognized body up to the
destruction of Jerusalem, sharing in the
ritual of the Teraple, (5,) Some later
notices are not without interest.' Benjamin
of Tudela in the 12th century mentions that
near El Jubar (= Punibeditha) he found
Jews who were named Rechabites. They
•tilled the ground, kept flocks and herds,
abstained from wine and flesh, and gave
tithes to teachers who devoted themselves
to studying the Law, and weeping for Jeru
salem, A later traveller. Dr. Wolff, gives
a yet stranger and more detailed report.
The Jews of Jerusalera and Yemen told
him that he would find the Rechabites of
Jer. xxxv. living near Mecca. When he
carae near Senaa he carae in contact with a
tribe, the Beni-Khaibr, who identifled them
selves with the sons of Jonadab. With one
of them, Mousa, Wolff conversed.
Re'ehabites. [Reciiab.]
Re'chah. In l Chr, iv. 12, Beth-rapha,
Paseah, and Tehinnah the father, or found
er, of Ir-nahash, are said to have been " the
meu of Rachah."
Recorder, an officer of high rank in the
Jewish state, exercising the functions, not
siraply of an annalist, but of chancellor or
president of the privy council. In David's
court the recorder appears among the high
ifHcers of his household (2 Sam. viii. 16,
XX. 24; IChr, xvui. 15). In Solomon's,
he is coupled with the three secretaries, and
is; mentioned last, probably .is being their

president (1 K. iv. 3 ; comp. 2 K, xvui. 18,
37; 2 Chr.' xxxiv, 8).
Red Sea. The sea known to us as the
Red Sea was by the Israelites called " the
sea " (Ex. xiv. 2, 9, 16, 21, 28, xv, 1, 4, 8,
10, 19 ; Josh, xxiv, 6, 7 ; and many other
passages) ; and specially "the seaotsAph"
(Ex, X, 19, xiii. 18, xv. 4, 22, xxiii, 31;
Nura, xiv, 25; &c.). It is also perhaps
written sAphdh in Nura. xxi. 14, rendered
" Red Sea " in A. V, ; and in like m'anuer
in Deut, i, 1, sAph. This word signifies a
sea-weed resembling wool, and such saa-
weed is thrown up abundantly on the shores
of the Red Sea. The LXX. always render
it i; iguflga SuXaaaa (except in Judg. xi. 16),
The origin of this appellation has been the
source of raore speculation even than the
obscure sAph ; for it lies more within the
range of general scholarship. The authors
of theories concerning it may be divided
into two schools. The first have ascribed
it to some natur.al phenoraenon ; such as tho
singularly red appearance ofthe raountain a
of the western coast ; the red color of the
water, sometimes caused by the presence
ofzoophites; the red coral of the sea; the
red sea-weed; and the red storks that have
been seen in great numbers, &c. The sec
ond have endeavored to find an etymo
logical derivation. Of these the earliest
(European) writers proposed a derivation
from Edom, " red," by, the Greeks trans
lated literally. The Greeks aud Roraans
tell us that the sea received its name from
a great king, Erythras, who reigned in the
adjacent country ; the stories that have
come down to us appear to be distortions
of the tradition that Hirayer was the narae
of apparently the chief family of Arabia
Felix, the great South-Arabian kingdom,
whence the Himyerites and Homeritae.
Hirayer appears to be derived frora the
Ariibic " ahmar," red. We can scarcely
doubt, on these etymological grounds, the
connection bettveen the Phoenicians and
the Himyerites, or that in this is the true
origin of the. appellation of the Red Sea.
But when the ethnological side of tlie ques
tion is considered, the evidence is much
strengthened. The South-Arabian kingdora
was a Joktanite (or Shemite) nation mixed
with a Cushite. The Red Sea, therefore,
was most probably the Sea of the Red men.
Ancient Limits. — The most important
change in the Red Sea has been the drying
up of its northern extremity, " the tongue
of the Egyptian Sea." The land about tbe
head of the gulf has risen, and that near
the Mediterranean become depressed. The
head of the gulf has consequently retired
gradually since the Christian era. Thus
the prophecy of Isaiah has been fulfilled
(xi. 15, xix. 5) ; the tongue of the Red Sea
has dried up fcir a distance of at least 50
mUes from its ancient head. An ancient

RED SEA

572

RED SEA

canal conveyed the waters of the Nile to
the Red Sea flowing through the Wadi-t-
Turaeylat, and irrigating with its system
of water-channels a large extent of country.
The drying up of the head of the gulf ap
pears to have been one of the chief causes
ofthe neglect and ruin of this can.al. The
country, for the distance above indicated,
is now a desert of gravelly sand, with wide
patches about the ol I sea-bottora, of rank
marsh land, now called the " Bitter Lakes."
At the northern extremity of this salt
waste 'is a small lake, sometimes called the
lake of Heroopolis ; the lake is now Birket
et-Timsib, "the lake of the Crocodile,"
und is supposed to mark the ancient head
of the gulf. The canal that connected this
with the NUe was of Pharaonic origin. It
was anciently known as the " Fossa Rc-
gum," and the " Canal of Hero." The time
at which the canal was extended, after the
drying up of the head of tho gulf, to the
present head, is uncertain, but it must have
been late, and probably since the Moham
raedan conquest. Traces of the ancient
channel throughout its entire length to the
vicinity of Bubastis, exist at intervals in
the present day. The land north of the
ancient hr-ad ofthe gulf is a plain of heavy
sand, raergmg into raarsh-land near the
Mediterranean coast, and extending to
Palestine. This region, including Wsidi-t-
Tumeyliit, was probably the frontier land
occupied in part by the Israelites, and open
to the incursions of the wild tribes of the
Arabian desert. Physical Description. —
In extreme length the Red Sea stretches
from the straits of Bab el-Mendeb (or ratli-
ei R4s Biib el-Mendeb) in lat. 12° 40' N.,
to the modern head of the Gulf of Suez,
lat. 30° N. Its greatest width may be
stated roughly at about 200 geographical
miles; this is about lat. 16° 30', .but the
navigable channel is here really narrower
than in some other portions. At Riis Mo
hammad, the Red Sea is split by the gra
nitic peninsula of Sinai into two gulfs ; the
westernmost, or Gulf of Suez, Is now about
130 geographical mUes in length, with an
average width of about 18, though it con
tracts to less than 10 railes ; the eastern
most, or Gulf of El-'Akabeh, is only about
90 miles long, frora the Straits of Tirsin, to
the 'Akabeh, and of proportionate narrow
ness. Journeying southwards frora Suez,
on our left is the peninsula of Sinai ; on the
right, is the desert coast of Egypt, of lirae
stone formation like the greater part of the
NUe yalley in Egypt, the cliffs on the sea-
margin stretching landwards in a great
rocky plateau, while raore inl.and a chain
or volcanic raountains (beginning about hat.
28° 4' and running south) rear their lofty
peaks at intervals above the limestone, gen
erally about 15 mUes distant. This coast
\b espscially intere»ting iu a Biblical point

of view, forhere were sorae of the tiailiest
monasteries of the Eastern Church, and in
those secluded and barren mountains lived
very early Christian hermits. The western
shore is the peninsula of Sinai. The sea,
from its danger's and sterile shores, is en
tirely destitute of boats. The coral of the
Red Sea is remarkably abundant, and
beautifully colored and variegated. The
earliest navigation of the Red Sea (passing
by the pre-historical Phoenicians) is men
tioned by Herodotus. " Sesostris (Rame
ses II.) was the first who, passing the Ara
bian Gulf in a fleet of long vessels, reduced
under his authority the inhabitants of the
coast bordering the Erythraean Sea."
Three centuries later, Solomon's navy was
built " in Eziongeber, which is beside Eloth,
on the shore of the Red Sea (Yam Silph), in
the land of Edom " (1 K. ix, 26). The king
dom of Solomon extended as far as the Red
Sea, upon which he possessed the harbors of
Elath and Eziongeber. [Elath; Ezion
geber,] It is possible that the sea has
retired here as at Suez, and that Ezion
geber is now dry land, Jehoshaphat also
" made ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir
for gold ; but they went not, for the ships
were broken at Eziongeber " (1 K. xxii.
48). The scene of this wreck has been
supposed to be Edh-Dhahab. The fashion
of the ancient ships of the Red Sea, or of
the Phoenician ships of Soloraon, is un
known. From Pliny we learn that the ships
were of papyrus, and like the boats of the
Nile ; and this stateraent was in some meas
ure correct. More precise and curious is
El-Makreezee's description, written in the
first half of the 15th century, of the ships
that sailed from EydhAb on the Egyptian
coast to Juddah : " Their ' jelcbehs,' which
carry the pilgrims on the coast, hav e not
a nail used in them ; but their planks are
sewed together with fibre, which is taken
from the cocoanut-tree ; and they calk
them with the fibres of the wood of the date
palm ; then they ' pay ' them with biitter, or
the oil of the palma Christi, or with the fat
of the kirsh {sgualus carcharias). . . .
The sails of these jelebehs are of mats made
of the d<5ra-palra." The fleets appear to
have sailed about the auturanal equinox,
and returned in. Deceraber or the raiddle
of January. The Red Sea, as it possessed
for raany centuries the most important sea-
trade ofthe East, contained ports of celeb
rity. Of these, Elath and Eziongeber alone
appear to be mentioned in the Bible. The
Heroopolite Gulf is ofthe chief interest; it
was near to Goshen ; it was the scene of the
passage of the Red Sea; and it was the
" tongue of the Egyptian Sea." It was
also the seat of the Egyptian trade in this
sea and to the Indian Ocean. HeroOpolis
is doubtless the same as Hero, and its site
is probably identified with the modern

RED SEA

573

RED SEA

Aooo-Kesheyd, at the head of the old gulf,
Suez is a poor town, and has only an unsafe
anchorage, with very shoal water. But the
shoaling of the head of the gulf rendered
,the navigation, always dangerous, more
difficult; it destroyed the forraer anchor
ages, and raade it necessary to carry mer
chandize across the desert to the Nile, This
change appears to have been one of the
main causes of the decay of the comraerce
of Egypt, Since the time of Mohammad
the Red Sea trade has been insignificant.
Passage of. — The passage of the Red Sea
was tho crisis of the Exodus, The points
that arise are the place of the passage, the
narrative, and the iraportance of the event
in Biblical history. 1, It is usual to sup
pose that the raost northern place at which
the Red Sea could have been crossed is the
present head of the Gulf of Suez, This
supposition depends upon the erroneous
idea that in the time of Moses the Gulf did
not extend farther to the northward than
at present. An examination ofthe country
north of Suez has shown, however, that the
sea has receded many railes. The old bed
is indicated by the Birket-et-Tirasih, or
"Lake of the Crocodile," and the raore
southern Bitter Lakes, the northernraost
part of the forraer probably corresponding
to the head of the Gulf at the time of the
Exodus. It is necessary to endeavor to
ascertain the route of the Israelites be
fore we can attempt to discover where
they crossed the Sea. The point from
which they started was Rameses, a place
certainly in the Land of Goshen, which
we identify with the Wddi-t- Tumeyldt.
After the mention that the people jour
neyed frora Raraeses to Succoth, and
before the account of their departure
frora Succoth, a passage occurs which ap
pears to show the first direction of the
journey, and not a change in the route (Ex.
xiii. 17, 18). At the end of the second
day's journey the camping-place was at
Etham, "in the edge of the wilderness"
(Ex. xiii. 20; Num. xxxiii, 6), Here the
Wddi-t- Tumeyldt was probably left, as it is
cultivable and terminates in the desert.
The first passage relating to the journey,
after the mention of the encamping at
Etham, is this, stating a coraraand given to
Moses : " Speak unto the children of Israel,
that they turn [or ' return '] and encamp
[or ' that they encamp again '] before Pi-
liahirotb, between Migdol and the sea, over
against Baal-zephon " (Ex. xiv. 2). At the
end of the third day's march, — for each
camping-place seems to mark the close of
a day's journey, — the Israelites encamped
hy the sea. The place of this last encarap
raent, and that of the passage, would be not
very far from the Persepolitan monuraent.
It is here necessary to raention the argu
ments for and against the common opinion

that the Israelites passed near the pt asent
head of the gulf. Local tradition is in its
favor, but it raust be remembered thiit local
tradition in Egypt and the neighboring
countries, judging from the evidence of
history, is of very little value. The Mus
lims suppose Memphis to have been the
city at which the Pharaoh of the Exodus
resided before that event occurred. From
opposite Meraphis a broad valley leads to
the Red Sea. It is iu part called the Wiidi-
t-Teeh, or "Valley of the Wandering."
From it the traveller reaches the sea be
neath the lofty Gebel-et-Tikah, which rises
on the north and shuts off all escape in that
direction, excepting by a narrow way along
the sea-shore, which Pharaoh raight have
occupied. The sea here is broad and deep,
as the narrative is generally held to imply.
All the ' local features seera suited for g
great event. The supposition that the If
raelites took an upper route, now that of
the Mekkeh caravan, along the desert lo
the north of the elevated tract between
Cairo and Suez, must be mentioned, al
though it is less probable than that just n<.-
ticed, and offers the same difficulties. W T
therefore think that the only opinion wai'-
ranted by the narrative is that already
stated, which supposes the passage of the
sea to have taken place near the northern
most part of its ancient extension. The
last camping-place was before Pi-hahiroth.
It appears that Migdol was behind Pi-ha
hiroth, and on the other hand Baal-zephon
and the sea. These neighboring places
have not been identified. Frora Pi-hahi
roth the Israelites crossed the sea. The
only points bearing on geography in the
account of this event are, that the sea was
divided by an east wind, whence we raay
reasonably infer that it was crossed from
west to east, and that the whole Egyptian
army perished, which shows that it raust
have been some miles broad. On the whole
we may reasonably suppose about twelve
miles as the smallest breadth of the sea.
2, A careful examination of the narrative
of the passage of the Red Sea is necessary
to a right understanding of the event.
When the Israelites had departed, Pharaoh
repented that he had let them go. The
strength of Pharaoh's army is not further
specified than by the" stateraent that " he
took six hundred chosen chariots, and [or
' even '] all the chariots of Egypt, and cap
tains over everyone of them " (Ex. xiv. 7).
With this army, which, even if a small one,
was mighty in comparison to the Israelite
multitude, encumbered with women, chil
dren, and cattle, Pharaoh overtook the
people " encamping by the sea " (9), AVhen
the Israelites saw the oppressor's army they
were terrifled and murmured against Moses.
Then Moses encouraged thera, bidding them
see how God would save them. It seems

RED SEA

574

REED

ftom the narrative that Moses did not know
at this tirae how the people would be saved,
and spoke only frora a heart full of faith,
for w{! read, " And the Lord said unto
Moses, Wherefore criest thou unto rae?
speak unto the children of Israel, that they
go forward: but lift thou up thy rod, and
stretch thou out thine hand over the sea,
and divide it ; and the children of Israel
shall go on dry [ground] through the midst'
of ths sea" (15, 16). That night the two
armies, the fugitives and the pursuers, were
encamped near together. Between them
was the pillar of the cloud, darkness to the
Egyptians and a Ught to the Israelites.
Perh.aps in the camp of Israel the sounds
of the hostile carap might be heard on the
one hand, and on the other the roaring of
the sea. But the pillar was a bitrrier and
a sign of deliverance. The time was now
come for the great decisive rairacle of the
Exodus, "And Moses stretched out his
hand over the sea : and the Lord caused
the sea to go [back] by a strong east •«-ind
all that night, and m.ade the sea dry [land],
and the waters were divided. And the
children of Israel went through the midst
of the sea upon the dry [ground] : and the
waters [were] a wall unto thera on their
right hand and on their left " (21, 22,
corap. 29). The narrative distinctly states
that a path was raade through the sea, and
that the waters were a wall on either hand.
The term " wall" does not appear to oblige
us to suppose, as many have done, that the
8.3a stood up like a cliff on either side, but
should rather be considered to mean a bar
rier, as the former idea implies a seeming
ly needless addition to the miracle, while
lie latter seems to be not discordant with
the language of the narrative. It was dur
ing the night that the IsraeUtes crossed,
and the Egyptians foUowed. In the morn
ing watch, the last third or fourth of the
night, or the period b^ore sunrise, Pha
raoh's army was in full pursuit in the
divided sea, and waa there rairaculously
troubled, so that the Egyptians sought to
flee (23-25). Then was Moses comraand
ed again to stretch out his hand, and the
sea returned to its strength, and over
whelmed the Egyptians, of whora not one
rem.ained alive (26-28) . In a later passage
some p.articulars are mentioned which are
not distinctly stated iu the narrative in E.x
odus. The place is indeed a poetical one,
but its meaning is clear, and we learn frora
it that at the tirae of the passage of the
sea there was a storra of rain with thunder
and lightning, perhaps accompanied by an
earthquake (I's. IxxvU. 15-20). 3. The
importance of this event in Biblical history
is shown by the raanner in which it is
spoken of in the books of the 0. T. writ
ten in later times. In them it is the chief
fact of .Tewiih history. It may be inquired

how it is that there seeras to have been no
record or tradition of this miracle among the.
Egyptians. This question involves that of
the time in Egyptian history to which this
event should be assigned. The date of the
Exodus according to different chronologers
varies more, than three hundred years ; the
dates of the Egyptian dynasties ruUng dur
ing this period of three hundred years vary
full one hundred. If the lowest date of
the beginning of the xviiith dynasty he
taken, and the highest date of the Exodus,
both which we consider the most probable
of those which have been conjectured in
the two cases, the Israelites must have left
Egypt in a period of which monuments or
other records are almost wanting.
Reed. Under this name may be noticed
the foUowing Hebrew words : 1. Agmdn
occurs Job xl. 26 (A, V. xii. 2, " hook "), xl.
12 (A. V. xU. 20, "caldron"); Is. ix. 14
(A. V. "rush "). The agmdn is mentioned
also as an Egyptian plant, in a sentence
similar to the last, in Is. xix. 15; while
frora Iviii, 5 we learn that it had a pendu
lous panicle. There can be uo doubt that
it denotes some aquatic reed-like plant,
probably the Phragmitis communis, which,
if it does not occur in Palestine and Egypt,
is represented by a very closely allied spe
cies, viz. the Arundo isiaca of Delisle.
The drooping panicle of this plant will an
swer well to the " bowing down the head "
of which Isaiiih speaks. — 2, Gdrr.e, trans
lated " rush " and " bulrush " by the A. V.,
without doubt denotes the celebrated paper-
feed ofthe ancients {Papyrus antiquorum),
which formerly was comraon in some parts
of Egypt. The Hebrew word is found four
times in the Bible (Ex. ii. 3 ; Is. xvui. 2,
xxxv. 7; Job viii. 11). The papyrus reed
is not now found in Egypt ; it grows, how
ever, in Syria. Dr. Hooker saw it on the
banks of Lake Tiberias, a few miles north
of the town. Tho papyrus plant {Papyrus
antiquorum) has an angular stem from 3 to
6 feet high, though occasionally it grows to
the height of 14 feet ; it has no leaves ;. the
fiowers are in very small spikelcts, which
grow on the thread-like fiowering branchleta
which forra a bushy crown to each stem. —
3, 'Ardth is translated " paper-reed " in Is.
xix. 7 ; but there is not the slightest au
thority for this rendering of tho A. V. It
probably denotes the open grassy land on
the biinks of the Nile. — 4. Kdneh, the
generic narae of a reed of any kind ; it oc
curs in nuraerous passages of the O. T., and
soraetiraes denotes the "stalk" of wheat
(Gen. xii. 5, 22), or the " branches " of the
candlestick (Ex. xxv. and xxxvii.). The
word is variously rendered in the A. V. by
"stalk," "branch," "bone," "calamus,"
" reed." The Arundo donax is common
on the banks of the Nile, and may perhaps
be " the staff of the bruised reed " to whicb

REELAIAH

575

REHOBOAM

Sennacherib compared the power of Egypt
(2 K. xviu. 21; Ez. xxix. 6, 7). The thick
stem of this reed may have been used as
walking-staves by the ancient Orientals.;
perhaps the measuring-reed was this plant ;
at present the dry culms of this huge grass
are in much demand for fishing-rods, &c.
Some kind of fragrant reed is denoted by
the word kCn^h (Is. xliii. 24; Ez. xxvii.
19; Cant, iv. 14), or more fully by MnSh
bdsem ; see Ex, xxx, 23, or by kdnehhaiidb
(Jer, vi. 20) ; which the A.V. renders " sweet
cane," and " calamus." It was of foreign
importation (Jer. vi. 20). It may be repre
sented by the lemon grass of India and
Arabia. Reela'iah. One of the children of the
province who went up with Zerubbabel
(Ezr. ii, 2). In Neh. vii, 7 he is called
Raamiah, and in 1 Esd. v. 8 IIeesaias.
Refiner. The refiner's art was essen
tial to the working of. the precious metals.
It consisted in the separation of the dross
frora the pure ore, which was effected by
reducing the metal to a fluid state by the
application of heat, and by the aid of sol
vents, such as alkaU (Is, i, 25) or lead (Jer.
vi, 29), which, amalgamating with the dross,
permitted the extraction of the unadulter
ated metal. The instruraents required by
the refiner were a crucible or furnace, and
a bellows or blow-pipe. The workraan
sat at his work (Mal. iii. 8) : he was thus
better enabled to watch the process, and
let the metal run off at the proper moment.
Refage, Cities of. [Cities of Ref
uge.] Re'gem. A son of Jahdai (1 Chr. U.
47). Re'gem-me'lech. The names of She-
rezer and Regera-raelech occur iu an ob
scure passage of Zechariah (vii. 2). They
were sent on behalf of sorae of the captivity
to make inquiries at the Teraple concerning
fasting. On referring to Zech. vii. 5, the
expression " the people of the land " seeras
to indicate that those who sent to the Tem
ple were not the captive Jews in Babylon,
but those who had returned to their own
country; and this being the case, it is prob
able that in ver. 2 " Bethel " is to be taken
as the subject,- " and Bethel (*'. e. the in
habitants of Bethel) sent." From its con
nection with Sherezer, the ' narae Regera-
melech (lit. " king's friend," corap. 1 Chr.
xxvii. 88) was probably an Assyrian title
of office.
Regipn round about. The (7 TTsgi-
jlwQog). In the Old Test, it is used by the
LXX. as the equivalent of the singular
Hebrew word hac-Ciccar (literally "the
round"), which seeras in its earliest occur
rences to denote the circle or oasis of culti
vation in which stood Sodom and Gomorrah
and the rest of the five " cities of the
Cicfior ' (Gen. xiU. 10, 11, 12, xix. 17, 25,

28, 29; Deut. xxxiv. 8). In Matt. iii. 5 and
Luke iii. 3 it denotes the populous and
flourishing region which contained the towns
of Jericho and its dependencies, in the Jor
dan valley, enclosed in the amphitheatre cf
the hills of Quarantana. It is also applied
to the district of Gennesaret (Matt. xiv.
85; Mark vi. 55; Luke vi. 37, vii. 17).
Rehabi'ah. The'^only son of Eliezer,
the son of Moses (1 Chr. xxiU. 17, xxiv.
21, xxvi. 25).
Re'hob. 1- The father of Hadadezer
king of Zobah, whom David smote at the
Euphrates (2 Sam. viii. 8, 12). 2. A Le
vite, or family of Levites, who sealed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 11). 3.
The northern limit of tlie exploration of
the spies (Nura. xiii. 21). It is specifled as
being " as men come unto Hamath," i. e.
at the comraenceraent of the territory of
that name, by which in the early books of
the Bible the great valley ,of Lebanon seeras
to be roughly designated. This seems to
fix the position of Rehob as not far from
TeU el-Kady and Banias. Inasmuch, how
ever, as Both-rehob is distinctly stated to
have been " far from Zidon " (Judg. xviii.
28), it must be a distinct place from — 4.
One of the towns allotted to Asher (Josh.
xix. 28). 5. Asher contained another Re
hob (Josh. xix. 30) ; but the situation of
these towns is unknown.
Rehobo'am, son of Solomon, by the
Araraonite princess Naamah (1 K. xiv. 21,
31), and his successor (1 K. xi. 43). From
the earliest period of Jewish history we
perceive symptoms that the confederation
of the tribes was but imperfectly ceraented.
The powerful Ephraim could never brook
a position of inferiority. When Solomon's
strong hand was withdrawn the crisis carae.
Rehoboam selected Shechera as the place
of his coronation, probably as au act of
concession to the Ephrairaites. The people
deraanded a remission of the severe bur
dens imposed by Sblomon, and Rehoboam
proraised thera an answer in three days,
during which tirae he consulted first his
father's counsellors, and then the young
raen "that were grown up with hira; and
which stood before hira." Rejecting the
advice of the elders to conciliate the people
at the beginning of his reign, he returned
as his reply the frantic bravado of his con
temporaries. Thereupon rose the forraidii-
ble song of insurrection, heard once before,
when the tribes quarrelled after David's
return frora the war with Absalom. Reho
boam sent Adoram or Adoniram (1 K. iv.
6 ; 2 Sara. xx. 24) to reduce the rebels to
reason, but he was stoned to death by them ;
whereupon the king and his attendants fled
to Jerus.-.'em. Jeroboam was made king
of the northern tribes. [Jeroboam.] Ou
Rehoboara's return to Jerusalera he as
sembled an army of 180,000 men from tlie

REHOBOTH

576

REMPHAN

two faithful tribes of Judah and Benjamin,
in the hope of reconquering Israel. The
expedition, however, was forbidden by the
prophet Shemiiiah (1 K. xii. 24) : still dur
ing Rehoboara's lifetime peaceful relations
between Israel and Judah were never re
stored (2 Chr. xu. 15 ; IK. xiv. 30). Re
hoboam now occupied himself in strength
ening the territorift which remained to
him, by building a number of fortresses (2
Chr. xi. 0-10). The pure worship of God
was maintained in Judah. But Rehoboara
did not check the introduction of heathen
abominations into his capital ; the lascivious
worship of Ashtoreth was .allowed to exist
by the side of the true religion, " images "
were set up, and the worst immoralities
were toleriited (1 K. xiv. 22-24). These
evils were punished and put down by the
terrible calamity of an Egyptian invasion.
In the 5th year of Rehoboam's reign the
country was invaded by a host of Egyptians
and other African nations under Shishak,
numbering 1200 chariots, 60,000 cavalry,
and a miscellaneous multitude of infantry.
The line of fortresses which protected Jeru
siilem to the W. and S. was forced, Jerusa
lem itself was taken, and Rehoboara had to
purchase an ignominious peace by deliver
ing up all the treasures with which Solomon
had adorned the temple and palace, includ-
iflg his golden shields, 200 of the larger,
and 300 ofthe smaller size (1 K. x. 16, 17).
After this great hurailiation the moral con
dition of Judah seems to have improved (2
Chr. xii. 12), and the rest of Rehoboam's
life to have been unmarked by any events
of iraportance. He died b, c, 958, after a
reign of 17 years, having ascended the
throne B, c, 975, at the age of 41 (1 K, xiv,
21 ; 2 Chr. xu. 13). He had 18 wives, 60
concubines, 28 sons, and 60 daughters.
Reho'both. 1. The third of the series
of wells dug by Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 22). 2.
One ofthe four cities built by Asshur, or by
Nirarod in Asshur, according as this diffi
cult passage is translated (Gen. x. 11).
Nothing certain is known of its position.
3. The city of a certain Saul or Shaul, one
of the early kings of the Edoraites (Gen.
xx.xvi. 37; 1 Chr. i. 48). The affix, "by
the river," flxes the situation of Rehoboth
cs on the Euphrates.
Re'hum. 1. One of the " children of
the province " who went up frora Babylon
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 2). 2. "Rehum
the chancellor " (Ezr. iv. 8, 9, 17, 23). He
was perhaps a kind of lieutenant-governor
of the province under the king of Persia,
holding apparently the same offit^ as Tat-
uai, who is described in Ezr. v. 6 as taking
part ill a siraUiir transaction, and is there
caUcd " the governor on this side the
river." 3. A Levite of the faraily of Bani,
who assisted in rebuilding the walls of
Jerusalem (Neh. i:d. 17). 4. One of the

chief of the people, who signed the cove
nant with Neheraiah (Neh. x, 25). 5. A
priestly faraily, or the head of a priestly
house, who Avent up with Zerubbabel (Neh.
xu, 3),
Re'i. A person raentioned (in 1 K. i. 8
only) as having remained firm to David's
cause wlien Adonijah rebelled, Jerome
states that he is the same with " Hiram tho
Zairite," i. e. Ira the Jarite, Ewald sug
gests that Rei is identical with Raddai.
Reins, i. e. kidneys, from the Latin renet.
In the ancient system of physiology the
kidneys were believed to be the seat of de
sire and longing, which accounts for their
often being coupled with the heart (Ps. vii.
9, xxvi. 2 ; Jer. xi. 20, xvu. 10, &c.).
Re'kem. 1. One of the five kings or
chieftains of Midian slain by the Israelites
(Num. xxxi. 8; Josh. xiu. 21). 2. One
of the four sons of Hebron, and father of
Shammai (1 Chr. U. 43, 44).
Re'kem. One of the towns of the al
lotment of Benjarain (Josh, xviii, 27), No
one has atterapted to identify it with any
existing site. But may there not be a trace
of the narae in Ain Karim, the well-known
spring west of Jerusalera ?
Remali'ah, the father of Pekah, cap
tain of Pekahiah king of Israel, who slew
his master and usurped his throne (2 K. xv.
25-37, xvi. 1, 5; 2 Chr. xxviu. 6; Is. vii.
1-9, viu. 6).
Re'meth. One of the towns of Issa
char (Josh. xix. 21). Itis probably (though
not certainly) a distinct place from the Ra
moth of 1 Chr. vi. 73.
Rem'mon. A town in the allotment of
Siraeon (Josh. xix. 7) ; elsewhere accu
rately given in the A. 'V. as Rimmon.
Rem"'nion-meth'oar. A place which
formed one of the landmarks of the eastern
boundary of the territory of Zebulun (Josh. '
xix. 13 only). Methoar does not really
form a part of the narae, but should be
translated (as in the margin of the A. V.),
— " R. which reaches to Neah." This
Rimmon does not appear to have been
known to Eusebius and Jerome, but it ia
raentioned by the early traveller 'Parchi,
who says that it is called Runianeh, and
stands an hour south of Sepphoris. If for
south we read north, this is in close agree
ment with the statements of Dr. Robinson
and Mr. Van de Velde, who place Rummd-
neh on the S. border of the Plain of Bui-
ieiuf, 3 mUes N. N. E. of Seffurieh. It is
difficult, however, to see how this can have
been on the eastern boundary of Zebulun.
Rem'phan (Acts vU, 43) and Chiun
(Am, V. 26) have been supposed to be
names of an idol worshipped by the Israel
ites in the wilderness. Much difficulty has
been occasioned by this coiresponding oc
currence of two naraes so wholly different
in sound. The raost re'^souable opinion

REPHAtlL

577

REUBEN

seems to be that Chiun was a Hebrew or
Semitic name, and Remphan an Egyptian
equivalent substituted by the LXX. The
former, rendered Saturn in the Syr., was
compared with the Arab, and Pers, kaiwdn,
"the planet Saturn," Egyptology has,
howe/er, shown that this is not the true
explanation, Araong the foreign divinities
worshipped in Egypt, two, the god RENPU,
perhaps pronounced REMPU, and the god
dess ItEN, occur together. We have no
clew to the exact tirae of the introduction
of these divinities into Egypt, Their naraes
occur as early as the period of the xviiith
and xixth dynasties, and it is therefore not
iraprobable that they were introduced by
the Shepherds, KEN is a forra of the Syr
ian goddess, and also bears sorae relation
to the Egyptian god of productiveness,
KHEM, 'riieir sirailaritytoBaal and Ash
toreth seeras strong. The naked goddess
KEN would suggest such worship as that
of the Babylonian Mylitta, but the thorough
ly Shemite appearance of RENPU is rather
in favor of an Arab source. The mention
of CHIUN or REMPHAN as worshipped
in the desert shows that this idolatry was,
in jiart at least, that of foreigners, and no
doubt of those settled in Lower Egypt,
Re'phael. Son of Shemaiah, the first-
Ixn-n of Obed-edom (1 Chr, xxvi, 7).
Re'phah. A son of Ephraim, and an
cestor of Joshua (1 Chr. vii. 25).
Reph'aiah. 1. The sons of Rephaiah
appear among the descendants of Zerub
babel in 1 Chr, iii. 21. ' 2. A Simeonite
chieftiiin in tho .reign of Hezekiah (1 Chr.
iv. 42). 3. Son of Tola, the son of Issa
char (1 Chr. vii. 2). 4. Son of Binea, and
descendant of Saul (1 Chr. ix. 43). 5.
The son of Hur, and ruler of a portion of
Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 9).
Reph'aim. [Giants. 1
Reph'aim. The Valley of, 2 Sam, v,
18, 22, xxiii. 13; 1 Chr. xi. lo. .xiv. 9; Is.
xvii. 5. Also in Josh. xv. 8, and xviii. 16,
where it is triinslated in the A. V. "the
valley of the giants." A spot which was
the scene of some of David's most remark
able adventures. He twice encountered
the Philistines there, and inflicted a de
struction on thera and on their idols so sig
nal that it gave the place a new name. It
was probably during the former of these
two contests that the incident of the water
of Bethlehem (2 Sam. icxiii. 13, &c.) oc
curred. The "hold" (ver. 14) in which
David found himself, seeras (though it is
not clear) to have bqcn the cave of Adul-
Um. This narrative seeras to iraply that
the valley of Rephaira was near Bethlehem.
Josephus mentions it as " the valley which
extends (from Jerusalem) to the city of
Bethlehem." Since the latter part of the
16th century the name has been attached to
the upland plain which stretches south of
37

Jerusalem, and is crossed by the road to
Bethlehera — the el Buk'ah ot the modern
Arabs. But this, though appropriate enough
as regards its pro.ximity to Bethlehem, does
not answer at all to the meaning of the
Hebrew word Emek, which appears always
to designate an enclosed valley, never an
open upland plain like tliat in question.
Tobler, in his last investigations, conclu
sively adopts the Wady Der .lasin. The
valley appears to derive its name from the
ancient nation of the Rephaim. It may
be a trace of an early settlement of theirs,
possibly after they were driven from their
original scats east of the Jordan by Che
dorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 5). [Giants.]
Reph'idim (Ex. xvu. 1, 8; xix. 2).
The name means " rests " or " stays ; " the
place lies iu the march of the Israelites
from Egypt to Sinai. Its site is not cer
tain, but it is perhaps Wady Feiran.
Re'sen is mentioned only iu Gen. x. 12,
where it is said to have been one of the
cities built by Asshur, and to have lain " be-
tipeen Nineveh and Calah." Assyrian re
mains of sorae considerable extent are
found near the raodern village of Selamiyeh,
and it is perhaps the raost probable conjec
ture that these represent Resen.
Re'sheph, A son of Ephraim and
brother of Repliah (1 Chr, vii, 25),
Re'u, son of Peleg, in the line of Abra
ham's ancestors (Gen, xi. 18, 19, 20, 21 ; 1
Chr, i, 25),
Reu'ben {Behold a son) . Jacob's first
born child (Gen. xxix. 32), the son of Leah,
apparently not born till an unusual inter
val had elapsed after the ra.arriage (31).
The notices of the patriarch Reuben in the
Book of Genesis and the early Jewish tra
ditional literature are unusually frequent,
and on the whole give a favoralble view of
his disposition. To him, and hira alone,
the preservation of Joseph's life appears
to have been due. His anguish at the dis
appearance of his brother, and the frustra
tion of his kindly artifice for delivering
hira (Gen. xxxvii. 22), his recoUection of
the minute details of the painful scene
ra.any years afterwards (xiii. 22), his offer to
take the sole responsibility of the safety of
the brother who had succeeded to Joseph's
place in the faraily (xiii.' 37), all testify to
a warm and (for those rough times) a kind
ly nature. Ofthe repulsive crime~ which
mars his history, and which turned tho
blessing of his dying father into a curse —
his adulterous connection with Bilhah — we
know from the Scriptures only the fact
(Gen. xxxv. 22). These traits, slight as
they are, are those of an ardent, impetuous,
unbalanced, but not ungenerous nature ;
not crafty and cruel, as were Simeon and
Levi, but rather, to use the metaphor of
the dying patriarch, boUing up like a vessel
of water over the rapid wood-fire of the

REUBEN

578

REVELATION

nomad ten! , and as quickly subsiding into ap
athy when the fuel was withdrawn. At the
time of the migration into Egypt, Reuben's
sons were four (Gen. xlvi. 9; 1 Glir. v. 8),
The census at Mount Sinai (Nura. i. 20, 21,
ii, 11) shows that at the Exodus the nura
bers of the tribe were 46,500 men above
twenty years of age, and fit for active war
like service. During the journey through
the wilderness the position of Reuben was
on the south side of the Tabernacle. The
" camp " which went under his narae was
forraed of his own tribe, that of Siraeon
and Gad, The Reubenites, Uke their rela
tives and neighbors on the journey, the
Gadites, had maintained, through the march
to Canaan, the ancient calling of their fore
fathers. Their cattle accompanied thera
in their flight from Egypt (Ex. xu. 38).
It followed naturally that when the nation
arrived on the open downs east of the Jor
dan, the three tribes of Reuben, Gad, and
the half of Manasseh, should prefer a re
quest to their leader to be allowed to remain
in a place so perfectly suited to their re
quirements. The part selected by Reuben
had at thiit date the special name of ' ' the
Mishor," with reference possibly to its
evenness. Under its modern name of the
Belka it is still esteemed beyond all others
by the Arab sheep-raasters. Accordingly,
when the Reubenites and their fellows ap
proach Moses with their request, his main
objection is that by what they propose they
will discourage the hearts of the children
of Israel from going over Jordan into the
landwhicli Jehovah had given them (Num,
xxxii, 7). It is only on their undertaking
to fulfil their part in the conquest of the
western country, the land of Canaan proper,
that Moses will consent to their proposal.
From this time it seems as if a bar, not
only the material one of distance, and of
the intervening river and raountain wall,
but also of diff'erence in feeling and habits,
gradually grew up between the Eastern and
Western tribes. The pile of stones which
they erected on the western bank of the
Jordan to mark their boundary was erected
in accordance with the unalterable habits
of Bedouin tribes both before and since.
It was an act identical with that in which
Laban and Jacob engaged at parting, with
that which is constantly performed by the
Bedouins of the present day. But by the
Israelites west of Jordan, who wore fast
reUnqilishing their nomad habits and feel
ings for those of more settled permanent
life, this act was completely misunderstood,
and was construed into an attempt to set
up a rival alt'ar to that of the Sacred Tent.
No judge, no prophet, no hero of the tribe
of Reuben is handed down to us. In the
dire extremity of their brethren in the
north un ler Deborah and Barak, they con
tented themselves with debating tho news

amongst the streams of the Miahor; the
distant distress of his brethren could nor
move Reuben ; he lingered among Ins sheep-
folds, and preferred the shepberd'c p;pe and
the bleating of the flocks to the clamor of
the trumpet and the turmoil of battle* His
individuality fades more rapidly than Gad's.
No person, no incident, is recorded, to
place Reuben before us in any distincter
form than as a member of the community
(if community it can be called) of "the
Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribo
of Manasseh" (1 Chr. xu. 87), Being re
mote from the central seat of the national
governraent and of the national religion, it
is not ^o be wondered at that Reuben re
linquished tho faith of Jehovah, The last
historical notice which we possess of them,
while it records this fact, records also as its
natural consequence that the Reubenites
and Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manas
seh, were carried off by Pul and Tiglath-
PUeser (1 Chr, V. 26),
Reu'el. 1. One of the sons of Esau,
by his wife Bf.shemath, sister of Ishraael
(Gen, xxxvi, 4, 10, 13, 17 ; 1 Chr. i. 85, 87).
2. One of the naraes of Moses' father-in-
law (Ex. ii. 13) ; the same which is given
in another passage of the A. V, Raguel.
3. Father of Eliasaph, the leader of the
tribe of Gild at the time of the census at
Sinai (Num. U, 14), 4, A Benjamite, an
cestor of Elah (1 Chr, ix, 8),
Reu'mah, the concubine of Nahor,
Abraham's brother (Gen, xxu, 24).
Revelation of St. John, the last book
of the N. T. It is often called the Apoca
lypse, which is its title in Greek, signifying
"Revelation." I. Canonical Authority
AND Authorship. — The question as to the
canonical authority of the Revelation re
solves itself into a question of authorship.
Was St. John the Apostle and Evangelist
the writer of the Revelation? The evi
dence adduced in support of his being the
author consists of (1) the assertions of the
author, .and (2) historical tradition. (1)
The author's description of himself in the
1st and 22d chapters is certainly equivalent
to an assertion that he is the Apostle. He
names himself siraply John, without prefix
or addition. He is also described as a ser
vant of Christ, one who had borne testi
mony as an eye-witness of the word of
God and of the testimony of Christ —
terms which were surely designed to iden
tify him with the writer of the verses John
xix. ^35, i. 14, and 1 John i. 2, He is in
Patmos for the word of God and the testi
mony of Jesus Christ. He is also a fellow-
sufferer with those whora he addresses, and
the authorized channel of the most direct
and iraportant communication that was ever
made to the Seven Churches of Asia, of
which churches John the Apostle was at
that time the spiritual govevnor and teach-

REVELATION

579

REVELATION

er. Lastly , the writer was a fellow-serv.ant
of angels and a brother oi" prophets. All
these marks are found united together in
the Apostle John, and in hira alone of all
historical persons. (2) A long series of
writers testifies to St. John's authorship.
{a) Justin Martyr, circ. 150 A, d., says :
" A man among us whose narae was John,
one of tbe Apostles of Christ, in a revela
tion which was made to hira, prophesied
that the believers in our Christ shall live
a thousand years in Jerusalera." (5) The
author of the Muratoriau~Fragraent, circ,
170 A. D., speaks of St. John as the writer
of the Apocalypse, («) MeUto of Sardis,
circ, 170 A. D,, wrote a treatise, on the
Revelation of John, Eusebius {H. E. iv.
26) mentions this araong the books of
Melito which had corae to his knowledge ;
and it may be presumed that he found no
doubt as to St, John's authorship in the
book of this ancient Asiatic bishop, {d)
Theophilus, bishop of Antioch (circ. 180),
in a controversy with Hermogenes, quotes
passages out of the Revelation of John.
(e) Irenaeus (circ. 195), apparently never
having heard a suggestion of any other
author than the Apostle, often quotes the
Revelation as the work of John. The tes
timony of Irenaeus as to the authorship of
Revelation is perhaps more iraportant than
that of any other writer. (/) Apollonius
(circ, 200) of Ephesus (?), in controversy
with the Montanists of Phrygia, quoted
passages out of the Revelation of John,
and narrated a rairacle wrought by John
' at Ephesus. {g) Cleraent of Alexandria
(circ. 200) quotes the book as the Revela
tion of John, and as the work of an Apos
tle, {h) TertuUian (a. d. 207), in at least
Due place, quotes byname "the Apostle
John in the Apocalypse." (t) Origen
(circ. 233), in his Coraraentary on St, John,
quoted by Eusebius {H. E. vi. 25), says of
the Apostle, "He wrote also the Revel.a-
tion." The testiraonics of Later writers, in
the third and fourth centuries, in favor of
St. John's authorship of the Revelation, are
equally distinct, and far raore numerous.
All the foregoing writers, testifying that
the book came from an Apostle, believed
that it was a part of Holy Scripture. The
book was admitted into the list of the Third
Council of Carthage, a. d. 397. II. Time
and Place op Writing. — The data f the
Revelation is given by the great majority
of critics as a. d. 95-97. Irenaeus says :
" It {i. e. the Revelation) was seen no very
long time ago, but almoi.j in our own gen
eration, at the close of Domitian's reign."
Eusebius also records that, in the persecu
tion under Domitian, John the Apostle and
EvangeUst was banished to the island Pat
mos for his testimony of the divine word.
Tlcre is no raention in any writer of the
first three centuries of any other time or

place. Unsupported by any historical evi
dence, sorae commentators have put forth
the conjecture that the Revelation was
written as early as the time of Nero. This
is siraply their inference from the style and
contents of the book. It has been inferred
from i. 2, 9, 10, that the Revelation was
written in Ephesus, imraediately after the
Apostle's return frora Patmos. But the
style in which the messiiges to the Seven
Churches are delivered rather suggests the
notion that the book was written in Pat
mos. III. Interpretation. — A short ac
count of the different directions in which
attempts have been made to interpret the
Revelation, is all that can be given in this
place. In the interval between the Apos
tolic age and that of Constantine the vis
ions of St, Jolm were chiefly regarded as
representations of gener.al Christian truths,
scarcely yet erabodied in actual facts, for
the raost part to be exemplified or fulflUod
in the reign of Antichrist, the coming of
Christ, the raillennium, and tho day of
judgment. Immediately after the trhimph
of Constantine, the Christians, emancipated
frora oppression and persecution, and dora-
inant and prosperous in their turn, began
to lose their vivid expectation of our Lord's
speedy Advent, and their spiritual concep
tion of His kingdora, and to look upon the
temporal supremacy of Christianity as a
fulfllment of the promised reign of Christ
on earth. The Roman empire become
Christian was regarded no longer as the
object of prophetic denunciation, but as
the scene of a millennial development.
This view, however, was soon raet by the
figurative interpretation of the raillennium
as the reign of Christ in the hearts of all
true believers. As the barbarous and he
retical invaders of the falling erapire ap
peared, they were regarded by the suffering
Christians as fulfilling the woes denounced
in the Revelation. Modern interpreters
are generally placed in three great divis
ions, a. The Historical or Continuous ex
positors; in whose opinion the Revelation
is a progressive history of the fortunes of
the Church frora the flrst century to the
end of time. b. The Praoterist expositors,
who are of opinion that the Revelation has
been alraost, or altogether, fulfilled in the
tirae which h.as passed since it was written ;
that it refers principally to the triumph of
Christianity over Judaisra and Pnganisra,
signaUzed in the downfall of Jerusalera
and of Rorae. c. The Futurist expositors,
whose views show a strong reaction against
some extravagances of the two preceding
scliools. They believe that the whole book,
excepting perhaps the fir?t three chapters,
refers principally, if not exclusively, to
events which are yet to come. Each of
these three schemes is open to objection.
In conclusion, it may be stated that two

REZEPH

580

RIBLAH

methods have been proposed by which the
student of the Revelation may escape the
incongruities and fallacies of the different
interpretations, whilst he may derive edifi
cation from whatever truth they contain.
It has been suggested that the book may be
regarded as a prophetic poem, dealing in
general and inexact descriptions, much of
which may be set down as poetic imagery,
mere embellishraent. But such a view
would be difficult to reconcile with the
belief that the book is an inspired prophe
cy. A better suggestion is made, or rather
i.? revived, by Dr. Arnold in his Sermons
On the Interpretation of Prophecy : that
we should bear in mind that predictions
h^ve a lower historical sense, as well as a
higher spiritual sense ; that there may be
one or more than one typical, imperfect,
historical fulfilraent of a prophecy, in each
of which the higher spiritual fulfilraent is
shadowed forth more or less distinctly.
Re'zeph, one of the places which Sen
nacherib mentions, in his taunting message
to Hezekiah, as having been destroyed by his
predecessor (2 K. xix. 12; Is, x,\xvii, 12),
Rezi'a, An Asherite, of the sons of
Ulla (1 Chr, vU, 39).
Re'zin. 1. King of Damascus, con
teraporary with Pekah in Israel, and with
Jotham and Ahaz in Judaea, He attacked
Jotham during the latter part of his reign
(2 K, XV. 37) ; but his chief war was with
Ahaz, whose territories he invaded, in com
p.any with Pekah (about E, c, 741), The
combined army laid siege to Jerusalem,
where Ahaz was, but " could not prevail
against it " (Is. vii. 1 ; 2 K. xvi. 5). Rezin,
liowever, "recovered Elath to Syria" (2
K. xvi. 6), Soon after this he was attacked,
defeated, and slain by Tiglath-Pileser II,,
king of Assyria (2 K. xvi, 9 ; compare
Tiglath-Pileser's own inscriptions, where
the defeat of Rezin and the destruction of
Damascus are distinctly mentioned. 2,
One of the farailies of the Nethinira (Ezr.
U. 48; Neh. vii, 50),
Re'zon, son of Eliadah, a Syrian, who
when David defeated Hadadezer king of
Zobah, put hiraself at the head of a band
of freebooters and set up a petty kingdora
at Damascus (1 K. xi, 23), Frora his
position at Damascus Rezon harassed the
kingdom of Solomon during his whole
reign. The name is Aramaic, and may be
compared with Rezin.
Rhe'gium, an Italian town situated on
the Bruttian coast, just at the southern en
trance of the Straits of Messina, occurs in
the account of St. Paul's voyage from Syra
cuse to Puteoli, .after the shipwreck at
Maltii (Acts xxviii. 13). By a curious
coincidence the figures on its coins are tho
very "twin brothers" which gave the
narae to St. Paul's ship. As to the history
jf the place, it was originally a Greek

colony: it was miserably destroyed by
Dionysius of Syracuse : from Augustus it
received advantages which combined "vvith
its geographical position in making it im
portant throughout the duration of the Ro
man erapire. The modern Reggio is a
town of 10,000 inhabitants. Its distance
across the straits from Messina is only
about six miles.
Rhe'sa, son of Zorobabel in the gen
ealogy of Christ (Luke iii. 27). Lord A.
Hervey has ingeniously conjectured that
Rhesa is no person, but merely the title
Rosh, i. e. "Prince," originally attached to
the name of Zerubbabel.
Rho'da, the name of a maid who an
nounced Peter's arrival at the door of
Mary's house after his miraculous release
from prison (Acts xii. 13).
Rhodes, The history of this island is
so illustrious that it is interesting to see it
connected, even in a small degree, with the
Ufe of St, Paul, He touched at this island
on his return voyage to Syria from the third
missionary journey (Acts xxi. 1). Rhodes
is immediately opposite the high Carian and
Lycian headlands at the S, W. extremity
of the peninsula of Asia Minor. Its posi
tion has had rauch to do with its history.
Its real eminence began (about 400 B. c.)
with the founding of that city at the N, E
extremity of the island, which still con
tinues to be the capital. After Alexander's
death it entered on a glorious period, its
raaterial prosperity being largely developed,
and its institutions deserving and obtaining
gener.al esteera. As we approach the time
of the consolidation of the Roman power
in the- Levant, we have a notice of the
Jewish residents in Rhodes (1 Mace, xv,
23), The Roraans, after the defeat of
Antiochus, assigned, during some tirae, to
Rhodes certain districts on the mainland.
Its Byzantine history is again erainent.
Under Constantine it was the raetropolis
of the "Province of the Islands," Itwas
the last place where the Christians of the
East held out against the advancing Sara
cens ; and subsequently it was once more
faraous as the horae and fortress of the
Knights of St, John,
Ri'bai, tho father of Ittai the Benjamite
of Gibeah (2 Sam. xxiu. 29 ; 1 Chr, xi, 31).
Rib'lah. 1, One of the landmarks on
the eastern boundary of the land of Israel,
as specified by Moses (Num, xxxiv, 11).
It seems hardly possible, without entirely
dis.arranging the specification of the boun
diiry, that the Riblah in question can be
the same with the following, 2, Rib
lah in the land of Haraath, a place on the
great road between Palestine and Baby
lonia, at which the kings of Babylonia
were accustomed to remain while direct
ing the operations of their arraies in Pales
tine and Phoenicia. Here Nebuchadnez-

RIDDLE

581

RISSAH

zar waited while the sieges of Jerusalem
and of Tyre were being conducted by his
lieutenants (Jer. xxxix. 5, 6, lii. 9, 10, 26,
27; 2 K, xxv, 6, 20, 21). In like manner
Pharaoh-Necho, after his victory over the
Babylonians at Carchemish, returned to
Riblah and suramoned Jehoahaz frora Jeru
salem before him (2 K. xxiii, 33), This
Riblal: still retains its ancient name, on
tbe right (east) bank of the cl Asy (Oron
tes), upon the great road which connects
Baalbek and Hums; about 35 railes N. E,
of the former and 20 miles S. W. of tlie
latter place.
Riddle. The Hebrew word is derived
from an Arahic root meaning " to bend off,"
"to twist" (Judg. xiv, 12-19), and is used
for artifice (Dan, viii. 23), a pro"verb (Prov.
i. 6), a song (Ps, xlix. 4, Ixxviii. 2), an
oracle (Num. xii. 8), a p.arable (Ez, xvii.
2), and in general any wise or intricate sen
tence (Ps. xciv. 4; Hab. ii. 6, &c,). The
riddles which the queen of Sheba carae to
ask of Solomon (1 K, x, 1 ; 2 Chr. ix. 1)
were rather ^' hard questions " referring to
profound inquiries, Solomon is- said, how
ever, to have been very fond of riddles.
We know that all ancient nations, and
especially Orientals, have been fond of
riddles. We find traces of the custora
among the Arabs (Koran xxv, 35), and in
deed several Arabic books of riddles exist;
but these are rather emblems and devices
than what we call riddles, although they
arc very ingenious. They were also known
to the ancient Egyptians, and were espe
cially used in banquets both by Greeks and
Roraans. Riddles were generally proposed
in verse, like the celebrated riddle of Sam-
eon, .which, however, was properly no rid
dle at all, because the PhiUstines did not
possess the only clew on which the solution
could depend.
Rim'mon {pomegranate) the name of
several towns, probably so called from
producing pomegranates. 1. A city of
Zebulun belonging to the Merarite Levites
(1 Chr. vi. 77). It is not impossible that
Dimnah (Josh. xxi. 35) may have been
originally Rimmon, as the D and R in He
brew are notoriously easy to confound. 2.
A town in the southern portion of Judah
(Josh. XV. 3), allotted to Simeon (Josh.
xix. 7; 1 Chr. iv. 32). In each ofthe
above lists the name succeeds that of Ain,
also one of the cities of Judah and Sim
eon. In the catalogue of the places re
occupied by the Jews after the return
from Babylon (Neh. xi. 29) the two are
joined, and appear in the A. V. as En-
Rimmon. 3, Rimmon-Parez, the name
of a march-station in the wilderness (Nura.
xxxiii, 19, 20), No place now known has
been identified with it. 4. Rimmon, the
Rocs, u. cliff or inaccessible natural fast
ness, in which tJ'e six hundred Benjamites

who escaped the slaughter of Gibeah took
refuge (Judg. .xx. 45, 47, xxi. 13). It is de
scribed as in the " wilderness," that is, the
wild uncultivated country which lies on the
east of the central highlands of Benjamin,
on which Gibeah wiis situated — between
thera and the Jordan Valley. Here the
name is still found attached to a village
perched on the surarait of a conictd chalky
hill, visible in all directions, and command
ing the whole country, 5- A Benjamite
of Beeroth, the father of Rechab and Baa
nah, the murderers of Ishbosheth (2 Sara.
iv, 2, 5, 9).
Rim'mon, a deity worshipped by the
Syrians of Damascus, where there w.as a
temple or liohse of Rimmon (2 K. v. 18).
Rimmon is perhaps the abbreviated form
of Hadad-Rimmon, Hadad being the sun-
god of the Syrians, Combining this with
the pomegranate, which was his syrabol,
Hadad-Rimmon would then be the sun-god
of the late suramer, who ripens the porae-
granate and other fruits.
Ring. The ring was regarded as an iur-
dispensable article of a Hebrew's attire,
inasmuch as it contained his signet. It
was hence the syrabol of authority, and as
such was presented by Pharaoh to Joseph
(Gen. xii, 42), and by Ahasuerus to Haman
(Esth. iU. 10). Such rings were worn not
only by raen, but by women (Is, iii, 21),
and are enumerated among the articles
presented by raen and woraen for the ser
vice of the tabernacle (Ex. xxxv. 22).
The signet-ring was worn on the right
hand (Jer. xxii, 24), We raay conclude
from Ex, xxviii. 11 that the rings contained
a stone engtaven with a device, or with the
owner's name. The custom appears also
to have prevailed among the Jews of the
Apostolic age ; for in Jaraes ii. 2, a rich
raan is described as not simply "with a
gold ring," as in the A; V., but "goldeu-
ringcd."

Egyptian Rings,
Rin'nah, one of the sons of Shimon lu
an obscure genealogy of the descendants
of Judah (1 Chr. iv. 20),
Ri'phath, the second son of Gomer,
and the brother of Ashkenaz aud Togar
mah (Gen, X, 3). The Hebrew text in 1
Chr. i. 6 gives the forra Diphath, but
this arises out of a clerical error. The
name may be identified with the Rhipaeon
mountains, i. e. the Carpathian range in
the N. E. of Dacia.
Ris'sah, a march-station in the wilder
ness (Num. xxxiii. 21, 23).

RITHMAH

582

ROE

Rith'mah, a march-station in the wil
derness (Num, xxxiii. 18, 19), probably
N. E. of Hazeroth.
Ri'ver. In the sense in which we em
ploy the word, viz. for a perennial stream
of considerable size, a river is a much
rarer object in the East than in the West.
With the exception of the Jordan and the
Litany, the streams of the Holy Land are
either entirely dried up in the summer
months, and converted into hot lanes of
glaring stones, or else reduced to very
sraall streamlets, deeply sunk in a nar
row bed, and concealed from view by a
dense growth of shrubs. The perennial
ri\-er is called Nahar by the Hebrews.
With the definite article, "ihe river," it
signifies invariably the Euphrates (Gen.
xxxi. 21 ; Ex. xxui. 31 ; Nura. xxiv. 6 ; 2
Sara. X. 16, &c., &c.). It is never applied
to the fleeting fugitive torrents of Pales
tine, The terra for these is nachal, for
which our translators h.ave used promis
cuously, and soraetiraes alraost alternately,
"valley," " brook," and " river." No one
of these words expresses the thing in
tended; but the term "brook" is pecu-
liiirly unhiippy. Many of the wadys of
Palestine are deep, abrupt chasras or rents
in the solid rock of the hills, and have a
savage, glooray aspect, far removed from
that of an English brook. Unfortunately
our language does not contain any single
word which has both the meanings of the
Hebrew Nachal and its Ar.abic equivalent
wady, which can be used at once for a dry
valley and for the stream which occasion
ally flows through it.
River of Egypt, 1. The NUe (Gen.
XV. 18). [Nile.] 2. A desert stream on
the border of Egypt, still occasionally
flowing in the valley called Wddi-l- Areesh.
The centre of the valley is occupied by the
bed of this torrent, whieh only flows after
rains, as is usual in the desert valleys.
This stream is first mentioned as the point
where the southern border of the Promised
Land touched the Mediterranean, which
formed its western border (Num, xxxiv,
8-6). In tbe later history we find Solo
mon's kingdora extending from the " enter
ing in of Haraath unto tho river of Egypt"
(1 IC. viii. 65), and Egypt liraited in tho
same manner where the loss of the eastern
provinces is mentioned (2 K. xxiv. 7).
Riz'pah, concubiue to king Saul, and
mother of his two sons Armoni and Mephib
osheth. After the death of Saul and oc
cupation of the country west of the Jord.an
by tho Philistines, Rizpah aceomp.anied the
other raerabers of the royal family to their
new residence at Mahanaim (2 Sam. iU. 7),
We hear nothing more of Rizpah till the
tragic story which has made her one of the
most familiar objects in the whole Bible
(2 Sam, xxi, 8-11). Every one can appre

ciate the love and endurance with which
the mother w.atched over the bodies of her
two sons and her five relatives, to save
them from an indignity peculiarly painful
to the whole of the ancient world (see Ps.
Ixxix. 2). But it is questionable whether
the ordinary conception of tlie scene is ac
curate. The seven victims were not, as the
A. V. implies, " hung ; " they were cruci
fied. The seven crosses were planted in
the rock on the top of the sacred hill of
Gibeah. The victims" were sacrificed at
the beginning of barley harvest, — the sa
cred aud festal time of the Passover, — and
in the full blaze of the summer sun they
hung till the fall of the periodical raip in
October. During the whole of that time
Rizpah reraained at the foot of the crosses
on which the bodies of her sons were ex
posed; the Mater dolorosa, if the expres
sion may be iiUowed, ofthe ancient dispen
sation. Road. This word occurs but once in
the Authorized Version of the Bible, viz. iu
1 Sam. xxvii. 10, where it is used in the
sense of " raid " or " inroad."
Robbery. Whether in tbe larger sense
of plunder, or the more limited sense of
theft, systematically orgiinized, robbery has
ever been one of the principal eraployments
of the nomad tribes of the East. From the
tirae of Ishmael to the present diiy the Bed
ouin has been a " wild man," and a robber
by trade (Gen. xvi. 12). An instance of
an enterprise of a truly Bedouin character,
but distinguished by the exceptional fea
tures belonging to its principal actor, is
seen in the night-foray of David (1 Sam.
xxvi. 6-12). Predatory inroads on a large
scale are seen in the incursions of the Sa
baeans and Chaldaeans on the property of
Job (Job i. 15, 17); tbe revenge coupled
with plunder of Simeon and Levi (Gen.
xxxiv. 28, 29); the reprisals of the He
brews upon tbe Midianites (Nura. xxxi.
32-54), and the frequent and often .pro
longed invasions of "spoilers" upon the
Israelites (Judg. U. 14, vi. S, 4 ; 1 Sain.
xi., XV.; 2 Sam, viU„ x, ; 2 K. v. 3; I
Cbr. V. 10, 18-22), SimUar disorder ia
the country, complained of raore than orce
by the prophets (Hos, iv, 3, vi. 9 ; aMic, iJ.
8), continued raore or less through Macca
baean down to Roraan tiraes, 'The Mosaic
l.aw on the subject of theft is contained -in
Ex. xxii. There seems no reason to sup
pose that the law underwent any alteration
in Solomon's time, Man-stealing was pun
ishable with death (Ex, xxi. 16; Deut.
xxiv, 7), Invasion of right in land was
strictly forbidden (Deut, xxvU. 17; Is. v.
8; Mic. U, 3),
Roe, Roebuck, The Hebrew words
thus translated denote some species of an
telope, probably the Gazflla A-iabica of
Rvria and Arabia. The gazelle wis al-

nOGELIM

583

ROMAN EMPIRE

.lowed as food (Dsiit. xii, 15, 22, &c.)-;' it is
mentioned as very fleet of foot (2 Sara. ii.
18 ; 1 Chr. xii. 8) ; it was hunted (Is. xiii.
14 ; Prov, vi. 5) ; it was celebrated for its
loveliness (Cant, ii, 9, 17, viii, 14).
Roge'lim, the residence of Barzillai the
Gileadite (2 Sara, xvii. 27, xix. 31) in the
highlands east of the Jordan.
Roh'gah, an Asherite, of the sons of
Shamer (1 Chr. vu. 34).
Roll. A bo 3k in ancient times consisted
of a single long strip of paper or parch
ment, wliich was usually kept rolled up on
' a stick, and was unrolled when a person
wished to read it. The roll was usually
written on one side only, and hence the
particular notice of one that was " written
within and without" (Ez. ii. 10). The
writing was arranged in columns. We
may here add that the term in Is. viii. 1,
rendered in the A. V. " roll," more cor
rectly moans tablet.
Romam.'ti^-e'zer, one of the fourteen
sons of Heman (1 Chr. xxv. 4, 31).
Roman Empire'- The notices of Ro
man history which occur in the Bible are
confined to the last century and a half of
the commonwealth and the first century of
the imperial monarchy. The first historic
mention of Rorae in the Bible is in 1 Mace.
i. 10. About the year 161 B. c. Judas Mac
eabaeus heard of the Romans as the con
querors of Philip, Perseus, and Antiochus
(1 Mace. viii. 5, 6), In order to strengthen
hiraself against Deraetrius king of Syria he
sent ambassadors to Rome (viU. 17)', and
concluded a defensive alliance with the
senate (viu. 22-32). This was renewed by
Jonathan (xii. 1) and by Simon (xv, 17),
In the year 65 b, c, when Syria was made
a, Roraan province by Pompey, the Jews
were still governed by one of the Asmonae
an princes, Aristobulus had lately driven
his brother Hyrcanus from the chief priest
hood, and was now iu his turn attacked by
Aretas, king of Arabia Petraea, the ally of
Hyrcanus. Pompey's lieutenant, M. Aerail-
ius Scaurus, interfered in the contest e, c.
64, and the next year Porapey hiraself
marched an array into Judaea and took
Jerusalera, From this time the Jews were
practically under the governraent of Rome,
Hyrcanus retained the high-priesthood and
a titular sovereignty, subject to the watch-
•ful control of his minister Antipater, an
active partisan of the Roman interests.
Finally, Antipater's son, Herod the Great,
was made king by Antony's interest, b. c,
40, and confirraed in the kingdom by Au
gustus, B, c. 30, The Jews, however, were
all this tirae tributaries of Rome, and their
princes in reality were raere Roman proc
urators. On the banishment of Archelaus,
A. D. 6, Jud.aea became a raere appendage
of the province of Syria, and was governed
by a Roman procurator, who resided at

Caesarea. Such were the relations of the
Jewish people to tho Roman government
at the time when tbe N. T, history begins.
In illustration of the sacred narrative it
may be well to give a general account of
the position of the Emperor, the extent of
the erapire, and the administration of the
provinces in the tirae of our Lord and His
Apostles. I, When Augustus became solo
ruler of the Roman world he was in theory
simply the first citizen of the republic, in
trusted with temporary powers to settle the
disorders of the state. The old magistracies
were retained, but the various powers and
prerogatives of each were conferred upon
Augustus. Above all he was the Emperor
(Imperator), This word, used originally
to designate any one intrusted with the
imperium or full miUtary authority over
a Roraan array, acquired a new signifi
cance when adopted as a perraaneut title
by Julius Caesar. By his use of it as
a constant prefix to his narae in the city
and in the camp he openly asserted
a paramount military authority over the
state. The Empire was nominally elective,
but practically it passed by adoption ; arid
till Nero's time a sort of hereditary right
seeraed to be recognized, II, Extent of
the Empire. — Cicero's description of the
Greek states and colonies as a " fringe on
the skirts of barbarism," has been v/ell
applied to the Roman dorainions before the
conquests of Pompey and Caesar. The
Roniiin Erapire was still confined to a nar
row strip encircling the Mediterranean Sea.
Pompey added Asia Minor and Syria.
Caesar added Giiul- The generals of Au
gustus overran the N. W. portion of Spain,
and the country between the Alps an4 the
Danube. The boundaries of the Empire
were now, the Atlantic on the W,, the
Euphrates on the E,, the deserts of Africa,
the cataracts of the Nile, and the Arabian
deserts on the S., the British Channel, the
Rhine, the Danuhe, and the Black Sea on
the N, The only subsequent conquests of
importance were those of Britain by Clau
dius and of Dacia by Trajan, The only in
dependent powers of iraportance were the
Parthians on the E, and the Germans on
the N. The population of the Empire in
the tirae of Augustus has been calculated
at 85,000,000, III. Tlie Provinces. — The
usual fiite of a country conquered by Rorae
was to becorae a subject province, governed
directly from Rome by officers sent out for
that purpose. Sometimes, however, petty
sovereigns were left in possession of a
nominal independence on the borders, or
within the natural limits, of the province.
Augustus divided the provinces into two
classes: (1.) Imperial; (2.) Senatorial;
retaining iu his own hands, for obvious
reasons, those provinces where the pres
ence of a la.jge mUitary force was reces-

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO

584

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO

sary, and comraitting the peaceful and
unarmed provinces to the Senate, The
Imperiiil provinces at first were — Gaul,
Lusitania, Syria, Phoenicia, Cilicia, Cyprus,
and Acgypt. The Senatorial provinocs
were Africa, Nuraidia, Asia, Achaia and
Epirus, Dalmatia, Macedonia, Sicily, Crete
and Cyrene, Bithynia and Pontus, Sardin
ia, Biietica, Cyprus and Gallia Narbonen-
sis were subsequently given up by Augustus,
who in turn received Dalmatia from the
Sen.ate. Many other changes were made
afterwards. The N. T, writers invariably
designate the governors of Senatorial prov
inces by the correct title of urSrnaToi, pro
consuls (Acts xiii. 7, xviii. 12, xix. 38).
For the governor of an Imperial province,
properly styled' " Legatus Caesaris," the
word 'Ilyiuwr (Governor) is used in the
N. T, The provinces were heavily taxed
for the benefit of Rome and her citizens.
They are said to have been better governed
under the Erapire than under theCoramon-
wealtli, and those of the Eraperor better
than those of the Senate. Two important
changes were introduced under the Empire.
The governors received a fixed pay, and
the terra of their coraraand was prolonged.
The condition of the Roraan Empire at the
time wlien Christianity appeared has often
beer dwelt upon, as affording obvious illus
trations of St. Paul's expression, that the
" fulness of time bad corae " (Gal. iv. 4).
The general peace within the limits of .the
Empire, the forraation of military roads,
the suppression of piracy, the march of the
legions, the voyages of the corn fleets, the
general increase of traffic, the spread of
the Latin language in the West as Greek
had already spread in the East, the exter
nal unity of the Empire, offered facilities
hitherto unknown for the spread of a world
wide religion. The tendency, too, of a des-
potisra like that of the Roraan Erapire to
reduce all its subjects to a dead level, was
a powerful instrument in breaking down
^ the pride of privileged races and national
religions, and familiarizing men with the
truth that " God had raade of one blood all
nations on the face of the earth " (Acts xvii.
24, 26). But still more striking than this
outward preparation for the diffusion of the
Gospel was the appearance of a deep and
wide-spread corruption, which seeraed to
defy any huraan reraedy. The chief pro
phetic notices of the Roraan Erapire are
found in the Book of Daniel. According
to sorae interpreters the Romans are in
tended in Deut. xxviii. 49-57.
Romans, Epistle to the. 1. The
date of this Epistle is flxed with more ab
solute certainty and within narrower limits
than that of any other of St. Piiul's Epistles.
The following considerations determine the
time of writing. First. Certain names in
the salut.ations point to Corinth, as the place

from which the letter was sent. (1.) PLoebft,
a deaconess of Cenchreae, one of the port
towns of Corinth, is commended to the
Romans (xvi. 1, 2). (2.) Gains, in 'whose
house St. Paul was lodged at the tirae (xvi.
23), is probably the person mentioned as
one of the chief members of the Corinthian
Church in 1 Cor. i. 14, though the name
was very coramon. (3.) Erastus, here
designated "the treasurer of the city"
(xvi. 23, A. V. "chamberlain") is else
where mentioned in connection with Cor
inth (2 Tim. iv, 20; see also Acts xix. 22).
Secondly. Having thus determined the.
place of writing to be Corinth, we have no
hesitation in fixing upon the visit recorded
in Acts XX. 8, during the winter and spring
following the Apostle's long residence at
Ephesus, as tho occasion on which the
Epistle was written. For St. Paul, when
ho wrote the letter, was on the point of
carrying the contributions of Macedonia
and Achaia to Jerusalem (xv. 25-27), and
a comparison with Acts xx, 22, xxiv. 17,
and also 1 Cor. xvi. 4 ; 2 Cor, viii. 1, 2, ix.
1, ff., shows that he was so engaged at tliis
period of his life. The Epi.'itle then was
written frora Corinth during St. Paul's third
missionary journey, on the occasion of the
second ofthe two visits recorded in the Acts.
On this occasion he remained three months
in Greece (Acts xx. 3), It w.as in the win
ter or early spring of t?he year that the/
Epistle to the Romans was written. Ac
cording to the most probable system of
chronology, this would be the year a. c.
58, '2. The Epistle to the Roraans is thus
placed in chronological connection with the
Epistles to the Galatians and Corinthians,
which appear to have been written within
the twelve raonths preceding. They pre
sent a remarkable resemblance to each oth
er in style and matter — a rauch greater
reserablance than can be traced to any
other of St, Paul's Epistles. 3, The occa
sion which prompted this Epistle, and the
circumstances attending its writing, were as
follows, St, Paul had long purposed visit
ing Rorae, and still retained this purpose,
wishing also to extend his journey to Spain
(i. 9-13, XV. 22-29). For the time, how
ever, he was prevented from carrying out
his design, as he was bound for Jerusalem
with the alms of the Gentile Christians, and
meiinwhile he addressed this letter to the
Roraans, to supply the lack of his person
al teaching, Phoebe, a deaconess of the
neighboring Church of Cenchreae, was on
the point of- stiirting for Rorae (xvi, 1, 2),
and probably conveyed the letter. The
body of the Epistle was written at the
Apostle's dictation by Tertius (xvi. 32);
but perhaps we may infer from the abi'.ipt-
ness of the flnal doxology , that it was added
by the Apostle himself. 4. 'The Origin
of the Raman Church is involved in rbs'jtt'

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO

585

ROMANS, EPISTLE TO

rity. [Rome, p. 588,] Ifit had been found
ed by St, Peter, according to a later tradi
tion, the absence of any allusion to hira
both in this Epistle and in the letters. written
by St. Paul frora Rome would admit of no
explanation. It is equally clear that no
other Apostle was the Founder, The state
ment in the Clementines that the first tid
ings of the Gospel reached Rorae during the
lifetime of our Lord, is evidently a fiction
for the purposes of the romance. On the
other hand, it is clear that the foundation
of this Church dates very far back. It may
be that some of those Roraans, " both Jews
and proselytes," present on the day of Pen
tecost (Acts ii. 10), carried back the earUest
tidings of the new doctrine, or the Gospel
may have first reached the imperial city
through those who were scattered abroad
to escape the persecution which followed
on the death of Stephen (Acts viii. 4; xi.
19). At first we may suppose that the Gos
pel was preached there in a confused and
imperfect forra, scarcely raore than a phase
of Judaisra, as in the case of Apollos at
Corinth (Acts xviii. 25), or the disciples at
Ephesus (Acts xix. 1-3). As time advanced
and better instructed teachers arrived, the
clouds would gradually clear iiway, till at
length the presence of the grei t Apostle
hiraself at Rome dispersed thf mists of
Judaisni whicli still hung about tl.o Roman
Church. 5. A' question next arises aa to
the com,pcsition of ihe Roman Church, at
the tirae when St Paul wrote. It is more
probable that St. Paul addressed a mixed
Church of Jews and Gentiles, the latter
perhaps being the more nuraerous. There
are certainly passages which iraply the
presence of a large number of Jewish con
verts to Christianity. If we analyze the
list of naraes in the 16th chapter, and assume
that this list approximately represents the
proportion of Jew and GentUe in the Roman
Church (an assumption at least not improb
able), we arrive at the same result. Alto
gether it appears that a very large fraction
of the Christian believers mentioned in
these salutations were Jews, even supposing
that the others, bearing Greek and Latin
names, of whora we know nothing, were
heathens. Nor does the existence of a large
Jewish eleraent in the Roraan Church pre
sent any difficulty. The captives carried to
Rorae by Pompeius formed the nucleus of
the Jewish population in the metropolis.
Since that time they had largely increased.
On the olher hand, situated in the metrop
olis of Ihj groat erapire of he.athendora, the
Roraan Church must necessarily have been
jn great measure a Gfentile Church; and
the language of the Epistle bears out this
supposition. These Gentile converts, how
ever, were not for the most part native
Romans. Strange as the paradox appears,
nothing is m^re certain than that tbe Church

of Rome was at this time a Greek and
not a Latin Church. All the literature
of the early Roman Church was written
in the Greek tongue. The naraes of the
bishops of Rome during the first two cen
turies are, with but few exceptions. Greek.
And we find that a very large proportion
of the names in the salutations of this Epis
tle are .Greek names. When we inquire
into the probable rank and station of the
Roruan believers, an analysis of the names
in the list of salutations again gives an ap
proximate answer. These names belong
for the most part to the middle and lower
grades of society. Many of them are found
in the columbaria of the freedmen aud
slayes of the early Roraan eraperors.
Among the less -wealthy merchants and
tradesmen, among the petty officers of the
array, among the shaves and freedmen of
the imperial palace — whether Jews or
Greeks — the Gospel would first find a firm
footing. To this last class allusion is raade
in Phil. iv. 22, " they that are of Caesar's
household." 6. The heterogeneous com
position of tliis Church explains ihe general
character ofthe Epistle to ihe Romans. In
an assemblage so various, we should expect
to find, not the exclusive predominance of a
single form of error, but the coincidence of
different and opposing forras. It was there
fore the business of the Christian teacher
to reconcile the opposing difficulties and to
hold out il meeting point in the Gospel,
This is exactly what St, Paul does in the
Epistle to the Roraans. Again, it does not
appear that the letter wiis specially written
to answer any doubts or settle any contro
versies then rife in the Roraan Church.
There were therefore no disturbing influ
ences, such as arise out of personal rela
tions, or peculiar circumstances, to derange
a general and systematic exposition of the .
nature and working of the Gospel. Thus
the Epistle to the Romans is more of a
treatise than of a letter.- In this respect it
differs widely from the Epistles to the Co
rinthians and Galatians, which are full of
personal and direct allusions. In one in
stance alone (xiii, 1) we seem to trace a
special reference to the Church of the me
tropolis, 7. This explanation is in fact lo
be sought in its relation to ihe contempora
neous Epistles. The lette'r to the Roraans
closes the group of Epistles written during
the second missionary journey. This group
contains besides, as already mentioned, the
letters to the Corinthians and Galatians,
written probably within the few months
preceding. In the Epistles to these two
Churches we study the attitude of the Gos
pel towards the Gentile and Jewish world
respectively. These letters are direct and
special. The Epistle to the Romans is the
summary of whiit St, Paul had written be
fore, the rosult of his dealing with the two

ROMANS, EPIfelLE TO

686

ROMANS, EnSTLE TO i

antagonistic forms of error, the gathering
together of the fragmentary teaching in the
Corinthian and Galatian letters. 8. View
ing this Epistle then rather in the light of a
treatise than of a letter, we are enabled to
explain certain phenomena in the text. In
the received text a doxology stands at the
close of the Epistle (xvi. 25-27), The pre
ponderance of evidence is in favor of this
position, but there is respectable authority
for placing ItMt, the end of ch, xiv. In sorae
texts, again, it is found in both places, while
others omit it entirely. The phenomena
of the MSS. seem best explained by sup
posing that the letter was circulated at an
early date (whether during the Apostle's
lifetime or not it is idle to inquire) in two
forms, both with and without the two last
chapters. 9. In describing the purport of
this Epistle we raay start fr )m St, Paul's
own words, which, standing at the beginning
of the doctrin.al portion, may be taken as
giving A sumraary of the contents (i. 16,
17). Accordingly the Epistle has been
described as comprising " the religious
philosophy of the world's history." The
atonerat-nt of Christ is the centre of reli
gious history. The Epistle, from its gen
eral character, lends itself more readily to
an analysis than is often the case with St.
Paul's Epistles. The following is a table
of its contents: Salutation (i. 1-7). The
Apostle at the outset strikes the key-note of
the Epistle in the expressions " called as an
apostle," " called as saints." Divine grace
is everything, human merit nothing. I.
Personal explanaj^ions. Purposed visit to
Rome (i. 8-15). II. Doctrinal (i. 16-xi.
36). The general proposition. The Gos
pel is the salvation of Jew and Gentile alike.
This salvation comes by faith (i, 16, 17),
{a) All alike were under condemnation be
fore the Gospel. The heathen (i. 18-33).
The Jew (ii, 1-29), Objections to this
statement answered (iii, 1-8), And the
position itself established frora Scripture
(ui, 9-20). (5) A righteousness Qnstitica-
tion) is revealed under the Gospel, which
being of faith, not of law, is also universal
(iii. 21-26), And boasting is thereby ex
cluded (iu, 27-31). Of this justification by
faith Abraham is an example (iv. 1-25),
Thus then we are justifled in Christ, in
whom alone we glory (v, 1-11), And this
acceptance in Christ is as universal as was
the conderanation in Adara (v, 12-19), {c)
The moral consequences of our deliverance.
The law was given to multiply sin (v. 20,
21). When we died to the law we died to
sin (vi. 1-14). The abolition of the law,
however, is not a signal for moral license
(vi. 15-23). On the contrary, as the law
has passed away, so must sin, for sin and
the law are correlative ; at the same time
this is no disparagement of the law, but
ratlier a proof of human weakness (vu. 1-

25) So henceforth iu Christ we are txer
from sin; we have the Spirit, and look for
ward in-hope, triumphing over our present
afflictions (viii. 1-39)- {d) The rejection
of the Jews is a m.atter of deep sorrow (ix.
1-5). Yet we must remember — (i.) That
the promise was not to the whole people,
but only to a select seed (ix. 6-13). And
the absolute purpose of God in so ordaining
is not to be canvassed by raan (ix. 14-19).
(ii.) That the Jews did not seek justiflca
tion aright, and so raissed it. This justifi
cation was proraised hy faith, and is offered
to all alike, the preaching to the Gentiles
being iiiiplied therein. The character and
results of the Gospel dispensation are fore
shadowed in Scripture (x. 1-21). (iu.)
That the rejection of the Jews is not final.
This rejection has been the means of gather
ing in the Gentiles, and through the Gentiles
they themselves will ultimately be brought
to Christ (xi. 1-36). III. Practical ex
hortations (xii. 1-xv. 13). (a) To holiness
of life and to charity in general, the duty
of obedience to rulers bei'ng inculcated by
the way (xii. 1-xiii. 14). (6) And more
particularly ag.ainst giving offence to weaker
brethren (xiv. 1-xv. 13). IV. Personal
raatters. (a) The Apostle's raotive in
writing the letter, aud his intention of visit
ing the Romans (xv. 14-33). (i) Greet
ings (.xvi. 1-23). The letter ends with a
benediction and doxology (xvi. 24-27).
While this Epistle contains the fullest and
most systematic exposition of the Apostle's
teaching, it is at the same time a very
striking expression of his charader. No
where do his earnest and affectionate nature
and his tact and delicacy in hiindling Un
welcome topics appear more strongly than
when he is dealing with the rejection of his
fellow-countrymen the Jews. 10. Internal
evidence is so strongly in favor of the
genuineness of the Epistle to the Romans
that it has never been seriously questioned.
But while the Epistle bears in itself the
strongest proofs of its Pauline authorship,
the external testimony in its favor is not
inconsiderable. It is not the pr.actice of
the Apostolic fathers to cite the N. T.
writers by name, but marked passages from
the Roraans are found embedded hi the
Epistles of Clement and Polycarp- It
seems also to have been directly cited by
the elder quoted in Irenaeus, aud is alluded
to by the writer of ihe Epistle to Diognetus,
and by .Tustin Martyr. It hiis a place more
over in the Muratorian Canon and in the
Syriac and Old Latin Versions. Nor have
we the testimony of .orthodox writers alone.
'The Epistle was commonly quoted as an
authority by the heretics of the subapostoUc
age, by the Ophites, by Basilides, by Val
entinus, by the Valentinians Heracleon
and Ptolemaeus, and perhaps also by Tar
tian, besides being included it Marcion's

ROME

587

ROME

Canon. In the latter part of the second
century the evidence in its favor is still
fuller. ,
Rome, the faraous capital of the ancient
world, is situated on the 'Tiber at a distance
of about 15 railes from its mouth. The
" seven hills " (Rev. xvii. 9) which formed
the nucleus of the .ancient city stand on the
left bank, Ou the opposite side of the river
rises the far higher side of the Janiculura,
Here frora very early limes was a fortress
with a suburb beneath it extending to the
river. Modern Rome lies to the N, of the
ancient city, covering with its principal por
tion the plain to the N, of the seven hills,
once known as the Campus Martins, and on
the opposite bank extending over the low
ground beneath the Vatican to the N, of the
ancient Janiculura. Rome is not mentioned
in the Bible except in the books of Macca
bees and in three books of the N, T,, viz.,
the Acts, the Epistle to the Roraans, and
the 2d Epistle to Tiraothy, For the notices
of Rorae in the books of Maccabees see
Roman Empire, — The conquests of Pora
pey seem to h:ive given rise to the first set
tlement of Jews at Rome. The Jewish king
Aristobulus and his son forraed part of
Pompey's triumph, and many Jewish cap
tives and emigrants were brought to Rome
at that tirae. A special district was as
signed to them, not on the site of the mod
ern " Ghetto," between tho Capitol and the
island of the Tiber, but across the Tiber,
Many of these Jews were made freedmen,
Julius Caesar showed thera some kindness ;
they were favored also by Augustus, ami
by Tiberius during the latter part of his
reign. At an earlier period apparently he
banished a great number of them to Sar
dinia. Claudius " comraanded all Jews to
depart frora Rorae" (Acts xviii. 2), on ac
count of tumults connected, possibly, with
the preaching of Christianity at Rome,
This banishment cannot have been of long
duration, for we find Jews residing at Rorae
apparently iu considerable nurabers at the
time of St. Paul's visit (Acts xxviii- 17),
It is chiefly in connection with St, Paul's
history that Rome coraes before us iu the
Bible. In illustration of that history it may
be useful to give some account of Rome in
¦he time of Nero, the " Caesar " to whom St,
i'aul appealed, and in whose reign he suf
fered martyrdom. 1. The city at that time
must be imagined as a large and irregular
mass of buildings unprotected by an outer
wall. It had long outgrown the old Ser
vian wall; but the liraits of the suburbs
cannot be exactly defined. Neither the
nature of the buildings nor the configura
tion of the ground was such as to give
a striking appearance to the city viewed
flrom without. "Ancient Rome had nei
ther cupola nor campanile," and the hills,
never lofty or imposiug, would ' present,

when covered \vith the buili .1 igs .and
streets of a huge city, a co.ifused api.ear-
ance like the hills of modern London, to
which they have sometimes been compared.
The visit of St. Paul lies between two famous
epochs in the history of the city, viz. its
restoration by Augustus and its restoration
by Nero. The boast of Augustus is well
known, " that he found the city of brick, and
left it of marble." Some parts of the city,
especially tho Forum and Campus Martins,
must now have presented a magnificent
appearance, of which Nibbuhr's Ledures
on Rom. Hist., ii. 177, will give a genera]
idea ; but raany of the principal buUdings
which attract the attention of modern trav
ellers in ancient Rome were not yet built.
The streets 'were generally narrow and
winding, flanked by densely crowded lodg
ing-houses {insulae) of enormous height.
Augustus found it necessary to limit tlieir
height to 70 feet. St. Paul's first visit to
Rorae took place before the Neroni.an con-
fiagration ; but even after the restoration of
the city, which followed upon that event,
raany of the old evils continued. The pop
ulation of the city has been variously esti
raated. Probably Gibbon's estiraiite of one
million two hundred thousand is nearest
to the truth. One half of the population
consisted, in all probability, of slaves. The
larger part of the remainder consisted of
pauper citizens supported in idleness by
tbe miserable systera of public gratuities.
There appears to have been no middle class,
and no free industrial population. Side by
side with the wretched "classes just men
tioned was the comparatively small body
of the wealthy nobility, of whose luxury
and profligacy we hear so much in the
heathen writers of the time. — Such was
the population which St. Paul would find
at Rome at the time of his visit. We learn
from the Acts of the Apostles that he was
detained at Rome for " two whole years,"
"dwelling in his own hired house with a
soldier that kept him" (Acts xxviii. 16, 30),
to whom, apparently, according to Roman
custom, he was bound with a chain (Acta
xxviu. 20; Eph. vi. 30; PhU. i. 13). Hera
he preached to all that came to him, no man
forbidding hira (Acts xxviii. 30, 31). It ia
generally believed that on his " appeal to
Caesar " he was acquitted, and after some
time spent in ft'eedom, was a second time
imprisoned at Rome. Five of his Epistles,
viz, those to the Colossians, Ephesians,
Philippians, that to Philemon, and the 3d
Epistle to Timothy, were in all probability,
written from Rorae, the latter shortly he-
fore his death (3 Tim, iv. 6), the others
during his first imprisonment. It is uni
versally believed that he suffered martyr
dom at Rorae. 2. The localities in and
about Rome especially connected with
tbe Ufe of St. PaiU, are — (1.) Tho Ap-

ROME

588

ROSH

nian Way , by which he approached Rome
(Acts xxviii. 15). [Appii Forum,] (2.)
"The palace," or "Caesar's court" (Prae
toriura, PhU. i. 13). This may raean
either the great carap of the Praetorian
guards which Tiberius established outside
the walls on the N. E. af the city, or, as
seems more probable, a barrack attached
to the Imperial residence on the Palatine,
There is no sufficient proof that the word
" Praetorium " was ever used to designate
the emperor's palace, though it is used for
the official residence of a Roman governor
(John xviU. 28 ; Acts xxui, 35). The men
tion of "Caesar's household" (PhU. iv.
22) confirras the notion that St. _ Paul's
residence was in the immediate neighbor
hood of the emperor's house on the Pala
tine. 3. The connection of other locali
ties at Rome with St, Paul's name rests
only on traditions of more or less probabil
ity. We may raention especially — (1.) The
Maraertine prison, or TuUi'anura, built by
Ancus Martins near the Forura. It still
exists beneath the church of S. Giuseppe
dei Falegnami. Here it is said that St.
Peter and St. Paul were fellow-prisoners
for nine raonths. This is not the place to
discuss the question whether St. Peter was
ever at Rorae, It may be sufficient to
state, that though there is no evidence of
such a visit in the N, T., unless Babylon
in 1 Pet- V. 13 is a mystical narae for
Rome, yet early testimony and the univer
sal belief of the early Church seera suffi
cient to establish the fact of his having
suffered raartyrdora tliere. [Peter.] The
story, however, of the imprisonmetit in the
Mamertine prison seems inconsistent with
2 Tim., esp. iv. 11. (2.) The chapel on
the. Ostian road which marks the spot where
the two Apostles are said to have separat
ed on4;heir way to martyrdora. (3.) The
rsupposed scene of St. Paul's martyrdora,
viz. the church of St. Paolo alle tre fontane
on the Ostian road. To these may be add
ed (4.) The supposed scene ^*' St. Peter's
martyrdom, viz. the church of St, Pietro
in Montsrio, on the Janiculura, (5.) The
chapel " Domine quo Vadis," on the Ap
pian road, -the scene of the beautiful le
gend of our Lord's appearance to St, Peter
as lie was escaping from martyrdom. (6.)
The places where the bodies of the two
Apostles, after having been deposited first
ill the catacombs, are supposed to lave
been finally buried — that of St. Paul
by the Ostian road — that of St. Peter be
neath the dorae of the famous Basilica
which bears his name. 4, We may add,
as sites unquestionably connected with the
Roman Christiiius of the Apostolic age —
(1.) The Gardens of Nero in the Vatican,
not far from the spot where St. Peter's
now stands. Here Christians wrapped in
i!ia skins of beasts were tor.' i to pieces by

dogs, or, clothed in inflammable robes, were
burnt to serve as torches durh.g the mid-
nio'bt games. Others were crucified. (2.)
The Catacombs. These subterranean gal
leries, commonly from 8 to 10 feet in height,
and from 4 to 6 in width, and extend
ing for miles, especially in the neighbor
hood of the old Appian and Nomentan
Ways, were unquestitmably used as places
of refuge, of worship, and of burial by the
early Christians. The earliest dated in
scription in the catacombs is a. d. 71.
Nothing is known of the first founder of
the Christian Church at Rome. Christian
ity may, perhaps, have been introduced into
the city not long after the outpouring of
the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost by
the " strangers of Rome," who were then
at Jerusalem (Acts u. 10). It is clear that
there were many Christians at Rome before
St. Paul visited the city (Rom. i, 8, 13, 15,
XV, 20), The names of twenty-four Chris
tians at Rome are given in the salutations
at the end of the Epistle to the Romans.
Linus (who is mentioned, 2 Tim. iv, 21),
and Clement (Phil. iv. 8) are supposed to
have succeeded St, Peter as bishops of
Rome. Rome seems to be described under
the name of Babylon in Rev. xiv. 8, xvi.
19, xvu. 5, xvui. 2, 21 ; and again, as the
city of the seven hills (Rev. xvii. 9, cf. xu.
3, xiii. 1).
Roof. [House.]
Room. This word is employed in the
A. V, of the New Testament as the equiv
alent of no less than eight distinct Greek
terms. The only one of these, however,
which need be noticed here is TrgiuToxAioia
(Matt. xxiu. 6 ; Mark xu. 39 ; Luke xiv. 7,
8, XX. 46), which signifies the highest place
on the highest couch round the dinner or
supportable — the "uppermost seat," as
it is raore accurately rendered in Luke xi.
43. Rose occurs twice only, viz. in Cant, ii.
1 ; Is. X.XV. 1. There is much difference of
opinion as to what particular flo'wer is here
denoted ; but it appears to us raost probable
that the narcissus is intended, 'The nar
cissus and the lily {Lilium candidum)
would be in blossom together in the early
spring, while the CoUhicum is an autumn
plant, Chateaubriand meniions tbe narcis
sus as growing in the p'lain of Sharon,
Though the rose is apparently not men
tioned in the Hebrew Bible, it is referred
to in Ecclus. xxiv, 14 (comp. also ch. I. 8;
xxxix. 13; Wisd. u. 8). Roses are greatly
prized in the East, more especially for the
sake of the rose-water, which is in much
request. Dr, Hooker observed sevcTi spe
cies of wild roses in Syria.
Rosh. In the genealogy, of Gen. xlvi.
21, Rosh is reckoned among the sons of
Benjamin; but the name does not occur
elsewjiere, and it ia extremely probaUe

ROSH

589

RUTH

that "Ehi and Rosh" is a corruption of
" Ahiram " (comp, Nura, xxvi, 38),
Rosh (Ez. xxxvui, 2, 8, xxxix, 1), The
whole sentence, thus rendered by the A.
v., "Magog the chief prince of Meshech
and Tubal," ought to run, " Magog the
prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal,"
'Tho meaning is, that Magog is the head of
the three great Scythian tribes, of which
" Rosh " is thus the first. By Rosh is ap
parently meant the tribe on the north of the
Taurus, so called from the neighborhood to
the Rha, or Volga, and thus in this name
and tribe we have the first trace of the
Russ or Russian Uiition. The name prob
ably occurs again under the altered form of
Rasses, in Judith ii. 33.
Rosin. Properly " naphtha," as it is
both in the LXX. and Vulg. as well as the
Peshito-Syriac, In the Song of the Three
Children (33), the servants of the king of
Babylon are said to have " ceased not to
raake the oven hot with rosin, pitch, tow,
and small wood," Pliny mentions naphtha
as a product of Babylonia, similar in ap
pearance to liquid bitumen, and having a
reraarkable affinity to fire. To this natural
product (known also as Persian naphtha,
petroleura, rock oil, Rangoon tar, Burraese
naphtha. See.) reference is made in the pas
sage in question.
Rubies. Concerning the meaning of
the Hebrew words translated " rubies "
there is much difference of opinion (Job
xxviii, 18 ; see also Prov, Ui. 15, viii, 11,
xxxi. 10), In Lara. iv. 7 it is s.aid, " the
Nazarites were purer than snow, they were
whiter than railk, they were more ruddy in
body than rubies." Some suppose " coral"
to be intended. Others contend that the
Hebrew terra denotes pearls, and explain
the "ruddiness," alluded to above, by sup
posing that the original word signifies mere
ly " bright in color," or " color of a red
dish tinge."
Rue occurs only in LiUte xi, 42. The
rue here spoken of is doubtless the com
mon Ruta graveolens, a shrubby plant about
2 feet high, of strong medicinal virtues. It
is a native of the Mediterranean coasts, and
has been found by Hasselquist on Mount
Tabor. The Talmud enumerates rue
araongst kitchen-herbs, and regards it as
free of tithe, as being a plant not cultivated
in gardens. In our Lord's tirae, however,
rue was doubtless a garden-plant, and there
fore tithable.
Ru'fus is mentioned in Mark xv. 21,
along with Alexander, as a son of Siraon
the Cyrenian (Luke xxiii. 26). Again, in
Rora. xvi, 13, the Apostle Paul salutes a
Rufus whora he designates as " elect in the
Lord." It is generally supposed that this
Rufus was identical with the one to whom
Mark refers. Yet we are to bear in mind
Biivt Rufus was uot an uncommon name,

and possibly, therefore, Mark und Piiul
may have had iu view different individuals.
Ru.'hamah. The margin of our ver
sion renders it "having obtained mercy"
(Hos. ii. 1). The narae, if name it be, is,
like Loruliamah, symbolical, and. is ad
dressed to the daughters of the people to
denote that they were still the objects of
his love and tender compassion.
Ru'mah, mentioned once only (2 K.
xxiii. 36). It has been conjectured to be
the same place as Aruraah (Judg. ix, 41),
which was apparently near Shechera. It is
raore probable that it is identical with Du
raah (Josh, XV. 52),
Rush. [Reed,]
Rust occurs as the translation of two
different Greek words in Matt, vi, 19, 20,
and in James v. 3. In the former passage
the word (SgiuBi;, which is joined with
" raoth," has by some been understood t"*
denote the larva of some raoth injurious to
corn, as the Tinea granella. It can scares -
ly be taken to signify "rust," for whic li
there is another term, tig, which is used hv
St, James to express rather the "tiiruish '
which overspreads silver than "rust," by
which name we now understand " oxide of
iron." Ruth, a Moabitish woraan, the wife,
first, of Mahlon, secondly of Boaz, the an
cestress of David and of Christ, and one
of the four women who are named by St.
Matthew in the genealogy of Christ. A
severe famine in the land of Judah in
duced Elimelech, a native of Bethlehem
Ephratah, to emigrate into tho land of
Moab, with his wife Naomi, and his two
sons, Mahlon and Chiiion. At the cud of
ten years, Naorai, low left a widow .and
childless, having heard that there was
plenty again in Judah, resolved to return to
Bethlehem, and her daughter-in-law, Ruth,
returned with her. They arrived at Beth
lehem just at the beginning of barley har
vest, and Ruth, going out to glean, chanced
to go into the field of Boaz, a wealthy man,
and near kinsraan of her father-in-law
Eliraelech. Upon learning who the stran
ger was, Boaz treated her with the utraost
kindness and respect, and sent her horae
laden with corn which she had gleaned.
Encouraged by this incident, Naorai in
structed Ruth to claira at the hand of Boaz
that he should perform the part of her
husband's near kinsman, by purchasing' the
inheritance of Elimelech, and taking her
to be his wife. But there was a nearer
kinsraan than Boiiz, and it was necessary
that he should have the option of redeera-
ing the inheritance for hiraself. Ho, how
ever, declined, fearing to mar his own in
heritance. Upon which, with all due
solemnity, Boaz took Ruth to be his wife,
amidst the blessings and congratulations
of their neighbors. Their son, Obed, was

RUTH, BOOK OF

590

SABBATH

the father of Jesse, who was the father of
David. Ruth, Book of, contains the history
of Ruth, as narrated in the preceding arti
cle. The raain object of the writer is
evidently to give an account of David's
ancestors ; and the book was avowedly
coraposed long after the tirae of the heroine,
(See Ruth i. 1, iv. 7, 17.) Its date and
author are quite uncertain. It is probable
that the books of Judges, Ruth, Sarauel,
and Kings originally forraed but one work.
The book of Ruth clearly forras piirt of
those of Sarauel, supplying as it does the
essential point of David's genealogy and
early faraily history, and is no less cleiirly
connected with the book of Judges by its
opening verse, and the epoch to which the
whole book rebates.
Rye (Heb. eussemeth) occurs in Ex. ix.
32; Is. .x-wiii. 25 : in the latter the'miirgin
reads "spelt." In Ez. iv. 9 the text has
"fitches," and the margin "rie." It is
probable that by cussemdh." s-^elt" is in
tended. Spelt {Triticum spelia) is grown
in some parts of tho south of Germany ; it
differs but slightly from our common wheat
{T. vulgare).

8.

Sabaoth, The Lord of, occurs in
Rom. ix. 29; James v. 4, but is more
familiar through its occurrence in the Siinc-
tus of Te Deura — "Holy, Holy, Holy,
Lord God of Sabaoth." Sabaoth is the
Greek form of the Hebrew word isebddih,
" armies," and is translated in the Author
ized Version of the O. T. by "Lord of
Hosts," " Lord God of Hosts." ' In tho
mouth and the raind of an ancient He
brew, Jehovah-tsebddth wiis the leader and
commander of the arraies of the n.ation,
who " went forth with them" (Ps. xliv. 9),
and led thera to certain victory over the
worshippers of Baal, Cheraosh, Molech,
Ashtaroth, and other false .gods.
BaMbasfh. {shabbdth, "a day of rest,"
from shdbath, " to cease to do," "to rest").
The narae is applied to divers great festi
vals, but principally and usually to the
seventh day of the week, the strict obser
vance of which is enforced not merely in
the general Mosaic code, but in the Deca
logue itself. The consecration of the Sab
bath was coeval with the Creation. The
flrst Scriptural notice of it, though it is not
mentioned by name, is to be found in Gen.
ii. 3, at the close of the record of the six
days' creation. It has been maintiiined by
some that this is only an anticipatory ref
erence to the Fourth Corara.andment, be
cause there is no record of the observance
of the Siibbath between the Creation and
tho Exodus. But this is just in accord

ance with the plan of the'Seripturo narra
tive, in which regular .and ordinary events
are- unnoticed. There are not wiinting
indirect evidences of its observance, as
the intervals between Noah's sending forth
the birds out of the ark, an act naturaUy
associated with the weekly service (Gen.
viii. 7-12), and in the week of a wedding
celebration (Gen. xxix. 27, 28) ; but when
a special occasion arises, in connection
with the prohibition against gathering manna
on the Sabbath, the institution is raentioned
as one already known (Ex, xvi, 22-80).!*
And that this was especially one of the
institutions adopted by Moses frora the
ancient piitriarchal usage is implied in the
very words of the law, " Remembtr the
Sabbath day, to keep it holy," But even
if such evidence were wanting, the reason
of the institution would be a suflicient proof.
It was to be a joyful celebration of God'a
corapletion of His creation. It has indeed
been said thiit Moses gives quite a different
reason for the institution of the Sabbath, as
a raemorial of the deliverance from Egyp
tian bondage (Deut, v. 15). As if Moses,
in his repetition of the law, had forgotten
the reason given by God himself frora Sinai
(Ex. XX. 11). The words added in Deu
teronoray are a special motive for the joy
with which the Sabbath should be cele
brated, and for the kindness which extended
its blessings to the slave and beast of bur
den as well as the master : " that thy man
servant and thy maidservant may rest as
well as thou" (Deut. v, 14), 'These at
tempts to limit the ordinance proceed from
.an entire misconception of its spirit, as if
it were a season of stern privation rather
than of special privUege. But, iu truth,
the prohibition of work is only subsidiary
to the positive idea of joyful rest and recrea
tion, in coraraunion with Jehovah, who him
self "rested and was refreshed " (Ex. xxxi.
17 : comp, xsUi, 12.) It is in Ex. xvi. 23-29
that we find the first incontrovertible institu
tion ofthe day, as one given to, and to be kept
by, the children of Israel. Shortly after
wards it was re-enacted in the Fourth Com
mandment. The Sabbath was the key-note
to a scale of Sabbatical observance -- con
sisting of itself, the seventh month, the
seventh year, and the year of Jubilee. As
each seventh diiy was sacred, so was each
seventh month, and each seventh year.
Of the observances of tho seventh month,
little needs be said. That month opened
with the Feast of Trumpets, and contained
the day of Atonement and Feast of Taber
nacles — the last named being the most
joyful of Hebrew festivals. • Its great cen
tre was the Feast of Tabernacles or In-
giithering, the year and the year's labor

* AU thia ia conflrmed by tho great antiquity of the divis
ion of time into weeks, and tlie nnniincr the days after ^hi
Gun, moon, aud planets.

SABBATH

591

SABBATH

having then done their work and yielded
their issues. The rules for the Sabbatical
year are very precise. As labor was pro
hibited on the seventh day, so the land was
to rest every seventh year. And as each
forty-ninth year wound up seven of such
weeks of years, so it either was itself, or
it ushered in, what was called " the year of
Jubilee." In Exodus xxiii. 10, II, we find
the Sabbatical year placed in close connec
tion with the Sabbath-day, and the words
in which the forraer is prescribed are analo
gous to those of the Fourth Corara.andraent.
This is iramediately followed by a renewed
proclamation ofthe law ofthe Sabbath. It
is impossible to avoid perceiving that in
these passages the two institutions are put
on the same ground, and are represented
as quite homogeneous. Their aim, as here
exhibited, is eminently a beneficent one.
To give rights to classes that would other
wise have been without such, to the bond
man and bondraaid, nay, to the beast
of the field, is viewed here as their main
end, " 'The stranger," too, is compre
hended in the benefit. The sarae benefi
cent aim is still more apparent in the fuller
legislation respecting the Sabbatical year
which we find iu Lev. xxv. 2-7. One
great aim of both institutions, the Sabbath-
day and the Sabbatical year, clearly was
to debar the Hebrew from the thought
of absolute ownership of anything; The
year of Jubilee raust be regarded as com
pleting this Sabbatical Scale, whether we
consider it as really the forty-ninth year,
the seventh of a week of Sabbatical years
or the fiftieth, a question on which opinions
are divided. This beneficent character
of the Fourth Coraraandraent is very ap
parent in the version of it which we find
in Deuteronoray (Deut. v. 12-15). But
although this be so, and though it be plain
that to corae within the scope of the com
mandment was to possess a franchise, to
share in a privilege, yet does the original
proclamation of it in Exodus place it on a
ground which, closely connected, no doubt,
with these others, is yet higher and more
comprehensive. The Divine method of
working .and rest is there proposed to man
as the model after which he is to work and
to rest. Time then presents a perfect whole,
is then well rounded and entire, when it is
shaped into a week, modelled on the six
days of creation and their following Sab
bath. Six days' work and the seventh day's
rest conform the life of man to the method
of his Creator. In distributing his life thus,
man may look'up to God as his Archetype.
It is most important to reraeraber that the
Fourth Commaudment is not liraited to a
mere enactment respecting one day, but
prescribes the due distribution of a week,
and enforces the six days' work as much as
the seventh day's rest. This higher ground

of observance was felt to invest the Sabbath
with a theological charactej, and rendered
it the great witness for faith in a personal
and creating God. In all this, however, we
have but an assertion of the general prin
ciple of resting on the Sabbath, and must
seek elsewhere for information as to the
details wherewith that principle was to be
brought out. It was to be a sacred pause
in the ordinary labor by which man earns
his bread ; the curse of the fall was to be
suspended for one day ; and, having spent
that day in joyful reraerabrance of God'a
mercies, man had a fresh start in his course
of labor. A great snare, too, has always
been hidden in the word work, as if the
commandment forbade occupation and im
posed idleness. The terms in the com
mandment show plainly enough the sort
of work which is contemplated. They are
servile work, and business. The Pentiiteuch
presents us with but three applications of
the general principle (Ex. xvi. 29, xxxv. 3 ;
Num. XV. 32-36). The reference of Isaiah
to the Sabbath gives us no details. Those
in Jeremiah and Nehemiah show that car
rying goods for sale, and buying such, were
equally profanations of the day. There is
no ground for supposing that to engage the
enemy on the Sabbath was considered un
lawful before tbe Captivity. At a subse
quent period we know (1 Mace. ii. 34-38)
that the scruple existed, and was acted on
with most caliiraitous effects. Yet the
scruple, like raany other scruples, proved
a convenience, and under the Roraan Era
pire the Jews procured exeraption from
military service by means of it. It was
not, however, without its evils. In the
siege of Jerusalem by Pompey, as well as
in the final one by 'Titus, the Romans took
advantage of it. A consideration of the
spirit of the law and of Christ's comments
on it will show that it is work for worldly
gain that was to be suspended ; and hence
the restrictive clause is prefaced with the
positive coraraand, " Six days shalt thou
labor, and do all thy work ;. " for so only
could the Sabbatic rest be fairly earned.
Hence, too, the stress constantly laid on
permitting the servant and beast of burden
to share the rest which selfishness would
grudge to them. Thus the spirit of the
Sabbath was joy, refreshment, and mercy,
arising from remembrance of God's good
ness as the Creator, and as the Deliverei
from bondiige. We have seen, then, that,
for whomsoever else the provision was in
tended, the chosen race were in possession
of an ordinance, whereby neither a man's
time nor his property could be considered
absolutely his own, the seventh of each
week being holy to God, and dedicated to
rest after the pattern of God's rest, and
giving equal rights to aU. We have also
seen that this provision was the tonic to a

SABBATH

592

SABBATH

chord of Sabbatical observance, through
which the sarae great principles of God's
claim and societj 's, on every raan's tirae
and every raiin's property, were extended
and developed. Of tho Sabbatical year,
indeed, and of the year of Jubilee, it may
be questioned whether they were persis
tently observed. These views are practi
cally illustrated by the manner in which
the Israelites were to spend, and in which
the prophets afterwards reprove them for
not spending, the Sabbath and the other
festiviils. The Sabbath was a perpetual
sign and covenant, and the holiness of the
day is connected with the holiness of the
people; " that ye m.ay know that I am Je
hovah that doth sanctify you " (Ex, xxxi,
12-17; Ez. XX, 12). Joy was the key-note
of their service. Moses declared that a
place of sacrifice should be given them;
'¦ and there shall ye- eat before Jehovah
your God, and ye shall rejoice, ye and your
households " (Deut. xii. 7, xiv, 26, xvi, 14,
15, xxvi, 11). The Psalmists echo back
the same spirit: "This is the day which
Jehoviih hath made ; we will rejoice and be
glad in it" (Ps. cxviii. 24). Isaiah re
proves the fasts wliich were kept with raere
outwiird observance, in place of acts of
charity, by proraising tjiat those who called
the Sabbath a delight and honored God by
doing Mis works in it, should delight them
selves in Jehovah (Is. Iviii. 8-14). Nehe
miah coraraanded the people, on a day holy
to Jehovah, " Mourn not, nor weep : eat the
fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions to
them for whom nothing is prepared " (Neh.
viii. 9-13). The Sabbath is named as a day
of special worship in the siinctuary (Lev, xix,
30, xxvi. 2). It was proclaimed as a feoZycon-
vocaiion (Lev. xxiii. 3). The public reU
gious services consisted in the doublingof the
morning iind evening sacrifice, and the re
newal of the shewbread in the Holy Place.
In later times the worship of the sanctuary
was enlivened by sacred music (Ps. Ixviii.
25-27, cl., &o.). On this day the people were
accustomed to consult their prophets (2 K.
iv. 23), .and to give to their chUdren that
instruction in the truths recalled to meraory
by the day, which is so repeatedly enjoined
as the duty of parents; it was " the Sab
bath of Jehovah " not only in the Sanctuary,
but " in all their dwellings " (Lev. xxiii. 8).
It is quite true that we have but little
¦inforraation on this part of the subject
in the Scriptures themselves, but the in
ferences driiwn from what is told us, and
from the character ofthe day, are confirmed
by the testimony of Later writers, and by
the system of public worship in the synti-
gogues, which we find iu full operation at
the time of Christ. Tho prohibitory part
of the law is general ; and the only special
cases mentioned relate to the preparation of
food. The manna was not given on the Sab

bath, but a double supply was to he gath
ered on the day before (Ex. xvi. 22-30), just
as the rest of the Sabbatic year was compen
sated by the extraordinary tcMility of the
year before. No fire was to be kindled on
the Sabbath, under the penalty of death
(Ex. xxxv. 2, 3; comp. xxxi. 14), which
was inflicted on a m.an -who went out tu
gather sticks on the Sabbath (Nura. xv.
35). Its observance is enjoined in tho
time of earing and harvest, when there
was a special temptation to find an excuse
for work (Ex. xxxiv. 21). The habitual
transgression of these laws, by priests aa
well as people, was denounced by the
prophets (Is. Ivi, 2, Iviii. 13; Ez, xxii, 26,
comp. xliv. 22), and excited the reforming
zeal of Nehemiah after the Babylonish cap
tivity (Nell. xiii. 15-19), Hencefoi'ward
there is no evidence of the Sabbath being
neglected by the Jews, except such as (1
Mace. i. 11-15, 39-45) went into open
apostasy. — When we come to the N. T.
we find the most marked stress laid on
the Sabbath. In whatever ways the Jew
might err respecting it, he had altogether
ceased to neglect it. On the contrary,
wherever he went its observance became
the raost visible badge of his nationality.
Our Lord's raode of observing the Sab
bath was one of the main features of Hia
life, which His Pharisaic adversaries most
eagerly watched and criticised. They had
invented raany prohibitions respecting the
Sabbath of wliich we find nothing in the
original institution. Some of these pro
hibitions were fantastic and arbitrary, in
the number of those " heavy burdens and
grievous to be borne " which the latter ex
pounders ofthe Law "laid on men's shoul
ders " (comp. Matt. xU. 1-13; John v. 10).
That this perversion of the Sabbath had
become very general in our Saviour's time
is apparent both from the recorded objec
tions to acts of His on thiit day, and from
His marked conduct on occasions to which
those objections were sure to be urged
(M.att. xii. 1-15; Mark iu. 3; Luke vi. 1-
5, xiU. 10-17 ; John v. 2-18, vii. 28, ix. 1-
3-4). The Epistles, it must be adraitted,
with the exception of one place, and per
haps another (Heb. iv. 9), are silent on the
subject of the Sabbath. No rules for its
observance are ever given by the Apostles
— its violiition is never denounced by them ;
S.abbath-breakers are never included in any
list of offenders. Col. ii. 16, 17, seeras a
far stronger argument for the abolition of
the Sabbath in the Christian dispensation
than is furnished by Heb. iv. 9 for its con-
tinuiincc ; and while the first day of the
week is more than once referred to as one
of religious observance, it is never identi
fied with the Sabbath. When we turn to
the monuments, which we possess of the
early Church, we flnd ourselves on the

SA.BBATU-DAY'S JOUxlNEY 593

SABTAH

whole carried in the sarae direction. Again,
the observance of the Lord's D'ay as a Sab
bath would have been well nigh impo-isible
to the majority of Christians in the first
ages. When the early Fathers speak of
tlio Lord's Day, they sometimes, perhaps
by comparing, connect it with the SabbaCh ;
but we have never found a passage, previ
ous to the conversion of Constantino, pro
hibitory of any work or occup.ation on the
forraer, and any such, did it exist, would
have been in a great measure nugatory, for
tlie reasons just alleged. After Constantine
things become different at once. His cele
brated edict prohibitory of judicial proceed
ings on the Lord's Day was probably dic
tated by a wish to give the great Christian
festival as much honor as was enjoyed by
those of the heathen, rather than by any
reference to the Sabbath or the Fourth
Coraraandraent ; but it was followed by
several which extended the prohibition to
many other occupations, and to raany forras
of pleasure held innocent on ordinary days.
But it was surely impossible both to observe
the Lord's Day, as w.as done by Christians
after Constantine, and to read the Fourth
Coraraandraent, withoutconnecting the two ;
and, seeing that such was to be the practice
ofthe developed Church, we can understand
how the silence of the N. T. Epistles, and
even the strong words of St. Paul (Col. ii.
16, 17), do not impair the human and uni
versal scope of the Fourth Coraraandraent,
exhibited so strongly in the very nature of
tho Law, and in the teaching respeqting it
of Hira who carae not to destroy the Law,
but to fulfil. — Among the Christians the
" Lord's Day " — the first day of the week
— gradually took the place of the Jewish
Sabbath. [Lord's Day.]
Sabbath-day's Journey (Acts i. 12).
On occasion of a violation ofthe comraand
ment by certain of the people who went to
look for manna on the seventh day, Moses
enjoined every raan to "abide in his place,"
and forbafle any man to " go out of his
place "lOn that day (Ex. xvi. 29). It seeras
natural to look on this as a raere enactment
pro re naid, and having no bearing on any
state of affairs subsequent to tbe journey
through the wilderness and the daUy gath
ering of manna. Whether the earlier He
brews did or did not regard it thus, it is
not easy to say. In after tiraes the pre
cept in Ex. xvi. was undoubtedly viewed
as a permanent law. But as some depart
ure from a man's own place was unavoid
able, it was thought necessary to determine
the allowable amount, which was fixed at
2000 paces, or about six furlongs, from the
wall of the city. The permitted distance
seems to have been grounded on the space
to be kept between the .Ark and the people
(Josh. iii. 4) in the wUderness, which tra
dition said was that between the Ark and
88

the tents. Vi^'e find the sarae distance given
as the circumference outsit'f; the walls oi
the Levitical cities to be counted as their
suburbs (Num. x.xxv. 6). The terminus A
quo was thus not a man's own house, but
the wall of the city where he dwelt.
Sabbatical Year. As each seventh
day and each seventh month were holj', so
was each seventh year, by tho Mosaic code.
We first encounter this law in Ex. xxiii,
10, 11, The commandment is, to .sow and
reap for si.x years, and to let the land rest;
on the seventh, "that the poor of thy peo
ple raay eat ; and what they leave the beastfi
of the field shall eat-" It is added, "Iu
like raanner thou shalt deal with thy vine
yard and thy olive-yard-" We next meet
with the enactment in Lev. xxv. 2-7, and
finally in Deut, xv,, in which last place the
new feature presents itself of the seventh
year being one of release to debtors. When
we combine these several notices, we find
that every seventh year the land was to
have rest to enjoy her Sabbaths, Neither
tillage nor cultivation of .any sort was to be
practised. This singular institution has
the aspect, at first sight, of total impracti
cability. This, however, wears off when we
consider that in no year was the owner al
lowed to reap the whole harvest (Lev. xix.
9, xxiii. 22). Moreover, it is ck^ar that the
owners of land were to lay by corn in pre
vious years for their own and their families'
wants (Lev, xxv, 20-22). The release at
debtors during the Sabb.atical year must
not be confounded with the release of
slaves on the seventh year of their service.
The spirit of this law is the sarae as that
of the weekly Sabbath. Both have a, be
neficent tendency, limiting the rights and
checking the sense of property; the one
puts in God's claims on time, the other o::
the land. There may also have been an
eye to the benefit which would accrue to
the land from lying fallow every seventh
year, in a time when the rotation of crops
was unknown. The Sabbatical year opened
in the Sabbatical month, and the whole Law
was to be read every such year, during the
Feast of Tabernacles, to the assembled peo
ple. At the completion of a week of Sab
batical years, the Sabbatical scale received
its completion in the year of Jubilee. [Ju
bilee.] The constant neglect of this law
from the very flrst was one of the national
sins that were punished by the Babylonian
captivity- Moses warned Israel ofthe ret
ribution, that their land should be desolate
till it had enjoyed its Sabbaths (Lev, xxvi,
33-35) ; and the warning was fulfilled in
the seventy years' duration of the captivity
(2 Chr. xxxvi. 20, 21). Of the observance
of the Sabbatic year after the captivity we
have a proof in 1 Maec. vi. 49.
Sabe'ans. [Sheba.]
Sab'tah (Gen. X. 7), or Sab'ta (1 Chr.

SABTECHA

594

SACRIFICE

i 9), the third in order ofthe sons of Cush.
¦fho statements of Pliny and Ptolemy re
specting Sabbatha, Sabota, or Sobotale, the
metropolis of the Atrainitae (probably the
Chatramotitiie), seem to point to a trace of
the tribe which descended from Sabtah.
Ptolemy places Sabbatha in 77° long- 16°
30' lat. It was an iraportant city, contain
ing no less than sixty temples.
Sab'techa, and Sab'techah (Gen. x.
7; 1 Chr. i. 9), the fifth in order of the
sons of Cush, whose settlements would
probably be near the Persian Gulf.
Sa'car. 1. A Hararite, father of Ahiam
(1 Chr. xi. 35). 2. The fourth son of
Obed-edom (1 Chr. xxvi. 4).
Sackbut (Dan- iu. 5, 7, 10, 15), the
rendering in the A. V, of the Chaldee
sabbUa. If this musical instrument be
the sarae as the Greek and Latin sambuca,
the English translation is entirely wrong.
The sackbut was a wind-instrument; the
sambuca was played with strings.
Sackcloth, a coarse texture, of a dark
color, made of goats' -hair (Is. 1. 3 ; Rev.
vi, 12), and resembling the cilicium of the
Roraans. It was used for raaking sacks
(Gen. xUi. 25; Lev. xi. 33; Josh. ix. 4),
and for raaking the rough garments used by
mourners, which were in extreme cases
worn next the skin (1 K. xxi. 27 ; 2 K. vi
30; Job xvi. 15; Is. xxxu. 11), and this
even by females (Joel i. 8 ; 2 Mace. iii. 19),
btit at other times were worn over the
coat (Jon. iU. 6) in lieu of the outer gar
ment. Sacriflce. The peculiar features of
each kind of sacrifice are referred to under
their respective hands. I. (A.) Origin
OP Sacrifice. — The universal prevalence
of sacriflce shows it to have been primeval,
and deeply rooted in the instincts of hu
manity. Whether it was flrst enjoined by
an external command, or whether it was
based on that sense of sin and lost com
munion with God which is stamped by His
hand on the heart of raan, is an historical
question, perhaps insoluble. The great
difficulty in the theory which refers it to a
distinct command of God, is the total silence
of Holy Scripture. Nor is the fact of the
mysterious and supernatural character of
the doctrine of Atonement, with which the
sacriflces of the O. T. .are expressly con
nected, any conclusive argument on this
side of the question. All allow that the
eucharistic and deprecatory ideas of sacri
fice are perfectly uiitural to man. The
higher view of its expiatory character, de
pendent, as it is, entirely on its typical
nature, appears but gradually in Scripture.
It is only in tbe N. T. (especiaUy in the
Epistle to the Hebrews) th.at its nature is
clearly unfolded. It is to be noticed that,
except in Gen. xv. 9, the method of patri
archal encrifico is left free. The inference

la at last probable, that when God sanc
tioned formally a natural rite, then, and
not till then, did He define its method.
(B.) Ante-Mosaic History op SACRnacE.
— In examining the various sacrifices re
corded in Scripture before tho establish-,
ment of the Law, we find that the words
specially denoting expiatory sacrifice are
not applied to thera. This fact does not
at aU show that they were not actually ex
piatory, but it justifies the inference that
this idea was not then the prorainent one in
the doctrine of sacrifice. The sacrifice of
Cain and Abel is called minchah, although
in the case of the latter it was a bloody
sacrifice. In the case of both it would .ap
pear to have been eucharistic. The sacri
fice of Noah after the flood (Gen. viii. 20)
is caUed burnt-offering. This sacrifice is
expressly connected with the institution of
the Covenant which follows, in ix, 8-17.
The sacrifice of Jacob at Mispah also
marks a covenant with Laban, to which
God is caUed to be a witness and a party.
In all these, therefore, the prominent idea
seems to have been what is called the
federative — the recognition of a bond be-
'tween the sacrificer and God, and the dedi
cation of himself, as represented by the
victim, to the service of the Lord. The
sacrifice of Isaac (Gen, xxii, 1-13) stands
by itself- Yet in its principle it appears to
have been of the same nature as before :
the voluntary surrender of an only son on
Abr.aliam's part, and the wUling dedication
of hiijiself on Isaac's, .are in the fore
ground; the expiatory idea, if recognized
at all, holds certainly a secondary position. ,
In the burnf-offeriugs of Job for his chil
dren (Job i, 5) and for his three friends
(xiii, 8), we for the first time find the ex
pression of the desire of expiation for sin.
The same is the case in the words of Moses
to Pharaoh (Ex. x, 25), Here the main
idea is at least deprecatory, (C.) The Sac
rifices OF the Mosaic Period. — These
are inaugurated by the offering of the Pass
over and the sacrifice of Ex. xxiv. The
Passover indeed is unique in its character;
but it is clear that the idea of salvation from
death by means of sacrifice is brought out
in it with a distinctness before unknown.
'The sacrifice of Ex. xxiv., offered as a
solemn inauguration of the Covenant of
Sinai, has a sirailarJy comprehensive char
acter. The Law of Leviticus now unfolds
distinctly the various forms of sacrifice:
(a.) The burnt-offering. Self-dedica
tory. (6.) The meat-offering {unbloody);
the peace-offering {bloody). Eucharistic
(c.) The sin-offering; ihe trespass-offer
ing. Expiatory. — To these may be add
ed, {d.) The incense offered after sacri
fice in the Holy Place, and (on the Day of
Atonement) in the Holy of Holies, the sym
bol of the intercession of th» priest (as a

SACRIFICE

595

SACRIFICE

type of the Great High Priest), accom
panying and raaking efBcacious the prayer
of the people- In the consecration of
Aaron and his sons Lev. viii.) we find
these offered in what beci rae ever after
wards the appointed order : first carae the
sin-offering, to prepare access to God;
next, the burnt-offering, to mark their
dedication to his service; and thirdly,
the meat-offering of thanksgiving. Hence
forth the sacrificial system was fixed in all
its parts, until He should come whom it
typified. (D.) Post-Mosaic Sacrifices.
— It will not be necessary to pursue, in
detail, the history of Post-Mosaic Sacrifice,
for its main principles were now fixed for
ever. The regular sacrifices in the Teraple
service were, (a.) Burnt-Ofperings- 1.
The daily burnt-offerings (Ex. x.xix. 38-
42). 2. The double burnt-offerings on the
Sabbath (Num. xxviii. 9, 10). 8. The
burnt-offerings .at the great festivals (Num.
xxviii. 11-xxix-. 89), {b.) Meat-Offer-
INGS. 1- The daily meat-offerings accora-
panying the daily burnt-offerings (Ex, xxix.
40, 41). 2. The shewbread, renewed every
Sabbath (Lev. xxiv. 5, 9), 3, The special.
meat-offerings at the Sabbath and the great
festivals (Nura. xxviii,, xxix.). 4. The
first-fruits, at the Passover (Lev. xxiii. 10-
14), at Pentecost (xxiii. 17-20) ; the first-
fruits of the dough and threshing-floor at
the harvest-time (Num. xv. 20,21; Deut.
i.xvi. 1-11). (c.) Sin-Ofperings. 1. Sin-
offering each new moon (Num. xxviii. 15).
2. Sin-offerings at the P.assover, Pente
cost, Feast of Trumpets, and Tabernacles
(Num. xxviu, 22, 30, xxLx, 5, 16, 19, 22,
25, 28, 31, 34, 38), 3. The offering of
the two goiits for the people, and of the
buUor k for the priest hiraself, on the Great
Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi.). {d.) In
cense. 1. The morning and evening in
cense (Ex. x.\x. 7, 8). 2. The incense on
the Great Day of Atoneraent (Lev. xvi.
12). Besides these public sacrifices, there
were offerings of the people for themselves
individually. II. By the order of sacrifice
in its perfect forra (as in Lev. viii.) it is
clear that the sin-offering occupies the most
important place ; the burnt-offering coraes
next, and the racat-offering or peace-offer
ing last of all. The second could only be
offered after the first had been accepted ;
the third was only a subsidiary part of the
second. Yet, in actual order of time, it
has been seen that tbe patriarchal sacri
fices -partook much raore of the nature
of the peace-offering and burnt-offering;
and that, under the Law, by which was
" tho knowledge of sin " (Rom, iii, 20), the
sin-offering was for the first time explicitly
set forth. This is, but natural, that the
deepest ideas should be the last in order of
development. Il is needless to dwell on
the univsrsxlity of heathen sacrifices, and

difficult to reduce to any single theory the
various ideas involved therein. It is clear
that the sacrifice was often looked upon as
a gift or tribute to the gods. It is also
clear that sacrifices were used .as priiyera
to obtain benefits, or to avert wrath. On
the other hand, that they were regarded as
thank-offerings is equally certain. Nor was
the higher idea of sacrifice, as a represen
tation of the self-devotion of the offerer,
body and soul, to the god, wholly lost,
although generally obscured by the grosser
and more obvious conceptions of the rite.
But, besides all these, there seeins always
to have been latent the idea of propitiation,
that is, the belief in a coraraunion with the
gods, natural to raan, broken off in sorae
way, and by sacriflce to be restored. Now,
.the essential difference between these hea
then views of sacrifice and the Scriptural
doctrine of the O. T, is not to 'a found in
its denial of any of these idei'.s. In fact, it
brings out, clearly and distinct'.^ , the ideas
which in heathenism were uncc-rsain, vague,
and perverted. But the essential points
of distinction are two. First, that whereas
the heathen conceived of their gods as
alienated in jealousy or anger, to be sought
after and to be appeased by tho unaided
action of man. Scripture represents God
Himself as approaching . man, as pointing
out and sanctioning the way hy which the
broken covenant should be restored. The
second mark of distinction is closely con
nected with this, inasmuch as it shows
sacriflce to be a scherae proceeding frora
God, and, in His foreknowledge, connected
with the one central fact of all huraan his
tory. The nature aud raeaning of the
various kinds of sacrifioe are partly gathered
frora the forra of their institution and cere
monial, partly from the teaching of the
Prophets, and partly from the N. T., es
peciaUy the Epistle to the Hebrews. All
had relation, under different aspects, to a
Covenant between God and man. The
Sin-Ofpeking represented that Covenant
as broken by man, and as knit together
again, by God's appointraent, through the
" shedding of blood." The shedding of the
blood, the syrabol of life, signified that the
death of the offender was deserved for sin,
but that the death of the victira was accept
ed for his death by the ordinance of God's
mercy. Beyond all doubt the sin-offering
distinctly witnessed that sin existed in man,
that the " wages of that sin was death," and
that God had provided an Atonement by
the vicarious suffering of an appointed vic
tim. The cereraoniai .and raeaning of the
B DRNT- Oppering were very different. The
idea of expiation seems not to have been
absent from it, for the blood was sprinkled
round about the altai- of sacrifice ; but the
main idea is the offering of the whole vic
tim tc God, representing (as the laying of,

SACRIFICE

596

bACRIFICE

the hand on its head shows) the devotion
of the sacrificer, body and soul, to Him
(Rom. xii. 1). The death of the victim
was, so to speak, an incidental feature.
The Meat-Offerings, the peace or thank-
offering, the first-fruits, &c., were siraply
offerings to God of His own best gifts, as a
sign of thankful horaage, and as a raeans
of maintaining His service and His ser
vants. The characteristic ceremony in the
peace-offering was the eating of the flesh
by the sacriflcer. It betokened the enjoy
ment of communion with God. It is clear
from this that the idea of sacriflce is a com
plex idea, involving the propitiatory, the
dedicatory, and the eucharistic elements.
Any one of these, taken by itself, would
lead to error and superstition. All three
probably were more or less implied in each
sacrifice, each element predominating in its
turn. Now, the Israelites, while they seem
always to have retained the ideas of propi-
tiiition .and of euch.aristic offering, con
stantly ignored the self-dedication which is
the link between the two, and which the
regular burnt-offering should have im
pressed upon them as their daily thought
and duty. It is therefore to this point that
the teaching of the Prophets is maiifly di
rected (1 Sam. XV. 22; Is, i. 10-20; Jer,
vU, 22, 23 ; Ez. xx. 39-44 ; Hos. vi. 6 ; Am,
v. 21-27; Mic, vi. 6-8). The same truth,
b.ere enunciated from without, is recog
nized frora within by the Psalmist (Ps. xl.
8-11, I. 13, 14, U. 16, 17, cxii. 2). It is
not to be argued from these passages that
the idea of self-dedication is the main one
(jf sacrifice. The idea of propitiation lies
below it, taken for granted by the prophets
as by the whole people, but StUl enveloped
in mystery until the Antitype should come
to make all clear. For the evolution of
this doctrine we must look to the N. T.
"Without entering directly on the great sub
ject of the Atonement (which would be
foreign to the scope of this article), it will
be sufficient to refer to the connection,
'established in the N. T,, between it and the
sacrifices ofthe Mosaic systera. The rae.an
ing of sacriflce is set forth fully in the Epis
tle to the Hebrews, which contains the key
of the whole sacrificial doctrine. The ob
ject of the Epistle is to show the typical
and probationary character of sacrifices,
and to assert that iu virtue of it alone they
had a spiritual raeaning. Our Lord is de
clared (see 1 Pet. i. 20) "to have been
forciji-dained" as <i sacriflce "before the
foundation of tho world," or (as it is raore
strikingly expressed in Rev, xiu. 8) " slain
frora the foundation of the world." The
material sacrifices represented this Great
Atonement as .already made and accepted
in God's foreknowledge ; and to those who
grii-sped the ideas of sin, pardon, and self-
d ;dication symbolized in thera, they wero

raeans of entering into fte blessings #hicn
the One True Sacrifice alone procured.
They could convey nothing in themselves ;
yet, as types, they might, if accepted by a
true, though necess.arily imperfect, faith,
be means of conveying in some degree the
blessings of the Antitype. This typical
character of all sacrifice being thus set
forth, the next point dwelt upon is the union
in our Lord's Person of the priest, the offer
er, and the sacrifice. It is clear that the
Atonement, in this Epistle, as in the N. T,
generally, is viewed in a twofold light. On
the one hand, it is set forth distinctly as a
vicarious sacrifice, which was rendered ne
cessary by the sin of man, and in which the
Lord "bare the sins of many." It is its
essential characteristic that in it He stands
absolutely alone, offering His sacrifice with
out any reference to the faith or the con
version of men. In it He stands out alone
as the Mediator between God and man ; and
His sacrifice is offered once for all, never
to be imitated or repeated.' Now, this view
of the Atonement is set forth in the Epistle
to the Hebrews, as typified by the sin-offer
ing. All the expiatory and propitiatory
sacrifices of the Law are now for the first
time brought into full light. As the sin-
offering, though not the earliest, is the most
fundamental of .all sacrifices, so the aspect
of the Atonement, which it symbolizes, is
the one on which all others rest. On the
other hand, the sacrifice of Christ is set
forth to us, as the completion of that per
fect obedience to the will of the Father,
which is the Uiitural duty of sinless ,man,
in which He is the representative of all
men, and in which He calls upon us, when i
reconciled to God, to "take up the Cro.ss
and follow Hira." In this view His deiith
is not the princip.al object; we dwell rather
on His lowly incarnation, and His life of
huraility, temptation, and suffering, to
which that death was but a fitting close.
The main idea of this view of the Atone
ment is representative rather than vicarious.
It is typified by the burnt-offering, in re-
spect-of which the N. T. merely quotes arid
enforces the language already cited from
the O. T., and especially (see Heb. x. 6-9)
the words of Ps. xl. 6, &c., whi'ch contrast
with material sacrifice^ the " doing the will
of God." As without the sin-offering of the
Cross, this, our burnt-offering, would be
irapossible, so also without the burnt-offer
ing the sin-offering will to us be unavail
ing. With these views of our Lord's
sacrifice on earth, as typified in the Levit
ical sacrifices ou the outer altar, is also
to bo connected the offering of His inter
cession for us in heaven, which was repre
sented by the incense. The typical sense
of the meat-offering, or peace-offering, is
less connected with the sacrifice of Christ
Himself, than with those sacrifices of praiso,

SADDUCEES

597

SADDUCEES

thanksgiving, charity, and devotion, which
we, as Christians, offer to God, and " with
which He is well pleased " (Heb- xiii. 15,
16) as with " an odor of sweet smell, a
sacrifice acceptable to God " (Phil- iv. 18).
Sadd'acees (Miitt. iU. 7, xvi. 1, 6, 11,
12, xxii. 23, 34 ; Mark xii. 18 ; Luke xx.
27; Acts iv. 1, v. 17, xxiu. 6, 7, 8), a reU
gious party or school araong the Jews at
the time of Christ, who denied that the oral
law was a revelation of God to the Israel
ites, and who deemed the written law alone
to be obligatory on the nation, as of divine
authority. Although frequently mentioned
in the New Testament in conjunction with
'he Phiirisees, they do not throw such vivid
light as their great antagonists on the real
significance of Christianity. Except on one
occasion, when they united with the Phar
isees in insidiously asking for a sign
from heaven (Matt. xiv. 1, 4, 6), Christ
never assailed the Sadducees with the
sarae bitter denunciations which he ut
tered ag.ainst the Pharisees ; and they do
not, like the Pharisees, seera to have taken
active raeasures for causing Hira to bo
put to death. The origin of their narae is
involved in great difficulties. The Hebrew
word by which they are called in the Mishna
is TesdAkim, the plural of Tsdddk, which
undoubtedly means "just,", or " righteous,"
out which is never used in the Bible except
as a proper narae, and in the English Ver
sion is alwiiys tr.anslated " Zadoc " (2 K,
XV. 83 ; 2 Sara, viii. 17 ; 1 Chr. vi. 8, 13,
&c. ; Neh. iu, 4, 29, xi, 11), The raost ob
vious trar.slation of the word, therefore, is
to call them Zadocs or Zadokites ; and a
question would then arise as to why they
were so .called. The ordinary Jewish state
ment is, that they are named from a certain
Zadoc, a disciple ofthe Antigonus of Socho,
who is raentioned in the Mishna as having
received the oral law frora Simon the Just,
the last of the men of the Great Syna
gogue ; but it is certain that this statement
must be rejected. As recourse is had to con
jecture, the fir^t point to be considered is,
whether the word is likely to have arisen
from the meaning of "righteousness," or
from the narae of an individual. This raust
be decided in favor of the latter alternative,
inasrauch as the word Zadok, as we have
already seen, never occurs in the Bible,
except as a proper name ; and then we are
led to inquire - as to who the Zadok of the
Sadducees is likely to have been. Now
there was one Zadok of transcendent im
portance, and only one : viz, the priest who
acted such a prorainent part at the time of
David, and who declared in favor of Solo
mon, when Abiathar took the part of Ado
nijah as successor to the throne (1 K, i, 33-
45). His Une of priests appears to have
had decided pre-eminence iu subsequent
history. Thus, in Ezekiel's prophetic vision

of the future Teraple, " the sons cf Zadok,"
and " the priests, the Levites ofthe seed of
Zadok," are spoken of with peculiar honor,
as those who kept the charge of the sanctu
ary of Jehoiah when the cliilJren of Israel
went astray (Ez, xl. 46, xUi, 19, xliv. ID,
xlviii. 11). Now, as the transition from the
expression " sons of Z.adok," and "priests
of the seed of Zadok," to Zadokites is easy
and obvious, and as in the Acts of the
Apostles, V, 17, it is said, " Thenthehigh
priest rose, and all they that were with him,
which is ihe sed of the Sadducees, and were
filled with indignation," it has been conjec-
_tured that the Sadducees or Zadokites were
originally identical with the sons of Zadok,
and constituted what may be termed a kind
of sacerdotal aristocracy. To these were
afterwards attached' all who for any reasou
reckoned themselves as belongingto the aris
tocracy ; such, for example, as the farailies
of the high-priest, who had obtained consid
eration under the dynasty of Herod. These
were for the most part judges, and individ
uals of the official .and governing class.
Now, although this view of the Sadducees
is only inferential, and raainly conjectural,
it certainly expl.ains the name better tliau
any other, and elucidates at once in the Acts
of the Apostles the otherwise obscure state
ment that the high-priest, andthcse who
were with hira, were the sect of the Saddu
cees. ^- 1. The leading tenet of the Saddu
cees was the negation of the leading tenet
of iheir opponents. As the Pharisees as
serted, so the Sadducees denied, that the
Israelites were in possession of an Oral
Law transmitted to thera by Moses. [Pii.ir-
isEES,] In opposition to the Pharisees,
they maintained that the written law alone
was obligatory on the nation, as of divine
authority, II, The second distinguishing
doctrine of the Sadducees, the denial of
man's resurrection after death, followed in
their conceptions as a logical conclusion
frora their denial that Moses had revealed
to the Israelites the Oral Law. For on a
point so momentous as a second life be
yond the grave, no religious party among
the Jews would have deemed themselves
bound to accept any doctrine as an article
of faith, unless it had been proclaimed by
Moses, their great legislator; and it is cer
tain that in the written Law of the Penta
teuch there is a total absence of any asser
tion by Moses of the resurrection of .the
dead. This fact is presented to Christians
in a striking manner by the well-known
words of the Pentateuch which aro quoted
by Christ in arguraent with the Sadducees
on this subject (Ex. iu. 6, 16; Mark xU,
36, 37; Miitt. xxU. 31, 32; Luke xx, 37).
It cannot be doubted that in such a case
Christ would quote to his powerful ad
versaries the most cogent text in the L,awj
and yet the text actually quoted does not

SADDUCEES 5
do mofi; than suggest an inference en this
groat doctrine. It is true that in other
piirts of the Old Testament there are indi
vidual passages which express a, belief
in a rcfiurrecticn, such as in Is. xxvi. 19,
Dan, -xii, 2, Job xix. 26, and in sorae ofthe
Psalras ; .and it may at first sight be a sub
ject of surprise that the Sadducees were
not convinced by the authority of those p.as-
sagcs. But, although the Sadducees regard
ed (he books which contained these passages
as sacred, it is more than doubtful whether
any of the Jews regarded them as sacred in
preciselj' the same sense as the written Law.
In connection with the disbelief of a resur
rection by the Sadducees, it is proper to no- '
tice the statement (Acts xxiii. 8) that they
likewise denied there was " angel or spirit."
A perplexity arises as to the precise sense
in which this denial is to be understood.
Angels are so distinctly mentioned in tho
Pentateuch and other books of the Old
Testament, that it is hard to understand how
those who acknowledged the Old Testament
to have divine authority could deny the ex
istence of angels (Gen. xvi- 7, xix. 1, xxii.
11, xxviii. 12; Ex. xxiii. 20; Num. xxii.
23; Judg. xiii. 18; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16). The
two principal explanations which have been
suggested are, either that the Sadducees
regarded the angels of the Old Testament
as transitory, unsubstantial representations
of Jehovah, or that they disbelieved, not the
angels of the Old Testament, but raerely
the angelical systera which had become
developed in the popular belief of the Jews
after their return from the Babylonian Cap
tivity. Either of these explanations may
possibly be correct ; and the first, although
there are numerous texts to which it did not
apply, would have received sorae counte
nance from passages wherein the same di
vine appearance, which at one time is called
the " angel of Jehovah," is .afterw.ards called
simply " Jehovah " (Gen, xvi, 7, 13, xxU,
11, 12, xx.xi. 11, 16; Ex. in. 2, 4; Judg.vi.
14, 22, xui. 18, 23). III.. Josephus states
that the Sadducees believed in the freedom
cf ihe will, which the Pharisees denied.
I'ossibly the great stress laid by the Saddu
cees on the freedom of the will may have
had sorae connection with their forming
such a large portion of that class from
which crirainal judges were selected. Those
Jews who were alraost exclusively religious
teachers would naturally insist on the ina
bility of man to do anything good if God's
Holy Spirit were taken away from him (Ps.
h- 11, 12), and would enl.arge on the perils
which surrounded man from the tempt.a-
tions of Satan and evil angels or spirits (1
Chr. xxi. 1 ; Tob. iu. 17). But U is likely
that the tendencies of the judicial class
would bo raore practical .and direct. IV.
Some of the early Christian writers attrib
ute to the Sadducees the rejection of all

)8 SAFFRON
ihe Sacred Scriptures except tie Pejiiaieueh,
Such rejection, if true, would undoubtedly
constitute a most important additional dif
ference between the Sadducees and Phari
sees. Tho statement of these Christian
writers is, however, now generally admitted
to have been founded on a misconception
of the truth, and it seeras to have arisen
from a confusion of the Sadducees with the
Samaritans. V. An important fact in the
history of the Sadducees is their rapid
disappearance from history after ihe first
century, and the subsequent predominance
among the Jews of the opinions of the
Pharisees. Two circurastances, indirectly
but powerfully, contributed to produce this
result: 1st. 'Phe state ofthe Jews afterthe
capture of Jerusalem by Titus ; and 2dly.
The growth of the Christian religion. As
to the first point, it is difficult to over-esti
mate the consternation and dismay which
the destruction of Jerusalera occasioned in
the minds of sincerely reUgious Jews.
In this their hour of darkness and anguish,
they naturally turned to the consolations
and hopes of a future state ; and the doc
trine of the Sadducees, that there was noth
ing beyond the present life, would have
appeared to them cold, heartless, and hate
ful. Again, while they were sunk in the
lowest depths of depression, a new religion,
which they despised as a heresy and a super
stition, was gradually m.aking its way among
the subjects of their detested conquerors,
the Romans. One of the causes of its suc
cess was undoubtedly the vivid belief in the
resurrection of Jesus, and a consequent
resurrection of all mankind, which was ac
cepted by its heathen converts with a pas
sionate earnestness, of which those who at
the present d.ay are familiar from infancy
with the doctrine of the resurrection of the
dead can form only a faint idea. To at
tempt to check the progress of this new re
ligion araong the Jews by an appeal to the
teraporary rewards and punishments of the
Pentateuch, would have been as idle as an
endeavor to check an explosive power by
ordinary mechanical restraints. Conscious
ly, therefore, or unconsciously, raany cir
curastances combined to induce the Jews
who were not Pharisees, but who resisted
the new heresy, to riiUy round the standard
of the Oral Law, and to assert thiit their
holy legisliitor, Moses, had transmitted to
his faithful people by word of raouth, al
though not in writing, the revelation of a
future stiite of rcivards and punishmcnts-
Sa'doc, 1, Zadok the ancestor of Ezra
(3 Esd, i, 1; comp. Ezr, vii, 2). 2. A
descendant of Zerubbabel in the genealogy
of Jesus Christ (Matt, i, 14).
Safl&on (Cant. iv. 14). Saffron has
frora the earliest times been in high esteera
as a perfurae. "It was used," says Rosen
muUer " for the same purposes as the mod-

SALA

599

SALMA

em pot-pouni, ' The word saffron is de
rived from the Arabic Zafran, " yellow."
Sa'la. Salah, or Shelah, the father
of Eber (Luke iii. 85).
Sa'Iah, the son of Arphaxad, and father
of Eber (Gen. x. 24, xi. 12-14; Luke iii.
85). 'The narae is significant of extension.
It thus seeras to iraply the historical fact of
the gradual extension of a branch of the
Semitic race from its original seat iu North
ern Assyria towards tho river Euphrates.
Sal'amis, a city at the east end of the
ifdand of Cj'prus, and the first place visited
by Paul and Barnabas, on the first mission
ary journey, after leaving the mainland at
Seleucia. Here alone, among all the Greek
cities visited by St. Paul, we read expressly
of "synagogues" in the plural (Acts xiii.
5). Hence we conclude that there were
many Jews in Cyprus. And this is in har
mony with what we read elsewhere, Salamis
was not far from the modern Famagousia.
It was situated near a river called the
Pediaeus, on low ground, which is in fact
a continuation of the plain running up into
the interior towards the place where Nicosia,
the present capital of Cyprus, stands,
Sala'thiel {I have asked of God), son
of Jechonias king of Judah, and father of
Zorobabel, according to Matt, i, 12; but
son of Neri, and father of Zorobabel, ac
cording to Luke iii. 27 ; while the geneal-
ogj in 1 Chr, iii. 17-19, leaves it doubtful
whether he is the son of Assir or Jechonias,
.and m;ikes Zerubbabel his nephew. Upon
the incontrovertible principle that no gene
alogy would assign to the true son and
heir of a king any inferior and private
parentage, whereas, on the contrary, the
son of a private person would naturally be
placed in the royal pedigree ou his becom
ing the rightful heir to the throne ; we raay
assert, with the utraost confidence, that St,
Luke gives us the true state of the case,
when he inforras us that Salathiel was the
son of Neri, and a descendant of Nathan
the son of David, And from his insertion
in the royal pedigree, both in 1 Chr, and
St. Matthew's Gospel, after the childless
Jechonias, we infer, with no less confi
dence, that, on the failure of Solomon's
line, he was the next heir to the throne of
David. It may therefore be considered
as certain, that Salathiel was the son of
Neri, and the heir of Jechoniah. As re
gards the orthograph}' of the narae, it has
two forras in Hebrew. The A. V. has
Salathiel in 1 Chr, iii, 17, but everywhere
else in the O. T. Shealtiel,
Sal'oah, a city named in the early
records of Israel as the extreme limit of
Bashan (Deut, iu, 10; Josh, xiii. 11), and
of the tribe of Gad (1 Chr. v. 11). On
another occasion the name seems to denote
a district. rather than a town (Josh. xii. 5).
It is identical with the town of Sulkhad.

Sal'chah, another form of Salcah
(Deut. in. 10).
Sa'lem (peace). 1. The place of which
Melchizedek was king (Gen. xiv. 18 ; Heb.
vii. 1, 2). No satisfactory identification of^
it is perhaps possible. Two raain opinions
have been current frora the earliest ages
of interpretation. 1. That of the Jewish
coraraentators, who affirra that Salem is
Jerusalem, on the ground that Jerusalem
is so called in Ps. Ixxvi. 2. 2. Jerome
himself, however, is not of the same
opinion. He states without hesitation, that
the Salera of Melchizedek w.as not Jerusa
lem, but a town near Scythopolis, which in
his day was still called Salem. Elsewhere
he places it more precisely at eight Roman
miles frora Scythopolis, and gives its theu
narae as Salumias. Further, he identifies
this Salem with the Salim of St. John the
Baptist. 2. Ps. Ixxvi. 2. It is agreed on
all hands that S<alem is here employed for
Jerusalera, but whether as a raere abbrevia
tion to suit sorae exigency of the poetry,
and point the allusion to the peace {salem)
which the city enjoyed through the protec
tion of God, or whether, after a well-known
habit of poets, it is an antique name pre
ferred to the more raodern and farailiar one,
is a question not yet decided.
Salim, a place naraed (John iii. 23) to
denote the situation of Aenon, the scene
of St. John's last baptisras — Salim being
the well-known town or spot, and Aenon
a place of fountains, or other water, near
it. [Salem.] The name of Salim has
been discovered by Mr. Van de Velde in a
position exactly in accordance with the
notice of Eusebius, viz. six English miles
south of Beisdn- (Scythopolis), and two
miles west of the Jordan. Salim fulfils
also the conditions implied in the name of
Aenon (springs), and the direct statement
of the text, thiit the place contained abun
dance of water.
Sal'ma. or Sal'mon (Ruth iv. 20, 21 ;
1 Chr. il U, 51, 54; Matt. i. 4, 5; Luke
iii. 32). Son of Nahshon, the prince of
the children of Judah, and father of Boaz,
the husband of Ruth. On the entrance of
the Israelites into Canaan, Salmon took
Rahab of Jericho to be his wife, and from
this union sprang the Christ. [Rahab.]
Two circumstances connected with Salmon
have caused some perplexity : one, the
variation in the orthography of his n.ame ;
the other, an apparent variation in his
genealogy. As regards the first, tl e vari
ation in proper names is so extreraely
common that such slight differences are
scarcely worth noticing. The'variation in
Salma's genealogy is raore apparent than
real. It arises frora the circumstance that
Bethlehera Ephratah, which was Salmon's
inheritanox", was part of the territory of
Caleb, the grandson of Ephratah ; and this

SALMON

600

SALUTATION

caused liim to be reckoned among the sons
of Caleb.
Sal'mon, a hill near Shechem, on which
Abimelech and his followers cut down the
boughs with which they set the tower of
Shechem on fire (Judg. ix, 48). Its exact
position- is not known. It is usually sup
posed that this hill is mentioned in a verse
of the Psalms (Ps. IxvUi. 14), The allusion
is probably to the ground being snow-white
with bones after a defeat of the Canaan
itish kings ; and this raay be accepted by
those who will admit the scarcely permis
sible raeaning, " white as snow," and who
cannot rest siitisficd without attaching some
definite signification to the passage. In
despair of understanding the allusion to
Salmon, sorae suppose that Salmdn, i, e.
Tsalmdn, is not a proper name in this
passage, but merely signifies "darkness,"
Sal'm.on, the father of Boaz, [Salma,]
Salmo'he, the east point of the island
of Crete (Acts xxvii, 7).
Salo'me. 1. The wife of Zebedee, as
appears from comparing Matt, xxvii. 56
with Mark .xv. 40. It is further the opinion
of ra.any modern critics that she was the
sister of Mary, the raother of Jesus, to
whora reference is raade in John xix. 25.
The words admit, however, of another ex
planation, according to which they refer to
the " Mary the wife of Cleophas " imme
diately afterwards raentioned. We can
hardly regard the point as settled, though
the weight of modern criticism is decided
ly in favor of the former view. The only
events recorded of Salome are, that she
preferred a request on behalf of her two
sons for seats of honor in the kingdom
of heaven (Matt. xx. 20), that she at
tended at the crucifixion of Jesus (Mark
XV. 40), and that she visited his sepulchre
(Mark xvi. 1). She is mentioned by name
only on the two later occasions. 2. 'The
daughter of Herodias by her first husbiind,
Herod PhiUp (Matt, xiv. 6). She married
in the first place Philip the tetrarch of
Trachonitis, her paternal uncle, and second
ly Aristobulus, the king of Chalcis.
Salt. Indispensable as salt is to our
selves, it Wiis even more so to the He
brews, being to thera not only an appetiz
ing condiment in the food bot"li of man (Job
xi. 6) and beast (Is, xxx, 24, see margin),
and a most vahuable antidote to the effects
of the heat of climate on aniraal food, but
also entering largely into their religious
services as an acoorapaniment to the vari
ous offerings presented on the altar (Lev,
U, 13). They possessed an inexhaustible
and ready supply of it on the southern
shores of the Dead Sea, [Sea, the Salt,]
The Jews appear to have distinguished be
tween rock-salt and that which was gained
by evaporation, as the Talmudists particu
larize one species (probably the latter) as

the "salt of Sodora." The salt- pits formed
an important source of revenue to tho rulers
of the country, and Antiochus conferred a
valuable boon on Jerusalem by presenting
the city with 875 bushels of salt for the
Temple service. In addition to the uses
of salt already specified, the inferior sorts
were applied as a -manure to the soil, or to
hasten the decomposition of dung (M.att. v.
13; Luke xiv. 35). Too large au admix
ture, however, was held to jjroduce steril
ity; and hence also arose the custom of
sowing with .salt the foundations of a de
stroyed city (Judg. ix. 45), as a token of
its irretrievable ruin. 'The associations
connected with salt in Eastern countries
are important. As one of the most essen
tial articles of diet, it syniboUzod hospitali
ty ; as an antiseptic, durability, fidelity, and
purity. Hence the expression "covenant
of salt " (Lev. ii. 13 ; Num. xviii. 19 ; 2
Chr. xiii. 5), as betokening an indissoluble
alliance between friends ; and again the
expression, " salted with the salt of the
palace" (Ezr. iv, 14), not necessarily
meaning that Ihey had " m,aintenancc from
the palace," as the A. V. has it, but that
they were bound by sacred oblig.ations of
fidelity to the king. So in the present day,
" to eat bread and salt together" is an ex
pression for a league of mutual amity. It
was probably with a view to keep this idea
prominently before the minds of the Jews
that the use of salt was enjoined on the
Israelites in their offerings to God.
Salt, City of, the fifth of the six cities
of Judah which lay in the "wilderness"
(Josh. XV. 62). Dr, Robinson expresses
his belief that it lay somewhere near the
plain .at the south end ofthe Salt Sea.
Salt Sea, or Dead Sea. [Sea, the
Salt,] Salt, 'Valley of, a vaUey in which oc
curred two memorable victories of the Is
raelite arms, 1, That of David over the
Edomites (2 Sam, viu, 13; 1 Chr, xviu,
12), 2. That of Amaziah (2 K, xiv, 7; 2
Chr. xxv. 11), Neither of these notices
affords any clew to the situation of the
Valley of Salt, It is perhaps the broad,
open plain whieh lies at the lower .end of
the Dead Sea, and intervenes between the
lake itself and the range of heights wliicu
crosses the valley at six or eight miles to
the south. This same view is taken by
Dr, Robinson, Others suggest that it lay
nearer to Petra, What little can be in
terred, from the narrative as to its situation
is in favor of this theory.
Sa'lu, tho father of Zimri the prince of
the Simeonites, who was slain by Phi::e-
has Num. xxv. 14), Called also Salom,
Salutation, Salutations may be classed
under the two heads of conversational and
epistolary, ' The salutation at meeting con
sisted iu early times of various expr (s^ioui

jiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiriMiiiiiiT'iT iiiiiiri I M

SAMARIA

601

SAMARIA

of blessing, such as " God be grarious unto
thee" (Gen, xliii, 29); "Blessed oe thou
of the Lord " (Ruth iU. 10 ; 1 Sam, xv. 13) ;
"The Lord be with you," "The Lord bless
thee" (Ruth U, 4); "The blessing ofthe
Lord be upon you; we bless you in the
name ofthe Lord"-(Ps, cxxix, 8), Hence
the term "bless" received the secondary
sense of " salute," The Hebrew terra used
in tlidse instances {shdldm) has no special
reference to " peace," as stated in the mar
ginal translation, but to general well-being,
and strictly answers to our "welfare." The
salutation at parting consisted originally of
a si.mple blessing (Gen. xxiv. 60, x.xviii. 1,
xlvii. 10; Josh. xxii. 6), but in later tiraes
the term shdldmwas introduced here also in
the form " Go iu peace," or rather " Fare
well" (1 Sam. i. 17, XX. 42; 2 Sam. xv. 9).
In raodern tiraes the ordinary raode of ad
dress current in the East resembles the
Hebrew: Es-seldm aleykum, "Peace be on
you," and the term " salam " has been in
troduced into our own language to describe
the Oriental salutation. — The epistolary
salutations in the period subsequent to the O.
T. were framed on the model of the Latin
style : the addition- of the terra " peace "'
may, however, be regarded as a vestige of
the old Hebrew form (2 Mace. i. 1), The
writer placed his own name first, and then
that of the person whom he saluted ; it was
only in special cases that this order was re
versed (2 Mace. i. 1, ix. 19; 1 Esdr. vi. 7).
A combination of the first and third per
sons in tho terras of the salutation was not,
unfrequent (Giil, i, 1, 2; PhUera, 1; 2 Pet.
i. 1). A form of prayer for spiritual raer-
cies was also used. The concluding salu
tation consisted occasionally of a transla
tion of the Latin valete (Acts xv. 29, xxiii.
80), but raore generally of the term "I
salute," or the cognate substantive, accom
panied by a prayer for peace or grace.
Sama'ria (Heb. Shomerdn), a city of
Palestine. The word Shomerdn means,
etyraologicaUy, "pertaining ,to a watch,"
or "a watch-raouiitain; " and there can be
little doubt t'lat the peculiarity of the situ
ation gave occasion to its name. In the
territory originally belonging to the tribe
of Joseph, about six miles to the north
west of Shechem, there is a wide basin-
shaped valley, encircled with high hills,
alraost on the edge of the great plain which
borders upon the Mediterranean. In the
centre of this basin, which is on a lower
level than the valley of Shechem, rises a
less elevated oblong hill, with steep yet ac-
lessible sides, and a long fiat top. This hill
was chosen by Omri as the site ofthe capi
tal of the kingdom of Israel. He " bought
the hill of Samaria of Shemer for two talents
of silver, and built on the hill, and called
the name of the city which he built, after
the ni>]ae tf the owner of the hill, Samaria "

(IK. xvi. 23, 24) . From the date of Omri'a
purchase, b. c. 925, Saraaria retained its
dignity as the capital of the ten tribes, and
the name is given to the northern kingdom
as well as to the city. Ahab built a teraple
to Ba.al there (1 K. xvi. 33, 33) ; and from
this circumstance a portion of the city,
possibly fortified by a separate wall, waa
called "the city of the house of Baal" (2
K. X. 25). Samaria raust have been a
place of great strength. It was twice be
sieged by the Syrians, in b. c. 901 (1 K.
XX. 1), and in b. c. 892 (2 K. vi. 24-vu.
20) ; but on both occasions the siege was
ineffectual. The possessor of Saraaria was
considered defado king of Israel (2 K. xv.
13, 14) ; and woes denounced against the
nation were directed against it by narae (Is.
vii. 9, &c.). In u. c. 721, Samaria was
taken, after a siege of three years, by Shal
raaneser king of Assyria (2 K. xviii. 9, 10),
and the kingdom of the ten tribes was put
an end to. Some years afterwards the dis
trict of which Samaria was the centre was
repeopled by Esarhaddon ; but we do not
hear especially of the city until the days
of Alexander the Great. That conqueror
took the city, which seems to have some
what recovered itself, killed a large portion
of the inhabitants, and suffered the remain
der to settle at Shechem. He replaced
thera by a colony of Syro-Macedonians.
These Syro-Macedonians occupied the city
until the tirae of John Hyrcanus, who took
it after a year's siege, and did his best to
deraolish it entirely. After this disaster
^ which occurred in b. c. 109), the Jews in
habited what reraained of the city ; at least
we find it in ^eir possession in the time of
Alexander Jannaeus, and untU Pompey
gave it back to the descendants of its origi
nal inhabitants. By directions of Gabin-
ius, Saraaria and other deraolished cities
were rebuilt. But its raore effectual re
building was undertaken by Herod the
Great. He called it Sebaste = Augusta,
after the name of his patron. How long
Sara'aria maintained its splendor after Her
od's improvements, we are not inforraed.
In the N. T. the city itself does not appear
to be raentioned, but rather a portion of
the district to which, even in older tiraes, it
had extended its narae (Matt. x. 5 ; John
iv. 4, 5). At this day tlie city is repre
sented by a sraall village retaining few
vestiges of the past except its narae, SebHs-
iiyeh, an Arabic corruption of Sebaste.
Sorae architectural reraains it has, partly
of Christian construction or adaptation, as
the ruined church of St. John the Baptist,
partly, perhaps, traces of Iduraaean mag
nificence. St. Jerome, whose acquaint
ance with Palestine imparts a sort of proba
bility to the tradition which prevailed so
strongly in later days, asserts that Sebaste,
which-he invariably ideutJie^ -vith Sa' lana.

SAMARITANS

602

SAMARITANS

was the place in which St. John the Bap
tist was imprisoned and suffered death.
He also makes it the burial-place of the
prophets Elisha and Obadiah.
Samar'itans. In the strictest sense of
the terra, a Samarit.4.n would be an inhab
itant of the city of Samaria. But it is not
found at all in this sense, exclusively at any
rate, in the O. T. Samaria at first in
cluded all the tribes over which Jeroboam
made himself king, whether east or west of
the river Jordan (1 K. xui, 32). In other
places in the historical books of the O. T,
(with the exv.eption of 2 K. xvii, 24, 26, 28,
29) Samaria seems to denote the city ex
clusively. But the prophets use the word in
a greatly extended sense. Hence the word
Samaritan must have denoted every one
subject to tho king of the northern capital.
But whatever extent the word might have
acquired, it necessarily becarae contracted
as the Uraits of the kingdom of Israel be
came contracted. In all probability the
territory of Simeon and that of Dan were
very early absorbed in the kingdom of Ju
dah, It is evident from an occurrence in
Hezekiah's reign, that just before the depo
sition and death of Hoshea, the last king
of Israel, the authority of the king of Ju
dah, or, at least, his influence, was recog
nized by portions of Aslier, Issachar, and
Zebulun, and even of Ephraim and Manas
seh (2 Chr, xxx, 1-26), Men came from all
those tribes to the Passover at Jerusalem.
This was about b. c, 736, Samaria (the
city), and a few adjacent cities or villages
only, represented that dominion which had
once extended frora Bethel to Dan north
wards, and from the Mediterranean to the
borders of Syria and Araraon eastwards.
This brings us more closely to the second
point of our discussion, the origin of those
who are in 3 K. xvii, 39, and in the N. T.,
called Samaritans. Shalmaneser, as we
have seen (2 K. xvu. 5, 6, 26), carried Israel,
i. e. the remnant of the ten tribes which
still acknowledged Hoshea's authority, into
Assyria. This remnant consisted, as has
been shown, of Samaria (the city) and a
few adjacent cities and villages. We may
conclude that the cities of Samaria were
not merely partially, but wholly, evacuated
of their inhabitants in b. c. 721, and that
they remained in this desolated state until,
in the words of 2 K. xvu. 24, " the king of
Assyria brought men from Bahylon, and
from Cuthah, and from Ava (Ivah, 2 K,
xviU, 34), and from Hara.ath, and from Seph
arvaim, and placed them in the cities of
Samaria instead of the children of Israel :
and they possessed Saraaria, and dwelt in
the cities thereof," Thus the new Samari
tans were Assyrians by birth or su'>juga-
tion. An incidental question, h« ,vever,
arises. Who was the king of Assy .'ia that
effected this colonization? The Samari

tans themselves, in Ezr, iv, 2 K. altTib-
uted their colonization not to Shiilmanesei,
but to " Esarhaddon king of Assur, or
to "the great and noble Asnapper, either
the king' himself or one of his generals
(about B. c. 677). The fact, too, that some
of these foreigners came from Babylon,
would seem to direct us to Esarhaddon,
rather than to his grandfather, Shalmane
ser. And there is another reason why this
date should be preferred. It coincides
with the termination of the sixty-five years
of Isaiah's prophecy, delivered b. c. 742,
within which "Ephraim should be broken,
that it should not be a people " (Is. vU. 8).
These str.angers, whom we will now assume
to have been placed in "the cities of Sa
maria " by Esarhaddon, were of course
idolaters, and worshipped a strange medley
of divinities. God's displeasure was kin
dled, and they were infested by beasts of
prey, which had probably incre.ased to a
great extent before their entrance upon it.
On their explaining their miserable condi
tion to the king of Assyria, he despatched
one of the captive priests to teach them
" how they should fear the Lord." The
priest came accordingly, and henceforth,
in the hmguage of - the sacred historian,
they " feared the Lord and served their
graven images, both their children and their
children's children :' as did their fathers, so
do they unto this day" (2 K. xvii. 41). A
gap occurs in their history until Judah has
returned frora captivity. They then de
sire to be allowed to participate in the re
building of the Teraple at Jerusalera. But
they do not call it a national undertaking.
They advance no pretensions to Jewish
blood. They confess their Assyriiiu de
scent, and even put it forward ostentatious
ly, perhaps to enhance the raerit of their
partial conversion to God. Ezra, uo doubt,
from whose pen we have a recoid of the,
transaction, saw them through and through.
On this the Samaritans throw off the mask,
and become open eneraies, frustrate the
operations of the Jews through the reigns
of two Persian kings, aud are only cffectu
ally silenced in the reign of Darius Hystas
pis, B. c- -519. The feud, thus unhappUy
begun, grew year by year raore inveterate.
Matters at length came to a climax. About
n. c. 409, a certain Manasseh, a raan of
priestly lineage, on being expelled from
Jerusalem by Nohemiah for an unlawful-
marriage, obtained permission from the
Persian king of his day, Darius Nothus, to
buUd a temple on Mount Gerizim for the
Samaritans, with whom he had found ref
uge. The animosity of the Samaritans
became more intense than ever. They ara
said to have done everything in their power
to annoy the Jews. 'Their own temple on
Gerizim they considered to be rauch su
perior to that at Jerusalepi. Theie they

SAMARITANS

603 SAMARITAN lENTAIEUCH

aacrificed a passover. Towards the raoun
tain, even after the teraple on it had
fallen, wherever they were, they directed
their worship. To their copy of the Law
tliey arrogated an antiquity and authority
greater than attached to any copy in the
possession of the Jews. The Law {i. c. the
five books of Moses) was their sole code ;
for they rejected every other book in the
Jewish canon. The Jews, on the other
hand, were not raore conciliatory iu their
treatment of the Samaritans, The copy
of the Law possessed by that people they
declared to be the legacy of an apostate
(Manasseh), and cast grave suspicions upon
its genuineness. Certain other Jewish ren
egades had frora time to time taken refuge
with the Samaritans. Hence, by degrees
the Samaritans claimed to partake of Jew
ish blood, especially if doing so happened
to suit their interest. A remarkable in
stance of this is exhibited in a request
which they made to Alexander the Great,
about B. o. 833. They desired to be ex
cused p.ayraent of tribute in the Sabbatical
year, on the plea that as true Israelites,
descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh,
sons of Joseph, they refrained from culti
vating their land in that year. Another in
stance of claim to Jewish descent appears
in the words of the woraan of Saraaria to
our Lord, John iv, 12 : " Art thou greater
than our father Jacob, who gave us the
well ? " Very far were the Jews from ad
mitting this claim to consanguinity on the
part of these people. They were ever re
minding them that they were, after all, mere
Cuthaeans, mere strangers frora Assyria.
The traditional hatred in which the Jew
held the Samaritan is expressed in Ecclus.
1. 25, 26, And so long was it before such
a temper could be banished from the Jew
ish mind, that we find even the Apostles
believing that an inhospitable slight shown
by a Samaritan village to Christ would be
not unduly avenged by calling down fii-e
frcm heaven. Such were the Samaritans
of our Lord's day ; a people distinct frora
the Jews, though lying in the very midst
of the Jews; a people preserving their
identity, though seven centuries had rolled
away since they had been brought from
Assyria by Esarhaddon, and though they
hadabandoned their polytheisra for a sort
of ultra Mosaicisra ; a people, who —
though their limits had gradually contract
ed, and the rallying-place of their religion
on Mount Gerizira had been destroyed one
hundred and sixty years before by John
Hyrcanus (b. c. 180), and though Samaria
^the city) had been again and again de
stroyed — still preserved their nationality,
still worshipped from Shechem and their
impoverished settlements towards their
sacred hill ; still retained their nationaUty,
aud could not coalesce with the Jews. Not

indeed that wo raust suppose that the whole
of the country called in our Lord's tirae
Samaria, was in the possession of the
Cuthaean Saraaritans, or that it had ever
been so. It was bounded northward by
the range of hills which commences at
Mount Carmel on the west, and, after
raaking a bend to the south-west, runs
almost due east to the valley of the Jordan,
forming the southern border of the plain of
Esdraelon. It touched towards the south,
as nearly as possible, the northern liraits
of Benjarain, Thus it coinprehended the
ancient territory of Ephraim, and of those
Manassites who were west of Jordan, The
Cuthaean Samaritans, however, possessed
only a few towns and villages of this large
area, and these lay almost together in the
centre of the district. At Ndblus the
Saraaritans have still a settlement, consist
ing of about 200 persons, [Shechem,]
Samaritan Pentateuch, a Recension
of the commonly received Hehrew Text of
the Mosaic Law, in use with the Saraari
tans, and written in the ancient Hebrew,
or so-called Samaritan character. The
origin of the Samaritan Pentateuch has
given rise to much controversy, into which'
we cannot enter in this place.. The two
most usual opinions are : 1, That it carae
into the hands of the Saraaritans as an in
heritance frora the ten tribes whom they
succeeded. Because {a.) It seeras improb
able that the Saraaritans should have ac
cepted their code at the hands of the Jews
after the exile, since there existed an in
tense hatred between tbe two nationalities.
(4.) The Saraaritan Canon has only the
Pentateuch in coraraon with the Hebrew
Canon : had that book been received at a
period when the Hagiographa and the
Prophets were in the Jews' hands, it would
be surprising if they had not also received
those. 2. That it was introduced by Ma
nasseh at the time of the foundation of the
Samaritan Sanctuary on Mount Gerizira,
and written in the ancient Hebrew, or so-
called Samaritan character. It differs in
several iraportant points from the Hebrew
text. Among these may be mentioned : 1.
Emendations of passages and words of the
Hebrew text •which contain something ob
jectionable in the eyes of the Samaritans,
on account either of historical improbabil
ity or apparent want of dignity in the terms
applied to the Creator. Thus in the Samar
itan Pentateuch no one in the antediluvian
tiraes begets his first son after he has lived
150 years : but one hundred years are,
where necessary, subtracted before, and
added after, the birth of the first son. Au
exceedingly iraportant and often discussed
eraendation of this class is the passage in
Ex. xu. 40, which in our text reads, " Now
the sojourning of the children of Israel
who'dvvelt in Egypt was four hvmdred and

SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH 604

SAMSON

thirty years." The Samaritan has " Tl e
s.>journing of the children of Israel [ani
their fathers who dwelt in the land of
Canaan and in the land of Egypf] was
four hundred and thirty years ; " an inter
polation of very late date indeed. Again,
iu Gen. ii. 2, "And God [?] had finished
on the seventh day," is altered into " the
sixth," lest God's rest on the Sabbath-day
might seem incomplete. 2. Alterations
made in favor of or on behalf of Samaritan
theology, hermeneutics, .and domestic wor
ship. Thus the word Elohim, four tiraes
construed with the plural verb in the He
brew Pentateuch, is in the Siiraaritan Pen
tateuch joined to the singular verb (Gen.
XX. 13, xxxi. 53, xxxv. 7 ; Ex. xxii. 9) ; and
further, anthroporaorphisms as well as
authropopathisms are carefully expunged
— s practice very common in later times.
Tne last and perhaps most momentous of
all 'fltentional alterations is the constant
change of all the phrases, " God will
choose a spot," into " He has chosen," viz.
Gerizim, and the well-known substitution
of Gerizim for Ebal in Deut. xxvii. 4. In
Exodus as well as in Deuteronomy the
Sam. has, immediately after the Ten Com
mandments, the following insertions frora
Deut, xxvii. 2-7 and xi. 30 : " And it shaU
be on the day when ye shall pass over Jor
dan ... ye shall set up these stones ..." on
Mount Gerizim . . . and there shalt thou
build an altar . . , ' That mountain ' on the
other side Jordan by the way where the
sun goeth down ... in the charapaign over
against Gilgal, beside the plains of Moreh,
' over against Shechem.' " It may perhaps
not.be superfluous to add here a brief ac
count of the Samaritan literature. 1. Clvron-
icon Samaritanum. — Joshua alone seems
to have found favor in their eyes ; but the
Book of Joshua, which they perhaps, pos
sessed in its original forra, gradually carae
to forra only the groundwork of a flctitious
national Samaritan history, overgrown with
the most fantastic and anachronistic le
gends. This is the so-called " Saraaritan
Joshua," or Chronicon Samaritanum, sent
to Scaliger by the Samaritans of Cairo in
1584. It was edited by JuynboU (Ley den,
1818), and his acute investigations have
shown that it was redacted into its present
form about a. d. 1300, out of four special
documents, three of which were Arabic,
and one Hebrew {i. e. Saraaritan). 'The
chronicle embraces the tirae from Joshua
to about A. D, 350, and was originally writ
ten in, or subsequently translated into,
Arabic. '2. From this work chiefly has
been compiled another Chronicle written
in the 14th century (1355), by Abu'l Fatah,
This comprises the history of the Jews and
Samaritans from Adam to A, h. 756 and 798
(a. d, 1355 and 1397) respectively. It is of
equally low histjrical value; its o^ly re

markable feature being the adoptijn of cer
tain Talmudical legends, which, it took at
second hand from Josippon ben Gorion.
8. Another " historical " work is on the
history and genealogy of the patriarchs,
from Adam to Moses, attributed to Moses
hiraself; perhaps the sarae which Peter-
mann saw at Ndblus, and which consisted
of sixteen vellum leaves (supposed, how
ever, to contain the historj' of the world
down to the end). 4. There are various
other Samaritan works chiefly in Arabic —
their Samaritan and Hebrew literature hav
ing mostly been destroyed by the Emperor
Coramodus — that do not require special
notice. Sam'gar-ne'bo, one of the prince?
or generals of the king of Babylon who
coraraanded the victorious army of the
Chaldaeans at the capture of Jerusalem
(Jer. xxxix. 3). The Nebo is the Chal
daean Mercury; about the Samgar, opin
ions are divided.
Sam'lah, Gen. xxxvi. 86, 37 ; 1 Chr. i.
47, 48. One of the kings of Edom, succes
sor to Hadad or Hadar.
Sa'mos, a Greek island off that part of
Asia Minor where Iojjia touches Caria.
Samos comes before our notice in the de
tailed account of St. Paul's return from hia
third missionary journey (Acts XX. 15). He
had been at Chios, and was about to pro
ceed to Miletus, having passed by Ephesus
without touching there. The topograph
ical notices given incidentally by St. Luke
are most exact. In the time of Herod the
Great, and when St. Paul was there, it waa
politically a "free city " iu the province of
Asia. Samothra'cia. The mention of this
island in the account of St. Paul's first
voyage to Europe (Acts xvi. 11) is for two
reasons worthy of careful notice. In the
first place, being a very lofty and conspic
uous isliind, it is an excellent landmark for
saUors, and must have been full in view*
if the weather was clear, throughout that
voyage from Troas to Neapolis. Secondly,
this voyage was made with a fair wind. N^t
only are we told that it occupied only parts
of two days, whereas on a subsequent re
turn-voyage (Acts XX. 6) the tirae spent at
sea was five, but the technical word here
used implies that they ran before the wind.
Now, the position of Samothrace is exactly
such as to correspond with these notices,
and thus inciilentally to confirm the accu
racy of a most artless narrative. St. Paul
and his companions anchor'id for the night
off Samothrace. Th( ancient city, and
therefore probably, the usual anchorage,-
was on the N. side, which would be suffi
ciently sheltered from a S. E. wind.
Sam'sou (properly Sham-sun, i. e.
" little sun," or " sun-like," from shemesh,
the s%n), son of Manoah, a man of the town

SAMSON

605

SAMSON

of Zorah, in the tribe of Dan, on the border
of Judah (Josh. xv. 33, xix. 41). The
miraculous circurastances of his birth are
recorded in Judg. xiii. ; and the three fol
lowing chapters are deyoted to the history
of his Ufe and exploits. Samson takes his
place in Scripture, (1.) as a judge — an
office whicb he filled for twenty years
(Judg. XV. 20, xvi. 31) ; (2.) as a Nazarite
(¦fudg. xiu. 5, xvi. 17) ; and, (3.) as one
endowed with supernatural power by the
Spirit of the Lord (Judg. xiii. 25, xiv. 6,
19, XV. 14). As a judge his authority seems
to have been limited to the district border
ing upon the country of tlie PhiUstines. It
is evident frora Judg. xiii. 1, 5, xv. 9-11,
20, and the whole history, that the Israel
ites, or iit least Judah and Dan, which are
the only tribes raentioned, were subject to
the Philistines through the whole of Sam-
sou's judgeship; so that Samson's twenty
years of office would be included in the
forty years of the Philistine dominion.
Frora the angel's speech to Sarason's mother
(Judg. xiii. 5), it appears further that the
IsraeUtes were already subject to the Philis
tines at his birth ; and as Samson cannot
have begun to be judge before he was twen
ty years of age, it follows that his judge-
stiip must have coincided with the last
twenty years of Philistine dominion. But
when we turn to the First Book Of Samuel,
and especially to vii. 1-14, we find that the
Philistine dominion ceased under the judge
ship of Samuel. Hence it is obvious to
conclude that the early part of Siimuel's
judgeship coincided with the latter part
of Sarason's, and that the capture of the
ark by the Philistines in the tirae of Eli
occurred during Samson's lifetime. The
divine inspiration, which Samson shared
with Othniel, Gideon, and Jephthah, as
sumed in him the unique form of vast
personal strength, animated by undaunted
bravery. It was inseparably connected
with the observance of his vow as a Naza
rite ; " his strength was in his hair." Con
scious of his power, he began to seek a
quarrel with the PhiUstines ; and with this
view he asked the hand of a Philistine wo
raan whora he had seen at Timnath. One
day, as he passed by the vineyards 'of the
city ona visit to his intended bride, a young
lion rushed out upon him; the spirit of
Jehovah came on Samson, and without a
weapon he tore the lion as he would have
torn a kid, but he told no one of the exploit.
As he passed that way again, he saw a swarm
of bees in the carcass of the lion ; and he
ate of ths honey, but still he told no one.
He availed hiraself of this circurastance,
and of the custora of proposing riddles at
marriage-feasts, to lay a snare for the Phi
listines. But Samson told the riddle to his
wife, and she told it to the raen of the city.
The spirit of Jehovah came again upon

him ; and. going down to Aski.lou, ne slew
thirty raen of the city, and g.ave their apoil
to their fellow-countrymen of 'Timnath. He
then returned to his own house. His wife
was given to one of tho groorasraeu, and on
Sarason's visiting her soon after, her father
refused to let bim see her. Samson re
venged himself by taking 300 foxes (or
rather jackals) and tying them together two
by two by the tails, with a firebrand be
tween every pair of tails, and so he let them
loose into the standing corn of the PhUis
tines, which was ready for harvest. The
Philistines took vengeance by burning Sam
son's wife and her father ; but he fell upon
them in return, and smote them " hip and
thigh with a great slaughter," after which
he took refuge on the top of tho rock of
Etam, in the territory of Judah, The
Philistines gathered an array and raarched
agai.nst the men of Judah, who hastened to
raake their peace by giving up Samson, .
Three thousand of them went up to the
rock of Etam to bind hira, and he submitted
on their promise not to fall upon hira them
selves. Bound with two new cords, he was
brought down to the camp of the Philis
tines, who received him with a shout of
triumph; but the spirit of Jehovah came
upon him : he broke the cords like burnt
flax, and flnding a jawbone of an ass at
hand, he slew with it a thousand of the
Philistines, The place was henceforth
called Ramath-Lehi (the height of the jaw
bone). The supernatural chiiracter of the
exploit was confirraed by the rairaculous
bursting out of a spring of water to revive
the charapion as he was re.ady to die of
thirst. He called the spring En-hakkore,
that is, ihe well of him ihat cried. Thia
achieveraent raised Sarason to the position
of a judge, which he held for twenty years.
After a tirae he began to fall into the temp
tations which addressed themselves to his
strong animal nature ; but ho broke through
every snare in which he was caught so long
as he kept his Nazarite's vow. While he
was visiting a harlot in Gaza, the Philis
tines shut the gates of the city, intending
to kill him in the morning; but at midnight
he went out and tore away the gates, with
the posts and bar, and carried them to the
top of a hill looking towards Hebron, Next
he formed his fatal connection with Delilah,
a woman who lived iu the valley of Sorek,
She was bribed by the lords of the Philistines
to entice Sarason to tell her the secret nf
his strength ; and though not at once be
traying it, he played with the temptation.
Thrice he suffered himself to be bound with
green withes, with new ropes, and. by weav
ing the seven locks of his hair to the beam
of a loora; and each tirae, when DelUah
gave the signal, "The Philistines are upon
thee, Samson," he burst the withes and
ropes,- and tore away the bfain with its

SAMUEL

606

SAMUEL

pin. Instead of resenting Delilah's evident
treachery, ho seems to have enjoyed the
certainty of triumph over each' new snare,
till he was betrayed into the presumption
that perhaps his strength might survive the
loss of his Nazarite's locks. - Wearied out
with her importunity, he at last "told her
all his heart," aud, while he was asleep, she
had hira shaven of his seven locks of hair.
For the last time he was awakened by her
cry, " The Philistines are upon thee, Sam
son," and thought he had only to go out and
shake hiraself, as at the other tiraes, for
" he wist not that Jehoviih was departed from
him." They put out his eyes, and led him
down to Gaza, bound in brazen fetters, and
made him grind in the prison. As his hair
grew, his strength returned ; but his infatu
ated foes only saw in this the means of their
diversion. 'The lords and cliief people of
the Philistines hold a great festival in the
teraple of D.igon, to celebrate their victory
over Sarason. They brought forth the blind
champion to raake sport for thera; and,
after he had shown his feats of strength,
they placed him between the two chief pil
lars which supported the roof that surround
ed the court, which, as well as the court
itself, was crowded with spectators, to the
number of 3000, Samson asked the lad
who guided him to let him feel the pillars,
to lean upon them. Then, with a fervent
prayer that God would strengthen hira only
th:s once, to be avenged on the Philistines,
he bore with all his raight upon the two pil
lars ; they yielded, and the house fell upon
the lords and all the people. " So the dead
which he slew at his death were more than
they which he slew in his life." His name
is enrolled araong the worthies of the Jew
ish church in Heb. xi. 32.
Sam'uel was the son of Elkanah, an
Ephriithite or Epbraimite, and Hannah or
Anna, and was born at Ramathaira-Zophira,
[Ramah, No, 2,] It is on the mother of
Sarauel that our chief attention is fixed in
the account of his birth. She is described
as a woraan of a high reUgious mission.
Almost a Nazarite by practice (1 Sara, i,
15), and a prophetess in her gifts (1 Sara.
li. 1), she sought frora God the gift of the
child for which she longed with a passion
ate devotion of silent prayer, of whieh there
is no other example in the O, T, ; and when
the son was granted, the name which he
bore, and thus first introduced into the
world, expressed her sense of the urgency
of her entreaty — Samuel, " the Asked or
Heard of God," Sho had before his birth
dedicated hira to the office of a Naz<arite.
As soon as he was weaned, she herself with
her husband brought hira to the Tabernacle
at Shiloh, whero she had received tho first
intimation of his birth, and there solemnly
consecrated him. The hymn which followed
on this consecration is the first of the kind

in the sacred volume. From this time the
child is shut up in the tabernacle, and
" ministered unto the Lord before Eli." He
seeras to have slept within the Holiest
Place, and his special duty was to put
out the sacred candlestick, and to open
the doors at sunrise. In this w.ay his child
hood was passed. It was whilst thus sleep
ing in the tabernacle that he received hia
first prophetic call (1 Sam, iii. 1-18). From
this moment the prophetic character of
Sarauel was established. His words were
treasured up, and Shiloh becarae the resort
of those who came to hear him (iii, 19-21).
In the overthrow of the sanctuary, which
followed shortly on this vision, we hear not
what became of Samuel (iv, 11). He next
appears, probably twenty years afterwards,
suddenly amongst the people, warning them
against their idolatrous practices (vU. 3, 4).
He convened an assembly at Mizpeh, prob
ably the place in Benjamin. It was at the
moment that he was offering up a sacrifice
that the Philistine host suddenly burst upon
them. A violent thunderstorm came to the
tiraely assistance of Israel. The PhUistines
fled, and, exactly at the spot where twenty
years before they had obtained their great
victory, they were totally routed. A stone
was set up, which long remained as a
memorial of Samuel's triumph, and gave
to the place its name of Eben-ezer, " the
Stone of Help" (1 Sam. vii, 1'^), This
was Sarauel's first, and, as far as we know,
his only military achievement. But it was
apparently this which raised him to the
office of "Judge" (comp. 1 Sara, xii, 11,
and Ecclus xlvi. 15-18). He visited, in
discharge of his duties as ruler, tlie three
chief sanctuaries on the west of Jordan —
Bethel, Gilgal, and Mizpeh (1 Sara. vU. 16).
His own residence was still his native city,
Rara.ah or Raraathaira, which he further
consecrated by an altar (vii. 17). Here he
raarried, and two sons grew up to repeat
under his eyes the same perversion of high
office that he had hiraself witnessed in hia
childhood jn the case of the two sons of
Eli. In his old age he shared his power
with them (1 Sam. viU, 1-4).— Down to
this point in Samuel's life there is but little
to distinguish his career from that of his
predecessors. But his peculiar position in
the sacred narrative turns on the events
which follow. He is the inaugurator of the
transition frora what is comraonly called
the theocracy to the monarchy. 'The mis
demeanor of his own sons precipitated the
catastrophe which had been long prepar
ing. The people demanded a king. For
the whole night he lay fiisting and sleepless,
in the perplexity of doubt and difficulty. In
the vision of that night, as recorded by the
sacred historian, is given the dark side of
the new institution, on which Sarauel dweUs
on ^!ie following day (1 Sam. viii. 9-181

SAMUEL

607

SAMUEL, BOOKS OP

This presents his reluctance to receive the
new order of things. The whole narrative
of the reception and consecration of Saul
gives his acquiescence in it. The final con
flict of feeling and surrender of his office
are given in the last assembly over which he
presided, and in his subsequent relations
with Siiul. The asserably was held at Gil
gal, immediately after the victory over the
Araraonites. The raouiircby was a second
tirae soleranly inaugurated. Then takes
place his farewell address. It is the most
signal example afforded in the O. T. of a
great character reconciling himself to a
changed order of things, and of the Divine
sanction resting on his acquiescence. — His
subsequent relations with Saul are of the
same raixed kind. The two institutions
which they respectively represented ran on
side by side. Samuel was still Judge. He
judged Israel "all the days of his life"
(vii. 15), and from time to time came across
the king's path. But these interventions
are chiefly in another capacity, which this
is the place to unfold. Samuel is called
emphatically "the Prophet" (Acts iii. 24,
xiii. 20), He was especially known in his
old age as " Samuel the Seer " (1 Sam, ix.
11, 18, 19; 1 Chr. ix. 22, xxvi. 28, xxix,
29) . He was consulted far and near on the
sraall affairs of life (1 Sam, ix, 7, 8). From
this faculty, combined with his office of
ruler, an awful reverence grew up around
him. No sacrificial feast was thought com
plete without his blussing (ib, ix. 13). A
peculiar virtue was believed to reside in his
intercession. There was soraething pecu
liar in the long-sustained cry or shout of
supplication, which seemed to draw down
as by force the Divine answer (1 Sam, vii,
8, 9). But there are two other points
which raore especially placed him at the
head of the prophetic order, as it afterwards
appeared. 'The first is brought out in his
relation with -Saul, the second in his rela
tion with David. (1) He represents the
independence of the moral law, of the Di
vine Will, as distinct from regal or sacer
dotal enactments, which is so remarkable a
characteristic of all the later prophets. He
was, if a Levite, yet certainly not a Priest;
. and all the attempts to identify his opposi
tion to Saul with a hierarchical interest are
founded on a coraplete raisconception of
the facts of the case. Frora the time of
the overthrow of Shiloh, he never appears
in the remotest connection with the priestly
order. When he counsels Saul, it is not as
the priest, but as the prophet. Saul's sin, in
both cases whore he carae into collision with
Samuel, was not of intruding into sacerdotal
functions, but of disobedience to the pro
phetic voice. The first was that of not wait
ing for Samuel's arrival, according to the
sign given by Samuel at his original raeet
ing at Ramah (1 Sam. x. 8, xiu. 8) ; the

second was that of not carrying out the stern
prophetic injunction for the destruction of
the Amalekites. He is the first of tho reg
ular succession of prophets (Acts iii- 24).
Moses, Miriara, .and Deborah, perhaps Ehud,
had been projihets. But it was only frora
Sarauel that the continuous succession was
unbroken. It is in his lifetirae, long after
he had been "established as a prophet" (I
Sara. iu. 20), that we hear of the compa
nies of disciples, called in the O. T. " the
sons of the prophets," by modern writers
" the schools of the prophets." In those
schools, and learning to cultivate the pro
phetic gifts, were sorae, whom we know for
certain, others whom we niiiy almost cer
tainly conjecture, to have been so trained
or influenced. One was S.aul. Twice at
least he is described as having been in the
corapany of Sarauel's disciples (1 Sam. x.
10, 11, xix. 24). (2) The flrst acquaint
ance of Samuel with 'David was when he
privately anointed him at the house of
Jesse. But the connection thus begun with
the shepherd boy raust have been continued
afterwards. David, at first, fied to " Naioth
in Raraah," as to his second home (1 Sara.
xix. 19). It is needless to enlarge on the
iraportance with which these incidents in
vest the appearance of Sarauel. He there
becoraes the spiritual father of the Psalraist
king. He is also the Founder of the first
regular institutions of religious instruction,
and coraraunities for the purposes of educa
tion. The death of S.arauel is described as
taking place in the year of the close of
David's wanderings. It is said with pecu
Uar eraphasis, as if to raark the loss, that
" all the Israelites were gathered together"
frora all parts of this hitherto divided coun
try, and " lamented hira," and " buried
hira," not in any consecrated place, nor
outside the walls of his city, but within his
own house, thus in a manner consecrated
by being turned into his torab (1 Sara. xxv.
1). The place long pointed out as his tomb
is the height, raost conspicuous of all in the
neighborhood of Jerusalem, immediately
above the town of Gibeon, known to the
Crusaders as " Montjoye," as the spot from
whence they first saw Jerusalera, now called
Neby Samwil, "tlie Prophet Sarauel." He-
raan, his grandson, was one of the chief
singers in the Levitical choir (1 Chr. vi. 33,
XV. 17, xxv. 5). The apparition of Samuel
at Endor (1 Sara, xxviii. 14) belongs to the
history of Saul.
Samuel, Books of, are not sepa
rated frora each other in the Hebrew MSS.,
and, from a^critical point of view, must be
regarded as one book. The present division
was flrst made in the Septuagint translation,
and was adopted in the Vulgate from the
Septuagint. The book was called by the
Hebrews " Samuel," probably because the
birth and Ufe of Samuol were the subjects

SAMUEL, BOOKS OP

60S

SAMUEL, BOOKS OF

treated of in the beginning of the work, —
The books of Samuel commence with the
history of Eli and Samuel, and contain an
account of the establishment of the Hebrew
monarchy and of the reigns of Saul aud
David, with the exception of the last days
of the latter monarch, which are related in
the beginning of the books of Kings, of
which those of Samuel form the previous
portion, [Kings, Books op,] Authorship
and Date of the Book. — 1, As to the au
thorship. In comraon with all the historical
books of the Old Testament, except the
beginning of Nehemiah, the Book of Sam
uel contains no raention in the text of the
name of its author. It is indisputable that
the title " Samuel " does not imply that the
prophet was the .author of the Book of
Samuel as a whole ; for the death of Sarauel
is recorded in the beginning of the 25th
chapter. Again, in reference to the Book
of Samuel, the absence of the historian's
niirae from both the text and the title is not
supplied by any statement of any other
writer, made within a reasonable period
from the time when the book may be sup
posed to have been written. No mention
of the author's name is raade in the Book
of Kings, nor, as will be hereafter shown,
in the Chronicles, nor in any other of the
sacred writings. In like raanner, it is not
mentioned either in the Apocrypha or in
Josephus. And it is not until we come to
the Babylonian Gemara, which is supposed
to have been completed in its present form
somewhere about 500 A. D., that any Jewish
statement respecting the authorship can be
pointed out, and then it is for the first time
asserted that "Sarauel wrote his book,"
i. e. as the words iraply, the book which
bears his narae. But this stateraent cannot
be proved to have been raade earlier than
1550 years after the deiith of Sarauel; and
unsupported as it is by reference to any
authority of any kind, it would be unw^orthy
of credit, even if it were not opposed to
the int-ernal evidence of the book itself.
At tho revival of learning, an opinion was
propounded by Abrabanel, a learned Jew,
t A, D, 1508, that the Book of Samuel was
written by the prophet Jeremiah, and this
opinion was adopted by Hugo Grotius. Not
withstanding the eminence, however, of
these writers, this opinion raust be rejected
as hig-bl) improbable. In our own tirae the
most prevalent idea in the Anglican Church
seems to ha\ e been that the first twenty-
four ch.apters of the Book of Samuel were
written by the prophet hiraself, and the rest
of the chapters by the prophets JSTathan and
Gad, Two circurastances have probably
contributed to the adoption of this opinion
at the present day : — 1st, the growth of
stricter ideas as to the iraportance of know
ing who was the author of any historical
work which advances clauus to be trust

worthy; and 2dly-, the mistranslation of
an ambiguous passage in the First Book of
Chronicles (xxix. 29), which ought to be
rendered, — " Now the history of David,
first and last, behold, it is written in the
history of Samuel the sser, and in the his
tory of Nathan the prophet, and in the
history of Gad the seer," — which does not
imply that the books were written by these
persons. 2. But although the authorship .
cannot be ascertained with certainty, it ap
pears' clear that, in its present form, it raust
have been coraposed subsequent to the se
cession ofthe Ten Tribes (b. c. 976). This
results frora the passage in 1 Sam. xxvii. 6,
wherein it is said of David, " Then Achish
gave hira Ziklag that day : wherefore Zik
lag pertaineth unto the kings of Judah to
this day : " for neither Saul, David, nor
Soloraon is in a single instance called king
of Judah siraply. Before the secession, the
designation of the kings was thiit they were
kings of Israel (1 Sara, xiu. 1, xv. 1, xvi.
1; 2 Sara, v, 17, viii, 15; 1 K, ii, 11, iv, 1,
vi. 1, xi. 42), On the other hand, it would
hardly have been written later than the
reformation of Josiah, since it seeras to
have been composed at a time when the
Pentateuch was not acted on as the rule of
religious observances. It is in accordance
with this early date of the Book of SamUel
that allusions in it even to the existence of
Moses are so few. After the return frora
the Captivity, and more especially after the
changes introduced by Ezra, Moses became
that great central figure in the thoughts
and language of devout Jews which he
could not fail to be when all the- laws of
the Pentateuch were observed, and they
were all referred to him as the divine
prophet who coraraunicated them directly
from Jehov.ah. This transcendent impor
tance of Moses must already have com
menced at the finding of the Book of the
Law at the reformation of Josiah. Now it
is reraarkable that the Book of Sarauel is
the historical work of the Old Testament
in which the name of Moses occurs most
rarely. To a religious Jew, when the laws
of the Pentateuch were observed, Moses
could not fail to be the predominant idea in
his mind ; but Moses would not necessarily
be of equal importance to a Hebrew histo
rian who lived before the reformation of
Josiah. 3. It tallies with an early date for
the composition of the Book of Sarauel
that it is one of the best specimens of He
brew prose in the golden age of Hebrew
literature. In prose it holds the same place
which Joel and the undisputed prophecies
of Isaiah hold in poetical or prophetical
language. At the same time this argument
from languiige raust not be pushed so far
as to imply that, standing alone, it would
be conclusive ; for sorae writings, the date
of which is about the time of the Captivity,

SANBALl^AT

609

SANHEDRIM

are in pure Hebrew. Acc</rding to the
Mosaic Law, sacrifices to Jehovah were
liot lawful anywhere but before the door
of the tabernacle of the congregation,
whether this was a pericanent temple, as
at Jerusalem, or otherwise (Deut. xir. 13,
14; Lev. xi'ii. 8, 4; but see Ex. xx. 24).
But in the Book of Samuel, the offering
of sacrifices, or the erection of altars, which
implies sacrifices, is mentioned at several
places, such as Mizpeh, Ramah, Bethel, the
threshing-place of Araunah the Jebusite,
and elsewhere, not only without any dis
approbation, apology, or explanation, but
in a way which produces the inipression
that such sacrifices were pleasing to Jeho
vah (1 Sara, vU, 9, 10, 17, ix. 13, x. 3, xiv,
35; 2 Sara, xxiv, 18-25), Now we know
.that after the ' reformation of Josiah the
worship upon high-places was abolished by
the king's orders (2 K, xxii 8, xxUi, 8, 13,
15, 19, 21), All, therefore, that can, be
asserted with any certainty is, that the
book, as a whole, can scarcely have been
composed later than the reformation of Jo
siah, and that it could not have existed in
its present form earlier than the reign of
Rehoboam. Sanbal'lat, a Moabite of Horonaim
(Neb, u, 10, 19, xiu. 28). He held ap
parently sorae civil or railitary coraraand
in Samaria, in the service of Artaxerxes
(Neh. iv. 2), and, from the moment of Ne
hemiah's arrival in Judaea, he sot hiraself
to oppose every measure for the welfare of
Jerusalera. His companions in this hostil
ity were Tobiah the Ammonite, and Geshem
tho Arabian (Neh. u. 19, iv. 7), The only
other incident in his life is his alliance with
the high-priest's family by the marriage of
his daughter with one of the grandsons of
Eliashib, which, frora the simih^r connection
forraed by Tobiah the Araraonite (Neh. xiu.
4), appears to have been part of a settled
policy concerted between Eliashib and the
Saraaritan faction. The expulsion from the
priesthood of the guilty son of Joiada by
Nehemiah must have still farther widened
the breach between hira and Sanballat, and
between the two parties in the Jewish state.
Here, however, the Scriptural narrative
ends — owing, probably, to Neheraiah's re
turn to Persia — and with it likewise our
knowledge of Sanballat.
Sandal was the article ordinarily used
by the Hebrews for protecting the feet. It
consisted siraply of a sole attached to the
foot by thongs. We have express notice of
the thong (A. V. "shoe-latchet") in sev
eral passages (Gen. xiv. 23; Is. v. 27;
M.ark i. 7). In Assyria the heel and the
side of the foot were encased, and some
times the sandal consisted of little else than
this. Sandals were worn by all classes of
society in Palestine, even by the very poor
(Am. viu. 6), and both tho sandal aud the

thong or shoe-latchet were so cheap and
coraraon, that they passed into a proverb
for the mc't insignificant thing (Gen. xiv.
23; Ecclus. xlvi. 19). They were not,
however, worn at all periods ; they were
dispensed with in-doors, and were only put
on by persons about to undertake sorae
business awiiy frora their homes ; such as
a railitary expedition (Is. v. 27; Eph. vi.
15), or a journey (Ex, xii, 11 ; josh, ix, 5,
13 ; Acts xii, 8) : on such occasions per
sons carried an extra pair. During meal
times the feet were undoubtedly uncovered,
as implied in Luke vii. 38 ; John xiii. 5, 6.
It was a mark of reverence to cast off the
shoes iu approaching a place or person of
erainent sanctity (Ex. in. 5 ; Josh. v. 15).
It was also an indication of violent emo
tion, or of raourning, if a person appeared
barefoot in public (2 Sam, xv, 30; Is. xx.

Assyrian Sandals. (From Layard, ii. 2S4.)
2 ; Ez. xxiv. 17, 23). To carry or to un
loose a person's sandal was a menial office
betokening great inferiority on the part of
the person perforraing it (Miitt, iii. 11;
Mark i. 7; John i. 27; Acts xiu. 25).
'The expression in Ps. lx. 8, cviii. 9, " over
Edom I cast out mysh')e," evidently sig
nifies the subjection of that country, but
the exact point of the comparison is ob
scure. The use of the shoe in the transfer
of property is noticed in Ruth iv, 7, 8,
San'hedrim (accurately S-anhedrin,
from the Greek avviSQiov, " a council-
chamber"), called also in the Talraud ifts
great Sanhedrim, the supreme council of
the Jewish people in the tirae of Christ .and
earlier. 1. The origin of this asserably is
traced in the Mishna to the seventy elders
whom Moses was directed (Num. xi, 16,
17) to associate with him in the govern
ment of the Israelites ; but this tribunal
was probably temporary, and did not con
tinue to exist after the Israelites had en
tered Palestine. In the lack of definite
historical information as to the establish
ment of the Sanhedrira, it can only be said
in general that the Greek etyraology of the
narae seeras to point to a period subsequent
to the Macedonian supremacy in Palestine.
From the few incidental notices in the New
Testament, wo gather that it con.sisted of

SANS ANN AH
chief priests, or the heads of the 24 classes
into which the priests were divided, elders,
raen of age and experience, and scribes,
lawyers, or those learned in the Jewish Law
(Matt, xxvi- 57, 59 ; Mark xv. 1 ; Luke
xxU. 66 ; Acts v. 21). 2. The number of
members is usually given as 71. The pres
ident of this body was styled Nasi, and was
chosen on account of his erainence in worth
and wisdom. Often, if not generally, this
pre-eminence was accorded to the high-
priest. The vice-president, called in the
.'Tiilmud "father of the house of judg
ment," Silt at the right hand of the presi
dent. Some writers speak of a second
vice-president, but this is not sufficiently
confirraed. "WhUe in session the Sanhe
drim sat in the form of a half-circle. 3.
The place in which the sessions of the San
hedrim were ordinarily held was, according
to tho Talraud, a hall called Gazzith, sup
posed by Liglitfoot to have been situated in
the south-east corner of one of the courts
near the temple building. In special ex
igencies, however, "it seems to have raet
in the residence of the high-priest (Matt.
x.xvi. 3). Forty years before tlie destruc
tion of Jerusalera, and consequently while
the Saviour was teaching in Palestine, the
sessions ot the Sanhedrim were removed
from the hall Gazzith to a soraewhat greater
distance from tlie temple building, although
Btill on Mt. Moriah. After several other
changes, its seat vt as finallj' established at
T'iberias. — As a judicial body the Sanhe
drira constituted a suprerae court, to which
belonged in the first instance the trial of a
tribe fallen into idolatry, false prophets,
and the high-priest ; also the other priests.
As an administrative council it determined
other important matters. Jesus was ar
raigned before this body as a false prophet
(John xi. 47), and Peter, John, Stephen,
and Paul as teachers of error and deceivers
of the people. From Acts ix. 2 it appears
that the Sanhedrim exercised a degree of
authority beyond the limits of Palestine.
According to the Jerusalem Gemara the
power of inflicting capital punishment was
taken away from this tribunal forty years
before the destruction of Jerusalem. With
this agrees the answer of the Jews to Pilate
(John xix. 31). The Talraud also raentions
a lesser Sanhedrim of twenty-three mem
bers in every city in Palestine in which
were not less than 120 householders.
Sansan'nah, one of the towns in the
south district of Judah, named in Josh. xv.
31 only. We have nothing to guide us to
the position of Sansannah. It does not
appear to be mentioned by any explorer,
ancient or modern.
Saph, one of the sons of the giant
sliiin by Sibbechai the Hushathite (2
Sam. xxi. 18). In 11 Chr. xx. 4 he is called
SirpAi.

610 SARAPH
SaDh'ir, one of the villages addreiJed
by the Prophet Micah (i. 11), is described
by Eusebius and Jerome " in the mountain
district between Eleutheropohs and Asca
lon," perhaps , represented by the village
es-Sawdfir seven or eight ' mUes to the
N. E. of Ascalon-
Sapphi'ra- [Ananias.]
Sapphire (Heb. sappir), a precious
stone, apparently of a bright blue color (see
Ex. xxiv. 10) ; the second stone in the
second row of the high priest's breastplate
(Ex. xxviii. 18) ; extremely precious (Job
xxviii. 16) ; it was one of the precious
stones that ornamented the king of T3T:e
(Ez. xxviU. 13). The sapphire of the an
cients was not our gem of that name, viz.
the azure or indigo blue, crystalline variety
of Corundum, but onr Lapis lazuli {Ultra
marine) .
Sa'ra. [Sarah.]
Sa'rah. 1. 'The wife of Abraham, and
mother of Isaac. Of her birth and parent
age we have no certain account in Scrip
ture. Her narae is first introduced in Gen.
xi. 29, as follows : " Abrara and Nahor took
them wives : the name of Abram's wife was
Sarai'; and tbe name of Nahor's wife wiis
Milcah, the daughter of Haran, the father
of Milcah and the father of Iscah.'' In
Gen. XX. 12, Abraham speaks of her as " his
sister, the daughter of the same father,
but not the daughter of the same mother."
The comraon Jewish tradition is, that Sarai
is the same as Iscah, the daughter of Haran,
and the sister of Lot. The change of her
name frora " Sarai " to " Sarah " was miide
at the sara* time that Abram's name was
changed to Abraham, on the establishment
of the covenant of circumcision between
him and God. That the name "Sarah"
signifies " princess " is universally ac
knowledged; but the meaning of "Sarai"
is still a subject of controversy. The
older interpreters suppose it to mean " my
princess." Her history is of course that
of Abrahara. [Abraham.] She died at
Hebron at the age of 127 years, 28 years
before her husband, and was buried by hini
in the cave of Machpelah. She is referred
to iu the N. T. as a type of conjugal obe
dience in 1 Pet. iii. 6, and as one of the
types of faith in Heb. xi. 11. 2. Sarau,
the d.aughter of Asher (Num. xxvi-. 46).
Sa'rai, the original name of Sarah, tho
wife of Abraham. The meaning of the
name may possibly be, as Ewald has sug
gested, " contentious."
Sar'amel, the name of the place in
which the assembly of the Jews was held
at which the high-priesthood was conferred
upon Simon Maceabaeus (1 Mace. xiv. 28).
Some have treated it as a corruption of
Jerusalem ; but this is inadmissible, though
it was probably some part of the city.
Sa'raph, mentioned in 1 Chr. iv. 82,

SARDINE

611

SATAN

among the descendantj of Shelah the son
of Judah.
Sardine, Sardius (Heb. ddem), the
stone which occupied the first place in the
first row of the high-priest's breastplate
(Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10; Ez. xxviii. 13).
In Rev. iv. 3, St. John declares that he
whom he saw sitting on the heavenly throne
" was to look upon like a jasper and a
sardine stone." The sixth foundation of
the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem was a
sardius (Rev. xxi. 20). The sard, which is
the stone probably denoted by ddem, is a
superior variety of agate, and has long
been a favorite stone for the engraver's
art. Sards differ in color : there is a bright
red variety, and perhaps the Heb. ddem,
trom a root which means "to be red,"
points to this kind.
Sar'dis, a city situated about two miles
to the south of the river Hermus, just be
low the range of Traolus {Bos Dagh), on
a spur of which its acropolis was built. It
was the .ancient residence of the kings of
Lydia. Sardis was in very early tiraes,
both from the extremely fertile character
of the neighboring region, and from its
convenient position, a coraraercial mart of
iraportance. Chestnuts were first produced
in the neighborhood. The art of dyeing
wool is said by Pliny to have been invented
there ; and at any rate Sardis was the en-
trep6t of tbe dyed woollen manufactures.
Sardis too was the place where the raetal
tledrum was procured; and itwas thither
that the Spartans sent, in the 6th century
B. c, to purchase gold for the purpose of
gildi.ag the face of the Apollo at Amyclae.
In the year 214 b. c. it was taken and
racked by the army of Antiochus the
Great. After the ruin of Antiochus' for
tunes, it passed, with the rest of Asia on
that side of Taurus, under the dominion
of the kings of Pergamus, whose interests
led thera to divert the course of traffic be
tween Asia and Europe away frora Sardis.
Its productive soil raust always have con
tinued a source of wealth ; but its irapor
tance as a central raiirt appears to hiive
dirainished frora the time of the invasion of
Asia by Alexander. The raassive teraple
of Cybele still bears witness in its fragraen-
tary remains to the wealth and architec
tural skill of the people that raised it. On
the north side of the acropolis, overlooking
the valley of the Hermus, is a theatre near
400 feet in diameter, attached to a stadiura
of about 1000. This probably was erected
after the restoration of Sardis by Alex
ander There aro still considerable re
raains of the ancient city at Sirt-Kalessi.
Travellers describe the appearance of the
locality as that of complete solitude. The
only passage in which it is mentioned in
the Bible is Rev. ui. 1-0.

Sar'dites, The, descendants of Sered
the son of Zebulun (Nura. xxvi, 26).
Sardonyx is raentioned in the N. T.
once only, viz, in Rev, xxi, 20. The sar
donyx consist^ of " a white opaque layer,
superiraposed upon a red transparent stra-
tura ofthe true red sard." It is, like the sard,
merely a variety of agate, and is frequently
eraployed by engravers for a signet-ring.
Sarep'ta. [ZAREPH.tTn,]
Sar'gon, one of the greatest of the As
syrian kings, is raentioned by name only
once in Scripture (Is. xx. 1). Earlier
writers had identified him with either Shal
maneser, or Sennacherib, ,or Esarhaddon.
All these conjectures are now shown to be
wrong by the Assyrian inscriptions, which
prove Sargon to have been distinct frora
the several monarchs named, and fix his
place in the Ust between Shalmaneser and
Sennacherib. His narae is read in the in
scriptions as " Sargina." He was Sennache
rib's father, iind his immediate predeces
sor, and reigned from b. c. 721 to 702,
and seems to have been a usurper. He
was undoubtedly a great and successful
warrior. In his annals, which cover a space
of fifteen years (from B. c. 721 to 706), he
gives an account of his warlike expeditions
against Babylonia and Susiana on the
south. Media on the east, Armenia and
Cappadocia towards the north, Syria, Pales
tine, Arabia, and Egypt towards the west
and south-west. In b. ' c. 712 he took
Ashdod, by one of his generals, which is
the event which causes the mention of his
name in Scripture. It is not as a warrior
only that Sargon deserves special mention
araong the Assyrian kings. He was also the
builder of useful works, £ nd of one of the
most raagnificent of the Assyrian palaces.
Sa'rid, a chief landmark of the terri
tory of Zebulun (Josh, xix, 10, 12). AU
that can be gathered of its position is that
it lay to the west of Chisloth-Tabor.
Sa'ron, the district in which Lydda
stood (Acts ix. 35 only) ; the Sharon of
the O. T. [Sharon.]
Saro'thie. " The sons of Sarothie " are
araong the sons of the servants of Soloraon
who returned with Zorobabel (1 Esd. v. 34).
Sarse'ehim, one of the generals of
Nebuchadnezzar's army at the taking of
Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix, 3). He appears to
have held the office of chief eunuch. In
Jer. xxxix. 13, Nebushasban is called Rab
saris, " chief eunuch ; " aud perhaps Nebu
shasban and Sarsechim may be names of the
sarae person.
Sa'ruch. Serug the son of Reu (Luko
iu. 35).
Sa'tan. The word itself, the Hebrew
sdtdn, is simply an " adversary," and is so
used in 1 Sara. xxix. 4 ; 2 Sam. x'tx, 22 ; 1
K. V. 4, xi. 14, 23, 25; Nura. xxii. 22, 32;

SATAN

612

SATAN

Ps. cix, 6- This originiil sense is still found
in our Lord's appliciition of the name to
St, Peter in Matt, xvi, 23, It is used as a
proper name or title only four times in the
O. T. viz. (with the article)^n Job i, 6, 12,
ii, 1, Zech, ii. 1, and (without the article)
in 1 Chr, xxi, j. It is with the scriptural
revelation on the subject that we arc here
concerned ; and it is clear, from this simple
CDnmeration of passages, that it is to be
sought in the New, rather than in the Old
'Testament, T, The personal existence of a
Spirit of EvU is clearly revealed in Scrip
ture ; but the revelation is made gradually,
in accordance with the progressiveness of
God's method, " In the flrst entrance of evil
into the world, the temptation is referred
only to the serpent. Throughout the whole
period of the patriiirchal and Jewish dis
pensation, this vague and imperfect revela
tion of the Source of Evil alone was given.
The Book of Job stands alone on the basis
of " natural religion," apart frora the grad
ual evolutions of the Mosaic revelation. In
it, for the first tirae, we flnd a distinct raen
tion of " Satan," the " adversary " of Job.
But it is important to remark the emphatic
stress laid on his subordinate position, on
the absence of all but delegated power, of
all terror, and all grandeur iu his character.
It is especially reraarkable that.no power
of spiritual influence, but only a poAver over
outward circurastances, is attributed to hira.
The Captivity brought the Israelites face to
face with the great dualism of the Persian
mythology, the conflict of Ormuzd with
Ahriman, the co-ordin.ate Spirit of Evil. In
the books written after the Captivity we
have again the name of " Satan" twice
raentioned (1 Chr. xxi. 1; Zech. iii. 1, 2);
but it is confessed by all that the Satiin of
Scripture bears no resemblance to the Per
sian Ahriraan. His subordiniition and in
feriority are as strongly marked as ever.
In the interval between the Old and New
Test, the Jewish raind had pondered on the
scanty revelations already given of evil
spiritual influence. But the Apocryphal
Books (as, for example, Tobit and Judith),
while dwelling on " demons," have no
notice of Satan. 'The same raay bo ob
served of Josephus. But, while a raass of
fable and superstition grew up on the gen
eral subject of evil spiritual influence, stUl
tliB existence and nature of Satan reraained
in the background, felt, but not understood.
The N. T. flrst brings it plainly forward.
Flora the beginning of the Gospel, when he
appears as the personal tempter of our
Lord, through aU the Gospels, Epistles,
and Apocalypse, it is asserted or impUed,
agiiin and again, as a farailiar and impor
tant truth. Without dwelling on other pas
sages, the plain, solemn, and unmetaphori-
cal words of John viU. 44 must be sufficient.

II. Of the nature and original state of
Satan, little is revealed in Scripture. He
is spoken of as a "spirit" m Eph. ii. 2, as
the prince or ruler of the "demons m
Mattf xu. 24-26, and as having "angels"
subject to hira in Matt. xxv. 41 ; Rev. xu.
7 9. The whole description of his power
implies spiritual nature and spiritual in
fluence. We conclude therefore that he
was of angelic nature, a rational and
spiritual creature, superhuman in power,
wisdom, and energy; and not only so,
but an archangel, one of the " princes "
of heaven. "We cannot, of course, con
ceive that anything essentially and ori-
ginaUy evil was created by God, We can
only conjecture, therefore, that Satan is a
fallen angel, who once had a time of pro
bation, but whose condemnation is now
irrevocably flxed. But of the time, cause,
and manner of his fall. Scripture tells
us scarcely anything. It limits its dis
closures, as always, to that which we
need to know. The passage on which all
the fabric of tradition and poetry has
been raised is Rev. xii. 7, 9. Whatever
be the meaning of this passage, it is certain
that it cannot refer to the original fall of
Satan. The only other passage which re
fers to the fall of the angels is 2 Pet, ii, 4,
with the parallel passage in Jude 6. Here,
again, the passage is mysterious ; but it
seems hardly possible to consider Satan as
one of these ; for they are in chains and
guarded till the Great Day ; he is permitted
still to go about as the Tempter and the
Adversary, until his appointed time he
come. Setting these passages aside, we
have StUl to consider the declaration of our
Lord in Luke x, 18, " I beheld Satan, as
lightning, fall from heaven," This m.ay
refer to the fact of his original fall ; but,
in any case, it tells nothing of its cause or
raethod. There is also the passage already
referred to (John viii. 44) ; but here it
seems likely the words refer to the begin
ning of his action upon raan. Perhaps the
only one, wjiich has any value, is 1 Tim.
iii, 6, " lest, being lifted up by pride, he fiiU
into the condemnation of tli^' devil," Itis
concluded from this that pride was the
cause of the devil's condemnation. But,
while these points are passed by idmost in
silence. Scripture describes to us distinctly
the raoral nature of the Evil One. The
ideal of goodness is made up of the three
great raor.al attributes of God — ^ Love,
Truth, and Purity or Holiness ; combined
with tliat spirit which is the natural temper
of a finite and dependent creature, the
spirit of Faith, We find, accordingly,
that the opposites of these qualities are
dwelt upon as the characteristics of the
devil. III. 'Tlie power of Satan over the
soul is represented as exercised oithei

SATAN

613

SAUL

directly or by his instruments. His direct
influence over tho soul is simply that of a
powerful and evil nature on those in whom
lurks the germ of the sam.e evil. Besides
this direct influence, we learn from Scrip
ture that Satiin is the leader of a host of
evil spirits or angels who share his evil
work, and for whom the " everlasting flj'C
is prepared" (Matt. xxv. 41). Of their
origin and fall we know no more than of
his, for they Ciinnot be the sarae as the
fallen and imprisoned angels of 2 Pet. ii. 4,
and Jude 6 ; but one passage (Matt. xii.
2-1-26) identific-s tham distinctly with the
" demons " (A. V. " devils ") who had
power to possess the souls of men. They
are mostly spoken of in Scripture in ref
erence to possession; but in Eph. vi. 12,
they are described in various lights, as
" principiilities," " powers," "rulers ofthe
darkness of this world," and "spiritual
powers of wickedness in heavenly places "
(or "things"); and in all as "wrestling"
against the soul of man. In Rev. xii. 7-9,
they are spoken of as flghting with " the
dragon, the old serpent, called the devil and
Satan," against " Michael and his angels,"
and as cast out of heaven with their chief.
Taking all these passages together, we flnd
thera sharing the enmity to God and raan
implied in the name and nature of Satan ;
but their power and action are but little
dwelt upon in comparison with his. But
the Evil One is not only the " prince of the
deraons," hut also he is called the " prince
of this world," in John xii, 31, xiv. 30,
xvi, 11, and even the "god of this world"
in 2 Cor, iv. 4 ; the two expressions being
united in Eph, vi. 12. This power he
clairaed for hiraself, as a delegated author
ity, in the temptation of our Lord (Luke
iv. C) ; and the temptation would have
been unreal had he spoken altogether
falsely. The indirect action of Satan is
best discerned by .an examination of the
title b}' which he is designated in Scripture.
He is called eraphatically o iiu/SoJo;, "the
devil." The derivation of the word in it
self implies^nly the endeavor to break the
bonds between others, and "set thera at
variance ; " but coramon usage adds to this
general sense the special idea of " setting
at variance by slander." In the applica
tion of the title to Satan, both the general
and special senses should be kept in view.
His general object is to break the bonds of
coraraunion between God and raan, and the
bonds of truth and love which bind raen to
each other. The slander of God to man is
seen best in the words of Gen. iii, 4, 5.
They attribute selfishness and jealousy to
the Giver of all good. The slander of man
to God is illustrated by the Book of Job
(Job i. 9-11, U. 4, 5). In reference to it,
Satan is called the "adversary" of man
in 1 Pet V. 8, anc] -opresented in that char

acter in Zech. iii. 1, 2; and more plainly
still designated in Rev. xu. iO, as " the iic-
cuser of our brethren, who accuse them
before our God day and night." It is diffi-
curt for us to' understand what can be the
need of accusation, or the power of slander,
under the all-se.arching eye of God. But
these points, iraportant as they are, are of
less raoraent than the disclosure of the
method of Satanic action upon tho heart
itself. It may be summed up in two words
— Temptation and Possession. The sub
ject of temptation is illustrated, not only by
abstract statements, but also by tbe record
of the temptations of Adara and of our Lord.
It is expressly laid down (as in James i. 2-
4) that " teraptation," properly so called,
i. e. "trial," is essential to man, and is .ac
cordingly ordained for him and sent to him
by God (as in Gen. xxii. 1). It is this tenta-
bility of man, even in his original Uiiture,
which is represented in Scripture as giving
scope to the evil action of Satan, He is
called the "tempter" (as in Matt, iv, 3;
1 Thess, iii, 5), He has power, flrst, to
present to the ajipetites or passions their
objects in vivid and captivating forms ; and
next, to act upon the false desire of tlie
will for independence. It is a power which
can be resisted, because it is under the con
trol and overruling power of God (1 Cor, x.
13 ; Jaraes iv, 7, &o,j. It is exercised both
negatively and positively. Its negative exer
cise is referred to in the parable of the sower.
Its positive exercise is set forth in the par
able of the wheat and the- tares. This ex
ercise of. the tempter's power is possible,
even against a sinless nature. We see this
in the temptation of our Lord, But in the
teraptation of a fallen nature Satan has a
greater power. Every sin coraraitted makes
a man the " servant of sin " for the future
(John viii. 34 ; Rom, vi. 16) : it therefore
creates in the spirit of man a positive ten
dency to evil, which sympathizes with, and
aids, the temptation of the Evil One. On
the subject of Possession, see Demoniacs,
Satyrs are mentioned in Is, xiii, 21, and
xxxiv. 14, where the prophet predicts the
desolation of J3abylon. 'The Hebrew word
signifles "hairy" or " rough," and is fre
quently applied to " he-goats." In the
passages cited it probably refers to deraons
of woods and desert places, half raen and half
goats (corap. Lev. xvii. 7; 2 Chr. xi. 15),
Saul, raore accurately Shaul. — 1. Saul
of Rehoboth by the River was one of the
early kings of Edora, and successor of
Saraiah (Gen. xxxvi. 37, 38; 1 Chr. i. 48).
2. The first king of Israel, was the son of
Kish and of the tribe of Benjamin. His
character is in part illustrated by the fierce,
w.ayward, fitful nature of the tribe, and in
part accounted for by the struggle between
the old and new systems in which he found
himself involved. To this we must add a

SAUL

614

SAUL

taint of madness, which broke out in vio
lent frenzy at times, leaving him with long
lucid intervals. He was remarkable for his
strength and activity (2 Sam. i. 23) and
like the Homeric heroes, of gigantic stat
ure, taller by head and shoulders than tho
rest of the people, and of that kind of
beauty denoted by the Hebrew . word
" good " (1 Sam. ix, 2), and which caused
him to be compared to the gazelle, " the
gazelle of Israel." His birthplace is not
expressly raentioned; but, as Zelah was
the place of Irish's sepulchre (2 Sam. xxi.),
it was probably his native viUage, His
father, Kish, was a powerful and wealthy
chief, though tbe faraily to which he be
longed was of Uttle importance (ix. 1, 21).
A portion of his property consisted of a
drove of asses. In search of these asses,
gone astray on the -mountains, he sent his
son Saul, accorapiinied by, a. servant, who
acted also as a guide and guardian of the
young man (ix. 3-10). It was while pros
ecuting this adventure that Saul raet with
Sarauel for the first tirae. A Divine inti
mation had indicated to him the approach
and the future destiny of the youthful Ben
jamite. In anticipation of some distin
guished stranger, Samuel had bade the
cook res^ve a boiled shoulder, from which
Saul, as the chief guest, was bidden to tear
off the first morsel. They then descended
to tlie city, and a bed was prepared for
Saul on the house-top. At daybreak Sara
uel roused hira. They descended again to
the skirts of the town, and there, (the ser
vant having left thera) Sarauel poured over
Saul's head, the consecrated oil, ifad with a
kiss of salutation announced to him that
he was to be the ruler of the nation (ix. 35
-X. 1), From that moraent a new life
dawned upon him ; and on his return homo-
wards, his call was confirmed by the inci
dents which, according to Sarauel's predic
tion, awaited him (x. 9, 10). This is what
may be called the private, inner view of
his call. The outer call, which is related
independently of the other, was as follows :
— An assembly was convened by Samuel
at Mizpeh, and lots were cast to find the
tribe and the family which was to produce
the hing, Saul was named — and, by a Di
vine intimation, found hid in the circle of
baggage which surrounded the encampment
(x. 17-24), His stature at once conciliated
the public feeling, and for the first time the
shout was riiised, afterwards so often re
peated in modern times, "Long live the
king" (x, 23-34), and he returned to Gib
eah, where he usually resided. He Wiis
(having apparently returned to his private
life) on his way home, driving his herd of
oxen, when he heard one of those wild
lamentations in the city of Gibeah, such as
raark in Eastern towns the arrival of a
great calamity. It was the tidings of the

threat issued by Nahash king of Ammon
instantaneous on the people, and the mon
archy was inaugurated anew at Gilgal (xi.
1-15) It should be, however, observed
that according to 1 Sam. xii. 12, the affiiir
of Nahash preceded and occasioned the
election of Saul. He becomes king of Is
rael, But he still so far resembles the
eariier Judges, as to be virtually king only
of his own tribe, Benjamin, or of the ira
raediate neighborhood. Alraost all his ex
ploits are confined to this circle of territory
or associations. Sarauel, who had up to
this time been still named as ruler with Saul
(xi. 7, 12, 14), now withdrew, and Saul
became the acknowledged chief. In the
2d year of his reign, he began to organize
an attempt to shake off the Philistine yoke
which pressed on his country; not least on
his own tribe, where a Philistine officer had
long been stationed even in bis own field
(x, 5, xiii, 3), An army of 3000 was
formed, which he soon afterwards gathered
together round him ; and Jonathan, appar
ently with his sanction, rose against the
officer and slew him (xiii. 2-4). This
roused the whole force of the Plulistiue
nation against hira. The spirit of Israel
was corapletely broken. In this crisis,
Saul, now on the very confines of his king
dom at Gilgal, found himself in the posi
tion long before described by Sarauel;
longing to exercise his royal right of sacri
fice, yet deterred by his sense of obedience
to the Prophet. At last, on the 7th day, he
could wait no longer, but just after the
sacrifice was corapleted Samuel arrived,
and pronounced the first curse, on his im
petuous zeal (xiii. 5-14). Meanwhile the
adventurous exploit of Jonathan at Mich
mash brought on the crisis which ultimate
ly drove the Philistines back to their own
territory. It was signalized by two re
markable incidents in the life of Saul.
One was the first appearance of his mad
ness in the rash vow which alP but cost the
life of his son (1 Sam. xiv. 24, 44). The
other was the erection of his first altar,
built either to celebrate the victory, or to
expiate the s.avage foast of the famished
people (xiv. 35). The expulsion of the
Philistines (although not entirely complet
ed, xiv. 52) at once placed Saul in a position
higher than that of any previous ruler of
Israel. The warlike character of his reign
n.aturally still predominated, and he was
now able to attack the neighboring tribes
of Moab, Aramon, Edora, Zobah, and final
ly Araiilek (xiv. 47), The war with Am.a-
lek is twice related, first briefiy (xiv. 48),
and then at length (xv. 1-9). Its chief
connection with Saul's history lies in th«

SAUL

615

SAW

disolodijncc tc the prophetical coraraand
of Samuel, shown in the sparing of the
king and the retention of the spoil. This
second act of disobedience called down the
second curse, and the first distinct intiraa
tion of the transference of the kingdora to
a rival. The struggle between Samuel and
Saul in their final parting is indicated by
the rent of Samuel's robe of state, as he
tears himself away from Saul's grasp, and
by the long mourning of Samuel for the
separation — " Samuel mourned for Saul."
— The rest of Saul's life is one long trage
dy. The frenzy, which had given indica
tions of itself before, now at times took al
most entire possession of him. It is de
scribed in mixed phrases, as "an evil spirit
of God " (rauch as we raight speak of, " re
ligious madness "), which, when it came
upon him, almost choked or strangled him
from its violence. In this crisis David was
recoinraended to him by one of the young
raen of his guard. From this tirae forward
their lives are blended together. [David.]
In Saul's better moments he never lost the
strong affection which he had contracted
for David. Occasionally, too, his propheti
cal gift returned, blended with his madness
(xix. 24). But his acts of fierce, wild zeal
increased. At last the monarchy itself,
which he had raised up, broke down under
the weakness of its beac^. The Philistines
re-entered the country, and with their char
iots and ^horses occupied the plain of Es
draelon. Their camp was pitched on the
southern slope of the range now called
Little Hermon, by Shunem, On the oppo
site side, on Mount Gilboa, was the Israel
ite army, clinging, as usual, to the heights
which were their safety. It was near the
spring of Gideon's encampment, hence
called the spring of Harod or " trembling "
— and now the narae assumed an evil omen,
and the heart of the king, as he pitched his
camp there, "trembled exceedingly" (1
Sam. xxviii. 5). In the loss of all the
usual means of consulting the Divine Will,
he determined, with that waywiird mixture
of superstition and religion which marked
his whole career, to apply to one of the
necromancers who had escaped his perse
cution. She was a woraan living at Endor,
on the other side of Little Herraon. Vol
uraes have been written on the question,
whether in the scene that follows we are to
understand an imjioslure or a real appari
tion of Samuel. At this distance of time
it is impossible to determine the relative
amount of fraud or of reality, though, the
obvious meaning of the narrative itself
tends to the hypothesis of some kind of
apparition. She recognizes the disguised
king first by the appearance of Samuel,
seemingly from his threatening aspect or
tone as towards his enemy. Saul appar
ently saw nothing, but listened to her de

scription of a godlike figure of an aged
man, wrapped round with the roy.al or sa
cred robe. On hearing the denunciation
which the apparition conveyed, Saul fell
the whole length of his gigantic stature on
the ground, and reraained motionless till
the woman and his servants forced him to
eat. The next day the battle came on. The
Israelites were driven up the side of Gilboa.
The three sons of Saul were slain. Saul
hiraself, with his armor-bearer, was pursued
by the archers and the charioteers of tha
enemy. He was wounded. According to
one account, he fell upon his own sword (1
Sara. xxxi. 4). According to another ac
count, an Amalekite came up at the rao
raent of his death-wound, and found hira
" fallen," but leaning on his spear; and he
was, at his own request, put outof his pain
by the Araalekite, who took off his royal
diadcra and bracelet, and carried the news
to David (2 Sara, i, 7-10). The body on
being found by the Philistines was stripped,
and decapitated. The armor was sent into
the Philistine cities, as if in retribution for
the spoliation of Goliath, and finaUy de
posited in the temple of Astarte, apparently
in the neighboring Canaanitish city of
Bethshan ; and over the walls of the samo
city was hung the naked headless corpse,
with those of his three sons (ver. 9, 10).
Tlie head was deposited (probably at Ash
dod) in the teraple of Dagon (1 Chr. x. 10.)
The corpse was reraoved frora Bethshan
by the gratitude of the inhabitants of Ja-
besh-giiead, who carae over the Jordan by
night, carried off the bodies, burnt them,
and buried them under the tamarisk at
Jabesh (1 Sara. xxxi. 13). Thence, after
the lapse of several years, his .ashes and
those of Jonathan were reraoved by David
to their ancestral sepulchre at Zelah in Ben
jamin (2 Sam. xxi. 14). 3. The Jewish
name of St, Paul. This was the most
distinguished name in the genealogies of
the tribe of Benjamin, to which the Apostle
felt some pride in belonging (Rom. xi. 1 ;
Phil. iU. 5). Nothing certain is known
about the change of the Apostle's name
frora Saul to Paul (Acts xiii. 9). Two
chief conjectures prevail concerning the
change. (1.) That the narae was derived
from Sergius Paulus, the first of his
Gentile converts. (2.) 'That Paulus was
the Apostle's Roraan narae as a citizen of
Tarsus, which was naturally adopted into
coramon use by his biographer when his
labors among the heathen commenced.
Sa'W. Egyptian saws, so far as has
yet been discovered, were single-handed,
though St. Jerorae has been thought to al
lude to circular saws. As is the case in
raodern Oriental saws, the teeth usually in
cline towards the handle, instead of away
from it, like ours. They have, in most
cases, bronze blades, apparer.tly attached

SCAPE-GOAT

616

SCRIBES

to the handles by leathern thongs ; but
some of those in the British Museum have
their bliides let into them like our knives.
A double-handed iron s<aw has been found
at Nimrild. No evidence exists of the use
of the saw applied to stone in Egypt, nor
without the double-handed saw does it seem
likely that this should be the case; but we
read of sawn stones used in the Temple (1
K. vii. 9). The sa-n's "under" or "in"
which David is said to have placed his cap
tives were of iron. The expression in 2
Sam. xii. 31, does not necessarily imply
torture, but the word " cut " in 1 Chr. xx.
3, can hardly be understood otherwise.
Seape-goat. [Atonement, Day or.]
Scarlet. [Colors.]
Sceptre, originally meant a rod or staff.
It w.as thence specifically applied to the
shepherd's crook (Lev. xxvii. 32 ; Mic. vii.
14), and to the wand or sceptre of a ruler.
The use of the staff' as a symbol of author
ity was not confined to kings ; it might be
used by any leader, as instanced in Judg.
V. 14, where for "pen of the writer," as in
the A, v., we should read " sceptre of the
leader." The allusions to it are all of a
metaphorical character, and describe it
simply as one of the insignia of supreme
power (Gen. xlix. 10; Num. xxiv, 17; Ps,
xiv, 6; Is. xiv. 5; Ara. i. 5; Zech. x, 11;
Wisd. X. 14; Bar. vi. 14). We are con
sequently unable to describe the article
from any Biblical notices ; we raay infer
that it was probably made of wood. The
sceptre of the Persian raonarch is described
as " golden," i. e. probably of massive gold
(Esth. iv. 11).
Sce'va, a Jew residing at Ephesus at
the time of St. Paul's second visit to that
town (Acts xix. 14-16). He is described
as a "high-priest," either as having exer
cised the office at Jerusalera, or as being
chief of one of the twenty-four classes.
Science. In the A. V. this word oc
curs only in D.an. i. 4, and 1 Tira, vi, 20,
Its use in Dan, i. 4 is probably to be ex
plained by the number of synonymous
words in tbe verse, forcing the translators
to look out for diversified equivalents in
English, Why it should have been chosen
for 1 Tira. vi. 20 is not so obvious. Its
effect is injurious, as leading the reader to
suppose thiit St, Paul is spsiiking of sorae
thing slse than the "knowledge " of which
both the Judaizing and the mystic sects
of the Apostolic age continually, boasted,
against which he so urgently warns men (1
Cor, viii, 1,7), the counterfeit of the true
knowledge which he prizes so highly (1
Cor, xii, 8, xiu, 2; PhU, i, 9; Col, iU, 10),
A natural perversion of the meaning of tlft
text has followed from this translation.
Scorpion (Heb. 'akrdb), twice men
tioned in the O. T, (Deut. viU. 15 ; Ez. U
o), and four times in the N. T. (Luke x

19, xi. 12; Rev- ix. 3, 10). The wilder
ness of Sinai is especially alluded to a»
being inhabited by scorpions at the time of
the Exodus, and^to this day these. animals
are common in the same district, as well
as in some parts of Palestine. Scorpions
are generaUy found in dry and in dark
places, under stones and in ruins, chiefiy
in warm climates. Theyare carnivorous
in their habits, and move along in a threat-'
ening attitude, with the tail elevated. The
sting, which is situated at the extremity of
the tail, has at its base a gland that secretes
a poisonous fiuid, which is discharged into
the wound by two minute orifices at its
extremity. In hot climates the sting often
occasions rauch suffering, and sometimes
alarming symptoms. 'The "scorpions"
of 1 K. xii, 11, 14, 2 Chr. x. 11, 14, have
clearly no allusion whatever to the animal,
but to some instrument of scourging — ¦
unless indeed the expression is a mere
figure.

Scorpion.
Scourging, The punishment of scour
ging was prescribed by the Law in the case
of a betrothed bondwoman guilty of un
chastity, and perhaps in the case of both
the guilty persons (Lev, xix. 20). The in
strument of punishraent in ancient Egypt,
as it is also in modern times generally in
the East, was usually the stick, applied to
the soles of the feet — bastinado. Under
the Roman method the culprit was stripped,
stretched with cords or thongs on a frame,
and beaten with rods.
Screech-owl. [Owl.]
Scribes (Heb. sd^j/ieHm). I. Name.-
(1,) Three meanings are connected with
the verb sdphar, the root of Sdpherim —
(1) to write, (2) to set in order, (8) to
count. The explanation of the word has
been referred to each of these. The Sd
pherim were so called because thoy wrote
out the Law, or because they classified
and arranged its precepts, or because they
counted with scrupulous minuteness every
clause and letter c contained. The au

SCRIBES

617

SCRIBES

thoiHy of most Hebrew scholars is with
the first. (2.) 'The name of Kirjath-
Sepher (Josh. XV, 15; Judg, i. 12) may
possibly connect itself with some early use
of the title. In the song of Deborah (Judg.
V . 14) the word appears to point to military
functions of sorae kind. The " pen of the
writer" of t^ie A. V. is probably the rod or
sceptre of the coraraander numbering or
marshalling his troops. Three men are
mentioned as successivelj' fiUing the office
of Scribe under David and Solomon (2
Sam. vUi, 17, xx, 25; 1 K, iv, 3). We
may think of them as the king's secreta
ries, writing his letters, drawing up his de
crees, managing his finances (corap, 2 K,
xii. 10), At a hiter period the word again
connects itself with the act of nurabering
the military forces of the country (Jer, lii,
25, and probably Is, xxxiU, 18), Other as
sociations, however, began to gather round
it about the same period. The zeal of
Hezekiah led him to foster the growth of a
body of men whose work it was to tran
scribe old records, or to put in writing what
had been handed down orally (Prov, xxv,
1). To this period, accordingly, belongs
the new significance of the title. It no
longer designates only an officer of the
king's court, but a class, students and in
terpreters of the Law, boasting of their
wisdora (Jer. viii. 8). The seventy years
of the'Ciiptivity gave a fresh glory to the
narae. Tbe exiles would be anxious above
all things to preserve the sacred books, the
laws, the hymns, the prophecies of the
past. The Scribes' office becarae more
and raore prorainent. 'They appear as a
distinct cl.ass, " the fiimilies ofthe Scribes,"
with a local habitation (1 Chr. ii. 55). They
compile, as in the two Books of Chronicles,
excerpta and epitomes of larger histories (1
Chr. xxix. 29; 2 Chr. ix. 29). II. Devel-
opment of Doctrine. — Of the Scribes of
this period, with the exception of Ezra and
Zadok (NeL, xui. 13), we have no record.
A liifer age honored thera collectively as
the raen of the Gi'eat Synagogue. Never,
perhaps, was so iraportant a work done so
silently. Tuey devoted theraselves to the
careful study of the text, and laid down
rules for transcribing it with the most
scrupulous preci,-jion. A saying is as
cribed to Simon the Just (b. c. 800-290),
the last ofthe succession ofthe men of the
Great Synagogue, wliich embodies the prin
ciple on which they acted, and enables us
to trace the growth of their system. " Our
fathers have taught us," he said, " three
things : to be cautio is in judging, to train
many scholars, and 1 3 set a fence about the
Law." They wished to raake the Law of
Moses the rule of life fbr the whole nation
and for individual raen. But it lies in the
nature of every such law, of every informal,
half-systematic code, that it raises ques

tions which it does not solve. The result
showed that, in this as in other instances,
the idolatry of the letter was destructive of
the very reverence in which it had origi
nated. Step by step the Scribes were led
to conclusions at which we raay believe tlu?
earlier representatives of the order would
have started back with horror. Decisions
on fresh questions were accumulated into a
complex system of casuistry. The new pre
cepts, still transmitted orally, came practi
cally to take their place. The right rela
tion of moral and ceremonial laws was not ,
only forgotten, but absolutely inverted.
Here it will be enough to notice what way
the teaching of the Scribes in our Lord's
tirae was raaking to that result. Their first
work was to report the decisions of previouo
Rabbis, These were the Ilalachoth (the
current precepts ofthe schools) — precepts
binding on the conscience, A new code, a
second Corpus Juris, the Mishna, grew out
of them. The anecdotes of the schools or
courts of law, the obiter dida of Rabbis,
the wildest fables of Jewish superstition
(Tit, i, 14), were brought in, and the Ge
mara (completeness) filled up the measure
of the Institutes of Rabbinic Law. The
Mishna and the Gemara together were
known as the Talmud (instruction). Side
by side with this was a development in an
other direction. The sacred books were not
studied as a code of laws only. To search
into their meaning had frora the first be
longed to the ideal office of the Scribe, But
here also the book suggested thoughts which
could not logically be deduced frora it. The
fruit of the effort to find what was not there
appears in the Midrashim (searchings, in
vestigations) on the several, books of the
O, T. The process by which the meaning,
moral or mystical, was elicited, was known
as Hagada (saying, opinion). There was
obviously no assignable limit to such a pro
cess. But there lay a stage higher even
than the Hagada. The mystical school of
interpretation culminated in the Kabbala
(reception, the received doctrine). Every
letter, every nuraber, became pregnant with
mysteries. The " 'Words of the Scribes,"
now used as a technical phrase for these
decisions, were honored above the Law.
It was a greater crirae to offend against
thera than against the Law. The first step
was taken towards annulling the command
ments of God for the sake of their own
traditions. The casuistry became at once
subtle and prurient, evading the plainest
duties, tampering with conscience (Matt.
XV. 1-6; xxiii. 16-23). We can therefore
understand why they were constantly de
nounced by our Lord along with the Phar
isees. While tho Scribes repeated the tra
ditions of the elders. He " spake as oue
having authority," " not as the Scribes "
(Matt. vu. 29). While ttey couflne>l theil

SCRIBES

618

SCRIBES

teaching to the class of scholars, He "had
compassion on the multitudes " (Matt. ix.
86). While they were to be found only in
the council or in their schools, He jour
neyed through the cities and vUlages (Matt.
iv. 23, ix. 35, &c., &c.). WhUe they spoke
of the kingdom of God vaguely, as a thing
far off. He proclaimed that it had already
come nigh to men (Matt, iv, 17), But in
most of the points at issue between the two
parties. He must have appeared in direct
antagonisra to the school of Shararaai, in
syrapathy with that of Hillel. So far, on
the other hand, as the temper of the Hillel
school was one of raore adaptation to the
feeling of the people, cleaving to tradi
tion, wanting in the intuition of a higher
life, the teaching of Christ must have
been felt as unsp.aringly condemning it.
III. History. — (1,) 'The names of the ear
lier scribes passed away, as has been said,
unrecorded. Simon the Just (circ. b. c.
800-290) appears as the last of the men of
the Great Synagogue, the beginner of a new
period, -The memorablenames of the tiraes
that followed — Antigonus of Socho, Zadok,
Boothos — connect themselves with the rise
of the first opposition to the traditional sys
tem which was growing up. The tenet of
the Sadducees, however, never commanded
the adhesion of more than a small minority.
It tended, by maintaining the sufficiency of
the letter of the Law, to destroy the very
occupation of a Scribe, and the class, as
such, belonged to the party of its oppo
nents. The words " Scribes " and " Phar
isees " were bound together by the closest
possible alliance (Matt, xxiii. passim ; Luke
V. 30), To understand their relation to
each other in our Lord's time, or their con
nection with His life and teaching, wo must
look back to what is known of the five pairs
of teachers who represented the scribiil suc
cession. (2,) The two names that stand
first in order are Joses ben-Joezer, a priest,
and Joses ben-Jochanan (circ, e, c, 140-
130). The precepts ascribed to thera indi
cate a tendency to a greater elaboration of
all rules connected with cereraoniai defile
ment. (3.) Joshuaben-PerachiahandNith-
ai of Arbela were conteraporary with John
Hyrcanus (circ, b, c- 136-108), and enjoyed
his favor till towards the close of his reign,
when caprice or interest led hira to pass
over to the camp of the Sadducees.' (4,)
The secession of Hyrcanus involved the
Pharisees, and therefore the Scribes as a
class, in difficulties, and a period of confu
sion followed. The raeetings of the San
hedrira were suspended or becarae predom
inantly Sadducean, Under his successor,
Alexander Jannai, the influence of Siraon
beu-Shetach over the queen-mother Salome
re-established for a time the ascendency
of the Scribes, The Sanhedrim once again
assembled, with none to oppose the domi

nant 1 harisaic party. The return of Al
exander from his campaign against Gaza
again turned the tables. Eight hundred
Pharisees took refuge in a fortress, were
besieged, taken, and put to death. Joshua
ben-Perachiah, the venerable head of the
order, was driven into exile. The Sad
ducees failed, however, to win the confi
dence of the people. On the death of
Jannai the influence of his widow Alexan
dra was altogether on the side of the
Scribes, and Simon ben-Shetaeh and Judah
ben-Tahbai entered on their work as joint
teachers. Under them tho juristic side of
the Scribes' functions became prominent.
Their rules turn chiefly on the laws of evi
dence. (6.) The two that followed, Shem
aiah and Abtalion, were conspicuous foi
another reason. Now, for the first time,
the teachers who sat iu Moses' seat were
not even of the children of Abrahara. Pros
elytes themselves, or the sons of prose
lytes, their pre-eminence in the knowledge
of the Law raised them to this office. The
lot of these two also was cast upon evU
days. On the death of Sheraaiah and Ab
talion there were no qualified successors
to take their place. Two sons of Bcthera,
otherwise unknown, for a tirae occupied it,
but they were themselves conscious of their
incompetence. (6.) The name of IlUlel
(born circ. b. c. 112) has hardly received
the notice due to it from students of the
Gospel history. The noblest and most
genial representative of his order, we may
see iu hira the best fruit which the system
of the Scribes w.as capable of producing.
He, however, was terapted by the growing
power of Herod, and, with a large nuraber
of his followers, abandoned at once their
calling as Scribes and their habits of de
votion. The place thus vacant was soon
filled by Shararaai. The two were held hi
nearly equal honor. They did not teach,
however, as their predecessors had done,
in entire harmony with each other. Within
the party of the Pharisees, within the order
of the Scribes, there came for the first time
to be two schools with distinctly opposed
tendencies, one vehemently, rigidly ortho
dox, the other orthodox also, but with an
orthodoxy wluch, in the language of mod
ern politics, might be classed as Liberal
Conservative. (7.) The teaching of Hillel
showed some capacity for wider thoughU.
His personal chai.icter was more lovable
and attractive. The genial chiiracter of
tho man comes out in sorae of his sayings,
which remind us of the tone of Jesus the
son of Sirach, and present some faint ap
proximations to a higher teaching. (8.)
The contrast showed itself in the conduct
of the followers not less than in the teach
ers. The disciples of Shammai were con
spicuous for their fierceness, appealed to
popular passions, and used the sword to

SCRIBES

619

SCRIPTURE

decide their controversies. Out of that
school grew the party of the^ Zealots,
fierce, fanatical, vindictive, the Orange-
raen of Pharisaisra. Those of Hillel were
like tlieir master (comp, e. g. the advice of
Gamaliel, Acts v. 84-42), cautious, gentle,
tolerant, unwilling to make enemies, con
tent to let things take their course. One
sought to impose upon the proselyte frora
heathenisra the full burden of the Law, the
other, that he should be treated with some
syrapathy and indulgence, (9,) Outwardly
the teaching of our Lord raust have ap
peared to men different in raany ways frora
-both. But in raost of the points at issue
between the two parties. He raust have ap
peared, in direct antagonisra to the school
of Shammai', in syrapathy with that of
Hillel. , So far, on the other hand, as the
temper of the Hillel school was one of
mere adaptation to the feeling of the peo
ple, cleaving to tradition, wanting in the
intuition of a higher life, the teaching of
Christ must have been felt as unsparingly
condemning it. (10.) It adds to the inter
est of this inquiry to remember that Hillel
himself lived, according to the tradition of
the Rabbis, to the great age of 120, and
may therefore have been present among
the doctors of Luke ii. 46, and that Ga
maliel, his grandson and successor, was at
the head of this school during the whole of
the ministry of Christ, as well as in the
early portion of the history of the Acts.
We are thus able to explain the fact which
so many passages in the Gospels lead us to
infer — the existence all along of a party
araong the Scribes themselves, more or
less disposed to recognize Jesus of Naz
areth as a teacher. IV. Education and
Life. — The special training for a S'cribe's
office began, probably, about the age of
thirteen. The boy who was destined by
his parents to the calling of a Scribe, went
to Jerusalem, and applied for admission in
the school of sorae faraous Rabbi. If he
were poor, it was the duty of the synagogue
of his town or village to provide for the
payment of his fees, and in part also for his
maintenance. The raaster and his scholars
met, the former .sitting on a high chair, the
elder pupils on a lower bench, the younger
on the ground, both literally " at his feet."
The class-room might be the chamber of
the Temple set apart for this purpose, or
the private school of the Rabbi. The edu
cation was chiefly catechetical, the pupil
submitting cases and asking questions, the
teacher examining the pupil (Luke ii.).
Parables entered largely into the method
of instruction. After a sufficient period
of training, probably at the age of thirty,
the probationer was solemnly admitted to
his office. After his admission there was a
choice of a variety of functions, the chances
of faUure and success. He might give him

self to any one of the branches of study, or
combine two or more of them. He might
rise to high places, becorae a doctor of
the law, an arbitrator in famUy litigations
(Luke xii. 14), the head of a school, a
member of the Sanhedrim. He raight
have to content hiraself with the humbler
work of a transcriber, copying the Law ."ud
the Prophets for the use of synagogues, or
a notary, writing out contracts of sale, cov
enants of espousals, bills of repudiation.
The position of the raore fortunate was of
course .attractive enough. In our Lord's
time the passion for distinction was insati
able. The ascending scale of Rab, Rabbi,
Rabban, presented so many steps on the
ladder of ambition. Other forms of world-
liness were not far off. The salutations in
the market-place (Matt, xxiii, 7), the rev
erential kiss offered by the scholars to their
raaster, or by Rabbis to each other, the
greeting of Abba, father (Matt, xxiii, 9),
the long robes with the broad blue fringe
(Matt, xxiii, 5), — all these go to make up
the picture of a Scribe's life. Drawing to
theraselves, as they did, nearly all the ener
gy and thought of Judaism, the close hered
itary caste of the priesthood was powerless
to compete with thera. Unless the priest
becarae a Scribe also, he reraained in ob
scurity. The order, as such, became con
temptible and base. For the Scribes there
were the best places at feasts, the chief seats
in synagogues (Matt, xxiii, 6 ; Luke xiv, 7).
Scrip. The Hebrew word thus trans
lated appears in 1 Sam. xvii. 40, as i>
synonyme for the bag in which the shep
herds of Palestine carried their food or
other necessaries. The scrip of the GaU-
lean peasants was of leather, used especial
ly to carry their food on a journey, and
slung over their shoulders (Matt. x. 10;
Mark vi. 8; Luke ix. 3, xxu. 85). The
English word " scrip " is probably con
nected with scrape, scrap, and was used iu
like manner for articles of food.
Scripture. It is not tUl the return
frora the Captivity that this word raeets us
with any distinctive force. In the earlier
books we read of the Law, the Book of the
Law. In Ex. xxxii. 16, the Commandments
written on the tables of testiraony are said
to be " the writing of God," but there is no
special sense iu the word taken by itself.
In the passage from Dan, x, 21, where the
A. V. has "the Scripture of Truth," the
words do not probably raean more than " a
true writing." The thought of the Scripture.
as a whole is hardly to bo found in them.
This flrst appears in 2 Chr. x.xx. 5, 18 (" as
it was written," A. V.). The Greek word,
as wiU be seen, kept its ground iu this
sense. A slight change passed over that
of the Hebrew, and led to the substitution
of another. Another wo.' d was found in the
Mikra ^'^'i^^i Neh. viu, 8), or " reading,"

SCYTHIAN

620

SEA, THE SALT

the thing read or recited, recitation. This
accordingly we find as the equivalent for
the collective yQacpui. With this meaning
the word y^aipij passed into the language of
tbe N. T. Used in the singular it is ap
pUed chiefly to this or that passage quoted
frora the O. T. (Mark xii, 10 ; John vii, 38,
xiU, 18, xix. 37 ; Luke iv, 21 ; Rom, ix, 17 ;
Gal iii. 8, &c.). In two passages of sorae
difficulty, some have seen the wider, sorae
the narrower sense. (1.) Ilatra yQuipij
6i67tvtvarog (2 Tira. iU. 16) has been trans
lated in the A. V, " All Scriptui-e is given
by inspiriition of God," There is a pre
ponderance of authority in favor of the ren
dering, " Every yqaifi], being inspired, is
also profltable. ..." 'The meaning of the
genitive in nana Ttjorpi/TEia ygatp/g (2 Pet. i,
20) seems at first sight distinctly collective,
" Every prophecy of, i. e. contained in, the
O, T. Scripture," Iu the plural, as raight
be expected, the collective meaning is
prorainent. In 2 Pet. iii- 16, we find an
extension of the term to the Epistles of St.
Paul; but it reraains uncertain whether
" the other Scriptures " are the Scriptures
of the O, T, exclusively, or include other
writings, then extant, dealing with the sarae
topics. In one passage, Ta Uqa yijiftuara
(2 Tira, ui. 15) answers to " The Holy
Scriptures" ofthe A.V. [Bible,]
Scyth'ian occurs in Col. iii. 11 as a
generalized term for rude, ignorant, de
graded. The same view of Scythian bar
barism appears in 2 Mace. iv. 47, 'and 3
Mace. vii. 5, The Scythians dwelt raostly
on the north of the Black Sea and the Cas
pian, stretching thence indefinitely into
' inner Asia, and were regarded by the an
cients as standing extreraely low in point
of inteUigence and civilization.
Scythop'olis. [Bethshean.]
Sea, The Sea, ydm, is used in Scripture
to denote — 1, " The gathering of the
waters" {ydmim), encompassing the land,
or what we call, in a raore or less definite
sense, "the Ocean" (Gen. i, 2, 10; Deut,
xxx. 13, &c,), 2, Some portion of this, as
the Mediterranean Sea, called the " hinder,"
•the "western," find the "utraost" sea
(Deut. xi, 24, xxxiv, 2 ; Joel U. 20) ; " sea
ofthe PhUistines" (Ex. xxiu. 31); "the
great sea " (Num. xxxiv. 6, 7 ; Josh. xv.
47); "the sea " (Gen. xlix. 13; Ps. Ixxx.
11, cvU. 33; 1 K. iv. 30, &c.). Also fre
quently of tbe Red Sea (Ex. xv. 4 ; Josh.
xxiv. 6), or one of its gulfs (Num. xi. 31 ;
is. xi. 15). [Red Sea.] 3. Inland hikes
terraed seas, asthe Salter Dead -Sea. (See
the special article.) 4, Any great collec
tion of waters, as the river Nile (Is, xix.6 ;
Am, viii. 8, A.V. "flood;" Nah, iii, 8;
Ez, xxxii, 2), and Euphrates (Jer. U. 36).
It may be reraarked that alraost all the fig
ures of speech taken frora the sea in Scrip
ture refer either to its power or its danger.

Sea, Molten- In the place of the laver
of the tabernacle, Soloraon caused a laver
to be cast for a similar purpose, which from
its size was called a sea. It was made
partly or wholly of the brass, or rather
copper, which had been captured by David
from " Tibhath and Chun, cities of Hada
rezer king of Zobah " (1 K. vii, 23-26 ; 1
Chr. xviii. 8). It is said to have been ca
pable of containing 2000, or, according to 2
Chr. iv. 5, 3000 baths. Below the. briin
there was a double row of " knops." These
were probably a running border or double
fillet of tendrils, and fl-uits, said to be
gourds, of an oval shape. The brim itself,
or lip, was wrought " like the brira of a
cup, with fiowers of lilies," i. e. curved
outwards like a lily or lotus flower. The
laver stood on twelve oxen, three towards
each quarter ofthe heavens, and all looking
outwards. It was mutilated by Ahaz, by
being removed from its basis of oxen and
placed on a stone base, and wiis flually
broken up by the Assyrians (2 K. xvi. 14,
17, xxv. 13).

Hypothetical Restoration of the Laver.
Sea; The Salt. The usual, and perhaps
the raost ancient, narae for the reraarkable
lake which to the Western world is now
generally known as the Dead Sea. I. 1.
It is found only, and but rarely, in the
Pentateuch (Gen. xiv. 3 ; Nura. xxxiv, 3,
12; Deut. Ui. 17), and in the Book of
Joshua (iu. 16, xu. 3, xv. 2, 5, xviU. 19).-
2. Another, and possibly a later name, is
the Sea of the Arabah (A. V. " sea ofthe
plain"), which is found in Deut. iv. 49,
and 2 K. xiv. 25 ; and combined with the
forraer — " the sea of the Ar.abah, the salt
sea" — in Deut. Ui. 17; Josh iii. 16, xu.
3. 8. In the prophets (Joel ii, 20 ; Ezek.
xlvU. 18 ; Zech, xiv, 8) It is mentioned by
the title of the East Sp v. 4. In Ez. xlvU.
8, it is styled, without previous reference,
the sea, and distinguished from " the
great sea" — the Mediterranean (ver. 10).
5. Its connection with Sodom is first sug
gested in the Bible in the book of 2 Esdras
(v. 7) by the name " Sodoraitish sea.''
6. In the Talraudical books it is called both
the " Sea of Salt," and " Sea of Sodom." 7
Josephus, and before him Diodorus Siculusj

BE A, THE SALT

621

SEA, THE SALT

names it the Asphaltic Lake. 8, The narae
"Dead Sea" appears to have been first
used in Greek by Pausanias and Galen, and
iu Latin {mare mortuum) by Justin (xxxvi.
3, § 6), or rather by the older historian,
Trogus Porapeius (cir. b. c. 10), whose
work he epitoraized, 9, The Arabic narae is
Bahr Lut, the " Sea of Lot." II, The so-
called Dead Sea is the final receptacle of
the river Jordan, the lowest and largest of
the three lakes which interrupt the rush of
its downv/.ard course. It is the deepest
portion of that very deep natural fissure
which runs Uke a furrow from the Gulf of
Akaba to the range of Lebanon, and from
the range of Lebanon to the extreme north
of Syria, Viewed on the map, the lake is
of an oblong form, of tolerably regular con
tour, interrupted only by a large and long
peninsula which projects from the eastern
shore, near its southern end, and virtually
divides the expanse of the water into two
portions, connected by a long, narrow, and
soraewhat devious, passage, tts water sur
face is from N, to S, as nearly as possi
ble 40 geographical, or 46 English miles
long. Its greatest width is about 9 geogr.
miles, or lOJ Eng. miles. Its area is about
350 square geographical railes. At its
northern end the lake receives the streara
of the Jordan; ou its eastern side the
Ziirka Ma'in (the ancient CallirrhoS, and
possilsly the more ancient en-Eglaira), the
Mojlb (the Arnon of the Bible), and the
Beni-Hemdd; on the south the Kurdhy
or el-Ahsy ; and on the west that of Ain
Jidy. The depression of its surface, and
the depth which it attains below that sur
face, combined with the absence of any
outlet, render it one of the most remark
able spots on the globe. The surface of
the lake in May, 1848, was 1316-7 feet be
low the level of the MeiUterranean at Jaffa.
Its depth, at about one third of its length
from the north end, is 1308 feet. The
water of the lake is not less remarkable
than its other features. Its most obvious
peculiarity is its great weight. Its specific
gravity has been found to be as much as
12'28 ; that is to say, a gallon of it would
weigh over 12^ lbs., instead of 10 lbs., the
weight of distiUed water. Water so heavy
must not only be extremely buoyant, but
must possess great inertia. Its buoyancy
is a coraraon theme of remark by the trav
ellers who have been upon it or in it, Dr,
iiobinson " could never swim before, either
in fresh or salt water," yet here he " could
sit, stand, lie, or swim without difficulty"
{B. R. i. 506). The remarkable weight
of t'le water is due to the very large quan
tity of mineral salts which it holds in solu
tion. Each gallon of the water, weighing
i3i lbs,, contains nearly 3 J lbs. of matter
in solution — an imraense quantity when
we recoUect that sea-water, weighing lOj

lbs, pjr gallon, contains less than 4 . lb.
Of this 3J lbs. nearly 1 lb, is comraon salt
(chloride of sodiura), about 2 lbs, chloride
of raagnesium, and less than 4 a lb. chlo
ride of calcium (or muriate of lime). The
mo't unusual ingredient is bromide of
magnesium, which exists in truly extraor
dinary quantity. It has been long supposed
that no life whatever existed in the lake.
But recent facts show that some inferior
organizations do find a horae even in these
salt and acrid waters. The statements of
ancient travellers and geographers to the
effect that no living creature could exist on
the shores of the lake, or bird fly across
its surface, are amply disproved by later
travellers. The springs on the margin of
the lake harbor snipe, partridges, ducks,
nightingales, and other birds, as well as
frogs ; and hawks, doves, and hares are
found along the shore. The appearance of
the lake does not fulfil the idea conveyed
by its popular name. " The Dead Sea,"
says a recent traveller, " did not strike me
with that sense of desolation and dreari
ness which I suppose it ought. I thought it
a pretty, smiling lake — a nice ripple on its
surface," The truth lies, as usual, some
where between these two extremes. On
the one hand, the lake certainly is not a
glooray, deadly, smoking gulf. In this re
spect it does not at all fulfil the promise
of its name. At sunrise and sunset the
scene must be astonishingly beautiful. But
on the other hand, there is something in
the prevalent sterility and the dry, burnt
look of the shores, the overpowering heat,
the occasional sraeU of sulphur, the dreary
salt raarsh at the southern end, and the
fringe of dead driftwood round the margin,
which must go far to excuse the title which
so many ages have attached to the lake,
and which we may be sure it will never
lose. The connection between this singu
lar lake and the Biblical history is very
slight. In the topographical records of the
Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, it forms
one araong the landmarks of the boundaries
of the whole country, as well as of the in
ferior divisions of Judah and Benjamin. As
a landmark it is once naraed in what ap
pears to be a quotation from a lost work of
the prophet Jonah (2 K. xiv, 35), itself ap
parently a reminiscence of the old Mosaic
stateraent (Nura. xxxiv. 8, 12). Besides
this the narae occurs once or twice in the
iraagery ofthe Prophets. In the New Tes
taraent there is not even an allusion to it.
There is, however, one passage in which
the "Salt Sea "is raentioned in a raanner
different from any of those .already quoted.
viz. as having been in the time of Abraham
the V.ale of Siddim (Gen. xiv. 3). In con
sequence of this passage it has been be
lieved that the present lake covered a dis
trict which in historic times had been per-

SEAL

622

SEIR

manently habitable dry land. But it must
not bo overlooked that the passage in ques
tion is the only one in the whole Bible to
countenance the notion that the cities of
the plain were submerged ; a notion which
does not d.ate earlier than the Christian
era. [Sodom ; Zoar,] The belief which
prompted the statements just quoted from
modern writers, viz. that the Dead Sea was
formed by the catastrophe which overthrew
the " Cities of the Plain," is a mere as
sumption. It is not only unsupported by
Scripture, but is directly in the teeth of the
evidence of the ground itself. Of the situ
ation of those cities, we only know that,
being in the " Plain of the Jordan," they
must have been to the north of the lake.
Of the catastrophe which destroyed thera,
we only know that it is described as a
shower of ignited sulphur descending frora
the skies. Its date is uncertain, but we
shall be safe in placing it within the lirait
of 2000 years before Christ. The destruc
tion of Sodora and Goraorrah raay have
been by volcanic action, but it raay be safely
asserted that no traces of it have yet been
discovered, and that, whatever it was, it
can have li.ad no connection with that far
vaster and far more ancient event which
opened the great valley of the Jordan and
the Dead Sea, and at some subsequent tirae
cut it off frora coraraunicationwith the Red
Sea by forcing up between them the tract
of the Wady Arabah.
Seal. The iraportance attached to seals
in the East is so great that without one no
docuraent is regarded as authentic. The
use of some method of sealing is obviously,
therefore, of remote antiquity. Among such
methods used in Egypt at a very early period
were engraved stones, pierced through their
length and hung by a string or chain from
the arm or neck, or set in rings for the finger.
The most ancient form used for this purpose
was the scarabaeus, formed of precious or
common stone, or even of blue pottery or
porcelain, on the flat side of which the in
scription or de vice was engraved. Cylinders
of stone or pottery bearing devices were also
used as signets. In many cases the seal
consisted of a lump of clay, impressed with
the seal and attached to the document,
whether of papyrus, or other material, by
strings. The use of clay in sealing is no'-
ticed in the Book of Job (xxxviii. 14), and
the signet-ring as an ordinary part of a
man's equipment iu the case of Judah
(Gen. xxxviii. 18), who probably, like raany
modern Arabs, wore it suspended by a string
from his neck or arm (Cant. viu. 6). The
ring or the seal as an erablera of authority
both in Egypt, in Persia, and elsewhere, is
mentioned in the cases of Pharaoh with
Joseph (Gen. xU. 42), of Ahab (1 K. xxi.
8), of Ahasuerus (E.sth. iu. 10, 12, viu. 2),
of Darius (Dan, vi. 17; also 1 Mace, vi.

15), and as an evidence of a covenant in
Jer. xxxU. 10, 54 ; Neh. ix. 38, x. 1 ; Hag.
U. 23. Its general importance is denoted
by the metaphorical use of the word. Rev.
V. 1, ix. 4. Engraved signets were in use
among the Hebrews in early t^nies, as is
evident in the description of the high-
priest's breastplate (Ex. xxvUi. 11, 36,
xxxix. 6), and the work of the engraver as a
distinct occupation is mentioned iu Ecclus.
xxxviii. 27.
Se'ba (pi- Sebdim : A. V. incorrectly
rendered Sabeans) heads the list of the
sons of Cush. Besides the mention of Seba
in the list of the sons of Cush (Gen. x. 7;
1 Chr. i. 9), there are but three notices of
the nation (Ps. Ixxii. 10 ; Is, xliii, 8, xiv.
14). These passages seem to show that
Seba was a nation of Africa, bordering on
or included in Cush, and in Solomon's time
independent and of political importance.
It raay perhaps be identified with the island
of Merofi. Josephus says that Saba was
the ancient narae of the Ethiopian island
and city of MeroS, but he writes Seba, in
the notice of the Noachian settlements,
Sabas. The island of Meroe lay between
the Astaboras, the Atbara, the most north
ern tributary of the Nile, and the Astapus,
the Bahr el-Azrak or " Blue River," the
eastern of its two great confluents.
Se'bat, [Month,]
Sec'acah. One of the six cities of
Judah which were situated in the Midbar
("wilderness "), that is, the tract bordering
on the Dead Sea (Josh. xv. 61). Its posi
tion is not known.
Se'chu, a place mentioned once only
(1 Sam. xix. 22), apparently as lying" on
the route between Saul's residence, Gibeah,
and Raraah (Raraathaira Zophira), that of
Samuel. It was notorious for " the great
well " (or riither cistern) which it contained.
Assuming that Saul started frora Gibeah
{Tuleil el-Ful), and that Neby Samwil is
Raraah, then Bir Nehalla (the well of Ne-
balla), alleged by a raodern traveller fo
contain a large pit, vvould be in a suitable
position for the great well of Sechu.
Secun'dus, a Thessalonian who went
with the Apostle Paul from Corinth aa
far as Asia, on his return to Jerusalem
frora his third missionary tour (see Acts
XX. 4).
Seer. [Prophet.]
Se'gub. 1. 'The youngest son of Hiel
the Bethelite, who rebuilt Jericho (1 K.
xvi. 84). 2. Son of Hezron (1 Chr. ii.
21, 22),
Se'ir {hairy, shaggy). 1. We have both
" land of Seir" (Gen. xxxu. 8, xxxvi. 30),
and "Mount Seir" (Gen. xiv. 6). It is the
original name of the raountain ridge ex
tending along the east side of the valley of
Arabah, from the Dead Sea to the Elanitic
Gulf. The narae may either have been

SEIEATH

623

SELEUCUS IV.

derived from Seir the Horite, who appears
to have been the . chief of the aboriginal
inhabitants (Gen. xxxvi. 20), or, what is
perhaps more probable, frora the rough
arjiect of the whole country. The name
Gebala, or Gebalene, was appUed to this
provinceliy Josephus, and also by Eusebius
and Jerorae. The northern section of Mount
Seir, as far as Petra, is still called Jebdl,
the Arabic form of Gebal. The Mount Seir
of the Bible extended much farther south
than the modern province, as is shown by
the words of Deut. u. 1-8. It had the Ara
bah on the west (vers. 1 and 8) ; it extended
as far south as the head of the Gulf of
Akabah (ver. 8) ; its eastern border ran
along the base of the mountain range where
the plateau of Arabia begins. Its northern
border is not so accurately deterrained.
The lajid of Israel, as described by Joshua,
extended from " the Mount Halak that
goeth up to Seir, even unto Baal Gad"
(Josh. xi. 17). As no part of Edom was
given to Isriiel, Mount Halak raust have
been upon its northern border. Now there
is a line of " naked " {halak signified " na
ked ") white hills or cliffs which runs across
the great valley about eight railes south of
the Dead Sea, forming the division between
the Arabah proper and the deep Ghor north
of it. The view of these cUffs, from the
shore of the Dead Sea, is very striking.
They appear as a line of hills shutting in
the valley, and extending up to the moun
tains of Seir. This is probiibly the very
" Mount Halak that goeth up to Seir," 2,
An entirely different place from the fore
going; ono of the liindraarks on the north
boundary of the territory of Judah (Josh,
XV, 10 only). It lay westward of Kirjath-
jearira, and between it and Beth-sheraesh,
If Kuriet el Enab he the former, and Ain-
shems the liifter of these two, then Mount
Seir Cannot fail to be the ridge which Ues
between the Wady Aly and the Wady
Ghurab. Se'irath,-the place to which Ehud fied
after his raurder of Eglon (Judg, iii. 26,
27). It was in " Mount Ephraim " (27), a
continuation, perhaps, of the sarae wooded,
shaggy hills (such seems to be the signifi
cation of Seir and Seirath) which stretched
even so far south as to enter the territory
- of Judah (Josh, xv, 10)',
Se'la and Se'lah, 2 K, xiv. 7 ; Is. xvi.
1: rendered "the rock" in the A. V,, in
Judg, i, 36, 2 Chr, xxv, 12, Obad, 3. Prob
ably tbe city later known as Petra, the
ruins of which are found about two days'
journey N. of the top of the gulf of Akaba,
and three or four S. from Jericho. It was
in the midst of Mount Seir, in the neighbor
hood of Mount Hor, and therefore Edomite
territory, taken by Amaziah, and called Jok-
thebl. In the end of the fourth century
B. c. it appears as the headquarters of the

Nabatheans, who successfully resisted tha
attacks of Antigonus, About 70 b, c, Petra
appears as the residence of the Arab princes
naraed Aretas, It was by Trajan reduced
to subjection to the Roraan erapire. The
city Petra l.ay, though at a high level, in a
hollow shut in by mountain-cliffs, and ap
proached only by a narrow ravine, through
which, and across the city's site, the river
winds. There are extensive ruins at Petra
of Roman date, which have been frequently
described by raodern travellers. ¦
Sela-Hammahle'koth {i. e. " the
cliff of escapes " or " of divisions "), a rock
or cliff in the wilderness of Maon, the
scene of one of those reraarkable escapes
which are so frequent in the history of
Saul's pursuit of David (1 Sara, xxiii. 28).
No identification has yet been suggested.
Se'lah. This word, which is only found
in the poetical books of the O. T., occurs
seventy-one tiraes in the Psalras, and three
times in Habakkuk. In sixteen Psalras it
is found once, in fifteen twice, in seven
three tiraes, and in one four times — al
ways at the end of a verse, except in Ps.
Iv. 19 [20], IvU. 3 [4], and Hab. iU. 3, 9,
where it is in the middle, though at the end
of a clause. It is probably a term whicb,
had a moiining in the musical nomenclature
of the Hebrews, though what that meaning
raay have been is now a matter of pure
conjecture. Se'led. One of the sons of Nadab, a
descendant of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. ii. 30).
Seleu'cia, near the mouth of the Oron
tes, was practically the seaport of Antioch,
The distance between the two towns was
about 16 miles. We are expressly told that
St, Paul, in corapany with Barnabas, sailed
frora Seleucia at the beginning of his first
missionary circuit (Acts xiii. 4); and it is
almost certain that he landed there on his
return from it (xiv, 26) . This strong for
tress and convenient seaport was construct
ed by the first Seleucus, and here he was
buried. It retained its importance in Ro
man times, and in St, Paul's day it had the
privileges of a free city. The remains are
numerous. Seleu'CUS I'V. (Philopator), " king of
Asia" (2 Mace. iii. 3), that is, of the prov
inces included in the Syrian monarchy,
according to the title claimed by the Seleu
cidae, even when they had lost their footing
in Asia Minor, was the son and successor
of Antiochus the Great. He took part in
the disastrous battle of Magnesia (b. c.
190), and three years afterwards, on the
death of his father, ascended the throne.
He was murdered, after a reign of twelve
years (b, c. 175), by Heliodorus, one of
his own courtiers (Dan. xi. 20). His son
Demetrius I. (Soter), whom he had sent,
while StiU a boy, as hostage to Rorae, after
a series of romantic adventures, gained tha

SEM

624

SENNACHERIB

crown in 162 b. c. (1 Macc- vii. 1 ; 2 Maec.
xiv. 1). The general policy of Seleucus
towards the Jews, like that of his father
(2 Macc. iii. 2, 3), w.as conciliatol'y, and he
undertook a large share, of the expenses of
the Temple-service (2 Macc. iii. 3, 6). On
one occasion, by the false representations
of Simon, a jewii h officer, he was .induced
to ra.ake an attempt to carry away the treas
ures deposited in the Temple, by means of
the same Heliodorus who murdered hira.
The attempt signally failed, but it does not
appear that he afterwards showed any re
sentment agiiinst the Jews (2 Macc. iv.
6, 6).
Sem. Shem the patriarch (Luke iii. 36).
Semachi'ah. Oneof the sons of Shem
aiah 9(1 Chr. xxvi. 7).
Sem'eL 1. Shimei 14 (1 Esd. ix. 33).
2. Siii.'MEi 16 (Esth. xi. 2). 3. The father
of Matt.athias in the genealogy of Jesus
Christ (Luke ui. 26).
Semitic Languages- [Shemitic Lan
guages; Hebrew.]
Sen'aah. The " children of Senaah "
are enumerated araongst the "people of
I.sr.aet " who returned from the Captivity
with Zerubbiibel (Ezr. u. 35 ; Neh. vii. 38).
In Neh, iii, 3, the name is given with the
article, has-Senaah. The names in these
Usts are mostly those of towns ; but Senaah
does not occur elsewhere in the Bible as
attached to a town. The Magdal-Senna,
or " great Senna" of Eusebius and Jerome,
seven miles N. of Jericho (" Senna"), how
ever, is not inappropriate in position.
Se'neh, the name of one of the two iso
lated rocks which stood in the " passage of
Michmash " (1 Sam. xiv, 4). It was the
southern one of the two (ver, 5), and the
nearest to Geba. The name in Hebrew
means a " thorn," or thorn-bush, Jose
phus mentions that the last encarapraent of
Titus' array was at a spot "which in the
Jews' tongue is called the viilley," or per
haps the plain " of thorns, near to a vil
lage called Gabathsaoule," i. e. Gibeath of
Saul. Se'nir. This narae occurs twice in the
A. v., viz. 1 Chr, v, 23, and Ez, xxvU, 5;
but it should be found in two other pas
sages, in each of which the Hebrew word is
exactly similar to the above, viz, Deut, iii.
9, and Cant. iv. 8. In these it appears in
the A, V. as Siienir, It is the Amorite
name for the raountain in the north of
Palestine which the Hebrews called Her
mon, and the Phoenicians Sirion ; or per
haps it was rather the name for a portion
of the mountain than the whole,
Sennache'rib was the son and succes
sor of Sargon. [Sargon.] His narae in
the original is read as Tsinakki-irib, which
is understood to raean, " Sin (or the Moon)
increases brothers ; " an indication that he
was not the first-born of his father. Senna

cherib mounted the throne b. o. 702, Hia,
efforts were directed to crushing the revolt
of Babylonia, which he invaded witn a
large army. Merodach-Baladiin ventured
on a battle, but was defeated and driven
from the country- In his third year (B. c,
700) he turned his arms towards the west,
chastised Sidon, took tribute from Tyre,
Aradus, and other Phoenician cities, as well
as from Edom and Ashdod, besieged and
captured Ascalon, made war on Egypt,
which was stUl dependent on Ethiopia, took
Libnah and Lachish on the Egyptian fron
tier, and, having probably concluded a con
vention with his chief enemy , finally marched
against Hezekiah, king of Judah. It was at
this time that " Sennacherib carae up against
aU the fenced cities of Judah, and took thera "
(2 K, xviu, 13). There can be no doubt
that the record which he has left jof his
campaign against "Hiskiah" in his third
year, is the war with Hezekiah so briefly
touched in the four verses of this chapter
(vers. 13-16). In the following year (b. c.
699), Sennacherib invaded Babylonia for
the second time. It was perhaps in this

Sennacherib on his Throne before Lachish.
same year that Sennacherib made his sec
ond expedition into Palestine. Hezekiah
had again revolted, and cl.airaed the pro
tection of Egypt. Instead, therefore, of

SENUAH

62&

SEPTUAGINT

besieging Jerusalem, the Assyrian king
marched past it to the Egyptian frontier,
attacked mce more Lachish and Libnah but
apparently failed to take thera, sent mes
sengers from the former to Hezekiah (2 K.
xviii. 17), and on their return without his
submission wrote him a threatening letter
(2 K. xix. 14), Tirhakah w.as hastening to
the aid of the Egyptians when an event oc
curred which relieved both Egypt and Ju
daea from their danger. In one night the
Assyrians lost, either by a pestilence or by
some more awful manifestation of divine
power, 185,000 men I The carap imraedi
ately broke up — the king fied. Senna
cherib reached his capital in safety, and
was not deterred, by the terrible disaster
which had befallen his arms, from engaging
in other wars, though he seems thence
forward to have carefully avoided Pales
tine, In his fifth year he led an expedition
into Armenia and Media; after which, from
his sixth to his eighth year, he was engaged
in wars with Susiana and Babylonia. From
this point his annals fail us. Sennacherib
reigned 22 years, and was succeeded by
Esarhaddon, b, c, 680, Sennacherib was
one of the most raagnificent of the Assyrian
kings. He seeins to h.ave been the first who
fixed the seat of government permanently
at Nineveh, which he carefully repaired and
adorned with splendid buildings. His great
est work is the grand palace at_Kouyunjik,
Of tho death of Sennacherib nothing is
known beyond the brief statement of Scrip
ture, that "as he was worshipping in the
house of Nisroch his god, Adrammelech and
Sharezer his sons smote him with the sword,
and escaped into the land of Arraenia " (2
K, xix, 37; Is, xxxvii. 38).
Sen'uah. Properly Hassenuah, with
the def. article. A Benjamite, the father
of Judah, who was second over the city
after the return from Babylon (Neh. xi. 9).
Seo'rim. The chief of the fourth of
the twenty-four courses of priests instituted
by David (1 Chr. xxiv. 8).
Se'phar. It is written, after the enu
meration ofthe sons of Joktan, "And their
dwelUng was frora Mesha as thou goest unto
Sephar, a mount ofthe east" (Gen. x. 30).
'The immigration ofthe Joktiinites was prob
ably from west to eiist, and they occupied
the south-western portion ofthe peninsula.
The undoubted identifications of Arabian
places and tribes with their Joktanite origi
nals are included within these liraits, and
point to Sephar as the eastern boundary.
There appears to be little doubt that the
ancient seaport town called Dhafdri or
Zafari, and Dhafdr or Zafdr, without the
inflectional termination, represents the Bib
lical site or district.
Seph'arad, a name which occurs in
Obad. ver. 20 only. Its situation has al
ways been a matter of uncertainty.
40

Sepharva'im is mentioned by Sen
nacherib in his letter to Hezekiah as a city
whose king had been unable to resist the
Assyrians (2 K. xix. 13; Is. xxxvii. 13,
comp. 2 K. xviii. 34). It is coupled with
Hena and Avah, or Ivah, which were towns
on the Euphrates above Babylon. Again,
it is mentioned in 2 K. xvii. 24, where it
is again joined with Avah, and also with
Cuthah and Babylon. Those indications
are enough to justify us in identifying the
place with the famous town of Sippara, on
tlio Euphrates above Babylon, which was
near the site of the modern Mosaib. The
dual form indicates that there were two
Sipparas, one on either side of the river.
Berosus called Sippara " a city of the
sun ; " and in the inscriptions it bears the
same title, being called Tsipar sha Shamas,
or " Sippara of the Sun" — the sun being
tbe chief object of worship there (comp. 2
K. xvu. 31).
Sephe'la, the Greek forra of the ancient
word has- Shlfiildh, the native name forthe
southern division of the low-lying flat dis
trict which intervenes between the central
highlands of tliia Holy Land and the Medi
terranean, the other and northern portion
of which was known as Sharon. The
name occurs throughout the topographical
records of Joshua, the historical works,
and the topographical p.assages in the
Prophets ; always with the article prefixed,
and always denoting the sarae region (Dout.
i. 7 ; Josh. ix. 1, x. 40, xi. 2, 16 a, xii. 8, xv.
33 ; Judg. i. 9 ; 1 K. x. 27 ; 1 Chr. xxvii.
28; 2 Chr. i- 15, ix. 27, xxvi. 10, xxviii. 18;
Jer. xvii. 36, xxxii. 44, xxxiii. 13 ; Obad. 19 ;
Zech. vii. 7), In each of these passages,
however, the word is treated in the A, V,
not as a ])roper n.arae, analogous to the Cam-
pagna, tke Wolds, the Carse, but as a mere
appellative, and rendered "the viile," "the
valley," "the plain," " the low plains," and
" the low country." The Shefelah was,
and is, one of the most productive regions
of the Holy Land. It was in ancient times
the cornfield of Syria, and as such the
constant subject of warfare between Philis
tines and Israelites, and the refuge of the
latter when the harvests in -the central
country were ruined by drought (2 K. viii.
1-3). Septuagint. The Septuagint or Greek
version of the Old Testament (iwed its
origin to the same cause as the Targuras.
It appears at the present day in four prin
cipal editions. 1. Biblia Polyglotta Com-
plutensis, a. d. 1514-1517. 2. The Aldino
Edition, "Venice, A. d. 1518. 3. The Roraan
Edition, edited under Pope Sixtus V., A,. ».
1587. 4. Fac-simile Edition of the Codex
Alexandriuus, by H. H. Baber, a. d. 1816.
[Targums,] The Jews of Alexandria had
probably still less knowledge of Hebrew
than their brethren in Palestine; their la-

SEPTUAGINT

626

SEPTUAGINT

miliar language was Alexandrian Greek.
Tliey had settled in Alexandria in large
numbers soon after the time of Alexander,
and under the early Ptolemies. They would
naturally follow the same practice as the
Jews in Palestine ; and hence would arise
in time an entire Greek version. But the
numbers and names of the translators, and
the times at which different portions were
transliited, are all uncertain. The com
monly received story respecting its origin
is contained in an e.xtant letter ascribed to
Aristeas, who was an officer at the court of
Ptoleray Philadelphus. This letter, which
is addressed by Aristeas to his brother,
Philocrates, gives a splendid account of the
origin of the Septuagint ; of the embassy
and presents sent by king Ptolemy to the
high-priest at Jerusalem, by the advice of
Demetrius Plialereus, his librarian, 50 tal
ents of gold and 70 talents of silver, &c. ;
tbe Jewish slaves whom he set free, paying
their ransom hiraself; the letter of the king ;
the answer of the high priest ; the choosing
of six interpreters from each of the twelve
tribes, and their names ; the copy ofthe Law,
in letters of gold ; the feast prepared for the
seventy-two, which continued for seven
days ; the questions proposed to each of the
interpreters in turn, with the answers of
each ; their lodging by the sea-shore ; and
the accomplishment of their work in seventy-
two days, by conference and comparison.
This is tlie story, which probably g.ave to
the Version the title of the Septuagint, and
which has been repeated in various forms
by the Christian writers. But it is now
generally admitted that the letter is spuri
ous, and 'is probably the fabrication of an
Alexandrian Jew shortly before the Chris
tian era. Still there can be no doubt that
there was a ba.sis of fact for the fiction ; on
three points of the story there is no mate-
riiil difference of opinion, and they are con
firraed by the study of the Version itself:
1. The 'Versioii''was raade at Alexandria.
2. It was begun in the tirae of tho earlier
Ptolemies, about 280 b. c. 8. The L.aw
{i. e. the Pentateuch) alone was translated
at first. The Septuagint version was high
ly esteemed by the Hellenistic Jews before
the coming of Christ. The manner in which
it is quoted by the writers of the New Tes
taraent proves that it had been long in gen
eral use Wherever, by the conquests of
Alexander, or by colonization, the Greek
language prevailed; wherever Jews were
settled, and the attention of the neighboring
Gentiles was drawn to their wondrous his
tory and lavT, there was found the Septua
gint, which thus becarae, by Divine Prov
idence, the means of spreading widely the
knowledge of ths One True God, and His
proraises et a Saviour to coino, throughout
the nations. To the wide dispersion of this
version we ra-iy ajcribe in great measure

that aencr.al persuasion which prevailed
over the whole East of the near approach
of tbe Redeemer, and led the Magi to rec-
osnize the star which procLaimed the birth
of the King of the Jews, Not less wide was
the influence ofthe Septuagint in the spread
of the Gospel. Many of those Jews who
were asserabled at Jerusalem on the day
of Pentecost, from Asia Minor, from Africa,
from Crete and Rome, used the Greek lan
guage; tbe testimonies to Christ from the
Law and the Prophets came to thera in the
words ofthe Septuagint; St, Stephen prob
ably quoted from it in his address to the
Jews ; the Ethii^jiiin eunuch was reading
the Septuagint version of Isaiah in his
chariot; they who were scattered abroad
went forth into many lands speaking of
Christ in Greek, and pointing to the things
written of Hira in the Greek version of
Moses and the Prophets ; from Antioch and
Alexandria in the East, to Rome and Mas-
silia in the West, the voice of the Gospel
sounded forth in Greek; Clemens of Rome,
Ignatius at Antioch, Justin Martyr in Pal
estine, Irenaeus at Lyons, and many raore,
taught and wrote in the words of the Greek
Scriptures; and a still wider range was
given to them by the Latin version (or
versions) made from the LXX. for the use
of the Latin Churches in Italy and Africa ;
and in later times by the numerous other
versions into the tongues of l?gypt, Ethio
pia, Arraenia, Arabia, and Georgia, For a
long period the Septuagint was the Old
Testaraent -of the far larger part of the
Christhan Church. Character of the
Septuagint. — A. Is ihe Septuagint faith
ful in substance? 1. It has been clearly
shown by Hody, Frankel, and others, that
the several books were translated by differ
ent persons, without any comprehensive
revision to harmonize the several parts.
Names and words are rendered differently
in different books. 2. Thus the character
of the Version varies much in the several
books ; those of the Pentateuch are the best.
3, The poetical parts are, generally speak
ing, inferior to the historical, the original
abounding with rarer words and expres
sions, 4. In the Major Prophets (probably
translated nearly 100 years after the Pen
tateuch) sorae of the raost iraportant proph
ecies are sadly obscured. Ezekiel and the
Minor Prophets (generaUy speaking) seem
to be better rendered. 5. Supposing the
numerous glosses and duplicate render
ings, which have evidently crept frora
the margin into the text, to be removed,
.and forming a rough estimate of what the
Septuagint was iu its earliest state, we may
perhaps say of it that it is the image of the
original seen through a glass not adjusted
to the proper focus ; the larger features are
shown, but the sharpness of definition ia
lost. B. Is the Version minutely accurati

SEPULCHRE

6'27

SERGIUS PAULUS

t» details f 1. The same word in the same
chapter is often rendered by differing
words, 3. Differing words by the same
words. 3. The divine names are frequent
ly interchanged. 4. Proper names are
Bometimes transliited, sometimes not. 5.
The translators are often misled by the
similarity of Hebrew words. In very many
cases the error raay be thus traced to the
similarity of some of the Hebrew letters ; in
srme it is difficult to see any connection
between the original and the Version. 6.
There are sorae passages which seera to
exhibit a studied variation in the LXX. frora
the Hebrew (e. g. Gen. U. 3; Ex. xii. 40).
Frequently the strong expressions of the
Hebrew are softened down, where human
parts are ascribed to God. The Version is
'therefore not minutely accurate in details.
What, then, are the benefits to be
derived from the study of the Sep
tuagint? 1. For the Old Testament.
The Septuagint gives evidence of the char
acter and condition of the Hebrew MSS.
frora which it was raade, with respect to
vowel-points and the mode of writing.
Being made from MSS. far older than the
Masoretic recension, the Septuagint often
indicates readings more ancient and more
correct than those q£ our present Hebrew
MSS. and editions, and often speaks de
cisively between the conflicting readings
of the present MSS. {e. g. Ps. xvi. 10, xxii.
17; Hos. vi. 5). In Gen. iv. 8, a clause
necessary to the sense is oraitted in the
Hebrew, but preserved in the LXX. In ~all
these cases we do not attribute any p.ara-
raount authority to the Septuagint on ac
count of its superior antiquity to the extant
Hebrew MSS.; but we take it as an evi
dence of a more ancient Hebrew text, as an
eye-witness of the texts, 280 or 180 years
B.C. 2. The close connection between the
Old and New Testiiraent makes the study
of the Septuagint e'xtremely valuable, and
alraost indispensable to the theological stu
dent. It was manifestly the chief store
house frora whieh the Apostles drew their
proofs and precepts.
Sepulchre. [Burial.]
Se'rah, the daughter of Asher (Gon,
xlvi. 17;. 1 Chr, vii. 80), called in Num.
xxvi. 46, S-iRAii,
Serai'ah. 1, The king's scribe or sec
retary iu the reign of David (2 Sam. viii.
17). 2. The high-priest in the reign of
Zedekiah (2 K. xxv. 18; 1 Chr. vi. 14;
Jer. lii. 24). 3. The son of Tanhuraeth
the Netophathite (2 K, xv. 23; Jer. xl, 8).
4. The son of lienaz, and brother of Oth
niel (1 Chr. iv. 13, 14). 5. Ancestor of
Jehu, a Siraeonite chieftain (1 Chr. iv. 35).
6. One of the children of the province who
returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii, 2). 7.
One of the ancestors of Ezra the scribe
(Ezr. vU. 1), but whether or not the same

as Seraiah the high-priest seems uncertain.
8. A priest, or priestly family, who signed
the covenant with Neheraiah (Neh, x, 2).
9. A priest, the son of Hilkiah (Neh, xi,
11), lO. The head of a priestly house
which went up frora Babylon with Zerub
babel (Neh, xu, 1, 12), 11, The son of
Neriah,- and brother of Baruch (Jer, li. 59,
61). He went with Zedekiah to Babylon
in the fourth year of his reign. Perhaps
he was au officer who took charge of the
royal caravan on its march, and fixed the
place where it should halt, Seraiah was
commissioned by the prophet Jeremiah to
tiike with him on his journey the roll in
which he had written the doom of Babylon,
and sink it in the midst of the Euphrates,
as a token that Babylon should sink, never
to rise again (Jer. li. 60-64).
Ser'aphim, an order of celestial beings,
whom Isaiah beheld in vision standing above
Jeliovah as He sat upon His throne (Is, vi.
2). They are described as having each of
them three pairs of wings, with one of which
they covered their faces (a token of humil
ity) ; with the second they covered their
feet (a token of respect) ; while with the
third they fiew. They seem to have borne
a general resemblance to the human figure,
for they are represented as having a face,
a voice, feet, and hands (ver. 6). Their
occupation was twofold — to celebrate the
praises of Jehovah's holiness and power
(ver. 3), and to act as the raediura of cora-
raunication between heaven and earth (ver.
6), Frora their antiphonal chant (" one
cried unto another ") we may conceive them
to have been ranged in opposite rows on
each side of the throne, 'The idea of a
winged huraan figure was not peculiar lo
the Hebrews : araong the sculptures found
at Mourghaub in Persia^, we meet with a
representation of a man with two pairs of
wings, springing frora the shoulders, and
extending, the one pair upwards, the other
downwards, so as to admit of covering the
head and the feet, Tho meaning of the
word " seraph" is doubtful; it is perhaps
connected with an Arabic terra signifying
high or exalted ; and this raay be regarded
as the generally received etyraology.
Se'red, the first-born of Zebulon (Gen.
xlvi, 14; Num, xxvi, 26).
Ser'gius Pau'lus was the proconsul of
Cyprus when the Apostle Paul visited that
island with Barnabas on his first missionary
tour (Acts xiii. 7, sq.). He is described as
an intelligent man, truth-seeking, eager for
information frora all sources within his
reach. It was this trait of his character
which led hira in the first instance to admit
to his society Elymas the Magian, and after
wards to seek out the missionaiy strangers
and learn from them the nature of the
Christian doctrine. But Sergius was not
effectually or long deceived by the arts' of

SERPENT

628

SERPENT

the impostor ; for on becoming acquainted
with the Apostle he examined at once the
clairas of the Gospel, and yielded his mind
to the evidence of its truth.
Serpent. 1. The Hehrew word Ndchdsh
is the generic name of any serpent. The
following are the principal Biblical allu
sions to this animal: Its subtlety is men
tioned in Gen. iii. 1 ; its wisdora is alluded
to by our Lord in Matf. x. 16; the poison
ous properties of some species are often
mentioned (see Ps, Iviii. 4; Prov. xxiii.
82) ; the sharp tongue of the serpent, which
it would appear sorae of the ancient He
brews believed to be the instrument of
poison, is raentioned in Ps. cxl. 3, Job xx.
16, "the viper's tongue shall slay -liira ; "
although in other places, as in Prov. xxUi.
32, Eccl. X. 8, 11, Nura. xxi. 9, the venom
is correctly ascribed to the bite, while in
Job XX. 14 the gall is said to bcthe poison;
the habit serpents have of lying concealed
in hedges is alluded to in Eccl. x. 8, and in
holes of walls, in Am. v. 19 ; their dwelling
in dry sanrly places, in Deut. viii. 15 ; their
wonderful raode of progression did not
escape the observation of the author of
Prov. XXX., who expressly mentions it as
" one of the three things which were too
wonderful for him " (19) ; the oviparous
nature of most of the order is alluded to in
Is. lix. 5, where the A. V., however, has
the unfortunate rendering of " cockatrice."
The art of taming and charraing serpents
is of great antiquity, and is alluded to in
Ps. Iviii. 5, Eccl. x. 11, Jer, viii, 17, and
doubtless intiraated by St, Jaraes (iii, 7),
who particularizes serpents araong all other
animals that " have been taraed by man,"

Serpont-channinff,
Serpents used for this purpose, both in
Africa .and in India, aro the hooded snakes
[Naia tripudians, and A'aia haje) and the
horned Cerastes. That the charmers fre

quently and perhaps generi-.ly, Aike the
precaution of extracting the poison-ltings
before the snakes are subjected to their
skill, there is much probabiUty for believ
ing ; but that this operation is not always
attended to is clear from the testimony of
Bruce and numerous other writers. Some
have supposed that the practice of taking
out or breaking off the poison-fangs ig
alluded to in Ps. IviU. 6, " Break their
teeth, O God, in their mouth." The ser
pent-charmer's usual instrument is a fiute.
It was under the form of a serpent that the
devil seduced Eve; hence in Scripture
Satan is called " the old serpent " (Rev.
xii. 9, and comp. 3 Cor. xi. 8). It has been
supposed by many commentators that the
serpent, prior to the Fall, moved along in
an erect attitude. It is quite clear that an
erect raode of progression is utterly incora-
patible with the structure of a serpent;
consequently, had the snakes before the
Fall moved in an erect attitude, they must
have been formed on a different plan alto
gether. The typical form of the serpent
and its mode of progression were in all
probability the sarae before the Fall as .after
it ; but subsequent to the Fall its form and
progression were to be regarded with ha
tred and disgust by all mankind, and thus
the aniraal was cursiM " above all cattle,"
and a raark of condemnation was forever
stamped upon it. Serpents are said in
Scripture to " eat dust" (See Gen. iu. 14;
Is. l.xv. 35; Mic, vii, 17); these aniraals,
which for the most part take their food on
the ground, do consequently swallow with
it large portions of sand and dust. Through
out the East the serpent was used as an
erablera of the evil principle, of the spirit
of disobedience and contum.acy. Much has
been written on the question of the " fiery
serpents " of Num, xxi, 6, 8, with which it
is usual erroneously to identify the " fiery
flying serpent " of Is. xxx. 6, and xiv, 39.
The word " flery " probably signifies
"burning," in allusion to the sensation
produced by tho bite. The Cerastes, or tlie
Naia haje, or any other venomous species
frequenting Arabia, may denote the " ser
pent of the burning bite " which destroyed
the children of Israel. The " fiery flying
serpent " of Isaiah {1. c.) can have no ex
istence in nature. Monstrous forms of
snakes with birds' wings occur on the E,?yp-
tian sculptures, 2, The Hebrew word^pA'c^
occurs in Job xx. 16 ; Is, xxx, 6, and lix,
5 (A, V. "viper"). There is no Scrip
tural allusion by raeans of v/hich it is pos
sible to determine the species of serpent
indicated by the Hebrew lerm, which is de
rived from a root which signifies " to hiss,"
The snake that fastened on St, Piiul's hand
when he was at Melita (Acts xxvUi. 3) was
probably the coramon viper of England
{Delias bcrus), or else the Vipera aspis.

SERPENT

629

SEVEN

[See also Adder; Asp,] — When God
punished ths murmurs of the Israelites in
the wilderness by sending iiniong thera ser
pents, whose fiery bite was fatal, Moses,
upon their repentance, was commanded to
make a serpent of brass, whose polished
suiface shone like fire, and to set it up on
tho banner-pole in the midst of the people ;
and ¦whoever was bitten by a serpent had
but to look up at it and live (Nura, xxi, 4-
9), But a far deeper interest belongs to
this incident of the pilgrimage of Israel.
"As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wil
derness, even so must the Son of iniin be
lifted up ; that whosoever believeth in him
should not perish, but have eternal life "
(John iii, 14, 15). To present the serpent-
form as deprived of its power to hurt, im
paled as the trophy of a conqueror, was to
assert that evil, physical and spiritual, had
been overcorae, .and thus help to strengthen
the weak faith of the Israelites in a victory
over both. To some writers this has com
mended itself as the simplest and raost ob
vious view. Others, again, have started
frora a different ground. They look to
Egypt as the starting-point for all the
thoughts which the serpent could suggest,
and they flnd there that it was worshipped
as an agathodaemon, the symbol of health
aud life. Contrasted as these views appear,
they have, it is believed, a point of oontiict.
The idea primarily connected with the ser
pent in the history of the Fall, as through-
cut the proverbiiil language of Scripture, is
that of wisdom (Gen, iii. 1; Matt. x. 16;
2 Cor. xi. 3). Wisdom, ap.art from obedi
ence to a divine order, allying itself to
man's lower nature, passes into cunning.
Man's nature is envenomed and degraded
by it. But wisdom, the selfsame power of
understanding, yielding to the divine law,
is the source of all healing and restoring
influences, and the serpent-forra thus be
coraes a syrabol of deliverance .iind health.
The Isriielites were taught that it would be
so to thera in proportion as they ceased to
be sensual and rebellious. Preserved as a
relic, whether on the spot of its first erec
tion or elsewhere, tbe Brazen Serpent,
called by the narae of Nehushtan, becarae
an object of idolatrous veneration, prob
ably in connection with the Ophite worship
that was adopted in the reign of Ahaz, 'with
all the other idolatries of the neigliboring
nations ; and the zeal of Hezekiah destroyed
it with the other idols of his father (2 K.
xvui. 4). [Nehushtan.] But the passion
for relics is not extinguished by the destruc
tion of its objects. In a. d. 971, a Milanese
envoy to Constantinople, being asked to
select a present from the imperial treas
ures, chose a brazen serpent which the
Greeks assured him was made of the same
metal that Hezekiah had broken up ; and
this serpent, pro'iably the idol of some

Ophite sect, is still shown in the church of
St. Ambrose at Milan as that which was
lifted up by Moses in the wilderness.
Se'rug, son of Reu, aud great-grand
father of Abraham. His age is given in the
Hebrew Bible as 230 years (Gen. xi. 20-
23) ; 30 years before he begat Nahor, and.
200 years afterwards.
Servant. [Slave.]
Seth (Gen. iv. 25, v. 3 ; 1 Chr. i. 1), the
third son of Adam, and father of Enos.
The signification of his name is " appoint
ed" or "put" in the place ofthe murdered
Abel. Adam handed down to Seth and his
descendants the promise of mercy, faith in
which became the distinction of God's chil
dren. This seems to be the meaning of
the statement that, in the days and in the
family of Seth, " men began to call upon
the name of Jehovah" (Gen. iv, 26),
Se'thur, The Asherite spy, son of Mi
chael (Num. xiii, 13),
Seven, the frequent recurrence of cer
tain nurabers in the sacred literature of
the Hebrews is obvious to the most supei-
ficial reader ; and it is alraost equally ob
vious thiit these nurabers are associated
with certain ideas, so as in sorae instances
to lose their numerical force, and to pass
over into the province of symbolic signs.
This is raore or less true of the nurabers
three, four, seven, twelve, and forty; but
seven so far surpasses the rest, both in the
frequency with which it recurs, and in the
importance of the objects with which it is
associated, that it may fairly be termetl the
representative symbolic number. It has
hence attracted considerable attention, and-
raay be said to be the keystone on which
the symbolism of numbers depends. The
origin of this symbolism is a question that
meets us at the threshold of any discussion
as to the nuraber seven. The views of
Biblical critics raay be ranged under two
heads, according as the symbolism is at
tributed to theoretical specul.ations as to the
internal properties of the number itself, or
to external associations of a physical or
historical character. According to tha for
mer of these views, the symbolisra of the
number seven would be traced back to the
symbolisra of its coraponent eleraents three
and four, the first of which = Divinity, and
the second = Huraanity, whence seven =
Divinity -\- Hum,anity, or, in other words,
the union between God and Man, as effected
by the manifestations of the Divinity ir>
creation and revelation. This theory is se
ductive from its ingenuity, and its appeal
to the imagination, but there appears to \ie
little foundation for it. We turn to the
second class of opinions, which attribute
the syrabolisra of the nuraber seven to ex
ternal associations. The influence of the
number seven was not restricted to the He
brews- it prevaUed among the Persians

SE'VISN

630

SHADRACH

{Ebih, i.- 10, 14), iimong the ancient Indians,
among the Greeks and Roraans to a certain
extent, and probably among all nations
where the week of seven days was estab
lished, as in China, Egypt, Arabia, &c.
The peculiarity of the Hebrew view con
sists in the special dignity of the seventh,
and not simply in that of seven. We can
not trace back the peculiar associations of
the Hebrews farther than to the point when
the seventh day was consecrated to the
purposes of religious rest.. Assuming this,
therefore, as our starting-point, the first
idea associated with seven would be that of
religious periodicity. ¦ The Sabbath, being
the seventh day, suggested the adoption of
seven as the coefficient, so to say, for the
appointraent of all sacred periods ; and we
thus find the 7th month ushered in by the
Feast of Trurapets, and signalized by the
celebration of the Feast of Tabernacles and
the great Day of Atoneraent ; 7 weeks as
the interval between the Passover and the
Pentecost; the 7th year as the Sabbatical
year ; and the year succeeding 7X7 years
as the Jubilee year. From the idea of pe
riodicity, it passed by an easy transition to
the duration or repetition of religious pro
ceedings ; and thus 7 days were appointed
as the length of the Feasts of Passover and
Tabernacles ; 7 days for the ceremonies of
the consecration of priests, and so on ; 7
victims to be offered on any special occa
sion, as in Balaam's sacriflce (Num. xxiu.
1), and especially at the ratification of a
¦ treaty, the notion of seven being embodied
in the very term signifying to swear, liter
ally meaning to do seven times (Gen. xxi.
28), The number senen, having thus been
impressed with the seal of sanctity as the
syrabol of all connected with the Divinity,
was adopted generally as a cyclical nuraber,
with the subordinate notions of perfection
or completeness. The foregoing applica
tions of the number seven become of great
practical iraportance in connection with the
interpretation of some of the prophetical
portions of the Bible, and particularly of
the Apocalypse. We have but to run over
the chief subjects of that book, in order to
see the necessity of deciding whether the
number is to be accepted in a literal or a
niotiiphorical sense — in other words, wheth
er it represents a number or a quality.
The decision of this question affects not
only the number seven, but also the num
ber which stands in a relation of antago
nism to seven, viz, the half of seven, which
appears under the form of forty-two raonths,
=fc 34 years (Rev, xUi, 5), twelve hundred
and sixty days, also = 34 years (xi. 3, xii.
6), and again a tirae, tiraes, and half a time
= 34 years (xu. 14), If the number seven
express the notion of completeness, then
the number half-seven = incompleteness
and the secondary ideas of sufi'ering and

disaster : if tbe one represent divine agency,
the other we may expect to represent hu
raan agency.
Shaal'bim or Shaalab bin, a town m
the aUotment of D.an, named between Ir-
Shemesh and Ajalon (Judg. i. 35; Josh.
xix. 42 ; 1 K. iv, 9). By Eusebius and Jer
ome it is mentioned in the Onomasticon as
a large viUage in the district of Sebaste {i. e.
Samaria), and as then called Selaba.
Shaal'bonite, The. Eliahbathe Sh.aal-
bonite was one of David's thirty-seven he
roes (2 Sam. xxiU. 32; 1 Chr, xi. 33), He
was the native of a place named Shaalbon,
which is unraentioned elsewhere, unless it
is identical with Shaalbim or Suaalabbiw
of the tribe of Dan.
Sha'aph. 1. The son of Jahdai (1
Chr, U, 47). 2. The son of Caleb the
brother of Jerahraeel by his concubine
M<aachah (1 Chr. U. 49),
Shaara'im, a city in the territory allot
ted to Judah (Josh. xv. 36 ; in A, V. incor
rectly Sharaira ; 1 Siim, xvii, 52). Shaara
im, one of the towns of Simeon (1 Chr. iv.
31), must be a different place.
Shaash'gaz, the eunuch in the palace
of Xerxes who had the custody of the women
iu the second house (Esth. ii. 14).
Shatabetha'i. 1, A Levite in the tirae
of Ezra (Ezr, x, 15). It is .apparently the
same who with Jeshua and others instruct
ed the people in the knowledge of the Law
(Neh. viu. 7). 2. One of the chief of the
Levites after the return from Babylon
(Neh. xi. 16). Possibly 1. and 2. are iden
tical. Shachi'a, properly " Shabiah," a son of
Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh (1 Chr. vui.
10). Shad'dal, an ancient narae of God,
rendered " Alraighty" everywhere in the A.
V. In all passages of Genesis, except one
(.xlix. 25), in Ex. vi. 3, and in Ez. x, 5, it
is found in connection with il, " Godj" El
Shaddai being there rendered " God Al
mighty," or "the Almighty God." By the
name or in the character of El-Shaddai,
God was known to the patriarchs (Gen.
xvii, 1, xxvUi, 8, xliu, 14, xlvUi, 8, xlix.
25), before the name Jehovah, in its full
signifipance, was revealed (Ex. vi. 3). The
prevalent idea attaching to the name in aU
the passages in which it occurs is that of
strength and power, and our translators
hiive probably given to " Shaddai" its true
meaning when they rendered it " Almighty ,"
[God,] Sha'drach, the Hebrew, or rather
Chaldee narae of Hananiah, the chief of
the " three children," whose song, as given
iu the apocryphal Daniel, forras part of
the service of the Church of England, un
der the name of "Benedicite, omnia oper.i."
'The history of Shadrach, or Hananiah, as
told in Dan. i.-iu., is weU known. After

SHAGE

631

SHALMANESER

theit deliverance from the furnace, we hear
no more of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed
nego in the O, T, ; neither are they spoken
of in the N, T,, except in the pointed allu
sion to them in the Epistle to the Hebrews,
as having " through faith quenched the vio
lence of fire " (Heb, xi, 33, 34), But there
are repeated allusions to them in the later
apocryphal books, and the martyrs of the
Maccabaean period seem to have been much
encouraged by their example. See 1 Macc,
u, 59, r;0 ; 3 Macc. vi. 6 ; 4 Macc. xui. 9,
xvi. 3, 21, xviu, 12,
Sha'ge. Father of Jonathan the Hara
rite, one of David's guard (1 Chr, xi, 34),
[See Shammah 5.]
Shahara'im. A Benjamite whose his
tory and descent are alike obscure in the
present text (1 Chr, viii, 8). It is more in
telligible if we remove the full stop from
tl e end of ver. 7, and read on thus : " and
bi gat Uzza and Ahihud, and Shaharaim he
begat in the field of Moab," &c.
Shahaz'imah, One of the towns of
the allotment of Issachar (Josh. xix. 22
only). Sha'lem, Gen, xxxiii, 18, It seeras
more than probable that this word should
not here be taken as a proper narae, but
that the sentence should be rendered, " Ja
cob carae safe to the city of Shechem,"
It is certainly remarkable that there should
be a modern village bearing the name of
Salim, 3 miles east of Ndblus (the ancient
Shechem) ; but this appears to be only a
fbrtuitous coincidence,
Sha'lim, The Land of, a district
through which Saul passed on his journey
in quest of his father's asses (1 Sara. ix. 4,
only). The spelling of the narae in the
original, properly Sha'dlim, shows th.at it
had no connection with Shalera, or with
the modern Salim, east of Ndblus.
Shal'isha, The Land of, one of .the
districts traversed by Saul when in search
of the asses of Kish (1 Sam, ix, 4, only).
If the land of Shalisha contained, as it not
impossibly did, the place called Baal- Sha
lisha (2 K, iv. 42), then the whole disposi
tion of Saul's route would be changed,
Shal'leeheth, The Gate, one of the
gates of the "house of Jehovah" (1 Chr,
xxvi. 16). It was the gate " to the cause
way of the ascent." As the causeway is
actually in existence, the gate Shallecheth
can hardly fail to be identical with the Bab
Silsileh, or Sinsleh, which enters the west
wall of the Haram about 600 feet from the
south-west corner of the Haram wall.
Shal'lum, 1. The fifteenth king of
Israel, son of Jfbosh, conspired against
Zechariah, son of Jeroboara IL, killed hira,
and brought the dynasty of Jehu to a close,
B. c. 770. Shallum, after reigning in Sa
maria for a month only, was in his turn de
throned and killed by Menahem (2 K. x- .

10-14). 2. The husband, of Huldah tha
prophetess (2 K. xxU. 14; 2 Chr. xxxiv.
22) in the reign of Josiah. 3. A descend
ant of Sheshara (1 Chr. ii. 40, 41). 4.
The third son of Josiah king of Judah,
known in the books of Kings and Chron
icles as Jehoahaz (1 Chr. iii- 15; Jer, xxii.
11). [Jehoahaz.] 5. Son of Shaul the
son of Siraeon (1 Chr. iv. 25). 6. A high-
priest, son of Zadok and ancestor of Ezra
(1 Chr. vi, 12, 13; Ezr, vu, 2). 7. A son
of NaphtaU (1 Chr. vu. 13), 8, The chief
of a family of porters or gate-keepers of
the east gate ofthe Temple (1 Chr. ix. 17).
9. Son of Kore, a Korahite (1 Chr, ix, 19,
31), With this Shallura we may identify
Meshelemiah and Shelemiah (1 Chr, xxvi.
1, 2, 9, 14), but he seems to be different
from the last-mentioned Shallura. 10.
Father of Jehizkiah, an Ephrairaite (2 Chr.
xxviii. 12). 11. One of the porters of the
Teraple who had raarried a foreign wife
(Ezr. X. 24). 12, One of the sons of
Bani (Ezr. x. 42). 13. The son of Halo-
hesh and ruler of a district of Jerusalera
(Neh. iii. 12). 14. The uncle of Jereraiah
(Jer. xxxii. 7) ; perhaps the sarae as 2.
is. Father or ancestor of Maaseiah (Jer.
xxxv. 4) ; perhaps the sarae as 9.
Shal'lun. 'The son of Col-hozeh, and
ruler of a district of the Mizpah (Neh. iii.
15), Shalma'i. The children cf Shalmai
(or Shamlai, as in the margin of Ezr, ii,
46) were among the Nethinira who returned
with Zerubbabel (Ezr, ii, 46; Neh, vii, 48),
In Nehemiah the name is properly Sal-
MAI, Shal'man. Shalmaneser king of As
syria (Hos, X, 14).
Shalmane'ser was the Assyrian king
who- reigned imraediately before Sargon,
and probably iramediately after Tiglath-
pileser, He can scarcely have ascended
the throne earlier than b, c, 730, and may
possibly not have done so till a few years
later. It must have been soon after his
accession that he led the forces of Assyria
into Palestine, where Hoshea, the last king
of Israel had revolted against his authority
(2 IC. xvii. 3), No sooner was he come
than Hoshea submitted, acknowledged him
self a "servant" of the Great King, and
consented to pay him a fixed tribute .annu
ally. He soon after concluded an alliance
with the king of Egypt, and withhelr' his
tribute in consequence. In b, c. 723 iShal-
maneser invaded Palestine for the second
time, and, as Hoshea refused to submit,
laid siege to Saraaria. The siege lasted to
the third year (b. c. 721), when the As
syrian - arras prevailed (2 K. xvii, 4-G.
xvUi. 9-11). It is uncertain whether Shal
raaneser conducted the siege to its close,
or whether he did not lose his crown t«
Sargon before the city was taken.

SHAMA

632

SHARAR

Sha'ma, One of David's guard, son of
Hothan of Aroer (1 Chr. xi. 44).
Shamari'ah, Son of Rehoboam (2
Chr. xi. 19).
Shammed- Properly Shamer, or She
mer; one of the sons of Elpaal the Benja
mite (1 Chr. viii. 12).
Sha'mer. 1. A Merarite Levite (1
Chr. vi. -46). 2. Shomer the son of Heber
an Asherite (1 Chr. vii. 34).
Sham'gar, son of An.ath, judge of Is
rael after Ehud, and before Barak, though
possibly conteraporary with the latter, since
he seeins to be spoken of in Judg. v. 6 as
a contemporary of Jael. In the days of
Shamgar, Israel was in a most depressed
condition, and the whole nation was cowed.
At this conjuncture Shamgar was raised up
to be a deliverer. With no arms in his
hand but an ox-goad (Judg. iii. 31 ; comp.
1 Sara. xin. 21), he made a desperate assault
upon the PhiUstines, and slew 600 of them.
But it was reserved for Deborah and Barak
to complete the deliverance.
Sham'huth. The fifth captain for the
fifth month in David's arrangement of his
array (1 Chr. xxvii. 8). From a compari
son of the Usts in 1 Chr. xi., xxvU., it would
seem that Sharahuth is the same as Sham-
moth the Harorite.
Sha'mir. 1. A town in the mountain
district of Judah (Josh. xv. 48, only). It
probably lay some eight or ten railes south
of Hebron, but it has not been yet discov
ered. 2. A place in Mount Ephraira, the
residence and burial-place of Tola the
judge (Judg. X. 1, 3). Perhaps Samur,
half way between Siimaria and Jenin. 3.
A Kohathite, son of Micah, or Michal, the
first-oorn of Uzziel (1 Chr. xxiv, 24),
Sham'ma. One of the sous of Zophar,
an Asherite (1 Chr. vii, 37).
Sham'mah. 1. The son of Reuel the
son of Esau (Gen. xxxvi. 13, 17; 1 Chr.
i. 37). 2. The third son of Jesse, .and
brother of David (1 Sam. xvi. 9, xvii. 13).
Called also Shlviba, Siiiiieah, and Shim-
ma. 3. One of the thi-ee greatest of
David's mighty men. He was with hira
during his outlaw life in tho cave of Adul-
lara, and signalized hiraself by defending a
piece of ground full of lentiles iigainst the
Philistines on one of their niiirauding in
cursions. This aohiovement gave hira a
place among the first three heroes (3 S.i.ra.
xxiii. 11-17). 4, The Harodite, oue of
David's raighties (3 Sara, xxiii, 25), He
is called " Siiammoth the Harorite" in
1 Chr. xi, 37, and in 1 Chr. xxvU, 8
" Shamiiuth the Izrahite," Kennicott
maintained the true reading in both to be
" Sharahoth the Harodite," 5, In the list
of David's mighty raen in 2 Sara, xxiii,
32, 33, we find "Jonathan, Sharaniah the
Hararite ; " while in the corresponding
ver^e of 1 Chr. xi, 84, it is " Jonathan,

the son of Shage the Hararite Com-
bining the two, Kennicott proposes to read
" Jonathan, the son of Shamha, the Hara-
"^"sharn'mai- 1- The son of Onam (I
Chr, U. 28, 32). 2, Son of Rekem (1 Chr.
U 44, 45)- 3- The brother of Miriam and
Islibah the founder of Eshtemoa, in an ob
scure genealogy of the descendants of Ju
diih (1 Chr. iv, 17).
Sham'moth- [Shammah.]
Shammu'a. 1- The Reubenite spy,
son of Zaccur (Num. xiU. 4.) 2. Son of
David, by his wife Bathsheba (1 Chr. xiv.
4). 3. A Levite, the father of Abda (Neh.
xi. 17). The same as Shemaiah 6. 4. The
representative of the priestly famUy of
Bilgah, or Bilgai, in the days of Joiakiin
(Neh. xu. 18).
Shammu'ah. Son of David (2 Sam.
V. 14); elsewhere called Siiammua, and
Shimea. Shamshera'i- One of the sons of
Jeroam, a Benjamite (1 Chr. viU, 26).
Sha'pham. A Gadite of Bashan (1
Chr, V. 12),
Sha'phan, the scribe or secretary of
king Josiah. He was the son of Azaliah
(3 K. xxu. 8; 2 Chr, xxxiv, 8), father
of Ahikam (2 K. x.xii. 12 ; 2 Chr. xxxiv.
20) Elasah (Jer. xxix. 3), and Geniiiriah
(Jer. xxxvi, 10, 11, 12), and grandfather
of Gedaliah (Jer. xxxix. 14, xl. 5, 9, 11,
xU. 2, xliU. 6), Michaiah (Jer. xx.xyi. 11),
and probably of Jaazaniah (Ez. vui. 11).
The history of Shaphan brings out some
points with regard to the office of scribe
which he held. He appears on an equality
with the governor of the city and the royal
recorder, with whom he was sent by the
king to Hilkiah to take an account of the
money which had been collected by the
Levites for the repair of the Teraple and to
piiy the workmen (2 K. xxii. 4; 2 Chr.
"xxxiv, 9 ; comp, 2 K. xii, 10). It was on
this occasion that Hilkiah communicated
his discovery of a copy of the Law, which
he had probably found while making prep
arations for the repair of the Teraple,
Sha'phat, 1, The Siraeonite spy, sou
of Hori (Nura, xiii, 5), 2. The latner ot
the prophet Elisha (1 K, xix, 16, 19 ; 2 K.
iii, 11, vi, 31), 3. One of the six sons of
Sheraaiah in tho royal line of Judah (1
Chr, iii, 23), 4. One of the chiefs of the
Gadites in Bashau (1 Chr, v, 12). 5. Tho
son of Adlai, who was over David's oxen
in the valleys (1 Chr, xxvii. 29).
Sha'pher, Mount (Num. x.xxUi.-23),
the n.ame of a desert station where the Is
raelites encamped. No ?ite nas 'oeen sug
gested for it.
Shar'ai- One of the sons of Bani (Ezr.
X. 40).
Shar'aim. [Shaaraim.]
Sha'rar. The father of Ahiam tha

SHAREZER

633

SHEBA

Hararite (2 Sam, xxiii. 83,). In 1 Chr, xi,
35 he is called Sacar, which Kennicott
thinks the true reading.
Share'zer was a son of Sennacherib,
whom, iu conjunction with his brother
Adrammelech, he murdered (2 K, xix, 37).
Sha'ron, a district of the Holy Land
occasionally referred to in the Bible (1
Chr. V. 16, xxvii. 29 ; Is, xxxiii. 9, xxxv,
2, lxv. 10; Cant, U. J ; Acts ix. 35, A. V.
S-iRON). The name has on each occur
rence, with oi;e exception only, the definite
artiiile (1 Chr. v. 16). It would therefore
appear that "the Sharon" was some well-
defined region familiar to the Israelites.
It is that broad, rich tract of land which lies
between the mountains of the central part
of the Holy Land and the Mediterranean —
the northern continuation of the Shefelah.
A general sketch of the district is given
under the head of Palestine (p. 487),
2, The Sharon of 1 Chr, v. 16, to which
allusion has already been made, is distin
guished from the western plain by not
having the article attached to its name, as
the other inv.ariably has. It is also ap
parent from the passage itself that it was
some district on the east of Jordan, in the
neighborhood of Gilead and Bashan. The
name has not been raet with in that direc
tion. Sha'ronite, The. Shitrai, who had
charge of the royal herds pastured in Sha
ron (1 Chr. xxvU. 29), is the only Sharon-
ite raentioned in the Bible.
Sharu'hen. A town named in Josh.
xix. 6 only, .amongst tliose which were al
lotted witliin Judah to Siraeon. Sharuhen
does not appear in the catalogue of the
cities of Judah ; but instead of it, and oc
cupying the samo position with regard to
the other names, we find Shilhim (xv. 32).
In the list of 1 Chr., on the other h.and, the
same position is occupied by Shaaralm (iv.
31). Whether these are different places,
or different naraes of the sarae place, or
mere variations of careless copyists, and,
in the last case, which is the original forra,
it is perhaps impossible now to determine.
Shash'ai. One of the sons of Bani in
the time of Ezra (Ezr. x. 40).
Sha'shak. A Benjamite, one of the
sons of Beriah (1 Chr. viii. 14, 25).
Sha'ul- 1- The son of Simeon by a
Canaanitish woraan (Gen. xlvi- 10 ; Ex. vi.
15; Num. xxvi. 13; 1 Chr. iv. 24), and
founder of the family of the Shaulites.
2- One of the kings of Edom (1 Chr. i. 48,
49). In the A. V. of Gen. xxxvi. 87 he is
less accurately called Saul.
Sha'veh, The ¦\raUey of, described as
"the Valley of the King" (Gen. xiv. 17).
The "VaUey of the King" is mentioned
agahi in 2 Sam. xviii. 18, as the site of a
pillar set up by Absalom ; but neither pas
sage conveys any indication of its position ;

and it Is by no raeans certain that the two
passages refer to the same spot.
Sha'veh Kiriatha'im, mentioned
(Gen. xiv. 5) as the residence of the Emim
at the tirae of Chedorlaonicr's incursion.
Kiriathaira is named in tho later history,
though it has not been identified ; and Sha
veh Kiriathaim wa.=i nrob.ablv tbe vallev in
or by which the town laj .
Shav'sha. The royal secretary in the
reign of Diivid (1 Chr. xviii. 16). lie is
apparently the same with Seraiah (2 Sam,
viii. 17). In 2 Sam. xx. 25 he is called
Sheva, and in 1 K. iv. 8, Shisha.
Sha'Wm. In the Pr.ayer-book version
of Ps. xcviii. 7, "with trurapets also and
shawms " is the rendering of what stands
in the A. V. " with trumpets and sound
of cornet." The Hebrevv word translated
" cornet " is treated under that head. The
" shawm " was a musical instruraent resem
bling the clarionet.
She'al. One of tho sons of Bani who
had raarried a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 29).
Sheal'tiel. Father of Zerubbabel (Ezr,
iU. 2, 8, V. 2 ; Neh. xu. 1 ; Hagg. i. 1, 12,
14, ii. 2, 23).
Sheari'ah. One of the six sons of
Azel, a descendant of Saul (1 Chr. viU. 38,
ix. 44).
Shearing-house, The, a place on the
road between Jezreel and Samaria, at which
Jehu, on his way to the latter, encountered
forty-two merabers of the royal family of
Judah, whom he slaughtered at the well or
pit attached to the place (2 K. x. 12, 14).
Eusebius mentions it as a village of Saraaria
" in the great plain [of Esdraelon], 15 railes
frora Legeon."
She'ar-ja'shub (Ut. "a remnant shall
return"), the son of Isaiah the prophet
(Is. vii. 3). The narae, like that of Maher-
shalal-hash-baz, had a mystical significance
(corap. Is. X. 20-22).
She'ba, the sou of Bichri, a Benjamite
from the raountains of Ephraira (2 Sara.
XX. 1-22), the last chief of the Absalom
insurrection. He is described as a "raan
of Belial." But he must have been a per
son of some consequence, frora the imraense
effect produced by his appearance. It was
in fact all but an anticipation of the revolt
of Jeroboam. The occasion seized by Sheba
Wiis the emulation, as if from loyalty, be
tween the northern and southern tribes on
David's return (2 S.ara. xx, 1, 2), The king
might well say, " Sheba the son of Bichri
shall do us more harm than did Absalon-,"
Sheba traversed the whole of Palestine,
apparently rousing the population, Joab
foUowing- in full pursuit. It seems to have
been his intention to establish himself in
the fortress of Abcl-Betb-raiiachab, faraous
for the prudence of its inhabitants (2 Sam.
XX. 18). That prudence was put to the test
on the present occasion. Joab's teras -^firs

SHEBA

634

SHECHEM

the head ofthe insurgent chief. A woman
of the place undertook the mission to her
city, and proposed the execution to her
fellow-citizens. The head of Sheba was
thrown over the wall, and the insurrection
ended. She'ba. 1. A son of Raamah, son of
Cush (Gen. x. 7; 1 Chr. i. 9). 2. A son
of Joktan (Gen. x. 28 ; 1 Chr. i. 22). 3. A
son of Jokshan, son of Keturah (Gen. xxv.
3; 1 Chr. i, 32), We shall consider, first,
the history of the Joktanite Sheba; and,
secondly, the Cushite Sheba and the Ketu-
rahite Sheba together. I. The Joktanites
were among the early colonists of Southern
Arabia, and the kingdom which they there
founded was, for many centuries, caUed the
kingdora of Sheba, after ono of the sons of
Joktan. The inhabitants are the " Sabaei"
of the Greeks and Romans. In the Bible,
the Joktanite Sheba, mentioned genealogi
cally in Gen. x. 38, recurs, as a kingdom,
in the account of the visit of the queen of
Sheba to king Solomon (1 K. x. 1). That
the queen was of Sheba in Arabia, and not
of Seba the Cushite kingdom of Ethiopia,
is unquestionable. The other passages in
the Bible which seera to refer to the
Joktanite Sheba occur in Is. lx. 6; and
ag.ain in Jer. vi. SO. In Ps. IxxU. 10, the
Joktanite Sheba is undoubtedly meant. The
kingdom of Sheba embraced the greater
part of the Yemen, or Arabia Felix. Its
chief cities, and probably successive capi
tals, were Seba, San'a (Uzal), and Zafiir
(Sephar). Seba was probably the narae
of the city, and generally of the country
and nation, -II, Sheba, son of Raamah
son of Cush, settled somewhere on- the
shores of the Persian Gulf, It was this
Sheba that carried on the great Indian
traffic with Palestine, in conjunction with,
as we hold, the other Sheba, son of Jok
shan son of Keturah, who, like Dedan,
appears to have forraed, with the Cushite
of the same name, one tribe.
She'ba, one of the towns of the allot
ment of Simeon (Josh, xix, 3), probably
the same as Shema (xv, 20).
She'bah, the famous well which gave
its name to the city of Beersheba (Gen.
xxvi. 33). [Beersheba.]
She'bam, one of the towns in the pas
toral district on the east of Jordan — de
manded by and finaUy ceded to the tribes
of Reuben and Gad (Num. xxiii. 8), It is
probably the same which appears in the
altered forras of Shibmah (Num, xxxii; 38)
and Sibmaii (Josh, xiU. 19; Is.xvi. 8, 9;
Jer. xlviU, 32).
Shebani'ah. 1. A Levite in the time
OI Ezra (Neh. ix. 4, 6). He sealed the
covenant with Nehemiah (Neh, x, 10). 2.
A priest or priestly faraily, who sealed the
covenant with Neheraiah (Neh. x, 4, xii,
14). Called Shechaniah in Neh. xu. 8.

3. AnjtherLe'iitewho sealed the ovenanl
with Nehemiah (Neh. x, 12). 4- One of
the priests appointed by David to blow with
the trumpets before the ark of God (1
Chr. XV. 24). , - T 1, ••
Sheb'arim, a place named m Josh. vii.
5, only, as one of the points hi the flight
frora Ai.
She'ber. Son of Caleb ben-IIezron by
his concubine Maachah (1 Chr. ii. 48).
Sheb'na, a person of high position in
Hezekiah's court, holding at one tirae the
office of prefect of the palace (Is. xxii. 15),
but subsequently the subordinate office of
secretary (Is. x.xxvi. 8; 2 K. xix. 2).
Sheb'uel- 1, A descendant of Ger
shom (1 Chr. xxUi. 16, x.xvi. 24), who was
ruler of the treasures of the house of God;
called also Shubael (1 Chr. xxiv, 20). He
is the last descendant of Moses of whom
there is any trace. 2, One ofthe fourteen
sons of Heman the minstrel (1 Chr, xxv.
4) ; caUed also Shubael (1 Chr. xxv. 20).
Shecani'ah- 1. The tenth in order of
the priests who were appointed by lot in the
reign of David (1 Cbr. x.xiv, 11). 2. A
priest in tho reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr.
xxxi. 15),
Sheehanl'ah. 1, A descendant of Ze
rubbabel (1 Chr, Ui. 21, 33). 2, Sorae de
scendants of Shechaniah returned with Ezra
(Ezr, viii, 3), 3- The sons of Shechaniah
lyere another family who returned with
Ezra (Ezr, viii, 5). In tliis verse some
narae appears to have been oraitied. Per
haps the reading should be, " of the sons
of Zattu, Shechani.ah, the son of Jahazieh"
4, The son of Jehiel of the sons of Elam
(Ezr. X. 2). 5. 'The father of Shemaiah 2
(Neh. Ui. 29), 6. The son of Arab (Neh.
vi. 18), 7- The head of a priestly fiimUy
who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh, xii, 3),
She'chem {back or shoulder). 1. An
important city in Central Palestine. The
etymology of the Hebrew word indicates
that the place was situated on some raoun
tain or hill-side ; and that presumption
agrees with Josh. xx. 7, wluch places it iu
Mount Ephraim (comp. 1 K. xii. 25), and
with Judg. ix. 9, which represents it as
under the sumniit of Gerizim,. which be
longed to the Ephraim range. Its present
name, Ndbulus, is a corruption of Neapolis ;
which succeeded the more ancient Shechem,
and received its new- n.ime.from Vespasian.
On coins still extiint it is called Flavia
Neapolis. The situation of the town is
one of surpassing beauty. It lies in a shel
tered valley, protected by Gerizim on the
south, and Ebal on the north. The feet of
these mountains, where they rise from the
town, are not raore than five hundred yards
apart. The bottom of the valley is about
1800 feet above the level of the sea, and
the top of Gerizira 800 feet higher still.
The site of the present city, which wus also

SHECHEM

635

SHECHEM

that of the Hebrew city, occurs exactly on
the water-summit ; and streams issuing from
the numerous springs there, flow down the
opposite elopes of the valley, spreading
verdure and fertility in every direction.
Travellers vie with each other in the lan
guage which they employ to describe the
scene that bursts here so suddenly upon
them on arriving in spring or early sumraer
at this paradise of the Holy Land. " The
whole valley," says Dr. Robinson, " was
filled with gardens of vegetables, and or
chards of all kinds of fruits, watered by
fountains, which burst forth in various parts
and flow westwards in refreshing streams.
It came upon us suddenly like a scene of
fairy enchantment. We saw nothing to
compare witli it in all Palestine. HiSre,
beneath the shadow of an imraense mul
berry-tree, by the side of a purling rill, we
pitched our tent for the reraainder of the
day and the night. . . . We rose early,
awakened by the songs of nightingales and
other birds, of which the gardens around
us were full." — The allusions to Shechem
in the Bible are nuraerous, and show how
iraportant tlie place was in Jewish history.
Abrahara, on his flrst raigration to the Land
of Promise, pitched his tent- and built an
altar under the Oak (or Terebinth) of
'Moreh at Shechem. " The Canaanite was
theu in the land ; " and it is evident that
the region, if not the city, was already in
possession of the aboriginal race (see Gen.
xii. 6). At the tirae of Jacob's arrival
here, after his sojourn in Mesopotaraia
(Gen. xxxiii. 18, xxxiv,), Shechem was a
Hivite city, of which Hamor, the father of
Shechera, was the headman. It was at this
time that the patriarch purchased from that
chieftain " the piircel of the field," which he
subsequently bequeathed, as a special patri
mony, to his son Joseph (Gen. xliii. 22;
Josh, xxiv, 32 ; John iv, 5) . The field lay un
doubtedly on the rich plain of the Mukhna,
and its value was the greater on account of
the well which Jacob had dug there, so as
not to be dependent on his neighbors for a
supply of water. The 'defilement of Dinah,
Jacob's daughter, and the capture of She
chem and massacre of all the male inhabit
ants by Simeon and Levi, are events that
belong to this period (Gen, xxxiv. 1, sq. The
oak under which Abrahara had worshipped
survived to Jacob's time (Gen, xxxv, 1-4),
The " oak of the monument" (Judg. ix. 6),
where the Shechemites made Abimelech
king, raarked, perhaps, the veneration with
which the Hebrews looked back to these
earliest footsteps of the patriarchs in the
Holy Land. In the distribution of the
land after its conquest by the Hebrews,
Shechem fell to the lot of Ephraim (Jpsh.
tx. 7), but was assigned to the Levites,
and became a city of refuge (Josh. xxi.
20, 21). It acquired new importance as

the scene of the renewed proraii Ization
of the Law, when its blessings were heard
from Gerizim and its curses from Ebal, and
the people bowed their heads and acknowl
edged Jehovah as their king and ruler (D cut.
xxvU. 11, and Josh, ix, 33-35). It was here
Joshua asserabled the people, shortly before
his death, and delivered to thera his last
counsels (Josh. xxiv. 1, 25). After the death
of Gideon, Abimelech, his bastard son, in
duced the Shecheraites to revolt from the
Hebrew commonwealth and elect hira as king
(Judg. ix.). In revenge for his expulsion,
after a reign of three years, Abimelech de
stroyed the city, and as an emblem of the
fate to which he would consign it, sowed
the ground with salt (Judg, ix, 34-45), It
was soon restored, however, for wo are
told in 1 K, xii. that all Israel assembled at
Shechem, and Rehoboam, Solomon's suc
cessor, went thither to be inaugurated as
king. Here, at this sarae place, the ten
tribes renounced the house of David, and
transferred their allegiance to Jeroboara (1
K, xii, 16), under whora Shechera became
for a tirae the capital of his kingdora. From
the tirae of the origin of the Saraaritans,
the history of Shechem blends itself with
that of this people and of their sacred
mount, Gerizira, [Samaria; Samaritan
Pent,] — Shechera reappears in the New
Testament, It is the Stchar of John iv.
5, near which the Saviour conversed with
the Samaritan woraan at Jacob's Well. In
Acts vii. 16, Stephen reminds his hearers
that certain of the patriarchs (raeaning
Joseph, as we see in Josli, xxiv, 32, and
following, perhaps, sorae tradition as to
Jacob's other sons) were buried at Sychem.
— The population of Ndbulus consists of
about 5000, araong whom, are 500 Greek
Christians, 150 Samaritans, and a few Jews.
The enmity between the Saraaritans and
Jews is as inveterate still, as it was in the
days of Christ. The Moh.araraedans,, of
course, make up the bulk of the population.
The Well of Jacob and the Tomb of
Joseph are still shown in the neighborhood
of the town. The Well of Jacob lies about
a mile and a half east of the city, close to
the lower road, and just beyond the wretch
ed hamlet of Baldia. The Christians
sometimes call it Bir es-Samariyeh —
" the well of the Samaritan woman." The
well is deep — 75 ft. when last measured —
and there was probably a considerable ac
cumulation of rubbish at the bottom. Sorae
tiraes it contains a few feet of water, but at
others it is quite dry. It is entirely exca
vated in the solid rock, perfectly round, 9
ft. in diaracter, with the sides hewn smooth
and regular. Of all the special locaUties
of our Lord's life, this is almost the only
one absolutely undisputed. The Tomb of
Joseph lies about a quarter of a mile north
of the weU, exactly in the centre of the

SHECHEMITES

636

SHEEP

opening of the valley between Gerizim and
Ebal. It is a small, square euclosure of
high whitewashed walls, surrounding a
torab of the ordinary kind, but with the
peculiarity that it is placed diagonally to
the walls, instead of parallel, as usual. A
rough pillar used as an altar, and black
with tho traces of flre, is at the head, and
another at the foot of the Tomb. In the
walls are two slabs with Hebrew inscrip
tions, and the interior is almost covered
^'th the naraes of pUgriras in Hebrew,
Arabic, and 3a'.iiarltan. Beyond this there
is nothing to reraark in the structure itself.
The local tradition of the Torab, like that
of the well, is as old as tbe beginning of
the 4th century. 2. The son of Hamor tho
chieftain of the Hivite settleraent of She
chem at the time of Jacob's arrival (Gen.
xxxiU. 19, xxxiv. 2-26; Josh, xxiv, 32;
Judg. ix. 28). 3. A man of Manasseh, of
the clan of Gilead (Num. xxvi, 81), 4. A
Gileadite, son of Shemida, the younger
brother ofthe foregoing (1 Chr. vU. 19),
She'chemites, The. The faraily of
Shechera, son of GUead (Num. xxvi. 81 ;
comp. Josh. xvii. 2).
Sheehi'nah. 'This terra is not found
in the Bible. It was used by the later
Jews, and borrowed by Christians frora
them, to express the visible majesty of the
Divine Presence, especially when resting,
or dwelling, between the Cherubim on the
mercy-seat in the Tabernacle, and in the
temple of Solomon ; but not in Zerubba
bel's teraple, for it was one of the five par
ticulars which the Jews reckon to have
been wanting in the second temple. The
use of the terra is first found in the Tar
gums, where it forras a frequent periphrasis
for God, considered as dwelling amongst
the children of Israel, and is thus used,
especially by Onkelos, to avoid ascribing
corporeity to God Hiraself. In Ex. xxv. 8,
where the Hebrew has, "Let thera make
me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among
thom," Onkelos has, " I will make ray She-
chiuiih to dwell among them." In xxix.
45, 46, for the Hebrew, "I will dwell araong
the chUdren of Isriiel," Onkelos has, "I
will raake ray Shochinah to dwell," &c.
As regards the visible manifestation of the
Divine Presence dwelling amongst tho Isra
eUtes, to which the term Shcchinah has
attached itself, the idea which the different
accounts in Scripture convey is that of a
most brUliiint and glorious light, enveloped
in a cloud, and usually concealed by the
cloud, so that the cloud itself was for the
most part alone visible ; but on particular
occasions the glory appeared. The allu
sions in the N. T. to the Shcchinah are not
unfrequent. Thus in the account of the
Nativity, the words, " Lo, the angel of the
Lord rame upon them, and the glory of tht>
Lord shone round about them " (Luke u.

9), foUowed by the apparition of "the
multitude of the heavenly host," recall the
appearance of the Divine glory on Smai,
when " He shined forth from Paran, and
came with ten thousands of saints " (Deut.
xxxiu. 2, comp. Ps. IxvUi. 17 ; Acts vii. 53 ;
Heb, U. 2; Ezek, xliu, 2). The " God of
glory" (Acts vii, 2, 55), "the cherubims
of glory " (Heb, ix. 5), " the glory " (Rom.
ix. 4), and other like passages, are distinct
references to the manifestations of the glory
in the O. T. When we read in John i. 14,
that " the Word was made flesh, and dwelt
among us, and we beheld his glory ; " or in
2 Cor. xii, 9, " that the power of Christ may
rest upon me ; " or in Rev. xxi. 8, "Behold,
the tabernacle of God is with men, and He
wiU dwell with them," we have not only ref
erences to the Shechinah, but are distinctly
taught to connect it with the incarnation
and future coraing of Messiah, as type with
antitype, Shed'eur. The father of Elizur, chief
of the tribe of Reuben at the time of the
E.xodus (Num. i. 5, ii. 10, vU. 30, 35, x.
18). Sheep. Sheep were an important part
of t'ne possessions of the ancient Hebrews
and of Eastern nations generaUy, The
flrst mention of sheep occurs in Gen. iv. 2.
They were used in the sacriflcial offerings,
both the adult animal (Ex, xx, 24; IK,
viii, 63 ; 2 Chr, xxix, 33) and the larab, i. e.
" a male from one to three years old," but
young lambs of the flrst year were more
generally used in the offerings (see Ex,
xxix. 88; Lev. lx. 3, xU. 6; Num. xxviu.
9, &c,). Sheep and larabs formed au ira
portant article of food (1 Sara, xxv, 18 ; 1
K. i, 19, iv. 23 ; Ps, xliv. 11, &c.). The
wool was used as clothing (Lev. xiii, 47;
Deut, xxU. 11; Prov. xxxi. 13; Job xxxi.
20, &c.), "Rams' skins dyed red "were
used as a covering for the tabernacle (Ex,
xxv, 5). Sheep and liinibs were sometimes
paid as tribute (2 K. iU, 4). It is very
striking to notice the immense nurabers of
sheep that were reared in Palestine in
BibUcal tiraes. Sheep-shearing is alluded
to Gen. xxxi, 19, xxxvUi, 13 ; Deut. xv, 19 ;
1 Sam, xxv, 4; Is, liU, 7, &c. Sheep dogs
were employed in BibUcal times, as is evi
dent frora Job x.xx, 1, " the dogs of ray
flock." Shepherds in Palestine and the
East generally go before their flocks, which
they induce to follow by calling to them
(corap. John .\. 4; Ps. IxxvU. 20, Ixxx. 1),
though they also drove them (Gen. xxxiii.
18). The following quotation from Hart
ley's Researches in Greece and the Levant,
p. 821, is strikingly illustrative of the al
lusions in John x. 1-16 : " Having h.ad
my attention directed last night to the
words in John x, 8, I asked my man if
it was usual in Greece to give names to
the sheep. He ik-forraed me that it was,

SHEEP-GATE

637

SHELOMxTH

and that the sheep obeyed the shepherd
when he called thera by their naraes.
This raorning I had an opportunity of veri
fying the truth of this reraark. Passing by
a flock of sheep, I asked the shepherd the
sarae question which I had put to the ser
vant, and he gave rae the sarae answer. I
then bade him call one of his sheep. He
did so, and it instantly left its pasturage
and its companions and ran up to the hands
of the shepherd with signs of pleasure and
with a prompt obedience which I had never
before observed in any other animal. It is
also true in this country that ' a stranger
will they not follow, but will flee from him.'
The shepherd told me that many of his
sheep were still wild, that they had not yet
learned their names, but that by teaching
them they would all learn thera." The
coraraon sheep of Syria and Palestine are
the broad-tailed. As the sheep is .an era
blera of meekness, patience, and subrais
sion, it is expressly mentioned as typifying
these qualities iu the person of our Blessed
Lord (Is. liU. 7; Acts viu. 32, &c.). The
relation that exists between Christ, "the
chief Shepherd," and His members is beau
tifully compared to that which in the East
is so strikingly exhibited by the shepherds
to their flocks. [Suepherd.]
Sheep-gate, The, one of the gates of
Jerusalem as rebuilt by Nehemiah (Neh.
iii. 1, 32, xii. 39). It stood between the
tower of Meah and the chamber of the
corner (iii. 82, 1) or gate of the guard
house (xii, 39, A. 'V, " prison-gate "). The
latter seeras to have been at the angle
formed by the junction of the wall of the
city of David with that of the city of Jeru
salem proper, having the sheep-gate on the
north of it. 'The position of the sheep-gate
may therefore have been on or near that
of the Bab el-Kattdnin.
Sheep-market, The (John v. 2).
The word " market " is an interpolation of
our translators. We ought probably to
supply the word "gate " (not " market"),
meaning the gate mentioned in the preced
ing article.
Shehari'ah, a Benjamite, son of Je
horam (1 Chr. viii. 26).
Shekel. In a former article [Monet]
some account has been given of the coins
called shekels. The present article will
only contain a few particulars relating
to the Jewish coinage which did not fall
within the plan of the former. Although
sorae shekels are found with Hebrew letters
instead of Samaritan, these are undoubt
edly all forgeries. Ramban, i. e. Rabbi-
Moses- Bar- Nachman, who lived about the
comraenceraent of the 13th century, de
scribes a shekel which he had seen, and of
which the Cuthaeans read the inscription
with ease. The explanation which they
gave of the inscription was on one side.

Shekel nu' Shekalim, "the shekel of shek
els," and on the other, " Jerusalem the
Holy," But the most iraportant passage
of all is that in which R, Azarias de Rossi
quotes the description of a shekel seen by
Ramban at St, Jean d'Acre, a, d. 1210. He
gives the inscriptions as above, " the Shekel
of Shekels," and " Jerusalem the Holy; "
but he also determines the vveight, which
he makes about half an ounce. We find,
therefore, that in early times shekels were
known to the Jewish Rabbis with Samari
tan inscriptions, corresponding with those
now found (except in one point, which ii
probably an error), and corresponding with
thcra in weight. "We believe that W. Pos-
tell is the first Christian writer who saw
and described a shekel. He was a Parisian
traveller, who visited Jerusalera early in the
16th century, Postell gives a very bad
wood-cut of one of these shekels, but the
inscription is correct. The correspondence
of t^e newly-found coins with the eariier
description is almost demonstrative. But
they bear such undoubted marks of genu
ineness, that no judge of ancient coins
could doubt thera for a moraent. On the
contrary, to a practised eye, those with
Hebrew inscriptions bear undoubted marks
of spuriousness, [Monet,]
She'lah, 1, The youngest son of Tudah
by the daughter of Shuah (Gen, x-xx-i'lii, 5,
11, 14, 26, xlvi, 12; Nura, xxvi, 20; 1 Chr.
ii. 3, iv, 21), 2, Tho proper form of the
name of Salah the son of Arphaxad (1
Chr, i, 18, 24).
She'lanites, The. The descendants
of Shelah 1 (Num. xxvi, 20).
Shelemi'ah, 1, One of the sons of
Bani in the time of Ezra (Ezr- x. 39). 2.
The father of Hananiah (Neh. iii. 30), 3.
A priest in the time of Nehemiah (Neh.
xiU, 13), 4, The father of Jehucal, or
Jucal, in the time of Zedekiah (Jer, xxxvii,
3), 5. The father of Irijah, the captain
of the ward who arrested Jeremiah (Jer,
xxxvii. 18), 6, The same as Meshele
miah and Shallum 8 (1 Chr, xxvi, 14), 7.
Another of the sons of Bani in the tirae of
Ezra (Ezr. x, 41), 8. Ancestor of Jehudi
in the tirae of Jehoiakim (Jer. xxxvi. 14),
9, Son of Abdeel ; one of those who re
ceived the orders of Jehoiakim to take
Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer, xxxvi. 26).
She'leph, the second in order of the
sons of Joktan (Gen. x. 26; 1 Chr. i. 20).
The tribe which sprang frora hira has been
satisfactorily identified, both in modern
and classical tiraes, 'The district of the
Yemen naraed after hira is that of Sidaf.
She'lesh, son of Helem (1 Chr. vU. 35).
Shel'omi, an Asherite, father of Ahi
hud (Num. xxxiv, 27),
Shel'omith. 1. The daughter of Dibri
of the tribe of Dan (Lev. xxiv. 11). 2.
The daughter of Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iii.

SHELOMOTH

638

SHEMARIAH

19). 3. Chief of the Izharites (1 Chr.
xxiii. 18). 4- A descendant of Eliezer
the son of Moses, in the reign of David
(1, Chr. xxvi. 25, 26, 28). 5. A Ger
shonite, son of Shiraei (1 Chr. xxiii. 9).
" Shiraei " is probably a raistake. 6. Ac
cording to the present text, the sons of
Shelomith, with the son of Josiphiah at
their heail, - returned from Babylon with
Ezra (Ezr. viii. 10). There appears, how
ever, to be an omission, and the true read
ing is probiibly, " Of the sons of Bani,
Shelomith the son of Josiphiah."
Shel'omoth, the same as Shelomith
3 (1 Chr. xxiv. 22).
Shelu'miel, the son of Zurishaddai,
and prince of the tribe of Simepn at -the
tirae of the E.xodus (Nura. i. 6, U. 12, vu.
86, 41, X. 19).
Shem, the eldest son of Noah, born
(Gen. V. 32) when his father had attained
the age of 500 years. He w.as 98 years old,
married, and childless, at the time oi the
Flood. After it, he, with his father, broth
ers, sisters-in-law, and wife, received the
blessing of God (i.x. 1), and entered into
the covenant. Two years afterwards he
became the father of Arphaxiid (xi. 10),
and other children were born to him subse
quently. AA'ith the help of his brother Ja
pheth, he covered the nakedness of their
father, wliijli Canaan and Ham did not care
to hide. In the prophecy of Noah which
is connected with this incident (ix. 25-27),
the first blessing falls on Shem, He died
at the age of 600 years. The portion of
the earth occupied by the descendants of
Shem (x, 21-31) intersects the portions of
Japheth and Ham, and stretches in an un
interrupted line from the Mediterranean
Sea to the Indian Ocean, Beginning at its
north-western extremity with Lydia, it in
cludes Syria (Arara), Chaldaea (Arphax
ad), parts of Assyria (Assliur), of Persia
(Elara), and of the Arabian Peninsula
(Joktan) . Modern scholars have given the
narae of Shemitic or Semitic to the lan
guages spoken by his real or supposed de
scendants, [Hebrew.]
She'ma. 1. A Reubenite, ancestor of
Bela (1 Chr. v, 8), 2. Son of Elpaal (1
Chr. viU, 13), Probably the same as
Shimhi, 3, One of those who stood at
Ezra's right hand when he read the law to
the people (Neh, viu. 4). 4, (Josh, xv,
26). [Sheba.].
Shem'aah, a Benjamite of Gibeah,
and father of Ahiezor and Joash (1 Chr.
xii. 3),
Shemai'ah, 1. A prophet in the reign
of Rehoboara. When the king had assem
bled 180,000 men of Benjamin and Judah to
reconquer the northern kingdora after its re
volt, Sheraaiah was coramissioned to charge
them to return to their homes, .and not to
war against their brethren (1 K. xu, 22 ;

2 Chr, xi, 2). His second and last appear
ance upon the stage was upon the occasion
of the invasion of Judah and siege of Jeru
salem by Shishak king of Egypt (2 Chr.-
xii, 5, 7). He wrote a chronicle contain-
iiitr the events of Rehoboara's reign (2 Chr,
xif. 15). 2. The son of Shechaniah,
among the descendants of Zerubbabel (1
Chr, ui. 22). He was keeper of the east
gate of the city, and assisted Neheraiah in
restoring the wall (Neh. iU, 29), 3. An
cestor of Ziza, a prince of the tribe of
Simeon (1 Chr. iv. 37). Perhaps the sarae
as Shimei 6. 4. Son of Joel, a Reubenite;
perhaps the same as Shema (1 Chr. v. 4).
5. Son of Hasshub, a Merarite Levite (1
Chr. ix. 14; Neh. xi, 15), 6, Father of
Obadiah, or Abda, a Levite (1 Chr, ix.
16), 7. Son of Elizaphan, and. chief of
his house in the reign of David (1 Chr. xv.
8, 11). 8. A Levite, son of Nethaneel, and
also a scribe in the time of David (1 Chr.
xxiv, 6). 9. The eldest son of Obed-edom
the Gittite (1 Chr. xxvi. 4, 6, 7). 10. A
descendant of Jeduthun the singer, who
lived in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr.
xxix. 14). 11. One of the sons of Adoni
kam who returned with Ezra (Ezr. vui.
18. 12. One of the "heads" whom Ezra
sent for to his camp by the river of Ahava,
for the purpose of obtaining Levites and
ministers for the Temple from " the place
Casiphia" (Ezr. viii. 16). 13. A priest
of the family of Harim, who put away his
foreign wife at Ezra's bidding (Ezr. x, 21).
14. A layraan of Israel, sou of another
Harim, who had also married a foreigner
(Ezr, X, 31,) 15. Son of Delaiah the son of
Mehetabeel, a prophet in the tirae of Nehe
miah (Neh. vi. 10). 18. The head of a
priestly house who signed the covenant
with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 8). His famUy
went up with Zerubbabel, and were repre
sented in the tirae of Joiakira by Jehonathan
(Neh. xii. 6, 18), Probably the same who
is raentioned again in Neh, xii, S5, 17.
One of the princes of Judah at the tirae of
the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem
(Neh. xU. 34). 18. One of tho choir on
the same occasion (Neh. xU, 36). 19. A
priest who blew a trumpet on the same
occasion (Neh. xii, 42), 20. Shemaiah the
Nehelaraite, a false prophet in the time of
Jeremiah (Jer. xxix. 24-32). 21, A Le
vite in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr.
xvii, 8) , 22- A Levite in the reign of Hez
ekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 15). 23. A Levite in
the reign of Josiiih, who assisted at the
solemn passover (2 Chr. xxxv, 9). 24.
The father of Urijah of Kirjath-jearim
rjcr, xxvi, 20), 25. The father of Delaiah
(jer. xxxvi. 12).
Shemari'ah. 1. One of the Benja
raite warriors who carae to David at Ziklag
(1 Chr. xii. 5). 2. One ofthe faraily of
Harim, a, layraan of Israel, ^ ho put away

SHEMEBER

639

SHEMITIC LANGUAGES

his foreign wife in the time of Ezra (Ezr.
X. 32). 3. One of the family of Bani,
under the same circumstances as the pre
ceding (Ezr. X. 41).
Sheme'ber, king of Zeboim, and ally of
the king of Sodom when he was attacked
by the north-eastern invaders under Che
dorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 2).
She'pier, the owner of the hill on which
the city of Samaria was built (1 K. xvi.
34). [Samaria.]
Shemi'da, a son of Gilead (Num. xxvi.
32; Josh. xvu. 2).
Shemi'dah, Shemida the son of GUead
(1 Chr. vii, 19),
Shemida'ites, The, the descendants
of .Shemida the son of Gilead (Num, xxvi,
32), They obtained their lot araong the
male children of Manasseh.
Shem'iuith, The title of Ps, vi. is:
" To the chief Musician on Neginoth upon
Sheminith," or "the eighth," as the mar
gin of the A, V, has it, A similar direc
tion is found in the title of Ps. xii. (comp,
1 Chr. XV. 21). It seeras most probable
that Sheminith denotes a certain air known
as the eighth, or a certain key in which the
Psalm was to be -sung.
Shemir'amoth, 1 . A Levite of the sec
ond degree, in the choir forraed by David
(1 Chr, XV, 18, 20, xvi, 5), 2, A Levite in
the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii, 8).
Shemitic Languages, l . The expres
sions, ." Shemitic family," and "Shemitic
languages," are based, as is well known,
on a reference to Gen. x, 21, seqq. Subse
quently, the obvious inaccuracy of the ex
pression has led to an attempt to substitute
others, such as Western Asiatic, or Syro-
Arabic — this last a happily chosen desig
nation, as bringing at once before us the
two geographical extremes of this faraily
of languages. 2. It is impossible to lay
down with accuracy the boundaries of the
area occupied by the tribes employing so-
called Shemitic dialects. For general pur
poses, the highlands of Armenia may be
taken as the Northern boundary — the river
Tigris and the r.anges beyond it as the East
ern — and tho Red Sea, the Levant, and
certain portions of Asia Minor as 'the "West
ern. 3. Varieties of the great Shemitic
language-family are to be found in use in
the following localities within the area
named. Along the Mediterranean seaboard,
and among the tribes settled in Canaan,
must be placed the home of the language
of the canonical books of the Old Testa
ment, among which were interspersed some
relics of that of the Phoenicians. In the
south, amid the seclusion of Arabia, was
preserved the dialect destined at a subse
quent period so widely to surpass its sisters
in the extent of territory over which it is
spoken. 4. The peculiar elements of the
Shemitic character wUl be found to have

exercised considerable influence on their
literature. Like other languages, this one
is mainly resolvable into monosyllabic prim
itives. Another leading peculiarity of this
branch of languages is the absence (save
in the case of proper names) of compound
words — to which the sister family is in
debted for so much life and variety.
Hebrew Language. — Period of
Growth. — 5. The Hebrew language is a
branch of the so-called Shemitic faraily,
extending over a large portion of South
western Asia. In the north (or Arara,
under which designation are coraprchended
Syria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia), aud under
a cliraate partially cold and ungenial — in
the close proxiraity of tribes of a different
origin, not unfrequently masters by con
quest — the Shemitic dialect became in
places harsher, and its general character
less pure and distinct. Towards the south,
opposite causes contributed to maintain the
language in its purity. Originally, the lan
guage of the Hebrews presented more affin
ities with the Araraaic, in accordance with
their own family accounts, which bring the
patriarchs frora the N. E., — more directly
from Northern Mesopotamia. 6. Two ques
tions, in- direct connection with the early
raoveraents of the ancestors of the subse
quent Hebrew nation, have been discussed
with great earnestness by raany 'writers —
the first bearing on the causes which set
the Terachite faraily in raotion towards the
souih and west; the second, on the origin
and language of the tribes in possession of
Canaan at the arrival of Abraham. Scrip
ture only tells us that, led in a way which
they knew not, chosen Shemitic wanderers
of the lineage of Arphaxad set forth on the
journey fraught with such enduring con
sequences to the history of the world, as
recorded in Scripture, in its second stage
of progress. There is nothing unreasonable
in the thought, that the movement of Terah
from Ur of the Chaldees was caused by
Divine suggestion, acting on a mind ill at
ease in the neighborhood of Cushite thought
and habits. Scripture is distinct upon the
fact, that the new comers and the early
settlers in Canaan found no difficulty in
conversing. Of the origin of its earliest
occupants, history records nothing certain.
Some claim for the early inhabitants of Asia
Minor a Japhetian origin. Others affirm the
descent of these early tribes from Lud, the
fourtli son of Shem, 7, Another view is
that put forward by Rawlinson, and shared
by other scholars. " Either from ancient
raonuraents, or from, tradition, or from the
dialects now spoken by their descendants,
we are authorized to infer that at sorae
very remote period, before the rise cf the
Shemitic or Arian nations, a great Scytliic"
(= Hamitic) " population must have over
spread Europe, Asia, and Africa, speaking

SHEMITIC LANGUAGES

640

SHEMITIC LANGUAGES

languages .all more or less dissimilar in
their vocabulary, hut possessing in coraraon
certain organic characteristics of grararaar
and construction." And this statement
would appear, in its leading features, to be
historically sound. Looking to the authori
tative records (Gen, ix, 18, x, 6, 15-20)
there would seera to be no reason for doubt
as to the Haraitic origin of these tribes.
Nor can the singular accordiinces discernible
between. the langu.age of these Canaanitish
(= Hamitic) occupants and the Shemitic
faraily be justly pleaded in bar of this view
of the origin of the former. " If wo ex
amine tbe invaluable ethnography of the
Book ot Genesis, we shall find that, while
Ham is the brother of Shera, and therefore
a relationship between his descend.ants and
tlie Sheniitic nations fully recognized, the
Hamites are described as those who previ
ously occupied the different countries into
which the Aramaean race afterwards forced
their Wiiy. Thus Scripture (Gen. x. seqq.)
attributes to the race of Ham not only the
aboriginal population of Canaan, with its
wealthy and civilized communities on the
coast, but also the mighty empires of Baby
lon and Nineveh, tbe rich kingdoms of Sheba
and Havilah in Arabia Felix, and the won
derful realm of Egypt. TTliere is every
reason to believe — indeed in some cases
the proof amounts to demonstration — that
all these Haraitic nations spoke languages
whicli differed only dialcctically from those
of tbe Syro-Arabic family," 8, Connected
with tliis subject is the question. Did the
Terachite branch of the Shemitic stock
acquire the art of writing from the Phoe
nicians, or Egypti.ans, or Assyrians — or
was it evolved from given elements araong
theraselves? [Writing,] 9, Between the
dialects of Aram and Arabia, that of the
Teriichites occupied a raiddle place. The
diiilect which we are now considering has
been ordinarily designated as that of the
Hebrews, rather than of the Israelites,
Probably the terra " Hebrews " should be
regarded as designating all the Sheraitic-
speaking tribes which had raigrated to the
south from the other side of the Euphrates,
and in that case might have been applied
by the earlier inhabitants of Canaan, 10.
Many causes, all obvious and intelligible,
combine to make difficult, if not impossible,
any formal or detached account of the
Hebrew language, anterior to its assuming
a written shape. The general style of
Hebrew prose literature is plain and simple,
but lively and pictorial, and rising with the
subject, at tiraes, to considerable elevation.
But the requisite elevation of poetical cora
position led to the introduction of raany
expressions which we do not coraraonly find
in Hebrew prose literature. For the origin
and existence of these we must look espe
cially to the Aramaic. But from the earUest

period of the existence of a literature among
the Hebrew people to b. c. 600, the Hebrew
language continued singularly exempt from
change. From that period the Hebrew dia- .
lect will be found to give way before the
Araraaic. Aramaic Language, — Scholsstic Pe
riod. 11- The language ordinarily called
Araraaic is a dialect of the great Shemitic
family, deriving its narae from the district
over which it was spoken, Aram == the high
or hill country (as Canaan = the low
country)- In general pr.actice Aram -was
divided into Eastern and AVestern, The
dialects of these two districts were seveially
called Chaldaic and Syriac, The eastern
boundary of the Shemitic languages is ob
scure ; but this much may be safely as
sumed, that this family had its earliest set
tlement on the upper basin of the Tigris,
from which extensions were doubtless made
to the south. 13, The earliest e.xtant frag
ments are the well-known ones to be found
at Diin. U. 4-vu. 38; Ezr. iv. 8-vi. 18, vii.
12-26; Jer. x. 11. The Christian or eccle
siastical Aramaic is that ordinarily known
as Syriac — the language of early Christiiin
ity, as Hebi'cw and Arabic, respectively, of
the Jewish religion and Mohammedanism.
13. Perhaps few lines of demarcation are
traced with greater difficulty than those by
which one age of a language is separated,
frora another. This is reraarkably the case
in respect of the cessation of the Hebrew,
and the ascendency of the Aramaic, 14.
Of the other main division of the Aramaic
language — the Western or Syriac diiilect —
the earliest existing document is the Peshito
version of the Scriptures, which not im
probably belongs to the middle of the second
century. The Syrian dialect is thickly
studded with foreign words — Arabic, Per
sian, Greek, and Latin, especially with the
third, 15, The Chaldaic paraphrases of
Scripture are exceedingly valuable for the
light which they throw on Jewish manners
and customs, and the meaning of passages
otherwise obscure, as hkewise for many
happy renderings ofthe original text- But
they are viiluable also on higher reasons —
the Christian interpretation put by their
authors on controverted passages. A com
parative estimate is not yet attainable, as to
what in Targumic Uterature is the pure e.x-
pression and development of the Jewish
mind, and what is of foreign growth. But,
as has been said, the Targuras and kindred
writings .are of considerable dogmatical and
exegetical v.alue ; and a similar good work
has been effected by raeans of the cognate
dialect. Western Araraaic or Syriac. Frora
the 3d to the 9th century, Syriac was, to a
great part of Asia, what in their spheres
Hellenic Greek and raediaeval Latin have
respectively been — the one ecclesiastical
language of the district naraed.

SHEiMITIC LANGUAGES

641

SHEPHERD

Araeig Language. — Pkriod of Revi
val. 16. Wo find Arabia occupied by a
confluence of tribes, the leading one of un-
-doubted Ishmaelitish descent — the others
of the seed or lineage of Abraham, and
blended by alliance, language, neighbor
hood, and habits. Before these any abori
ginal inhabitants must have disappeared-
We have seen that the peninsula of Arabia
lay In the fl'ack of Cushite civilization, in
its supposed return-course towards the
north-east. 17. Internal evidence demon
strates that the Ar.abic language, at the
time when it flrst appears on the field of
history, was being gradually developed in
its reraote and barren peninsular horae.
That the Ariibs possessed a literature an
terior to the birth of Mohararaed, and ex
pressed in a language raarked with many
graramatical peculiarities, is beyond doubt.
The earliest reliable relics of Arabic litera
ture are only fragments, to be found in
what has corae down to us of pre-Islaraite
compositions, 18. With regard to the value
of Arabic in illustration, two different judg
ments obtain. According to one, all the
lexical riches and grammatical varieties of
the Shemitic family are to be found com
bined in the Arabic, 19, Another school
maintains very different opinions. The
comparatively recent date (in their present
form at least) and limited araount of Arabic
remains are pleaded against its claims as a
standard of reference in respect of the He
brew. Its verbal copiousness, elaborate
mechanism, subtilty of thought, wide and
diversified fields of literature, cannot be
called in question. But it is urged (and
colorably) that its riches are not all pure
metal, and that no great attention to ety
raology has been evinced by native writers
on the language. 20. We now approach a
question of great interest. Was the art of
writing invented by Moses and his contem
poraries, or from what source did the He
brew nation acquire it? It can hardly be
doubted that the art of writing was known
to the Israelites in the time of Moses,
Great diff'erence of opinion has prevailed as
to which of the Shemitic peoples may justly
claira the invention of letters, [Writing,]
The history of the Arabic language has a
peculiar feature. Until a comparatively
short time before the days of Moharamed,
the art of writing appears to have been
practically unknown. For the Himyarites
guarded with jealous care their own peculiar
character -^ the " musnad," or elevated; in
itself unfitted for general use. Possibly
different tribes raight have possessed ap
proaches to written characters ; but about
the beginning of the 7th century, the heavy
cumbrous Cufie character (so called frora
Cufa, the city whence it was most early used)
p,ppears to have been generally adopted.
It was said to have been invented by Mura-
41

mar-Ibn Murrat, a, native of Babylonian
Irak. 21. A comparison of the Shemitic
languages, as known to us, presents them
as very unevenly developeil. In their pres
ent form the Arabic is undoubtedly the
richest: but it would have been rivalled liy
the Hebrew had a career been vouchsafi.-d
equally long and favorable to this latter,
Shemu;el, 1. Son of Ammihud, ap
pointed from the tribe of Simeon to divide
the land of Canaan (Num. xx.xiv. 20). 2,
Samuel the prophet (1 Chr. vi. 33). 3.
Son of Tola, and one of the chiefs of the
tribe of Issachar (1 Chr. vii. 2).
Shen, A place mentioned only in 1
Sam, vii, 12, Nothing is known of it,
Shena'zar. Son of Salathiel, or Sheal
tiel (1 Chr. Ui. 18),
She'nir. [Senir.]
She'pham, a place mentioned only in
the specification by Moses of the eastern
boundary of the Promised Land (Num,
xxxiv. 10, 11), The ancient interpreters
render the narae by Aparaea ; but it seeras
uncertain whether by this they intend the
Greek city of that narae on the Orontes, 50
miles below Antioch, or whether they use
it as a synonyme of Bani.as or Dan,
Shephathi'ah- A Benjamite, father
of Meshdllam 6 (1 Chr, ix. 8). The narae
is properly Shephatiah, as iu the ed. of
16U.
Shephati'ah, 1- The fifth son of Da
vid by his wife Abital (2 Sam. iii. 4 ; 1 Chr.
iU„3). 2. The family of Shephatiah, 372
iu number, returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr.
ii. 4; Neh. vii. 9). A second det.achment
of eighty, with Zebadiah at their head,
came up with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 8). 3. The
family of another Shephatiah were among
the children of Solomon's servants, who
came up with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 57 ; Neh.
vii. 59). 4. A descendant of Perez, or
Pharez, the son of Judah, and ancestor of
Athaiah (Neh. xi, 4). 5, The son of Mat-
tan; one of the princes of Judah who
counselled Zedekiah to put Jeremiah in the
dungeon (Jer. xxxviii, 1). 6. The Har-
uphite, or Hariphite, one of the Benjamite
warriors who joined David in his retreat at
Ziklag (1 Chr. xU. 5). 7. Son of M.aaohiili,
and chief of the Simeonites in the reign
of David (1 Chr. xxvii. 16). 8. Son of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xxi. 2).
Shepherd- In a nomadic state of so
ciety every man, from the sheikh down to
the slave, is more or less a shepherd. The
progenitors of the Jews in the patriarchal
age were nomads, and their history is rich
in scenes of pastoral life. The occupation
of tending the flocks was undertaken, not
only by the sons of wealthy chiefs (Gen.
xxx. 29, ff., xxxvii. 12, ff.), but even by their
daughters (Gen. xxix. 6, ff. ; Ex. ii. 19).
The Egyptian captivity did much to im
plant a love of settled abode, and conse-

SHEPHERD

642

SHESHAI

quently wo find the tribes which still re
tained a taste for shepherd life selecting
their own quarters apart from their brethren
in the trans-Jordanic district (Num', xxxii, 1,
ff,). Henceforward in' Palestine Proper
the shepherd held a subordinate position.
The office of the Eastern shepherd, as de
scribed in the Bible, was attended with
much hardship, and even danger. He was
exposed to the extreraes of heat and cold
(Gen, xxxi, 40) ; his food frequently con
sisted of the precarious supplies afforded
by nature, such as the fruit of the " syca
more" or Egyptian fig (Ara. vii, 14), the
"husks" of the carob-tree (Luke xv, 16),
and perchance the locusts and wild boney
which supported the Baptist (Matt, iU, 4) ;
he had to encounter tbe attacks of wild
beasts, occasiouiilly of the larger species,
such as lions, wolves, panthers, and bears
(1 Sam, xvii. 34; Is. xxxi. 4; Jer, v, 6;
Am. iii. 12) ; nor was he free from the risk
of robbers or predatory hordes (Gen. xxxi,
39), To meet these various foes the shep
herd's equipment consisted of the follow
ing articles : a raantle, made probiibly of
sheepskin with the fleece on, ¦which he
turned inside out in cold weather, as im
plied in tlie comparison in Jer, xliii. 12 (cf.
Juv. xiv. 187) ; a scrip or wallet, contain
ing a sra.all amount of food (1 Sam. xvii.
40) ; a sling, whicli is still the favorite
weapon of the Bedouin shepherd (1 Sam.
xvii, 40) ; and, lastly, a staff, which served
the double purpose of a weapon against
foes, and a crook for the manageraent of
the 'flock (1 Sara. xvii. 40; Ps, xxiu, 4;
Zech, xi. 7). If the shepherd was at a dis
tance from his horae, he was provided with
;i light tent (Cant, i. 8; Jer, xxxv, 7), the
removal of which was easily effected (Is,
xxxviii, 12), In certain localities, more
over, towers were erected for the double
purpose of spying an enemy at a distance,
and protecting the flock : such towers were
erected by Uzziah and Jotham (2 Chr, xxvi,
10, xxvii, 4), while their existence in earlier
times is testified by the name Migdal-Eder
(Gen. xxxv. 21, A. V, " tower of Edar; "
Mic, iv, 8, A. V. "tower of the flock").
The routine of the shepherd's duties ap
pears to have been as follows : In the
morning he led forth his flock from the
fold (John X, 4), which he did by going be
fore them and calling to thera, as is sUU
usual in the East ; arrived at the pasturage,
he watched the flock with the assistance of
dogs (Job xxx. 1,), and, should any sheep
stray, he had to search for it untU he found
it (Ez. xx.xiv. 13; Luke xv, 4); he sup
plied thera with water, either at a running
stream or at troughs attached to wells
(Gen. xxix. 7, xxx. 38; Ex. U. 16; Ps.
xxui. 2) ; a:t evening he brought them back
to the fold, and reckoned thera, to see that
none v/ere missing, by passing them " un

der the rod " as they entered the door of
the enclosure (Lev. xxvu. 32 ; Ez. xx, 37),
checking each sheep, as it passed, by a mo
tion of the hand (Jer, xxxiU. 13); and,
finally, he w.atched the entrance of the fold
throughout the night, acting as porter (John
X. 3). The shepherd's office thus required
great watchfulness, particularly by night
(Luke ii, 8; cf, Nah, iu, 18). It also re
quired tenderness towards the young and
feeble (Is, xl, 11), particularly in driving
them to and. from the pasturage (Gen,
xxxiu, 13), In large establishments there
were various grades of shepherds, the high
est being styled " rulers " (Gen. xlvii. 6),
or " chief shepherds " (1 Pet. v. 4) : in a
royal household the title of abbir, "mighty,"
was bestowed on the person who held the
post (1 Sara, xxi, 7). [Sheep,] 'The ha
tred of the Egyptians towards shepherds
(Gen, xlvi. 34) may have been mainly due
to their contempt for the sheep itself, which
appears to have been valued neither for
food nor generally for sacrifice, the only
district where they were offered being
about the natron lakes. It may have been
increased by the memory of the Shepherd
invasion, She'phi. Son of Shobal, pf the sons of
Seir (1 Chr. i, 40). Called also Shepho
(Gen, xxxvi. 23).
She'phO (Gen. xxxvi. 23). [Shephi,]
Shephu'phan. One of the sons of
Bela the first-born of Benj.amin (1 Chr. vui.
5), His name is also written Shephupham
(A, V. " Shupham," Nura, xxvi, 39), Shup
pim (1 Chr, vii, 12, 15), and Muppim (Gen.
xlvi, 21), {Muppim.]
She'rah. Daughter of Ephraira (1 Chr.
vii. 24), and foundress of the two Beth-
borons, and of Uzzen-Sherah.
. Sherebi'ah- A Levite in the tirae of
Ezra, of the faraily of Mahli the son of
l^erari (Ezr. viii, 18, 24). When Ezra
read the Law to the people, Sherebiah was
araong the Levites who assisted hira (Neh.
viu. 7). He took part in the psalra of con
fession and thanksgiving which was sung at
the soleran fast after the Feast of Taber
nacles (Neh, ix, 4, 5), and signed the cov
enant with Neheraiah (Neh, x, 12),
She'resh, Son of Machir the son of
Manasseh by his wife Maachah (1 Chr. vii.
16). ^
Shere'zer. Properly " Sharezer ; " one
of the messengers sent in the fourth year
of Darius by the people who had returned
from the Captivity to inquire concerning
fasting in the fifth month (Zech. vu. 2').
[Regemmelech.] She'shach is a term which occurs only
in Jeremiah (xxv. 26, U. 41), who evident
ly uses it as a synonyme either for Babylon
or for Babylonia.
She'shai, one of the three sons of Anak
who dwelt in Hebron (Num. xiu. 22) and

SHESHAN

643

SHIBBOLETH

were driven thence and slain by Caleb at
the head of the children of Judah (Josh,
XV, 14; Judg, i, 10).
She'shan, A descendant of Jerahmeel
the son of Hebron (1 Chr, U, 31, 34, 85).
Sheshbaz'zar, the Chaldean or Per
sian narae given to Zei-ubbabel, in Ezr. i.
8, 11, V- 14, 16; 1 Esdi. ii. 12, 15. [Ze
rubbabel.] Sheth. 1. The patriarch Seth (1 Chr.
i. 1). 2. In the A. V. of Nura- xxiv. 17,
the Heb. SMth is. rendered as a proper
name, but there is reason to regard it as an
appellative, and to translate, instead of
" the sons of Sheth," " the sons of turault,"
the wild warriovs of Moab (corap. Jer.
xlviU, 45).
She'thar (Pers. " a star "), one of the
seven princes of Persia and Media, who
had access to the king's presence (Esth. i.
14). She'thar-taoz'nai (Pers. " star of
splendor "), a Persian officer of rank in
the reign of Darius Hystaspis (Ezr, v, 3,
6, vi, 6, 13), He joined with Tatnai and
the Apharsachites in trying to obstruct
the progress of the Teraple iu the tirae of
Zerubbabel, and in writing a. letter to Dari-.
us, of which a copy is preserved in Ezr. v.
She'va. 1, The scribe or royal secretary
of David (2 Sam, xx, 25). He is called else
where Seraiah (2 Sam. viii. 17), Shisha
(1 K. iv. 3), and Shavsha (1 Chr, xvi. 18),
2. Son of Caleb ben-Hezron by his con-
suhine Maachah (1 Chr. ii. 49).
She'w-bread (Ex. xxv, 30, xxxv. 13,
XXXLX. 36, &c.), literally " bread of the face "
or " faces." Within the Ark it was directed
that there should be a tableof shittim wood,
i. e. acaeia, two cubits in length, a cubit in
breadth, and a cubit and a half in height,
overlaid with pure gold, and "having a gold
en crown to the border thereof roundabout,"
i. e. a border or list, in order, as we may
suppose, to hinder that wn2.^i was placed
on it from, by any accident, falling off.
'.T'le further description of this table will

Table of Shevf-bread. (From tlie Arch of Titus.)
be found in Ex. xxv. 23-30, aud a repre
sentation of it as it existed in the Herodian
Temple forms an interesting feature in the
bass-reUefs within the Arch of Titus. It

exhibits one striking correspondence with
the prescriptions in Exodus. We there
find the following words : " And thou shalt
raake unto it a border of a hand-breadth
round about." In the sculpture of the
Arch the hand of one of the slaves who is
carrying the Table, and the border, are of
about equal breadth. The table of the sec
ond Temple was carried away by Antiochus
Epiphanes (1 Macc. i. 22), and a new one
made at the refurnishing of the sanctuary
under Judas Maceabaeus (1 Macc. iv. 49).
Afterwards Ptolemy Philadelphus presented
a magnificent table. The Table stood in
the sanctuary together with the seven-
branched candlestick and the altar of in
cense. Every Sabbath twelve newly-baked
loaves were put on it in two rows, six in
each, and sprinkled with incense, where they
reraained till the following Sabbath. Then
they were replaced by twelve new ones, tho
incense was burned, and they were eaten
by the priests in the Holy Place, out of
which they raight not be reraoved. Besides
these the Shew-bread Table was adorned
with dishes, spoons, bowls, &c., which were
of pure gold (Ex. xxv. 29).. The nuraber
of loaves (twelve) plainly answers to the
twelve tribes (corapare Rev. xxii, 2). But,
taking this for glranted, we have still to as
certain the raeaning of the rite, and there
is none which is left in Scripture so wholly
unexplained. But, although unexplained,
it is referred to as oue of the leading and
raost soleran appointraents of the sanctuary
(comp. 2 Chr. xiu. 10, 11). Its namo
"Bread of the Face" seeras to indicate
that bread through which God is seen, that
is, with the participation of which the see
ing of God is bound up, or through the
participation of which man attains the sight
of God. Whence it follows that we have
not to think of bread merely as such, as the
means of nourishing the bodily life, but as
spiritual food, as a means of appropriating
and retaining that life which consists in
seeing the face of God.
Shib'boleth (Judg, xii, 6) is the He
brew word which the Gileadites under Jeph
thah made use of at the passage of the Jor
dan, after a victory over the Ephrairaites,
to test the pronunciation of the sound sh
by those who wished to cross over the
river. The Ephrairaites, it would .appear,
in their dialect substituted for sh the sira
ple sound s ; and the Gileadites, regarding
every one who failed to pronounce sh as
an Ephrairaite, and therefore an eneray,
put him to death accordingly. The word
" Shibboleth," which has now a second life
in the English language in a new significa
tion, has two meanings in Hebrew : 1st, an
ear of corn ; 2dly, a stream or flood (Ps.
Ixix. 2, 15): and it was, perhaps, in the
latter sense that this particular word sug
gested itself to the Gileadites, the Jordan

SHIBMAH

644

SHILOH

bfcing a rapid liver. There is no mystery
in this particular word. Any word begin
ning with the sound sh would have an
swered equally well as a test.
Shifa'mah (properly Sibmah). [She-
bam.] Shi'cron, one of the landmarks at the
western end of the north boundary of Judah
(Josh. XV, 11, only). It lay between Ekron
{Akir) and Jabneel {Yebna), the port at
which the boundary ran to the sea.
Shield. The ordinary shield consisted
of a framework of wood covered with
leather; it thus adraitted of being burnt
(Ez, xxxix, 9), It was frequently cased
with metal, either brass or copper ; its ap
pear.ance in this case resembled gold, when
the sun shone on it (1 Macc. vi. 39), and to
this, rather than to the practice of smear
ing blood on the shield, we may refer the
redness noticed by Nahum (ii. 3). The
surface of the shield was kept bright by the
application of oil, as iraplied in Is, x.xi, 5,
The shield was worn on the left arra, to
which it was attached by a strap. Shields
of state were covered with beaten gold.
Shields were suspended about public build
ings for ornaraental purposes (1 K. x. 17).
In the raetaphorical language of the Bible
the shield generally represents the protec-
^tion of God (e. g. Ps- iii. 8, xxviii, 7) ; but
in Ps, xlvii, 9 it is applied to earthly rulers,
and in Eph, vi. 16, to faith. [Arms.]
Shigga'ion (Ps. vii. 1), a particular
kind of Psalra, the s'pecific character of
which is now not known.
Shi'hon, a town of Issachar, named only
in Josh, xix, 19, Eusebius mentions it as
then existing " near Mount Tabor,"
Shi'hor of Egypt. [Sihor.]
Shi'hor-lib'nath, named only in Josh.
xix. 26 as one of the landraarks of the
boundary of Asher. Nothing is known of it.
Shil'hi. The father of Azubah, Je
hoshaphat's mother (1 K. xxii. 42 ; 2 Chr,
XX, 31),
Shil'him, One of the cities in the
southern portion of the tribe of Judah,
Its place in the list is between Lebaoth and
Ain, or Ain-Rimmon (Josh, xv, 82), and it
is not elsewhere raentioned. No trace of
it has yet been discovered,
Shil'lem. Son of Naphtali, and an
cestor of the family of the ShillemUes
(Gen, xlvi, 24; Num, xxvi, 49).
Shil'lemites, The. [Shillem.]
Shilo'ah, The Waters of, a certain
soft-flowing stream mentioned by the proph
et Isaiiih (viu, 6), better known undor the
liiter name of Siloaji — the only pereuni.al
spring of Jerusalem,
Shi'Joh, In the A, V, of the Bible,
Shiloh IS once used as the narae of a per
son, in a very difficult passage, in Gen,
xlix, 10, "The sceptre shall not depart
fi-om Judah, nor a lawgiver from between

his feet, until Shiloh come a. d unto hira
shall the gathering of the people be.' Sup
posing that the translation is correct, the
meaning of the word is Peaceable or Pa
cific, and the allusion is either to Solomon,
whose name has a similar signification, or
to the expected Messiah, who in Is. ix. 6
is expressly called the Prince of Peace.
[Messiah, p. 405, b,] Other interpreta
tions, however, of the passage are given,
one of which makes it refer to the city of
this name. (See the following article.) It
might be translated, "The sceptre shall not
depart from Judah, nor the ruler's staff
frora between his feet, till he shall go to
Shiloh." In this case the allusion would
be to the priraacy'Of Judah in war (Judg. i.
1, 2, XX. 18; Num. ii. 3, x, 14), which was
to continue until the Proraised Land was
conquered, and the Ark of the Covenant
was soleranly deposited at Shiloh, The
next best translation of ShUoh is perhaps
that of " Rest." The passage would then
run thus : " 'The sceptre shall not depart
from Judah . . . till rest come, and the na
tions obey hira ; " and the reference would
be to the Messiah, who was to spring frora
the tribe of Judah. This translation de
serves respectful consideration, as having
been ultiraately adopted by Gesenius. A
third explanation of Shiloh, on the assurap-
tion that it is not the narae of a person, is a
translation by various learned Jews, appar
ently countenanced by the Targum of Jona
than, that Shiloh merely raeans "his son,"
i. e. the son of Judah (in the sense of the
Messiah), frora a Supposed word Shil, "a
son." There is, however, no such word in
known Hebrew. The translation, then, of
Shiloh as the name of a city is to be re
garded as the soundest, if the present He
brew text is correct. But the fact that
there were different readings, in forraer
tiraes, of this very difficult passage, neces
sarily tends to suggest the possibility that
the correct reading raay have been lost.
Whatever interpretation of the present
reading raay be adopted, the one which
must be pronounced entitled to the least
consideration is that which supposes the
prophecy relates to the birth of Christ as
occurring in the reign of Herod just hefore
Judaea became a Roraan province.
Shi'loh, a city of Ephraim. In Judg.
xxi. 19 it is said that SliUoh is "on the
north side of Bethel, on the east side of the
highway that goeth up frora Bethel to She
chem, and on the south of Lebonah." In
agreement with this the traveller at the
present day, going north from Jerusalem,
lodges the. first night at Beitin, the ancient
Bethel ; the ne.xt day, at the distance of a
few hours, turns aside to the right, in or
der to visit SeilAn, the Arabic for ShUoh;
and then p.assing through the narrow 'Wady,
wliich brings him to the main road, leaves

SHILONI

645

SHIMITES

eb-Lebbdn, the Lebonah of Scripture, on
the left, as he pursues "the highway" to
Ndblus, the ancient Shechem. [Shechem.]
Shiloh was one of the earUest and raost
sacred of the Hebrew sanctuaries. The
ark of the covenant, which had been kept
at Gilgal during the progress of the Con
quest (Josh, xviii. 1, sq.), was removed
thence on the subjugation of the country,
and kept at Shiloh frora the last days of
Joshua to the tirae of Sarauel (Josh, xviii.
10; Judg. xviu. 31 ; 1 Sara. iv. 3). It was
here the Hebrew conqueror divided among
the tribes the portion of the west Jordan-
region, which had not been already allotted
(Josh. xviu. 10, xix. 51). In this distribu
tion, or an earUer one, Shiloh fell within
the liraits of Ephraim (Josh, xvi, 5). The
ungodly conduct of the sons of Eli occa
sioned the loss of the ark of the covenant,
which had been carried into battle against
the Philistines, and Shiloh from that tirae
sank into insignificance. It stands forth in
the Jewish history as a striking exaraple of
the Divine indignation (Jer, vii. 12).
Shilo'ni, This word occurs in the A.
V. only in Neh. xi. 5, where it should be
rendered — as it is in other cases — "the
Sliilonite," that is, the descendant of Shelah
the youngest son of Judah.
Shilo'nite, The, that is, the native or
resident of Shiloh ; a title ascribed only tq
Ahijah (1 K. xi. 29, xU. 15, xv. 29 ; 2 Chr.
ix. 29, X. 15),
Shilo'ni tes. The, are mentioned among
the descendants of Judah dwelling in Jeru
salem at a date difficult to fix (1 Chr, ix,
5). They are doubtless the merabers of
the house of Shelah, who in the Penta
teuch are more accurately designated She-
LANITES. Shil'shah- Son of Zophah of tho tribe
of Asher (1 Chr. vii. 37).
Shim'ea. 1. Son of David by Bath
sheba (1 Chr. in. 5). 2. A Merarite Levite
(1 Chr. vi. 30 [15]), 3, A Gershonite Le
vite, ancestor of Asaph the minstrel (1 Chr.
vi. 39 [24]). 4. The brother of Diivid (1
Chr. XX. 7), elsewhere called Shammah,
Shimma, and. Shimeah.
Shim'eah. 1. Brother of David, and
father of Jonathan and Jonadab (3 Sam,
xxi. 31) ; called also Shammah, Shimea,
and SiiiMMA, 2. A descendant of Jehiel,
the father or founder of Gibeon (1 Chr, viii,
32). Shim'eam. A descendant of Jehiel,
the founder or prince of Gibeon (1 Chr. ix.
38). CaUed Shimeah in 1 Chr. vui. 33.
Shim.'eath. An Ammonitess, raother
it Jozachar, or Zabad, one of the murder
ers nf king Joash (3 K. xii. 21 [22] ; 2 Chr,
xxiv. 26).
Shim'ei. 1. Son of Gershon the son
of Levi (Num. in. 18; 1 Chr. vi. 17, 29,
xxiu. 7, 9, 10 ; Zech. xu. 13) ; called Sh-mi

in Ex, vi, 17. 2. Shiraei the s m of Geni,
a Benjamite of the house of Saul, who lived
at Bahurim, When Diivid and his suite ,
were seen descending the long defile, on
his flight from Absalom (3 Sam. xvi. 5-13),
the whole feeUng of the clan of Benjamin
burst forth without' restraint in the person
of Shimei, He ran along the ridge, curs
ing, and throwing stones at the king and
his companions,- The next meeting was
very different. The king was now return
ing frora his successful campaign, Jast as
he was crossing the Jordan (2 Sara, xix,
18), the flrst person to welcorae hira was
Shimei, who threw hiraself at David's feet
in abject penitence. But the king's sus
picions were not set at rest by this submis
sion; and on his death-bed he recalls the
whole scene to the recollection of his son
Solomon, Solomon gave Shimei notice that
frora henceforth he must consider himself
conflned to the walls of Jerusalem on paiu
of death (1 K. ii. 36, 37). For three years
the engagement was kept. At the end of
that time, for the purpose of capturing two
slaves whb had escaped to Gath, he went
out on his ass, and raade his journey suc
cessfully (ib. ii. 40), On his return, the
king took hira at his word, and he was slain
by Benaiah (ib. ii. 41-46). 3- One of the
adherents of Solomon at the time of Adoni
jah's usurpation (I K. i. 8), -4. Soloraon's
commissariat officer in Benjamin (1 K. iv,
18), 5. Son of Pedaiah, and brother of
Zerubbabel (1 Chr. iu. 19). 6. A Simeon
ite, son of Zacchur (1 Chr. iv. 26, 27). 7.
Son of Gog, a Reubenite (1 Chr. v, 4), 8.
A Gershonite Levite, son of J.ahath (I Chr.
vi, 42). 9. Son of Jeduthun, and chief of
the tenth division of the singers (1 Chr.
xxv, 17). 10. The Raraathite who was
over David's vineyards (1 Chr. xxvii. 27).
11, A Levite of tho sons' of Heraan, who
took part in the puriflcation of the Temple
under Hezekiiih (2 Chr. x.xix, 14). 12.
The brother of Cononiah the Levite in the
reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxxi. 12, 13).
Perhaps the same as the preceding. 13.
A Levite in the tirae of Ezra who had mar
ried a foreign wife (Ezr. x. 23). 14. Ona
of the family of Hashura, who put away his
foreign wife at Ezra's command (Ezr. x.
33). 15, A son of Bani, who had also
married a foreign wife, and put her away
(Ezr, X, 38). 16, Son of Kish a Benja
raite, and ancestor of Mordecai (Esth, ii, 5)
Shim'eon, A layman of Israel, of the
family of Harim, who had married a forcagn
wife and divorced her in the time of Ezra
(Ezr.x, 81).
Shim'hi, A Benjaraite, apparently thu
same as Shema the son of Elpaal (1 Chr,
viU, 21).
Shi'mi = Shimei 1, Ex. vi. 17.
Shim'ites, The. The descendants of
Shimei the son of Gershom (Num. iu. 21j

SHIMMA

640

SHIP

Shim'ina. The third son of Jesse, and
brother of David (1 Cbr. U. 13).
Shi'mon. The four sons of Shimon are
enumerated in an obscure genealogy of the
tribe of Judah (1 Cbr. iv. 20).
Shim'rath. A Benjamite, of the sons
of Sliimhi (1 Chr, viu. 21),
Shira'ri. 1, A Simeonite, son of Shem
iiiah (1 Chr, iv, 87), 2. The father of
Jediael, oue of David's guard (1 Chr. xi.
45). 3. A Kohathite Levite in the reign
of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 13).
Shirn'rith. A Moabitess, mother of
Jehozabad, oue of the assassins of king
Joash (2 Chr. xxiv, 26). In 2 K. xii, 21,
ehe is called Shomer,
Shim'rom (1 Chr. vii. 1.) [Shimron.]
Shim'ron, 1. A city of Zebulun (Josh,
xi. 1, xix. 15). Its full appellation was per
haps Shimron-meron. 2. The fourth son
of Issachar according to the lists of Genesis
(xlvi. 13) and Numbers (xxvi, 24), and the
head of the family of the Shimronites.
Shim'ronites, The. [Shimron,]
Shirn'ron-me'ron, The king of Shim
ron-meron is mentioned as one ofi the thirty-
one kings vanquished by Joshua (Josh. xii.
20). It is probably the complete name of
the place elsewhere called Shimro'n, a city
of Zebulun (Josh. xi. 1, xix. 15).
Shim'shai. The scribe or secretary of
Rehum, who was a, kind of satrap of the
conquered province of Judaea, and of the
colony of Samaria, supported by the Per
sian court (Ezr. iv. 8, 9, 17, 23), He was
apparently an Aramaean, for the letter
which he wrote to Artaxerxes was in Syri
ac (Ezr, iv, 7).
Shi'nab. The king of Admah in the
time of Abr.aham (Gen, xiv, 2).
Shi'nar. The ancient name of the great
alluvial tract through which the 'Tigris and
Euphrates pass before reaching the sea —
the tract known in later times as Chaldaea
or Babylonia, It was a plain country where
brick bad. to be used for stone, and slime
for mortar (Gen, xi, 3), Araong the cities
were Babel (Babylon), Erech or Orech
(Orchoe), Calneh or Calno (probably 'iVi/-
fer), and Accad, the site of which is un
known. It raay be suspected that Shinar
was the name by which the Hebrews origi
nally knew the lower Mesopotamian coun
try, where they so long dwelt, and which
Abraham brought with him from "Ur of
the Chaldees,"
Ship. No one writer in the whole range
of Greek and Roraan literature has supplied
us with so rauch inforraation concerning
the raerchant-ships of the ancients as St.
Luke in the narrative of St. Paul's voyage
to Rome (Acts xxvU., xxviU.). It is ira
portant to reraeraber that he accomplished
it in three ships: flrst the Adrarayttian
vessel which took hira from Caesarea to
Myra, and which was prob.ably a coasting

vessel of no gi-eat size (xxvu. 1-G) ;_ sec
ondly, the large Alexandrian corn-ship, m
which he was wrecked on the coast of
Malta (xxvii. 6-xxviii. 1); and thirdly,
another large Alexandrian corn-ship, in
which he sailed from Malta by Syracuse
and Rhegium to Puteoli (xxvUi. 11-13).
(1.) Size of Ancient Ships. — The narr.-v-
tive which we take as our chief guide af
fords a good standard for estimating this.
The ship in which St. Paul was wrecked
had 276 persons on board (Acts x.xvU. 37),
besides a cargo of wheat (ib. 10, 88) ; and
all these passengers seem to hiive- been
taken on to Puteoli in another ship (xxviii.
11), which had its own crew and its own
cargo. Now, in English transport-ships,
prepared for carrying troops, it is a com
mon estimate to allow a ton and a half per
man. On the whole, if we say that an
iincient merchant-ship might range from
500 to 1000 tons, we are clearly within the
mark. (2.) Steering Apparatus. — Some
commentators have fallen into strange per
plexities from observing that in Acts xxvii.
40 (" the fastenings of the rudders ") St.
Luke uses the plural. Ancient ships were
in truth not steered at all by rudders fas
tened or hinged to the stern, but by means
of two paddle-rudders, one on each quar
ter, acting in a rowlock or through a port
hole, as the vessel might be small or large.
'(8.) Build and Ornaments of ihe Hull. —
It is probable that there was no very
raarked difference between the bow and
the stern. The "hold" (Jonah i. 5) would
present no special peculiarities. That per-
soniflcation of ships, which seems to be in
stinctive, led the ancients to paint an eye
on each side of the bow (comp. Acts xxvii.
15). An ornament of that w.hich took Paul
on from Malt.a to PozzuoU is more explicit
ly referred to. The "sign" of that ship
(Acts xxviii. 11) was Castor and Pollux;
.and the symbols of these heroes were doubt
less painted or sculptured on each side of
the bow. (4.) Under- girders. — The im
perfection of the build, and still more (see
below, 6) the peculiarity of the rig, in
ancient ships, resulted in a greater ten
dency than in our times- to the starting of
the planks, and consequently to leaking
and foundering. Hence it was customary
to take on board peculiar contrivances,
suitably caUed "helps" (Acts xxvii. 17),
as precautions against such dangers. These
were siraply cables or chains, which in case
of necessity could be passed round the
frarae of the ship, at right angles to its
length, and made tight, (5,) Anchors.—
Ancient anchors were sirailar in form to
those which we use now, except that they
were without flukes. Two allusions to
anchoring are found in the N. T., one in a
very impressive raetiiphor concerning Chris
tian hgpe (Heb. vi 19). The other pas-

SHIP

647

SHIP

sage is part of the literal narrative of St.
Paul's voyage at its most critical point.
The ship in which he was sailing had four
anchors on board, and these were all era
ployed in the night, when the danger of
falling on bre3.kers was imminent. The
sailors on thi.i occasion anchored by the
stern (Acts xxvU. 29). (6.) Masts, Sails,
Ropes, and Yards. — The rig .of an ancient
ship was more simple aud clumsy than
/ that eraployed in modern tiraes. Its great
feature was one large mast, with one large
square sail fastened to a yard of great
length. Hence the strain upon the hull,

Antrieat Ship. (From a painting at Fompeii.)
and the danger of starting the planks, were
greater than under the present systera,
which distributes the raechanical pressure
more evenly over the whole ship. Not
that there wero never more masts than
oue, or more sails than one on the sarae
mast, in an ancient merchantman. But
these were repetitions, so to speak, of the
same general unit of rig. In the O. T.
the mast is raentioned (Is. xxxiii. 23) ; and
from another prophet (Ez. xxvii. 5) we
learu thiit cedar-wood frora Lebanon was
soraetiraes used for this part of ships.
There is a third passage (Prov. xxiii.
84), where the top of a ship's mast is
probably intended. In Ez. xxvu, 29, oars
are distinctly mentioned ; and it seeras that
oak-wood frora Bashan was used in making
them. Another feature ofthe ancient, as of
the raodern ship, is the flag at the top of the
mast (Is, I. c, and xxx", 17), (7.) Rate of
SaUing. — St, Paul's voy.ages furnish ex
cellent data for approximately estiraating
this ; and they are quite in harraony with
what we learn frora other sources. We
must notice here, however (what coraraen
tators soraetiraes curiously forget), that
winds are variable. Thus the voyage be
tween Troas and Philippi, accoraplished
on one occasion (Acts xvi, 11, 12) in two
days, occupied on another occasion (Acts
XX. C) five days. With a fair wind an
ancient ship would sail fully seven knots
an hour. (8.) Sailing before ihe wind,
and near the wind. — The rig which has

been described is, like the rig of Chinese
junks, peculiarly favorable to a quick run
before the wind (Acts xvi, 11, xxvii, 16),
It would, however, be a great raistake to
suppose that ancient ships could not work
to windward. The superior rig and build,
however, of raodern ships enable them to
sail nearer to the wind than was the case
in classical tiraes. A modern ship, if the
weather is not very boisterous, will sail
within six points of the wind. To an
ancient vessel, of which the hull was
more clumsy, and the yards could not be
braced so tight, it would be safe to assign
seven points as the limit. (9.) Lyi'ng-io.
— A ship that could make progress on her
proper course, in moder.ate weather, when
sailing within seven points of the wind,
would lie-to in a gale, with her length
making about the sarae angle with the
direction of the wind. This is done when
the object is, not to raake progress at all
hazards, but to ride out a gale in safety;
and this is what was done in St. Paul's
ship when she was undergirded and --the
boat taken on board (Acts xxvii, 14-17)
under the lee of Clauda, (10,) Ship's
Boat. — This appears prorainently in Acts
xxvii, 16, 32. Every large merchant-ship
must have had one or raore boats. It is
evident that the Alexandrian corn-ship in
which St. .Paul was sailing frora Fair
Havens, and in which the sailors, - appre
hending no danger, hoped to reach Phe-
NicE, had her boat towing behind. (11.).
Officers and Crew. — In Acts xxvii. 11 we
have both zii|?tgvi,'Ti;s and tavxXriQog. The
latter is the owner (iu part or in whole) of
the ship or the cargo, receiving also (pos
sibly) the fares of the passengers. The
former has the charge of the steering.
The word for " shipmen " (Acts xxvii. 27,
30) and " sailors " (Rev. xviii. 17) is sira
ply the usual term vavcai. (12.) Storms
and Shipivrecks. — The first century of
the Christian era was a time of imraense
traffic in the Mediterranean; and there
must have been many vessels lost there
every year by shipwreck, and (perhaps)
as many by foundering. 'This last danger
would be much increased by the forra of
rig described above. Besides this, we must
remember that the ancients had no com
pass, and very imperfect charts and instru
ments, if any at all. Certain coasts were
rauch dreaded, especially the African Syr
tis (Acts xvii, 17). The danger indicated
by breakers (ib. 29), and the fear of fiiUing
on rocks, are matters of course, St, Paul's
experience seems to have been full of iUus-
trations of all these perils, (13,) Boats on
the Sea of Galilee. — In tha narratives of
the call of the disciples to be " fishers of
men" (Matt: iv. 18-22; Mark i. 16-20;
Luke V. 1-11), there is no special informa
tion concerning the characteristics of thesa

SHIPHI

648

SHOBACH

boats. In the account of 4he storm and
the miracle on the lake (Matt. vUi. 23-27 ;
Mark iv, 35-41 ; Luke viii, 22-25), it is for
every reason instructive to compare the
three narratives ; and we should observe
that Luke is raore technical in his liinguage
than Matthew, and Mark than Luke, With
the large population round the Lake of
'Tiberias, there raust have been a vast num
ber both of fishing-boats and pleasure-boats,
and boat-building must have been an ac
tive trade on its shores. (14,) Merchant-
ships in the Old Testament. — The earliest
passages where seafaring is alluded to in
the O. T. are the following in order : Gen.
xlix. 13, in the prophecy of Jacob concern
ing Zebulun ; Num. xxiv, 24, in Biiliiam s
prophecy ; Deut. xxviii. 68, in one of the
warnings of Moses ; Judg, v. 17, in Deb
orah's Song, Next after these it is natural
to mention the illustrations and descriptions
connected with this subject in Job (ix. 26) ;
and iu the Psalms (xlvU. [xlviii.] 7, ciii,
[civ,] 26, cvi, 23). Prov, xxiU, 34 has al
ready been quoted. To this add xxx. 19,
xxxi, 14, Soloraon's own ships, vvhich
raay have suggested some of these illus
trations (1 li. ix. 26 ; 2 Chr. viu. 18, ix.
21), have previously been mentioned. We
raust notice the disastrous expedition of
Jehoshaphat's ships from the same port of
Ezion-geber (1 K. xxU. 48, 49 ; 2 Chr. xx,
36, 37). The passages which reraain are
in the prophets (Is, U, 16, xxiu, 1, 14, lx.
9; Ez. xxvii. ; Jon. i. 3-16),
Shi'phi, a Siraeonite, father of Ziza,
a prince of the tribe in the time of Hezekiah
(1 Chr. iv. 37).
Shiph'mite, The, probably, though
not certainly, the native of Shepham (1
Chr, xxvii, 27).
Shiph'rah (Ex. i, 15), the name of
one of the two raidwives of the Hebrews
who disobeyed the command of Pharaoh to
kill the male children (vers, 15-31),
Shiph'tan, father of Kemuel, a prince
of the tribe of Ephraim (Num, xxxiv, 24),
Shi'sha, father of Elihoreph and Ahiah,
the royal secretaries in the reign of Solo
mon (1 K. iv. 3). He is apparently the
same as Si-iavsha, who held the same po
sition under David.
Shi'shak, king of Egypt, the Sheshenk
I. of the raonuraents, first sovereign of the
Bubastite xxiid dynasty. His reign offers
the first determined synchronisms of Egyp
tian and Hebrew history. The first j'ear
of Shishak would about correspond to the
26th of Solomon, and the 20th of Shish.ak
to the 5th of Rehoboara. Shishak at the
beginning of his reign received the fugitive
Jeroboam (1 K. xi, 40) ; and it was proba
bly at the instigation of Jeroboam that he
attacked Rehoboara, " He took the fenced
cities which [pertained] to Judah, and came
to Jei'U8.alem." He exacted all the treas-

ures of his city froni Rehohoam an.l ap.
Darently made him tributary (1 K- xiv. 25,
PF^""^, _.:: o_a^ Shishak has left a

2-9).

record of this expedition, sculptured on the
L„,, "f th. ,.reat temple of El-Karnak. It

26; 2 Chr
icord of tl
wall of the great temple
is a list of the countries, cities, and tribes,
conquered or ruled by him, or tributary to
" Shittah-tree, Shittim (Heb. shittdh),
is without doubt correctly referred to some
species of Acacia, of which three or four
kinds occur in the Bible liinds. The wood
of this tree — perhaps the Acacia Seyal is
raore definitely signified — was extensively
employed in the construction of the taber
nacle (see Ex. xxv,, xxvi., x.xxvi., xxxvu.,
xxxviii.). The A. Seyal is very coramon
in some parts of the peninsula of Sinai.
It yields the weli-knowv substance called
gum ar.abic which is obtained by incisions
in' the bark, but it is impossible to_ say
whether the ancient Jews were acquainted
with its use. From the tangled thickets
into which the stem of this tree expands,
Stanley well remarks that hence is to be
traced the use of the plural form of the
Heb, noun Shittim, the sing, nuraber oc
curring but once only in the Bible, This
acacia must not be confounded with the
tree {Robinia pseudo-acacia) popularly
known by this name in England, which
is a North American plant, and belongs
to a different genus and sub-order. The
true acacias belong to the order Legumi-
nosae, sub-order Mimoseae.
Shit'tim, the place of Israel's encamp
ment between the conquest of the trans-
Jordanic highlands and the passage of the
Jordan (Num, xxxiu. 49, x.xv, 1 ; Josh. ii.
1, ni. 1 ; Mic, vi. 5), Its full name appears
to be given in the first of these passages —
Abel has- Shittim — " the meadow, or moist
place, of the acacias." It was " in the
Arboth-Moab, by Jordan-Jericho" (Nura,
xxii, 1, xxvi, 3, xxxi, 12, xxxiu, 48, 49).
That is to say, it was in the Arabah or Jor
dan V.alley, opposite Jericho. The "Valley
of Shittim," of Joel (iU, 18), can hardly he
the same spot as that described above,
but there is nothing to give a clew to its
position, Shi'za, a Reubenite, father of Adina (1
Chr, xi, 43),
Sho'a, a proper name which occurs only
in Ez, xxiii, 23, in connection with Pekod
and Koa. The three apparently designate
districts of Assyria with which the southern
kingdora of Judah had been intimately con
nected, and which were to be arrayed against
it for punishment.
Sho'bab- 1- Son ofDavid by Bathsheba
(3 Sam. V. 14; 1 Chr. iii. 5, xiv. 4). 2.
Apparently the son of Calel the son of
Hezron by his wife Azubah (1 Chr. ii. 18).
Sho'baoh, the general of Hardafezei
king of the Syrians of Zoba. who was d^-

SHOBAI

649

SHUPHAMITES

Rated by David (2 Sam. x. 15-18} In 1
Chr. xix. 16, 18, he is called Shophach.
Sho'bai. The children of Shobai were
a faraily of the door-keepers of the Temple,
who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr, U. 43 ;
Nell, vii, 45).
Sho bal. 1. Second son of Seir the
Ilorite (Gen, xxxvi. 2^-, 1 Chr. i. 38), and
oue of the "dukes" of the Horites (Gen,
xxxvi, 29), 2, Son of Caleb the son of
Hur, and founder or prince ofKirjath-jearira
(1 Chr, ii, 50, 52). 3. In 1 Chr. iv. 1, 2,
Shobal appears with Hur among the sons
of Judah. He is possibly the same as the
preceding. Sho'bek, one of the heads of the peo
ple who sealed the covenant with Neheraiah
(Neh, X, 24).
Sho'bi, son of Nahash of Rabbah of
the children of Ammon (3 Sara, xvii, 27),
He was one of the first to raeet David at
Mahiinaim on his flight from Absalora.
Sho' CO, 2 Chr. xi. 7. A variation in
the A. V. ofthe narae Socoh.
Sho'cho, 2 Chr. xxviU. 18. One of the
four varieties of the narae Socoh.
Sho'choh, 1 Sara. xvii. 1. Sarae as
SocoH, Shoe. [Sandal.]
Sho'ham, a Merarite Levite, son of
Jaaziah (1 Chr, xxiv. 27).
Sho'mer. 1, Au Asherite (1 Chr, vU,
32) ; also called Shamer (ver, 34), 2, The
fatlier (mother?) of Jehozabad, who slew
king Joash (2 K. xii, 21) ; in the parallel
passage iu 2 Chr, xxiv, 25, the name is
converted into the feminine form Shimrith,
who is further described as a Moabitess.
[Shimrith,] Sho'phach, Shoeach, the general of
Hadarezer (1 Chr. xix. 16, 18).
Sho'phan, one of the fortified towns
on the east of Jordan which were taken
possession of and rebuilt by the tribe of
Gad (Num. xxxii. 35).
Shoshan'nim. " To the chief musi
cian upon Shoshannira " is a rausical direc
tion to the leader of tlie Teraple-choir which
. occurs in Ps. xiv., Ixix., and raost probably
indicates the raelody "after" or " iu the
manner of" (A. V. " upon ") which the
Psalms were to be sung. Shoshannim-
Eduth occurs in the sarae way in the title
of Ps. Ixxx. As the words now stand they
signify "lilies, a, testiraony," and the two
are separated by a large distinctive accent.
In themselves they have no meaning in the
present text, and raust therefore be regard
ed as probably a fragment of the beginning
of an older l?salm with which the choir
were familiar.
Shu'ah. 1. Son of Abraham by Ketu
rah (Gen. xxv. 2 ; 1 Chr. i. 32). 2. Prop
erly " Shuchah," brother of Chelub (1
Chr. iv. 11). 3. The father of Judah's

wife (Gen. xxxvUl. 2, 12); also called
Shua in the A. V.
Shu'al, son of Zophah, an Asherite (1
Chr. vU. 36).
Shu'al, The Iiand of, a district named
only in 1 JSam. xiii. 17. It is pretty cer
tain from the passage that it lay north of
Michmash. If therefore it be identical with
the " Land of Shalim" (1 Sara. ix. 4), — as
is not irapossible, — we obtain the first and
only clew yet obtained to Saul's journey in
quest of the asses. The name Shual has
not yet been identifled.
Shu'bael. 1. Shebuel the son of
Gershora (1 Chr. xxiv. 30). 2. Shebuel
the son of Heman the minstrel (1 Chr. xxv.
30), Shu'ham, son of Dan, and ancestor of
the Shohamites (Num, xxvi. 42),
Shu'hamites, The, [Shuham.]
Shu'hite. 'This ethnic appellative
" Shuhite " is frequent in the Book of Job,
but only as the epithet of one person, Bil-
dad, 'The local indications of the Book of ^
Job point to a region on the western side
of Chaldaea, bordering ou Arabia ; and ex
actly in this locality, above Hit and on both
sides of the Euphrates, are found, in the
Assyrian inscriptions, the Tsukhi, a power
ful people. It is probable that these were
the Shuhites,
Shu'lamite, The, one of the person
ages in the poem of Soloraon's Song (vi.
13). The name denotes a woman belong
ing to a place called Shulera, which is prob
ably the sarae as Shunera. [Shunem,] If,
then, Shulamite and Shunammite are C/quiv-
alent, we may conjecture that the Shunara-
raite who was the object of Soloraon's pas
sion was Abishag,
Shu'mathites, The, one of the four
farailies who sprang from Kirjath-jearim
(1 Chr. U. 53),
Shu'nammite, The, i. a. the native
of Shunem, is applied to two persons : Abi
shag, the nurse of king David (1 K. i, 3,
15, ii. 17, 31, 33), and the nameless hostess
of EUsha (3 K, iv. 13, 25, 36).
Shu'nem, one of the cities allotted to
the tribe of Issachar (Josh. xix. IS). It is
mentioned on two occasions (1 Sam-, xxviii.
4; 2 K. iv. 8). It was besides the native
place of Abishag (1 K, i, 3). It is men
tioned by Eusebius as 5 miles south of
Mount Tabor, and then known as Sulem.
This agrees with the position of the present
Solam, a village 8 miles N. of Jezreel, and
5 from Gilboa.
Shu'nl, son of Gad, and founder of the
faraily of the Shunites (Gen. xlvi. 16;
Num, xxvi. 15).
Shu'nites, The, the descendants of
Shuni. Shu'pham. [Shuppim.]
Sbu'phaniices, Tbe, tne (lesoenianti

SHUPPIM

650

SIDE

of Shupham, or Shephupham, the Ben
jamite (Num. xxvi. 39).
Shup'pim. In the genealogy of Ben
jarain " Shuppim and Huppim, the children
of Ir," are reckoned in 1 Chr. vii. 12, Ir
is the same as Iri the sou of Bela, the son
of Benjamin, so that Shuppim was the
great-grandson of Benjarain,
Shur, a place just without the eastern
border of E5:ypt. Shur is first mentioned
in the narrative of Hagar's flight frora
Sarah (Gen. xvi,' 7), Abrahara afterwards
" dwelled between Kadesh and Shur, and
sojourned in Gerar" (xx, 1). The flrst
clear indication of its position occurs in the
account of Ishmacl's posterity. " Aud they
dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that [is]
before Egypt, as thou goest towards As
syria " (xxv. 18 ; comp. 1 Sam. xv. 7 ; xxvii,
8), The wilderness of Shur was entered
by the Israelites after they had crossed
the Red Sea (Ex. xv. 22, 23), It was also
called the Wilderness of Etham (Num,
xxxiii. 8), Shur may have been a fortified
town east of the ancient head of the Red
Sea; and from its being spoken of as aUmit,
it was probably the last Arabian town be
fore entering Egypt,
Shu'shan, or Su'sa, is siiid to have re
ceived its name from the abundance of the
Uly {Shushan, or ShAshanah) in its neigh
borhood. It was originally the capital of
tlie country called in Scripture Elara, and
by the classical writers Susis or Susiana.
In the tirae of Daniel Susa was in the pos
session of the Babylonians, to whora Elara
had probably passed at the division of the
Assyrian empire made by Cyaxares and
Nabopolassar (Dan, viii, '2). 'The conquest
of Babylon by Cyrus transferred Susa to the
Persian dominion ; and it was not long be
fore the Achaemenian princes deterrained
to raake it the capital of their whole empire,
aud the chief place of their own residence.
According to some writers the change was
made by Cyrus ; according to others, it had
at any rate taken place before the death of
Cambyses ; but, according to the evidence
of the place itself and of the other Achae
menian raonuraents, it would seera most
probable that the transfer was really the
work of Darius Hystaspis, Nehemiah re
sided here (Neh. i. 1). Shushan was situ
ated on the Ulai or-Choaspes, It is identi
fied with the raodern Sus or Shush, and its
ruins are about 3 raUes in circuraference.
Shu'shan-e'duth (Ps, lx,) is prob
ably an abbreviiition of "Shoshannim-
eduth" (Ps, Ixxx.), [Shoshannim.]
Shu'thalhites, The, [Shuthelah,]
Shu'thelah, head of an Ephr.aimite
family, called after him Shuthalhites (Num.
xxvi. 35), and lineal ancestor of Joshua,
the son of Nun (1 Chr. vu. 20-27).
Si'a. "The chUdren of Sia" were a
family of Nethinim who returned with Ze

rubbabel (Neh. vii. 47). The name is »rit.
ten SiAHA in Ezr, U. 44, and Sud in 1 Esd.
V. 39). „ ,,^
Si'aha = Sia (Ezr, u. 44).
Sib'becai = Sibbechai the Husha
thite. „ ^ . „
Sib'bechai, one of David's guard, and
eighth captain for the eighth month of
24,000 men of the king's array (1 Chr. xi.
29, xxvU. 11). He belonged to one of the
principal farailies of Judah, the Zarhites, or
descendants of Zerah, and is called " the
Hushathite," probably from the* place of
his birth. Sibbechai's great exploit, which
gave him a place among the mighty men
of David's army, was his single combat with
Saph, or Sippai, the Piiilistine giant, in the
battle at Gezer, or Gob (2 Sam. xxi. 18; 1
Chr. XX. 4).
Sib'boleth, the Ephrairaite pronuncia
tion of the word Shibboleth (Judg. xu. 6).
[Shibboleth.] Sib'mah. [Shebam.]
Sibra'im, one of the landmarks on the
northern boundary of the Holy Land as
stated by Ezekiel (xlvU. 16.) It has not
been identified.
Si'chem (Gen. xii. 6). [Shechem,]
Sie'yon (l Macc, XV. 23), a celebrated
Greek city in Peloponnesus upon the Co
rinthian gulf.
Sid'dim, The Vale of, a place named
only in one passage of Genesis (.xiv. 3, 8,
10), It was one of that class of valleys
which the Hebrews designated by the word
Emek. This term appears to have been
assigned to abroad, fl.attish tract, sometimes
of considerable width, enclosed on each
side by a definite range of hills. It was so
far a suitable spot for the combat between
the four and five kings (ver. 8) ; but it con
tained a raultitude of bitumen-pits sufficient -~
materially to affect the issue of the battle.
In this valley the kings of the five allied
cities of Sodora, Gomorrah, Adraah, Ze
boim, and Bela, seem to have awiiited the
approach of the invaders. It is therefore
probable that it was in the neighborhood
of the " plain, or circle, -of Jordan " in
which those cities stood. If we could ven
ture, as sorae have done, to interpret the
latter clause of vor. 3, "which is near," or
" which is at, or by, tho Salt Sea," theu we
might .agree with Dr. Robinson and others
in identifying the Valley of Siddim with the
enclosed plain wliieh intervenes between
the south end of the lake aud the range of
heights which terminate the Ghdr and com
mence the Wady Arabah. But the original
of the passage seems to imply that the Salt
Sea covers the actual space formerly occu
pied, by the Vale of Siddim. [Sea, thb
Salt, p. 620.]
Si'de; a city on the coast of Pamphylia,
10 or 12 miles to the east of the river Eu
rymedon. It is mentioned in 1 Mace. xv. 23,

SIDON

651

SILOAM

araong the list o f places to which the Roraan
senate sent letters in favor of the Jews. It
was a colony of Curaaeans.
Si' don, the Greek forra of the Phoeni
cian name Zidon. [Zidon.]
Sido'nians, the Greek form of the
word Zidonians, usually so -exhibited in
the Auth. Vers, of the O. T. It occurs
Deut. iii. 9 ; Josh, xiii. 4, 6 ; Judg. iii. 3 ; 1
K. V. 6. [Zidon,]
Si'hon, king of the Amorites when Israel
arrived on the borders ofthe Promised Land
(Nura, x.xi, 21), Shortly before the tirae
of Israel's arrival he had dispossessed the
Moabites of a splendid territory, driving
thera south of the natural bulwark of the
Arnon (xxi. 26-29). When the Israelite
host appears, he does not hesitate or tera-
porizo like Balak, but at once gathers his
people together and attacks thera. But the
battle was his last. He and all his host
were destroyed, and their district frora
Arnou to Jabbok becarae at once the pos
session of the conqueror.
Si'hor, accurately Shi'hor, once The
Shihor or Shihorof Egypt, when un
qualified a name of the Nile. It is held to
signify "the black" or "turbid." There
are but three occurrences of Shihor in the
Bible, and but one of Shihor of Egypt, or
Shihor-Mizraim. It is spoken of as one of
the liraits of territory which was still un-
conquered when Joshua was old (Josh. xiii.
2, 3), With this passage must be compared
that in which Shihor-Mizraim occurs, Da
vid is related to have "gathered all Israel
together frora Shihor of Egypt even unto
the entering of Haraath" (1 Chr. xiii. 5).
There is no other evidence that the Israel
ites ever spread westward beyond Gaza.
The stream may therefore be that of the
Wddi-l' Areesh. That the streara intended
by Shihor unqualified was a navigable riv
er is evident from a passage in Isaiah,
where it is said of Tyre, " And by great
waters, the sowing of Shihor, the harvest
of the river [is] her revenue " (xxiii. 8).
Here Shihor is either the same as,, or com
pared with, Yeor, generally thought to be
the Nile, but perhaps the extension of the
Red Sea. In Jeremiah the identity of
Shihor with the Nile seems distinctly stated
(U, 18).
Si'las, an erainent meraher of the early
Christian Church, described underthat narae
in the Acts, but as Silvanus in St. Paul's
Epistles. He first appears as one of the
leaders of the Church at Jerusalem (Acts
X.Y. 22), holding the office of an inspired
teacher (xv. 32). His name, deriyed from
the Latin silva, " wood," betokens him a
Hellenistic Jew, aud he appears to have
been a Roman citizen (Acts xvi. 37). He
was appointed as a delegate to accompany
Paul and Barnabas on their return to An
tioch with the decree of the CouncU of

Jerusalem (Acts xv. 22, 82). Having ac
complished this mission, he returned to
Jerusalem (Acts xv, 33). He raust, how
ever, have immediately revisited Antioch,
for we find him selected by St, Paul as the
companion of his second raissionary jour
ney (Acts XV, 40-xvii, 40), At Beroea he
was left behind with Timothy while St.
Paul proceeded to Athens (Acts xvii, 14),
and we hear notliing more of his movements
until he rejoined the Apostle at Corinth
(Acts xviii. 5), His presence at Corinth is
several times noticed (2 Cor, i, 19 ; 1 Thess.
i. 1 ; 2 Thess. i, 1). Whether he was tho Sil
vanus who conveyed St, Peter's First Epis
tle to Asia Minor (1 Pet, v, 12) is doubt
ful; the probabilities are in favor of the
identity, A tradition of very slight author
ity represents Silas to have become bishop
of Corinth.
Silk. 'The only undoubted notice of
silk in the Bible occurs in Rev. xviii, 12,
where it is mentioned araong the treasures
of the typical B.abylon. It is, however, iu
the highest degree probable that'the texture
was known to the Hebrews from the time
that their comraerci.al relations were ex
tended by Soloraon. The well-known clas
sical name of the substance does not occur
in the Hebrew language. The Hebrew
terms which have been supposed to refer
to silk are meshi and demeshek. The for-
mgr occurs only in Ez. xvi. 10, 13 (A. V.
" silk "). The other term demeshek occurs
in Am, iii, 12 (A. V, "Daraascus"), and
has been supposed to refer to silk from the
resemblance ofthe word to our " damask."
It appears, however, that "daraask"is a
corruption of dimakso, a terra applied by
the Arabs to the raw raaterial alone. We
raust, therefore, consider the reference to
silk as extremely dubious. The value set
upon silk by tbe Romans, as i'mplied in
Rev. xviii, 12, is noticed by Josephus as
well as by classical writers.
Sil'la. "The house of MiUo which
goeth down to SUla," was the scene of the
murder of king Joash (2 K, xii, 20). What
or where Silla was is entirely matter of
conjecture. Some have suggested the Pool
of Siloam.
Sil'oah, The Pool of, properly "the
Pool of Shelach" (Neh. iU. 15). [Sil
oam,] Sil'oam {Shiloach, Is. viU. 6 ; Shelach,
Neh, iii, 15; Siloam, John i». 7, 11). Sil
oam is one of the few undisputed locali
ties in the topography of Jerusalem ; stUl
retaining its old name (with Arabic modi
fication, Silwdn), while every other pool
has lost its Bible-designation. This is the
more remarkable as it is a mere suburhau
tank of no great s!ze, and for many an ago
not particularly good or plentiful in its
waters, though Josephus tells us that in hia
day they were both " sweet and abundant."

SILOAM

652

SBIEON

A little way below the Jewish bmying-
groiind, but on the opposite side of the val
ley, where the Kedron turns slightly west
ward, and widens itself considerably, is the
fountl in of the Virgin or Um-ed-Deraj,
near the beginning of that saddle-shaped
projection of the Teraplc-hill supposed
to be the Ophel of the Bible, and the
Ophlas ot Josephus. At the back part of
this fountain a subterraneous passage be
gins, through which the water flows, and
through which a raan may make his way,
sometimes walking erect, sometirnes stoop
ing, sometimes kneeling, and sometimes
crawling, to Siloara. This conduit has
had tributaries which have forraerly sent
their waters down frora the city pools or
Teraple-walls to swell Siloam. It enters
SUoam at the north-west angle ; or rather
enters a small rock-cut chamber which
forms the vestibule of Siloara, about five
or six feet broad. To this you descend by
a few rude steps, under which the water
pours itself into the main pool. This pool is
oblong ; about 18 feetbroad, and 19 feet deep ;
but it is never filled, the water either passing
directly through, or being maintained at a
depth of three or four feet. The present
pool is a ruin, with no moss or ivy to raake
it romantic ; its sides falling in ; its pillars
broken ; its stair a fragraent ; its walls
giving way ; the edge of every stone worn
round or sharp by time; in sorae parts
mere dibris ; though around its edges, w*ld
flowers, and, among other plants, the caper-
tree, grow luxuriantly. The gray crum
bling liraestone of the stone (as well as of
the surrounding rocks, which are alraost
verdureless) gives a poor aud worn-out
aspect to this venerable relic. The present
pool is not the original building; it raay be
the work of crusiiders, perhaps even im
proved by Saladin, whose aff'ection for
wells and pools led him to care for all these
things. Yet the spot is the same. This
pool, which we may call the second, seems
anciently to have poured its waters into.
a third, before it proceeded to water the
royal gardeils. This </tij-(i is perhaps that
which Josephus calls " Solomon's pool,"
and which Neheraiah Calls the "King's
pool" (ii. 14). The expression in Isaiah
(viu. 6), " wiiters of Shiloah that go soft
ly," seeras to point to the slender rivulet,
flowing gently, though once very profusely,
out of SiloaiTj into the lower breadth of
level, where tho king's gardens, or royal
paiadise, stood, and which is still the
greenest spot about the Holy City. Siloara
is a sacred spot, even to the Moslem ;
much more to the Jew. It was to Siloam
that the Levite was sent with the golden
pitcher on the " last and great day of the
feast" of Tabernacles ; it was from Siloara
that he brought the water which was then
poured over the sacnfliie, in memory of

the wat.r frora the rock of Repbidim ; and
it was to this Siloam water that the Lord
pointed when He stood in the 'Teraple on
that day and cried, " If any man thirst, let
him corae unto me and drink." 'The Lord
sent the blind man to wash, not in, as our
version has it, but ai {iig), the pool of
SUoam ; for it was the clay from his eyes
that was to be washed off; and the Evan
gelist is careful to throw in a remark, not
for the purpose of telling us that Siloam
meant an "aqueduct," as some think, but
to give higher significance to the miracle.
" Go wash at Siloam," was the command;
the Evangelist adds, " which is, by inter
pretation, SENT " (John ix. 7). That
"Sent" is the natural interpretation is
evident, not simply from the word itself,
but from other passages where the Hebrew
word is used in connection with water, as
Job iii. 10, " He sendeth waters upon the
fields;" and Ezek. xxxi. 4, " She serai out
her little rivers unto aU the trees of the
field." Sil'oam, Tower in (Luke xiu. 4). Of
this we know nothing definitely beyond
these words of the Lord. In connection
with Ophel, there is mention raade of " a
tower ihat lieth out " (Neh. Ui. 26) ; and
there is no unlikelihood iu connecting this
projeding tower with the tower in Siloam,
while one may be almost excused for the
conjecture that its projedion was the cause
of its ultimate /aZ^.
Silva'nus. [Silas.]
Silver. In very early times, silver was
used for ornaraents (Gen. xxiv. 53) and
for vessels of various kinds. Iraages for
idolatrous worship were made of silver or
overlaid with it (Ex. xx. 23 ; Hos. xUi. 2 ;
Hab.'U. 19; Bar. vi. 39), and the manufac
ture of silver shrines for Diana was a trade
in Ephesus (Acts xix. 24). But its chief
use was as a medium of exchange, and
throughout the O. T. we find "silver"
used for money, like the Fr. argent. Sil
ver was brought to Solomon from Arabia
(2 Chr. ix. 14) and from Tarshish (2 Chr.
ix. 21), which .supplied the markets of
Tyre (Ez. xxVU. J 2). From Tarshish it
carae in the form of plates (Jer. x. 9), likt
those on which the sacred books of the
Singhalese are written to this day. Spain
appciirs to have been ths chief source
whence silver was obtained by the ancients.
Possibly the hills of Palestine may have
afforded some supply of this metal. Silver
mixed with alloy is referred to in Jer. vi.
30, and a finer kind, either purer in itself,
or more thoroughly purified, is mention e(J
in Prov. viU. 19.
Sil'verlings, a word used once only in
the A. V. (Is. vu. 28), as a translation of
the Hebrew word elsewhere rendered " sU-
ver" oi: "money."
Sim'eon (feccwd). I. The second of Ja*

SIMEON

658

SIMON

cob's sons by Leah. His birth is recorded in
Gen. xxix. 33, The first group of Jacob's
children consists, besides Simeon, of the
three other sons of Leah — Reuben, Levi,
Judah, With each of these Siraeon is
mentioned in some connection, "As Reu
ben and Siraeon are mine," says Jacob,
" so shall Joseph's sons, Ephraim and
Manasseh, be mine" (Gen, xlviii, 5). With
Levi, Siraeon was associated in the massa
cre of the Shechemites (xxxiv. 25). With
Judah the connection was drawn still closer.
He and Simeon not only " went up " to
gether, side by side, in the fore-front of
the nation, to the conquest of the south "of
the Holy Land (Judg. i. 8, 17), but their
allotments lay together in a more special
manner than those of the other tribes.
Besides the raassacre of Shechera, the only
personal incident related of Siraeon is the
fact of his being selected by Joseph as the
hostage for the appearance of Benjarain
(Gen. xlU. 19, 24, 36; xliU, 33). ,'Tlie
chief farailies of the tribe are mentioned
iu the lists of Gen. xlvi. (10), in which
one of them, bearing tbe narae of Shaul
(Saul), is specifled as "the son of the Ca
naanitess" — Nura. xxvi. (12-14), and 1
Chr. iv. (34-43), At the census at Sinai
Simeon numbered 59,300 fighting men
(Num, i. 33), When the second census
was taken, at Shittira, the nurabers had
fallen to 22,200, and it was the weakest
of all the tribes. This was no doubt partly
due to the recent mortality following the
idolatry of Peor, but there must have been
other causes which have escaped mention.
'The connection between Simeon and Levi
irapUed in the blessing of Jacob (Gen.
xlix. 5-7) has been already adverted to.
The connection between Judah and Simeon
already mentioned seems to have begun
with the Conquest, Judah and the two
Joseph-brethren were first served with the
lion's share of the land; and then, the
Canaanites having been sufficiently sub
dued to allow the Sacred Tent to be es
tablished without risk in the heart of the
country, the work of dividing the remain
der' amongst the seven inferior tribes was
proceeded with (Josh, viii, 1-6). Benja
min bad the first turn, then Simeon (xix. 1).
By this time Judah had discovered that the
tract allotted to him was too large (xix. 9),
and also too much exposed on the west and
south for even his great powers. To Sira
eon accordingly was allotted a district out
of the territory of his kinsman, on its south
ern frontier, which containeii eighteen or
nineteen cities, with their villages, spread
round the venerable well of Beersheba
(Josh. xix. 1-8; 1 Chr. iv. 28-33). Of
these places, with the help of Judah, the
Simeonites possessed themselves (Juilg. i,
3, 17) ; and here they were found, doubt
less by Joab, residing in the reign of David

(1 Chr, iv, 31), What part Simeon tcjk
at the time, of the division of the kingdom
we are not told. The only thing which can
be interpreted into a trace of its having
taken any part with tl«e northern kingdom
are the two casual notices of 2 Chr, xv, 9
and xxxiv, 6, which appear to iraply the
presence of Siraeonites tliere in the reigns
of Asa and Josiah, On the other hand the
definite stateraent of 1 Chr, iv, 41-43 proves
that at that tirae there were still sorae of
them remaining in the original seat of the
tribe, and actuated by all the warlike law
less spirit of their progenitor. Simeon is
nameil by Ezekiel (xlviii. 25), and the au
thor of the Book of the Revelation (vii, 7)
in their catalogues of the restoration of Is
rael. 2. A devout Jew, inspired by the
Holy Ghost, who met the parents of our
Lord in the Temple, took Him in his arms,
and gave thanks for what he saw and knew
of Jesus (Luke ii. 25-35). There was a
Simeon who succeeded his father Hillel as
president of the Sanhedrira about A. d. 13,
and whose son Garaaliel was the Pharisee
at whose feet St, Paul was brought up
(Acts xxii, 3), It has been conjectured
that he raay be the Simeon of St, Luke,
Sim'eon Ni'ger (Acts xiu, l), [Niger,]
Si'mon, 1. Son of Mattathias. [Mac
cabees.] 2, Son of Onias the high-priest,
whose eulogy closes the " praise of famous
men " in the Book of Ecclesiasticus (eh,
iv.), 3. "A governor of the Teraple" in
the tirae of Seleucus Philopator, whose in
formation as to the treasures of the Temple
led to the sacrilegious attack of Heliodorus
(2 Macc, iii, 4, &c,). 4, Simon the Broth
er oE Jesus, — The only undoubted notice
of this Siraon occurs in Matt, xiii, 55, Mark
vi, 3, He has been identified by some writers
with Simon the Canaanite, and still more
generally with Symeon who became bishop
of Jerusalem after the death of James, A. d,
62. 'The former of these opinions rests on
no evidence whatever, nor is the latter with
out its difficulties. 5. Simon THE Canaan
ite, one of the 'Twelve Apostles (Matt. x.
4,; Mark iii, 18), otherwise described as
Siraon Zelotes (Luke vi, 15; Actsi, 13), —
The latter terra, which is peculiar to Luke,
is the Greek equivalent for the Chaldee ,
term preserved by Matthew and Mark.
[Canaanite,] Each of these equally points
out Siraon as belonging to the faction of the
Zealots, who were conspicuous for their
fierce advocacy of the Mosaic ritual. 6.
Simon op Cyrene. — A Hellenistic Jew,
born at Cyrene on the north coiist of Africa,
who was present at Jerusalera at the tirae
of the crucifixion of Jesus, either as an at-
tendiint at the feast (Acts U, 10), or as one
of the nuraerous settlers at Jerus.alem from
that place (Acts vi, 9). Meeting the pro
cession that conducted Jesus to Golgotha,
as he was returning from the country, he

SIMON

654

SIN-OFFERING

was pressed into the service to bear the
cross (Matt, xxvii, 32 ; Mark xv, 21 ; Luke
xxiii, 26), when Jesus himself was unable
to bear it any longer (corap. John xix. 17).
Mark describes hin» as the father of Alex
ander and Rufus, perhaps because this was
the Rufus known to the Roraan Christians
(Rora, xvi, 13), for whom he more especial
ly wrote, 7. Simon the Leper. — A res
ident af Bethany, distinguished as " the
leper," It is not iraprobable that he had
been miraculously cured by Jesus, In his
house M.ary anointed Jesus preparatory to
His death and burial (Matt, xxvi, G, &c, ;
Mark xiv, 3, &c. ; John xU. 1, &c.), 8. Si
mon Maous. — A Saraarit.an living m the
Apostolic age, distinguished as a sorcerer
or "raagician," from his practice of m.agi-
cal arts (Acts viU. 9). According to eccle
siastical writers he was born at Gitton, a
village of Saraaria, and was probably edu
cated at Aloxtindria in the tenets of the
Gnostic school. He is first introduced to
us as practising magical a;rts in a city of Sa
maria, perhaps Sychar (Acts viii. 5 ; comp.
, Jolm iv. 5), and with such success, that he
was pronounced to be "the power of God
which is called great" (Acts viii. 10). The
preaching and miracles of Philip having ex
cited his observation, he became one of his
disciples, and received baptism at his hands.
Subsequently he witnessed the effect pro
duced by the imposition of hands, as prac
tised by the Apostles Peter and John, and,
feeing desirous of acquiring a similar power
for himself, he offered a sum of money for
it. His object evidently was to apply the
power to the prosecution of magical arts.
The motive and the means were equiiUy to
be reprobated ; and his proposition met with
a severe denunciation from I'eter, followed
by a petition on the part of Simon, the tenor
of which bespeaks terror, but not penitence
(Acts viu. 9-24). The memory of his pe
culiar guilt has been perpetuated in the word
simony, as appUed to all traffic in spiritual
offices. Simon's history, subsequently to
Ids raeeting with Peter, is involved in diffi
culties. Early Church historians depict hira
as the pertinacious foe of the Apostle Peter,
whose raoveraents he followed for the pur
pose of seeking encounters, in which he was
signally defeated. He is said to have fol
lowed the Apostle to Rorae. His death is
associated with this raeeting; according to
Hippolytus, the earliest authority ou the
subject, Siraon was buried alive at his own
request, in the confident assurance that he
would rise again on the third day. Accord
ing to another account, he atterapted to fly,
in proof of his supernatural power; in an
swer to the prayers of Peter, he fell, and
sustained a fracture of his thigh and ankle-
bones ; overcome with vexation, he corarait
ted suicide. 9- Simon Peter, [Peter,]
10. Simon, a Pharisee, in whose house a

nenitent woman anointed the head and feet
of Jesus (Luke vn. 40). 11. Simon the
Tanner. — A Christian convert Uvmg at
Joppa, at whose house Peter lodged (Acts
ix. 43). 'The house was near the sea-side
(Acts X. 6, 32), for the convenience of the '
water. 12. Simon, the father of Jadas
Iscariot (John vi. 71, xiu. 2, 26).
Sim'ri, properly " Shimri," son of
Hosah, a Merarite Levite in the reign of
David (1 Chr, xxvi, 10).
Sin, a city of Egypt, mentioned only by
Ezekiel (xxx. 15, 16). The name is. He
brew, or, at least, Semitic, pefhaps signify
ing " clay." It is identified- in the 'Vulg.
with Pelusiura, "the clayey or muddy"
town. Its antiquity may perhaps be in
ferred from the raention of " the wUderness
of Sin " in the journeys of the Israelites
(Ex. xvi. 1; Nura. xxxiii. 11), Ezekiel
speaks of Sin as " Sin the stronghold of
Egypt" (xxx, 15). This place it held from
that time until the period of the Roraans.
Herodotus relates that Sennacherib ad
vanced against Pelusiura, and that near
Pelusiura Cambyses defeated Psamraenitus.
In like manner the decisive battle in which
Ochus defeated the last native king, Nec-
tanebos, was fought near this city.
Sin, "Wilderness of, a tract of the
wilderness which the Israelites reached after
leaving the encarapraent by the Red Sea,
(Nura. xxxiii. 11, 12). Their next halting-
place (Ex. xvi. 1, xvii- 1) was Repbidim.
probably the Wady Feirdn [Rephidim];
on which supposition it would follow that
Sin must lie between that wady and the
coast of the Gulf of Suez, and of course
west of Sinai. In the wilderness of Sin the
manna was first gathered, and those who
adopt the supposition that" this was merely
the natural product of the tarfa bush, find
frora the abundance of that shrub in Wady
es Sheikh, S- E, of W. GhHrundel a proof
of local identity.
Sin-oflFering. The sin-offering among
the Jews was the sacrifice, in which the
ideas of propitiation and of atoneraent for
sin were raost distinctly marked. The cer
emonial of the sin-offering is described in
Lev, iv, and vi. The Trespass-offeeing
is closely connected with the sin-offering in
Leviticus, but at the same time cleaily dis
tinguished from it, being in some cases
offered with it as a distinct part of the sarae
sacrifice ; as, for example, in the cleansing
of the leper (Lev. xiv.). The distinction
of ceremoniiil clearly indicates a difference
in the idea of the two sacrifices. The na
ture of that difference is still a subject of
great controversy. We find that the sin-
offerings were — (A.) Regular. (1.) For
ihe whole people, at the New Moon, Pass
over, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets, and
Feast of Tabernacles (Num. xxviii. 15-
xxix. 38) ; besides the solemn offering of

a

til

n

SIN-OFFERINO

655

SINAI

the two goats on the Great Day of Atone
ment (Lev. xvi.). (2.) For ihe Priests
and Levites at their consecration (Ex. xxix.
10-14, 36) ; besides the yearly sin-offering
(a bullock) for the high-priest on the Great
Day of Atoneraent (Lev. xvi.) (B.) Spe
cial. (1.) For any sin of "ignorance"
(Lev. iv.). (2). For refusal to bear wit
ness (Lev. V. 1). (3.) For ceremonial de
filement not wilfully contracted (Lev, v, 2,
3, xu, 6-8, xiv. 19, 31, xv. 15, 30; Num. vi.
6-11, 16). (4.) For ihe breach of a rash
oath (Lev. v. 4). The trespass-offerings,
on the other hand, were always special, as
— '(1.) For sacrilege "in ignorance"
(Lev. V. 15, 16). (2.) For ignorant trans
gression (v. 17-19). (8.) For fraud, sup
pression of the truth, or perjury (vi. 1-6).
(4.) For rape of «. betrothed slave (Lev.
xix. 20, 21). (5.) Ai the purification of
tfe leper (Lev. xiv. 13), and the polluted
Nazarite (Num. vi. 13), offered with the
sin-offering. Frora this enuraeration it will
be clear that the two classes of sacrifices,
although distinct, touch closely upon each
other. It is also evident that the sin-offer
ing was the only regular and general rec
ognition of sin in the abstract, and accord
ingly was far raore solemn and symbolical
in its ceremonial ; the trespass-offering was
confined to special cases, raost of which
related to the.doing of some material dam
age, either to the holy things or to man,
except in (5), where the trespass-offering
is united with the sin-offering. Josephus
declares that the sin-offering is presented
by those " who fall into sin in ignorance,"
and the trespass ofl'ering by ' ' one who has
sinned and is conscious of his sin, but has
no one to convict hira thereof." Without
attempting to decide so difficult 'and so
controverted a question, we may draw the
following conclusions ', First, that the sin-
offering was far the more solemn and cora-
prehensive of the two Siicr^fices. Secondly,
that the sin-offering looked raore to the
guilt of the sin done, irrespective of its
consequences, while the trespass-offering
looked to the evil consequences of sin,
either against the service of God, or against
man, and to the duty of atonement, as far
as atonement was possible. Thirdly, that
in the sin-offering especially we nna sym
bolized the acknowledgment of sinfulness
as inherent in raan, and of the need of ex
piation by sacrifice to renew the broken
covenant between man and God. There is
one other question of some interest, as to
the nature of the sins for which either sac
riflce could be offered. It is seen at once
that in the Law of Leviticus, most of them,
which are not purely cereraoniai, are caUed
sins of "ignorance" (see Heb. ix. 7); and
in Num. xv. 30, it is expressly said that
whUe such sins can be atoned fcr by offer
ings, " the soul that doeth aught presump

tuously " (Heb. with u. high hand) " shall
be cut off from among his people." . . .
"His iniquity shall be upon him" (comp.
Heb. X. 36). But here are sufficient indi
cations that the sins here called " of igno
rance " are more strictly those of " negli--
gence" or "frailty,'" repented of by the
unpunished offender, as opposed to those
of deliberate and unrepentant sin. If we
turn to the sins actually referred to iu Lev.
iv., v., we find somg which certainly are not
sins of pure ignorance ; they are indeed few
out of the whole range of sinfulness, but
they are real sins. In considering this sub
ject, it raust be reraerabered that the sac
rifices of the Law had a temporal, as well
as a spiritual, significance and effect. They
restored an offender to his place in the
coraraonwealth of Israel ; they were there
fore an atonement to the King of Israel for
the infringement of His law.
Sin.'a, Mount, the Greek form of the
well-known narae Sinai (Acts vii. 30, 38).
Si'n.ai- Nearly in the centre of the pe
ninsula which stretches between the horns of
the Red Sea lies a wedge of granite, grfln-
stein, and porphyry rocks rising to be
tween 8000 and 9000 feet above the sea. Its
shape reserables a scalene triangle. These
mountains raay be divided into two great
raasses — that of Jebel Serbal (6759 feet
high) in the north-west above Wady Feirdn
and the central group, roughly denoted by
the general name of Sinai. This group
rises abruptly from the Wady es-Sheykh at
its north foot, first to the cliffs of . the Ras_
Sufsdfeh, behind which towers tlie pinnacle
of Jebel MAsa (the Moiint of Moses), and
farther back to the right of it the suranut
of Jebel Katerin {Mount St. Catherine, 8705
feet), all being backed up and overtopped
by tfm Shaumer (the mother of fennel,
9300 feet) , which Is the highe^st point of the
whole peninsula. Before considering the
clairas of the individual raountains to Scrip
tural notice, there occurs a question regard
ing the relation of the naraes Horeb and
Sinai. The latter name first occurs as that
of the lirait on the farther side frora Egypt
of the wilderness of Sin (Ex. xvi. 1), and
again (xix. 1, 3) as the " wilderness " or
" desert of Sinai," before Mount Sinai is
actually spoken of, as in ver. 11 soon after
we find it. But the narae " Horeb " is, in
the case of the rebuke of the people by God
for their sin in making the golden calf, rein
troduced into the Sinaitic narrative (xxxiu.
6), having been previously raost recently
used in the|Story of the raurma.ring at Eeph-
idira (xvii. 6), and earlier as ilo.e narae of
the scene of the appearance -ot God in tho
"burning bush" (iii. 1). Horeb, strictly
taken, may probably be a dry plain, valley,
or bed of a wady near the mountain ; and
yet Mount Horeb, on the " vast green plain "
of which was doubtless exceUent pasture.

SINIM

656

SLAVE

may mean the mountain viewed in refer
ence thereto, or its side abutting thereon.
But beyond the question of the relation
which these names naturally bear, there re
mains that of site. Sinai is clearly a sura
rait distinctly ra.arked. Where are we to
look for it? There are three principal
views in answer to this question : I. That
Serbdl is Sinai, some 30 railes distant west
ward from the Jebel MAsa, but close to the
Wady Feirdn, which is thus identified with
Rephidini. The earliest traditions .are in
its favor. But there are two main objec
tions to this: (1.) It is clear, from Ex.
xix. 3 (corap. xvu. 1), that the interval be
tween Rephidim and Sinai was that of a
regular stage of the march. (2.) 'There is
no plain or wady of any sufficient size near
Serbdl to offer camping-ground to so large
a host, or perhaps the tenth part of thera.
II. That Jebel MAsa is Sinai, and that the
Wady es Sebayeh, which its S. E. or highest
summit overhangs, is the spot where the
people camped before the raount; but the
second objection to Serbdl applies almost
in equal force to this — the want of space
below. III. That the modern Horeb of
the monks — viz. the N. W, and lower face
of the Jebel MAsa, crowned with a range of
magnificent cliffs, the highest point called
Ras Sufsdfeh, as overlooking the plain er
Rahah] is the scene of the giving of the
Law, and that peak the raountain into which
Moses ascended. But the whole of Jebel
MAsais, corapared with the adjacent raoun
tains, insignificant. The conjunction of
raountain with plain is the greatest feature
of this site ; in choosing it, we lose in the
mountain, as corapared with Serbdl, but we
gain in the plain, of which Serbdl has noth
ing. It raay be added that, supposing Wady
Tayibeh to have been the encampment " by
the sea," as stated in Num. xxxiii. 10, three
routes opened there before the Israelites ;
the most southerly one down the plain el
Kda to TAr ; the most northerly by the
SarbAt el Khadem ; and the middle one by
Wady Feirdn, by which they would pass
the foot of Serbdl, which therefore in this
case alone could possibly be Sinai, The
middle route aforesaid from W. Tayibeh
reaches the W. Feirdn through what is
called tbe W. Mokaiieb, or " written valley,"
from the inscriptions on the rocks which line
it, generally considered to have been the
work of Christian hands, but whetlier those
of a Christian people localized there at an
unknown period, as Lepsius thinks, or of
passing pilgrims, as is the more general
opinion, is likely to continue doubtful.
Si'nim, a people noticed in Is, xUx. 13,
as living at the extremity of the- known
world, 'They may be identified with the
classical Sinae, the inhabitants of the south
ern part of China.
Sin'ite, a tribe of Canaanites (Gen, x, 17 ;

1 Chr. i, 15), whose position is to be sought
for in the northern part of the Lebanon dis
trict. , „ . ,
Si'on, Mount. 1- One of the various
naraes of Mount Hermon (Deut. iv. 48
only). 2. The Greek form of the Hebrew
name, Zion, the famous Mount of the Tem
ple (1 Macc, iv, 37, 60, v, 54, vi, 48, 63, vu.
33, X. 11, xiv. 37; Heb. xii, 22; Rev. xiv.
1). [Jerusalem,]
Siph'moth, one of the places in the
south of Judah which David frequented
during his freebooting life (1 Sam. xxx.
28). Sip'pai, Saph, one of the sons of Reph
aim, or "the giants," slain by Sibbechai at
Gezer (1 Chr. xx, 4),
Si'raeh, the father of Jesus (Joshua),
the writer of the Hebrew original of the
Book of Ecclesiasticus,
Si'rah, The 'Well of, from which Ab
ner was recalled by Joab to his death at
Hebron (2 Sam, iii, 26, only), -Itwas ap
parently on the northern road from Hebron.
There is a spring and reservoir ou the
western side of the ancient northern road,
about one mile out of Hebron, which is
called Ain Sara.
Sir'ion, one of the various names of
Mount Hermon, that by which it was known
to the Zidonians (Deut, iii. 9), The use of
the narae in Ps, xxix. 6 (slightly altered in
the original — Shirion instead of Sirion) is
reraarkable. Sisam'ai, a descendant of Sheshan in
the line of Jerahmeel (1 Chr. ii. 40).
Sis'era. 1. Captain of the array of
Jabin king of Canaan who reigned in Ha
zor. He hiraself resided in Harosheth of the
Gentiles. The particulars of the rout of
Megiddo and of Sisera's flight and death
are drawn out under the heads of Barak,
Deborah, Jael, Kishon. 2. After a long
interval the name re-appears in the Usts of
the Nethinim who returned frora the Cap
tivity with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 53 ; Nell. vu.
55). It doubtless tells of Canaanite cap
tives devoted to the lowest offices of the
Teraple. Sit'nah, the second of the two wells dug
by Isaac in the valley of Gerar, the pos
session of which the herdraen of tlie valley
disputed with him (Gen. xxvi. 21).
Sivan. [Month.]
Slave. The institution of slavery was
recognized, though not established, by the
Mosaic Law with a view to mitigate its
hardship and to secure to every raan his
ordinary rights. I. Hebrew Slaves. 1-
The circumstances under which a Hebrew
raight be reduced to servitude were — (I)
poverty; (2) the coraraission of theft; .and
(3) the exercise of paternal authority. In
the first case, a man who had mortgaged
his property, and was uniible tn support his
family, might sell himself to another He-

SLAVE

657

SLAVE

brew, wiUi a view both to obtain mainte-
nauce, and p« rchance a surplus sufficient to
redeem his pronerty (Lev. xxv. 25, 39).
(2) 'The coraniijsion of theft rendered a
person liable to servitude, whenever resti
tution could not be niiide on the scale pre
scribed by the Law (Ex. xxU. 1, 3). The
thief was bound to work out the value of
his restitution money in the service of hira
on whom the theft had been committed.
(3) The exercise of paternal authority was
limited to the sale of a daughter of tender
age to be a raaid-servant, with the ulterior
view of her becoraing the concubine of the
purchaser (Ex. xxi. 7). 2. 'The servitude
of a Hebrew raight be terminated in thro?
ways : (1) by the satisfaction or the re
mission of all claims against him; (2) by
the recurrence of the year of Jubilee (Lev-
XXV. 40) ; and (3) the ex'piration of six
years from the timo that his servitude com
raenced (Ex. xxi. 2; Deut. xv. 13). (4)
To the above modes of obtaining liberty
the Rabbinists added, as a fourth, the death
of the raaster without leaving a son, there
being no power of claiming the slave on
the part of any heir except a son. If a
servant did not desire to avail himself of
the opportunity of leaving his service, he
was to signify his intention in a formal
manner before the judges (or more exactly
at ihe place of judgment), and then the
master was to take him to the door-post,
and to bore his ear through with an awl (Ex.
xxi. '6), driving the awl into or "unto the
door," as stated in Deut. xv. 17, and thus
fixing the servant to it. A servant who
had submitted to this operation remained,
according to the words of the Law, a ser
vant " forever" (Ex. xxi. 6). These words
are, however, interpreted by Josephus and
by the Rabbinists as raeaning until the
year of Jubilee. 3. The condition of a
Hebrew servant was by no raeans intoler
able. His master was iidmonished to treat
him, not " iis a bond-servant, but .as an hired
servant and as a sojourner," and, again,
"not to rule over him with rigor" (Lev.
xxv. 39, 40, 43). At tho termination of his
sorvituiie the master was enjoined not to
" let him go away eraptyi" 'but'to rerauner-
ate him liberally out of his flock, his; fioor,
and his wine-press (Deut. xv. 13," 14). In
the event of a Hebrew -becoming the ser
vant of a " stranger," raeiining a non-He
brew, the servitude could be terminated
only in two ways, viz. by the arrival of the
year of Jubilee, or by the repayment to the
master of the purchase-money paid for the
servant, after deducting a sura for the
value of his services proportioned to the
length of bis servitude (Lev. xxv. 47-55).
A Hebrew woraan raight enter into volun
tary servitude on the score of poverty, and
in this case she was entitled to her freedora
after liix years' service, together with her
42

usual gratuity at leaving, just as in the
case of a man (Deut. xv, 13, 13), Thus
far we have seen little that is objectionable
in the condition of Hebrew serv.ants. In
respect to raarriage there were sorae pecu
liarities which, to our ideas, would be re
garded as hardships, A master might, for
instance, give a wife to a Hebrew seivant
for the time of his servitude, the wife being
in this case, it must be remarked, not only
a slave, but a non-Hebrew. Should he
leave when his term had expired, his wife
an'' chUdren would remain the absolute
property of the raaster (Ex. xxi. 4, 5").
Again, a father might sell his young daugh
ter to a Hebrew, with a view either of
m.arrying her himself, or of giving her to
his son (Ex, xxi. 7-9). It diminishes the
apparent harshness of this proceeding if
we look on the purchase-money a« in the
light of a dowry given, as was not un
usual, to the parents of the bride ; still
more, if we accept the Rabbinical view
that the consent of the maid was required
before the marriage could take place. The
position of a maiden thus sold by her
father was subject to the following regula
tions : (1) She could not " go out as tho
men-servants do," i. e. she could not leave
at the termination of six years, or in the
year of Jubilee, if her master was willing
to fulfil the object for which he had pur
chased her, (3) Should he not wish to
marry her, he should call upon her friends
to procure her release by the repayment
of the purchase-money, (3) If he bi^.
trothed her to his son, he was bound to
raake such provision for her as he wouhl
for one of his own daughters. (4) If either
he or his son, having married her, took a
second wife, it should not be to the pre
judice of the first. (5) If neither of the
three first specified alternatives took place,
the maid was entitled to iraraediate and
gratuitous liberty (Ex, xxi, 7-11). The
custom of reducing Hebrews to servitude
appears to have fallen into disuse subse
quently to the Babylonish captivity. Vast
numbers of Hebrews were reduced to sla
very as war-captives at different periods by
the Phoenicians (Joel iii, 6), the Philistines
(Joel in, 6 ; Am, i, 6), the Syrians (1 Mace,
iii, 41; 3 Macc, viii, 11), the Egyptians
(Joseph. Ant. xii. 3, § 3), and, above all,
by the Romans (Joseph. B. J. vi. 9, § 3).
II. Non-Hebrew Slaves. 1. The majority
of non-Hebrew slaves were war-captives,
either of the Canaanites who had survived
the general, extermination of their race
under Joshua, or such as were conquered
from the other surrounding nations (Num.
xxxi. 26, ff.) Besides these, raany were
obtained by purchase from foreign slave-
dealers (Lev. xxv. 44, 45) ; and others may
have been resident foreigners who were
reduced to this state either by poverty oi

SLIME

658

SO

crime. The children of slaves remained
slaves, being the class described as " born
in the house " (Gen. xiv. 14, xvii. 12 ; Eccl.
ii. 7), and hence the number was Ukely to
increase as tirae went on. The average
value of a shave appears to have been thirty
shekels (Ex. xxi, 32,) 2, That the' slave
raight be miinumitted, appears from Ex,
xxi, 26, 27 ; Lev. xix. 20. 3. The slave is
described as the " possession " of his mas
ter, apparently with a spec ial reference to
the power which the latter had of disposing
of him to his heirs as he would any other
article of personal property (Lev. xxv. 45,
46) ; the slave is also described as his mas
ter's " money" (Ex. xxi. 21), i. e. .as rep
resenting a certain raoney value. Such
expressions show that he was regarded
very much in the light of a chattel. But
on the other hand, provision was made for
the protection of his person (Lev. xxiv. 17,
22; Ex. xxi. 20). A minor personal in
jury, such as the loss of an eye or a tooth,
was to be recorapensed by giving the ser
vant his liberty (Ex. xxi. 26, 27). The
position of the slave in regard to reUgious
privileges was favorable. He was to be
circuracised (Gen. xvii. 12), and hence was
entitled to partake of the Paschal sacrifice
(E.x. xii. 44), as well as of the other re
Ugious festivals (Deut. xii. 12, 18, xvi. 11,
14). The occupations of slaves were of a
menial character, as implied in Lev. xxv.
39, consisting partly in the work of the
house, and partly in personal attendance on
the raaster.
Slime, translated bitumen in the Vul
gate. The three instances in which it is
raentioned in the O. T. are illustrated by
travellers and historians. It is first spoken
of as used for ceraent by the builders in the
pl.ain of Shinar, or Babylonia (Gen. xi. 3),
The bitumen pits in the vale of Siddim
are raentioned in the ancient fragraent of
Canaanitish history (Gen, xiv, 10) ; and
the ark of papyrus in which Moses was
placed was raade irapervious to water by a
coating of bitumen and pitch (Ex, ii, 3),
Herodotus (i, 179) tells us of the bitumen
found at Is, a town of Babylonia, eight
diiys' journey from J?abylon. The town
of Is, mentioned by Herodotus, is the mod
ern Hii or Ileet, on the west or right bank
of tho Euphrates, and four days' journey
from Bagdiid, The principal bitumen pit
at Hcet has two sources, and is divided by
a wall in the centre, on one side of which
bitumen bubbles up, and on the other the
oil of naphtha.
Sling, [Ar.MS, p, 52,]
Smith. [Handioraei.]
Smyr'na, the city to which aUusion is
made iu Revelation U, 8-11, was founded
by Alexiinder the Great, .and was situated
tworty stades from the city of tho sarae
name, which .after a long series of wars

with the Lydians had been finiilly taken
and sacked by Halyattes. It seeras not
impossible, that just as St. Paul's illustra
tions in the Epistle to the Corinthians are
derived from the Isthmian games, so the
message to the Church in Smyrna contains
allusions to the ritual of the pagan mys
teries which prevailed in that city. In the
time of Strabo the ruins of the Old Smyrna
still existed, and were partially inhabited,
but the new city was one of the most beau
tiful in all Asia. The streets were laid out
as near as might be at right angles. There
was a large public library there, and also a
handsome building surrounded with porti
cos which served as a museum. It was
consecrated as a herottm to Homer, whom
the Smyrnaeans claimed as a countryman.
Olyrapian games were celebrated here, and
excited great interest.
Snail. 1. The Hebrew word shablAl
occurs only in Ps. Iviii. 8. The rendering
of the A. V. is probably correct. 'The
terra would denote either -a, Limax or a
Helix, which are particularly noticeable
for the sliray track they leave behind them.
2, The Hebrew word chdmet occurs only
as the narae of sorae unclean aniraal in
Lev. xi. 30, Perhaps some kind of Uzard
may be intended.
Snow, The historical books of the
Bible contain only two notices of snow
actually falling (2 Sam. xxui. 20 : 1 Maco.
xiii, 22) ; but the allusions in the poetical
books are so numerous that there can be
no doubt as to its being an ordinary occur
rence iu the winter months (Ps, cxlvii. 16,
cxlviii, 8). The snow lies deep in the
ravines of the highest ridge of Lebanon
until the summer is far advanced, and in
deed never wholly disappears ; the summit
of Herraon also perpetually glistens with
frozen snow. From these sources proha
bly the Jews obtained their supplies of ice
for the purpose of cooling their beverages
in summer (Prov. xxv. 13), The UabiUty
to snow must of course varj' considerably
in a country of such varying altitude as
Palestine, At Jerusalem snow often falls
to the depth of a foot or more in Januarj'
and February, but if seldom lies. At
Nazareth it falls more frequently and deep
ly, and it has been observed to fall even
in the maritirae plain of Joppa and about
Carmel, So, " So, king of Egypt " is once men
tioned in the Bible, Hoshea, the last king
of Israel, evidently intending to become
the vassal of Egypt, sent messengers to
him, and made no present, as had been the
yearly custom, to the king of Assyria (2
K, xvii, 4), So has been identified iy
different witters with 'the first aw.d second
kings of the Ethiopian xxvth djmasty,
called, by Manetho, Sab.ak6n (Shebik),
and Sebich'is (Shebetek).

SOAP

659

SODOM

Soap The Hebrew term Idrith is a
general lerm for any substance of cleansing
qualities. As, however, it appears in Jer.
ii, 22, in contradistinction to nether, which
undoubtedly means " natron," or mineral
alkali, it is fail to infer that bdrith refers
to vegetable alkali, or some kind of potash,
which forras oce of the usual ingredients
in our soap, Nuraerol s plants, capatile
of yielding alkalies', exist iu Palestine and
the surrounding countries ; we raay notice
one named Hubeibeh (the salsola kali of
botanists) found near the Dead Sea, the
ashes of which are called el-Kuli from
their strong alkaline properties.
So'cho, 1 Chr. iv. 18. Probably the
town, of Socoh in Judah, though which of
the two cannot be ascertained.
So'choh, another form of the name
which is more correctly given in the A. V.
as Socoh, The present one occurs in 1 K,
iv, 10, and is therefore probably, though
not certainly, Socoh 1.
So'coh, the name of two towns in the
tribe of Judah, 1, In the district of the
Shefeliih (Josh, xv. 35 ; 1 Sam. xvii. 1 ;
2 Chr. xi, 7, xxviii. 18). In the tirae of
Eusebius it bore the narae of Socchoth, and
lay between 8 and 9 Roraan railes frora
Eleutheropolis, on the road to Jerusalem.
It raay be identified with esh-Shuweikeh,
in the western part of the raountains of
.ludah. Frora this village probably carae
" Antigonus of Soco," who lived about the
comraencement of the 3d century B. c.
2. Also a town of Judah, but in the moun
tain district (Josh. xv. 48). It has been
discovered about 10 miles S- W. of He
bron ; bearing, like the other Sof;oh, the
narae of esh-Shuweikeh.
So'di, the father of Gaddiel, tiw spy
selected from the tribe of Zebulun (Num.
xiU. 10).
Sod'om, one of the raost ancient cities
)t Syria, It is comraonly ui^ucioned in
iVmnection with Goraorrah, i.-ut also with
Admah and Zeboim, and on one jccasiou
(Gen. xiv.) with Bela ot Zoar, Sodora
was evidently the chief town j,". the settle
ment. The four are first named in tho
ethnological records of Gen. x, 19, as be
longing to the Canaanites, The next men
tion of the narae of Sodom (Gen, .tiii. 10-
13) gives more certain indication of the
position of the city.' Abrara aud Lot are
standiiig together between Bethel and Ai
(ver. 3), taking a survey of tho land
around and below thera. Eastward of
thera, and absolutely at their feet, lay the
" circle of Jordan." The whole circle was
one great oasis — "a gp.rden of .Tehovah"
(ver. 10) . In the raidst of the garden the
four cities of Sodora, Goraorrah, Admah,
and Zeboim appear to have been situated.
It is necessary to notice how absolutely
the cities are identified with the district.

In the subsequent account of their destruc
tion (Gen, xix.), the topographical terms
are eraployed with all the precision which
is characteristic of such early times. Tho
mention of the Jordan is conclusive as to
the situation of the district, for the Jordan
ceases where it enters the Dead Sea, and
can have no existence south of that point.
The catastrophe by which they were de
stroyed is described in Gen. xix. as a
shower of brimstone and fire from Jehovah.
However we may interpret the words of
the earliest narrative, one thing is certain
— that the lake was not one of the agents iu
the catastrophe. Nor is it implied in any
of the later passages in whieh tho destruc
tion of the cities is referred to throughout
the Scriptures. Quite the contrary. Those
passages always speak of the district on
which the cities once stood, not as sub
merged, but as still visible, though deso
late and uninhabitable. In agreement with
this is the stateraent of Josephus, and the
accounts of heathen writers, as Strabo and
Tacitus ; who, however vague their state
ments, are evidently under tlie belief that
the district was not under water, and that
the remains of the towns were still to be
seen. From all these passages, though
rauch is obscure, two tlungs seem clear :
1. That Sodom and the rest of the cities
of the plain of Jordan stood ou the north
of the Dead Sea. 2. That neither the
cities nor the district were submerged hy
the lake, but that the cities were over
thrown and the land spoiled,' and that it
may still be seen in its desolate condition.
When, however, wc turn to more modern
views, we disot)ver a remarkable variance
from these conclusions. 1. The opinion
long irurrent, that the five cities were sub
merged in the lake, and that their remains
-- walls, columns, and capitals — might bo
still discerned below the water, hardly
needs refutation .after the distinct state
ment and the constant implication of Scrip
ture. But --2. A raore serious departure
from the terms of the ancient history is
exhibited in the prevalent opinion that the
cities stood at the south end of the lake.
This appears to have been the belief of
Josephus and Jerome. It seems to have
been universally held by the mediaeval
historians and pilgrims, and it is adopted
by modern topographers, prohably without
exception. There are several grounds for
this belief; but the main point on which
Dr. Robinson rests his argument is the sit
uation of Zoar. {a.) " Lot," says he, " fled
to Zoar, which was near to Sodom ; and
Zoar lay almost at the southern end of the
present sea, probab' y in the mouth of Wady
Kerak." {b.) Another consideration in
favor of placing the cities at the southern
end of the lake Is the existence of similar
names in that direction, {c.) A third argu-

SODOMA

660

SOLOMON

ment, and perhaps the weig'iticst of the
three, is the existence of the salt moun
tain at the south of the lake, and its ten
dency to split off in columnar masses, pre
senting a rude resemblance to the huraan
forra. But it is by no raeans cert.ain that
salt does not exist at other spots round the
lake. It thus appears that on the situation
of Sodcra no satisfactory conclusion can at
present be corae to. On the one hand, the
narrative of Genesis seems to state posi
tively that it lay at the northern end of the
Dead Sea, On the other hand, the long-
continued tradition and the names of exist
ing spots seera to pronounce with almost
equal positiveness that it was at its southern
end. — Of the catastrophe which destroyed
the city and the district of Sodom we can
hardly hope ever to form a satisfactory con
ception. Some catastrophe there undoubt
edly was. But what secondary agencies,
besides fire, were eraployed in the accom
plishment of the punishment cannot be safe
ly deterrained in the alraost total absence of
exact scientiflc description of the natural
features of the ground round the lake. It
¦was formerly supposed that the overthrow
of Sodora was caused by the convulsion
which forraed the Dead Sea. But the
changes which occurred when the liraestone
strata of Syria were split by that vast
fissure which forras the Jordan Valley and
the basin of the Salt Lake, must not only
, have taken place at a tirae long anterior to
the period of Abrahara, but must have
been of such a nature and on such a scale
as to destroy all animal Ufe far and near.
But in fact the narriitive of Gen. xix.
neither states nor iraplies that any convul
sion of the earth occurred. If it were pos
sible to speculate on m.ateri.als at once so
slender and so obscure as are furnished by
that marrative, it would be more consistent
to suppose that the actu.al .agent in the igni
tion and destruction of the cities had been
of the nature of a tremendous thunder
storm accompanied by a disch.arge of
meteoric stones. The narae Sodom has
been interpreted to mean " burning." The
miserable fate of Sodom and Gomorrah is
held up as a warning in nuraerous passages
of the Old and New Testaments (2 Pet. ii.
t'>; Jude 4-7; Miirk vi. 11).
Sod'oma. Rom ix. 29. In this place
alone the Authorized Version has followed
the Greek iind Vulgate forra of the well-
known narae Sodom.
Sod'omites. This word docs not de
note tbe inhiibit.ants of Sodom; but it is
employed in the A. V. of the Old Testa-'
iiient fbr those who practised as a religious
rite the abominable and unnatural vice
from which the inhabitants of Sodom and
Goraorrah have derived their lasting infamy.
It occurs in Deut. xxUi. 17; 1 K. xiv. 24,
£v. 12, xxu. 40; 2 K x.xiii. 7; and Job

xxxvi, 14 (margin). The Hebrew wui^
Kadesh is said to be derived from a root
kadash, which (strange as it may appear)
raeans " pure," and thence "holy. Xma
dreadful "consecration," or rather des
ecration, was spread in differei .t forms over
Phoenicia, Syria, Phrygia, Assyria, Baby-
li^ia. Sol'omon. I- Early Life and Acces
sion. — Ho was the child of David's old
age, the last-born of all his sons (1 Chr, iu.
5). The feelings of the king and of his
prophet-guide expressed themselves in the
names with which they welcoraed his birth.
Tho yearnings of the " man of war " now
led him to give to the new-born infant the
niime of Solomon (Shelomoh = ihe peace
ful one). Nathan, with a marked reference
to the meaning of the king's own name
(David = the darling, ihe beloved one), calls
the infant Jedidiah (Jedid-yah), that is, the
"darling of the Lord" (2 Siim, xu. 24,
25). He was placed under the care of
Nathan frora his earliest infancy. At first,
apparently, there was no distinct pur
pose to make him his heir. Absalom is
still the king's favorite son (2 Sara, xiii,
37, xviii. 33) — is looked on by the people
as the destined successor (2 Sara, xiv. 13,
XV. 1-6). The death of Absalom, when
Solomon was about ten years old, left the
place vacant, and David pledged his word
in secret to Bathsheba that he, .and no
other, should be the heir (1 K. i. 18). The
words which were spoken somewhat later,
express, doubtless, the purpose whiel
guided him throughout (1 Chr, xxvUi, 9
30), His son's life should not be .as his
own had been, one of hardships and wiirs,
dark crimes and passionate repentance, but,
from first to last, be pure, blameless, peace
ful, fulfilling the ideal of glory and of
rigliteousness, after which he himself had
vainly striven. The glorious visions of
Ps, Ixxii, maybe looked ou as the prophetic
expansion of those hopes of Ms old age.
So far, all was well. But we miiy net
ignore the fact, that the later years of
David's life presented a change for the
worse, as well as for the better. We can
not rest in the belief that his infiuence over
his son's character was one exclusively for
good. Nothing th.at we know of Biithsheba
leads us to think of her as likely to mould
her son's mind and heart to the higher
forras of goodness. Under these influences
the boy grew up. At tho age of ten or eleven
he must have passed through the revolt of
Absalora, and shared bis father's exile (2
Sara. XV, 16), He would be taught all
that priests, or Levites, or prophets h.ad to
teach. Admiriible, however, as all this
was, a shepherd-life, like his father's, fur
nished, we may believe, a better education
for the kingly calling (Ps. IxxviU. 70, 71).
The feebleness of David's old age led to iin

SOLOMON

661

SOLOMON

attemptwhich might have deprived Solomon
of the throne his fiither destined for him.
Adonijah, next in order of birth to Absa
lom, like Absalora " was a goodly man " (1
K. i. 6), in full maturity of years, backed
by the oldest of the king's friends and
counsellors. Following in the steps of Ab
salom, he assumed the kingly state of a
chariot and a bodyguard. At last a time
was chosen for openly proclaiming him as
king. A solenin featt .at En-rogel -was to
inaugurate the new reign. It was necessary
for those whose interests 'r=re end.angrcd
to take prompt measures. Bathsheba and
Nathan took counsel together. The king
was reminded of his oath. Soloraon went
down to GiiiON, and was proclairaed and
anointed king. The shouts of his followers
fell on the startled ears of the guests at
Adonijah's banquet. One by one they rose
and departed, 'The plot had failed, A few
months more, and Solomon found himself,
by his father's death, the sole occupant of
the throne. The position to which he suc
ceeded was unique. Never before, and never
after, did the kingdom of Israel take its
place among the great monarchies of the
East, Large treasures accumulated through
many years were at his disposal, — Of Solo
mon's personal appearance we have no di
rect description, as we have of the earlier
kings. There are, however, materials for
filling up the gap. Whatever higher mystic
raeaning raay be latent in Ps, xiv., or the
Song of Songs, we are all but corapelled to
think of them as having h.ad, at least, an his
torical starting-point, 'They tell us of one
who was, in the eyes ofthe men of his own
time, " fairer than the children of raen," the
face " bright and ruddy " as his father's
(Cant. V, 10; 1 Sara, xvii, 42), bushy locks,
dark as the raven's wing, yet not without a
golden glow, the eyes soft as " the eyes of
doves," the " countenance as Lebanon, ex
cellent as the cedars," " the chiefest among
ten thousand, the altogether lovely" (Cant,
V, 9-16). Add to this all gifts of a noble,
far-reaching intellect, large and ready sym
pathies, a playful and genial humor, the
lips " full of grace," the soul " anointed "
as " with the oil of gladness " (Ps, xiv,),
and we may forra sorae notion of what the
king was like iti that dawn of his golden
. prime, — The narrative of the earliest facts
in the history of the new reign, as told in
1 K. ii,, is not a little perplexing. Bath
sheba, who had before stirred up David
against Adonijah, now appears as interced
ing for him, begging that Abishag the Shu
namraite, the virgin concubine of David,
might be given him as a wife, Solomon,
who till then had professed the profoundest
reverence for his mother, suddenly flashes
into fiercest wrath at this. The petition is
treated as part of a conspiracy in which
Joab and Abiathar are sharers. Adonijah

is put to death at once. Joab is slain even
within the precincts of the Tabernacle, to
which he had fled as an asylum, Abiathar
is deposed, and exiled, sent to a Ufe of pov
erty and shame (1 K, ii, 31-36), and the
high-priesthood transferred to anothei fam
Uy. [Zadok,] 11. Reign. — All the data
for a continuous history that we have of
Solomon's reign are — {a.) The duration
of the reign, 40 years (1 K. xi. 42) b. c.
1015-975. (6.) The comraenceraent of the
Temple in the 4th, its corapletion in the
11th year of his reign (1 K. vi. 1, 37, 38),
(c) The commencement of his own palace
in the 7tli, its completion in the 20th j-ear
(1 K, vii. 1 ; 2 Chr. viu. 1). {d.) The con
quest of Hamath-Zobah, and the conse
quent foundation of cities in the region
north of Palestine after the 20th year (3
Chr, viii. 1-6). With raaterials so scanty
as these, it will be better to group the chief
facts in an order 'K'hich will best enable us
to appreciate their significance. III. For
eign Policy. — 1. Egypt. The first act ofthe
foreign policy of the new reign must have
been to most Israelites a very startling one
He made affinity •vvith Pharaoh, king of
Egypt, by raarrying his daughter (1 K. iii.
1). The iramediate results wore probably
favorable enough. The new queen brought
with her as a dowry the frontier-city of
Gezer, against which, as threatening the
tranquillity of Israel, and as still possessed
by a remnant of the old Canaanites, Pha
raoh hiid led his armies. She was received
with all honor. A separate and stately pal
ace was built for her, before long, outside
the ciliy of D.avid (2 Chr. viii. 11). The
ultiraate issue of the alliance showed that
it was hollow and impolitic. 'There may
have been a revolution in Egypt. There
was, at any rate, a change of policy. There
was planned the scherae which first led to
the rebellion of the Ten Tribes, and then
to the attack of Shishak on the weakened
and disraantled kingdora of the son of
Solomon. 2. Tyre. The alliance with tho
Phoenician king rested on a somewhat dif
ferent footing. It had been part of Diivid's
policy from the beginning of his reign.
Hiram had been " ever a lover of D.avid."
As soon as he heard of Soloraon's accession
he sent arabassadors to salute hira. A cor
respondence passed between the two kings,
which ended in a treaty of commerce. The
opening of Joppa as a port created a new
coasting-trade, and the materials from Tyre
were conveyed to it on floats, and thence to
Jerusalem (2 Chr. ii. 16). In return for these
exports, the Phoenicians were only too glad
to receive the corn and oil of Solomon's ter
ritory. The results ofthe alliance did not end
here. Now, for the first time in the history of
Israel, they entered on a career as acomraer-
cial people. They joined the Phoenicians iu
their Mediterranean voyages to the coasts ef

SOLOMON

662

SOLOMON

St/uiu. tioli imon's possession of the Edom
ite coast enabled hira to open to his ally a
new world of commerce. The ports of Elath
and Ezion-g jber were filled with ships of
Tarshish, merchant-^ships, raanued chiefly
by Phoenicians, but built at Solomon's ex
pense, which sailed down the Aelanitic
Gulf of the Red Sea, on to the Indian
Ocean, to lands which had before been
hardly known even by name. According
to the statement of the Phoenician writers
quoted by Josephus {Ant. vui. 5, § 3), the
intercourse of the two kings bad in it also
soraething of the sportiveness and freedora
of friends. They delighted to perplex each
other with hard questions, and laid wagers
as to their power of answering thera. The
singuliir fragment of history inserted in 1
K. ix. 11-14, recording the cession by Sol
omon of sixteen cities, and Hiram's dis-
siitisfaction with them, is perhaps connect
ed with these imperial wagers. 3. These
were the two most important alliances.
The absence of any reference to Babylon
and Assyria, and the fact that the Euphrates
was recognized as the boundary of Solo
mon's kingdom (2 Chr. ix. 26), suggest the
inference that the Mesopotamian monar
chies were at this time comparatively feeble.
Other neighboring nations were content to
ptiy annual tribute in the form of gifts (2
Chr. Lx. 42). 4. The survey of the influ
ence exercised by Solomon on surrounding
nations would be incomplete if we were to
pass over that which was more directly
personal — the fame of his glory and his
wisdom. Wherever the ships of Tarshish
went, they carried with them the report,
losing nothing in its passage, of what their
crews had seen and heard. The journey
of the queen of Sheba, though from its cir
cumstiinces the most conspicuous, did not
stand alone. She had heard of the wisdora
of Solomon, and connected with it "the
name of Jehovah " (1 K, x, 1). She came
with hard questions to test that wisdom,
iind the words just quoted may throw light
upon their nature, 'The historians of Israel
delighted to dwell on her confession that
the reality surpassed the fame, " the one
half of the greatness of thy wisdom -was not
told me" (2 Chr. ix, 6). IV. Internal
History. — 1, The first prominent scene
in Solomon's reign is one which presents
his character in its noblest aspect. There
were two holy places which divided the
reverence of the people, the <ark and its
provisional t.abernacle at Jerusalem, and
the original 'Tabernacle of the congrega
tion, which, after many wanderings, was
now pitched at Gibeon. It was thought
right that the new king should offer solemn
sacrifices at both. After those at Gibeon,
there carae that vision of the night, in
which Solomon prayed, not for riches, or
long life, or victory over eneraies, but for

a " wise and understanding heart,' that he
might judge the people. The "speech
pleased the Lord." The wisdom asked
for was given in large measure, and took
a varied range. The wide worid of nature,
aniraate and inanini.ate, the Uves and char
acters of men, lay before him, and he took
cognizance of all. But the highest wisdom
was that wanted for the highest work, for
governing and guiding, and the historian
hastens to give an illustration of it. The
p.attern-instance is, in all its circumstances,
thoroughly Oriental (1 K. Ui. 16-28). 2.
In reference to the king's finances, the first
impression of the fiicts given us is that of
abounding plenty. Large quantities of the
precious metals were iraported from Ophir
and Tarshish (1 K. ix. 28). All the kings
and princes of the subject provinces paid
tribute in the form of gifts, in money and
in kind, " at a fixed rate year by year " (1
K. X. 25). Monopolies of trade contributed
to the king's .treasury (1 K. x. 28, 29).
The king'5 domain-lands were apparently
let out, at a fi.xed annual rental (Cant.
viii. il). All the provinces of his own
kingdom were bound each in turn to sup
ply the king's enormous household with
provisions (1 K. iv. 21-23), The total
amount thus brought into the treasury in
gold, exclusive of all payments in kind,
amounted to 666 talents (1 K. x. 14), 3.
It was hardly possible, however, that any
financiiil system could bear tlie strain of
the king's passion for magnificence. The
cost of the Temple was, it is true, provided
for hy David's savings and the offerings of
the people ; but even while that was build
ing, yet more 'when it was finished, one
structure followed on another with ruinous
riipidity. All the equipment of his court,
the "app.arel" of his servants, was on the
same scale. A bodyguard attended hiin,
" threescore valiant men," tallest and hand
somest of the sons of Israel. Forty thou
sand stalls of horses for his chariots, and
twelve thousand horsemen, made up the
measure of his magnificence (1 K. iv. 26).
As the treasury became empty, taxes mul
tiplied and monopolies became . more irk
some. The people complained, uot of the
king's idolatry, but of their burdens, of his
" grievous yoke " (1 K, xU, 4). Their
hatred fell heaviest on Adoniram, who (vas
over the tribute, 4, A description of the
'Temple erected by Solomon is given else
where. After seven ye.ars and a half the
work was completed, and the day came to
which all Israelites looked back as the cul
minating glory of their nation. The ark
from Zion, the tabernacle from Gibeon,
were both reraoved (2 Chr. v. 5), and
brought to the new Temple. In the sol
eran dedication of the building the person
of the king is tho one centr.al object, com
pared with whom even priests and prophetl

SOLOMON

663

SOLOMON'S SERVANTS

are fcr the time subordinate. Frora hira
carae the lofty prayer, the noblest utter
ance of the creed of Israel, setting forth
the distance and the nearness of the Eter
nal God, One, Incoraprehensible, dwelling
not in temples made with hands, yet ruling
meu, hearing their prayers, giving thera
all good things, wisdora, peace, righteous
ness. 5. Wo cannot ignore the fact that
even uow there were some darker shades in
the picture. He reduced the "strangers"
in the land, the remnant of the Canaanite
races to the state of helots, and made their
Ufe '¦ bitter with all hard bondage," One
hundred .and fifty-three thousand, with wives
and children in proportion, were torn from
their homes and sent off to the quarries and
the forests of Lebanon (1 K, v, 15 ; 2 Chr,
ii, 17, 18). And the king soon fell from the
loftiest height of his religious life to the
lowest depth. Before long the priests and
prophets had to grieve over rival temples to
Moloch, Chemosh, Ashtaroth, forms of ritual
not idolatrous only, but cruel, dark, impure.
This evil came as the penalty of another
(1 K, xi, 1-8). He gave himself to "strange
woraen," He found himself involved in a
fascination which led to the worship of
strange gods. Something there wiis per
haps in his very "largeness of heart," so
far in advance of the traditional knowledge
of his age, rising to higher and wider
thoughts of God, which predisposed hira to
it. In recognizing what was true in other
forras of faith, he raight lose his horror at
what was false. With this there raay have
mingled political raotives. He raay have
hoped, by a policy of toleration, to concili
ate neighboring princes, to attract a larger
tr.affic. But probably also there was another
influence less comraonly taken into account.
The wide-spread belief of the East in the
magic arts of Solomon is uot, it is believed,
without its foundation of truth. Disasters
followed before long as the natural conse
quence of what was politically a blunder as
well as religiously a sin. The strength of
.the nation rested on its unity, and its unity
depended on its faith. Whatever attrac
tions the ' sensuous ritual which he intro
duced niiiy have had for the great body of
the people,- tho priests and Levites must
have looked on the rival worship with en
tire disfavor. The zeal of the prophetic or
der was now kindled into active opposition
(1 K. xi, 28-39). The king in vain tried
to check the current that ¦was setting strong
against hira. The old tribal jealousies
gave signs of renewed vitality. Ephraira
was prepared once raore to dispute the
supremacy of Jud.ah, needing special con
trol (1 K, xi, 28). And with this weakness
within there came attacks from without.
The king, prematurely old, must have fore
seen the rapid breaking up of the great
monari.hy to which be had succeeded. Of

tho inner changes of raind and heart wliich
ran parallel with this history Scripture i.«
comparatively silent. Something may be
learnt from the books that bear his narae ;
something also from the fact that so little
reraains out of so much, out of the songs,
proverbs, treatises of which the historian
speaks (1 K. iv. 33, 33). Excerpta only are
given from the 3000 Proverbs. Of the
thousand and flve Songs we know absolute
ly nothing. They represent the three stages
of his Ufe. The Song of Songs brings be
fore us the brightness of his youth. Then
coraes in the Book of Proverbs, the stage
of practical, prudential thought. The poet
has become the philosopher,' the mystic has
passed into the moralist. But the man
passed thrciugh both stages without bfeing per
manently the bettor for either. They were
to him but phases of his life which he had
known and exhausted (Eccl, i., ii.). And
therefore there carae, as in the Confessions
of the Preacher, the groat retribution. V.
Legends. — 'Round the facts of the history,
as a nucleus, there gathers a whole world
of fantastic fables, Jewish, Christian, and
Moharaniedan. Even in the Targura of
Ecclesiastes we find strange stories of his
character. He left behind hira spells and
charras to cure diseases and cast out evil
spirits. His wisdora enabled hira to inter
pret the speech of beasts and birds. He
knew the secret virtues of geras and herbs.
Arabic iraagination took a yet wilder fiight.
After a strong struggle with the rebellious
Afreets andjinns, Soloraon conquered them
and cast thera into the sea. To him be
longed the magic ring which revealed to
hira the past, the present, and the future.
The visit of the queen of Sheba furnished
sorae three or four romances. — We pass
frora this wild farrago of Jewish aud other
fables, to that which presents the raost en
tire contrast to them. The teaching of the
N. T. adds nothing to the materials for a
life of Solomon. It enables us to take the
truest raeasure of it. The teaching of the
Son of Man passes sentence on all that
kingly porap (Miitt. vi. 29). It was re
served for the true, the later Son of David
to fulfil the prophetic ye.arnings which had
gathered round the birth of the earlier. He
was the true Shfiloraoh, tho Prince of Peace,
the true Jedid-jah, the well-beloved of the
Father. Solomon's Porch. [Palace; Tem
ple.] Solomon's Servants (Childrs-n op).
(Ezr. ii. 56, 58; Neh. vU. 57, 60). The
persona thus named appear in the lists of
the exiles who returned frora the Captivity.
They were the descendantsi of the Cana.an-
ites, who wero reduced by Soloraon to the
helot state, and corapelled to laoor in the
king's stone-quarries, and in building his
'ces and cities (1 K. v. 13, 14, ix. 20>

SOLOMON'S SONG

664

SPARROW

21 , 2 Chr. viu. 7, 8). They appear to have
forraed a distinct order, inheriting probably
the same functions and the same skill as
their ancestors.
Solomon's Song. [Canticles.]
Solomon, 'Wisdom of. [Wisdom,
Book oe.]
Son. The terra " son " is used in Scrip
ture language to imply almost any kind of
descent or succession, as ben shdndh, " son
of a year," i. e. a year old, ben kesheth,
" son of a bow," i. e. an arrow. The word
bar is often found in the N. T. in composi
tion, as Biir-timaeus.
Soothsayer. [Divination.]
Sop' ater, sonof Pyrrhus of Beroea, was
one of the companions of St, Paul on his re
turn from Greece into Asia (Acts xx, 4),
Soph'ereth. " The children of Soph-
ereth " were a family who returned from
Babylon with Zerubbabel araong the de
scendants of Solomon's servants (Ezr. u,
55; Neh, vu, 57),
Sorcerer. [Divination.]
So'rek, The "Valley of, a wady in
which lay the residence of Delilah (Judg.
xvi. 4). It was possibly nearer Gaza than
any other of the chief Philistine cities, since
thither Samson was taken after his capture
at Delilah's house,
Sosip'ater, . kinsman or fellow-tribes
man of St, Paul (Rom. xvi, 21), is proba
bly tho sarae person as Sopater of Beroea,
Sos'thenes was a Jew at Corinth, who
was seized and beaten in the presence of
Gallic (sec Acts xviii, 12-17), Paul wrote
th? First Epistle to the Corinthians jointly
in liis own name and that of a certain Sos-
thenes whom he terras "the brother" (1 Cor.
i, 1), Some have held that he was identi
cal with the Sosthencs mentioned in the
Acts. If this .be so, he -must have been
converted at a later period, and have been
at Ephesus, and not at Corinth, when Paul
wrote to the Corinthians. Tho name was
a comraon one, and but little stress can be
Laid on that coincidence
So'tai. The children of , Sotalf were a
faraily of the descendants of Solomon's
servants who returned with Zerubbabel
(Ezr. U. 55; Neh, vii, 57),
South Ba'moth. [Ramath of the
South,] Sa'W. [Swine.]
Sower, So'wring. The operation of
sowing with the hand is one of so siraple a
character as to need Uttle description. The
Egyptian paintings furnish many illustra
tions of the mode in which it was conduct
ed. The sower held the vessel or basket
Ci;utiiining the seed, in his left h.and, whUe
¦ with his right he scattered the seed broad
cast. The "drawing out" of the seed is
noticed, as the raost characteristic action of
tiie sower, inPs.cxxvi. 6 (A.V, "precious")
and Ara, ix. 13 In wet soUs the seed was

trodden in by the feet of animals (Is- xxxii
20). The sowing season commenced in Oc
tober and continued to the end of February,
wheat being put in before, ard barley after,
the beginning of January. Tbe Mosaic law
prohibited the sowing of mixii seed (Ley
xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 9).
Spain (1 Macc. viU. 3; Rom. xv. 24,
28). The local designation, Tiinshish, rep
resenting the Tartessus of the Greeks,
probably prevailed until the fame of the
Roman wars in that country reached the
East, when it was superseded by its classi
cal name. The raere intention of St- Paul
to visit Spain implies two interesting facts,
viz, the establishment of a Christian com
munity in that country, and this by means
of Hellenistic Jews resident there. The
early introduction of Christianity into that
country is attested by Irenaeus and Ter
tuUian. Sparrow. (Heb. tzippdr). This Heb.
word occurs upwards of forty times in the
O, T. In' all passages excepting two it is
rendered by A. V. indifferently "bird" or
" fowl," In Ps. Ixxxiv. 3, and Ps, cii. 7, it
is rendered " sp.arrow." The Greek Stqov-
6lor {" sparrow," A. V.) occurs twice in
N. T., Matt. X. 29, Luke xii. 6, 7. Tzip
pdr, from a root signifying to " chirp" or
"twitter," appears to be a phonetic repre
sentation of the call-note of any passerine
bird. Although the comraon sparrow of
England {Passer domesiicus, L.) does not
occur in the Holy Land, its place is abun
dantly supplied by two very closely alUed
Southern species {Passer salicicola, Vieill.,
and Passer cisalpina, Tem.), Our Eng
lish tree sparrow {Passer monianus, L,) is
also very common, and may be seen in
numbers on Mount Olivet, and also about
the sacred enclosure of the mosque of
Omar. 'This is perhaps the exact sjecies
referred to in Fs, Ixxxiv. 3, Most cf our
commoner small birds are found in Pales
tine. The starling, chaffinch, greenfinch,
linnet, goldfinch, corn-bunting, pipits,
blackbird, song-thrush, and the various
species of wagtail abound. The rock spar
row {Petronia siulta, Strickl.) is a comraon
bird in the barer portions of Palestine, es
chewing woods, and generaUy to be seen
perched alone ori the top of a rock or on
any large stone. From this habit it has
been conjectured to be the bird alluded to
in Ps. cii, 7, as "the sparrow that sitteth
alone upon the house-top ; " but as the rock
sparrow, though found among ruins, never
resorts to inhabited buildings, it seems
raore probable that the bird to which the
psalmist alludf i is the blue thrush {Pdro-
cossyphus cyaneus). It is a solitary bird,
eschewing the society of its own species,
and rarely more than a pair are seen to
gether, 'There are but two allusions to the
singing of birds in the Sciiptur?6, ITiei'les,

SPARTA

665

SPIKEKARD

xii. 4 and Ps. civ. 12. As the psalmist is
here speaking of the sides of stieams and
rivers, he probably had in his mind the
hulbul of the country, or Palestine nightin
gale (-^s xanthopyyius, Herapr,), a bird
not very far removed frora the thrush tribe,
and a closely allied species of which is the
true hulbul of Persia and India. Sraall
birds were probably as ordinary an article
of corcumption araong the Israelites as
Ihey sjll are in the markets both of the
Continent and of the East (Luke xii, 6 ;
Matt, X, 29). There are four or five sira
ple methods of fowling practised at this
day in Palestine which are probably iden
tical with those alluded to in the O. T.
The simplest, but by no means the least
successful, araong the dexterous Bedouins,
is fowling with the throw-stick. The only
weapon used is a short stick, about 18
inches long and half an inch in diameter.
When the game has been discovered, the
stick is hurled with a revolving motion so
as to strike the legs of the bird as it runs,
or sometinies at a rather higher elevation,
so that when the victira, alarmed by the
approach of the we.apon, begins to rise, its
wings are struck, and it is slightly disabled.
The fleet pursuers soon come up, and, using
their burnouses, as a sort of net, catch and
at once cut the throat of the game. A
more scientific method of fowling is that
alluded to in Ecclus. xi. 30, by the use of
decoy-birds. Whether falconry was ever
eraployed as a mode of fowling or not is by
no means so.cle.ar. At the present day it
is practised with much care and skill by the
Arab inhabitants of Syria, though not in
Judaea proper.
Spar'ta (1 Macc. .xiv. 16 ; 2 Macc. v. 9 :
A.V. "Lacedaemonians"). In the history
of the Maccabees mention is made of a re
markable correspondence between the Jews
and the Spartans, which has been the sub
ject of much discussion. The alleged facts
aro briefly these : When Jouiithan endeav
ored to strengthen his government by for
eign alliiinces (b. c, 144), he sent to Sparta
to renew a friendly intercourse which had
been begun at an earlier tirae between Are
us and Onias, on the ground of their com
mon - descent from Abraham (1 Macc, xii,
5-33), The embassy was favorably re
ceived, and after the death of Jonathan
"the friendship and league "was renewed
with Simon (1 Macc, xiv, 16-23). Several
questions arise out of these statements. 1.
The whole context of the passage, as well as
tho independent reference to the connection
ofthe " Lacedaeraonians " and Jews in 2
Macc. V. 9, seems to prove clearly that the
reference is to the Spartans, properly so
called. 2. The actual relationship of the
Jews aud Spartans (2 Macc. v. 9) is an eth
nological error, which it is difficult to trace
to its origin. It is certain, from an inde

pendent pai'sage, that a Jewish colony ex
isted at Sparta at an early time (1 Macc.
XV. 23). 3. The difficulty of flxing the
diite of the first correspondence is increased
by the recurrence of the names involved.
Two kings bore the narae Areus, one of
whom reigned b. c. 309-265, and the other,
his grandson, died b. u. 257, being only
eight years old. The same narae was also
borne by .an adventurer, who occupied a
prominent position at Sparta, b. c. 184. In
Judaea, again, three high-priests bore the
name Onias, the flrst of whom held office
B. 0. 330-309 (or 300) ; the second b. o. 240-
236; and the third b. c, 198-171, Jose
phus is probably correct in fixing the event
in the time of Onias III,
Spear, [Arms,]
Spearmen- The word thus rendered in
the A. V. of Acts xxiii, 33 is of very rare
occurrence, and its meaning is extremely
obscure, 'I'hey were probiibly troops so
lightly armed as to be able to keep pace on
the march with mounted soldiers.
Spice, Spices. 1. Hebrew Bdsam,
besem, or bdsem. In Cant, 'v. 1, "I have
gathered my rayrrh with my spice," the
word points apparently to some definite
substance. In the other places, with the
exception perhaps of Cant, i, 13, vi, 3, the
words refer more generaUy to sweet aro
matic odors, the principal of which was
that of the balsam or balra of Gilead ; the
tree which yields this substance is now
generaUy adraitted to be the Balsamoden
dron opobalsamum. The balm of Gilead
tree grows in some parts of Arabia and
Africa, and is seldom raore than fifteen feet
high, with straggling branches and scanty
foliage. The balsam is chiefly obtained
from incisions in the bark, but the sub
stance is procured also from the green and
ripe berries. 3, Nicdth (Gen. xxxvii. 35,
xliii. 11). The most probable explanation
is that which refers the word to the Arabic
naka'ai, i. e. "the gum obtained from the
tragacanth" {Astragalus). 3. Sammim.
A general term to denote those aromatic
substances which were used in the prepara
tion of the anointing oil, the incense offer
ings, &c. The spices mentioned as being
used by Nicoderaus for the preparation of
our Lord's body (John xix. 39, 40) .are
"myrrh and aloes," by 'which latter word
must be understood not I'le aloes of medi
cine {Aloe), but the hignly-scented wood
of the Aquilaria agallochum.
Spider. The Hebrew word 'accdbish
in Job viii. 14, Is. lix. 5, is correctly ren
dered "spider," But SSmdmith is wrongly
translated " spider " in Prov. xxx. 38 ; it
refers probably to some kind of lizard.
Spikenard (Heb. nerd) is mentioned
twice in the 0. T., viz. in Cant. i. 13, iv.
18, 14. The ointment with which our Lord
was anointed as He sat at meat in Siraon'a

SPINNING

666

STEPHEN

house at Bethany consisted of this precious
Bubatance, the costliness of which may be
inferred from the indignant surprise mani
fested by sorae of the witnesses of the
transaction (see Mark xiv, 3-5 ; John xii. 3,
5), There is no doubt that sunbul is by
Arabian authors used as the representative
of the Greek nardos. Dr, Royle, having
ascertained that the jatamansee, one of the
Hindu synonymes for the sunbul, was annu
ally brought frora the raountains overhang
ing tbe Ganges and Jurana rivers down to
the plains, purchased some of these fresh
raots, and planted them in the botanic gar
dens at Saharunpore. This plant has been
palled Nardosiachy s jaiamansi hy De Can-
doUe.

J
Spikenard.
Spinning. The notices of spinning in
tbe Bible are confined to Ex. xxxv. 35, 26 ;
Matt. vi. 23; and Prov. x.xxi. 19. The
latter passage implies (according to the A.
V.) the use of the same instruments which
have been in vogue for hand-spinning down
to the present day, viz. the distaff and
spindle. The distaff, however, appears to
have been dispensed with, and the term so
rendered raeans the spindle itself, while that
rendered "spindle" represents the whirl
of the spindle, a button of circular rira
which was affixed to it, and gave steadiness
to its circular raotion. The " whirl " of the
Syrian woraen was raade of araber in the
tirae of Pliny. 'The spindle was held per
pendicularly in the one hand, while the
other was employed in drawing out the
thread. Sponge is mentioned only in the N. T.
(Matt, xxvii. 48; Mark xv. 86; John xix.
29)'. The commercial value of the sponge
was known from very early times ; and al
though there appears to be no notice of it

in the O. '^ , yet it is probable that it was
used by the ancient Hebrews, who could
readily have obtained it good from the Med
iterranean. . , i i
Sta'chys, a Christian at Rome, saluted
by St. Paul in the Epistle to the Romans
(xvi, 9).
Spouse. [Marriage.]
Stacte (Heb. ndtdf), the name of one
of the sweet spices which composed the
holy incense (see Ex. x.xx. 34). The He
brew word occurs once again (Job xxxvi.
27) . Some identify the ndtdf with the gum
of the storax tree {Styrax officinale), but
all that is positively known is that it signi
fles an odorous distillation from some plant.
Standards. [Ensigns.]
Star of the "Wise Men. [Magi.]
Stater. [Money, p. 424.]
Steel. In all cases where the word
" steel" occurs in the A. V. the true ren
dering ofthe Hebrew is " copper." Whether
the ancient Hebrews were acquainted with
steel is not perfectly cert.ain. It has been
inferred from a passage in Jeremiah (xv.^
12), that the " iron from the north" there
spoken of denoted a superior kind of raetal,
hardened in an unusual raanner, like the
steel obtained from the Chalybes of the
Pontus, the ironsmiths of the ancient
world. The hardening of iron for cutting-
instruments was.practised in Pontus, Lydia,
and Laconia. 'There is, however, a word
in Hebrew, palddh, which occurs only in
Nah. ii, 3 [4], and is there rendered
" torches," but which raost probably de
notes steel or hardened iron, and refers to
the flashing scythes of the Assyrian chari
ots. Steel appears to h.ave been known to
the Egyptians. The steel weapons in the
torab of Rameses III., says Wilkinson, are
painted blue, the bronze red,
Steph'anas, a Christian convert of
Corinth whose household Paul baptized as
the " first fruits of Achaia" (1 Cor, i. 16,
xvi, 15),
Ste'phen, the First Christian Martyr,
was the chief of the Seven (comraonly
called Deacons) appointed to rectify the
complaints in the early Church of Jerusa
lem, raade by the Hellenistic against, the
Hebrew Christians. His Greek name in
dicates his own Hellenistic origin'. Ills
iraportance is stamped on the narrative by
a reiteration of emphatic almost superla
tive phrases : " full of faith and of the
Holy Ghost " (Acts vi. 5) ; " fuU of grace
and power" (ib. 8) ; irresistible " .•spirit and
wisdora" (ib. 10); "full of the Holy
Ghost" (vii. 55), He shot far ahead of
his six corapanions, and far above his par
ticular office. First, he arrests attention
by the "great wonders and miracles that
he did." Then begins a series of disputa
tions with the Hellenistic Jews of North
Africa, Alexandria, and Asia Minor, hia

STEPHEN

667

STOICS

companions in race and birthj lace. The
subject of these disputations is not ex
pressly mentioned ; but frora what follows,
it is obvious that he struck .into' a new vein
of teaching, which evidently caused his mar
tyrdom. Down to this time the Apostles and
the early Christian community had clung in
their worship, not merely to the Holy Land
and the Holy City, but to the Holy Place
of the Temple. 'This local worship, with
the Jewish customs belonging to it, he
now denounced. So we must infer from
the accusations brought against him, con
firmed as they are by the te.nor of his
defence. He was arrested at the instigation
of thfe Hellenistic Jews, and' brought before
the Sanhedrin. His speech in his defence,
and his execution by stoning outside the
gates of Jerusalem, are related at length in
the Acts (vii.). The framework in which
his defence is cast is a summary of the his
tory of the Jewish Church. In the facts
which he selects from this history, he is
guided by two principles. The first is the
endeavor to prove th.at, even in the pre
vious Jewish history, the presence and favor
of God had not been confined to the Holy
Land or the Temple of Jerusalera. This
he illustrates with a copiousness of detail
which makes his speech a suraraary alraost
as rauch of sacred geography as of sacred
history. The second principle of selection
is based on the attempt to show that there
was a tendency frora the earliest times to
wards the same ungrateful and narrow spirit
that hiid appeared in this last stage of their
political existence. It would seem that,
just at the close of his argument, Stephen
siiw a change in the aspect of his judges, as
if for the first time they had caught the drift
of his moaning. He broke off frora his calm
address, and turned suddenly upon thera in
an impassioned attack, which shows that he
saw what was in store for him. As he spoke
they showed by their faces that their hearts
"were being sawn iisunder," and tliey kept
gnashing their set teeth against him; but
StiU, though with difficulty, restraining
theraselves. He, in this last crisis' of his
fate, turned his face upwards to the open
sky, and as he gazed the vault of heaven
seemed to him to part asunder; and the
Divine Glory appeared through the rending
of tho earthly veil — the Divine Presence,
seated on a throne, and on the right hand
the human forra of "Jesus." Stephenspoke
as if to hiraself, describing the glorious
vision ; and, in so doing, alone of all the
speakers and writers in the N. T., except
only Christ Hiraself, uses the expressive
phrase, "the Son of Man." As his judges
heard the words, they could hear no longer.
'Th6y broke into a lou4 yell; they clapped
theU' hands to their ears ; they flew as with
oue impulse upon him, and dragged him
out of the city to the place of execution.

Those who tuok the lead iu the execution
were the persons who had taken upon them
selves the responsibility of denouncing him
(Deut. xvii. 7 ; comp. John viU. 7). In this
instance, they were the witnesses who had
reported, or mis-reported, the words of Ste
phen. They, according to the custora,
stripped themselves ; and one of the prom
inent leaders in tho transaction was deputed
by custora to signify his assent to the act
by taking the clothes into his custody, and
standing over them whilst the bloody work
went on. The person who officiated on this
occasion was a young man from Tarsus —
the future Apostle of the Gentiles. [Paul.]
As the first volley of stones burst upon him,
Stephen 'called upon the Master whose hu
man forra he had just seen in the heavens,
and repeated aim est the words with which He
himself had given up His life on the cross,
" O Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." An
other crash of stones brought him on his
knees. One loud, piercing cry, answering
to the loud shriek or yell with which his
enemies had flown upon him, escaped his
dying lips. Again clinging to the spirit of
his Master's words, he cried, "Lord, lay
not this sin to their charge," and instantly
sank upon the ground, .and, in the touching
language of the narrator, who then uses for
the flrst time the word, afterwards applied
to the departure of all Christians, but here
the more remarkable from the bloody scene:
in the raidst of which the death took place
— "fell asleep." His mangled body waii
buried by the class of Hellenists and prose
lytes to which he belonged. The impor
tance of Stephen's career may be briefly
summed up under three heads : I. He was
the first great Christian ecclesiastic, " the
Archdeacon," as he is called in the Eastern
Church. II. He is the first martyr — the
proto-martyr. To him the narae "martyr"
i's first appUed (Acts xxii. 20). III. He
is the forerunner of St, Paul. He was the
anticipator, as, had he lived, he would have
been the propiigator, of the new phase of
Christianity, of which St. Paul became the
raain support.
Stocks- The term ' ' stocks " is appliec.
in the A. V. to two different articles, one
of which answers rather to our pillory ;
while the other answers to our " stocks,"
the feet alone being confined in it. 'The
prophet Jeremiah was confined in the first
sort (Jer, xx, 2), which appears to havo
been a coraraon raode of punishraent in his
day (Jer. xxix. 26), as the prisons contained
a chamber for the special purpose, termed
" the house of the pillory " (2 Chr. xvi. 10 j
A. V. " prison-house "). The stocks, prop
erly so called, are noticed in. Job xiu. 27,
xxxiu. 11, and Acts xvi. 24. The term used
in Prov. vii. 22 (A. V. "stocks") more
properly means a fetter.
Stoics. The Stoics and Epicureans,

STOMACHER

668

STORK

who are mentioned together iu Acts xvii.
18, represent the two opposite schools of
practical philosophy which survived the fall
of higher speculation in Greece. The Stoic
school was founded by Zeno of Citium (cir.
B. c, 280), and derived its name from the
painted "portico " {ctou) in which he taught.
Zeno was followed by Cleanthes (cir. b. c.
260), Cleanthes by Chrysippus (cir, b. c.
240), who was regarded as tho intellectual
founder of the Stoic system. The ethical
system of the Stoics has been commonly
supposed to have a close connrction with
Christian moraUty. But, the morality of
stoicism is essentially based on pride, that
of Chris tiinity on humility; the one up
holds individual independence, the other
absolute faith in another ; the one looks for
consol.alion in the issue of fate, the other in
Providence ; the one is limited by periods
of cosmical ruin, the other is consumraated
in a personal resurrection (Acts xvU. 18).
But in spite of the fundamental error of
stoicisra, which lies in a supreme egotism,
the teaching of this school gave a wide
currency to the noble doctrines of the
Fatherhood of God, tho common bonds of
mankind, the sovereignty of the soul.
Stomacher. The Hebrew word, so
translated, describes some article of female
attire (Is. iii. 24), the character of which is
a mere matter of conjecture.
Stones. Besides the ordinary uses to
which stones were applied, we may raention
that large stones were set up to coraraemo-
rate any remarkable events (Gen. xxvui. 18,
xxxv. 14, xxxi. 45 ; Josh. iv. 9 ; 1 Sam. vii.
12). Such stones were occasionally conse
crated by anointing (Gen. xxviii. 18). A
sirailar practice existed in heathen coun
tries, and by a singular coincidence these
stones were described in Phoenicia by a
name very similar to Bethel, viz. baeiylia.
The only point of reserablance between the
two consists in the custom of anointing.
Th.at the worship of stones prevailed .among
the heathen nations surrounding Palestine,
and was borrowed from them by apostate
Israelites, appears from Is. Ivii. 6, accord
ing to the ordinary rendering of the pas
sage Heaps of stones were piled up on
various occasions, as in token of a treaty
(Gen. xxxi. 46) ; or over the grave of some
notorious offender (Josh. -vii. 26, viii. 29;
2 Sam. xviii. 17). Tho "white stone"
noticed in Rev. ii. 17 has been variously
regarded as referring to tho pebble of ac
quittal used in the Greek courts ; to the lot
cast in elections in Greece ; to both these
combined ; to the stones in the high-priest's
breastplate ; to the tickets presented to the
victors at the public games ; or, lastly, to
the custom of writing on stones. The no
tice in Z2ch. xii. 3 of the "burdensome
stone " is referred by Jerome to the custora
of Ufting stones i s an exercise of strength

(comp. Ecclus. vi. 21) ; but it may equally
wcU be explained of a large corner-stone as
a symbol of strength (Is. xxvUi. 16). Stones
are used metaphorically to denote h.ardnesa
or insensibUity (1 Sam. xxv. 37 ; Ez. xi. 19,
xxxvi. 26), as weU as firmness or strength
(Gen. xlix. 24). The members of the
Church are called " living stones," as con
tributing to rear that living temple in which
Christ, himself ' ' a living stone," is the chief
or head of the corner (Eph. U. 20-22; 1
Pet. U. 4-8).
Stones, Precious. Pi-ecious stones
are frequently alluded to in the Holy Scrip
tures; they were known and very highly
valued in the earliest times. The Tyrians
traded in precious stones suppUed by Syria
(Ez. xxvu. 16). The merchants of Sheba
and Raamah in South Arabia, and doubtless
India and Coylon, suppUed the markets of
Tyre with various precious stones. The art
of engraving on precious stones was known
from the very earliest times (Gen. xxxviu.
18). The twelve stones of the breastplate
were engraved each one with the narae of
one of the tribes (Ex. xxviU, 17-21), It is
an undecided question whether the diamond
was known to the early nations of antiquity.
The A, V. gives it as the rendering of the
Hob. Yahaldm, but it is probable that the
jasper is intended. Precious stones are
used in Scripture in a figurative sense, to
signify value, beauty, durability, &c., in
those objects with wliich they are compared
(see Cant, v, 14 ; Is, liv. 11, 12 ; Lara. iv.
7; Rev. iv. 8, xxi, 10, 21),
Stoning. [Punishments.]
Stork (Heb. chasiddh). The White
Stork {Ciconia alba, L.) is one ofthe largest
and most conspicuous of land birds, standing
nearly four feet high, the jet black of its
wings and its bright red beak and legs con
trasting finely with the pure white of its
plumage (Zech, v. 9), In the neighborhood
of raan it devours readily all kinds of offal
and garbage. For this reason, doubtless, it
is placed in the list of unclean birds bv the
Mosaic Law (Lev. xi. 19; Deut. xiv. 18),
The range of the white stork extends over
the whole of Europe, except the British
Isles, where it is now only a rare visit.ant,
and over Northern Africa and Asia as far at
least as Birmah. The Black Stork {Cicc-
nia nigra, L.), though less abundant in
places, is scarcely less widely distributed,
but has a raore easterly range -than its con
gener. Both .'species are very numerous iu
Palestine. WhUe the black stirk is never
found about buildings, but prefers marshy
places in forests, and breeds on the tops of
the loftiest trees, th? white stork attaches
itself to man, and for the service which il
renders in the destruction of reptiles And
the removal of ofial has been repaid from
the earliest times by protection and rever
ence. The derivation of chasiddh (from

STRAIN

669

STRAW

ehesed, "kindness") points to the paternal
and filial attachment of which the stork
seeras to have been a type araong the He
brews no less than the Greeks and Roraans,
It was believed that the young repaid the
care of their parents by attaching them
selves to them for life, aud tending them in
old age. That the parental attachment of
the stork is very strong, has been proved
ou many occasions. Few migratory birds
aro more punctual to tho tirae of their
reappearance than the white stork. The
stork has no note, and the only sound it
emits is that caused by the sudden suiipping
of its long mandibles.
Strain at. The A. V, of 1611 renders
Matt, xxiii, 24, "Ye blind guides 1 T,-hich
strain ai a gnat, aud swallow a camel,"
There can bo little doubt that this obscure
phrase is due to a printer's error, and that
the true reading is "strain out." Arch
bishop Trench gives an interesting illus
tration of the passage from the letter of a
Uiveller in North Africa, who says, "In
i ride frora Tangier to Tetuan, I observed
that a Moorish soldier who accorapiinied
me, when he drank, always unfolded the
end of his turban and placed it over the
mouth of his boia, drinking through the
muslin, to strain oui the gnats, whose larvae
swarm in the water of -that country."
Stranger, A "stranger" in the tech
nical sense of the term may be defined to
be a person of foreign, i. e. non-Israelitish,
extraction resident within the limits of the
proraised land. He was distinct frora the
proper "foreigner," inasrauch as the latter
still belonged to another country, and
would only visit Palestine as a traveller: he
was still raore distinct frora the " nations,"
or non-Israelite peoples. The terra may
be compared with our expression "natural
ized foreigner." The terms applied to the
" stranger " have special reference to the
fact of his residing in the land. The ex
istence of such a class of persons among
the Israelites is easily accounted for : the

" mixed raultitude " that accompanied them
out of Egypt (Ex, xii. 38) forraed one ele
raent; the Canaanitish population, which
was never wholly extirpated frora their
native soil, formed another aud a still more
important one; captives taken in war
formed a third; fugitives, hired servants,
merchants, &c,, formed a fourth. The en
actments of the Mosaic Law, which regu-
liited the ¦ political and social position of
resident strangers,- were conceived in a
spirit of great Uberality. With the excep
tion of the Moabites and Ammonites (Deut.
xxiii. 3), all nations were admissible to the
rights of citizenship under certain condi
tions.* The stranger appears to have been
eligible to all civil offices, — that of king
excepted (Deut, xvii, 15), In regard to
religion, it was absolutely necessary that
the stranger should not infringe any of the
fund.amcntal laws of the Israelitish state
If he was a bondsman, he was obliged to
submit to circuracision (E.x. xii. 44) ; if he
was independent, it was optional with hira ;
but if he reraained uncircumcised, he was
prohibited from partaking of the Passover
(Ex. xii, 48), and could not be regarded as
a full citizen. Liberty was also given in
regard to the use of prohibited food to au
uncircumcised stranger. Assuming, how
ever, that the stranger was circumcised, no
distinction existed in regard to legal rights
between the stranger and the Israelites.
The Israelite is enjoined to treat hira as a
brother (Lev. xix. 34 ; Deut, x, 19). It also
appears that the "stranger" forraed the
class whence the hirelings were drawn ; the
terras being coupled together in Ex, xU.
45 ; Lev. xxii, 10, xxv. 6, 40, 'The liberal
spirit of the Mosaic regulations respecting
strangers presents a strong contrast to the
rigid exclusiveness of the Jews at the com
mencement of the Christian era, 'The
growth of this spirit dates frora the time of
the Babylonish captivity.
Straw. Both wheat and barley straw
were used by the ancient Hebrews chiefly

roreign Captirea employed in making Bricka at Thebes. (Wilkinson,)

STREAM OF EGYPT

670

SUN

as fodder for the horses, cattle, and caraels
JGen, xxiv. 25; 1 K. iv, 28; Is, xi, 7, lxv.
25), There is no intiraation th.at straw was
used for litter. It was employed by the
Egyptians for making bricks (Ex, v, 7, 16),
being chopped up and mixed with the clay
to make thom more corapact, and to prevent
their cracking, [See Brick, p, 92,] The
ancient Egyptians reaped their corn close
to the car, and afterwards cut the straw
close to the ground, and laid it by, This
was the stra.w that Phiiraoh refused to give
to the Israeliets, who were therefore com
pelled togather " stubble " instead — a mat
ter of considerable difficulty, seeing that
the striiw itself had been cut off neaj; to the
ground. [Brick.]
Stream of Egypt occurs once in the
N. T. (Is. xxvii. 12). [River of Egypt.]
Street. The streets of a modern Orien
tal town presented a great contrast to those
with which we are familiar, being generally
narrov/-, tortuous, and gloomy, even in the
best towns. 'Their char.acter is raainly fl.xed
by the cliiuato and tho style of architec
ture, the Uiirrowness being due to the ex
treme heat, and the gloora,ines3 to the cir
cumstance of the windows looking for the
most part into the inner court. The street
called "Strixight," in Damascus (Acts ix,
11), was an exception to the rule of nar
rowness : it was a noble thoroughfare, 100
feet wide, divided in the Roman age by col
onnades into three avenues, the central one
for foot passengers, the side passages for
vehicles and horsemen going in different
directions, Tho shops and warehouses were
probably collected together into bazaars in
ancient as in modern times (Jer, xxxvii,
21), and perhaps the agreement between
Benhadad and Ahab that the latter should
"make streets in Damascus" (1 K. xx.
34), was in reference rather to bazaars,
and thus amounted to the establishment of
a jus commercii. That streets occasionally
had names appears from Jer. xxxvii. 21 ;
Acts ix. 11, 'That they were generally un-
paved m.ay be inferred frora the notices of
the pavement laid by Herod the Great at
Antioch, and by Herod Agrippa II. at Jeru
salem, Hence paveraent forms one of the
peculiar features of the ideal Jerusalem
('Tob, xiU, 17; Rev, xxi, 21), Eiich street
and bazaar in a modern town is locked up
at night; the same. custora appears to have
previiiled in ancient tiraes (Cant. iU, 3),
Stripes. [Pdnisii.uents.]
Su'ah, son of Zophah, an Asherite (1
Chr, vU, 36),
Suo'coth. 1, An ancient town, first
heard of in the account of the homeward
journey of Jacob from Padan-aram (Gen,
xxxUi, 17), The narae is derived from
the fact of Jacob's having there put up
"booths" {Succdih) tor his cattle, as well
as a house for liimself. From the itinerary

of Jacob's return it seems that Succoth lay
between Peniee, near the ford of the tor
rent Jabbok, and Shechera (comp. xxxu.
30, and xxxiu. 18). In accordance with this
is the mention of Succoth in .the narrative
of Gideon's pursuit of Zebah and Zalraun
na (Judg, viU, 5-17). It would appear
from this passage that it lay east of the
Jordan, which is corroborated by the fact
that it was allotted to the tribe of Gad
(Josh. xiii. 27). Succoth is named once
again after this — in 1 K, vii. 46 ; 2 Chr,
iv. 17 — as marking the spot at which the
brass founderies were placed for casting
the raetal work of the Temple. It appears
to have been known in the tirae of Jerome.
who says that there was then a town named
Sochoth beyond the Jordan, in the district
of Scythopolis. 2. The first caraping
place ofthe Israelites when they left Egypt
(Ex, xU. 37, xiii, 20 ; Num. xxxiii, 5, 6).
¦This place was apparently reached at the
close of the first day's march. Rameses,
the starting-place, was probably near the
western entl of the Wiidi-t-Tumeylcit. The
distance traversed in each day's journey
was about fifteen miles.
Suc'coth-toe'noth occurs only in 2 K.
xvii, 30, It has generally been supposed
that this term is pure Hebrew, and signifies
the " tents of daughters ; " which some ex
plain as " the booths in which the daughters
of the Babylonians prostituted. themselves
in honor of their idol," others as "small
tabernacles In which were contained im
ages of feraale deities," Sir H, Rawlinson
thinks that Succoth-benoth represents the
Chaldaean goddess Zerbanii, the wife of
Merodach, who was especially worshipped
at Babylon.
Su'chathites, one of the farailies of
scribes at Jabez (1 Chr, U, 55),
Suk'kiims, a nation raentioned (2 Chr.
xii, 3) with the Lubim and Cushim as sup
plying part of the army which carae with
Shishak out of Egypt when he invaded Judah.
The Sukkums may correspond to some
one of the shepherd or wandering races
mentioned on the Egyptian monuments.
Sun- In the history of the creation the
sun is described as the "greater light," in
contradistinction to the moon, or "lesser
Ught," in conjunction with which it was to
serve "for signs, and for seasons, and for
days, and for years," while its special
office was "to rule the day" (Gen. i. 14-
10). The " signs " referred to were prob
ably such extraordiu.ary phenomena as
eclipses, which were regarded as conveying
premonitions of coraing events (Jer. x. 2;
Matt. xxiv. 29, with Luke xxi, 25). The
joint influence assigned to the sun and
raoon in deciding the " seasons," both for
agricultural operations and for religious
festivals, and also in regulating the length
and subdivisions of the "years, ' correctly

SITN

671

SWEAT, BLOODY

flescribes the combination of the lunar and
solar year, wh'ich -prevailed at all events
Bubsequenfly to the Mosaic period. Sun
rise and sunset are the only defined points
of time in the absence of artificial con
trivances for telling the hour of the day.
Between these two points the Jews rec
ognized three periods, viz. when the sun
became hot, about 9 a. m, (1 Sam, xi,
9 ; Neh. vU, 3) ; the double light, or noon
(Gen. xliU. 16; 2 Sara. iv. 5); and "the
cool of the day," shortly before sunset
(Gen. iii. 8). The sun also served to
fix the quarters of the heraisphere, east,
west, north, and south, which were repre
sented respectively by the rising sun, the
setting sun (Is, xiv, 6; Ps, 1, 1), the dark
quarter (Gen, xiu, 14; Joel ii,20), and the
brilliant quarter (Deut. xxxiii, 23 ; Job
xxxvU, 17; Ez. xl, 24); or otherwise hy
their position relative to a person facing
the rising sun — before, behind, on the left
hand, and on the right hand (Job xxUi, 8,
9). The apparent motion of the sun is
frequently referred to (Josh, x, 18; 2 K,
XX. 11; Ps. xix. 6; Eccl. i. 5; Hab. iii. 11).
— The worship of the sun, as the most
prominent and powerful agent in the king
dom of nature, was widely diffused through
out the countries adjacent to Palestine.
The Arabians appear to have paid direct
worship to it without the intervention of
any statue or symbol (Job xxxi. 26, 27),
and this simple style of worship was prob
ably familiar to the ancestors of the Jews
in Chaldaea and Mesopotaraia. The He
brews raust have been well acquainted with
the idolatrous worship of the sun during
the captivity in Egypt, both from the con
tiguity of On, the chief seat of the worship
of the sun as implied in the name itself
(On = the Hebrew Bethsheraesh, "house
of the sun," Jer. xlui. 13), and also from
the connection between Joseph and Poti
pherah (" he who belongs toRa"), the priest
of Ou (Gen. xii, 45). After their removal
to Canaan, the Hebrews carae in contact
with various forras of idolatry, which origi
nated in the worship of tbe sun ; such as
the Baal of the Phoenicians, the Molech
or Milcora of the Araraonites, and the
Halad of the Syrians, The importance
attached to the worship of the sun by the
Jewish kings raay be inferred from the
fact that the horses sacred to the sun were
stalled within the precincts of tb"e Temple
(2 K, xxiii, 11). — In the metaphorical
language of Scripture the sun is emblera-
atic of the law of God (Ps, xix. 7), ofthe
cheering presence of God (Ps. Ixxxiv. 11),
of the person of the Saviour (John i. 9 ;
Mal, iv, 2), and of the glory and purity of
heavenly beings (Rev. i. 16, x. 1, xii. 1).
Suretyship. In the entire absence of
comraerce the law laid down no rules on
the subject of suretyship ; but it is evident

that in the time of Soloraon commercial
dealings had become so multiplied that
suretyship in the commercial sense was
coraraon (Prov. vi. 1, xi. 15, xvii. 18, xx.
16, xxii. 26, xxvii. 13). But in older times
the notion of one man becoming a surety
for a service to be discharged by another
was in full force (ree Gen. xliv. 32). The
surety of course becarae liiible for his
client's debts in case of his failure,
Su'sa (Esth. xi. 8, xvi. 18). [Shushan.]
Su'sanchites is found once only — in
Ezr. iv. 9. There can be no doubt that it
designates either the inhabitants of the cit.v
Susa, or those of the country — Susis or
Susiana. Perhaps the former explanation
is preferable.Susan'na. 1- The heroine of the story
of the Judgment of D.aniel (see p. 133). 2-
One of the women who ministeroiJ to tho
Lord (Luke vui. 3).
Su'si, the father of Gaddi the Manas
site spy (Num. xiii. 11).
S'wallow (Heb, dirdr, in Ps, ly5k.dv.
3; Prov. xxvi. 3; Heb. 'dgAr, iu Is.
xxxviU. 14; Jer, viii, 7, but " crane " ia
raore probably the true signification o.T
'dgAr [Crane])- 'The rendering of A. V,
for dirdr seems correct. The character-
ascribed in the passages where the uame*
occur, are strictly .applicable to the swal
low, viz. its swiftness of flight, its nestinj
in the buildings of the Temple, its- mourn
ful, garrulous note, and its regul.ar raigra
tion, shared indeed in coraraon with several
others. Many species of swallow occur in
Palestine. All those coraraon in EngLand
are found,
S'wan (Heb, tinshemeth), thus rendered
by A, V. in Lev. xi. 18 ; Deut, xiv, 16,
where it occurs in the list of unclean birds.
But the re'nderings of the LXX., "por-
phyrio" (purple water-hen) and "ibis," are
either of thera more probable. Neither of
these' birds occurs elsewhere in the cata
logue ; both would be familiar to residents
in Egypt, and the original seems to point to
some wiiter-fowl, Tho purple water-hen
is allied to our corn-crake and water-hen
and is the largest and most beautiful of the
family Rallidae. It frequents marshes and
the sedge by the banks of rivers in all the
countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
and is abundant in Lower Egypt,
Swearing, [Oath,]
Sweat, Bloody, One of the physical
phenomena attending our Lord's agony in
the Garden of Gethseraane is described by
St- Luke (xxii, 44) : " His sweat was as it
were great drops (lit, clots) of blood falling
down to the ground," Of this malady,
known in medical science by the term
diapedesis, there have been examples re
corded both in ancient and modern times.
The cause assigned is generally violent
mental emotion. Djt. Idillingen {Cwiosi-

bWINE

672

SYCHAR

ties of Medical Experience, p. 489, 2d ed.)
gives the following explanation of the phe
nomenon : " It is probable that this strange
disorder arises frora a violent commotion
of the nervous system, turning the streams
of blood out of their natural course, and
forcing the red particles into the cutaneous
excretories. A mere relaxation of the
fibres could not produce so powerful a re
vulsion. It may also arise in cases of ex
trerae debility, in connection with a thin
ner condition of tho blood."
Swine (Heb. chdzir). (1.) The flesh
of swine was forbidden as food by the
Levitical law (Lev. xi. 7 ; Deut. xiv. 8) ;
the abhorrence which the Jews as a nation
had of it raay be inferred frora Is. lxv. 4,
and 2 Macc. vi. 18, 19. No other reason
for the command to abstain from swine's
flesh is given in the law of Moses beyond
the general one which forbade any of the
mammalia as food which did not literally
fulfil the terms of the deflnition of a " clean
animal," viz. that it was to be a cloven-
footed ruminant. It is, however, probable
that dietetical considerations may have in
fluenced Moses in his prohibition of swine's
flesh ; it is generally believed that its use
in hot countries is liable to induce cu
taneous disorders ; hence in a people lia
ble to leprosy the necessity for the ob
servance of a strict rule. Although the
Jews did not breed swine, during the great
er period of their existence as a nation,
there ciin be little doubt that the heathen
nations of Palestine used the flesh as food.
At the time of our Lord's rainistry it would
appear that the Jews occasionally violated
the law of Moses with regard to swine's
flesh. Whether " the herd of swine " into
which the devils were allowed to enter
(Miitt, viii, 32; Mark v. 13) were the
property of the Jevvish or Gentile inhabit
ants of Gadara does not appear from the
sacred narrative. (2,) The wUd boar of
tho wood (Ps, Ixxx, 13) is the comraon
Sus scrofa, which is frequently raet with in
tho woody parts of Palestine, especially in
Mount T.abor, »
Sword. [Arms.]
Sycamine-tree is mentioned only in
Luke xvii. 6. There is no reason to doubt
that tho sycamine is distinct from tho syca
more of the sarae evangelist (xix. 4). The
sycamini; is the raulberry-tree {Morus).
Both black and white mulberry-trees are
comraon in Syria and Palestine.
Sycamore (Heb, shikmdli). Tho He
brew word occurs in the O, T, only in the
plural form masc, and once fem,. Is,
Ixxviu, 47, The two Greek words occur
only once each in the N, T, (Luke xvii. 6,
xix. 4), Although it may be admitted that
'^he Sycamine is properly, and in Luke
xvii, 6, the Mulberry, and the Sycamore the
Fig-mulberry, or Sycaniore-fig {Ficus Syc-

omorus), yet the latter is the tree gen-^
erally referred to in the O. T., ai.d caUed
by the Sept, sycamine, as 1 K, x. 37; 1
Chr. xxvu, 28; Ps. IxxviU. 47; Ara. vii.
14, The Sycamore, or Fig-mulberry, is
in Egypt and Palestine a tree of great im
portance and very extensive use. It attains
the size of a walnut-tree, has wide-spread
ing bramjbes, and affords a delightful shade.
On this a!bcount it is frequently planted by
the waysides. Its leaves are heart-shaped,
downy on the under side, and fragrant.
The fruit grows directly from the trunk
itself on little sprigs, and in clusters Uke
the grape. To make it eatable, each fruit,
three or four days before gathering, must,
it is said, be punctured with a sharp instru
ment or the finger-nail. This was the
original eraployraent of the prophet Araos,
as he s.ays, vii, 14, So great was the value
of these trees, that David appointed for
them in his kingdom a special overseer, as
he did for the olives (1 Chr, xxvii, 28);
and it is mentioned as one of the heaviest
of Egypt's calamities, that her sycamores
were destroyed by hailstones (Ps. Ixxviii.
47).

¦A 10-

1,-1

/

>i.

^« --'-

Ficvts Sycomorvs.
Sy'char, a place named only in John
iv. 5. Sychar was either a name applied
to the town of Shechem, or it was an in-
SYCHEM

673

SYNAGOGUE

dependent place. The first of these alter
natives is now alraost universally accept
ed. {Shechem.]
Sy'chem, the Greek form of the word
Shecl em. It occurs in Acts vU. 16 only.
[Sui-XHEM.] Sye'ne, properly Seveneh, a town of
Egypt, on the frontier of Cush or Ethiopia,
The prophut Ezekiel speaks of the desola
tion of Egypt " from Migdol to Seveneh,
even unto tho bordei of Cush" (xxix, 10),
and of its people being slain " from Mig
dol to Seveneh" (xxx. 6). Migdol was ou
the eastern border, and Seveneh is thus
rightly identified with the town of Syene,
which was always the last town of Egypt
ou the south, though at oue time included
in the nome Nubia.
Synagogue, 1. History. — The word
Synagogue {awaymyi'i), which means a
" congregation," is used in tlje New Testa
ment to signify a recognized place of wor
ship. A knowledge of the history aud wor
ship ofthe synagogues is of great importance,
since they are the characteristic institution
of the later phase of Judaisra. We cannot
separate them from the raost intimate con
nection with our Lord's life and ministry. In
thera he worshipped in His youth and in His
manliood. They were the scenes, too, of
no sraall portion of His work. "We know
too little of the life of Israel, both hefore
and under the raonarchy, to be able to say
with certainty whether there was anything
at all corresponding to the synagogues of
later date. They appear to have arisen
during the exile, in the abeyance of the
Temple-worship, and to have received their
full development on the return of the Jews
from Captivity. The whole history of Ezra
presupposes the habit of solemn, probably
of periodic meetings (Ezr. viii. 15 ; Neh.
viii. 2, ix. 1; Zech. vii. 5). 'The "ancient
days " of which ft. Jaraes speaks (Acts
XV. 21) raay, at lean, go back so far. After
the Maccabaean st'^iggle for independence,
we find alraost ev--ry town or village hail
its one or raore s magogues. Where the
Jews were not in lufficient numbers to be
able to erecfand Ai- a building, there was the
Praseucha {taoatuxij), or place of prayer,
sometimes opened, sometimes covered iu,
commonly h\ a running streara or on the
sea-shore, in wiiich devout Jews and pros
elytes m'jC to worship, and, perhaps, to
read (Acts xvi. 13 ; Juven. Sat; iii. 296).
It is hardly possible to overestira.ate the in
fluence of the systera thus developed. To
it we may ascribe the tenacity with which,
after the Maccabaean struggle, the Jews
_ adhered to the reU jion of their fathers, and
never again reljij'sed into idolatry. The
people were now ia no danger of forgetting
the Law, and the external ordinances that
hedged it round. Here, as in the cognate
order ofthe Scrib"s, there was an influence
48

tending to diminish, and ultiraately almost
to destroy, the authority of the hereditary
priesthood. The way was silently pre
pared for "a new and higher order, which
should rise in " the fulness of time " out
of the decay and abolition of both the
priesthood and the Temple. II. Structure.
— The size of a synagogue varied with thb
population. Its position was, however, de
terminate. It stood, if possible, on the
highest ground, in or near the city to whicli
it belonged. Aud its direction too was
fixed. Jerusalem was the Kiblch of Jew
ish devotion. Tho synagogue was so con
structed, thiit the worshippers as they cu
tered, and as they prayed, looked towards il.
The building was commonly erected at the
cost of the district. Sometimes it was built
by a rich Jew, or even, as in Luke vii. 5, by
a friendly proselyte. In the internal ar
rangement of thu synagogue we trace an
obvious analogy to tho type of the Taber
nacle, At the upper or Jerusalem end
stood the Ark, the chest which, like the
older and raore" sacred Ark, contained
the Book of the Law. It gave to that end
the narae and character of a sanctuary.
This part of the synagogue was natu
rally the place of honor. Here were the
"chief seats," after whieh Phiirisees and
Scribes strove so eagerly (Matt, xxiii. 6),
to which the wealthy and honored worship
per was invited (James ii, 2, 3), Here
too, in front of the Ark, still reprodu
cing the type of the Tabernacle, was the
eight-branched Lamp, lighted only ou the
greater festivals. Besides this, there was
one lamp kept burning perpetually. A
little farther towards the middle of the
buUding was a raised plalforra, on which
several persons could stand at once, and in
the raiddle of this rose a pulpit, in which
the Reader stood to rea,d the lesson or sat
down to teach. The congregation were
divided, men on one side, women on the
other', a low partition, five or six feet high,
running between them. 'The arrangeraentss
of raodern synagogues, for many centuries*,,
have raade tbe separation raore coraplete?
by placing the women in low side-galleries,,
screened off by lattice-work. Ill, Officers..
— In smaller towns there was oftea but
one Rabbi. Where -a, fuller organisation
was possible, there was a college of Elders
(Luke vii. 3), presided over by one'who wiis
" the cluef of the synagogue " (Luke viii.
41, 49, xiU. 14;' Acts xviu. 8, 17). The
most tirorainent functionary in a large syn
agogue was known as the ShiKaeh (= le
gatus), the officiating minister who acted
as tho delegate of the cangregatiou, and
was therefore the chief rea^ec of pr.ayers,
&c., in their name. The- Ghazzdn or
"minister" of the synagogjug (Luke iv,
20) had duties of a lower kind, resem
bling those of the Christiaa dfiacou or sub-

SYNAGOGUE

674

SYRACUSE

deacon. He was to open the doors, to
get tho building ready for service. Besides
these there were ten men attached to every
synagogue, known as the Batlanim {= Oti-
osi). They were supposed to be men
of leisure, not obUged to labor for their
liveUhood, able therefore to attend the
week-day as well as the Sabbath services.
It will be seen at once how closely the
organization of the synagogue was repro
duced in th.at of the Ecclesia. Here also
there was the single presbyter-bishop in
small towns, a council of presbyters under
one head iu large cities. The legatus of
the synagogues appears in the Angel (Rev,
i, 30, ii. 1),. perhaps .also in the Apostle of
the Christian Church. IV. Worship. — It
will be enough, in this place, to notice in
what way the ritual, no less than the organi
zation, was connected with the facts of the
N. T. history, and with the life and order
of the Christian Church. From the syna
gogue came the use of fi.xed forms of prayer.
'l?o that the first disciples had been accus
tomed from their youth. They had asked
their Master to give them a distinctive one,
and he had complied with their request
(Luke xi. 1), as the Baptist had done be
fore for his disciples, as every Rabbi did
for his. The forms raight be, and were,
abused. The large admixture of a didactic
element in Christian worship, that by which
it was distinguished frora all Gentile forms
of adoration, was derived from the older
order, " Moses " was " read in the syn.a-
gcgues every Sabbath-day" (Acts xv, 21),
the whole Law being read consecutively, so
as to be completed, according to one cycle,
in three years. The writings of the Proph
ets were read as second lessons in a cor
responding order. They were followed by
the Derash (Acts xiu. 15), the exposition,
the serraon of tho synagogue .'The con
forraity extends also to the tiraes of priiyer.
In the hours of service this was obviously
the case. The third, sixth, and ninth hours
were in the tiraes of the N. T, (Acts iii, 1,
x, 3, 9), and had been probably for sorae
tirae before (Ps, Iv, 17 ; Dan, vi, 10), the
fixed tiraes of devotion. The same hours,
it is well known, were recognized in the
Church of the second, probably in that of
the first century also. The soleran days of
the synagogue were the second, the fifth,
and the seventh, the last or Sabbath being
the conclusion of the whole. The transfer
of the sanctity of the Sabbath to the Lord's
Day involved a corresponding change in
the order of the week, and the ' first,- the
fourth, and the sixth becarae to the Chris
tian society what the other days had been
to the Jewish. From the synagogue, lastly,
come many less conspicuous practices,
which meet us in the liturgical life of the
first three centuries : Ablution, entire or
partial, before entering the place of meeting

(Heb, X. 22; John xiU, 1-15); standing,
and not kneeling, as the attitude of prayer
(Luke xviu, 11); the arras stretched out;
the face turned towards the Kibleli of the
East ; the responsive Amen of tbe congre
gation to the prayers and benedictions of the
elders (1 Cor. xiv. 16). V. Judicial Func
tions.— The language of the N, 'T. shows
that the officers of the synagogue exercised
in certain cases a judicial power. It is not
quite so easy, however, to define the nature ^
of the tribunal, and the precise liraits of
its jurisdiction. In two of the passages
referred to (Matt, x, 17 ; Mark xui, 9) they
are carefully distinguished from the coun
cils. It seems probable that the council
was the larger tribunal of 23, which sat
in every city, and that under the term
synagogue we are to understand a sraaller
court, probably that of the Teu judges
mentioned in the Talmud, Here also we
trace the outline of a Christian institution.
The Church, either by itself or by appointed
delegates, was to act as a Court of Arbi
tration iu all disputes among its members.
The elders of the church 'were not, how
ever, to descend to the trivial disputes of
daily life. For the elders, as for those of
the synagogue, were reserved the graver
offences against religion and morals.
Synagogue, The Great, On the re
turn of the Jews from Babylon, a great
council was appointed, according to Rab
binic tradition, to re-organize the religious
life of the people. It consisted of 120
members, and these were known as the
men of the Great Synagogue, the suc
cessors of the prophets, themselves, in
their turn, succeeded by scribes promi- ¦
nent, individually, as teachers, Ezra was
recognized as president. Their aim was
to restore again the crown, or glory, of
Israel, To this end theycoUected all the
sacred writings of former ages trad their
own, .and so completed the canon of the
O, T, They instituted the feast of Purim,
organized the ritual of the synagogue, and
gave their sanction to the Shemdneh EsrSh,
the eighteen solemn benedictions in it.
Much of this is evidently uncertain, 'The
absence of any historical mention of such a
body, not only in the O, T, and the Apocry
pha, but in Josephus, Philo, &c,, have led
some critics to reject the wliole stateraent
as a Rabbinic invention. The narrative of
Neh, viii, 13 clearly implies the existence
of a body of raen acting as councillors un
der the presidency of Ezra ; and these may
have been an asserably of delegates frora
all provincial synagogues — a synod of tha
National Church.
Syn'tyche, a female member of the
Church of PhUippi (Phil. iv. 2, 3).
Syr'arsuse, the celebrated city on the
eastern coast of Sicily. St, Paul arrived
thither in an Alexandrian ship from Melits,

SYRIA

675

SYRIA

on his voyage to Rorae (Acts xxviii, 12),
The site of Sj racuse rendered it a con
venient place for the African corn-ships to
touch at, for the harbor was an exceUent
one, aud the fountain Arethusa in the
island furnished' an unfailing supply of
excellent water.
Syr'ia is the terra us -d throughout our
version for the Hebrew Aram, as well as
for the Greek 2vQitt. Most probably Syria
is for Tsyria, the country about Tsur, or
Tyre, which was the first of the Syrian
towns knowu to. the Greeks. It is diffi
cult to flx the liraits of Syria. The liraits
of the Hebrew Aram and its subdivis
ions are spoken of under Aram. Syria
Proper was bounded by Amanus and
Taurus on the N., by the Euphrates and
the Arabian desert on the E,, by Palestine
on the S., by the Mediterranean near the
mouth ofthe Orontes, and then by Phoeni
cia upon the W. This tract is about 300
miles long from north to south, and from
50 to 150 miles broad. It contains an area
of about 30,000 square miles. — The gen
eral character of the tract is moutiiinous,
as the Hebrew narae Arara (frora a root
signifying "height") sufficiently iraplies.
The most fertile and valuable tract of
Syria is the long valley intervening be
tween Libanus and Anti-Libanus. Of the
various raountain-ranges of Syria, Lebanon
possesses the greatest interest. It extends
from the mouth of the Litany to Arka, a
distiince of nearly 100 railes. Anti-Libanus,
a's the narae iraplies, stands over against
Lebanon, running in the same direction,
i. e. ne.arly north and south, and extending
the same length. [Leb.-inon.] — The prin
cipal rivers of Syria are the Litany and the
Orontes. Tho Ijtany springs frora a sraall
lake s.ituatod. in the middle of the Coele-
syriaii valley, about six railes to the south
west of Baalbek. It enters the sea about 5
miles north of Tyre. 'The source of the
Orontes is but about 15 miles frora thiit of
the Litany. Its modern name is the Nalir-
el-Asi, or "Rebel Stream," an appellation
given to it on account of its violence and
impetuosity in many parts of. its course.
The chief towns of Syria m.ay be thus ar
ranged, as nearly as possible in the order
of their importanoo ; 1. Antioch; 2. Da
mascus; 3. Apamea; 4. Seleucia; 5. Tad
mor or Palmyra ; 6. Laodicea ; 7, Epipha-
nia (Hamath) ; 8, Samosata ; 9, Hierap
olis (Mabug); lO. Chalybon; 11. Emesa;
'2, Heliopolis; 13. Laodicea ad Libanum ;
14, Cyrrhus; 15, Chalcis; 16. Poseideura ;
17. Heraclea; 18. Giudarus ; 19. Zeugma;
20. Thapsacus. Of these, Saraosabi, Zeug
ma, Thapsacus, are on the Euphrates;
Seleucia, Laodicea, Poseideura, and Her
aclea, on the sea-shore; Antioch, Apa
mea, Fpiphania, au'3 Emesa {Hems) on tbe

Orontes ; Heliopolis and Laodicea ad Liba
num, in Coe'"-.=yria; Hierapolis, Chalybon,
Cyrrhus, Cr-Ucis, and Giudarus, in the
northern highlands; Damascus on the
skirts, and Palmyra in the centre, of the
eastern desert. History. — The first oc
cupants of Syria appeal to have been of
Hamitic descent. The Canaanitish races,
the Hittites, Jebusitis., Araorites, &c., are
connected in Scripture with Egypt and
Ethiopia, Cush and Mizraira (Gen. x. 6
and 15-18). Those tribes occupied not
Palestine only, but also Lower Syria, in
very early tiraes, as we may gather from
the fact that Haraath is assigned to thera
in Genesis (.x. 18). Afterwards they seem
to have become possessed of Upper Syria
also. After a while the first comers, who
were still to a great extent nomads, re
ceived a Semitic infusion, which most prob
ably came to them from the south-east.
The only Syrian town whose existence we
find distinctly marked at this tirae is Da
raascus (Gen. xiv. 15 ; xv. 2), which ap
pears to have been already a place of some
importance. Next to D.amascus must be
placed Haraath (Nura. xiU. 21, xxxiv. 8).
Syria at this tirae, and for raany centuries
afterwards, seeras to have been broken up
araong a number of petty kingdoms. The
Jews first come into hostile contact with the
Syrians, under that name, in the time of Da
vid, Claiming the frontier of the Euphrates,
which God had promised to Abraham (Gen,
XV, 18), D.avid made war on Hadadezer,
king of Zobah (3 Sam, vui, 3, 4, 13). The
Damascene S.yrians were Ukewise defeated
with great loss (ib. ver. 5) . Zobah, however,
was far from being subdued as yet. When,
a few years later, the Araraonites deter
rained on engaging in a war with David,
and applied to the Syrians for aid, Zobah,
together vvith Beth-Rehob, sent thera 30,000
footmen, and two other Syrian kingdoms
furnished 13,000 (3 Sam. x. 6). This army
being completely defeated by Joab, Had.a-
dezer obtained aid from Mesopotaraia (ib.
ver. 16), and tried the chance of a third
battle, which likewise went against hira,
and produced the general submission of
Syria to the Jewish monarch. The sub
raission thus begun continued under tho
reign of Solomon (1 K. iv. 31), The only
part of Syria which Solomon lost seems to
have been Daraascus, where an independent
kingdom was set up by Rezon, a native of
Zobah (1 K, xi. 23-25). On the separation
of the two kingdoms, soon after the acces
sion of Rehoboara, the remainder of Syria
no doubt shook off the yoke. Damascus
now became decidedly the leading state,
Hamath being second to it, and the north
ern Hittites, whose capital was Carchemish
near Bambuk, third. [Damascus.] Syria
became attached to the great Assyrian em

SYRO-PHOENICIAN

676

TABERNACLE

pire, from which it passed to the Babylo-
iiiiins, and from them to the Persians. In
B. c. 333 it subraitted to Alexander without
a struggle. Upon the death of Alexander
Syria becarae, for the first tirae, the head
of a great kingdora. On the division of
tho provinces araong his generals (b. c.
321), Seleucus Nicator received Mesopo
tamia and Syria. Antioch was begun in
B. c. 300, and, being flnished in a few years,
was raade tho capital of Seleucus' kingdora.
The country grew rich with the wealth
which now flowed into it on all sides. The
history of Syria under the Seleucid princes
has been already given in the articles treat
ing of each monarch [Antiochus, Deme
trius, Seleucus, &c.]. — Syria holds an
important place, not only in the Old Testa
raent, but in the New. While the country
generally was formed into a Roman prov
ince, under governors who were at flrst
propraetors or quiiestors, then proconsuls,
and finaUy legates, there were exempted
from the direct rule of the governor, in the
first place, a number of " free cities," which
retained the administration of their own
affairs, subject to a tribute levied according
to the Roman principles of taxation ; and
2dly, a nuraber of tracts, which were as
signed to petty princes, commonly natives,
to be ruled at their pleasure, subject to the
same obligations with the free cities as to
taxation. After the formal division of the
provinces between Augustus and the Sen
ate, Syria, being from its exposed situation
among the provinciae principis, was ruled
by legates, who were of consul.ar rank {con-
sulares) and bore severally the full title of
" Legatus August! pro praetore." Judaea
occupied a peculiar position. A special
procurator was therefore appointed to rule
it, who was subordinate to the governor of
Syria, but within his own province had the
power of a legatus. Syria continued with
out serious disturbance from the expulsion
of the Parthians (b. c. 38) to the breaking
oat of the Jewish war (a. d. 66), In a, d,
4-1-47 it was the scene of a severe famine,
A little earlier Christianity had begun to
spread into it, partly by means of those who
. " were scattered " .at the time of Stephen's
persecution (Acts xi. 19), partly by the ex
ertions of St. Paul (Gal. i. 21). The Syrian
Church soon grew to be one of the raost
flourishing (Acts .xiii. 1, xv. 23, 35, 41, &c.).
Sy'rq-phoeni'eian, occurs only in
Mark vu. 26. 'The word denoted perhaps
a mixed race, half-Phoenicians and half-
Syrians, Matthew (xv, 22) speaks of "a
woraan of Canaan " in placo of St, Mark's
" Syro-phocnician," on the same ground
that the Septuagint translate Canaan by
riioonicia, 'The ntiraos Canaan and Phoe
nicia had succeeded one another as geo-
gr.aphiciil names in the same country.

T.
Ta'anach, an ancient Canaanitish city
whose king is enuraerate'd amongst ths
thirty-one conquered by Joshua (Josh, xi'
21). It came into the hiilf tribe of Manas
seh (Josh. xvU. 11, xxi. 25; 1 Chr. vii. 29),
and was bestowed on the Kohathite Levites
(Josh. xxi. 25). Taanach is almost always
named in company with Megiddo, and they
were evidently the chief towns of that fine
rich district which forras the westera por
tion of the great plain of Esdraelon (1 K.
iv. 12). It is still called Ta'annuk, and
stands about 4 railes S, E, of LejjAn.
Ta'anath-shi'loh, a place named once
only (Josh. xvi. 6) as one of the landmarks
of the boundary of Ephraim. Perhaps Taa-^
nath was the ancient Canaanite name- of
the place, and Shiloh the Hebrew narae,
Tata'taaoth, The children of Tabbaoth
were a faraily of Nethinim who returned
with Zerubbabel (Ezr. ii. 43 ; Neh, vu, 46).
Tab'bath, a place mentioned only in
Judg, vU, 22, in describing the fiight of tlw
Midianite host after Gideon's night attack
Tabe'al. The son of Tabeal was ap
parently an Ephriiiraite in the army of
Pekah the son of Remaliah, or a Syrian in
the array of Rezin, when they went up to
besiege Jerusalem in the reign of Ahaz (Is.
vii. 6), The Araraaic form of the name
favors the latter supposition,
Ta'beel, an officer of the Persian gov
ernment in Samaria in the reign of Arta
xerxes (Ezr, iv. 7). His name appears tc
indicate that he was a Syrian.
Tab'erah, the name of a place in the
wilderness of Paran (Nura. xi. 8 ; Deut.
ix. 22). It has uot been identified,
Tataering, an obsolete English word
used in tho A. V, of Nahura ii, 7, The
Hebrew word connects itself with idph, " a
timbrel," Tho A. V, reproduces the origi
nal idea. The " tiibour " or "tabor "was
a musical instruraent of the drura-type,
which with the pipe formed the band of a
country viUage, To " labour," accordingly,
is to beat with loud strokes as men beat
upon such an instrument.
Tabernacle. The Tabernacle was the
ieni of Jehovah, called by the sarae name as
the tents of the people, in the midst of
which it stood. It was also called the
sanduary, and the tabernacle of the con
gregation. The first ordinances given to
Moses, after the proclamation of the out
line of the law from Sinai, related to the
ordering of the Tabernacle, its furniture,
and its service, as the type which was to be
followed when the people came to their
own horae, and "found a place" for tho
abode of God. During the forty days of

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677

TABERNACLE

Moues flrst retirement with God in Sinai,
an exact pattern of the whole was shown
hira, and all was raade according to it (Ex.
xxv. 9, 40, xxvi. 30, xxxix. 32, 42, 43 ;
Nura. viii. 4; Acts vii. 44; Heb. viii. 5).
The description- of this plan is preceded by
an account of the freev/ill-offerings which
the children of Israel were to be asked to
raake for its execution. The raaterials
were : — {a) Metals : gold, silver, and
brass, {b) Textile fabrics : blue, purple,
scarlet, and fine {white) linen, for the pro
duction of which Egypt was celebrated;
also a fabric of goats' hair, the produce of
their own flocks, (c) Skins : of the ram,
dyed red, and of the badger, {d) Wood :
the shittim wood, the timber of the wild
acacia of the desert itself, the tree of the
" burning bush." (e) Oil, spices, and in
cense, for anointing the priests, and burn
ing in the tabernacle. (/) Geras : onyx
stones, and the precious stones for the
breastplate of the High-Priest. The peo
ple gave jewels, and plates of gold, and sil
ver, and brass ; wood, skins, -hair, and linen :
the women wove; the rulers offered pre
cious stones, oil, spices, and incense; and
the artists soon had more than they needed
(Ex. xxv. 1-8; xxxv. 4-29; .xxxvi. 5-7).
'The superintendence of the work was in
trusted to Bezaleel, of the tribe of Judah,
and to Aholiab, of the tribe of Dan, who
were skilled in " all manner of workman
ship " (Ex. xxxi. 2, 6, xxxv. 30, 34). — The
tabernacle was a portable building, designed
to contain the sacred ark, the special syra
bol of God's presence, and was surrounded
by an outer court, (i.) The ' Court of the
I'abernacle, in which the Tabernacle itself
stood, was an oblong sjJiice, 100 cubits by
50 {i. V. 150 feet by 75), having its longer
a.xis east and west, with its front to the east.
It was surrounded by canvas screens — in
the East called Kannauts — 5 cubits in
height, and supported by pillars of brass 5
cubits apart, to which the curtains were at
tached by hooks and flUets of silver (Ex.
xxvii. 9, &c.). This enclosure was only
broken on the eastern side by the entrance,
which Wiis 20 cubits wide, and closed by
curtains of flue twined Unen wrought with
needlework, and of the most gorgeous
colors. In the outer or eastern half of
t"ne court was placed the altar of burnt-of
fering, and between it and the Tabernacle
itself, the laver at which the priests washed
their hands and feet on entering the Tera
ple. (ii.) The Tabernacle itself was placed
towards the western end of this enclosure.
It was an oblong rectangular structure, 30
cubits in length by 10 in width (45 feet by
15), and 10 in height; the interior being
divided into two chambers, the flrst or outer
of 20 cubits in length, the inner of 10
cubits, and consequently an exact cube.
Tbe former was th» H-l-^ Place, or First
)

Tabernacle (Heb. ix. 2), containing the
golden candlestick on one side, the table
of shew-bread opposite, iind between tbem
in the centre the altar of incense. The hit
ter was the Most Holy Place, or the Holy
of Holies, containing the ark, surmounted
by the cherubim, with the Two Tables in
side. The two sides, and the farther or
western end, were enclosed by boards of
shittim wood overl.aid with gold, twenty on
the north and south side, six on the western
side, and the corner-boards doubled. Tliey
stood upright, edge to edge, their lower
ends being made with tenons, which dropped
into sockets of silver, and the corner-boards
being coupled at the top with rings. They
were furnished with golden rings, through
which passed b.ars of shittim wood, overlaid
with gold, flve to each side, and the middle
bar passing frora end to end, so as to brace
the whole together. Four successive cover
ings of curtains looped together were placed
over the open top, .and fell down over the
sides. The flrst, or inmost, was a splendid
fabric of linen, embroidered with figures of
cherubim, in blue, purple, and scarlet, and
looped together by golden fastenings. It
seems probable that the ends of this set of
curtains hung down within the T.abernacle,
forming a sumptuous tapestry. The next
was a woollen covering of goats' h.air ; the
third, of rams' skins dyed red ; and the
outermost, of badgers' skins (so called in
our version ; but the Hebrew word probably
signifies seal-skins). [Badger-skins.] It
has been usually supposed that these cover
ings were thrown over the wall, as a pall
is thrown over a coffin ; but this would have
.allowed every drop of rain that fell on the
Tabernacle to fall through; for, however
tightly the curtains might be stretched, the
water could never run oyer the edge, and
the sheep-skins would only make the mat
ter worse, as when wetted their weight
would depress the centre, and probably tcai
any curtain that could be made. 'There
can be no reasonable doubt that the tent had
a ridge, as all tents have had from the days
of Moses down to the present day. The
front of the Sanctuary was closed by a hang
ing of fine Unen, embroidered in blue, purple,
and scarlet, and supported by golden hooks,
on five pillars of shittira wood overlaid with
gold, and standing in brass sockets ; aud
the covering of goats' hair was so made aa
to faU down over this when required, A
more sumptuous curtain of the same kind,
embroidered with cherubim, hung on four
such pillars, with silver sockets, divided tlie
Holy frora the Most Holy Place. It was
called the Veil,* as it hid from the eyes
of all but the High Priest the inmost sanc
tuary. Inhere Jehovah dwelt on his mercy

* SometimoB the second veil, either in reference to the firal
at the entrance of the Holy Place, or OS being the veil of ths
second sanctuary (Ueb. ix *t).

TABERNACLE

678

TABERNACLE

BCi.t, between the cherubim above the ark.
Heuce"to enter within the veil" is to
have the closest access to God. It was
only passed by the High-Priest once a year,
on the D.ay of Atonement, in token of the
mediation of Christ, who, with his own
blood, hath entered for us within the veil
which separates God's own abode from earth
(Heb, vi. 19), In the temple, the solemn
barrier was at length profaned by a Roraan
conqueror, to warn the Jews that the privi
leges they had forfeited were " ready to
vanish away ; " and the veil was at last rent
by the hand of God himself, at the sarae
raoraent that the body of Christ was rent
upon the cross, to indicate that th6 entrance
into the holiest of all is now laid open to
all believers "by the blood .of Jesus, by a
new and living way which He hath conse
crated for us, through the veil, that is to
say. His flesh" (Heb. x. 19, 20). The
Holy Place was only entered by the priests
daily, to offer incense at the tirae of raorn
ing and evening pr.ayer, .and to renew the
lights on the golden candlestick; and on
the Siibbath, to remove the old shew-bread,
and to place the new upon the table, (iii.)
The Sacred Furniture rind Instruments of
ihe Tabernacle. — These are described in
separate articles, and therefore it is only
necessary to give a list of them here. 1.
In the Outer Court. The Altar of Burnt-
Offering, and the Brazen Laver. [Al
tar; Laver.] 2. In the Holy Place.
The furniture of the court was connected
with sacrifice, thiit of the sanctuary itself
with the deeper mysteries of mediation and
access to God. The First Sanctuary con
tained three objects: the altar of incense
in the centre, so as to be directly in front
of the ark of the covenant (1 K, vi. 22),
the table of shew-bread on its right or north
side, and the golden candlestick on the left
or south side. These objects were all con
sidered as being placed before the presence
of Jehovah, who dwelt in the holiest of all,
though with tlie veil between, [Altar;
Skew-bread; Candlestick,] 3. In the
Holy of Holies, withiii the veil, and shroud
ed in darkness, there was but one object,
tho Ark of ihe Covenant, containing the
two tables of stone, inscribed with the Ten
Commandments. [Ark,] History of the
I'abernacle. — As long as Canaan remained
unconquered, and the people were still
therefore an army, the Tabernacle was
probably moved from place to place, wher-
Rver the host of Israel was for tho time cn-
earaped. It rested fluiilly .at " the place
which the Lord had chosen," at Shiloh
(Josh. ix. 27, xviu, 1), The re.asons of
the choice are not given. Partly, perhaps,
its central position, partly its belonging to
die powerful tribo of Ephraira, the tribe of
the great t:aptain of the host, m.ay have
deteriiiined the preference. There it con

tinued during the whole period of tha
Judges (Josh. xix. 51, x.xU. 12; Judg. xxi.
12), It was far, however, from being what
it was intended to be, the one national sanc
tuary, the witness against a localized and
divided worship. The old religion of the
high places kept its ground. Altars were
erected, at first with reserve, as being not
for sacrifice (Josh. xxU. 26), afterwards
freely and without scruple (Judg. vi. 34,
xui. 19). Of the names by which the one
special s.anctuary was known at this period,
those of the "House," or the "Temple,"
of Jeliovah (1 Sara. i. 9, 34, iii. 3, 15) are
raost prorainent. A state of things whieh
was rapidly assimiliiting the worship of Je
hovah to thiit of Ashtaroth, or Mylitta, need
ed to be broken up. The Ark of God was
taken, and the sanctuary lost its glory ; and
the Tabernacle, though it did not perish,
never again recovert^d it (1 Sara, iv, 22).
Samuel treats it as an abandoned shrine,
and sacrifices elsewhere ; at Mizpeh (1
Sam, vU. 9), at Ramah (ix. 13, x, 3), at Gil
gal (x, 8, xi, 15), It probably becarae once
again a movable sanctuary. For a time
it seems, under Saul, to have been settled
at Nob (1 Sam, xxi, 1-6), The massacre
of the priests aud the flight of Abiathar
must, however, have robbed it yet further
of its glory. It had before lost the Ark : it
now lost the presence of the High-Priest
(1 Sam, xxn, 20, xxui, 6), What change
of fortune then followed we do not know.
In some ¦n-ay or other, it found its way
to Gibeon (1 Chr, xvi, 39), The anoma
lous separ.ation of the two things which, in
tbe original order, had been joined, brought
about yet greater anomalies ; and, while
the Ark reraaini?d at Kirjath-jearira, the
Tabernaole-at Gibeon connected itself with
the worship ofthe high places (1 K. iii. 4).
The capture of Jerusalem and the erection
thore of a new Tabernacle, with the Ark,
of which the old had been deprived (2 Sara.
vi, 17; 1 Chr, xv, 1), left it little more
than a traditional, historical sanctity. It
retained only the old altar of burnt-offer
ings (1 Chr, xxi. 9). Such as it was,
however, neither king nor people could
bring themselves to sweep it away. The
double service went on; Zadok, as high-
priest, officiated at Gibeon (1 Chr, xvi, 39) ;
the more recent, more prophetic service
of psalras .and hymns and music, under
Asaph, gathered round the Tabernacle at
Jerusalem (1 Chr. xvi. 4, 87). The di
vided worship continued all the days of
David, The sanctity of both places was
recognized by Solomon on his accession
(1 K, iu, 15 ; 2 Chr, i, 3). But it was time
th.at the anomaly should cease. The pur
pose of David, fulflUed by Solomon, was
that the clairas of both should raerge in tha
higher glory of the Teraple. The final
day at last came, and the Tabernacle was

'aABERNACLES, feast OP 679 TABERNACLES, FEAST OB

either tviken down, or left to perish and be
forgotten. So the disaster of Shiloh led to
its natural consummation. [Temple.]
Tabernacles, The Feast of (Ex,
xxiu, 16, " the feast of in-gathering"), the
third of the three great festivals of the He
brews, which lasted from the 15th till the
22d of Tisri. I, 'The following are the
principal passages in the Pentateuch which
refer to ;t : Exod, xxiii, 16 ; Lev, xxiii, 34
-36, 39-43 ; Nura, xxix. 12-38 ; Deut. xvi,
13-15, xxxi. 10-13, In Neh, viii, there is
an account of the observance of the feast
by Ezra. II. The tirae of the festival
fell in the cutuinn, when the whole of the
chief fruits of the ground, the corn, the
wine, and the til, were gathered in (Ex. xxiii.
16; Lev. xxiii. 39; Deut. xv. 13-15). Its
duration was strictly only seven days (Deut.
xvi. 13; Ez, xiv, 25), But it was followed
by a diiy of holy convocation, distinguished
by sacrifices of its own, which was sorae
tiraes spoken of as an eighth day (Lev,
xxiii, 36; Neh, viii, 18). During the seven
days the Israelites were commanded to
dwell in booths or huts formed of the
• boughs of trees. The boughs were of the
olive, palm, pine, myrtle, and otlier trees
with thick foliage (Neh. viii, 15, 16). Ac
cording to Rabbinical tradition, each Is
raelite used to tie the branches into a
bunch, to be carried in his hand, to which
the name lAldb was given. The burnt-of
ferings of the Feast of Tabernacles were
by far raore numerous than those of any
other festival. There were offered on each
day two rams, fourteen larabs, and a kid
for a sin-offering. But what was most
pecuUar was the arrangeraent of the
sacrifices of bullocks, in all araounting to
seventy (Nura, xxix, 12-38), The eighth
day was a day of holy convocation of pe
culiar soleranity. On the morning of this
day the Hebrews left their huts and dis
mantled thcra, and took up their abode
again in their houses. The special offer
ings of the day were a bullock, a ram,
seven lambs, and a goat for a sin-offering
(Num. xxix. 36, -38), When the Feast of
Tabernacles fell on a Sabbatical year, por
tions of the Law were read each day in pub
lic, to men, women, children, and stran
gers (Deut. xxxi. 10-13), We find Ezra
reading the Law during the festival " day
by day, from the first day to the last day "
(Nell, viii, 18), III, The're are two par
ticulars in the observance of the Feast of
Tabernacles which appear to be referred to
in the New Testament, but are not noticed
in the Old, These were, the ceremony of
pouring out some water of tbe pool of Sil
oara, and the display of some great lights
in the court of the women. We are told
that each Israelite, in hoUday attire, having
made up his lAldb, before he broke his fast,
repaired to the Temple with the lAldb in

one hand and the citron in the other, at tha
time of the ordinary morning sacrifice. The
parts of the victim were laid upon the altar.
One of the priests fetched some water in a
golden ewer from the pool of Siloiira, which
he brought into the court through the water-
gate. As he entered the trumpets sounded,
and he ascended the slope of the altar. At
the top of this were fixed two silver basins
with sraall openings at the bottom. Wine
was poured into that on the eastern side,
and the water into that on the western side,
whence it was conducted by pipes into the
Cedron. In the evening, both men and
women assembled in the court of the wo
men, expressly to hold a rejoicing for the
drawing of the water of Siloara. At the
same time there were set up in the court
two lofty stands, each supporting four grea«
lamps. These were lighted on each night
of the festival. It appears to bo generally
admitted that the words of our Saviour
(John vii. 37, 38) — "If any man thirst, let
hira corae unto me and drink. He that be
lieveth on me, as the Scripture hath said,
out of his belly shall flow rivers of living
water " — were suggested by the pouring
out ofthe water of Siloam. But it is very
doubtful what is meant by " the last day,
that gre.at day of the feast." _, It would seem
that either the last day of the feast itself,
th.at is, the seventh, or the last d.ay of the
reUgious observances of the series of an
nual festivals, the eighth, must be intended.
The eighth day m.ay be meant, and then the
reference of our Lord would be to an ordi
nary and well-known observance of the
feast, though it was not, at the very time,
going on. We must resort to some such
explanation, if we adopt the notion that our
Lord's words (John viii, 12) — "I ara the
light of the world " — refer to the great
lamps ofthe festival. IV. There are many
directions given in the Mishna for the
dimensions and construction of the huts.
They were not to be lower than ten palms,
nor higher than twenty cubits. They were
to stand by themselves, and not to rest on
any external support, nor to be under the
shelter of a larger huilding, or of a tree.
They were not to be covered with skins or
cloth of any kind, but only with boughs, or,
in part, with reed mats or Laths. The fur
niture of the huts was to he, according to
most authorities, ofthe plainest description.
It is said that the altar v/as adorned thrtragh-
out the seven days with sprigs of willows,
one of which each Israelite who came into
the court brought with him. The great nura
ber of the sacriflces has been already no
ticed. But besides these, Ihe Chagigahs, or
private peace-offerings, were more abun
dant than at any other time. V. Though
all the Hebrew annual festivals were sea
sons of rejoicing, the Feast of Tabernacleii
was, in this respect, distinguished abcta

TABITHA

680

TABOE

them aU. The huts and the lAldbs must
have made a gay and striking spectacle
over the city by d.ay, and the lamps, the
flambeaux, the music, and the joyous gath
erings in the court of the Temple must have
given a still more festive character to the
night, VI, The main purposes of the
Feast of 'Tabernacles are plainly set forth
(Ex, xxiu, 16 and Lev, xxui. 43). It was
to be at once a thanksgiving for the har
vest, and a commemoration of the time
when the Israelites dwelt in tents during
their passage through the wilderness. In
one of its meanings it stands in connection
with the Passover, as the Feast of Abib ;
aad with Pentecost, as the feast of harvest ;
in its other meaning, it is related to the
Passover as the . great yearly raemorial of
the delivertmce from the destroyer, and
from the tyranny of Egypt. But naturally
connected vi'ith this exultation in their re
gained freedom was the rejoicing in the
more perfect fulfilment of God's promise,
in the settlement of His people in the Holy
Land. . But the culminating point of this
blessing was the establishment of the cen
tral spot of the national worship in the
Temple at Jerusidem, Hence it was evi
dently fitting that the Feast cf Tabernacles
should be kept with an unwonted degree
of observance at the dedication of Solo
raon's Temple (1 K, viu, 2, 65 ; Joseph. Ant.
vui, 4, § 5) ; again, after the rebuilding of
the Temple by Ezra (Neh. viU. 13-18), and
a third time by Judas Maceabaeus -when he
had driven out the Syrians and restored the
'Temple to the worship of Jehovah (2 Macc.
X. 5-8).
Tab'itha, also called Dorcas by St.
Luke; a femiile disciple of Joppa, "full of
good works," among which that of milking
clothes for the poor is specifically men
tioned. While St. Peter was at the neigh
boring town of Lydda, T.abitha died ; upon
which the disciples at Joppa sent an urgent
message to the Apostle, begging him to
come to them without delay. Upon his
arrival Peter found tbe deceased already
prepared for burial, and laid out in an up
per chamber, where she was surrounded by
the recipients and the tokens of her char
ity. After the example of our Saviour in
the house of Jairus (Matt. ix. 2'5 ; Mark v.
40), " Peter put them all fortli," prayed for
the Divine assistance, and then comraiinded
'Tabitha to arise (corap. Mark v. 41 ; Luke
viii, 54). She opened her eyes and sat up,
and then, assisted by the Apostle, rbse frora
her couch. 'This great rairacle, as we aro
further told, produced an extraordinary
effect in Joppa, and was the occasion of
many conversions there (Acts ix. 36-42).
The name "Tabitha" is an Aramaic word,
signifying a "female gazelle." St. Luke
gives " Dorcas " as the Greek equivalent
of the name.

Ta'bor and Mount Ta bor, one of the
most interesting and remartable ofthe sin
gle mountains in Palestine. It rises ab
ruptly from the north-eastern arm of the
Plain of Esdraelon, and stands entirely in
sulated, except on the west, where a narrow
ridge connects it with the hUls of Naza
reth. It presents to the eye, as seen from a
distance, a beautiful appearance, being so
symmetrical in its proportions, and rounded
off like a hemisphere or the segment of a
circle, yet varying somewhat as viewed from
different directions. The body of the moun
tain consists of the pecuUar limestone jof the
country. It is now called Jebel-et- TAr. It
lies about 6 or 8 miles .almost due cast frora
Nazareth. The ascent is usually raade on tho
west side, near the little village of Deburieh,
probably the ancient Daberath (Josh, xix.
12), though it can be made with entire ease
in other places. It require* three quarters
of an hour or an hour to reach the top.
The top of Tabor consist'^ of an irregular
platform, embracing a cjcuit of half an
hour's walk, and comir.f.nding .wide views
of the subjacent plair. from end to end.
Tabor does not occur in the New Testa
ment, but makes a prorainent figure in the
Old. The Book of Joshua (xix. 22; u.en-
tions it as tbe boundary between lu-achar
and Zebulun (see ver. 12). Barak, at the
coraraand of Deborah, asserabled his forces
on Tabor, and descended thence, with " ten
thousand men after hira," into the plain.
and conquered Sisera on the banks of tho
Kishon (Judg. iv. 6-15). The brothers of
Gideon, each of whom " resembled the
children of a king," were murdered here
by Zebah and Zalraunna (Judg. viu. 18,
19). There are at present ruins of a for
tress round all the top of the summit of
Tabor. The Latin Christi.ans have now an
altar here, at which their priests from
Nazareth perform an annual mass. The
Greeks also have a chapel, where, on cer
tain festivals, they assemble for the celebra
tion of religious rites. The idea that our
Saviour was transfigured on 'Tabor pre
vailed extensively among the early Cliria-
tians, and reappears offen still in popular
religious works. It is impossible; however,
to acquiesce in the correctness of this opin
ion. It can be proved from the Old Testa
ment, and from later history, that a fortress
or town existed on Tabor from very early
times down to B. c. 53 or 50 ; iind, as Jo
sephus saj^s that he strengthened the fortifi
cations there, about a. d. 60, it is raorally
certain that 'Tabor must have been inhabit
ed during the intervening period, that is,
in the days of Christ, Tabor, therefore,
could not have been the Mount of Transfig
uration ; for when it is said that Jesus took
his disciples "up into a high mountain
apart, and was transfigured before thom"
(Matt, xvii. 1, 2), we must understand thai

TABOR

681

TAHPANHES

He brought them to the summit of the
mountain, where they were alone by them
selves. Ta'bor is mentioned in the lists of 1 Chr.
vi. as a city of the Merarite Levites, in the
.tribe of Zebulun (ver. 77). The list of the
towns of Zebulun (Josh, xix.) contains the
name of Chisloth-tabor (ver. 12), It is,
therefore, possible, either that Chisloth-
tabor is abbreviated into Tabor by the
chronicler, or that by the time these later
Usts were compiled, the Merarites had es
tablished theraselves on the sacred moun
tain, and that Tabor is Mount Tabor.
Ta'bor, The Plain of. This is an
Incorrect translation, and should be The
Oak of Tabor, It is mentioned in 1 Sara,
X. 3 only, as one of the points in the home
ward journey of Saul after his anointing by
Sarauel, .
Tabret, [Timbrel.]
Tab'rimon, properly Tabrimmon, i. e.
" good is Rimmon," the Syrian god. The
father of Benhadad I,, king of Syria in the
reign of Asa (1 K,'xv, 18),
Tache. The word thus rendered occurs
only in the description of the structure of
the tabernacle and its flttings (Ex, xxvi, 6,
11, 33, xxxv, 11, xxxvi, 13, xx.xix. 33), and
appears to indicate the small hooks by
which a curtain is suspended to the rings
from which it hangs, or connected vertical
ly, as in the case of the veil of the Holy
of Holies, with the loops of .another curtain.
Tach'monite, The. " The 'Tachmo-
nite that sat in the seat," chief araong David's
captains (2 Sara, xxiii. 8), is in 1 Chr. xi.
11 called " Jiishobeani an Hachmonite," or,
as the raargin gives it, " son of Hachmoni,"
Kennicott has shown that the words trans
lated " he that sat in the seat " are a cor
ruption of Jashobeam, and that " the Tach-
monite" is a corruption of the " son of
Hachraoni," which was the family or local
name of Jashobeam, Therefore he con
cludes " Jashobeam tho Hachmonite " to
have been tho true reading,
Tad'mor, called " Tadmor in the wil
derness," is the same as the city known to
the Greeks iind Romans under the name of
Palmyra. The identification ofthe two cities
results from tho following circumstances ,
1st. The sarae city is specially mentioned
hy Josephus {Ant. viii, 6, § 1) as bearing
in his time the name of 'Tadmor among the
Syrians, and Palmyra among the Greeks ;
aud in his Latin translation of the Old Tes
tament, Jerome translates Tadmor by Pal-
myra(2 Chr, vUi, 4) . The word Tadmor has
ne.arly the same raeaning as Palrayra, signi
fying probably the " City of Palras," from
Tci/m,a,r, " a Palm," It was built by Sol
omon after his conquest of Hamath Zobah
(2 Chr. .viu. 4 ; 1 K, ix. 18). As the city is
novhere else raentioned in the Bible, it
would be out of place to enter into a de-

taUed history of it on the present occasion.
In the second century a, d, it seems to have
been beautified by the Emperor Hadrian.
In the beginning of the third century A. D.
it became a Roman colony under Caracalla
(211-317 A.D,), Subsequently, in the reign
of Gallienus, the Roman Senate invested
Odcnathus, a senator of Palmyra, with the
regal dignity, on account of his services in
defeating Sapor king of Persia, On the
assassination of Odenathus, his celebrated
wife Zenobia seems to have conceived the
design of erecting Palrayra into an inde
pendent raonarchy ; and in prosecution of
this object, she, for a wliile, successfully
resisted the Roman arms. She was at
length defeated and taken captive by the
Emperor Aurelian (a, d, 273), who left a
Roman garrison in Palmyra, 'This g.arrison
was massacred in a. revolt ; and Aurelian
punished the city by the execution not only
of those who were taken in arms, but Uke
wise of common peasants, of old raen,
women, and children. From this blow
Palmyra never recovered, though there are
proofs of its having continued to be inhab
ited until the downfall of the Roman Em
pire. Ta'han, a descendant of Ephraim
(Num. xxvi, 35). In 1 Chr. vii. 25 he
appears as the son of Telah.
Ta'hanites, The (Nura. xxvi. 35).
[Tahan,] Ta'hath. 1. A Kohathite Levite, an-
'cestor of Sarauel and Heraan (1 Chr, vi.
24, 37 [9, 23]). 2, According to the pres
ent text, son of Bered, and great-grandson
of Ephriiim (1 Chr, vii, 20), Burrington,
however, identifies Taliath with Tahan, the
son of Ephraim. 3, Grandson of the pre
ceding, as the text now stands (1 Chr, vii,
20,) But Burrington considers him as a
son of Ephraira,
Ta'hath, the narae of a desert station
of the Israelites between Makheloth and
Tarali (Nura, xxxiU, 26). The site has not
been identified,
Tah'panhes, Tehaph'nehea, Ta-
hap'anes, a city of Egypt, mentioned in
the tirae of the prophets Jereraiah and
Ezekiel, The. narae is evidently Egyptian,
and closely resembles that of the Egyptian
queen Tahpenes, It was evidently a town
of Lower Egypt, near or on the eastern bor
der. When Johanan and the other captains
went into Egypt "they carae to Tahpan
hes " (Jer. xliu. 7). The Jews in Jererai-
ah's tirae reraained here (Jer. xUv. 1). It
was an iraportant town, being twice raen
tioned by the latter prophet with Noph or
Meraphis (ii. 16, xlvi. 14), Here stood a
house of Pharaoh-hpphra before which Jere
miah hid great stones (xliii, 8-10). Herod
otus calls this place Daphnae of Pelusium.
In the Itinerary of Antoninus this town,
caUcd Dafno, is placed 16 Rom»n miles to

TAHPENES

682

TALMUD

the south-west of Pelusium. This position
seems to agree with that of Tel-Defenneh,
which marks the site of Daphnae. Can the
name be of Greek origin ?
Tah'penes, an Egyptian queen, was
wife of the Pharaoh who received Hadad
the Edomite, and who gave him her sister
in marriage (1 K. xi. 18-20). In the ad
dition to ch, xii. Shishak (Susakim) is said
to have given Ano, the elder sister of The-
keraina his wife, to Jeroboara. It is obvi
ous that this and the earUer stateraent are
irreconcilable There is therefore but one
Tahpenes or Thekemina. No narae that
has any near reserablance to either Tah
penes or Thekemina h.as yet been found
among those of the period.
Tah'rea, son of Micah, and grandson
of Mephibosheth (1 Chr. ix. 41).
Tah'tim Hod'shi, The Land of,
one of the places visited by Joab during
his census of the land of Israel. It occurs
between Gilead and Dan-jaan (2 Sara,
xxiv. 6). The name has puzzled all the
interpreters. The old versions throw no
light upon it.
Talent. [Weights.]
Tal'itha Cu'mi, two Syriac words
(Miirk V, 41), signifying, "Damsel, arise,"
Tal'mai, 1. One of the three sons of
" the Anak," who were slain by the raen
of Judah (Num, xiu, 22 ; Josh, xv, 14 ;
Judg. i. 10). 2, Son of Ammihud, king
of Geshur (2 Sam, iii, 8, xiu, 37 ; 1 Chr,
ui, 3), He was probably a petty chieftain,
dependent on David,
Tal'mon, the head of a family of door
keepers in the Temple, "the porters for
the camps of the sons of Levi " (1 Chr.-ix.
17; Neh, xi. 19). Some of his descend
ants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezr. U. 43 ;
Neh, vu, 45), and were employed in their
hereditary oflice in the days of Nehemiah
and Ezra (Neh. xU. 25).
Talmud {i. e. doctrine, frora the He
brew word " to learn") is a large collec
tion of writings, containing a full account
of the civil and religious laws of the Jews.
Itwas a fundamental principle ofthe Phar
isees, common to thera with all orthodox
modern Jews, that by the side of the writ
ten law, regarded as a suraraary of the
principles and general laws of the Hebrew
people, there was an oral law, to coraplete
and to explain tho written law. It was an
article of faith that in the Pentateuch there
was no precept, and no regulation, cere
monial, doctrinal, or legal, of which God
had not given to Moses all explanations
necessary for their application, with the
order to transmit them by word of mouth.
The classical passage in the Mishna on this
subject is tho following: " Moses received
the (oral) law frora Sinai, and delivered it
to Joshua, and Joshua to the elders, and
the elders to the prophets, and the prophets

to the men of the Great Synagogue.' Thia
oral law, with the numerous commentaries
Upon it, forms tht Talmud. It consists of
two parts, the Mishna and Gemara. 1. The
Mishna, or "second law," which contains
a compendium of the whole ritual law, was
reduced to writing in its present forra by
Rabbi Jehudah the Holy, a Jew of great
wealth and influence, who flourished in the
2d century of the Christian era. He suc
ceeded his father Simeon as patriarch of
Tiberias, and held that office at least thirty-
years. The precise date of his death is
disputed ; some placing it in a year some
what antecedent to 194 A. d., while others
place it as late as 330 A, d,, when he would
have been about 81 years old. Viewed as
a whole, the precepts in the Mishna treated
men like chUdren, formalizing and defin
ing the rainutest particulars of ritual ob'ser-
vances. The expressions of "bondage,"
of "weak and beggarly eleraents," and of
"burdens too heavy for raen to bear,"
faithfully represent the irapfession pro
duced by their raultiplicity. The Mishna
is very concisely written, and requires
notes, 3, This circurastance led to the Com
mentaries called Gemara {i. c. Supplement,
Completion), which form the second part of
the 'Talmud, and which are very comnionly
meant when the word " 'Talmud " is used
by itself. Thore are two Gemaras : one of
Jerusalera, in which there is said to be no
passage which can be proved to be later
than the first half of the 4tli century ; and
the other of Babylon, completed about 500
A, D, The latter is the most important, and
by far the longest. It is estimated to be
fifteen tiraes as long as the Mishna. The
language of the Mishna is that of the la
ter Hebrew, purely written on the whole,
though with a few gramm.atical Aramaisms,
and interspersed with Greek, I/atin, and
Araraaic words which had becorae natu
ralized. The work is distributed into six
great divisions or orders. The 1st {Zeraim)
relates to " seeds," or productions of the
land, and it erabraces all matters connected
with the cultivation of the soil, and the
disposal of its produce in offerings or tithes -
It is preceded by a treatise on " Blessings '
{Beracoth). The 2d (Moed) relates to
festivals and their observances. The 3d
{Nashim) to women, and includes regula
tions respecting betrothals, marriages, and
divorces- The 4i!i {Nezikin) relates to
damages sustained by means of men, beasts,
or things ; with decisions on points at issue
between man and raan in coraraercial deal
ings and corapacts. 'The 5th {Kodashim)
treats of holy things, of offerings, and of
the Temple-service. The 6th {Tolmrdih)
treats of what is clean and unclean. These
6 Orders are subdivided into 61 Treatises.
The Mishna was published by Surenhusius
in 6 vols. foUo, Amsterdam, 1698, 1703,

TAMAH

683

TAPPUAH

with a Latiji translation of the text. An
English reader may obtain au excellent
idea of the whole work from an English
translation of 18 of its Treatises by De
Sola and Raphall, London, 1843. There is
no reasonable doubt that although it ra.ay
include a few passages of a later date, the
Mishna Wiis coraposed, as a whole, in the
2d century, and represents the traditions
which were current amongst the Pharisees
at the tirae of Christ.
Ta'mah. The children of Taraah, or
Tharaah (Ezr, U, 53), were among the
Nethinira who returned with Zerubbabel
(Neh, vii, 55),
Ta'mar {palm-tree). 1. The wife suc
cessively of the two sons of Judah, Er and
Onan (Gen, xxxviii, 6-30). Her irapor
tance in the sacred narrative depends on
the great anxiety to keep up the lineage of
Judah, It seemed as if the family were on
the point of extinction, Er and Onan had
successively perished suddenly. Judah's
wife Bathshuah died; and there only re
mained a child Shelah, whom Judiih was
unwilling to trust to the dangerous union,
as it appeared, with Tamar, lest he should
meet with the same fate as his brothers.
Accordingly she resorted to the desperate
expedient of intrapping the father himself
into the union whieh he feared for his son.
He took her for one of the unfortunate
women who were consecrated to the impure
rites of the Canaanite worship. He prom
ised her, as the price of his intercourse, a
kid from the flocks to which he was going,
and left as his pledge his ornaments and
his staff. 'The kid he sent back by his
shepherd, but the woman could nowhere
be found. Months afterwards she was dis
covered to be his own daughter-in-law
Taraar, She was sentenced to be burnt
alive, and was only saved by the discovery,
through the pledges which Judah had left,
that her seducer was no less than the chief
tain of the tribe. The fruits of this inter
course were ' twins, Pharez and Zarah,
and through Pharez the sacred line was
continued. 2. Daughter of David and
Maachah the Geshurite princess, and thus
sister of Absalora (3 Sara, xiU, 1-33; 1
Chr. iii. 9). She and her brother were
alike reraarkable for their extraordinary
beauty. This fatal beauty inspired a frantic
passion in her half-brother Aranon, the
"Idest son of David by Ahinoam. Morning
by morning, as he received the visits of his
friend Jonadab, he is paler and thinner.
Jonadab discovers the cause, and suggests
to him the means of accompUshing his
wicked purpose. He was to feign sickness.
The king carae to visit hira ; and Amnon
entreated the presence of .Tamar, on the
pretext that she alone could give hira food
that he would eat. She carae to his house,
tookthe dough and kneaded it into the form

of eajtes. She then took the \ t,ii. in wb>eli
they had been baked, and poured th Bra all
out in a heap before the prince. He caused
his attendants to retire, called her to the
inner roora, and there accomplished his
design. In her touching remonstrance two
points are remarkable. First, the expres
sion of the infamy of such a crime "in
Israel," iraplying the loftier standard of
morals that prevailed, as compared with
other countries at thiit time ; and, secondly,
the belief that even this standard might be
overborne lawfully by royal authority —
" Speak to the king, for he will notwithhold
rae from thee," The brutal hatred of Amnon
succeeding to his brutal passion, and the in
dignation of Tamar at his barbarous insult
even surpassing her indignation at his
shameful outriige, are pathetically and
graphically told, 3, Daughter of Absalom
(3 Sam, xiv. 7), became, by her marriage
with Uriah of Gibeah, the mother of Maa
chah, the future queen of Judah, or wife
of Abijah (1 K, xv, 3), 4, A spot on the
south-eastern frontier of Judah, named in
Ezek. xlvii, 19, xlviii, 38, only, evidently
called from a palm-tree. If not Hazazou
Taraar, the old name of Engedi, it may be
a place called 'Thamar in the Onomasticon
("Hazazon Taraar"), a day's journey south
of Hebron.
Tam'muz, properly " the Tamrauz,"
the article indicating that at some tirae or
other the word had been regarded as an
appellative (Ez. viii. 14). Jerome identifies
Tamrauz with Adonis, and in so doing has
been followed by most subsequent com
mentators, Luther and others regarded
Tamrauz as a narae of Bacchus, That
Taramuz was the Egyptian Osiris, and that
his worship was introduced to Jerusalem
from Egypt, was held by Calvin, Piscator,
Junius, Leusden, and Pfeiffer, The slight
hint given by the prophet of the nature of
the worship and worshippers of Taramuz
has been sufficient to connect thera with the
yearly mourning for Adonis by the Syrian
damsels. But beyond this we can attach
no especial weight to the explanation of
Jerorae, Ta'nach, a slight variaticnof the nam a
Taanach (Josh, xxi, 35),
Tan'hnmeth, the father of Seraiah in
the tirae of Gedaliah (3 K. xxv. 23 ; Jer.
xl, 8),
Ta'phath, the daughter of Solomon,
who was married to Ben-Abinadab (1 K.
iv, 11).
Ta phon, one of the cities. in Judaea,
fortified by Bacchides (1 Maco, ix, 50). It
is probably the Beih-'Tappuau of the Old
Testaraent. Tap'puah {the apple-city). 1. A city
of Judah, in the district of the Shefelah,
or lowland (Josh. xv. 84). 2- A pl.ace on
the boundary of the " chUdren of Joseph"

TAPPUAH, LAND OF

684

TARSHISH

(Josh, ivi, 8, xvu, 8), Its full name was
probably En-tgppuah (xvii, 7), 3. One of
the sons of liebron, of the tribe of Judah
(1 Chr, ii. 43), It is doubtless the same as
Beth-Tappuaii. Tap'puah, The Land of, a district
named in the specification of the bounda
ry between Ephraira and Manasseh (Josh,
xvii. 8). The name has not yet been met
with at all iu the central district of Pales
tine, Ta'rah, a desert-station of the Israel
ites between Taliath and Mithc4h (Nura,
xx.xiii. 37),
Tar'alah, one of the towns in the allot
ment of Benjamin (Josh,- xviu. 37).
Tare'a, the same as Tahrea, the son of
Micali (1 Chr. viu. 35).
Tares. There can be little doubt that
the zizania of the parable (Matt. xiu. 35)
denote the weed called " darnel" {Lolium
temulentum). 'The diirnel before it comes
into ear is very sirailar in appearance to
wheat ; hence the coram.and that the zizania
should be left to the harvest, lest while raen
plucked up tho tares "they should root up
also the wheat with thera." Dr, Stanley,
however, speaks of woraen and children
picking up frora the wheat in the cornfields
of Saraaria the tiiU green stalks, still called
by the Arabs zuwdn. " These stalks," he
continues, " if sown designedly throughout
the fields, would be inseparable from the
wheat, from which, even when growing
naturally and by chance, they are at first
sight hardly distinguishable," See also
Thomson (" The Land and the Book," p,
420)- "The grain is in just the proper
Btagi: to illustrate the parable. In those
parts where the grain has headed out, the
tares have done the same, and then a child
cannot mistake them for wheat or barley ;
but -(vhere both are less developed, the
closest scrutiny will often fail to detect
them. Even the farmers who in this coun
try generally weed their fields, do not at
terapt to separate the one frora the other,"
The grain-growers iu Palestine believe that
the zuu' An is merely a degenerate wheat;
thiit in wot seasons the wheat turns to tares.
Dr, 'Thomson asserts that this is their fixed
opinion. It is curious to observe the re
tention of the fallacy through raany ages,
"Wheat and zunin," says Liglitfoot (on
Matt, xiii, 35), quoting from the 'Talmud,
" are not seeds of different kinds," The Ro
man writers appear to luive entertained a
sirailar opinion with regard to sorae of the
cereals ; thus Pliny, borrowing probably
frora Theophrastus, asserts that "barley
will degenerate into the oat," The notion
that the zizania of the p.arable are raerely
diseased or degenerate wheat has been de
fended by P. Brederod, and strangely adopt
ed by Trench, who (Not?s on the Piir.ables,
p. 91, 4th ed ) regards the distinction of

these two plants to be "a falsely assumed
fact " If the zizania of the piirable de
note the Lolium temulentum, — and there
cannot be any reasonable doubt about it, —
the plants are certainly distinct. The grams
ofthe L. temulentum, if eaten, produce con
vulsions, and. even death.
Targum. [See Versions, p. 729.]
Tar'pelites, The, a race of colonists
who were planted in the cities of Samaria
after the captivity of the northern kingdom
of Israel (Ezr. iv. 9), They have not been
identified with any certainty.
Tar'shish. 1. Probably Tartessus, a
city and emporium of the Phoenicians in
the south of Spain, represented as one
of the sons of Javan (Gen. x. 4 ; Jon. i. 3,
iv. 2 ; 1 Chr. i. 7 ; Is. ii. 16, xxUi. i, 6, 10,
14, lx. 9, Ixvi. 19 ; Jer, x, 9 ; Ez, xxvu, 12,
25, xxxviU, 13 ; IK. x. 22, xxu, 48 [49] ;
Ps. xlviU. 8, IxvU. 10). The identity of the
two places is rendered hig:lily probable by
the following circumstances : 1st. There is
a very close similarity of name between
them, Tartessus being merely Tarshish iu
the Aramaic form. 2dly- There seems to
have been a special relation between Tar
shish and Tyre, as there was at one time
between Tartessus and the Phoenicians.
3dly. The articles which Tarshish is stated
by the prophet Ezekiel (xxvii. 12) to have
supplied to Tyre, are precisely such as we
know, through classical writers, to have
been productions of the Spanish IPeninsula.
In regard to tin, the trade of Tarshish in
this metal is peculiarly significant, and ta
ken in conjunction with sirailarity of name
and other circurastances already mentioned,
is reasonably conclusive as to its identity
with Tartessus. For even now the coun
tries in Europe, or on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea where tin is found, are
very few ; and in reference to ancient times,
it would be difficult to narae any such coun
tries except Iberia or Spain, Lusitania,
whieh was goraewhiit less in extent than
Portugal, and Cornwall in Great Britain.
In the absence of positive proof, we raay
acquiesce in the statement of Strabo, th.at
the river Baetis (now the Guadalquivir)
was forraerly called Tartessus, that the
city Tartessus was situated between the
two arms by which the river flowed inte
the sea, and that the adjoining country was
called Tartessis. 2. Frora tho Book of
Chronicles there would seem to have been
a Tarshish accessible from the Bed Sea
in addition to the Tarshish of the south
of Spain. Thus, with regard to the ships
of Tarshish, which Jehoshaphat caused to
be constructed- at Ezion-Geber on the Aela
nitic Gulf of the Red Sea (1 K. xxu. 48),
it is said in the Chronicles (.2 Cbr, xx.
86) that they were made to go to Tarshish ;
and in like manner the navy of shipSj which '
Solomon had previously made in Eaion-

TARSUS

685

TAXES

Geber (1 K. ix. 26), is said in the Chroni
cles (2 Chr. ix, 21) to have gone to Tar
shish with the servants of Hiram. It is not
to be supposed that the author of these
passages in the Chronicles contemplated a
voyage to Tarshish in the south of Spain
by going round what ha,s since been called
the Cape of Good Hope, The expression
" ships of Tarshish " originally meant ships
destined to go to Tarshish ; aud then prob
ably carae to signify large Phoenician ships,
of a particular size and description, destined
for long voyages, just as in English " East
Indiaraan" was a general name given to
' vessels, sorae of which were not intended
to go to India at all. Hence we raay infer
that the word Tarshish was also used to
signify any distant place, and in this case
would be applied to one in the Indian
Oceiin, This is shown by the nature of
the imports with which the fleet returned,
which are specifled as "gold, silver, ivory,
apes, and peacocks" (1 K, a. 22), Thegolii
might possibly have been obtained frora
Africa, or frora Ophir in Arabia, and the
ivory and the apes raight likewise have
been iraported from Africa; but the pea
cocks point conclusively, not to Africa, but
to India, There are only two species known ;
both inhabit the continent and islands of
India : so that the mention of the peacock
seems to exclude the possibility of the voy
age having been to Africa, The inference
to be drawn from the importation of pea
cocks is confirraed by the Hebrew narae for
the ape and the peacock. Neither of these
naraes is of Hebrew, or even Seraitic, ori
gin ; and each points to India, Thus the
Hebrew word for ape is kdph, while the
Sanscrit word is kapi. Again, the Hebrew
word for peacock is tukki, whieh cannot be
explained in Hebrew, but is akin to idka in
the Tarail language. There are not, how
ever, sufficient data for determining what
were the ports in India or the Indian Is
lands which were reached by the fleet of
, Hiram and Soloraon, though the suggestion
of Sir Emerson 'Tennent that they went to
Point de Galle, in Ceylon, is very prob
able Tar'sus, the chief town of Cilicia, " no
mean city " in other respects, but illustri
ous to all time as the birthplace aud early
residence of tho Apostle Paul (Acts ix. 11,
xxi, 39, xxii, 3). Even in the flourishing
period of Greek history it was a city of
sorae considerable consequence. In the
civil wars of Rorae it took Caesar's side,
and on the occasion of a visit from him had
its name changed to Juliopolis. Augustus
made it a " free city." It was renowned
as if place of education under the early
Koman emperors. Strabo compares it in
this respect to Athens and Alexandria..
Tarsus also was a place of much corauierce.
It WPS situated in a wild and fertUe plain

on the banks oi the Cydnuj. No ruins of
any iraportance reraain.
Tar'tak, one of the gods of the Avite,
or Avvite, colonists of Saraaria (2 K. xvii.
31). According to Rabbinical tradition,
Tartak is said to have been worshipped un
der the form of an ass.
Tar'tan, which occurs only in 2 K. xviii.
17, and Is. xx, 1, has been generaUy re
garded as a proper name ; but like Rabsaris
and Rabshakeh, it is more probably ai of-
flcial designation, and indicates the As
syrian coraraander-in-chief,
Tat'nai, satrap of the province west of
the Euphrates in the tirae of Diirius Hys
taspis (Ezr. V. 3, 6, vi. 6, 13). The name
is thought to be Persian.
Taverns, The Three. [Three T \.v-
ERNS,] Taxes, I. Under the Judges, accord
ing to the theocratic government contr-m-
plated by the law, the only payments in
cumbent upon the people as of permanent
obligation were the Tithes, the First
Fruits, the Redemption-monet of the
flrst-born, and other offerings as belonging
to special occasions, 'The p.ayraent by each-
Israelite ofthe half- shekel as " atoneraent-
money," for the service of the tabernacle,
on taking the census of the people (Ex,
xxx, 13), does not appear to have had the
character of a recurring tax, but to have
been suppleraentary to the freewill-offer
ings of Ex, xxv. 1-7, levied for the one
purpose of the construction of the sacred
tent. In later tiraes, indeed, after the re
turn from Babylon, there was an annual
payraent for raaintaining the fabric and ser
vices of the Temple ; but the fact that this
begins by the voluntary compact to pay
one third of a shekel (Neh, x, 32) shows
that till then there was no such payment
recognized as necessary, A little later the
third becarae a half, and under the narae
of the didrachma (Matt, xvii, 24) was paid
by every Jew, in whatever part of the world
he raight be living, II, The kingdora, with
its centralized government and greater mag-
nificonce, involved, of course, a larger ex-
penditui;c, and therefore a heavier taxation.
The chief burdens appear to have been,
(1) A tithe of the produce both of the soil
and of live stock (1 Siim, viii. 15, 17). (2)
Forced military service for a month every
year (1 Sara. viu. 13 ; 1 K. Lx. 33 ; 1 Chr.
xxvii. 1). (3) Gifts to the king (1 Sara. x.
27, xvi. 20, xvu. 18). (4) Iraport duties (1
K. X. 15). (5) The raonopoly of certain
•branches of commerce (1 K, ix, 28, xxu.
48, X, 28, 29), (6) The appropriation «)
the king's use of the early crop of hiiy (Am,
vii, 1), At tiraes, too, in the history of
both the kingdoms there wero special bur
dens, A tribute of 50 shekels a head had
to be paid by Menahem to the Assyrian
king (2 K, xv, 20), andivnder his successor

TAXING

686

TEL-ABIB

Hoshea this assumed the form of an annual
tribute (2 K. xvU. 4), III, Under the Per
sian erapire, the taxes paid by the Jews
were, in their broad outlines, the same in
kind as those of other subject races. The
financial system which gained' for Darius
Hystaspis the narae of the " shopkeeper
king " involved the paj'raent by each satrap
of a fixed sura as the tribute due from his
province. In Judaea, as in other prov
inces, the inhabitants had to provide in kind
forthe maintenance of the governor's house
hold, besides a money-payment of 40 shek
els a day (Neh, v, 14, 15). In Ezr. iv. 13,
30, vii. 34, we get a formal enumeration of
the three great briinches of the revenue.
The influence of Ezra secured for the whole
ecclesiastical order, from the priests down
to ths Nethinim, an iraraunity from all
throe (Ezr. vii. 24) ; but the burden pressed
heavily on the great body of the people.
IV. Undor the Egyptian and Syrian kings
the taxes paid by the Jews became yet
heavier. The "farming" system of finance
was adopted in its worst fomn. The taxes
were put up to auction. The contract sum
for those of Phoenicia, Judaea, Siimaria,
had been estimated at about 8000 talents.
An unscrupulous adventurer would bid
double that sum, and would then go down
to the province, and by violence and cruel
ty, like that of Turkish or Hindoo collect
ors, squeeze out a large margin of profit
for himself. V. Tho pressure of Romiin
taxation, if not absolutely heavier, w.as
probably raore galling, as being raore
thorough and systeraatic, raore distinctively
a mark of bondage. The capture of Jeru
salem by Pompey was followed immediate
ly "oy the imposition of a tribute, and within
a short tirae the sura thus taken frora the
resources of the country araounted to 10,000
talents. When Judaea becarae forraally a
Roman province, the whole financial systera
of the erapire came as ii natural conse
quence, 'The taxes were systematically
farmed, and the publicans appeare.d as a
new curse to the country. The Portoria
were levied at harbors, piers, and the g.ates
of cities (Matt, xvii. 34; Rom, xiu. 7), In
addition to tlus there was the poll-tax paid
by every Jew, and looked upon, for that
reason, as the special badge of servitude.
United with this, as part of the s.ame sys
tera, there was also, in all prob.abiUty, a
property-tax of sorae kind. In addition to
those general taxes, the inhabitants of Jeru
s.alem were subject to a special house-duty
about this period,
Tasing, The English word now con
veys to us raore distinctly the notion of a
tax or tribute actually levied; but it appears
to hii'^e been used in the 16th century for
the siraple assessraent of a subsidy upon the
property of a given county, or the registra
tion of the people for the purpose of a poll-

tax Two distinct registrations, or taxings,
are mentioned in the N. T-, both of thera
by St, Luke. The first is s.aid to have been
the result of an edict of the Emperor Au
gustus, that " aUthe world {i. e. the Roraan
empire) should be taxed " (Luke ii. 1), .and
is connected by the EvangeUst with the
name of Cyrenius, or Quirinus. [Cvre-
Nius,] The second, and raore iraportant
(Acts V. 37), is distinctly associated, in
point of time, with the revolt of Judas of
GalUee. Te'bah, eldest of the sons of Nahor,
by his concubine Reumah (Gen, xxii, 34),
¦Pebali'ah, third son of Hosah of the
children of Merari (1 Chr. xxvi. 11).
Te'beth. [Month.]
Tehin'nah, the father or founder of
Ir-Nahash, the city of Nahash, and son of
Eshton (1 Chr. iv. 13).
Teil-tree. [Oak.]
Teko'a and Teko'ah. 1. A town in the
tribe of Judah (2 Chr, xi, 6) , on the range
of hills which rise near Hebron, and stretch
eastward towards the Dead Sea, Jerome
says that Tekoa was six Roraan railes frora
Bethlehera, and that as he wrote he had
that village daily before his eyes. The
"wise woraan" whom Jo.ab employed to
effect a reconciliation between David and
Absalom was obtained from this place (2
Sara, xiv, 3), Here, also, Ira, the son of
Ikkesh, one of Davicl's thirty, " the mighty
men," was born, and was called on that ac
count "the Tekoite" (2 Sara, xxiu, 26),
It was one of the places which Rehoboam
fortified, at the beginning of his reign, as a
defence against invasion frora the south (2
Chr. xi, 6). Some of the people frora
Tekoa took part in huilding the walls of
Jerusalem, after the return from the Cap
tivity (Neh, iu, 5, 27. -In Jer. vi. 1, the
prophet exclaims, "Blow the trumpet in
Tekoa, and set up a sign of fire in Beth-
Haccerera," But Tekoa is chiefly memo
rable as the birthplace ofthe prophet Amoa
(Amos vii, 14), Tekoa is known stiU as
Teku'a. It lies on an elevated hill, 'which
spreads itself out into an irregular plain of
moderate extent. Various ruins exist, such
as the walls of houses, cisterns, broken
columns, and heaps of building-stones. 2.
A name occurring in the genealogies of
Judah (1 Chr. ii. 24, iv, 5), as the son of
Ashur. There is Uttle doubt that tho town
of Tekoa is meant.
Teko'ite, The. Ira ben-Ikkesh, one
of David's w.arriors, is thus designated (2
Sam. x.xUi. 26; 1 Chr. xi. 28, xxvu, 9).
The coraraon people among the Tekoites
displayed great activity in the repairs of
the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemjah
(Neh, Ui, 5, 27).
Tel'-a'bib was probably a city of Chal
daea or Babylonia, not of "ITpper Mesopota-
mi.a, as generally iraagined (Ez. iu. 16)

¦¦^' t.ViM

(OJ

^

1^

tj;lah

687

TEMPLE

The whohj scene of Ezekiel's preaching and
visions seems to have been Chaldaea Prop
er; and the river Chebar, as already ob
served, was not the Khabour, but a branch
ofthe Euphrates.
Te'lah, a descendant of Ephraim, and
ancestor of Joshua (1 Chr. vii. 25).
Tel'aim, the place .at which Saul col
lected and, numbered his forces before his
attack ou Amalek (1 Sam, xv. 4), may be
identical with Telem. On the other hand,
the reading of the LXX, in 1 Sam. xv. 4
— viz. Gilgal — is remarkable, and is al
most sufficient to induce the belief that in
this case the LXX. and Josephus have pre
served the right name, and that instead of
Tclaiiu we should, with them, read Gilgal,
Telas'sar is mentioned in 2 K, xix. 12,
and in Is. xxxvii. 12 as a city inhabited by
"the children of Eden," which had been
\ conquered, and was held in the tirae of
Sennacherib, by the Assyrians. It raust
have been iu Western Mesopotaraia, in the
neighborhood of Harran and Orfa.
Te'lem. 1. One of the cities in the
extreme south of Judah (Josh. xv. 24),
probably the same as Telaim. 'The name
DJiullam is found in Van_ de Velde's map,
attached to a district immediately to the
north of the Kubbet el-Baul, south of el
Milh and Ar'arah — a position very suitable.
2. A porter or doorkeeper of the Teraple
inthetiraeof Ezra (Ezrax. 24). He is prob
ably the sarae as Talmon in Neh. xii. 25.
Tel-har'sa, or Tel-hare'sha, one of
the Babylonian towns, or villages, men
tioned in Ezr. ii. 59 ; Neh. vii. 61, along
with Tel-Melah and Cherub, probably iu
the low country near the sea.
Tel-me'lah. [Tel-Harsa,]
Te'ma, the ninth son of Ishmael (Gen,
xxv, 15 ; 1 Chr. i. 80) ; whence the tribe
called after him, mentioned in Job vi, 19,
Jer, xxv, 23, and also the land occupied by
tills tribe (Is, xxi. 13, 14). The name is
identified with Teymd, a small town on the
confines of Syria.
Te'mah. 1, A son of Eliphaz, son of
Esau by Adah (Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42 ; 1
Chr, i, 36, 53), 2, A country, and prob
ably a city, named after the Edomite phy
larch, or from which the phylarch took his
name. The Hebrew signifies "south,"
&c, (see Job ix. 9 ; Is. xliu. 6) ; and it is
probable thiit the land of Teman was a
southern portion of the land of Edom, or,
in a wider sense, that of the sons of the
east. Teman is mentioned in five places
by the prophets, in four of which it is con
nected with Edom, and in two with Dedan
(Jer. xlix. 7, 8 ; Ez. xxv. 13)- In common
with most Edomite naraes, Teman appears
to have been lost. Eusebius and JeromS
mention Teman as a town in their day dis
tant 15 miles from Petra, and n Ronian
post The identification of the existing

Milan with this Teraan raay be geographi
cally correct, but it cannot rest on etymo
logical grounds. 'The gentilic noun of Te
man is temdni (Job ii. 11, xxii. 1), and
Eliphaz the 'Temanite was one of the wise
men of Edora, The gen, n, occurs also in
Gen. xxxvi, 34, where the land of Temani
is mentioned,
Tem'ani, [Teman,]
Te'manite. [Teman,]
Tem'eni, son of Ashur, the father of
Tekoa, by his wife Naarah (1 Chr. iv. 6).
Temple. There is perhaps no building
of the ancient world which has excited so
much attention since the time of its de
struction as the Temple which Solomon
built at Jerusalem, and its successor as
rebuilt by Herod. Its spoils were consid
ered worthy of forming the principal illus
tration of one of the most beautiful of Ro
man triumphal arches, and Justinian's high
est architectural araliition was that he might
surpass it. Throughout the middle ages
it infiuenced to a considerable degree the
forms of Christian churches, and its pecu
liarities wero the watchwords and rallying-
points of all associations of builders. "VV'heii
the French expedition to Egypt, iu the first
years of this century, had raade the world
farailiar with the wonderful architectural
remains of that country, every one jumped
to the conclusion that Solomon's 'Temple
must have been designed after an Egyptian
model. The -Assyrian discoveries of Botta
and Layard have within the last twenty
years given an entirely new direction to the
researches of the restorers. Uiifortuns.te-
ly, however, no Assyrian temple has yet
been exhumed of a n.ature to throw rauch
light on this subject, and we are still forced
to have recourse to the liiter buildings at
Persepolis, gr to general deductions frojn
the style of the nearlj' contemporary secu
lar buildings at Nineveh and elsewhere, for
such illustrations as are available.
The Temple of Solomon. — It was
David who first proposed to replace the
Tabernacle by a more permanent building,
but was forbidden for the reasons assigned
by tbe prophet Nathan (2 Sara. vii. 6, &c.),
and though he collected materials ,and made
arrangements, the execution of the task
was left for his son Solomon, He, with
the assistance of Hiram king of Tyre, cora
raenced this great undertaking in the fourth
year of his reign (b, c. 1012), and cora
pleted it in seven years (n, c. 1005), It
occupied the site prepared for it by David,
which had forraerly been the threshing-
floor of the Jebusite Oman or Araunah, on
Mount Moriah. The whole area enclosed
by the outer walls formed a square of
about 600 feet; but the sanctuiiry itself
was comparatively small, inasmuch as it
was intended only for the ministrations of
the priests, the congregation of the people

TEMPLE

688

TEMPLE

assembling in the courts. In this and all
other essential points, the Teraple fellowed
the model of the Tabernacle, from which
it differed chiefly by having chambers built
about the sanctuary for the abode of the
priests and attendants, and the keeping of
treasures and stores. In all its dimen
sions, length, breadth, and height, the
Si,nctuary itself was exactly double of the
Tabernacle, the ground-plan measuring 80
cubits by 40, whilst thiit of the Tabernacle
was 40 by 20, and the height of the Temple
being 30 cubits, while that of the Tabernacle
was 15, , (The reader should compare the
following accSunt with the article Taber-
K.V.CLE,) As in the Tabernacle, the Tem
ple consisted of three p.arts, the Porch, tho
Holy Place, and the Holy of Holies. The
Porch of the Temple was 10 cubits deep (in
thu Tabernacle 5 cubits), the width in both
instances being the width of the house.
The front of the porch was supported, after
tlie manner of sorae Egyptian temples, by
the two great brazen pillars, - Jachin and
Boaz, 18 cubits high, with capitals of 5 cubits
more, adorned with lily-work and pome-
gran.ates (1 K. vii. 15-22). Sorae have
supposed that Jachin and Boaz were not
pillars in the ordinary sense of the term,
but obelisks. But for this there is no
authoritj'; and as the porch was flfteen
cubits (thirty feet) in width, a roof of that
extent, even if composed of a wooden
beam, would not only look painfully weak
without some support, but, in fact, almost
irapossible to construct with the iraperfect
science of those days. " The chapiter of

Cornice of Lily-work at Fersepolif.
lily-work" on these columns may have
borne some resemblance to the cornice of
hly-work figured above. The Holy Place,
or outer hall, was 40 cubits long by 20

wide, being in the Tabernacle 20 by 10.
The Holy of Holies was a cube of 20 cu
bits, being in the Tabernacle 10. The
places ofthe two "veUs" of the Taber
nacle were occupied by partitions, in which
were folding-doors. , The whole interior
was lined with woodwork richly carved
and overlaid with gold. Indeed, both
within and without, the building was con
spicuous chiefly by the lavish use cf the
gold of Ophir ami Parvaira. It glittered
in the morning sun (it has been well said)
like the sanctuary of an El Dorado. Above
the sacred ark, which was placed, as of old,
in the Most Holy Place, were made new

Plan of Soloinon's Temple, showing the diaposition of the
chambers in two stories,
cherubim, one pair of whose wings met
above the ark, and another pair reached to
tho walls behind thera. In the Holy Place,
besides the Altar of Incense, which was
made of cedar, overlaid with gold, there
were seven golden candlesticks instead of
one, and the table of shew-bread was re
placed by ten golden tables, bearing, besides
the shew-bread, the innumerable goldeu
vessels for the service of the Siinctuary,
The Outer Court was no doubt double the
size of that of the 'Tabernacle ; and we may
therefore safely assume that it was 10 cubits
in height, 100 cubits north and south, and
200 east aud west. It contained an inner
court, called the "court of the priests;"
but the arrangement of the courts and of
the porticos and gateways of the enclosure,
though described by Josephus, belong ap
parently to the Temple of Herod. There
was an eastern porch to Herod's Temple,
which was called Soloraon's Porch, and
Josephus tells us that it was built by that
monarch; but of this there is absolutely no

TEMPLE

689

TEMPLE

proof, and as neither in the account of
Solomon's building nor in any subsequent
repairs or incidents is any mention made
of such buildings, we may safely conclude
that they did not exist before the tirae of
the great rebuilding iraraediately preceding
the Christian era. In the outer court there
was a new altar of burnt-offering much
larger than the old one. [Altar.] Instead
of the brazen Javer there was " a molten
sea" of brass, a masterpiece of Hiram's
skill, for the ablution of the priests. It
was called a "sea" frora its great size,
[Sea, Molten,] The charabers for the
priests were arranged in successive stories
against the sides of the sanctuary; not,
however, reaching to the top, so as to leave
space for the windows to light the Holy and
Most Holy. Places. We are told by Jose
phus and the 'Talmud (.hat there was a
superstructure on the Temple equal in
height to the lower part ; and this is con
firmed by the statement in the Books of
Chronicles that Solomon " overlaid the
upper chambers with gold " (2 Chr, iii.
9). Moreover, •" the altars on the top of
the upper charaber," mentioned in the
Books of the Kings (2 K, xxiii. 12), were
apparently upon the 'Temple, It is proba
ble that these upper chambers bore some
analogy to the platform or 'Taltir that ex
isted on the roofs of the Palace-Temples at
Persepolis, as they are exhibited in the
drawings which represent the Tomb of
Darius, It is true this was erected five
centuries after the building of Solomon's
temple ; but it is avowedly a copy in stone
of older Assyrian forms, and as such raay
represent, with more or less exactness, con
temporary buildings. Nothing in fact could
represent more correctly "the altiirs on
the top of '.he upper chamber," which Jo
siah beat down, than this, nor could any
thing raore fully raeet all the architectural
or devotioniil exigencies of tbe case. — The
dedication of the Temple, which was the
giandest ceremony ever performed under
the Mosaic di.^pensiition, is described under
Solomon. This Temple was destroyed on
the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez
zar, B. c. 586.
Temple op Zeeubbaeel. — We have
very few iiarticulars regarding the Temple
which the Jews erected after theu- return
from the Captivity (about E, c, 520), and
no description that would euiible 'us to real
ize its .appear.ance. But there are sorae
dimensions given in the Bible and else
where which are extremely interesting, as
affording points of comparison between it
and the Teraple which preceded it, aud the
oue erected after it. 'The first and most
authentic are those given in the Book of
Ezra (vi. 3), when quoting the decree of
Cyrus, wherein it is said, " Let the house
be builded, the place where they offered
44

sacrifices, and let the foundations thereof
"be strongly laid ; the height thereof three
score cubits, and the breadth thereof three
score cubits, with three rows of great stones
and a row of new timber." Josephus quotes
this passage alraost literally, but in doing
so enables us with certainty "to translate the
word here called Row as "Story" — as
indeed the sense would lead us to. infer.
The other dimension of 60 cubits in breadth,
is 20 cubits in excess of that of Soloraon's
Teraple, but there is no reason to doubt its
correctness, for we find both from Josephus
and the Talmud that it was the dimension
adopted for the Teraple when rebuilt, or
rather repaired, by Herod, We are left,
therefore, with the alternative of assuming
that the porch and the chambers all round
were 20 cubits in width, including the thick
ness of the walls, instead of 10 cubits,
as in the earlier building. This alter.i-
tion in the width of the Pteroniata raade
the Temple 100 cubits in length by 60 in
breadth, with a height, it is said, of 60
cubits, including the upper room or Talar,
though we_ cannot help suspecting that
this last dimension is somewhat in excess
of the truth, Frora these dimensions we
giither, that if the Priests and Levites and
Elders of families were disconsolate at
seeing how much more sumptuous the old
Teraple was than the one which on account
of their poverty they -had just been able to
erect (Ezr. iii, 13), it certiiinly was not
because it was sraaller, as almost every
dimension had been increased one third ;
but it may have been that the carving and
the gold and other ornaments of Solomon's
Temple far surpassed this, and tlie pillars
ofthe portico and the veils niiiy all have been
far raore splendid; so also probably were
the vessels ; and all this is what a Jew would
raouru over far raore than mere architec
tural splendor. In spe.aking of these Tem
ples we must always bear in mind that their
dimensions were practically very far in
ferior to those of the heathen. Even thaS
of Ezra is not larger than an average par-
ish church ofthe last century — Solomou's
was smaller. It was the lavish display of
the precious metals, the elaboration of
carved ornament, and the beauty of the
textile fabrics, which made up their splen
dor and rendered thera so precious in the
eyes of the people
Temple or Ezekiel, — The vision of a
Temple which the, prophet Ezekiel saw
while residing on the banks of the Chebar
in Babylonia in the 25th year of the Captiv
ity, does not add much to our knowledge
ofthe subject. It is not a description of a
'Temple that ever was built or ever could
be erected at Jerusalera, and can conse
quently only be considered as the beau
ideal ot what a Shemitic Teraple ought to
be. Notwithstanding its ideal character.

TEMPLE

690

TEMPLE

the whole is extremely curious, as showing
what were the aspirations of the Jews in
this direction, and how different they were
from those of other nations ; and it is inter
esting here, inasrauch as there can be little
doubt but that the arrangements of Herod's
Teraple were in a great raeasure infiuenced
by tho description here given.
Temple oe Herod, — Herod announced
to the people asserabled at the Passover
(b, c, 20 or 19) his intention of restoring
the" Temple, If we may believe Josephus,
he pulled down the whole edifice to its foun
dations, and Laid them anew on an enlarged
scale ; biit the ruins still exhibit, in some
parts, what seem to be the foundations laid
by Zerubbabel, and beneath them the more
massive substructions of Solomon. The
new edifice was a stately pile of Graeco-

Roraan architecture, built in w bite marble
with gilded acroteria. It is minutely de
scribed by Josephus, and the New Testa
ment has made us fiimiUar with the prido
of the Jews in its magnificence, A differ
ent feeling, however, marked the com-
menceraent of the work, which raet with
some opposition from the fear that what
Herod ha4 begun he would not be able to
finish. He overcame all jealousy by en
gaging not to pull down any part of the
existing buildings till all the materials for
the new edifice were collected on its site.
Two years appear to have been occupied in
these preparations, among which Josephus
mentions the teaching of some of the priests
and Levites to work as masons and carpen
ters — and thert the work began. 'The holy
" house," including the Porch, Sanctuary,

COURT OF GENTILES

M .J I. U ,i".n

I W H. ¦ H I. n N M rt .J-T

VA I', W m kJ W W III m HI Jl W M ^i U F^ BI U IJ .1 .J H M H n

ifartji.».ft#A*u-aijfeB

Temple of Herod restored. Scale of 200 feet to 1 inch.

and Holy of Holies, was flnished in a year
and a half (b. c. 16). Its completion, on
the anniversary of Herod's inauguration,
was celebrated by lavish sacrifices and a
great feast. About B, c. 9 — eight years
from the coraraencement — the court and
cloisters of the Terapte were finished, and
the bridge between the south cloister and
the upper city (demolished by Pompey)
was loubtloss now rebuilt with that raassive
mas jury of which some remains still sur
vive. The Teraple or holy " house " itself
was in diraensions and arrangeraent very
similar to that of Solomon, or rather that
of Zerubbabel— more like the latter; but

this was surrounded by an inner enciosuro
of greaj; strength and magnificence, meas
uring as nearly as can be made out 180
cubits by 340, and adorned by porches and
ten gateways of great magnificence; aud
beyond this again was an outer enclosure
measuring externally 400 cubits each way,
which was adorned with porticos of great
er splendor than any we know of as attached
to any teraple of the ancient world. The
Temple was certainly situated in the S. AV.
angle of the area now known as the Haram
area at Jerusalera, and its diraensions were
what Josephus states them to be — 400
cubits, or one stadiura, each way. At tho

TEMPLE

691

TEMPLE

time when* Herod rebuilt it, he enclosed a
space " twice as large " as that before
occupied by the Teraple and its courts — an
expression that probably raust not be taken
too literally, at least if we are to depend on
the measurements of Hecataeus. Accord
ing to thera, the whole area of Herod's
Teraple was between four and flve times
greater than that which preceded it. What
Herod did, apparently, was to take in the
whole space between the Temple and the
city wall on its eastern side, and to add a
.considerable space on the north and south,
to support the porticos which he added
there. As the Temple terrace thus becarae
the principal defence of the city on the east
side, there were no gates or openings in that
direction, and being situated on a sort of
rocky brow — as evidenced from its appear
ance in the vaults that bound it on this side
it was at all later tiraes considered un-
attackable frora the eastward. The north
side, too, where not covered by the fortress
Antonia, becarae part of the defences of
the city, and was likewise without external
gates. On the south side, which was en
closed by the wall of Ophel, there were
double gates nearly in the centre. These
g.ates still exist at -a distance of about 365
feet frora the south-western angle, and are
perhaps the only architectural features of
the Temple of Herod which remain in situ.
Tills entrance consists of a double archway
of Cyclopean architecture on the level of
the ground, opening into a square vestibule
measuring 40 feet each way, Frora this a
double tunnel, nearly 200 feet in length,
leads to a flight of steps which rise to the
surface in the court of the Teraple, exactly
at that gatew.ay of the inner Teraple which
led to the altar, and is the one of the four
gateways on this side by which any one
arriving frora Ophel would naturally wish
to enter the inner enclosure. Wc learn
frora the Talraud that the gate of the inner
Teraple to which this pass.age led was called
the "Water Gate;" and it is interesting
to be able to identify a spot so prorainent
in the description of Neheraiah (xu, 37),
Towards the west there were four gateways
to the external enclosure of the Teraple,
Cloisters. — The most raagnificent part of
the 'Temple, in an architectural point of
view, seems certainly to have been the
cloisters which were added to the outer
court when itwas enlarged by Herod, The
cloisters in the west, north, and east sides
were composed of double rows of Corin-
thi.an columns, 25 cubits or 37 feet 6 inches
ih height, with flat roofs, and resting against
the outer wall of the Temple. These, how
ever, were imraeasuriibly surpassed in raag-
nificence by the royal porch or Stoa Basil
ica, which overhung the southern wall. It
consisted of a nave and two aisles, that
towards the Temjle being open, that to

wards the country closed by a wall. The
breadth of the centre aisle was 45 feet ; of
the side aisles, 30 frora centre to centre of
the pillars ; tjlieir height 50 feet, and that
of the centre aisle 100 feet. Its section was
thus soraething in excess of that of York
Cathedral, while its total length was one
stadiura or 600 Greek feet, or 100 feet in
excess of York, or our largest Gothic ca
thedrals. This raagnificent structure was
supported by 162 Corinthian columns. The
court of the Temple was very nearly a
square. It may have been exactly so, for
we have not all the details to enable us to
feel quite certain about it. To the eastward
of this was the court of the women. The
great ornament of these inner courts seeras
to have been their gateways, the three
especially on the north and south leading
to the Teraple court. These, according to
Josephus, were of great height, strongly
fortified, and ornaraented with great elab
oration. But the wonder of all was the
great eastern gate leading frora the court
of the woraen to the upper court. It was
in all probability tho one called the " Beau
tiful Gate. " in the New Testament., Imme
diately within this gateway stood the altar
of burnt-offerings. Both the Altar and the
Teraple were enclosed by a low parapet,
one cubit in height, placed so as to keep
the people separate frora the priests while
the latter were perforraing their functions-
Within this last enclosure, towards the
westward, stood "the Temple itself. As
before mentioned, its internal dimensions
were the sarae as those of the Temple of
Solomon. Although the internal diraen
sions remained the same, there seeras no
reason to doubt but that the whole plan was
augmented by the Pteromata, or surround
ing parts, being increased frora 10 to 20
cubits, so that the third temple, like the
second, measured 60 cubits across and 100
cubits east and west. The width of the
facade was also augmented by wings or
shoulders projecting 20 cubits each way,
raaking the whole breadth 100 cubits, or
equal to the length. So far all seeras eer
tain ; but when we come to the height, every
measurement appears doubtful. Both Jo
sephus and the Talmud seem delighted with
the truly Jewish idea of a building which,
without being a cube, was 100 cubits long..
100 broad, and 100 high. We cannot help
suspecting that in this instance Josephus
was guilty of systematically doubling the
altitude of the building he was describing,
as it can be proved he did in some other
instances. But when we turn from actual
measurement, and try to realize its appear
ance, or the detail of its architecture, we
launch into a sea of conjecture with very
little indeed to guide us, at least in regard
to the appeararce of tho Temple itself.
Whiltever raay have been tbe case with thn

TEN COMMANDMENTS

692

TEN COMMANDMENTS

Temple of Solomon, it is nearly cert.ain that
the style of the second Temple must have
been identical with this ofthe buildings we
are so familiar with at Persepolis and Susa.
The Jews were too closely connected with
the Persians and Babylonians at this period
to know of any other style, and in fact their
Temple was buUt under the superintendence
of the very parties who were erecting the
conteraporary edifices at Persepolis and
Susa. 'There is no reason for doubting that
the Sanctuary always stood on the identi
cally same spot in which it had been placed
by Solomon a thousand years before it was
rebuilt by Herod.
Ten Commandments. The populiir
name in this, as. in so raany instances, is
not that of Scripture. There we have the
" Ten Words " (Ex. xxxiv. 28 ; Deut, iv,
13, X, 4), the "Covenant" (Ex., Deut,,
11. cc. ; 1 K. viu. 21 ; 2 Chr. vi. 11,_ &c,),
or, very often, as the solemn attestation of
the divine wUl, the Testi.mont (Ex. xxv.
16, 31 ; xx.xi. 18, &c.). The circurastances
in which the 'Ten great Words were first
given to the people surrounded thera with
au awe which attached to no other precept.
In the midst of the cloud, and the diirk-
ness, and the flashing lightning, and the
fiery sraoke, and the thunder like the voice
of a trumpet, Moses was called to receive
the Law without which the people would
cease to be a holy nation. Here, as else
where. Scripture unites two facts which
raen separate. God, and not ra.an, was
speaking to the Israelites in those terrors,
and yet, in the language of later inspired
teachers, other instrumentality was not ex
cluded. No other words were proclairaed
in like manner. And the record was as
exceptional as the original revelation. Of
no otlier words could it be said that they
were written as these were written, en
graved on the Tables of Stone, not as ori
ginating in raan's contrivance or sagacity,
but by the power of the Eternal Spirit, by
the "finger of God" (Ex. xxxi. 18, xxxii.
16). The number Ten was, we can hardly
doubt, itself significant to Moses and the
Israelites. The received symbol, then and
at all times, of completeness, it taught the
people that the Law of Jehov.ah was perfect
(Ps. xix. 7). The terra " Commandments "
had come into use in the time of Clirist
(Luke xviii. 20). Their division into Two
Tables is not only expressly mentioned, but
the stress laid upon the iwo leaves no doubt
that the distinction was important, and that
it answered to that summary of the law
wliich was made both by Moses and by'
Christ into two precepts; so that the First
Table contained Duties to God, and the
Second, Duties to our Neighbor. — But
here arises a difficulty, not only as to the
arrangeraent of the coinm.andmeuts be
tween the "'Jwo Tables," but as to the

division of the ' ' Ten Words " tl eraselves.
The division is not clearly made in. the
Scripture itself; and that arrangeraent,
with which we are familiar from chUd-
hood, is only one of three raodes, handed
down from the ancient Jewish and Chris
tian churches, to say nothing of modern
theories ; and others are used at this day
by Jews and Roraan Catholics. (!) The
raodern Jews, foUowing the Talmud, take
the words which are often called the Pref
ace, as the First Commandment (Ex. xx.
2; Deut. v. 6 : " I ara Jehovah thy God,
which brought thee out of the land of
Egypt, frora the house of bondage ") ; and
the prohibitions both against having other
gods, and against idolatry, as the second
(Ex. XX. 3-6 ; Deut. v, 7-10) ; the rest be
ing arranged as with us. (2) The Roraan
Catholic and Lutheran churches, foUowing
St, Augustine, regard the First Coraraand
raent as embracing all the above words, in
one comprehensive law against false wor
ship and idol.atry. Thus our Tliird Com
mandment is their Second, .and so on to our
Ninth, which is their Eighth. They then
make our Tenth against coveting their Ninth
and Tenth. In the arrangeraent of the Two
Tables, the First contains three coramand-
raents, closing with the Sabbath law, and
the Second the reraaining seven. (3)
The arrangement adopted by the Greek
and English churches, following Philo, Jo
sephus, and Origen, and all the Latin fa
thers, makes the law ag.ainst having other
gods besides Jehoviih tSie First Command
ment, and th.at against idolatry tbe Second,
though a slight difference of opinion re
raains, whether the first words belong to
the First Coraraandraent, or forra a Preface
to the whole. — There are then three prin
cipal divisions of the Two Tables : (i.)
That of the Roraan Catholic Church men
tioned above, raaking the First 'Table con
tain three coraraandraents, and the Second
the other seven, (ii,) The familiar divis
ion, referring the first four to our duty to
wards God, and the six remaining to our
duty towards man, (ui,) 'The division
recognized by the old Jewish writers, Jo
sephus and Philo, which places five com
mandments in each Table; and thus pre
serves the pentade and decade grouping
which pervades the whole code. It has
been maintained that the law of fili.al duty,
being a close consequence of God's fatherly
relation to us, may be referred to the First
Table. But this is to place human p.arents
ou a level with God, and, by parity of rea
soning, the Sixth Commandment might he
added to the First Table, as murder is the
destruction of God's image in raan. Far
raore reasouiible is the view which regards
the authority of parents as heading the
Second Table, as the earthly reflex of that
authority of the Father of His people and

TENT

693

TERTULLUS

of aU men which heads the First and as the
first principle of the whole law of lovo to
our neighbors, because we are all brethren ;
and the family is, for good and ill, the model
of the stiite. — To these Ten Command
ments we flnd in the Samaritan Pentateuch
an eleventh added: "But when the Lord
*hy God shall have brought thee into tho
land of Canaan, whither thoU goest to pos
sess it, thou shalt set thee up two great
stones, and shalt plaister thera with plais
ter, and shalt write upon these stones all
the words of this Law. Moreover, after
thou shalt have passed over Jordan, thou
shalt set up those stones which I coraraand
thee this day, on Mount Gerizira, and thou
shalt build there an altar to the Lord thy
God, an altar of stones : thou shalt not lift
up any iron thereon. Of unhewn stones
shalt thou build that altar to the Lord thy
God, "and thou shalt offer on it burnt-offer
ings to the Lord thy God, and thou shalt
sacrifice peace-offerings, and shalt eat thera
there, and thou shalt rejoice before the Lord
thy God in that mountain beyond Jordan,
by the way where the sun goeth down, in
the land of the Canaanite that dwelleth in
the plain country over against Gilg.al, by
the oak of Moreh, towards Sichera." The
interpolation has every raark of being a
bold attempt to claim for the schismatic
worship on Gerizim the solemn sanction of
the voice on Sinai, to place it on the same
footing as the Ten great Words of God.
The absence of any distinct reference to
the Ten Coraraandraents as such in the
Pirke Aboth {= Maxiras of the Fathers)
is both strange and significant. With .all
their ostentation of profound reverence for
the Law, tlie teaching of the Rabbis turned
on other points than the great laws of
duty. Tent. Araong the leading characteris
tics of the noraade races, those two have
always been numbered whose origin has
been ascribed to Jabal the son of Laraech
(Gen. iv. 20), viz. to be tentrdwellers and
keepers of cattle. The sarae raay be said
of the forefathers of the Hebrew race ; nor
was it until the return into Canaan frora
Egypt that the Hebrews becarae inhabitants
of cities. An Arab tent is called beit,
"house;" its covering consists of stuff,
about three quarters of a yard broad, raade
of black goats'-hair (Cant. i. 5), laid par
aUel with the tent's length. This is sufli
cient to resist the heaviest rain. The tent-
poles, or columns, are usually nine in num
ber, placed in three groups, but raany tents
have only one pole, others two or three.
The ropes which hold the tent in its place
are fastened, not to the tent-eovor itself,
but to loops consisting of a leathern thong
tied to Ihe ends of a stick, round which is
twisted a piece of old cloth, which is itself
sewed to the tent-cover. The end» of the

tent-ropes are fastened to short sticks oi
pins, which are driven into the ground with
a raaUet (Judg, iv. 21), Round the back
and sides of the tent runs a piece of stuff re-
mo-vable at pleasure to adrait air. The tent
is divided into two apartments, separated by
a carpet partition drawn across the raiddk-
of the tent and fastened to the three raiddle
posts. When the pasture near an encamp
ment is exhausted, the tents are taken down,
packed on caraels, and removed (Is, xxxviu,
12; Gen. x.xvi, 17, 22, 25), In choosing
places for encampment, Arabs prefer the
neighborhood of trees, for the sake of the
shiide and coolness which they afford (Gen
xviii. 4, 8).'
Te'rah, the father of Abram, Nahor,
and Haran, and through thera the ancestor
of the great farailies of the Israelites, Ish
maelites, Midianites, Moabites, and Am
monites (Gen. xi. 24-32). The account
given of him in the 0. T. narrative is very
brief. We learn from it siraplj' that he was
an idolater (Josh, xxiv, 2), that he dwelt
beyond the Euphrates in Ur of the Chal
dees (Gen, xi. 28), and that in the south
westerly raigration, which frora some un
explained cause he undertook in his old
age, he went with his son Abrara, liis
daughter-in-law Sarai, and his grandson
Lot, " to go into the land of Canaan, and
they carae unto H.aran, and dwelt there"
(Gen. xi. 31). And flually, "the diiys of
'Terah were two hundred and five years ;
and Terah died in- Haran" (Gen. xi. 32),
Ter'aphim, only in plural, images con
nected with magical rites. The derivation
of the name is obscure. In one case a
single statue seeiits to be intended by the
plural (1 Sara, xix. 13, 16. The teraphim,
translated " images " in A, V,, carried
away from Laban by Rachel, were regarded
by Laban as gods, and it would therefore
appear that they were used by those who
added eorrupt practices to the patriarchal
religion. Teraphim again are included
among Micah's iraages (Judg. xvii. 3-5,
xviii. 17, 18, 20). Teraphira were con
sulted for oracular answers by the Israel
ites (Zech. X. 2 ; corap. Judg. xviii. 5, 6 ;
1 Siira, XV. 22, 23, xix. 13, 16, LXX. ; and
2 K. xxiii. 24), and by the Babyloniiins, in
the case of Nebuchadnezzar (Bz, xxi. 19-
22). Te'resh, one of the two eunuchs whose
plot to assassinate Ahasuerus was discov
ered by Mordecai (Esth. U. 21, vi. 2). He
was hanged.
Ter'tius, probably a Roraan, was the
araanuensis of Paul in writing the Epistle
to the Romans (Rora. xvi. 22).
Terttll'l'as, "a certain orator" (Acts
xxiv. 1) who was retained by the High--
Priest and Sanhedrim to accuse the Apostle
Paul at Caesarea before the Roman Procu
rator Antonius Felix. He evidently be-

Testament

694

THEBES

longed to the class of professional orators.
We may infer that Tertullus was of Roman,
or at all events of Itali.an origin. The ex
ordium of his speech is designed to concil
iate the good will of the Procurator, and
]s accordingly overcharged with flattery.
There is a strange contrast between the
opening clause and the brief sumraary of
the . Procurator's adrainistration given by
Tacitus {Hist. v. 9). But the coinraenda-
tions of TertuUus were not .altogether un
founded, as Felix had really succeeded in
putting down several seditious raovements.
It is not very easy to determine whether
St. Luke has preserved the oration of Ter
tuUus entire. On the whole it seeras most
natural to conclude that tbe historian, who
was almost certainly an ear-witness, lUerely
gives an abstract of the speech, giving,
however, in full the most salient points
(ver. 5).
Testament, New, [New Testament ;
Bible,] Testament, Old. [Old Testament ;
Rible,] Tetrarch, properly the sovereign or
governor of the fourth part of a country,
(1,) Herod Antipas (Matt. xiv. 1 ; Luke
iii, 1, 19, ix, 7; Acts xiii. 1), who is com
monly distinguished as "Herod the te
trarch," although the title of "king" is
also assigned to him both by Matthew
(xiv. 9) and by Mark (vi. 14, 22, sqq.).
(3.) Herod Philip, who is said by Luke
(ui. 1) to have been " tetrarch of Ituraea,
.and of the region of Trachonitis." (3.)
Lysanias, who is said (Luke iii. 1) to have
been "tetrarch of Abilene." The title of
tetrarch was at this time probably applied
to petty tributary princes without any such
determinate meaning. But it appears from
Josephus that the tetrarchies of Antipas
and - Philip were regarded as consti
tuting each a fourth part of their father's
kingdom. We conclude that in these two
ea.ses, at least, the title was used in its
strict and literal sense
Thaddae'us, a name in Mark's cata
logue of the twelve 'Apostles (Mark iii.
18) in the great m.ajority of MSS, In
Matthew's catalogue (Matt, x, 8) Lebbaeus
is prob.ably the original reading. From a
comparison with the catalogue of St, Luke
(Luke vi, 15 ; Acts i, 13) it seeras scarcely
possible to doubt that the three naraes of
Judas, Lebbaeus, and Thaddaeus were
borne by one and the sarae person,
Tha'hash, son of Nahor by his concu
bine Reumah (Gon. xxU. 34).
Tha'mah. "The chUdren of Tha
raah " were a faraily of Nethinira who re
turned with Zerubbabel (Ezr, U, 53).
Tha'mar. Tamar 1 (Matt, i, 3),
Thank-offering, orPeaee-offering,
the properly eucharistic offering among the
Jews, in its theory i-esembling tlie Meat

offering, and therefore indicating that
the offerer was already reconciled to, and
in covenant with, God, Its ceremonial is
described in Lev- iu- The peace-offerings,
unlike other sacriflces, were not ordained
to be offered in flxed and regular course.
The only constantly recurring peace-offer
ing .appears to have been that of the two
firstling lambs at Pentecost (Lev, xxiu, 19).
The general principle of the peace-offer
ing seems to have been that it should be
entirely spontaneous, offered as occasion
should arise, from the feeling of the sacri
ficer hiraself (Lev. xix. 5). On the first
institution (Lev. vU. 11-17), peace-offer
ings are divided into " offerings of thanks
giving," and " vows or freewill-offerings ; "
of which latter class the offering by a
N.azarite, on the corapletion of his vow, is
the most remarkable (Num. vi. 14). 'We
find accordingly peace-offerings offered for
the people on a great scale at periods of
unusual solemnity or rejoicing. In two
cases only (Judg. xx, 36 ; 2 Sam. xxiv, 25)
peace-offerings are mentioned as offered
with burnt-offerings at a tirae of national
sorrow and fasting,
Thaira, Terah the father of Abraham
(Luke i'U, 34).
Thar'ra, Esth. xii, 1. A corrupt form
of Teresh,
Thar'shish, 1- In this more accurate
form the translators of the A. V, have
given in two passages (1 K, x. 22, xxii. 48)
the narae'clsewhere presented as Tarshish.
2, A Benjamite, one of the family of Bil
han and the house of Jediael (1 Chr, vii.
10 only).
Theatre. For the explanation of tho
Biblical allusions, two or three points only
require notice. 'The Greek term, like the
corresponding English term, denotes the
place where driiraatic performances are
exhibited, and also the scene itself or spec
tacle which is witnessed there. It occurs
in the first or local sense in Acts xix. 39.
It was in the theatre at Caesarea that Herod
Agrippa I, gave audience to the Tyrian
deputies, and was himself struck with death,
because he heard so gladly the impious ac-
eliiraations of the people (Acts xii, 31-23).
The other sense of the term " theatre " oc
curs in 1 Cor. iv. 9, where the A, V. ren
ders, " God hath set forth us the apostles
last, as it were appointed to death ; for we
are made a spedacle unto the world, and to
angels, and to men," Instead of " specta
cle," some might prefer the more energetic
Saxon, " gazing-stock," as in Tyndale,
Cranmer, and the Geneva version.
Thebes (A. V- No, the multiti'de ot
No, populous No), a chief city oi ancient
Egypt, long the capital of the upper coun
try, and the seat of the Diospolitan dynas
ties, tliat ruled over all Egypt at the era of
its highest splendor. The sacred name of

THEBES

695

THEOPHILUS

Thobes was P-umen, " the abode of Araon,"
which the Greeks reproduced in their Dios
polis, especially with the addition ihe Great.
No-Araon is the narae of Thebes in the
Hebrew Scriptures (Jer. xlvi. 35 ; Nah. iii.
8). Ezekiel uses No siraply to designate
the Egyptian seat of Araraon (Ez. xxx. 14,
16), [No-Amon,] The origin of the city
is lost in antiquity, Niebuhr is of opinion
that 'Thebes was rauch older than Meraphis,
and that, " after the centre of Egyptian
Ufe was transferred to Lower Egypt, Mera
phis acquired its greatness througli the ruin
of Thebes." But both cities date frora our
earliest authc ntic knowledge of Egyptian
history. The first allusion to Thebes in
classical literature is the farailiar passiige
of the Iliad (ix, 381-385): —"Egyptian
Thebes, where are vast treasures laid up in
the houses ; where are a hundred gates, and
frora each two hundred men go forth with
horses and chariots." In the 1st century
before Christ, Diodorus visited Thebes, and
he devotes several sections of his gen
eral work to its history and appearance.
Though he saw the city when it had sunk
to quite secondary importance, he pre
serves the tradition of its early grandeur —
its circuit of 140 stadia, tho size of its pub
lic ediflces, the magniflcence of its tera
ples, the number of its monuments, the
diraensions of its private houses, some of
thera four or flve stories high — all giving
it an air of grandeur and beauty surpassing
not only all other cities of Egypt, but of
the world. But the monuments of Thebes
are the raost reliable witnesses for the
ancient grandeur of the city. These are
found in alraost equal proportions upon
both sides of the river. The plan of the
city, as indicated by the principal monu
ments, was nearly quadrangular, measuring
two miles frora north to south, and four
from east to west. Its four great landmarks
were, Karnak and Luxor upon the eastern
or Arabian side, and Qoornah and Medee
net Haboo upon the western or Libyan
side. There aro indications that each of
these temples raay have been connected
with those facing it upon two sides by grand
drompi, lined with sphinxes and other
colossal flgures. Upon the western bank
there was alraost a continuous line of tem
ples aud public ediflces for a distance of
two mUes, frora Qoornah to Medeenet
Haboo; and Wilkinson conjectures that
from a point near the latter, perhaps in the
line of the colossi, the " Royal street" ran
down to the river, which was crossed by a
ferry terminating at Luxor on the eastern
side. Beginning at the northern extremity
on the western bank, the flrst conspicuous
ruins are those of the Menephtheion, a pal
ace-temple of the nineteenth dynasty, and
therefore belonging to the middle style of
Egyptian architecture. Nearly a mile south

ward from the Menephtheion aro the re
mains of the combined palace and temple
known since the days of Strabo as the Mcra-
noniura. Proceeding again towards the
south for about the sarae distance, we find
at Medeenet Haboo ruins upon a more
stupendous scale than at any other point
upon the western bank of 'Thebes. These
consist of a temple founded by Thothmes
I., which presents sorae of the grandest
effects of the old Egyptian architecture,
and its battle-scenes are a valuable contri
bution to the history of Rameses III. Be
hind this long range of temples and palaces
are the Libyan hills, which, for a distance
of flve miles, are excav.ated to the depth of
several hundred feet for sepulchral cham
bers. Some of these, in the number and
variety of their chambers, the finish of
their sculptures, and the beauty and fresh
ness of their frescoes, are among the most
reraarkable raonuraents of Egyptian gran
deur and skill. The eastern side of the
river is distinguished by the reraains of
Luxor and Karnak, the latter being of it
self a city of temples. The approach to
Karnak from the south is marked by a se
ries of majestic gateways and towers, which
were the appendages of later times to the
original structure- The temple properly
faces the river, i. e. towards the north-west.
The courts and propylaea connected with
this structure occupy a space nearly 1800
feet square, and the buildings represent
alraost every dynasty of Egypt, frora Sesor-
tasen I, to Ptolemy Euergetes I. Courts,
pylons, obelisks, statues, pillars, everything
pertaining to Karnak, are on the grandest
scale. The grandeur of Egypt is here in
its architecture, and alraost every pillar,
obelisk, and stone tells its historic legend
of her greatest monarchs. Ezekiel pro
claims the destruction of Thebes by the
arra of Babylon (Ez. xxx. 14-16). The
Persian invader corapleted the destruction
that the Babylonian had begun.
The'bez, a place raeraorable for the
death of the bravo Abimelech (Judg. ix.
50), was known to Eusebius and Jerorae, in
whose time it was situated " in the district
of Neapolis," 13 Roman miles therefrom,
on the road to Scythopolis, There it still
is, its name — Tubds — hardly changed,
Thel'asar, [Tel-assar,]
Theoph'.ilus, the person to whora St.
Luke inscribes his Gospel and the Acts of
the Apostles (Luke i, 3 ; Acts i. 1). Frora
the honorable epithet applied to him iu
Luke i, 3, it has been argued with much
probability that he was a person in high
oflacial position. Thus Theophylact con
jectures that he was a Roman governoi, or
a person of senatorial rank. Oeouraenius
tells us that he was a governor. Jacob
Hase conjectured that he was no other thaa
the celebrated Philo. Grotius also oonjec*

THESSALONIANS

696

THESSALONIANS

tures that he was a magistrate of Achaia
baptized by St, Luke, AU-that can be con
jectured with any degree of safety con
cerning hira, coraes to this, that he was a
Gentile of rank and consideration, who
came under the influence of St. Luke, or
under that of St. Paul, at Rorae, and was
converted to the Christian faith,
Thessalo'nians, First Epistle to
the, was. written by the Apostle Paul at
Corinth, a few months after he had founded
the Church at Thessalonica, at the close of
the year 53 or the beginning of 53. The
Epistles to the Thessalonians then (for the
second followed the first after no long inter
val) are the earliest of St. Paul's writings
— perhaps the earliest written records of
Christianity. It is interesting therefore to
compare the Thessalonian Epistles with
the liiter letters, and to note the points of
difference. These differences are mainlj'
threefold, (1,) In the general style of
these earlier letters there is greater simpli
city and less exubenrace of language. 'The
brevity of the openi.'.g salutation is an in
stance of this. The closing benediction is
correspondingly brief. And throughout the
Epistles there is rauch raore evenness of
style. (3.) 'The antagonism to St. Paul is
not the same. Here the opposition conies
frora Jews. A period of five years changes
tbe aspect of tbe controversy. The oppo
nents of St, Piiul arc then no longer Jews,
so much as -Judaizing Christians. It was
now urged that tliough the Gentiles may be
admitted to the Church of Christ, the only
door of admission is the Mosaic covenant-
rite of circumcision. The language of St.
^aul, speaking of the Jewish Christians in
this Epistle, shows that the opposition to
his teaching had not at this tirae assuraed
this second phase, (3,) Many of the dis
tinctive doctrines of Christianity were yet
not evolved and distinctly enunciated till
the needs of the Church drew thera out
into prominence at a later date. It has
often been ol served, for instance, that there
is in the Epistles to the 'Thessalonians no
mention of the characteristic contrast of
" faith and works ; " that the word " justifi
cation " does not once occur ; that the idea
of dying with Christ and living with Christ,
so frequent in St, Paul's later writings, is
absent in these. In the Epistles to the
Thessalonians, the Gospel preached|is that
of the coming of Christ, rather than of the
cross of Christ. There are many reasons
why the subject of the second advent should
occupy a larger space in the earliest stage
of the Apostolical teaching than afterwards.
The occasion of this Epistle was as foUows :
St. Paul had twice attempted to revisit
Thessalonica, and both tiraes had been dis
appointed. Thus prevented from seeing
them in person, he had sent Tiraothy to in-
fuire and report to him as to their condition

(iii. 1-5). Timothy returned with most
favorable tidings, reporting not only their
progress in Christian faith and practice,
but also their strong attachment to their old
teacher (Ui. 6-10), The First Epistle to
the Thessalonians is the outpouring of the
Apostle's gratitude on receiving this wel
come news. At the same time the report
of Timothy was not unmixed with alloy.
There were certiiin features in the condi
tion of the Thessalonian Church which
called for St, Paul's interference, and to
which he .addresses hiraself in hi-s letter.
(1.) The very intensity of their Christian
faith, dwelling too exclusively on the day of
tbe Lord's coming, had been attended with
evil consequences. On the other hand, i.
theoretical diflSculty had been felt. Certain
merabers of the Church had died, and there
was great anxiety lest they should be ex
cluded from any share in the glories of the
Lord's advent (iv. 13-18). (2.) The Thes
salonians needed consolation and encour
agement under persecution (ii. 14, iii. 2-4).
(3.) An unhealthy state of feeling with re
gard to spirittial gifts was manifesting itself
(v. 19, 20). (4.) There was the danger
of relapsing into their old heathen prof
ligacy (iv. 4-8). Yet notwithstanding all
these drawbacks, the condition of the
Thessalonian Church was highly satisfac
tory, and the most cordial relations existed
between St. Paul and his converts there.
This honorable distinction it shares with
the other great Church of Macedonia, that
of Philippi. — The Epistle is rather prac
tical than doctrinal. It was suggested
rather by personal feeling, than by any
urgent need, which might have forraed a
centre of unity, and irapressed a distinct
character on the whole. Under these cir
cumstances we need not expect to trace
unity of purpose, or a continuous argument,
and any analysis must be more or less artifi
cial. The body ofthe Epistle, however, may
conveniently be divided into two parts, the
former of which, extending over the first
three chapters, is chiefly taken up with a
retrospect of the Apostle's relation to liia
Thessalonian converts, and an explanation
of his present circurastances and feelings,
while the latter, coraprising the 4th and 5th
chapters, contains sorae seasonable exhor
tations. At the close of each f hese di
visions is a prayer, commencing with the
same words, "May God Himself," &e., and'
expres'sed in somewhat similar language.
The Epistle closes with personal injunc
tions and a benediction (v. 25-28). 'The
external evidence in favor of the genuine
ness of the First Epistle to the Thessalo
nians is chiefly negative, but this is impor
tant enough. There is no trace that itwas
ever disputed at any age or in any secnon
of the Church, or even by my individual,
till the present century, Ou the othei

THESSALONIANS

697

THESSAI.0NIAN3

hand, the allusions to it in writers before
the close of the 2d century .are confessedly
faint and-uncertain. It is more important
to observe that the Epistle was included iu
the old Latin and Syriac Versions, that it
is found in the Canon of the Muratorian
fragment, and that it was also contained in
that of Marcion. Towards the close of the
2d century frora Irenaeus downwards, we
find this Epistle directly quoted and as
cribed to St. Paul. The evidence derived
from tho character of the Epistle itself is
80 strong that it may fairly be called irre
sistible. It would be impossible to enter
into the question of style here, but the
reader may be referred to the Introduction
of Jowett, who has handled this subject
very fully and satisfactorily. An equally
strong arguraent may be drawn also from
the matter contained in the Epistle. In the
flrst place, the fineness and delicacy of
touch with which the Apostle's relations to-.
wards liis Thessalonian converts are drawn,
are quite beyond the reach of the clumsy
forgeries of the early Church. In the sec
ond place, the writer uses language which,
however it raay be explained, is certainly
colored by the antioipation of the speedy
advent of the Lord. Such a position would
be an anachronism in a writer of the 2d
century. Thessalo'nians, Second Epistle
to the, appears to have been written from
Corinth not very long-after the First, for
Silvanus and Timotheus were still with St.
Paul (i. 1), In the former letter we saw
chiefly the outpouring of strong personal
affection, occasioned by the renewal of the
Apostle's intercourse with the Thessalo
nians, and the doctrinal and hortatory por
tions are there subordinate. In the Second
Epistle, on the other hand, his leading mo
tive seems to have been the desire of cor
recting errors in the Church of 'Thessalo
nica. We notice two points especially
which call for his rebuke. First, it seems
that the anxious expectation of the Lord's
advent, instead of subsiding, had giiined
ground since the writing of the First Epis
tle. Secondly, the Apostle had also a per
sonal ground of complaint. His aiithority
was not denied by any, but it was tarapered
with, and an unauthcized use was made
of his name. Designing men might rai.?-
represent his teaching in two ways, either
by suppressing what he actually had writ
ten or Siiid, or by forging letters and in
other ways representing hira as teaching
what he had not taught. There are two
passages which allude to these raisrepre-
sentations of his teaching. In the flrst of
these he tells thera, in vague language,
" not to be troubled either by spirit or by
word or by letter, as coraing from us, as if
the day of the Lord were at hand " (u. 2,
3). In the second passage at the close of

the Epistle he says, " The salutation of
Paul with mine own hand, which is a toker
in every Epistle : so I write " (iii, 17) —
evidently a precaution against forgery. It
wUl be seen, then, that the teaching of the
Second Epistle is corrective of, or r.ather
supplemental to, that of the First, and
therefore presupposes it. This Epistle, in
the range of subject as well as in style and
general character, closely resembles the
First; and the remarks made on that Epis
tie apply for the most part equally well to
this. The structure also is'somewhat sim
ilar, the main body of the Epistle being
divided into two parts iu the s.ame w.ay, and
each part closing with a prayer (ii. 16, 17,
iii, 16). The Epistle ends with a special
direction and benediction (iii, 17, 18). The
external, evidence in favor of the Second
Episth ^gomewhat more definite than that
which eau be brought in favor of the First.
It seemsto be referred to in tone or two
passages of Polycarp ; and the language in
which Justin Martyr speaks of the Man of
Sin is so similar that it can scarcely be in
dependent of this Epistle. The Second
Epistle, like the First, is found in the
canons of the Syriac and Old L.atin "Ver
sions, and in those of the Muratorian frag
ment and of the heretic Marcion ; is quoted
expressly and by name by Irenaeus and
others at the close of the second century,
and was univers.ally received by the
Church. The internal character of the
Epistle too, as in the forraer case, bears the
strongest testiraony to its Pauline origin.
Its genuineness, in fact, was never ques
tioned until the beginning of the present
century. The apocalyptic passage (ii. 1-
12) is the great ¦ stumbling-block. It has
been objected to, either as alluding to
events subsequent to St. Piiul's death, the
Neronian persecution for instance ; or as
betraying reUgious views derived from the
Montanism of the second century; or last
ly, as contradicting St. Paul's anticipations
expressed elsewhere, especially in the First
Epistle, of the near approach of the Lord's
aclvent. The most striking feature in the
Epistle is this apocalyptic passage, an
nouncing the revelation of the " Man of
Sin" (ii. 1-12), and it wUl not be irrele
vant to investigate its meaning. (I.) The
passage speaks of a great apostasy which
is to usher in the advent of Christ, the
great judgment. There are three promi
nent figures in the picture, Christ, Anti
christ, and the Restrainer. The "mystery
of lawlessness " is already at work. At
present it is checked by the Restrainer;
but the check will be reraoved, and then it
will break out in all its violence. Theu
Christ will appear. (II-) Many differ
ent explanations have been offered of
this passage. By one class of interpreters
it has been referred to circumstances wliich

THESSALONIANS

698

THESSALONICA

passed within the circle of the Apostle's
own experience. Others, again, have seen
in it the prediction of a crisis yet to he re
alized, the end of all things. The former
of these, the Praoterists, have identifled
the "Man of Sin "with divers historical
characters — with CaUgula, Nero, Titus,
Simon Magus, Simon son of Giora, the
high-priest Ananias, &c,, and have sought
for an historical counterpart to the Re
strainer in like raanner. The latter, the
Futurists, have also given various accounts
of the Antichrist, the mysterious power of
evil which is already working. To Protes
tants, for instance, it is the Papacy; to the
Greek Church, Mohanmiedaniim. (III.)
Now iu arbitrating between tho Praeterists
and tbe Futurists, we are led by the analo
gy of other prophetic announceraents, as
well as by the language of the passage it
self, to tak? a middle course. Neither is
wholly right, and yet both aro to a certain
extent right. It is the special characteris
tic of prophecy to speak of the distant fu
ture through the present and iraraediate.
Following the analogy of the older proph
ets and of our Lord himself, we may agree
with the Praeterists that St, Paul is refer
ring to events which fell under his own
cognizance; for indeed the Restrainer is
said to be restraining now, and tbe mystery
of iniquity to be already working ; while at
the sarae tirae we may accept the Futurist
view, that the Apostle is describing the end
of all things, and th.at therefore the proph
ecy has not yet received its most striking
and complete fulfilment, (IV,) If this
view be correct, it remains to inquire what
particular adversary of the Gospel, and
what particul.ar restraining influence, St.
Paul miiy have had in view. But, before
attempting to approximate to an explana
tion, we may clear the way by laying down
two rules. First. The imagery of the
passage must be interpreted mainly by it
self, and by the circumstances of the time.
The great adversary in the Revelation
seeras to be the Roraan power; but it may
be widely different here. There were even
in the Apostolic age "many Antichrists;"
and we cannot be sure that the Antichrist
present to the mind of St. Paul was the
same with the Antichrist contemplated by
St. John. Secondly. In all figurative pas
sages it is arbitrary to assume that a person
is denoted where we find a personification.
Thus the " Man of Sin " here need not
be an individual man ; it raay be a body
of men, or a power, a spiritual influence.
(V.) Now we find that the chief opposi
tion to the Gospel, and especially to St.
Paul's preaching at this time, arose from
the Jews. It seems on the whole probable
that the Antichrist is represented especial
ly by Judaism. Corresponding to this

view of the Antichrist, we shall probablj
be correct in regarding the Roman Erapire
as the restraining power. It was to Ro
man justice and Roman magistrates that
the Apostle had recourse at this time to
shield hira frora the enraity of the Jews,
and to check their violence. It was only
at a later date, under Nero, that Rorae be
carae the antagonist of Christendom, and.
then she also in turn was fitly portrayed hy
St. John as the type of Antichrist.
Thessaloni'ca. The original uiirae
of this city was Therraa ; and that part of
the Macedonian shore on which it was sit
uated retained through the Roman period
the designation of the Therraaic Gulf.
Cassander the son of Antipater rebuUt and
enlarged Therraa, and naraed it after his
wife 'Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander
the Great. The name ever since, under
various slight raodiflcations, has been con
tinuous, and the city itself has never ceased
to be eminent. Saloniki is still the most
important town of European Turkey, next
after Constantinople. Strabo in the first
century speaks of Thessalonica as the
most populous city in Macedonia. Thus
we are brought to St. Paul's visit (with
Silas and Timothy) during his second mis
sionary journey, and to the introduction of
Christianity into Thessalonica. Three cir
cumstances must here be mentioned, wliich
illustrate in an iraportant manner this visit
and this journey as weU as the two Epistles
to the Thessalonians. (1.) This was the
chief station on the groat Roman Road
called the Via Egnatia, wliich connected
Rome with the whole region to the north
of the Aegean Sea. (2.) Placed as it was
on this great Road, and in connection with
other importiint Roman ways, Thessalonica
was an invaluable centre for tho spread of
the Gospel. In fact it was nearly, if not
quite, on a level with Corinth and Ephesus
in its share of the comraerce of the Le
vant- (8.) The circumstance noted in Acts
xvii. 1, that here was the synagogue of the
Jews in this part of Macedonia, had evident
ly rauch to do with the Apostle's plans,
and also doubtless with his success. Trade
would inevitably bring Jews to Thessaloni
ca : and it is remarkable that, ever since,
they have had a prominent place in the an
nals of the city. The first scene of the
Apostle's work at Thessalonica was the
synagogue (Acts xiU. 2, 3), It is stated
that the ministrations araong the Jews con
tinued for three weeks (ver. 2). Not that
we are obliged to limit to this time the
whole stay of the Apostle at Thessalonica.
A fiourishing Church was certainly formed
there ; and the Epistles show thatits elements
were much more GentUe than Jewish. The
narrative in the Acts affords a singularly
accurate Ulustration of the poUtical cousti'

THEUDAS

699

THOMAS

tution of Thessalonica. Not only is the
demus mentioned (Acts xvii. 5) in harrao
ny with what has been above said of its be
ing a " free city," but the pecuUar title pol-
iiarchs (ib. 6), of the chief magistrates.
This term occurs in no other writing ; but
it may be read to this day conspicuously on
an arch of the early Imperial times, which
spans the main street of the city. The
arch just raentioned (called tho Vardir
gate) is at the western extremity of the
town. At its eastern extremity is another
Koman arch of later date, and probably
commemorating sorae victory of Constan
tine. The main street, which both these
arches cross, and which intersects the city
from east to west, is undoubtedly the line
ofthe Via Egnatia. — A word must be said,
in conclusion, on the later ecclesiastical
history of Thessalonica. For during sev
eral centuries this city was the bulwark,
not siraply of the later Greek Empire, but
of Oriental Christendom, and w.as largely
instrumental in the conversion of the Sla
vonians and Bulgarians. Thus it received
the design.ation of "the Orthodox City;"
and its struggles are very prominent iu the
writings of the Byzantine historians.
Theu'das, the name of an insurgent
mentioned in Gamaliel's speech before the
Jewish council (Acts v. 35-39) at the tirae
ofthe arraignment of the Apostles. He ap
peared, according to Luke's account, at the
head of about four hundred men. Josephus
speidis of a Theudas who played a sirailar
part in the tirae of Claudius, about a. d. 44,
i. e. sorae ten or twelve years at least later
than the delivery of Garaaliel's speech ; and
since Luke places his Theudas, in the or
der of time, before Judas the Galilean, who
made his appearance soon after the de
thronement of Archelaus, i. e. A. d. 6 or 7,
the Theudas mentioned by St. Luke must
be a different person from the one spoken
of by Josephus. The former was probably
one of the insurrectionary chiefs or fanatics
by whora the land was overrun in the last
year of Herod's reign.
Thie'ves, The t'wro. The raen who
under this name appear in the history of
the crucifixion were robbers rather than
thieves, belonging to the lawless bands by
wluch Palestine was at that time and after
wards infested. Against these brigands
every Roman procurator had to wage con
tinual war: It was necessary to use an
armed police to encounter them (Luke
xxu. 52). Of the previous history of the
two who suffered on Golgotha we know
nothing. They had been tried and con
demned, and were waiting their execution
before our Lord was accused. It is prob
able enough, as the death of Barabbas was
clearly expected at the same time, that they
had taken part in his insurrection. They
bad expected to die with Jesus Barabbas.

They find themselves with one who bor*
the same nane, but who was described in
the superscription on his cross as Jesus of
Nazareth. They could hardly fail to havo
heard soraething of his farae as a prophet,
of his triumphal entry as a king. 'They
catch at first the prevailing tone of scorn.
But over one of them there came a change.
He looked back upon his past Ufe, and saw
an infinite evU. He looked to the man
dying on the cross beside bim, and saw
an infinite corapassion. There indeed was
one unlike all other "kings of tbe Jews "
whora the robber had ever known. Such
a one raust .he all that He had clairaed
to be. 'To he forgotten by that king seems
to him now the most terrible of all pun
ishments ; to tiike part in the triumph of
His return, the most blessed of all hopes.
'The yearning prayer was answered, not
in the letter, but in the spirit. We can
not wonder that a history of such marvel
lous interest should at all times liiive fixed
itself on men's minds, and led thera to
speculate and ask questions which we
have no data to answer. The siraplest and
truest way of looking at it has been that of
those who have seen in the " dying thief"
the first great typical instance that " a man
is justified by faith without the deeds of the
law." Other conjectures turn more on the
circurastances ofthe history. Bengel finds
in the Lord's words to him an indication
that the penitent thief was a Gentile, the
impenitent a Jew, and that thus tbe scene
on Calvary was typical of the position of
the two Churches. Stier reads in the words
of reproof the language of one who had all
along listened with grief and horror to the
revilings of the multitude, the burst of an
indignation previously suppressed. The
Apocryphal Gospels, as usual, do their
best to lower the divine history to the level
of a legend.
Thim'nathah, a town in the allotment
of Dan (Josh. xix. 43 only). It is named
between Elon and Ekron. The name is
the same as that of the residence of Sam
son's wife.
Thistle. [Thoens and Thistles.]
Thom'as, one of the Apostles. Ac
cording to Eusebius, his real name was
Judas. This raay have been a mere con
fusion with Thaddeus, who is mentioned in
the extract. But it may also be that Thomas
was a surname. The word means " a twin ; "
and so it is translated in John xi, 16, xxi. 2
{Didymus). Out of this name has grown
the tradition that he had a twin-sister,
Lydia, or that he was a twin-brother of our
Lord ; which last, again, would confirm his
identification with Judas (comp. Matt. xUi.
55) . He is said to have been born at Antioch.
In the catalogue ofthe Apostles he is coupled
with Matthew in Matt. x. 3 ; Mark iii. 18 ;
Luke vi. 15 ; and with PhiUp in Acts i. 13.

THOMAS

700

THRESHOLDS

All that we know of hira is derived frora the
Gospel of St. John; and this amounts to
three traits, which, however, so exactly
agree together, that, slight as they are, they
place his character before us with a precis
ion which belongs to no other of the twelve
Apostles, except Peter, John, and Judas
Iscariot. This character is that of a man
slow to beUeve, seeing all the difficulties of
a case, subject to despondency, viewing
things on the darker side, and yet full of
ardent love of his Master. The first trait
is his speech when our Lord determined to
face the dangers that awaited Hira in Judaea
oh his journey to Bethany. Thoraas said
to his fellow-disciples, " Let us also go,
that we raay die with him" (John xi. 16).
The second was his speech during the Last
Supper, " Thomas saith unto Him, Lord,
we know not whither thou goest, and how
can we know the way?" (xiv, 5). It was
the prosaic, incredulous doubt as to moving
a step in the unseen future, and yet an
eager inquiry to know how this step was to
be taken. 'The third was after the Resur
rection. He was absent — possibly by ac
cident, perhaps characteristically — from
the first assembly when Jesus had appeared.
The others told him what they had seen.
He broke forth into an exclamation, the
terms of which convey to us at once the
vehemence of his doubt, and at the same
time the vivid picture that his mind re
tained of his Master's form as he had last
seen Him lifeless on the cross (John xx.
25). On the eighth day he was with them
at theii gathering, perhaps in expectation
of a recurrence of the visit of the previous
week; and Jesus stood amongst thera. He
uttered the same salutation, " Peace be unto
you ; " and then turning to Thoraas, as if
this had been the special object of His ap
pearance, uttered the words which convey
as strongly the sense of condemnation and
tender reproof as those of Thomas had
shown the sense of hesitation and doubt.
The effect on Thoraas is iraraedi.ate The
conviction produced by the reraoval of his
doubt became deeper and stronger than that
of any of the other Apostles. The words
in which he expressed his belief contain a
far higher assertion of his Master's divine
nature than' is contained in any other ex
pression u.'icd by Apostolic lips, " My Lord,
and ray God," The answer of our Lord
suras up the moral of the whole narriitive :
" Because thou hast seen rae, thou hast be
lieved : blessed are they that have not seen
me, and yet have believed" (xx. 29). In
the N. T. we hear of 'Thomas only twice
again, once on the Sea of GaUlee with the
seven disciples, where ho is ranked next
after Peter (John xxi, 2), and again in thfr
assemblage of the Apostles after the Ascen
sion (Acts i, 13), The earlier traditions,
(IS beUeved in the 4th century, represent

him as preaching in Parthia or Persia, and
as finaUy buried at Edessa. Thelater tra
ditions carry him farther east. His mar
tyrdora (whether in Persia or India) is said
to have been occasioned by a lance, and is
commemorated by the Latin Church on
Dec. 21, by the Greek Church on Oct. 6,
and by the Indians on July 1-
Thorns and Thistles. There appear to
be eighteen or twenty Hebrew words which
point to different kinds of prickly or thorny
shrubs. These words are variously ren
dered in the A. V. by "thorns," "briers,"
" thistles," &c. It were a hopeless task to
enter into a discussion of these numerous
Hebrew terms ; but it is necessary to make
a few remarks upon the " crown of thorns "
{aiiijiavog ii azai-fltui'. Matt, xxvii, 29), whicli
was put in derision upon our Lord's head
before his crucifixion. The Rhamnus, or
Spina Christi, although abundant in the
neighborhood of Jerusalem, cannot be the
plant intended, because its thorns are so
strong and large that it could not have been
woven into a wreath. The large-leaved
acanthus (bear's-foot) is totally unsuritedfor
the purpose. Had the acacia been intended,
as some suppose, the phrase would have
been »S axiivfli;?. Obviously sorae small,
flexile, thorny shrub is meant; perh.aps cap-
pares spinosae. Hasselquist {Travels, p.
260) says that the thorn used was the
Arabian Nabk. " It was very suitable for
their purpose, as it has many sharp thorns,
which inflict painful wounds ; and its flexi
ble, pliant, and round branches might easily
be plaited in the form of a crown." It also
reserables the rich dark green of the tri-
uraphal ivy-wreath, which would give addi
tion.al pungency to its ironical purpose.
Three Taverns, a station on the Ap
pian Road, along which St. Paul travelled
frora Puteoli to Rorae (Acts xxviii. 15).
The distances, reckoning southwards from
Rorae, are given as follows in the Antonine
Itinerary, " to Aricia, 10 miles ; to Three
Taverns, 17 miles; to Appii Forum, 10
miles ; " and, coraparing this with what is
observed still along the line of road, we
have uo difficulty in coming to the conclu
sion that "Three Taverns" was near the
modern Oisterna. Just at this point a road
came in from Antium on the coast. There
is m doubt that " Three Taverns " was a
frequent raeeting-place of travellers.
Threshing, [Agriculture.]
Threshold. Of the two words so ren
dered in A, v., one, miphihdn, seeras to
raean soraetiraes a projecting beam or cor
bel (Ez, ix. 3, x. 4, 18).
Thresholds, The. This word, Aswp-
pi, appears to be inaccurately rendered in
Neh. xii. 25, though its real force has per
haps not yet been discovered. The " house
of the Asuppim," or simply " the Asuppim,"
1 is mentioned in I Chr. xxvi. 15, 1 7, as B

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, ^

i

t;

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' r /:g

THRONE

701

TIBERIAS

part, probably a gate, of the enclosure of
the " house of Jehovah," apparently at its
S, W. corner. The allusion in Neh. xu, 25
is undoi'.btedly to the sarae place, [Gate,]
Throne. The Hebrew word, so trans
lated, applies to any elevated seat occupied
by a person in authority, whether a high-
priest (1 Sara, i, 9), a judge (Ps, cxxii, 5),
or a military chief (Jer, i. 15). The use of
a chair in a country where the usual pos
tures were squatting and reclining, was at
all times regarded as a symbol of dignity
(2 K. iv. 10; Prov, ix. 14). In order to
specify a throne in our sense of the term,
it was necessary to add to the word the
notion of royalty ; hence the frequent oc
currence of such expressions as " throne
of the kingdom " (Deut, xvU. 18 ; 1 K. i.
46; 2 Chr. vii. 18). 'The characteristic
' feature in the royal throne was its eleva
tion : Solomon's throne was approached by
six steps (1 K, X, 19 ; 2 Chr. ix. 18) ; and
Jehovah's throne is described as "high and
Ufted up" (Is. vi. 1). The rnaterials and
workmanship were costly. It was furnished

AsayriaU-Throne, or Chair of State, (Layard,)
with arms or " stays." The steps were also
lined with pairs of lions. As to the form of
chair, we are only informed in 1 K, x, 19
that " the top was round behind," The
king & .c on his throne on state occasions.
At such times he appeared in his royal
robes, 'The throne was the symbol of su
preme power and dignity (Gen, xii. 40).
Sirailarly, " to sit upon the throne," im
plied the exercise of regal power (Deut.
xvii, 18; 1 K- xvi. 11).
Thum'mim. [Urim and Thummim,]
Thunder is hardly ever heard in Pales
tine from the middle of AprU to the raiddle
of September. Hence it was selected by
Samuel as a striking expression of the Di-
vin"? displeasure towards the Israelites ()

Sam, xii, 17), Rain in harvest was deemed
as extraordinary as snow in summer (Prov.
xxvi. 1), and Jerome asserts that he had
never witnessed it in the latter part of June,
or in July {Comm. on Ara, iv. 7), In the
iraaginative philosophy of the Hebrews,
thunder was regarded as the voice of Jeho
vah (Job XXXVU, 2, 4, 5, xl. 9 ; Ps. xviu.
13, xxix. 3-9; Is. xxx. 30, 3l3, who dwelt
behind the thunder-cloud (Ps. Ixxxi. 7),
Thimder was, to the mind of the Jew,
the symbol of Divine power (Ps. xxix. 3,
&c,), and vengeance (1 Sam, ii, 10; 2 Sam.
xxii. 14).
Thyati'ra, a city on the Lycus, founded
by Seleucus Nicator, lay to the left of the
road frora Pergamus to Sardis, on the very
conflnes of Mysia and Ionia, so as to be
soraetiraes reckoned within the one, and
soraetiraes within the other. Dyeing ap
parently forraed an iraportant part of the
industrial activity of Thyatira, as it did of
that of Colossae and Laodicea (Acts xvi.
14). The principal deity, of the city was
Apollo ; but there was another superstition,
of an extreraely curious nature, which seems
to have been brought thither by some of
the corrupted Jews of the dispersed tribes.
A fane stood outside the walls, dedicated to
Sambatha — the narae of the sibyl who is
sometimes called Chaldaean, sometimes
Jewish, soraetiraes Persian — in the raidst
of an enclosure designated " the Chiildae-
an's court." This seeras to lend an illus
tration to the obscure passage in Rev, ii,
20, 21, which some interpret of the wife of
the bishop. Now there is evidence to show
that in Thyatira there was a great amalga
mation of races. If the sibyl Sarabatha
was really a Jewess, lending her aid to the
amalgamation of different religions, and
not discountenanced by the authorities of
the Judaeo-Christian Church at Thyatira,
both the censure and its qualification be
come easy of explanation,
Thyine 'Wood occurs in Rev. xviii. 12,
where the raargin has "sweet" (wood).
There can be little doubt that the wood here
spoken of is that of the Thuya articulaia,
Desfont,, the Callitris quadrivalvis of pres
ent botanists. This tree was much prized by
the ancient Greeks and Roraans, on account
of the beauty of its wood for various orna
mental purposes. By the Romans tho tree
was called citrus, the wood citrum. It is
a native of Barbary, and grows to the
height of 15 to 25 feet.
Tibe'rias, a city in the time of Christ,
on the Sea of GalUee ; first mentioned in
the New Testaraent (Johnvi. 1,23, xxi. 1),
and then by Josephus, who states that it was
built by Herod Antipas, iuid was named by
hira in honor of the eraperor TUierius. It
was probably a now town, and not a re
stored or enlarged one raerely ; for " Rak-
kath " (Josh xix. 35), which is said in the

TIBERIAS

702

TIGLATH-PILESER

Talmud to have occupied the sarae position,
lay in the tribe of NaphtaU, whereas Tibe
rias appe.ars to have been within the limits
of Zebulun (Matt. iv. 13). Tiberias was
the capital of GalUee from the time of its
origin until the reign of Herod Agrippa II.,
who changed the seat of power back again
to Sepphoris, where it had been before the
founding of the new city. Many of the
inhabitants were Greeks and Romans, and
foreign customs prevailed there to such an
extent as to give offence to the stricter
Jews. The ancient name has survived in
that of the modern Tubarteh, which occu
pies the original site. Near Tubarieh,
about a mile farther south along the shore,
are tho celebrated warra baths, which the
Roraan natunUists reckoned among the
greatest known curiosities of the world. It
is remarkable that the Gospels give us no
inforraation, that the Saviour, who spent
so rauch of his public life in G.alUee, ever
visited Tiberi.as, Tiberias has an interest
ing history, apart from its strictly Biblical
associations. It bore a conspicuous part
in the wars between the Jews and the
Roraans. The Sanhedrim, subsequently to
the fall of Jerusalem, .after a temporary so
journ at Jamnia and Sepphoris, became
fixed there about the middle of the second
century. Celebrated schools of Jewish
learning fiourished there through a succes
sion of several centuries. 'The Mishna was
compil ed at this place by the great Rabbi
Judah Hakkodesli (a. d. 190). It has been
possessed successively by Roraans, Per
sians, Arabs, and Turks ; and contains now,
under the Turkish rule, a mixed population
of Mohamraedans, Jews, and Christians,
variously estimated at from two to four
thousand. Tibe'rias, The Sea of (John xxi. 1).
IGennesaret, Sea or.]
Tibe'rius (in full, Tiberius Claudius
Nero), the 2d Roraan eraperor, successor of
Augustus, who began to reign a. d. 14, and
reigned until a, u, 37. He was the son of Ti
berius Claudius Nero and Livia, and hence
a step-son of Augustus. He was born at
Rorae on the 16th of November, b. c. 45, He
became emperor in his 55th year, after hav
ing distinguished hiraself as a commander in
various wars, .and h.aving evinced talents
of a high order as an orator, and an admin
istrator of civil affairs. He even gained
the reputation of possessing the sterner
virtues of the Roraan character, and* was
regarded as entirely worthy of the iraperial
honors to which his birth and supposed
personal raerits at length opened the w.ay.
Yet, on being raised to the supreme power,
he suddenly became, or showed himself to
be, a very different man. His subsequent
life was one of inactivity, sloth, and self-
indulgence. He was despotic in his gov
ernment, cruel and vindictive in his dispo

sition. Tiberius died, a. d. 87, at the aye
of 78, after a reign of 23 years. Our
Saviour was put to death in the reign of
Tiberius. .
Tita'hath, a city of Hadadezer, king
of Zobah (1 Chr. xviU. 8), which in 2 Sam.
viii, 8 is called Betah. Its exact position is
unknown. Tib'ni- After Zimri had burnt hiraself
in his palace, there was a division in the
northern kingdora, half of the people fol
lowing Tibni the son of Ginath, and half
following Orari (1 K. xvi, 21, 22). Omri
was the choice of the array. Tibni was
probably put forward by the people of Tir
zah, which w.as then besieged by Omri and
his host. The struggle between the con
tending factions lasted four years (comp. 1
K, xvi, 15, 23).
Ti'dal is mentioned only in Geri, xiv, 1,
9, He is called " king of nations," from
which we may conclude that he was a chief
over various nomadic tribes.
Tig'lath-pile'ser. In 1 Chr. v. 26,
and again in 2 Chr. xxviii. 20, the narae of
this king is written " Tilgath-pilneser ; "
but in this form there is a double corrup
tion. The native word reads as Tigulti-
pal-tsira, for which the Tiglath-Pil-eser of
2 Kings is a fair equivalent. Tiglath-Pileser
is the second Assyrian king mentioned in
Scripture as having come into contact with
the Israelites. He attacked Samaria in the
reign of Pekah, probably because Pekah
withheld his tribute, and, having entered his
territories, he " took Ijon, and Abel-beth-
maachah, and Janoah, and Kedesh, and
Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, and all the
land of Naphtali, and carried thera captive
to Assyria" (2 K. xv. 29). The date of
this invasion cannot be fixed. After his
first expedition, a close league was forraed
between Rezin, king of Syria, and Pekah,
having for its special object the humiliation
of Judah. At fii-st great successes were
gained by Pekah and liis confederate (2 K.
XV. 37 ; 2 Chr. xxviii, 6-8) ; but, on their
proceeding to attack Jerusalem itself, Ahaz
applied to Assyria for assistance, and Tig
lath-Pileser, consenting to aid him, again
appeared at the head of an army in these
regions. He first marched, naturally,
against Damascus, which he took (2 K.
xvi,_9), r.azing it to the ground, and kiUing
Rezin, the D.amascene monarch. After
this, probably, he proceeded to chastise
Pekiih, whose country he entered on the
north-east, where it bordered upon " Syria
of Daniiiscus," Here he overran the whole
district to the east of Jordan, carrying into
captivity " the Reubenites, the Gadites,
and the half tribe of Manasseh " (1 Chr. v.
26). Before returning into his own land,
Tiglath-Pileser had an interview with Ahai
at Daraascus (2 K. xvi. 10), This is aU
that Siripture teUs us of Tiglath-PUeser.

TIGRIS

703

TIMBREL

He appears to have succeeded Pul, and to
have been succeeded by Shalmaneser ; to
have been contemporary with Rezin, Pekah,
and Aliiiz ; and therefore to have ruled
Assyria during the latter half of the eighth
century before our era. From his own
inscriptions we learn that his reign lasted
ai least seventeen years ; that, besides war
ring in Syria and Samaria, he attacked
Babylonia, Media, Armenia, and the inde
pendent tribes in the upper regions of
Mesopotamia; thus, like the other great
Assyrian monarchs, warring along the
whole frontier of the empire ; and finally,
that he was (probably) not a legitimate
prince, but a usurper and tho founder of
a dynasty. The authority of Berosus and
Herodotus, corabined with the raonuracntal
indications, justifies us in concluding that
the founder of the Lower Dynasty or Era
pire, the first raonarch of the New King
dom, was the Tiglath-Pileser of Scripture.
He reigned certainly from e. o, 747 to b. c.
730, and possibly a few years longer, being
succeeded by Shalmaneser at least as early
as B. c, 725, Tiglath-Pileser 's wars do upt,
generally, appear to have been of rauch
importance. No palace or great building
can be ascribed to this king. His slabs,
which are tolerably nuraerous, show that
he must have built or adorned a residence
at Calah {Nimrud), where they were
found.

Tiglath-pileser.

Ti'gru} is used by the LXX. as the Greek
equivalent of the Hebrew Hiddekel ; and
occurs also in several of the apocryphal
books, as in Tobit (vi. 1), Judith (i. 6),
and Ecclesiasticus (xxiv. 25), The Tigris,
Uketfie Euphrates, rises from two princi
pal sources in the Armenian mountains,
and flows into the Euphrates. Its length,

exclusive of raeanders, is reckoned at 1146
railes. It receives, along its middle and
lower course, no fewer than five iraportant
tributaries. These are the liver of Zakko
or Eastern Khabour, the Great Zab {Zab
Ala), the Lesser Zab {Zab Asfal), the Ad-
hem, and the Diyaleh or ancient Gyndes.
All these rivers flow from the high range
of Zagros, We flnd but Uttle mention of
the Tigris in Scripture, It appears indeed
under the name of Hiddekel, araong the
rivers of Eden (Gen, U, 14), and is there
correctly described as "running eastward
to Assyria." But after this we hear no
more of it, if we except one doubtful allu
sion in Nahum (ii. 6), until the Captivity,
when it becomes well known to the prophet
Daniel. With him it is " the Great River,"
The Tigris, in its upper course, anciently
ran through Arraenia and Assyria, Lower
down, from about the point where it enters
on the alluvial plain, it separated Biibylonia
from Susiana, In tho wars between tbe
Romans and the Parthians, we flnd it con
stituting, for a short time (from a, d, 114
to A, D, 117), the boundary line between
these two empires,
Tik'vah. 1. The father of Shallum the
husband of the prophetess Huldah (2 K.
xxii. 14). 2. The father of Jahaziah (Ezr.
X. 15),
Tik'vath (properly Tdkihaih or Tok-
hath), Tikvah the father of Shallum (2
Chr, xxxiv, 23),
Tile. For general inforraation on the
subject, see the articles Brick, Potteev,
Se.al, The expression in the A, V, ren
dering of Luke V, 19, " through the tiling"
has given rauch trouble to expositors 1.
Terrace-roofs, if constructed iraproperly,
or at the wrong season of the year, are apt
to crack, and to become so saturated with
rain as to be easily penetrable. May not
the roof of the house in which our Lord
performed his miracle, have been in this
condition? 2. Or did not St, Luke, a na
tive, probably, of Greek Antioch, use the
expression " tiles," as the form of roof
which was most'familiiir to hiraself and to
his Greek readers, without reference to the
¦particular material of the roof in question ?
Til'gath-pilne'ser, a variation, and
probably a corruption, of the name Tig
lath-pileser (1 Chr. V. 6, 26; 2 Chr.
xxvui. 20).
Ti'lon, one of the four sons of Shimon,
whose family is reckoned in the genealogies
of Judah (1 Chr, iv, 30).
Timae'us, the father of the bUnd man,
Bartimaeus (Mark x, 46),
Timbrel, Tabret (Heb. tdph). In
old English tabor was used for any drum.
Tabouret and tabourine are diminutives
of tabor, and denote the instrument now
known as the tambourine. Tabret is a
contraction of tabourd. The Heb. idph is

TIMNA

704

TIMOTHY

undoubtedly the instruraent described by
travellers as the duff or diff of the Arabs.
It was used in very early- tiraes by the
Syriiins of Padan-aram at their merry-
raakings (Gen. xxxi. 27). It was played
principally by woraen (Ex, xv, 20; Judg.
xi, 34; 1 Sam, xvui, 6; Ps, IxviU. 25) as
an accompan.f.ient to the song and dance
(corap, Jud. iu. 7), and appears to have
been worn by them as .an ornament (Jer.
xxxi. 4). The diff of the Ariibs is described
by RusseU as " a hoop (sometimes vvith
pieces of br.ass fixed in it to make a jin
gling) over which a piece of parchment is
dintended. It is beaten with the fingers,
and is the true tympanum of the ancients."
In Barbarv it is called tar.
Tim'na, Tim'nah. I. A concubine
of Eliphaz son of Esau, and mother of
Amalek (Gen. xxxvi. 12) : it raay be pre
sumed that she vi'as the sarae as Tirana,
Bi.-5tor of Lotan (ver. 22, and 1 Chr. i. 39).
2. .4 duke, or phylarch, of Edora in the
last list in Gen. xxxvi. 40-43 (1 Chr. i. 51-
64). Timnah was probably the name of
a place or a district. (See the following
article.) Tim'nah. 1. A place which formed
one of tbe landm.arks on the north boun
dary of the allotment of Judah (Josh, xv,
10), It is probably identical with the
Thimnathah of Josh, xix, 43, and that
again with the Timnath, or, more accu
rately, Tiranathah, of Sarason (Judg, xiv,
1, 2, 5), and the Thamnatha of the Macca
bees, The raodern representative of all
these various forras of the sarae n.arae is
probably Tibneh, a village about two raUes
west of Ain Shems (Beth-shemesh). In
the later history of the Jews, Timnah raust
have been a conspicuous place. It was
fortified by Bacchides as one of the most
important military posts of Judaea (1 Macc.
ix. 50). 2. A town in the mountain dis
trict of Judah (Josh, xv, 57), A distinct
place from that just exarained, 3. Inac
curately written Timnath in the A. V,, the
scene of the adventure of Judah wit'n his
daughter-in-l.aw Taraar (Gen, xxxviii, 12,
13, 14), There is notliing here to indicate
it? position. It raay be identified either
w ith the Timnah in the mountains of Judah
[No. 2], or with the 'Tiranathah of S.arason.
[No. 1.]
Tim^nath. [Timnah.]
Tim'nathah, the residence of Sarason's
wife (,Tndg. xiv. 1, 3, 5).
Tim'nath-he'res, the name under
which the city and burial-place of Joshua,
previously called 'Timnath-serah, is raen
tioned in Judg. ii. 9. ['Timnath-serah.]
Tim'nath-se'rah, the narae of the city
which was presented to Joshua after the
partition of the country (Josh, xix, 50),
and in "the border" of which he was
buried (xKiv, 30), It is specified as " iu

Mount Ephraira on the north side of Blount
Gaash," In Judg, U. 9, the narae is altered
to TiMNATH-HERiss. The latter form is
that adopted by the Jewish writers. Ac
cordingly, they identify the place with
Kef ar° cheres, which is said by Jewish
travellers to be about 5 miles S. of She
chem {NablAs). No place with that name
appears on the maps. Another identifica
tion has, however, been suggested hy Df.
Eli Smith, In his journey from Jifna to
Mejdel- Yaba, about 6 miles from the for
mer, he discovered the ruins of a consider
able town. Opposite the town was a much
higher hill, in the north side of which are
several excavated sepulchres. The whole
bears the name of Tibneh.
Tim'nite, The, Samson's father-in-law,
a native of Tiranathah (Judg, xv. 6).
Ti'mon, one of the seven, commonly
called " deacons" (Acts vi. 1-6). He was
probably a Hellenist.
Timo'theus, 1. A " captain of the
Ammonites" (1 Macc, v, 6), who was de
feated on several occasions hy Judas Mac
eabaeus, B. 0. 164 (1 Macc, v. 6, 11, 34-
44), He was prohably a Greek adventurer.
2. In 2 Macc. a leader named Timotheus
is mentioned as having taken part in the
invasion of Nicanor (e. c, 166 : 2 Macc,
viii, 30, ix, 3). At a later time he was
driven to a stronghold, Gazara, which was
stormed by Judas, and there Tiraotheus
Wiis taken and slain (2 Macc. a. 24-37). It
has been supposed that the events recorded
in this latter narrative are identical with
those in 1 Maoc. v, 6-8. But the narae
Timotheus was very comraon, and it is evi
dent that Tiraotheus the Araraonite leader
was not slain at Jazer (1 Macc. v. 34). 3.
The Greek narae of Timotht (Acts xvi. 1,
xvii, 14, &c,).
Tim'othy. The disciple thus named
was the sou of one of those mixed mar-
ri.ages which, though condemned by stricter
Jewish ophiion, were yet not uncommon in
the later periods of Jewish history. The
father's name is unknown : he was a Greek,
i. e. a Gentile by descent (Acts xvi. 1, 8).
The absence of any personal allusion to
the father in the Acts or Epistles suggests
the inference that he must have died or
disappeared during his son's infancy. The
care of the boy thus devolved upon his
mother Eunice .and her mother Lois (2
Tim. i. 5). Under their training his edu
cation was emphatically Jewish. " From
a child" he learnt to "know the Holy
Scriptures " daily. The language of the
Acts leaves it uncertain whether Lystra or
Derbe were the residence of the devout
family. 'The arriviil of Paul and Barnabas
in Lycaonia (Acts xiv. 6) brought the mes
sage of glad tidings to Timothy and his
mother, and they received it with "un
feigned faith " (2 Tira. i. 5). If at Lystra,

TIMOTHY

705

TIMOTHY

AS seems piobable from 2 Tim. Ui. 11, he
may have witnessed the half-completed
sacrifice, the half-finished" raartyrdora, of
Acts xiv. 19. The preachiug of the Apos
tle on his return frora his short circuit pre
pared him for a life of suffering (Acts xiv.
22). Frora that tirae his life and education
must have been under the direct superin
tendence of the body of elders (ib, 23),
During the interval of seven years between
the Apostle's first and second journeys, the
boy grew up to raanhood. His zeal, prob
ably his asceticisra, becime known both at
Lystra .and Iconium, 'Those who had the
deepest insight into character, and spoke
with a prophetic utterance, pointed to
him (1 'Tim, i, 18, iv, 14), as others had
pointed before to Paul and Barnabas (Acts
xiii, 2), as specially fit for the missionary
work in which the Apostle was engaged.
Personal feeUng led St, Paul to the same
conclusion (Acts xvi, 3), and he was
solemnly set apart to do the work and
possibly to bear the title of Evangelist (1
Tim. iv, 14; 2 Tira, i. 6, iv. 5). A great
obstacle, however, presented itself. Tim-
otliy, though reckoned as one of the seed
of Abrahara, had been allowed to grow up
to the age of manhood without the sign of
circumcision. His condition was that of a
negligent, alraost of an apostate Israelite.
The Jews might tolerate a heathen, as
such, in the synagogue or the chvirch, but
an uncircumcised Israelite would be to
them a horror and a portent. With a
special view to their feelings, making no
sacrifice of principle, the Apostle, who had
refused to permit the circumcision of Titus,
"took and circumcised" Timothy (Acts
xvi, 3). Henceforth Tiraothy was one of
his raost constant companions, 'They and
Silvanus, and probably Luke also, jour
neyed to Philippi (Acts xvi, 12), and there
already the young Evangelist was con
spicuous at onco for his filial devotion and
liis zeiil (Phihli, 23), His name does not
appear in the account ot St, Paul's work
at Thessalonica, .and it is possible that he
reraained sorae time at Philippi, He ap
pears, however, at B'.'roea, iind remains
there when Paul and Silas are obliged to
leave (Acts xvii. 14), going on afterwards
to join his master at Athens (1 Thess. iii.
2). From Athens he is sent back to Thes
salonica (ib.)., iis having special gifts for
comforting and teaching. He returns frora
Thessalonica, not to Athens, but to Corinth,
and his narae appears united with St. Paul's
in the opening words of both the letters
-written frora that city to the Thessalonians
fl Thess. i. 1 ; 2 Thess. i. 1). Ofthe next
five years of his life we h.ave no record.
When we next meet with hira, it is as being
sent on in advance when the Apostle was
contemplating the long journey which was
to include Macedonia, Achaia, Jerusalera,
46

and Rome (Acts xix, 22). It is probable
that he returned by the same route and raet
St, Paul according to a previous arrange
ment (1 Cor. xvi, 11), and was thus with
him when the Second Epistle was written
to the Church of Corinth (2 Cor, i. 1), He
returns with the Apostle to that city,
and joins in messages of greeting to the
disciples whom he had known personally
at Corinth, and who had since found their
way to Rome (Rom, xvi, 21), He forms
one of the company of friends who go with
St, Paul to Philippi, and then sail by them
selves, waiting for his arrival by a different
ship (Acts, XX, 3-6), 'The absence of his
name from Acts xxvii, leads to the conclu
sion that he did not share in the perilous
voyage to Italy. He must have joined the
Apostle, however, apparently soon after
his arrival at Rome, and was with him
when the Epistles to the Philippians, to the
Colossians, and to Philemon were written
(Phil. i. 1, U, 19; Col, i, 1;, PhUem, 1).
AU the indications of this period point to in
cessant missionary activity. From the two
Epistles addressed to him, we are able to put
together a few notices as to his later life.
It follows from 1 'Tim. i. 3 that he and his
raaster, after the release of the latter frora
his imprisonraent, revisited the proconsular
Asia, that the Apostle then continued his
journey to Macedonia, whilst the disciple
reraained, half reluctiintly, even weeping at
the separation (2 Tira. i. 4), at Ephesus, to
check, if possible, the outgrowth of heresy
and licentiousness which had sprung up
there. The position in which he found
hiraself raight well make hira anxious. He
had to rule presbyters, raost of -whora were
older than himself (1 'Tim. iv. 12). Leaders _
of rival sects were there. The narae of '
his beloved teacher was no longer honored
as it had been. We cannot wonder that the
Apostle, knowing these trials, should be full
of anxiety and fear fbr his disciple's stead
fastness. In the Second Epistle to hira this
deep personal feeling utters itself yet more
fully. The last recorded words of the Apos
tle express tbe earnest hope, repeated yet
raore earnestly, that he raight see him once
again (ib. iv. 9, 21). We raay hazard the
conjecture that he reached him in time, and
that the last hours of the teacher were
soothed by the presence of the disciple
whora he loved so truly. Some writers
have even seen in Heb. xiii. 23 an indica
tion that he shared St. Paul's imprisonment,
and was released from it by the death oi
Nero, Beyond this all is apocrj'phal and
uncertiiin. He continues, according to the
old traditions, to act as bishop of Ephesus,
and dies a martyr's death under Domitian
or Nerva, A soraewhat startling theory as
to the intervening period of his life has
found favor with some. If he continued,
according to the received tradition, to bf

TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO

706

TIBATHITES

bishoi) of Ephesus, then he, and no other,
must have been tbe "angel" of that church
to whom the message of Rev. li. 1-7 was
addressed. Timothy, Epistles of Paul to. The
First Epistle was probablj written in the
interval between St, Paul's first and second
imprisonments at Rorae, 'The absence of
any local reference but that in i, 3, suggests
Macedonia or sorae neighboring district.
In sorae MSS, and versions, Laodicea is
named in the inscription as the place from
which it was sent. The Second Epistle
appears to have been written soon after
wards and in all probability at Rorae, The
following are the characteristic features of
these Epistles : — (1) The ever-deepening
sense in St, Paul's heart of the Divine
Mercy, of which he was the object, as
shown in the insertion of the word " mercy "
in the salutations of both Epistles, and in
the " obtained mercy " of 1 Tira. i. 13,
(2) The greater abruptness of the Second
Epistle, From first to last there is no plan,
no treatment of subjects carefully thought
out. All speaks of strong overflowing emo
tion, raeraories of the past, anxieties about
the future, (3) The ahsence, as cora
pared with St, Paul's other Epistles, of Old
Testaraent references. This raay connect
itself with the fact just noticed, that these
Epistles .are not argumentative, possibly
also with the request for the " books and
p.archraents " which had been left behind
(2 Tira, iv, 13). (4) The conspicuous
position of the " faithful sayings " as taking
the place occupied in other Epistles by the
O, T. Scriptures, The way in which these
are cited as authoritative, the variety of
subjects which they cover, suggest the
thought that in thera we have specimens
of the prophecies of the Apostolic Church
which had most impressed theraselves on
the mind of the Apostle, and of the disci
ples genertiUy, 1 Cor. xiv. shows how
deep a reverence he was likely to feel for
such spiritual utterances. In 1 Tim, iv, 1,
wo have a distinct reference to them, (5)
The tendency of the Apostle's mind to dwell
more on the universality of the redemptive
work of Christ (1 Tira, U. 3-6, iv, 10), and
his strong desire that all the teaching of his
disciples should be " sound," (6) The
importance attached by hira to the practical
detaUs of administration. The gathered ex
perience of a long life had taught him that
the life and well-being of the Church re
quired these for its safeguards, (7) The
recurrence of doxologies (1 Tira. i. 17, vi.
15, 16; 2 Tim, iv, 18) as from one Uving
perpetually in the presence of God, to
whom the language of adoration was as his
n.atural speech.
Tin. Among the various metals found
araong the spoils of the Midianites, tin is
enumerated (Num. xxxi. 22) . It was known

to the Hebrew metal-workers as an alloy
of other metals (Is. i, 25; Ez, xxii, 18, 20).
'The markets of -Tyre were supplied with it
by the ships of 'Tarshish (Ez. xxvU, 12).
It was used for plummets (Zech, iv. 10),
and was so plentiful as to furnish the writer
of Ecclesiasticus (xlvU. 18) with a figure
by which to express the wealth of Soloraon.
As to the country frora which the Hebrews
obtained tin, see Tar.shish, In tho Ho
meric tiraes the Greeks were familiar with
it. Twenty layers of tin were in Agamem
non's cuirass. Copper, tin, and gold were
used by Hephaestus in welding the famous
shield of Achilles. No allusion to it is
found in the Odyssey. Tin is not found in
Palestine. Whence, then, did the ancient
Hebrews obtain their supply ? " Only three
countries are known to contain any consid
erable quantity of it : Spain and Portugal,
Cornwall and the adjacent parts of Devon
shire, and the islands of Junk, Ceylon, and
Banca, in the Straits of Malacca " (Ken-
rick, Phoenicia, p. 212). There can be
little doubt that the mines of Britain were
the chief source of supply to the ancient
world. With regard to the tin obtained
from Spain, although the metal was found
there, it does not appear to have been pro
duced in sufficient quantities to supply the
Phoenician markets. We are therefore
driven to conclude that it was from the
Cassiterides, or tin districts of Britain, that
the Phoenicians obtained the great bulk of
this commodity, and that this was done by
the direct voyage from Gades,
Tiph'sah is mentioned in 1 K, ir. 24 as
the limit of Solomon's erapire towards the
Euphrates, and in 2 K. xv, 16 it is said to
have been attacked by Menahem. It was
known to the Greeks and Romans under
the name of Thapsacus, and was the point
where it was usual to cross the Euphrates.
Thapsacus has been generally placed at tho
modern Detr ; but the Euphrates expedi
tion proved that there is no ford at Delr,
and that the only ford in this part of the
course of the Euphrates is at Suriych, 45
miles below Balis, .and 165 above Delr.
This, then, must have been tbe position of
Thapsacus. Ti'ras, the youngest son of Japheth
(Gen. X. 2), usually identifi'^d with the
Thracians, as presenting the closest verbal
approximation to the name. The corre
spondence between Thrace and Tiras is not
so complete as to be convincing. Granted,
however, the verbal identity, no objection
would arise on ethnological grounds to
placing the Thracians imong the Japhetic
races. Ti'rathites, The, one of the three
families of Scribes residing at Jabez (1
Chr. ii, 65), the others bcir.gthe Shiraeath-
ites and Suchathites. The passage is hope
lessly obscure.

TIRE

707

TITHE

Tire, an ornamental headdress worn on
festive occasions (Ez. xxiv. 17, 23).
Tir'hakah, king of Ethiopia (Cush),
the opponent of Sennacherib (2 K. xix, 9 ;
Is, xxxvii. 9). He may be identified with
Tarkos or Tarakos, who wai the third and
last king of the xxvth dynasty, which was
of Ethiopians. His accession was probably
about B, c, 695. Possibly Tirhakah ruled
over Ethiopia before becoming king of
Fgypt. Tir'hanah, son of Caleb ben-Hezron
by his concubine Maachah (1 Chr. ii. 48).
Tir'ia, son of Jehaleleel, of the tribe
of Judah (1 Chr.iv. 16).
Tir'shatha (always written with the
article), the title ofthe governor of Judaea
under the Persians, perhaps derived from a
Persian root signifying "stern," " severe,"
is added as a title after the name of Nehe
miah (Neh. viii. 9, x. 1), and occurs also
in three other places. In the margin of the
A. V. (Ezr. U. 63 ; Neh. vU. 65, x. 1) it is
rendered " governor."
Tir'zah, j'ouugest of the five daughters
of Zelophehad (Num. xxvi. 33, xxvu. 1,
xxxvi. 11; Josh, xvii, 3).
Tir'zah, an ancient Canaanite city,
whose king is enuraerated araongst those
overthrown in the conquest of the country
(Josh, xii, 24). It reappears as a royal
city — the residence of Jeroboara and of his
successors (1 K. xiv. 17, 18). Tirzah re
appears as the seat of the conspiracy of
Menahera ben-Gaddi against the wretched
Shallum (2 K. xv. 14, 16), Its reputation
for beauty throughout the country must
have been wide-spread. It is in this sense
that it is raentioned in the Song of Solo
raon, Eusebius mentions it in connection
with Menahera, and identifies it with a
" village of Samaritans in Batanaea," Its
site is TellAzah, a place in the mountains
north ot NablAs.
Tish'bite, The, the well-known desig
nation of Elijah (1 K, xvii, 1, xxi, 17, 28;
2 K, i, 3, 8, ix. 36). The n.arae naturally
points to a place called Tishbeh, Tishbi, or
rather perhaps Tesheb, as the residence of
the prophet. Assuming that a town is al
luded to, as Elijah's native place, itis not
necessary to infer that it was itself in GU
ead, as many have imagined. The cora
raentators and lexicographers, with few
exceptions, adopt the narae "Tishbite"
as referring to the place Thisbe in Naph
tali, which is found in the LXX, text of
Tobit i. 2.
Ti'tans. These children of Uranus
(Heaven) and Gala (Earth) were, accord
ing to the earliest Greek legends, the van
quished predecessors of the Olyrapian gods,
condomned by Zeus to dwell in Tartarus,
yet not without retaining raany relics of
their ancient dignity. By later (Latin)
poets they were confounded with the kin

dred Gigantes. In 2 Sam. v. 18, 22, "the
yalley of Rephaim " is represented by
V xtnXag rav riTuouif instead of i; xaiXt/g rSt
yiyariwv, 1 Chr. xi. 15, xiv. 9, 13. Sev-
eriil Christian fathers inclined to the belief
that TeiTav was the mystic name of " the
beast " indicated in Rev. xiii. 18.
Tithe. Instances of the use of tithes
are found prior to the appointraent of the
Levitical tithes under the Law. In Biblical
history the two prominent instances are —
1. Abrara presenting the tenth of all his
property, or rather of the spoils of his vic
tory, to Melchizedek (Geu, xiv. 20 ; Heb.
vii. 2, 6). 2, Jacob, after his vision at Luz,
devoting a tenth of all his property to God
in case he should return horae in s.afety
(Gen, xxviii, 22). The first enaetraent of
the Law in respect of tithe is the declaration
that the tenth of all produce, as well as of
flocks and cattle, belongs to Jehovah, and
must be offered to Hira ; that the tithe was
to be paid in kind, or, if redeeraed, with an
addition of one fifth to its value (Lev. xxvii.
30-33), This tenth is ordered to be as
signed to the Levites, as the reward of their
service, and it is ordered further, that they
are theraselves to dedicate to the Lord a
tenth of these receipts, which is to bo de
voted to the raaintenance of the high-priest
(Num. xviii. 21-28), This legislation is
modified or extended in the Book of Deu
teronomy, i. e. from thirty-eight to forty
years later. Commands are given to the
people, 1. To bring their tithes, together
with their votive and other offerings and
flrst-fruits, to the chosen centre of worship,
the metropolis, there to 'be 'eaten in festive
celebration in company with their children,
their servants, and the Levites (Deut. xii,
5-18), 2. All the produce of the soil was
to be tithed every year, and these tithes,
with the firstlings of the flock and herd,
were to be eaten in the metropolis. 3, But
in case of distance, permission is given to
convert the produce into money, which is
to be taken to the appointed place, and
there laid out iu the purchase of food for a
festal celebration, in which the Levite is,
by special command, to be included (Deut.
xiv. 33-27), 4, Then follows the direction,
that at the end of three years all the tithe
of that year is to be gathered and laid up
" within the gates," and that a festival is to
be held, in wliich the stranger, the father
less, and the widow, together with the Le
vite, are to partake (ib, vers, 28, 29). 5.
Lastly, it is ordered that after taking the
tithe in each third year, "which is the year
of tithing," an pxculpatory declaration is to
be raade by every Israelite, that he has
done his best to fulfll tho divine coraraand
(Deut. xxvi. 12-14). From all this we
gather, 1. That one tenth of the whole
produce of the soil was to be assigned for
the raaintenance of the Levites. 2. Thai

TITUS

708

TI'TUS

out of this the Levites were to dedicate a
tenth to God, for the use of the high-priest.
3. That a tithe, in all probability a second
tithe, was to be applied to festival purposes.
4. That in every third year, either this fes
tival tithe or a third tenth was to be eaten
in comp.any with the poor and the Levites,
The question arises, were there three tithes
taken in this third year; or is the third
tithe only the second under a different de
scription? It must be allowed that the
third tithe is not without support, Josephus
distinctly says that one tenth was to be giv
en to the priests and Levites, one tenth was
to be applied to feasts in the metropolis,
and that a tenth besides these was every
tliird year to be given to the poor (comp,
Tob, i. 7, 8), On'the other hand, M.airaon-
ides says the third and sixth years' second
tithe was shared between the poor aud the
Levites, i. e. that there was no third tithe.
Of these opinions, that which maintains
tliree separate and coraplete tithings seeras
iraprobable. It is plain that under the kings
the tithc-systera partook of the general neg
lect into which the observance of the Law
declined, and that Hezekiah, araong his
other reforras, took effectual means to re
vive its use (2 Chr, xxxi, 5, 13, 19), Sim
ilar raeasures were taken after the Captivity
by Nehemiah (Neh, xii, 44), and in both
these cases special officers were appointed
to take charge of the stores and storehouses
for the ijurpose. Yet, notwithstanding par
tial evasion or omission, the systera itself
was continued to a late period in Jewish
history (Heb..vii.,5-8 ; M.att. xxiii, 33 ; Luke
xviu, 13),
Ti'tus. Our ra.aterials for the biography
of this corapanion of St. Paul must bo
drawn entirely from the notices of him in
tho Second Epistle to the Corinthians, the
Galiitians, and to Titus himself, combined
with the Second Epistle to Timothy. He
is not mentioned in the Acts at all. 'Taking
the passages in the Epistles in the chrono
logical order of the events referred to, we
turn flrst to Gill. U. 1, 3. We conceive the
journey mentioned here to be identical with
that (recorded in Acts xv.) in which Paul
and Barnabas went from Antioch to Jeru
salem to the conference which was to de
cide the question of the necessity of cir
curacision to the Gentiles. Here we see
Titus iu close association with Paul and
Barnabas at Antioch, He goes with thera
to Jerusalem. His circuracision was either
not insisted on at Jerusalem, or, if demand
ed, was firmly resisted. He is very em
phatically spoken of as a GentUe, by which
is most probably meant that both his parents
were GentUes. Titus would seem, on the
occasion of the councU, to have been spe
cially a representative of the church of the
uncircumcision. It is to our purpose to
remark that, in the passage cited above.

Titus is so mentioned as apparently to lm«
ply that he had become personpUy known
to the Galatian Christians. After leaving
Galatia (Acts xviU. 33), and spending a
long time at Ephesus (Acts xix, 1-xx, 1),
the Apostle proceeded to Macedonia by
way of Troas. Here he expected to raeet
'Titus (3 Cor. ii. 13), who had been sent on
a raission to Corinth, In this hope he was
disappointed, but in Macedonia Titus joined
him (3 Cor. vii, 6, 7, 13-15), 'The mission
to Corinth had reference to. the iraraorali
ties rebuked in the First Epistle, and tt
the effect of that First Epistle on the of
fending church. We learn further that the
raission ii'as so far successful and satisfac
tory. But if we proceed further, we discern
another part of the mission with which he
was intrusted. This had reference to the
collection, .at that time in progress, for the
poor Christians of .ludaea (viii. 6). Thus
we are prepared for what the Apostle now
proceeds to do after his encouraging con
versations with Titus regarding the Co
rinthian Church, He sends him back from
Macedonia to Corinth, in company with
two other trustworthy Christians, bearing
the Second Epistle, and with an earnest
request (viii. 6, 17) that he would see to
the completion of the collection (viii. 6).
It has generally been considered doubtful
who the aSfXifo'i were (1 Cor. xvi. 11, 12)
that took the First Epistle to Corinth,
Most probably they were Titus aud his
corapanion, whoever that might be, who ia
mentioned with him in the second letter (3
Cor, xii, 18). A considerable interval now
elapses before we corae upon the next no
tices of this disciple. St. Paul's flrst im
prisonraent is concluded, and his last trial
is impending. In the interval between the
two, he and Titus were together in Crete
(Tit, i, 5), We see Titus reraaining in the
island when St, Paul left it, aud receiving
there a letter written to hira by the Apos
tle, From this letter we gather the fol
lowing biogr.aphical details : In the first
place we learn thiit he was originally con
verted through St. Paul's instrumentality
(i. 4,), Next we learn the various p.artic
ulars of the responsible duties which he
had to discharge in Crete. He is to com
plete what St, Paul had been obliged to
leave unfinished (i, 5), and he is to organ
ize the Church throughout the island by
appointing presbyters in every city. Next
he is to control and bridle (ver. 11) the
restless and raisohievous Judaizers, .and he
is to be percniptory in so doing (ver. 13).
He is to urge the duties of a decorous and
Christian life upon the -women (U. 3-5),
some of whom (ii. 3) possibly had some
thing of an official character (ver. 8, 4).
The notices which remain are more strictly
personal. Titus is to look for the arrival
in Crete of Artemas and Tychicus (iU. 12),

TITUS, EPISTLE TO

709

TOBIAH

,and then l.e is to hasten to join St, Paul at
Nicopolis, where the Apostle is proposing
to pass the winter. Zenas and Apollos are
in Crete, or expected there ; for Titus is to
seud thera on their journey, and supply
th(!m with whatever they need for it (iii,
13), Whether 'Titus did join the Apostle
at Nicopolis we cannot tell. But we natu
rally connect the, mention of this place with
what St, Paul wrote, at no great interval of
tirae afterwards, in the last of the Pastoriil
Epistles (3 Tira, iv, 10) ; for Diilmatia lay
to the north of Nicopolis, at no great dis
tance from it. From the form of the whole
sentence, it seems jprobable that this dis
ciple h.ad been with St. Paul in Rome dur
ing his final imprisonraent; but this cannot
be asserted confidently. The traditional
connection of Titus with Crete is rauch
more specific and constant, though here
again we cannot be certain of the facts.
Ho is said to have been permanent bishop
in the island, and to have died there .at an
advanced age. The modern capital, Can
dia, appears to claira the honor of being
his burial-place. In the fragment by the
lawyer Zenas, Titus is called Bishop of
Gortyna, Lastly, the narae of 'Titus was
the watchword of the Cretans when they
were invaded by the Venetians.
Titus, Epistle to. 'There are no spe
cialties in this Epistle which require any
ver)' elaborate treatment distinct from the
other Pastoral Letters of St. Paul, If those
two were not genuine, it would be difficult
coufider.tly to raiiintain the genuineness of
tills. Ou the otlier hand, if the Epistles to
Timothy are received as St. Paul's, there is
not the slightest reason for doubting the au
thorship of that to Titus. Nothing can well
bo more explicit than the quotations in Ire
naeus, Clemens Alexandriuus, TertuUian,
to say nothing of earlier allusions in Justin
Miirtyr, Theophilus, and Clemens lloraauus.
As to internal features, we raay notice, in
the first place, that the Epistle to Titus has
all the characteristics of the other Pastoral
Epistles. This tends to show tiat this Let
ter was written about the sarae time and
under sirailar circumstances with the other
two. [Timothy, Epistles to,] But, on
the other hand, this Epistle has marks in
its phraseology and style which assimilate
it to the general body of the Epistles of St.
Paul, As to any difficulty arising frora
supposed indications of advanced hierarchi
cal arrangeraents, it is to be observed that
in this Epistle nqhn^iireQog and inlaxonog
are used as synonyraous (i. 5, 7), just as
they are in the address at Miletus, about
the year 58 A. d, (Acts xx. 17, 38). At
the sarae time this Epistle has features of
^its own, especially a certain tone of abrupt
ness and severity, which probably arises
partly out of the circurastances of the
Cretan populiition, partly out of the char

acter of Titus hiraself. Concerning the
contents of this Epistle, enough has al
ready been said in the preceding article
No very exact subdivision is either nece.«-
sary or possible. As to the tirae and place
and other circurastances of the writing oi
this Epistle, the following scheme of filling
up St. Paul's movements after his first im
prisonment wiU satisfy aU the conditions
of the case. We may suppose hira (possi
bly after accoraplishing his long-projected
visit to Spain) to have gone to Epliesus,
and taken voyages from thence, first to
Macedonia and then to Crete, during the
forraer to have written the First Epistle to
Tiraothy, and after returning frora tbe lat
ter to have written the Epistle to Titus,
being at the tirae of despatching it on the
point of starting for Nicopolis, to which
place he went, taking Miletus aud Corinth
on the Wiiy. At Nicopolis we raay con
ceive hira to have been finally apprehended
and taken to Rome, whence he wrote the
Second Epistle to Tiraothj'.
Ti'zite, The, the designation of John,
one of the hero'es of David's army (1 Chr.
xi. 45). It occurs nowhere else, and
nothing is known of the place or faraily
which it denotes.
To'ah, a Kohathite Levite, ancestor of
Sarauel .and Heraan (1 Chr. vi. 34 [19]).
Tob-adoni'jah, one ofthe Levites sent
by Jehoshaphat through the cities of Ju
dah to teach the Liiw to the people (3 Chr.
xvii. 8).
Tob, The Land of, a place in which
Jephthah took refuge when expelled frora
home by his half-brother- (Judg. xi. 3), and
where he remained, at the head of a biind of
freebooters, till he was brought back by the
sheikhs of Gilead (ver. 5), The narrative
implies that the land of Tob was not far
distant frora Gilead; at the same time,
from the nature of the case, it must have
lain out towards the eastern deserts. It is
undoubtedly raentioned again in 3 Sam. .x.
6, 8, as Ishtob, i. e. Man of Tob, meaning,
according to a coraraon Hebrew idiom, the
"men of Tob." After a long interval it
appears again, in the Maccabaean history
(1 Macc. V, 13), in the naraes 'Tobie and
Tubieni (2 Miicc. xu. 17). No identifi
cation of this ancient district with any-
modern one has yet been atterapted.
Tobi'ah. I. "The children of To
biah" were a faraily who returned with
Zerubbabel, but were unable to prove their
connection with Israel (Ezr. ii. 60; Neh.
vu. 63). 2. "Tobiijh the slave, the Am
monite," played a conspicuous part in the
rancorous opposition made by Sanballat the
Moabite and his adherents to the rebuilding
of Jerusalera. The two races of Mo.ab and
Ammon found in these men fit representa
tives of that hereditary hatred to the Israel
ites which began before the entrance into

TOBIJAH

710

TOMB

Canaan, and was not extinct when the He
brews had ceased to exist as a nation. But
Tobiah, though a slave (Neh. U. 10, 19),
unless this is a title of opprobrium, and an
Araraonite, found raeans to ally himself
with a priestly faraily, and his son Johanan
married the daughter of MeshuUam the son
of Berechiah (Neh. vi. 18). He himself
was the son-in-law of Shechaniah the son
of Arab (Neh. vi, 17), and these family re
lations created fbr him a strong faction
among the Jews.
Tobi'jah. 1. One of the Levites sent
by Jehoshaphat to teach the Law in the
cities of Judah (3 Chr. xvU. 8). 2. One
of the Captivity in the time of Zechariah,
in whose presence the prophet was com
manded to take crowns of silver and gold
and put them on the head of Joshua the
high-priest (Zech. vi. 10, 14). Rosen-
raUUer conjectures that he was one of a
deputation who came up to Jerusalem,
from the Jews who still reraained in Baby-
Ion, with contributions of gold and silver
for the Temple.
To'bit, Book of, a book of the Apoc
rypha, which exists at present in Greek,
Latin, Syriac, and Hebrew texts, but it was
probably written originally in Greek. The
scene of the book is placed in Assyria,
whither Tobit, a Jew, had been carried as a
captive by Shalmaneser. It is represented
as completed shortly after the fall of Nine
veh (b. q, 006; Tob. xiv. 15), and written,
in the raain, some time before (Tob. xii.
20). But the whole tone of the narrative
bespeaks a later age ; and above all, the
'loctrine of good and evil spirits is elabo
rated in a form which belongs to a period
considerably posterior to the Babylonian
Captivity (Asmodeus, ui. 8, vi. 14, vui. 8;
Raphael, xii. 15). It cannot be regarded
as a true history. It is a didactic narra
tive ; and its point lies in the raoral lessons
which it conveys, and not in the incidents.
In raodern times the moral excellence of
the book has been rated highly, except in
the heat of controversy. Nowhere else is
there preserved so complete and beautiful
a picture of the domestic life of the Jews
after the Return. Alraost every faraily re-
_ lation is touched upon with natural .grace
and affection. A doctrinal feature of the
book is the firra belief in a glorious resto
ration of the Jewish people (xiv. 5, xiii.
9-18). But the restoration contemplated
is national, and not the work of a universal
Saviour, In all there is not the slightest
trace of the bcUef in a personal Messiah,
To'chen, a place mentioned (1 Chr, iv,
32 only) araongst the towns of Siraeon,
Togar'mah, ason of Goraer, and brother
of Ashkenaz and Riphath (Gen. x, 8), To-
g.arraah, as a geographical term, is connected
with Arraenia, and the subsequent notices
of the name (Ez. xxvu. 14, xxxviu. 6)

accord with this view. The Armenian
language presents many peculiarities which
distinguish it from other branches of the
Indo-European family; but in spite of this,
however, no hesitation is felt by phUolo-
gists iu placing it among the Indo-European
languages. To'hu, an ancestor of Samuel ths
prophet, perhaps the same as Toah (1
Sam. i. 1; comp. 1 Chr. vi. 34).
To'i, king of Haraath on the Orontes,
who, after the defeat of his powerful enemy
the Syrian king Hadadezer by the army of
David, sent his son Joram, or Hadoram,
to congratulate the victor and do him hora
age with presents of gold and silver and
brass (2 Sam. viU. 9, 10).
To'la. 1. The first-born of Issachar,
and ancestor of the Tolaites (Gen, ylvi.
18; Num, xxvi, 23; 1 Chr. vu. 1, 2), 2.
Judge of Israel after Abimelech (Judg. x.
1, 2). He is described as " the son of
Puah, the son of Dodo, a raan of Issa
char." Tola judged Israel for 23 years at
Shamir in Mount Ephraim, where he died
and was buried.
To'lad, one of the towns of Simeon
(1 Chr. iv. 29), elsewhere called El
'tolad. To'laites, The, the descendants of
Tola the son of Issachar (Num. xxvi. 26).
Tomb. It has been hitherto too much
the fasluon to look to' Egypt for the proto
type of every form of Jewish art ; but, if
there is one thing in the Old Testament
more clear than another, it is the absolute
antagonisra between the two peoples, and
the abhorrence of everything Egyptian that
prevailed frora first to last araong the Jew
ish people. From the burial of Sarah in
the cave of Machpelah (Gen. xxiii. 19) to
the funeral rites prepared for Dorcas (Acts
ix. 37), there is no raention of any sar
cophagus, or even coffin, in any Jewish
burial. Still less were the rites of the
Jews like those of the Pelasgi or Etrus
cans. 'They were marked with the samo
siraplicity that characterized all their re
ligious observances. This siraplicity of
rite led to what may be called the distin
guishing chiiracteristic of Jewish sepulchres
— the deep loculus — wliich, so far as is
now known, is universal in all purely
Jewish rock -cut tombs, but hardly known
elsewhere. Its forra will be understood by
referring to the following diagram, repre
senting tho forras of Jewish sepulture. In
the apartraent raarked A, there are twelve
such loculi, about two feet in width by three
feet high. On the ground floor these gen
erally open on the level ofthe floor; when
in the upper story, as at C, on a ledge or
pliitforra, on which the body might be laid
to be anointed, and on which the stones
might rest which closed the outer end of
e.ach loculus. 'The shaUow loculus is shows

TOMB

711

TOMB

, _ftPfip

Diagrnm of Jewish Sepnlchra.
In chamber B, but was apparently only
used when sarcophagi were employed, and,
therefore, so far as we know, only during
the Griieco-Roman period, when foreign
custoras came to be adopted. 'The shallow
loculus would have been singularly inap
propriate and inconvenient, where an un-
enibalraed body was laid out to decay — as
there would evidently be no means of
shutting it ofi" frora the rest of the cata
comb. The deep loculus, on the other
hand, was as strictly conforraable with Jew
ish customs, and could easily be closed by
a stone fltted to the end and luted into the
groove which usually exists there. This
fact is especiaUy interesting as it affords a
. key to rauch that is otherwise hard to be
understood in certain passages in the New
Testament. Thus in John xi, 39, Jesus
says, " Take away the stone," and (ver. 40),
" they took away the stone," withoutdifficul-
ty, apparently. And chap. xx. 1, the same ex
pression is used, " the stone is taken away."
There is one catacorab — that known as the
" Torabs of the Kings" — which is closed
by a stone rolling across its entrance ; but it
is the only one, .and the iramense amount of
contrivance and fitting which it has re
quired is sufficient proof that such an ar
rangeraent was not applied to any other of
the numerous rock tombs around Jerusa
lem, nor could the traces of it have been
obliterated had it anywhere existed. Al
though, therefore, the Jews were singularly
free from the pomps and vanities of fune
real magnificence, they were at all stages
of tlieir independent existence an eraineritly
burying people. Tombs of the Patriarchs.
— Turning frora these considerations to the
raore strictly historical part of the subject,
we find that one of the most striking events
in the life of Abraham is the purchase of
tho field of Ephron the Hittite at Hebron,
in which was the cave of Machpelah, in or
der that he raight therein bury Sarah his
wife, and that it might be a sepulchre for
himself and his children. There he and his
iraraediate descendants were laid 3700 years
ago, and there they are believed to rest
now ; but no one in modern times has seen

their remains, or been allowed to enter into
the cave where they rest. Unfortunately
none of those who have visited Hebron have
had sufficient architectural knowledge to
be able to say when the church or mosque
which now stands above the cave wtis erect
ed. Though rauch more easy of access, it
is alraost as dhficult to ascertain the age of
the wall that encloses the sacred precincts
of these tombs. There is, in fact, nothing
known with sufficient exactness to decide
the question, but the probabilities certainly
tend towards a Christian or Saracenic origin
for the whole structure, both internally and
externally. From the tirae when Abrahara
established the burying-place of his faraily
at Hebron till the tirae when David fixed
that of his faraily in the city which bore his
narae, the Jewish rulers had no fixed or
favorite place of sepulture. Each was
buried on his own property, or where he
died, without much caring either for the
sanctity or convenience of the place chosen.
Tomb of ihe Kings. — Of the twenty-two
kings of Judah who reigned at Jerusalem
from 1048 to 590 b, c, eleven, or exactly
one half, were buried in one hypogeum in
the " city of David." Of all these it is
raerely said that they were buried in " the
sepulchres of their fathers " or " of the
kings " in the city of David, except of two
— Asa and Hezekiah. Two more of these
kings (Jehoram and Joash) were buried
also in the city of David, " but not in the
sepulchres of the kings." The passage in
Nehemiah'iU. 16, and in Ezekiel xliii. 7, 9,
together with the reiterated assertion of the
Books of Kings and Chronicles that these
sepulchres were situated in the city of
David, leave no doubt but that they were
on Zion, or the Eastern Hill, and in the im
mediate proximity of the Temple. Up to
the present time we have not been able to
identify one single sepulchral excavation
about Jerusalem which can be said with
certainty to belong to a period anterior to
that of the Maccabees, or, more correctly,
to have been used for burial before the tirae
of the Roraans. The only iraportant hypo
geum which is wholly Jewisli in its arrange
ments, and raay consequently belong to an
earlier or to any epoch, is th.at known as
the Tombs of the Prophets in the western
flank of the Mount of Olives. It has every
appearance of having originally been a
natural cavern improved by art, and with
an external gallery some 140 feet in extent,
into which twenty-seven deep or Jewish
loculi open. Graeco-Roman Tombs. — Be
sides the tombs above enuraerated, fhere
are around Jerusalem, in the Valleys of
Hinnom and Jehoshaphat, and on the pla
teau to the north, a number of remarkable
rock-cut sepulchres, with more or less
architectural decoration, sufficient to enable
us to ascertain that they are all of nefirly

TOMB

712

TOMB

tlie same age, and to assert with very toler
able confidence that the epoch to which they
belong must be between the introduction
of Roman influence and the destruction of
the city by Titus. In the village of Siloam
there is a monolithic cell of singularly
Egyptian aspect, which De Saulcy assumes
to be a chapel of Solomon's Egyptian wife.
It is probably of very much raore raodern
date, and is raore Assyrian than Egyptian
in character. The principal remaining
architectural sepulchres may be divided
into three groups. First, those existing in
the Valley of Jehoshaphat, and known
popularly as the Tombs of Zechariah, of
St. James, and of Absalora. Second, those
known as the Torabs of the Judges, and
the so-called Jewish torab about a mile
north of the city. Third, that known as
the Tombs of the Kings, about half a mile
north of the Damascus Gate. Of the three
flrst-named torabs the raost southern is
known as that of Zechariah, a popular
name which there is not even a shadow of

att:: 1

W v.'^^'

Bo-eaUed " Tomb of Zechariah.'
tradition to justify. It consists of a square
solid basement, raeasuring 18 feet 6 inches
each way, and 20 feet high to the top ofthe
cornice. On each face are four engaged
Ionic columns between ant<ae, and these
are surmounted, not by an Egyptian cor-,
nice, as is usually asserted, but by one
of purely Assyrian type, such as is found
at Khorsabad. In all its details it is so dis
tinctly Roman that it is impossible to as-
surae that it belongs to an e.arlier age than
tluit of their influence. Above the cornice
is a pyramid rising at rather a sharp angle,
•ad hewn like aU the rest out of the solid

rock. To call this buUding a tomb is evi.
dently a misnomer, as it is absolutely soUd
— hewn out ofthe living rock by cutting
a passage round it. It has no internal
chambers, not even the semblance cf a
doorway. The hypogeum known as the
Tombs of the Judges is one of the raost re
markable of the catacombs around Jeru
salem, containing about sixty deep loculi,
arranged in three stories ; the upper stories
with ledges in front, to give convenient ac
cess, and to support the stiines that closed
them ; the lower flush with the ground ; the
whole, consequently, so essentially Jewish
that it raight be of any age if it were not
for its distance frora the town, and its ar
chitectural character. Tombs of Herod. —
The last of the great groups enumerated
above is that known as the Tombs of the
Kings — KebAr es SuUan — or the Royal
Caverns, so called because of their mag
niflcence, and also because that name is ap
plied to them by Josephus. 'They are twice
again mentioned under the title of the
"Monuments of Herod." The entrance
doorway of this torab is below the level of
the ground. It is closed by a very curious
and elaborate contrivance of a rolling stone,
often described, but very clurasily answer
ing its purpose. Within, the torab consists
of a vestibule or entrance-hall- about 20
feet square, frora which three other square
apartraents open, each surrounded by deep
loculi. But perhiips the most remarka
ble peculiarity of the hypogeum is the sar
cophagus chamber, in which two sarcophagi
were found, one of which was brought
home by De Saulcy, and is now in the
Louvre. There seems no reason for doubt
ing but that all . the architectural tombs of
Jerusalera belong to the age of the Romans,
Uke everything that has yet been found

Facade of Herod's Tombs. From a Fhotograpil.
either at Petra, Baalbeo, Palrayra, or
Damascus, or even among the stone cities
ofthe Hauran. Tomb of Helena of Adia
bene, — There was ono other very fimtrii

TONGUES, CONFUSION OF 713 TONGUES, CONFUSION OF

tomb at Jerusalem, which cannot be passed
over in sUence, tliough not one vestige of
it exists. We are told that " she with her
brother were buried in the pyramids which
she had ordered to be constructed at a dis
tance of three stadia frora Jerusalem "
(.loseph. Ant. xx. 4, § 3). 'This is confirraed
by Pausanias (viii. 16). It was situated
outside the third wall, near a gate between
the Tower Psephinus and the Royal Cav-
erL3 {B. J. V. 22, and v. 4, § 2). They re-
luained sufficiently entire in the 4th century
to form a conspicuous object in the land
scape. Since the destruction of the city by
Titus, none of the native inhabitants of
Jerusalem have been in a position to in
dulge in rauch sepulchral raagnificence, or
perhaps had any taste for this class of dis
play ; and we in consequence find no rock-
cut hypogea, and no structural raonuments,
that arrest attention in modern times. The
people, however, still cling to their ancient
cemeteries in the Valley of Jehoshaphat
with a tenacity singularly characteristic of
the East. [Burial-]
Tongues, Confusion of- The unity
of the human race is most clearly implied,
if not positively asserted, in the Mosaic
writings. The general declaration, " So
God created man in His own image . . .
male and female created He them " (Gen.
i. 27), is limited, as to the mode in which
the act was carried out, by the subsequent
narrative of the Creation of Adam (Gen. ii.
22). Unity of language is assumed bj' the
sacred historian apparently as a corollary
of the unity of race. No explanation is
given of the origin of speech, but its exer
cise" is evidently regarded as coeval with
the creation of man. The original unity of
speech was restored in Noah. Disturbing
causes were, however, early at work to dis
solve this twofold union of community and
speech. The human faraily endeavored to
clieck the tendency to separation by the
establishment of a great central edifice,
and a city which should serve as the me
tropolis of the whole world. 'The project
was defeated by the interposition of Jeho
vah, who determined to " confound their
Language, so that they miglit not u-nderstand
one another's speech." Contemporaneous
ly with, and perhaps as the result of, this
confusion of tongues, the people were scat
tered abroad from thence upon the face
of all the earth, and the memory of the
great event was preserved in the narae Ba
bel. [Babel, Tower oe.] In the Bor
sippa inscription of Nebuchadnezzar there
is an allusion to the Confusion of Tongues,
" We say for the other, that is, this ediflce,
the house ofthe Seven Lights of theEiirth,
the most ancient monuraent of Borsippa :
a former king built it (they reckon 42 ages),
but he did not complete its head. Since a
remote time people had abandoned it, with

out order expressing their words. Since
that time, the earthquake and the tliuuder
had dispersed its sun-dried clay ; the bricks
of the casing had been split, and the earth
ofthe interior had been scattered in heaps."
It is unnecessary to assume that tbe judg
ment inflicted on the buUders of Babel
amounted to a loss, or even a suspension,
of articulate speech. The desired object
would be equally attained by a miraculous
forestalment of those di.alectical difi'erences
of language which are constantly in pro
cess of production. The eleraents of the
one original language raay have reraained,
but so disguised by variations of pronun
ciation, and by the introduction of new
combinations, as to be practically obliter
ated. The confusion of tongues and the
dispersion of nations are spoken of in the
Bible as contemporaneous events. The
divergence of the various farailies into dis
tinct tribes and nations ran parallel with
the divergence of speech into dialects and
languages, and thus the 10th chapter of
Genesis is posterior in historical sequence
to the events recorded in the 11th chapter
— The Mosaic table does not profess to de
scribe the process ofthe dispersion ; but, as
suming that dispersion as having t.aken place,
it records the ethnic relations existing be
tween the various nations affected by it.
These relations are expressed under the
guise of a genealogy ; the ethnological char
acter of the document is, however, clear.
The general .arrangement of the table is as
follows : The whole human race is referred
back to Noah's three sons, Shera, Ham, and
Japheth. The Shemites are described last,
apparently that the continuity of the nar
rative raay not be further disturbed ; and
the Karaites stand next to the Shemites, iu
order to show that these were more closely
related to each other than to the Jiiphet-
ites, 1, The Japhetite list contains fourteen
names, of which seven represent indepen
dent, and the reraainder affiliated nations, as
follows : (i,) Goraer, connected ethnically
with the Cimmerii, Cimbri ( ?) , and Cymry ;
and geographically with Crimea. Associ
ated with Gomer are the three following :
(a) Ashkenaz. (J) Riphath. {c) Togar
mah, (ii,) Magog, tho Scythians. (Ui,)
Madai, Media, (iv,) Javan, the lonians,
as a general appellation for the Hellenic
race, with whora are associated the four
following : {a) Elishah, (5) Tarshish. (c)
Kittim, {d) Dodanim. (v.) Tubal, (vi.)
Meshech. (vii.) Tiras. 2, The Hamitic
list contains thirty names, of which four
represent independent, and the remainder
affiUated nations, as foUows : (i,) Cush,
in two branches, the western or African
representing Aethiopia, the Keesh of the
old Egyptian, and -the eastern or Asiatic
being connected with the names of the tribe,
Cossaei, the district Cissia, and the prov-

TONGUES, GIFT OP

714

TONGUiSS, GliT OF

ince Susiana or Khuzistan. With Cush
are associated •- (a) Seba. (6) Havilah.
(c) Sabtah. . {d) Raamah, with whom are
associated — (a^) Sheba. (fi'') Dedan. (e)
Sabtechah. (/) Nirarod. (U.) Mizraira,
the two Misrs, i, e. Upper and Lower Egypt,
with whora the following seven are con
nected : (a) Ludira, (6) Anaraira, (c)
Naphtuhira. {d) Pathrusim, (e) Caslu-
him, (/) Caphtorira, {g) Phut. (iU.) Ca
naan, the geographical position of which
calls for no reraark in this place. To
Canaan belong the following eleven : {a)
Zidon, the weU-known town of that name
in Phoenicia, {b) Heth, or the Hittites of
Biblical history, {c) The Jebusite, of Jebus
or Jerusalem, {d) The Araorite (e) The
Girgasite, (/) The Hivite. {g) The Ark-
ite, (A). The Sinite, {i) The Arvadite.
{j) The Zeraarite, (7i:) The Haraathite,
3, The Shemitic list contains twenty-five
names, of which five refer to independent,
and the remainder to affiliated tribes, as
follows : 1,1,) Elam. (ii,) Asshur, (iii.) Ar
phaxad, with whom are associated — (a)
Salah; Salah's son {a^) Eber; and Eber's
two sons (a^) Peleg and (6''") Joktan, with
the following thirteen sons of Joktan,
^\z.¦. {a*) Alraodad- {b*) Sheleph, {c*)
Hazarmavcth. {d") Jerah, (e'') Hadoram,
(/*) Uzal, {g*) Diklah. {h*) Obal. {i")
Abimael. (y-*) Sheba. {k'^) Ophir, {l^)
Havilah. {m*) Jobab. (iv.) Lud, (v,)
Aram, with whora the following are as
sociated : {a) Uz, (6) Hul, (c) Gether,
{d) MttBh, 'There is yet one name noticed
in the t-iUo, viz. Philistim, which occurs in
tho Haraitic division, but without any direct
assertion of Haraitic descent. The total
nuraber of names noticed in the table, in
eluding Philistim, would thus amount to
70, which was raised by patristic writers to
72. For an account of the identification
of these names, see the separate articles.
Tongues, Gift of. I, rxaxru, or
yXiiaaa, the word eraployed throughout the
N, T, for the gift now under consideration,
is used — (1,) for the bodily organ of speech ;
(2,) for a foreign word, iraported and half-
naturalized in Greek; (3.) in Hellenistic
Greek, for " speech" or " language." The
received traditional view, which starts frora
the third raeaning, and sees in the gift of
tongues a distinctly linguistic power, is the
raore correct one. II, The chief passages
frora which we have to draw our conclusion
as to the nature and purpose of the gift in
question are — (1.) Mark xvi, 17 ; (2,) Acts
U, 1-13, X, 46, xix. 6; (3.) 1 Cor, xu,, xiv.
III. The proraise of a new power coraing
frora the Divine Spirit, giving not only
ci)n\fort and insight into truth, but fresh
powers of utterance of some kind, appears
once and again in our Lord's teaching.
The disciples are to take no thought what
they shaU. speak, for the Spirit of their

Fathe, shaU speak in them (Blatt x. 19,
20; Mark xUi. 11)- The lips of Galileaa
peasants are to speak freely and boldly
before kings. The proraise of our Lord to
his disciples, " They shall speak with new
tongues " (Mark xvi. 17), was fulfilled on
the day of Pentecost, -when cloven tongues
like fire sat upon the disciples, and " every
man heard them speak in his own language"
(Acts U. 1-12). IV. The wonder of the
day of Pentecost is, in its broad features,
familiar enough to us. What views have
men actually taken of a phenomenon so
marvellous and exceptional? (I.) The
prevalent belief of the Church has been,
that in the Pentecostal gift the disciples
received a supernatural knowledge of all
such languages as they needed for their
work as Evangelists. 'The knowledge was
permanent. 'Widely diffused as this belief
has been, it must be remembered that il
goes beyond the data with which the N. T.
supplies us. Each instance of the gift
recorded in the Acts connects it, not with
the work of teaching, but with that of
praise and adoration; not with the nor
mal order of men's Uves, but with excep
tional epochs in thera. The speech of
St. Peter which foUows, like raost other
speeches addressed to a Jerusalera audi
ence, was spoken apparently in Araraaic.
When St. Paul, who " spake with tongues
more than all," was at Lystra, there is no
mention made of his using the language of
Lycaonia. It is almost impUed that be did
not understand it (Acts xiv. 11). Not one
word in the discussion of spiritual gifts in
1 Cor. xii,-xiv. implies that the gift was of
this nature, or given for this purpose. Nor,
it raay be added, within the liraits assigned
by the providence of God to the working
of the Apostolic Church, was such a gift
necessary. Araraaic, Greek, Latin, the three
languages of the inscription ou the cross,
were media of intercourse throughout the
erapire, Sorae interpreters have seen their
way to another solution of the difficulty by
changing the character of the rairacle. It
lay not in any new power bestowed on the
speakers, but in the irapression produced
on the hearers. Words which the Galilean
disciples uttered in their own tongue were
heard by those who listened as in their na
tive speech. There are, it is beUeved,
weighty reasons against both the earlier
and later forms of this hypothesis. (1.) It
is at variance with the distinct statement of
Acts ii. 4, " They begau to speak with
other tongues." (2.) It at onco multiplies
the rairacle, and degrades its character.
Not the 120 disciples, hut the whole raulti
tude of many thousands, are in this case
the subjects of it. (3.) It involves an ele-"
ment of falsehood. The miracle, on this
view, was wrought to make men believe
what was not actually the fact. (4.) It is

TONGUES, GIFT OP
altogether inapplicable to the phenomena
of 1 Cor. xiv. Critics of a^negative school
have, as might be expected, adopted the
easier course of rejecting the narrative
either altogether or in part. What, then,
are the facts actually brought before us?
What inferences may be legitimately drawn
from thera? (1.) The utterance of words
by tb.e disciples, in other languages than
their own Galilean Araraaic, is distinctly
asserted. (3,) The words spoken appear
to have been deterrained, not by the will of
the speakers, but by the Spirit which " gave
them utterance." (3,) The word used,
iTtotpSiyyenSai, has in the LXX, a special as
sociation with the oracular speech of true
or false prophets, and appears to iraply
some peculiar, perhaps rausical, soleran in-
fonation (comp. 1 Chr, xxv. 1 ; Ez. xiU,
9), (4,) The " tongues " were used as an
instrument, not of teaching, but of praise.
(5.) Those who spoke thera seeraed to others
to be under the influence of some strong ex
citement, " full of new wine." (6.) Ques
tions as to the raode of operation of a power
above the coramon laws of bodily or mental
life lead us to a region where our woi.U
should be " wary and few." It must be re
membered, then, that in all likelihood such
words as they then uttered had beenjieard
by tho- disciples before. The difference
was, that before, the Galilean peasants had
stood in that crowd, neither heeding, nor
understiinding, nor remembering what they
heard, still less able to reproduce it ; now
they had the power of speaking it clearly
and freely. The Divine work would in this
ease take the forra of a supernatural exalta
tion of the raeraory, not of imparting a
miraculous knowledge of words never heard
before, (7,) The gift of tongues, the
ecstiitic burst of praise, is definitely assert
ed to be a fulfilment of the prediction of
Joel ii. 38. We are led, therefore, to look
for that which answers to the Gift of
Tongues in the other element of prophecy
which is included in the O. T. use of the
word; and this is found in the ecstatic
praise, the bUrst of song (1 Sam. x. 5-13,
xix, 20-24 ; 1 Chr, xxv. 3), (8.) The other
iuDtanccs in the Acts offer essentially the
same phenomena. By implication in xiv,
15-19, by express statement in x. 47, xi,
15, 17, xix. 6, it belongs to special critical
epochs. VI, The First Epistle to the Co
rinthians supplies fuller data. The spiritual
gifts are classified and compared, arranged,
apparently, according to their worth. The
facts which may be gathered are briefly
these : (1.) The phenomena of the Gift
of 'Tongues were not confined to one Church
or section of a Church. (2.) The compari
son of gifts, in both the lists given by St.
Paul (1 Cor. xii. 8-10, 28-30), places that
of tongues, and the interpretation of
tongues, lowest in the scale. (3.) The

?15

TONGUES, GIFT CF

mam characteristic of the " tongue " is that
it is uninteUigible, The raan "speaks mys
teries," prays, blesses, gives thiinks, in the
tongue (1 Cor, xiv, 15, 16), but no ono un
derstands hira, (4,) The pecuUar nature
of the gift leads the Apostle into 'what ap
pears, at first, a contradiction, " Tongues
are for a sign," not to believers, but to
those who do not believe ; yet the effect on
unbelievers is not that of attracting, but
repelling. They involve of necessity a dis
turbance of the equilibriura between the un
derstanding and the feelings. Therefore it is
that, for those who believe already, proph
ecy is the greiiter gift, (5.) The " tongues,''-' '
however, raust be regarded as real lan
guages. 'The " divers kinds of tongues " (1
Cor, xii, 28), the " tongues of men" (1 Cor.
xiii, 1), pointto differences of sorae kind, and
it is easier to conceive of these as differences
of language than as belonging tO' utterances
all equally wild and inarticulate. (6.)
Connected with the " tongues," there was
the corresponding power of interpretation,
VI [. (1,) Traces of the gift are found, as
n»« been said, in the Epistles to the Ro
mans, the Galatians, the Ephesians, Frora
the Pastoral Epistles, frora those of St.
Peter and St. John, they are altogether
absent, aud this is in itself significant. (2.)
It is probable, however, that the disappear
ance of the " tongues " was gradual. 'There
raust have been a tirae when "tongues"
were stiU heard, though less frequently, and
with less striking results. For the most
part, however, the place which they had
filled in the worship of the Church was
supplied by the " hymns and spiritual
songs " of the succeeding age. After this,
within the Church we lose nearly all traces
of them. VIII. (i,) A wider question of
deep interest presents itself. Can we find
in the religious history of mankind any
facts analogous to the manifestation of
the "tongues"? The three characteristic
phenoraena are, as has been seen, (1) an
ecstatic state of partial or entire uncon
sciousness ; (2) the utterance of words in
tones startling and irapressive, but often
conveying no distinct raeaning; (3) the
use of languages which tlie speaker at
other times was unable to converse in, (ii,)
The history of the 0. T. presents us with
sorae instances in which the gift of proph
ecy has accorapaniments of this nature
(1 Sara, xix. 24), (iu,) We cannot ex-
elude the false prophets and diviners of
Israel from the range of our inquiry. We
have distinct records of strange, mysteri
ous intonations. The ventrUoquist wizards
"peep and mutter" (Is. viu. 19). The
" voice of one who has a faraiUar spirit,"
comes low out of the ground (Is. xxix. 4).
(iv.) The quotation by St, Paul (1 Cor.
xiv. 21) from Is. xxviii. 11. With the
phenomena of the "tongues" present to

TONGUES, GIFT OF

716

TORTOISE

his mind, he saw in thera the fulfilraent of
the Prophet's words, A remarkable par
aUel to the text thus interpreted is found in
Hos, ix. 7. (v,) The history of heathen
oracles presents, it need hardly be said,
examples of the orgiastic state, in which
the wisest of Gre :-k thinkers recognized tlie
lower type of inspiration, (vi.) More dis
tinct parallels are found in the accounts of
the wilder, raore excited sects which have,
frcra tirae to tirae, appeared in the history
of Christendora. (vii.) The history of the
French prophets at the cdramencenient of
the 18th century presents some facts_ of
special interest. 'What is specially notice
able is, thiit the gift of tongues was clairaed
by them, It is remarkable that a strange
Revivalist moveraent was spreading, nearly
at the same timo, through Silesia, the chief
feature of which was that boys and girls of
tender age were alraost the only subjects of
it, and that they too spoke and prayed with
a wonderful power, (viii,) The so-called
Unknown Tongues, which manifested them
selves first in the west of Scotland, and
afterw.ards in the Caledonian Church in
Regent Square, present a more striking
phenoraenon, and the data for judging of
its nature are more copious. Here, more
than in raost other cases, there were the
conditions of long, eager expectation, fixed
brooding over one central thought, the mind
Btrainecj to a preternatural tension. Sud
denly, now from one, now from another,
chiefly from woraen, devout but illiterate,
mysterious sounds were heard. The man
over whom they exercised so strange a
power, has left on record his testiraony,
that to hira they seemed to embody a more
thiin earthly music, leatUng to the belief
that tbe " tongues " of the Apostolic age
h.ad been as the archetypal melody of which
all the Church's chants and hymns were
but faint, poor echoes. To those who were
without, on the other hand, they seemed
but an unintelligible gibberish, the yells and
gro.ans of raadraen. The speaker was cora
raonly unable to interpret what he uttered.
(ix.) In certiiin exceptional stiites of mind
and body the powers of memory are known
to receive a wonderful and abnormal
strength. In the delirium of fever, in the
ecstasy of a triinee, men speak in their old
age languiiges which they have never hoard
or spoken since their earliest youth. In all
such cases the marvellous power is the ac
companiment of disease, IX. These phe
nomena have been brought together in
order that we raay see how far they respm-
ble, how far they differ frora, those which
we have seen reason to believe constituted
the outward signs of the Gift of Tongues.
Whatever reserablances there raay be, the
points of difference are yet greater. The
phenoraena which have been described are,
with hardly an exception, morbid; the pre

cursors or the consequences of clearly rec
ognizable disease. The Gift of Tongues
was bestowed' on men in full vigor and
activity, preceded by no frenzy, followed
by no exhaustion. The gift of the day of
Pentecost was the starting-point of the long
history of tbe Church of Christ, the witness,
in its very forra, of a universal family
gathered out of all nations. It belonged,
however, to a critical epoch, not to the con
tinuous Ufe of the Church. It implied a
disturbance of the equiUbriuni of man's
normal state. But it was not the instru
ment for building up the Church.
Topaz (Heb. piiddh : Ex, xxviii. 17,
xxxix, 10 ; Ez. xxviii. 13 ; Job xxviii. 19 ;
Rev. xxi. 20). The topiiz. of the ancient
Greeks and Romans is generally allowed to
be our chrysolite, while their chrysolite "is
our topaz- Chrysolite is a silicate of mag
nesia and iron ; it is so soft as to lose its
polish unless worn with care.
To'phel (Deut. i. 1) has been identifled
with Tufileh on a wady of the same name
running north of Bozra towards the S. E.
corner of the Dead Sea.
To'pheth, and once To'phet, was in
the S. E. extremity of the " Valley of the
Bon of Hinnora " (Jer". vii. 31), which is
"by the entry of the east gate" (xix. 2).
The locality of Hinnora is explained else
where. [Hinnom.] It seeras also to have
been part of the king's gardens, and watered
by S.iloam, perhaps a little to tho south of
the present Birket el-Hamra. The name
Tophet occurs only in the Old Testiiraent
(2 K. xxiu. 10 ; Is. xxx. 33 ; Jer. vii. 31,
32, xix. 6, 11, 12, 13, 14). The New does
not refer to it, nor the Apocrypha. Tophet
has been variously translated. The most
natural meaning seems that suggested by
the occurrence of the word in two consec
utive verses, in the one of which it is a
tabrct, and in the other Tophet (Is, xxx,
32, 33). The Hebrew words are nearly
identical; and Tophet was probably the
king's "music-grove" or garden, denoting
originally nothing evil or hateful. Cer
tainly there is no proof that it took its
name from the drums beaten to drown the
cries of the burning victims that passed
through the flre to Molech. Afterwards
it was deflled by idols, and polluted by the
sacriflces of Baiil and the flres of Molech.
Then it became the place of abomination,
the very gate or pit of hell. The pious
kings defiled it, and threw down its altars
and high places, pouring into it all the filth
ofthe city, ti',1 it became the "abhorrence"
of Jerusalem.
Tor'mah occurs only in the margin of
Judg. ix. 31. By a few comraentators it
has been conjectured that the word was ori
ginally the sarae with Arumah in ver. 41.
Tortoise (Heb. tsdb). The tsdb occurs
only in Lev, xi. 29, as the name of souio

TOU

fl7

TRIAL

diicloan aniraal. The Hebrew word raay
be identified with the kindred Ar.abic dhab,
" a large kind of lizard," which appears to
be the Psammosaurus Scincus of Cuvier,
To'u, Toi, king of Hamath (1 Chr, xviU,
9, 10).
TO'Wer. Watch-towers or fortified posts
in frontier or exposed situations are men-
timed in Scripture, as the tower of Edar,
&o, (Gen, xxxv. 21; Mic. iv. 8; Is. xxi. 5,
8, 11, &c.), the tower of Lebanon (2 Sam,
viii. 6). Besides these military structures,
we read in Scripture of towers built in vine
yards as an alraost necessary appendage to
them (Is. V. 2; Matt. xxi. 33; Mark xU.
1), Such towers are still in use in Pales
tine in vineyards, especially near Hebron,
and are used as lodges for the keepers of
the vineyards.
Town Clerk, the title ascribed in our
Version to the magistrate at Ephesus who
appeased the mob in the theatre at the tirae
of the turault excited by Demetrius and his
fellow-craftsmen (Acts xix, 35), The ori
ginal service of this class of raen was to
record the laws and decrees of the state,
and to read them in public.
Trachoni'tis (Luke iii. 1) is in all
probability the Greek equivalent for the
Araraaic Argob, [Argob,]
Trance, (1-) In the only passage
(Nura, xxiv. 4, 16) in which this word
occurs in the English of the O, T, there is,
as the Italics show, no corresponding word
in Hebrew. In tho N. T. we meet with the
word three tiraes (Acts x. 10, xi. 5, xxii.
17), the Vulgate giving " excessus" in the
two forraer, " stupor mentis " in the latter.
The meaning of the Greek and Latin words
is obvious enough. The I'zu-raoi; is the
state in which a man has passed out of the
usual order of his life, beyond the usual
liraits of consciousness and volition. "Ex
cessus," in like manner, became, in ecclesi
astical writers, a synonyme for the condition
of seeming death to the outer world, which
we speak of as a trance. The history of
the English word presents an interesting
parallel. (2.) Used as the word is by Luke,
"the ])hysician," and, in this special sense,
by him only, in the N. T., it would be in
teresting to inquire what precise meaning
it had in the medical terminology of the
time, Frora the tirae of Hippocrates, who
uses it to describe the loss of conscious
perception, it had probably borne the con
notation which it has had, with shades of
meaning for good or evil, ever since, (3.)
We raay compare with these statements the
more precise definitions of raodern racdical
science. 'There the ecstatic state appears
as one form of catalepsy. In catalepsy
pure and siraple, there is " a sudden sus
pension ' of thought, of sensibility, of vol
untary motion." In the ecstatic form of
catalepsy, oa the other hand, " the patient

is lost to all external inipressj,jns, but rapt
and absorbed in sorae object of the im-
agin,atiou," There is, for the raost part, a
high degree of mental excitement. The
patient utters the raost enthusiastic and
fervid .expressions, or the raost earnest
warnings. The ch.aracter of the whole
frame is that of intense contemplative e.x-
citement. The causes of this state are to
be traced commonly to strong religious im
pressions. (4,) Whatever explanation raay
be given of it, it is true of many, if not of
most, of those who have left the stamp of
their own character on the religious history
of mankind, that they have been liable to
pass at times into this abnormal st.ate. The
union of intense feeling, strong volition,
long-continued thought (the conditions of
all wide and lasting influence), aided in
many cases by the withdrawal from the
lower life of the support which is needed
to maintain a healthy Equilibrium, appears
to have been more than the " earthen ves
sel " will bear. The words which speak
of "an ecstasy of adoration" are often lit
erally true, (5.) We are now able to take
a true estimate of the trances of Biblical
history. As in other things, so also here,
the phenoraena are coraraon to higher and
lower, to true and false systeras. We raay
not point to trances and ecstasies as proofs
of a true Revelation, but still less may we
think of them as at all inconsistent with it.
Thus, though we have not the word, we have
the thing in the "deep sleep," the "horror
of great darkness," thiit fell on Abrahara
(Gen, XV. 12). Balaara, as if overcome by
the constraining power of a Spirit mightier
than his own, " sees the vision of God,
falling, but with opened eyes " (Nura,
xxiv, 4), Saul, in like raanner, when the
wild chant of the prophets stirred the old
depths of feeling, hinisdf also " prophesied"
and "fell down" (mo5t, if not all, of his
kingly clothing being thrown off in the
ecstasy of the raoraent) " all that day and
all that night " (1 Sara, xix. 34). Some
thing there was in Jeremiah that raade men
say of bim that he was as one that " is mad
and maketh hiraself a prophet " (Jer. xxix.
36). In Ezekiel the phenomena appear in
raore wonderful and awful forras (Ez. in.
15). (6.) As other eleraents and forms
ofthe prophetic work were revived in "the
Apostles and Prophets " of the N. T., so
also was this. Though different in form,
it belongs to the sarae class of phenoraena
as the Gift oe Tongues, and is connected
with " visions and revelations of the Lord,"
In sorae cases, indeed, it is the chosen chan
nel for such revelations (Acts x,, xi,, xxii.
17-21), Wisely for the raost part did the
Apostle draw a veil over those raore mys
terious experiences (2 Cor, xii, 1-4).
Trespass-offering. [Sin-oefering.]
Trial. A few remarks may here be

TRIBUTE

718

TROOP

added on judicial proceedings mentioned in
Scripture. (1.) 'The trial of our Lord be
fore Pilate was, in a legal sense, a trial for
the offence laesae majestatis ; one which
would be punishable with death (Luke
xxiii. 2, 38; John xix. 12, 15). (2.) 'The
trials of tho Apostles, of St. Stephen, and
of St, Paul, before the high-priest, were
conducted according to Jev/ish rules (Acts
iv,, V. 27, vi. 12, x.xii. 80, xxiU. 1). (3.)
The trial, if it may be so called, of St. Paul
and Silas at Philippi, was held before the
duumviri, on the charge of innovation in
reUgion — a crime punishable with banish
ment or death (Acts xvi. 19, 22). (4.)
The interrupted trial of St. Paul before the
proconsul Gallio was an attempt made by
the Jews to establish a charge of the same
kind (Acts xviU. 12-17), (5.) 'The trials
of St. Paul at Caesarea (Acts xxiv., x.xv.,
xxvi.) were conducted according to Rora.an
rules of judiciiture. (a.) In tho first of
these, before Felix, we observe the eraploy
ment, by tho plaintiffs, of a Roraan advocate
to plead in Latin, {b.) The postponement
ofthe trial after St. Paul's reply, (c.) The
free custody in which the accused was kept,
pending the decision of the judge (Acts
x.xiv. 23-36), The second formal trial
(Acts xxv, 7, 8) presents two new features :
{a.) The appeal, appellaiio or provocatio, tq
Caesar, by St. Paul as a Roman citizen.
The effect of the appeal was to remove the
case at once to the jurisdiction ofthe era
peror, {b.) The conference of the procu
rator with "the council" (Acts xxv, 13),
the assessors, who sat on the bench with
the praetor as consiliarii. But the expres
sion raay denote the deputies frora the
Sanhedrira, (6,) We have, lastly, the
mention (Acts xix, 38) of a judicial assem-
blj which held its session at Ephesus,
Tribute. The .chief Biblical facts con
nected with the payment of tribute have
been already given under Taxes. The
tribute (money) raentioned in Matt, xvii,
34, 25, was the half shekel (= half stater
= two drachniiie), applied to defray the
gener.al expenses of the Temple. Afterthe
destruction of the Temple it was seques-
triitcd by Vespasian and his successors, and
transferred to the Temple of the Capitoline
Jupiter. This "tribute" of Matt. xvU,
24 must not be confounded with the tribute
paid to the Roman eraperor (Matt, xxii,
17), 'The Teraple-rato, though resting on
an ancient precedent (Ex, xxx, 13) was, as
above, a fixed annual tribute of compara
tively late origin. The question whether
the cost of the morning and evening sacri
flce ought to be defrayed by such a fixed
compulsory payraent, or left to the freewiU-
offerings of the people, had boon a contest
ed point between the Pharisees and Sad
ducees, and the former had carried the day
after a long struggle and debate. We have

to remember this when we come to the
narrative of St. Matthew. In a hundred
different ways, the teaching of our Lord
had been in direct antagonism to that of
the Pharisees. The Sanhedrim, by raaking
the Temple-offering a fixed annual tax,
collecting it as men collected tribute to
Caesar, were lowering, not raising, the re
ligious condition and character ofthe peo
ple. They were placing every Israelite on
the footing of a " stranger," not on that of
a " son," In proportion to the degree in
which any man could claim the title of a
Son, of God, in that proportion was he
" free " from this forced exaction. Hence
we see, in these words, a precept as wide
and far-reaching as the yet more raeraora
ble one, " Render unto Caesar the things
that be Caesar's, and unto God the things
that be God's."
Tribute-money, [Taxes ; Tribute.j
Trip'olis, the Greek narae of a Phoeni
cian city of great commercial importance,
which served at one time as a point of fed
eral union for Aradus, Sidon, and Tyre.
What its Phoenician name was is unknown
(2 Macc. xiv. 1), The ancient Tripolis
was finally destroyed by the Sultan El
Mansour in the year 1289 a. d. ; and the
modern Turablous is situated a couple of
miles-distant to the east, and is no longer
a port. El Myna, which is perhaps on the
site of the ancient Tripolis, is a small fish
ing viUage,
Tro'as, the city from which St. Paul
flrst sailed, in consequence of a divine in
timation, to carry the Gospel from Asia to
Europe (Acts xvi, 8, 11). It is mentioned
on other occasions (Acts xx. 5, 6 ; 2 Cor.
n. 12, 13 ; 2 Tim, iv. 13). Its fuU name
was Alexandria Troas (Liv. xxxv. 42), and
sometimes it was called simply Alexandria,
sometimes simply 'Troas. It was flrst built
by Antigonus, under the ,narae of Antigonea
Troas, and peopled with the inhabitants of
some neighboring cities. Afterwards it was
embellished by Lysimachus, and named
Alexandria Troas, Its situation was on
the coast of Mysia, opposite the S. E, ex
tremity of the isliind of Tenedos. Under
the Romans it was one of the raost irapor
tant towns ofthe province of Asia. In the
time of St, Paul it was a colonia with the
Jus Italicum. The modern name is Eski-
Stamboul, with considerable ruins. We can
still trace the harbor iu a basin about 400
feet long and 200 broad.
Trogyl'lium is the rocky extreraity of
the ridge of Mycale, exactly opposite Sa
mos (Acts XX. 15). A little to the east of
the extreme point there is an anchorage,
which is StUl called St. Paul's Port. [Sa
mos,] Troop, Band. These words are em
ployed to represent the Hebrew word
gidAd, which has invariably the een.s'i of an

TROPHIMUS

719

TUBAL-CAIN

irregular force, gathered with the object of
marauding and plunder.
Troph'imus. Both he and Tychicus
accompanied St. Paul from Macedonia as
far as Asia, but Tychicus seems to have re
mained there, while Trophimus proceeded
with the Apostle to Jerusalem. There he
was the innocent cause of the turault in
which St. Paul was apprehended (Acts xxi.
27-29). From this passage we learn two
new facts, viz. that Trophiraus was a Gen
tile, and that he was a native of Ephesus.
Trophimus was probably one of the two
brethren who, with Titus, conveyed the 2d
Epistle to the Corinthians (2 Cor. viii. 16-
24). [Tychicus.]
Trumpet. [Cornet.]
Trumpets, Feast of (Num. xxix. 1 ;
Lev. xxiii. 24), the feast of the new moon,
which fell on tho flrst of Tizri. It differed
frora the ordinary festivals of the new raoon
in several iraportant particulars. It was
one of the seven days of Holy Convocation.
Instead of the mere blowing of the trum
pets of the Teraple at the tirae of the offer
ing of the sacrifices, it was " a day of blow
ing of trumpets." In addition to the daily
sacrifices and the eleven victims offered on
the first of every month, there were offered
a young bullock, a rara, and seven larabs
,of the first year, with the accustomed meat
offerings, and a kid for a sin-offering (Num.
xxix. 1-0). The regulai: monthly offering
was thus repeated, with the exception of
the young bullock. It has been conjec
tured th.at Ps. Ixxxi., one of the songs of
Asaph, was coraposed expressly for the
Feast of Trurapets. The Psalm is used
in the service for the day by the raodern
Jews. Various meanings have been as
signed to the Feast of Trumpets. But
there seems to be no sufficient reason to
call in question the coraraon opinion of
Jews and Christians, that itwas the festival
of the New Year's Day of the civil year,
the first of Tizri, the month which com
menced the Sabhatical year and the year
of Jubilee. I
Tryphe'na and Trypho'sa, two Chris
tian women at Rome, enumerated iu the
conclusion of St, Paul's letter (Rom, xvi.
13)., They may have been sisters, but it is
more likely that they were fellow-deacon
esses. We know nothing more of these
two sister-workers of the Apostolic tirae.
It is an interesting fact that the columbaria
of "Caesar's household," in the Vigna
Codini, near Porta S. Sebastiano, contain
the name Tryphena.
Try'phon, a usurper of tbe Syrian
throne. His proper narae was Diodotus,
and the surnarae Tryphon was given to
him, or adopted by him, after his accession
to power. He was a native of Cariana.
In the tirae of Alexander Balas he was
attached to the court; but towards the close

of his reign he seeras to have joined in the
conspiracy which was set on font to transfer
the crown of Syria to Ptolemy PhUometor
(1 Macc. xi. 13). Afterthe death of Alex
ander Balas he took advantage of the un
popularity of Demetrius II. to put forward
the clairas of Antiochus VI., the young
son of Alexander (1 Macc. xi. 39 ; n. c.
145), After a time he obtained the sup
port of Jonathan, and the young king was
crowned (b, o, 144), Tryphon, however,
soon revealed his real designs ou the king
dora, and, fearing the opposition of Jona
than, he gained possession of his person by
treachery (1 Macc. xu. 39-50), and after a
short time put hira to dealh (1 Macc. xiii.
23), As the way seemed now clear, he
murdered Antiochus and seized the su
prerae power (1 Macc, xiii. 31, 32). De
raetrius was preparing an expedition against
hira (b. c. 141), when he was taken prisoner
(1 Macc, xiv, 1-3), and Tryphon retained
the throne till Antiochus VII,, the brother
of Deraetrius, drove him to Dora, from
which he escaped to Orthosia (1 Macc, xv.
10-14, 37-39; b, o. 139). Not long after
wards, being hard pressed by Antiochus,
he committed suicide, or, according to other
accounts, was put to death by Antiochus.
Trypho'sa. [Tryphena.]
Tu'bal is reckoned with Javan and Me
shech araong the sons of Japheth (Gen. x.
2 ; 1 Chr. i. 5) . The three are again asso
ciated in the enuraeration of the .sources
of the wealth of Tyre (Ez. xxvii. 13).
Tubal and Javan (Is. Ixvi. 19), Meshech
and Tubal (Ez. xxxii. 26, xxxviii. 2, 3,
xxxix. 1), are nations of the north (Ez.
xxxviii. 15, xxxix. 2). Josephus identifies
the descendants of Tubal with the Iberians,
that is, the inhabitants of a tract of coun
try between the Caspian and Euxine Seas,
which nearly corresponded to the modern
Georgia. The Moschi and Tibareni are
constantly associated under the names of
Muskai and Tuplai in the Assyrian inscrip
tions. In forraer tiraes the Tibareni were.
probably raore important, and the Moschi
and Tibareni, Meshech and Tubal, may
have been names by which powerful hordes
of Scythians were known tc the Hebrews.
But in history we only hear of tbem as
pushed to the farthest limits of their an
cient settlements, and occupying merely a
strip of coast along the Euxine. Jn the
tirae of Xenophon the Tibareni were an
independent tribe. Long before this they
were subject to a nuraber of petty chiefs,
whieh was a principal eleraent of their
weakness, and rendered their subjugation
by Assyria more easy. The Arabic Ver
sion of Gen. X. 2 gives Chorasan and China
for Meshech and Tubal ; in Eusebius (see
Bochart) they are lUyria and Thessaly.
Tu'bal-ca'in, the son of Lamech th»
Cainite by his wife ZUlah (Geu. iv. 22)

TURPENTINE-TREE

720

TYRE

He is called " a furbisher of every cutting
instrument of copper and iron,"
Turpentine-tree occurs only once,
viz. in the Apocrypha (Ecclus. xxiv, 16).
It is the Pistacia terebinthus, terebinth-
tree, common in Palestine and the East,
The terebinth occasionally grows to a large
size. It belongs to the Nat, Order Anacar-
diaceae, the plants of which order generally
contain resinous secretions.
Turtle, Turtle-dove (Heb, tdr).
The turtle-dove occurs flrst in Scripture
ill Gen. xv. 9, During the early period of
Jewish history, there is no evidence of any
other bird except the pigeon having been
domesticated, and up to the time of Solo
mon, who .m.ay, with the peacock, have
introduced other gallinaceous birds from
India, it was probably the only poultry
known to the Israelites. It is not improb
able that the palm-dove {Turtur aegyptia-
cus, Temm.) may in 'some raeasure have
supplied the sacrifices in the wilderness,
for it is found in araazing nurabers wher
ever the palm-tree occurs, whether wild or
cultivated. From its habit of pairing for
life, and its fidelity for its mate, it was a
s''yrabol of purity and an appropriate offer
ing. The regular migration of the turtle
dove and its return in spring are alluded
to in Jer. viii. 7, and Cant. ii. 11, 12. Itis
from its plaintive note doubtless that David,
in Ps. Ixxiv. 19, pouring forth his lament
to God, compares himself to a turtle-dove.
The turtle-dove {Turtur auritus, L.) is
most abundant, and in the valley of the
Jordan, an allied species, the palm-dove,
or Egyptian turtle {Turtur aegyptiacus,
Temm.), is by no raeans unooramon,
Tych'icus and Troph'imus, com
panions of St, Paul on sorae of his journeys,
are raentioned as natives of Asia, (1,) In
Acts XX, 4, Tychicus and Trophiraus ase
expressly said to be " of Asia; " but while
Trophimus went with St. Paul to Jerusa
lem (Acts xxi, 29), Tychicus was left be
hind in Asia, probably at Miletus (Acts xx,
15, 38). (2.) How Tychicus was eraployed
in the interval before St. Paul's first ira
prisonment we cannot tell ; but in th.at ira
prisonment he was with the Apostle again,
as we see from Col. iv. 7, 8, Together
with Onesimus, he was doubtless the bearer
both of this letter and the following as well
to Philemon, (3,) The language concern
ing Tychicus in Eph, vi, 21, 22, is very
similar, though not exactly iu the sarae
words. (4.) 'The next references aro in
the Pastoral Epistles, the first in chrono
logical order being Tit. iU. 12. Here St.
Paul (writing possibly frora Ephesus) says
that it is probable he may send Tychicus to
Crete, about the tirae when he hiraself goes
to Nicopolis. (5.) In 2 Tira. iv. 12 (writ
ten at Rome during the second imprison
ment) be says, "I am herewith sending

Tychicus to Ephesus," Probably this mis
sion raay have been connected with the
carrying of the first Epistle. Frora the
same Epistle (2 Tira, iv, 20) we loiirn that
Trophimus had been left by the Apostle a
little time previously, in infirm health, at
Miletus, There is rauch probability iu the
conjecture that Tychicus and Trophunus
were the two brethren who were associated
with Titus (2 Cor. viu, 16-34) in conduct
ing the business of the collection for the
poor Christians in Judaea,
Tyran'nus, the narae of a man in whose
school or place of audience Paul taught the
Gospel for two years, during his sojdirn
at Ephesus (see Acts xix, 9), The pre
sumption is, that 'Tyrannus himself was a
Greek, and a public teacher of philosophy
or rhetoric.
Tyre, a celebrated commercial city of
Phoenicia, on the coast of the Mediterra
nean Sea. Its Hebrew name " Tzor " sig
nifles a rock ; which well agrees with the
site of Sur, the raodern town, on a rocky
peninsula, forraerly an isl.and. There is
no doubt that, previous to the siege of the
city by Alexander the Great, Tyre was sit
uated on an island ; but, according to the
tradition of the inhabitants, there was a city
on the mainland before there was a city on
the island ; and the tradition receives 'some
color from the name of Palaetyrus, or Old
Tyre, which was borne in Greek tiraes by
a city on the continent, 30 stadia to the
south. But a difficulty arises in supposing
that Palaetyrus was built before Tyre, as the
v/ord Tyre evidently means a " a rock," and
few persons who have visited the site of
Palaetyrus can seriously suppose that any
rock on the surface there can have given rise
to the name. It is iraportant, however, to
bear in mind that this question regarding
Palaetyrus is merely archaeological, and
that nothing in Biblical history is affected by
it. Nebuchadnezzar necessarily besieged
the portion of the city on the mainland, as
he had no vessels with which to attack the
isliind ; but it is reasonably certain that, in
the time of Isaiah and Ezekiel, the heart
or core of the city was on tie island,
Whether built before or later than Palae
tyrus-, the renowned city of Tyre, though
it Laid claims to a very high antiquity (Is.
xxiii. 7), is not mentioned either in the
Iliad or in the Odyssey. The tribe of Ca
naanites which inhabited the small tract
of country which may be called Phoenicia
Proper was known by the generic name of
Sidonians (Judg, xviii, 7 ; Is, xxiu. 3, 4,
12 ; Josh, xiii, 6 ; Ez. xxxii, 30) ; and this
name undoubtedly included Tyrians, the
inhabitants being of the same race, and the
two cities being less than 30 English miles
distant from each other. Iu the Bible,
Tyre is named for the flrst time in the Book
of Joshua (xix. 39), where it is adverted to

TYRE

721

TYRE

as a fortified city (in the A. V. " the strong
city "), in reference to the boundaries of
the tribe of Asher. The Israelites dwelt
among the Sidonians or Phoenicians, who
were inhabitants of the land- (Judg, i, 31,
83), and never seera to have had any war
with that intelligent race. Subsequently,
in a passage of garauel (3 Sara, xxiv, 7),
it is stated th.at the enuraeriitors of the cen
sus iu the reign of David went in pursu
ance of their mission to Tyre, amongst
other cities, which must be understood as
implying, not that Tyre was subject to Da-"
vid's authority, but merely that a census
was thus -taken of the Jews resident there.
But the first passages in the Hebrew his
torical writings, or in ancient history gen
erally, which afford glimpses of the actual
condition of Tyre, are in the Book of Sam
uel (2 S.ara. V. 11), in connection with Hi
ram king of Tyre sending ccd.ar-wood and
workmen to David, for building him a pal
ace; and subsequently in the Book of
Kings, in connection wit'n the building of
Soloraon's teraple. It is evident that under
Solomon there was a close alliance between
the Hebrews and the Tyrians. Hiram sup
plied Soloraon with cedar-wood, precious
metals, and workmen, and gave him sailors
for the voyage to Ophir and India, while on
the other hand Solomon gave Hirara sup
pUes of corn aud oil, ceded to him some
cities, and permitted him to make use of
some havens on the 'Red Sea (1 K. ix. 11-
14, 26-28, X. 22). These friendly relations
survived for a time the disastrous secession
of the Ten Tribes, and a century later
Ahab raarried a daughter of Ethbaal, king
of the Sidonians (1 K. xvi. 31), who, ac
cording to Menander, was daughter of Itli-
obal, king of Tyre, When merciintile cu
pidity induced the Tyrians and the neigh
boring Phoenicians to buy Hebrew captives
from- their enemies, and to sell them as
slaves to the Greeks and Edomites, there
commenced denunciations, and, at first,
threats of retaliation (Joel iii. 4-8; Araos
i. 9, 10), When Shalmaneser, king of As
syria, had taken the city of Saraaria, had
conquered the kingdom of Israel, and car
ried its inhabitants into captivity, he laid
siege to Tyre, which, however, successful
ly fesisted his arras. It is iri reference to
this siege that the prophecy agiiinst Tyro
in Isaiah, chap, xxiii., was uttered. After
the siege of Tyre by Shalraaneser (which
must have taken place not long after 721
B. c), 'Tyro rora.ained a powerful state with
its own "kings (Jer. xxv. 22, xxvu. 3 ; Ez.
xxviii.' 2-12), remarkable for its wealth,
with territory on the mainland, and pro
tected by strong fortifications (Ez, xxviU.
5, xxvi. 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, x.xvn, 11 ; Zech. ix.
3). Our knowledge of its condition thence
forward iintU the siege by Nebuchadnezzar
depends entirely on various notices of it

by the Hebrew prophets ; but sorae of these
notices are singularly full, and especially
the twenty-seventh chapter of Ezekiel fur
nishes us, on sorae points, with details such
as have scarcely come down to us respecting
any one city of antiquity, excepting Rorae
and Athens. One point especially arrests
the attention — that 'Tyre, like its splendid
daughter Carthage, eraployed mercenary
soldiers (Ez, xxvu, 10, 11), Independently,
however, of this fact respecting Tyrian raer-
cen.ary soldiers, Ezekiel gives interesting
details concerning the trade of Tyre. It ap
pears that its gold came from Arabia by tbe
Persian Gulf (v. 33), just as in the time of
Solomonit came from Arabia by the Red Sea.
On the other hand, the silver, iron, lead,
and tin of Tyre came frora a very different
quarter of the world, viz. from the south
of Spain, where the Phoenicians had es
tablished their settleraent of 'Tarshish, or
Tartessus. As to copper, we should have '
presuraed that it was obtained from the val
uable mines in Cyprus ; but it is mentioned
here in conjunction with Javan, 'Tubal, and
Meshech, which points to the districts on
the south of the Black Sea, in the neigh
borhood of Armenia, in the southern Une
of the Caucasus, between the Black Sea
and the Caspian. The country whence Tj re
was supplied with wheat was Palestine.
Tyre likewise obtained frora Palestine oil,
honey, and balm, but not wine iipparently,
notwithstanding the abundance of grapes
and wine in Judah (Gen. xlix. 11). The
wine was iraported from Daraascus, and
was called wine of Helbon. The Bedcuin
Arabs supplied 'Tyre with lambs and rams
and goats. Egypt furnished linen for sails.
and the dyes from shell-fish were imnortcd
frora the Peloponnesus. Lastly, frora De
dan in the Persian Gulf, horns of ivory
and eoony were imported, which raust
originally have been obtained frora India
(Ez. xxvii. 10, 11, 22, 12, 13, 17, 18, 21, 7,.
15), 111 the raidst of great prosperity and
wealth, which was the natural result of
such an extensive trade (Ez, xxviii. 4),
Nebuchadnezzar, at the head of an army
of the Chaldees, invaded Judaea, and cap
tured Jerusalem. As Tyre was so near to
Jerusalem, and as the conquerors were a
fierce and formidable race (H.ab. i. 6), if
would naturally be supposed that this
event would have excited alarm and terror
araongst the 'Tyrians. Instead of this, we
raay infer from Ezekiel's statement (xxvi.
2) that their predominant feeling was one
of exultation. At first sight this appears
strange and almost inconceivable; but it
is rendered intelligible by some previous
events in Jewish history. Only 34 years
before the destruction of Jerusalem com
raenced the celebrated Reformation of
Josiah, B. o, 622, This moraentous reli
gious revolution (2 K, xxU,, xxiii,) fully

TYRE

722

ULAI

explains the exultation and malevolence
of the Tyrians, In that Reformation,
Josiah had heaped insults on the gods who
were the objects of Tyrian veneration and
love. Indeed, he seemed to have en
deavored to exterminate their religion (2
K, xxiii, 20). These acts must have been
regarded bji the Tyrians as a series of
sacrilegious and abominable outrages ; and
we can scarcely doubt that the death in
battle of Josiah at Megiddo, and the subse
quent destruction of the city and Temple
of Jerusalera, were hailed by them with
triumphant joy as instances of divine ret
ribution in human affairs. This joy, how
ever, must soon have given way to other
feelings, when Nebuchadnezzar invaded
Phoenicia, and laid siege to Tyre, That
siege lasted thirteen years, and it is still a
disputed point whether Tyre was actually
tiiken by Nebuchadnezzar on this occasion.
However this may be, it is probable that,
on sorae terms or other. Tyre submitted to
the Chaldees, The rule of Nebuchadnez
zar over Tyre, though real, miiy have been
light, and in the nature of an alliance.
During the Persian doraination the Tyrians
were subject in name to the Persian king.
and may have given him tribute. With
the rest of Phoenicia, they had submitted
to the Persians without striking a blow.
Towards the close of the following cen
tury, B, 0, 332, Tyre was assailed for the
third time by a great conqueror. At that
time Tyre was situated on an island nearly
half a mile from the mainland ; it was com
pletely surrounded by prodigious walls, the
loftiest portion of which on the side front
ing the mainland reached a height of not
less than 150 feet; and notwithstanding the
persevering efforts of Alexander, he could
not have succeeded in his atterapt, if the
harbor of Tyre to the north had not bfeen
blockaded by the Cyprians, and that to the
south by the Phoenicians, thus affording
an opportunity to Alexander for uniting
the island to the raainland by an enormous
artificial mole. The iraraediate results of
the capture by Alexander were raost dis
astrous to it, as its brave defenders were
put to death ; and in accordance with the
barbarous policy of ancient tiraes, 30,000
of its inhabitants, including slaves, free
feraales and free children, were sold as
slaves. It gradually, however, recovered
its prosperity through the iraraigration of
fresh settlers, though its trade is said to
hiive suffered by the vicinity and rivalry of
Alexandria. Under the Macedonian suc
cessors of Alexander it shared the fortunes
of the Seleucidae. Under the Roraans, at
firs tit con tinued to enjoy a kind of freedora.
Sa'osequently, however, on, the arrival of
Augustus in the East, he is sa.id to have
-Oeprived both Tyre and Sidon of their liber-
lies for seditious conduct. StiU the pros

perity of Tyre in the time of Augu.stu3 wag
undeniably great. Strabo gives an account
of it at that period, and speaks of the
great wealth which it derived from the
dyes of the celebrated Tyrian purple,
which, as is well known, were extracted
from shell-fish found on the coast, belong
ing to a species of the genus Murex. 'The
accounts of Strabo and PUny have a pecu
liar interest in this respect, that they tend
to convey an idea of what the city must
have been, when visited by Christ (Matt.
XV. 21; Mark vU- 24), It was perhaps
more populous than" Jerusalera, and if so,
it was undoubtedly the largest city which
he is known to have visited. ,^t the time
of the crusades Tyre was still a flourish
ing city, when it surrendered to the Chris
tians on the 27th of June, 1144. It con
tinued more than a century and a half in
the hands of Christians, but was deserted
by its inhabitants in a. d. 1291, upon the
conquest of Acre (Ptolemais) by the Sul
tan of Egypt and Damascus. This was
the turning-point in the history of Tyre,
which has not yet recovered from the blow.
Since the beginning of the present century
there has been a partial revival of pros
perity. Ty'rus. This form is employed in the
A. V. of the Books of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, '
Hosea (Joel has "Tyre"), Amos, Zech
ariah, as follows : Jer. xxv. 22, xxvU. 3,
xlvii. 4 ; Ezek. xxvi. 2, 8, 4, 7, 16, xxvu.
2, 3, 8, 32, xxviu. 2, 12, xxix. 18 ; Hos. ix.
13 ; Am. i. 9, 10 ; Zech. ix. 2. 3.

u.
IT'cal. According to the received text
of Prov. xxx. 1, Ithiel and Ucal must be
regarded as proper names ; and if so, they
must be the names of disciples or sous of
Agur the son of Jakeh, au unknown sage
araong the Hebrews. But there is great
obscurity about the passage. Ewald con
siders both Ithiel and Ucal as syrabolical
names, eraployed by the poet to designate
two classes of thinkers to whora he ad
dresses himself.
TJ'el, one of the faraily of Bani, who
during the Captivity had married a foreign
wife (Ezr. x. 34).
Uk'naZ- In the margin of 1 Chr. iv.
15 the words "even Kenaz" in the text
are rendered " Uknaz," as the proper narae.
U'lai is mentioned by Daniel (viu. 2,
16) as a river near to Susa, where he saw
his vision of the ram and the he-goat. It
has heen generally identified with the Eu
laeus of the Greek and Roman geographers,
a large streara in the immediate neighbor
hood of that city. The Eulaeus has been
by many identifled with the Choaspes,

-ULAM

723

UNCLEANNESS^

whiuh IS undoubtedly the modern Kerkhah,
an affluent of the Tigris, flowing into it a
Uttle below Kurnah.
"Criam. 1. A descendant of GUead, the
gran-lson of Manasseh, and father of Bedan
(1 Chr. vU. 17). 2. The flrst-born of
Eshtk, a descendant of the house of Saul
(1 Chr. viu. 39, 40).
Dl'la, an Asherite, head of a famUy in
his tribe (1 Chr. vU. 39).
U m'mah, one of the cities of the allot-
meut of A.sber (Josh. xix. 80 only). Prob
ably 'Alma in the highlands on the coast,
about flve miles E. N. E. of Ras en-Nak-
hiira. Ujielean Meats. These were things
strangled, or dead of themselves, or through
beasta or birds of prey ; whatever beast did
not both part the hoof and chew the cud;
and certain other sraaller aniraals rated as
" erf eping things ; " certain classes of birds
mendoned in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv., twenty
ortwenty-onp in all ; whatever in the waters
had not both flns and scales ; whatever
wiuged insect had not besides four legs the
two hind-legs for leaping; besides things
offered iu sacrifice to idols ; and all blood
or whatever contained it (save perhaps the
blood of fish, as would appear frora that
only of beast and bird being forbidden.
Lev. vii, 36), and therefore flesh cut frora
the Uve animal ; as also all fat, at any rate
that disposed in masses among the intes-
titcs, and probably wherever discernible
and separable among the flesh (Lev. Ui.
14-17, vii. 33). The eating of blood was
prohibited even to "the stranger that so-
jourueth among you" (Lev. xvii. 10, 12, 13,
14), As regards blood, the prohibition in
deed dates from the declaration to Noah
against " flesh with the life thereof, which
is the blood thereof," in Gen, ix. 4, which
was perhaps regarded by Moses- as still
-binding upon all Noah's descendants. It
is noteworthy that the practical effect of
the rule laid down is to exclude all the
carnivora among quadrupeds, and, so far
as we can interpret the nomenclature, the
rapiores araong birds. The-y were proba
bly excluded as being not averse to huraan
carcasses, and in most Eastern countries
acting as the servitors of the battle-fleld
and the gibbet. . Even swine have been
known so to feed ; and further, by their
constant runcation among whatever lies on
the ground, suggest irapurity, even if they
were not generally foul feeders. Amongst
fish those which were allowed . contain un
questionably the most wholesome varieties,
save that they exclude the oyster. Practi
cally the law left araong the allowed raeats
an ample variety, and no inconvenience
was lUkely to arise frora a prohibition to
eat camels, horses, and asses. As Orien
tals have minds sensitive to teaching by
types, thjre cai be Uttle doubt that such

cereraoniai distinctions not only tended to
keep Jew and Gentile apart, but were a
perpetual rerainder to the forraer that he
and the latter were not on one level before
God. Hence, when that cereraony was
changed, we find that this was the very
syrabol selected to instruct St, Peter in the
truth that God was not a "respecter of
persons." It was no mere question of
which among several means of supporting
life a man chose to adopt, when the perse
cutor dictated the alternative of swine's
flesh or the loss of life itself, but whether
he should surrender the badge aad type of
that privilege by which Israel stood as the
favored nation before God (1 Macc. i. 63,
64; 2 Macc. vi. 18, vii, 1). The samo
feeling led to the exaggeration of the Mo
saic regulations, until it was " unlawful for
a man that was a Jew to keep company
with or come unto one of another nation "
(Acts X. 38) ; and with such intensity were
badges of distinction cherished, that the
wine, bread, oil, cheese, or anything cooked
by a heathen, were declared unlawful for a
Jew to eat. It remains to mention the s.an-
itary aspect of the case. Swine are said to
be peculiarly liable to disease in their own
bodies. This probably means that they are
more easily led than other creatures to the
foul feeding which produces it. As regards
the aniraals allowed for food, coraparing
them with those forbidden, there can be no
doubt on which side the balance of whole-
soraeness lies.
Uncleanness. The distinctive idea
attached to ceremonial uncleanness among
the Hebrews was, that it cut a person off
for the time from social privileges, and left
his citizenship araong God's people for the
while in abeyance. There is an intense
reality in the fact of the Divine Law tak
ing hold of a raan by the ordinary inflrmi-
ties of flesh, and setting its starap, as it
were, in the lowest clay of which he is
moulded. The sacredness attached to the
huraan body is parallel to that which in
vested the Ark of the Covenant itself. It
is as though Jehovah thereby would teach
thera that the "very hairs of their head
were all nurabered" before hira, and that
" in his book were all their members writ
ten," Thus was inculcated, so to speak, a
bodily holiness. Nor -were the Israelites to
be only " separated frora other people," but
they were to be " holy unto God " (Lev, xx,
34, 36), " a kingdora of priests, and a holy
nation." The iraportance to physical well-
being of the injunctions which required
frequent ablution, under whatever special
pretexts, can be but feebly appreciated in
our cooler and daraper cliraate. Unclean
ness, as referred to man, may be arranged
in three degrees ; (1) that which deflled
raerely " until even," andwas removed by
bathing and washing the clothes at the end

UNDERGIRDING

72't

UR

of it — such were all contacts with dead
aniraals ; (2) that graver sort which deflled
for seven days, find was reraoved by the
use of the "water of separation " — such
were all deflleraents connected with tbe
human corpse ; (3) uncleanness from the
morbid, puerperal, or menstrual state, last
ing as long as that morbid state lasted ; and
in the case of leprosy lasting often for life.
As the human person was itself the seat of
a covenant-token, so male and feraale had
each their ceremonial obligations in pro
portion to their sexual differences. There
is an emphatic reminder of huraan weak
ness in the fact of birth and death — man's
passage alike into and out of his mortal
state — being marked with a stated pollu
tion. The corpse bequeathed a deflleinent
of seven d.ays to all who handled it, to the
" tent" or charaber of death, and to sundry
things within it. Nay, contact with one
slain in the field of battle, or with even a
human bone or grave, was no less effectual
to pollute, than that with a corpse dead by
the course of nature (Num. xix. 11-18).
'This shows that the source of pollution lay
in the mere fact of death. The duration
of defilement caused by the birth of a
feraale infant, being double that due to a
male, extending respectively to eighty and
forty days in all (Lev, xii, 2-5), raay per
haps represent the woman's he.avier share
in the first sin and first curse (Gen. iii. 16 ;
1 Tim. ii. 14). Amongst causes of deflle
inent should be noticed the fact that the
ashes of the red heifer, burnt whole, which
were mixed with water, and becarae tbe
standing resource for purifying unclean
ness in the second degree, themselves be
came a source of defllement to all who
were clean, even as of puriflcation to the
unclean, and so the water. Somewhat sim
ilarly the scape-goat, who bore away the
sins of the people, defiled hira who led hira
into the wilderness, and the bringing forth
and Burning the sacriflce on the Great Day
of Atonement had a sirailar power. This
lightest forra of uncleanness was expiated
by biithing the body and washing the
clothes. Besides the water of purification
made as aforesaid, raen and woraen, in their
" issues," were, after seven days, reckoned
from the cessation of the disorder, to bring
two turtle-doves or young pigeons to be
killed by the priests, AU these kinds of
uncleanness disqualifled for holy func
tions : as tho liiynian so affected raight
not approach the congregation and the
sanctuary, so any priest who incurred de
filement must abstain frora holy things
(Lev. xxii. 2-8). [Leprosy.] The re
ligion of the Persiiins shows a singularly
close correspondence with tho Levitical
code. Undergirding, Acts xxvii. 17. [Ship.]
TJniBorn, the rendering ofthe A. V. of

the Hebrew RH&m, a word wh.^/i ccurs
seven times in the O. T. as tho narae of
sorae large wild aniraal. The Riim ofthe
Hebrew Bible, however, has nothing at aU
to do with the one-horned animal of the
Greek and Roman writers, as is evident
from Deut. xxxiii. 17, where, in the bless
ing of Joseph, it is said, " His glory is Uko
the flrstling of his bullock, and his horns
are like the horns of a unicorn " not, as the
text of the A. V. renders it, " the horns of
unicorns." The two horns of the ReSm
are " the ten thousands of Ephraim and
the thousands of Manasseh." This text
puts a one-horned animal entirely out of
the question. Considering that the Ri6m
is spoken of as a two-horned aniraal of
great strength and ferocity, that it was
evidently well known and often seen by
the Jews, that it is mentioned as an ani
raal flt for sacriflcial purposes, and that it
is frequently associated with bulls and oxen,
we think there can be no doubt that sorae
species of wild-ox is intended. The allu
sion in Ps. xcii. 10, " But thou shalt lift
up, as a Ri&ym, ray horn," seems to point
to the mode in which the Bovidae use their
horns, lowering the head and then tossing
it up. But it is impossible to determine
what particular species of wild-ox is signi
fied. Probably some gigantic Urus is in
tended. Un'ni. 1. One ofthe Levite doorkeep
ers in the time of David (1 Chr. xv. 18,
20). 2. A second Levite (unless the fam
ily ofthe foregoing be intended), concerned
in the sacred office after the Return from
Babylon (Neh. xii. 9).
U'phaz, Jer. x. 9 ; Dan. x. 5. [Ophir.]
Ur was the land of Haran's nativity
(Gen. xi. 28), the place from whic'n Terah
and Abr.aham started "to go into the land
of Cana.an" (Gen. xi. 81). It is called in
Genesis " Ur of the Chaldaeans," while in
the Acts St. Stephen places it, by implica
tion, in Mesopotaraia (vii. 2, 4). These
are all the indications which Scripture
furnishes as to its locality. It has' been
identified by. the raost ancient triiditions
with the city of Or-fah in the highlands of
Mesopotaraia, which unite tbe table-land
of Arraenia to the valley of the Euphrates.
Ill later ages it was called Edessa, aiid was
celebrated as the capital of Abgarus or Ac-
barus, who was said to have received the
letter and portrait of our Saviour. " Two
physical features raust have secured Orfah,
frora the earliest tiraes, as a nucleus for the
civilization of those regions. One is a high-
crested crag, the natural fortifications of
the crested citadel. . . . The other is an
abundant spring, issuing in a pool of
transparent clearness, and embosoraed in
a mass of luxuriant verdure, which, araidst
the dull brown desert all around, raakes,
and must always have made, this spot an

URBANE

725

URIJAH

oasis, a.paradise, in the Chaldaean wilder
ness. Round this sacred pool, ' The Beau
tiful Spring Callirrhoe,' as it was called by
the Greek writers, gather tho modern tra
ditions of the Patriarch." (Stanley, -lewish
Church, p.art i., p. 7.) But in opposition to
the most ancient traditions, raany raodern
writers have fixed the site of Ur at a very
different position, in the extreme south of
Chaldaea, at Mugheir, not very far above —
and probably in the tirae of Abrahara actu
ally upon — the head of the Persian Gulf.
Araong the ruins which are now seen at the
spot, are the reraains of oue of the great
temples, of a model similar to that of Ba
bel, dedicated to the Moon, to whom tho
city was sacred.
Ur'bane would have been better written
Urban in the A. V. ; since unlearned readers
sometimes mistake the sex of this Christian
disciple, who is in the long list of those
whora St. Paul salutes in writing to Rorae
(Rom. xvi. 9).
U'ri. 1. The father of Bezaleel, one
ofthe architects ofthe tabernacle (Ex. xxxi.
2, xxxv. 80, xxxviii. 22; 1 Chr. ii. 20; 2
Chr. i. 5). He was of the tribe of Judah,
and grandson of Caleb ben-Hezron, 2-
Tlie father of Geber, Solomon's commissa
riat officer in Gilead (1 K. iv. 19), 3, One
¦ of the gatekeepers of the temple in the
time of Ezra (Ezr. x, 24).
Uri'ah. 1- One of the thirty comraaiid-
ers of the thirty bands "into which the Is
raelite array of David was divided (1 Chr.
xi. 41; 2 Sam. xxiii, 39), Like others of
David's officers he was a foreigner — a Hit
tite, His name, however, and his manner
of speech (2 Sam, xi, 11) indicate that he
had adopted the Jewish religion. He mar
ried Bathsheba, a woraan of extraordinary
beauty, the daughter of Eliara — possibly
the same as the son of Ahithophel, and one
of his brother officers (2 Sam. xxiii. 34),
and hence, perhaps, Uriah's first acquaint
ance with Bathsheba. It may be inferred
frora Nathan's pariible (2 Sapi. xii. 3) that
he was passionately devoted to his wife, and
that theii- union was celebrated in Jerusalem
as one of peculiar tenderness. In the first
war with Araraon he followed Joab to the
siege, and with hira reraained encamped in
the open field (ib. 11). He returned to
Jerusalem, at an order from the feing, on
the pretext of asking news of the war, —
really in the hope that his return to his
wife might cover the shame of his own
crime. 'The king met with an unexpected
obstacle in the austere, soldier-like spirit
which guided all Uriah's conduct, and
which gives us a high notion of the char
acter and discipline of David's officers
On the morning of the third day, David
sent him back to the camp with a letter
containing the coraraand to Joab to cause
Vis destruction in tha battle. The device

of Joab was, to observe the part of tha
wall of Rabbath- Aramon, where the greatest
force of the besieged was congregated, and
thither, as a kind of forlorn hope, to send
Uriah. A sally took place. Uriah and the
officers with hira advanced as far as tbe
gate of the city, and were there shot down
by the archers on the wall. Just as Jo.ab
had forewarned the messenj:er, the king
broke into a furious passion ou hearing of
the loss. The messenger, .as instructed
by Joab, calmly continued, and ended the
story with the words, " Thy servant also,
Uriah the Hittite, is dead." In a moment
David's .anger is appeased. It is.one of the
touching parts of the story th.at Uriah falls
unconscious of his wife's dishonor. 2.
High-priest in the reign of Ahaz (Is. viii,
2 ; 2 K, xvi. 10-16), We first hear of hira
as a witness to Isaiah's prophecy concern
ing Maher-shalal-hash-baz, with Zechariah,
the son of Jeberechiah. He is probably the
sarae as Urijah the priest, who built the
altar for Ahaz (3 K, xvi, 10), If this be
so, the prophet may have sumraoned him
as a witness on account of his position as
high-priest, not on account of his personal
qualities ; though, as the incident occurred
at the beginning of the reign of Ahaz,
Uriah's irreligious subserviency may not
yet have manifested itself. Of the parent
age of Uriah we know nothing. He prob
ably succeeded Azariah,who was high-priest
in the reign of Uzziah, and was succeeded
by that Azariah who was high-priest in tho
reign of Hezekiah, Hence it is probable
that he was son of the forraer and father
of the latter. 3. A priest of the family of
Hakkoz, the head of the seventh course of
priests (Ezr. viii. 33; Neh. iii. 4, 21).
Uri'as. 1. Uriah, the husband of Batli-
.sheba (Matt, i. 6). 2. Urijah 3 (1 Esdr.
ix. 43).
U'riel, " the fire of God," an angel
named only in 2 Esdr. iv. 1, 36, v. 20, x. 28,
U'riel, 1- A Kohathite Levite, son of
Tahath (1 Chr. vi. 34). 2. Chief of the
Kohathites in the reign of David (1 Chr,
XV, 5, 11). 3. Uriel of Gibeah was the
father of Maachah, or Michaiah, the fa
vorite wife of Rehoboam, and mother of
Abijah (3 Chr. xiu. 3), In 3 Chr, xi. 20
she is called "Maachah the daughter of
Absalom." Rashi gives a long note to the
effect that her father's name was Uriel
Abishalora. Uri'jah. 1- Urijah the priest in the
reign of Ahaz (3 K. xvi. 10), probably the
same as Uriah 3. 2, A priest of the fam
ily of Koz, or hak-Koz, the same as Uriah
3; 3, One of the priests who stood at Ez
ra's right hand when he read the l.aw to the
people (Neh. viU. 4). 4. The son of Shera
aiah of Kirjath-jearim. He prophesied
in the days of Jehoiakim, and the king
sought to put him to death ; but he escapctl.

URIM AND THUMMIM

7it)

UZ

and fled into Egypt. His retreat was soon
discovered : Elnathan and his men brought
him up out of Egypt, and Jehoiakim slew
him with tbe sword, and cast his body forth
among the graves of the comraon people
(Jer. xxvi. 20-23).
U'rim and Thum'mim. When the
.lewish exiles were met on their return frora
Babylon by a question which they had no
data for answering, they agreed to post
pone the settlement of the difficulty till
there should rise up " a Priest with Urim
and Thummim " (Ezr. ii. 63 ; Neb. vu. 65).
The inquiry, what those Urim and Thura-
niira themselves were, seems likely to wait
as long for a flnal and satisfying answer.
On every side we meet with confessions
of ignorance. I/rim means "light," and
Thum-mim "perfection." Scriptural State
ments. — The mysterious words meet us
for the flrst tirae, as if they needed no ex-
pliination, in the description of the high-
priest's apparel. Over the Ephod there is
to be a " breastplate of judgment " of gold,
scarlet, purple, and flne linen, folded square
and doubled, a " span " in length and width
In it are to be set four rows of precious
stones, each stone with the name of a tribe
of Israel engraved on it, that Aaron may
" bear thera on his heart." Then comes a
further order. Inside the breastplate, as
the Tables of the Covenant were placed
inside the Ark (Ex. xxv. 16, xxviii. 30),
are to be placed " the Urim and the Thum,-
mim," the Light and the Perfection ; and
they, too, are to be on Aaron's heart when
he goes in before the Lord (Ex. xxvui
15-30). Not a word describes them. They
are mentioned as things already familiar
both to Moses and the people, connected
naturally -with the functions of the high
priest, as mediating between Jeliovah and
His people The coram.and is fulflUed
(Lev. viii. 8). They pass from Aaron to
Eleazar with the sacred ephod and other
pontificalia (Num. .xx. 28). When Joshua
-^is solemnly appointed to succeed the great
hero -lawgiver, he is bidden to stand before
Eleazar, the priest, " who shall ask counsel
for him after the judgraent of Urira," and
this counsel is to deterraine the movements
ofthe host of Israel (Num, xxvii, 21), In
the blessings of Moses they appear as the
crowning glory ofthe tribe of Levi : " Thy
Thuramim and thy Urira are with thy Holy
One" (Deut, xxxiU, 8,9). In what way
the Urim and Thummim were consulted is
(luite uncertain. Josephus .and the Rabbins
supposed that the stones gave out the orac
ular answer by preternatural illumination.
But it seems to be far simplest and most in
agreement with the different accounts of
inquiries made by Urira and Thummim
(1 Sam, xiv. 3, 18, 19, xxiii. 2, 4, 9, 11, 12,
xxvni, 6; Judg, xx, 28; 2 Siim. v. 23, &c.)
to suppose that the answer was given sim

ply by the Word of the Lord to the high-
priest^ (comp. John xi. 51), when he had
inquired of the Lord clothed with the
ephod and breastplate. Such a view agrees
with the true notion, of the breastplate, of
which it was not the leading characteristic
to be oracular, but only an incidental priv
Uege connected with its fundamental raean
ing. What that meaning was we learn from
Ex. xxviu. 30, where we read, " Aaron shaU
bciir the judgraent of the chUdren of Israel
upon his heart before tbe Lord continually."
Now the judicial sentence is one by which
any one is either justified oi- condemned.
In prophetic vision, as in actual Oriental
life, the sentence of justification was often
expressed by the nature of the robe worn.
" He hath clothed rae with the garraents of
salvation. He hath covered me with the robe
of righteousness, as a bridegrodtn decketh
himself with ornaments, and as a bride
adorneth herself with her jewels " (Is. Ixi.
10) is a good illustration of this ; cf. Ixii, 3.
In like manner,, in Rev. iii. 5, vii. 9, xix.
14, &c., the white linen robe expresses the
rightequsness or justiflcatio'n of saints.
Us'ury , It need- only be reraarked here
that the practice of raortgaging land, sorae
tiraes at exorbitant interest, grew up among
the Jews during the Captivity, in direct
violation of the law (Lev, xxv. 36, 37 ; Ez.
xviii, 8, 13, 17), We find the rate reach
ing 1 in 100 per raouth, corresponding to
the Roman centesimae usurae, or 12 per
cent, per annum. The law of the KnrAn,
like the Jewish, forbids all usury . The laws
of Menu allow 18 and even 24 per cent, as
an interest rate; but, as was the law in
Egypt, accumulated interest was not to
exceed twice the original sum lent. This
Jewish practice was annuUed by Neheraiah.
[Loan.] U'ta, 1 Esdr. V. 30. It appears to be a
corruption of Akkub (Ezr. ii. 45).
U'thai. 1. The son of Araraihud, of
the children of Pharez, the son of Judah
(1 Chr. ix. 4). 2. One ofthe sons of Big
vai, who returned in the second caravan
with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 14).
U'thiL 1 Esdr. viU. 40. [Uthai 2.]
Uz. I. A son of Arara (Gen. x. 23; 1
Chr. i. 17), and consequently a grandson
of Shem. 2. A son of Nahor by Milcah
(Gen. xxii. 21 ; A. V. Huz). 3. A son of
Dishan, and grandson of Seir (Gen. xxxvi.
28). 4. The country in which Job lived
(.Tob i. 1). As far as we can gather, " the
land of Uz " lay either E. or S. E. of Pales--
tine (Job i. 3) ; adjacent to the Sabaeans
and the Chaldaeans (Job i. 15, 17), conse
quently N. of the southern Arabians, and
W. of the Euphrates ; and, lastly, adjacent
to the Edomites of Mount Seir, who at oue
period occupied Uz, probably as conquer
ors (Lam. iv. 21), and whose troglodyta
habits are probably described in Job xxx.

UZAI

727

UZZIAH

B, r. From the above data we infer that
the land of Uz corresponds to the Arabia
Oeserto of classical geography, at all events
to so rauch of it as lies north of the 30th
parallel of latitude. Whether the name of
Uz survived to classical tiraes is uncertain ;
a tribe named Aesitae is mentioned by Ptol
emy, who perhaps may be identified with
the Uz of Scripture.
U'zai, the father of Palal, who assisted
Neheraiah ih rebuilding the city wall (Neh.
iii. 25).
U'zal, the sixth son of Joktan (Gen. x.
27; 1 Chr. i. 21), whose settleraents are
clearly traced in the ancient name of San'd,
the capital city of the Yemen, which was
originally Awzdl. It has disputed the right
to be the chief city of the kingdom of Sheba
frora the earliest ages of which any tradi
tions have come down to us. From its
position in the centre of the best portion of
that kingdora, it raust always have been an
important city, though probably of less im
portance than Seba itself. Uzal, or Awz41,
is most probably the sarae as the Auzara,
or Ausara of the classics. It is perhaps
referred to by Ezek. (xxvii, 19), translated
in the A, V, " Javan, going to and fro."
Uz'za. 1. A Benjamite of the sons of
Ehud (1 Chr, viu, 7). 2, Elsewhere caUed
UzzAU (1 Chr. xin. 7, 9, 10, 11). [Uzzah.]
3. The children of Uzza were a family
of Nethinim who returned with Zerhbbabel
(Ezr. ii. 49; Neh. vU. 51). 4. Properly
" Uzzah." As the text now stands, Uzzah
is a descendant of Merari (1 Chr. vi. 29
[14] ) ; but there appears to be a gap in the
verse. Perhaps he is the sarae as Zina, or
Zizah, the son of Shiraei (1 Chr. xxiu. 10,
11) ; for these names evidently denote the
same person, and, in Hebrew character, are
not unlike Uzzah.
Uz'za, The Garden of, the spot in
which Manasseh kingof Judah, and his son
Amon, were both buried (2 K. xxi. 18, 26).
It was the garden attached to Manasseh's
palace (ver. 18). The fact of its mention
shows that it was not where tbe usual sepul
chres of the kings were. No clew, however,
is afforded to its position.- It has been
suggested thiit the garden was so called
frora being on the spot at which Uzza died
during the reraoval of the ark from Ivirjath-
jearlm to Jerusalem.
Uz'zah, or Uz'za, one of the sons of
Abinadab, in whose house atlQrjath-jearim
the ark rested for 20 years. Uzzah prob
ably was the second, and Ahio the third.
They both accorapanied its reraoval, when
David first undertook to carry it to Jerusa
lem. Ahio apparently went before the new
cart (1 Chr. xiu. 7) on which it was placed,
and Uzzah walked by the side. "At the
threshing-floor of Nachon ".(2 Sam. vi. 6),
or Chidon (1 Chr. xui. 9), perhaps slipping
over the smooth rock, the oxen stumbled.

Uzzah caught the ark to prevent its falling.
The profanation was punished by his in
stant death, to the great grief of D.avid,
who named the place Perez-Uzzah (the
breaking-forth on Uzzah). But Uzzah's
fate was not merely the penalty of his own
rashness. The improper mode of trans
porting the ark, which ought to have been
borne on the shoulders of the Levites, was
the primary cause of his unholy deed ; and
David distinctly recognized it as a punish
raent on the people in general, " because
we sought him not after the due order."
Uz'zen-she'rah, a town founded or
rebuilt by Sherah, an Ephrairaite woman,
the daughter either of Ephraira hiraself or
of Beriah. It is named only in 1 Chr. vu.
24, in connection with the two Bethhorons.
Uz'zi. 1, Son of Bukki, and father of
Zerahiah, in the line of the high-priests
(1 Chr. vi. 5, 51 ; Ezr. vU. 4). Though
Uzzi was the lineal ancestor of Zadok, it
does not appear that he was ever high-
priest. He must have been conteraporary
with, but rather earlier than, Eli, 2. Sou
of Tola the son of Issachar (1 Chr. vii. 2,
3). 3. Son of Bela, of the tribe of Ben
jamin (1 Chr. vii, 7). 4. Another, or the
sarae, frora whora descended sorae Benja
raite houses, which were settled at Jerusa
lem after the return from captivity (1 Chr.
ix, 8). 5. A Levite, son of Bani, and
overseer of the Levites dwelling at Jerusa
lera, in the time of Nehemiah (Neh, xi. 22).
6. A priest, chief of the father's house of
Jedaiah, in the tirae of Joiakira the high-
priest (Neh, xii. 19), 7. Oneof the priests
who assisted Ezra in the dedication of the
wall of Jerusalera (Neh, xii, 42), Perhaps
the sarae as the preceding,
Uzzi'a, one of David's guard, and
apparently a native of Ashtaroth beyond
Jordan (1 Chr. xi, 44).
Uzzi'ah. 1. King of Judah (b. c. 808-
9 — 756-7). In some passages his name
appeiirs in the lengthened form Azariah,
which some attribute to an error of the
copyists. This is possible, but there are
other instances of the princes of Judah
changing their names on succeeding to the
throne. After the raurder of Araaziah, his
sou Uzziah was chosen by the people to
occupy the vacant throne at the age of 16 ;
and for the greater part of his long reign
of 52 yea'rs he lived in the fear of God,
and showed himself a, wise, active, and
pitius ruler. He began his reign by a suc
cessful expedition against his father's ene
mies the Edoraites, who had revolted from
Judah in Jehoram's tirae, 80 years before,
and penetrated as far as the head of the
Gulf of 'Akaba, where he took the impor
tant place of Eliith (2 K. xiv. 22 ; 2 Chr.
xxvi. 1, &c,). Uzziah waged other victori
ous wars in the south, especially against
the Mehuium, or people of Ma^n, and tl<4

UZZIEL

728

VASHTI

Arabs of Gurbaal. Towards the west,
Uzziah fought with equal success against
the Philistines, levelled to the ground the
walls of Gath, Jabneh, and Ashdod, and
founded new fortified cities in the Philis
tine territory. He strengthened the walls
of Jerusalem, He was also a great patron
of agriculture. He never deserted the wor
ship of the true God, and was much in
fluenced by Zechariah, a prophet who is
only mentioned in connection with him (3
Chr, xxvi. 5), So the southern kingdom
was raised to a condition of prosperity
which it had not known since the death of
Solomon, The end of Uzziah was less
prosperous than his beginning. Elated with
his splendid career, he determined to burn
incense on the altar of God, but was op
posed by the high-priest Azariah and eighty
others. (See Ex. xxx. 7, 8; Num. xvi.
40, xviii. 7). The king was enraged at
their resistance, and, as he pressed forward
with his censer, was suddenly smitten with
leprosy. Uzziah was buried "with his
fathers," yet apparently not actually in the
royal sepulchres (3 Chr. xxvi. 33). Dur
ing his reign an earthquake occurred,
which, though not raentioned in the histori
cal books, was apparently very serious in
its consequences, for it is alluded to as a
chronological epoch by Araos (i. 1), and
mentioned in Zech. xiv. 5, as a convulsion
from which the paople " fled." It is to be
observed, with reference to the general
character of Uzziah's reign, that the writer
of tbe Second Book of Chronicles distinctly
states that his lawless attempt to burn in
cense was the only exception to the excel
lence of his administration (3 Chr, xxvii.
3). 2. A Kohathite Levite, and ancestor
of Samuel (1 Chr. vi. 34 [9] ). 3. A priest
of the sons of Harini, who had taken a
foreign wife" in the days of Ezra (Ezr, x,
31), 4. Father of Athaiah, or Uthai (Neh.
xi. 4). 5. Father of Jehonath.an, one of
David's overseers (1 Chr. xxvii. 25).
Uzzi'el. 1, Fourth son of Kohath,
father of Mishael, Elzaphan or Elizaphan,
and Zithri, and uncle to Aaron (Ex. vi. 18,
22; Lev. X. 4). 2. A Siraeonite captain,
son of Ishi, in the days of Hezekiiih (1 Chr.
iv. 42). 8. Head of a Benjamite house, of
the sons of Bela (1 Chr. vii. 7). 4, A
musician, ofthe sons of Heraan, in David's
reign (1 Chr, xxv, 4), 5, A'Lavito, of
the sons of Jeduthun, in the days of Heze
kiah (2 Chr, xxix. 14, 19), 8. Son -of
Harhaiah, probably a priest, in the days of
Neheraiah, who took part in repairing the
wall (Neh, iii, 8), He is described as " of
the goldsmiths," i. e. of those priests whose
liereditary office it was to repair or make
the sacred vessels,
Uzzi'elites, The, the descendants of
Uzziel, and one of the four great faraiUes of
theKohathites (Num, iu. 27 ; 1 Chr. xxvi. 23") .

V,

'Vajez'atha, one of the ten sons of Ha
man whom the Jews slew in Shushan (Esth.
ix. 9).
'Vale, 'Valley. It is hardly necessary
to state that these words signify a hollow
sweep of' ground between two more or less
parallel ridges of high land. The structure
of the greater part of the Holy Land does
not lend itself to the formation of vaUeyS in
our sense of the word- The abrupt transi
tions of its crowded rocky hills preclude
the existence of any extended sweep of
valley. Valley is employed in th'e A. V. to
render five distinct Hebrew words. 1.
'Emek. This appears to approach more
nearly to the general sense of the English
word than any other. It is connected with
several places. 2. Gal or GS. Of this
there is fortun.ately one example which can
be identified with certainty — the deep hol
low which compasses the S. W. and S. of
Jerusalem. This identification estabUshes
the Ge as a deep and abrupt r.avine, with
steep sides and narrow bottom, 3. Nachal.
This word answers to the Arabic vtady,
and expresses, as no single English word
can, the bed of a streara (often wide and
shelving, iind Uke a " valley " in character,
which'in the rainy season may be nearlj'
filled by a foaming torrent, though for tho
greater part of the year dry). 4, Bik'dh.
'This term appears to mean rather a plain
than a valley, though so far resembUng it
as to be enclosed by mountains. It is ren
dered by " valley " in Deut. xxxiv. 3 ; Josh.
xi, 8, 17, xii, 7 ; 2 Chr, xxxv. 33 ; Zech. xii.
11. 5. has-ShefSldh. The (Ustriot to whicli
the name has-Sh^fSldh is applied in the
Bible has no reserablance whatever to a
valley, but is a broad, swelling tract of many
hundred miles in area, which sweeps gently
down from the raountiiins of Judah to the
Mediterranean. It is rendered " the vale "
in Deut. i, 7; Josh, x, 40; 1 K, x, 27; 2
Chr, i. 15; Jer. xxxin, 13; and "the val
ley" or " valleys "^n Josh, ix. 1, xi, 2, 16,
xii, 8, XV. 33 ; Judg. i. 9 ; Jer, xxxii, 44.
'Vani'ah, one of the sons of Bani (Ezr.
X. 36).
Vash'ni, the firstborn of Sarauel as tho
text now stands (1 Chr. vi. 28 [13]). But
in 1 Sara. viii. 2 the name of his firstborn
is Joel. Most probably in the Chronicles
the narae of Joel has dropjied out, and
" Vashni " is a corruption of veshSni, " aud
(the) second."
'Vashti, the "queen" of Ahasuerus.
who, for refusing to show herself to the
king's guests at the royal banquet, when
sent for by the king, was repudiated and
deposed (Esth. i.). Many attempts have
been made to identify her with historical

VEU.

729

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

personages ; but it is far more probable
that she was only one of the inferior wives,
dignified with the title of queen, whose
name has utterly disappeared frora history.
Veil. With regard to the use of the
veil, it is iraportant to observe that it was
by no means so general in ancient as in
luadem tiraes. Much of tlie scrupulousness
in respect of the use of the veil dates frora
Uic promulgation of the Koran, which for-,
bade woraen appearing unveiled except in
the presence of their nearest relatives. . In
ancient tiraes, the veil was adopted only in
exceptional cases, either as an article of
ornaraental dress (Cant. iv. 1, 3, vi. 7), or
by betrothed maidens in the presence of
tlieir futufe husbands, especially at the tirae
of the wedding (Gen. xxiv. 65, xxix. 25),
or, lastly, by women of loose character for
purposes of concealment (Gen. xxxviii. 14).
Araong the Jews of the New Testament age
it appears to have been customary for the
women to cover their heads (not necessarily
their faces) when engaged in public worship.
'Veil of the Tabernacle and Tem
ple. [Tabernacle; Temple,]
'Versions, Ancient, of the Old and
New Testaments, In treating of the
ancient versions that have corae down to
us, in whole or in part, tliey will be de
scribed in the alphabetical order of the lan
guage* Aethiopio Version, — Christianity was
introduced into Aethiopia in the 4th cen
tury, through the labors of Fruraentius and
Aedesius of Tyre, who had been made
slaves and sent to the king. The Aethiopic
version which we possess is in the ancient
dialect of Axura ; hence some have ascribed
it to the age of the earliest missionaries ;
but from the geneiral character of the ver
sion itself, this is iraprobable; and the
Abyssinians themselves attribute it .to a
later period. The Old 'Testament, as well
as the New, was executed frora the Greek,
In 1513 Polken published the Aethiopic
Psalter .at Rorae. In 1548-9 the Aethiopic
New Test, was also printed at Rome, edited
by three Abyssinians, A complete edition
of the Aethiopic Old Test, has been com
menced by Dillmann, the first portion of
which appeared in 1853.
Ab.abic Versions. (I-) Arabic- Ver
sions of the Old Test. (A.) Made from the
Hebrew text. Rabbi Saadiah Haggaon, the
Hebrew commentator of the 10th century,
translated portions (some think the whole)
of the O. T. into Arabic. His version of
the Pentateuch was printed at Constantino
ple in 1546. (B-) Made from the Peshito
Syriac. This is the base of the Arabic text
contained in the Polyglots of the books of
' Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, and Nehe
miah. (C.) Made from the LXX. The
version in the Polyglots of the books not
•peciflcd above. (IL) Arabic Versions of

the New Test. 1. The Roraan ediiio prin-
ceps of the four Gospels, 1590-91. 2. The
Erpenian Arabic. The whole New Test.
edited by Erpenius, 1616, atLcyden, from a
MS. of the 13th or 14th century. 3. The
Arabic of the Paris Polyglot, 1645. 4.
The Carshuni Arabic text {i. e. in Syriac
letters), the Syriac aud Arabic New Test.,
published at Rome, in 1703.
Armenian Version. — Before the Sth
century the Armenians are said to hav«
used the Syriac alphabet ; but at that tirae
Miesrob is stated to have invented the
Armenian letters. Soon after this it is
said that translations into the Armenian
language coraraenced, at first- from the
Syriac. Miesrob, with his companions,
Joseph and Eznak, began a version of the
Scriptures with the Book of Proverbs, and
corapleted all the Old Test. ; and iu the
New, they used the Syriac as their basis,
frora their inability to obtain any Greek
books. But when, in the year 431, Joseph
and Ezhak returned frora the council of
Ephesus, bringing with thera a Greek copy
of the Scriptures, Isaac, the Armenian
Patriarch, and Miesrob, threw aside what
they had already done, in order that they
might execute a version from the Greek.
The first printed edition of the Old and
New Testaments in Armenian appeared at
Arasterdara iu 16G6, under the care of a
person commonly termed Oscan, or Uscan,
and described as being an Armenian bishop.
Chaldee Versions. — Targum, a Chal
dee word of uncertain origin, is the general
term for the Chaldee, or, more accurately,
Araniiiic Versions of the Old Testaraent.
The injunction to " read the Book of the
Law before all Israel ... the men and
women, and children, and the strangers,"
on the Feast of Tabernacles of every Sab
batical year, as a means of soleran instruc
tion and edification, is first found in Deut.
xxxi. 10-13. Araong the first acts under
taken by Ezra towards the restoration of
the primitive religion and pubUc worship is
reported his reading "before the congre
gation, both of men and women,* of the
returned exiles, "in the Book in the Law
of God " (Neh. viii. 2, 8). Aided by those
men of learnuig and em\pence with whom,
according to tradition, he founded that raost
iraportant reUgious and poUtical body called
the Great Synagogue, or Men of the Great
Assembly, he appears to have succeeded in
so firmly establishing regular and frequent
public readings in the Sacred Records, that
later authorities almost unanimously trace
this hallowed custom to times immemorial
— nay, to the times of Moses hiraself. To
these ancient readings in the Pentateuch
were added, in the course of tirae, read
ings in the Prophets (in some Babylonian .
cities even in the Hagiographa), which
were caUed Haftaroih. If, however, ths

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

730

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

priraitive religion was re-established, to
gether with the second Temple, in raore
than its forraer vigor, thus enabling the
sraall number of the returned exiles — and
these, according to tradition, the lowest of
the low, the poor in wealth, in knowledge,
and in ancestry, the very outcasts and ref
use of the nation as it were — to found
upon the ruins of Zion one of the most
iraportant and lasting spiritual common
wealths that has ever been known, there
was yet one thing which neither authority
nor piety, neither academy nor synagogue,
could restore to its original power and
glory — the Hebrew language. The Jews,
on the return from captivity, no longer
spoke the Hebrew language ; and as the
comraon people had lost all knowledge of
the tongue in which the sacred books were
written, it naturaUy followed that recourse
must be had to a translation into the idiom
with which they were farailiar — the Chal
dee or Aramaic. Moreover, since a bare
translation could not in all cases suffice, it
was necessary to add to the translation an
explanation, more particularly of the raore
difficult and obscure passages. Both trans
lation and explanation were designated by
the terra Targum. In the course of tirae
there sprang up a guild, whose special
office it was to act as interpreters in both
senses {Meturgeman) , while forraerly the
learned alone volunteered their services.
These interpreters were subjected to cer
tain bonds and regulations as to the form
and substance- of their renderings. Al
together these Meturgemanim do not seem
to have been held generally in very high
respect ; one of the reasons being probably
that they were paid, and thus made the To
rah " a spade to dig with it," The sarae
causes which, in the course of time, led to
the writing down — after many centuries
of oral transmission — of tho whole body
ofthe 'Traditional Law, engendered also, and
about the sarae period, as it would appear,
written Targums; for certain portions of
the Bible, at least. The fear of the adul
terations and mutUations which the Divine
Word must undergo at the hands of incom
petent or impious exponents, broke through
the rule, that the Targura should only be
oral, lest it might acquire undue authority.
Before, however, entering into a more de
tailed account, we raust flrst dwell for a
short tirae on the Midrash itself, of which
the Targum forms part. The centre of
all raental activity and reUgious action
araong the Jewish coramunity, after the
return frora Babylon, was the Scriptural
Canon collected by the Soferira, or Men of
the Great Synagogue. These forraed the
chief authority on the civil and religious
law, and their authority was tho Penta
teuch. They had, flrst, to explain the exact
meaning of such prohibitions and ordi

nances contained in the Mosaic Books as
seemed not explicit enough for the multi
tude, and the precise application of which
in former days had been forgotten dur
ing the Captivity. Secondly, laws neither
specially contained nor even indicated in
the Pentateuch were inaugurated by them
according to th e new wants of the tiraes
and the ever-shifting necessities of the
growing Coraraonwealth. This juridical
and horailetical expounding and interpret
ing of Scripture is called darash, and the
avalanche of Jewish Uterature which began
silently to gather from the time of the re
turn from the exile and went on rolling un
interruptedly, until about a thousand years
after the destruction of the second Temple,
raay be comprised -under the general narae
Midrash — " expounding." 'The two chief
branches indicated are, Halachah, the rule
by which to go, = binding, authoritative
law ; and Haggadah = saying, legend, —
flights of fancy, darting up from the Divine
Word. The Haggadah did noi pretend tc
possess the slightest authority. The flrst
collections of the Halachah — embracing
the whole fleld of juridico-political, reU
gious, and practical life, both of the indi
vidual and of the nation ; the human and
Divine law to its most minute and insignifl-
cant details — were instituted by .Hillel,
Akiba, and Simon B. Garaaliel; mit the
flnal redaction ofthe general code, Mishna,
is due to Jehudah Hannasi. [See 'Tal
mud.] I. The Targuras were originally
oral, and the earliest 'Targum, which is that
of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, began to be
coraraitted to writing about the 2d century
of the Christian era ; though it did not as
sume its present shape tUl the end of the
3d or the beginning of the 4th century.
So far, however, from its superseding the
oral Targum at once, it was, on the contra
ry, strictly forbidden to read it in public.
Its language is Chaldee, closely .approach
ing in purity of idiom to that of Ezra and
Diiniel. It follows a sober and clear,
though not a slavish exegesis, and keeps as
closely and minutely to the text as is at all
consistent with its purpose, viz, to be
chiefly, and above all, a version for the
people. Its explanations of difficult and
obscure passages bear araple witness to the
corapetence of those who gave it its final
shape. It avoids the legendary character
with which all the later Targuras entwine
the Biblical word, as far as ever circum
stances would allow. As to the Bible Text
from which the Targum was prepared, we
have no certainty whatever on this head,
owing to the extraordinarily corrupt state
of our Targum texts. II. Targum on ihe
Prophets, — viz. Joshua, Judges, Samuel,
Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the
twelve Minor Prophets, — called Targum
OP Jonathan ben Uzziel. We shall proh-

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

731

"VERSIONS, ANCIENT

ably not he far wrong in placing ihis Tar
gura sorae time, although not long, after
Onkelos, or about the middle of the 4th
century. This Targura may fairly be de
scribed as holding, in point of interpreta
tion arid enlargement of the text, the mid
dle plaoe between Onkelos, who only in ex
treme cases deviates into paraphrase, and
the subsequent Targuras, whose connection
with their texts is frequently of the most
flighty character. Ill, and I'^. Targum of
Jonathan- Ben- Uzziel and Jerushalrai- Tar
gum on the Pentateuch. — Onkelos and Jon
athan on the Pentateuch and Prophets,
whatever be their exact date, place, author-
sliip and editorship, are the oldest of exist
ing Targums, and belong, in their present
shape, to Babylon and the Babylonian
academies flourishing between the 3d and
4th centuries a, d. But precisely as two
parallel and independent developraents of
the Oral Law have sprung up in the Pales
tinian and Babylonian Talrauds respective
ly, so also recent investigation has proved
to demonstration the existence of two dis
tinct cycles of Targums on the Written
Law — i. e. the entire body of the Old Tes
tament. The one flrst collected, revised,
and edited in Babylon, called — more es
pecially that p.art of it which embraced the
Pentateuch (Onkelos) — the Babylonian.
The otlier, continuing its oral Ufe, so to
say, down to a much later period, was
written and edited — less carefully, or rath
er with a much more faithful retention of
the oldest and youngest fancies of Metur
gemanim and Darshanim — on the soil of
Judaea itself. Of this entire cycle, how
ever, the Pentateuch and a few other books
and fragmentary pieces only have survived
entire, while of most of the other hooks of
the Bible a few detached fragments are all
that is known, and this chiefly from quota
tions. V. Targums of " Josephihe Blind"
on the Hagiographa. — Those Targums on
the Hagiographa which we now possess
have been attributed vaguely to different
authors. Popular belief fastened upon Jo
seph the Blind. Yet, if ever he did trans
late the Hagiographa, certain it is that
those which we possess are not by his or his
disciples' hands — that is, of the time of
the 4th century. We do not even venture
to assign to them more than an approxi
mate round date, about 1000 A. d.
KGTPTiAN Versions. I. The Memphitic
VersioM -r- The version thus designated
was for a considerable tirae the only Egyp
tian trausliition known to scholars : Coptic
was then regarded as a sufficiently accurate
and deflnite appell.ation. But when the
fact was established that there were at least
two Egyptian versions, the narae Coptic
was found to be indeflnite, and even unsuit
able for the translation then so terraed; for
iu the dialect of Upper Egypt there was

another ; and it is from the ancient Coptos
in Upper Egypt that the lerm Coptic is
t!.ten. Thus Copto-Memphitic, or raore
simply Memphitic, is the better narae for
the version in the-dialect of Lower Egypt.
When Egyptian translations were made we
do not know : probably before the middle
of the 4th century. TVhUe the native
Christians of modern Egypt use only Ara
bic vernacularly, yet in their services and
in their public reading of the Scriptures
they employ a dialect of the Coptic. The
Old Testament of this version was made
from the LXX. II. The Thebaic Ver
sion- — The exaraination of Egyptian MSS. '
in the last century showed that besides the
Meraphitic there is also another version in
a cognate Egyptian dialect. To this the
name Sahidic was applied by some, but
Thebaic is far preferable. III. A 'Third
Egyptian Version. — Some Egyptian frag
ments were noticed amongst the Borgian
MSS., which in dialect diff'er both fi-ora the
Meraphitic and Thebaic. These fragments
of a third Egyptian translation were edited
in the same year (1789). Giprgiand MUn-
ter called the version the Ammonian. The
Charader and Critical Use of ihe Egyptian
Versions, — It appears that the Thebaic
version raay reasonably claim a higher
antiquity than the Memphitic. The two
translations are independent of each other,
and both spring from Greek copies. The
prob.able conclusions seem to be these —
that the Thebaic version was made in the
early part of the third century, for the use
of the coaamon people among the Chris
tians in Upper Egypt ; that afterwards the
Memphitic version was executed in what
was the more polished dialect, from the
Greek copies of Alexandria ; and that thus
in process of time the Memphitic remained
alone in ecclesiastical use.
Gothic Version. — In the year 318 the
Gothic bishop and translator of Scripture,
Ulphilas, was born. He succeeded Tbe-
ophUus as bishop of the Goths in 348;
through hira it is said that the Goths in
general adopted Arianisra. The great work
of Ulphilas was his version of the Scrip
tures. In 388 he visited Consta'ntinople to
defend his heterodox creed, and while there
he died. In the latter part of the 16th cen
tury the existence of a MS- of this version
was known through Morillon having men
tioned that he had observed one in the
library of the monastery of Werden on the
Ruhr in Westpb.alia. In 1648, almost at
the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War,
amongst the spoUs from Prague was sent to
Stockholm a copy of the Gothic Gospels,
known as the Codex Argenteus. On the
abdication of Queen Christina of Sweden,
a few years later, it disappeared. In 1655
it was in the possession of Isaac Vossius in
HoUand. In 1662 it was repurchased for

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

732

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

Sweden by Count Magnus Gabriel de la
Gardie, who placed it in the library of the
University of Upsal, While the book was
in the hands of Vossius a transcript was
made of its text, from which Junius, his
uncle, edited the first edition of the Gothic
Gospels at Dort in 1665, The MS. is writ
ten on vellum that was once purple, in
sUver letters, except those at the beginning
of sections, which are golden. The Gos
pels havo raany lacunae : it is calculated
that when entire it consisted of 330 folios ;
there are now but 188. It is pretty certain
that this beautiful and elaborate MS. raust
have been written in the 6th century, prob
ably in Upper Italy when under the Gothic
sovereignty. New light dawned on Ulphilas
and his version in 1817. While the late
Cardinal Mai was engaged in the exarainii-
tion of palimpsests in the Ambrosian Li
brary at MUan, of which he was at that
tirae a librarian, he noticed traces of sorae
Gothic writing under that of one of the
codices. This was found to be part of the
Books of Ezra and Neheraiah. In raaking
further exaraination, four other palimpsests
were found, Vhich contained portions of
the Gothic 'V'ersion. Mai deciphered these
MSS. in conjunction with Count Carlo
Uttavio CastigUone, and their labors result
ed iu the recovery, besides a few portions
ofthe Old Test., of alraost the whole ofthe
thirteen Epistles of St. Paul and sorae parts
of the Gospels. The edition of G.abelentz
and Loebe (1836-45) contains all that has
been discovered-of the Gothic Version, with
a Latin translation, notes, and a frothic Dic
tionary and Grararaar. In 1855-6 Mass-
raanii issued an excellent sraall edition of
all the Gothic portions of the Scriptures
known to be extant. This edition is said
to be raore correct than that of Gabelentz
and Loebe. As an ancient monument of
the Gothic language the version of Ulphilas
possesses great interest; as aversion the
use of which was once extended widely
through Europe, it is a monument of the
Christianization of the Goths ; and as a
version known to have been raade iu the 4th
century, and transmitted to us in ancient
MSS., it has its value in textual criticism.
In certain passages it has been thought that
there is some proof of the infiuence of the
Latin ; but its Greek origin is not to be
mistaken. The Greek from which the
version wiis made must in many respects
have been what has been termed the Irau-
sitiou text of the 4th century.
Greek Versions op the Old Testa
ment. 1. Septuagint. [See Septuagint.]
2. Aquila. — It is a remarkiible fact that in
the second century there were three ver
sions executed of the Old Testaraent Scrip
tures into Greek. The firsl of these was
made by Aquila, a native of Sinope in
Pontifs, who had become a proselyte to

Judaisra. The Jerusalera Talmud dg,
scribes him as a disciple of Rabbi AKloa,
and this would place bim in some part ol
the reign of tbe Emperor Hadrian (a. d.
117-138). It is supposed that his object
was to aid the Jews ih their controversies
with the Christians. This is a probable
account of the origin of his version. Ex
treme Uterality and an occasional polemical
bias appear to be its chief characteristics.
3. Theodotion. — The second version, of
which we have information as executed in
the second century, is that of Theodotion.
He is stated to have been an Ephesian, and
he seeras to be raost generaUy described as
an Ebionite : if this is correct, his work
was probably intended for those semi-jChris-
tians who may have desired to use a version
of their own, instead of employing the LXX.
with the Christians, or that of Aquila with
the Jews. But it raay be doubted if the
name of translation can be rightly applied
to the work of Theodotion : it is rather a
revision of the LXX, with the Hebrew text,
so as to bring sorae of the copies then in
use into more conformity with the original.
The statement of Epiphanius that he made
his translation in the reign of Coramodus
accords well with its having been quoted by
Irenaeus ; but it cannot be correct if it is
one of the translations referred to by Justin
Martyr as' giving interpretations contrary
to the Christian doctrine of the New Test.
4. Symmachus is stated by Eusebius and
Jerome to have been an Ebionite : Epi
phanius, however, and others style hira a
Samaritan. It may be that as a Samaritan
he made this version for sorae. of that people
who employed Greek, and who had learned
to receive more than the Pentateuch. Epi
phanius says that he lived under the Em
peror Severus. The translation which he
produced was probably better than the oth
ers as to sense and general phraseology.
5. The Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Versions.
— Besides the translations of Aquila, Sym
machus, and Theodotion, the great rritical
work of Origen. comprised, as to pi,»-tions
of the Old Test., three other versions,
placed for comparison with the LXX. ;
which, from their being anonymous, are
only known as the fifth, sixth, and seventh ;
designations taken from the places which
they respectively occupied in Origen's co-
luranar arrangeraent. Eusebius says that
two of these versions were found, the oiie
at Jericho, and the other at Niqopolis on
the gulf of Acthim. Epiphanius says that
the fifth was found at Jericho, and the
sixth at Nicopolis, while Jerome speaks
of the fifth as having been found at tht
latter place. The contents of the fifth ver
sion appear to have been the Pentateuch,
Psalms, Canticles, and the Minur Prophets.
The sixth version seems to ha ve been just
the same in its coatents as the fifth (excej)*

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

733

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

2 Kings), Jerome calls the authors of the
fifth and sixth " Judaicos translatores ; "
but the triinslator of this must have been a
Christian when he executed his work, or
else the hand of a Christian reviser raust
have meddled with it before it was em
ployed by Origen. Of the seventh version
very few fragraents remain. It seems to
have contained the Psalms and Minor Proph
ets; and the translator was probably a
Jew. Tho existing fragments of these varied
versions are mostly to be found in the edi
tions of the relics of Origen's Hexapla, by
Montfaucon and by Bardlit. 6. The Veneto-
Qreck Version. — A MS, of the 14th cen
tury, in the Library of St, Mark at Venice,
contains a peculiar version of the Penta
teuch, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles,
Ruth, Lamentations, and Daniel, All of
these books, except the Pentateuch, were
published by Villoison at Strasburg in 1784 ;
the Pentateuch was edited hy Aramon at
Erlangen in 1790-91,
Latin Versions. [Vulgate.]
Samaritan Versions. [Samaritan
Pentateuch.] Slavonic Version. In the year 863
there was a desire expressed, or an inqtliry
made, for Christian teachers in Moravia,
and in the following year the labors of
missionaries began amongst them. These
missionaries were Cyrillus and Methodius,
two brothers from, 'Thessalonica : to Cyril
lus is ascribed the invention of the Slavo
nian alphabet, and the comraencement of
the translation of the Scriptures. He ap
pears to h.ave died at Rorae in 868, while
Methodius continued, for many years to be
the bishop of the Slavonia'ns. He is stated
to have continued his brother's translation,
although how much they themselves actu
ally executed is quite uncertain. The Old
Testament is, as might be supposed, a ver
sion from tJie LXX. As the oldest known
MS. of the whole Bible is ofthe year 1499,'
it m-ay reasonably be questioned whether
this version may not in large portions be
comparativelji modern. The oldest MS.
of any part of this version is an Evangeli-
ariura, in Cyrillic characters, of the year
1056, The first printed portion was an
edition of the Gospels in Wallachia, in
'513; in 1575 the same portion was printed
at WUna; and in 1581 the whole Bible was
printed at Ostrog in Volhynia. The gen
eral text is such as would have been ex
pected in the ninth century : sorae readings
*rora the Latin have, it appears, been intro-
puced in places.
Striao Versions. I. Of the Old Tes
tament. A. From ihe Hebrew. — In the
early times of Syrian Christianity there
was executed a version of the Old Testa
ment from the original Hebrew, the use of
which must have been as widely extended
as was the Christian profession amongst

that people Ephraem the Syrian, in the
latter half of the 4th century, gives abun
dant proof of its use in general by his coun
trymen. When he calls it our version, it
does not appear to be in opposition to any
other Syriac translation, but in contrast
to the original Hebrew text, or to those in
other languages. At a later period this
Syriac translation was designated Peshito
{Simple). It is probable that this name
was appUed to the version after another
had been formed frora the Hexaplar Greek
text. This translation from the Hebrew
has always been the ecclesiastical version
of the Syrians. Its existence, and use
prior to the divisions of the Syrian Churches
are sufficiently proved by Ephraera alone.
It is highly irap^irobable that any part ofthe
Syriac version is older than the advent
of our Lord. All that the account shows
clearly is, that it was believed to belong to
the earliest period ofthe Christian faith
araong thera. Ephraera, in the 4th century,
not only shows that it was then current,
but also gives the irapression that this had
even then been long the case. Probably
the origin of the Old Syriac version is to
be compared with that of the Old Latin ;
and that it differed as much frora the pol
ished language of Edessa as did the Old
Latin, raade in the African Province, from
the conteraporary writers of Rome. The
Old Syriac has the peculiar value of being
the first version from the Hebrew original
made for Christian use. The proof that
this version was made from the Hebrew is
twofold : we have the direct statements of
Ephraera, tmd we find the same thing as
evident frora the internal exaniin.ation of
the version itself. The first printed edition
of this version was that which appeared in
the Paris Polyglot of Le Jay in 1645. In
Walton's Polyglot, 1657, the Paris text is
reprinted, but with the addition of the
Apocryphal books. In the punctuation
given in the Polyglots, a systera was intro-
(iuced which was in part a peculiarity of
Gabriel Sionita hiraself. Dr. Lee collated
for the text which he edited for the Bible
Society six Syriac MSS. of the Old Test.
in general, and a very ancient copy of the
Pentateuch : he also used in part the coni-
mentaries of Ephraera and of Bar-Hebraeus.
From these various sources he constructed
his text, with the aid of that found already
in .the Polyglots. But there are now iu
England, in the BIS. treasures brought from
the Nitrian valleys, tho means of far more
accurately editing this version. It has
been much discussed whether this transla
tion were a Jewish or a Christian work.
There need be no reasonable objection
made to the 'opinion that it is u. Christian
work. B. The Syriac Version from the
Hexaplar Greek Text. — The only Syriac
version of the O. T. up to the 6th ceuturj

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

734

VERSIONS, ANCIENT

was apparently the Peshito. Moses Aglie-
laeus, who lived in the middle of the 6th
century, speaks of the versions of the N.
T. and the Psalter, "which Polycarp (rest
his soul 1), the Chorepiscopus, made in
Syriac f )r the faithful Xenaias, the teacher
of Mabdg, worthy of the m'eraory of the
good." 'The version by Paul of Tela, a
Monophysite, was made in the beginning
of the 7tli century ; for its basis he used
the Hexaplar Greek text — that is, the
LXX., with the corrections of Origen, the
asterisks, obeli, 'fce, and with the references
to the other Greek versions. The Syro-
Ilcxaplar version was made on the princi
ple of following the Greek, word for word,
as exactly as possible. It contains the
marks introduced by Origen, and the ref
erences to the versions of Aquila, Symraa-
chus, 'Theodotion, &c. In fact, it is frora
this Syriac version that we obtain our raost
accurate acquaintance with the results of
the critical labors of Origen. It is from a
MS. in the Ambrosian Library at Milan
that we possess accurate raeans of know
ing this Syiiac version. The MS. in
question contains the Psalras, Job, Prov
erbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles, Wisdom, Ec
clesiasticus, Minor Prophets, Jeremiah, Ba
ruch, Daniel, Ezekiel, and Isaiah. Be
sides these portions of this Syriac version,
the MSS, from the Nitrian monasteries now
in the British Museum would add a good deal
ni.^re ; amongst these there are six, from
w Hch much raight be drawn, so that part
of the Pentateuch and other books raay be
rt'sovered. II, The Syriac New Testament
Versions. A. Tlie Peshito Syriac N. T. —
It raay stand as an adraitted fact that a ver
sion of the N. T. in Syriac existed in the
Sd century ; and to this wo may refer the
statement of Eusebius respecting Hegesip
pus, that he " made quotations frora the
Gospel according to the Hebrews and the
Syriac," It seeras equally certain that in
the 4th century such a version was as well
known of the N, T. as of the O. T. To the
translation in common use amongst the
Syrians, orthodox, Monophysite, or Nes
torian, from the 5th century and onward,
the n.arae of Peshito has been as coraraonly
applied in the N. T. as the O. T. There
seera to be but few notices of the old Syri
ac Version in early writers. Cosnias In-
dicopleustes, in the forraer half of the 6th
century, incidentally informs us that the
Syriac translation does not contain the
Second Epistle of Peter, 3 .and 3 John,
and Jude. In 1552 Moses of Mardin came
to Rome to Pope Julius III,, commissioned
by Ignatius tho Jacobite (Monophysite)
patriarch, to state his religious opinions,
to effect (it is said) a union with the Ro
mish Church, and to get the Syriac N. T.
printed. In this last object ho failed both
at Rome aud Venice. At Vienna he was.

however, successful, and an edition ap
peared in 1555. In 1828 the edition of
Mr. WiUiiim Greenfield was published by
Messrs. Bagster. This Syriac Version
has been variously estiraated; sorae have
thought that in it they had a genuine and,
unaltered monument of the second, or per
haps even of the first century. Others,
finding in it indubitable marks of a later
age, were incUned to deny that it had any
claim to a very reraote antiquity. The
fact is, that this version, as transraittcd to
us, contains marks of antiquity, and also
traces of a later age. The two things are
so blended, that if either class of phe
nomena alone were regarded, the most
opposite opinions might be formed. It
appears probable that the N. T. of the
Peshito is not from the same hand as the
O. T. Not only may Michaelis be right in
supposing a peculiar translator of the Epis
tle to the Hebrews, but also other parts may
be from different hands ; this opinion will
becorae raore generiil the more the version
is studied. The Cureionian Syriac Gos
pels. — Among the MSS. brought from the
Nitrian monasteries in 1842, Dr, Cureton
noticed a copy of the Gospels, differing
greatly from the common text ; and this is
the form of text to which the narae of
Curetonian Syriac has been rightly ap
plied. Every criterion which proves the
coraraon Peshito not to exhibit a text of
extrerae antiquity, equally proves the early
origin of this. The Curetonian Syriac
presents such a text as we raight have
concluded would be current in the second
century : tbe Peshito has many features
which could not belong to that age; un
less, indeed, we are ready to reject estab
lished facts, and those of a very nuraerous
kind; probably, at least, two thousand.
B. The Philoxcnian Syriac Version, and
iis revision by Thomas of Harkel. — Phi-
loxenus, or Xenaias, a Monophysite, Bishop
of Hierapolis or Mabug at the beginning of
the 6th century, caused Polycarp, his Cho
repiscopus, to make a new translation of
,the N. T, into Syriac. This was executed
in A. D, 508, and it is generally terraed
Philoxcnian, from its promoter. This ver
sion has not been transraittcd to us in the
form in which it was first made ; we only
possess a revision of it, executed by Thoraas
of Harkel in the following century (The
Gospels, A. D. 616). C. Syriac Versions
of Portions wanting in the Peshito. I.
The Second Epistle of Peter, the Second
and Third of John, andihai of .Jude. — They
were published by Pococke in 1630, from "a
MS. in the Bodleian. II, Tlie Apocalypse.
— In 1627 De Dieu edited a Syriac version
of the Apocalypse, from a MS. in the Ley-
den Library, written by one " Caspar, from
the land of the Indians," who lived in the
latter part of the 16th century. III. 37i«

VERSION, AUTHORIZED 735 VERSION, AUTHORIZED

Syriac Version of John viii. 1-11. — From
the MS. sent by Archbishop Ussher to
De Dieu, the^ latter pubUshed this section
in 1631. From De Dieu it was inserted in
the London Polyglot, with a reference to
Ussher's MS,, and hence it has passed with
the other editions of the Peshito, where it
is a mere interpolation. Probably the ver
sion edited is that of Paul of Tela, the
translator of the Hexaplar Greek text into
Syriac. D. The Jerusalem Syriac Ledion-
ary. — The MS. in the Vatican containing
this version was written in a. d. 1031, in
peculiar Syriao writing; the portions are
of course those for the different festivals,
some parts of the Gospels not being there
at all. The dialect is not coraraon Syriac ;
it was terraed the Jerusalem Syriac, frora
its being supposed to resemble the Jerusa
lera Talraud in language and other points.
For critical purposes this Lectionary has a
far higher value than it has for any other :,
its readings often coincide with the oldest
and best authorities. In Adler's ophiion its
date as a version would be from the 4th to
the 6th century ; but it can hardly be sup
posed thiit it is of so early an age, or that
any Syrians then could have used so cor
rupt a dialect.'
Version, Authorized. I. Wtclifte
(b. 1824 ; d. 1384). — Tbe N. T. was trans
lated by WycUffe himself. The O. T, was
undertaken by Nicholas de Hereford, but
was interrupted, and ends abruptly (follow
ing so far the order of the Vulgate) in the
middle of B.aruch. Many of the MSS. of
this version now extant present a different
recension of the text, and it is probable
that the work of WycUffe and Hereford
was revised by Richard Purvey, circ. A. d,
1388- The version was based entirely upon
the Vulgate. The following characteristics
may be noticed as distinguishing this ver
sion: (1) The general homeliness of its
style. (2) The substitution, in many cases,
of English equivalents for quasi-'tecbnical
words. (3) 'The extreme Uteralness with
which, in some instances, even at the cost
of being unintelligible, the Vulgate text is
followed, as in 2 Cor. i, 17-19. II. Ttn-
DAL. — The work of WycUffe stands by
itself. Whatever power it exercised in
preparing the way for the Reformation of
the 16th century, it had no perceptible in
fluence on later translations. With Tyndal
we enter on a continuous succession. He
is the patriarch, in no reraote ancestry, of
the Authorized Version, More than Cr.an-
mer or Ridley he is the true hero of the
English Reformation. " Ere many years,"
he said at the age of thirty-six (a. d. 1520),
he would cause " a boy that driveth the
plough " to know more of Scripture than
the great body of the clergy then knew.
He prepared himself for the work by long
years of Labor in Greek and Hebrew. First 1

the Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark
were published tentatively. In 1525 the
whole of the N, T, was printed in 4to, at
Cologne, and in small 8vo. at Worms. In
England it was received with denunciations.
Tonstal, Bishop of London, preaching at
Paul's Cross, asserted that there were at
least 2000 errors in it, and ordered all
copies of it to be bought up and burnt. An
Act of ParUament (35 Henry VIII. cap. 1)
forbade the use of all copies of Tyndal's
" false translation." The treatment which
it received from professed friends was
hardly less annoying. In the mean time
the work went on. Editions were printed
one after another. The last appeared in
1535, just before his death. His heroic lift;
was brought to a close in 1536. We raay
cast one look on its sad end — tho treach
erous betrayal, the Judas-kiss of the false
friend, the imprisonraent at Vilvorden, t'ne
last prayer, "Lord, open the King of Eng
land's eyes." The work to which a life
was thus nobly devoted was as nobly done.
To Tyndal belongs the honor of having
given the first example of a translation
based on true principles, and the excellence
of later versions has been almost in exact
¦proportion as they followed his. Believing
that every part of Scripture had one sense,
and one only, the sense in tbe raind of the
writer {Obedience, p. 304), he made it his
work, using all philological helps that were
accessible, to attain that sense. Believing
that the duty of a translator was to place
his readers as nearly as possible on a level
with those for- whom the books were origi
nally written, he looked on all the later
theological associations that had gathered
round the words of the N. T. as hinderances
rather than helps, and sought, as far as
possible, to get rid of them. All the ex
quisite grace and siraplicity which have
endeared the A. V. to men of the most
oppositfe tempers and contrasted opinions,
is due mainly to .his clear-sighted truthful
ness. The desire to raake the Bible a
people's book led hira in one edition to
soraething like a provincial, rather than a
national translation, but on the whole it
kept hira free from the besetting danger of
the tirae, that of writing for scholars, not
for the people. III. Coverdale. — A cora
plete translation of the Bible, different from
Tyndal's, bearing the narae of Miles Cover-
dale, printed probably at Zurich, appeared
in 1535. The undertaking itself, and the
choice of Coverdale as the translator, were
probably due to CromweU-. Tyndal's con
troversial treatises, and the polemical char
acter of his prefaces and notes, had irritated
the leading ecclesiastics and embittered
the mind of the king himself against him.
There was no hope of obtaining the king's
sanction for anything that bore his name.
But the idea of an EngUsh translation

VERSION, AUTHORIZED

736

VERSION, AUTHORIZED

begau to find favor. Crorawell, it is prob
able, thought it better to lose no further
tirae, and to- strike while the iron was hot,
A divine whom he had patronized, though
not, like Tyndal, feeUng hiraself called lo
that specijil work, was wilUng to undertake
it, 'To him accordingly it was intrusted.
The work which was thus executed was
done, as raight be expected, in a very dif
ferent fashion frora 'Tyndal's, Of the two
men one had made this the great object of
his life ; the other, in his own language,
" sought it not, neither desired it," but
accepted it as a task assigned to him. He
was content to raake the tr.anslation at sec
ond hand "out of the Douche (Luther's
German Version) and the Xatine," It is
not improbable, however, that as tirae went
on he added to his knowledge. He, at any
rate, continued his work as a painstaking
editor. Fresh editions of his Bible were
published, keeping their ground in spite of
rivals in 1537, 1539, 1550, 1553. He was
called in at a still later period to assist in
the Geneva version, IV- Matthew. — In
the 3'ear 1537, a large folio Bible appeared
as edited and dedicated to the king, by
Thomas M.atthew. No one of that name
appears at all prominently in the religious
history of Henry VIIL, and this suggests
tho inference that the narae was adopted to
conceal the real translator. The tradition
which connects this Matthew with John
Rogers, the proto-raartyr of the Marian
persecution, is all but undisputed, Mat
thew's Bible reproduces Tynd.al's work, in
the N, T, entirely, in the O.' T. as far as
2 Chr,, the rest being taken with occasional
modifications frora Coverdale, The print
ing of the book was begun apparently
abroad, and was carried on as far as the
end of Isaiah, At that point a new pagi
nation begins, and the naraes of tho Lon
don printers appear, A copy was ordered,
by royal proclamation, to be setup in every
church, the cost being divided between the
clergy and the parishioners. • This was,
therefore, the first Authorized Version.
What has been said of Tyndal's Version
applies, of course, to this. There are,
however, signs of a more adv.anced knowl
edge of Hebrew. ' More noticeable even
than in Tyndal aro the boldness and fulness
of the exegetical notes scattered throughout
the book. Strong and earnest in asserting
what he looked on as the central truths of
the Gospel, thore was in Rogers a Luther
like freedom in other things whicli has not
appeared again iii any authorized translation
or popular commentary. V. Taverner
(1539).— The boldness of the pseudo-
Matthew had frightened the ecclesiastical
world from its propriety. Coverdale's
Version was, however, too inaccurate
to keep its ground. It was necessary
to flnd another - editor, and the print

ers applied to Richard T.iiverner. But
little is known of his life. The fact that,
though a layraan, he had been chosen as
one of the canons of the Caiilinal's Col
lege at Oxford indicates a reputation for
scholarship, and this is confirmed by the
character of his translation. Iu most re
spects this raay be described as an expur
gated edition of Matthew's. VI. Cran
mer. — In the same year as Taverner's,
and coming from the same press, appeared
an English Bible, in a more stately folio,
with a preface containing the initials T. C,
which imply the archbishop's sanction.
Cranraer's Version presents, as might be
expected, raany points of interest. The
prologue gives a more complete ideal of
what a translation ought to be than we have
as yet seen. Words not in the original are
to be printed in a different type. It was
reprinted again and again, and was the
Authorized Version of the English Church
till 1568 — the interval of Mary's reign ex
cepted. From it, accordingly, were taken
raost, if not all, the portions of Scripture
in the Prayer-books of 1549 and 1552,
The Psalras, as a whole, the quotations
from Scripture in the Homilies, the sen
tences in the Communion Services, and
sorae phrases elsewhere, still preserve the
reraerabrance of it. VII. Geneva. — The
exiles who fled to Geneva in the reign of
Mary entered on the work of translation
with more vigor than ever. Tho Gene
van refugees — among thera Whittingh.am,
Goodman, PuUain, Sampson, and Cover-
dale himself — labored "for two years or
more, day and night." Their translation
of the N. T. was "diligently revised by
the raost approved Greek examples." The
N. T., translated by Whittinghara, was
printed in 1557, ami the whole Bible in
1560. Whatever may have been its faults,
the Geneva Bible, coraraonly called the
Breeches Bible, froth its rendering of Gen.
iii. 7, was unquestionably, for sixty years,
the most popular of all versions. Not less
than eighty editions, some of the whole
Bible, were printed between 1558 and 1611.
It kept its ground for some tirae evun
against the A. V., and g.ave w.ay. as it
were, slowly and under protest. It. was
the version specially adopted by the great
Puritan parly through the whole reign of
Eliziibeth, and far into that of Jaraes. As
might be expected, it was based on Tyn
dal's Version. Some peculiarities are
worthy of special notice : (1) It professes
a desire to restore the "true writing" of
raany Hebrew naraes, and we raeet accord
ingly with such forms as Izhak (Is.aac), Jaa-
cob, and the Uke. (2) It omits the narae of
St. Paul from the title of the Epistle to the
Hebrews, and, in a short Preface, leaves
the authorship an open question. (3) It
avows the principle of putting all words

VERSION, AUTHORIZED 737 VERSION, AUTHO? iZED

not in the original in Italics. (4) It pre
sents, in a Calendar preflxed to the Bible,
soraething likea declaration of war against
the established order of the church's les
sons corameraorating Scripture facts, and
the deaths of the great Reforraers, but ig
noring saints' days altogether. (5) It was
the flrst EngUsh Bible which entirely orait
ted the Apocrypha. The notes were char-
acteriiitically Swiss, not only in their
theology, but in their politics. VIII. The
Bishops' Bible  The facts just stated
will account for the wish of Archbishop
Parker to bring out another version, which
might establish its clairas against that of
Geneva. Great preparations were made.
Eight bishope, together with some deans
and professors, brought out the fruit of their
labors in a magnificent folio (1568 and
1572). It was avdwedly based on Cran-
mer's ; but of all the English versions it
had probab'y the least success. It did not
coraraand the respect of scholars, and its
si'ze and f-ist were far from meeting the
wants of the people. IX. Rheims and
DouAT. - The successive changes in the
Protesta't versions of the Scriptures
were, ac might be expected, matter of tri
umph tn the controversialists of the Latin
Church. Some saw in it an argument
agains' any translation cf Scripture into
the spfken language of the people. Others
pointed derisively to the want of unity
wluch these changes displayed. There
were some, however, who took the Une
which Sir T. More and Gai liner had taken
under Henry VIII. Thej did not object
to the principle of an Enj ish translation.
They only charged all the v ersions hitherto
made with being false, coirupt, heretical.
To this there was the ready retort, that
they bad done nothing; that their bishops
ni the reign of Henry bad promised, but
had not performed. It wp,s felt to be ne
cessary that they should take sorae steps
which might enable tUcm to turn the edge
of this reproach. The English Catholic
refugees who were nettled at Rheims un
dertook a new Eugiish version. The N, T,
was published .at Rheims in 1582, and pro-
. fessed to be based on " the authentic text of
the Vulgate." i^tes were added, as strong
ly dogmatic as those of the Geneva Bible,
and often keenly controversial. Tbe work
of translation was completed somewhat
later by the publication of the 0. T. at
Douay in 1609. X. Authorized Ver
sion. — Tho position of the English Church
in relation to the versions in use at the
comraenceraent of the reign of James 'was
hardly satisfactory. The Bishops' Bible
was sanctioned by authority. That of Ge
neva had the strongest hold on the affec
tions of the people. Scholars, Hebrew
scholars in particular, found grave fault
47

with both. Among the deJ lands of the
Puritan representatives at the Hampton
Court Conference in 1604, iras one for a
new, or at least a revised translation. The
work of organizing and superintending the
arrangeraents for a new translation was
one specially congenial to James, and in
1606 the task was accordingly comraenced.
It was intrusted to 54 scholars. 'The fol
lowing were the instructions given to the
translators: (1) The Bishops' Bible was
to be followed, and as little altered .as the
original wUl permit. (2) The names of
prophets and others were to be retained, as
nearly as may be, as they are vulgarly used.
(3) 'The old ecclesiastical words to be kept.
(4) When any word hath divers significa
tions, that to be kept which hath been
most commonly used by the raost erainent
fathers, being agreeable to the propriety
of the place and the analogy of faith. (5)
The division of the chapters to be altered
either not at all or as little as possible. (6)
No marginal notes to be affixed but only
for the explanation of Hebrew and Greek
words. (7) Such quotations of places to
be marginally set down as may serve for
flt reference of one Scripture to another.
(8 and 9) State plan of translation. Each
company of translators is to take its own
books ; each person to bring his own cor
rections. The company to discuss them,
and having finished their work, to send it
on to another company, and .so on. (10)
Provides for differences of opinion between
two companies by referring tbem to a gen
eral meeting. • (11) Gives power, iu cases
of difficulty, to consult any scholars. (12)
Invites suggestions from any quarter. (13)
Names the directors of the work: Andrews,
Dean of Westminster; Barlow, Dean of
Chester; and the Regius Professors of
Hebrew and Greek at both Universities.
(14) Naraes translations to be followed
when they agree raore with the original than
the Bishops' Bible, sc. Tyndal's, Coverdale'si,
Matthew's, Whitchurch's (Cranraer's), a.ji:(i
Geneva. (15) Authorizes Universities to
appoint three or four overseers of tbe work.
It is not known that any of the corre
spondence connected witli this work, or
any minute ofthe meetings for confc-rencc,
is still extant. Nothing is more striking
than the silence with which the- version
thill ivas to be the inheritance of the Eng-
list, people for at least two centuries and
a half was ushered into the world. For
three years the work went on, the separate-
companies comparing notes, as directedi.
When the work drew towards its comple
tion, it was necessary to place it under the
care of a select few. 'Two from each of
the three groups were accordingly selected,
and- the six met in Londoiv to superictend
the publication. The final correction, aad

VILLAGE

788

VINE OF SODOM

the task of writing the arguments of the
several books, were given to Bilson, Bishop
of Winchester, and Dr. Miles Smith, the
latter of whom also wrote the Dedication
and Preface. The version thus published
did not all at once supersede those already
in possession. The fact that five editions
were published in three years, shows that
there was a good demand. But the Bishops'
Bible probably remained in many Churches,
and the popularity of the Geneva Version is
shown by not less than thirteen reprints, in
whole or in part, between 1611 and 1617.
It is not easy to ascertain the irapression
which the A. V. raade at the tirae of its ap
pearance. Selden says it is "the best of
all tr.anslations, as giving the true sense of
the original." It would be easy to put to
gether a long catena of praises stretching
from that time to the present.
'Village. This word, in addition to its
ordinary sense, is often used, especially in
the enumer.ation of towns in Josh, xiii., xv.,
xix., to imply unwalled suburbs outside the
walled towns. Arab villageis, as found in
Arabia, are often mere coUections of stone
huts, "long, low, rude hovels, roofed only
with the st.alks of palm-leaves," or covered
for a time with tent-cloths, which are re
moved when the tribe change their quar
ters. Others are more solidly, built, as are
raost of the raodern villages of Palestine,
though in sorae the dwellings are mere
mud-huts. There is little in the O. T. to
enable us more precisely to define a vil
lage of Palestu e, beyond the fact that it
was destitute of walls or external defences.
Persian villages are spoken of in sirailar
terras (Ez. xxxvUi. 11; Esth. ix. 19), By
the Talraudists a village was defined as a
place destitute of a synagogue.
'Vine, the well-known valuable plant
{vitis vinifera) very frequently referred
to in the Old and New Testaments, and
cultivated from the earliest tiraes. The
first mention of this plant occurs in Gen,
ix, 20, 21, That it was abundantly culti
vated in Egypt is evident frora the frequent
representations on the raonuraents, as well
as frora the Scriptural allusions (Gen. xl,
9-11; Ps, IxxviU, 47). 'The vines of Pales-
fine. were celebrated both for luxuriant
growth and for the immense clusters of
grapes which they produced. When the
spies were sent forth to view the promised
land, we are told that on their arrival at
the valley of Eshcol they cut down a branch
with one cluster of grapes, and bare it
between two on a staff (Num, xiu, 23).
Travellers have frequently testifled to the
large size of the grape-clusters of Pales
tine Especial mention is raade in the
Bible of the vines of Eshcol (N ira, xiu,
24, xxxii, 9), of Sibmah, Heshbon, and
Elealeh (Is. xvi, 8, 9, 10; Jer. xlviu. 33),

and Engedi (Cant, i. 14), From the abun
dance and excellence of the vines, it may
readily be understood how frequently tliis
plant is the subject of metaphor in the
Holy Scriptures, To dwell under the vine
and flg-tree is an emblem of domestic hap
piness and peace (1 K. iv. 35; Mic. iv. 4:
Ps. cxxviii. 3) ; the rebellious people of
Israel are compared to "wild grapes," ".an
empty vine," " the degenerate plant of a
strange vine," &c. (Is, v. 2, 4; Hos. x. 1;
Jer. ii. 21). It is a vine which our Lord
selects to show the spiritual union which
subsists between Himself and his merabers
(John XV. 1-6), 'The ancient Hebrews
probably allowed the vine to grow trailing
on the ground, or upon supports. This
latter mode of cultivation appears to be
alluded to by Ezekiel (xix. 11, 13). The
vintage, which formerly was a season of
general festivity, commenced in Septem
ber. The towns are deserted, and the
people live among the vineyards in the
lodges and tents (comp. Judg, ix, 27 ; Jer.
xxv. 80; Is, xvi. 10). The grapes were
gathered with shouts of joy by the " grape-
gatherers " (Jer. xxv. 80) , and put into
baskets (see Jer. vi. 9), 'They were then
carried on the head and shoulders, or slung
upon a yoke, to the " wine-press," Those
intended for eating were perhaps put into
flat open baskets of wickerwork, as was
the custom in Egypt, In Palestine, at pres
ent, the finest grapes, says Dr, Robinson,
are dried as raisins, and the juice of the
reraainder, after having been trodden and
pressed, "is boiled down to a sirup, which,
under the name of dibs, is rauch used by
all classes, wherever vineyiirds are found,
as a condiraent with their food." The vine
yard, which was generally on a hill (Is. v.
1; Jer. xxxi. 5; Araos ix, 13), was sur
rounded by a wall or hedge in order to
keep out the wild boars (Ps- Ixxx, 13),
jackals, and foxes (Nura; xxii, 24; Cant.
U, 15 ; Neh, iv, 3 ; Ez, xiii, 4, 5 ; Matt. xxi.
33). Within the vineyard was one or more
towers of stone in which the vine-dressers
lived (Is. i. 8, v, 2; Matt, xxi, 33), The
press and vat, which was dug' (Matt, xxi.
38) or hewn out of the rocky soil, were
part of the vineyard furnj^ture (Is. v. 2).
'Vine of Sodom occurs only in Dent.
xxxii. 32. It is generally supposed that
this passage JiUudes to the celebrated ap
ples of Sodora, of which Josephus speaks,
" which indeed resemble edible fruit in col
or, but, on being plucked by the hand, are
dissolved into smoke and ashes." It has
been variously identified. Dr. Robinson
pronounced in favor of the 'Osher fruit, tho
Asclepias { Caloiropis) procera of botanists.
He says, " The fruit greatly reserables ex
ternally a large smooth apple or orange,
hanging in clusters of three or four to-

¦nNEGAR

739

VULGATE

gether, and when ri^e is of a yellow color-
It was now fair and delicious to the eye,
and soft to the touch ; but, on being pressed
or struck, it explodes with a puff, like a
bliidder or puff-ball, leaving in the hand
only the shreds of the thin rind and a few
fibres. It is indeed filled chiefly with air,
which gives it the round form." Dr. Hook
er writes, " The Vine of Sodora I always
thought might refer to Cucumis colocynthis,
which is bitter and powdery inside ; the
term vine would scarcely be given to any
but a trailing or other plant of the habit of
a vine." His remark that the term vine
must refer to some plant of the habit of a
vine, is conclusive .against the claims of all
the plants hitherto identified with the Vine
of Sodora.
'Vinegar. The Hebrew word translated
" vinegar " was appUed to a beverage con
sisting generally of wine or strong drink
turned sour, but soraetiraes artificially
made by an admixture of barley and wine,
and thus liable to fermentation. It 'W'as
acid even to a proverb (Prov. x. 26), and
by itself formed a nauseous dr.aught (Ps.
Ixix. 21), but was used by laborers (Ruth
ii. 14). Similar was the acetum of the
Romans — a thin, sour wine, consumed by
soldiers. This was the beverage of which
the Saviour partook in His dying moments
(Matt. xxvu. 48 ; Mark xv. 36 ; John xix.
29, 30).
Vineyards, Plain of the. This
place, mentioned only in Judg. xi. 33, has
been already noticed under Aeel (6).
Viol. [Psaltery.]
¦Viper. [Serpent.]
Voph'si, father of Nalibi, the Naphta-
lite spy (Num. xiii. 14).
Vo'WS. The earUest raention of a vow
is that of Jacob (Gen. xxvUi. 18-22, -xxxi.
13), Vows in general are also mentioned
in the Book of Job (xxU, 27). The Law
therefore did not introduce, but regulated
the practice of vows. Three sorts are men
tioned : I. Vows of devotion ; II, Vows
of 'abstinence; III. Vows of destruction,
I, As to vows of devotion, the foUowing
rules are laid down: A raan raight devote
to sacred uses possessions or persons, but
not the firstborn either of man or beast,
which was devoted already (Lev, xxvu, 26).
a. If he vowed land, he might either re
deem it or not (Lev. xxv,, xxvU,), b.
Animiils fif for sacriflce, if devoted, were
not to be redeemed or changed (Lev,
xxvii. 9, 10, 83). c. The ca-se of persons
devoted stood thus : A man might devote
either himself, his child (not the flrstborn),
or his slave. If no redemption took place,
the devoted person becarae a shave of the
sanctuary : see the ease of Absalom (2 Sam,
xv 8). Otherwise he raight be redeemed
at a valuation according to age and sex, on
the scale given in Lev. xxvU. 1-7. Among |

generiil regulations affecting vows, the fol
lowing raay be raentioned : 1, Vows were
entirely voluntary, but once made were re
garded as compulsory (Num, xxx, 2 ; Deut,
xxiii. 21 ; Eccl, v, 4), 2, If persons in a
dependent condition raade vows, as (o) an
unmarried daughter living in her father's
house, or {b) a wife, even if she afterwards
became a widow, the vow, if {a) in the first
case her father, or {b) in the second, her
husband, heard and disallowed it, was void ;
but if they heard without disallowance, it
was to remain good (Nura, xxx, 3-16), 3,
Votive offerings arising frora the produce
of any impure traffic were wholly forbidden
(Deut, xxiii. 18). II., III. For vows of
abstinence, see Corban ; and for vows of
extermination. Anathema, and Ezr. x. 8 ;
Mic. iv. 13. It seems that the practice of
shaving the head at the expiration of a vo
tive period was not limited to the Nazaritic
vow (Acts xviii, 18, xxi, 24).
Vulgate, The, the Latin version of
the Bible. The influence which it exercised
upon Western Christianity is scarcely less
than that of the LXX, upon the Greek
Churches. But both the Greek and the
Latin Vulgates have been long neglected.
Yet the Vulgate should have a very deep
interest for all the Western Churches, For
many centuries it was the only Bible gen
erally used ; and, directly or indirectly, it
is the real parent of all the vernacular
versions of 'W'estern Europe, The Gothic
Version of Ulphilas alone is independent
of it. In the age of the Reformation the
Vulgate was rather the guide than the
source of the popular versions. That of
Luther (N. T, in 1533) was the most im-.
portaut, and in this the Vulgate had great
w^eight. From Luther the influence of the
Latin passed to our own Authorized Ver
sion, But the clairas of tho Vulgate to the
attention of schohirs rest on wider grounds.
It is not only the source of our current
theological terrainology, but it is, in one
shape or other, the most important e.arly ,
witness to the text and interpretation of the
whole Bible The narae is equivalent to
Vulgata ediiio (the current text of Holy
Scripture), I. The Old Latin Versions,—
The history of the earliest Latin Version of
the Bible is lost in obscurity. All that can
be tiffirmcd with certainty is, that it was
raade in Africa in the 2d century. During
the flrst two centuries the Churches of
Rome and Gaul were essentially Greek;
but the Church of N. Africa seems to have
been Latin-speaking frora the first. This
version was known by the narae ofthe Old
Latin { Veius Latino), and the language
was rude and provincial. It appears to
havo arisen frora individual and successive
efforts ; but it does not follow by any raeans
that numerous versions were simultaneously
circulated, or that the several parts of tliO

VULGATE

740

VEXGATE

fission were raade independently. Even
if it had been so, the exigencies of the pub
lic service raust soon have given definite-
ness and substantial unity to the fragraen-
tary labors of individuals. . The work of
private hands would necessarily -be subject
to revision for ecclesiastical use. The
separiite books would be united in a vol
ume, and thus a standard text of the whole
collection would be established. With re
gard to the O. T. the case is less clear. It
is probable that the Jews who were settled
in N. Africa were confined to the Greek
towns ; otherwise it raight be supposed that
the Latin Version of the O. T. is in part
anterior to the Christian era, and that (as
ill the case of Greek) a preparation for a
Christian Latin dialect was already made
when the Gospel was introduced into Africa,
However this raay have been, the substan
tial sirailarity of the different parts of the
Old and New Testaments establishes a real
connection between them, and justifies the
belief that there was one popular Latin
Version of the Bible current in Africa in
the last quarter of the second century.
From considerations of style and language
it seems certain that the Epistle to the He
brews, James, and 2 Peter, did not form
part of the original African Version. In
the O. T., on the other hand, the Old Latin
erred by excess, and not by defect. After
the . translation once received a definite
shape in Africa, which could not have been
long after the raiddle ofthe second century,
it -B'as not publicly revised. It continued
to be used in Africa in its original form;
but in the 4th century an ecclesiastical
recension appears to have been made in
Northern Italy, which was distinguished by
the name of Itala. At the close of the 4th
century the Latin texts of the Bible current
in the Western Church had fallen into the
greatest corruption. The evil was yet
greater in prospect than at the time ; for
tho separation of the East and West was
growing imminent. II. The Labors of
Jerome, — In the crisis of danger the great
scholar was raised up who probably alone
:br 1500 years possessed the qualifications
necessary for producing an original version
of tho Scriptures for the use of the Latin
Churches, viz, Jerorae — Eusebius Hierony-
mus — who was born in 339 A, D, at Stridon
in Dalraatia, and died at Bethlehem in 430
A, D. After long and self-denying studies
in the East and West, Jerome went to
Rome A. D. 383, probably at the request of
Dani.asus the Pope, to assist in an iraportant
synod. His active biblical labors date from
this epoch, and in examining thera it will
be convenient to foUow the order of time,
noticing (1) tho Revision of the Old Latin
Version of the N. T. ; (3) the Revision of
the Old Latin Version (from the Greek) of

the O, T, ; (3; the New Version of the O,
T. from the Hebrew, (1.) The Revision
of the Old Latin Version of ihe N. T. —
Jerome had not been long at Rome (a. d.
883) when Daraasus consulted him ou
points of Scriptural criticism. Apparently
in the siime year Jerorae, at tho request of
Daraasus the Pope, undertook a revision
of the current Latin version of the N. T.
by the help of the Greek original, Jerome
was fully sensible of the prejudices which
such a work would excite araong those
' ' who thought th.at ignorance was holiness ; "
but the need of it was urgent, " There
were," he says, " almost as many forms
of text as copies," The Gospels hiid natu
rally suffered most, Jerome therefore ap
plied himself to these first. But his aim
was to revise the Old Latin, and not to
make a new version. Yet although he pro
posed to himself this limited object, the
various forras of corruption which had been
introduced were, as he describes, so nuraer
ous that the cUfference of the Old and Re
vised (Hieronyraian) textisthroughoutclear
and striking. The preface to Daraasus
speaks only of a revision of the Gospels,
and a question has been riiised whether
Jerome really revised the remaining books
of the N, T. But the omission is probably
due to the comparatively pure state in
which the text of the rest of the N. T. was
preserved. An examination of the Vulgate
text, with the quotations of ante-Hieronym-
ian fathers and the iraperfect evidence of
MSS,, is itself sufficient to establish the
reality and character of the revision. (3.)
7%e Revision of the 0. T. from ihe LXX. —
He next proceeded to revise the O. T. from
the Septuagint. He comraenced his task by
a revision of the Psalter. , This revision,
which was not very coraplete or careful, ob
tained the narae ofthe Roman Psalter, prob
ably because it was raade for the use of the
Roraan Church at the request of Daraasus.
Shortly afterwards, at the urgent request of
Paula and Eustochium, Jerome commenced
a new and more thorough revision. ' The
exact date at which this was made is not
known, but it may be fixed with great
probability very shortly after a. d. 887,
when he retired to Bethlehera, and cer
tainly before 891, when he had begun his
new translations from the Hebrew. In the
new revision Jerome attempted to rep
resent as far as possible, by the help of
the Greek versions, the real reading of
the Hebrew. This new edition soon ob
tained a wide popularity. Gregory of
Tours is said to have introduced it -from
Rome into tho publio services in France,
and from this it obtained the name of the
^a?Zicajj. Psalter. Frora. the second (Gal
ilean) revision of the Psalras Jerome ap
pears to have proceeded to a revision of

VULGATE

741

VULGATE

the other books of the 0. T., restoring
all, by the help of the Greek, to a gen
eral conformity with the Hebrew. The
revised texts of the Psalter and Job hiive
alone been preserved ; but there is no rea
son to doubt that Jerome carried out his
design of revising all the " Canonical Scrip
tures," Subsequently Jerome undertook a
still more iraportant work, namely, the trans
lation ofthe O. T, from the Hebrew, (3,) The
Translation of the 0. T. from the Hebrevj.
— Ho commenced the study of Hebrew when
he was already advanced in raiddle life
(about A, D, 874), His first teacher had
been a Jewish convert ; but afterwards he
did not scruple to seek th» instruction of
Jews, whose services he soc;ured with great
difficulty and expense. After retiring to
Bethlehera, he appears to have devoted
hiraself with renewed ardor to the study
of Hebrew, and he pubUshed several works
on the subject (about a, d. 389), These
essays served as a prelude to his New Ver
sion, which he now coraraenced. This ver
sion was not undertaken with any eccle
siastical sanction, as the revision of the
Gospels was, but at the urgent request of
private friends, or from his own sense of
the iraperious necessity of the work. Its
history is told in the raain in the Prefaces
to the several instalraents which were suc
cessively published. The Books of Samuel
and Kings were issued first, and to these
he prefixed the faraous Prologus galeatus,
addressed to Paula and Eustochium, in
which he gives an account of the Hebrew
Canon (about a. d. 391, 893). The other
books followed in succession, and the whole
work was corapleted in a, r. 404. III. The
History op Jerome's Translation to
the Invention op Printing, — The critical
labors of Jerome were received with a loud
outcry of reproach. He was accused of
disturbing the repose of the Church, and
shaking the foundations of faith. But
clamor based upon ignorance soon dies
away; and the New translation gradually
came into use equally with the Old, and at
length supplanted it. In the 6th century
the use of Jerorae's Version was universal
among scholars except in Africa, where the
other still lingered. In the 7th centtu-y the
traces of the Old Version grow rare. In
the 8th century Bede speaks of Jerome's
Version as " our edition ; " and from this
time it is needless to trace its history,
though the Old Latin was not wholly for
gotten. Yet throughout, the New Version
made its way without any direct eccle
siastical authority. It was adopted in the
different Churches gradually, or at least
without any forraal coraraand. But the
Latin Bible which thus passed graduaUy
into use under the narae of Jerorae was a
strangely composite work. The books of

tho 0. T., with one exception, wero cer-
tainly t,akeu frora his Version frora the
Hebrew; but this had not only been I'ari-
ously corrupted, but was itself in raany
particulars (especially in the Pentateuch)
at variance with his later judgraent. Long
use, however, raade it irapossible to substi"^
tute his Psalter frora the Hebrew for the
Gallican Psalter; aud thus this book was
retained from the Old Version, as Jerome
had corrected it from the LXX. Of the
Apocryphal books Jerome hastily revised
or translated two only, Judith and Tobit.
The remainder were retained from the Old
Version against his judgraent; and the
Apocryphal additions to Daniel and Esther,
which he had carefully marked as apocry
phal in his own Version, were treated as
integral parts of the books. In the N. T.
the text of the Gospels was in the main
Jerorae's revised edition; that of the re
raaining books his very incomplete revision
of 'the Old Latin. Meanwhile the text of
the different parts of the Latin, Bible was
rapidly deteriorating. The simultaneous
use of the Old and New Versions necessa
rily led to great corruptions of both texts.
Mixed texts were formed according to the
taste or judgment of scribes, and the con
fusion was further increased by tbe changes
which were soraetiraes introduced by those
who had sorae knowledge of Greek. In
the Sth century the corruption had arrived
at such a height, that Charlemagne in
trusted to Alcuin (circ. A. D, 802) tbe task
of revising the Latin text for public use.
Alcuin's revision probably contributed rauch
towards preserving a good Vulgate text. It
was subsequently revised by many eminent
scholars, both before and after the inven
tion of printing. IV. The History of the
Printed Text. — It was a noble omen for
the future progress of printing that the first
book which issued from the press w.as the
Bible ; and the splendid pages of the IMaz-
arin Vulgate (Mainz, Gutenburg, and Fust)
stand yet unsurpassed by the latest efforts
of typography. This work is referred to
about the year 1455, and presents the com
raon text of the 15th century. Other edi
tions followed in rapid succession. The
first collection of various readings appears
in a Paris edition of 1504, and others fol
lowed at Venice and Lyons in 1511, 1513;
but Cardinal Xiraenes (1502-1517) was the
first who seriously revised the Latin text,
to which he assigned the middle phice of
honor in his Polyglot between the Hebrew
and Greek texts. This was followed by
others. When the Coujcil of Trent de
clared the Vulgate to be the authoritative
text of Scripture, the want of a standard
text became more urgent than ever. At
length an edition was published iu 1590,
under the superintendence of the Pope

VULTURE

742

WAB

Sixtus v., with the famous constitution
prefixed, in which Sixtus affirmed the plen
ary authority of the edition for all future
tirae. It was, however, soon found that
this edition also was defective ; and accord
ingly iinother edition was prepared under
papal authority. It appeared in 1592 in the
Pontificate of Cleraent VIIL, with a Pref
ace, written by Bellarrain, More than a
century elapsed before anything more of
iuiportiince was done for the text of tbe
Latin version,of the O, T,, when at length
the fortunate discovery of the original
revision of the Sixtine correctors again
directed the attention of Roman scholars
to their authorized text. The first fruits
of their labors are given in the volume of
Vercellone, which has thrown more light
upon the history and criticism of the Vul
gate than any previous work. The neglect
of the Latin text of the O. T. is but a con
sequence of the general neglect of the
criticism of the Hehrew text. In the N. T.
far more has been done for the correc
tion of the Vulgate, though even here no
critical edition has yet been pubUshed,
V, The Influence and Value of the
Latin Version, — The vast power which
the Vulgate has had in determining the
theologiciil terms of Western Christendom
can hardly be overrated. By far the great
er part of the current doctrinal terminology
is based on the Vulgate. Predestination,
justification, supererogation {supererogo),
sandificaiion, salvation, mediation, regen
eration, revelation, visitation (met,), pro
pitiation, first appear in the Old Vulgate,
Grace, redemption, eledion, reconciliation,
satisfaction, inspiration, scripture, were
devoted there to a new and holy use. Sac
rament and communion are frora the sarae
source; and though baptism is Greek, it
conies to us from tbe Latin, It would be
easy to extend the list by the addition of
orders, penance, congregation, priest. But
it can be seen from the forms already
brought forward that the Vulgate has left
its mark both upon our language and upon
our thoughts. It was the Version which
alone they knew who handed down to the
Reformers the rich stores of raediaeval
wisdora ; the Version with which the great
est of the Reformers were most familiar,
and from which they had drawn their ear
liest knowledge of Divine truth.
Vulture. The rendering iu the A, V,
of the Heb. dddh, dayydh, and also in Job
xxviii. 7, of ayydh. There seems no doubt
but that the A. V. translation is incorrect,
and that the original words refer to some of
the smaller species of raptorial birds, as
kites or buzzards. [Kite.] But the He
brew word nesher, invariably rendered
" Ciigle " in the A. Y., is probably the vul
ture. [Eagle.]

w.

'Wages. The earliest mention of wages
is of a recorapense, not in money, but in
kind, to Jacob from Laban (Gen, xxix. 15,
20, xxx. 38, xxxi. 7, 8, 41). In Egypt,
raoney payments by w.ay of wages were in
use, but the terms cannot now be ascer
tained (Ex. ii. 9). The only mention cf
the rate of wages in Scripture is found in
the parable of the householder and the
vineyard (Matt. xx. 3), where the laborer's
wages are set at one denarius per day,
probably =: 7|(^, a sum which miiy be fair
ly taken as equivalent to the den.arius,
and to the usual pay of a soldier (ten asses
per diem) in the later days of the Roraan
republic (Tac. Ann. i. 17; Polyb. vi. 39).
In earlier tiraes it is probable that the rate
was lower. But it is likely that laborers,
and also soldiers, were supplied with pro
visions. The law was very strict in re
quiring daily payraent of wages (Lev. xix.
13; Deut. xxiv. 14, 15). The employer
who refused to give his laborers sufficient
victuals is censured (Job xxiv, 11), and
the iniquity of withholding wages is de
nounced (Jer. xxii. 13 ; Mal. ui. 5 ; James
V. 4).
'Wagon. The Oriental wagon, or
arabah, is a vehicle coraposed of two or
three planks fixed on two solid circular
blocks of wood, frora two to five feet in
diaraeter, which serve as wheels. For the
conveyance of passengers, mattresses or
clothes are Laid in the bottom, and the
vehicle is drawn by buffaloes or oxen.
[Cart and Chariot.]
"Walls. Only a few points need be no
ticed. 1. The practice comraon in Palestine
of carrying foundations down to the solid
rock, as in the case of the Teraple, with
structures intended to be perraanent (Luke-
vi. 48). 3. A feature of some parts of Solo
mon's buildings, as described by Josephus,
corresponds reraarkably to the method
adopted at Nineveh of incrusting or veneer
ing a wall of brick or stone with slabs of a
more costly material, as marble or alabas
ter. 8. Another use of walls in Palestine
is to support mountain-roads or terraces
formed on the sides of hills for purposes of
cultivation. 4. The " path of tlie vineyards "
(Num. xxii. 24) is apathway through vine
yards, with walls on each side.
"Wandering in the "Wilderness-
[Wilderness of Wandering.]
"War. The most iraportant topic in con
nection with war is the formation of the
army which is destined to carry it on.
[^RMT.] In 1 K. ix. 22, at a period (Solo
mon's reign) when the organization of the
army was complete, we have apparently a

WAR

743 WASHING HANDS AND FEET

fist V f the various griidations of rank iu the
service, as follow: (1,) "Men of war "±=
privates; (2,) " servants," the lowest rank
ot ot&cers :^ lieutenants ; (3,) "princes"
^= captains ; (4,) " captains," pe'rhaps ==
ttaff officers; (5.) "rulers of his chariots and
hia horsemen " = cavalry officers. Before

Assyrian War Chariot.
entering on a war of aggression the He
brews sought for the Divine sanction by
consulting either the Urim and Thummim
(Judg, i, 1, XX, 2, 27, 28; 1 Sam. xiv. 37,
xxiu, 2, xxviu, 6, xxx, 8), or some acknowl
edged prophet (1 K, xxii, 6 ; 2 Chr. xviii.
5). Divine aid was further sought in actual
warfare by bringing into the field the Ark
of the Covenant, which was the symbol of
Jehovah Himself (1 Siira. iv. 4-18, xiv. 18).
Formal proclamations of war were not
interchanged between the belligerents. Be
fore entering the eneray's district spies
were sent to ascertain the character of the
country and the preparations of its inhab
itants for - resistance (Nura. xiii, 17; Josh.
U. 1 ; Judg, vii, 10 ; 1 Sara, xxvi, 4). When
an engagement was irarainent a sacrifice
was offered (1 Sam. vii, 9, xiii. 9), and an
inspiriting address delivered either by the
coraraander (2 Chr, xx. 20) or by a priest
(Deut. XX, 2), Then followed the battle-
signal (1 Sam. xvii. 52; Is. xiii. 13'; Jer. I.
42; Ez. xxi. 22; Am. i. 14). The combat
assumed the form of a number of hand-to-
hand contests. Hence the high value at
tached to fleetness of foot and strength of
arra (2 Sard, i. 23, ii, 18; 1 Chr. xU. 8).
At the same, tirae various strategic devices
were practised, such as the ambuscade
(Josh, viu, '2, 12; Judg, xx. 36), surprise
(Judg, vii, 16), or circumvention (2 Sara.
V, 23), Another raode of settling the dis
pute was by the selection of charapions
(1 Sam. xvii, ; 2 Sara, U, 14), who were
spurred on to exertion by the offer of high
reward (1 Sara. xvu. 25, xviu. 25; 2 Sara,
xviii. 11 ; 1 Chr, xi. 6). The contest hav
ing been decided, the conquerors were
recalled from the pursuit by the sound of
a trumpet (2 Sam. U. 28, xviU, 16, xx._22).
The siege of a town or fortress was con
ducted in the following mannar: A Une

of circumvallation was drawn round tha
pliice (Ez. iv. 2; Mic. v. 1), constructed
out of the trees found in the neighbor
hood (Deut. XX, 20), together with earth
and any other materials at hand. This
line not only cut off the besieged from
the surrounding country, but also served as
a base of operations for the besiegers. The
next step was to throw out from this line
one or more raounds or "banks" in the di
rection of the city (2 Sara, xx, 15 ; 2 K, xix,
33; Is. xxxvii, 33), which were gradually
increiised in height until they were about
half as high as the city wall. On this raound
or bank towers were erected (2 K, xxv. 1 ;
Jer. lii, 4 ; Ez, iv, 2, xvii. 17, xxi. 22, xxvi,
8), whence the slingers and archers might
attack with effect. Battering-rams (Ez. iv.
2, xxi, 22) were brought up to the walls by
raeans of the bank, and scaling-ladders
might also be placed on it. The treatment
of the conquered was extremely severe in
ancient times. Tlie bodies of the soldiers
killed in action were plundered (1 Sam.
xxxi. 8 ; 2 Macc, viii, 27) : the survivors
were either killed in some savage manner
(Judg. ix. 45 ; 2 Sam. xn. 31 ; 2 Chr. xxv.
12), mutUated (Judg. i. 6; 1 Sara. -xi. 2),
or carried into captivity (Num. xxxi, 26;
Deut. XX, 14). Sometimes the bulk of the
population of the conquered country was
removed to a distant locality. The Mosaic
law mitigated to a certain extent the sever
ity of the ancient usages towards the con
quered. The conquerors celebrated their
success by the erection of monumental
stones (1 Sam. vii, 12; 2 Sara, viii, 13),
by hanging up trophies in their public
buildings (1 Sam, xxi. 9, xxxi. 10; 2 K.
xi. 10), and by triumphal songs and dances
in which the whole population took part
(Ex. XV. 1-21 ; Judg. v. ; 1 Sam. xviii. 6-8 ;
2 Sam. xxu. ; Jud. xvi. 2-17 ; 1 Macc. iv.
24). Washing the Hands and Feet-
i s knives and forks were dispensed with in
eating, it was absolutely necessary that the
hand, which was thrust into the common
dish, should be scrupulously clean ; and
again, as sandals were ineffectual against
the dust and heat of an Eastern cliraate,
washing the feet on entering u, house was
an act both of respect to the corapany and
of refreshment to the traveUer. The for
mer of these usages wiis trr^sformed by
the Pharisees of the New Testaraent age
into a raatter of ritual observance (Mark
vii. 3), and special rules were laid down as
to the times and manner of its performance.
Washing the feet did not rise to the dignity
of a ritual observance except in connection
with the services of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx.
19, 21). It held a high place, lioweve?,
among the rites of hospitality. Immedi
ately that a guest presented himself at tha

WATCHES OP NIGHT

744

WEAVING

tent-door, it wa? usual to offer the neces
sary raaterials for washing the feet (Gen.
xviii. 4, XLX. 2, xxiv. 32, xliU. 24 ; Judg.
xix, 21), It was a yet more complimentary
act, betokening equally humility and affec
tion, if the host actually performed the office
for his guest (1 Sam, xxv. 41 ; Luke vii. 38,
44; John xiU, 5-14; 1 Tim, v. 10,) Such
a token of hospitality is still occasionally
exhibited in the East,
'Watches of Night. The Jews, like
the Greeks and Rora.ans, divided the night
into railitary watches instead of hours, each
watch representing the period for which
sentinels or pickets reraained ou duty. The
proper Jewish reckoning recognized only
three such watches, entitled the first or
"beginning of the watches " (Lam.ii, 19),
the middle watch (Judg. vii. 19), and the
morning watch (Ex. xiv. 24 ; 1 Sam, xi, 11),
These would last respectively from sunset
to 10 p, M, ; from 10 p. m. to 2 a, m. ; and
from 2 A. M. to sunrise. Subsequently to
the establishment of the Roman supremacy,
the nuraber of watches was increased to
four, which were described either accord
ing to their nuraerical order, as in the
case ofthe "fourth watch" (Matt. xiv. 25),
or by^ the terms " even, midnight, cock-
crowing, and morning" (Mark xiii. 35).
These terminated respectively at 9 p, M.,
midnight, 3 a. m., and 6 a. m.
Water of Jealousy, (Num. v. li
st). The ritual prescribed consisted in the
husband's bringing the woman before the
priest, and tho essential part of it is unques
tionably the oath, to which the " water "
was subsidiary, symbolical, and ministerial.
With her he was to bring the tenth part of
an ophiih of barley-meal as an offering. In
the first instance, the priest " set her before
the Lord," with the offering in her hand, ,
As she stood holding the offering, so the
priest 'stood holding an earthen vessel of
holy water mi.xed with the dust from the
floor of the sanctuary, and declaring her
free from all evil consequences if innocent,
solemnly devoted her in the name of Jeho
vah to be "a curse and an oath araong her
people " if guilty, further describing the
exact consequences ascribed to the opera
tion of the w.ater in the " members " which
she had "yielded as servants to unclean
ness" (vers, 21, 22, 27; comp, Rora, vi,
19). He then " wrote these curses in a
book, and blotted them out with the bitter
water," and having thrown the handful of
raeal on the alt.ar, " caused the woraan to
drink " the potion thus drugged, she raore-
over answering to the words of his impreca
tion, " Amen, Amen," Josephus adds, if
the suspicion was unfounded, she obtained
conception, if true, she died infamously.
Water of Separation. [Purifica
tion ; Unclbakness.]

"Wave- offering. This rite, tot?ether
with that of " heaving " or " raising " the
offering, was an inseparable accompaniraent
of peace-offerings. In such the right shoul
der, considered the choicest part of the
victira, was to be " heaved," and viewed
as holy to the Lord, only eaten therefore
by the priest ; the breast was to be " waved,"
and eaten by the worshipper. On the sec
ond day of the Passover a sheaf of com, in
the green ear, was to be waved, accora
panied by the sacrifice of an unhleraished
lamb of the first year, from the perform
ance of which ceremony the days till Pente
cost were to be counted. When that feast
arrived, two loaves, the flrst-fruits of the
ripe corn, were to be offered with a burnt-
offering, a sin-offering, and two lambs of
the flrst year for a peace-offering. These
likewise were to be waved. The Scriptural
notices of these rites are to be found in Ex.
xxix, 24, 28 ; Lev, vu, 30, 34, viu, 27, ix.
21, X. 14, 15, xxiu. 10, 15, 20; Nura. vi. 20,
xvui. 11, 18, 26-29, &c. In conjecturing
the meaning of this rite, regard must be had,
in the flrst instance, to the kind of sacrifice
to which it belonged. It was the accom
paniment of peace-offerings. These not
only, like the other sacrifices, acknowledged
God's greatness and His right over the
creiiture, but they witnessed to a ratified
covenant — an established coraraunion be
tween God and man,
'Way. This word has now, in ordinary
parlance, so entirely forsaken its original
sense, and is so uniformly employed in the
secondary or metaphorical sense of a " cus
tom " or " manner," that it is difficult to
remeraberthat in the Bible it raost frequent
ly signifies an actual road or track. Our
translators have employed it as the equiva
lent of no less than eighteen distinct He
brew terms. It may be truly said that
there is hardly a single passage in which
this word occurs which would not be raade
clearer and raore real if " road to " were
substituted for " way of." There is one
use which raust not be passed over, viz. in
the sense of a religious course. In the Old
Test, this occurs but rarely, perhaps twice :
namely, in Amos viii, 14, and Ps. cxxxix.
24, But in the Acts of the Apostles ailig,
"the way," " the road," is the received,
alraost technical, term for the new reUgion
which Paul flrst resisted and afterwards
supported, 'Weapons, [Arms.]
'Weasel {chdled) occurs only in Lev. xi.
29, in the list of unclean animals ; but the
Hebrew word ought more probably to be
translated " mole." Moles are common in
Palestine. 'Wea'Vlng. The art of weaving appears
to be coeval with the flrst dawning of civil
ization. We find it practised with great

WEDDING

745 "WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

ikill bj the Egyptians at a very early
period. The " vestures of fine linen "
such as Joseph wore (Gen. xll. 42) were the
product of Egyptian looms. The Israelites
were probably aciquainted with the process
before their sojourn in Egypt; but itwas
undoubtedly there that they attained the
jiroficiency which enabled them to execute
the hangings of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxxv.
85; 1 Chr, iv. 21), and other artistic tex
tures. At a later period the Egyptians
were still famed for their manufactures of
"fine" {i. V. hackled) flax, and of chdri,
rendered in the A. V. "networks," but
more probably a white raaterial either of
linen or cotton (Is. xix. 9; Ez. xxvii. 7).
The character of the loora and the process
of weaving can only be inferred frora inci
dental notices. The Egyptian loom was
usually upright, and the weaver stood at
his work. The cloth was fixed sometimes
at the top, sometimes at the bottom. The
modern Arabs use a procumbent loom,
raised above the ground by short legs.
The Bible does not notice the loom itself,
but speaks of the beam to which the warp
was attached (1 Sam, xvii. 7 ; 2 Sam, xxi,
19) ; and of the pin to which the cloth was
fixed, and on which it was rolled (Judg.
xvi. 14). We have also notice ofthe shut
tle, which is described by a term significant
of the act of weaving (Job vii. 6) ; the
tbrura or threads which attached the web
to the beara (Is. xxxviii, 12, margin; and
the web itself (Judg. xvi, 14 ; A. V.
"hcara"). Whether the two terms in
Lev. xiii, 48, rendered " warp " and "woof,"
really mean these, admits of doubt. The
textures produced by the Jewish weavers
were very various. The coarser kinds, such
as tent-cloth, sack-cloth, and the "hairy
garments " of the poor were made of goat's
or camel's hair (Ex. xxvi. 7; Matt, iii, 4),
Wool was extensively used for ordinary
clothing (Lev. xiii, 47; Prov. xxvii. 26,
xx.xi. 13; Ez. xxvu. 18), while for finer
work flax was used, varying in quality,
and producing the different textures de
scribed in the Bible as " linen " and " fine
linen." The mixture of wool and flax in
cloth intended for a garraent was inter
dicted (Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxu. 11).
Wedding. [Marriage.]
'Week. 'There can be no doubt about
the great antiquity of measuring tirae by a
period of seven days (Gen. viu- 10, xxix.
27). The origin of this division of time is
a matter which has given birth to much
speculation. Its antiquity is so great, its
observance so wide-spread, and it occupies
so important a place in sacred things, that
it must probably be thrown back as far as
the creiition of man. The week and the
Sabbath are thus as old as man himself. A
purely theological ground is thus estab

lished for the week. They who embrace
this view support it by a reference to the
six days' creation and the Divine rest on
the seventh. 1st. That the week rests on
a theological ground may be cheerfully
acknowledged by both sides; but nothing
is determined by such acknowledgment as
to the original cause of adopting this divis
ion of tirae. Whether the week gave its
sacredness to the number seven, or whether
the ascendency- of that number helped to
determine the diraensions of the week, it
is irapossible to say. 2dly. The weekly
division was adopted by all the Sheraitie
races, and, in the later period of their his
tory at least, by the Egyptians. On the
other hand, there is no reason for thinking
the week known till a late period either to
Greeks or Roraans. 3dly. So far from the
week being a division of time without ground
in nature, there was much to recoraraend
its adoption. And, further, the week is a
most natural and nearly an exact quadri-
partition of the month, so that the quarters
of the moon may easily have suggested it.
In Exodus tho week comes into very dis
tinct manifestation. Two of the great feasts
— the Passover and the Feast of Taber
nacles — are prolonged for seven days after
that of their initiation (Exod. xii. 15-20,
&c.). The division by seven was expanded
so as to make the seventh month and the
seventh year Sabbatical. In the N, T, we
of course flnd such clear recognition of and
farailiarity with the week as needs scarcely
be dwelt on, 'The Christian Church, froiti
the very first, was familiar with the week.
St. .Paul's language (1 Cor. xvi, 2) shows
this. We cannot conclude from it th.at such
a division of tirae was observed by the in
habitants of Corinth generaUy ; for they to
whom he was writing, though doubtless the
majority of them were Gentiles, yet knew
the Lord's Day, and most probably the
Jewish Sabbath. But though we can infer
no more than this from the place in ques
tion, it is clear that if not by this time, yet
very soon after, the whole Roman world had
adopted the hebdomadal division.
"Weeks, Feast of. [Pentecost,]
Weights and' Measures. A.
Weights. The general principle of the
present inquiry is to give the evidence of
the monuments the preference on all doubt
ful points. All ancient Greek systeras of
weight were derived, either directly or in
directly, from an Eastern source. The
older systems of ancient Greece and Persia
were the Aeginetan, the Attic, the Babylo
nian, and the Embolc. 1. The Aeginetan
talent is stated to have contained 60 rainae,
and 6000 drachms. 2. The Attic talent is
the standard weight introduced by Solon.
8. The Babylonian talent may be deter
mined from existing weights found hy Mr.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 746 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Layard at Nineveh. Pollux makes it equal
to 7000 Attic drachms. 4. The Eubolc
talent, though bearing a Greek name, is
rightly held to have been originally an
Eastern system. The proportion of the
Eubolc talent to the Babylonian was prob
ably as 60 to 72, or 5 to 6, Taking the
Babylonian maneh at 7992 grs we obtain
899,600 for the Eubo'lc talent. The prin
cipal, if uot the only, Persi.an gold coin is
the Daric, weighing about 129 grs, 5. The
Hebrew talent or talents and divisions. A
talent of silver is mentioned in Exodus,
which contained 3000 shekels, distinguisheti
as " the holy shekel," or " shekel of the
sanctuary." The gold talent contained 100
manehs, and 10,000 shekels. The silver
talent contained 3000 shekels, 6000 bekas,
and 60,000 gerahs. The significations of

the n.ames of the Hebrew weights must
be here stated. The chief Unit was the
Shekeo:, (i. e. weight), called also the Holy
Shekel or Shekel of the Sanduary ; subdi
vided into the Beka (i. e. half) or half-
shekel, and the Gerah (i. e. a grain or
bean). The chief multiple, or higher unit,
was the Kikkar (i. e. circle or globe, prob
ably for an aggregate sum), translated in
our Version, after the LXX., Talent ; sub
divided into the Maneh (i. e. part, portion,
or number) , a word used in Babylonian and
in the Greek >;i-5or Mina. 1, The relations
of these weights, as usually employed for
the standard of weighing Silver, and their
absolute values, determined from the extant
silver coins, and confirraed from other
sources, were as follows, in grains exactly,
and in Avoirdupois weight approximately :

Silver Weights.

Grains,

Lbs,

Oz.

Correction,

Gerah

11
110
220
13,200
660,000

2
100

A ii

-I--06 gr. nearly.
-f -6 gr.
-|-,l-75gr.— 2 OZ. nearly.
— 6 lb. nearly.

Beka

10

20
2
Shekel
1200
120
60
Miineh
60,000
6000
3000
60
Talent (Kikkar)
2, Eor Gold, a different Shekel was used,
probably of foreign introduction. Its value
has been calculated at frora 129 to 132
grains. The forraer value assimilates it to
the Persian Daric of the Babylonian stan
dard. The Talent of this system was ju<j
double that of the silver standard ; it was
divided into 100 manehs ; and each maneh
into 100 shekels, as follows :
Gold Weights.
Grains.
Lbs.
Oz.
Correction.
Shekel
132
13,200
1,320,000
2
200
•3
-»--75gr.
— 2 oz. nearly.
— 12 lb. nearly.
IM
10,000
100 1 Talent (Kikkar) ....
3. There appears to have been a third stan
dard for Copper, naraely, a shekel four tiraes
as heavy as the Gold Shekel (or 528 grains),
1500 of which made up the Copper Talent
of 792,000 grains. It seems to have been
subdivided, in the coinage, into Halves (of
264 grains). Quarters (of 132 grains), and
Sixths (of 88 grains). •>
B. Measures. I. Measures of Length,
— In the Hebrew, as in every other system,
these measures are of two classes ; length,
in the ordinary sense, for objects whose size
we wish to determine, and distance, or
itinerary raeasures; and the two are con
nected by some definite relation, more or
less simple, between their units. 1. The
measures of the former class have been
universally derived, in the first instance,
from the parts of the human body ; but it is
remarkable that, in the Hehrew system, the
only part used for this purpose is the hand
and fore-arm, to the exclusion of the foot,
which was the chief unit of the Western
nations. Hence arises the difficulty of de
termining the ratio of the /oo< to the Cubit,*
which appears as the chief Oriental unit
from the very building of Noah's ark (Gen.
vi, 15, 16, vii, 20). The Hebrew lesser
measures were the finger's breadth (Jer.
lii. 21, only) ; the palm or handbreadth
(Ex. xxv. 25 ; 1 K. vii, 26 ; 2 Chr. iv. 6,
used metaphorically in Ps. xxxix. 6) ; the
span, i. e. the full stretch between the tips
of the thumb and the little finger (Ex.
xxviU. 16; 1 Sam. xvU, 4; Ez. xUU. 13, and
flguratively Is. xl. 12). The data for de
terraining the actual length of the Mosaic
* The Hebrew word for the cubit iammah) appears to
have been of Egyptian origin, as some of tile meaaurea of
capacity (the Am and eph(m) were certainly.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 747 WEIGHTH AND MEASURES

cubit involve peculiar difficulties, and ab
solute^ certainty seeras unattainable. The
following, however, seera the raost probable
conclusions : flrst, that three cubits were
used in the times ofthe Hebrew monarchy;
hamely : (1,) The cubit of a man (Deut,
iii, 11), or the common cubit of Canaan (in
contradistinction to the Mosaic cubit) of
the Chaldaean standard ; (2,) The old Mo
saic or legal cubit, a handbreadth larger
than the flrst, and agreeing with the sraall
er Egyptian cubit; (3.) The new cubit,

which was still larger, and agreed with the
larger Egyptiiin cubit, of about 20-6 inches,
used in the Nilometer : and, secondly, that
the ordinary cubit of the Bible did not corae
up to the full length of the cubit of other
countries. The reed {kdneh) for raeasur
ing buUdings (like the Roman decempeda)
was equal to 6 cubits. It only occurs in
Ezekiel (xl, 5-8, xii, 8, xiii, 16-19). The
values given in the following table are to
be accepted with reservation, for want of
greater certainty :

luehes.

Approxim.ite.

Feet.

Indies.

Digit 

•793S
3-1752
5-6257
19-0515
114-3090

1
9

•8orl|
9i7
6

4

Piilm 

12

3

Span 

24

6

2

Cubit 

144
36
12
6 1 Eeed 
2. Of Measures of Distance the smallest is
the pace, and the largest the day's journey.
{a) The Pace (2 Sam. vi. 13), whether it
be single, like onr pace, or double, like the
Latin passus, is deflned by nature within
certain limits, its usual length being about
80 inches for the former, and 5 feet for the
latter. There is some reason to suppose
that even before the Roman measurement
of the roads of Palestine, the Jews had a
Mile of 1000 paces, alluded to in Matt. v.
41. It is said to have been single or double,
according to the length of the pace ; and
hence the peculiar force of our Lord's say
ing: "Whosoever shall compel thee [as a
courier] to go a mile, go with him twain "
— put the most liberal construction on the
demand, {b) The Day's Journey was the
most usual method of calculating distances
in travelling (Gen. xxx. 36, xxxi. 23 ; Ex.
iii. 18, V. 3; Num. x. 33, xi, 31, xxxiii, 8;
Deut, i. 2 ; 1 K, xix, 4 ; 2 K, iii, 9 ; Jon, Ui,
3; 1 Macc. V. 24, 28, vii. 45; Tob. vi, 1),
though, but one instance of it occurs in the
New Testament (Luke ii. 44), The ordi
nary da}''s journey among the Jews was 30
miles ; but when they travelled in compa
nies, only 10 miles ; Neapolis formed the
flrst stage out of Jerusalem, according to
the forraer, and Beeroth according to the
latter computation, (c) The Sabbath-day's
Journey of 2000 cubits (Acts i. 12) is pecu
liar to the N. T., and arose from a Rabbin
ical restriction. It was founded on a uni
versal application of the prohibition given
by Moses for a special occasion: "Let no
man go out of his place - on the seventh
day" (Ex. xvi. 29). An exception was
allowed for the purpose of worshipping at
the Tabernacle ; and, as 2000 cubits was the
prescribed space to be kept tatween the
Ark and the people, as well as the extent
ofthe suburbs ofthe Lcjvitical cities on every
side (Num, xx.xv, 5), this w.as taken forthe
length ofa Sabbath-day's journey, measured
from the wall of the city in Whieh the trav
eller Uved. Computed frora the value given
above for the cubit, the S.abbath-day's jour
ney would be just six tenths of a mile, {d)
After the Captivity, the relations of the
Jews to the Persians, Greeks, and Roraans,
caused the use, probably, of the Parasang,
and certainly ofthe Stadium and the Mile.
Though the flrst is not mentioned in the
Bible, it is well to exhibit the ratios of the
three. The universal Greek standard, the
stadiura of 600 Greek feet, which was the
length of the race-course at Olympia, occurs
flrst in the Maccabees, and is coraraon iu
the N. T. Our version renders it furlong ;
it being, in fact, the 8th part of the Roman
mile, as the furlong is of ours (2 Macc. xi.
5, xii. 9, 17, 29; Luke xxiv. 13; Johnvi.
19, xi. 18; Rev. xiv. 20, xxi. 16). One
measure reraains to be mentioned. The
fathom, used in sounding by the Alexan
drian mariners in St. P.aul's foyiige, is the
Greek 6(iyvi.a, i. e. the full sti etch of the two
arras frora tip to tip of the middle flnger,
which is about eijual to the height, and in
a man of fuU stature is six feet. Eor the
sake of corapleteness, the values of the
Greek and Roman foot are shown in the
following table;
weig:its and measures 748 weights and measures

Miles.

Feet.

Inches.

Roman li^rtut — 'Qfi nf Orpfik Foot 

•9193
»J nearly

1
4
0
606
= 4854

11-6496 0-135
10-248 0-819

¦

lA

Greek ]

p'oot 

5
If fi
600
--,.*- /
«-i
li
Greek Fathom (dpyvia) ....
625
- 125
100
Furlong (oT&Stov) . • .
5,000
4,800
1,000
800
8
Eoman Mile ....
18,?50
18,000
3,750
3,000
30
3f
Persian Parasang
For estimating Area, and especially Land,
there is no evidence that the Jews used any
special system of Square Measures, but
they were content to express the length and
breadth of the surface to be measured, by
the cubit (Num. xxxv- 4, 5 ; Ez. xl. 27) or
by the reed (Ez. xlU. 20, xliu. 17, xiv. 2,
xlviU. 20; Rev. xxi, 16).
II, Measures op Capacity. — 1. The
measures of capacity for Liquids were :
{a) The log (Lev. xiv, 10, &c,), the narae
originally signifying a " basin," (i) The
hin, a narae of Egyptian origin, frequently
noticed in the Bible (Ex, xxix. 40, xxx.
24; Nura. xv. 4, 7, 9; Ez. iv. 11, &c.),
(c) The bath, the name raeaning " raeas-
ured," the largest of the liquid raeasures
(1 K, vU. 26, 38 ; 2 Chr, U, 10 ; Ezr. vu.
22 ; Is. V. 10), Ths relative values of these
measures stand thus '.
Log, 12
Hin,
72
6 1 Bath.
2. The Dry raeasure contained the follow
ing denorainations : (a) The cab, men
tioned only in 2 K. vi. 25, the narae mean
ing literally hollow or concave, {b) The
omer, mentioned only in Ex. xvi. 16-36.
The word implies a heap, and secondarily,
a sheaf, {c) The sidh, or " measure,"
this being the etymological meaning of the
term, and appropriately applied to it, in
asmuch as it was the ordinary measure for
household purposes (Gen. xviii. 6 ; 1 Sara.
xxv. 18; 2 K. vu. 1, 16). The Greek
equiv£.lent occurs in Matt. xiii. 33 ; Luke
xiii. 21. {d) The ephah, a word of Egyp
tian origin, and of frequent recurrence in
the Bible (Ex. xvi. 36; Lev. v. 11, vi. 20;
Num. V. 15, xxviu. 5 ; Judg. vi. 19 ; Ruth
u. 17; 1 Sam. i. 24, xvU. 17; Ez. xiv. 11,
18, 14, xlvi. 5, 7, 11, 14). (e) The lethec,
or " half homer," literally meaning what
is poured out: it occurs only in Hos. ui. 2.
(/) The homer, raeaning heap (Lev. xxvii.
16; Nura. xi. 32; Is. v. 10; Ez. xiv. 13).
It is elsewhere termed cor, from the circu
lar vessel in which it was measured ''1 K.
iv. 22, V. 11; 2 Chr. U. 10, xxvii. 5; Ezr.
vu. 22; Ez. xiv. 14). The Greek equiva
lent occurs in Luke xvi. 7. The following
scale gives the relative values of these
measures :
Cab.
Omer.
Seab.
Epha^
It
6
4
18
10
3
180
100
30.
10 1 Homer.
The absolute values of .the liquid and dry
measures are stated difl'erently by Josephus
and the Rabbinists, and as we are unable
to decide between them, we give a double
estimate of the various denominations.
Bushels.
lOf orSj
{JosepTivs.) {Rabbinists.)
Gallona. Gallons.
Homer or Cor 86-696 or 44.286
Ephah or Bath 8-6696 or 4-4286
Seah .... 2-8S98 or 1-4762
Hin  1-4449 or -7381
Omer .... '8669 or -4428
Cab .... •4816 or -246
Los  -1204 or -0615
In the N. T. we have notices ofthe foUo'iv-
ing foreign measures : {a) The metritis
(John ii. 6; A. 'V. " flrkin "), for liquids.
(S) The choenix (Rev. vi. 6 ; A. V. " meas
ure "), for dry goods, (c) The xestic, ap
plied, however, not to the peculiar measure
so named by the Greeks, but to any small
vessel, such as a cup (Mark vu. 4, 8 ; A.
y. "pot"), {d) The modius, similiirly
applied to descrihe any vessel of moderate
dimensions (Matt. v. 15; Mark iv. 21;
Luke xi. 88; A. V. 'bushel"), though
properly meaning & Roman raeasure,
araounting to about a peck. The value of
the Attic metritis was 8-6696 gallons, and
consequently the amount of liquid in six
stone jars, containing on the average 2J
metriiae each, would exceed 110 gitllons
(John ii. 6). Very possibly, however, tho
Greek term represents the Hebrew bath ;
and, if the bath be taken at the lowest esti
raate assigned to it, the amount would be
reduced to about 60 gallons. The choenix
was l-48th of an Attic medimnus, and
WELL

749

WHALE

oontained nearly a, quart. It represented
the amount of , corn for a day's food ; and
hence a choenix for a penny (or denarius),
which usually purchased a bushel (Cic.
Verr. iii. 81), indicated a great scarcity
(Rev. vi. 6).
'Well. The special necessity of a sup
ply of water (Judg. i. 15) in a hot climate
has always involved among Eastern nations
questions of property of the highest irapor
tance, and soraetiraes given rise to serious
contention. Thus the well Beersheba was
opened, and its possession attested with
special formality by Abraham (Gen. xxi.
80, 31). To acquire wells which they had
not themselves dug, was one of the marks
of favor foretold to the Hebrews on their
entrance into Canaan (Deut. vi. 11). To
possess one is noticed as a mark of inde
pendence (Prov. V. 15), and to abstain from

Ancient Egyptian Machine for raiein;; Water, identical vith
the Shadoof of the present day. (Wilkinson,)
the use of wells belonging to others, a dis
claimer of interference with their property
(Num. XX, 17, 19, xxi, 22). Similar rights
of possession, actual and hereditary, exist
among the Arabs of the present day. It is
thus easy to understand how wells have be
corae in raany cases links in the history
aud landraarks in the topography both of
Palestine and of the Arabian Peninsula.
Wells in Palestine are usually excavated
frora the soUd limestone rock, sometimes
with steps to descend into them (Gen. xxiv.
16). The brims are furnished with a curb
or low wall of stone, bearing marks of high
antiquity in the furrows worn by the ropes
used iu drawing water. It was on a curb
of this sort that our Lord siit when He con
versed K-ith the woman of Samaria (John
iv. 6), and it was this, the usual stone cover,
which tbe woman phiced on the mouth of
the well at Bahurim (2 Sara. xvU. 19), where
the A. V. weakens the sense hy omitting the
article. The usual methods for raising

water are the foUowing: 1, The rope
and bucket, or water-skin (Geu, xxiv, 14-
20; Johniv, 11), 2, The sakiyeh, or Per
sian wheel. This consists of a vertical
wheel furnished with a set of buckets or
earthen jars, attached to a cord passing
over the wheel, which descend empty and
return full as the wheel revolves. 8, A
modiflcation of the last raethod, by which a
man, sitting opposite to a wheel furnished
with buckets, turns it by drawing with his
hands one set of spokes prolonged beyond
its circuraference, and pushing another set
frora him with his feet, 4, A method very
coraraon, both in ancient and modern Egypt,
is the shadoof, a simple contrivance con
sisting of a lever moving on a pivot, which
is loaded at one end with a lurap of cliiy or
sorae other weight, and has at the titber
a bowl or bucket, — Wells are usually fur
nished with troughs of wood or stone, into
which the water is eraptied for the use of
persons or aniraals coraing to the wells.
Unless raachinery is used, which is com
monly worked by men, woraen are usually
the water-carriers.
'Whale. As to the signiflcation of the
Hebrew terms tan and tannin, variously
rendered in the A. V- by " dragon,"
" whale," " serpent," " sea-monster," see
Dragon. It remains for us in this article
to consider the transaction recorded in the
Book of Jonah, of that prophet having been
swallowed up hy some " great flsh" which
in Matt. xii. 40 is called cstos {xijiog),
rendered in our version by " whale." In
the flrst place, it is necessary to ob
serve that the Greek word cStos, used by
St. Matthew, is not restricted in its mean
ing to "a whale," or any Cetacean; like
the Latin cde or cdus, it may denote any
sea-monster, either "a whale," or "a
shiirk," or " a seal," or " a tunny of enor
raous size." Although two or three species
of whale are found in the Mediterraneiin
Sea, yet the "great flsh" that sw.allowed
the prophet cannot properly be identified
with any Cetacean, tor, although the Sperm
whale has a gullet sufficiently large to ad
mit the body of a -man, yet it can hardly be
the fish intended ; as the natural food of
Cetaceans consists of sraall aniraals, such
as raedusae and Crustacea. The only fish,
then, capable of swallowing a raan woultl
be a large speciraen of the White Sh.ark
{Carcharias vulgaris), that dreaded eneray
of sailors, and tlie raost voracious of the
faraily of Squalidae. This shark, which
soraetiraes attains the length of thirty feet,
is quite able to swaUow a raan 'whole. The
whole body of a raan in arraor has been
found in the storaach of a white shark ; and
Captain King, in his Survey of Australia,
says he had caught one which could have
swallowed a ra.an with the greatest ease.
Blumenbach mentions that a whole horse

WHE.iT

750

WILDERNESS

has been found in a shark, and Captain
Basil Hall reports the taking of one in
which, besides other things, he found the
whole skin of a buflTalo which a short time
before had been thrown overboard frora his
ship (i. p. 27). The white shark is not
uncoraraon in the Mediterranean.
'Wheat, the well-known valuable cereal,
cultivated from the earliest tiraes, is first
mentioned in Gen. xxx. 14, iu the account
of Jacob's sojourn with Laban in Mesopo
tamia. Egypt in ancient times was cele
brated for the growth of its wheat ; the best
quality was all bearded; and the same
varieties existed in ancient as in modern
times, among which may be mentioned the
seven-eared quality described in Pharaoh's
dream (Gen. xii. 22). Babylonia was also
notfed for the excellence of its wheat and
other cereals. Syria and Palestine pro
duced wheat of fine quaUty and in large
quantities (Ps. cxlvii. 14, Ixxxi. 16, &c.).
There appear to be two or tliree kinds of
wheat at present grown in Palestine, the
Triticum vulgare, the T. spelia, and an
other variety of bearded wheat which ap
pears to be the s.ame as the Egyptian kind,
the T. compositurn. In the parable of the
sower our Lord alludes to grains of wheat
which in good ground produce a hundred-^
fold (Matt, xiii. 8), The comraon Triticum
vulgare will sometimes produce one hun
dred grains in the car. Wheat is reaped
towards the end of April, in May, and in
June, according to the difi'erences of soil
and position ; it was sown either broadcast,
and then ploughed in or trampled in by
cattle (Is. xxxii, 20), or in rows, if we
rightly understand Is, xxviii, 25, which
seems to imply that the seeds were planted
apart in order to insure larger and fuller
ears. The wheat was put into the ground
in the winter, and sorae tirae after the bar
ley ; in the Egyptian plague of hail, conse
quently, the barley sufi'erod, but the wheat
had not appeared, and so escaped injury.
"Whirlwind, The Hebrew tertns sA
phdh and se'drdh convey the notion of a
violent wind or hurricane, the forraer be
cause such a wind sweep's away every object
it encounters, the latter because the objects
so swept away are tossed and agitated. It
does not appear that the .above terms ex
press the speciflc notion of a whirl-wind.
The whirlwind is frequently used as a
ntetaphor of violent and sweeping destruc
tion. "Widow. Under the Mosaic dispens.a-
tion no legal provision was made for the
maintenance of widows. They were left
dependent partly on the affection of rola-
tionsy more especially of the eldest son,
whose birthright, or extra share of the
property, imposed such a duty upon hir.i,
and partly on the privileges accorded to
other distressed classes, such as a partici

pation in the triennial third tithe (Deut.
xiv. 29, xxvi. 12), in leasing (Deut, xxiv.
19-21), and in reUgious feasts (Deut. xvi.
11, 14). With regard to the remarriage of
widows, the only restriction imposed by the
Mosaic law had reference to the contingen
cy ofone being left childless, in which case
the brother of the deceased husband had a
right to marry the widow (Deut. xxv. 5, 0 ;
Matt. xxU. 23-30). In the Apostolic Church
the widows were sustained at the public
expense, the relief being daily administered
in kind, under the superintendence of offi
cers appointed for this special purpose
(Acts vi. 1-6). Particular directions are
given by St, Paul as to the class of persons
entitled to such public maintenance (1 Tim.
V, 3-16). Out of the body of such widows
a certain number were to be enrolled, the
qualiflcations for such enrolment being that
thoy were not under sixty years of age;
that they had been " the wife of one man,"
probably meaning but once married; and
that they had led useful and charitable lives
(vers. 9, 10). We are not disposed to
identify the widows of the Bible either with
the deaconesses or with the nqia^i/ndtg of
the early Church. The order of widows
existed as a separate institution, contem
poraneously with these offices, apparently
for the sarae eleeraosynary purpose for
which it was originally instituted.
'Wife. [Marriage,]
"Wild Beasts. 1. Behimdh, which is
the general name for " domestic cattle " of
any kind, is used also to denote " any large
quadruped," as opposed to fowls and creep
ing things ; or for " beasts of burden,"
horses, mules, &c., as in 1 K. xviii. 5,
Neh. ii. 12, 14, &c. ; or the word may de
note "wild beasts," as in Deut. xxxii. 24,
Hab, U, 17, 1, Sam, xvU, 44, 2, Chayydh
is used to denote any animal. It is, how
ever, very frequently used specially of
" wild beast," when the meaning is often
more fully expressed by the addition of the
word hassddeh, (wild beast) " of the fleld "
(Ex. xxiii, 11; Lev. xxvi, 22 ; Deut. vU.
22; Hos. ii. 12 [14], xui. 8; Jer. xU.
9, &c,),
"Wilderness of the Wandering.
With all the raaterial for fixing the locali
ties of the Exodus, the evidence for many
of them is so slight that the whole question
is involved in much obscurity. The uncer
tainties commence frora the very starting-
point of the route of the Wandering. It is
impossible to fix the point at which in " the
wilderness of Etham-" (Num. xxxiii, 6, 7)
Israel, now a nation of freemen, eraerged
from that sea into which they had passed
as a nation of slaves. The fact that from
" Etham in the edge of the wilderness,"
their path struck across the sea (Ex. xiii.
20), and frora the sea into the sarae .wilder
ness of Etham, seems to indicate the upper

WILDERNESS

751

WILDERNESS

end of the farthest tongue of the Gulf of
Suez as the point of crossing. There seeras
reason also to think that this gulf had then,
as also at Ezion-Geber, a farther extension
northward than at present, owing to the
land having upheaved its level. [Red Sea,
Passage op.] Their route now lay south
wards down the east side of the .Gulf of
Suez, and at first along the shore. The
station of Ayun Mousa (the Wells of Moses),
with its taraarisks and seventeen wells,
may have served for their gathering after
the passage. They marched for three days
through the wilderness of Shur or Etham,
on the south-west margin ofthe great desert
of Paran {ei-Tih), where they found no
water (Ex. xv. 22; Num. xxxiu. 8). It is
a part ofthe belt of gravel which surrounds
the raountains of the Peninsula, and is
crossed by several wadys, whose sides are
fringed with tamarisks, acacias, and a few
palra-trees. Near one of»these, theWady-
el 'Amarah, is a spring called Ain Awdrah,
not only in the position of Marah, but with
the bitter taste which gave it the narae.
The people, tormented with thirst, mur
mured against Moses, who, at the command
of God, cast a certain tree into the waters
which made them sweet (Ex. xv.'26). They
must have been cheered at reaching the
oasis of Elim, whose twelve wells and
threescore palra-trees mark it as one of the
wadys that break the desert; either the
Wady Ghurundel or the Wady Useit. After
passing the Wady Taiyibeh, the route de
scends through a defile on to a beautiful
pebbly beach, where Dean Stanley places
the Encampment bt the Red Sea, which
is mentioned in Numbers (Nura. xxxiu. 10)
next to Elim, but is omitted in Exodus,
Here the Israelites had their last view of
the Red Sea and the shores of Egypt,
Striking inland from this point, they en
tered the Wilderness of Sin (probably
the plain of Mu/rkhaK), which leads up
frora the shore to the entrance to the moun
tains of Sinai (Ex, xvi. 1). Here occurred
their second great trial since leavingEgypt,
Their unleavened bread was exhausted; and
they began to mirtnur that they had better
have died by the flesh-pots of Egypt than
h.ave been led out to be killed with hunger
in the wilderness. But God was teaching
them to look to him for their " daily bread,"
which He now rained down frora heaven in
the form of manna, and continued the sup
ply till they reached Canaan (Ex, xvi. 4,
35). [Manna,] Erom this valley others
lead up, by a series of steep ascents, into
the recesses of Sinai; resembling the beds
of rivers, but without water, and separated
by defiles which .sometimes become stair
cases of rock. Such Yere,no doubt, the
stations of Dofhkah and Alush {^nm.
xxxiu 12, 13), and such are the Wadys
Bhdlal and Mukaiteb. From the latter the

route passes into the long and winding
Wady Feiran, with its groves of tamarisks
and palms, overhung by the granite rocks
of Mount Serbal, perhaps the Horeb of
Scripture. This valley answers in every
respect to Rephidim (the resting-places),
the very ntime of which implies a long halt
(Ex, xvu, 1), Here the cry for water burst
forth into an angry rebeUion against Moses ;
and God vouchsafed a. miracle for a per
manent supply during their abode in the
wilderness of Sinai, Moses was command
ed to go before the people, with the elders
of Israel, and to smite the rock in Horeb,
and water flowed forth out of it. The place
was called Massah {temptation), and Mer
ibah {chiding or strife), in meraory ofthe
rebellion by which the people terapted Je
hovah and doubted His presence araong
thera (Ex, xvii. 2-7), The spring thus
opened seems to have formed a brook,
which the Israelites used during their whole
sojourn near Sinai (Deut, ix, 21 ; corap. Ps,
Ixxviii, 15, 16, cv, 41), Hjuce the rock is
said to have "followed thera " by St, Paul,
who makes it a type of Christ, the source
of the spiritual water of life (1 Cor, x, 4 ;
comp, John iv. 14, vii, 35 ; Isa, Iv, 1 ; Ez.
xlvii. 1; Zech, xiv, 8; Rev, xxu, 1, 17 : the
waters flowing outof the temple, which also
stood on a bare rock, complete the type,
linking together Sinai, Sion, and the spir
itual sense of both) , The next stage brought
the Israelites to the Wilderness op Sinai,
on the first day of the third month (Sivan,
June), and here they encamped before the
Mount (Ex, xix, 1, 2). The site of their
camp has been identified, to a high degree
of probability, with the Wady er-Rahah
(the enclosed plain) in front of the magnifi
cent cliffs of Ras SAfsdfeh. On the iden
tification of Sinai itself, see Sinai, The
sojourn of the Israelites for a year in the
neighborhood of Mount Sinai was an event
ful one. The Eto,teraents of the Scriptural
narrative which relate to the receiving of
the two Tables, the Golden Calf, Mosfcs'
vision of God, and the visit of Jethro, are
too well known to need special mention
here. They now quitted the Sinaitic region
for that of Paran, in which they went throe
days without finding a permanent encamp
ment (Num, i., ix. 15-23, x. 12, 33, xi, 35, xU.
16), In following the route of the Israel
ites from Sinai, we must try to determine
two or three chief positions. The general
direction is northwards frora Sinai "to the
mount of the Amorites," the highlands
of southern Palestine. The two extremes
are the carap before Sinai on the south,
and the "city" of Kadesh, or Kadesh-
Barnea, on the north (Num. xui. 26,
XX. 6, xxxu, 8), The distance between
these points was eleven days' journey
(about 165 miles), "by the way of Mount
Seir" (Deut. i. 2). This is evidently

WILDERNESS

752

WILDERNESS

mentioned as the ordinary route, and it
seems to be iraplied (though this must not
be assuraed as eertain) that it was followed
by the Israelites. Between "the mount of
the Araorites " and the group of Sinai, lies
the great table-land now called the desert
of Et-Tih, {the wandering). There can be
no doubt of its general correspondence to
the wilderness of Paran. It took them
sorae tirae to get clear of the wadys about
Sinai; and although Paran is mentioned
frora the flrst as the region into which they
passed, the three important stations of Tab
erah, Kieroth-Hattaavah, and Haze-
both (Num. xi. 3, 34, 35, xxxiii. 17) can
hardly be reckoned to Paran, as they are
said to have encamped in the wilderness of
Paran after leaving Hazeroth (Num. xii,
16), -Unfortunately these three names fur
nish little, if any, clew to the route they
took from Sinai, Taeerah (a burning)
records the awful judgment that befell the
people, who now began again to murmur
against Jehovah (Num, xi, 23). The name
of the inext station, Kibeoth-Hattaavah
(the graves of lust), is of similar origin,
¦They loathed the manna, and asked for
flesh. God sent them quails, on which
they surfeited theraselves for a whole
month; and while the flesh was yet be
tween their teeth, they were smitten with a
great plague, which gave the place its name.
Eor the next halting-place, Hazeroth (the
enclosures), a site has been found at the
Wady Huderah, on the main route from
Sinai to the shores of the Gulf of Akabah
^(Num, xi. 35). At Hazeroth Moses was
troubled by a seditious opposition frora
Miriara and Aaron, Miriam was smitten
with leprosy ; and, though she was healed
at the prayer of Moses, Aaron, as the high
priest, was obliged to shut her out from the,
carap for seven days ; after which " the
people reraoved from Hazeroth, and pitched
in the wilderness of Paran," Here is the
Gordian knot of the topography. We arc
not told at what point they passed into the
wilderness of Paran, nor how many stages
they made in it. "We find them next at
Kadesh, whence the spies were sent out
(Nura. xiii. 26 ; Deut, i, 19) ; but to deter
mine the position of Kadesh itself is the
great problem of the whole route. We ob
tain no help frora the list of stations (Nura,
xxxiii,), in which Kadesh is not raentioned,
and the narae of Hazeroth is followed by
several unknown places, of which it is even
uncertain whether they btlong to this jour
ney or to the years of wandering in the
wilderness. The latter seeras the more
probable alternative, since the raention of
Mount Hor (Num, xiu, 37-41) clearly re
fers to the fortieth year, and at least the
eight preceding stations (Num, xiii. 31-37)
are closely connected with it (comp. Deut.

X. 6, 7) ; while the halt at Kadesh .(Num.
xiii. 37) must be understood of a return to
that place after the long wanderings (comp.
Num. XX. 1). The only escape from thesa
difficulties is by the hypothesis that Kadesh
served as a sort of head-quarters during the
thirty-eight years of wandering. The Isra
elites arrived at Kadesh forty days before
the vintage, or about the latter part of Au
gust; and they made there a longer halt
than at any other place, except before Si
nai. At Kadesh, Jehovah declared to the
people that they had reached the mountain
of the Amorites, into which they were to
ascend, to possess the land He had given
them (Deut. i. 20, 21). But first the coun
try was explored by twelve spies, who were
heads of their respective tribes (Num. xiii.
1-16 ; Deut. i, 22, 23), The people, alarmed
by the report which the spies brought back
of the strength of the Canaanite cities, broke
out into open »ebellion, and proposed to
elect a captain and to return to Egypt.
God punished them by declaring that they
should not see the promised land. The
execution of the sentence was to begin on
the morrow, by their turning into the wil
derness by the way ofthe Red Sea. There
they were to wander for forty years — a year
for each day that the spies had searched
the land — till all the men of twenty years
old and upwards had left their carcasses in
the desert; and then at length their chil
dren, having shared their wiinderings, should ¦
enter on their inheritance (Num, xiv.). Now
that itwas too late;"the people changed their
mind; and, having lost the opportunity
given thera by God, they tried to seize
it against His will. In the morning they
marched up the mountain-pass {Es-Sufa),
in spite of the warning of Moses — that it
should not prosper; and the Amalekites
and Canaanites, coming down upon them
with the Amorites of the mountain, defeat
ed them with great slaughter, and chased
them as far as Hormah, and even to Mount
Seir (Num. xiv. 40-45; Deut. i, 41-44),
The entrance to the promised land on this
side was now hopelessly barred ; and their
forlorn state is thus described by Moses :
"And ye returned and wept before Jeho
vah; but Jeliovah would not hearken to
your voice nor give ear unto you " (Deut.
i. 45, 46). The thirty-eight years (or rather
exactly thirly-seven years and a half) oc
cupied in the execution of God's judgment
form almost a blank in the sacred history.
Their close raay be fixed at the period of
the final inarch frora Kadesh to Mount
Hor, and thence down through the Arabah,
and up the eastern side of Mount Seir, to
the plains of Moab (Num. xx. 1, xxxui. 37 ;
Deut. ii. 23). But the intervening portions
of the narrative are most difficult to assign
to their proper place — whether to the first

WILLOWS

753

WINDS

OT final stay at Kadesh, or to the years be
tween. Tlie mystery which hangs over this
period seems like an awful sUence into
which the rebels sink away. After the rout
in Hormah, the people "abode in Kadesh
many days" (Deut. i, 46), This phrase
may possibly cover the whole period of the
wandering; and Kadesh raay very weU be
taken for a general narae of "the wilderness
(see Ps. xxix, 8). The direction in which
the people started on their wanderings is
deflned, " by ihe way ofthe Red Sea" (Nura,
xiv, 25; Deut. i, 40), which seeras clearly
to mean down the Arabah to the head of
the Elanitic Gulf, Now it seeras that the
passage in Deut, ii, 1 raust be referred to
this sarae "turning into the wilderness by
way of the Red Sea," and not to the final
march, the signal for which is recorded at
V, 3 ; and this is confirmed by the computa
tion of' the thirty-eight years of wandering
from the time they left Kadesh-barnea
(Num. xiv. 14). If this be so, we have a
clew to the direction of the wandering in
the words, " and we compassed Mount Seir
many days ; " words which point to the
Arabah. With this agrees the notice of
their last march back to Kadesh, being from
Ezion-gaber at the head of the Gulf of
Akabah (Num. xxxiii. 36),
Willows are raentioned in Lev. xxiu,
40; Job.xl, 22; Is. xliv. 4; Ps. cxxxvU, 2,
With respect to the tree upon which the
captive Israelites hung their harps, there
can be no doubt that the weeping willow
{Salix Babylonica) is intended. This tree
grows abundantly on the banks of the Eu
phrates, in other parts of Asia as in Pales
tine, 'The Hebrew word translated willows
is generic, and includes several species of
the large faraily of Salices, which is well
represented in Palestine and tho Bible lands,
such as the Salix alba, S. viminalis (osier),
S. Aegyptiaca.
Willows, The Brook of the, a wady
mentioned by Isaiah (xv. 7) in his dirge
over Moab. His language implies that it
was one of the boundaries of the country,
and is possibly identical with a wady raen
tioned by Araos (vi, 14) as the then rec
ognized southern lirait of the northern
kingdora. This latter appears in the A. V.
as " the river of the wUderness." Widely
as they difier in tbe A. V., the naraes are
all but identical in the original.
"Wills- Under a system of close inher
itance lUie tha t of the Jews, the scope for be
quest in respect of land was Uraited by the
right of redemption and general re-entry m
the Jubilee year: But the law does not tor-
bid bequests by will of such limited interest
in land as was consistent with those rights.
The case of houses in walled towns was
different, and there caff be no doubt that
thev must, in fact, have frequently been
bequeathed by wUl (Lev. xxv, 30). Two

instances are recorded in the 0, T, undor
the Law, of testamentary disposition, (1)
effected in the case of Ahithophel (2 Sara,
xvu, 23), (2) recommended in the case
of Hezekiah (2 K. xx. 1; Is. xxxviu. 1).
[Heir.] Wimple, an old EngUsh word for hood
or veU, used in the A. V. of Is. iu, 22, The
sarae Hebrew word is translated " veil " in
Ruth iu. 15, but it signifies rather a kind
of shawl or mantle.
"Window. The window of an Oriental
house consists generally of an aperture
closed in with lattice-work (Eccl. xii. 3,
A. V. "window;" Hos. xiii. 3, A. V.
"chimney;" Cant. U. 9; Judg. v. 28;
Prov. vU. 6, A. "V". "casement"). Glass
has been introduced into Egypt in modern
tiraes as a protection against the cold of
winter, but lattice-work is still the usual,
and with the poor the only, contrivance for
closing the window. The windows gener-
allj' look into the inner court of the house,
but in every house one or more look into the
street. In Egypt these outer windows gen
erally project over the doorway. [House.]
'Winds, That the Hebrews recognized
the existence of four prevailing winds as
issuing, broadly speaking, from the four
cardinal points, north, south, east, and west,
may be inferred from their custom of using
the expression " four winds " as equivalent
to the " four quarters " of the hemisphere
(Ez, xxxvii, 9; Dan, viii, 8; Zech, ii. 6;
Matt, xxiv, 31), The North wind, or, as it
was usually called, "the north," was natu
rally the coldest of the four (Ecclus, xliii,
20), and its presence is hence invoked as
favorable to vegetation in Cant, iv, 16, It
is described in Prov, xxv, 23, as bringing
rain ; in this case ivo must understand
the north-west wind. The north-west wind
prevails from tbe autumnal equinox to the
beginning of November, and the north wind
from June to the equinox. The East wind
crosses the sandy wastes of Arabia Deserta
before reaching Palestine, and was hence
termed " the wind ofthe wilderness " (Job
i, 19 ; Jer, xiii, 24),- It blows with violence,
and is hence supposed to be used generally
for any violent wind (Job xxvii. 21, xxxviii.
24; Ps. xlviii. 7; Is. xxvii. 8 ; Ez. xxvii.
26). In Palestine the east wind prevails
from Eebruary to June. The South wind,
which traverses the Arabian peninsula be
fore reaching Piilestine, must necessarUy
be extremely hot (Job xxxvii. 17 ; Luke
xii. 55). The West and south-west winus
reach Palestine loaded -vi'ith moisture gath
ered from the Mediterranean, and are hence
expressively termed by the Arabs "the
fathers of the rain." Westerly winds pre
vail in Palestine frora Noveraber to Febru
ary. In addition to the four regular winds,
we have notice in the Bible of the local
squalls (Miirkiv.37; LukeTHi,23).towhich

WINE

754

WINE

the Sea of Gennesareth was liable. In the
niirrative of St, Paul's voyage we meet with
the Greek terra Lips to describe the south
west wind ; the Latin Cams or Caurus the
north-west wind (Acts xxvii. 12), and
Euroclydon, a wind of a very violent
character coming from E. N. E. (Acts
xxvii, 14).
'Wine, The manufacture of wine is
carried back in the Bible to the age of
Noah (Gen. ix, 20, 21), to whora the dis
covery of the process is apparently, though
not explicitly, attributed. The natural his
tory and culture of the vine are described
under a separate head. ['Vine,] The only
olher plant whose fruit is noticed as having
been converted into wine, was the porae-
granate (Cant, viii, 2). In Palestine the
vintage takes place in Septeraber, and is
celebrated with great rejoicings. The ripe
fruit was gathered in baskets (Jer. vi. 9),
as represented in Egyptian paintings, and
was carried to the wine-press. It was then
placed in the upper one of the two vats or
receptacles of which the wine-press was
forraed, and was subjected to the process
nf " treading," which has prevailed in all
ages in Oriental and South-European coun
tries (Neh. xiii- 15; Job xxiv. 11; Is. xvi.
10; Jer. xxv. SO, xlviU. 33; Am. ix. 13;
Rev. xix. 15). A certain araount of juice
exuded frora the ripe fruit from its own
pressure before the treading coraraenced.
This .appears to have been kept separate
frora the rest of the juice, and to have
formed the " sweet wine " noticed in Acts
ii, 13, (See below,) The " treading " was
eff'ected by one or more raen accorcJing to
the size of the vat. They encouraged one
another by shouts {Is. xvi. 9, 10 ; Jer. xxv.
80, xlviii. 33). Their legs and giirraents
were dyed red with the juice (Gen. xlix.

^sswWWSWwWnn \iiiiiiiiijMIIIIIIIIIII>''.

Egyptian Wine-presa. (Wilkinson.)
11; Is. Ixiu. 2,8). The expressed juice
escaped by an aperture into the lower vat,
er wa s at once collected in vessels. A hand-

press was occasionally used in Egypt, but
we have no notice of euch an instruraent in
the Bible. As to the subsequent treatment
of the wine, we have but little inforraation.
Soraetiraes it was preserved in its unfer-
raented state, and drunk as must, but more
generally it was bottled off after fermenta
tion, and, if it were designed to be kept, for
some time, a certain amount of lees was
added to give it body (Is. xxv. 6). The
wine consequently required to be " refined "
or strained previously to being brought to
table (Is. xxv. 6), To wine is attributed
the "darkly flashing eye " (Gen, xlix. 12;
A. V. " red "), the unbridled tongue (Prov.
XX, 1; Is, xxviii, 7), the exciteraent of tho
spirit (Prov. xxxi. 6 ; Is. v. 11 ; Zech. ix.
15, X. 7), the enchained affections of its
votaries (Hos. iv. 11), the perverted judg
ment (Prov. xxxi. 5 ; Is, xxvui, 7), the inde
cent exposure (Hab. ii. 15, 16), and the sick
ness resulting from the heat {chemdh, A. Y.
" bottles ") of wine (Hos. vii. 5). The al
lusions to the effects of itrdsh are confined
to a single passage, but this a most decisive
one, viz. Hos. iv. 11, ".Whoredom and
wine {yayin), and new wine {iirdsh) take
away the heart," where iirdsh appears as
the climax of engrossing influences, in im
mediate connection with yayin. It has
been disputed whether the Hebrew wine
was fermented ; but the impression pro
duced on the raind by a general Review of
the above notices is, that the Hebrew words
indicating wine refer to ferraented, intoxi
cating wine. The notices of ferraentation
are not very decisive, A certain amount
of fermentation is implied in the distention
of the leather bottles when new wiue was
placed in them, and whieh was liable to
burst old bottles. It is very likely that new
wine was preserved in the state of must by
placing it in jars or bottles, and then bury
ing it in the earth. The mingling that we
read of in conjunction with wine may have
been designed either to increase or to
diminish the strength of the wine, according
as spices or water formed the ingredient
that was added. The notices chiefly favor
the former view ; for mingled liquor was
prepared for high festivals (Prov, ix. 2, 5),
and occasions of excess (Prov. xxiii, 80;
Is, V. 22). At the same time strength was
not the sole object sought; the wine " min
gled with myrrh," given to Jesus, was de
signed to deaden piiin (Mark xv. 23), and
the spiced pomegranate wine prepared by
the bride (Cant. viU, 2) may well have been
of a mild character. In the New Testament
the character ofthe " sweet wine," noticed
iu Acts u. 18, calls for some Uttle remark.
It could not be new wine in the proper
sense of the term, inasmuch as about eight
mouths must have elapsed between the
vintage and the feast of Pentecost. The
explanations of the ancient lexicographers

WINE-PRESS

755 WISDOM OF SOLOMON

rather lead us to infer that its luscious
qualities were due, not to its being recently
made, but to its being produced from the
very purest juice of the gr.ape. There can
be little doubt that the wines of Palestine
viiried in quality, and were named after the
localities in which they were raade. The
only wines of which we have special notice,
belonged to Syria ; thcse-were the wine of
Helbon (Ez. xxvii. 18), and the wine of
Lebanon, famed for its aroma (Hos. xiv. 7),
With regard to the uses of wine in priviite
Ufe there is little to reraark. If was pro
duced on occasions of ordinary hospitality
(Gen. xiv. 18), and at festivals, such as raar
riages (John ii. 3). Under the Mosaic law
wine formed the usual drink-ofTering that
accompanied the daily sacriflce (Ex. xxix.
40), the presentation of the first fruits (Lev.
Xxiii. 13, and other off'erings (Num. xv. 5).
Tithe was to be paid of wine, as of other
products. The priest was also to receive
first-fruits of wine, as of other articles (Deut.
xviii. 4; corap. Ex. xxii. 29). The use of
wine at the pjischal feast was not enjoined
by the Law, but had becorae an established
custora, at all events, in the post-Babylonian
period. The wine was mixed with warm
water on these occasions. Hence in the
early Christian Church it was usual to rai.x
the sacramental wine with water. [Drink.]
'Wine-press. From the scanty notices
contained in the Bible we gather that the
wine-presses of the Jews consisted of two
receptacles or vats placed at difl'erent eleva
tions, in the upper one of which the grapes
were trodden, while the lower oue received
the expressed juice. The two vats are
mentioned together only in Joel iii. 13 :
" The press is full : the fats overflow " —
the upper vat being full of fruit, the lower
oue overflowing with the raust. [Wine,]
The two vats were usually hewn out of the
solid rock (Is. v. 2, margin; M.att, xxi, 33),
Ancient wine-presses, so constructed, are
still to be seen in Palestine.
'Winnowing. {Agriculture,]
"Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach.
[Ec: LESIASTICUS,]
'Wisdom, The, of Solomon, a book
ofthe Apocrypha, may be divided into two
parts, the flrst (ch. i.-ix,) containing the
doctrine of Wisdom in its raoral and intel
lectual aspects ; the second, the doctrine of
Wisdora as shown in history (ch, x,-xix,).
The flrst piirt contains the praise of Wisdora
as the source of iramortality, in contrast with
the teaching of sensualists ; and next the
praise of Wisdora as the guide of practical
and intellectual life, the stay of -princes, and
the interpreter of the universe. Thesecond
part, again, foUows the action of Wisdom
Bumraarily, as preserving God's servants,
from Adam to Moses, and more particular
ly in the punishment of the Egyptians and
Canaanites. The whole argurrent may be

presented in a tabular form in the follow
ing shape : I. Ch. i.-ix. The doctrine of
Wisdom in iis spiritual, intellectual, and
moral aspects. {a), i.-v. Wisdora the
giver of happiness and iniraortality : The
conditions of wisdom (i, 1-11) — Upright
ness of thought (1-5) — Uprightness of
word (6-11), —The origin of death (i. 12-
ii, 24) : Sin (in fact) by man's free will (i.
12-rB) — The reasoning of the sensualist
(u, 1-20) — Sin (in source) by the envy of
the devU (21-24), — The godly iind wicked
in life (as mortal) (iii, 1-iv.) ¦ In chastise
ments (iu, 1-10) — In the results of life
(Ui, 11-iv, 6) — In length of life (7-20), -
I'he godly and wicked after death (v,) :
The judgraent of conscience (1-14) — The
judgment of God — On the godly (15-16)
— On the wicked (17-23), {?). vi.-ix.
Wisdora the guide of life : Wisdom the
guide of princes (vi. 1-21) — The respon
sibility of power (1-11) — Wisdom soon
found (12-16) — Wisdora the source of true
sovereignty (17-21;. — The character and
realra of wisdora : Open to all (vi. 22-.vii.
7) — Pervading all creation (vii. 8-viii. 1)
— Swaying all life (viu. 2-17) — Wisdom
the gift of God (vui. 17-ix.)*: Prayer for
wisdom (ix.). II. Ch. x.-xix. The doc
trine of Wisdom iri its historical aspeds :
{a). 'Wisdom a power to save and chastise :
'Wisdom seen in the guidance of God's peo
ple from Adam to Moses (x,-xi, 4), —
Wisdom seen in the punishment of God's
enemies (xi,. 5-xii.) : The Egyptians (xi. 5-
xii. 1) — The Canaanites (xii. 2-18) —
The lesson of mercy and judgraent (19-27),
(/S), The growth of idolatry the opposite
to wisdom : The worship of nature (xiu, 1-
9) — The worship of images (xiii, 10-xiv.
13) — The worship of deifled raen (xiv.
14-21) — The moral effects of idolatry (xiv.
22-31). (y). The contrast between true
worshippers and idolaters (xv,-xi.x,) : The
general contrast (xv, 1-17) — The special
contrast at the Exodus : The action of beasts
(xv, 18-xvi, 13) -^The action of the forces
of nature — water, flre (xvi, 14-29) — The
symbolic darkness (xvii,-xviii. 4) — The
action of death (xviii. 5-25) — The powers
of nature changed in their working to save
and destroy (xix. 1-21) — Conclusion (xix.
21). Style and Language. — The literary
character of the book is raost remarkable
and interesting. In the richness and free
dom of its vocabulary it raost closely re
serables the Fourth Book of Maccabees, but
it is superior to that fine deQlamatiou, both
in power and variety of diction. The mag
nificent descrip.tion of Wisdom (vii. 22-
vUi. 1) must rank among the noblest pas
sages of human eloquence, and it would be ,
perhaps impossible to point out any piece
of equal length in the reraains of classical
antiquity more pregnant with noble thought,
or more rich in expressive phraseology.

WISE MEN

756

WOLF

Dodrinal Charader. — The theological
teaching of the book offers, in many re
spects, the nearest approach to the language
and doctrines of Greek philosophy which is
found in any .lewish writing up to the tirae
of Philo. There is rauch in the views which
it gives of the world, of raan, and of the
Divine Nature, which springs rather frora
tiie combination or conflict of Hebrew and
Greek thought than frora the independent
development of Hebrew thought alone.
Thus, in speaking of the almighty power
of God, the writer describes hira as " having
created the universe out of matter without
form," adopting the very phrase of the
Pliitonists, which is found also in Philo.
Scarcely less distinctly heathen is the con
ception which is presented of the body as a
mere weight and clog to the soul (ix. 15 ;
contrast 2 Cor. v. 1-4). It is more in ac
cordance with the language of the O. T.
that the writer represents the Spirit of God
as filling (i. 7) and inspiring .all things (xii.
1), but even here the idea of " a soul of the
world " seems to influence his thoughts.
There is, on the other hand, no trace ofthe
oharacterisfic Christian doctrine of a resur
rection of the body. The identification of
the tempter (Gen, iii,), directly or indirect
ly, with the devil, as tlie bringer " of death
into the world" (ii, 23, 24), is tho most re
markable development of Biblical doctrine
which the book contains. Generally, too,
it m.ay be observed that, as in the cognate
books, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, there are
few traces of the recognition of the sinful
ness even of the wise raan in his wisdom,
which forms, in the Psalras and tho Proph
ets, the basis of the Christian doctrine of
the atonement (yet comp, xv, 2), In con
nection with the 0. T. Scriptures, the
book, as a whole, raay be regarded as car
rying on one step farther the great problera
of Ufe contained in Ecclesiastes .and Job,
From interniil evidence it seems most
reasonable to believe that the book was
¦ composed in Greek .at Alexandria sorae
time before the tirae of Philo (about 120-
80 B, c), St. Piiul, if not other of the
Apostolic writers, was familiar with its
language, though he raakes no definite quo
tation from it. Thus we have striking
parallels in Rom, ix, 21 to Wisd, xv. 7; in
Rora, ix. 22 to Wisd. xii, 20; in Eph, vi,
13-17 to Wisd, V, 17-19 (tbe heavenly
armor), &c. It seeras, indeed, irapossible
to study the ,book dispassionately, and not
feel that it forras one of the last links in tho
chain of providentiiil connection between
the Old and New Covenants, It would not
lit easy to find elsewhere any pre-Christian
view of religion equally wide, sustained,
and definite.
Wise Men. [Magi,]
"Witch, Witchcrafts. [Divination;
Maoic]

'Witness. Among people with iihiin
writing is not coraraon, the evidence of a
transaction is given by some tangible memo
rial or significant ceremony. Abraham
gave seven ewe-lambs to Abimelech as an
evidence of his property in the well of Beer
sheba. Jacob raised a heap of stones, "the
heap of witness," as a boundary-mark be
tween himself and Laban (Gen. xxi. 30, xxxi.
47, 52). Thetribes of Reuben and Gadraised
an "altar" as a witness to the covenant
between themselves and the rest of the na
tion ; Joshua set up a stone as an evidence
of the allegiance promised by Israel to
God (Josh, xxu, 10, 26, 34, x.xiv. 26, 27).
Thus also symbolical usages, in ratiflcation
of contracts or completed arrangements, as
the ceremony of shoe-loosing (Deut. xxv.
9, 10 ; Ruth iv. 7, 8), the ordeal prescribed
in the caso of a suspected wife, with which
may be compared the ordeal of the Styx
(Num. V, 17-31). But written evidence
was by no means unknown to the Jews.
Divorce was to be proved by a written doc
uraent (Deut. xxiv. 1, 3). In civU con
tracts, at least in later times, documentary
evidence was required and carefully pre
served (Is, viii, 16; Jer. xx.xii. 10-16).
On the whole the Law was very careful to
provide and enforce evidence for all its in
fractions and all transactions bearing on
thera. Among special provisions with ire-
spect to evidence are the following: 1.
Two witnesses at least are required to es
tablish any charge (Num. xxxv. 30; Deut.
xvii. 6 ; John viu. 17 ; 2 Cor. xin. 1 ; comp.
1 Tira. V, 19), 2. In the case of the sus
pected wife, evidence besides the husband's
w.as desired (Nura. v. 13). 3. The witness
who withheld the truth wiis censured (Lev.
V, 1). 4. False witness was punished with
the punishment due to the oflfence which it
sought to establish. 5. Slanderous reports
and officious witness are discouraged (Ex.
XX. 10, xxiu. 1 ; Lev. xix, 16, 18, &c,), 6.
The witnesses were the flrst executioners
(Deut, xiu, 9, xvi, 7; Acts vu, 58). 7. In
case of an anim.al left in charge and torn
by wild beasts, the keeper was to bring the
carcass in proof of the fact and disproof of
his own criminality (Ex. xxii. 13). 8. Ac
cording to Josephus, women and slaves
were not adraitted to bear testimony. In
the N. T. the original notion of a witness is
exhibited in the special forra of one who at
tests his belief in the Gospel by personal
suffering. Hence it is that the use of the
ecclesiastical terra "martyr," the Greek
word for "witness," has arisen.
"Wizard. [Divination; Magic]
"Wolf. There can be little doubt that
the wolf of Palestine is the common Canis
lupus, and that this is the animal so fre
quently raentioned in the Bible. Wolves
were doubtless far more common in Bibli
cal times than they are now, though they

WOMEN

757

WORSHIPPER

are occasionally seen by raodern travellers.
The following are the Scriptural allusions
to the wolf: Its ferocity is raentioned in
Gen. xli.x. 27; Ez. .xxu, 27; H.ab. i, 8;
Matt. vii. 15; its nocturnal habits, in Jer,
v. 6 ; Zeph, iU, 3 ; Hab, i, 8 ; its iittiicking
sheep and larabs, John x, 12 ; M.att, x, 16 ;
Luke X, 3, Isaiah (xi. 6, lxv, 25) foretells
the peaceful reign of the Messiah under the
metaphor of a wolf dwelling with a lamb ;
cruel persecutors are corapared with wolves
(Matt. X, 16; Acts xx. 29),
"Women. The position of woraen in the
Hebrew ooraraonwcalth contrasts favorably
with thatwhich in tbe presentdiiy is assigned
to them generally in Eastern countries. The
most salient point of contrast in tho usages
of ancient as corapiircd with modern Oriental
society was the large amount of liberty en
joyed by woraen. Instead of being im
mured in a harem, or appearing in public
with the face covered, the wives and maid
ens of ancient times mingled freely and
openly with the other sex in the duties and
amenities of ordinary life. Rebekah trav
elled on a camel with her face unveiled,
until she carae into the presence of her
affianced (Geu. xxiv. 64, 65). Jacob saluted
Rachel with a kiss in the presence of the
shepherds (Gen. xxix, 11), Woraen pliiyed
no inconsiiierable part in public celebrations
(Ex. XV. 20, 21; Judg. xi. 34). The odes
of Deborah (Judg. v.) and of Hannah (1
Sara, ii, 1, &c.) exhibit a degree of intel
lectual cultivation which is in itself a proof
of the position of the sex in that period,
Woraen also occasionally held public of
fices, particularly that of prophetess or
inspired teacher (Ex. xv. 20 ; 2 K. xxii. 14 ;
Nell. vi. 14; Luke ii. 86; Judg. iv. 4).
The raanageraent of household affairs de
volved raainly on the women. The value
of a virtuous and active housewife forms a
frequent topic in the Book of Proverbs (xi.
16, xU. 4, xiv. 1, xxxi. 10, &c.). Her in
fluence was of course proportionably great.
The effect of polygamy was to transfer
female influence from the wives to the
mother. Polygamy also necessitated a
separate establishment for the wives col
lectively, or for each individually. Further
information on the subject of this article
is given under the heads Deaconess,
Dress, Haie, Marriage, Slave, Veil,
and Widow.
'Wood. [Forest,]
'Wool was an article of the highest value
araong the Jews, as the staple material for
the manufacture of clothing (Lev. xiu. 47 ;
Deut. xxu. 11; Job xxxi. 20; Prov, xxxi,
18; Ez. xxxiv. 3; Hos. U. 5). The impor
tance of wool is incidentaUy shown by the
notice that Mesha's tribute was p.aid in a cer
tain number of rams " with the wool " (2 K.
jii i) The wool of Damascus was highly
prized in the mart of Tyre (Ez. xxvU. 18).

"Woollen, Linen and. The Israel
ites were foi-bidden to wear a garment min
gled of woollen and linen, " A garraent of
mixtures [shaainez'] shall not come upon
thee " (Lev, xix. 19) ; or, as it is expressed
in Deut, xxu, 11, " Thou shalt not wear
shaatniz, wool and flax togetlier." Our
version, by the help of the latter passage,
has rendered the strange word shaatnAz, in
the former, "of linen and woollen," while
in Deut. it is translated " a garment of
divers sorts." The reason given by Jo
sephus for the law which prohibited tho
wearing a garment woven of linen .and
woollen is, that such were worn by the
priests alone. ,
"Worm, the representative in the A. V.
of several Hebrew words. Sds, which oc
curs in Is. 11, 8, probably denotes some
particuliir species of moth, whose larva is
injurious to wool. Rimmdh (Ex, xvi, 20)
points evidently to various kinds of mag
gots, and the larviie of insects which feed
on putrefying anim.al raatter, rather than
toeartbwornis, Tdle'dhis ,applied in Deut.
xxviu. 39 to some kinds of larviie destruc
tive to the vines. 'Various kinds of insects
attack the vine, amongst which one of the
most destructive is the Tortrix vitisana,
the little caterpillar of which eats off" tin;
inner parts of the blossoms, the clusters ol
which ir binds together by spinning a web
around them. In Job xix, 26, xxi. 20,
x.xiv. 20, there is an allusion to \^'ornl^
(insect larvae) feeding on the dead bodieii
of the buried. There is the sarae aUusion
in Is. Ixvi. 24, which words are applied by
our Lord (Mark ix. 44, 46, 48) nietaphoi--
ically to the torments of the guilty in th-e
world of departed spirits. The de.ath of
Ilerod Agrippa I. was caused by worms
(Acts -xu. 23) ; according to Josephus {Ant.
xix. 8), his death took place flve d.ays after
his departure from the theatre. Whether
the ^vorras were the cause or tho result of
the disease is an imraaterial question.
"Wormwood occurs frequently in the
Bible, and generally in a raetaplioriciil
sense, as in Deut. x.xix. 18, where of the
idolatrous Isriielites it is said, " Lest there
be among you a root that beareth worm
wood " (see also Prov. v. 4). In Jer. ix.
15, xxiu, 13; Lam. iii, 15, 19, wormwoo-1
is symbolical of bitter calamity and sorrow ;
unrighteous judges are said to " turn judg
ment to wormwood " (Am. v. 7). The Ori
entals typified sorrows, cruelties, and ca
lamities of any kind by plants of a poisoncus
or bitter nature, Tbe name ofthe star which,
at the sound of the third angel's trumpet,
fell upon the rivers, was called Wormwood
(Rev. viu, 11). Four kinds of wormwood
are found iu Palestine — Artemisia nilotica,
A. Judaica, A. fruiicosa, and A. cinerea.
'Worshipper, a translation of the
Qxeekword neocoros, used once only. Acts

WRESTLING

758

WRITING

xi.\i 35; in the margin, " Teraple-keeper,"
The neocoros was originally an attendant in
a temple, probably intrusted with its charge.
The divine honors paid in later Greek times
to eminent persons even in their lifetirae,
were imitated and exaggerated by the Ro
mans under the erapire, especially in Asia.
The terra neocoros becarae thus appUed to
cities or coraraunities which undertook the
worship of particular eraperors even during
tlieir lives. The flrst occurrence of the
terra in connection with Ephesus is on
coins ofthe age of Nero (a. d. 54-68).
Wrestling. [Games.]
"Writing. There is no account in the
Bible of the origin of writing. Throughout
the Book of Genesis there is not a single
allusion, direct or indirect, eith'er to its
practice or existence. That the Egyptians
iu the time of Joseph were acquainted with
writing of a certain kind there is evidence
to prove, but there is nothing to show that
up to this period the knowledge extended
to the Hebrew faraily. At the sarae tirae
there is no evidence against it. Writing is
flrst distinctly raentioned in Ex, xvu, 14,
and the connection clearly implies that it was
not then eraployed for the flrst tirae, but was
so farailiar as to be used for historic records,
Moses is comraanded to preserve the raera
ory of Amalek's onslaught in the desert by
committing it to writing. The tables of the
testimony are said to be " written by the
finger of God" (E.x, xxxi, 18), on both
sides, and " the writing w.as the writing of
God, graven upon the tables " (Ex. xxxii,
15), The engraving of the gems of the
.ligh-priest's breastplate with the names of
¦i.he chUdren of Israel (Ex. xxviii. 11), and
the inscription upon the mitre (Ex. xxxix.
30) have to do more with the art of the
engraver than of the writer, but both imply
the existence of alphabetic characters. The
curses against the adulteress were written
by the priest " in ihe book; " and blotted
out with water (Nura. v. 23). Hitherto,
however, nothing has been said of the
application of writing to the purposes of
ordinary life, or of the knowledge of the
art araong the common people. Up to this
point such knowledge is only attributed to
Moses and tho priests, Frora Deut, xxiv,
1, 3, however, it would appear that it was
extended to others. It is not absolutely
necessary to infer frora this that the art of
writing was an accomplishment possessed
by every Hebrew citizen, though there is
no mention of a third party ; .and it is more
than probable that these " bUls of divorce
ment," though apparently so informal, were
the work of professional scribes. It was
enjoined as one of the duties of the king
(Deut, xvii, 18), that he should transcribe
the book of the l.aw for his own private
study. If wo examine the instances in
wliich writing is mentioned in connection

with individuals, we shall find that in all
cases the writers were men of superior
position. In Is. xxix. 11, 12, there is clear
ly a distinction driiwn between the m.an
who was ablS to read and the man who was
not, and it seems a natural inference that
the accomplishments of reading and writing
were not widely spread among the people,
when we find that they are universally at
tributed to those of high rank or education
— kings, priests, prophets, and profession
al scribes. In the name Kirjath-Sepher
(Book- town. Josh. xv. 15) there is an indi
cation of a knowledge of writing itmong the
Phoenicians. The Hebrews, then, a branch
of the great Semitic family, beuig in pos
session of the art of writing, according ^.a
their own historical records, at a very early
period, the further questions arise, what
character they made use of, and whence
they obtained it? Recent investigations
have shown that the squ.are Hebrew char
acter is of comparatively modern date, and
has been formed from a more ancient type
by a gradual process of development. What
then was this ancient type ? Most probably
the Phoenician. Pliny was of opinion that
letters were of Assyrian origin. Diodorus
Siculus (v. 74) says that the Syrians in
vented letters, and from thera the Phoeni
cians, having learnt thera, transferred them
to the Greeks. According to Tacitus {Ann.
xi. 14), Egypt was believed to be the source
whence tho Phoenicians got their knowl
edge. Be this as it raay, to the Phoeni
cians, the daring seamen and adventurous
colonizers of the ancient world, tbe voice
of tradition has assigned the honor of the
invention of letters. Whether it came to
them from an Araraaean or Egyptian source
can at best be but the subject of conjecture.
It raay, however, be reasonably inferred
that the ancient Hebrews derived from, or
sh.ared with, the Phoenicians the knowledge
of writing and the use of letters. The names
of the Hebrew letters indicate that they
must have been the invention of a Shemitic
people, and that they were moreover a pas
toral people may be inferred from the same
evidence. Gesenius argues for a Phoeni
cian origin of the alphabet, in opposition to
a Babylonian or Aramaean, on the follow
ing grounds : 1. That the names of the
letters are Phoenician, and not Syrian, 2.
If the Phoenician letters are pictorial, as
there seems reason to believe, there is no
model, among the old Babylonian discover
ers of writing, after which they could have
been formed. But whether or not the
Phoenicians were the inventors ofthe She
mitic alphabet, there can be no doubt of
their just claim to being its chief dissem
inators ; aud with this understanding we
m.ay accept the genealogy of alphabets as
given by Gesenius, and exhibited in tha
accompanying table.

WRITING

kicG

759

Flioenician. I

WRITING

Ar.c. Greek

Abc. reraian. Numidiaa. Anc. Hebrew.

SJtruBCftn. Roman.
Umbi'iaix |
Oscan. Runic ?
Samoite.

Later Greek.

Celli- Coptic Gothic. Slavonin.
itwjiui.

Anc. Aramaean.

Samaritan.

Palmyrene.

I

Hell. sqiiQlt
chn racier.

!nd.

Sassamd — writing.

Estrangelo Sabian.
and Nestorian.

Pehlvi.
Armenian?
The old Semitic alphabets may be divided
into two principal classes : 1, The Phoeni
cian, as it exists in the inscriptions in Cy
prus, Malta, Carpentras, and the coins of
Phoenicia and her colonies. From it are
derived the Saraaritan character, and the
Greek. 2, Tho Hebrew-Chaldee character ;
to which belong the Hebrew square char
acter; the Palrayrene, which has some
. traces of a cursive hand ; the Estrangelo,
or ancient Syriac ; and the ancient Arabic
or Cu-fic, It was prob.ably about the first
or second century after Christ th.at the
square character assumed its present form ;
though in a question involved in so much
uncertainty it is impossible to pronounce
with great positiveness. Tlie Alphabet. —
The oldest evidence on the subject of the
Hebrew alphabet is derived from the alpha
betical Psalras and poems : Pss. xxv,, xxxiv,,
xxxvU., cxi,, cxii,, cxix., cxiv. ; Prov, xxxi,
10-31 ; Lara. i,-iv, Frora these we ascer
tain that tho nuraber of the letters was
twenty-two, as at present. The Arabic
alphabet originally consisted of the sarae
number. It has been .argued by many that
the alphabet of the Phoenicians at first
cmsisted only of .sixteen letters. The
legend, as told by Pliny (vii. 56), is as
follows : Cadmus brought with hira into
Greece sixteen letters ; at the time of the
Trojan war Palaraedes added four others,
e, H, $, z, and Siraonides of Melos four
more, Z, H, *, a. Divisions of Words. —
Hebrew was originally written, like raost
ancient languages, without any divisions
between the words. The same is the case
with the Phoenician inscriptions. The va
rious readings in the LXX. show that, at
the time this version was made, in the He
hrew MSS. which the transLators used, the
words were written in a continuous series.
The modern synagogue rolls and the MSS,
of the Saraaritan Pentateuch have no vowel-
points, but the words are divided, and the
" Samaritan in^ this respect differs but little
from the Hebrew, Writing Materials, ^c.
 Xlie oldest documents which contain the
writing of a Semitic race are probably the
bricks of Nineveh and Babylon, on which
are impressed the cuneiform Assyrian in
scriptions. There is, however, no evidence

CaSc,
Nischi.

Peshito, triguric, or
Old Turkisli,

that they were ever employed by the He
brews, Wood was usedupon some occasions
(Nura, xvii, 3), and writing tablets of box
wood are mentioned in 2 Esdr, xiv, 24, The
" lead," to which aUusion is made in Job xix.
24, is supposed to have been poured, when
melted, into the cavities of the stone made
by the letters of an inscription, in order to
render it durable. It is most probable th.at
the ancient as well as the most common
raaterial which the Hebrews used for writ
ing was dressed skin in sorae forra or other.
We know that the dressing of skins was
practised by the Hebrevvs (Ex. xxv. 5;
Lev. xui. 48), and they may have acquired
the knowledge of the art from the Egyp
tians, among whora it had attained gre.at
perfection, the leather-cutters constitut
ing one of the principal subdivisions of
the third .caste. Perhaps the Hebrews
may have borrowed, araong their other
acquirements, the use of papyrus frora
the Egyptians, but of this we have no posi
tive evidence. In the Bible the only .allu
sions to the use of papyrus are in 2 John
12, where chartes (A. V. "paper") occurs,
which refers especiaUy to papyrus paper,
and 3 Macc. iv, 20, where charteria is found
in the same sense, Herodotus, after telling
us that the lonians learnt the art of writing
frora the Phoenicians, adds that they called
their books skins, because they raade use
of sheep-skins and goat-skins when short
of paper. Parchment was used for the
MSS, of the Pentateuch in the time of Jo
sephus, and the membranae ot 2 Tim, iv,
13, were skins of parchment. It was one
of the provisions in the Talmud that the
Law should be written on tho skins of clean
animals, tame or wild, or even of clean
birds. The skins when written upon were
formed into rolls {megilldth ; Ps, xl, 8;
corap. Is, xxxiv. 4 ; Jer. xxxvi. 14 ; Ez. ii,
9; Zech, v, 1), They were rolled upon
one or two sticks and fastened with a
thread, the ends of which w (re sealed (Is.
xxix, 11 ; Dan, xU, 4; Rev, v, 1, &c.) The
rolls were generally written on one side
only, except in Ez. ii, 9; Rev, v. 1. They
were divided into columns (A. V. " leaves,''
Jer. xxxvi, 23) ; the upper margin was to
be not less than three fingers broad, the

XANTHICUS

760

YEAR

lower not less than four; and a space of
two flngers' breadth was to bo left between
every two columns. But besides skins,
which were used for' the more permanent
kinds of writing, tablets of wood covered
with wax (Luke i. 63) served for the ordi
n.ary purposes of life. Several of these
were fastened together and forraed voluraes.
They were written upon with a pointed
style (Job xix. 24), sometimes of iron (Ps,
xiv. 2; Jer, viu, 8, xvu, 1), For harder
raaterials a graver (Ex. xxxii. 4 ; Is. viii.
1) was employed. For parchment or skins
a reed was used (3 John 13 ; 3 Macc, v. 20),
The ink (Jor. xxxvi. 18), literally "black,"
Uke the Greek fitXav (2 Cor. iU, 8; 2
John 12; 3 John 13), was of lampblack
dissolved in gall-juice. It was carried in
an inkstand, which was suspended at the
girdle (Ez, ix. 2, 3), as i^ done at the pres
ent day in the East. To professional scribes
there are allusions iu Ps. xiv. 1; Ezr. vU.
6 ; 2 Esdr. xiv. 24. ¦

X.

Xan'thicus, [Month,]
Xerx'es. [Ahasuerus.]

Y.

Yarn. The notice of yarn is contained
in an extreraely obscure passage iii 1 K. x,
28 (2 Chr, i, 16), The Hebrew Received
Text is questionable, Gesenius gives the
sense of " nuraber " as applying equally to
the raerchants and the horses: "A band
of the king's raerchants bought a drove (of
horses) at a price."
"year, the highest ordinary division of
time. Two years were known to, and ap
parently used by, the Hebrews. 1, A year
of 360 diiys appears to have been in use in
Noah's time, or at least in the time of the
writer of the narrative of the Flood, for in
that narrative the interval from the 17th
day of the 2d month to the 17th day of the
7th of the same year appears to be stated
to be a period of 150 days (Gen, vii. 11, 24,
viii. 3, 4, comp, 13), and, as the 1st, 2d,
7th, and 10th raonths of one year are men
tioned (viii, 13, 14, vii, 11, viii, 4, 5), the
1st day of the 10th month of this year
being separated frora the 1st day of the
1st raonth of the next year by an interval
of at least 54 days (viu, 5, 0, 10, 12, 13),
we can only infer a year of 12 raonths. A
year of 360 days is the rudest knowu. It
is forraed of 12 spurious lunar months, and
was probably the parent of the lunar year
of 354 days, and the "V^ague year of 865.
The Hebrew year, frora the time of the

Exodus, was evidently lunar, though la
sorae manner rendered virtually solar, and
we m.ay therefore infer that the lunar year
is as old as the date of the Exodus. As
the Hebrew year was not an Egyptian year,
and as nothing is said of its being_ new,
save in its time of commencement, it was
perhaps earlier in use among the Israelites,
and eitiier brought into Egypt by them, or
borrowed froni Sheraitie settlers. 2, The
year used by the Hebrews from the time of
the Exodus may be said to have been then
instituted, since a current month, Abib, ou
the 14th diiy of which the first Passover was
kept, was then raade the first raonth of the
year. The essential characteristics of this
year can be clearly deterrained, though we
cannot flx those of any single year. It was
essentially solar, for the offering of produc
tions of the earth, flrst-fruits, harvest-prod
uce, and ingathered fruits, was flxed to cer
tain days of the year, two of which were in the
periods of great feasts, the third itself a feast
reckoned frora one ofthe forraer days. But it
is certain th.at the months were lunar, each
commencing with a new moon. There must
therefore have been some method of adjust
ment. The first point to be decided is how
the commencement of each year was fixed.
Probably the Hebrews determined their new
year's day by the observation of heliacal oi
other star-risings or settings known to raark
the right time of the solar year. It follows,
from the detormin.ation of the proper new
moon of the first month, whether by obser
vation of a stellar phenomenon, or of the
forwardness of the crops, that the method
of intercalation can only have been that in
use after the Captivity, the addition of a thir
teenth month whenever the twelfth ended
too long before the equinox for the offering
of the flrst-fruits to be made at the time
flxed. The later Jews had two comraence-
nients of the year, whence it is coraraonly
but inaccurately said that they had two
years, the sacred year and the civil. We
prefer to speak of the sacred and civil reck
onings. 'The sacred reckoning was that
instituted at the Exodus, according to which
the first month was Abib; by the civil reck
oning the first month was the seventh.' The
interval between the two comnienceraents
was thus exactly half a year. It has been
supposed that the institution at the time of
the Exodus was a change of comraence
raent, not the introduction of a new year,
and that thenceforward the year had two
beginnings, respectively at about tbe vernal
and the autumnal eq.uinoxes. The year
was divided into — 1, Seasons. Two sea
sons are mentioned in the Bible, " sum
raer " aud " winter," The forraer properly
raeans the time of cutting fruits, the latter,
that of gathering fruits ; they aro therefore
originally rather summer and autumn than
summer and winter. But that they signi^

YEAR, SABBATICAL

761

ZACCHAEUS

ordinarily the two grand divisions of the
year, the warm and cold seasons, is evident
from their use for the whole year in the ex
pression " sumraer and winter " (Ps. Ixxiv.
17; Zech xiv, 8). 2. Months. [Moim-is.]
3. Weeks [Weeks.]
"STear, Sabbatical. [Sabbatical
Yuak.] Year of Jubilee. [Jubilee, Year
OF.] Yoke. X. A well-known implement of
husbandry, is frequently used metaphori
cally for subjection {e. g. 1 K, xii. 4, 9-11;
Is, ix, 4 ; Jer, v, 5) ; hence an " iron yoke "
represents an unusually galling bondage
(Deut. xxviU. 48; Jer. xxvUi. 13), 2, A
pair of oxen, so termed as being yoked to
gether (1 Sam, xi, 7 ; 1 K, xix. 19, 21). The
Hebrew term is also appUed to asses (Judg,
xix. 10) and mules (2 K, v. 17), and even
to a couple of riders (Is. xxi, 7). 3. The
term is also applied to a certain amount of
land (1 Sam. xiv. 14), equivalent to that
which a couple of oxen could plough in a
day (Is, v, 10 ; A, V. " acre "), correspond
ing to the Latin jugum.

Zaana'im, The Plain of, or, more
accur.ately, "t'_e oak by Zaanaim," a tree
— probably a sacred tree — mentioned as
marking the spot near which Heber the
Kenite was encamped when Sisera took
refuge in his tent (Judg, iv. 11). Its situ
ation is defined as "near Kedesh," i.e.
Kedesh-Naphtali, the name of which still
lingers on the high ground, north of Safed,
and west of the lake of el Iluleli. The Keri,
or correction, of Judg. iv, 11, substitutes
Zaanannim for Zaanaira, and the sarae form
is found in Josh, xix, 33,
Za'anan. [Zenan,]
Za'avan, or Za'van, a Horite chief,
son of Ezer the son of Seir (Gen, xxxvi,
27; 1 Chr, i, 42),
Za'bad. I. Son of Niithan, son of At-
tai, sjjn of Ahlai, Sheshan's daughter (1
Chr, *U, 31-37), and hence caUed son of
Ahlai (1 Chr, xi, 41), He was one of Da
vid's mighty men, but none of his deeds
have been recorded. The chief interest
connected with hira is in his genealogy,
which is of consider.able importance in a
chronological point of view. 2. An Ephra
iraite if the text of 1 Chr. vii. 21 is cor
rect. 3. Son of Shimeath, an Aramonitess ;
an ass,as3in who, with Jehozabad, slew king
Joash, according to 2 Chr. xxiv. 26 ; but,
in 2 K. xii. 21, his name is written, prob
ably raore correctly, Jozachar. 4. A lay
raan of Israel, of the sons of Zattu, who
out away his foreign wife at Ezra's com
mand (Ezr. X. 27). 5 One of the de

scendants of Hashura, who had married a
foreign wife after the Captivity (Ezr. x.
33).^ Q. One of the sons of Nebo, whose
name is mentioned under the same circum
stances as the two preceding (Ezr. x. 43).
Zabade'ans, an Arab tribe who were
attacked and spoiled by Jonathan, on his
way back to Damascus from his fruitless
pursuit of the array of Demetrius (1 Macc.
xii. 31) . Their name probably survives in
the village Zebddny, about 26 miles from
Damascus, standing at the upper end of a
plain of the sarae narae, which is the very
centre of Antilibanus.
ZabObai. 1. One of the descendants
of Bebai, who had raarried a foreign wife
in the days of Ezra (Ezr, x, 28). 2, Father
of Baruch, who assisted Neheraiah in re
building the city wall (Neh, iU, 20),
Zab'bud. One of the sons of Bigvai,
who returned in the second caravan with
Ezra (Ezr. viu. 14).
Zab'di. 1, Son of Zerah, the son of
Judah, and ancestor of Achan (Josh, vii.
1, 17, 18). 2, A Benjaraite, of the sons
of Shimhi (1 Chr, viU, 19), 3. David's
officer over the produce of the vineyards
for the wine-cellars (1 Chr. xxvii, 27), 4.
Son of Asaph the minstrel (Neh. xi. 17) ;
called elsewhere ZACcnE.(Neh. xii. 35)
and Zichri (1 Chr. ix. 15).
Zab'diel. 1. Father of Jashobeam, the
chief of David's guard (1 Chr. xxvii. 2).
2. A priest, son of the great raen, or, as
the raargin gives it, " Haggedolira " (Neh.
xi. 14).
Zalbud, son of Nathan (1 K. iv. 5), is
described as a priest (A, V. " principal
officer"), and as holding at the court of
Solomon the confidential post of "king's
friend," which had been occupied by Hushai
the Archite during the reign of David (2
Sam. XV. 37, xvi, 16; 1 Chr, xxvu. 33). .
Zab'ulon, the Greek form of the narae
Zebulun (Matt. iv. 13, 15; Rev. vii, 8),
Zac'cai. The sons of Zaccai, to the
nuraber of 700, returned with Zerubbabel
(Ezr, ii. 9; Neh. vu. 14).
Zacehae'us, a tax-collector near Jeri
cho, who, being short in stature, climbed up
into a sycaraore-tree, in order to obtain a
sight of Jesus as He passed through that
place (Luke xix. 1-10), Zacchaeus was a
Jew, as may be inferred frora his narae and
frora the fact that the Saviour speaks of-
hira expressly as " a son of Abrahara,"
The terra which designates his office — " the
chief among the publicans " — is unusual,
but describes him, no doubt, as the superin
tendent of customs or tribute in the district
of Jericho, where he Uved. The office raust
have been a lucrative one in such a region,
and it is not strange that Zacchaeus is men
tioned by the EvangeUsts as a rich man.
The Saviour spent the night probably in
the house of Zacchaeus, r,n 1 the next daj

ZACCHUR

762

ZA.[Il

pursued liis journey to Jerusalem. He was
in the caravan from Galilee, which was
going up thither to keep the Passover.^
Zac'chur, a Simeonite, of the family
of Mishma (1 Chr. iv. 26).
Zao'eur. 1. Father of Shammua, the
Reubenite spy (Nura. xiu. 4), 2, A Mer
arite Levite, son of Jaaziah (1 Chr, xxiv.
27). 3, Son of Asaph, the singer (1 Chr,
xxv. 2, 10; Neh, xU, 35). 4. The son of
Imri, who assisted Nehemiah in rebuUding
the city wall (Neh. iU. 2), 5. A Levite,
or faraUy of Levites, who signed the cov
enant with Nehemiah (Neh. x, 12), 6. A
Levite, whose son or descendant Hanan was
one.of the treasurers over the treasuries
appointed by Nehemi.ah (Neh, xiii, 13),
Zachari'all. 1. Or properly Zecha
riah, was son of Jeroboara II,, 14th king
of Israel, and the last of the house of Jehu,
There is a difficulty about the date of his
reign. Most chronologers assume an inter
regnum of 11 years between Jeroboam's
death and Zachariah's accession; during
which the kingdom was suff'ering froto the
auarchy of a disputed succession, but this
seems unlikely after the reign of a resolute
ruler like Jeroboam, and does not explain
the difference between 2 K, xiv. 17, and xv.l.
We are reduced to suppose that our present
MSS. have here incorrect nurabers, to sub
stitute 15 for 27 in 2K. xv. 1, and to believe
that Jeroboam II. reigned 52 or 53 years.
But whether we assume an interregnum,
or an error in the MSS., we raust place
Zachariah's accession b. c. 771-2. His
reign lasted only six months. He was
killed iu a conspiracy, of which Shallum
was the head, and by which the prophecy
in 2 K. X. 30 was accomplished. 2. The
father of Abi, or Abijiih, Hezekiah's mother
(2 K. xviu. 2).
• Zachari'as. 1. Father of John the
Baptist (Luke i. 5, &c,), [John the Bap
tist,] 2. Son of Barachias, who, our
Lord says, was slain by the Jews between
the altar and the temple (Matt, xxiii. 35 ;
Luke xi, 51). There has been much dis
pute who this Zacharias was. Many of the
Greek Fathers have maintained that the
father of John the Baptist is the person to
whom our Lord alludes ; but there can be
little or no doubt that the allusion is to
Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada (2 Chr.
xxiv. 20, 21). The narae of the father of
Zacharias is not mentioned by St. Luke;
and we may suppose that the uaiue of
Barachias crept into the text of St. Matthew
from a marginal gloss, a confusion having
been raade between Zechariah, the sou of
Jehoiada, and Zacharias, the son of Bara
chias (Berechiah) the prophet.
Za'cher, one of the sons of Jehiel,
the father or founder of Gibeon, by his wife
Maachah (1 Chr. viu. 31).
Za'dok {just). 1. Son of Ahitub, and

one of the two chief priests in the time of
David, Abiathar being the other. Zadok
was of the house of Eleazar, the son of
Aaron (1 Chr. xxiv. 8), and eleventh in
descent frora Aaron (1 Chr. xii. 28). He
joined David at Hebron after Saul's death
(1 Chr. xii. 28), and henceforth his fideUty
to David was inviolable. When Absalom
revolted, and David fied from Jerusalem,
Zadok and all the Levites bearing the Ark
accompanied him, and it was only at the
king's express coraraand that they returned
to Jerusalem, and became the medium of
comraunication between the king and
Hushai the Archite (2 Sam, xv,, xvii,).
When Absalom was dead, Zadok and Abia
thar were the persons who persuaded the
elders of Judiih to invite David to return
(2 Sam. xix. 11). When Adonijah, iu
David's old age, set up for king, and had
persuaded Joab, an^ Abiathar, the priest,
to join his party, Zadok vvas unraoved, and
was eraployed by David to anoint Solomon
to be king in his room (1 K. i,). And foi
this fidelity he was rewarded by Solomon,
who "thrust out Abiathar frora being priest
unto the Lord," and " put in Zadok the
priest" in his roora (1 K, ii. 27, 35). From
this time, however, we hear little of him.
It is said in general terras, in the enumera
tion of Solomon's officers of state, that
Zadok was the priest (1 K, iv, 4; 1 Chr.
xxix, 22), but no single act of his is men
tioned, Zadok and Abiathar were of nearly
equal dignity (2 Sara, xv, 35, 36, xix, 11),
The duties of the office were divided.
Zadok ministered before the Tabernacle at
Gibeon (1 Chr. xvi, 39). Abiathar had the
care of the Ark at Jerusalem. Not, how
ever, exclusively, as appears from 1 Chr.
XV, 11; 2 Sam. xv. 24,25,29. 2. Accord
ing to the genealogy of the high-priests in
1 Chr. vi. 12, there was a second Zadok,
son of a second Ahitub, son of Amariah,
about the time of king Ahaziah. It is
probable that no such person as this second
Zadok ever existed, but th.at the insertion
of the two names is a copyist's error, 3.
Father of Jerushah, the wife of king Uzziah,
and mother of king Jotham (2 K, sv. 83 ;
2 Chr, xxvU, 1), 4. Son of Baan.a, who
repaired a portion of the wall in the tirae
of Nehemiah (Neh. iii, 4), and who sealed
the covcuiint (Neh. x, 21), 5, Son of
Imraer, a priest who repaired a portion of
the wall over agai;ist his own house (Neh,
iU. 29), 6. In Neh, xi. 11, and 1 Chr. ix.
11, mention is made, in a genealogy, of
Zadok, the son of Meraioth, the son of
Ahitub. But it can hardly be doubtful that
Meraioth is inserted by the error of a copy
ist, and that Zadok the son of Ahitub is
meant. Za'ham, son of Rehoboam by Abihail,
the daughter of Eliab (2 Chr. xi. 19).
Za'lr, a place named, in 2 E. viii. 31

ZALAPH

763

ZEBAII

only, in the account of Joram's expedition
against the Edomites. The parallel ac
count ill Chronicles (2 Chr. xxi. 9) agrees
with this, except that the words " to Zair "
are oraitted. It has been conjectured that
Zair is identical with Zoar.
Za'laph, father of Hanun, who assisted
in rebuilding the city wall (Neh, iii, 30).
Zal'mon, an Ahohite, one of David's
guiird (2 Sam, xxiii, 28),
Zal'mon, Mount, a wooded erainence
in the immediate neighborhood of Shechem
(Judg. ix. 48), The niirae of Dalmanutha
has beeq supposed to be a corruption of
that of Zalmon,
Zalmo'nah., a desert-station of the
Israelites (Num. xxxiu, 41), lies on the east
side of Edom,
Zalmun'na. [Zebah,]
Zanazum'mims, the Ammonite name
for the people who by others were called
Repuaih (Deut. ii. 20 only). They are
described as having originally been a power
ful and numerous nation of giants. From
a slight similarity between the two names,
aud from the mention of the Emim in con
nection with each, it is conjectured that the
Zamzurainim are identical with the Zuzira,
Zano'ah., 1. A town of Judah in the
Shefelah or plain (Josh, xv, 34 ; Neh, iii,
13, xi, 80), possibly identical with ZdnA'a.
2. A town of Judah in the highland district
(Josh, XV, 56), not improbably identical
with Saniite, about 10 railes S. of Hebron.
3. In the genealogical lists of the tribe of
Judah iu 1 Chron,, Jekuthiel is said to
liave been the father of Zanoah (iv, 18),
As Zanoah is the name of a town of Judah,
this mention of Bithiah probably points to
some colonization of the place by Egyptians
or by Israelites directly frora Egypt.
Zaph'nath-paane'ali, a name given
by Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. xii. 45).
The Rabbins interpreted Zaplmath-paaneah
as Hebrew, in the sense " revealer of a
secret." As the name must have been
Egyptian, it has been explained from the
Coptic as meaning " the preserver of the
age." Za'phon, a place mentioned in the enu
meration of the allotment of the tribe of
Gad (Josh. xiii. 27).
Za'ra, Zarah the son of Judah (Matt.
i. 8). Za'rah, Zerah, the son of Judah (Gen,
xxxviii, 30, xlvi. 12).
Za'reah, the same as Zorah and
ZoREAH (Neh, xi. 29). .,.,,.,. ^ »
Za'reathites, The, the inhabitants of
Zareaii or Zorah (1 Chr. li. 53).
Za'red, The VaUey of. C^^^red.]
Zar'ephath, the residence of the proph
et Eliiaii during the latter part of the
droSht (1 K. xvii. 9, 10). Beyond stating
that ft was near to, or dependent on, Zidon,
tlie Bible gives no clew to its position. It

IS mentioned by Obadiiih (ver, 20), but
merely as a Canaanite (tiiat is, riioenician)
city. It is represented by the raodern
village of Sura-fend. Of the old town
considerable indications reraain. One group
of foundations is on a headband called Ain
el-Kantarah; but the chief remains are
south of this, and extend for a mile or
more, with raany fragments of columns,
slabs, and otiier architectural features. In
the N. T. Z.arephath appears under the
Greek forra of Sarepta, (Luke iv, 26).
Zar'etan, Zarthan (Josh, Ui, 16),
Za'reth-sha'har, a place raentioned
only in Josh, xiii, 19, iu the catalogue of
the towns allotted to Reuben,
Zar'hites, The, a branch of the tribe of
Judah, descended frora Zerah the son of
.ludah (Num. xxvi. 13, 20; Josh. vU, 17; 1
Chr, xxvii, 11, 13),
Zar'tanah (1 K. iv, 12), [Zarthan,]
Zar'than. I, A place in the circle of
Jordan, mentioned in connection with Suc
coth (1 K, vii, 46), 2, It is also naraed in
the account of the passage of the Jordan by
the IsraeUtes (Josh, iU, 16), where the A.
v. has Zaretan. 3. A place with the simi
lar name of Zartanah (1 K, iv, 12), 4.
Further, Zeredathah, named (in 2 Chr, iv.
17 only) in specifying tho situation of the
founderies for the brass-work of Solomon's
Teraple, is substituted for Zarthan ; and this
again is not impossibly identical with the
Zererath of the story of Gideon (Judg, vii.
22). All these spots agree in proximity to
the Jordan, but beyond this we are abso
lutely at fault as to their position.
Zat'tu. The sons of Zattu were a fami
ly of laymen of Israel who returned with
Zerubbabel (Ezr, U. 8 ; Neh, vU, 13).
Za'van (1 Chr. i. 42). [Zaavan.]
Za'za, one of the sons of Jonathiin, a
descendiint of Jerahraeel (1 Chr. ii. 33).
Zebadi'ah. 1. A Benjaraite of the sons
of Beriah (1 Chr. vUi. 15). 2. A Benja
raite ofthe sons of Elpaal (1 Chr. viii. 17).
3. One ofthe sons of Jeroham of Gedor (1
Cbr. xii. 7). 4. Son of Asiih el, the brother
of Joab (1 Chr. xxvu, 7), 5. Son of
Michael, of the sons of Shephatiah (Ezr.
vui, 8). 6. A priest of the sons of Imraer,
who had raarried a foreign wife after the
return from Babylon (Ezr. x, 20),- 7.
Third son of Meshelemiah the Korliite (1
Chr, xxvi. 2). 8. A Levite in the reign of
Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvU, 8), 9. The sou
of Ishmael and prince of the house of Judah
in the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr, xix, 11).
Ze'bah and Zalmun'na, the two
" kings " of Midian who commanded the
great invasion of Palestine, and who finaUy
fell by the hand of Gideon hiraself (Judg.
viu. 6-21; Ps. Ixxxiu. 11). WhUe Oreb
and Zeeb, two of the inferior leaders of the
incursion, had been slain, with a vast nura
ber of their people, by the Ephraimites, at

ZEBAIM

r64

ZEBULUN

the central fords of the Jordan, the two
kings had succeeded in making their escape
by a passage farther to the north (probably
the ford near Bethshean), and thence by
the Wady Yabis, through Gilead, to ICarkor,
a pl.ace which is not fixed, but which lay,
doubtiess, high up on the Hauran. Here
they were reposing with 15,000 raen, a raere
remnant of their huge horde, when Gideon
overtook them. The narae of Gideon was
still full of terror, and the Bedouins were
entirely unprepared for his attack — they
fied in dismay, and the two kings were
taken. Such was the third act of the great
tragedy. Two more reraain. First the re
turn down the long defiles leading to the Jor
dan. Gideon probably strode on foot by the
side of his captives. They passed Penuel,
where Jacob had seen the vision of the
face of God; they piissed Succoth; they
crossed the rapid stream of the Jordan ;
they ascended the highlands west of the
river, aud at length reached Ophrah, the
native village of their capt-or. Then at
last the question which must have been
on Gideon's tongue during the whole of
the return found a vent: " What raan
ner of men were they which ye slew at
Tabor ? " Up to this tirae the sheikhs raay
have believed that they were reserved for
ransom ; but these words once spoken, there
can have been no doubt what their fate was
to be. They met it like noble children of
the desert, without fear or weakness. One
request alone they make — that they may
die by the sure blow of the hero himself :
" and Gideon arose and slew them."
Zetaa'im, raentioned in the catalogue
of the faraiUes of " Solomon's slaves," who
returned frora the Captivity with Zerubba
bel (Ezr. ii. 57; Neh. vU. 59).
Zeb'edee, a fisherman of Galilee, the
father of the Apostles Jaraes the Great and
John (Matt, iv. 21), and the husband of
Salorae (Matt, xxvii, 56 ; Mark xv. 40). He
probably lived either at Bethsaida or in its
immediate neighborhood. It has been in
ferred frora the mention of his " hired ser
vants " (Mark i, 20) , and from the acquaint
ance between the Apostle John and Annas
the high-priest (John xviii. 15), that the
family of Zebedee were in easy circum
stances (comp. xix. 27), although not above
manual labor (Matt, iv. 21). He appears
only once in the Gospel narrative, naraely.
In Matt, iv, 21, 22; Mark i, 19, 20, where
he is seen in his boat with his two sons
mending their nets,
Zebi'na, one of the sons of Nebo, who
had taken foreign wives' after the return
from Babylon (Ezr, x, 43).
Zebo'im. 1, One of the flve cities of
the " plain " or circle of Jordan. It is
raentioned in Gen, x, 19, xiv, 2, 8 ; Deut.
XXIX. 23 ; aud Hos. xi, 8, in each of which
passages it is either coupled with Admah,

or placed next it in the lists - -perhiips
rei resented hy Talda Sebdan, a n:imc at
tached to extensive ruins on the high
ground between the Dead Sea and Kerak.
In Gen. xiv. 2, 8, the name is given more
correctly in the A. "V. Zeboiim. 2. The
Valley of Zeboim, a ravine or gorge, ap-
piirently east of Michmash, mentioned only
in 1 Sam. xiii. 18. The road running frora
Michmash to the east is specified as " the
road of the border that looketh to the ravine
of Zeboim towards the wilderness." The
wilderness is no doubt the district of un
cultivated raountain tops and sides which
lies between the central district ofBenjamin
and the Jordan Valley. In that very dis
trict there is a wild gorge, bearing the name
of Shuk ed-Dubha', " ravine of the hyena,"
the exact equivalent of Ge hat-isebo'im.
Zebu'dah, wife of Josiah and mother
of king Jehoiakim (2 K. xxiii. 86).
Ze'bul, chief man (A. V. "ruler") of
tiie city of Shechem at the time of the con
test between Abimelech and the native
Canaanites (Judg. ix. 28, 30, 36, 38, 41).
Zeb'ulonite, a member of the tribe of
Zebulun (Judg. xii. 11, 12). Applied only
to Elon, the one judge produced by the
tribe (Judg, xii, 11, 12).
Zeb'ulun {a habitation), the tenth cf
the sons of Jacob, according to the order in
wiiich their "births are enumerated; the
sixth and last of Leah (Gen. xxx, 20, xxxv.
23, xlvi. 14; 1 Chr. U, 1), His birth is re
corded in Gen, xxx, 19, 20, Of the indi
vidual Zebulun nothing is recorded. The
list of Gen. xlvi. ascribes to him three sons,
founders of the chief famiUes of the tribe
(corap. Nura, xxvi. 26) at the time of the
migration to Egypt. 'The head of the tribe
at Sinai was Eliab son of Helen (Nura. vii.
24) ; at Shiloh, Eliz.aphan son of Parnach
(ib. xxxiv. 25). Its representiitive amongst
the spies was Gaddiol son of Sodi (xiii, 10).
The tribe is not recorded- to have taken
part, for evil or good, in any of the events
of the wandering or the conquest. Judah,
Joseph, Benjarain, had acquired the south
and the centre ofthe country. To Zebulun
fell one of the fairest of the reraaining por
tions. It is perhaps impossible, in the
present state of our kne,wledge, exactly to
define its limits ; but the statement of Jose
phus is probably iu the main correct, that
it reached on the one side to the lake of.
Gennesareth, and on the other to Carrael
and the Mediterranean. On the south it
was bounded by Issachar, who lay iu the
great plain or valley of the Kishon ; on the
north it had Naphtali and Asher. Tho fact
recognized by Josephus th.at Zebulun ex
tended to the Mediterranean, though not
raentioned or impUed, as far as we can dis
cern, in the lists of Joshua and Judges, is
alluded to in the Blessing of Jacob (Gen.
xlix. 13). Situated so far from the centre

ZEBULUNITES

765

ZECHARLiH

of government, Zebulun reraains through
out the history, with one exception, in the
obscurity which envelops the whole of tiie
northern tribes. That exception, however,
is a remarkable one. Tho conduct of the
tribe during the struggle with Sisera, when
they fought with desperate valor side by
side with their brethren of Naphtali, was
such as to draw down the especial praise
of Deborah, who singles them out from
all the other tribes (Judg. v. 18). A sirai
lar reputation is alluded to in the mention
of the tribe among those who attended the
inauguration of David's reign at Hebron
(1 Chr. xii. 33). The same passage, how
ever, shows that they did not neglect the
arts of peace (ver. 40). We are nowhere
directly told that the people of Zebulun
were carried off' to Assyria.
Zeb'ulunites, The, the raerabers of
the tribe of Zebulun (Num. xxvi. 27 only),
Zeehari'ah, 1. The eleventh in order
of the twelve minor prophets. He is called
in his prophecy the son of Berechiah, and
the griindson of Iddo, whereas in the Book
of Ezra (v. 1, vi. 14) he is said to have
been the son of Iddo. It is natural to sup
pose, as the prophet himself raentions his
father's name, whereas the Book of Ezra
raentions only Iddo, that Berechiah had
died early, and that there was now no inter
vening link between the grandfather and
the grandson. Zechariah, Uke Jereraiah
and Ezekiel before hira, was priest as well
as prophet. He seeras to have entered upon
his office while yet young (Zech. u. 4), and
must have been born in Babylon, whence
he returned with the first caravan of exiles
under Zerubbabel and Jeshua. It was in
the eighth raonth, in the second year of
Darius, that he first publicly discharged his
office. In this he acted in concert with
Haggai. Both prophets had the same great
object before them ; both directed all their
energies to the building of the Second
Temple. To their influence we flnd the
rebuilding of the Teraple in a great raeas
ure ascribed. It is irapossible not to see
of how great moraent, under such circum
stances, and for the discharge of the special
duty with which he was intrusted, would be
the priestiy origin of Zechariah. The foun
dations of the 'Temple had indeed been laid,
but that was aU (Ezr. v. 16). Discouraged
by the opposition which they had encoun
tered at first, the Jewish colony had begun
to buUd, and were not able to finish ; and
even when the letter carae frora Darius
sanctioning the work, and proraising his
protection, they showed no hearty disposi
tion to engage in it. At such a tirae, no
more fitting instrument could be found to
rouse the people, whose heart had grown
cold than one who united to the authority
of the Prophet the zeal and the traditions
of a sacerdotal family. "And the elders

of the Jew^ Duilded," it is said, " and they
prospered through the prophesj ing of Hag
gai tiie prophet, and Zechariah the son of
Iddo" (Ezr. vi. 14). If the later Jewish
accounts may be trusted, Zechariiih, as well
as Haggai, was a member of the Great
Synagogue. The genuine writings of Zech
ariah help us but Uttle in our estimation of
his character. Some faint traces, however,
we may observe in them of his education
in B.abylon. He leans avowedly on the
authority of the older prophets, and copies
their expressions. Jeremiah especially
seeras to have been his favorite ; and hence
the Jewish saying, th.at " the spirit of Jere
miah dwelt in Zechariah." But in what
may be called the peculiarities of his proph
ecy, he approaches more nearly to Ezekiel
and Daniel. Like thera he delights in vis
ions ; like thera he uses symbols and alle
gories, rather than the bold figures and
metaphors which lend so much force and
beauty to the writings of the earlier proph
ets ; like them he beholds iingcls minister
ing before Jehovah, and fulfilling his be
hests on the earth. He is the only one o^
the prophets who speaks of Satiin. That
some of these peculiarities are owing to his
Chaldaean education can h.ardly be doubted.
Even in the form of the visions a careful
criticism might perhaps discover some traces
of the Prophet's early training. Generally
speaking, Zechariah's style is pure, and
reraarkably free frora Chaldaisras, The
Book of Zechariah, in its existing forra,
consists of three- principal parts, chs, i,-
viii., chs, ix,-xi,, chs. xii,-xiv. I. The
first of these divisions is allowed by all
critics to be the genuine work of Zec'nariah
the son of Iddo. It consists, first, of a
short introduction or preface, in which the
prophet announces his commission; then
of a series of visions, descriptive of all
those hopes and anticipations of which the
building of the Temple was the pledge and
sure foundation; and finiilly of a discourse,
delivered two years later, in reply to ques
tions respecting the observance of certain
estabUshed fasts. 1. The short introduc
tory oracle (ch, i. 1-Q) is a warning voice
frora the p.ast, and raauifestly rests upon
the forraer warnings of Haggai, 2. In a
dream of the night there passed before the
eyes of the prophet a series of visions (ch.
i, 7-vi, 15). These visions are obscure,
and accordingly the prophet asks their
meaning. The interpretation is given by
an angel who knows tho raind and will of
Jeliovah. (1.) In the first vision (ch. i.
7-15) the prophet sees, in a valley of rayr-
tles, a rider upon a roan horse, accorapa
nied by others who, having been sent forth
to the four quarters of the earth, had re
turned with the tidings that the whole earth
was at rest (witii reference to Hag. U. 2-0).
Hereupon the angel asks how long this

ZECHARIAH

766

ZECHARIAH

state of things shall last, and is assured
that the indifference of the heathen shall
cease, and that the Temple shall bo built
in Jerusalera. (2.) The second vision (ch.
U. 1-17, A. V. i. 18-ii. 13) explains hoiv
the promise of the first is to be fulfilled.
The old prophets, in foretelling the happi
ness and glory of the tiraes which should
succeed the Captivity in Babylon, had raade
a great part of that happiness and glory to
consist in the gathering together again of
the whole dispersed nation in the land
given to their fathers. This vision was de
signed to teach that the expectation thus
raised — the return of the dispersed of Is
rael — should be fulfilled. (8.) The next
two visions (iii,, iv,) are occupied with the
Temple, and with the two principal persons
on whom the hopes of the returned exiles
rested. The permission granted for the
rebuilding of the Temple had no doubt
stirred afresh the malice .and the animosity
of the enemies of the Jews. Joshua the
high-priest had been singled out, it would
seem, as the especial object of .attack, and
perhaps forn\al accusations had already
'been laid against him before the Persian
court. The prophet, in vision, sees him
summoned before - a higher tribunal, and
solemnly acquitted, despite the charges of
tho Satiin or Adversary. This is done with
the forms still usual in an Eastern court.
(4.) The last vision (iv.) supposes that all
opposition to the building of the Temple
shiiU be reraoved. This sees the coraple
tion of the work. The two next visions
(v. 1-11) signify that the land, iu which the
sanctuary has just been erected, shall be
purged of all its pollutions. (5.) First, the
curse is recorded against wickedness in the
whole land, v. 3. (6.) Next, the unclean
thing, whether iu the form of idolatry or
any other abomination, shall be utterly re
moved, (7,) And now the night is waning
fast, and the raorning is about to dawn.
Chariots and horses appear, issuing from
between two br.azen mountains, the horses
like those in tho first vision ; and these re
ceive their several comraands and are sent
forth to execute the will of Jehovah in the
four quarters of the earth. Thus, then, tbe
cycle of visions is corapleted. Scene after
scene is unrolled till the whole glowing pic
ture is presented to the eye. All eneraies
crushed ; the land repeopled and Jerusalem
girt as with a wall of fire ; the Temple re
built, more truly splendid than of old, be
cause more abundantly filled with a Divine
Presence ; the leaders ofthe people assured
in tiie most signal manner of the Divine
protection ; all wickedness solemnly sen
tenced, and the land forever purged of it ;
— such is the magnificent panorama of
hope which the Prophet displays to his
countrymen. Iraraediately on these visions
there foUows a symbolical act. Three Is

raelites had just returned from Babylon,
bringing with them rich gifts to Jerusalem,
apparently as contributions to the Temple,
and had been received in the house of Jo
siah the son of Zephaniah. Thither the
Prophet is comraanded to go — whether
still in a dream or not, is not very clear —
and to employ the silver and gold of their
offerings for the service of Jehovah. He
is to make of them two crowns, and to place
these on the head of Joshua the high-priest
— a sign that in the Messiah who should
buUd the Temple, the kingly and priestly
offices should be united. 3, From tiiis time,
for a space of nearly two years, the Proph
et's voice was silent, or his words have not
been recorded. But iu the fourth year of
king Darius, in the fourth day of the ninth
month, there carae a deputation of Jews to
his Teraple, anxious to know whether the
fast-days which had been instituted during
the seventy years' Captivity were still to he
observed. It is reraarkable that this ques
tion should have been addressed to priests
and prophets conjointly in the Temple.
This close alliance between two classes
hitherto so separate, and often so antago
nistic, was one of the raost hopeful circura
stances of the times. Still Zechariah, as
chief of the prophets, has the decision of
this question. In language worthy of his
position and his office, language whi(;h re
minds us of one of the most striking pas
sages of his great predecessor (Is. Iviii.
5-7), he lays down the sarae principle, that
God loves mercy rather th.an fasting, and
truth and righteousness rather than sack
cloth and a sad countenance. Again he
foretells, but not now in vision, the glori
ous tiraes that are near at hand when Jeho
vah shall dwell in the midst of them, and
Jerusalem be called a city of truth (viii.
1-15). Again he declares that "truth and
peace " (vers. 16, 19) are the bulwarks of
national prosperity. And he announces, in
obedience to the command of Jehovah, not
only that the fasts are abolished, but that
the days of raourning shall henceforth be
days of joy, the fasts be counted for festi
vals. His prophecy concludes with a pre-
(Uction that Jerusalem shall be tho centre
of religious worship to all nations of the
earth (viii. 16-23). II. The remainder of
the Book consists of two sections of about
equal length, ix.-xi. and xii,-xiv:,, each of
which has an inscription, 1. In the first
section he threatens Daraascus and the sea-
coast of Palestine with raisfortune, but de
clares that Jerusalem shall be protected.
The Jews who are stUl in captivity shall
return to their land. The Teraphim and
the false prophets may indeed have spoken
lies, but upon these will the Lord execute
judgment, and theu He will look with favor
upon His people, and bring back both Judah
and Ephraim from their caftivity. Tha

ZECHARIAH

767

ZEDAD

possession of Gilead and Lebanon is again
promised, as the special portion of Ephraim ;
and both Egypt and Assyria shall be broken
arid humbled, 2, The Second Section, xii,
-xiv., is entitled " the burden of the word
of Jehovah for Israel." But Israel is here
used of the nation at large, not of Israel as
distinct from Judah, Indeed, the prophecy.
which follows concerns Judah and Jerus.a
lem. In this the prophet beholds the near
approach of troublous times, when Jeru
salem should be hard pressed by enemies.
But in that day Jehovah shall corae to save
them, and .all the nations which gather them
selves against Jerusalem sh.allbe destroyed.
Many modern critics maintain that the later
chapters, frora the 9th to the 14th, were
written by sorae other prophet, who lived
before the exile. The prophecy closes with
a gran^ and stirring picture. All nations
are gathered together against Jerusiilem,
and soera already sure of their prey. Half
of their cruel work has been accomplished,
when Jehovah Himself appears on behalf
of His people. He goes forth to war against
the adversaries of His people. He estab
lishes His kingdom over all the earth. All
nations that are still left shall come up to
Jerusalem, as the great centre of religious
worship, and the city from that day forward
shall be a holy city. Such is, briefly, an
outline of the second portion of that book
which is commonly known as the Prophe
cy of Zechariah. Integrity. — Mede was
the flrst to call this in question. The prob
ability that the later chapters, from the 9th
to the 14th, were by sorae other prophet,
seems first to have been suggested to hira
by the citation in St, Matthew, He rests
his opinion partly on the authority of St.
Matthew, aud partly on the contents of the
later chapters, which he considers require
a date earlier than the exile. Archbishop
Newcombe went further. He insisted on
the great dissimilarity of style as well as
subject between the earUer and later chap
ters. And he was the flrst who advocated
the theory, that the last six chapters of
Zechariah are the work of two distinct
prophets. 2. Son of Mesheleraiah, or
Shelemiah, a Korhite, and keeper of the
north gate of the tabernacle of the congre
gation (1 Chr, ix, 21). 3. One ofthe sons
of Jehiel (1 Chr, ix, 37). 4. A Levite of
the second order in the Teraple band as ar
ranged by David, appointed to play " with
psalteries on Alaraoth " (1 Chr, xv. 18, 20).
6. One ofthe princes of Judah in the reign
of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. xvii. 7). 6. Son
of the high-priest Jehoiada, in the reign of
Joash king of .Tudah (2 Chr. xxiv. 20), and
therefore the king's cousin. After the death
of Jehoiada, Zechariah probably succeeded
to his office, and in attempting to check the
reaction in favor of idolatry which imrae
diately followed, he fell a victim to a con

spiracy formed against hira by Ihe king,
and was stoned in the court of the Temple.
He is probably tbe same as the " Zacharias
son of Barachias," who was slain between
the Teraple and the altar (Matt, xxiu. 35),
[Zacharias, No, 2.] 7. A Kohathite Le
vite in the reign of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxiv.
12), 8, The leader of the sons of Phiirosh
who returned with Ezra (Ezr. viii. 3). 9,
Son of Bebai (Ezr, viu. 11). 10, One of
the chiefs of the people whom Ezra sum
raoned in council at the river Ahava (Ezr.
viU, 16), He stood at Ezra's left hand
when he expounded the Law to the people
(Neh, viU, 4), 11, One of the faraily of
Elara, who had raarried a foreign wife after
the Captivity (Ezr, x. 26), 12, Ancestor
of Athaiah, or Uthai (Neb, xi, 4), 13, A
Shilonite, descendant of Perez (Neh, xi.
5). 14. A priest, son of Pashur (Neh, xi.
12). 15, The representative ofthe priestly
faraily of Iddo in the days of Joiakira the
son of Jeshua (Neh, xii. 16), Possibly the
sarae as Zechariah tbe prophet the son of
Iddo, 16, One of the priests, son of Jona
than, who blew with the trumpets at the
dedication of the city wall by Ezra and Ne
hemiah (Neh, xu, 35, 41), 17. A chief
of the Reubenites at the time of the captiv
ity by Tiglath-Pileser (1 Chr, v, 7). 18.
One of the priests who accompanied the
ark frora the house of Obed-edom (1 Chr.
XV.- 24). 19, Son of Isshiah, or Jesiah, a
Kohathite Levite descended from Uzziel (1
Chr, xxiv. 25). 20. Fourth sou of Hosah
ofthe children of Merari (1 Chr, x.xvi. 11).
'21, A Manassite (1 Chr, xxvU. 21). 22.
The father of Jahaziel (2 Chr. xx, 14). 23.
One ofthe sons of Jehoshaphat (2 Chr, xxi,
2). 24. A prophet in the reign of Uzziah,
who appears to h.ave acted as the king's
counseUor, but of whora nothing is known
(2 Chr. xxvi, 5). 25. The father of Abi
jah, or Abi, Hezekiah's motiier (2 Chr.
xxix. 1). 26. One ofthe faraily of Asaph
in the reign of Hezelfiab (2 Chr. xxix, 13).
27. One of the rulers of the Teraple in the
reign of Josiah (2 Chr. xxxv. 8). 28. The
son of Jeberechiah, who was taken by the
prophet Isaiah as one of the " faitiiful wit
nesses to record," when he wrote concern
ing Miiher-shalal-hash-baz (Is. viu. 2). He
may have been the Levite of the same
narae, who in the reign of Hezekiah aisisted
in the purification of the Teraple (2 Chr.
xxix. 13). Another conjecture is, that he
is the same as Zechariah the father of
Abijah, the queen of Ahaz.
Ze'dad, one of the landmarks on the
north border of the land of Israel, as prom
ised by Moses (Num. xxxiv. 8), and as
restored by Ezekiel (xlvu. 15). A place
naraed SMM exists to the east of the north
ern extremity of the chain of Antilibanus,
about 50 miles E. N. E. of Baalbcc. Thia
may be identical with Zedad.

ZEDEKIAH

768

ZEDEKIAH

Zeueki'ah. 1. The last king of Judah
and Jerusalem. He was the son of Josiah
by his wife Harautal, and therefore own
brother to Jehoahaz (2 K. xxiv, 18 ; corap,
xxiii. 31), His original narae had been
Mattaniah, which was changed to Zed
ekiah by Nebuchadnezziir, when he carried
off his nephew Jehoiachim to B.abylon, and
left hira on the throne of Jerusalem. Zed-
eki.ah was but 21 years old when he was
thus placed in charge of an impoverished
kingdom (b, c, 597). His history is cori-
tiiined in a short sketch ofthe events of his
reign given in 2 K, x.xiv, 17-xxv, 7, and,
Tvitli some trifling variations, in Jer, xxxix.
1-7, lii, 1-11, together with the still shorter
suraraiiry in 2 Chr, xxxvi. 10, &e, ; and
also in Jer,, xxi,, xxiv,, xxvii., xxviii,, xxi.x.,
x.xxii., xxxiii., xxxiv., xxxvii., xxxviii., and
Ez. xvi. 11-21. Frora these it is evident
that Zedikiah was a raan not so much bad at
liCiirt as weak in will. It is evident from
Jer. xxvii. and xxviii. that the earUer por
tion of Zedekiah's reign was marked by au
agitation throughout the whole of Syria
against the Babylonian yoke. Jerusalem
seems to have taken the lead, since in the
fourth year of Zedekiah's reign we find am
bassadors frora all the neighboring king
doms — Tyre, Sidon, Edora, and Moab —
at his court, to consult as to the steps to be
taken. This happened either during the
king's absence or iraraediately after his re
turn from Babylon, whither he went on
some errand, the nature of which is not
named, but which may have been an at
tempt to blind tbe eyes of Nebuchadnezzar
to his contemplated revolt (Jer. li. 59).
The first act of overt rebellion of which
any record survives was the formation of
an alliance with Egypt, of itself equivalent
to » declaration of enmity with Babylon.
As a natural consequence it brought on
Jerusalem an iraraediate invasion of the
Chaldeans. The raention of this event in
the Bible, though sure, is extremely slight,
and occurs only in Jer, xxxvii, 5-11, xxxiv,
21, and Ez, xvii, 15-20; but Josephus (x,
7, § 3') relates it more fully, and gives the
date of its occurrence, namely, the eighth
year of Zedekiah. It appears that Nebu
chadnezzar, being made aware of Zede
kiah's defection, either by the non-payment
of the tribute or by other raeans, at once
sent an army to ravage Judaea. This was
done, and the whole country reduced, ex
cept Jerusalera and two strong places in
the western plain, Lachish and Azekah,
which still held out (Jer. xxxiv. 7). In
the mean time Pharaoh had moved to the
assistance of his ally. On hearing of his
approach the Chaldeans at once raised the
siege and advanced to meet hira. The
nobles seized the moment of respite to re
assert their power over the king. How
long the Babylonians were absent from

Jerusalem we are not told. All we cer
tainly know is, thiit on the tenth day of the
tenth month of Zedekiah's ninth year the
Chaldeans were again before tho walls (Jer.
lii. 4). From this time forward the siege
progressed slowly, but surely, to its con
summation. Zedekiah again interfered to
preserve the life of Jeremiah from the ven
geance of the princes (xxxvUi. 7-13), and
then occurred the interview between the
king and the prophet, which affords so
good a clew to the condition of abject de
pendence into whicha long course of oppo
sition had brought the weak-minded mon
arch. While the king was hesitating the
end was rapidly coraing nearer. The city
was indeed reiJuced to the last extreraity-.
Tho bread had for long been consumed
(Jer. xxxvUi, 9), and all the terrible expe
dients had been tried to which the wretch
ed inhabitants of a besieged town are forced
to resort in such cases. At last, after six
teen dreadful months, the catastrophe ar
rived. It was on the ninth diiy of the
fourth month, about the middle of July, at
midnight, as Josephus with careful minute
ness inforras us, that the breach in those
stout' and venerable walls was effected.
The raoon, nine days old, had gone down
below the hills which forra the western
edge of the basin of Jerusalera, or was .at
any rate too low to illuminate the utter
darkness which reigns in the narrow lanes
of an Eastern town, where the inhabitants
retire early to rest, and where there are
but few windows to emit light from the in
terior of the houses. The wretched rem
nants of the army quitted the city in the
dead of night; and as the Chaldean army
entered the city at one end, the king and
his wives fled from it by the opposite gate.
They took the road towards the Jordan.
On the way they were raet and recognized
by some of the Jews who had formerly de
serted to the Chaldeans. By them the in
telligence was communicated, and, as soon
as the dawn of day permitted it, swift pur
suit was made. The king's party were
overtaken near Jericho, and carried to
Nebuchadnezzar, who was then at Riblah,
at tho upper end of the valley of Leb.anon.
Nebucha-dnezzar, with a reflnemeut of cru
elty characteristic of those cruel tiraes, or
dered the sons of Zedekiah to be killed
before hira, and lastly his own eyes to be
thrust out (b, c, 586). He was then loaded
with brazen fetters, and at a later period
taken to Babylon, where he died. 2. Son
of Chenaanali, a prophet at the court of
Ahab, head, or, if not head, virtual leader
of the college. He appears but once, viz.
as spokesman when the prophets are con
sulted by Ahab on the result of his proposed
expedition to Ramoth-GUead, (1 K. xxU. ;
2 Chr. xviii,). Zedekiah had prepared him
self for the interview with a pair of iron

ZEEB

769

ZEPHANIAH

hori s, after the symbolic custom of the
prophets (corap, Jer, xiu,, xix,), the horns
of the reem, or buffalo, which was the
recognized erablera of the tribe of Ephraira
(Deut, xxxiu, 17). With these, in the in
terval before Micaiah's arrival, he illus
trated the raanner in which Ahab should
drive the Syrians before hira. When Mi-
Ciiiah appeared and had delivered his proph
ecy, Zedekiah sprang forward and struck
him a blow on the face, accompanying it by
a taunting sneer. For this he is threatened
by Micaiah in terras which are hardly in-
teUigible to us, but which evidently allude
to sorae personal danger to Zedekiah. Jose
phus relates that after Micaiah had spoken,
Zedekiah again came forward, and de
nounced him as false, on the ground that
his prophecy contradicted the prediction
of Elijah, thiit Ahab's blood should be
licked "up by dogs in the fleld of Naboth of
Jezreel; and as a further proof that he was
an impostor, he struck him, daring him to
do what Iddo, in somewhat sirailar cir
curastances, had done to Jeroboam — viz.,
wither his hand. As to the question of
what Zedekiah and his followers were,
whether prophets of Jehovah or of .some
false deity, it seeras hardly possible to en
tertain any doubt, 3, The son of Maasei
ah, a false prophet in Babylon (Jer, xxix,
21, 22). He was denounced in the letter
of Jeremiah for having, with Ahab the sou
of Kolaiab, buoyed up tlie people with false
hopes, and for profane and flagitious con
duct. Their naraes were to become a by
word, and their terrible fate a warning. 4.
The son of Hananiah, one of the princes
of Judah in the tirae of Jeremiah (Jer.
xxxvi. 12).
Zeeb, one of the two "princes" of
Midian in the great invasion of Israel, He
is always niiraed with Okeb (Judg, vii, 25,
viu. 3; Ps. Ixxxiii. 11). Zeeb and Oreb
were not slain at the flrst rout of the Arabs,
but at a later stage of the struggle, proba
bly in crossing the Jordan at a ford farther
down the river. Zeeb, the wolf, was brought
to bay in a winepress which in later times
bore his name — the "winepress of Zeeb,"
[Oreb,] Ze'iah, a city in the aUotment of Ben
jarain (Josh, xviii. 28), contained the fara-
ilv torab of Kish, the father of Saul (2 Sara.
xxi. 14).
Ze'lek, an Ammonite, one of David's
guard (2 Sam. xxiii. 37; 1 Chr. xi. 39),
Zelo'phehad, son of Hepher, son of
Gilead, son of Machir, son of Manasseh
(Josh, xvu, 3). He was apparentiy the
second son of his father Hepher (1 Cbr.
vii. 15). Zelophehad came out of Egypt
with Moses, but died in the wUderness, as
did the whole of that generation (Num, xiv,
35 xxvii. 3), On his death without male
heirs, his flve daughters, just after the \
49

second nurabering in the wilderness, came
before Moses and Eleazar to claira the in
heritance of their father in the tribe of
Manasseh, The claim was admitted by di
vine direction (Num, xxvi. 33, xxvu. 1-11).
Zelo'tes, the epithet given to tiie Apos
tle Simon to distinguish hira frora Simon
Peter (Luke vi. 15). [Canaanite; Si
mon 5.]
Zel'zah, a place named once only (1
Sam. X, 2), as on the boundary of Benja
min, close to Rachel's sepulchre,
Zemara'im, a town in the allotment of
Benjiimin (Josh. xvui. 22), perhaps identi
cal with Mount Zemaraiji (raentioned in
2 Chr, xiu, 4 only), which was " in Mount
Ephraira," that is to say, within the general
district of the highliinds of that great tribe
(2 Chr. xiu. 4).
Zem'arite, The, one of tiie Haraite
tribes who, in the genealogical table of Gen.
X. (ver. 18) and 1 Chron. i. (ver. 16), are
represented as " sons of Canaan." Noth
ing is certainly known of this ancient tribe.
The old interpreters place thera at Eraessa,
the raodern Hums.
Zemi'ra, one of the sons of Becher the
son ofBenjamin (1 Chr. vii. 8).
Ze'nan, a town in the allotraent of Ju
diih, situated in the district of the Shefelah
(Josh. XV. 37). It is probably identical
with Zaanan (Mic, i, 11),
Ze'nas, a believer, and, as raay be in
ferred from the context, a preacher, of the
Gospel, who is mentioned in Tit, iii, 13 in
connection with Apollos, He is further
described as " the lawyer," It is impos
sible to determine whether Zenas was a
Roman jurisconsult or a Jewish doctor,
Zephani'ah. 1. The ninth in order
of the twelve minor prophets. His pedigree
is traced to his fourth ancestor, Hezekiah,
(i, 1), supposed to be the celebrated king
of that name. In chap, i. the utter desola
tion of Judaea is predicted as a judgment
for idolatry, and neglect of the Lord, the
luxury of the princes, and tbe violence and
deceit of their dependants (3-9), The
prosperity, security, and insolence of the
people are contrasted with the horrors of
the day of wrath (10-18), Ch, ii, contains a
Call to repentance (1-3), with prediction of
the ruin of the cities of the Philistines, and
the restoration of the house of Judah after
the visitation (4-7), Other enemies of
Judah, Moab, Ammon, are threatened with
perpetual destruction (8-15). In chap, iii,
the prophet addresses Jerusalem, which he
reproves sharply for vice and disobedience
(1-7), He then concludes with a series of
promises (8-20) . The chief characteristics
of this book are tbe unity and harmony of
the composition, the grace, energy, asid
dignity of its style, and the rapid and ef
fective alternations of threats and promises.
The general tone of the last portioa is MeB-

ZEPHATH

770

ZERETH

sianic, but without any specific reference to
the person of our Lord. The date of the
book is given in the inscription; viz. the
reign of Josiah, frora 642 to 611 E, c, Itis
most probable, moreover, that the prophecy
was delivered before the 18th year of Jo
siah, 2, Tlie son of Maaseiah (Jer. xxi.
1), and sagan or second priest in the reign
of Zedekiah, He succeeded Jehoiada (Jer.
xxix, 25, 26), and was prohably a ruler of
the Teraple, whose office it was, among
others, to punish pretenders to the gift of
prophecy. In this capacity he was appealed
to by Shemaiah the Nehelaraite to punish
Jeremiah (Jer. xxix. 29). Twice was he
sent from Zedekiah to inquire of Jereraiah
the issue of the siege of the city by the
Chaldeans (Jer, xxi, l),and to implore him
to intercede for the people (Jer, xxxvii, 3),
Ou the capture of Jerusalem he was taken
and slain at Riblah (Jer. lii. 24, 27 ; 2 K.
xxv. 18, 21), 3. Father of Josiah 2 (Zech.
vi. 10), and of Hen, according to the read
ing ofthe received text of Zech. vi. 14.
Ze'phath, the earlier name (Judg. i.
17) of a Canaanite town, which after its
capture and destruction was called by the
Israelites Hormah. [Hormah.]
Zeph'athah, The VaUey of, the
spot in which Asa joined battle with Zerah
the Etiiiopiiin (2 Chr, xiv. 10 only).
Ze'phi (1 Chr. i, 36). [Zephc]
Ze'php, son of Eliphaz, son of Esau
(Gen, xxxvi, 11), and one of the "dukes,"
or phylarchs,' of the Edomites (ver. 15).
In 1 Chr. i. 36 he is called Zephi.
Ze'phon, Ziphion, the son of Gad
(Nura. xxvi. 15), and ancestor of the family
of the Zephonites.
Zer, a fortified town in the allotment of
Naphtali (Josh. xix. 35 only), probably in
the neighborhood of the S. W. side of the
lake of Gennesareth.
Ze'rah. 1. A son of Reuel, son of Esau
(Gen, xxxvi, 13; 1 Chr. i, 37), and one of
the " dukes," or phylarchs, of the Edomites
(Gen, xxxvi. 17). 2. Less properly, Za
rah, twin son, with his elder brother Pha
rez, of Judah and Tam.ar (Gen, xxxviii, 80 ;
1 Chr, U, 6; Matt, i. 3). His descendants
were called Zarhites, Ezrahites, and Izra-
hites (Nura, xxvi, 20 ; 1 K. iv. 81 ; 1 Chr.
xxvu, 8, 11). 3, Son of Simeon (1 Chr,
iv. 24), caUed Zohar in Gen. xlvi. 10). 4,
A Gershonite Levite, son of Iddo or Adaiah
(1 Chr. vi, 21, 41 [Heb, vi, 26]), 5, The
Ethiopian or Cushite, an invader of Judah,
defeated by Asa about B, o. 941, [Asa,]
Zerah is probably the Hebrew name of
Usarken I,, second king of the Egyptian
xxud dynasty; or perhaps more probably
Usarken II,, his second successor. In tiie
I4th year of Asa, Zerah, the Ethiopian,
with a mighty army of a million, invaded
his kingdora, and advanced unopposed in
the field as far as Mareshah. The invading

army had swarmed across tiio border and
devoured the Philistine fields before Asa
could raarch to meet it. " In the Valley
of Zephathah at Mareshah," the two armies
raet. - We cannot perfectly determine the
site of the battle. From the prayer of Asa
we may judge that, when he carae upon the
invading array, he saw its hugeness, and so
that, as he descended through a valley, it
lay spread out beneath hira. The Egyptian
raonuraents enable us to picture the general
disposition of Zerah's array. The chariots
formed the first corps in a single or double
line ; behind them, massed in phalanxes,
were heavy-armed troops ; probably on the
fianks stood archers and horsemen in light
er formations. No doubt the Ethiopian,
confident in his numbers, disdained to at
tack the Hebrews or clear the heights, but
waited in the broad valley, or the plain.
Asa's prayer before the battle is full of the
noble faith of the age of the Judges. The
chariots, broken by the charge and with
horses made unman.ageable by fiights of
arrows, must have heen forced back upon
the cumbrous host behind. " So the Lord
smote the Ethiopians before Asa, and be
fore Judah ; and the Ethiopians fled. And
Asa and the people that [were] with him
pursued them unto Gerar ; and [or ' for ']
the Ethiopians were overthrown, that they
could not recover themselves." So com
plete was the overthrow, that the Hebrews
could capture and spoil the cities around
Gerah, which must have been in alliance
with Zerah. The defeat of the Egyptian
army is without parallel in the history of
the Jews. On uo other occasion did an
Israelite army meet an array of one of the
great powers and defeat it.
Zerahi'ah. 1. A priest, son of Uzzi, anil
ancestor of Ezra the Scribe (1 Chr. vi. 6,
51 [Heb. V, 32, vi. 36]; Ezr. vii. 4). 2.
Father of Elihoenai of the sons of Pahath
Moab (Ezr. viii, 4).
Ze'red (Deut. U. 13, 14), or Za'red
(Nura. xxi. 12), a brook or valley running
into the Dead Sea near its S. E, corner,
which D/, Robinson with some probability
suggests as identical with the Wady el-Ahsy.
It lay between Moab and Edom, and is the ,.
limit oT the proper term of the Israelites'
w.andering (Deut. U. 14).
Zer'eda, the native place of Jeroboara
(1 K. xi. 26). Zereda or Zeredah has been
supposed to be identical with Zerkdathah
and Zarthan or Zartanah. But the two
last were in the valley of the Jordan, while
Zeredah was, according to the repeated
stateraent of the LXX., on Mount Ephraim.
Zered'athah. [Zartuan.]
Zer'erath, [Zarthan.]
Ze'resh, the wife of Haman the Agagite
(Esth. V, 10, 14, vi. 13).
Ze'reth, son of Ashur the founder of
Tekoa, by his wife Helah (1 Chr. iv. 7)

ZERl

771

ZIBA

Ze'ri, oue of the sons of Jeduthun in the
reign of David (1 Chr, xxv, 3),
Zo'ror, a Benjaraite, ancestor of Kish the
father of Saul (1 Sara. ix. 1).
Zeru'ah, the mother of Jeroboam the
son of Nebat (I K. xi. 26).
Zeruta'babel {bom at Babel, i. e. Bab
ylon), the head of the tribe of Judah at
the time of the return from the Babylonish
Captivity in the flrst year of Cyrus. The
history of Zerubbabel in the Scriptures is as
follows : In the flrst year of Cyrus he was
living at Biibylon, and was the recognized
prince of Judah in the Captivity, what in
later tiraes was called " the Prince of the
Captivity," or " the Prince." On the is
suing of Cyrus's decree he immediately
availed himself of it, and placed himself
at the head of those of his countrymen
" whose spirit God had raised to go up to
build the house of the Lord which is in
Jerusalem," It is probable that he was in
the king of Babylon's service, both frora
his having, like Daniel and the three chil
dren, received a Chaldee narae [Shesh
bazzar], and from the fact that he was ap
pointed by the Persian king to the office of
governor of Judaea. On arriving at Jeru
salera, Zerubbabel's great work, which he
set about immediately, was the rebuilding
of the Temple, In the second month of
the second year of their return, the foun
dation- was laid with all the pomp which
they could command. The Samaritans or
Cutheans put in a claim to join with the
Jews in rebuilding the Temple ; and when
Zerubbabel and his companions refused to
admit them into partnership they tried to
hinder them from building, and hired coun
sellors to frustrate their purpose. They
were successful in putting a stop to the
work during the seven remaining years of
the reign of Cyrus, and through the eight
years of Cambyses and Smerdis. Nor does
Zerubbabel appear quite blameless for this
long delay. The difficulties in the way of
building the Teraple were not such as need
have stopped the work; and during this
long suspension of sixteen years Zerubba
bel and the rest of the people had been busy
in huilding costiy houses for themselves.
But in the second year of Darius light
dawned upon the darkness of the colony
from Babylon. In that year — it was the
most memorable event in Zerubbabel's Ufe
— the spirit of prophecy suddenly blazed
up with a most brUliant light amongst the
returned captives. Their words fell Uke
sparks upon tinder. In a raoraent Zerub
babel, roused frora his apathy, threw his
whole strength into the work, zealously
seconded by Jeshua and all the people.
Undeterred by a fresh attempt of their ene
mies to hinder the progress of the building,
they went on with the work even whUe a

rrference was being made to Darius; and | phibosheih.]

when, after the original decree of Cyrus had
been found at Ecbatana, a most gracious
and favorable decree was issued by Darius,
enjoining Tatnai and Shethar-boznai to as
sist the Jews with whatsoever they had need
of at the king's expense. After rauch op
position [see Nehemiah] and many hin-
deriinees .and delays, the Temple was at
length flnished, in the sixth year of Darius,
and was dedicated with much pomp and
rejoicing. [Temple,] The only other
works of Zerubbabel which we learn frora
Scripture are the restoration of the courses
of priests and Levites, and of the provision
for their maintenance, according to the in
stitution of David (Ezr, vi, 18 ; Neh, xii,
47) ; the registering the returned captives
according to their genealogies (Neh, vU.
5) ; and the keeping of a Passover in the
seventh year of Darius, with which last
event ends itil that we know of the life of
Zerubbabel, His apocryphal history is told
in 1* Esdr, iii.-vu. The exact parentage
of Zerubbiibel is a little obscure, from his
being always called the son of Shealtiel
(Ezr, iu, 2, 8, v, 2, &c, ; Hag, i, 1,.12, 14,
&e,), and appe.aring as such in the geneal
ogies of Christ (Matt, i, 12; Luke iu, 27),
whereas in 1 Chr, in, 19, he is represented
as the son of Pedaiah, Shealtiel or Sala-
thiel's brother, and consequently as Sala-
thiel's nephew. It is of more moraent to
reraark that, while St, M.atthew deduces
his line frora Jechonias and Solomon, St.
Luke deduces it through Neri and Nathan.
Zerubbabel was the legal successor and
heir of Jeconiah's royal estate, the grand
son of Neri, and the lineal descendant of
Nathan the son of David, In the N, T.
the narae appears iu the Greek form of
Zorobabel, Zerui'ah, the raother of the three lead
ing heroes of David's army — Abishai, Joab,
and Asahel — known as the " sons of Zer
uiah," She and Abigail are specified in 1
Chr. ii. 13-17 as " sisters of the sons of
Jesse" (v, 16), The expression is iu itself
enough to raise a suspicion that she was
not a daughter of Jesse, a suspicion which
is corroborated by the statement of 2 Sam,
xvii, 25, that Abigail was the daughter of
Nahash. [Nahash,] Of Zeruiah's hus-
'band there is no mention in the Bible.
Ze'tham, the son of Laadan, a Ger
shonite Levite (1 Chr, xxiii. 8),
Ze'than, a Benjaraite of the sons ot
Bilhan (1 Chr, vU, 10).
Ze'thar, one of the seven eunuclis of
Ahasuerus (Esth, i, 10),
Zi'a, one of the Gadites who dwelt iu
Bashan (1 Chr, v, 13).
Zi'ba, a person who pl.ays a prorainent
part, though with no credit to himself, in
one of the episodes of David's history (2
Sam. ix. 2-12, xvi. 1-4, xix. 17, 29). fME«

ZIBEON

772

ZIDON

Zib'eon, father of Anah, whose daughter
Aholibamah was Esau's wife (Gen. xxxvi.
2). Although called a Hivite, he is prob
ably the same as Zibeon the son of Seir the
Horite (vers. 20, 24, 29 ; 1 Chr. i. 38, 40).
Zib'ia, a Benjamite apparently the sonof
Shaharaim, by his wife Hodesh (1 Chr.
'vn, 9).
Zib'iah, a native of Beersheba, and
mother of king Joash (2 K. xu. 1 ; 2 Chr.
xiv. 1).
Zieh'ri, 1. Son of Ishar the son of
Kohath (Ex, vi. 21), 2, A Benjamite of
the sons of Shimhi (1 Chr, viU, 19), 3,
A Benjamite of the sons of Shashak (1 Chr,
viii, 23), 4. A Benjaraite of the sons of
Jeroh.am (1 Chr. vin. 27). 5. Son of
Asaph, elsewhere called Zabdi and Zac
cur (1 Chr. i.x, 15), 6, A descendant of
^liezer the son of Moses (1 Chr, xxvi. 25),
7, The father of Eliezer, the chief of the
Reubenites in the reign of David (1 Chr,
xxvii, 16). 8. One of the tribe of Judah,
father of Amasiah (2 Chr. xvii. 16). 9.
Father of Elishaphat, one of the conspira
tors with Jehoiada (2 Chr, xxui, 1), 10,
An Ephrairaite hero in the invading array
of Pekah, the son of Remali.ah (2 Chr,
xxvui, 7), 11, Father or ancestor of Joel
14 (Neh, xi, 9). 12, A priest of the fam
ily of Abijah, in the days of Joiakim the
son of Jeshua (Neh, xii, 17).
Zid'dim, a fortified town in the allot
ment of Naphtali (Josh, xix, 35).
Zidki'jah, a priest, or faraily of priests,
who signed the covenant with Neheraiah
(Neh. X, 1).
Zi'don, or Si'don (Gen. x. 15, 19;
Josh. xi. 8, xix. 28 ; Judg. i. 31, xviii. 28 ;
Joel iii. 4 (iv. 4) ; Is. xxiii. 2, 4, 12; Jer.
xxv. 22, xxvU. 3 ; Ez. xxviu. 21, 22 ; Zech.
ix. 2; Matt. xi. 21, 22, xv. 21; Luke vi,
• 17, X. 13, 14; Mark iU. 8, vn. 24, 81). An
ancient and weaUhy city of Phoenicia, on
the eastern coast of the Itfediterranean Sea,
less than 20 English miles to the north of
Tyre. Its Hebrew name, Tsiddn, signifles
" Fishing," or "Fishery." Its modern n.arae
is Saida. It is situate in the narrow plain
between the Lebanon and the sea, Frora
a Biblical point of view, this city is inferior
in interest to its neighbor Tyre ; though in
early tiraes Sidon was the raore influentiiil
of the two cities. This is shadowed forth in
the Book of Genesis by the statenient that
Zidon was the first-born of Canaan (Gen,
X. 15), and is iraplied in the narae of
" Great Zidon," or " the Metropolis Zidon,"
which is twice given to it iu Joshua (xi. 8,
xix. 28). It is confirmed, likewise, by
Zidonians being used as the generic name
of the Phoenicans, or Canaanites (Josh.
xiii. 6 ; Judg. xviii. 7) ; and by the reason
nssigned for there being no deliverer to
Laish when its peaceable inhabitants were
massacred, that " it was far from Zidon ; "

whereas, if Tyre had been then of equal
importance it would have been more natural
to mention Tyre, which professed substan
tially the same religion, and was almost
twenty "miles nearer (Judg. xviii. 28).
Frora the tirae of Solomon to the invasion
of Nebuchadnezzar Zidon is not often di
rectly mentioned in the Bible, and it ap
pears to have been subordinate to Tyre.
When the people called "Zidonians" is
mentioned, it soraetiraes seeras that the
Phoeniciiins of the plain of Zidon are
meant (1 K. v, 6, xvi. 31, xi, 1, 5, 38; 2
K, xxiU, 13). There is no doubt, however,
that Zidon itself, the city properly so called,
was threatened by Joel (iii. 4) and Jere
miah (xxvu. 8). Still, all that is known
respecting it during the epoch is very
scanty, araounting to scarcely raore than
that one of its sources of gain was traiJe
in slaves, in which the inhabitants did
not shrink frora selling inhabitants of
Palestine; that the city was governed by
kings (Jer, xxvii, 3 and xxv, 22) ; that,
previous to the invasion of Nebuchaiinezzar,
it had furnished mariners to Tyre (Ez. xxvii.
8) ; that at one period it was subject, in
sorae sense or other, to Tyre ; and that,
when Shalraaneser king of Assyria invaded
Phoenicia, Zidon seized the opportunity to
revolt. During the Persi.an domination,
Zidon seems. to have attained its highest
point of prosperity ; and it is recorded that,
towards the close of that period, it far ox-
celled all other Phoenician cities in wealth
and importance. It is very probable that
the long siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar
had tended not only to weaken and impov
erish Tyre, but likewise to enrich Zidon at
the expense of Tyre. Its prosperity was
suddenly cut short by an unsuccessful re
volt against Persia, which ended in the de
struction of the town (b. c. 351). The
principal circumstances were these : While
the Persians were making preparations iu
Phoenicia to put down the revolt in Egypt,
some Persian satraps and generals behaved
oppressively and insolently to Sidonians in
the Sidonian division of the city of Tripolis.
On this the Sidonian people projecte-l a
revolt ; and having first concerted arrange
ments with other Phoenician cities, and
made a treaty with Nectanebiis, they put
their designs into execution. But their
king Tonnes proved a traitor to their cause
— and in performance of a compact with
Ochus, he betrayed into the king's power
one hundred of the most distinguished
citizens of Sidon, who were all shot to
death with javelins. Five hundred other
citizens, who went out to the king with
ensigns of supplication, shared the same
fate ; and by concert between Tennes and
Mentor, the Persian troops were admitted
within the gates, and occupied the city
walls. The Sidonians, before the arrival

ZIDONIANS

of Ochus, had burnt their vessels to pre
vent any one's leaving the town ; and when
thoy saw themselves surrounded by the
Persian troops, they adopted the desperate
resolution of shutting themselves up with
their farailies, and setting fire each man to
his own house (b. c. 351). Forty thousand
persons are said to have perished in the
flames. Sidon, however, gradually recov
ered from the blow, and became again
a flourishing town. It is about fifty railes
distant from Nazareth, and is the most
northern city which is mentioned iu con
nection with Christ's journeys.
Zido'nians, the inhiibitants of Zidon.
They were among the nations of Canaan
left to practise the Israelites in the art of
war (Judg. iii. 3), and colonies of them
appear to have spread up into the hill
country from^ Lebanon to Misrephoth-maira
(Josh. xiii. 4,*6), whence in later times they
hewed cedar -trees for David and Solomon
(1 Chr. xxii. 4). They oppressed the Isr.a-
elites on their first entr.ance into the coun
try (Judg. x. 12), iind appear to have Uved
a luxurious, reckless life (Judg. xviii. 7) ;
they were skilful in hewing timber (1 K. v.
6), and were employed for this purpose by
Soloraon. They were idolaters, and wor
shipped Ashtoreth as their tutelary goddess
(1 K. xi. 5, 33; 2 K. xxiu. 13), as well as
the' sun-god Baal, from whom their king
was named (1 K. xvi. 31).
Zif (1 K. vi. 37). [Month.]
Zi'ha. 1. The children of Ziba were a
family of Nethinim who returned with
Zerubbabel (Ezr. U. 43; Neh. vii. 46). 2.
Chief of the Netiiinim in Ophel (Neh. xi.
2.1), The name is prob.ably identical with
the preceding,
Zik'lag, a place which possesses a
special interest from its having been the
residence and the pi-iviite property of Da
vid, It is flrst mentioned in the ciitiilogue
of the towns of Judah in Josh, xv., and
occurs, in tiie same connection, amongst
the places which were allotted out of tiie
territory of Judah to Simeon (xix. 5), We
next encounter it in tho possession of the
Philistines (1 Sam. xxvu. 6), when it was,
at David's request, bestowed upon him by
Achish king of Gath.' He resided there
for a year and four months (ib. 7 ; 1 Sam.
xxxi, 14, 26; 1 Chr, xii, 1,20). It was
there he received the news of Saul's death
(2 Sara, i, 1, iv. 10), He then reUnquished
it for Hebron (ii, 1). Ziklag is flnaUy
mentioned as being reinhabited by the peo
ple of Judah after their return- from the
Captivity (Neh, xi, 28). The situation of
the town is difficult to determine, and we
only know for certain that . it was in the
jouth country.
Zil'lah. [Lamech,]
Zil'pah, a Syrian given by Lab.an to his
daughter Leah as ail attendant (Gen. xxix.

773 ZIOR
24), and by Leah to Jacob as a concubine.
She was the raotiier of Gad and Asher
(Gen. xxx. 9-13, xxxv, 26, xxxvii, 2, xlvi.
18V, Zil'thai. 1, A Benjamite, of the sons
of Shimhi (1 Clir, vui. 20). 2. One of the
captains of thousands of Manasseh who
deserted to David at Ziklag (1 Chr. xu. 20),
Zitn'mah, 1, A Gershonite Levite,
son of Jahath (1 Chr. vi, 20), 2, Another
Gershonite, son of Shimei (1 Chr, vi. 42) ;
possibly the sarae as the preceding. 3.
Father or ancestor of Joab, a Gershonite
in the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chr. xxix. 12).
At a rauch earlier period we find the sarae
collocation" of n.ames, Zimniiih and .loah as
father and son (1 Chr. vi. 20).
Ziui'ran, the eldest son of Keturiih
(Gen. xxv. 2; 1 Chr. i. 32). His descend
ants are not raentioned, nor is any hint,
given that he was the founder of a tribe.
Zim'ri. 1. The son of Siilu, a Siraeon
ite chieftain, slain by Phinehas with the
Midiimitish princess Cozbi (Num. xxv. 14).
2. Fifth sovereign ofthe separate kingdom
of Israel, of which he occupied the throne
for the brief period of seven days in the
year b. c. 930 or 929. Originally in cora
raand of half the chariots in tbe royal array,
he gained the crown by the murder of king
Elah son of Baasha. But the army which
at that time was besieging the Philistine
town of Gibbethon, when they heard of
Elah's murder, proclaimed their gener.al,
Omri, king. He immediately raarched
against Tirzah, and took the city. Zimri
retreated into the innermost part of the
late king's palace, set it on fire, and peri.=!hed
in the ruins (1 K. .xvi. 9-20). 3. One of
the flve sons of Zerah the son of Judah (1
Chr. U. 6). 4. Son of Jehoadah and de
scendant of S<aul (1 Chr. vin. 36, ix. 42).
5. An obscure name, mentioned (Jer. xxv.
25) in probiible connection with Dediin,
Tema, Buz, Ar.abia, the "mingled people."
Nothing further is known respecting Zimri,
but it may possibly be the sarae as, or
derived frora, Zimran, which see.,
Zin, the name given to a portion of the
desert tract between the Dead Sea, Ghdr,
and Arabah on the E., and the general
plateau of "the Tih which stretches west
ward. The country in question consists
of two or three successive terraces of
raountain converging to an acute angle at
the Dead Sea's southern verge, towards
which also they slope. Kadesh lay jn it,
and here also Idumea was conterrainous
with Judah ; since Kadesh was a city in the
border of Edom (see I^adesh ; Nura_. xiU.
21, XX. 1, xxvu. 14, xxxiu. 36, xxxiv. 3;
Josh. XV. 1). , » cu- •
Zi'na, Zizah, tiie second son of Shiraei
(1 Chr. xxiu. 10, comp. 11) the Gershonite.
Zi'on. [Jerusalem,]
Zi'or, a town in the mountain district ol

ZIPH

774

ZOBA

Judiih (Josh. XV. 54). It belongs to 'the
sarae group with Hebron.
Ziph, the name of two towns in Judah.
1. Ill the south; naraed between Itlinan
and 'Telera (Josh. xv. 24), It does not ap
pear again in the history, nor has any trace
of it been met with, 2. Iu the highland
district; named between Carmel an«l Juttah
(Josh, XV, 55), The place is immortalized
.by its -connection with David (1 Sam, xxui,
14, 15, 24, xxvi, 2), These p.assages show,
that at that time it had near it a wilderness
{i. e. a waste p.asture-ground) and a wood,
"The latter has disappe.ared, but the former
remains. The name of Zif is found about
tliree miles S. of Hebron, atta'hed to a
rounded hill of some 100 feet in height,
which is called Tell Zif. 3. Son of Jeha
leleel (I Chr. iv. 16).
Zi'phah, another son of Jehaleleel (1
Chr, iv. 16),
Zi'phims, The, the inh.abitonts of
Ziph 2. In this form the name is found
in the A. V. only in the title of Ps. liv. In
the narrative it occurs in the more usual
form of
Zi'phites, The, 1 Sam. xxiii. 19;
xxvi. 1.
Ziph'ion, son of Gad (Gen. xlvi. 16) ;
elsewhere called Zephon.
Ziph'ron, a point in the north boundary
of the Promised Land as specifled by Moses
(Num. xx.xiv. 9).
Zip'por, fatiier of Balak king of Moab
(Nura. xxU. 2, 4, 10, 16, xxui. 18 ; Josh.
xxiv. 9; Judg. xi. 25). Whether he was
the "former king of Moab" alluded to in
Nura. xxi. 26, we are not told.
Zippo'rah, daughter of Reuel or Je
thro, the priest of Midian, wife of Moses,
and mother of his two sons Gershom and
Eliezer (Ex. U. 21, iv. 25, xvui. 2; corap.
6). The only incident recorded in her life
is that of the circuracision of Gershora (iv.
24-;26). Zith'ri, properly "Sithri;" one of the
sons of Uzziel, the son of Kohath (Ex. vi.
22). In Ex. vi, 21, "Zithri" should be
"Zichri," as in A, V, of 1611,
Ziz, The Cliff of, the pass by which
the horde of Mo'abites, Araraonites, and
Mebunira, made their way up from the
shores of the Dead Sea to the wilderness
of Judah near Tekoa (2 Chr, xx, 16 only;
comp. 20), It Wiis the pass of Ain Jidy
— the very same route which is taken by
the Arabs in their marauding expeditions
at the present day.
Zi'za. 1. Son of Shiphi, a chief of tbe
Simeonites in the reign of Hezekiah (1
Chr. iv. 37). 2. Son of Rehoboara by
Maachah, the granddaughter of Absalora
(2 Chr. xi. 20),
Zi'zah, a Gershonite Levite, second son
of Shiraei (1 Chr. xxiu. 11) ; called Zina
in ver. 10.

Zo'an, an ancient city of Lower Egjpt,
called Tanis by the Greeks. It stood on
the eastern bank of the 'TaUitic branch of
the Nile. Its name indicates a place of
departure frora a country, and hence it has
been identifled with Avaris, the capital of
the Shepherd dynasty in Egypt. We read
in the book of Numbers that " Hebron was
built seven years before Zoan in Egypt"
(xiii. 22), which tends to establish the
identity of Avaris and Zoan, since we know
that Hebron was already built in Abra
ham's time, and the Shepherd-invasipn may
he dated about the sarae period. Sup
posing that the Pharaoh who oppressed the
Israelites belonged to the Shepherds, it
would be natural for hira to reside at Zoan ;
and this city is mentioned in connection
with the Plagues in such a manner as to
leave no doubt that it is the cily spoken of in
the narrative in Exodus as that where Pha
raoh dwelt (Ps. Ixxviii. 42, 43). Tanis
gave its name to the xxist and xxiiid dy
nasties, and- hence its mention in Isaiah
(xix. 13, xxx. 4), " I will set flre in Zoan "
(xxx, 14), where it occurs araong the cities
to be taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
Zo'ar, one of tho most ancient cities of
the land of Canaan, Its original name was
Bela (Gen, xiv, 2, 8). It was in intimate
connection with the cities of the "plain of
Jord.an" — Sodora, Gomorrah, Adraah, and
Zeboiira (see also .xiii. 10; but not x, 19).
In the general destruction of the cities of
the plain, Zoitr was spared to .afford shelter
to Lot (xix. 22, 23, 30). It is mentioned
in the account of the death of Moses as one
of the landmarks whieh bounded his view
frora Pisgah (Deut, xxxiv,- 3), and it ap
pears to have been known in the time both
of Isaiah (xv. 5) and Jereraiah (xlviii. 34).
These are all the notices of Zo.ar contained
in the Bible. It was situated in the same
district with the four cities already men
tioned, viz, in the "plain "or " circle " " of
the Jordan," and the narrative of Gen. xix.
evidently implies that it was very near to
Sodora (ver, 15, 23, 27), The deflnite po
sition of Sodom is, and probably will al
ways be, a mystery ; but there can be little
doubt that the plain of the Jordan was at
the north side of tiie Dead Sea, and that
the cities of the plain raust therefore have
been situated there instead of at the south
ern end of the lake, as it is generally taken
for granted they were. [Sodom,]
Zo'ba, or Zo'taah, the name of a por
tion of Syria, which formed a separate king
dom in the time of the Jewish monarchs,
Saul, David, and Soloraon. It probably
was eastward of Coele-Syria, and extended
thence north-east and east, towards, if not
even to, the Euphrates. We flrst hear of
Zobah in the time of Saul, when we find it
mentioned as a separat;e country, governed
apparently by a number of kings who owned

ZOBEBAH

775

ZUZIMS

no common head or chief (1 Sam, xiv. 47).
Sorae forty ye.ars Later than this, we find
Zobah under a single ruler, Hadadezer, son
of Rehob, He had wars with Toi, king of
Haraath (2 Sara, vui, 10), and held various
petty Syrian princes as vassals undor his
yoke (2 Sara, x, 19), David (2 Sam. viu.
3) attacked Hadadezer in the early part of
his reign, defeated his .array, and took from
him a thousand chariots, seven hundred
(seven thousand, 1 Chr. xviii, 4) horsemen,
and 20,000 footmen, Hadadezer's allies,
the Syrians of Daraascus, were defeated in a
great battle. The wealth of Zobah is very
apparent in the narrative of this campaign.
It is not clear whether the Syrians of Zobah
submitted and became tributary on this oc
casion, or whetlier, although defeated, they
were able to maintain their independence.
At any rate, a few years later they were
again in arras against David. The war was
provoked by tho Araraonites, who hired the
services of the Syrians of Zobah. The ill-
lies were defeated in a great battle by Joab,
who engaged the Syrians in person (2 Sam.
K. 9). H.adadezer, upon tiiis, made a Last
effort (1 Chr. xix. 16). A battle was fought
near Helara, where the Syrians of Zobah
and their new allies were defeated with
great slaughter. Zobah, however, though
subdued, continued to cause trouble to the
Jewish kings. A raan of Zobah, Rezon,
son of Eliadah, made himself master of
Damascus, where he proved a fierce ad
versary to Israel all through the reign of
Soloraon (1 K. xi: 23-25). Soloraon also
was, it would seem, engaged in a war with
Zobah itself (2 Chr. viii. 3). This is the
last that we hear of Zobah in Scripture.
The name, however, is found at a later date
in the Inscriptions of Assyria, where the
kingdom of Zobah seeras to intervene be
tween Hiimath and Damascus,
Zobe'bah, son of Coz, of the tribe of
Judah (1 Chr, iv. 8),
Zo'har. 1. Fatiier of Ephron the Hit
tite (Gen, xxiU, 8, xxv, 9). 2. One of tbe
sons of Simeon (Gen. xlvi. 10; Ex. vi, 15) ;
called Zerah in 1 Chr, iv. 24,
Zo'heleth, The Stone. This was " by
En Rogel " (1 K. i. 9) ; and therefore, if
En Rogel be the modern Um-ed-.Deraj, this
stone, " where Adonijah slew sheep and
oxen," was in all likelihood not far from
the well of the Virgin.
Zo'heth, son of Ishi of the tribe of Ju
dah (1 Chr. iv. 20).
Zo'phah, son of Helem, or Hotham,
tiie son of Heber, an Asherite (1 Chr. vU.
35. 36). „.^,
Zo'phai, a Kohathite Levite, son of El
kanah and ancestor of Samuel (1 Chr. vi.
26 [11])- I" ^s""- 35 he is called Zuph.
Zo'phar, one ofthe three friends of Job
(Job ii. 11, xi. 1, XX. 1, xUi. 9).

Zo'phim, The Field of, a spot on or
near the top of Pisgah, frora which Balaam
had his second view of the encarapraent of
Israel (Num. xxiu. 14). The position of
the field of Zophim is not defined. May it
not be the same place which later in the
history is raentioned as Mizpah-Moae ?
Zo'rah, a town in the allotment of Hie
tribe of D.an (Josh. xix. 41). It is previ
ously mentioned (xv. 33) in the catiilogue
of Judiih, .among the places in tlie district
of the Shefeliih (A. V. Zoreali). It was
the residence of Manoah and the n.ative
place of Samson. It is mentioned amongst
the places fortified by Rehoboara (2 Chr.
xi. 10). It is perhaps identical with the
modern village of Sur'ah.
Zo'rathites, The, i. e. the people of
Zorah, mentioned in 1 Chr. iv. 2 as de ¦
scended from Shobal.
Zo'reah. [Zorah.]
Zo'rites, The, are named in the gene
alogies of Judah (1 Chr. ii. 54) apparently
amongst the descendants of Salma and near
connections of Jo.ab.
Zorob'abel (Matt. i. 12, 13; Luke UL
27). [Zerubbabel.]
Zu'ar, fiither of Nethaneel the chief of
the tribe of Issachar at the time of the Ex
odus (Num. i. 8, ii. 5, vu. 18, 23, x. 15).
Zuph, The Land of, a district at
which Saul and his servant arrived after
passing through those of Shalisha, of Sha
lim, and of the Benjaraites (1 Sara. ix. 5
only). It evidently contained the city in
which they encountered Samuel (ver. 6),
and that again was certainly not far from
the "torab of Rachel." It m.ay perhaps be
identified with Soba, a well-known place
about 7 miles due west of Jerusalem.
Zuph, a Koh.athite Levite, ancestor of
Elkanah and S.arauel (1 S.ara. i. 1 ; 1 Chr. vi.
35), In 1 Chr, vi. 26 he is called Zophai,
Zur. 1. Father of Cozbi (Nura. xxv.
15), and one of the five princes of Midian
who were slain by the IsraeUtes when Ba
laam feU (Num. xxxi. 8.) 2. Son of Jehiel
the founder of Gibeon (1 Chr. viu. 30, ix,
36'). Zu'riel, son of Abihail, and chief of the
Merarite Levites at the tirae of the Exodus
(Num. iU. 35).
Zurishad'dai, father of Shelumiel, the
chief of the tribe of Siraeon at the time of
the Exodus (Num. i. 6, U, 12, vu, 36, 41, x,
19)- . , I.
Zu'zims, The, an ancient people, who,
lying iu the path of Chedorlaomer and his
allies, were attacked and overtiirown by
them (Gen. xiv. 5). The Zuzims perhap*
inhabited the country of the Ammonites,
and were identical with the Zamzumraim,
who are known to have been extrirraiuated
and succeeded in their land by the Am.
monites. [Zamzummim.]

776
THE JE"WISH CALENDAR.

Corresponding Dates for

Three Years.

Jewish Calendar
A. M. 6023.
A. M. 5624.
A. M. 5625.
(In the Sacred Order of the Months).
A.D. 186.3.
A.D. 1864,
A.D. 1865.
I. ABIB OK NISAN. April.
Mar. 21 . . .
Apr, 7 . . . .
Mar. 28 ... .
1. New Moon.
Apr.4,5, 10, 11
Apr, 21, 22, 27, 28
Apr. 11, 12,17,18
15, 10, 21, 22. Passover Days, 1, 2, 7, Ust,
Apr. ly . . .
30. New Moon. II. JYAB (Yiali). May.
Apr. 20 . . .
May 7 
Apr. 27 ... .
1. New Moon.
Apr. 2'J . . .
JSIay 24 ... .
May 14 ... .
10. Death of Elijah (Lag B' Omer). Fast.
5I'ry 1 . . .
12.
28. Death of Samuel. Fast.
Jl-ir I? . . -
Milj 19 . . ,
'.'.','.'.'.-.'.'.
30. New Moon. III. SIVAN, June.
May 10 . . .
June 5 . . . .
May 26 . . . .
1, New Moou,
illay M, 25 .
,;une ID, 11 . .
May 31, June 1
0, 7, Pentecost or Sebnoth.
,Juiie 17 , ¦ .
30, Kew Moon. IV. THAMMUZ. July.

,rune 18 . . .
July 5 . . . .
June 25 ... .
1. New Moon,
July 5 . . .
July 21 ... .
July 11 ... .
17, Taking of Jerusalem by Titus. Fast.
V. AB. August.
.luly 17 . . .
Au!>-, 3 . . . •
July 24 ... .
1. New Moou.
.Illlv 2(> . . .
Aug, 11 ... .
Aug. 1 . . . .
9. Destruction of Temple. Fast.
.luly 31 . . .
15. Tubcah. Little Festival.
30. New Moon. VI. ELUL. September.
Au;j. 15 . . .
Aug. 16 . . .
Sept. 2 , . . .
Aug. 23 ....
1. New Moon.
-Vu"-. 22 . . .
7. Dedication of Walls by Nehemiah. Feast.
17. Expulsion of the Greeks.
Hrpi. 1 . . .
A.3t.552-J.
A, M, 5625,
A.M. 5626,
Beginnjsg of Civil Year.
A.V. 1803-4.
A,D, 1864-5.
A, D, 1805-6,
VII, TISRI, October,
Sept. 14, 15 .
Oct. 1,2 ....
Sept, 21, 22 . .
1, 2, New Year and New Moon.
Sopt. 10 , . ,
0(^t. 3 . . . .
Sept. 24 ... .
S. Death of Gedaliah. Fast.
.Sept 23 , . ,
Oct. 10 ... .
Sept. 30 ... .
10. Kipiir. Day of Ato^je.iient. Fast.
Sept, 28, 29 ,
Oot, 15, 16 . .
Oct. 6, 6 . . .
15, 16. Feast of Tabeunacles.
Oct. 1 . . ,
18'. Hosanna Rabba.
Oct. 4 . . .
Oct, 21 '.'.'.'.
Oct. 'li '. '. '. '.
21. Foast of Branches or of Palms.
Oct, 5 , , ,
Oct, 22 ... .
Oct. 12 ... .
22. End of Feast of Tabernacles.
Oct, 6 . . .
Oct. ,23 ... .
Oct. 13 ... .
23. Feast of the Law.
VIII. CHESVAN (Marchesvan). November.
Oct, 14 . . .
Oct, 31 ... .
Oct. 21 ... .
1. New Moon.
IX. CHISLEU. December.
'Nov. 12 . . .
Nov, 30 ... .
Nov. 19 ... .
1. New Moon.
Dec, 0 , . .
Dec, 24 ... .
Dec. 13 ... .
25. Hanuca. Dedication of Temple.
X. THEBET. January.
Dec, 11 . . .
Dec, 30 ... .
1805.
Deo. 19 ... .
1. New Moon.
Dec, 20 . . .
Jan. 8 . . . .
Dec. 28 ... .
10. Siege of Jerusalem. Fast.
1864.
1860.
XI. SEBAT. Eebruary.
.T.in, 9 . . .
Jan,. 88 ... .
Jan. 17 ... .
1. New Moon. XII. ADAH. March.
Feb, 8 . . .
Feb, 21 . . .
Fob. 27 ... .
1. Now Moon.
14. Little Purim.
rXII.* VEADAR (Intercalary). Latter part
Mar, 9 , , .
of March and beginning of April.
1. Now Moon.
M.ir. 21 . . .
Mar.' 9 '. '. ! !
13. Feast of Jfisthcr.
Mrir. 22, 23 ,
Apr, 0 , . .
Mar. 12, 13 . .
.14, 15. Foast of Pui-im and Shushnm Purim
Last Day of the Year.
* Mem, -Tht!
Jewish year contains
354 days, or 12 lunations of the moon j but in a cycle of 19 years an Interoalorr
ed to render the average length of the year nearly correct.
month ( yeadar)
B BCveQ times introdue
9731

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