AMERICANS . u *«n»*%fcl *4fr0pg&^ & n :^q£o$ota rauXLS OCOj m?z 'VZeopgefb 'own ft*---' OQV£tO ''¦£. 06,oLos „-p J\0- .f* !<*» 501/TH 0100200 300 400 500 EzrziEzazzizza Afanac a/m a. >n. /^rJao PA.RA rt (fro CaUao^ O'd^u,^ oya*—r LIMA bNio Mo/tenctfrtf/^f '%C00Rh.ba.rr> 6 : f-f EUCALYPTUS AVENUE ON THE URUGUAYAN COAST THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 25 of South America has now for some while tended to die away altogether in favour of the new industrial and com mercial regime which is rapidly spreading over all the Continent. In order to judge of the picturesque costumes of almost a century ago, one may turn to such volumes as the very rare Chamberlain's " Views and Costumes of Rio de Janeiro " ; Vidal's " Picturesque illustrations of Buenos Aires and Monte Video," and Claudio Gay's " Historia de Chile," to say nothing of such works as " The Present State of Peru," published in London in 1805, and filled with coloured illustrations such as depicted the contemporary Peruvian types, rather in the fashion that the London public was likely to expect and to require them than with any particular regard to accuracy or, indeed, probability. In all the progressive States, alas, industrialism has entirely done away with the more romantic elements of the local costume. In Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, and in the greater portion of Peru, there is not as much left in the way of national costume as would compete with that of a single patriotic valley in Norway or Portugal, to say nothing of the remoter spots of the Tyrol ! There are some silver bridles and saddles, and some gorgeous, as well as enormous, types of stirrups remaining. The bombachos, the broad trousers of the Gaucho, still pre vail in many parts, but they have lost their most elaborate lace adornments and have degenerated into something very closely approaching the trousers of sedate and ordinary humanity. The sombrero still remains, but, after all, the sombrero is not typical of South America, seeing that it is now nothing beyond an ordinary soft felt hat, usually black. Moreover, by the side of the sombrero may now be seen the ordinary English cap in quite astonishingly large quantities. It is the same with local drinks. In this respect it is true that the change is confined rather to the wealthier 26 THE SOUTH AMERICANS classes. With them, the aguardiente of fiction as well as of fact, and the chicha, and the rest of the native beverages are being replaced by the all-conquering whisky. Yes, I fear there is no doubt that the space beneath which the guitar once throbbed, and doubtless brought many a re sponsive flash from those dark eyes of tradition, hovering half seen behind the window bars, is now occupied by gigantic posters advertising almost every Scotch whisky there is to be obtained in Great Britain. In a sense it is a triumph, but at the same time it is not one of those triumphs which go down as monuments in the history of nations. Undoubtedly, a number of books could be written on the various parts of the world as imagined by people who had never seen them. , Every one, I suppose, has in some vague corner of his mind a pictured conception of the countries far beyond the seas. The majority of these mental illustrations, no doubt, must be of a strictly popular order — indeed, how could it be otherwise ? Thus, in such cases, the Wellington Docks in New Zealand are almost of necessity conceived as peopled by red-shirted shepherds, and in the same way Melbourne becomes a seething mass of bearded stockmen ! Notwithstanding such quite excusable inaccuracies as these, the average Englishman cannot go far wrong in his imagin ings concerning our own colonies. After all, the people who inhabit these are of his own race, and suffer from emotions drawn from the same sources as his own. His misconceptions, therefore, will be of the practical and geographical order rather than of the more primary and vital kind. Now, as regards South America, it seems almost unneces sary to assert that the case is very different, and that the scope for error is far wider, and, indeed, more serious. THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 27 The matter is really important, in view of the great promi nence into which the Continent has leaped of late, and, in consequence, of the very considerable numbers of English men who are only awaiting an opportunity to start out for those lands of promise it contains. From the many and instructive conversations which I, for one, have had on the subject with people who have never yet visited South America, the general conception seems to be that the life and circumstances throughout its length and breadth very closely resemble those of our own colonies. Certainly the average young farmer in England, who is smitten with the idea of trying his luck south of the Equator, imagines that his mother-tongue will carry him through the great Latin Continent, and is given to con sider, because his interests in the way of hve stock are identical with those of the dwellers in the South, that all their other interests will be in common. From this alto gether false basis he naturally proceeds to argue further that he may, in fact, continue his hfe much as he has lived it in England. Should he persist in his idea of proceeding to South America, and should he chance to board an outward-bound steamer with such delusions as these still unshattered, he will certainly suffer a somewhat rude awakening. As a matter of fact, the mere voyage in the large and populous finer to South America is in itself something in the nature of an education, and by the time the new-comer of the type I am referring to lands at his destination, he will be in a far more sophisticated condition than when he em barked at the European port. By that time the hfe on board the great steamer will have revealed to him some practical conception of the circumstances with which he will have to deal when taking up his task in the foreign 28 THE SOUTH AMERICANS land. He will have heard at least five tongues— English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and German — talked continu ously and regularly, to say nothing of quite a remarkable number of other languages, which seem to occur in a minor and intermittent fashion, but which nevertheless act as a somewhat curious background to the main channels of human sound. He will have remarked, too, that the notices in all parts of the great vessel are published in at least three languages, and, in fact, he will find himself flung with a startling suddenness out of any rut, English or European, into which his previous slightly confined existence may have drawn him. This new-comer will, moreover, come into contact with more than this blending of tongues. He will meet with various unexpected customs well before the steamer has made contact with South America itself. He will, of course, perceive those wicked-looking leathern dice-boxes, and after his first shock will discover that their significance is after all not so immoral and fatal as he had at first suspected. He will be a somewhat unusual type of man if he does not almost immediately discover that their use is practically confined to a question of who shall settle the account for the customary cocktails before lunch and dinner, a somewhat prosaic use for these sinister-looking things, by which mains should be thrown, and fortunes won or lost, instead of a few cocktails ! Indeed, the voyage itself should teach him much. He will notice, for instance, that at the European ports and at such places as the island of Madeira, those enterprising merchants who come out to visit the steamer, laden with their wares, appear nervously anxious, probably with reason, to conclude their bargains ; but that, once off the South American coast, this ostensible eagerness is no more. Such vendors from the shore as choose to come on board THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 29 are plainly imbued with the atmosphere of the Americas. They are sufficiently wide-awake and self-confident ; never theless they seem to care very little if the traveller com pletes his purchase or not. In fact, they will very seldom condescend to bargain, but will tell the would-be haggler in so many words that he may take it or leave it ; the affair is his own. This is clearly the procedure of a pros perous citizen of a prosperous country, and much may be learned from this attitude alone. Since this book is intended necessarily for readers in Great Britain rather than in South America, it may not be out of place to refer at greater length to matters such as these, which to the advanced student of South America must come, of course, in the light of somewhat elementary subjects. Nevertheless, in dealing with the great Continent there are certain facts which it is indispensable to under stand clearly. There are very few of those who have not visited South America, who have any conception of the great Latin power which pervades its republics. In every one of these the Latin spirit born of the blood of the Iberian, which has been blended with that of his native brethren, is altogether triumphant. It must, indeed, be laid down as an axiom, that South America is essentially Latin, and that, as the history of the modern Continent develops, the tendency is for this Latin spirit not to de crease, but to become ever more clearly supreme. It is true that the amount of Anglo-Saxon, Teutonic, and Slavonic blood which has now been infused into South America is very great. Nevertheless these races have now been completely absorbed, to the immense gain, as a matter of fact, of South America, which has drawn to itself the virility of these hundreds of thousands of immigrants, and has in consequence become more powerful, without sacri ficing one jot of its really fundamental traditions, notwith- 30 THE SOUTH AMERICANS standing such superficial changes as must necessarily accompany the ordinary progress of modern humanity. It is true that there are considerable distinctions between this Latin spirit of the southern Continent and that of Europe. The two may be compared with the respective traditions of our own country and its colonies. South America has had to sacrifice a considerable amount of what might be termed the temperamental luxuries to practical exigencies. Her romance is tinged rather with commercialism ; the value of money is more apparent, rather for the power which it will give than for any desire of hoarding. As I have remarked before elsewhere, it is the sign of an industrial country of the species which our Yankee cousins would call live when a person's fortune is reckoned not by income, but by capital ! In the old world, we are accustomed to remark that a man possesses so much a year. He is, as it were, a planet, round which these lesser shining stars of annual increment revolve with a very definitely ordered monotony. Not so in South America. There a man's income to all practical purposes does not exist. He is the owner of so many thousands or so many milhons, and as he is con tinually endeavouring to increase his capital, his yearly income— the thing is of course a bull — is of no account. However ridiculous this may sound, in one sense it is per fectly true, since in the money-making countries of the southern Continent there are very few who would care to estimate their next year's income by that of the present. The South American in all practical respects is imbued with the most modern ideas. By the South American, I refer, of course, to the white communities of the responsible repubhcs, and not to the mixed populations of many of the tropical regions. Nevertheless, because these ideas of the white native American are modern they do not neces- THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 81 sarily coincide with those of the Anglo-Saxon. On the contrary, the former views all the more vital and problematic subjects from the strictly Latin point of view, as is, in deed, only right and appropriate that he should. Now un doubtedly one of the greatest distinctions between the Latin and Anglo-Saxon customs is exemphfied in the respective relations between the sexes. It is admitted all the world over that the topic of women can never be worn threadbare ; but, in the opinion of some, the topic concerning the status of women has already suffered that fate. This is as may be ; it is all a question of a varying point of view. It is impossible, of course, to attempt to deal with the women of South America en masse. One might as well, in fact more easily, refer to the women of Europe as a solid community. One can imagine the confusion in the mind of a globe trotter in Europe, freshly loosed from another continent, if he were asked to put in a single corral the wife of an Armenian from the Near East, and one of the numerous ladies who are to be seen in the Park or at the Ritz at luncheon during the season. Indeed, that which apphes to the men in South America, apphes with even greater force to the ladies. So far as the northern repubhcs of dusky and mixed races are concerned, one can only deal with the few white women of each repubhc, since all the rest may, for the purposes of generahsation, really and truly be placed in one category — that of the completely unintellectual. The average woman of the southern and white repubhcs, however, does indeed present a most interesting study. In another book I have already explained that she is intensely feminine. In fact, those remarks which at the time were intended for the Argentine ladies alone, may be repeated here in connection with the generality of the ladies of the southern republics. 82 THE SOUTH AMERICANS " Each of these, as a matter of fact, is a connoisseur both in beauty and in her own relation to that phase. She has made a study of herself, from the feminine point of view very rightly. She is perfectly acquainted with what may be termed her leading feature, and arranges herself so that this may be brought into the greatest prominence. The hneaments of these ladies would seem to have been cast in one mould. To ah appearance, moreover, inter marriage has, if anything, accentuated the almost perfect features and exuberant beauty of the traditional Spaniard. Her carriage is altogether graceful, she will glide through hfe in the manner of a swan, until the ponderousness of a somewhat early maturity intervenes." Of course, these Southern ladies are changing just a little with the times; not as regards their mannerisms, for these have invariably been pleasant. The shackles of the old Spanish type of conventionahty have been dropping off httle by httle for years, and very few of the severer restrictions remain. Nevertheless, the average southern South American lady has herself laid down fairly stringent regulations for her sex. Although she is essentially hvely and entertaining, she is in no sense rapid. By temperament she is most extraordinarily dis creet. Indeed, there is no disguising the fact that many of the customs commonly indulged in by all ranks and ages of English women and many other Europeans, are re pugnant to her. The cigarette in fenaale hps is essentially " bad form," and, although these southern ladies have now become accustomed to the sight, owing to the number of tourists who now proceed to their countries, they have never reconciled themselves to it so far as actual participa tion is concerned. It is the same even with the growing number of South American ladies who now reside in Europe. THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 33 The majority of these are, it is admitted on all hands, delightfully cordial and frank; but they are profoundly unconcerned with such lighter amusements as sitting out at dances, dining a deux, and many other of those occupa tions which are commonly conceived sufficiently pleasant and even allowable in Europe. The South American lady will have none of these, and from her own point of view doubtless she is quite right. It must be remembered, of course, that she, for her part, has to deal with a com munity of men who are of a somewhat more inflammable nature than the average Anglo-Saxon, and that therefore these things have been arranged fittingly and wisely for her comfort. No, in many senses of the word the South American woman is not modern. Of course, from time to time, startling developments occur. For instance, stirred up by some phenomenally keen enthusiast, a certain number of South American ladies have quite recently held a meeting or two in favour of female suffrage. Now, I will not ven ture on this much vexed topic, so far as its general aspects are concerned, but as regards its South American aspects I am quite safe. The South American lady does not want a vote. If she had it, she would not in the least know what to do with it ; and if, by any chance, this very tentative campaign of hers were to go further and end in success — a result which is quite inconceivable — she would, without the faintest doubt, shudderingly tear her vote into very small pieces, and would retire to her own boudoir, and, frankly, to the discussion of those toilettes which, after all, do mean very much to her. There has never been an instance, I think, in South America, where a woman has concerned herself in party politics ; but she is a specialist in dress, as Paris and London have already found out. Not that it must be 3 84 THE SOUTH AMERICANS thought from this that her thoughts are of necessity bounded by their waist measures, or anything else of the kind — since waist measures may matter one year and not the next ! Those of her race have proved themselves extraor dinarily devoted daughters and wives on countless occasions and their staunchness and fidelity indeed is proverbial. Still, the times are changing so rapidly in South America that who can tell what the next fifty years may bring ? At the present time, as has been said, it is a criminal offence in Argentina for a man not to vote at an election. Perhaps in half a century the same regulation will be apphed to women, and one can, of course, imagine the indignant protest which would follow ! I have already said that it is on this very question of women that the Latin and the Anglo-Saxon do not see eye to eye. Distinctions of temperament, in fact, must of necessity continue to bring about discrepancies of a kind, not that these necessarily interfere in the very least with the traditional friendship between the British and South Americans. This matter is one, however, which should never be lost sight of by intending emigrants from the British Isles. I may at once go to the point, which is of no httle importance, and which has, indeed, already been raised on more than one occasion. It concerns very deeply girls and women who are con templating a career in that continent. In England, the sexual equality, if not yet quite as absolute as that desired by what was once known as the weaker sex, is, at all events, sufficiently close to bring about a perfect freedom of inter course. This pitch has not yet been arrived at in South America. Indeed, in order to understand the disadvan tages which have stood in the way of this, and the progress, although only comparative, which has already been made, it is necessary to turn to the Spanish and Portuguese THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 85 customs such as prevailed up to quite recent years. There is, of course, no doubt that the Moorish influence has been very strongly at work as regards Iberian domesticity, and is, indeed, only now dying out. The senoritas of Spain and their sisters of Portugal have been for centuries accustomed to what was in reahty nothing more nor less than practical imprisonment. They were continuously kept within walls, and were only per mitted but when in charge of an absolutely strict and trusted guardian. Marriage affected this hfe only in a minor degree, and much the same existence was continued by the wife. Thus, from the man's point of view, especially the Iberian's, existence was distinctly advantageous. He was in the position, in fact, of an eagle with pecuharly wide pinions, who roamed where he would, while his own nest was locked away in some very dim and rocky recess. Little by httle the barriers have been broken down, and there are occasions now when the young women of Spain and Portugal may drive unattended. The modern spirit of South America has, of course, gone considerably ahead of that of the Peninsula, but the rigid conventionalities which hedge about the women must necessarily die very hardly, since it has become somewhat deeply imbued in the women themselves to desire them to continue. It is such circumstances as these which make the existence of an English girl or woman proceeding to South America in search of work — and work itself is abundant enough — so pecuharly difficult. Of course the travelled and cultured Argentine, Chilian, Uruguayan, and Brazilian men understand such matters thoroughly, and bear themselves as hberal-minded men of the world ; but, after all, these do not constitute the entire population of South America ! There are many others — in some repubhcs too many others — who are apt 36 THE SOUTH AMERICANS to take the fullest advantage of these new-comers, who in their inexperience walk the streets alone and unattended, and the adventures of some of these unfortunate ladies have been both humiliating and disagreeable. Should anything of the kind occur in towns such as Buenos Aires or Santiago de Chile, and similar- large centres, regulations are now strong and unbending, and the very efficient police act with a most admirable promptitude. But even here, although the enlightened upper classes do their best, they are unable to control at all times the behaviour of the motley gangs of immigrants from all countries who are continually pouring into these places. Then of course there are other centres where the vigilance of the authorities is far less marked, and where minor or major outrages of the kind are looked upon with a certain geniality which, to say the least of it, is no deterrent. The whole thing arises in the first instance from a mis conception, and the inexperienced visitor frequently suffers from a cause which is nothing more than a clash of tradi tions, since, in the sight of some, for a girl to walk un attended in the streets is the equivalent of a demand on her part for certain attentions. Now that the secretarial demand is growing so rapidly in various parts of the con tinent there is no doubt that special measures will have to be undertaken before that demand can be satisfactorily filled. It is owing to quite another aspect of this Latin spirit that I think South America as a continent will never suit the Anglo-Saxon or Teuton working man. In the first place, such tasks as are to be carried out are most efficiently undertaken by the South American, the Itahan, the Spaniard, or by any other dweller who is accustomed from birth to the warm chmates. Of course there are exceptions to every rule, and that there are openings for intelligent THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 37 and skilled craftsmen, and for others of the rank of fore man, there is no doubt. In this respect, quite apart from any industrial or commercial consideration, there is no doubt that Chile is the repubhc most suited to the British labourer. Senor F. Garcia Calderon, in his very admirable work " Latin America : Its Rise and Progress," has termed Chile " the repubhc of the Anglo-Saxon type." This, as a matter of fact, is profoundly true. At all events, Chile approaches as1 closely to the Anglo-Saxon conventions as the Latin temperament will permit. Moreover the infusion of British blood into Chile is exceptionally large, and the chmate cool and bracing ; but, whatever the future may bring, I do not think that the Anglo-Saxon working man will ever abound in any important numbers. South America, speaking generally, affords more brilliant openings for the Britisher than ever, but these openings are con fined to the higher ranks of science, industry, and commerce, in every single branch of which South America provides innumerable opportunities. The children of the South Americans in general, would seem to resemble those of the United States in many re spects. The atmosphere of the Americas has undoubtedly extended its freedom even to those of quite tender years. The self-confidence of the children of both continents is a widely acknowledged fact. These youngsters are given to sprout temperamentally at an age which in Europe would be considered altogether premature. No doubt, the intro duction of football, and other sports of the kind, is working no little difference ; nevertheless, the old-fashioned South American youth of fourteen is a tolerably blase person, and indeed, his education in worldly experience will probably be completed some whjle before his ordinary studies. 38 THE SOUTH AMERICANS This precocity, as a matter of fact, does not seem to prove detrimental to his after life, as is obvious enough when the proportion of South Americans is considered, who, mentally and physically, turn out to be a credit to their respective countries. Thus, this rather too exuberant blossoming of youth appears to develop into a natural and altogether healthy condition of affairs when maturity is once attained. Not that it must be supposed from this that the health of the younger members, of the southern repubhcs of the Continent at all events, leaves anything to be desired. The young Argentine, Uruguayan, or Chihan is usually a big, fine specimen of humanity, robust, large-framed, and athletic. Indeed, in these latitudes especially, the atmosphere appears to favour size. This has been obvious enough in the case of the one-time aboriginals, and in that of the famous Patagonian Indians, who still exist in reduced numbers. So much for the growing propensities of the Southern atmosphere, which would appear to have its effect on the children of the white men. The average South American, it must be admitted, is by no means averse from gambhng. In this, he is not alone in the world ; nevertheless, his enthusiasm perhaps tends to be rather greater than that which prevails almost any where else. One of the evidences of this devotion to the goddess of chance is to be met with in the numerous lotteries which prevail throughout the Continent. The most important of these is known as the Grande, and is drawn once a year, at Christmas-time, in Argentina. The stake involved is no less than one milhon dollars, which represents in English money some ninety thousand pounds. So great is the demand for these tickets, that the profit derived by intermediaries who deal in these specula tive commodities, is sometimes quite abnormally large. THE SOUTH AMERICANS AT HOME 89 In Argentina and Chile, the influence of Great Britain and America, in respect of card-playing, has been supreme of late, and the vogue for Bridge, and later for Auction, has been at least as remarkable in the social centres of these repubhcs as anywhere else in the world, including London and New York. There is no doubt that Bridge frequently works wonders in the hnking of international relations ! Indeed, there is no doubt that, given the other necessary qualifications, a really notable reputation as a Bridge player is an " open sesame " to society — and in this may even be included the exclusive Argentine and Chilian society — both in Buenos Aires and Santiago de Chile. The outlook in this respect has now begun to resemble that of the Germans in their view of Shakespeare. According to these latter, Shakespeare is a national German institution. According to the Argentines, any chance Englishman who has learnt Bridge, must of necessity have served his ap prenticeship in the River Plate ! It is an atmosphere at which the average Englishman need not cavil, since both convictions represent in reality a profound comphment. The Brazihan, as has been explained, is of a rather more demonstrative temperament than the Spanish American ; nevertheless, what may be termed the national embrace is the same in Spanish and Portuguese South America. This has been imported from the Peninsula. No osculation is involved between men, and the salutation consists of a mutual grasp of the shoulders, and a patting (of varied geniality) on the back. So far as salutations are concerned, the custom is decidedly a most cordial and effective one. CHAPTER III SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE OF THE SOUTHERN CONTINENT The Religious Situation in South America — Past and Present Influence of the Church — Position in Uruguay — Significance of the Tolerance of To-day — Survival of the More Picturesque Customs — Church-going Cos tumes in Chile and Peru — Present-Day Status of the Priests — Power of the Church in Brazil — The French and Their Influence — Difference between the Spiritual Condition of the North and of the South of the Continent — Education — Realisation of Its Benefits on the Part of the Latin American — Primary and Secondary Schools — Educational Progress Com pared with the Industrial and Commercial Advance — Culture of Colombia — The Curriculum of the Average University — South America and the Classics — Natural Facilities — South Americans in Europe — Reason for Their Presence in the European Educational Centres — South American Trade Compared with that of the Old World — Relations between the Various Republics — Boundary Friction and Its Settlement — Some Notable Triumphs of Peace — The Cause of Past Dissensions between Argentina and Brazil — The A.B.C Alliance — Its Significance — European Interest in South America — Some Matters of the Diplomatic World — Ranks of the Various Representatives — The Knitting of New Diplomatic Relations — Turkey and Her Minister in Buenos Aires — An Emphatic Reception — Pre sent Financial Condition of South America — A Temporary Halt in the Advance — Reason for This — Exceptional Climatic Conditions — A Curious Chain of Adverse Circumstances — Absence of Financial Panic — The South American and His Attitude Towards the Present Situation — His Affection for Pomp and Circumstance — Rio de Janeiro as a Monument of South American Glory — Some Characteristics of the Town — A Com parison with the East — Costly Town Planning — The Wholesome Influence of Industrial Checks — South America and Its Hotels — The Lack of First- Class Establishments — Prosperity of Those which Exist — Changes in this Branch of Industry — South American Carnivals — The Festivities as Carried on in Monte Video — Brilliance of the Streets — Rio and Its Carnival — " Serpents " and Scent — Old-fashioned Carnivals of the North western Republics — Semi-Pagan Rites — Beverages of the Continent — Chicha — Various Versions of this Drink — Cana — the Native Algarroba — Nauseating Method of Its Manufacture — Pilsener and Munich Beer — 40 SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 41 The Triumph of Scotch Whisky — Temperance of the South Americans — Viticulture — Various Territories in Which the Vine Flourishes GENERALLY speaking, the religious situation of SouthAmericawas profoundly affected by the revolu tion which broke out in 1810. Until that time the power of the church, as administered by the priests, although much exaggerated by popular fiction, had been practically autocratic in the centre of the continent, more especially in Peru, as well as in many parts of the north. The Inquisi tion had been long estabhshed at Lima. The activities of its agents, moreover, extended all over the continent, and the body had proved itself at times almost as enthusiastic in its own cause as had its fellow institutions in Spain and Portugal. The final victories of the South American patriots ended not only such actual despotism of the priests as had existed until then, but also did away with the Inquisition. Of course, in the first instance, the struggle between the two forces did not involve, as was the case in the French Revolution, a contest between the lay and clerical elements. Numerous priests espoused the cause of the South Americans, and some indeed assisted not only in spiritual matters, but girded up their frocks and marched into battle, sword in hand. The official rehgion of the great majority of the repubhcs in South America remains Roman Catholic, although the authorities are accustomed in every case, either by statute or tacitly, to tolerate every other rehgion. In Uruguay the situation is somewhat different, since in that country a wide breach has occurred between Church and State, and it is not to be denied that somewhat oppressive measures have occasionally been put into execution against the Church, of the kind which were brought into force some time ago in France. There is no doubt that in some of the southern 42 THE SOUTH AMERICANS portions of South America, the old respect and occasional fanatical devotion in the cause of rehgion are completely dead. This has been openly remarked of late by various writers whose sympathies lay with the clerics. These— somewhat quaintly — have before now bewailed the fact that, where a generation ago the first question asked was : " What was a man's rehgion ? " the sole query now put is : " What kind of a man is he ? " The difference of rehgion, in fact, no longer constitutes any bar to society or to the holding of office in these southern lands. In Peru and Chile it is true that many of the more picturesque customs survive. The women in these re pubhcs, for instance, go to church swathed in their black mantos, a graceful garment, worn on these occasions by rich and poor, young and old, ahke. But how long even these customs will survive is very doubtful, for on the whole, the philosophical atmosphere of Spanish southern South America is completely altered from the days when a httle, or a great deal, of learning was considered a very dangerous thing. It is true that even in the most agnostic countries of South America priests have never suffered the violence extended to them recently in Portugal and other parts of the Iberian Peninsula. Nevertheless, there is no denying the fact that they are in the main coldly looked upon, and that their numbers have diminished of late in a marked degree. The Argentine himself, an agnostic of a hberal temperament, still welcomes priests in his midst, if not with the veneration of former days, at all events with a show of courtesy. Such, however, is by no means always the case with the numerous communities of Spaniards and Italians now in the republic. Priest-baiting on the part of certain sections of these is a pastime indulged in, wherever this may be effected more or less unobtrusively. SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 48 Occasionally the taste displayed in this respect is not of the highest order. Thus the author has seen three or four priests mocked to their faces on a river steamer in Paraguay in so wholesale and enthusiastic a fashion as to scandahse the Paraguayans not a httle. Such occurrences as these may scarcely seem worth the telling ; but, since they do not represent isolated cases, they are, at all events, indica tive of the way the wind blows. In Brazil, on the other hand, the influence of the Church continues very great, and on arriving here from Spanish South America, one is immediately struck by the very large number of churches which exist, compared with those of the neighbouring repubhcs. The town of Bahia, for instance, alone contains scores and scores of churches, the spires and towers of which rise up in serried fashion against the blue sky. For all that, the influence of the French philosophy is in its own way as marked in Brazil as elsewhere in South America, and among the leaders of pohtics and of numerous sections of society, the old regime of church-going has to a very large extent died out. In the northern repubhcs the situation is naturally somewhat different, owing to the very large population of coloured inhabitants, to whom rehgion has appealed more by its symbols and pomp than by any other means ; and although the slender numbers of the white aristocracy would seem to have kept in touch with the movement prevailing elsewhere in the Continent, the situation of the great mass of the people remains much as it has been for centuries. It will be seen from this that, deahng with the greater part of that South America which actually counts, a strong wave of hberahsm and of agnosticism is prevalent at the moment. The tendency of the educational system in some of the Repubhcs fosters this ; but on the whole the great educational work of the Continent may be said to be 44 THE SOUTH AMERICANS carried on upon an unbiassed basis, which leaves the pupil complete freedom of thought and of moral and intellectual choice. Speaking of the Continent as a whole, it may be said without the least fear of exaggeration that an enormous amount of both money and care has been expended on education. The Latin-American undoubtedly reahses to the full the benefits of an adequate mental equipment. There are States where this system can only be put partially into force, owing to the presence of large numbers of the aboriginal races who have not yet become sufficiently fused with civilisation. There are others where the physical features of the country and the remoteness of the various neighbourhoods form great obstacles in the way of regular attendance at school. For all that, it must be admitted that, humanly speaking, every effort towards the further ance of education which can be made has been put into force. Education in every repubhc is free. It is, moreover, compulsory, or rather it is supposed to be compulsory, but, needless to say, this latter law is frequently of necessity a dead letter. It may be said, on the whole, that greater attention is paid throughout the Continent to the primary education than to the secondary. Primary schools abound to a quite astonishing extent in almost every repubhc, but the secon dary estabhshments are far rarer. It must not be imagined that the ratio of educational progress is necessarily on a par with the industrial and commercial advance of the respective republics. There are, for instance, various notable centres of learning in the northern states, Republics which are of themselves not notable for any particular practical advance. Bogota, the capital of Colombia, represents a sahent SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 45 instance of this. The standard of learning is undoubtedly quite remarkably high in this favoured spot, and the number of distinguished Colombians who have undergone their own national curriculum is sufficient proof of its admirable schools. In the average university of South America scant atten tion is paid to the dead languages, the modern philosophies largely usurping the place of the Greek and Latin writers. Not that it must be imagined from this that any lack of facihty exists in the majority of educational centres for the acquirement of these tongues. On the contrary, those South Americans who have devoted themselves to these particular branches of study have in almost every instance achieved distinction, and in several cases a most brilhant success. The reason for this is not far to seek. The similarity between the tongues of modern Spain and Portugal and that of ancient Rome, is even more marked than that between modern Itahan and Latin — which is, I suppose a somewhat remarkable fact. Nevertheless, the comparison holds good, not only in construction, but in the similarity of the actual nouns. Therefore, it is obviously a simple matter for a Spaniard or a South American to acquire a fluency in Latin such as can only be obtained by the average Anglo- Saxon after an infinitely more strenuous interval of work. The Latin-American is peculiarly open to consider new theories, and the professors of South America retain the closest touch with the centres of learning all the world over. It is, indeed, very much to his credit that the average dweller in the southern Continent never fails in the courage to attempt any experiment which he considers might prove beneficial to the education of his country. It is true that his efforts are occasionally misunderstood, and that he himself has this trait to thank for a restless and unsettled 46 THE SOUTH AMERICANS reputation. For all that, he has, generally speaking, won even this latter in a good cause. It is true that there are at the present moment a large number of young South Americans who are being educated in the various large towns of Europe. The reason for this, it must be explained, is in the great majority of cases not that they can obtain any advantages in the actual curricula of Europe which are not at their disposal in their own country. Generally speaking, the scope in the latter is fully as great, and the methods at least as conscientious. The reason which brings these youthful South Americans to Europe is in order to obtain the benefit of the wider outlook of a mixed education, and in order that they should become familiar with customs and habits somewhat different from their own. Thus, although the number of these students is yearly growing larger, the reason for their pre sence should be understood, since anyone under the impres sion that they were here to drink in any actual learning lacking in their own homes would be grievously mistaken. Perhaps one of the greatest tributes to the spread of learn ing, or, at all events, of elementary education among the masses of South America, is the very great circulation obtained by the principal newspapers. Indeed, in any of the progressive States a white South American of the new generation who can neither read nor write is an extremely rare specimen. To turn once again to the affairs of maturer persons, relations between the various repubhcs have altered in the course of the inevitable march of events, just as have the pohtical and industrial circumstances of the States. Until comparatively recently, considerable distrust was evident between even those repubhcs which to-day assume the leading role in the affairs of the Continent. This led at times to something approaching an armed neutrality, which SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 47 was not onlyregrettable, but, it must be admitted, completely superfluous, since obviously when each nation was in the somewhat unusual position of having more land than it knew what to do with, frontier disputes might well have been left until a later and more populous age. Curiously enough, exactly the reverse of this procedure appears to have happened. Such boundary friction as occurred, took place in the early days of these repubhcs, and now, with the growing importance and populations of various States, very sound and effective measures seem to have been found to smooth away such frontier disputes as must inevitably arise from time to time. Some very notable triumphs of peace have been achieved in this direction. Thus, when the frontier between Chile and Argentina was in dispute, both countries agreed to place the matter to the arbitration of the King of England, and a new boundary hne was surveyed by Sir Thomas Holditch. This peaceful outcome of the controversy, which might easily have been followed by violent consequences, is commemorated by the colossal statue of Christ on the summit of the Andes, at the principal pass — that of Las Cuevas — between the two repubhcs. This contretemps with Chile was, as a matter of fact, by way of being an exceptional occurrence, since the friend ship between Chile and Argentina is of old standing and almost traditional. It was, of course, very different with the relations of the latter repubhc with Brazil. As is explained elsewhere in the book, geographical and pohtical circumstances have been responsible for jealousies and friction between these two important countries which, in the opinion of many, had become not only inevitable but ineradicable. It is a tribute to the enhghtened spirit of these two repubhcs, that such disputes are — of course humanly speaking — things of the past. 48 THE SOUTH AMERICANS There is no doubt that the chief cause of the dissensions between the Argentines and the Brazihans, apart from the questions involved by the buffer state of Uruaguay, have been due to misunderstandings rather than to any deep- seated animosity or racial differences. It seems quite certain that the temperamental animosity — which was at one time vaunted — does not in reahty exist between the two. Quite on the contrary, the Argentines and the Brazihans are admirably fitted to live side by side, and just as the one nation sends to the other such industrial products as the latter lacks, so in the case of two bodies of humanity, one can supply the particular set of merits — or, in the eyes of pessimist, even faults — which are wanting in the other. As a result of various special embassies and frank inter changes of opinion, a confidence is now engendered between Argentina and Brazil equal to that which has obtained for a considerable period between Argentina and Chile. For some while, many years in fact, this position was in itself considered sufficiently satisfactory — by this position I mean the somewhat negative advantage of the absence of hostile sentiments between these three repubhcs. Imbued, how ever, more and more with the advanced spirit of the age, a very important step was undertaken, and thus We arrive at what is popularly known as the A.B.C. Alliance. I need not insult the reader's intelhgence by explaining that this A.B.C. Alliance is represented territorially and politically by Argentina, Brazil, and Chile. As a matter of fact, the establishment of this alliance is a pecuharly interesting feature of modern South American pohtics. In the first place this complete understanding between three powerful repubhcs adequately guarantees the peace of the south of the continent, but quite recently it has achieved even more than this. The offer of the three SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 49 repubhcs to serve as mediators between the United States and Mexico, and the acceptance of this offer by the United States, constitutes in its way one of the most important pohtical occurrences since the existence of independent South America. Apart from other considerations, this very wise acceptance on the part of the United States is of course an admission that the status of the three great southern republics is on an equahty with her own. It is early days to endeavour to prophesy concerning the relations, not merely between Mexico and the United States on account of this, but between the United States on the one hand and Argentina, Brazil, and Chile on the other. To my mind, this frank acceptance of the situation by the United States cannot fail to improve the general position, and will no doubt go far towards remedying a certain want of confidence with which the pohcy of North America has for some while inspired the important Southern republics. In sympathy with the spread of various European interests in South America, the diplomatic world is becoming more widely and generally occupied. As a rule, the status of the various European diplomatic representa tives in South America is that of Minister Plenipotentiary. On this point, our own Foreign Office in the past has occa sionally shown itself a httle backward, at all events in the eyes of many of the South Americans. Thus it has hap pened in two or three lesser republics that, whereas most of the nations who are most actively competing with us in commerce have been represented by ministers plenipoten tiary, the British Legation was in charge of an official of the junior rank of Minister Resident. The matter, of course, is not intrinsicaUy an important one. Nevertheless, in those places where the commercial race between various Euro pean nationahties is so keen, even such a minor disadvan- 4 50 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tage as this has not been devoid of results. This state of affairs, however, apphes rather to past history than to the present circumstances, for the Foreign Office would now seem to have awoken to the importance of the South American States, although we are not yet represented by an Ambassador, as is the United States in Rio Janeiro — a move which, I think, although generally put down in the hght of a triumph to Brazihan diplomacy, is in reahty very advantageous to the United States. Of late, two or three of the quite lesser European coun tries have sent out ministers to replace the consuls, who in the earlier days had been found sufficient to deal with the situation. On such an occasion, the excitement among the residents of that particular nationahty is naturally con siderably in excess of those of the more important nations. Such an occasion, for instance, was exemphfied by the arrival of the new, and first, Turkish Minister to Buenos Aires two or three years ago. As a matter of fact, the occasion was almost too much for the various sleek and oily-haired gentlemen who, as a rule, confined themselves, so far as Buenos Aires was concerned, to their own quarters of the town. On the arrival of the Turkish Minister at the Plaza Hotel, however, these gallant citizens of the Crescent came flocking out. Until then, no one had any idea as to their real numbers, notwithstanding the figures and sug gestions which one had read in print ; but here they were, the whole Buenos Aires section of Turkey, thronging the courtyard of the Plaza Hotel and the streets in its neigh bourhood. Not only Turks, however, were there, but Armenians, Syrians, and a dozen other nationalities, all applauding violently beneath the Turkish flags. The occa sion, though comparatively unimportant, was at all events instructive, and certainly, so far as the Turkish Minister was concerned, I do not suppose that he will ever again SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 51 achieve so dramatic an effect, save in the event of a war between America and Turkey, which is, to say the least of it, not very likely ! The present financial situation throughout the Continent is distinctly interesting. At the time of writing it must be admitted that, although, financially speaking, South America is not absolutely under a cloud, yet the full bril liancy of the prosperity to which the great continent had grown accustomed, has become for the time being dimmed. Notwithstanding this, even the most alarmist among those who are directly interested in South America do not appear to suffer from the least symptom of genuine alarm. As a matter of fact, many of the circumstances which have led towards — one cannot call it the depression — but the cessation of progress, which prevailed, are of an alto gether exceptional order. It is, indeed, a curious fact, that contemporaneously with the quite modern equipment of the most important repubhcs, a run of sheer bad luck has ensued, which in the old days would have sufficed to ruin these States financially over and over again. Fate would indeed seem to have been unkind in almost every direction. Thus, the great coffee crisis in Brazil is one of a kind which has never occurred before in the entire commercial history of the nation, and, humanly speaking, is certainly never hkely to occur again. The rubber market, it is of course freely acknowledged, has been of late years in a somewhat abnormal state, and instead of being attended by a steady flow of industry, the fluctuations in price and in demand have been of a kind to render the rubber market either feverishly speculative or depressedly dull, a condition of affairs which is obviously detrimental to the steady progress of the very important rubber trade in general. Farther to the south quite exceptional chmatic condi- 52 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tions have been met with during recent years. Argentina and Uruguay have experienced a phenomenal succession of droughts, varied by a few floods quite out of season and therefore fruitful in mischief. In the far south it would seem as though the climate was really determined to do its utmost in the way of belated frosts, fatal so far as crops were concerned. Nor is this all. The forces of the lower earth, as though not satisfied with the destruction they wrought at Valparaiso some few years ago, appeared to lie in wait until the completion of the Transandine railway from Mendoza to Los Andes, and then shook the crust with a vigour all the more violent for its long repression, to the detriment of the new line. This situation was not im proved by the somewhat unique falls of snow during the past few winters. But it is impossible, of course, to go fully into this tale of woe. It suffices to say that almost every conceivable stroke of ill luck which could be expected from every pos sible and unlikely source seems to have vented itself on almost the entire Continent of late. No doubt, as a test these circumstances are most invaluable, although it cannot be expected that they should be regarded in this light by the shareholders in the various companies chiefly con cerned. Nevertheless, the lean years have proved how resolutely the chief republics of South America can with stand a series of what in reahty were httle less than disasters. There has been no symptom whatever of financial panic. All that has resulted is that the South American has hard ened his heart, and, without selling his acres, has resolved for the time being to curtail his expenses. This, as a matter of fact, is no easy matter, for the average inhabi tant of South America is accustomed to spend money very freely indeed. Flowing along the crest of the wave of progress in which the Continent has become involved, SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 58 his ideas are imperial and he loves to carry them out in imperial fashion. There are many who are apt to rank this type of South American as merely ostentatious, and yet I do not think this charge can fairly be upheld, when all the circumstances of his case are taken into consideration. The South American realises that he is living in an epoch-making age. His respective states are yielding wealth in a fashion which has drawn the eyes of the whole world to them ; so the average South American, going with the times, has flung aside the older-fashioned stiff dignity and retirement such as characterised his forefathers, and has determined that the circumstances and pomp of the Latin nations shall coincide with their financial and industrial career. Perhaps I can take no better example of this than that afforded by the town of Rio de Janeiro, the wonderful capital of Brazil. Now, the metamorphosis of Brazil is something such as the world has very seldom seen. In fact, from my own small historical knowledge I can recall no parallel to this amazing work. From out of a collec tion of . narrow streets and huddled houses has arisen one of the most majestic and fairy-hke cities in existence. All this, it must be remembered, has taken place in the course of less than a decade. I will not say that in some respects the thing has not been, from a mere sober and unimagina tive point of view, overdone. Nevertheless this elabora tion, though it might clash with the ethics of a more temperate and northern climate, would seem to go well enough with the brilliant blue skies, the wonderful moun tain sides, and the wildly gorgeous blooms of the neigh bourhood. An enthusiastic layman, after all, cannot view Rio from the necessarily repressed point of view of the professional architect or even from that of any hard-and-fast and 54 THE SOUTH AMERICANS stereotyped taste. It has been said, for instance, that its theatre is hke nothing so much as an iced wedding-cake ! Well, of course there may be something in this comparison. Nevertheless there is this astonishing building, its marble shimmering white, and the whole thing, with) its starthng architectural comphcations and intricacies glimmering- somewhat in the manner of a very modern Taj Mahal in the western sunlight ! When I make so extremely bold as to compare this theatre at Rio with the Taj Mahal, I do so merely as regards the bhnding purity of its substance reflected in the tropical sun. It is necessary to explain this, otherwise the effect on the Eastern enthusiasts who have also seen the Rio theatre might be somewhat mischievous — but all this is by the way. Rio does not Tely upon its theatre alone. Its wonderful " Avenida," its long and wide boulevards which skirt the waters of the enchanting bays, in fact, every single attribute of its charm, is now altogether astonishing, and suggests in consequence an expenditure of labour and capital which must be quite phenomenal, and therefore, in order to be logical, worthy of a place in a land the progress of which has been extraordinary. It is, no doubt, due to an expenditure of this kind that a certain tightness of money prevails in South America at the present time. In the opinion of many, the money has been spent at such a pace that the ratio of progress has not been able to keep up with it. Regarded from a narrow point of view, no doubt it may be so. Yet who would say that all this cash has been ill spent ? To regret the undertaking of what, after all, are national monuments simply because an interlude of financial depression should chance to supervene, is no trait of an imperial or stout spirit, and although undoubtedly this temporary industrial SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 55 stagnation is intensely irritating to the South Americans concerned — many of whom would seem inclined to rub their eyes with impatience and to push it away by main force — it would certainly be a mistake to attempt to inter fere with the natural course of events. Without such wholesome checks, the progress of a con tinent such as South America must naturally gain in impetus until the career becomes so reckless and wild as inevitably to end in disaster. In the cause of steady pro gress one may therefore welcome a pause such as the present. Moreover, one may make quite certain that it will not last very long. Nothing, indeed, is required to end it beyond the return to normal circumstances, an eventuahty which, after all, is as certain as anything on earth can be ! Then the progress must be continued at the same pace which has prevailed during the past decade, or rather I would put this recent pace as a minimum one, since with the opening up of the interior of the Continent, as well as the industrial consolidation of the more important Repubhcs, the development of the Continent cannot well fail to be dramatic in its extent. There is one subject on which I have had occasion to remark before now, but which is of sufficient importance to justify some fresh observations here. This is on the opportunities afforded in the estabhshing of hotels in South America. Now I think I may safely say that it is a fact that every hotel of the fir,st-class order established in the continent has proved a success as regards its financial side. It is possible that there may be an exception or two ; but if so, the fault I think hes rather with the planners and with the proprietors than with the situation and its exigencies. Speaking generally, it may be said that there are very few towns in South America which are adequately supplied 56 THE SOUTH AMERICANS with hotels of a modern order. Buenos Aires, it is true, can produce some favoured specimens in this respect — enterprises which, by the way, have proved most profit able. Bahia Blanca in the south of the country, and such pleasure resorts as Mar del Plata in the same Repubhc, can likewise produce good examples of the kind. In Brazil there are signs that the situation will shortly be remedied, although Rio de Janeiro itself is notably lacking in hotels worthy of the magnificent capital of Brazil. In the neighbourhood of the flourishing port of Santos, the hotel of Guaruja is, however, very fine of its kind, and is essentially modern. Pocitos on the Uruguayan coast in the neighbourhood of Montevideo can boast of a similar estabhshment. Throughout the whole of South America there may be three or four further specimens of the kind — certainly not more. Now in view of the amazing rapidity with which the affairs of the various repubhcs are progressing, and the corresponding energy with which the general network of railways has spread, it is quite certain that in a very short while the demand for modern and first-class hotels through out South America will be very great indeed. At the pre sent moment the study of these particular opportunities is a somewhat fascinating one ; for those who desire to profit most from the occasion — which of course involves a certain element of speculation — must necessarily make up their minds as to which districts and towns are hkely to go ahead the fastest and thus be soonest in the position to support a large and modern hotel. It is a situation in which the number of factors which may play their part is incalculable, including even the aheady freely-discounted Panama Canal. But any of those who may intend to enter into this speculative but extraordinarily remunerative field must bear in mind that, SOME .CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 57 quite apart from whatever site they may light upon for their enterprise, the estabhshment itself must be of a quite first-class order. Otherwise, in the accepted nature of things as they are moving in South America at the present day, it is bound to be left behind in the race for prosperity. There is at present very httle room in South America for the second-rate hotel ; so many are already in existence ! It is, of course, owing to this very reason that so great a demand has sprung up for those of the first order. It is a somewhat abrupt passage from hotels to the festal circumstances of the various Repubhcs, since unfortunately as the hotels increase in size and splendour the purely local customs tend to die away. Nevertheless, since many of these events are of an intermittent and desultory nature, one is justified in approaching them in a corresponding fashion. One of the ceremonies which South America has borrowed from Europe is that of the Carnival. In some repubhcs this feature is of the utmost importance ; in others it has practically died out. Thus, in Buenos Aires, very few traces remain of the original Carnival, which, owing to the phenomenal growth of that city, has now of necessity been discouraged by the authorities. The Carnival in Montevideo, on the other hand, is now carried out on a scale quite unprecedented in the history of the River Plate Repubhcs. The capital of Uruguay, indeed, lays itself out to this end and makes a point of attracting tens of thousands of visitors from Argentina and elsewhere for this very purpose. In fact the trouble that is taken over this Montevidean Carnival is amazing. Here the scheme of decoration is not apphed to odd houses and corners. It is extended in the most comprehensive and elaborate fashion to entire streets, which are draped and arched, the whole length of these thoroughfares, therefore, resembling one of the grottoes of a popular fairyland. Thus SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 59 element due to the Indian population of the place, which, under the doubtful tuition of native priests, had fallen back practically to their original state of crude behefs. Owing to this they had become accustomed to mingle together the tenets of the Christian doctrine and of the old Indian worship in the most confusing and amaz ing manner. Some of the giant statues carried along on those occasions frankly partook as much of the nature of native gods as of anything else, and the entire proceedings became of an Indian rather than a European character. This, however, in the light of modern times is rapidly tend ing to die out, and the pagan picturesqueness of these pro cessions is practically no more. In the ordinary South American Carnivals it may be Said that the most popular missile of the mock battles is the bomba, a ball of delicate and variously-coloured rubber filled with water, which, when it strikes the victim, natur ally explodes and sprinkles him with its contents — scented or otherwise. Carnivals do not necessarily lead to drink ; but in many places the two have much in common. We may, therefore, glance at a few of the most notable beverages — those, at all events, of alcohohc properties, since the very popular yerba mate, the tea of Paraguay, is dealt with elsewhere. Throughout South America, as a whole, the national drink of the alcohohc variety may be said to be chicha. Chicha was the beverage of the Indians before the Spaniards arrived in the Continent, therefore in a sense it is pecuharly racy of the soil. It is recorded that on one of the first meetings of the ill-fated Inca, Atahualpa, with that most astonishing and colossal adventurer, Pizarro, the Inca Offered the Spaniard hospitahty, and that, as a sign of goodwill, girls brought in gold vases, filled to the brim with chicha. As the conquistador drank the fermented liquid his 60 THE SOUTH AMERICANS eye was doubtless held entranced by the golden vessels in which it had been brought. So that no doubt the intro duction of this particular beverage, far from placating the dreaded white man, merely fortified his resolution to possess the country and all its treasures. For all this, as a general term chicha is unsatisfactory and altogether vague, since as at present understood, it appears to cover almost every form of home-made hquor in the Continent. In Peru the beverage known as chicha is derived from maize and represents a species of maize beer which is, indeed, almost certainly the same drink as that which Atahualpa offered to the pioneer Spaniards. This chicha is a sufficiently wholesome liquid and is very popular throughout Peru and the neighbouring Repubhcs. On the other hand, in Colombia and the far North of the Continent, a different species of chicha is made from corn and sugar-cane which is described as being extraordinarily mischievous in its effects and productive of a decadent state on the part of its habitual partakers. Another, and a widely different, species of chicha is that produced in Southern Chile. This is nothing more nor less than ordinary cider, of most palatable flavour and excellent quahty, pro duced from the fine South Chilean apples. We have in these instances alone three separate variations of the sig nificance of the word chicha and there are, as a matter of fact, many more, but it would be impossible to enter into the whole of the confusion of its varieties here. There are, of course, many other beverages which enjoy merely local celebrity. There is the caHa, a species of rum, very popular in Argentina, Paraguay, and parts of Brazil, and beyond this there are numerous drinks manufactured and imbibed solely by the Indians. Thus there is a native beer brewed from the algarrobo tree which is the staple beverage of the Indians of Paraguay and of Northern Uruguay SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 61 and Argentina, as well as of the neighbouring Brazihan Provinces. Such native debauches as occur are almost invariably the result of this algarrobo bean. The fermented hquor of this, by the way, is, in almost all the native districts, very crudely manufactured by the aid of human saliva. In the South of Chile the Araucanian Indians, who are by temperament very much addicted to strong hquor, contrive to manufacture alcohol by this same primitive method from their native fruits, among these latter the strawberry. When these fruits have been masticated and placed in the sun, the heat produces fermentation, and the result is the desired intoxicating hquor, which is wont to be thoroughly enjoyed, notwithstanding the nauseating process it has undergone. It may be said that the pulque, the famous beverage of Mexico derived from the agave, is also popular in certain districts of the North of South America, although this potent hquor does not here command the universal admiration and affection which it obtains in Mexico. So much for the principal local beverages of South America. As regards the general consumption in the populous neighbourhoods of the Continent, where the white man predominates the three staple hquors are beer, wine, and whisky. Beers of the Pilsener and Munich order have now largely replaced the heavier English ales which at one time were fairly popular throughout the Conti nent. There is no doubt, indeed, that hght beers are more suited than the others to the average chmate of the Continent, and they are now appreciated very widely in the cosmopolitan centres to which they appeal, Many very large fortunes have been made from the institution of these breweries in South America. There is now, indeed, scarcely a town of real importance in any 62 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of the repubhcs which is not provided with a Teutonic brewery of the kind. But if the Germans can boast of a triumph in this respett, the Scotsman has every reason to congratulate himself on another, at least equally notable. The dew of the Highland Mountains now faUs generously all over the Continent. The popularity of whisky has increased quite as quickly as that of Pilsener and Munich beer. The Railway Stations of the principal towns of the Southern half qf the Continent are almost as thickly plastered with advertisements of " Scotch " as are the corresponding spots in England. There is no doubt that the trade in Scotch whisky in South America is now quite enormous. Of the foreign communities almost all nationalities have overcome their prejudice against this beverage — that is to say those who ever happened to cherish any against this form of refreshment — and, so far as the Americans themselves are concerned, although the generahty of the men are all of strictly temperate dispositions, the majority now prefer whisky to any other strong drink of the kind. The grape is now a very important product of South America, although very few of the native wines have succeeded in penetrating to Europe. The vine grows better in Chile than in any other part of South America, and here the grade of wine manufactured is of a very high order, comparing favourably with numerous growths of the old continent. Much attention is now being paid to viticulture in Argen tina, and the famous viticultural areas of Mendoza, La Rioja, and elsewhere are now rapidly increasing in size. In order to effect this, arrangements are being made for a wider range of irrigation, as in these particular regions, practically rainless as they are, the watering of .the SOME CIRCUMSTANCES AND PEOPLE 68 vines and of the fruits is generally dependent solely on irrigation. The other vineyard-producing countries are the South of Brazil, the coasthne of Peru, and portions of Paraguay. Uruguay produces wine to a lesser degree. But although the quahty in some districts is sound enough, on the whole success in this respect has only been moderate. CHAPTER IV THE VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES Population of South America — Difficulties in the Way of Its Estima tion — The Census and Its Drawbacks — Daring Estimates— Aborigines of the Continent — Their Relations to the White Population — " Mas o Menos " — Total Population of the Continent — Its Relation to the Re sources — Inhabitants of the Various States — Some Comparisons of Quahty and Quantity — Important Cities of the Continent — Populations of the Argentine, Brazilian, Chilian, and Uruguayan Cities — Other Notable Urban Centres of the Continent — Population and Progressive Force — Position of the Indians — Industrial Possibilities on the Part of the Native Races — Districts in Which the Savage Indian still Exists — The Civilisa tion of the Border Forest Tribes — Survivors of the Incas — Some Charac teristics of the South American Indians — Methods of Mummifying the Dead — Ancient Household Implements — The Monroe Doctrine — Its Significance — Reason for the Inception of the Doctrine — Some, Present- Day Interpretations — Uneasiness of. the Latin Americans — Pan-American Congress — Good Work Achieved by the Bureau at Washington — The South Misunderstood by the North — Gap between the Two Races — Dis tinctions in the Methods Employed — The Southward March of the North American — Views and Procedure of a Certain Proportion of His Members — An Instance — Need of a More Sympathetic Understanding — Some Cir cumstances of Uruguay — Political Past and Present of the Republic — Questions of Temperament and Prosperity — Commander Mackinnon on the Subject — Industrial Conditions — Wealth of the State — Economical Situation — State Socialism — Colorados and Blancos — Capital and Labour — Some National Assets — Problems Faced by the Uruguayan Govern ment THE various populations of South America are natur ally very hard to estimate, since a certain amount of surmise must necessarily enter into the estimates. This accounts for the differing versions given of the inhabi tants of the various states and towns. The increase has been, on the whole, so continuous and so rapid that statistics have found some difficulty in keeping pace with it. A census, moreover, in an average repubhc of South 64 VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 65 America is not to be carried out with the same ease and completeness as in most European countries. To begin with, every Repubhc, although, of course, varying in its degree of humanity, is under-populated, and the districts to be traversed are quite unduly great in proportion to the number of inhabitants whose totals are to be obtained. This in itself has the effect of making the process of the census inconveniently prolonged, and for that reason alone, wanting in complete accuracy. There are many other factors, too, which mihtate against any very precise know ledge of the various populations. It is not to be denied, for instance, that many provinces, in order to add to their importance, are inchned to over-estimate the number of inhabitants within their frontiers. Thus, it bccasionally happens, for this and for other reasons, that the estimates of the population of such a province, given by its own au thorities and by those of the Federal government, differ considerably. All this, of course, is to say nothing of the aborigines of the Continent. In making up their statistics of popula tion, some Republics are wont to include the supposed numbers of the savage tribes which still inhabit unsurveyed country, while others take no account of this. So — for all such reasons as these — in deahng with the totals of the South American populations it is necessary to speak in the rough, and to take into account the fact that a margin should be allowed for on either side. In such matters the South American is frankness itself, and he employs a most popular expression, which is : " mas o menos," that is to say, " more or less." The average South American will seldom consent to render figures with out the addition of this qualifying phrase— a habit which in itself is a proof of his conscientiousness. On this system, working as conscientiously as possible in the circumstances, 3 66 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the total population of Spanish South America may be said to come somewhere in the neighbourhood of twenty- five millions, while that of Brazil approaches seventeen millions. By these means we obtain the very respectable total of forty- two milhons for the whole Continent. Indeed, it would seem that at the present ratio of in crease the time would not be so very far distant when the inhabitants of the great southern Continent would become sufficiently numerous to be enabled to begin to deal with its enormous natural resources in something approaching an adequate fashion. Before going into details concerning the various countries themselves, we may begin with a comparison of the popu lation of one Repubhc with another. That of Brazil is, of course, the largest. At the same time, this population may be considered one of the most heterogeneous of all, since to the large population of aboriginals must be added the very important negro ele ment which now forms part of the Repubhc's humanity. Next in importance to Brazil ranks Argentina, with a total number of inhabitants which is now somewhere in excess of six milhons. Of this six milhons, as is explained elsewhere, the very great majority are of European blood. Such admixture as exists has its origin with the Southern Indians, the negro element being to all practical intents and purposes absent. Next in order to Argentina comes the repubhc of Colombia, the population of which exceeds five milhons. Here again the negro element is lacking ; but on the other hand, the proportion of aboriginals and mestizos is very great. After Colombia, so far as numbers are concerned, comes Chile, the inhabitants of which total about three and a half milhons. In Chile, very similar conditions prevail to those in Argentina, and this, as well as Uruguay with its smaller VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 67 population of some eleven hundred thousand, is essentially a " white man's country." Peru can count about three milhon inhabitants, while the population of Bolivia is supposed to amount roughly to two milhon one hundred thousand. Both these Repubhcs have much in common, although Peru, of course, has so far been the more progressive of the two. Nevertheless, even in Peru, apart from such centres as Lima and the coastal zone, the racial conditions are those of a large population of aboriginals, governed by a small white aristocracy. Similar conditions prevail in Ecuador with its one and a half milhon inhabitants, and in a somewhat lesser degree in Paraguay, the population of which seems to remain in the nature of a mystery, it being variously placed from two hundred and fifty thousand to five hundred thousand according to the respective authorities. Considering the total population of South America, the number of large and important cities to be met with is phenomenally great. There is no doubt, indeed, that throughout the Continent the tendency so far has been rather to congregate in large urban centres, somewhat, of course, to the detriment of the pastoral and agricultural hfe of the various States. This is perhaps most of all evident in Argentina, where, out of a population which is still on the smaller side of seven millions, over one and a half millions are to be met with in Buenos Aires alone. The other cities of importance in Argentina are, Rosario, which counts two hundred thousand inhabitants, and Bahia Blanca, seventy-five thousand inhabitants, as well as Men doza with its fifty thousand population. In Brazil, this predominance of the town populations is almost equally remarkable. It is true that this latter Repubhc lacks any city of the size of Buenos Aires, notwithstanding the fact that its population is more than double that of Argentina. 68 THE SOUTH AMERICANS The reason for this, of course, hes in the enormous size of the Repubhc and its somewhat unwieldy geographical situa tion, which demands a number of chief towns for the various provinces. Thus the functions of the capital are spread, although not officially, over a number of lesser towns. The population of the capital is seven hundred thousand, while that of Sao Paolo amounts to almost four hundred thousand. And then again, we have Bahia, the number of whose in habitants is estimated at somewhere about three hundred thousand, and Pernambuco, with a population of one hun dred and sixty thousand. From this it will be seen that Brazil is quite unusually well supphed with large towns. A somewhat similar state of affairs may be said to apply to Chile, since the capital of this Republic, Santiago, numbers almost three hundred and fifty thousand, so that this town, together with Val paraiso, can boast a combined population of over half a million. In Chile, as a matter of fact, this condition of affairs is more natural than the corresponding situation in Argentina and in Brazil, since Chile, as is explained else where, tends to develop into a manufacturing nation, and the population of such a State has of necessity to converge into the important urban centres. Uruguay, on the other hand, has no such excuse for s6 large an accumulation of humanity in one spot such as is instanced by Monte Video, its capital, which now possesses a population of more than four hundred thousand. This is perhaps the most remarkable instance of all, when the fact is taken into consideration that the total population of Uruguay scarcely exceeds one milhon. This condition of somewhat undue centrahsation is to be met with only in the progressive Republics, and is therefore instructive of the varying circumstances of the different countries. In Repubhcs where the aboriginal VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 69 forms the great majority of the community towns of this very great importance are not to be met with. Even Peru, with its population of three milhons, is content with about one quarter of a milhon inhabitants for the stately city of Lima, its capital. Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, numbers less than one hundred thousand, while Bogota, although it does not exceed one hundred thousand inhabi tants, is the capital of Colombia, a State which, it must be remembered, is populated by over five milhon souls, and in Bolivia, the chief town of La Paz, the loftiest city in the world, counts no more than eighty thousand inhabitants. The situation is, of course, only such as might be ex pected. The aboriginal, more or less a child of nature, does not take kindly to the hfe in large cities. He is first of all an agriculturist, and even though in the majority of cases, when civilised, he has been to a great extent deprived of his joys of hunting and fishing, it is very rarely that he attempts to replace these by such pleasures as are afforded by the hfe of an ordinary city. It will be seen from the foregoing that, from the industrial point of view in South America, the mere bulk of the population in itself is of comparatively secondary impor tance. Thus, it stands to reason, although comparisons are always odious, that the progressive forces of the popula tions of, say, Argentina and Colombia, are by no means the same. In mere numbers, Argentina may only possess a milhon or so of inhabitants to the good, but in progressive force the difference between the two is necessarily as great at that which exists, say, between Great Britain and some corner of East India. Not that the native populations afford by any means a neghgible factor. From the in dustrial point of view it is true that, speaking generally, the great aboriginal races of the Continent have shown remarkably little aptitude for any species of labour which 70 THE SOUTH AMERICANS demands craftsmanship or perseverance. Experience has shown that in their case an extraordinary absence of any incentive has prevailed ever since the days when, ground down by the Spanish Conquistadores, they were forced to labour as slaves in the mines. With the awakening of the more backward Repubhcs, it is just within the range of possibihty that these dusky inhabitants will, after an interval, find themselves taking part in the new condition of affairs. So far as agriculture is concerned, many have already adapted themselves to this species of labour, and quite lately have occurred instances where perfectly savage tribes have begun to come out of their forest haunts, and to take part in the harvest ing of sugar and similar products. Whether such efforts will ever be extended on the part of the civilised Indians to industrial attempts of the order which demands the skilled mechanic is quite another matter ; nevertheless, stranger things have happened. The industrial possibihties latent in the aboriginals of South America are dealt with in another chapter. As re gards the actual influence of those races which remain uncivilised, this at the present moment is of practically no account. The Araucanian Indians of Southern Chile were those who disputed longest and most fiercely the supremacy of the Spaniards. The remnants of these tribes are now semi-civilised, and entirely tranquil. It is only in the wooded interior of the centre and north of the Continent that the aboriginal Indian still retains his independence and his time-honoured customs. One hears of him principally now on those occasions when a new railway hne is being pushed forward into the heart of a portion of Brazil which had hitherto remained unexplored. Then, there may occur an interchange of shots and arrows, or darts from the long blow guns. Or on the other hand VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 71 nothing more may happen than the mutual calling of salutations, holding a friendly note, which may lay the foundation of a future friendship : much depends on the experience and temper of the pioneer groups of engineers. In the old days there is no doubt that these forest Indians had no httle reason to dread their encounter with the whites. Almost until the present century the methods of those who penetrated into the interior of the country were of the most rough and ready order. An Indian was con sidered to be hostile until he proved himself friendly. As ill-fortune would have it, the aboriginal, suddenly en countered, was very seldom given the opportunity of demonstrating this latter inchnation. Indeed, before he had the chance of expressing a sentiment of any kind he was usually shot in order to insure against any possibihty of aggression on his part. The present age, however, is productive of milder ways, with the result that the beginnings of a considerable inter communication between the whites and the Indians has come about. As a matter of fact, a very large proportion of the tribes of the centre and north of the Continent are of an eminently pacific and tranquil temperament, and are of a completely different stock to the noted southern warriors of Araucania, and to those fierce mounted tribes men, only quite recently extinct, who were wont to harry the outlying portions of the River Plate Provinces, spear in hand. The sole industries which would now seem to be carried on by those Indians more or less in their native state, who dwell among the whites, or at all events on the borders of civilisation, are those of lace-making — in which some of the civihsed aboriginals of Paraguay excel marvellously — and the work in the feathers of the gorgeous tropical birds. Beyond such minor attempts as these, all would seem to 72 THE SOUTH AMERICANS have been lost on the part of the native races, and the ruins of the great Inca palaces and towns alone remain to tell of what was once achieved. There is no space available here to go into the history of the pre-Spanish times, when that curious civilisation which spread over the country from its headquarters by Lake Titicaca rivalled in some respects almost any other which the world has ever seen. Such Indians as survive are now humble peasants, tilhng the soil contentedly enough, and placidly unconscious of the great and tragic past of their race. Similarities have often been notieed between almost all the Aborigines of South America and those of Asia. Many books, of course, have been devoted to this particular subject in connection with the vexed question as to the origin of the South American races. The now forgotten practice of mummifying the dead, moreover, was one which recalls the older world. There are a certain number of the traces of people in parts of Bohvia who were wont to indulge in more than usually elaborate systems of mummifying their dead. The chief province which produces evidence of this in Bohvia is that of Oruro, where sohtary buildings exist called Chulpas, for the most part square, although occasionally round, in shape. Some of these are undoubtedly of great antiquity, and recall the shadowy and mysterious era which preceded the advent of the conquering Incas. Here, buried a little distance under the ground, covered by these build ings, are to be found the mummies of men, drawn up in a crouching position, their arms usually embracing their knees. The figures are generally those of tall folk, of considerably greater inches than those of the present native inhabitants of the land. Many of these are wrapped up in baskets, and, according to the authors Max Josef von Vacano and Hans Mattis, a VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 78 number of these tragic mummies show undoubted signs that they were buried ahve. These writers also noticed on the skulls of others indentations and fractures which corresponded exactly with blows from bolas, while in the centre of such indentations a small hole was frequently bored through the skull — this latter, of course, for some after-rite. All kinds of ancient household implements, some of gold and silver, have been found in these curious catacombs as well as the instruments of war. Having now dealt with the populations of the Continent, and with their respective relations to each other, we may turn to a still wider field, and glance at those links which bind the southern of the two Continents to the northern. At the very outset, naturally enough, we are faced by one of the most important problems of the day — that of the Monroe doctrine. The Monroe doctrine is, I suppose, one of the most curious proclamations, pohcies, theories or, indeed, what ever it may be called, that has ever existed in the history of nations. It is certain that the majority of those North and South Americans who are not directly concerned with the Monroe doctrine are very doubtful as to its actual significance; to say nothing of those folk who are not immediately interested in either of the Americas ! Whether there is any statesman of the present day who is prepared to say exactly where the Monroe doctrine begins and where it ends is extremely improbable. That these hmitations should be kept dark is no doubt actually the desire of many, for that this doctrine gains and becomes more imposing from the weight of mystery which has been imported into it is undeniable. The meaning of the Monroe doctrine when it was first pronounced was clear enough. At the time there seemed 74 THE SOUTH AMERICANS a doubt lest Europe, alarmed at the sudden increase of Repubhcs in South America at the beginning of the nine teenth century, would not intervene in favour of the monarchical system. What reason there was for that supposition does not now seem clear. Nevertheless it is certain that these new Repubhcs of the south met with small favour in the eyes of several European monarchies of that day. The situation, moreover, was more and more comphcated by the fact that at the time when the Monroe doctrine was hatching, certain prominent and intellectual South Americans found themselves in Europe for the purpose of inviting European Princes to assume the crowns of South American States. The United States, marching hand in hand with England in this respect, had from the first encouraged the young South American Repubhcs, and the Monroe Doctrine, put in a nutshell, signified 'f Hands off " to any European power which might have felt tempted to send an armed force to South America. So far so good. The Monroe Doctrine, in fact, asserted that the South American states should have the right to govern themselves without inter ference from without. The United States metaphorically offered the hilt of a sword to South America — of recent years the South Americans appear to be beginning to doubt as to whether they had not grasped the wrong end : that is to say the sharp point ! Indeed, the Monroe Doctrine, conceived in a friendly spirit, at one time bade fair to become the bug-bear of the South American Republics. It is no exaggeration to say that a very large proportion of the most prominent men of these latter awoke to an acute dread of its modern interpretation. The cry in these Republics was common that instead of the original meaning " America for the Americans " the significance of the Monroe Doctrine VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 75 threatened to be " South America for the North Americans." It was, indeed, a little difficult to foresee where the very elastic interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine would end. As it was, the situation was strongly resented by the Latin Republics, who are in every case proud, and in many instances powerful, nations. The United States, it is true, made every effort to reassure the South Americans, and they have instituted a Pan-American Congress, which fre quently has its sessions in one of the Southern Repubhcs : sessions which are attended by many distinguished men from the United States. From the point of view of propa ganda and of the collection of knowledge there is no doubt that the Pan-American bureau at Washington is performing excellent work. But in this again the South American sees something of the nature of patronage, and, speaking quite frankly, there are times when the North American obviously finds it somewhat difficult to conceal this sentiment. In con nection with this, it is a very curious thing that though the Anglo-Saxon America borders on Latin America and that therefore the two peoples are in the position of intimate neighbours, nevertheless there is probably no people in the world the general populace of which understands the South American less than our cousins of the United States. With the efforts that are now being made this condition of affairs should, in the normal course of events, rapidly disappear : it will certainly be no fault of the Washington bureau if it does not. Nevertheless, the gap between the two peoples hes not only in the want of experience on the part of North America, but in a temperamental difference, far more difficult to overcome. The United States prides itself on the fact that its men are in a hurry. The more progressive States of South America pride themselves on nothing of 76 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the kind. Yet at the same time they advance with a steady rapidity that is not a httle remarkable. Thus we start with something in the nature of a mis understanding in points of etiquette, by no means so un important an affair as may be imagined by many who, having acquired the first portion of their fortunes in the very practical but rough and ready manner of the north, desire to continue their affairs on a cosmopohtan scale in precisely the same fashion. From a practical point of view what usually occurs is this : that whereas the American will, in a very efficient time-saving manner, toss a " proposition " at a would-be chent's head, the South American welcomes and enjoys a ten minutes' chat before coming to the business in hand. The one wears gloves and hkes to pull them off leisurely : the other does not. From such apparently trivial matters as this much larger issues depend, and from these larger issues again hang the rights and wrongs of the entire situation. The American has, it is admitted, come in a hurry to the southern Continent. Until less than a decade ago he knew nothing of the South American. It is probably for this reason that at the present day he is rather too prone to judge the average South American of the progressive States by the Mexican on his own borders — a comparison not unnaturally resented by the cultured inhabitants of the Southern States of South America. As it is, the American is now pouring Southwards in his hundreds. He is buying land, and he is endeavouring to obtain supreme control of the beef and freezing industries of the Southern Repubhcs. In the practical management of these, of course, he finds himself completely at home, and his efficiency cannot be surpassed all the world over. In the side issues, however, some of which are of so great VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 77 importance, it cannot be said that he has progressed in the same fashion. The roots of such contretemps are not deep-seated. On the contrary, nearly all the misunderstandings which have arisen have had their origin in the fact that the man from the United States and the South American do not always see eye to eye in matters which appertain to custom rather than convictions. A very significant incident typical of many others of the kind happened to come under my own notice. I will introduce it here for the sake of the moral rather than the anecdote, which latter on its own merits is scarcely worth the repetition. It happened on my last visit to Argentina that a number of the United States beef experts — and, pre sumably magnates — were exploring the city with a view to erecting new freezing works. One of these approached me with a view to meeting a very prominent Argentine whom he knew to be a friend of mine, and whom he wished to consult concerning the loccd advantages and disadvan tages of such a scheme. The result was that the two met at lunch. Over coffee and cigars the American, a very shrewd and amusing fellow, became expansive. It was vital for his particular interests, he explained, that his proposed new frigorifico should be in the neighbourhood of the pubhc slaughter-houses;. Now this neighbourhood was at that moment doubtful ; since the old slaughter-house was about to be done away with, and a new and vastly increased establishment of the kind was to be erected somewhere on the outskirts of the town. None save a few knew where the site for the proposed premises was hkely to be. The North American explained this point to the Argentine and asked him roundly whether he had any idea as to where the new frigorifico would be 78 THE SOUTH AMERICANS situated. The Argentine may or may not have had an inkhng concerning this. I myself have no means of know ing either way. In any case, he replied to the effect that nothing of the kind would be decided until a certain session of the House of Representatives. The American leant forward, a gleam in his eye : " You don't know," he suggested, " that may be so ; but I think you can guess right now for a pretty heavy consideration ! " The result was that the Argentine, one of the most honourable and single-minded men in the Repubhc, left in a huff ; considerably to the astonishment of the American, who altogether failed to grasp the reason for his behaviour. Now this anecdote, although strictly true, is not in the least fair to the average North American in South America, since, from its exceptional circumstances, the incident cannot be classified as an average one. Nevertheless, quite apart from its ethics of morahty, it is typical of much that goes on at the present day, and it is on account of widely diverg ing methods of expression rather than to the actual inci dents and views that the American, rapid though his pro gress has been, occasionally takes himself aside, scratching his head, in order to wonder within himself why his advance has not been even more rapid. Now supposing that affairs in the larger field of pohtics are manipulated on a somewhat similar basis of misunder standings to this, much of the anxiety at present experienced by the Southern Repubhcs is comprehensive enough. Nevertheless, judging by the success of one or two of their present ministers, no doubt both official and industrial North America will soon have gained vastly by added experience and the South Americans will have become for their part, more accustomed to the bluffer methods of the North. VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 79 So far we have had very httle to say of Uruguay. Nevertheless, from certain points of view this httle Re pubhc presents some features of remarkable interest. Speaking from the South American standpoint, Uru guay, it is acknowledged, is a small Republic. Small territorially, that is to say, and small merely by compari son, it should be added. For size in South America is considered on a different basis to the cramped measure ments of Europe. This (still territorially-speaking) baby state of South America contains very nearly the same number of hectares as Great Britain, therefore we may say with confidence that Uruguay is insignificant in area so far as South America is concerned ; that is to say it is quite the least large of the South American Repubhcs. Its lack of size is not the only claim to distinction that Uruguay possesses : in several other respects the Republic stands alone. Its history is one of the most complex in the Continent. Ever since the War of Liberation the Uruguayan has stood very much in the position of a man at bay. Time after time he has faced his enemy of former days, the Brazihan, with undaunted courage. At greater intervals he has fought his blood-brother the Argentine with equal vigour and resolution ; and, to be frank, it must be admitted that a considerable part of these in tervals between the struggles he has employed in fighting with himself! Yet all this has come about, in the first place at all events, from the force of circumstances rather than of temperament. The Uruguayan, it is true, boasts such modicum of native blood as flows within him from the war hke and now extinct Charrua Indians. But this in itself does not suffice to account for the warhke propensity of the Uruguayan. Otherwise, according to this theory, what would be the lot of the firm and settled country of the 80 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Chileans, when the admixture of the fierce Araucanian strain with their oWn is taken into consideration ? It is certain that a malignant fate alone has withheld peace from Uruguay ; for the average Uruguayan — of fine physique, virile, and energetic — is as fine a specimen of the South American as is to be met with in the length and breadth of the Continent. Yet there is no doubt that, speaking from an industrial point of view, Uruguay has never enjoyed a tithe of that prosperity which her natural wealth and advantages should have brought her. This is the more remarkable when it is considered that, in addition to the temperament of her own citizens, the Banda Oriental has enjoyed the benefit of a pecuharly voluminous stream of capital, sent flowing in her direction by foreign investors. As fate would have it, never once since the Wars of Liberation, to say nothing of the era which preceded it, has the Repubhc attained to within any measurable distance of her industrial and commercial ideal. It is not, therefore, a question of a series of set-backs which is involved, but rather a continuous succession of discouragements which has prevented the buds of progress from blooming into full flower. It is unhkely in the extreme that this state of affairs will continue much longer. Nevertheless in the past this condition has been the wonder of many travellers who failed to reconcile the backward industrial state of the country with the temperament of the Uruguayan. This appears to have been a subject of pecuhar remark to the British and French officers of the squadron which blockaded the river system at the latter end of the first half of the last century. Commander MacKinnon has some especially bitter remarks on the subject referring to the inhabitants of that period on the banks of the Uruguay river along which the allied squadron were steaming : — VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 81 " Almost everything connected with industry and art, is nearly annihilated, except the hve-stock, which ramble unknown and uncared for in rapidly increasing numbers. It is indeed, melancholy to see a land so capable from situation, fertihty, and salubrity of chmate, of supporting an enormous population, completely laid waste by the profligacy, and barbarous actions of the individuals." As will be evident from this, it was still the fashion of that period to refer to the struggles and differences of the South Americans as barbaric — a term which modern his tory frequently fails to justify. This verdict, moreover, is somewhat unduly pessimistic, since in the heat of war it was natural that the foreign sailors should have seen little beyond the tragic aspects of the country and of its inhabitants. Nevertheless, in this particular instance there is no doubt that the words were not without some foundation in fact. Full commercial value was not being derived at the time from the magnificent Uruguayan pastures. Regarded in cold blood, one is forced to admit that the situation, although vastly improved, retains a few of the features which marked it almost three-quarters of a century ago. That is to say, judged now by the standards of the twentieth century, the great natural wealth of Uruguay has only been made to yield itself in part. Let us turn to the actual industrial conditions of Uru guay such as prevail at the present time. There is no need in a simple survey of this kind to introduce a formidable array of those statistics which — at the hands of conflicting and disingenuous experts — may be made to produce such curiously antagonistic results. At it is, we find a country containing an immense area of magnificent pasturage, the natural grasses of which constitute splendid food for the cattle and sheep all the year round. 82 THE SOUTH AMERICANS The conditions here are peculiarly salubrious, not only for mankind, but for live-stock as well ; and the proportion of disease among the various species of hve-stock is notably low. The wide, open, healthy sweep of the Uruguayan down- lands, moreover, shelters remarkably . few natural pests; while the locust, the terror of purely agricultural lands, is perhaps, less dreaded in the Banda Oriental than in the neighbouring countries. The reason for this is certainly due to no local modesty in the appetite of the hated insect. It is merely owing to the fact of Uruguay's large pastoral area, which, of course, offers fewer hostages to fate than do the spreading fields of cereals. From this it must not be supposed by those who have not trodden the soil of the Repubhc that all Uruguay is devoted to pasturage and to nothing beyond. The dis tricts in the neighbourhood of the lower Uruguay and Rio de la Plata rivers — such as those of Paysandu, Rio Negro, Soriano, Colonia, Canelones, and others — are pecuharly rich in cereals, vineyards, and orchards ; while in the northern provinces, bordering on Brazil, the culture of tobacco is successfully undertaken. When all these natural assets — to say nothing of its mineral wealth — are taken into consideration, it will be seen that, though Uruguay depends very largely on its pastoral products, it has more than one industrial string to its bow. But for the moment we need take into con sideration nothing but this chief asset, for the pastoral wealth alone suffices to place the Repubhc in an exceptionally favourable situation among the industrial nations of the world. It should never be forgotten, when considering the present and future of Uruguay, that the main product of the state is one, the demand for which is every year growing with a rapidity out of proportion to its increase. VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 88 It is, moreover, of necessity subject to very few and un important market fluctuations, since any serious fall in the price of meat may be put outside the range of practical consideration. The situation, therefore, amounts to this. Uruguay is admittedly one of the finest countries in the world for cattle-raising. Cattle are becoming every year more in demand, and the price of these necessary animals continues to rise steadily. As a rival the United States has disap peared from the scene. More than this, it has become a customer. Hence the recent influx of North Americans who have come — not altogether disinterestedly, of course — to assist in the breeding and slaughter of the cattle, which in itself tends to increase the importance of the country. Indeed, the deeper one probes into the economical situa tion of Uruguay, the more one feels inclined to envy the fertihty and natural advantages of a land where so many streams and rivers diminish the risks of those droughts which are so much dreaded in other parts of the Continent and thus do much to dissipate the last of the farmer's terrors. The question repeats itself : why in face of all these advantages has not Uruguay progressed at a greater pace along the path of material prosperity ? We may turn to the pastorahsts themselves, and there again we can find no flaw, humanly speaking, in the equipment of the Re public. The Uruguayan landowner is generally of rather less cosmopolitan order than that which prevails in Argen tina. He is usually an Oriental, a capable and efficient estanciero, understanding not only the land and its ways, but also the Gaucho — some of the most consummate horsemen and stockmen left in the Continent. Moreover, the average estanciero, being an Oriental, feels himself more closely 84 THE SOUTH AMERICANS bound to the soil than would be possible in the case of any foreigner. This sentiment upholds him in adverse times, and prevents him from selling his property and from shaking the dust of the soil from his feet as a mere unsympathetic speculator is frequently tempted to do. On the contrary, the Uruguayan landowner clings to his acres until the last blade of grass bends low beneath its mortgage. This has been proved to the full once again during the past year. This circumstance in itself must necessarily be beneficial to the general ethics of farming. No, it must be admitted freely and frankly at once that it is not the pastoralist who is responsible for the comparatively backward state of the country. Of the main natural causes which affect farming only one remains : that of transport. And' here certainly it may be remarked that, compared with Argentina, the network of Uruguayan hnes suffers a httle in comprehensiveness. Nevertheless the service is by no means unduly restricted, and such as exists is of an efficient order. The recent hnking up with the Brazilian hnes, moreover, and the general extension of the systems should in the ordinary course of events have produced most favourable results. It is clear then that the blame is not to be laid upon neglect of the means of communications. The less so when it is considered that the country roads of Uruguay, well pro vided as numbers of these are with stone, possess incalcul able advantages over the earthways of the Campo on the other side of the Uruguay River. Working on the system of ehmination, it would seem that nothing remains but to consider whether those cir cumstances which have to a certain extent oppressed Uruguay are not of purely artificial origin. A very httle reflection leads to the inevitable conclusion that there is much to be said for the latter theory. If the Uruguayan, VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 85 speaking politically, has a fault it is that he is too much of a Uruguayan. He is beyond all else a politician, and is prepared to sacrifice a great deal for abstract theories and theoretical causes which, frequently admirable in themselves, tend to bring httle grist to his own mill or to that of the Repubhc. The Uruguayan, moreover, possesses the courage of his convictions. He does not in the least fear to launch out into the most daring of social experiments, and a number of the most influential government personages frankly proclaim themselves sociahsts — a title which in the aver age bourgeois public mind, although shorn of many of its most violent terrors, still inspires profound irritation and distrust. These latter sentiments are held, naturally enough, to a large extent by the blancos, the party now out of power, which comprises among its members so many clericals and rural landowners. It is this adoption of socialistic principles which has for the first time introduced a genuine element of differ ence between the policies of the blancos and the colorados — the latter made up largely from the dwellers in the towns and more populous centres. Surveying the pohtical situation for the moment from a quite detached and un sympathetic stand-point, it may be said that until this new departure the main object of both Colorado and bianco parties was identical — it was to govern. Although the colorados have from time immemorial charged the blancos with ultra conservatism, the distinction between the governing methods of either party was scarcely noticed by the populace in general. According to the traditional pohtics of Uruguay a man was born a bianco or a Colorado. It was a question not of judgment but of fate and parentage. Under the present Colorado regime the situation has undoubtedly altered itself 86 THE SOUTH AMERICANS to no small extent, and, judged from the English stand point, the colorados have grown somewhat to resemble the radicals, while the blancos have much in common with the conservatives. In Uruguay itself it is pecuharly difficult to foresee even the nearest pohtical future. To all appearances at the present moment the colorados, who have now been in power since 1864, are more firmly established than ever ; although the blancos have never surrendered the idea of regaining office, and to this end have instigated a very formidable number of periodical revolutions. We have, therefore, to all appearances to accept the hkehhood that the present government will continue in power for a pro longed period. That its chief upholders possess great abihty and resolution is not to be denied. Their methods, on the other hand, have estranged various European capitalists. On which side lies the fault it is not for me to attempt to explain ; but at the present moment an impression pre vails in many important financial quarters that sums sent out to Uruguay to be invested privately are likely to suffer from the undue taxes of a sociahstic regime, and that sums advanced to the State direct, will be apphed to further this very type of legislation with its appropriate institutions. Whether such fears are justified or not is beside the mark : that they should obtain is sufficient to wield an influence which cannot fail in the long run to tell on the financial facihties of a State affected in this way. Uruguay, of course, is not alone in its pohtical trans formation. The majority of the South American States, it is clear enough, have been in the past governed in the interests of the aristocracy rather than in those of the humbler population. In the case of those tropical countries where the populace is composed largely of Indians such a PLAZA, MONTEVIDEO VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 87 procedure was of course, inevitable, and must necessarily continue, if the nation is to be governed on practical hnes. But in nations such as Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile, where the ethics of humanity resemble in all respects so very closely those of advanced Europe, it is only natural that the pendulum should swing to a certain extent, and that the voice of the people should be heard in parhament as well as in the industrial world. But in this respect Uruguay has proceeded in far greater haste than her neigh bours. The result, frankly, is evident in many of those auto cratic types of law which appear to obsess every country — not excluding England — when it first toys, a httle too ardently, perhaps, with sociahstic principles. Indeed, it is impossible to disguise the fact that the Uruguayan Government has gone somewhat out of its way to encourage the demands of local labour against the various foreign enterprises. Thus, as far back as 1911 when the Uruguayan employees of the Montevideo Tramways — British and German companies — went on strike for higher pay, there is no doubt that the sympathies of the authorities were lavished on the employees in almost too generous a fashion. Not only did the government press organ support the strikers, but the municipality went the length of fining the joint companies many thousands of pounds for not continuing to run the cars in the face of the attacks on them by the hostile strikers ! Not for one moment would I suggest that the cause of the capitahst here was more righteous than that of the employees. But, granting even that exactly the reverse was the case, it is difficult to justify the enthusiastic par tisanship displayed by the government on behalf of the strikers. Nevertheless, whatever criticism may be meted out to 88 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the Uruguayan authorities, they are at least perfectly straightforward as to their intentions and pohtical pro gramme. The presenting of bills strictly hmiting the workman's hours of labour, and providing for one day of rest in every six instead of one in every seven, is a procedure which in itself can scarcely be condemned. It is the spirit breathed — quite openly and fearlessly — which has rendered the capitahsts of other nations cautious and even timid in their deahngs with Uruguay. Having now surveyed the industrial and pohtical aspect of the country, we may turn to a general view of Uruguay as the Repubhc stands at the present day. Setting, therefore, the momentary financial phase aside, the progress and general situation of the small Repubhc present much of interest. Uruguay, as a matter of fact, occupies in almost every respect a curiously advantageous strategic position. Fortunately for her, she cannot well fail to benefit from the welfare, and to gain enormously from the increasing traffic and industries, of her neighbours, in addition to the automatic increase of wealth derived from her own spontaneous efforts from within. This has already clearly been proved by the status of Montevideo and the numerous pleasure resorts along the sea-coast. Ten years ago Montevideo was a town where, compared with Buenos Aires, living was cheap. The accommodation was, of course, in proportion. Hotels of any pretensions were few and far between. Sports, such as that of racing, were con ducted in a quiet and inexpensive fashion — and were none the less enjoyable for that — while the present elaborate and majestic automobile had not yet made its appearance in the streets of Uruguay's chief town. Life, in fact, in that very pleasant capital was simple and, to a certain extent, idylhc. The Montevidean took his pleasures much as he found them. He would sally out VARIOUS STATES AND THEIR PEOPLES 89 to the suburbs, where the houses are embowered in such dehghtful gardens, and where the planted forests of euca lyptus, oak, chestnut, paraiso, and acacia spread them selves about the flower-laden open spaces, and would feast himself at some modest but efficient rural restaurant. That was in the days when the charm of Montevideo and the bracing vigour of its sparkhng air enjoyed httle beyond local celebrity. Now all this is changed. Modern hotels abound in the capital itself, while in such places as Pocitos, Ramirez, and even in such distant resorts as Piriapohs new hotels of a really imposing order have been erected : chalets and villas have sprung up by the score. One of the most remarkable of all the features of this aspect of the Repubhc is that, notwithstanding the continuous growth and increase in the number of these Uruguayan pleasure resorts, so crowded are these spots by Argentines and other South Americans, including Brazilians, in the course of a normally prosperous season that it frequently occurs that no bed is available for the disappointed searcher after pleasure at any price whatever. I shall never forget the aspect of the brown waters of the mouth of the River Plate one sunny morning on the first day of the Carnival at Montevideo. The season, of course, was summer, and the hour one of the most charm ing which the neighbourhood knows at such a period. That is to say, the first sunbeams were striking on the roofs of the town, on the lofty Cerro Fort, and on the sparkhng blue-brown of the waters of the Bay. Entering the har bour was the first of the Mihanovich special steamers to arrive for the occasion : a fine roomy boat, her hundreds of cabins thronged, her decks crowded with pleasure seekers. A mile farther back across the stretch of waters where sea ended and river began came a sister ship to the first, smoke belching from her funnels as though she were fretting to 90 THE SOUTH AMERICANS overtake her leader. Behind her came a third and, would it be beheved ! behind this one again a fourth ; while three more black smudges, decreasing gradually in size, dotted the most distant space to the horizon. This was the call of the Montevidean Carnival— a car nival for the sake of which the town had turned its streets into very charming blue and white and silver grottoes, and had, nevertheless, paid all expenses, and had even reaped a handsome profit. Such matters may seem trivial, but surely in reality they are not. Uruguay, in brief, possesses some natural and chmatic advantages which appeal most strongly to her neighbours. There is no reason why they should not ultimately prove as beneficial to her as do the mountains and valleys to Switzerland. In the case of Uruguay, the small repubhc is now over run once again by both Argentines and Brazihans ; but this time they come in peace and — by no means an un important circumstance — they leave behind them a heavy toll of their pesos or their milreis, as the case may be. CHAPTER V LABOUR Early Industrial Problems — Method of the Conquistadores — Tragic Results of These — Work of Bishop Las Casas, the Protector of the Indians — Districts Which have been Depopulated — Others Where the Native Survives — Present Day Circumstances — Characteristics of the South American Indian — His Objection to Labour — Circumstances Which Render this Natural — The Effects of a Bountiful Nature — The Countries of White and of Negro Labour — Zones given up to the Two — Tropical South America Unfitted for the White Labourer — Industrial Achieve ments Brought about In Spite of Climatic Disadvantages — Diseases of the Equatorial Countries — The Spaniards and Italians — Racial and Linguistic Advantages Possessed by New Comers from These Countries — The Swiss as Colonists — The Irish in Brazil and the River Plate — Inter marriage of the Portuguese with the Aboriginals in the Past — The Mestizo — The Production of a Race Fitted to Withstand the Climate of the Tropics — Peruvian Rubber Atrocities — Range of Control of the Central Peruvian Authorities — Survival of Slavery in some Remote Districts — How the Traffic is Carried On — A Comparison between the Average Wages in South America and Those of Anglo-Saxon Colonial Communities — Reasons for the Comparative Low Standing of South American Wages — Types of Immigrants — The Argentine Gaucho and His Requirements — The Peruvian Indian as a Labourer — Argentina as a Market of Cosmo pohtan Labour — Present Day Conditions of the Campo — The Spread of Agriculture — The Districts of the Gaucho — Various Foreign Colonies — Reasons for the Establishing of These — The European Races and the Choice of Climate — Dearth of Labour in Chile — Cosmopolitan Workers in the Nitrate Fields — Circumstances in Paraguay — Introduction of the Negro into Brazil — The Slave Trade and Its Abolition — Conditions of the Modern Negro — Communities of Southern Brazil — German Influence in These Districts — The Aboriginal Inhabitant in Brazil — Peruvian Indians — Characteristics of the Cholo — An Experiment in the Intro duction of Chinese Labour — Bohvia and Its Labourers — Dearth of Immigrants in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela — Mixed Industrial Population in the Guianas THE question of labour in South America, as elsewhere in the world, has tended to become more comphcated within the last few decades. The problem, as a matter of fact, has from the very commencement of the 91 92 THE SOUTH AMERICANS colonisation of the Continent never proved itself an easy going one. It was the misfortune of the average aboriginal that he was neither physically nor temperamentally adapted to labour of a prolonged or strenuous kind. Thus the greed of the Conquistadores caused the death of many hundreds of thousands of Indians sent underground to work as slaves in the mines. So terrible was the death roll that even at this early period it became evident that, from an industrial, to say nothing of a humanitarian, point of view, a continuance of enforced labour such as this must necessarily end by being fatal to the native population as a whole, and consequently to the new industries of the Continent. v The famous Las Casas, Bishop of Chiapa, acted with wisdom, if in a somewhat strangely homoeopathic fashion, by causing the introduction into South America of African slaves in order that the fatal toil of the aboriginal Indians might be hghtened. It is certain that the advent of the coarser-fibred and comparatively cheery negro served as a rehef to the despondent and dying natives. Indeed, but for this timely assistance in the bearing of the terrible burden imposed by the Spaniards, many districts which still support their dusky and peaceful inhabitants would centuries ago have been depopulated of every Indian. In many parts of the Continent the negro strain has not per sisted. In Brazil alone does the African preponderate ; but in this Repubhc he constitutes a factor to be reckoned with. Present-day circumstances, however, have been pro ductive of fresh difficulties. Briefly the situation may be summed up thus. The average South American Indian still retains his deeply rooted objection to labour for the whites ; the negro, no longer a slave but a free, and occa sionally a somewhat arrogant, person, works only when he LABOUR 93 feels inchned. From the point of view of ordinary humanity none can blame him for this ; nor for the fact that in those districts where he abounds, bountiful Nature provides him with all his needs at the expense of a minimum of trouble. There is no doubt that a bountiful Nature is the capita list's worst enemy 1 The man who would obtain an un ceasing flow of labour should, of course, appeal to a land thronged with humanity and barren of natural resources. This is sufficiently obvious. Precisely the reverse obtains almost throughout South America. The populations of the Continent, although steadily increasing, still remain inadequately small. The incentive to work, moreover, in the tropics and subtropics remains equally slender. In these fortunate chmes why should a man toil strenuously for the benefit of others when he has but to stretch forth his hand and pluck the fruit from the trees, or to throw a few casual and altogether unconsidered hnes into the streams and lakes in order to bring forth more fish than he and his neighbours can consume ? To stretch human nature beyond this point is to produce the philanthropist, and, from their own point of view, there is undoubtedly no reason why these folk should yield up their state of indolent and placid content merely to oblige others. It is largely for this reason that portions of South America are now looking outside their own borders for their labour. There are, of course, a few critics who insist on referring to the Continent as a whole in this respect, and who, in their industrial computations, are given to put together the tropical forest regions of the centre and the north, the temperate plains of the central south, and the cold and bleak regions of the far south, as though all these were governed by the same circumstances and conditions. In considering the labour market of South America 94 THE SOUTH AMERICANS it is absolutely necessary to divide the Continent into two zones before coming to the numerous ordinary subdivisions. The two main zones are these : countries which permit of white labour, and those others which permit only of aboriginal and negro labour. We may leave for the moment the industrial possibilities of the Chinese and other such nationahties out of the question, since in any case these have not yet exercised any material influence on the situa tion. The zone which permits of white labour may roughly be said to extend southward of a hne drawn across the Con tinent from the Province of Rio Grande do Sul in Brazil to a point considerably to the northward of this on the Pacific coast. The reason for the upward trend of the hne in this direction is that the phenomenally cool and temperate chmate of the Pacific coast permits white men to retain their energy at a degree far higher than that on the Atlantic. We gather from this that, very roughly speaking, about a third of the Continent is adapted for white labour. Of course from this it must not be inferred that white labour does not exist to the northward of these points. The efforts of the European, more especially of the Latin races, are, as a matter of fact, evident throughout almost every district of the Continent. It was this species of labour, for instance, that has been employed in work in the tropical regions such as that traversed by the Madeira- Mamore" Railway, and in almost every recent undertaking of the kind. Nevertheless the fact remains, and I do not see what circumstances can ever effect the altering of it, that tropical South America is in itself totally unfitted for the existence of working white men in their natural circumstances. Where enterprises of the kind have been brought to a successful conclusion by the employment of LABOUR 95 Spaniards and Italians, and men of other European nation ality, the result has only been brought about by the erection of the most elaborate hospitals and by the attendance of an extraordinarily strong medical staff, and, indeed, by other purely artificial aids of the kind. It is perfectly true that of late various notable triumphs have been achieved in this fashion ; but in every case these have been won in spite of local circumstances and chmate. With the stamping out of yellow fever it is, of course, possible that the situation may become modified. But yellow fever is by no means the white man's only enemy in such districts as these. Blackwater fever, beri beri, to say nothing of ordinary malaria, abound in many such places, and, allowing even that the European by some lucky chance keeps clear of all these more fatal diseases, there is not the faintest doubt that a few years spent in toihng among the South American forests will sap the physical strength and vitality of even the most powerful and determined. Each country in South America has, speaking generally, appealed to that particular type of emigrant best fitted for its circumstances. The Spaniards and the Itahans have, as is only natural, provided by far the largest numbers from Europe. It might, of course, be supposed that the various immigrants would make for the chmates which would respectively answer most closely to those to which they had been accustomed in their native lands. Up to a point this is so ; nevertheless there are some important instances to the contrary. In connection with this it is a httle strange to remark the chmates to which the various Russian communities have betaken themselves. These northern folk, curiously enough, have not proceeded to the southernmost corners of the Continent, where the climate most resembles that of their own country ; they 96 THE SOUTH AMERICANS have settled themselves in North-east Argentina, and Southern Brazil, and there in their thousands have squatted upon the land, and resumed their accustomed occupations as husbandmen and small farmers. The Swiss have proved themselves keen colonists in South America. They have founded separate communities of their own, for the most part devoted to dairy-farming, in Uruguay and in Argentina— in this latter Repubhc, more especially in the province of Entre Rios. Large numbers of Swiss agriculturists were induced to proceed to Brazil in the beginning of the nineteenth century ; but once arrived at Rio de Janeiro they found that the lands which had been promised them in the neighbourhood of the capital were still virgin forests and that none of the stipulated preparations had been made for their reception. As the result the unfortunate communities suffered great hardships. Some returned, ruined, to their native country, but others remained in Brazil and in the end, clearing the forests, succeeded in maintaining themselves on the lands allotted to them. A certain number of Irish arrived in Brazil at this same period, and, although for their part they had contracted to render mihtary service in return for their holdings, they met with an even worse fate than the Swiss, since their military status earned for them the jealousy and hatred of the blacks and of many of the Brazihans. The chief field of Irish emigration was to the Provinces of the River Plate, where even before the independence of Argentina they received special concessions and were ad mitted freely into the country, principally for the purpose of instructing the inhabitants in the preparation of preserved meats. To return to the question of peopling the various countries with persons best fitted to thrive in the respective local LABOUR 97 conditions, the problem, naturally enough, becomes harder as the tropics are approached. Brazil has to a certain extent solved the question of adaptation to chmate by intermarriage. That is to say, not only has a large pro portion of the original white race of Portuguese extraction intermarried with the aboriginals, but also with the negroes. By this means a race has sprung up immune from the chmate and capable of withstanding the enervating in fluence of even the tropical and marshy districts. But here again the race of more or less coloured Brazihans does not of itself take kindly to physical labour. In the opinion of many it has cultivated the intellectual side a httle to the detriment of the rest. It produces perhaps an undue proportion of orators and politicians. But in any case the bent of the mestizo may be said never to run in the direction of manual labour, and it is good for neither plant nor country to produce all blossoms and no leaves! There is no doubt, moreover, that the tendency of the modern Repubhcs towards labour is ex tremely hberal, and no regulations exist, save in two or three, which interfere in the very least with the freedom of the citizen, whether black, white, or neither. The rubber atrocities revealed in Peru might seem of themselves to contradict a statement such as this. Never theless it must be remembered that these horrible occur rences took place in districts over which the central Peruvian authorities appear to have had no control. Of course, that rank injustice and genuine barbarism do occur still in this particular latitude is undeniable, as is the fact that in many places the condition of slavery still continues and is permitted by law. It is true that the procedure is not called slavery in so many words : it is termed by a strange euphuism " work ing out a debt," and the condition of the unfortunate 7 98 THE SOUTH AMERICANS slaves is frequently due to the incurrence of some debt either by themselves or by their fathers, or even grand fathers. This tragedy once having been brought about, the unfortunate persons become the property of their creditors until the debt lias been paid by their labour, and, as it hes in the creditor's power to make such charges for clothing and food as he thinks fit, it stands to reason that the usurer sees to it that the debt is never paid, and that its onus is transmitted from father to son, and from mother to daughter, as the harsh laws of these neighbour hoods permit. Indeed, to such an extent has this system been abused in certain of the most remote districts that the sheltering cloak of debt has been cast aside, and the unfortunate beings pass from hand to hand at an arranged purchase price in the way of ordinary slaves. But these circumstances, terrible as they are, must not be taken as typical of South America or even of the tropical territories of South America. They stand alone, and it is highly improbable that they will be permitted to con tinue much longer. In the average country of South America the employer, much as he does now elsewhere in the world, approaches the worker cap in hand, and the worker sees to it by means of a series of strikes that the employer shall never forget his proper position and that which is due to his employee. One thing must be admitted, notwithstanding the favourable circumstances in which the employee has been placed in almost every part of the Continent : the average wages in South America have never quite equalled those enjoyed by the workers in South Africa and in similar mixed and Anglo-Saxon communities. One of the chief reasons for this undoubtedly hes in the fact that so much labour is continually forthcoming from countries such as Italy and Spain where living is cheap, and where LABOUR 99 low rates of remuneration predominate. Arriving from such countries as these, the newcomer, of course, takes some time to adapt himself to local conditions ; and the wages offered him appear in the first instance as princely. Moreover, while the first comer is slowly accustoming himself to the new land, his younger brothers, or even sons and daughters, are continually streaming across the Atlantic in his wake ; thus providing, for a while at all events, a fresh flow of comparatively cheap labour for the capitalist. There are certain communities who from their traditions and mere mode of hfe fail to attach that importance to the extent of their remuneration which is usual elsewhere. One of these classes was undoubtedly to be found in the Argentine Gaucho. Provided he had meat, cigarettes, Yerba Mate, and above all, a good horse and harness, and just a few bank notes with which to gamble, he cared for nothing beyond, and indeed had no use whatever for it. The Gaucho of the old school has almost entirely died out, it is true ; yet even now his descendants fail to attach that supreme interest to cash such as is lent by more sophis ticated folk. Then again there is the placid and meek Peruvian — the Indian of the farming classes. He is a being of quite another order, this, who, a simple philosopher, is satisfied with whatever he obtains, and who is indeed, from the modern point of view, quite unduly grateful. There are, too, such Indians as those of the enormous, wooded, flat Chaco, only just emerging from a perfectly savage hfe, who have now, somewhat to their own amazement, taken to sally out from their forest fastnesses to work in the sugar-fields. These, of course, although fortunately for themselves they have usually fallen into good hands so far, are altogether too unsophisticated to appreciate a comparatively high 100 THE SOUTH AMERICANS rate of wage. Nevertheless they are just beginning to be alive to the value of money in itself. But on one or two occasions all thought of wages or remuneration has been forgotten in the excitement of fights brought about by the propinquity of rival tribesmen. There are numerous other instances such as these, but every one of them is notable principally since it stands out as an anomaly in the changing conditions of affairs, and is quite apart from the ubiquitous struggle between master and man, such as is already evident in the populated districts of the Continent. The question of a permanent supply of labour cannot yet be said to be settled. The problem is one of such importance that we may take the conditions of labour in each Repubhc separately. Argentina represents the Repubhc where labour is per haps of a more cosmopohtan order and, in certain respects, in a more advanced condition than in any other. The transition here has been rapid enough ; for only a few decades ago the old-time Gaucho of the Argentine plains represented the chief source of the Argentine labour. A wonderful equestrian and one of the finest "cattle punchers " in the world, he stood quite apart as a race and prided himself on his own peculiarities. As has already been said, he enters into the, realms of romance rather than that of present day commerce and industry. His successors resemble him in many respects. They are still extraordinarily adept With the lasso, and they still retain their characteristics as centaurs. Nevertheless with the importation of fine stock, the ways of the old Gaucho have gone by the board, and the hands on an estancia now tend to become of a more cosmopohtan order. As a matter of fact, the original schooling in the modern methods of handling the patrician animals which now inhabit the Argentine 9tud establishments has lain largely in the LABOUR 101 hands of Enghshmen, and even now a considerable number of English, stud-grooms, shepherds, and the hke, remain. As the tendency of Argentina is now to become agri cultural and to devote much land to cereals which was before employed purely for pastoral purposes, great areas, once the home of the Gaucho, are rapidly decreasing. Since it is obviously impossible that the original population of Argentina could comply with the rapidly increasing in dustrial demands of the nation, we are in this instance concerned rather with the importation of labour than anything else. Argentina, as a matter of fact, has attracted immigrants from every country of Europe, including Turkey, as well as from Asia. Itahans especially have been wont to come out in very large numbers ; but the percentage of Spanish immigrants has now risen greatly, although it has never succeeded. in overtaking that of the Itahan. In addition to the ordinary emigrant, there have been many foreign colonies instituted in Argentina, such as the Boer colony in the South, the Jewish colony in Entre Rios, the Pohsh colony in Misiones, and the Russian, Austrian and other colonies on the banks of the Uruguay river. In the past the majority of these colonies have succeeded fairly well ; although there have been instances when the attempts have in the first place failed, while other colonies have never succeeded in getting upon their financial legs. No doubt with the increasing population of the country the need for such self-contained colonies will sooner or later disappear; but in the meanwhile they have served their purpose and have been effective in bringing much land under cultivation. For such colonies as these, need less to say, are concerned essentially with agricultural operations as distinct from the pastoral or grazing industry. These colonies in general mayjse said to appeal to the 102 THE SOUTH AMERICANS more humble type of agriculturist, and to those who would find themselves at a special disadvantage when suddenly thrown amongst people of a different race and tongue. By means of these colonies such immigrants are enabled to obtain a foothold in the far-away land in an easy and com paratively undisturbed fashion. That is to say, they settle down among considerable numbers of their own countrymen ; they continue their native customs, and possess their own church and clergy. They have, as it were, brought their own atmosphere and life with them, and have changed nothing beyond the soil. The ultimate result is, however, inevitable. South America, although it may not claim the first, will make quite certain of the second or third generation, by which time the younger inhabitants of the colony will refuse to acknowledge them selves anything else but citizens of the land they inhabit. It is curious to remark that in Argentina the North European races, such as the Russians, appear to have sought the warm chmates. Whether this has been effected of set purpose or was the result of mere chance it is diffi cult to say. In any case these northern folk appear to thrive unexpectedly well in the warm latitudes. In Uruguay, as would naturally be anticipated, there is a far smaller rield under present circumstances for the industrial emigrant. The main operations of Uruguay. still continue pastoral, and the only persons, of course, who are really fitted for this strenuous hfe are the native Gauchos. It is principally for this reason that the number of immigrants has up to the present remained so small here, There are, as a matter of fact, foreign colonies in the agricultural districts of the South West in the neighbour hood of the great river system, the most notable of these being the Swiss Colony near Mercedes, devoting themselves to dairy farming in the first place, and to the raising of LABOUR 103 cereals and vines. Experiments have several times been made in the introduction of the Enghsh workman in the building trade of Montevideo and its suburbs. But these so far have not been successful — not on account of any want of skill on the part of the immigrants, but owing to a failure to adapt themselves to the local circumstances. Chile has in the past suffered a great deal from want of labour. The isolated situation of the Repubhc was, of course, largely responsible for this, since, although the average rate of wages is somewhat beneath that of Argen tina, the nominal cost of living is correspondingly low, and the chmate and natural advantages of Chile are of a kind to attract European emigrants. The opening of the Transandine Railway has already been responsible for certain improvements in this situa tion ; but this, of course, only as regards skilled labour, since the cost of the fare across the Cordillera is naturally outside the financial possibihties of the ordinary emigrant. Curiously enough, so far as manual labour is concerned, the most cosmopohtan elements are found at the two extremities of Chile : the barren nitrate district of the North, and the wooded agricultural districts of the South. In the nitrate regions are workmen of all nationahties. In the South, especially in the neighbourhoods of Concepcion, Valdivia, and similar cities, although the German element predominates, there are labour representatives of many other nations. In the centre, in the country, the towns and in the mines the labour is provided almost entirely by native-born Chileans, while in the pastoral regions the Huazo of Chile corresponds very closely to the Gaucho of Argentina. In Paraguay no acute labour question has ever presented itself ; principally for the reason — to be quite candid — that the industries are not yet in a sufficiently advanced posi- 104 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tion,. for the most part, to bring about any such problem. The Paraguayan himself supplies the men for the estancias as well as for the factories of Quebracho wood, where the tannin is extracted from the timber, and for the yerba mate harvesting, and other local industries of the kind. The Paraguayan still remains an unsophisticated and on the whole a very cheery person, although it must be remarked that he is inclined to be irresponsible to a degree and a httle difficult to manage by those who do not understand his temperament. Although so far Paraguay has not been much concerned with colonies, an interesting attempt of this kind was made by a number of Austrahans, who founded their community on a sociahstic basis. Whatever may have been the reason — whether from a mistaken choice of site, or from the almost insuperable difficulty of blending practice with the precepts involved — the colony has not met with much prosperity. It should be noted here again that a certain number of the Indians of the Chaco are now for the first time coming into contact with civilisation and show themselves more or less adapted to forms of labour such as those of sugar cane cutting and the hke. But this phenomenon is far more evident on the Argentine and Western borders of the Chaco than in that part which marches side by side with the civihsed portion of Paraguay. In Brazil, as has been remarked, the question of labour has been to a certain extent both assisted and complicated by the introduction of the negro, and this on a scale quite unknown in other parts of South America. The negro was in the first place imported in order to work in the sugar-cane fields; and when the importance of the coffee industry grew, great numbers of these Africans were sent to the South Jn order to cope with the new situation. LABOUR 105 The liberation of the negroes was carried out in a more rapid manner than was originally intended. Owing to this haste — born of a humane enthusiasm — there followed an in terlude of some confusion. In some respects there is no doubt that the liberated slaves disappointed their benefactors. The African, when freed, lost no time in divorcing himself from labour as understood by the Brazihan, and in erecting for himself a small hut. Having achieved this much, he found it the simplest matter to live on the proceeds of the few growths planted by him in the surrounding fertile soil. There were many negroes, of course, who missed a number of the certainties and comparative comforts of their former existence, when the responsibihty of their food and living fell upon other shoulders. But on the whole the negro found his hvehhood surprisingly easy to gain. As a result the majority of his race became very small but very independent landowners, who would on no consideration consent to work for others. The negro, without doubt, still provides a certain amount of the manual labour of Brazil. He is to be seen for in stance, working in gangs at the docks in such places as Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Bahia, and Pernambuco — where occasionally full-blooded blacks are to be seen in charge of parties of white men and half-castes, a somewhat rare spectacle ! — while from his ranks are recruited the greater number of the boatmen and deep-sea fishers. Of course these remarks do not apply to the southern and temperate Provinces such as Santa Catharina, Parana, Rio Grande do Sul, and even Sa6 Paolo where mixed European labour obtains largely, and where are estabhshed very important communities of Germans who have founded complete towns of their own. Here, too, important numbers of Russians, Poles, and Italians are to be met with. So extensive, indeed, are the German Colonies in the 106 THE SOUTH AMERICANS South of Brazil that they deserve a special word to them selves. The influx of the Germans, begun almost three- quarters of a century ago, was for a long while in the popular mind supposed to herald some attempt on the part of Germany to obtain control of the southern portion of the great Repubhc. This theory, whether it was baseless or not, never seems to have excited the responsible official minds most affected. If the German intention was as supposed, a certain disappointment would un doubtedly have been met with, since the result of the immigration has been that the great bulk of the colonists have adapted themselves to Brazihan conditions. So that, if Southern Brazil has become Teutonised, it is in language and the externals rather than in sentiment. This supplies merely one more instance of the remarkable power of absorption which South America in general can boast. But this Southern corner cannot be taken as typical of the great Republic. In general the work of the negro may be said to have been carried On by the Italian, who almost throughout South America has proved himself a brilliant success as a labourer. Of course, seeing that his numbers are by comparison so insignificant, although he has been enabled to maintain more or less the industrial situation created by a far larger number of Africans, he has naturally enough not been able to improve much on this. The aboriginal inhabitant of Brazil, as elsewhere on the Continent, has not proved himself adapted for physical labour, and although he has been coaxed here and there to assist in the enterprises of the interior, he usually keeps to his own district and occupies himself with the congenial pursuits of hunting and fishing. For centuries, as a matter of fact, the inland tribes have been left entirely to their own devices, and many of these have never been brought LABOUR 107 into even the remotest contact with civihsed beings. In some districts, where the railways are now beginning to force their way into hitherto unknown territories, contact with the natives has been estabhshed for the first time, and the reputed ferocity of the inhabitants of various countries has been found from actual experience to have been much exaggerated by report. The average native inhabitant of Peru is to be distin guished from his brethren of the South in that he is by nature an agriculturist, and thus the Cholo, by which name this type of Peruvian Indian is known, proves him self an extremely useful citizen, since in addition to being industrious he is orderly and law-abiding, descended as he is from those gentle tribes from whose numbers Pizarro claimed so many victims four centuries ago. The Cholo, well accustomed to the uses of civilisation as he is, is not to be confused with the Indians of the rubber-bearing, stream-intersected territories of the north east of the Repubhc. It is these unfortunate people, who, living their altogether primitive hfe in the remote forests, have suffered so terribly at the hands of those adven turers who contrived to usurp an authority over them. Peru has made the experiment of introducing Chinese labour, but this only to a modified extent, and there does not seem any prospect of this species of immigration grow ing to an important degree. In Bohvia the labour of the country is entirely in the hands of the native Bolivians, who serve very well for the agricultural and pastoral industries in various parts of the Repubhc. There is no doubt, however, that with the opening up of the mining districts and the probable discovery of new and extremely rich tracts of mineral terri tory there will soon arise a demand for labour in Bohvia, which, it is likely enough, will prove sufficiently phenomenal 108 THE SOUTH AMERICANS to be beyond the capacity of its own inhabitants. However, this remains to be seen — doubtless at some time within the next decade. In Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela no immigration has occurred, at all events in recent times, although it is hkely enough that the conclusion of the canal will render a certain introduction of work-people inevitable. In the meanwhile there is no doubt that these countries, compared with the more progressive states of South America, are in a somewhat stagnant condition. The last of the South American countries to be con sidered are the three Guianas. Curiously enough here, the small area is occupied by as mixed an industrial population as any throughout South America, even in the agricultural districts. In the Guianas, in addition to the few native Indians who occupy them selves with their various tasks, in the neighbourhood of the towns are Sikhs and other representatives from our own East Indies, as well as Chinese, Negroes, and numerous other labourers of the kind. CHAPTER VI LITERATURE AND THE PRESS The Three Periods of South American Literature — Records of the Two Civilised Nations of the Pre-Spanish Era — Tradition, History and Religious Tenets of the Incas and Chipchas — Absence of Writing or Hieroglyphics — The '* Quipu " — Its Significant Coloured Wool and Its Various Meanings — The Colonial Period of Literature — The Conquista- dores as Authors — Alonzo de Ercilla — La Araucana — A Famous Battle Poem — Beginning of the English Version — Optimism of the Poet — Work of Las Casas — Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdez— First Paid Official Chronicler of South America — Garcilasso de Vega — Situation at the Period of Independence — Sudden Awakening of an Interest in Literature — Influence of the French — Popular English Writers — An Instance in Connection with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle — The Idioms of South America as Compared with Those of Spain and Portugal — Popular Pronunciation — Castilian as Amended in Argentina and Uruguay — Purity of the Peruvian Speech — Gaucho Dialogues — Respective Literary Tendencies of the North and South of the Continent — Philosophy and Verse as Com pared with History — The Chilian Historian Jose Toribio Medina — Quality and Quantity of His Remarkable Work — Career of a Distinguished Man — Impossibility of a Satisfactory Classification of Authors — Some Modern Writers — F. Garcia Calderon Manuel Ugarte Enrique Rodriguez Larreta and Ricardo Rojas — Influence of Modern European Thought — The March of Literature Compared with That of Industry — Brilliant Writers Pro duced by the Northern Republics — Some Problems of Translation — The Work of Andres Bello — Josfe Marmol, Olmedo and Cecilio Acosta — Ortes and Caro — Barros Arana, Vicuna Mackenna, Luiz Montt — The Argentine Writers, Mariano Moreno, Bartolome Mitre, Dominguez and Vicente Lopez — Importance of the South American Press — Situation at the be ginning of the Nineteenth Century — Inherent Journalistic Tendencies of the Spanish-speaking Races — Freedom of the Press — Its Steady Growth in Brazil — Countries Where the Press Carries most Weight — The Press of the Southern Continent and British Advertisers — The Linking Up of Relations — Number and Scope of the South American Publications — Some Instances — The Latin Love of Politics — Influence of the Trait on Publications — Principal Newspapers of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Brazil and of the Remaining Republics — Publications of the Foreign Communities in South America — Buenos Aires as a Home for Cosmo pohtan Newspapers — Dignity of the Latin-American Press — Housing of the Leading Publications — A Curiosity of the Past History of the 109 110 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Brazilian Press— The Rev. R. Walsh on the Licence Exercised — Some Queer Communications — Threats and Explanations Day by Day — The Old Fashioned Newspaper as an Accusing Agent — Also as an Instrument of Refutation THE literature of South America cannot of course boast of a history comparable with anything such as Asia and Northern Africa can produce. The number of years, indeed, which it covers represents a remarkably short age. For all practical purposes, the literature of the continent may be divided into three periods ; the pre- Spanish, the colonial, and that of the Independence. The first is notable from the fact that it contains prac tically no hterature at all in the general modern acceptance of the phrase. This unique classification holds good even in the case of the two civilised nations of aboriginal America, the Incas in the central west of the Continent, and the Chipchas in the north-west. Both these peoples were amply supphed with traditions, history, and religious tenets. Nevertheless, hieroglyphics such as obtain in the relics of so many other parts of the world do not seem ever to have been met with here. So far as the Chipchas are concerned, I can find no trace of any evidence of aboriginal writing ; not even in the works of Sir Clements Markham, who has devoted so many brilliant and conscientious efforts to these subjects. The Incas, of course, did possess a system by which they were able to place their thoughts and information up to a point — not on paper, but on wool. This somewhat curious instrument was known as a " quipu." The " quipu " was a cord composed of different coloured threads, which sported a number of similar threads by way of a fringe. The significance was obtained not only from the colour of the wool, but from the various methods of knotting. Prescott and other writers explain, that abstract ideas could be derived from these. Thus, white might, accord- LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 111 ing to circumstances (what circumstances I do not know) signify either silver or peace, while the red meant war, a sufficiently appropriate colouring in either case. It is certain that the vocabulary could not have been very extensive, but such as it was, it was sufficiently remarkable. There do not seem to be any other rehcs in the way of aboriginal hterature upon which to enlarge. Coming to the colonial period, we arrive at the epoch when hterature was actively discouraged. It is true that the Conquistadores occasionally sent home reports of what they had done and of all the lands they had conquered, many of which abound, not only in hterary merit but in imaginative feats ! Not that this must be put against the reputation of these really strenuous pioneers. Many a daring fellow has imagined that he has done just a httle more some time after the event, whatever may have been its nature, and if he should endeavour to add a httle to his reputation by means of a pen, or any other way, this surely need not detract from his intrinsic and original merit! Beyond such efforts as these, there was, speaking generally, very httle hterature of any kind during the early period of the Spanish occupation. There were, of course, notable excep tions. There was, for instance, Alonso de Ercilla, whose epic poem, " La Araucana," begun in 1558, still stands as one of the classics of the Spanish language. Ercilla was a battle poet in every sense of the word. He would write many of his cantos when hot from the fight, and these on any chance fragment of skin when other material failed him. The Araucana sings of Chile and of the fiery and unconquerable Araucanian Indians of that country. As a matter of fact, this tremendous poem, " La Araucana," was to Ercilla something in the nature of a diversion after a hard day's fighting. It must be admitted that, although this was so to him, it has come in the light 112 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of many a hard day's work to students of other nation alities, however much they may admire his wonderful vigour ! " La Araucana," by the way, has been translated into Enghsh by Wilham Hayley and the Rev. H. Boyd, rather more than a century ago, and thus readers ignorant of Spanish may appreciate how closely the beginning, although more roundabout, resembles Virgil's Aeneid. So far as this beginning is concerned, it is reasonable to suppose that the one was modelled to a certain extent upon the other. The translation, as rendered by these gentlemen, opens thus : " I sing not of ladies nor of sights Devised for gentle dames by courteous knights. Nor feasts, nor tourneys, nor that tender care Which prompts the gallant to regale the fair. But the bold deeds of Valour's favourite train, Those undegenerate sons of warlike Spain, Who made Arauco their stern laws embrace And bent beneath their yoke her untamed race ! " As a matter of fact, the latter two lines of this quotation savour of an optimism which is really and truly poetic ! Had Ercilla been able to obtain a ghmpse of the future he would have discovered — not a httle to the dismay of his patriotic bosom — that these sons of Spain, for all their mockeries, had not in reahty succeeded in the least in bend ing Arauco beneath their yokes. Instead of the struggles in which he took part being the final ones, as he con sidered, they were actually nothing beyond the opening stages of those tremendous campaigns which endured for centuries. ' Ercilla wrote before Spain and Portugal had seen the advisability of withdrawing education from the colonies. It was not long before the most severe restrictions came into force, altogether to the detriment of any budding genius the colonies might have held. LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 118 Such hterature as was allowed into the continent con sisted merely of rehgious treatises, Art, and the hves of the Saints. Beyond this, there was httle except hterary pap of the kind on which a modern child of seven could scarcely have thriven. This paternal vigilance, as a matter of fact, was connected chiefly with commerce, and had its start in the fear of rivalry. Thus, curiously enough, the chief hterary output of the entire colonial era was in its early days the work of the great Las Casas, the apostle of the Indies and the protector of the Indians, who pubhshed his principal work in 1542, and was thus a con temporary of Ercilla. Moreover, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdez, the first paid official chronicler of South America, began to pubhsh his work in 1575, work, I may say, of a much higher and more hterary order than had been anticipated by those pompous officials who had created the post, and who in consequence were just a little discomposed at the result. A later writer of great distinction was Garcilasso de Vega, who on his mother's side was of blood-royal Inca descent. But on the whole, the hterary feats of the colonial era could not fail to be slender. The policy of Spain, which eventually proved so fatal to her empire, was directly against the development of colonial intellect ; so the fear of rivalry, intellectual and commercial, was allayed by creating a multitude of press censors, and by preventing the introduction of any hterature which might give food for thought. Thus, when we arrive at the period of Independence we find the people from the intellectual point of view somewhat in the position of bulbs, languishing in the frost of centuries, when nothing beyond a few rays of sunshine and a few drops of academic rain was essential for the 8 114 THE SOUTH AMERICANS flourishing and full development of their faculties, which had no choice but to be dormant. Independence once achieved, the study of hterature awoke, I might almost say with a crash, and the interest in fiction, philosophy, and history soon became formidable. In due course, the influence of the French made itself felt in literature as in all else, although the sharp and occasionally callous Gallic philosophy always remained tinged with a touch of romanticism. It is satisfactory to remark that, so far as adventures and the lighter type of literature are concerned, Enghsh writers have now an extensive following among the South Americans, and translations of many well known Enghsh authors have a wide vogue. This the author can vouch for from his own experience. He can, indeed, give a personal illustra tion of this in connection with Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Rather more than two years ago he received a cable from one of the chief South American magazines, asking him to secure the Spanish rights of Sir Arthur's then latest work. He went joyously to the agent to undertake the commis sion, but met with a somewhat chilhng reception. A rival South American publication had secured the story two days previously ! Now this surely speaks well for the enterprise of South American editors. But this is to anticipate the subject of the press. South America, as has been explained, may be said to have enjoyed no more than a century of its own hterature. In this respect it is, therefore, something of a babe among the Continents. Once set going, however, the advance in this direction has been so rapid and so wide-spread that not alone the study of letters but the hterary output of South America has now attained to formidable and note worthy proportions. Before going further into the matter of hterature proper, LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 115 we may consider the various idioms of South America as compared with those of Spain and Portugal. In the case of Brazil and the mother country in Europe very little difference appears to have arisen between the popular rendering of the tongue in either place. Indeed, the con nection between the two has remained so close and the interchange of speech and ideas so continuous that in this instance such shades of difference as exist between the European and American versions of the same speech appear to be altogether insignificant. In certain of the Repubhcs which were once Spanish colonies the distinction is more marked. This, perhaps, is most of all the case in the Republics of Argentina and Uruguay, where the popular pronunciation of a great number of words has assumed some local characteristics of rather interesting order. In some respects it may be said that the difference between the pronunciations as indulged in by the mother-country and these Repubhcs is equivalent to that which marks the North American pronunciation from our own. But this only holds good up to a point, since in South America and in Spain the spelhngs are the same, nor is there the same difference in the timbre of the voice itself such as distinguishes the man of the United States from the Enghshman. In Argentina and Uruguay the distinctions are the most drastic. Whereas the Castihan will pronounce " yo," — I — as spelt, the Argentine has altered its pro nunciation to "jo," the j being pronounced soft as in the French. The same apphes to the word " caballo " a horse, the double " ll's " taking their hquid form in Castile, whereas in Argentina they resolve themselves into 'the soft " j." In addition to such local renderings as these, many new words, of course, have forced their way into the South American tongues which remain quite unknown in Castile. 116 THE SOUTH AMERICANS It may be said that each repubhc has by now developed some linguistic characteristic of its own. The purest Spanish is generally held to be spoken in Peru — the ancient viceroyalty of South America, and in some of the northern Republics and in Bolivia and Colombia. It is, indeed, the boast of such countries as Argentina that the more prac tical, modern, and up-to-date is a nation, the worse does the pronunciation of the original Castihan tongue become ! This theory is usually put forward in jest, and is probably the result of little beyond a coincidence, nevertheless it is certainly founded more or less on fact. Although these discrepancies of speech have crept in in such liberal numbers, they do not, of course, apply in the least to the literature of the various Repubhcs, though they are sometimes rendered in writing in the form of local dialects in fiction and verse. Thus it is by no means unusual now for a writer of the River Plate to reproduce the dialect of the Gauchos, and this has been rendered with considerable success in volume form. With such exceptions as these the main forms of the hterature of Spanish-America remain much the same as that of Castile. There has been, of course, the further addition to the vocabulary of the numerous local words borrowed in the first place from the aboriginals, which, it must be said, form an important factor in the various languages. It has been noticed that whereas in the North the hterature of the Spanish American has been devoted largely to philosophy, verse, and fiction, that of the southern States, although it is also devoted to these three branches just mentioned, concerns itself more especially with history. The numbers of the Chilean and Argentine historians, indeed, have been quite prodigious. That Chile can claim an historian such as Jose1 Toribio Medina is a fact of which any nation might be proud. This remarkable writer has LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 117 proved the most prohfic of all the South Americans. How all-engrossing his labours have been will become evident from the fact that Sefior Medina has now published a hundred and eighty volumes on the various events and aspects of the Continent ! Moreover it must be borne in mind that none are of the type which here is commonly known as the " pot-boiler " ; difficult as it is to conceive such a flow of matter of any other description. Nevertheless there is no doubt whatever that this great Chilean historian's Work has been of the most conscientious and efficient order. As I have had occasion to explain elsewhere, the key-note lies in the fact that Jose Medina not only writes history but hves history. It is, in fact, a labour to which his entire hfe has been devoted. Many honours have fallen to his lot, and he has represented his country at historical Congresses in various parts of the world ; but not one of these honours can be termed super fluous in the case of a writer who has turned out nearly two hundred works of considered history. It is impossible, of course, to take all the notable South American writers singly. The procedure is one which space forbids, although there are many names fully worthy of lengthy comment. Indeed, on this point it is best to make it absolutely clear that even the faintest attempt at any comprehensive classification of authors is quite out of the question in this book. The scope of South American hterature is now so great and the subject has become so important that even an ordinary sized volume in itself would not suffice to give any adequate survey of this matter. Such names, therefore, as I have taken for the purposes of this chapter have been culled more or less at haphazard from the various groups of hterary constellations. As to the modern writers, the subject is naturally a still 118 THE SOUTH AMERICANS more difficult one. The enthusiast would undoubtedly feel inchned to quote largely from such men as the Sefiores F. Garcia Calderon, Manuel Ugarte, Enrique Rodriguez Larreta, Ricardo Rojas, and their colleagues in general, whether in prose or verse, and all this is to say nothing of the numerous essayists and poets of the great intellectual school of modern Brazil. But how would this be possible when throughout the Continent there may, without the least exaggeration, be said to reign some dozens more whose claims are equal with the first. This short description, therefore, must be merely discursive and utterly desultory, lest the gaps should become still more marked through the sahence of the insufficient facts ! It is necessary for the time being to treat the hterature of the Continent in one sense as a whole, although — apart from the respective inchnations towards history and philo sophy already referred to — it is obvious enough that those countries which have been brought more closely into con tact with modern European thought have been influenced from without more deeply than those others which have retained a certain isolation of mind and matter. In such countries as Paraguay, for instance, it may be taken for granted that the thoughts and ideas of the local writers remain more or less in the old and somewhat narrow groove. Not that any settled rule can be assumed from this, since it is from some of the northern Repubhcs which have lagged just a httle behind in the industrial march that in recent years a number of the most brilliant essayists have arisen, men whose works will undoubtedly before long obtain their due meed of recognition in the chief hterary centres of Europe. When this occurs a certain stir cannot fail to be caused by the boldness of touch and the courage of thought displayed by these writers, such as have been transcended by very few. LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 119 Unfortunately the translation of such works is attended by no small difficulty so far as the Enghsh tongue is con cerned. The sonorous numbers of the Castihan tends to lose not a httle when done into our more practical and homely Enghsh. At the hands of such masters of both tongues as Mr. R. B. Cunninghame Graham such things are possible. But how many such exist ? Certainly not enough to spare time for the transposing of any appre ciable proportion of notable South American hterature. For, after all, the galaxy, even of the comparatively early hterary productions of the Continent is very notable in itself. The work of the famous Andres Bello — who was born at Caracas in 1781, and who died at Santiago de Chile in 1865, filled with years and poetic dignity — certainly takes rank in the first flight of all. The modern Peruvian writer Calderon has been guilty of no exaggeration in referr ing to Bello as a true humanist, inspired by Virgil, who attained a classic perfection. Ecuador can lay claim to the poet Olmedo, and Argen tina to Jose Marmol, a famous poet and patriot, who, born in 1818, found himself forced to flee from the tyranny of the Dictator Rosas, and who, a refugee, composed his songs in a foreign land. Marmol was, nevertheless, destined long to survive the rule of Rosas, for he hved until 1881, dying in the same year as the Venezuelan poet Ceciho Acosta, who, curiously enough, had been born exactly a year later than he. Into this branch of hterature it is impossible to enter more deeply here. One might mention in passing such names as the Colombian Ortiz, and Miguel Antonio Caro, and a small host of others, all worthy of lengthy remark. Nevertheless we must turn for a fleeting ghmpse of the historians of the South, one of the most prominent of which, Jose Toribio Medina, has already been dealt with. Other famous Chilian historians have been Barros Arana, 120 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Vicuna Mackenria, Luiz Montt, and many others, while among the most prominent Argentines of the past must rank Mariano Moreno, Bartolome" Mitre, Dominguez, and Vicente Lopez. The importance of the press is, in many respects, pro bably greater in Latin countries than in any others. This is borne out to the full in South America, although the history of the press is as recent as that of general hterature. Just as the first important output of books and periodicals did not come about until the beginning of the nineteenth century, so was the founding and organisation of the newspapers delayed until the same period. Once their own masters, the latent hterary talents and inherent journalistic propensities of the Spanish speaking races throughout the length and breadth of the Continent were given full play. It is true that the freedom of the press has been from time to time restricted, and occasionally practically extinguished by those autocrats who in the past seized upon the dictator's throne and ruled with a rod of iron and with a tyranny which has no parallel save in Asia or in mediaeval Europe. Nevertheless, notwith standing these few set-backs, the power of the press has grown until the South American publications of the better class now, both in vigour and dignity, have nothing to learn from the newspaper world of any other Continent. This apphes, of course, not only to Spanish South America, but to Brazil as well, where, as a matter of fact, the growth of journalism during the first three-quarters of the nine teenth century was effected in a more tranquil and assured manner than anywhere else in South America. It is only natural, of course, that the newspapers should have flourished to the greatest extent in those countries where industrial and pohtical progress has been the most marked. Not that the field of first rate journalism has LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 121 been by any means confined to these. Journalistically, some of the weaker States are most admirably served by their pubhcations. The other countries referred to may, roughly speaking, be accepted as Argentina, Chile, Brazil, Uruguay, and Peru. In all these countries exist a greater or lesser number of periodicals endowed with an entirely adequate and modern cable service, and with every other attribute of a first-class modern newspaper. I am now, of course, laying stress upon the more practical and materiahstic side of the press. From the hterary point of view many other countries, notably Colombia, can lay claim to a very high grade of excellence in their periodical pubhcations. But this does not necessarily form the most sahent feature in the field of practical journalism, and in the methods and pohcy which are now accepted as part and parcel of the career of a great and popular newspaper. The South American press is just at the present moment beginning to awaken considerable interest among the advertisers in England in especial, and throughout the con tinent of Europe in general. The demand for rates and advertisement space is considerable, and is rapidly growing in almost every country of the old Continent. Neverthe less, owing largely no doubt to the methods employed by a certain number of somewhat unscrupulous inter mediaries, the linking up of relations has been somewhat unduly delayed, and those anxious to draw the attention of the wealthy South American nation to their products find themselves still doubting as to the correct procedure to be adopted, to say nothing as to the choice of the most profitable and appropriate organs. This is scarcely to be wondered at when the enormous number and scope of the South American pubhcations are taken into consideration. Some idea of the extent of this will best be instanced by the fact that in Uruguay alone, 122 THE SOUTH AMERICANS territorially the smallest of all South American Repubhcs, more than two hundred publications see the hght ! While, in Argentina the number is popularly supposed, and I be lieve correctly, to exceed eight hundred. For the moment we will refrain from entering into any details concerning this wonderful journalistic output. It must be remembered, of course, that although the average South American has proved himself sufficiently active and enterprising, he partakes strongly of that love of pohtics inherent in the Latin : hence his love of news papers, and hence, in consequence, the fact that many small townships, which in Europe would not be considered of sufficient importance to support a pubhcation of their own, are here supplied occasionally not only with one but with two organs which are usually edited in a very able fashion, and which satisfy the needs of the township and its surroundings. Of these somewhat insignificant pubhca tions there are a certain number which, while retaining the same title for every issue, only appear at lengthy intervals and on special occasions, such as a local or general election or anything of the kind. The pubhcation of newspapers, is, naturally enough considering the condition of the country, more wide spread in Argentina than elsewhere, and though, of course, the main papers have their homes in Buenos Aires, newspapers abound, from the towns in the North on the Paraguayan frontier down to the far Souths The principal Argentine daily papers are " La Prensa," " La Nacion," '>' La Argentina," " El Pais," " El Diario," and " La Razon," and beyond these there are, of course, a great number of reviews, and magazines, humorous and otherwise, such as " Fray Mocho," and " Caras y Caretas," which both belong to the former category. Needless to say, the leading papers of Buenos Aires, such as "La LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 128 Prensa," " La Nacion," and " La Argentina," and their contemporaries, are of immense importance. Their sheets are comparable in every way with the leading publications in London and Paris, and — turning abruptly for the moment to the purely business side of these enterprises, for the benefit of those Enghsh advertisers, who are at the moment seeking information — I may say that their rates are in proportion. Chile is said to possess some four hundred pubhcations, and decidedly from the arid but wealthy north of this country to the moist and agricultural south the Repubhc is mar vellously well provided with pubhcations of all kinds. Of the daily papers, perhaps the two most important are the " Mercurio " of Santiago and the " Mercurio " of Valparaiso. Other papers are the " Diario," the " Prensa," the " Union " and the " Mariana " of Santiago, and " El Dia " and " Union " of Valparaiso, and numerous other pubhcations throughout the country, many in such towns as Concepion being of considerable importance. In Uruguay the leading papers of Montevideo, the eapital, are the " Siglo," the " Dia," the " Telegrafo Mari- timo " and " Diario de la Plata." These newspapers, as well as the remaining types of pubhcations, are for the most part very ably edited and well produced. The most important paper in Brazil is generally con ceded to be the '* Jornal do Commercio," which is a very admirably edited, finely housed and important publication, carrying enormous weight in both pohtical and hterary circles. Other papers are the " Jornal do Brazil," the " Gaceta do Noticias " and numerous others. Some of the leading provincial organs are the " Estado de Sao Paolo," published in the town of that name ; the " Diario de Pernambuco " in Pernambuco, besides which there are several in Bahia, Santos, and other leading towns. The same remarks which apply to the journalistic world 124 THE SOUTH AMERICANS in Spanish South America, hold good in Brazil. In Brazil, though the recent progress in Journalism — With the excep tion of course, of such very weighty organs as the " Jornal do Commercio "—has not quite kept pace with the recent very rapid advance in Argentina and Chile, nevertheless, since Brazil was not fated to undergo those tremendous internal convulsions which followed the War Of Indepen dence, the progress of her newspapers has been more regular from the start. The pohtical importance of the press in Brazil is not to be over estimated and there is no doubt of the part which it has played in the affairs of the nation. As else where in South America, the proportion of pubhc men who began their hves as journalists and who still retain their affection for the art is very great. Of the Spanish Colonies in the eighteenth century, Peru, being the seat of the senior Viceroyalty, advanced most rapidly, or rather least slowly, in the production of books. Journalism as understood to-day was practically non existent to the South America of that period. The stand ing of the press remains very high in Peru ; some of the chief papers pubhshed in Lima being the " Commercio," " La Prensa," " El Diario " and others of a similar type, while towns such as Cuzco, Iquitos, and other centres are very well provided with publications. Bohvia, the geographical situation of which has in the past shut the country off from the outer world, is fairly pro vided with newspapers, although these, naturally enough, are not of the cosmopohtan order of the States previously mentioned. Among the most important of these Bolivian organs are " El Tiempo," " La Paz," " El Progreso," " El Dia," " La Mariana," " La Industria," all pubhshed at La Paz, the capital. LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 125 The remaining Republics, although between them they possess a considerable number of publications, cannot as yet lay claim to any which make a large appeal to the general public outside the frontiers of their own countries. In Colombia, as has been said, an exceptionally high hterary standard prevails. Nevertheless the practical weight carried by the newspapers cannot compare with those of the South, while much the same state of affairs exists in Paraguay, Ecuador, and Venezuela. We may now turn for the moment from the subject of the ordinary press in Spanish and Portuguese to the pubh cations of the foreign communities in South America. In many parts of the Continent these have attained to a very considerable importance. The number of these cosmo pohtan journals is greatest of all in Buenos Aires. Here there are two regular English daily papers : the " Stan dard," an old-established organ ; and the " Herald," a very efficient sheet of more recent foundation. In addition to these there are the weekly issues of the " Standard " and the " Herald," the " Review of the River Plate," the " Hiberno- Argentine Review," and the " Illustrated Times." The German community also possesses two regular daily papers : The " Deutscher La Plata Zeitung," and the " Argentinische Tagblatt ; " while the latter, in addition, pubhshes a weekly number. The chief French paper is the " Courier de la Plata." It is impossible, however, to attempt to enter into a lengthy description of all the foreign publications centred in Argen tina ; suffice it to say that the Italians, Spaniards, and numerous other nationalities each possess their respective organs. In Uruguay the " Montevideo Times " represents the British community, which in Chile has for its organ the 126 THE SOUTH AMERICANS " South Pacific Mail." The most important Enghsh pubhcation in Brazil is the " Brazilian Review." Peru contains a number of newspapers published in English, among them being the " West Coast Leader," " Peru To day," a monthly publication ; " The Inca Chronicle," and the " Weekly News." On the whole, as has been said, the dignity of the press is very fully maintained in Latin America. The housing of the leading pubhcations is carried on in a fashion such as very few European newspapers know ; while the stand ing of the journalist himself is of a nature to attract the leading men of the country. The changing conditions of South America are, of course, reflected in the tone of the press, and a noticeable innova tion in the journalistic world of late is the foundation of a number of sociahstic organs in the progressive countries in the southern half of the Continent. On the whole the hberty of the press throughout South America is generously protected. Although in the most severe crises of the past newspapers hostile to the various authorities have been not only censored but suppressed, it has always been characteristic of South America that the various governments have undertaken such measures as these only with the greatest reluctance, and it has indeed been the task of the several authorities to give every possible facility to freedom of thought as expressed in the columns of the press. Before leaving the subject of the South American press, some curiosities of its past may not come amiss. I am referring now to that of Brazil, of which some interesting records survive. The magnificent Rio de Janeiro news papers can well afford to regard with complacency some scenes and reminiscences of the past, at the beginning of the nineteenth century. LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 127 The Rev. R. Walsh, who published his work in 1830, has a good deal of interest to say on this point. Certainly, from his account, matters were very differently carried on at that period from anything which occurs now, although, doubtless, from their own point of view, many editors, both in Brazil and in England, may regret the some what extraordinary hcence which prevailed in those days. But this, alas for the editor ! like the general at mosphere which pervades Walsh's work, is quite of the dead and gone past. How striking is the contrast between the two is made clear in our author's pages. I think their interest excuses some rather extensive quota tions from this. Walsh begins with some criticism of the " Jornal do Commercio," as it was in those days of its first and appar ently very frail infancy : " The ' Jornal do Commercio,' hke the ' Diario,' is printed on wretched paper, and the typography so bad that it is hardly legible, though it is more in demand than any other. It is almost entirely filled with editals and advertisements ; every pubhcation containing from 80 to 100. Under the head of ' Noticias Particulares,' one per son is informed, that if he does not bring back the books he borrowed, his name will be made pubhc ; another, that a particular person wants to speak to him, and warning him at his peril not to disappoint ; a third, that his stag nant water is very offensive, and if he does not throw it out, a neighbour will come and spill it in his parlour. Some curious notices also appear from ladies : — ' The senhor, who was in the house of Luiza da Conceicao, in the street of Livradio, No. 1, and who requested from the senhora some paper to write on ; and having finished his letter, took from her drawer four milreis in gold, a bank note for eight milreis, and a pair of silk stockings, is requested to 128 THE SOUTH AMERICANS restore the articles if he does not wish to see his name in public. The same favour is requested from the gentle man who carried away her fan, otherwise his name shall also appear.' " Walsh goes on to explain that : " Distributed frequently with the papers, is a loose sheet, called ' Correspondencia : ' — it consists of a letter to the editor, attacking some individuals with whom the writer has had a dispute, and it generally contains the most extraordinary libels that ever were published. The editor of the paper, who prints and circulates the hbel, incurs no responsibihty, provided that he does not refuse to print and circulate a libellous answer. I send you one or two specimens, which came to me folded up in my newspapers. " ' Retribution. — God being pleased to call from this world to a better, the merchant Joao Pereira Borba, and he being a man of correct hfe, wished to prove before his death, by an authentic testimony, that he was an honest man, whose ashes should be respected ; and to that end he inserted the following clause in his will: — "I declare that I always have been a neighbour of the merchant Jose' Lorenco Dios, a native of S. Joao d'El Rey, with whom I lived in close friendship ; and for that reason, I strictly enjoin my heir not to demand from him a large debt, which he contracted at my store, by his constant and daily visits to the bung of a cask of Catalonian wine ; for it would be a burden to my conscience, if what he owes me was demanded, since it was the vicinity of my store to the said merchant's house, that was the real arid proximate cause of his disgracing himself every day, by constant intoxication, by which he has directly and indirectly offended all his countrymen. It would, there fore, be manifest injustice to receive money for that, which LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 129 renders the merchant so contemptible in the eyes of all fellow-citizens." " ' One of the Offended ' " Another instance given is the following : " Senhor Editor of the Astrea, I sign this with a cross, because I can neither read nor write. I was living peace ably in the district of the city of Rezende, where one Simao de Roza wished to get possession of my farm; and when I would not surrender it, he proceeded to denounce me with false accusations, by persons he had under his thumb. There is a Padre Marriano Joz6 de Roza, a brother of the same Simao, who resembles him in every respect. Yes ; it was this padre, or rather this monster, that in his own name denounced me, saying, that I had uttered calumnies against his Imperial Majesty, on which I was taken up, and sent to this city under a guard." After detaihng a number of false accusations uttered by this padre against individuals, and enumerating several whom he attacked in order to assassinate ; as, though a minister of the gospel, he goes about with arms in his hands, he con tinues, " but I will not detail the lewdness of this monster, how many unmarried women he lived with, not his amour with the wife of Francisco de Sylva, his comrade, etc. ; or how he sued at law the same patient Francisco, under the pretext of his having burned eleven feet of a coffee plantation. The monster also invited to his house one Anna Ferreira, and gave her a portion of land near himself, where she had the misfortune to bring her daughter, a child of eleven or twelve years old," etc. After detaihng a number of similar things, says Walsh, in the coarsest language, and pointing out, in words not fit to be translated, how he ought to be used, as he himself had used an unfortunate mulatto, whom he suspected of steal- 130 THE SOUTH AMERICANS ing his hens, he concludes — " But I cannot tell you, in one letter, all the atrocities perpetrated by a priest, who says he is a minister of God ; but who, saving your presence, Sir, is really a minister of the devil. " Joaquim -f Joze" " " These libels," continues Walsh, " constitute a consider able portion of the hterary entertainment of Rio. In passing through the streets in the morning, after the issue of the newspapers, I constantly saw groups of neighbours assembled in some shop, and one of them sitting on the counter, reading a sheet of this ' Correspondencia ' to the rest. It often happens, that the man attacked is one of the party, who never thinks of any other redress, than a reply of similar scurrility." " This correspondence displays, sometimes, extraordinary traits of national feehng on some points, and the estima tion in which different objects are held. By the constitu tional code, a freed man cannot be an elector ; and to remove the imputation, and to entitle them to the elective franchise, which the Brazihans prize very high, they some times produce very extraordinary certificates. A Colonel Joaquim Francisco das Chagas Catete, was a candidate in his parish for that honour ; and a Manoel de Sousa Silva, a chandler, objected to him that he was a freed man. A long scurrilous correspondence ensued, which amused the counters of Rio for several mornings ; and at length it ended in the Colonel producing a certificate of his bap tism : — ' " I certify, that in the year 1780, I baptized and placed the holy oil on the child, Joaquim, the illegitimate son of Francisca das Chagas, a free mulatto woman unmarried, herself illegitimate, and baptized in the parish of S. Joao, of an unknown father, and then a servant in the house of LITERATURE AND THE PRESS 131 the Rev. Joaquim Goncalves de Figueiredo, living in the Bairro da Caturra, of this parish," etc. " Alberto Caetano Alves ' " The colonel concludes this triumphant refutation of his enemies by this declaration : "lam the chief of my family ; I hold the high rank of colonel in the first regiment of the hne ; and I am bound by the ties of blood, by the function of my high employment, and by the honour of an officer, thus to refute the calumnies uttered against me." And this he does, by proving that he was the natural son of a mulatto servant maid ; herself the natural daughter of an unknown father! CHAPTER VII INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES The Continent as a Drain of European Latin Labour — Advantages of the Italian and Spanish over the British Immigrant — Results on His Health and Temperament — Some Warnings — Openings for a Select Few of the Humbler Working Classes — Advantages in the Path of the Small Capitalist — Opportunities of Investment — A New Comer and the Rougher Characteristics of the New World— Circumstances of the Big Towns — Opportunities in the Lesser Urban Centres — The Necessity of Proceeding Farther Afield — South America as a Capitalist's Continent — Increasing Scale of the Various Undertakings — Growing Necessity for Capital — Instances Where this Holds Good — Chances of the Private Investor — The Continent ancj the Artistic World — Warm Welcome Accorded to Genius — The Theatres of South America — Booking Successes of Touring Companies — A Possible Opportunity for an English Enterprise of the Kind — Some Pros and Cons — The European Commercial Traveller — Consular Reports on His Capabilities — The British Agent Compared with His Continental Rivals — Blunders of the Past — The Disadvantages of Undiluted Sterling Merit — Some Examples — Characteristics of the South American — A Bold Suggestion Diffidently Put Forward — The Panama Canal — Results of the New1 Waterway Discounted — Surmises Concerning Its Effects on the Various Republics — The Advantages of the Pacific — Situation on the Atlantic Coast — Prophetic Difficulties — Explorations in South America —The Unknown Territories which Remain — Possibilities in the Hinter land of Brazil and of Various Other Republics — The Basin of the Amazon — Some Questions of Hidden Treasure — The Wealth of the Incas and Chipchas — The Romance of Lake Guatavita — Lake Titicaca — Charac teristics of This Remarkable Water — Its Navigation IT is a platitude to remark that industrially South America is dependent for its prosperity upon its immi grants ; since obviously had not the first immigrants arrived in the Continent, there would have been no in dustry from the modern point of view to this day. As a magnet of labour the force and attraction of South America has now become of world-wide importance. As is ex plained elsewhere, the Continent now drains several of 132 INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 188 the European Latin countries of their human labour assets — somewhat to the indignation of the various Governments concerned, it is true. These types of emigrants undoubtedly are the most suited for South America in general. Nevertheless, curi ously enough, the Latins of Europe, to say nothing of the Slavs, Greeks, and other races of the kind, are no longer restricting themselves to the Southern Continent, but for a considerable number of years have now been flowing in great quantities into the United States. So formidable is the influence of these great armies of immigrants on the industries, and consequently so weighty has the displace ment of labour become that the matter is causing no httle concern to the United States authorities. In South America, of course, no such problem has arisen. The absence of any difficulty of the kind is easily explained. In the first place, it is owing to the comparatively scanty population of the various Republics, and in the second place owing to the fact that these particular types of immigrants mingle with the original owners of the soil in a far more natural and automatic fashion than is the case in the United States, where wider barriers between the various sections of the new populations would seem to exist. For our particular purpose here the question of the British emigration is by far the most important, for Britain, as well as treasure, has sent out many thousands of men to the Southern Continent. South America has, I know, excited no little interest of late years in the British labour market. Nevertheless, saving two or three Republics I think it may be safely said that South America is no place for the average British working-man. In the first place, save for the quite Southern districts of the Continent, the climate is one which does not suit the constitution or temperament of the British artisan or 134 THE SOUTH AMERICANS labourer in the very least, and the result only too frequently is a flight for consolation to strong hquor. This, as a rule, is the beginning of a very rapid end, for after this, seeing that in the South American labour market he is competing with extraordinarily hard-working, and at the same time exceptionally temperate, Italians and Spaniards, his down fall is complete. There are, of course, various British immigrants of the kind who have succeeded, and it must be admitted that in their case the success has been phenomenally marked. But this has not been because of the circumstances, but in spite of them. If the British workman of the unskilled and navvying order, should his mind be set upon South America, would bear in mind that he is about to sail for a country, the language of whose inhabitants he does not understand, and where the cuisine, manners, customs, and in fact, almost all the attributes of ordinary every-day hfe are of an entirely different type to those to which he has been accustomed, he would readily pause. No, I think it quite justifiable to state in so many words that for the man of slender education who is not offered special facilities and who is not endowed with special capabihties, the South American market yawns as a grave of hopes, if not of body. The enterprising person, on the other hand, who is enabled to start for the great Continent with a certain sum of money at his command, is of course, in a very different position, and there is no doubt that, should he possess ordinary commercial acumen, he may be warmly urged to proceed to the Continent. It is almost unneces sary to lay stress on the precautions which he must exercise at the start. For the first few months, at any rate, he will find it necessary for his enterprise to he perdu, since to indulge in any speculations ere he is acquainted with the language INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 135 or with the peculiarities of his particular neighbourhood would, it is clear, be to handicap his chances quite unduly and unnecessarily. Having once become familiarized to a certain extent with the ways of his surroundings, the opportunities which offer themselves for investment are in the ordinary course really quite exceptionally favourable. If he has sufficient wit to keep his eyes clear, he will very soon discover that, notwithstanding its traditions of history and romance, South America, industrially and commercially, is a very new Continent indeed. Schooled originally by the repressive Iberian legislation, a legisla tion which sought to deprive the colonists of all the fruits of their land and toil in order that the Iberians might be endowed with these, the South American had for genera tions accustomed himself to hve without certain luxuries and ordinary comforts. Until a comparatively recent period some remnants of this condition of affairs still prevailed. It is true that in the big towns such as Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Valparaiso and the other great centres of the Southern Continent, circumstances are purely European, and every facihty abounds which is to be met with in London or Paris. Nevertheless, had you visited even these great cities only some ten or fifteen years ago, you would have found various gaps in the minor essentials of the place. To choose an instance at haphazard, you would have discovered that, although in the best hotels the meals were accompanied by the usual additions of vegetables, this was by no means the case in the lesser estabhshments, and that, indeed, on the whole such cities as these were quite in adequately provided with the vegetables such as modern taste deems almost indispensable. At the present time these large urban centres are sur rounded by spreading market-gardens, from which potatoes, peas, beans, and similar growths are sent in wholesale 136 THE SOUTH AMERICANS every morning. Thus anyone who might feel inclined to start a market-gardening enterprise in the neighbourhood of these capitals, would find himself entering upon an industry already fairly well worked, and would therefore meet with the competition of those already engaged in this. Notwithstanding this it need not follow that his moderate success would be impaired. He would merely lose the incalculable advantage of being the first in the field. On the other hand, there are at the disposal of a new comer such as this a great number of cities of lesser magni tude which are now increasing at a remarkable rate, and which are just as much in need of such material amenities as are the capital cities themselves. The question is one which it has always been of vital importance for the newcomer in the Continent to under stand : that is, when the various chief centres become congested, nothing more is needed than to go further afield. This has been proved on countless occasions, and it may be apphed to almost every branch of industry in a major or minor degree — least of all perhaps to mining, where the question of transport becomes difficult, and which is, indeed, a branch of enterprise more adapted to pubhc Companies or to the important capitahst than to the ordinary private enterprise. Of course, hke every other Continent, South America of late years has tended to grow at the mercy of the capi talist and of the large corporations and limited companies, somewhat to the prejudice of the interests of the small private investor who desires to conduct his own enterprise. This is inevitable, of course, when the increasing scale on which all things are now undertaken is brought into consideration. Thus, where before a few barges and sailing vessels sufficed for the navigation of a river, whole fleets of steamers are now necessary. And where before a man INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 187 might own three topsail schooners and with them carry on a fairly thriving trade on a capital of a few thousands of pesos, a few millions must now be expended to carry on a similar but infinitely swollen enterprise. It is the same, of course, not only with the mines, which demand the introduction of the modern, expensive, and comphcated plant, but even in many districts in the case of land which requires regular cropping and the introduction of costly pedigree stock to maintain the high average of the cattle, horses and sheep. And it is the same, moreover, with such industries as that of beef-killing and curing. In the old days an establishment of the kind might be carried on on a comparatively small scale, and indeed any small landowner might by the investment of a few thou sands of dollars start some small plant of the kind, and be certain of a satisfactory demand for its sun-dried beef. But the number of these which now survive is extremely in significant, for the more practical, elaborate, and of course, costly, process of chilling has to a great extent done away with the original methods of curing and drying meat in the sun. Thus the introduction of the process of chilhng meat was fatal to the existence of the small capitahst in the meat curing industry, and indeed, has entailed the intro duction of world interests, including that of " trusts " with all their attendant comphcations, advantages, and drawbacks. The same may even be said of tobacco ; for in some parts of the Continent where previously the tobacco might be brought from the plantations and made up into brands of cigarettes — which although of no great importance commercially, at ah events sufficed to keep the owner and his hands in comfort — trusts have again stepped in and are fighting battles with other important combines in the course of which the original small owners of cigarette 138 THE SOUTH AMERICANS manufactories were of course squeezed out of existence and became known no more. Still it must not be thought from this that the chances of the private investor in South America are a thing of the past : nothing is further from the case. At the present moment hfe in South America tends, if anything, to con centrate itself rather too much in the great towns. The effect of this is to leave not only the rural parts of the various Repubhcs, but many of the minor centres of popula tion, in a somewhat neglected state by comparison. This will be in itself obvious when the extraordinarily large popu lations of the various capitals of the States are compared with the entire populations of the respective countries. Thus, at the risk of repetition it is necessary to add that, whatever the industry or the occupation may be into which the new-comer decides on throwing his energies, he need not be discouraged if he finds that comparatively httle room for them is left in the capital cities. It is only a question of going further afield. To really famous men, whatever may be their nationality, profession, or calhng, South America has always offered the warmest welcome. Great artistes, for instance, in variably experience the most gratifying appreciation of their talent in the great Southern Continent, for, speaking generally, no keener judge of art and artistes exists than the South American. This appreciation, moreover, has its practical side, and these celebrities have found that the monetary remuneration nearly always exceeded their ex pectations in the most pleasing manner. The hst of famous artistes who have visited the Continent is now a very formidable one. It includes almost every star of the Latin race, to say nothing of a considerable number of others beyond. Formidable collections of minor constellations, moreover, are continually passing along the INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 189 South American coasts, giving performances at one place, and then moving onwards to another. In connection with this subject there is one point which may be of interest to a certain number of people in London. The chief theatres of the Continent are visited for the most part by Itahan and Spanish Companies who present all species of performance, from hght Opera to Melodrama. The booking-successes achieved by these companies are frequently notable enough. This is only natural, since, whether the speech of the singers be Spanish or Italian, it is understood with almost equal ease by practically every townsman in South America. Thus the pubhc at the disposal of these companies is not only large, but open- handed. Now of late years on my various visits to the Southern Repubhcs, the question has frequently been asked concerning the chance of an English Operetta Company visiting the Continent. That a number of musical comedies in Enghsh would meet with a very cordial reception is quite certain, and that the prices obtained from the various seats would be unusually remunerative is equally sure. On the other hand the difficulty appears to he in the limited number of towns in which these very remunerative performances could be given, and the lengthy distances which separate the one from the other of these distinctly favoured spots. It is true, as I have already said, that many of the tropical cities, as well as those of the temperate regions, are fre quently visited by touring Companies. The financial results have been, I imagine, in proportion to the hardships and inconveniences incurred. Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten that in certain districts these latter are really considerable, and, were an Enghsh Musical Comedy Com pany ever to visit South America, they would I think do wisely to consider the populous and beautiful town of Rio 140 THE SOUTH AMERICANS de Janeiro as the Northernmost point of their tour, — on the Atlantic coast at least. On the Pacific the circumstances — chmatic and otherwise — are somewhat different, and un doubtedly a performance could be held in comfort in Lima, which would be physically distressing in the heated atmo sphere of the corresponding latitude on the opposite coasts. Then, on the other hand, whether the older fashioned and dignified community of Lima — a community which many South Americans assert retains much of its old Spanish colonial atmosphere — would consent to patromze light Opera en masse, is quite another matter. So that the element of speculation is very httle further removed from a venture of this sort in South America than in any other part of the world. Nevertheless to those prepared to face the ordinary risks of such world-wide touring com panies the enterprise might well prove tempting enough. To turn to what is perhaps a more sohd and less specula tive subject, much has been written concerning the Euro pean commercial traveller in South America, and many comparisons have been made between the representatives of British firms and those of their foreign competitors. On this subject, remarks have even appeared in Consular reports and other official documents, and the general opinion is becoming strengthened that a considerable pro portion of the British commercial travellers has in the past not been altogether fittingly equipped to compete successfully with his foreign rivals. That this was so some years ago there is no doubt whatever. Many errors of judgment were committed through a misconception of the situation on the part of commercial men at home. Indeed, many important Enghsh firms appeared to be under the impression that so long as a commercial traveller could, " work " any district in London or its suburbs, he was fully entitled to proceed to South America and to cope INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 141 with the circumstances, sufficiently varying in themselves, of that Continent. This theory was occasionally carried to an almost absurd degree, and I myself have met in South America representa tives of really important Enghsh firms that were seeking large contracts from the Governments, who were, to say the least of it, handicapped in their task, a task for which none but specially prepared and qualified men should have been employed. These others, although they were honest, straightforward men, perfectly acquainted with the details of the articles in which they dealt, altogether lacked the social standing (to say nothing of aspirates) which would have placed them more or less at their ease when negotiating with ministers and other people of the kind. It is not necessary to labour this point ; it is indeed one of those lamentable examples which goes to prove that mere merit in itself does not always come first, if quite unadorned. The hint appears to have been taken of late years, and from what I have seen of the British representa tives who now proceed to South America in search of contracts for battleships and other expensive luxuries of the kind, these are now, it is gratifying to be able to remark, gentlemen quite of the type which is required. There is no doubt that the South American, for all his sterhng merit, is not unimpressed by outward appearance. He is not alone in this. Like the rest of the world, he has astonishingly httle objection to such matters as pomp, rank, and even titles. Spanish royalty met with an en thusiastic reception some years ago on the occasion of the Argentine Centenary exhibition. It is quite certain, moreover,* that the recent visit of Prince Henry of Prussia to South America has, to say the least of it, done no harm to German trade with the various Repubhcs which his royal » Written previous to the outbreak of war. 142 THE SOUTH AMERICANS highness has visited. Of course it would be indiscreet to suggest competition in such high quarters as this. Never theless, I do think that if we, in our turn, could spare just a httle royalty for quite a small tour in South America, Wehj surely the results would be quite admirable in every respect — but this hardy suggestion is of course made with the most complete diffidence. There is a great deal of confusion in the pubhc mind concerning even broad national distinctions of the Con tinent. It is, for instance, popularly supposed that a knowledge of Spanish will carry the traveller through every quarter of the Continent. For this reason, very rightly, an acquirement of the Spanish tongue is strongly urged by many concerned in giving advice to those about to start for South America. For some reason or other, the language of Brazil, which is of course, Portuguese, would seem to be frequently overlooked on such occasions, yet the importance and the actual space occupied by Brazil in South American affairs, are sufficiently obvious — even to the least initiated. Of course, there is this to be said in excuse of this uninten tional slight of the Brazilian national tongue, that Spanish is readily understood by the average Brazihan and Portu guese, although the Portuguese speech appears to come with less famihar accents to the ear of the Spaniard. This wholesale inclusion of Brazil among the Spanish Repubhcs of South America is only one more instance of the popular mental heaping together of ah these nations and peoples that are actually distinct the one from the other on account of many sahent traits. As a matter of fact, the gulf which separates Brazihan South America from Spanish South America is wide, and certainly quite as marked as that which divides the httle European Re pubhc fromits greater monarchical neighbour to the east. The temperament of the average Brazihan of the central INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 143 and southern districts in itself differs considerably from that of the Spanish-speaking peoples of the same, and of the more northern, latitudes. The Brazihan in the past has indulged, speaking generally, in a rather less athletic hfe than that adopted by the Argentines and their neigh bours. It is true that he is now amending this, and that the younger generations of Brazil show very considerable aptitude in the various games and sports which they have taken up. On the other hand, the Brazihan of the past, as well as of the present, generation, represents one of the most intellectual types of South America. The proportion of Brazihans who have attained to world wide celebrity is notable, and the brilliancy displayed by the representa tives of their diplomatic service, and other official branches of the kind, has been proved on very numerous occasions. The Brazihan has distinguished himself, not only in hterature, but in science, and it is one of the great Re pubhc' s most notable medical men who has succeeded in stamping out yellow fever from the centre of the country, and is now engaged in a similar beneficial task in the north. There seems no doubt that Brazil is destined to present the world with a galaxy of men of the highest intellectual order. From the industrial and commercial point of view, there is no doubt that Brazil is a wonderfully favoured and fortunate land. This has now been recognised for many decades. Here is the opinion of a rehable writer, a Mr. Luccock, who, in the early years of the nineteenth century, described the great State, then the property of the Crown of Portugal. " Her foreign commerce," he says, " although not carried on by her own shipping or seamen, nor with her own capital, is of great advantage to Brazil. Brazil, indeed, is placed in singular circumstances. It is not in the power 144 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of commerce to take from her anything but the produce of her own labour : it can yield her nothing that is valu able but the proceeds of foreign ingenuity. If it be asked, what she wants ? The reply is, nothing but luxuries. Are gold, silver, or jewels desirable? She possesses them in abundance, they cost her only labour. Does the country refuse to yield corn, or wine, or oil, or anything else which is valuable in the support of hfe ? It has been controlled by colonial laws, and has not yet recovered from the harm they have done. Do the people want clothing or furni ture, or articles of show and parade ? These depend upon taste and fashion, and Brazil will receive no more of them than her surplus labour, which must always be voluntary in degree, can pay for. She can never purchase when she ceases to sell ; her trade is only barter ; hence the balance can never be against her, and the country must be her best friend which makes the largest purchases." Much of this holds good to-day, notwithstanding the fact that she is necessarily hable to commercial- set-backs, for the treasures of Brazil are of almost incalculable value. Indeed, they have not yet been fully revealed. In these respects, the romance of Brazil is far greater than that of any other South American country. Its interior is remarkable as containing some of the very few really important tracts of territory which still remain unexplored. It is not a httle refreshing to be able to hsten to the dis putes of pioneers and travellers, whose versions concerning the nature of the new country traversed differ. The world had grown to beheve that such polemics were as extinct as the dodo, the horse-omnibus, or the buccaneer's caravel. Fortunately, this is not yet so, although the interval must be short enough before this mihennium of disillusion ment arrives. In the meanwhile, the arguments are most welcome, and the warming disputes as to the actual courses A SOUTHERN CHILEAN WATERFALL INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 145 of new rivers, and as to whether they have really been discovered for the first time, or merely re-found, must cause the ears of every F.R.G.S. to prick up high aloft with joy. The part which England has played in the affairs of Brazil has been quite as considerable as that she has taken in the concerns of Spanish South America. England's first official introduction to the great State, was, of course, through the medium of the mother country, Eng land's oldest ally, Portugal. It was an Enghsh fleet which, in the first instance, escorted the king, a fugitive from the might of Napoleon, from his capital of Lisbon to his new chief city of Rio de Janeiro. It was an English squadron, moreover, which in the first days of the Brazihan kingdom, lay in attendance in Rio harbour, to obey any behest uttered by King Joao. As a matter of fact, the solicitude of Great Britain for both Portugal and the infant Brazil was httle short of maternal at this period. It was an Enghsh man-of-war which was wont to escort the Portuguese royalty on their voyages to and fro, and it was an English man-of-war which brought the scions of monarchy back to Portugal when the Brazilians decided to dispense with the kingly services of Pedro I, and elected in his stead the child emperor, Pedro II. This friendship with Portugal, having its source in things political, would naturally be extended to the in dustrial and commercial circumstances of Brazil. The first State loans of the Kingdom, Empire, and Repubhc of Brazil were initiated and largely fostered by Enghshmen, while the first consignments of goods which were permitted by law to be landed on the shores of Brazil, came from British mercantile firms. It is true that the British have not taken up land in Brazil to the same extent that they have in the southern IO 146 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Republics of Spanish South America. Against this it must be admitted that, so far as the rubber industry is con cerned, many companies formed for the exploitation of this are British, but this special branch of enterprise is not in the least connected with agriculture in the ordinary sense of the word, since nothing more is involved than the collection of the wild produce in a certain conceded area. Agricultural ventures proper, such as are represented by the great fazendas, where are coffee, rice, cotton, and all the other agricultural products that Brazil grows, are seldom in the hands of foreigners. The land-owner of conse quence in Brazil is nearly always a Brazilian. I am, of course, now excluding the agricultural colonies of the South, peopled by Germans, Italians, Poles, and other folk of the kind, since these, although land-owners, are really for practical purposes in the position of a closely settled mass of tenant farmers. The sole person who corresponds to the estanciero of Argentina is, in Brazil, the owner of the fazenda, and he, as I explained, is not represented by a cosmopohtan order of people. In some respects this is not difficult to understand. In the River Plate Repubhcs vast extents of territory may be worked by a few Gauchos, under the supervision of Enghsh or any other foreign estancieros. In Brazil, on the other hand, owing to the nature of the produce grown, the labour conditions are far more comphcated, save in the furthest south, where a similar state of affairs prevails to that in Uruguay and Argentina. Elsewhere, the hfe is that of the plantation, and into this enters the negro and the mixed racial elements that find themselves best fitted to deal with the tropical conditions and the tropical growths. Where it may be possible for a man skilled in farming to find himself more or less at home in the pastoral hfe of southern South America in the course of a few months, INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 147 such would be out of the question in Brazil. For here the comphcated workings of the fazendas require an apprentice ship of years. It is true that, at the end of this, the results should be brilhant enough, but the life, delightful though it is, does not seem to make the same cosmopolitan appeal as does the other. No doubt the tropical conditions of the climate are not a httle concerned in this. To return to a topic which is of interest to the entire Continent : perhaps the most talked of industrial enter prise not only of present times, but throughout the whole history of the world, is that of the Panama Canal. The vast achievement is at length very nearly accomphshed, and very soon the actual effects and influences of the new waters will become apparent. As a matter of fact, many of these particular circumstances have already been dis counted, as is usual in such lengthy undertakings, and speculators have already for some while past been at work on the Northern half of the Pacific coast of South America in anticipation of the days when this, from a steamship point of view, shall have been brought to within half its past distance from Europe and from the Atlantic Sea ports of South America. There is again a vague popular theory that the cutting of the great Canal will benefit the Pacific States just a httle to the detriment of the more important countries on the Atlantic side of the Continent, such as Argentina and Brazil. How this should be is a httle difficult to under stand. It is true that a considerable amount of the more costly species of merchandise is now sent to Chile and the Pacific coast by way of Buenos Aires, Mendoza, and the Transandine Railway. It is possible enough, too, that a certain proportion of North American goods may be de flected by the new marine lane. But it seems quite certain that goods from Europe which, after all, up to the present 148 THE SOUTH AMERICANS time represent by far the most important proportion, can be in no way affected. Moreover the increasing traffic between the two Republics concerned in itself more than justifies the existence of this important Transandine Rail way, and indeed the contemplation of similar enterprises to the South. So far as Brazil is concerned, any detrimental influence of the kind is at least as unhkely, for Brazil possesses no railway communications with the Pacific, and although her great stream, the Amazon, carries a certain amount of cargo on its bosom to Peru, and even Bolivia, the com mercial advantages reaped by Brazil from this traffic have been very inconsiderable. For all practical purposes, so far as South America is concerned, the influence of the Canal may be considered as confined to the benefits it is likely to confer upon such States as Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, rather than to any disadvantages which it might bring to bear on other States. The range of these possibihties, as a matter of fact, none can foresee, and not even the most enthusiastic and able theoretical statistician could dare to prophesy anything in the least definite concerning the state of affairs which will prevail when the water-way is concluded. Indeed any statements of the kind may at once be accepted with the utmost reserve as necessarily partaking of the nature of the wildest guess-work. For the moment, though, we must leave it at this point. That the Pacific coast will benefit is certain. It may become transformed. It may, with its enormous mineral wealth, become the richest coastline in the world. On the other hand it may not ! Voild tout ! We must, I fear, leave the matter at that ! To continue a topic which has already been lightly touched on in this chapter, perhaps one of the most fas- INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 149 cinating problems, and at all events one of the most romantic elements in the South America of the present day, is in troduced by the question, " What is the releft to explore ? " The advantages, of course, which the early conquistador es possessed over the present-day generation are incalculable. At every step which the pioneers took would arise a hope and a doubt. One might be cutting one's way through a dense forest to light upon a clearing and a mountain of gold ! Who knew ? Why not ? Because such things seldom happened was no reason why they should not occur. Raleigh was probably far happier in his search for " El Dorado " than he would have been had he actually lit upon this fabled and favoured land. But the globe is growing small. The present size of South America as compared with that of even a century ago is totally in significant. It is true that some corners remain — of course by corners I mean some millions of square miles — among the hidden depths of which may, and probably do, lurk mines and minerals and unexpected sources of incal culable wealth. Such a prediction is safe enough, since, were this not the case, it would be far stranger ! This unexplored country hes for by far the greater part in the interior of Brazil ; although portions of these regions of infinite possibilities are comprised in the interior of Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, the Guianas, Bohvia, and Peru. In the region of the Amazon basin itself there are, of course, vast areas which have never been trodden by man. But these are, for the most part, covered by forests of a density that permits no man to penetrate them unless by means of a machete or heavy cutting knife. Generally speaking, it may be said that this basin of the Amazon is really known only in the quite near neigh bourhood of the banks of the streams themselves. But this is not the region, although in itself containing sources 150 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of great wealth, which prospectors and pioneers have in mind, and which, they allege, may be productive of anything the world has yet produced. This hes to the South of the Amazon basin, and whereas the nature of the country about the great river system is more or less accurately known, much of that which hes to the South admits of nothing beyond surmise. Having once entered the land of sheer romance and imagination, we may go a step further and wonder as to the buried treasures which so many chroniclers of all ages have upheld were concealed by the Incas, and by the Chipchas in the North. The reason for such concealment was, of course, perfectly clear and logical. After a while the unfortunate natives began to realize that no peace would ever enter into their hves so long as their land was suspected of containing gold. It was therefore to their interest to conceal all traces of this coveted metal, which worked such disastrous results on the native races. That large quantities were concealed and in some in stances thrown into the lakes such as Lake Guatavita there is no doubt. There may even be some Indians living who could, but even now will not, tell. In the ordinary way the search for treasures of the kind in districts the size of those affected would be like searching for a needle in a hay stack, and, failing some really reliable evidence, should not enter into the range of practical enterprise. Nevertheless it is certain enough that vast quantities of such treasure, spurned by the natives and flung away in dread, exists. On the borders of Peru and Bohvia stretches the most wonderful Lake in the world at a height of over twelve thousand feet. Titicaca extends for very nearly two hundred kilometres in length, and at its widest point achieves a breadth of sixty-five kilometres ; its total superficial area exceeding five thousand kilometres. INDUSTRIAL OPPORTUNITIES 151 This Lake of Titicaca is notable for more than its mere geographical situation ; it possesses its own romance, and it is famed, indeed, as the headquarters of Peruvian myth ology. It was on one of the Islands which stud the shining, lofty waters of Lake Titicaca that the first of the Incas and his sister-wife are said, hving sunbeams, to have descended from on high. In modern days the navigation of this vast sheet of water among the clouds, is largely undertaken by steamers. At the same time the chief carrying vessel of the Lake is the balsa, the small native craft which has existed on the Lake from time immemorial. These balsas are very curious vessels, constructed chiefly of straw and reeds, and fre quently endowed with a mat sail. Lake Titicaca, by the way, has a distinction unique in all the lakes of South America, and very nearly throughout the world, of having experienced a naval battle fought out on its waters. It is true that the war-ships comprised nothing beyond these balsas carrying for the occasion armed men, and the fight was between the revolted Indians and the Spaniards. Not many details concerning the incidents of the humble naval combat are available. Of course so large a surface as that of Titicaca is very much at the mercy of the winds and thus quite heavy seas prevail at times on the Lake. A curious sensation, could one realize it — which is, of course, impossible when on the spot — that of heaving and tossing on a hmitless horizon at a height closely approaching that of Mont Blanc in Europe ! CHAPTER VIII FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA Position of the Foreigner before the War of Liberation — European Nations and the Slave Trade — The Buccaneers — Their Intercourse with the South Americans — The Dutch in Brazil — Their Operations Under Prince Maurice of Nassau — The French in Rio de Janeiro — Struggle between Them and the Portuguese — The British Expeditions to the River Plate — General Whitelocke's Policy — The Romance of the Guianas — Nations Involved — The Welser Merchant Princes — German Connections with South American History — Consolidation of the Latin Empire — Exclusion of Foreigners — An Exception Made in the Case of the Irish — Some Notable Irishmen of the Colonial Days — Admiral Cochrane and Admiral Brown — The Foreigner in Modern Times — Respective Industrial Spheres of Action — Position of Foreigners in the Belligerent Forces — Some European Scientists who have Visited South America — Neolithic and Palaeolithic Opportunities — Early Relations of the British with the South American Repubhcans — Industrial Work of the British — The Germans — The French and Belgians — The United States and the Beef Industry — The North American's Interest in Timber — Dentistry — Spanish and Italian Immigrants — The South American and Sport — Influence of Great Britain — Football the National Game of South America — Rowing, Golf, and Tennis — The African in Brazil — His Hobbies — Brazilian Demon- strativeness— Scenes in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro — Ties between Portugal and Brazil — The Constant Interchange of Population — The Wanderlust of the Portuguese Peasant — A Brazilian Corner of Portugal — Fortunate Inhabitants of the Minho — The Career of the Portuguese Immigrant — His Triumphal Return — His Tastes — Study of His Clothing — Varying Political Sentiments in Europe and South America — The Brazilian Royalist and the Portuguese Republican — A Frank Confession By the Way — Paris and the Brazihan — Intellect versus Athleticism — Diplo matic Relations between the British and the Brazihan — How They Began FROM the industrial point of view the foreigner can scarcely be said to have counted in Spanish South America before the War of Liberation, and in Portu guese South America before the translation of the Court of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro. Since both these circumstances 132 FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 153 occurred practically at the same time it is rather curious that Spanish South America and Brazil should from such widely different causes find themselves in almost the same position as regards the history of their industries. Of course foreigners had not been deprived of all inter course with South America previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Despite the stringent Laws of the Indies much smugghng had been carried on at the various important ports of the Continent. The Enghsh, moreover, as well as the French were in the quite early days con cerned in the slave trade, and were hcensed to bring over cargoes of Negroes from West Africa to South America. Then, to add to the dislocation of the commercial pro gramme as arranged by the Spaniard, there were the buccaneers. But, although these grim and daring gentle men must not be left out of consideration, their intercourse with the South Americans was necessarily intermittent in the extreme, and so violent as to prevent any exchange of ordinary views ! Apart from these spasmodic raids of the buccaneers there had, of course, been various organized attempts to found Colonies in South America by the Euro pean nations. The most persistent of these were the Dutch, who carried on their operations on a much larger scale than those of any other European nation. Indeed, for a considerable period the Dutch held control of almost the entire coast line of Northern Brazil : their headquarters being the town of Pernambuco. It was only after many years of hard fighting that they were in the end expelled. Indeed, at one time, under their capable leader Prince Maurice of Nassau, it looked very much as if the Dutch Empire were likely to prove a permanent one in these regions. So far as Pernambuco itself is concerned, the town still retains, archi tecturally, many traces of the Dutch occupation. 154 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Similar attempts on the part of the French were confined to Brazil and Guiana. The French, as a matter of fact, arrived off the coast of Brazil at a very httle later period than the Portuguese themselves, and they were indeed the first to colonize Rio de Janeiro. Later a formidable expedition under the Admiral Trehouart assailed Rio de Janeiro, but did not attempt to occupy the place permanently. The Enghsh expeditions under Generals Auchmuty, Beresford, and Whitelocke to Montevideo and Buenos Aires ended in disaster. The Argentines, it is true, fought with an admirable resolution and courage ; but at the same time it is generally admitted that the chief cause of defeat of one of the finest armies that Great Britain had ever sent from her shores was the crass incompetence of General Whitelocke, who sent his men through the narrow streets of the town in separate bodies, leaving them to be shot down by the defenders from the house-tops. Curiously enough the only traces which now remain in South America of the many and important efforts of the English, Dutch, and French to obtain a footing in the Continent are confined to the three Guianas. From a territorial point of view, the result is somewhat insignifi cant, it must be confessed. Moreover, the Guianas, much coveted in bygone centuries, have not yet fulfilled their promise, and, rather late buds, have become somewhat lost to sight, and altogether overshadowed by the tre mendous growth of the more southern portions of - the Continent. The Germans seem frequently to have been allies in colonizing with the Spaniards in the very early days. Thus in the sixteenth century a part of the north of the Continent was leased to the Welsers, merchant princes, who undertook to colonize these districts, and to keep them subdued. Seeing that it was to the interest of the FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 155 Germans — who were, so to speak, mere leasehold tenants — to make as much money in as short a time as they possibly could, the experiment did not eventually prove a success, and after a time was given up. A number of Germans, moreover, accompanied Mendoza's formidable expedition to the River Plate, and assisted him in the founding of the city of Buenos Aires, and subsequently in the establish ment of Asuncion in Paraguay. With the consohdation of Spanish rule in South America the assistance of such allies was no longer permitted, and stricter regulations enforced the theory that Spanish America was for the Spaniards alone, and Portuguese America for no one beyond the Portuguese. For some reason or other an exception to this stern rule of exclusion was made in favour of the Irish, so far as Spanish America was concerned. That they were Roman Cathohcs does not in itself suffice to explain this preference, since the representatives of other nations of the same faith were rigidly excluded. Indeed, during a certain period not all the provinces of Spain itself were permitted to send their inhabitants to South America. Nevertheless the Irish appear always to have received a certain welcome. Perhaps in the first- instance this may have come about owing to the fact that they understood the art of meat curing, which they intro duced into Argentina and elsewhere. But this does not explain how they originally obtained admittance to the guarded Continent in order to introduce this most valuable industry. But, apart from this, the Irish appear to be the sole race who succeeded in entering the governmental field of South America, both before and after the War of Liberation. Thus in the eighteenth century one of the Governors of Paraguay was an Irishman of the name of Charles Murphy, 156 THE SOUTH AMERICANS locally spelt as Murphi, while in Peru, Ireland had the honour of supplying the greatest Viceroy who ever governed this vast Province, Ambrose O'Higgins. His son, Bernardo O'Higgins, the first President of Peru, worked hand in glove with Lord Cochrane, the famous Scotsman, who harried the Spanish fleets from the South Seas. Then again we have Admiral Brown, another mihtant Irish sailor who helped to found the Argentine navy and whose naval battles off the River Plate, although they cannot, of course, rival in magnitude the corresponding feats of Cochrane, give this Irishman his own claim to a niche in the Halls of Fame. But these latter dee'ds are in one sense less remarkable, since they were effected at a period when the portals of South America had already been flung open, and when the eager foreigners were aheady hastening in. To return to modern days, when the interests of both South American and foreigner are more industrial than mihtary : each nation has, to a certain extent, specialized. That is to say, its representatives have taken up the respec tive callings for which the training of their country has best suited them. By a process of ehmination we may readily arrive at what these are. It may be said that, broadly speaking, the foreigner has never had any share in the Government of the various South American States. The sole exceptions of importance have, I think, already been quoted. The rulers of these States, very rightly, have seen to it that the governing representatives, whatever special form the constitution of the Repubhc may take, should be no other than citizens of the country. This applies now, of course, to the members of the armies, navies, and pubhc bodies in general of the various States. In the up-to-date Repubhcs the only foreigners admitted into the belligerent services of the FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 157 nation are instructors such as are necessary for the manipulation of the comphcated machinery of the new battleships, and for the reorganizing of the various branches of the land service on an entirely recent pattern. Although volunteers were welcomed in the past they are no longer considered necessary, and these institutions are carried on upon the most rigid and modern hnes. This condition of affairs, naturally enough, does not apply to science, arts, and learning. In these fields the South American has always encouraged the introduction of foreign talent, and he now sends his sons in formidable numbers to Europe in order to study at the chief centres of the Old World. Europe, for its part, has been generous enough in its supply of scientists to South America. Thus of the most famous it may be said that England has sent Darwin ; France, de Bougainville and Bonpland ; Ger many, Humboldt ; and Switzerland, Agassiz, besides many other notable scientists sent more recently by the various countries. In connection with this it must be obvious enough even to the least scientific mind that this particular field is by no means yet done with, and that the scope for expeditions of the kind still remains very wide. In the South of Argentina, for instance, in the neighbourhood of Rio Negro and in Patagonia, the neolithic and palaeolithic oppor tunities still give forth great promise. Indeed, judging by the rumours of many of the people in these as yet sparsely populated, and consequently little-known, districts, there exist caves where he the remains of giant prehistoric beasts and other treasures of the kind. As to fossihzed trees of a vast size, such may be seen lying ignored on the pastures of many an estancia in these southern provinces. All this, of course, is to say nothing of those numerous and vast districts where the scientific promise is extraordinarily 158 THE SOUTH AMERICANS great, but which have as yet scarcely been visited by the ordinary man, to say nothing of the scientist. To turn to the industrial side : South America has, from the inception of its period of hberty, welcomed the merchant and industrial agent with almost the same fervour as the man of learning. Among the first to estabhsh relations of the kind with South America were the British. The British, it may be said, having viewed the independence of Spanish-America with genuine sympathy, were the first to provide funds for the State loans to the various Repubhcs of South America. Their interests ever since have been largely represented by railways, banks, shipping-companies, and insurance branches ; while a formidable number have pro ceeded to South America as merchants and agents, to say nothing of that very important class which has taken up land in the various districts of the great Continent, and is helping to safeguard the agricultural future of the various Republics. Whereas of all the great public works the Enghsh have laid special stress upon the railways, the Germans have of recent years paid great attention to the tramways, the control of which they have obtained in many of the leading cities of the Continent. In addition to the tramways the Germans have interested themselves, with the exception of railways, in the majority of the industrial undertakings of the kind originally taken up by the British, and in many of the main commercial centres there is keen competition between the two ; although in other and less congested districts each nationality would seem, by mutual consent, to have retained certain fields for itself and to have yielded others to its competitor. The chief industrial interests to which the French have devoted themselves in South America have been those of engineering and banking ; in both of which they have FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 159 played a very prominent part. So far as land is concerned, the French as a rule have not invested in this, nor have they devoted themselves to farming to any appreciable extent. The rich httle country of Belgium now possesses very important interests in South America. These are mostly in connection with the business of banking and of com panies concerned with mortgages on land. The Belgians have undertaken this latter branch of commerce on a very large scale, and it has proved so remunerative that it is to be regretted that English companies have not interested themselves to a greater extent in it. The North American, by far the most important of the quite recent arrivals of the kind, is devoting himself especially to the cattle and beef industries. He now owns many frigorificos, and is making a bold bid to secure the entire control of this very important industry. It is a curious and significant fact that in such towns as Buenos Aires, where, a dozen years ago, the North American was scarcely ever seen, he is now to be met with in numbers which are increasing at a phenomenal rate. The Americans, moreover, are now concerning them selves not a httle with the promising lumber industry of the Southern Continent, and are interested in a number of railway and transport projects in Brazil and in other portions of central South America. From the point of view of national influence, a compara tively minor occupation in which the North American speciahzes in the Southern Continent, as well as throughout the world, is that of dentistry. There are very few towns of real importance in South America in which the American dentist is not to be met with. To ah appearances this profession must be an exceptionally lucrative one, since it must be admitted that the charges for any scientific 160 THE SOUTH AMERICANS services of the kind are quite unusually heavy in every Repubhc. Spain has devoted itself largely to the banking branch of commerce ; although perhaps those of her assets which are most warmly welcomed by South America are the tens of thousands of emigrants which she sends out from her shores to the New World every year. Italy, too, is chiefly distinguished as a suppher of labour, the Northern Itahan taking up land or entering upon the career of a navvy, and the Southern Itahan filling various useful and minor roles in the urban centres of the various States. The influence of the Itahan may be said to predominate among the more humble classes of the populous centres of Spanish South America. That of the Spaniard has, in the first instance, influenced to a large extent the taste of the aristocracy, although this has now been largely tem pered by the French and British. Thus for philosophy, art, and hterature the South American when he departs at all from his Spanish ideals turns largely to France and in a lesser degree to Great Britain ; while in his sports and recreations he now turns entirely to England. Indeed Great Britain may take some pride in the influ ence which she has gained in South America, purely through the medium of these games and recreations which at one time caused Enghshmen in foreign countries to be credited with madness ; and which made his reception so frequently of a pitying and tolerant nature. And now of all these others — would it be believed ? — there are very few nations not included in the new order of affairs, or who lag behind the British in their enthusiasm in these very sports. I have made use of the phrase before, but I make no apology for repeating it here : football has become the FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 161 national game of South America. The Association game, that is to say. Indeed so wholehearted and genuine has become the South American affection for this game that the goal-posts may frequently be seen pricking themselves upward in countries and in chmates which at the first blush would seem the very worst adapted for this strenuous, energetic game. Yet so it is. In Paraguay, in the tropics of Brazil, and in other neighbourhoods of the kind foot ball is played, and played regularly, in all the seasons of the year. Its beneficial effect upon the general popula tion, is, I think, already evident — as it is in France, Germany, and everywhere else. The interest in sport, be queathed by Britain, moreover, is not confined to football : rowing and sculling are now seriously taken up in all the more populous haunts of the Continent, and there are few clubs worthy of the name that do not hold their annual sets of regattas. Beyond these there are, of course, games such as golf, tennis, and others of the kind, which are now recognized as part and parcel of the social hfe ; but not to anything approaching the extent of the popular football or rowing. I have stated that the Enghsh have bequeathed these sports to South America and elsewhere, which in itself might be taken as an admission that our own part in these affairs is, to say the least of it, decadent. Now this, although we are no longer first in many sports of the kind, I do not beheve. But even were this melancholy condition of affairs to be the case, the British could at ah events re member, much to their inward comfort, that in every one of these beneficial recreations they have led the way. But it is early days as yet to look upon the past, or, indeed, to indulge in any pessimism of the kind. In Brazil the various spheres of influence are, as a matter of course, distributed somewhat differently to those of the 162 THE SOUTH AMERICANS southern Spanish-speaking Repubhcs. In the first place, concerning the general population of the Repubhc, a large proportion of this, being of the coloured race, is accus tomed to live in a world largely its own, and, save in a superficial fashion, is very httle concerned with the subtler influences from without. The African, in fact, re mains the African in whatever chmate or circumstances he may be placed. Wise in his own generation, he makes httle attempt to go beyond his natural hmitations, and concerns himself with many W's — women, war, wine (at all events, alcohol), worship — to say nothing of such matters as rest and work, the respective importance of these two latter occupations being as here placed. The negro is probably more fortunately placed in Brazil than in any other part of the world. But in any case it is certain that even here he will not of his own accord enter deeply and intelligently into science, pohtics, or the higher branches of finance and commerce. But, apart from all this, there exist considerable dis tinctions between the true Brazihan, the white descendants of the Portuguese, and his Spanish-speaking neighbours. Temperamentally, it may be said that the Brazihan is rather more easily moved than the others. His emotions seem nearer the surface, and he is perhaps less averse to showing them than is the average Latin American of the neighbour ing Repubhcs. Judged as a whole, the Brazihan is an extraordinarily kind-hearted and amiable person. He is capable, as has been hinted, of a superlative degree of demonstration. Thus the return of a distinguished and popular Brazihan to Rio de Janeiro after a visit to Europe or elsewhere is a spectacle not to be missed — at ah events by those on board the incoming liner. Indeed, the sight of the beautiful little launches which come racing out across the shining waters FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 163 of the harbour is in itself an exhilarating one. But this, after all, only constitutes a minor part of the performance. The waving of innumerable handkerchiefs ; the whisthngs, shrill and deep, of the various small craft ; the martial strains of the bands brought out over the waters for the occasion ; and the tremendous affection of the actual greetings themselves — all these are the marks of a people unusually generous of sentiment and emotion. The ties between Portugal and Brazil still remain very strong, far more powerful, indeed, than any which exist between Spain and her one-time South American Colonies. This is natural enough when it is remembered that the links which bound Brazil and Portugal died away in a gradual and peaceable fashion, and that the last official severance occurred at a very much later date than any between Spain and Spanish South America. As a matter of fact, notwithstanding this official separa tion of the two countries, the warmth of the actual senti ments which join them would scarcely seem to have abated at all. Thus, so far as the ordinary emigrants and labourers are concerned, the steerage quarters of the hners plying between the Portuguese and Brazilian ports are almost invariably crowded with Portuguese famihes who appear to travel to and fro between the two as easily and uncon cernedly as though both were equally their natural home, which, as a matter of fact, is actually more or less the case to these people who — the blood of their navigator ancestors still strong within them — wander across the ocean in such a commonplace fashion. It is owing to this facihty for travel with which the Portuguese of the humbler orders are imbued that so many of them return from Brazil to end their days in the European peninsula. Here in the charming valley of the Minho one may see their colonies, set among the verdure 164 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of the trees, and of the maize and vegetables beneath; among the yellow of the corn and the shady pergolas of the vines. I have already referred to the homes of these returned workers from Brazil in a book on Portugal ; but I will turn again briefly to the subject with due apology to those who may have come across the matter before. Wandering amidst these varied strata of leaf, bloom, and fruit, the sun-rays filtering through the sheltering leaves above with a strange softness and glamour, the effect is entrancing. The fascination that the spot exer cizes is easy enough to understand then ; for the attrac tions of the Minho are freely admitted by the Portuguese themselves ; by none more so, indeed, than by those fortunate folk, one-time emigrants, who have found a reward of ease and comfort from their labours in Brazil. It is from the Minho that the strongest tide of emigration has always flowed — and still runs with the same strength as ever. And it is to the Minho that the successful return, so soon as they have accumulated sufficient to enable them to settle down in a greater or lesser degree of luxury. There is a romantic element about the lives of these returned wanderers that supplies their neighbours with a strong incentive to emigration. As for the unsuccessful ones, they have disappeared from sight and from memory as well. Their fate is unknown and unasked. The possi bilities of Brazil are patent to all in the house and grounds of the latest arrival from the far South. So Joao or Pedro, inspired by the sight, and with the adventurous blood of his ancestors stirring strongly within him, works harder even than before. His plot of land is his own. Poor, indeed, to beggary is he among his neighbours who cannot lay claim to a few yards of fertile soil. He may sell it to help the venture, while he plods along, eating his bread and oil more sparingly than before. Then the day FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 165 comes — the great day of his departure. One catches sight of him in Oporto, the first step of the long journey already accomphshed. He is waiting by the tram lines, his lug gage — a couple of gaudy and profusely-tinselled boxes — beside him. Thence in good time he is whirled oceanwards. Lying in the harbour of LeixSes is the packet that is to bear him southwards — a revelation in itself, the first of many. After this his new hfe has begun in earnest. He has danced and has fed his fill on board in this new and un accustomed spell of careless idleness. He has seen Pernam buco with its palm-trees, its reefs, and its shark-infested waters. He has marked the Peak of Corcovado and the inner wonders of the bay as the vessel steamed into Rio. He has stared in amazement at the spread of the tropical town ; has wrangled with boatmen, has landed, and has marvelled at the great Avenida. He has had his mental shocks as well. He has been appalled at the prices to be paid, and has had his spirits mounted even more in pro portion at the importance of the wages to be received. After this one loses him. Coffee, diamonds, rubber — there are a hundred industrial ramifications that depend from these three great products alone of Brazil. Whichever one of these has absorbed him, or whether his industry have yet another setting, does not matter. So far as Portugal is concerned, he has shot his bolt. His destiny is working itself out somewhere south of the Line, and if any eddies flow out from the whirlpool of his stragglings they are lost in the broad South Atlantic. It is possible, of course, that he may never return. In which case he is not singular, having the right to claim, as a matter of fact, innumerable and unavoidable precedents for his absence during the last four hundred years. On the other hand, it may be that he is, borne homewards, 166 THE SOUTH AMERICANS pacing the first-class decks this time, illuminated by the full beacon of prosperity. One may make very nearly certain that he is bound for the Minho. Here he carries out a dream that has been his for years — that came to him, as a matter of fact, when he first resolved to seek his fortune abroad. He buys land, cultivates and plants it, and builds in the centre a model house of the kind of which he has dreamed all this long while. Alas ! there are some who mistake these visions for nightmares. There can be no doubt that the time of the returned adventurer has been fully taken up in amassing his fortune. There has been opportunity neither for architectural study, nor for any other of the gentler arts. A very short tour of the more fashionable spots in the Minho will entirely convince the observer as to that. Nevertheless, the fortu nate man himself is entirely satisfied with the result. And, after ah, he has planned and built for himself and his friends, and for the benefit of no chance spectator. Nature, too, in her kindest mood, has come open-handed to his assistance. There are creepers that mount in haste to temper the pecuharly harsh shade of red, yellow, or blue, that is the especial weakness of the owner. His garden is almost certain to be profusely decorated with statues — no cold things of lifeless marble, these, but figures of men and women of far warmer stone, with realistically coloured clothes, whether ancient or modern, with a genuine tint to the hats, and rosy complexions. Even these the friendly flowers, shuddering a little in the balmy air, embrace, and to the best of their abihty conceal the flaring figures from the pubhc eye. Thus nature tides the returned wanderer over the direst artistic aftermaths of his wealth. The Minho is full of him. His manners are kindly and quite up to the high Portuguese standard. It is his house and garden that FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 167 proclaim him nouveau riche. And this they do with no uncertain voice ; for it must frankly be admitted that his taste in both is frequently execrable. Nevertheless, he is very happy, hving in luxury in the very neighbourhood where he toiled hard for very existence as a youth, waited upon by servants now, and with his vines, orchards, and pleasure gardens in all their luxuriance about him. To return, however, after this interlude, to the tropics. The sentimental nature of the Brazihan has recently been responsible for a pohtical anomaly. This is concerned with the recent constitutional change in Portugal. Curiously enough it is in the comparatively old-standing Repubhc of Brazil that the most hvely sympathies have reigned in favour of the monarchical system in Portugal. The writer had a somewhat remarkable instance of this on a recent voyage to the South, when a Portuguese, on his way from Lisbon to Rio, proved himself quite unusually diffident in his expressions of pohtical opinion. In view of the fact that this in itself was a somewhat remarkable trait in one of a nation which turns naturally to pohtics, perseverance and questions caused the Portuguese at length to disclose 'his views. " In Portugal," he explained, " I am a republican ; not only by confession but by conviction. But not so in Brazil. Were I to proclaim myself a Portuguese republican in that country my business would suffer, so deep are the royahst sympathies in Rio. So in Brazil I do not talk Portuguese pohtics, or — if I do — they are coloured for the occasion." It is difficult to imagine a much franker confession than this. Nevertheless the statement reveals accurately enough the sentiments which have recently prevailed in various quarters of Brazil — sentiments which, at all events, were sufficiently sincere to cause the sending of important 168 THE SOUTH AMERICANS financial help in the past to the royalist cause of Portugal. But this is by the way. In the main, therefore, it may be taken that the principal influence from without in Brazil remains Portuguese. Apart from the financial and commercial interests — which are, of course, cosmopohtan — the nation which comes second in importance in this respect is the French. The upper classes of Brazihans, many of whom are markedly intellectual, model themselves very largely upon the French philosophy. Arid, whereas the Spanish Americans now distribute them selves widely over Europe, the generahty of the Brazihans have not yet become accustomed to this wider field. In deed, the Brazilian as a rule finds himself so attracted by the French capital that, if he is not concerned with Lisbon, he usually hmits his stay to that town. Of quite recent years there have been symptoms pointing to a more general distribution of Brazihan visitors throughout Europe ; nevertheless Paris still remains by far the most popular centre in Europe. It must not be imagined from all this that the Brazilian has not interested himself in athletics. It is true that- owing partly to the climate and partly to the mountainous and generally non-pastoral nature of the Repubhc— the bulk of the nation has never enjoyed that love of horse manship such as has distinguished the Southern Spanish- Americans. Nevertheless the Brazihan has taken whole heartedly to other sports, such as rowing, and in common with the remaining South Americans, more especially football. Perhaps I have laid too much stress once again on such an apparently minor point. Certainly no one would imagine that the influence of the British was confined to matters connected with the football field. As a matter of fact, much of that traditional and very ancient friendship which has existed between Britain and Portugal has come FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA 169 into force between Britain and this great republican off spring of Portugal. This, fortunately, has been evident in the course of the now lengthy history of diplomatic and commercial negotiations, which have steadily developed from the early days of the country which has been in turn Colony, Kingdom, Empire, and Repubhc. CHAPTER IX THE ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES OF SOUTH AMERICA The Armies of the Continent — Germany as a Model — The Cavalry of the Southern Repubhcs — Conscription — The Argentine's Standing Army — Aviation — The Horse Grenadiers — A Picturesque Uniform — Argentine Troops on the Indian Frontier — The Chilean Army — An Efficient Service — Details of Its Organisation — The Uruguayan Forces — Uniform and Constitution of the Army — The Paraguayan Army — Restraint in the Creation of Generals — The Forces of Brazil — Influence of the French — The Armies of Peru, Bolivia, and of the Remaining Repubhcs — European Interest in the South American Navies — The Building of Battleships — The National Armaments of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile — Influence of the Enghsh — The United States as Shipbuilders — South American Testi mony to the Efficiency of the British Construction Yards — The Respec tive Naval Situations of the Various States as Compared with the Mili tary — Vessels of the Minor Republics — The Paraguayan Navy — Officials of the River Fleet — The Brazilian Coastline and Her Navy — Strength of the Modern Fleet of this Republic — The Naval Port of Argentina — Aspects of Bahia Blanca — Rivalries between Various Republics — Some Anxieties of the Past — Admiral Cochrane and the Chilean Navy — A Fine Fleet — The War Vessels and Naval Port of Peru — Uruguay and Her Squadron — - Early Theories Concerning South American Police — Curious Method of Enrolment in Former Days — The English Police Force as an Example — Some Hardships and Perils of the Provincial Police Force of Brazil and Elsewhere — Present Efficiency of the Bodies — Postal and Telegraph Service — Some Argentine and Chilean Statistics — Ubiquity of the Tele phone IN general it may be said that the South American armies are modelled on the German pattern. This apphes more especially to Argentina, Chile, and Para guay, and to a lesser extent to Bohvia. These Repubhcs have rehed entirely upon the mihtary theories of the German Empire, and not only have numbers of their officers visited for lerigthy periods the German garrison towns and staff colleges ; but German mihtary instructors have come 170 ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 171 out in important numbers to initiate the armies of these countries into German methods. * Paraguay is now making a fresh move in this direction ; an important Commission of officers from the Imperial German army is now about to undertake the renewed training of the Paraguayan forces. As the result of this system, the armies of these republics have closely copied the German uniforms, and now it is difficult to distinguish many of the commissioned ranks from German mihtary officers, since the appearance of a notable proportion is now soldierly and smart after the Teutonic style. It is naturally as cavalrymen that these Southern nations distinguish themselves the most, and, indeed, it would be hard to imagine in what part of the world these mounted men could be excelled for efficiency. Trained from their infancy to feats of endurance, these hardy troopers can gallop for hour after hour, and, indeed, for day after day, provided they have sufficient change of horses. The majority of the South American armies are raised by means of conscription. Thus in Argentina every able- bodied man must serve his period of mihtary duty, his period of habihty in this respect lasting from the age of twenty until forty-five. Children of foreign parents born in Argentina are by law Argentine subjects, and are thus amenable to this service. The Argentine standing army numbers about twenty thousand men, and the reserve is said to comprise some hundred and fifty thousand more. Aviation has now become an important feature of the mihtary arm : the headquarters of this service being situated a dozen miles or so from Buenos Aires. As has been said, the type of Argentine uniform, as well as the drih, is modehed strictly on the German pattern. One regiment, however, affords * Written previous to the outbreak of war. 172 THE SOUTH AMERICANS an exception : that is the cavalry regiment of Horse Grenadiers, a corps originally raised by San Martin, which distinguished itself greatly in the War of Liberation. This regiment still retains the shako and many other portions of the uniform as worn in the first years of the nineteenth century, with a handsome and picturesque result. A certain section of the Argentine Army, it may be said, is continuahy on a war-footing. This is stationed in the far north on the borders of the Chaco districts, which the remaining tribes of wild Indians inhabit. As, however, these tribes have quite recently begun to reconcile them selves to the propinquity of white men, no doubt the presence of these particular troops will sooner or later become unnecessary. Great Britain, it may be remarked, now provides a mihtary attache" who reports on the various armies, and whose district comprises the chief Repubhcs of the South. The Chilean Army, like the Argentine, enjoys an especi ally high reputation for efficiency. Here the terms of conscription are similar to those on the East of the Andes, and every able-bodied citizen is hable for service between the ages of twenty and forty-five. The peace establish ment is made up of four divisions and one cavalry brigade, together with engineers and army service troops, and its numbers amount, as in the case in Argentina, to about twenty thousand men ; while with the reserve the entire force can be brought up to a hundred thousand men. The chief mihtary offices and establishments are at Santiago, where also is situated a college for cadets in training for officers. Germany has been entrusted with the instruction of the Chilean Army, and the uniforms and general methods are entirely modehed on the German plan. In the Republic of Uruguay, where the population is very much smaller, the standing army consists of nearly ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 173 eight thousand men ; and, although the usual method of conscription does not obtain here, in the case of war every inhabitant is hable for mihtary service from the age of seventeen until that of sixty. This is, perhaps, one of the severest and most comprehensive appeals of the kind in the world. The permanent army consists of eight battalions of infantry, ten regiments of cavalry, and two regiments of artillery as well as the ordinary auxihary branches. The German influence does not seem to obtain in Uruguay, where the uniforms of all divisions of the army resemble the Spanish perhaps more closely than any other. In Paraguay, on the other hand, the dominant note of the army is entirely German, and, as has been said, a fresh Commission is now about to increase the efficiency of the Paraguayan forces. In 1905 a mihtary school was founded in Asuncion, and the result has added greatly to the effectiveness of the army, which is now garbed with Prussian uniforms. The standing army of the Repubhc numbers two thou sand men of the three arms. Since the conclusion of the famous Paraguayan war in 1869, no more than six generals have been nominated in the Paraguayan Army, and as a writer of that nationahty remarks : " No other example exists in America of such restraint in the creation of generals" — which may or may not be the case ; but which is, at all events, not without its amusing side. The Brazihan Army, as is only natural when the area and population are considered, is larger than any other in South America. The standing force consists of about thirty thousand men, which are obtained by conscription, every able-bodied citizen being hable for mihtary service from the age of twenty-one to that of forty-four. Together with the reserves, the total number of troops on a war- 174 THE SOUTH AMERICANS footing would amount to nearly three hundred thousand men. Brazil does not appear to have followed the example of the more Southern Repubhcs in the way of instruction, and the influence here, more especially in the important province of Sao Paolo, is French, the majority of the uni forms showing a mixed French and Portuguese influence. The French influence is likewise predominant in the Peruvian Army. The reorganization of her forces, which began in 1896, was effected by a commission of army officers sent out from France, at the head of which was a brigadier- general. Compulsory service obtains in Peru. Every able- bodied citizen is officially held to be hable to service from the age of nineteen to that of fifty. This includes men of the three arms. It is possible, however, in this Repubhc to buy exemption from mihtary service. With the army placed on its war-footing, it is beheved that the Peruvian forces would amount to some forty thousand men. The armies of the remaining Repubhcs are, of course, of lesser importance ; although Bohvia, which hke the rest resorts to conscription, can raise a force which nominally should result in over a hundred thousand men. The pro portion of these, however, which are white is very small. The mihtary college is at the capital, La Paz. Very few details are available concerning the armies of these remaining Republics. These in the majority of cases, although in some respects efficient enough, are very irregu larly constituted, and frequently subject to considerable alterations as regards personnel and regulations brought about by the officials who happen to be in power for the time being. England in particular, and various other countries of Europe in general, as well as the United States, have a far more direct industrial interest in the navies of South America than in the armies. Since none of the Republics ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 175 have yet attained to the position of constructing battle ships for themselves, they naturaUy depend for these costly vessels on the ship-builders of those countries where this industry prevails. The money which has flowed from this cause into the pockets of European and North American ship-builders is very considerable. The magnitude of this market has increased with great rapidity of late. For the more important Repubhcs of the great Southern Continent have determined to go the way of the rest of the civilized powers, and from the modest battleships of a few years ago which constituted their fleets, they have now evolved a fighting force on a far more important scale. That is to say, they have indulged in a state of preparedness which included dreadnoughts, and are now concerned with super- dreadnoughts. The States which have progressed the fastest in this direction are Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. Brazil, indeed, possessed for a while the distinction of owning the most powerful battleship in the world. But since records such as this are seldom held for long in these days, this phase was merely a fleeting one, and the Brazihan dreadnoughts may, in the hght of the latest achievements in battleship- building, now be regarded as only moderate sized vessels. In the same way as the majority of the South American Repubhcs have taken Germany for their model in mihtary matters, they have accustomed themselves to follow the lead of England in naval affairs. The greater part of the modern war-vessels intended for that Continent are con structed in England, although the last order for Argentine super-dreadnoughts went to North America. But whether this procedure will be repeated is, I suppose, doubtful, since in the ordinary course of events the keenest rivalry in this respect does not emanate from the United States. The competition for this supplying, of war-vessels among 176 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the various firms and countries is now very acute. In this industry, which she has made so pecuharly her own, it is gratifying to know that England has retained her superi ority, and that the results of the British-built ships have proved on the whole extremely pleasing to the powers which have purchased them. Officials of the latter will frequently admit this with a commendable frankness, and on one occasion I was told quite openly by a Minister that, although many of the vessels built in foreign yards were satisfactory enough, others left much to be desired, and entailed claims for compensation and the hke. " On the other hand," the Minister added with some enthusiasm, " I may tell you that we take it as a general rule that a vessel coming from a British yard may be counted not only on fulfilling every requirement of the contract, but on exceeding it." Surely no stronger testimonial than this is possible ! The naval situation as between the various States them selves of the Continent differs considerably from that of the military. In the latter case every Repubhc has its army, which is more or less efficient as the case may be. But in the case of navies, by which is understood navies of striking force and value, it is only the most important States which are concerned with them. Such countries as Venezuela, Ecuador, and Colombia possess official craft, which in the hght of modern requirements could serve no other purpose than police duties and work of the kind ; while Bohvia, of course, being an inland State, possesses no salt water upon which to float a ship. Paraguay, on the other hand, although set at an even greater distance from the ocean, is watered by the broad system of the Paraguay River, and upon this she main tains a more or less nominal navy, which consists of a gunboat or two, of somewhat miniature proportions, and of a number of officers, perhaps a httle beyond the strength ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 177 of her river fleet. Some years ago the Repubhc possessed only one war- vessel, a converted tug named the " Libertad," which, armed with a field-gun in its bows, played an im portant part in the minor revolutions, since, although small, she was at all events without rival. From this it may be gathered that a considerable proportion of the naval appointments in Paraguay partake of the nature of sinecures. Perhaps the sole South American countries of real im portance in naval matters are Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and, to a far lesser extent, Uruguay. Brazil, of course, enjoys a pecuharly favourable situation as regards her coast-hne for the encouragement of a navy, the Harbour of Rio de Janeiro being probably the finest in the whole world, while in addition to this she possesses numerous lesser ports of an efficient and safe order. A good many years ago Brazil made an effort to con struct an ironclad from her own yards. The effort was commendable enough, but want of experience was bound to tell its tale, and, as a result, the seaworthiness of this particular vessel was always of a dubious quahty. Owing to this, the experiment has not been repeated, and the pattern of this locally constructed vessel is now quite obsolete. The Brazihan Navy now consists altogether of over thirty vessels, many of these being giants of the dreadnought type, such as the " Sao Paolo " and the " Minas Geraes," while in addition to these there are numerous torpedo- destroyers of a very large and formidable pattern. As has already been explained, the headquarters of the Brazihan Navy is the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, the entrance to which is very narrow, and is guarded by the mountains which sink down to the water's edge on either side. This narrow channel of salt water between the mountain sides is pro- 178 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tected by two forts, and in the ordinary course of events, the place, even without the navy inside, should be quite impregnable, since it is almost impossible to conceive the forcing of a passage by a hostile fleet, however formidable, of this entrance a few hundred yards broad protected by its powerful forts. It should be noted that the Brazilian Navy possesses a training-ship for its cadets and young sailors which cruises in various parts of the world, frequently in European waters. , The naval port of Argentina is situated at Bahia Blanca in the South, where the anchorage and dock accommoda tion suffice for the new super-dreadnoughts such as the " Rivadavia " and her sister ships now supphed by the United States. The estabhshment is very complete here, and the quarters on shore, originally surrounded by a very sandy and arid district, have now been greatly improved by the plantation of wide areas of tamarisk, which have the effect of preventing the sand-storms and rendering the place pleasant to inhabit, which in former years was rather emphatically not the case. The naval service of Argentina is recruited by means of conscription. In addition to the ocean fleet, there are numerous gunboats which patrol the great river system, and which are especially built for this purpose. Although the cordial relations between them have now, it is to be hoped permanently, done away with the friction which at one time obtained between Argentina and Brazil, there was a time, not so very many years ago, when no httle talk of the possibility of hostihties prevailed. At that period the ordering of so many large vessels by Brazil was viewed with no httle alarm on the part of the River Plate — as it turned out quite unnecessarily; for the heavy draught of these leviathans prevented any chance of their steaming up to ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 179 Buenos Aires, and thus bombarding the only vital and vulnerable point on the sea-board of Argentina. Argen tina is situated in a peculiarly advantageous position in this respect, since it is obvious that, not being able to attain to Buenos Aires, battleships of the super-dread nought type could not ascend the river farther up. The Chilean Navy may be said to have been founded by Admiral Cochrane, and it has ever since kept up the high traditions which it gained in the wars against Spain. The headquarters of the Chilean Navy are situated at the Bay of Talcahuano in the South, a sheltered and favourable spot. The Chilean Navy prides itself with reason not only on the efficiency of its personnel but on the capabihties of the dock-yard and engineering staff to maintain, and repair, and even to construct their own vessels. Of course such immense craft as the dreadnoughts and others of the type of large torpedo-destroyers and such kinds come from European yards, and Great Britain is now supplying the vessels which will bring the Chilean Navy entirely up to date. They are, moreover, altogether fittingly manned, for the nature, and the exceptional lengths, of the Chilean coast-hne have had the effect of producing a hardy race of unusually fine sailors. It is a proof of the pacific intentions of this Repubhc that she was one of the last in South America to consent to the introduction of the latest type of dreadnought ; but she has now fahen into hne with her neighbours and is in the possession of some magnificent craft. The Peruvian Navy suffered considerably in the war against Chile, when, as a matter of fact, although the Northern Republic's vessels fought with great gallantry, the fleet was to all intents and purposes wiped out of existence. Although it has never since attained to a similar degree of strength such as it occupied before the war with 180 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Chile, new vessels are being constructed. The naval school and training-ship for the service are situated at Callao. The headquarters of the Uruguayan Navy are situated in the sheltered Bay of Montevideo. The small Repubhc possesses some efficient ships, but none of any notable size. The twelve vessels which comprise the naval force consist of small cruisers, torpedo-boats, and coast-defence vessels. In what is commonly called the good old days,' when revolutions really did obsess nearly every South American Repubhc alike, it was commonly supposed that the greatest villains in the various States were represented* by the pohce. In one or two of the Repubhcs there has certainly been some ground for a mild suspicion of this kind, since it reahy has been the case in countries such as these, that when a malefactor has been apprehended, he has been given his choice of being shot or of joining the pohce. This recruiting system may have been simple, but it was hardly one to be set up in order to obtain a reahy efficient force of pohce ! Subsequently the procedure became somewhat modified, and the criminal was usually afforded a choice of death or an inclusion in the ranks of the army. In every case, of course, as in the first instance, he accepted the latter alternative with enthusiasm. Such Gilbertian occurrences as these are now, of course, ancient history for the most part, and, indeed, they cannot be said to have obtained in the more advanced States of South America at all — that is to say, in the course of a normal condition of affairs. As a matter of fact, the average South American statesman is extraordinarily open to the consideration of any innovation which will render the national service more effective. Thus, the pohce force of the chief Republics has been modelled on that of the Enghsh, not only as regards their system of work, but as ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 181 regards the uniform itself. Of the larger Repubhcs, Brazil affords an exception to this, and here, as in the case of the army, the Brazihan prefers to chng to the Latin pattern of uniform for his pohce. Speaking generally, it may be said that in the minor and more unsettled Repubhcs, the pohceman's bed is not neces sarily of clover. An Smeute will frequently be heralded by the sallying out of the revolutionary party with the object of shooting every pohceman in sight, and thus ridding themselves as soon as possible of the government's first line of defence. Even in the north of Brazil at a quite recent date the local pohce found themselves pitted against the Federal troops, and a very considerable slaughter was enacted before peace was once more brought into being. It must be remembered, however, that circumstances in the north of Brazil differ very widely from those of Rio de Janeiro and the South, where at the present moment it is scarcely possible to conceive the arising of such a state of affairs. So far as the more backward countries are concerned, it stands to reason that the general disciphne and efficiency of the pohce must suffer when the force is at the mercy of frequently changing authorities, personified by officials, whose ideals are not always of the highest. But these circumstances do not in the least degree apply to the important Repubhcs of the South, where a notable esprit de corps has now prevailed for a considerable time among the guardians of law and order. In any case, what must be remarked about these various pohce forces of the South is that, in the majority, a really adequate spirit of organization and a most fitting temper have been introduced. Thus, the pohce do not, as in some other countries of the world, pose as autocrats. They are trained now to act with civihty and to render whatever 182 THE SOUTH AMERICANS assistance they can in all directions. Indeed, it is quite safe to accost a pohceman in any of these progressive States and be quite certain of assistance, a condition of affairs which certainly does not prevail in every conntry of Europe. As regards the postal and telegraphic service of an up-to- date South American Repubhc, some figures of the Argen tine workings will be instructive. It is true, of course, that these cannot yet approach the status of those of Great Britain, France, or Germany ; but they nevertheless pre sent some most formidable results which call for quite first-class talent in their manipulation. Thus in 1912 the number of letters and postal packets forwarded was 1,091,513,278. This, by the way, exceeded in bulk the corresponding postal dehvery of 191 1 by no less than 191,558,953. The number of telegrams, moreover, despatched over the National lines was very nearly sixteen milhons in 1912. This, of course, is not taking into con sideration the very important numbers sent over the various private hnes in the Republic. It is not without interest, moreover, to discover that the total telegraphic hnes of the Repubhc cover a distance of almost seventy thousand kilometres. The income from telegrams, by the way, amounts roughly to four hundred thousand pounds ; while that from the postal service amounts to about a million pounds. Chile, considering the size of the Repubhc, can also show some very formidable postal figures, since the corre spondence dealt with in the course of the same year amounted to almost seventy milhons, while the number of inland telegrams amounted to one and three-quarter million. The telephone service, moreover, is a very extensive one in both these countries ; not only Buenos Aires and Santiago being admirably served, but many of the pro- ARMIES, NAVIES, AND CIVIL SERVICES 183 vincial towns as well, and even an unusually large number of the important estates. Many of these in Argentina, it may be said, have private telephone services, and the various puestos scattered about the enormous estates are connected with the head group of buildings by telephone, by means of which the work of management is, of course, very greatly facihtated. CHAPTER X FORESTS AND AFFORESTATION The Forest Areas of South America — Demarcation of the Timber Country — Distinctions of the River Systems of the Amazon and of the River Plate — The Area of Forest and of Treeless Plains — Density of the Tropical Forests — Fugitive Clearings — The Migration of Crops — Growths of the Pasture Land — Insignificant Vegetation — The Ombu — The Poplar Trees in the River Plate — Practical Uses of Timber — Importations from North America — Possibilities of the Lumber Industry in Brazil — Method of Transporting Heavy Woods — The Southern Chilean Forests — The Cabinet Woods of Northern Argentina and Paraguay — Some Magnificent Specimens — The Virgin Forest of Brazil — Its Extent — A Paradise for Lumber Men — Tree Life — Rivalry of the Tropical Growths — The Relent less Battle to Gain the Sunhght — Various Tropical Trees and Palms — The Rubber Districts — Condition's Necessary for the Yielding of Fine Rubber — The East versus the West — Afforestation — Work in Argentina — The Transformation of the Campo — The Introduction of New Growths — Uruguay and Its Plantations — Afforestation in Chile — Important Results Achieved THE forest areas of South America are on the whole probably more definitely marked than those of any other Continent. Generally speaking, there are very few areas which are lightly and intermittently wooded. Although, of course, there are districts which do not come within this category, South America may be divided into two sections : the forest country of the river systems, of the tropics, and the South ; and the comparatively or alto gether treeless districts, comprised by such wide plains as those of Argentina and the uplands of Venezuela, in addi tion to the lofty mountainous districts in the West and the arid territories of a portion of the Pacific coast. So far as forests are concerned, it is curious to remark the difference between the two great river systems of the 184 FORESTS AND AFFORESTATION 185 Amazon and the River Plate. In the former the vegeta tion is dense throughout, and it may be said without exaggeration of the average country of these districts that out of many square miles there are very few acres which are devoid of matted undergrowth and closely placed trees. Here as in many other portions of Brazil man has to fight hard against the exuberance of nature for his existence, and a clearing, if left unattended, will very soon find itself overgrown by the returning tangled tide of verdure. It is for this reason frequently found more practical and economical by the sylvan pioneer not to attempt to retain a clearing free from the new and con tinuously sprouting growth ; but when the vegetation will no longer be denied, to abandon it and by means of the axe and fire to clear another space, which the pioneer may occupy until the forest rolls inward and claims its own once more. Thus it is that in country such as this the various culti vated fields and their crops are, in a sense, migratory. It is a httle curious to imagine the cotton, bananas, and other harvests of the tropical regions as dodging in and out of the tremendous forest vegetation which is ever coming together in a grim threat to crush the intruding plants. Yet, after all, this is really what the process amounts to. This is the case practicahy throughout the Amazon basin. The River Plate, on the other hand, is curiously devoid of all trees. Even the banks themselves of the southern stretches of the great river, although hedged in by lofty rushes, are practicahy devoid of any vegetation worthy of the name. A few dozen leagues higher up they become fringed with the native willow, and such growths as the tala, espinillo, and other minor trees, in significant in size and useless from an industrial point of view for any other purpose save that of charcoal burning. 186 THE SOUTH AMERICANS It is the same with the great inland stretches of southern pasture land through which these broad rivers run. The sole native tree here is the ombu, a most curious growth, which might from a distance be taken for an oak, but which when more closely approached is seen to possess some of the peculiarities of the elder-tree. The wood of its trunk is particularly soft and serves for no purpose whatever. Indeed the only reason for the popularity of the ombu, which to Argentina and Uruguay represents the national tree and is regarded with some sentiment, is the welcome shade which it affords and for which this very quaint growth is highly honoured. But the ombu itself is of rare occurrence, and on the comparatively treeless plains of Argentina and Uruguay it is very unusual to see more than a couple to a square league, and in many dis tricts the average falls considerably below even this. So far very httle use has been made of the natural timber of South America, magnificent in quahty though much of this is. Thus in Brazil, in the midst of the forest country, where splendid and valuable woods abound, it is usual to find the timber employed for industrial purposes sent ready cut and shaped from North America. That this state of affairs will continue much longer is, of course, unlikely in the extreme. Nevertheless for the moment it is necessary to reconcile oneself to this rather astonishing fact. So far as Brazil is concerned a circumstance which makes this neglect of opportunity all the more incomprehensible is the presence of the numerous rivers and streams which are at hand to act as carriers. In connection with this, however, it must not be overlooked that many of the finest woods of these neighbourhoods are of too solid and heavy a nature to float in water. When transporting such timber as this by water it is necessary to construct a raft of double FORESTS AND AFFORESTATION 187 layers, the lower one being of ordinary buoyant wood above which are placed the heavy logs. By this means the combination floats safely downstream, but, of course, at the expense of considerable labour in the first instance. One of the most progressive timber-districts in the whole of the Continent is that of Southern Chile, where numerous mills exist for the working of those fine woods, and others such as the pine and the remaining native growths which flourish in the vicinity. The chief centres for this industry are Valdivia, Chilian, and practically ah the towns in the neighbourhood, every one of which represents a centre of a timber-cutting industry as well as of general agriculture. Proceeding northwards from here — and in this forest district may be included certain sections of the east of the Chilean-Argentine frontier hne — we come to the first important natural timber districts in the north of Argen tina : Jujuy, Tucuman, Santiago del Estero, Misiones, and the neighbouring provinces. Some extremely fine cabinet woods are available here, and in the Chaco district grows the famous quebracho tree. This growth has been re sponsible for a great increase in the industries of Northern Argentina. It yields so large a percentage of tannin that for the extraction of this numbers of factories have been erected in the Chaco districts both of Argentina and Para guay. Beyond this some of the hardest and finest woods are the Nandubay and the Lapacho, while a most useful tree is the algarrobo, a tree which produces a lengthy pod. This in its way is a most valuable object, since it serves for many purposes. Horses are extremely attached to the fruit as fodder and thrive on it, plucking the pods eagerly from the trees whenever the opportunity offers ; it serves occa sionally as food for human beings, while at the same time 188 THE SOUTH AMERICANS a beverage is concocted from the same growth when treated and fermented which is much appreciated by the Indians of the districts where it grows. Proceeding farther to the north, having passed by the way the curious and prohfic pine growths of the Southern provinces of Brazil, we come to the dense tangle of the tropical forests, which stretch inland from the Brazihan sea coast. None can deny Brazil's claim to the fact that the Repubhc possesses an infinitely larger tract of virgin forest than any other country in the world. Indeed, when the time comes for the exploitation of these great forests, the lumber-man will find himself in a situation that is probably unique in almost every part of the world. In the normal conditions of the lumber world it is neces sary to regard the industry with considerable care, and to take precautions that the cutting shall not be too drastic, lest, as has happened in so many parts of the world, that which was once forest country should become an arid plain, and that in consequence what was an im portant source of wealth should disappear. In this respect Brazil is particularly favoured and would indeed serve to open the eyes of many a timber expert accustomed to less abundant conditions. So exuberant is nature in these tropical regions that scarcely have the old growths been felled when the new vegetation begins to struggle upwards with a haste that is unknown in any other part of the world. Indeed, the rivalry of the trees in the virgin Brazihan forests is quite the fiercest of its kind that exists, and it is pecuharly instructive in the methods of self-preservation employed by growths which are popularly supposed to possess no aggressive faculties or sentiments of this kind. Yet it is obvious, when pacing through a forest such as this, that the effort to sprout upwards and thus to gain FORESTS AND AFFORESTATION 189 the regions of hght and air above which alone can guarantee a lengthy hfe in these forests is very real and very relent less — the healthier and larger plants crushing the others out of existence with a force and precision that might almost be regarded as the result of considered mahce. Some of the most important Brazihan forest-trees are the laurel, the white cedar, the vegetable ivory, the bacury, the pao-ferro, or iron wood, the acapu, the jaracandi, the palo-aguila, and, of course, hundreds of others. The great waves of forests which flow northwards from Brazil into Colombia, Ecuador, the Guianas, and into some portions of Venezuela resemble the forests of Brazil in all main particulars. I have laid no stress on palms, since these, of course, abound throughout all the tropical forests and save for the coconut palm are of httle industrial interest ; although many of the great leaves of these palm-trees play a large part in forming the huts and shelters of the aboriginals. In many cases, too, the heart of the tuft of palm leaves serves as a very agreeable vegetable, while other species of palms — one of which is very popular in Central Chile — yield nuts which are much appreciated, more especially by the youthful owners of hardy digestions. As is well known, the main centres of the rubber districts fringe the Amazon, and its numerous tributaries. The recent public interest in the rubber-trade, as well as the tragic revelations concerning the manner of its gathering in certain districts of Peru, has rendered a knowledge of this tree and the methods of rubber-gathering so general as to need very httle comment here. A point that is worthy of some note in this industry of rubber collection is the claim made by the Brazihan in favour of his native rubber- trees. The Brazihan, indeed, asserts that in order to flourish perpetually and to continue to yield really efficient 190 THE SOUTH AMERICANS rubber, the natural conditions such as obtain in the Amazon basin are indispensable. He argues, in consequence, that when transplanted from its native soil, the Para rubber- tree, although its product may appear on the surface even cleaner and better than the original product, will in the end degenerate and with it the quahty and elasticity of the rubber. This, of course, remains to be seen, although if there be any justification for this theory it will very shortly be proved, since many of the Eastern rubber plantations have now been in existence for a considerable number of years. The point is certainly an interesting one. In the popular mind of Europe, perhaps no science is less connected with South America than that of affore station. Yet on the other hand there are perhaps no districts throughout the world where this science has been brought more into requisition than in certain parts of that Continent. First and foremost among these is, of course, Argentina. The great central plains of this Repubhc, as is now well known, were in the first instance totahy devoid of any vegetation other than native grasses and a few lowly flowers such as the verbena. Here and there rises a native ombu, which I have de scribed elsewhere, and the borders of the forest streams were — as, of course, they still remain — in some places fringed with the native willow, the espinillo, the tala, and the brilliant red blossom of the ceibo. The effect of this dearth of wood upon the comfort of the early settlers may easily be imagined, as well as the disadvantages under which they laboured from this cause. Indeed this want of timber affected almost every branch of the pastoral and agricultural life, and was responsible for almost all the inconveniences, from the difficulty in erecting houses to that of fence-posts. With the increas ing facilities of transit, these difficulties have now been FORESTS AND AFFORESTATION 191 largely overcome, since it is a simple matter to transport timber from the northern districts to the central. Not that the Argentine campo is any longer devoid of trees. A system of plantation has now been definitely undertaken for some twenty or thirty years, with the result that the great flat expanse of land which in its primitive state stretched level as a billiard table from horizon to horizon is now broken by lofty groups of eucalyptus, great groves of poplar-trees, and plantations of paraiso, to say nothing of orchards of peach-trees and of other fruits. Perhaps no country has been so changed by the hand of man as these central plains of Argentina. The process, moreover, is by no means at an end, since it is being most efficiently continued. Almost every estanciero, now rea lizing fully how much his valuable herds gain from the welcome shade, to say nothing of the intrinsic worth of the timber, has devoted himself with enthusiasm to the science of afforestation. In this respect, strangely enough, the campo has retained a certain peculiarity of its own : it will not consent to nurture trees of the hard-wood species. Tho poplar, the eucalyptus, the paraiso, and all other growths which thrive in the rich alluvial soil are of essen tially soft wood, and thus of very httle use for purposes of construction. It is true that, faihng other and better timber, the poplar and even eucalyptus is occasionally used for the purpose of fence-posts. The hfe of this timber is, however, so fleeting as to cause these objects to be renewed with an undue frequency, and for such purposes as cattle and sheep-dips, stock-yards and the hke, it is quite essential to introduce the hard woods from the north of the Repubhc such as yielded by the provinces of Misiones, Tucuman, and their neighbours. Although Uruguay is by nature rather less lacking in 192 THE SOUTH AMERICANS trees than Argentina, practicahy all the growths of any size which obtain in that country — save in the North — have been introduced in the same way as in Argentina and, indeed, comprise the same trees. On the sea-coast pines have been planted quite recently in the area of the sand-dunes, with the result that a great deal of land that was formerly quite unproductive and useless has now been tamed into subjection, and is beginning to bear valu able forests. Precisely the same result has been evident here as on many of the Iberian coasts, and much credit is due to the Uruguayan Government, which has given every facihty and encouragement for this species of afforestation. Central Chile has for a century or two at ah events been quite devoid of the larger native growths. It is said that this condition is not natural to the provinces involved, and that it was the thriftlessness of the early Spaniards which caused the denudation of timber : a stripping which was so thoroughly effected as to leave the country to all intents and purposes treeless. This has undoubtedly affected the chmate, endowing it with an aridity which is both mischievous and unnecessary — so, at ah events, runs the theory, and I give it for what it is worth. This state of treelessness has now received attention for at least half a century, and during the past ten or twenty years really important efforts have been made to alter it. The result is already patent, and the introduc tion of many trees has met with an immense success. Indeed these central portions of Chile now resemble a garden. It must, of course, be remembered that the change is solely due to plantation, and that once away from the cultivated areas the landscape presents quite a different aspect. CHAPTER XI MINERALS Objects of the First Exploration of South America — The Treasures of the Past, Present, and Future — Pizarro's Instincts — Geographical Situa tion of South America's Mineral Wealth as at Present Known — Distribu tion of the Various Metals — Wealth of Brazil — The Mineral Deposits of Peru — Extraordinary Scope Met with Here — Mining in the Peruvian Andes — Local Circumstances Which Influence the Prospects of the In dustry — The Scarcity of Communications — The Influence of Mineral Wealth on the Inhabitants of the Repubhc — Advantages Brought into Being by the Oroya Railway — Altitude of the Copper Mines — Minerals of Lesser Value — Fossils — The Mineral Wealth of Bolivia — The Silver Mountain of Potosi — Its Tragedies of the Past — Bolivia the Largest Tin- Producing Country in the World — General Scope of the Republic's Minerals — The Mines of Chile — Some Wealthy Districts — The Minerals of Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela — Situation in the Guianas — The El Dorado To-day — Sapphires — The Diamonds of Brazil — Amount of Gold Discovered in the Republic — Astonishing Amounts of Iron — Uruguayan Minerals — The Metal Bearing Districts of Argentina — South American Coal Fields — The Need of Coal in Argentina — Coal Fields of the Pacific — The Mines of Lota and Coronel — Submarine Coal Fields — The Recent Disaster — Peru and Its Coal — The Nitrate Industry — Salitre and Its Artificial Rival — Circumstances of the Nitrate Fields — Cosmopolitan Labour — The Nitrate Oficinas THE Continent of South America was in the first place exploited by the European on account of its supposed mineral weath. After ah, notwithstanding the admirable courage, determination, and rehgious fervour of Columbus himself, it was gold which drew the great pilot to the New World — or at all events it was the quest of gold which he held out as a bait to the various courts and financiers whom he had interested in his momentous scheme. Although many of its districts have proved in their time disappointing to the greed of the early Spaniards, nevertheless on the whole South America may be said to 13 193 194 THE SOUTH AMERICANS have justified itself fully in this respect. That is so far as the past is concerned. As to the future, who can say whether far greater hoards of treasures will not be dug from the earth than have been extracted during the past centuries ? There is no doubt that men such as Pizarro must have possessed what may be termed a wonderful " nose " for mineral wealth. At all events, guided by the rumours of Indians, this amazing man proceeded Southwards until he arrived at what was, in fact, the mineral heart of the Continent. For of all the rich mineral-bearing regions of South America which are so far known to humanity there is no doubt that Peru and certain contiguous parts of Bohvia are more abundantly stocked with every species of these earthly treasures than any other districts of the wealthy Southern Continent. It will be as well, however, first of all to take a general survey of the minerals of the Continent before we come down to any detailed descriptions and comparisons of the kind. Speaking very, roughly, the mineral wealth of South America, as at present known, may be said to pass in a broad band along almost the entire coast-hne of South America. The sole important breaks in this band are com prised by the strip of coast-hne in the neighbourhood of the mouth of the great Amazon River, as weh as that to the South-East of this, and by the corresponding alluvial soil at the mouth of the River Plate, and again by the coast hne to the South of this Southern estuary. Of course, as I have said, this attempt at demarcation is of necessity extremely rough. There are, as a matter of fact, certain quantities of diamonds and also of manganese found right in the centre of the Continent ; in Matto Grosso, moreover, this species of demarcation is dependent on merely what is at present known, and how httle is known of the great interior of Central and Northern South America can MINERALS 195 only be conceived by those who exist on the borders of this very great unknown. As a general rule, the metals are fairly well distributed about the Continent. Gold, for instance, is to be found in nearly every South American Repubhc, and throughout the long range of the Andes, from its Northernmost peaks to the Southernmost regions of the Continent, where the regular chain breaks up into a confused country of lesser mountains, the variety and quantity of the minerals is certainly the greatest in the world. On the other hand, Brazil, although this extensive Repubhc can claim nothing quite approaching the astonish ing mineral range such as that of the Andes chain, is at all events in a position to boast of a very important speciality in the way of diamonds ; for, although a few chance stones are to be found here and there over her frontiers, so far as is at present known, Brazil has practicahy the monopoly of the great diamond fields of the Continent. Having now obtained a first and somewhat vague general vista of the mineral wealth of South America, we may turn to the respective countries. As I have said, the Andes would seem to have reserved some of their very richest deposits for the Repubhc of Peru, if the case may be put in this way. Some experts even go the length of saying that every mineral known to mankind is to be met with in the Cordilleras of these regions, young in the history of mountains as they are, according to geologists. Thus in Peru gold, silver, copper, quick-silver, iron, lead, zinc, wolfram, nickel, coal, nitrate, borax, mica, manganese, and bismuth are met with, as weh as some traces of tin, which latter metal, as a matter of fact, abounds freely over the borders in Bohvia. Nevertheless, this industry, the oldest in the Continent is, in a modern sense, in its first infancy. For all the astonishing wealth of the country, 196 THE SOUTH AMERICANS mining has not so far been carried on on an important and comprehensive scale, such as the situation demands. Gold- mining alone, for instance, with a greater degree of enter prise would, there is no doubt, meet with astonishingly profitable results in Peru. There is, however, so much to be taken into consideration that perhaps more caution is necessary in gold-mining enterprises in Peru than in most places. For one thing, although the type of mountains such as exist here is of the kind which encourages the behef in the vastness of the inherent mineral wealth, the very broken country with its tremendous altitudes and deep ravines brings into play various disadvantages all of which have to be taken into consideration. Thus in many regions transport is extremely difficult, and mining machinery has to be carried very long distances on the backs of mules. This circumstance alone, of course, adds enormously to the initial expense incidental to the endeavour to work a Peruvian mine of the kind. With the rapid progress now being made in the way of communi cations, however, there is no doubt that the mining situation in Peru will soon be in a position to be more satisfactorily coped with. When this has once come about it will doubt lessly be proved that the gold-mining industry of Peru, as carried on at the present moment, represents a very slender foretaste of the future so far as bulk and output are con cerned. In the old days it was, of course, silver for which Peru was most of all famed. Indeed, the name of Potosi has become proverbial, and smacks of almost magical and unearthly wealth. Potosi, as a matter of fact, is no longer within the Peruvian frontier. The alteration in the various dehmitations after the War of Liberation placed this astonishing mountain of silver, honeycombed and riddled with shafts as it is, in Bolivia. But although the great mines MINERALS 197 of Potosi are lost to Peru, the coastal Repubhc has no grounds for complaint on account of any lack of the white metal, and, should circumstances ever tend to divert the lessening value of silver, the immense stores here must, of course, play a very important part in the history of the world. The present somewhat backward condition of all but the central provinces of Peru — backward, that is to say, only when compared with the most progressive nations of the Continent — has been attributed by many to the ease with which wealth has always been accumulated in the Repubhc. There is no doubt that in the past the possession of mineral lands exercized a certain influence over some sections of the Peruvian aristocracy. One had merely to dive one's hand into the earth — metaphorically, of course, since the actual process was somewhat more strenuous — in order to pull out a handful of mineral treasure ! This statement, of course, can only with justice be made to apply to the wealthy mine-owners, since the miners themselves find the labour of a sufficiently arduous order. Indeed the lot of the mining engineers in some of the very high altitudes — and many of the mines are worked at twelve or fourteen thousand feet above sea level — is no light one, since from their mere situation their existence is lonely and isolated to a degree. Nevertheless such enterprises as the Oroya Railway, which chmbs up into the heart of these latitudes, go far towards the amelioration of the lot of the workers and the wealth of the industry. This applies especially to the copper mines, a number of which are situated at these very high latitudes, and the value of which has only of late years begun to be seriously appreciated. The disadvantages which have apphed in the past to Peruvian mines hold good with even greater force in the case of Bohvia. Bohvia, in fact, is just at present, from the industrial point of view, quite one of the most interesting 198 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Repubhcs of the great Continent . Bohvia presents a promise of incalculable wealth, but at the present moment much has to be taken for granted, for Bohvia remains as yet in more or less its quite primitive condition, so far as its mineral provinces are concerned. These, as in Peru, form part of a wild and mountainous country, where communications in all places are difficult, and where up to the present time effective roads are rare in the extreme in the majority of districts. There are in these bleak, picturesque, and mountainous regions other treasures, as a matter of fact, beyond minerals — treasures of a lesser intrinsic value, it is true, in the average markets of the world. As in portions of Peru, there are fossils of very large size found here ; those of enormous fish abound ing in some parts and of vegetation in others. But this topic we may for the moment pass by — as a rule such objects possess small enough interest for those in search of gold, and precious stones. Bohvia, as a matter of fact, possesses great stores of gold, the country about its capital, La Paz, the loftiest city in the world, being richly stocked with this mineral, while other centres such as Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Santa Cruz, and many more hold important quantities of this valuable metal. We now come to the mountain of Potosi, already re ferred to, which has been obsessed perhaps, in times of old, by the greatest glamour and gloom in the world. Potosi in days gone by has been the grave of tens of thousands of Indians forced to work at a fatal pressure in the mines. The tremendous labours of the past are evident in this curious conical silver mountain ; for, as has already been said, it is honeycombed by tunnels, and its sides are pierced by very nearly eight thousand entrances. So much for Bolivia's gold and silver. But these, of MINERALS 199 course, only represent a fraction of Bolivia's mineral wealth, since the inland Repubhc possesses every product of the kind which is found in Peru, and, indeed, is notable in particular for very important quantities of tin such as the sister Repubhc lacks. Indeed there is no doubt whatever, that when its mines are worked on an important scale, and when adequate railway communications have been estabhshed, Bohvia will be by far the largest tin-producing country in the world. Another mineral-producing country of the first rank is Chile. Chile contains practically the same range of minerals as Peru and Bohvia. It is true that the lengthy strip of coast-hne which comprises the Repubhc lacks the tin in anything hke the quantities which Bolivia can display. On the other hand, Chile has practically the monopoly of the nitrate industry, which in itself suffices to add enor mously to the wealth of the country. The various mines, some of the most important and profitable of which at the present moment are those of copper, extend from the North Chilean frontier to a httle South of Valdivia in latitude 400. The mineral possibihties do not, of course, end at this point, and, indeed, it is quite certain there are important mines to the South of this, but opportunity so far has been lacking to test the matter thoroughly. Much the same story in the way of minerals apphes to the Northern Repubhcs such as Ecuador and Colombia. The Repubhc of Colombia, as a matter of fact, is notable not only for its gold (many of its rivers being auriferous and exceptionally easy to work) and silver, but for its platinum, the majority of which is exported to Europe. Beyond this Colombia is famed for its emeralds — the sole specimens of this precious stone, it is said, to be found in the Continent. Colombia, too, is fortunate in her possession of rock-salt 200 THE SOUTH AMERICANS mines, an industry which has been monopohzed by the Government. In Venezuela, in addition to the gold, silver, and other minerals such as are met with in the neighbouring Repubhcs, petroleum obtains largely as well as sulphur, onyx, and small quantities of tin. The exportation of copper from these regions now seems to have fallen off somewhat. At one time the working of this metal in Venezuela is said to have ranked second only to Chile in importance. Here, too, a certain amount of coal is known to exist, although no serious attempts appear to have been made yet to exploit this industry. Much was hoped from the gold mining of the Guianas ; but this has proved a httle disappointing. It is true that a certain amount of industry exists in the forest regions, but mining proper appears to have languished. Never theless Mr. James Rodway relates that fine nuggets have occasionahy been found, the largest of which, from British Guiana, weighed no less than three hundred and thirty ounces. In these regions a certain quantity of sapphires and diamonds are discovered, and it is possible, of course, that larger deposits of these precious stones — and even of gold — are to be met with than is suspected. If that time should ever arrive the great and fevered hopes of Raleigh will have justified themselves in a belated fashion. For Raleigh in his day placed the fabulous country of El Dorado in the neighbourhood of where the Guianas now extend. The search — strenuous, romantic, but futile — was responsible for the loss of a great number of hves. Up to the present, moreover, nothing has ever been dis covered which has justified the early tales of the phenomenal wealth which lay hidden in the interior to make its dis* coverer rich beyond the dreams of avarice. MINERALS 201 Brazil, in the popular mind, is as famous for the produc tion of diamonds as for that of nuts! But there are not many of the general pubhc who reahze the full extent to which she has been endowed with gold. For instance, it is stated by Mr. Dawson A. Vinden that Brazil has already produced gold to a value exceeding one hundred milhon pounds. To what extent her diamond industry compares with this I do not know. It is certain, of course, that whereas diamonds are only found in certain districts of limited area, gold appears to be met with in almost every province of the great Republic. The greater part of this valuable metal is actually obtained by the process of washing the sands along the banks of the rivers. This is carried out by the natives — a considerable number of whom eke out their hving in this fashion. The iron deposits of Brazil are occupying considerable attention at the present time, and it is by no means without the range of possibihty that Brazil may offer some starthng surprises in this respect. For it seems almost certain that some of these deposits are of so vast a nature as to have had no parallel in the previous history of this metal. A certain amount of coal exists in the Southern Provinces, more especially in those of Santa Cathalina and Rio Grande do Sul. It is possible that one day this industry may be developed. So far as precious stones in general are con cerned Brazil, of course, is by far the most generously supphed Repubhc in South America. Diamantina, Bahia, and Minas are the three States responsible for the majority of diamonds, and numbers of these have been of quite extraordinary beauty. In addition to these, considerable quantities of amethysts and topaz are to be met with in Brazil as well as in Northern Uruguay. This latter Republic, although her mines have not yet received much public attention, and indeed have occasion- 202 THE SOUTH AMERICANS ally been productive of discouraging results, possesses nevertheless considerable possibihties in the way of mineral development. Manganese, silver, copper, gypsum, iron, and marble are to be met with here, occasionally very freely. Argentina alone remains, and from a mineral point of view the great Repubhc is the least important. The Famatina Mines in the North- West are productive of gold, silver, and copper, being, as a matter of fact, situated in an off-shoot of the Andes metal-bearing chain. In the neighbourhood of C6rdoba, marble is found, and there are signs of gold in Tierra del Fuego. But beyond this Argentina seems to have httle of importance to offer in the way of minerals. It must, however, be said that many of the more remote mountainous regions have not yet been put to the test. Seeing that the actual exploration of South America will not be concluded for many decades, to say nothing of the more intricate task of testing its remaining mineral possi bihties, it is hkely enough that reahy important coal-fields may yet be discovered in the central portions of the Conti nent. Should this prove the case the great Southern Conti nent will be provided with the one asset with which at the present moment it is quite inadequately supphed. The possession of coal-fields by such Repubhcs as Argentina and Brazil would be of quite incalculable value. Indeed not withstanding the enormous wealth that South America has acquired without it, it is not too much to say that the discovery of coal would place many of the Republics in a position compared with which the present is to the past of a hundred years ago. Were Argentina, for instance, once provided with those coal-fields, the discovery of which is almost yearly rumoured, and up to the present invariably attended subsequently with disappointment, the industrial power of that nation would in a few years rival that of almost any in Europe. It MINERALS 203 would be a bold man who would deny any such possibihty as that of the discovery of the much longed-for mineral, but up to the present the fact remains that the thing has not come about. For ah this it must not be thought that South America is devoid of coal ; such is by no means the case. The Western coast-hne of the Continent, indeed, can boast of several notable fields, the most important of which is that of Lota in Southern Chile ; as well as the neighbouring mines of Coronel. The mines of Lota are on the sea-coast itself, and the excavations run for a con siderable way beneath the ocean. It was owing to this that the serious disaster occurred at the Coronel mines, when some years ago hundreds of miners were drowned by the influx of the sea. A certain amount of coal exists in Peru ; but the deposits do not yet appear to have been thoroughly explored. According to some enthusiasts the carboniferous possi bihties, or rather probabihties, of Peru are extraordinarily great. Nevertheless, they would not seem to have yet tempted any profound enterprise. There are few industries of the present day which do not suffer either from the competition of a substituted article or from the fear of such an occurrence. In one sense this would appear to be the lot of the nitrate in dustry ; since there is much talk of an artificial nitrate : a product of hme. This, however, would seem to have certain disadvantages. It must, for instance, be used immediately the packets in which it is stored are opened, and how far it wih in the end seriously interfere with the prosperity of the great nitrate industry of Chile is very doubtful. Chile, at the present moment, owns the monopoly of the nitrate industry. The arid districts of her North-West 204 THE SOUTH AMERICANS territory contain practically all the caliche in the world. This is wont to be covered by a costra or crust, a layer of cement-hke material some feet in thickness, which has to be blasted away before the nitrate itself is arrived at. It is this costra which protects the existence of the nitrate, for this latter article melts at once when brought into contact with water. Now although the deserts of Northern Chile are popularly supposed to be quite rain less, this is not quite a fact, and there are times when quite a notable downfall of rain occurs in the Atacama desert. On such occasions but for the costra the nitrate would long ago have been washed away. As it is it serves as a most efficient preservative. The nitrate Oficinas are in various and cosmopohtan hands and give employment to many Chileans, a few Peru vians, and other working people of all nationahties. The fertilizing powers of nitrate are, of course, too weh known to need any recapitulation here. The benefit in the case of cereals, root-crops, and fruits in general has been abundantly proved over and over again. The greater part of these barren but wealth-producing provinces have, of course, only come into Chilean hands since the war be tween Peru and Bolivia in 1879, commonly known as the Nitrate War, as well as by the more official term of the War of the Pacific. CHAPTER XII PRODUCTS General Scope of the Industries — Geographical Considerations — Coffee — Countries in Which this is Grown — Colombian Coffee — Coffee in Vene zuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and British Guiana — The Industry in Brazil — Principal Qoffee Producing States — Modern Methods Employed — Various Species of the Bean — The Rise of Sao Paolo — The Valoriza tion Scheme — Curious Situation Involved — Assistance Rendered by the Government — Endeavours to Sustain the Price of Coffee — Result of a Bold Enterprise — Rubber — A Dramatic Product — Crimes Due to this Industry — Circumstances Which Have Given Rise to These — The Govern ment and the Rubber Forests — The Lack of a Long Official Arm — Rubber Growing in the West and in the East — Peculiarities of the Trees — Brazilian Plains — Bolivian Rubber — Method of Collecting — Details of the Caoutchouc Industry — Yerba-Mate — An Aboriginal Luxury — Dis tricts in Which the Growth is Met With— An Essentially South American Beverage — Methods of Imbibing — The Bombilla — Its Hygienic Benefit — Yerba-Mate and the Gaucho — Export from Paraguay — A New Phase of the Industry — Methods of its Collection — Perils of the Minero — Life in the Forests — Past and Present Popularity of Mate — Its Reception in Europe — Wheat — Wheat Zones of the Continent — Argentina as a Wheat Producing Country— Circumstances Favourable to the Growth — Wheat in Chile and in Uruguay THE scope of the general products of South America is so vast that it is impossible to give to each of the various industries more than a few hnes of passing notice. If Europe is the continent the growths of which — being practically all those of a temperate chmate — have less variety than those of any other, South America must represent almost the metaphorical antipodes of this, so far as the natural fruits of the earth are concerned. From Latitude 150 North down to a point well below 550 South is a formidable stretch. Within this the nature of the products of course vary from those of the heat of 205 206 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the tropics to those in the tempestuous South with its chilly winds, its snow, and its rains. Apart from any special geographical distinctions or classifications, one may take the most important of these many products in a more or less casual order of precedence. With South American coffee the great Repubhc of Brazil is inseparably connected in the pubhc mind — very rightly as a matter of fact. Nevertheless it should be pointed out that^Brazil is by no means the only South American pro ducer of coffee, as is the opinion of many of the un initiated, although the country is infinitely the most im portant of all. This being so, we may safely leave the topkTof the Brazihan produce, being the lengthiest, until the last, and cast a rapid glance at those other lands where coffee is grown. As a matter of fact, very important quantities of coffee are produced in Colombia, whence the bean is exported to Europe and to the United States. Some of the Colombian coffee is excehent ; but of late years this industry has found a very formidable rival in that of banana raising, and since this latter very profitable enterprise has been responsible for employing the greater part of the available labour, it is very unhkely that the cultivation of this fine quahty of coffee in Colombia will increase. On the con trary, should the banana industry continue to flourish, of which there seems every prospect, it is almost certain that this wih continue to react rather unfavourably on the coffee industry of the country. As it is, Colombia is said to export almost a milhon bags of coffee yearly to Europe and to the United States. By people not intimate with South American affairs the fact wih be received with some surprise that not only is coffee cultivated in Colombia, but also in Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, as well as in British Guiana. Much of PRODUCTS 207 the soil is well adapted for, and many chmatic conditions in these regions are exceedingly favourable to, the coffee plantations ; but owing to the peculiar circumstances of the Brazilian coffee areas it is unhkely that any great ex tension of the plantations will occur in any of these countries. Having disposed of the lesser coffee-producing countries, we come to Brazil itself ; the coffee-producing Repubhc par excellence of the Southern Continent. The most important of all the States concerned is, of course, Sao Paolo. A considerable amount is grown in Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and Espiritu Santo ; but in respect to quantity and quahty none of these three can bear any comparison with the plantations of Sao Paolo. The riches which this enterprise has brought to the latter State has been productive of a situation which has been fully appreciated, not only by the Provincial, but by the Federal, Government. Everything has been done in order to encourage the finest growths of the bean. Ah species have been introduced from every part of the world where coffee flourishes and the best results have been care fully noted and acted upon. So far as machinery is con cerned, moreover, all the most modern types and the most recent inventions have been introduced. The rise of the town of Sao Paolo and the phenomenal increase in the business and prosperity of the port of Santos is, of course, due to nothing beyond these flourishing coffee plantations ; for nearly ah the coffee produced in Sao Paolo is sent down the railway to Santos and from thence shipped to every part of the world. As a matter of fact, the coffee market of Sao Paolo is responsible for one of the most interesting commercial experiments ever undertaken by a State. The treatises, and even books, that have been written on this very subject — that of the coffee valorization scheme — would indeed stock a hbrary ; 208 THE SOUTH AMERICANS therefore nothing is necessary here beyond an attempt to explain the situation in a very few words. Briefly then the historical survey of the position amounts to this •: that about the year 1885 the price of coffee began to rise, and from 1887 until 1895 the high rates which con tinued to prevail naturally encouraged the planters to in crease the areas under cultivation. Rapid fortunes were made, and everything seemed to hold out the promise that every one of these coffee-planters would become a million aire in pounds sterhng before very long. I say every one advisedly, since some were no doubt already within measurable distance of that enviable state. The ground responded nobly, and the coffee-bean multiphed to an undreamed-of extent — to such an extent, indeed, that a quite unforeseen and embarrassing situation began to prevail. The district of Sao Paolo was now producing so much coffee — of an excellent quahty, it is true — that, by the mere inertia of its own superabundant weight, the enormous crops of the article were beginning to fall in price per pound. The situation naturally caused universal dismay. Very soon it became evident that the fears of those interested were by no means groundless. Prices fell and continued to fall, until the actual ruin of many of those concerned in the Sao Paolo coffee trade was threatened. The Government showed itself keenly ahve to the posi tion of affairs, and the authorities determined to intervene in the hope of hghting upon a solution. In the first place they forbade the extension of the coffee plantations : a measure that was undoubtedly wise enough in itself, and which, of course, would have come about from the natural trend of events when the fall in the price of coffee rendered the production unremunerative. Even then, however, it appeared to the Government, anxious as it was to assist the industry, that measures had I OADING COFFEE, SANTOS PRODUCTS 209 not been brought sufficiently far. So the official guardians of the industry now determined to enter heart and soul into the coffee campaign, and to attempt to uphold the price of the precious bean by a somewhat artificial mea sure. It was by this means that the valorization scheme was initiated. In order to bring this about the whole hearted Government of Sao Paolo stepped into the breach and itself bought and took charge of many milhons of coffee bags. At the same time it encouraged the forma tion of a syndicate which should withdraw a very notable additional quantity of the product from the market. It is unnecessary to go into the figures of these gigantic operations here. In a nutshell the situation resolved itself into this : that the Government and the Syndicate were determined to withdraw from the pubhc eye all this super abundance of coffee and to maintain the balance of supphes in such a fashion that not too much was thrown upon the market at any one time. The defensive campaign was generously conceived, and, indeed, loyahy carried out, and the original great hoard of coffee has been disposed of in the meanwhile httle by little and in a guarded fashion. But there was one thing which had not been reckoned on, and that, of course, was the effect that the subsequent harvests would have on the situation. The result has been the inevitable one. Ever since that period the reports of a coming good harvest of coffee, although welcomed in some quarters, has been regarded with intense gloom and anxiety by the Government of Sao Paolo and by those interested in the coffee- valorization scheme. For some years it looked very much as if complete success had attended these very bold efforts to encourage this valuable local industry ; but recently the issue has become more doubtful again, and it does not seem as if the 210 THE SOUTH AMERICANS coffee community of Sao Paolo were yet out of the financial wood. The most dramatic vegetable product of the Continent is, of course, rubber. In its emotional ethics this mere vegetable approaches the standing of far more durable objects. It seems almost to place itself in the same cate gory as diamonds, precious stones, and gold in respect to the human passions it is capable of arousing and the crimes of violence for which its search has been responsible. The most ardent admirer of the great Continent can no longer deny that, if there is a darkest Africa, there is, too, a darkest South America. Yet in the face of these outrages, which must naturally stir up a deep indignation on the part of any normal community, it is necessary that the pubhc should place the blame where it is due. And here it may be said the civil Governments of the countries affected are by no means so culpable as has occa sionally been made out. The first main causes of pohtical unrest and pubhc violence have already been explained in this book. Once again these industrial crimes are due, in the first place, to^vast areas and insufficient communica tion, and only in a secondary degree to the rapacity and brutality of a dominant gang of ruffians ; for without the former conditions the latter human pests could not exist. So far as the central government of Peru is concerned one might take as a parallel the case of a suppositious state of affairs in India. Suppose India to be deprived of nine- tenths of its population, and consequently of the same proportion of its forces of law and order. Imagine, more over, the head hunters of the Malay peninsula as nominally subject to the authority of Calcutta in these circumstances. In such circumstances as these conceive further the efficiency, or rather the want of it, of any such control even with the best wih in the world ! There are crimes of loneliness and PRODUCTS 211 opportunity, and no surroundings would appear to foster these more warmly and more satanically than the silent aisles of the rubber forests. In the past the South Americans have made zealous efforts to guard the treasured rubber seeds. Such pro cedure is, of course, no longer possible, but there is no doubt that Brazil has regarded with some natural jealousy the introduction into the east of the rubber industry, a sentiment which has not been lessened by the news of its progress in the various countries which have received with enthusiasm the wealth-bearing seeds. The Brazihans claim with no httle conviction that the trees which yield the best and most costly Para rubber will not continue to show this quahty amid other surroundings than their natural circumstances. The trees themselves, they assert, may thrive well enough, but circumstances alter cases and also the bark of trees. The upholders of this theory maintain that for the best, most durable, and most elastic types of rubber the trees must remain, in their original swampy soil, watered periodically by the floodings of the yellow Amazon, and by the lesser streams of its tributaries. This theory of course, sounds plausible enough, and it is possible enough that the " Plantation " rubber, for all its fine appearance, does not possess the same robust quahties as that of the natural Para rubber collected in its own haunts. However time alone can prove this vexed point, and the time cannot now be very far distant when the proof will be forthcoming one way or another. In Bohvia, the ethics of the actual industry are very similar to those in Brazil. Here the two species of rubber- tree are the white and the red. In these regions the col lection of rubber is carried on, as is now well known, by the Indians of the various districts. Each labourer is given a certain number of trees to attend to and it is his 212 THE SOUTH AMERICANS business to tap these. The usual method is to pierce the trunk at the height of from six to ten feet from the ground, a small leaden cup being placed beneath the wound into which the fluid rubber runs. As the cup fills it is emptied into a larger receptacle. When a sufficiency of the milk of the rubber tree is obtained it is poured over a stick to which it chngs. The stick is continually turned, and the matter thus gradually assumes the form of a large bah, and during this process it is smoked over a fire, after which it is ready for export. This pro cedure lasts from six to eight months out of the year — in some cases longer. Of course when the rainy season arrives, and the rivers rise, the business of this collection is inter rupted. Bolivia yields a certain amount of cadutchouc as well as rubber. From the widely different appearance of the two none unacquainted with this particular industry would gather that the square blocks of caoutchouc had been derived from similar trees to those which produce the elastic and yielding rubber. The process, as a matter of fact, is very different, since it is necessary in order to obtain the caoutchouc to fell the tree, whereas in the case of rubber the same generous trunk will continue to yield year after year. Thus the disadvantage of the caoutchouc industry as compared with rubber at once becomes evident. The generahty of South American products have, it may be said, proved themselves of greater importance in the course of their industrial development than was suspected at the time of their discovery. One of the few articles which form an exception to this rule is the Yerba Mate or Paraguayan Tea. Yerba mate was one of the few material luxuries of the aboriginals of South Ariierica before the advent of the Spaniards. The product, moreover, showed itself especially liberal, since, growing in dense quantities PRODUCTS 213 in the forests covering the districts which now represent North-East Argentina, Paraguay, and South-East Brazil, its leaves offered themselves in an unusual abundance in their natural state to the gatherers. Yerba mate, as a matter of fact, is one of the few objects that is essentially South American ; for, although the use of the popular herb is spread practically all over the Continent, its reception in Europe and elsewhere has not been of that cordial order which was in the first place confidently anticipated. The merits of yerba mate as a beverage are not to be denied ; they were fully recognised by the natives of the districts in which the tree flourished, and it was not long before the Spaniards adopted the practice of imbibing the infusion through the bombilla or tube, usually of silver, through which the hquid was drawn up from the gourd, for the mate or gourd was the indispensable and popular vessel employed for the purpose. In common with the majority of other luxuries it is necessary to indulge in yerba mate in moderation. So much is obvious enough, but no term has perhaps wider significance than that of moderation ! For instance the genuine devotee of yerba would imbibe sufficient quantities of the liquid to cause even the most rabid tea or coffee drinker to shudder ! Padre Dobrizhoffer, an old author who wrote of the days when the Jesuits held sway in Paraguay, even goes the length of relating that a certain number of the Mission Indians in his charge could pro nounce no more than ten consecutive words without having recourse to the inevitable bombilla. A more complete obsession than this it is difficult to conceive ! When drunk in moderation, however, the hygienic benefits of Para guayan tea are undeniable. It is yerba mate that has preserved the Gaucho from the illnesses and affections with 214 THE SOUTH AMERICANS which a purely meat diet must otherwise necessarily have inflicted him. At the present moment the annual export of yerba mate from Paraguay to the outside world amounts to the value of some two hundred thousand pounds This in itself is no inconsiderable quantity ; and since the yerba has of late years been somewhat carelessly gathered in certain districts, the demand for export has aheady involved the planting of new yerbales, an industry which until a quite recent period had no existence, for the reason that none could discover an efficient method of propagation. This has now been effected, and, to the complete astonishment of the older Paraguayans, the trim rows of artificially planted yerbales are now beginning to cover the land in many directions. Nevertheless, almost the entire quantity which is gathered remains of the wild or natural order. There are, by the way, two distinct chief varieties of the yerba mate or ilex Paraguay ensis. The first of these is a mere shrub which may be planted in close lines ; the other, however, grows to an important tree, for the diameter of the fohage of which a space of some thirty-six feet has to be allowed. The yerbatero, the gatherer, or more especially the minero, his subordinate, has in some respects a good deal in common with the Indian gatherers of rubber in other parts of South America : not as regards his conditions of labour and the other disciplinary disadvantages under which the rubber gatherer labours in certain parts of the Continent ; but merely in his surroundings and in the similarity of his work. Both are accustomed to set out into the lonely forests and to brave the perils, not only of jaguars and poisonous snakes and other reptiles ; but also, in the hinterlands, of the hostile Indians, who are still to be met with here and there, although their numbers are now PRODUCTS 215 approaching extinction. In order to become an efficient yerbatero it is essential to possess good nerves. The man who goes out in search of the Paraguayan tea must be obsessed by no unease in the gloom of the lonely forest such as might trouble a townsman. He must treat as an everyday event the weird and mystic sounds which from time to time emanate from its solitudes, and even the silence, which in itself can be most oppressive. Like every other industry, even that of yerba mate with all its romance and local colour tends to go the way of the times and to be conducted on a larger, and therefore more profitable, scale than that on which the host of independent early yerba collectors were wont to work. One company, for instance, the " Industriel Paraguay," is said to own a thousand square leagues of territory, of which half consists of yerba producing forests. In the more progressive centres of South America and in towns such as Buenos Aires the taste for yerba mate has been largely replaced by that of the ordinary China or Indian tea : a change that is regretted by many, since there seems no doubt that the hygienic quahties of the local product compare favourably with those of the Asiatic. In fact, although its cultivation and trade have continued to increase, the commerce in this Paraguayan herb has not fulfilled the promise of the bygone centuries. There is scarcely a writer on Paraguay or on the neighbouring yerba mate districts — from the famous French scientist Bon- pland downwards — who has not from time immemorial prophesied the ultimate triumph of the yerba plant. Almost every one of these enthusiastic devotees has promised that, so soon as the infusion became known in Europe, coffee and tea would bow their yellow or brown shamed heads and melt away. It must be admitted that nothing of the kind has 216 THE SOUTH AMERICANS occurred. Yerba mate has been introduced, and is actually at the present moment on sale at at least one spot in London, and probably at several on the Continent. The triumph of mate has not swelled beyond its native land. Never theless the possibihties of its future still remain and, indeed, might be thought to be strengthened in an age of somewhat anxious expeditions into the realms of hygiene. Yerba mate, hke most friends worth knowing, is not to be appreciated on a first meeting, nor on the second nor the third. But let the conscientious searcher for its merits persist in his quest of the dehghts of yerba ! Let him draw upwards through the bombilla the contents of some twenty or thirty mates (needless to say not at one sitting) and the chances are that at the end of the course he wih have become one of the most faithful and ardent devotees of the infusion ! But that time is certainly not yet, so far as the general pubhc of Europe and North America are concerned. The wheat industry of South America is necessarily somewhat confined : that is to say so far as the important production of this cereal is concerned, and in the matter of exports, Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay are the only three Repubhcs which count. In a somewhat haphazard fashion, and for purely local consumption it may be said that several of the remaining South American states pro duce a certain amount of wheat. But naturahy enough the very northernmost portion of the continent and such strips as those comprised by the Guianas are responsible for next to nothing in the way of wheat growing. Argentina is by far the most important wheat-producing country of South America and in 1912 this Repubhc had very nearly eight milhon hectares under cultivation : the actual quantity produced exceeding sixty milhon hecto litres. Thus Argentina already ranks as one of the greatest PRODUCTS 217 wheat-growing countries of the world, while a persistent increase is evident in the areas devoted to this industry. Wheat, it may be said, possesses this great advantage from a local point of view over maize. The crops of the former are seldom attacked by the locust, since its ears as a rule have hardened to such an extent as to become unwelcome even to that voracious insect before its arrival in the Southern Repubhcs, while the rich, soft maize cobs, on the other hand, offer every inducement to the depredations of the locust, and in consequence are hable to suffer freely. The chief wheat-producing provinces of Argentina are those of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, and Cordoba. In Chile the fertile central valleys, as well as some of the Southern districts, are responsible for the chief growth of this cereal ; while in Uruguay such provinces as Rio Negro, Soriano, Colonia, San Jose and Canalones are principally concerned in wheat-growing. CHAPTER XIII PRODUCTS— Continued Maize — A Native Cereal of the Americas — Argentina as a Maize-Pro ducing Country — Its Growth in the Other Republics — Maize in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Peru — Sugar — An Industry of Old Stand ing — Various Districts in Which the Sugar-cane is Grown — Brazil as an Exporter of the Article — Sugar in the North — Its Cultivation in the Southern Repubhcs — Alfalfa — The Flourishing of Lucerne in the New Continent — Soil Favourable to Alfalfa Growing — A Valuable Asset to the Stock-raising Countries — Rice — Countries in which this Growth Flourishes — Efforts Made Towards its Cultivation — Tobacco — Prevalence of the Growth Throughout Central and South America — Brazil as the Most Important Producer of Tobacco — Bahian Cigars and Cigarettes — Quality of the Growth — Argentine Tobacco — The Advent of the Trust — Paraguay as a Tobacco Growing Country — The Industry in Chile, Bolivia and Peru — Tobacco in the Remaining Republics — Orange Growing — Questions Concerning the Introduction and Aboriginal Claims of the Trees — Jesuits and Their Orange Groves — Ubiquitous Flourishing of the Plant — The Industry in Paraguay — Magnificent Specimens of the Fruit in Brazil — The Banana Trade — Districts Where the Banana Flourishes — Questions of Supply and Demand — Fruit — The Cultivation of European Fruits in Southern Chile — A Potential Rival of California — Market Gardening — A New Industry — Growing Popularity of Vegetables — Vegetables of the Sub-Tropics — Beans, Maize and Palms — Tropical Fruits — The Production of European Vegetables — Their Growth in Chile and the River Plate — Sweet Potatoes — Mandioc — Mushrooms — The Beginning of a New In dustry — Market Gardening Promises of Southern South America — Panama Hats — Their Source of Origin — Methods of Manufacture — South American Fish — Supply on the Coasts — Importation of Notable Varieties — Pejerrey — The South American Prawn — Whaling and Sealing — Brazilian and Chilian Whaling Stations — Sealing on the Uruguayan Coasts — Fresh Water Fisheries of South America — Indian Fishermen — The Various Types of Fish — The Alligator — Commercial Possibilities Latent in the Saurian — Water Life of the Tropics. MAIZE has several claims to distinction among cereals. It is in the first place a genuine native of the Americas, and is commonly supposed to be the only cereal introduced into the Old World from the New. It 218 PRODUCTS 219 is owing to this peculiarity that the field of maize produc tion is so ubiquitous throughout the Continent. Apart from its wholesale employment as one of the most popular cereals of the world, in South America maize is employed for many purposes. It is, for instance, used as a vegetable, is eaten specially prepared as a dish for its own sake, and from it are brewed various beverages, as has been explained elsewhere. Argentina is responsible for the largest production and export of South American maize. In this Repubhc the cereal ranks second in importance only to wheat, and the actual area devoted to its growth, it may be said, is more widespread than wheat. The extent of territory now devoted to maize production exceeds four hundred thou sand hectares : that is to say nearly a milhon acres. In Brazil maize is cultivated practically in all regions of the Repubhc. Among the Provinces in which it flourishes the best are those of Sao Paolo, Santa Catharina, and Rio Grande do Sul. Uruguay, Chile, and Paraguay are responsible for a considerable production of maize. Peru cultivates this important cereal chiefly in its coastal territories; while a certain amount is produced in Bohvia. In Colombia -maize forms a very popular item of diet. The maize here is usually sown in a most haphazard fashion. Neverthe less, so favourable are the climatic conditions and the soil that the crops consent to exist in circumstances that would be considered highly unfavourable elsewhere. The sugar industry is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, of ah the occupations encouraged by the European in South America. Certainly one of the first uses to which Brazil was put by its early Portuguese colonists was the production of sugar and it was the extraordinarily favour able result and the generous output which surprised the 220 THE SOUTH AMERICANS pioneer Portuguese and tended much to altering the con dition of the European markets, and to throw into the shade the produce of the little island of Madeira, which until then had played so large a part in the general enterprise. Brazil still exports a considerable quantity of sugar: a certain amount to Great Britain and North America, as well as to Argentina, Uruguay and even Paraguay. As a matter of fact there is scarcely a state in South America which does not manufacture sugar, from the small Guianas upwards. These latter, by the way — or rather two of them, Dutch and British Guiana — export a considerable amount of sugar to their respective mother countries — England and Holland. There is no doubt that sufficient advantage has not yet been taken of the territorial and chmatic conditions as regards sugar in many of the Republics. Thus in Para guay, one of the most ideal countries in the world for its production, very little sugar-cane is so far grown, and very much the same condition of affairs obtains in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia, although Venezuela has progressed in a rather more important degree. In the north of Argentina the sugar industry has received considerable impetus of late, and a number of important mills now exist, some of them, and among these the largest, being in Enghsh hands. In Chile, too, the industry is in creasing rapidly, although here it must be admitted that the chmatic conditions, being less tropical, are not quite so suited to the growth of the cane as in many other parts of the Continent. The famous South American plant the alfalfa is in reahty nothing more nor less than lucerne. This growth has been known to dwellers in South America for some centuries, since it was first introduced by the Spaniards in the quite early days of the colonists. Nevertheless its PRODUCTS 221 merits were not fully reahzed until quite recent times, and indeed it is to the spread of the alfalfa area that the great increase in stock-breeding is in a great measure due. Certainly in the way of fodder this very useful crop is not to be placed in the shade by any other. Not all soil, however, is favourable to alfalfa growing. It is indispensable for instance that the soil should contain some deposits of water, or at all events that it should not be entirely arid, for the alfalfa roots have a strong affection for water, and will prolong their growths for many yards until they come into contact with the welcome fluid. This having once occurred, the roots flourish and the welfare of the plant is assured. Alfalf arias — by which name districts productive of this cereal are known — vary much, of course, according to the nature of the soil ; but the general tendency of the lucerne is to become worn out after a certain number of years, when the natural grasses and weeds reassert their dominion. It is therefore necessary to take into consideration when planting alfalfa the fact that sooner or later a fresh sowing will be required. In the best alfalfarias, however, the v plants wih occasionally last from ten to fifteen years with out needing renewal. A cereal such as this is, of course, very valuable in a pastoral country and the amount of livestock which it wih feed is unusually great. The alfalfa plant is largely propagated by a yellow butterfly, resembling a little the " clouded yehow " of England. During the season of the alfalfa blossom extra ordinarily large numbers of. these butterflies are to be met with and indeed, I have on more than one occasion seen the air above the purple field of alfalfa quivering and shining, a perfect cloud of yehow, thus providing a most astonishing sight. The alfalfa flourishes throughout the temperate South, 222 THE SOUTH AMERICANS and has now become part and parcel of the stock-raising countries. Numerous varieties of cacao exist in tropical South America. In Bolivia some very fine cacao is grown on the banks of the river Mamore, and in many valleys in the neighbourhood of Cochabamba and La Paz. The plant is also indigenous to Brazil, where it is cultivated with chief success to the North of Rio de Janeiro. Other countries where cacao is cultivated are Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and the Guianas. Rice flourishes chiefly in the centre and in the north of the Continent ; one of the most important rice-growing- countries being that of Brazil, which, in view of the tremendous area of the Repubhc, is natural enough. The principal rice-producing states of Brazil are Maranhao, Para, Matto Grosso, and Amazonas ; while of recent years Sao Paolo has attained to a very important position in the production of this article. Peru may also be counted as one of the most notable rice-producing countries of South America ; since not only does the Repubhc manage to satisfy its own demands, but to export considerable quantities to the neighbouring Repubhcs. British and Dutch Guiana, considering their small size, take a high rank in the production of rice, which, by the way, is also carried on to a minor extent in Colombia, Ecuador, Bohvia, and Venezuela. Great efforts have been made to encourage rice-growing in the North of Argentina, but that Repubhc has not yet succeeded, notwithstanding all the efforts, in prbviding sufficient rice to supply its own population. Tobacco, as is well known, represents one of the most important indigenous plants of the Americas, its favourite haunts being certain regions in central and south America. PRODUCTS 223 There is, indeed, scarcely a single province throughout the Continent where the plant is not grown to a greater or lesser extent. Brazil is the most important producer of Tobacco. No very definite figures are available here ; but the average yearly production, it would seem, is somewhere in the neighbourhood of thirty million kilos. The best known Brazihan tobacco is grown in the neighbourhood of Bahia, and the Bahia cigar now enjoys a reputation which has become almost worldwide. The flavour is hghter than that of the Havana, and somewhat resembles the product of Manila. The cigarette tobacco of Brazil when cut up and pre pared is very dark, and in many respects resembles that known as " caporal " in France. The Brazilian cigarettes enjoy a high reputation and a certain species wrapped up in dried maize leaf in place of paper has become very popular in parts of the world well without the frontiers of Brazil. The price of the average Brazilian cigar is very much the equivalent to that paid for corresponding grades of Manila, whether in England or in the respective countries of their origin. Argentine tobacco is cultivated in the north of the republic, principally in the provinces of Corrientes, Tucu- man, the Chaco, and Formosa. Beyond this, some of the neighbouring territories are also engaged in the manufac ture of tobacco. The quahty of this article does not appear to be suitable for cigars, and nearly the entire output seems to be made up into cigarettes. From a commercial point of view far greater attention has been paid to these Argen tine cigarettes of late years than to any other tobacco products of South America. Recently a tobacco trust was formed, and a number of the leading brands pur chased. The result — resembhng a similar straggle of the 224 THE SOUTH AMERICANS kind in Europe — was that the proprietors of the other brands banded themselves together in an attempt to break the trust, while numerous fresh marks of cigarettes were introduced to the pubhc. Owing to the various manoeuvres employed, in the end the public appear to have become somewhat confused as to which brands represented the trust and which the rivals of the trust, since it was popularly rumoured, with what foundation I do not know, that several of the brands osten sibly fighting the trust, were in reahty in the ranks of the latter. But this is an affair best left to the experts. Suffice to say that, from the industrial and commercial point of view, the Argentine cigarette is extremely popular and commands a very wide sale. Paraguay is essentiahy a tobacco producing country, and here it is common for the women of the lower classes to smoke cigars with the same enthusiasm as do the men. Indeed it is rare to see the females of many parts of Para guay without a cigar in their mouths. A certain number of cigarettes are manufactured in Paraguay, but by far the chief branch of the tobacco industry here is the rolhng of the cigars, which are quite unusuahy cheap, and which are therefore much appreciated by a populace which does not yet enjoy the same propor tion of riches as that of the neighbouring states. Next in importance as a tobacco-producing country comes Chile, which however, is responsible for less than half that turned out by Paraguay ; while Bohvia produces considerably less again, and Peru less than half that of Chile. The production on the part of the remaining repubhcs is quite insignificant ; but from this should not be judged the facihties for the industry, since nearly all these northern republics are endowed with a soil and chmate essentially PRODUCTS 225 favourable to the thri'ving of the tobacco-plant, and there is no doubt that in the future full advantage will be taken of the opportunities which for the moment are allowed to he dormant. It is said that certain types of oranges are indigenous to South America, and were met with by the early Conquista- dores in portions of Brazil and Paraguay. These, in the opinion of some, are represented by the bitter orange which obtains in various parts of the forests in those two countries. Whether this tree is really a native of these provinces is very doubtful. Another theory which seems more prob able is that these trees represent the survivors of the groves planted by the Jesuit Fathers and their convert Indians in the days when the mission settlements flourished. It is further supposed that, with the return of the ex uberant vegetation which rapidly swallowed up the open pastures and even the Jesuit towns, these orange groves merged with the native forests of the district, and that it is from long neglect and want of cultivation and attention that the fruit has turned bitter. This is very probably the case, for it is certain that these orange trees, many of which attain to a great height, are met with most frequently in the neighbourhood of those deserted Jesuit settlements, which are now overgrown by forests. Which of these theories be actuahy the correct one does not matter as regards the South American orange of commerce ; for this indisputably is an importation from other parts of the world. The orange, as a matter of fact, flourishes to a greater or lesser degree throughout South America almost irrespec tive of latitude in those parts where the natural conditions are favourable to its growth. It is said that in the Guianas so astonishingly prohfic is this fruit that at certain seasons of the year the soil is absolutely covered with 13 226 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the fallen fruit globes. From a commercial point of view some of the most important districts where the orange flourishes are those of Paraguay and Northern Argentina. Entire steamers are occasionally chartered for the trans port of this fruit to Buenos Aires and the other large centres of the River Plate, and with the extension of the railway hnes, it is now possible to see orange trains speed ing Southwards heavily laden with the golden produce. The industry seems a very profitable one, since the trees require very httle attention and since the soil of these districts appears pecuharly suitable to their cultivation. One of the finest of ah the South American oranges is that grown in the neighbourhood of Bahia in Brazil. This is a very large and quite specially luscious fruit, and perhaps one of the most magnificent of its kind in the whole world. The reason why the Bahia orange still remains unknown to the general orange-loving pubhc of Europe is unknown to me, and, indeed, seems quite incom prehensible in view of the quahty of these oranges. The banana industry flourishes chiefly in the north of the Continent, and numerous plantations now exist in Colombia and Venezuela. Various steamship hnes have now instituted a service in order to handle the banana products of these Repubhcs, as well as those in the areas to the north. The banana flourishes throughout Brazil, and a growing trade has now sprung up between the more southern Brazihan ports and the River Plate in this pro duct. Bananas, moreover, are shipped south from the Repubhc of Paraguay, descending to the more southern centres of consumption by way of the great river system. South of Brazil and of Paraguay the banana, although it is to be met with in a few chance districts the chmatic circumstances of which are especially favourable, cannot be considered as indigenous, or indeed as likely to flourish. PRODUCTS 227 The Government of Chile claims, not without reason, that there are in that country more than eight millions of hectares, that is to say some twenty milhon acres in the central regions specially fitted for the cultivation of fruit- trees. So far, of course, only the merest insignificant fraction of this great area has been planted. The Chileans, moreover, have every right to assert that, while in size and flavour the fruit of the Southern Repubhc rivals that of Cahfornia, the price of the soil on which it is grown is, on an average, only one third of that which prevails in Cahfornia. It is in this respect that it is hoped that the Panama Canal wih benefit Chile principally, in the first place at all events, since it is the want of a market of sufficient importance which has so far acted as a dis couraging agent in Chilean fruiticulture. When, however, the Canal brings this fruit within the distance of a reason able journey to the North American and European markets there seems no reason why the industry should not progress at an important pace. Market Gardening has already been mentioned as a new industry in South America. It is one which has naturaUy come into being with the modern progress of the Continent. In the Colonial days it may be said roughly that in the cattle districts beef was almost the sole nutriment indulged in. It is true that the meat was tempered in the South by the wholesome yerba mate of Paraguay, while in the tropical and forest regions the fruits of the country sufficed for the nourishment of the inhabitants. Although in certain districts this was reinforced by the fish from the rivers and the various animals obtained in the chase : these latter, of course, were only enjoyed on rare occasions. Vegetables for their own sake had never been appreciated until comparatively recent years. As it is, the neighbour hoods of almost all the large cities of South America are 228 THE SOUTH AMERICANS now occupied to a certain extent by market-gardens which supply the needs of these cities. Buenos Aires for one, gathers from this source the majority of European vege tables, as does Montevideo as well as Valparaiso in Chile. Sao Paolo, the chief city of Southern Brazil, is also quite well provided with vegetables from this source. To the North of this, of course, the circumstances change, and native growths take the place of the European vegetables, although asparagus it may be said thrives in many regions favourable to many vegetables of the more temperate climes. In the central districts, indeed, the black beans become in great demand and maize proves itself valuable as an adjunct to meat, while the flour of the banana provides the local bread and cakes. In these neighbourhoods, more over, many dainties obtain which are not to be had else where. Thus various species of palms are endowed with a white heart inside their leafage, and this is frequently made use of in the way of a vegetable, among the ranks of which indeed, it takes its place with great success. In the quite tropical regions, of course, the banana, already referred to, and the pine-apple are much rehed on to assist the somewhat monotonous daily diet, while such fruits as the guava, mango, and similar tropical products play a considerable part in the varying of the menu. It is not necessary to repeat that the production of European vegetables is restricted to the South of the Con tinent. Unthinkingly, the average person has grown to look upon the potato as an European vegetable, although its Continent of origin was South America. Nevertheless, the improvement in the various strains of this tuber has been brought about in Europe, and we are therefore enabled to witness the phenomenon of England and other countries sending back to Chile and its neighbouring states speci- PRODUCTS 229 mens of the potato after its treatment at the hands of European experts. Seeds of the kind introduced into this southern soil flourish exceptionally well ; and many of the potatoes that are grown in certain districts of Chile and Argentina are among the finest in the world. It has occasionally been laid to the charge of these roots that, notwithstanding the magnificence of their appearance and size, they are given to lack something of the flavour of the European species. In certain cases this is undoubtedly true enough ; but this disadvantage apphes only to some districts. In Argentina and Chile every European vegetable is grown, and — to return to the science of market-gardening — the industry is now receiving considerable encouragement. In the earher days of either nation the lack of fresh veget ables was noticeable, and was especially remarked on by foreigners who complained bitterly of the unchanged diet of beef, hghtened only by the health-giving mate bowls. Now, on the other hand, considerable enterprise is shown in market gardening, and large areas in the neighbour hood of such important towns as Buenos Aires, Santiago, Valparaiso, Rosario, Montevideo, and other notable centres of population, of the kind are devoted to this industry — which appears to be productive of very profitable results. The sweet potato obtains in the more Southern districts, as well as in the tropical regions. Needless to say, maize cobs are appreciated to the full as a dish, and, as in North America, these are frequently served in conjunction with the meats. • Proceeding northwards, once in the neighbour hood of Asuncion in Paraguay, the European vegetable has to all intents and purposes disappeared, and its place is taken by the mandioc root, which is often served in similar fashion to the potato. Although, strictly speaking, mushrooms should not come 230 THE SOUTH AMERICANS under this heading, yet they may as well be accorded a passing remark, since many districts in Argentina and Uruguay appear pecuharly favourable for the propagation of the mushroom, and during the summer time many of the pastures are profusely flecked with large edible varieties of this luxury. In Entre Rios, a Province of Argentina, this is especially the case, and of recent years these mushrooms have been exported to England. They are plucked, dried and hung together in long strings, then shipped, a process that has been found the most practical of all. In regard to the future possibihties of these temperate regions of South America concerning the production of vegetables and fruit, there are questions of seasons as well as of climate to be considered. There is one reason alone which should eventually cause the production to grow to immense proportions. This is that, the South American summer falling at the same time as the European winter, these vegetable products of the Southern Continent are available at times when our own are out of season. When these industries have become fully matured, and the communication between the two Continents made more rapid, there is no doubt that this feature will tell, and that full advantage will be taken of the circumstance. It is not a very long leap from fruits to straws and veget able fibres. Thus we arrive, en passant, at the subject of those pecuharly pliant and long-lived hats of the north of the Continent. It is generally supposed that Panama hats come from Panama. As is the case with many other nomenclatural paradoxes, this is only partially true. A certain quantity of these admirable and expensive hats do, it must be admitted, come from the Isthmus ; but the finest quahty of all hail from Ecuador, while considerable numbers owe their origin to Colombia. PRODUCTS 231 The prosperity of Ecuador, it may be said, depends very largely upon the market for these hats, and the number of workers who confine themselves to this industry is very large indeed. It is a feature of this pecuhar manu facture that, owing to the personal skill and patience required, it has not passed into the hands of the capitahst ; since no machinery can be made available for the purpose. The operatives are, for the most part, women and girls. A similar state of affairs apphes to Colombia, Panama, and, to a lesser degree, to the North of Peru, where a limited number of these hats are manufactured. The American coasts, on the whole, are abundantly supphed with fish ; although in the general opinion these do not rival in quahty those of the Northern waters. There are, nevertheless, a great number of species which con stitute very satisfactory food, and a certain proportion which is really excellent in flavour. So far the South American fisheries have never been worked on a large scale, and in the riverless districts of the interior of the Con tinent, and in many coastal towns as weh, the lovers of fish are to a certain extent dependent on sardines and other preserved fish such as the very popular tinned salmon imported from Europe and North America. One of the most appreciated fishes of the entire Con tinent is the pejerrey, which is caught off the coast of Argentina and at the mouth of the River Plate. Another marine creature of the kind which has attained a really wide reputation and popularity is the very large prawn which is caught both on the Brazihan and Argentine coasts. This prawn very much resembles that caught in the Eastern waters, more especially off the Indian coast. It is of a formidable size, its bulk being at least three or four times the size of any European specimen. It would serve no purpose here to give the various 232 THE SOUTH AMERICANS names of the very many species of fish caught off the South American coasts, since all these have merely a local significance. At present there is very httle demand for salt-water fish in the interior of the Continent, mainly for the reason that the possibihty of the supply of fresh fish of the kind has never existed. But with the growth of inland communications it is quite possible that the demand will spring up, in which case no doubt the neglected in dustry of fish will gain a much needed impetus. Both whahng and seahng, I suppose, should come under this general heading. To those unacquainted with the habits of the creatures, the sight of so many whales in the tropical Brazihan waters is apt to cause no httle sur prise. These areas of heated water nevertheless constitute a very favourite haunt of the vast animals during certain seasons of the year. Whaling, as is the way with the rest of the deep-sea fishing, has not as yet been undertaken on a large scale, and, although one or two modern establish ments exist on the coast of Brazil, the more general way of hunting the ocean giants is from small half-decked luggers which put out from the shore when the whales " blow " and thus reveal their existence. With the whale once harpooned, the struggle between the animal and the boat is no mean one, and from passing vessels I have seen Various luggers heaved partially into the air, and all but capsized. In view of the small cost of these semi-amateur whale fisheries the profits consequent on a really good haul are considerable. In the Chilean harbour of Corral in the South of the repubhc is a well equipped whahng station where the industry is carried on from modern whalers, armed with the latest killing devices peculiar to such craft. The chief seahng industry of South America is carried on off the Uruguayan coast. The Island of Lobos is one of PRODUCTS 233 the favourite headquarters of the animal in these lati tudes. For many years this Island proved a bone of con tention between those interested in the seal fisheries and those numerous others interested in the mercantile marine. The latter agitated for a hght-house on Lobos Island. An erection of the kind, indeed, was badly needed, since the island is smaU and not easily distinguishable. The up holders of the seal fisheries on the other hand, objected strenuously that the hght-house would have the effect of driving the seals away from this popular resort of theirs, and so forcibly did they plead their cause that for years they actually held their own and prevented the erection of the hght-house on the Island ! The exigencies of modern travel, however, have now been complied with, and Lobos Island is provided with a hght-house, and consequently with a lesser number of seals ! The fresh-water fisheries of South America have, natur ally enough, been far more exploited than the ocean grounds. Here the native Indians have been enabled to play their part, and, indeed, many tribes have always depended largely for their existence upon their catches of fresh-water fish. It stands to reason that the principal waters for fresh-water fish are those of the Amazon. It is said that the Amazon contains a fresh-water rephca of every salt-water fish, from the whale downwards. That which corresponds to the whale is the great manatee. But beyond this, many of the river fish of the Amazon are of sufficient size to be hunted by Indians with a harpoon. The two species which are in most general demand are those known as the piracuru and the surubim. The pira- curu is in itself no light weight in the way of a fish. It frequently attains to a length of six feet, and some of its specimens are even said to turn the scale at two hundred pounds. Its flesh is of a pinkish shade and somewhat 234 THE SOUTH AMERICANS resembles that of the salmon, although the fish itself is far more coarse in flavour. The surubim is a smaller fish which is frequently caught in very large numbers and is much esteemed as food. In these tropical rivers the fresh-water turtle is very common, and in many regions forms the staple article of food. A fish, it may be said, which prevails not only in Brazil, but throughout the system of the River Plate, is the dorado, a species of gold fish, as its name implies. This, as a matter of fact, is one of the least coarse of the large river fish. Although the alligator prevails throughout the north of the Continent, central Brazil, Paraguay, and indeed may be met with even on the Parana and Uruguay rivers, no large use has yet been made of the alligator-skins from an industrial point of view. These are to be obtained in thousands ; but for some reason or other no one seems to have thought it worth while to prosecute this particular form of hunting for a profit. Mariy of the tropical rivers are, of course, haunted by very unpleasant and even dangerous forms of water-hfe. Thus in the North of the Continent flocks of the carnivorous perai fish permit neither man nor beast to enter into the stream in the neighbourhood without taking a very ghastly toll of their bodies. Indeed, these small, fierce and very voracious creatures, if met with in numbers, are capable of stripping the body to the bone in a very few rriinutes. Another unpleasant denizen of the waters of these lati tudes is the sting-ray, which often attains to a formidable size. Then there are the various species of electric eels and other aquatic pests which render the neighbourhood of many of these tropical streams, to say the least of it, inconvenient ! CHAPTER XIV DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS OF THE CONTINENT Object of the First Colonizers of South America — Circumstances which Influenced the Distribution of Towns and Population — The Pastoral Industry — Its Two Main Fields — The Pastures of Venezuela and of the South — Various Types of Cattle — Evolution of Breed — The Llanos of Venezuela — Some Figures concerning Cattle Which Flourish on Them — Outlook for the Future — The Establishment of Meat Chilling Factories — -Questions of Distance and Transport— The Cattle of Central South America- — Introduction of the Animals into the South — Growth of the Herds — Importation of Pedigree Stock — Present Importance of the Industry — Precautions Against Disease — Favourite Breeds of Cattle — Water Supply — The Dairy Industry — Cattle in Southern Brazil — Types of Animal evolved — Brazil as a Self-supporting Cattle Country — Condi tion of the Industry in Paraguay — The American Landowner and the Introduction of Texan Cow-Boys — The Breeding of Horses — Introduction of Blood Stock — Favourite Breeds of the Various Types — Sheep — Neigh bourhoods in Which These Animals Thrive — The Sheep of the Tropics and of the Temperate Lands — Sheep Farming in Patagonia — The Original Strain and the Later Breeds — The Falkland Islands and Their Sheep — Commercial Aspects of the Alpaca and the Vicuna — Chinchilla Fur — Bee Farming — Progress of the Industry in Chile — Wild Fauna of the Continent — Jaguar and the Puma — Characteristics of These Animals — Trade in Skins and Feathers — South American Ostriches — The Guanaco — Creatures of the Forests and the Plains — The Nutria — Value of Its Pelt — Creatures of the Tropical Rivers — Bird Life — Principal Species to be Met With — Insects of South America — Various Types of Ants — Brilliant Insects of the Day and Night — Locusts — Characteristics of the Pest IT is a httle curious to observe the metamorphosis which has overtaken the general trend of the industries in South America. The irony of history has been, to say the least of it, as evident here as elsewhere. So far, the continent has been productive of a commendably small amount of dross. Nevertheless the situation of the gold «35 236 THE SOUTH AMERICANS — whether metaphorical or actual — has not always been accurately hit upon. It is true that where such an enor mous territorial space is concerned it is sufficiently diffi cult to lump together the ramifications of any single in dustry. Nevertheless, broadly speaking, the first object of the first colonizers of South America, was gold, and other precious minerals and stones. The various governmental divisions, and the distribu tion of towns and populations were laid out very largely on this basis. The theory was frequently followed by the most unpractical results. It is perhaps natural enough that the early Spaniards in their haste to get rich should not have concerned themselves with any type of industry, the efficient working of which would entail no httle time and labour. It was therefore only httle by httle, and in a sense in spite of the slights imposed on them by the early cbnquistadores whose eyes were wide open for gold alone, that the pastoral and agricultural industries began to assert themselves and eventually to flourish. Curiously enough, the two main fields of the pastoral industry are comprised by that of the temperate South and by that of the uplands of Venezuela : these latter being great sweeps of natural pastures which support countless herds within a degree or two of the equator itself. Of course by this it must not be implied that the great stretch of territory intervening between these two main pastoral fields is devoid of cattle, for such is by no means the case. In Ecuador, tropical Peru, and numerous vast districts of tropical Brazil cattle abound ; but their stamp is of quite another order to those of Venezuela and the difference, of course, is still more marked between them and the aristocratic herds of Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and Southern and temperate Brazil. This same pastoral disadvantage apphes, moreover, to DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 287 certain parts of Bohvia, although in the South of this Repubhc, over which an amazing industrial future is now dawning, the chmatic circumstances permit of a somewhat higher breed of animal. The tropical type of cattle re ferred to represents, as may be imagined, practically no value whatever so far as meat is concerned. The wealth of these thin and emaciated herds lies in their horns and hides alone ; but these, by a wise industrial compensation of nature, are more valuable than those of their sleek brethren of the green pastures. It is for this reason alone that the breeding of these large-horned and tough-skinned cattle is continued. Turning now to the genuine cattle breeding districts of the North and South we may work gradually towards the highest grades of this branch of farming, taking the north first. The llanos, as those fine uplands of Venezuela are called, have from a very early period been famous for their cattle- breeding propensities. It was in the middle of the sixteenth century that these animals were first introduced in any quantities. The natural grasses of these llanos are in some respects sparse enough. At the same time they appear very suitable for the sustenance of cattle ; though it is not to be expected that any striking improvement in the way of breed will be possible on these natural and some what coarse pastures. As an industrial asset these cattle of the elevated northern plains would undoubtedly repre sent great national wealth did not the social unrest and pohtical vicissitudes of the Repubhc hinder the progress of their breeding. Mr. Leonard Dalton states that the cattle are beheved to have decreased between the years 1863-73 from five milhons to one milhon four hundred thousand ; but by 1888 their numbers were estimated to have risen to eight 238 THE SOUTH AMERICANS milhon five hundred thousand. It stands to reason that, where such extraordinary fluctuations as these are possible, there exist influences which still continue to mihtate against the most favourable conditions of cattle-breeding. The outlook for the future, however, is more prosperous, since factories for the chilling of meat have been estab hshed. Since the introduction of this most efficient of all aids to the stock-breeder has everywhere been attended with remarkable results, there is every reason to suppose that this wih eventually be the case in Venezuela, although the full development of the industry will not be possible until more adequate methods of transport have been estab hshed. For, as in some other parts of South America, so great are the distances to be traversed by the herds of the llanos of Venezuela that the loss in weight to the animals in one of their lengthy journeys represents a serious matter to those concerned. When it is considered that the area of the llanos is sup posed to be more or less a hundred thousand square miles, the pastoral possibihties of this favoured but somewhat unfortunate region at once become apparent ! The Savannahs in the neighbourhood of the Orinoco promise well enough as fields for cattle of the moderate class ; although not much has been attempted so far in that direction. Descending Southward along the Continent, still in search of cattle, we do not begin to meet with animals of a superior type to the shaggy and large-horned criollos, until we have arrived in quite the south of Bohvia and in parts of Paraguay and Peru. It is true that few even of these can lay claim to any peculiar merit in the way of breed ; but they are at ah events adequately provided with meat, and have obtained the advantage of a certain in fusion of imported blood. DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 289 Then, when we arrive at the South Brazihan Provinces of Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, the Repubhcs of Uruguay, Argentina, and Chile, we have at length to do with the territories where the cattle par excel lence of the Continent flourish. Curiously enough, these cattle were not introduced in the first instance by way of the mouth of the River Plate, and consequently through the temperate regions. They were brought down from the North-west through Peru and Bohvia and arrived at first in Paraguay, in which country the Spaniards, driven in the early days of their coloniza tion by the savages from the mouth of the River Plate, had estabhshed themselves. With the Southward march of the Europeans the cattle spread over the plains of Argen tina and Uruguay, and, once estabhshed there, their in crease was phenomenal. Seeing that, owing to the unpopulated state of the country, the vast and ever-growing herds remained totally uncared for and were only chased periodically by men armed with spears tipped with a steel crescent in order that they should be ham-strung and thus be made to yield up their hides and horns, the quahty and breed of these animals tended to degenerate from the originally imported Spanish stock. This state of affairs continued for cen turies,, for it was not until after the War of Liberation, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, that any really important introduction of fresh blood from Europe began to take place. Indeed, it was not until the end of the nineteenth cen tury that the importation of pedigree bulls was conducted on a scale sufficiently ambitious to raise the quahty of the entire strain of Argentine cattle. The chief reason for this was, of course, the inception and spread of the freezing and chilling industry, which made it worth while for the 240 THE SOUTH AMERICANS live-stock breeder to expend a great addition of capital and labour in the production of cattle of a type fitted to supply the market of Europe. But of this industry more later. The pastures of Argentina and Uruguay have proved themselves quite as capable of supporting herds of fine stock as they were in former years of supporting the less aristocratic criollo cattle. As a matter of fact, the atten tion now paid to the pedigree herds of the more important Argentine breeding centres rivals that of the most famous European estabhshments. Many of the best experts have been brought over from England, Germany, and France ; while the descendants of the Gaucho himself are now in structed in the handling of valuable stock and in the new art of wielding the lassoo tenderly and with extreme care. These lessons, of course, were not learned at once by the men by whom in former years a head of cattle was considered as of little more value than — I was about to say than a fallen block of timber, but this would not be correct, since in the old days, when cattle abounded and timber was rare, undoubtedly a block of the latter was worth infinitely more than a single head of cattle ! Every modern precaution is now taken against disease in these large, cattle estabhshments of the South, and among other things the " dips " are of a most efficient order throughout Argentina, Uruguay and Chile. The introduction of these has naturally tended to benefit the general health of the herds. In Argentina the most favoured strain in the pastoral districts of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and the central Provinces in general, is the Durham ; although the Polled Angus, Jersey, and Devon cattle are to be met with in consider able quantities and are very much appreciated by various breeders. The Hereford, too, obtains in these central Provinces ; but the districts in which this latter breed pre- DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 241 dominates are those of Entre Rios and in the majority of the Uruguayan Provinces. It is a rather curious fact that as a general rule the amateur of the Durham suffers from a distinct prejudice against the Hereford, and vice versa, and it is seldom that the two strains are seen to gether on a single estancia which prides itself on the purity of its breed. But Argentine cattle are not, of course, entirely con fined to the particular types mentioned. Dutch cattle are to be met with here and there, as well as the Guernsey. Much the same state of affairs apphes to Chile as to Argen tina in the way of cattle-rearing. It is true that the circumstances of the two countries differ considerably. Whereas the central provinces of Argentina depend largely for their water supply during the dry months of summer on artesian wells, Chile, on the other hand, relies on a system of irrigation, in some places pecuharly efficient, and naturally enough, less so in others. Moreover, since the soil of Chile is in its nature more adapted to the plan tation of trees of ah species than are the Argentine plains it is possible in the former country to indulge here and there in hedges as well as in fences. Thus the haciendas of Chile, of less area in themselves as a general rule than the estancias of Argentina, are wont to be cut up into far smaller paddocks than those to the East of the Andes. The result is that the main herds of cattle are worked in a somewhat different fashion to those of Argentina, and — I speak now, of course of the commoner strain and not of the pedigree herds — are of a somewhat more domesticated order. Incidentally, it may be mentioned that dairy-farming on an important scale is confined to these temperate southern countries. The manufacture of cheese is now carried on fairly extensively, more especiahy in certain districts of 16 242 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Argentina. Some years ago, when this Repubhc began to export her dairy produce to Europe, it was hoped that the industry would increase greatly and rapidly. As ill-luck would have it, the recent years have proved pecuharly unfavourable to Argentine hvestock on account of drought and other natural causes of the kind. Owing to this, the export of cheese and similar produce has, instead of increas ing, tended to fall off. Nevertheless, when normal con ditions are resumed the rapid growth of the dairy industry is certain. It must not be forgotten, of course, that the swelling population of Argentina itself is making more and more demands upon the local supply. The most favoured districts of all are those of central Argentina, Central and Southern Chile, and Uruguay. Nevertheless, Argentina, Uruguay and Chile are still under the necessity, as a general rule, of importing much of their butter and cheese. This of course, does not apply to those particular dis tricts which are exclusively occupied with the dairy in dustry, such as certain neighbourhoods near the banks of the River Plate in Uruguay and others in Entre Rios, Santa F6 and in the Province of Buenos Aires, these latter throughout the province. The Southern districts of Brazil have of late years made great strides as regards the pastoral industry, and it is now the ambition of Brazilian landowners to rival the Argentine and Uruguayan estanciero. A considerable number of Durhams, Herefords, Devons, and Jerseys have of recent years been introduced into the Rio Grande do Sul and Parana provinces. These have thrived well, and have given quite satisfactory results ; but it must, of course, be remembered that the climate even of Southern Brazil, although comparatively temperate, lacks the com pletely fresh airs and vitahty of the further South. It is DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 248 owing to this that the imported strains tend to develop some local traits which require the refreshing of the race by the introduction of new blood at shorter intervals than is necessary in the lower latitudes. The criollo, however, of these South Brazihan provinces has much to recommend him as a useful animal. Of these local strains the best and at the same time the hardiest is that known as the Caracu. The Brazihans are making every effort to encourage this Southern pastoral industry of theirs, since the success of these ventures is of no small importance to the Repubhc in general. In the past Brazil has been supphed with its meat by. Uruguay ; if this can be effected from within Brazil's own frontiers, as seems to be the case, the benefit which must accrue to the great Repubhc must, of course, be considerable. The last of the countries where stock-raising may be said to be conducted upon the hnes common to temperate countries is Paraguay, and this apphes, of course, only to the southernmost districts of that Repubhc. Here, much land has of late been taken up by European investors, and the cattle-breeding industry has received, a great stimulus. The condition of affairs, however, which apphes to Southern Brazil, is even more accentuated here, and, athough a considerable amount of European stock has now been im ported, there seems very httle doubt that the breeder wih have to rely rather on a useful stamp of Mestizo or half- breed than on anything in the way of racial aristocracy in his cattle. An American investor who has recently secured a large tract of land in Paraguay has attempted a new and some what daring experiment, in that he has brought down with him a number of Texan cowboys in order to work the cattle. Whether in view of the chmate and of the strange and unaccustomed circumstances, these latter, however 244 THE SOUTH AMERICANS excellent in themselves, will prove superior to the local paisano is doubtful, to say nothing of the general disad vantages from which in the ordinary way an innovation of this kind most necessarily suffer. The breeding of horses on an ambitious scale is necessarily confined to the temperate and pastoral South. Much fine blood-stock has been introduced, and Argentina, where the class of horse flesh has now attained to a very high reputation, has exported not a few hackneys and polo-ponies to Great Britain, while much aristocratic stock of the kind exists in Chile and Uruguay. Draught horses are much esteemed in all those three Republics, and Clydesdales as well as Percherons and heavy stock of the kind are assured a good price. Of course as far as race horses are concerned, Argentina is now famous for purchasing the finest stock in the world, and, as a consequence, for paying the highest prices ever obtained for notable sires. Sheep seldom thrive well in the tropics, and it is for this reason that the sheep-producing territory proper of South America is confined to Argentina, Chile, Uru guay, Southern Brazil, Peru, and the Falkland Islands. Of course it must not be implied from this that no such creatures as sheep exist in other parts of the Continent. In many of the uplands of the tropical regions considerable flocks are to be met with ; but from an industrial point of view these are not to be placed in the same category as their stouter brethren of the temperate chmes ; since the tropical sheep invariably partakes just a little of the nature of the goat, both as regards flesh and habits, and from the point of view of butchering, this somewhat tough and degenerate specimen loses all interest. Sheep-farming has been responsible for the opening up of much new territory in the Southernmost districts of DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 245 South America, and Patagonia, for instance, is now largely given up to the industry. Notwithstanding the severity of the chmate which prevails here in winter, this Southern sheep-farming has, on the whole, met with distinct success : thus the area devoted to this industry is rapidly increasing. The original breed of sheep which was most popular through the River Plate Provinces, Chile, Southern Peru, and Southern Brazil was the merino ; since in the colonial days mutton was despised as meat and sheep were bred purely for their fleeces. Hence the affection for the merino, the fleece of which is admittedly one of the finest in the world. At a later date when the benefits of mutton began to dawn upon the South Americans, South Down, Romney Marsh, Lincoln, Leicester, and other similar breeds were introduced with the result that the flocks now consist of sheep serviceable both for meat and for wool. The Falkland Islands, notwithstanding the remoteness of these sheeplands, have of late made great strides in the sheep-breeding industry, and, with the estabhshment of freezing works near Port Stanley, there is no doubt that the future of this enterprise should,, in the ordinary course of events, be safeguarded. Very fine rugs are made from both the Alpaca and Vicuna wool. The Chinchilla fur, too, is, of course, much prized. Owing to the crossing of the chinchilla strain in certain districts with the vizcacha, many more skins have been obtained than would otherwise have been the case. But one of these latter is worth no more than one sixth of the true chinchilla skin. This should be of a silver grey colour, shghtly inclining to a blue tint ; whereas the product of the mixed breed has a yellow tinge. Bee-farming in Chile has now become a comparatively important industry ; more especially in view of the fact 246 THE SOUTH AMERICANS that this particular occupation does not seem to have appealed in the least to the capitahst, and is therefore carried on by the smah agriculturalist, who, although he occasionally depends eritirely upon the apiary for his hvelihood, frequently regards his hives as merely an addi tional source of income. A variety of Italian bee which has been introduced into the country is said to yield the best results in the produc tion of honey. It is estimated that there is a total of something approaching a hundred and fifty thousand hives in Chile. At the same time it must be admitted that so far the industry has been carried on on the most primitive hnes. With the employment of modern methods the development here might easily be of a most marked nature in view of the readiness with which flowers of nearly every species are to be produced in the centre and South of Chile, and in view, moreover, of the fact that the quahty of the Chilean honey already produced is very fine and gener ally appreciated. Very httle is obtained from the wild animal hfe in South America when compared with that of a Continent such as that of Africa. It is true that a certain amount of sport is to be had in districts which are growing ever more remote. Thus in parts of Northern Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, and throughout the wilder regions of the centre and North, the jaguar, locally known as the tigre, and the puma, termed the leon, are to be met with. The former is by nature extremely fierce, and can prove a dangerous customer to tackle. The puma, however, notwithstanding his for midable aspect, is of a comparatively cowardly nature, and frequently consents to yield up his handsome dark mottled skin with very httle protest. Hunters in the far South of Argentina where the puma is still to be met with-— although in decreasing numbers — DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 247 have assured me that they have succeeded in confusing a puma by galloping as rapidly as possible in small circles about him. This apparently, had the effect of terrifying the creature and of preventing his escape by flight. The jaguar, on the other hand, has been known, when entirely unmolested, to leap downwards from a branch on to an equestrian passing beneath, and severely maul him. From a commercial point of view the trade in both these skins is now quite insignificant. More important by far is that in ostrich feathers. Although the feathers of the South American ostrich have nothing in common with the fine specimens of the South African bird, and are employed merely for purposes such as those of dusting brushes and similar objects, nevertheless the demand for these feathers is considerable, and throughout the continent the ostriches are plucked for this purpose. The birds are now to be met with for the most part in a semi-domesticated condition on estancias. The quite wild ostrich, of course, still persists in the remote districts, but in comparatively insignificant numbers. A close season exists in several of the repubhcs for those ostriches which continue to hve within the populous districts. Deer thrive in many parts of the Continent ; although in the South the place of the more ordinary specimens of this family is taken by the guanaco, an animal which has something in common with the llama of Peru and with the vicuna, although it lacks the fine wool of this latter. Tapir exist throughout subtropical and tropical South America, and, although occasionally attracted by fire, are on the whole difficult to approach. Other creatures of these tropical districts are the ant-eater, magellan fox, lone wolf, the sloth, which by the way has, I beheve, never been brought from the Continent, — since it cannot exist save on the vegetation of its own particular locahty — and 248 THE SOUTH AMERICANS various species of monkeys. Perhaps the most annoying and prominent of these is the howling monkey, which emits a sound such as one who knows the tribe well, Mr. Algot Lange, describes as resembhng the roar of a dozen lions in combat ! In the jungle there are, too, such animals as the paca, a rodent with mottled fur, much prized on account of its edible advantages, the wild cat, various species of opossum, the coatimandi, agouti, the prehensile tailed tree porcupines, peccaries, bush rats, the kinkajue — described by Charles Livingstone Bull as " a curious woolly catlike creature, with long prehensile tail, flat padded feet and big nocturnal eyes." Iguanas abound here, too, as well as in the more open territories of the Southern latitudes and a species of weasel, the tyra. Other typical small creatures are the Armadillo and the Vizcacha. It is along the river banks, however, that some of the chief varieties of animal hfe abound, both in the jungle and the prairies. Beginning with the streams of the southernmost terri tories we have in Argentina the nutria, a large rodent — in fact, the second largest in the world — which haunts the banks of the rivers and is now much sought after for its pelt. Here, too, as well as in the more northern, districts is to be found the nutria's bigger brother, actually the largest rodent in the world, although it is generally termed a great water hog. This is the carpincho, a clumsy heavy creature whose thick hide is covered with sparse bristles. The otter, moreover, exists in these waters as well as in the north. As one proceeds further north and enters into the lati tudes of Paraguay, the river hfe becomes much more varied. Less pleasant creatures come to mingle themselves with the crowds of edible fish and harmless inhabitants of the waters. The alligators have now put in their appearance DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 249 on the scene, and may be noticed sunning themselves on nearly every exposed sand-bank. Further north still the flesh-eating perai fish he in wait for any incautious being who should enter the waters in their neighbourhood. It is in these regions that snakes abound, and that the boa- constrictor attains to such an enormous size, preying at times, as he does, even upon the jaguar, who, save for the boa-constrictor, reigns king of the jungle. Bird hfe, in the Continent, naturahy enough displays its most brilliant side in the tropics, where the toucan, cock-of- the-rock, the various most radiant species of humming birds, and all such gorgeous creatures abound. The condor, of course, is one of the typical birds of the Continent, and is to be met with on the heights of the Andes, very seldom being visible from the plains. Flamingoes are to be seen in nearly every part of South America : the colours of these fine birds becoming more accentuated as the tropics are approached. The scarlet ibis is another gorgeous bird which haunts the lagoons of the North, and is frequently slain in enormous quantities for the sake of its feathers. The carassow is a large black bird which somewhat re sembles the turkey and is met with only in the North of the Continent. Parrots of various species are encountered from the Southernmost regions to the Northernmost. In the far South the plumage of these creatures is of a some what sombre description, gradually attaining to brilliant shades of blue and green, until in Central Brazil and in the North their feathers arrive at the full gorgeousness of the type. Among the most superb specimens of this family are the large and stately macaws. About the pools, and lagoons almost throughout the Continent are various species of duck, herons, coots, bitterns, and galhnunes, and in the South there are enormous num bers of teru-tero or crested plover which, in common with 250 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the httle brown owls, stand for the most familiar winged features of these Southern plains. The bird hfe in these latitudes is extremely abundant and includes innumerable species of duck, teal, widgeon, martineta — a species of partridge — giant partridge, and such carrion birds and birds of prey as the eagle, a fine grey specimen of the tribe, the carancho, the chimangu, the cuerbo, the camp kestrel, and other winged creatures of the kind. Beyond these there are bustards, and spoonbills, wood peckers, secretary birds; scissor birds, so called owing to the very long divided tails ; the widow bird, snow-white with a black edging to its wings ; the oven bird, which builds so curious a nest from mud ; the lefiatero or wood bearer, which contrives an enormous nest of twigs ; various species of miniature pigeons and doves, and many small and beautifully coloured birds such as the pecho Colorado or scarlet breast, and the churrinche, another bird which owns a scarlet head and breast, the rest of its body being black. Ah this, of course, is to say nothing of the many local specimens of humming-birds, parrots and parroquets. Of the insects of South America undoubtedly some of the most important are the ants, more especially the various species of the tropical regions, whose powers are of an order scarcely to be imagined in more temperate chmates. There are, for instance, the carnivorous ants of the North, which, however tiny, are some of the most dreaded creatures of the jungle, since they will inevitably devour any hving creature, however enormous, which does not consent to stir from their path. Perhaps in some respects next to these creatures rank in importance the sauba ants, who prey on leaves, cutting neat pieces of a circular form from a leaf, and who return thus laden in hundreds of thousands to their nest. DOMESTIC AND OTHER ANIMALS 251 Beyond these are the termite ants, and the small black ant of the North which possesses a fierce brother given to attack all the minor creatures of the forest. There are also numerous species of winged ants, which occasionally appear in clouds, at which times the birds of the neigh bourhood feast heavily and riotously upon these choice morsels. There are moreover, in these tropical regions numerous species of ants which nest in trees, and, since nature is so firm a behever in fair play all round, these particular neighbourhoods are also inhabited by ant- eaters of a tree-chmbing species armed with especially long and sharp claws admirably suited for clambering among the branches. Undoubtedly some of the most beautiful and striking insects — beautiful that is to say as regards their effects — are the fireflies, and the lantern-flies which flit here and there permanently provided with a brilliant greenish flame. These, of course, in their way rival the gorgeous butter flies of the day-time — butterflies which in one sense have their commercial significance, since there are many col lectors even in such comparatively populated neighbour hoods as Rio de Janeiro to say nothing of the Northern jungles, who either depend upon these brilliant insects for their hvelihood, or succeed by their help in adding con siderably to their income. The most malignant of the insect plagues which affect the industries of South America is of course the locust., The locust, as a matter of fact, is by way of being not only an extraordinary glutton, but a very shrewd judge of his own species of food. Thus in India, which properly speaking is tropical throughout, the locust comes and goes where he may, seeking the chance vegetation of the land for those particular growths which suit his pecuharly hard palate the best. 252 THE SOUTH AMERICANS In South America, on the other hand, the locust possesses a wider field and more opportunities for initiative : none of which he neglects. Thus, although he is bred in the more tropical regions — his own special haunts are usually supposed to be somewhere in the depths of the unknown Chaco — when he is out upon his raids and for the purpose of breeding he nevertheless steers his vast clouds direct to the South, and, passing over Paraguay and tropical Brazil, comes to the Southern and fertile provinces of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul ; then passes into Uru guay and Argentina, sweeping over the landscape hke rolhng smoke. The chief reason for the incursion of the locust into the temperate chmes is that of breeding. Having laid their eggs — for preference in sandy soil — the old locusts die off in their milhons, leaving the young brightly coloured saltonas to emerge, and before their wings have sprouted from their sides they pass over the grass in the form of grass-hoppers, devouring every bit of verdure which hes in their path. One of the most efficient methods of destroying these is to erect barriers of corrugated iron some two or three feet in height, and to dig a trench on the side towards which the locusts are advancing. When the hoards have reached this obstacle they are unable to cross it and may be covered up by shovelhng earth on to their heaps. CHAPTER XV PORTS South American Ports under the Spanish rigime — Natural Sites and Artificial Considerations — Physical Conditions of the West Coast Com pared with the East — Advantages of the Atlantic Sea-Board — Harbours of Brazil — The Coastline of the Continent — Cartagena Past and Present — Barranquilla — The Banana Trade — Minor Ports on the Magdalena River — The Coastline of Venezuela — Maracaibo — Puerto Cabello — British and German Interests — La Guayra — Characteristics of the Town — British Guiana — The French Port of Cayenne — The Mouth of the Amazon — Estuary of an Inland Ocean — The Port of Para — An Interesting Town — Inhabitants of the City and their Methods of Life — Extent of Shipping at the Spot— Commerce and the Docks — The Beautification of the Town — Cost of Living — Battle against Yellow Fever — Santarem — Products of the District — The Port of Obidos — Manaos — A Notable Port of Call — The Numbers of the Visiting Steamers — The Outlet of a Large Rubber District — Sanitary Conditions of the Spot — Various Branches of the Amazon — Iquitos — The Westernmost Ocean-Going Port of the River System — Some Facts concerning the River Amazon — Population of Iquitos — A Link with the Pacific Ocean — Pernambuco — A Port of His torical Interest — Population and Importance of the Town — Some Aspects of the Neighbourhood — A Curious Natural Breakwater — An Optical Delusion — A Ready-made Channel — Some characteristics of the Ocean in this Neighbourhood — Bahia — A One Time Rival of Rio de Janeiro — Trade of the Port — Anchorage, Dock Works and Equipment — An Ancient Lift and its Modern Successor — Rio de Janeiro — The Premier Harbour of South America — A Comparison with Sydney — Surroundings of Rio Bay — Beauty of the Spot — Headquarters of the Brazilian Navy — The Work of Port Improvements — Nictheroy, a Sister Town — Some Aspects of Rio Harbour — Verdure and Mountains — Characteristic " Sugar Loaves " — A Marvellous Panorama — The Botanical Gardens — Tranquil Life of these Latitudes — Amusements of Rich and Poor — Brilliancy of the Town — Changes in Rio de Janeiro — Contrasts Between its Present and its Past — Some Reminiscences of the Slave Epoch — Sanitary Arrange ments Then and Now — The Work of Improvement — Modern Architectural Feats — Some Famous Boulevards and Buildings — Habits of the Rio Chauffeur — Enterprising Road Makers — Harnessing of the Sugar Loaf Peak — Aspects of the Aerial Railway— Modern Rio de Janeiro, the Enter prise and Confidence of the City — Justification for this Spirit — The Port of Santos — Romantic Situation of the City — A Phenomenal Growth of 253 254 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Trade — Fortunes Made in Connection with this Spot — The Outlet of the Coffee Industry of Sao Paolo — Health Conditions of Santos Past and Present — A Former Hotbed of Yellow Fever — Tragedies of the Place — Its Present Healthful Condition Y~%ORTS. — The choice of the South American ports has f—^not always been guided by logic or by practical considerations. The Spaniards favoured the Isthmus of Panama from considerations of monopoly of commerce and financial restrictions rather than from any inherent strategic advantages possessed by this particular coast-hne. On the west coast, too, other ports of this kind were en dowed with an importance which was in reahty far beyond that justified by the trade with the immediate locahties concerned. Even in these days, when competition and international rivalry has done away with the possibihty of interference with the natural currents of industry, there are instances of ports having been, so to speak, misplaced. Buenos Aires itself affords one of these ; for whereas the natural port of the estuary undoubtedly hes nearer to the mouth, Buenos Aires, founded in the first place on account of pohtical considerations, has served instead and, attended by every conceivable modern equipment and brought in every respect up to date, it continues to serve with efficiency in spite of its actual situation. On the west coast of South America where the inlets are rare, the sites suitable for ports are sufficiently few to obviate any chance of such misplacements. In Brazil with its frequently mountainous and more indented coast the majority of the harbours have been carved out of the mountains by nature herself, and these generous and beautiful inlets could not possibly be mistaken for anything else than for the purpose for which they were so obviously intended to serve. This is especially the case in Rio de Janeiro, the capital of the Republic. As is natural enough, the prosperity that has overtaken PORTS 255 the greater part of South America is perhaps most of all evident in these ports of the Continent ; and the progress achieved in this respect has been in many instances quite amazingly rapid. Surveying the general coast-line of South America, one is at once struck with the various peculiarities which must naturahy affect the shipping. In the first place the com parative dearth of indentations is obvious, and the scarcity of islands — with the exception of the numerous groups of archipelagos off the South Chilean coast — is equally patent. With this very notable exception of Southern Chile it is at once clear that the Pacific coast is far less well served in the way of inlets than the east. But even on the east coast many districts — which from a mere glance at the map might appear favourable for anchorage and for the shelter of vessels, such as much of the coast-hne of Argentina — are not reahy in the least suited for this purpose owing to the low sandy character of the shore and the shallows of the ocean which extend a considerable distance from the coast, and thus prevent vessels of any size coming to anchor. Speaking generally, it may be said that nature has been far more bountiful to Brazil in the way of harbours than to any other repubhc of South Arrierica. This might have been expected in any case perhaps when the very great length of coast-hne of the republic is considered ; never theless compared with the other states the wealth of har bourage possessed by Brazil is out of proportion even to this. Perhaps the most efficient method of surveying the ports of South America is to travel on paper the entire round of the coast-line, starting eastwards from the Isth mus of Panama. We are thus first of all confronted with the coast-hne of Colombia, a republic that has no very great cause to con gratulate itself upon its industrial achievements. Indeed 256 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the coast-hne of Colombia resembles few others of South America in that it has reason to pride itself upon its past rather than upon its present. In the days of the old Spanish regime when the gold ro^id lay across Panama, the importance of this particular portion of coast-hne was supreme. This condition of things, however, was in the days when South American affairs were puhed out of their natural course to suit the convenience and the pockets of the Spanish merchants and officials. ¦% Thus the name of Cartagena suggests visions of treasure- ships, gold and immense wealth ; to say nothing of raids on the part of fierce-faced buccaneers, plazas httered with corpses, and the smoking buildings. Its present-day con dition is less dramatic. The place, it is true, is visited by a certain number of vessels. But perhaps the chief attrac tion of the spot is represented by the gigantic ruins of the old fortifications. Although once again on the upward grade as far as prosperity is concerned, Cartagena has been put in the shade by Barranquilla, a later port which has arisen to cope with the modern demands of Colombia. Nevertheless, although it may lack its commercial and industrial status of other days, Cartagena possesses that which not many South American ports can boast : an extraordinary wealth of historic interest which attracts numerous tourists from all parts of the world. So far as industrial Colombia is concerned the present day speaks in Barranquilla, the river port of the Magdalena river, which is connected by railway with Savanilla, a sister port. Barranquilla indeed, is in a sense the mother of various neighbouring harbours, several of which, hke Barranquilla itself, are amply provided with modern equipments. Thus the small port of Santa Marta is now busily occupied with the handling of much of the banana trade, an industry that is increasing by leaps and bounds, PORTS 257 and which should alone suffice to keep these northern districts in a continual state of prosperity. This part of Colombia, from an industrial point of view, compares favourably with much of the remainder of the repubhc, and the navigation of the Magdalena is now carried out by fleets of river-steamers in a fairly efficient manner. The difficulties of navigation are here much accentuated by the frequent shifting of the numerous sandbanks. As may be imagined many of the minor ports on the Magdalena are utterly insignificant in size, and indeed, in commercial importance. The coast-hne of Venezuela is also in a comparatively smah way among the most indented of the Continent, and the great inlet of Maracaibo is itself responsible for as much shelter as might be required by any ordinary country. Here is situated the port of Maracaibo. Maracaibo ranks next to La Guayra in importance, and this beautifully placed coastal-town is fairly well provided with pubhc wharves and warehouses where are stored the coffee, sugar, cocoa, hides, and dye-woods, which the trade of the neigh bourhood comprises. The exact population of the city does not appear to be known ; but it is probably somewhere about fifty thou sand. The trade of the place is very largely in the hands of Germans. The town itself is a sufficiently pleasant place, notwithstanding the intense heat of the district, containing clubs, hospitals, and a number of factories, and saw-mills. Still proceeding eastwards we come to Puerto Cabello, one of the best natural ports in Venezuela, and the site of the naval dock-yard of the repubhc. Puerto Cabello is largely concerned with the shipment of meat, and, whereas German interests predominate in Maracaibo, the British have more than held their own in Puerto Cabello. The out- 17 258 THE SOUTH AMERICANS skirts of the town are extremely pleasantly laid out. The very great heat of the latitude is here pleasingly tempered by the sea breezes, a boon that is keenly appreciated by the inhabitants. A httle to the East of Puerto Cabeho we come to La Guayra, the chief port of Venezuela. In purely natural advantages this harbour, although very finely situated, suffers a httle by comparison with Puerto Cabeho and Maracaibo. Nevertheless the industrial strategic condi tions of its position compensate for this drawback. Much has been spent on breakwaters and other marine fortifica tions of the kind which from time to time have suffered considerably from the heavy ocean swells. La Guayra as well as being a most important coast town of Venezuela is also notable as a pleasure resort, or rather this distinction is claimed by its suburb Macuto, a spot which is as pleasant as can be conceived in the hght of the tropical heat of the latitude. The harbour works were constructed by a British Company, and the British have also undertaken, and still own, the railway which hnks La Guayra with the capital, Caracas. We may now leave Venezuela, and, trending shghtly to the south as well as to the east, we come upon the Guianas ; the first of the three encountered being British Guiana. There are few countries in South America which have seen so much international warfare and have changed hands so often as the Guianas, British Guiana proving no exception to the rule. As it is, the Union Jack now waves over this tropical land, and the British institutions are clearly evident in Georgetown with its cosmopohtan population of East Indians, negroes, Chinese, and numerous other races. Georgetown has been constructed upon a flat expanse of mud. Thus the problems of roads have always pre- PORTS 259 sented serious difficulties. Nevertheless in view of the charming fashion in which the place has been laid out it has been termed — Mr. James Rodney, probably the leading authority for this part of the world, is emphatic on the point — the Garden City. New Amsterdam, the second port of British Guiana, resembles in many respects George town, of which, indeed, it is usually alleged to be a copy on a smaller scale. Paramaribo, the capital of Dutch Guiana, is a spot stand ing for the scene of much fighting between the three nations which now occupy the Guianas, as weh as of com bats with the original lords of the soil ; but from the point of view of a modern port its interest is faint. Cayenne, the port of French Guiana, is notorious both for its convict settlement and for the unenviable chmate which obsesses the city. Practically all the trade of former ages now appears to have departed from Cayenne. The sugar industry is almost extinct, and those of coffee and cotton have sunk to a negligible point. Shghtly to the south of the southern frontier of French Guiana we arrive at that momentous region : the mouth of the Amazon river, or rather at the province of its many mouths ; for the profusion and exterit of the water-ways here are quite unequalled in ah the rest of the world. In deed for stupendous romance, this portion of Brazil stands quite alone. As a carrying agent, the scope of this mighty river taxes the imagination. Along the broad expanses of the muddy Amazon Come the products of almost half a Continent borne on steamers which perhaps have swept along the vast stretch of waters until they have gone beyond the western limits of great Brazil itself, and from a territorial point of view, have approached almost within hailing distance of the Pacific Ocean ! In one sense the Amazon is an ocean in itself, bordering 260 THE SOUTH AMERICANS its various countries, carrying its own fleets, and washing innumerable ports. To enter into these latter in detail would be quite impossible, since their number is legion, and the points of interest appertaining to the majority of the more important are quite unusually abundant in the mass, but a httle monotonous if taken singly. We can but deal with one or two here and there, the nature of which wih go far towards explaining the characteristics and typical features of the rest. One of the most important ports of the great Amazon system in the neighbourhood of the Ocean is Para or Belem, a township situated on one of the most southerly arms. Para is the port at which the Ocean-liners, bound for points higher up the great Amazon, usually make their first halt on their arrival in South America. The port is controlled by an English syndicate, and is efficiently managed and liberally supplied with wharves and docks and all the appurtenances of an industrial coastal-town of the kind. The city contains some two hundred thousand inhabitants, and is usually considered the most important in the whole of the North-East of Brazil. Although it is to all intents and purposes at the mouth of the greatest river in the world, this town is actually situated at more than a hundred miles from the ocean — a somewhat insignificant stretch of the vast length of the Amazon. There is much that is picturesque in Para. Quaint shaped barges, for instance are wont to sail here and there, provided with curiously cut sails, and on these entire famihes live, and indeed pass all their lives in these floating homes. The craft, flanked by the green of the stretching jungle, afford a striking spectacle, while here and there others he at rest to populate the little inlets and canals which thread their way between the houses. But the chief interest in Para is, of course, industrial PORTS 261 and commercial. It is, in fact, the most important rubber port in the world, and it is visited, on an average, by over a thousand steamers in the course of the year. The great majority of these come from Europe for the purpose of conveying the much desired rubber to other parts of the world. Curiously enough, although the River Amazon itself is so abundantly supphed with deep waters, the docks at Para do not admit of the entry of vessels drawing more than four metres ; but with the increasing growth and commerce of the town, efficient and well provided docks are now being constructed in order to accommodate larger vessels than has been possible until now. Para, with its lot so closely bound up with the rubber industry, has thrived exceedingly of late years. Indeed, so plentiful has money found itself in this town, that as an automatic result the cost of hving has become very great. Large sums, moreover, have been spent in urban improve ments, and Pracas and pubhc gardens in general have been laid out with a hberal hand, the natural exuberance of the spot lending great assistance in this respect. Owing to the cost of living and of labour the expense incurred in this way has been very great ; but it has proved itself well justified. Until quite recently yehow fever was rampant in Para and in many of the Amazon districts. But a similar campaign to that which stamped out the scourge in Rio de Janeiro has been carried on here with the happiest results, and there is every hope that before very long not only the chief riverside towns of this latitude but every lesser centre will be completely purged from this ghastly malady, which has in the past caused the death of countless victims. Passing upstream along the great expanse of water, 262 THE SOUTH AMERICANS heavily tinged with a rich alluvial soil — a soil which, by the way, is not visible on both hands at a time from mid stream for many hundreds of miles — we arrive at the town of Santarem well in the interior of Brazil. Santarem is now a port the commercial importance of which is rather out of proportion to its population, which does not exceed six thousand. Nevertheless it is a sufficiently notable shipping-centre for the products of the district, which are — in addition to the inevitable rubber — cacao, Brazil-nuts, vanilla, sarsaparilla, hides, vegetable ivory and similar articles. Obidos on the opposite bank, somewhat further upstream, is a centre of greater importance, and is a port of call for many large steamers. At Obidos, it must be remarked, we have aheady penetrated inland from the ocean to a dis tance of almost a thousand kilometres. But the amazing volume of this unique river would permit none save the experienced pilot to suspect the fact. Proceeding some hundreds of kilometres farther to the West, we come to the very important town of Manaos. Manaos is noteworthy in many respects. In the first place it occupies a strategic position which is almost incompar able throughout the entire river system. For it sits on the bank just where the river Negro joins the Amazon. Manaos is a well constructed city of some seventy thousand inhabi tants, and is provided with every modern urban conveni ence, such as electric tramways, that an enterprising town could desire. On an average an even greater number of steamers appear to call at Manaos than at Para at the mouth of the river ; although Manaos is situated at a distance of practicahy a thousand miles from the mouth. This is doubtless due to the fact that though, owing to the vast ramifications of waters and numbers of channels and anchorages in the PORTS 268 neighbourhood of the estuary, Para may occasionally be passed without a call, such. an undignified fate is never the lot of Manaos. In 1911, for instance, very nearly fifteen hundred steamers called, and this appears to be a fair average example of the annual numbers of the visiting craft. In addition to the staple product of rubber, Manaos ships cacao, tobacco, cottons and the other articles such as have been specified in the case of Santarem. Manaos used to enjoy a most unenviable reputation as regards chmate and salubrity ; but, owing to the campaign which is now being carried on in the Amazon district this state of affairs is in the act of being altered, and no doubt in the time to come Manaos will be able to claim as great an immunity from disease as any of the less tropical spots. After Manaos we come to the end of what may be called the main hne of the Amazon, and it is necessary to branch out into the various tributaries, as weh as the head-waters which still retain the name of Amazon. The majority of these streams are quite vast in themselves, although they now approach the western frontier of Brazil to penetrate into Colombia, Peru, and Bohvia. It is impossible to enter into details of all these streams, extensive though they are ; but perhaps the port which possesses what might be termed the most dramatic interest of all is Iquitos, well within Peru, and situated on the Maranon, the chief tributary in this far western country of the Amazon. Iquitos is a town which, speaking vulgarly, may rank as the advertisement-poster for the magnificence of the Amazon. Iquitos, in fact, is a port for ocean-going vessels, and this at a distance of no less than three thousand five hundred and more kilometres from the mouth of the Amazon ! The figures are certainly sufficient to render one somewhat breathless ; but there they are — the fact is 264 THE SOUTH AMERICANS incontrovertible. Not only do countless ocean steamers proceed up this wonderful Amazon to tie-up at Iquitos, and from there in turn to take away their cargoes of rubber and the other local products, but a British cruiser has steamed up all this distance, has visited Iquitos, and has returned to the mouth of the river. Iquitos, as a matter of fact, constitutes one of the most important rubber centres of the whole of the Amazon system ; although its population does not, as a rule, exceed fifteen thousand inhabitants. This number, however, is increased by some five or six thousand men in the months of March, April, and May when the rubber is wont to be gathered. Iquitos possesses a floating dock, government port-works, and some timber-mills. There is a project to link up the town of Iquitos by railway with the port of Paita on the Pacific. The benefits of this scheme are plain enough, as, although the waters of the Amazon tributary proceed considerably further West even than Iquitos, they no longer serve for ocean-going vessels, and a railway of the kind would be the most efficient means of connecting the Pacific with the Atlantic in these regions. By the employ ment of steam-launches, as a matter of fact, an astonish ingly near approach can be made to the actual waters of the Pacific from Iquitos. Having now reached the Western extremity of the Amazon head-waters, we may leave the great system, as it is not possible to pay due attention to the numerous other ports, important enough though many of these are. We therefore swirl far more rapidly than any mere steamer along the giant brown flood, and hastening downstream, arrive once again at the Brazilian coast in the course of no more than this couple of hnes. Proceeding now to the East and slightly to the South along the tropical shore, we PORTS 265 arrive at Pernambuco, a town situated on the Eastern extremity of the great Continent. Pernambuco can look back on some stirring history, for it constituted one of the main centres of Dutch attack and occupation during the seventeenth century. Indeed the old Dutch fort of formidable appearance and very strong construction still stands on the beach in the neighbourhood of the town. The importance of Pernambuco is not to be estimated from the first casual glance from the seaward side, for from a waiting steamer very httle is visible beyond the fronts of a certain number of houses, flanked by numerous groves of coconut palms. The extent to which the town pushes inland is only to be estimated by one who actually lands at the spot. As a matter of fact, the population of Pernambuco approaches two hundred thousand inhabitants. Although it lacks the natural beauties of the surroundings of such cities as Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, Pernambuco possesses much of interest in its buildings, many of which retain some faint traces of the Dutch influence, which is visible, among other things, in the sloping roofs of the houses in parts of the town, a quite unusual sight in a continent where the roofs are by tradition flat, and where, indeed, they frequently serve as convenient lounges for the inhabitants of the houses. It cannot be said that Pernambuco enjoys a high reputa tion as a healthy spot. On the contrary, it is visited by numerous epidemics, and cannot yet be classed among the salubrious centres, although many efforts are now being made to improve this condition of affairs. Pernambuco, as a rule, is the first port to be sighted by travellers bound for South America from Europe. It is fortunate in that it possesses a natural breakwater formed of a coral-reef running parallel with the shore. This en closes a narrow, but very lengthy channel of perfectly 266 THE SOUTH AMERICANS smooth water, and in the neighbourhood of the town itself the coral reef has been heavily reinforced by masonry and provided with a hghthouse at its end. It is a curious sight when approaching Pernambuco to observe the masts and funnels of a long row of steamers over which great waves are apparently breaking, while spreading masses of foam are flying in sheets over them through the air. This is, of course, an optical delusion, since the almost invisible break water hes between, and it is over this the waves spend their force : the steamers being in perfectly calm water beyond. The channel within this natural break-water admits vessels of several thousand tons ; but as a rule the large. mail steamers do not enter, but lie without. In this case landing is frequently a matter of some inconvenience, since a heavy swell is wont to prevail at Pernambuco, and special baskets for the use of passengers are carried by the tugs which come out from the shore. Into one of these the wayfarer enters and is afterwards, in company with other devoted spirits, slung by a steam-crane on to the deck of the vessel, the process being reversed when it is time to return to the shore. Proceeding further, now almost in a straight hne to the South along the Brazihan coast — and passing incidentally on the way numbers of those pecuhar local catamarans, manned by black fishermen, which consist of nothing beyond a few planks laid at intervals crossways, which support a small seat — we come to that very fine bay which in the old days was known as Bahia de Todos los Santos ; but which is now the port which is commonly known as Bahia, plain and simple. In the early colonial days Bahia stood as a rival to Rio de Janeiro, and indeed, for some while eclipsed the latter town, although Rio de Janeiro is now admitted even by the inhabitants of Bahia to be in size, importance, and prosperity RIO DE JANEIRO, FROM THE MOUNTAINS PORTS 267 the superior. But, for all that, Bahia is a port of sufficient interest to satisfy the most aristocratic of its kind. In times of normal prosperity this port is an extremely flourishing one. Bahia, as a matter of fact, is peculiarly favourably situated, set as it is on the shore of the sheltered bay, and it is visited by the vessels of almost ah the lines which serve South America. From Bahia come very large quantities of tobacco for which the neighbourhood is famed, and it may be remarked that the banana trade, although not yet of any great extent, is rapidly increasing in this district, and a con siderable quantity of the fruit is shipped Southward to the Argentine markets, where the demand for the banana is spreading widely. Beyond this, of course, Bahia is con cerned with the general produce of tropical Brazil. The anchorage of the port is very satisfactory as regards depth of water, and the soundings usually register ten metres and more in almost every part of the port and thus afford a perfectly safe anchorage in the close neighbourhood of the shore. Increased dock-works and equipment are now planned, but in the meanwhile the actual facihties of the place appear to serve weh enough. The waters of the port itself are defended by a circular fort very much after the pattern of those which exist in the Solent. Old en gravings of this part of Bahia, or San Salvador, as it was formerly known, which include this fort, show that some hundreds of years ago it was triangular in shape. It is a somewhat curious fact, too, that some engravings of the seventeenth century show what is undeniably a hft exactly on the spot where the present hft connects the lower part of the town with the upper. How the ancient substitute for the present hydraulic institution was worked I have no means of knowing, interesting though the knowledge would be. 268 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Steaming still Southwards from Bahia, we come to the harbour par excehence of all South America : Rio de Janeiro. The only rival in all the world to Rio de Janeiro is Sydney Harbour in Austraha, and the great majority of those who have had the opportunity of viewing both insist that Rio is the finer of the two. Rio Harbour, being entirely surrounded by mountains, affords most admirable shelter at all periods so far as steamers are concerned, although there are times when the wind sweeping downwards from the funnels in the hills raises sufficient sea seriously to inconvenience small boats, and indeed quite recently some of the elaborate undertakings in the way of boulevards and roads that fringe the waters of the bay have been some what seriously damaged by the waves. How this latter can have come about it is certainly a httle difficult to understand. Rio harbour, as has been explained in another chapter, is guarded by a couple of forts at its narrow entrance, and it is here that the dreadnoughts, and the lesser craft of the Brazihan navy he at anchor. One of the great features of the Bay is comprised by the extraordinary number of small and beautiful islands which stud its waters and by the countless bays and deep inlets which mark its shores. In many places it should be said the depth of the harbour attains to almost sixty metres. There is nevertheless a sand bank, part of which lurks only just beneath the sur face of the water in the neighbourhood of the anchorage for mercantile vessels, and it is by no means uncommon for one of the great number of steam launches which ply the waters of the Rio harbour to run ashore on this. An immense amount has been spent on rendering the equipment of the port as efficient as possible, and such Firms as that of Messrs. C. H. Walker of London have had their share in the very formidable and admirable work PORTS 269 which has been carried out. Rio, as a matter of fact, is by no means the only city which exists on the shores of this magnificent harbour ; since directly opposite to it is the sister city of Nictheroy, a very prosperous and growing township — said by some authorities already to have at tained a population of forty thousand — which is connected with Rio by a very efficient and complete system of steam ferries. But Nictheroy does not profess to hold a candle to the superb Rio de Janeiro, the altogether peerless queen of its bay. The true spread and importance of the city is only to be gained by the ascent to such lofty spots as the summit of the Corcovado Mountain, or that of Tijuca — elevations which command the city, and from which one of the most wonderful panoramas in the world is to be obtained. From here a fair idea is to be had of some of the aspects of Rio Harbour, and of the deep blue of the inlets and bays, studded with their countless islands, and girt about with the brilliant verdure of the tropical jungle chnging to the mountain sides. These mountains are in themselves suffi ciently pecuhar. Here and there, where the vegetation has failed to obtain a foothold, are vast surfaces of rock, grey-brown in hue, and as smooth and bare as the surface of a mahogany dining-table. A number of these curious mountains are in the form of sugarloaves. It is true that only one conical peak — the impressive cone that helps to guard the entrance to the harbour — bears the official name of Sugarloaf. This is doubtless for the reason that it is the most important and prominent of its kind. But it is by no means alone in its design. It has numerous huge brethren, some of which bulk only slightly less than itself. This pattern of mountain, as a matter of fact, is typical of these districts of Brazil, and of the neighbourhood of Rio Harbour in particular. 270 THE SOUTH AMERICANS It is on panoramas such as these, surrounding the brilhant white, pink, and blue of the dwelhngs, that the inhabitant of Rio de Janeiro may gaze his fill as an everyday event. Or if he be tired of the somewhat remote altitudes or the streets of the main town ahke, he may choose the middle course and betake himself to the astonishingly fine botanical gardens which extend themselves just on the outskirts of the city. It would be somewhat amazing, I suppose, if the botanical gardens of Rio were not practicahy unique of their kind — as in point of fact they are. Set in the midst of a land where the difficulty in horticulture does not he in the forcing of specimens, but in the restraining of their tremendous growth, the enthusiastic botanist has every reason to hug himself with dehght on entering the fairylike and exotic glades of these much favoured gardens. There is no doubt that the average inhabitant of Rio is sufficiently well content with his lot. It is true that the chmate in which he dwells frequently proves itself of so soft and enervating a nature as to be suffered with some diffi culty by those who have not been born and bred beneath its sub-tropical sky. But nothing of this, of course, worries the true native of Rio, who deals with hfe in a tranquil and restful fashion fitting to the latitude. For the rich there are the great motor-cars which ghde continually to and fro along the animated streets : for the poor there is always the shade of the palms and of the innumerable trees, bril liantly splashed with giant blossoms of ah hues, which are so generously set throughout the town to beautify its masonry. For these more humble dwellers, too, there is always the banana in abundance, and numerous other tropical fruits to be had for what is a mere trifle even to the pockets of the most poor. There is, moreover, always work to be had for the asking — whether the complexion of the applicant be white, coffee-coloured, or black. PORTS 271 There are sufficient inhabitants of ah three of these tints to make the streets of Rio picturesque in something beyond an architectural sense. And when here and there through the throng comes a soldier, you will doubtless remark that his uniform is somewhat unusually gorgeous, and therefore in keeping with the atmosphere of the place. For Rio is essentiahy a town of brilhancy, and some of its humblest and duskiest citizens are prepared to do their utmost to keep the place in countenance. There are some attributes of Rio de Janeiro which, humanly speaking, can never change. The blue water and sky; the strange clusters of conical mountain peaks; the dense green curtains of the forests which chng about the hills ; the myriad flower-spangled islands with which the Bay is dotted — it is difficult to see what will change ah this. It is as weh, since any transformation whatever here must prove regrettable from the picturesque point of view. In the case of the great city which stretches its brilhant white and pink houses in the midst of this fairyhke setting the matter is very different. This has gone the way of all else in those parts of South America which have responded to the touch of progress. Certainly none have had a more dramatic awakening than Rio. Perhaps no city in the Continent can show the same starthng contrasts between its present and its almost immediate past. It is not more than a quarter of a century ago that Rio was in many respects as much of a blot upon the landscape as an adorn ment. It was picturesque, it is true, but so are many things that, when dissected, are essentiahy squalid. Its narrow streets, moreover, were wont to resound dully to the muffled tread of the frequent slave gangs, and in the market the negroes were selling openly. Even then, since Rio was already famed for its wealth, there were in the narrow main streets of the town shops which were good of their kind 272 THE SOUTH AMERICANS and which provided the luxury for which the Brazihan was beginning to crave. There were a few houses of fine exterior, but there was very httle indeed beyond this — very httle that is to say that could be conscientiously praised from the point of view of the modern town. In stead there was a notable dearth of all sanitary precautions and arrangements, and from under the heavy curtain of vapour which was wont to loom over the town the dreaded germs of " yellow Jack " played ghastly havoc and left many a ship with. nothing beyond the corpses of its master and crew. Rio, in fact, was in those days a tropical town which lay at the mercy of every one of those extraordinary vicissitudes which were characteristic of the latitude. This was before Rio awoke and shook itself free from its urban rags and tatters. Some ten years ago the town com menced to dress itself in the very latest fashion. It thought that two or three years would see the completion of the task, but found that in this respect as weh as in so many others " 1'appStit vient en mangeant," so when the original improvements had been carried out and finished some years ago, still the capital of Brazil plumed itself on fresh archi tectural feats and craved for more. The process still continues. The city fathers are in all probabihty perfectly right in these enterprises of theirs. Certainly nothing could stand as a more convincing advertisement of the wealth of the Republic than the aspect of its capital as it now is. It must be admitted that Rio's innovations were ambitious from the start. It began with the famous Avenida, the thoroughfare that causes ah visitors to stare. Then fol lowed Beira Mar, that marvellous promenade that fringes the waters of the Bay — the happy hunting ground where the automobiles speed along at any pace from 30 to 70 miles an hour. For here the pace depends entirely on the chauffeur and on whether he finds some friendly and PORTS 278 equally reckless brother of the wheel to give him a match along the amazingly fine stretch of road bordered by its palms and flowering trees and with the stately villas which make up the background to the landward side. Yes, the Beira Mar is, I think, unique in the World. It is not crowded it is true, but even Rio cannot afford inhabitants sufficient to throng some seven miles of roadway, and were it crowded, what would become of the automobiles ? One shudders to think of the smashes and debris which would then inevitably htter the thoroughfare. Innovations are dangerous, their makers never know when to stop — so much is certain. Nevertheless Beira Mar as it stood might well have satisfied the most enthusiastic town-planner in the world. It did not satisfy Rio. The capital cast about it for the next piece of unadorned nature which it might seize upon as a victim. There was a foolish mountain, a gigantic and awkward lump which separated the main promenade from the charming beach which lay about the open Atlantic ocean. There was but one way to deal with it : a tunnel. In these days Mariana — or, since one is speaking of Brazil, one should depart from tradition in favour of accuracy and employ the word " Amanha. " — has very httle to do with the busier centres of South America. It was so in the case of this tunnel,, for scarcely had it seemed to be talked about than a long passage had been cut, and the motor-cars and trams thundered through the electrically hghted tube to emerge into the brilhant sunshine of the Atlantic coast. There was another annoying peak, the famous Sugarloaf which guarded one side of the entrance to the Bay — a sheer thing which a few sailors, tradition says, have chmbed but none beyond. Rio decided to tame this towering thing. It flung up great wire hausers, and now a cable-car soars up thousands of feet high in the air to rest at the top of 18 274 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the peak after its giddy ascent. This Rio considered was ah in a day's work. It is certainly instructive of the spirit with which the city is animated at the present day. Rio, in fact, is very certain of itself and of its future. It builds pubhc edifices of blinding white marble and stone ; things which, photo graphed against a dark background, it is difficult to decide whether they are to be classed as fairy structures or vast imitations of the traditional wedding cake. It harnesses its tamer mountains with funicular railways and covers their sides with hotels and villas. It casts its net wide for motor-cars and sweeps them in from Europe in their hun dreds — nearly all of most unusual and extravagant horse power. As to the waters of its bay, it sends a. superb collection of the very latest pattern launches to cleave them. There is no doubt that just at present nothing is too good for the Brazilian. This latter will acknowledge the situation blandly. More, and larger, steamers are coming every year, to bring fresh crowds of visitors and residents. According to the Brazihan, who surveys all this with natural complacency, he is not building so very far ahead, after all. The next Port of any real moment south of Rio de Janeiro is that of Santos. Santos is in many respects a remarkable place. Its growth has probably been more rapid than that of any other port, not only in Brazil, but throughout the coasthne of South America. It was with the increase of the Brazihan coffee trade that Santos first came into prominence, and since that day, although various vicissitudes have attended the coffee markets, the port of Santos has never seriously looked back. Santos is somewhat romantically situated, set as it is on the banks of its river some half dozen miles from the Ocean. As this river, the entrance to which on the North PORTS 275 side is guarded by lofty mountains, winds considerably in its course, no sign whatever of Santos is visible as the steamer first enters the stream, and it is not until a sharp bend has been rounded that the walls and buildings of Santos become evident. The main portion of the town has been constructed on a flat expanse at the foot of the moun tains. In the quite near neighbourhood of the town, how ever, rises a somewhat imposing hill, on the summit of which is an old church. Under present conditions it is seldom that a hne of less than fifteen to twenty large steamers is visible at the docks of Santos, tied up stem to stern along the wharves. The expanse of these latter has now grown very formidable, and is continuahy being increased, while much land is being acquired along the banks of the river and is being made to disappear beneath the stone and cement of modern pier and wharf accommodation. It is probable that more fortunes have been made in a shorter time in connection with this port than anywhere else on the coast of the Con tinent. The great reason, of course, for this rapid advent to prosperity of Santos hes in the fact that it serves as the outlet of the great coffee industry of Sao Paolo, with which it is connected by the almost world-famed Sao Paolo rail way. Until the last ten years or so the place had a bad reputa tion as regards health, and in the past yehow fever has raged here to a fiercer degree than almost anywhere else. There have been instances of vessels lying in the river and remaining for many months helpless and deserted since every man of their crews, from the captain to the cabin- boy, had perished from the terrible scourge. Now, owing to sanitary precautions and to modern methods, ah trace of yehow fever has for many years left Santos, which may be regarded as quite a healthy spot. 276 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Having surveyed Santos, we have seen, on the Southward journey, the last of the important Brazilian ports, and as the vessel makes her way southwards the high mountains of the coast gradually sink down, and we prepare ourselves to face the estuary of the River Plate, the brown tinge of the waters denoting the alteration of the soil and the influence of the alluvial plains. CHAPTER XVI PORTS — Continued Montevideo — The Capital of Uruguay — Natural Advantages of the Spot — Some Geographical Conditions — Socialistic Experiments of the Uruguayan Government — Evidences of this in Montevideo — Official Decisions Reasonable and Otherwise — Draught of the Port — Liners and Local Conditions — Dredging and Wharf Operations — Business of the Port — Its Phenomenal Growth — Curious Discovery Concerning the Harbour Bottom — Contract Dredging and how it was Carried Out — The River Plate — Characteristics of the Great Stream — Approaching Buenos Aires — First Aspects of the Argentine Capital — An Imposing Mass of Liners — Pictorial Disappointments of the City — The Dearth of the Pic turesque in Nature — Gigantic Equipment of the Port — The Buenos Aires Streets — Animation of the City — Some typical inhabitants — Difficulties of Traffic — Stringent Street Regulations — Some Aspects of the Crowds — Local Colour and its Dearth — The Modernism of Buenos Aires — The Shedding of Local Traditions — Some Attributes of the Modern Life — A Rash of Bricks and Mortar— The Death Knell of the Narrow Streets — The Advent of Skyscrapers — The Cost of Urban Improvements — The Diagonal Avenues — Buenos Aires as a Business Town — Suburban Traffic — The Early Morning Trains — The Arrival of the City Man — Value of Rents in Buenos Aires — Cost of Living — Argentine Society — The Jockey Club — Scenes at Palermo Park, the Opera and the Tigre River — Public Buildings of Buenos Aires — The Decorative Requirements of the Capital — Plazas and Parks — The Impossibility of Panoramic Effects — Trans formation of the Flat Waste — Conventional Costume — The Second Latin City of the World — Ports of the Uruguay River — Fray Bentos — The Home of Lemco — Concepci6n — Paysandti and its Ox Tongues — Col6n, the Partner Town of Fray Bentos — Ports of Salto and Concordia — Cities of the Parana River — Rosario an Important Grain Centre — Santa Fe— Colastine — La Paz, Bella Vista and Cornentes — Asuncion the Capital of Paraguay — An Old- World City — A Comparison Between the Systems of the River Plate and the Amazon — Villa Concepcion — Bahia Blanca — The Most Important Port of the South — Its Official and Commercial Attributes — Growth of the Place — Camerones, Santa Cruz and Gallegos — Curious Natural Docking Facilities at the Last Port — Punta Arenas, the Southern most Town in the World— -Notable Features — The Magellan Straits — Southern Chilian Towns — Corral the Port of Valdivia — Talcahuano — Naval Base and Mercantile Port — Trade of Concepcion — Valparaiso — Chief Coastal Town of South Pacific— Characteristics of the Port — Improve- 277 278 THE SOUTH AMERICANS ments Achieved — Floating Docks — Vina Del Mar, a popular Pleasure Resort — Chmate of the Latitudes— La Serena — Antofagasta — The Nitrate Ports — Iquique — Peruvian Ports — Arica and Mollendo — Callao — The Port of Lima — A Historical Town — The Third Port of the Pacific Coast — The connection of Lima and the Interior — Advantages of Callao as a Port — Trujillo — Its Inhabitants — Payta — The Coast of Ecuador — Guayaquil — Appearance of the Town — Ingenious Architecture — Climate of the Spot — The Colombian Port Buenaventura — A Famous Beauty Spot — Some Inland Capitals of the Continent — Santiago de Chile — Beauties of the City — The Alameda — An Important Centre of Science and Learning — Caracas — The Capital of Venezuela — A Historical Incident — Bogota the Capital of Colombia — Situation of the Town — A Famous Literary Centre — La Paz the capital of Bolivia — The Loftiest Capital Town in the World — Some Peculiarities of Existence in this Spot — Quito the Capital of Ecuador — Another City of High Altitude — The Past and the Present of the Town WE are now off the Uruguayan coast and entering the port of Montevideo. Montevideo, it may be said, possesses several distinctions. It is the capital of the Uruguayan repubhc and the chief port of the country. Moreover, it is, by reason of its geographical position and natural advantages, the principal port of the mouth of the River Plate. Nothing beyond artificial circumstances have placed Montevideo in a secondary posi tion to Buenos Aires. The position is now however, irre vocable, and no more need be said about it, save that, but for pohtical considerations in days gone by, there is no doubt whatever that Montevideo would have ranked as the first port of the great River Plate Provinces, and a vast amount of capital and labour, expended in the creation of marine bricks with very httle straw, would have been saved. Montevideo possesses the benefit of a broad and fairly sheltered Bay. The natural configuration of the shore, it is true, does not suffice to render the place entirely protected from the South-West gales which frequently prevail during certain seasons of the year, for this mouth of the River Plate is a sufficiently windy place. Nevertheless a for- PORTS 279 midable system of breakwaters has now come into being, and Montevideo possesses a well-appointed inner harbour as well as an outer one. As I have explained at some length elsewhere, the Re pubhc of Uruguay is at the present moment strongly in clined to sociahstic experiments, among which, consistently enough, one of the most important is represented by govern ment control of the general industries. This is pecuharly evident in this port of Montevideo. In their enthusiasm the authorities have passed several regulations which have been somewhat resented by shipowners. Thus in February 1 912 an official decree appeared which ran to the effect that ships carrying passengers must enter the inner port to perform their operations, whether they would or not. The embarkation or disembarkation of passengers outside this inner port was strictly forbidden unless permission were granted by the captain of the port and this only on special occasions. But, as though this did not suffice, a special decree in April of the same year proclaimed that ships with packet-privileges should be deprived of these privileges for six months should they not comply with the terms of the first decree. Moreover, if they did not then comply their privileges should be withdrawn. These regulations, ultra paternal though they appear, were ah very weh in their way. Nevertheless the steadily increasing size of the hners which ply between Europe and the River Plate made compliance with this somewhat autocratic regulation very difficult. The port of Monte video, it is true, is dredged to twenty-four and a half feet at low water ; but many of the larger steamers now draw considerably more water than this. As it happens, the largest vessels of the New Zealand Shipping Company are very seldom able to enter the port, and it is necessary for these to conduct all their port operations from an anchorage 280 THE SOUTH AMERICANS some four miles from the shore. "The same apphes to the Shaw Savile Company, although the Royal Mail, accus tomed as their great fleet is to pass 'straight up the river to Buenos Aires, have suited the draught of their steamers in the majority of cases to local conditions, and thus are usually enabled to conform with these regulations. Nevertheless in fairness to the reasonableness of the Uruguayan Government it must be said that the inevitable non-comphance with the requirements on the part of the various Shipping Companies has not so far been visited with any stringent penalties. As a matter of fact, the progress in the port of Montevideo is by no means completed, and more elaborate dredging and wharf operations than have yet been carried out are contemplated. When these are completed the port wih be one of the finest although not one of the largest of the South American coast. The business of this port, it must be said, is increasing with a phenomenal rapidity, and the growing number of steamers which throng its waters wih undoubtedly sooner or later present a fresh problem to the Montevidean port authorities. A curious circumstance, by the way, was remarked in the dredging of these works some years ago. This was that, although bottom was found at a certain depth, this proved usually to be nothing beyond a species of crust, and when this was penetrated the real foundation of the harbour was discovered at a considerable distance below. Incidentally it may be mentioned that a rather notable instance of fraud — or, to put it more gently, sharp practice — came to light during the earlier operations in the port of Montevideo which were carried out a good many years ago. In the dredging of the spot the contract was arranged at so much remuneration for each barge-full of soil sent awayjrom the harbour to be unloaded in the outer waters. PORTS 281 It was noticed that the number of trips made by these barges was phenomenahy great. After a while this gave rise to some doubts, and the result of careful watching was that it was noticed that the steam-launches were busily towing the same barges and the same moist earth to and fro, and thus the same earth was counted many times over, and of course, paid for ! But all this is ancient history, and the mere reference to it is perhaps nothing beyond an effort to drag up a somewhat unsavoury subject — but in any case a more conscientious and successful effort than those on the part of the dredgers of former days ! Steaming up-channel along the great River Plate, and incidentally frequently scraping the bottom of the steamer on the soft mud, a process which produces a salutary cleansing effect, we arrive at the largest shipping centre in South America, that of Buenos Aires. The sentiments of the average foreigner who lands for the first time in Buenos Aires are wont to be curiously mixed. Quite apart from this present imaginative journey of ours, it is ten thousand chances to one that he has sailed down from the north and that his steamer has called at the vivid Brazihan ports which he on the route : towns of pink and white streets which glow between the green of the jungle and the deep blue of the ocean. Then, as has been said, he wih have arrived at the point where the waves become discoloured by the muddy stream of the La Plata. His vessel will have steamed up the darkening brown waters for almost a dozen hours before a ghmpse of the shore is obtained. When it comes, the sight of it is unimpressive to a degree : the low brown hne which marks the horizon might as easily stand for a current of the earthy water as for the land, At this point, indeed, it is the stream itself which speaks most eloquently of the hfe of the still invisible capital of 282 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Argentina. Great hners, Enghsh, French, German, Itahan, Spanish and Dutch, are making their way upstream be tween the hnes of buoys. At either end of the promenade decks where the saloon passengers enjoy their ease is a con gested mass of immigrant humanity, and on each steamer many hundreds of dark complexioned faces are turned towards the elusive shore. More and more numerous do these vessels become, until the spires and roofs of Buenos Aires rise as imperceptibly from the river surface as the masts of an approaching steamer at sea. There is no doubt that the first ghmpse of Buenos Aires is disappointing. From the pictorial point of view it has come upon the scene entirely unannounced. No single hill or landmark of any description has stood out to mark the greatest city south of the equator ; the sole idea of per spective is rendered by some roofs which are taller than the rest. A closer acquaintance, moreover, is productive of httle more in the way of the picturesque. The new comer will look in vain for anything reminiscent of the local colour of Spain, or of the popular conception of tropical South America. At the water's edge are miles of docks, teeming with liners, cargo steamers, and saihng vessels which jostle each other as closely as grass blades in an Enghsh May. At the back of these is the long hne of warehouses, in front of which the giant cranes move to and fro on their rails, while here and there the tall grain elevators go soaring upwards to dwarf all else in their neighbourhood. But there is no time to dwell longer on these outskirts of a great capital. What lies behind ? Alas ! no Indians or monkeys, and a quite neghgible amount of the expected palm trees and panorama! The stranger will find himself almost immediately in the heart of the place ; for here the commercial and residential quarters are much nearer the ocean docks than is usual in PORTS 288 a town of the size of Buenos Aires. All about are square blocks of houses intersected by thoroughfares which run parallel and at right angles to each other. Undoubtedly this newcomer will be struck by the disproportionate narrowness of the streets compared with the imposing appearance of the buildings which flank them. But he will have httle time to dwell on this point ; for he will be caught up in a whirl of tram-cars, motors, and horse-traffic which goes roaring incessantly by the side of the crowded foot paths. Where, he may ask himself, is that indolence and sensuous ease which is popularly held to pervade every corner of South America ? The great majority of folk here wear an alert air, and jostle each other on the narrow footpaths. There are boy messengers on bicycles, merchants, clerks and typewriter girls on foot — all obviously and strangely obsessed by the idea that time is of value ! Now and again occurs a block in the traffic, and the drivers of the automobiles, of the hooded victorias which serve as pubhc vehicles, and of the tram-cars, all become fretted and impatient. But for the street traffic regulations of the capital these blocks would be far more general. As it is, should a driver have overshot his destination, it is useless to attempt to turn and retrace his way. He would be waved back immediately by a justly indignant pohceman. The traffic in each street may proceed in one direction only, and the arrows painted on the walls shdw the way with unmistakable clearness. The erring driver must turn at the first intersecting street, must swing round again at the end of that block, and must cover three sides of the square until he has arrived once more in the street he originally left at a point upstream of his destination which wih per mit him to float quietly with the tide. All the while he will be passing great advertisement signs, imposing offices, 284 THE SOUTH AMERICANS shops and buildings, as well as elaborate branch estabhsh ments of world-renowned commercial houses. The grbups in the streets afford many types of humanity. There is the ordinary English commercial man in conven tional costume, and his European and North and South American brethren similarly attired. There are the bronzed estancieros who have come in on a visit from the campo, each with a look of complete prosperity stamped on his face. Beyond these, of course, you will find the ordinary varied inhabitants of a great Latin metropohs. But, should you look for local colour in the inhabitants of the capital, there is no doubt that you will be grievously disappointed. The sole corner which will occasionally yield ariy symptoms of the kind is in the immediate neighbourhood of the docks. There, it is possible enough that a number of newly- landed immigrants may be respectively decked out in the peasant costumes and colours of Spain, Italy, Russia, and half a dozen other European countries. In their case the transformation is invariably rapid. The extreme modernism of Buenos Aires is fatal to all local excrescences of the kind. In a few days the immigrant will have shed his picturesque costume, and will have adopted the sober garb of the working man in large cities. It is a httle curious that these should have come so far from their own continent to find out the ways of its busy centres. Even the Turkish pedlars who start out from the capital on their periodical tours through the campo have discarded the fez. At very long intervals, you may chance to see a Sikh, who persists in his time-honoured clothing. But this South American venture is new to the roving race, and their numbers are scarce. So far as the native traditions of the soil are concerned, Buenos Aires has shed these wholesale. Even the Tangos have gone the way of the rest. In the remoter provinces by a remote stroke of luck they are occasionally still to PORTS 285 be witnessed in all their glamour. In the capital they are produced from time to time as a spectacle — and the dancers are sometimes of foreign, nationality ! From the senti mental point of view this is decidedly lamentable. But there is no help for it. In common with the poncho and the siesta, they have fallen behind the times, and Buenos Aires has no use for any circumstance or thing which suffers from any slur of the kind. The sellers of lottery tickets, it is true, conduct an even more thriving trade than ever. But then the vogue of chance has tended to increase rather than the reverse. Just now, it must be admitted, Buenos Aires is not looking its best. It is suffering from a fever of embellish ment which has broken out into a tremendous rash of bricks and mortar. The capital, in fact, is now maturing into the third stage of its existence, and this last transforma tion is by far the most dramatic of ah. It is less than a score of years ago that the majority of the houses here were of the old-fashioned Spanish type, one-storied build ings, with massive and elaborate iron bars spread over each window, and with one or more spacious open patios in the centre shaded by palms and flowering shrubs. In those days the music of the guitar was still wont occasionally to sound before the fortifications of a window, and, yet more occasionally, to provoke a flash of dark eyes from behind the bars. Then, — alas for local colour ! — came the ordinary house of London and Parisian type, and plumped itself down to cover the site of the old Spanish casa. There was no room for a patio, now. A hft came to occupy the spot where the palms and flowers had spread themselves, and soared frequently to the height of three or four stories. This condition of affairs endured and spread — to the death of the guitar, whose office began to be usurped by the function of afternoon tea ! — until some 286 THE SOUTH AMERICANS four years ago. Then, almost without warning, came the rage for sky scrapers. Buildings of three and four stories gave way to others three times their height, and the tower ing edifices began to arise hke lighthouses over the main sea of roofs. With their advent sounded the death knell of the narrow streets, and this is the problem which now faces Buenos Aires — to carve broad thoroughfares from out of a con gestion of buildings the average rental value of which is at least three times as high as that in London. The great Avenida de Mayo was cut almost a decade ago, and count less milhons of dollars were saved from this fact alone. Since that time both the value of land and the need for space have increased to an alarming extent. But the capital has wisely hardened its heart, and has taken the financial plunge which will cost it more milhons of pounds than the ordinary city would care to think about. Wide diagonal avenues are being forced right through the heart of the city. When these, and the tube railway, and the underground tramways which are now burrowing beneath the earth, are completed, it is hoped that the traffic problem will be solved ! If not, it wih be necessary to cut and to tear away again ; for Buenos Aires is determined to have everything that her multitude of dollars can buy. Judged from its central portions Buenos Aires must be considered as a purely business town, where the race in quest of the ah-powerful dollar is as fevered as that in New York. Here, in one sense, the proverbial Mariana is as dead as it is possible for a morrow to be. Indeed, if you would see the manner in which the commercial hfe is waged here, you can do no better than wait in the early morning at one of the termini of the suburban railway hnes. As train after train steams up you wih see the many thousands of men descending from the carriages in haste, and busthng PORTS 287 to their offices with the grim determination which is charac teristic of the chief Anglo-Saxon cities. They have come in from Belgrano, Hurlingham, Lomas, and a number of others of the popular suburbs, where a garden is possible, and the roar of the city's traffic is unknown. For the value of the rents in Buenos Aires itself permits the luxury of a garden only to the very wealthiest of a wealthy community. And even these prefer to use their ground for more practical purposes. Each fortunate being of the kind will build what is locally, and rather ostenta tiously, known as a palace — as, indeed, the majority of these tremendous erections are in reahty — and by the time the erection is completed there will be very httle space left for a garden of any kind. As a matter of fact, the extraordinarily high cost of hving is one of the features of the town. Expenses have increased steadily each year, and the North Americans, who are now coming to the spot in shoals, have discovered to their amazement that hfe in New York is cheap by comparison. If a bachelor in the capital of Argentina, possessing the equivalent of a thou sand pounds a year, imagines that he will be able to enter tain or to indulge in any luxuries on this income he will soon find out that he is vastly mistaken. It is a sober fact that his means will permit of no more than a modest and quiet comfort. Yet no one complains — except the casual globe-trotter. There seems to be money for ah things in Buenos Aires, and plenty to spare. It is un doubtedly a magical city. But it is time to forsake the subject of dollars ; an easier feat, this, on paper than in the conversations of the town itself. The social hfe of the Portenos — the Argentine in habitants themselves of Buenos Aires — can vie in many respects with that of any other capital. You may watch Argentine Society in its pubhc moments in various weh 288 THE SOUTH AMERICANS defined places, such as the Jockey Club enclosure at Palermo, the Tigre River, and other places of the kind, and you may well feel astonishment. But it is impossible to attempt to describe the capital of Argentina in the comprehensive fashion of the guide book. The House of Congress, the Law Courts, the Theatres — all these are contrived on a similarly elaborate scale. The buildings of the Jockey Club lay claim to be the finest in the world. But even this now no longer satisfies the re quirements of its members. A new, and yet more tre mendous structure, is about to be erected, while the present house is to be given to the nation — a casual present of many milhons of dollars ! It is in this financial fairyland that the Argentine carries on his work and his pleasures. It must be admitted, how ever, that in not every respect does Buenos Aires resemble fairyland. Nature, for one, has contributed nothing towards the embelhshment of the place. The low-lying, unbroken plain on which it is built permits nothing more sahent to catch the eye than a flat sea of earth. From the waters of the great La Plata river itself you may expect very httle more aesthetic comfort. As a rule their tint is as brown as that of the soil itself. The Spaniards, moreover, who first inhabited the country proved themselves curiously indifferent to anything in the nature of urban beauty. So long as the straight hnes of low houses were placed sufficiently close together to make a shaded roadway be tween very httle else mattered. And it was but natural that the early republicans should have fohowed in the footsteps of their colonial predecessors. When the time came for attention to be paid to the decorative requirements of the capital the outlook was un promising. It is hard enough for a child to construct anything picturesque in the way of toy brick cities on a O m PORTS 289 dusty bilhard table shorn of even its cushions. It was a somewhat similar task which had to be faced by the urban fathers of Buenos Aires. It was not until quite recent years that the matter was taken seriously in hand. Since then the work has been carried on with an enthusiasm typical of the capital. Plazas and parks have been laid out, and planted with palm trees, yellow and mauve acacias, blossoming shrubs, and flowers. Since the rich alluvial soil is innocent not only of rock but even the smallest pebble, artificial boulders have been cunningly manufactured and piled one on top of the other into lofty grottos, from which cascades of water plash downward in the most convincing fashion. Panoramic effects were, of course, impossible ; but the one time dead level of the city's horizon is now rapidly becoming altered ; for the sky-scrapers are now beginning to chmb up like peaks from the plains of the lower roofs. When passing judgement on the physical aspects of Buenos Aires, facts such as these should be remembered. In this respect the sight of Palermo Park alone should give the too enthusiastic critic pause. Here none can deny that the lakes, palm avenues, trees, and flowers form a quite admirable setting for the astonishing stream of motor vehicles and victorias which promenade so densely in the place in the afternoons and evenings. Could those who now enjoy this very pleasant spot have seen the flat and dreary waste from which it has been evolved, the true nature of the feat would be clear enough. There are many things that Buenos Aires has lost. It has out grown such triviahties as carnivals, the patio, and the guitar. But to the modern mind of the capital the waning of the romantic has been more than compensated for by the gains in other directions. If Buenos Aires has a faihng, it hes in a wilful ignoring 19 290 THE SOUTH AMERICANS of chmate and temperature. Remarkably few of its in habitants wih consent to reconcile themselves to the fact that the winter's southern wind can be biting, and that the northern airs of the summer can prove swelteringly hot. During the former period fires are practicahy un known ; during the latter the conventional garb of northern Europe persists with a rather misplaced enthusiasm. There are times whon the white duck garments might weh replace the tweeds and blacks and silk hats. But Buenos Aires has grown to look rather askance at anything of the kind. Such a garb may serve well enough for country purposes, and even for the pohce and minor officials of the capital ; but there the dignity of the capital draws the hne. In any case Buenos Aires pays such minor penalties for its greatness with the utmost cheerfulness. That the knowledge of this greatness is not more wide spread throughout the world is one of the circumstances which the capital chiefly resents. At the beginning of last century the spot was a small and sleepy colonial city of Spain which exported its hides under the strict regulations which the jealous supervision of the mother country de manded. Cut off from all other communication with the outer world, the produce of the country found an outlet only when the Spanish vessels would consent to carry it. The longed-for independence, when it came, brought for generations in its train httle beyond internal strife and the autocratic rule of despots whom the various revolutions bore to power. Thus the city remained much as it had always been. Knowing nothing of such urban luxuries as drainage, illumination, and pavement, the barred windows of the lowly houses continued to look out upon thorough fares which in summer were powdered many inches thick with dust, and which in winter were ah but impassable for the deep mud-holes which infested them. PORTS 291 But this is not the modern city of Buenos Aires. To all intents and purposes this is, at the most, some twenty years old. It is the second Latin town of the world, owning a population of a million and a quarter, one of the greatest magnets of humanity in the world. And yet this new city which has risen on the site of the old is merely in its com mercial infancy. The ratio of its astonishing progress, moreover, is steadily increasing. Should this continue even on its present scale the future of Buenos Aires must be still more dramatic than its immediate past. But Buenos Aires, although the port par excellence of the River Plate republics, is, after all, only the chief urban star among the many which dot the shores of the great River system of the south. Ascending first the Uruguay River, we meet with a number of fairly important towns on both banks. Thus, there is Fray Bentos on the Uruguayan shore, the great home of cattle and consequently of Lemco, ox-tongues, and every preserved fragment of these valuable and unselfish animals. After this, there is Concepcion on the Argentinine shore, and a httle further to the north, Paysandu, a spot which is also famous for its ox-tongues. Beyond this again, the upward-saihng river steamer arrives at Colon, which once more is a centre of meat produce, in the hands of the same company as Fray Bentos, and which now more than rivals the older estabhshment in importance. After this, one comes to the point where the first falls of the Uruguay make a break in the navigation of the river. Here the town of Salto in Uruguay rests opposite to that of Concordia in Argentina, both being important cities. Beyond this point we have, of course, come to the end of ports proper, although there exist important places such as Monte Caseros and some similar centres on the banks of the upper Uruguay. 292 THE SOUTH AMERICANS From the point of view of lengthy navigation, the Parana, the twin stream of the Uruguay, is, of course, by far the more notable of the two. The number of ports on its banks are correspondingly large and important. Thus, first of all, steaming upstream through the muddy waters, one arrives at Rosario, the most important grain centre perhaps in the entire Argentine repubhc. Still steaming northward, one arrives at the town of Parana, the capital of the province of Entre Rios, and nearly opposite to it, the city of Santa Fe, the port of which, Colastine, marks the limit of the river so far as the navigation of ocean going steamers is concerned. Not that the interest of this great Parana river ends here, since the large shahow draught river steamers, holding their hundreds of passengers, pro ceed steadily onwards very far to the north of this, past La Paz and Bella Vista, where the orange groves come first into real industrial importance, to Corrientes, almost on the frontiers of Paraguay, the most important city in North East Argentina. In the neighbourhood of Corrientes the Parana branches off in two directions, the main line of the river, as it were, running down from the north and becoming the Paraguay, while the other, the Alto Parana — as regarded by the ascending craft — branches to the east, and soon becomes impassable for any but very shahow draught steamers, these latter for the most part being of the stern-wheel order. Continuing, therefore, the northward journey on the Paraguay river, having now the repubhc of Argentina on the left hand, and that of Paraguay on the right, we come to the town of Asuncion, after which the repubhc of Para guay occupies both banks of the river. Asuncion, a quaint, old-world city, is the capital of Paraguay, and the centre of considerable traffic, nearly all of which is concerned with the pastoral and agricultural industries. From this spot A BIT OF OLD ASUNCION PORTS 293 many glowing cargoes of oranges are wont to be sent down stream for consumption at Buenos Aires and elsewhere. Although the River Plate system cannot compare in actual magnitude with the Amazon, it may be remarked than this city of Asuncion is situated at no less a distance than one thousand miles from the mouth of the river. After this point, however, the towns of importance on the banks become rare, since a much more unfrequented stretch of territory is now entered. There is the port of Villa Concepcion, it is true, but this is the last centre which can lay claim to the least intrinsic importance, and after, still proceeding upstream, the borders of Bolivia have been passed, such ports as exist are, of course, merely for local convenience, and therefore confined to local interest. Leaving the busiest artery of South American traffic to proceed to the southward, we are first of ah confronted with an extent of low coasthne, faced by stretches of shallow water, practicahy devoid of ah ports, backed by a rich country though it is. Indeed the first sea-port of any genuine importance is Bahia Blanca. Bahia Blanca is situated some ten degrees to the South of the capital of Buenos Aires, and hes at the end of the first real indentation Of the coast-line to be met with on the journey from the one port to the other. Bahia Blanca, as a matter of fact, possesses many advantages over Buenos Aires as a port. Its waters will admit not only the largest of passenger steamers, but the super-dreadnoughts of the Argentine battleships in addition. It is the naval station of the Argentine Repubhc, and the dockyards have here been greatly increased of late in order to accommodate the new and largest battleships. Bahia Blanca, situated at the edge of a flat country, may be distinguished for many miles, whether from the land side or from that of the Ocean. The reason for this 294 THE SOUTH AMERICANS is quite unconcerned with nature : it is merely because the place possesses two great grain elevators which constitute the solitary landmark of the neighbourhood. The com mercial port is principahy the work of the Great Southern and the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway Companies, each of which possesses a separate port here, that of the Great Southern being known as Ingeniero White and that of the Buenos Aires and Pacific as Puerto Galvan. Bahia Blanca, as a matter of fact, is one of the most progressive ports of the Continent, and serves as the out let for all the agricultural products of the wealthy Southern lands beneath the latitudes convenient for Buenos Aires to deal with. The vastness of this trade has only been realized since the first foundation of Bahia Blanca as a modern port, with the result that the growth of the place has been phenomenal. Had it not been for a curiously mahgnant fate which willed that ever since the increase of modern equipment in Bahia Blanca the harvests of the South have suffered much from drought and other circum stances, the advance of Bahia Blanca would have been infinitely greater than has actually been the case. To the South of Bahia Blanca we approach a region more thinly settled, and which, indeed, has not yet been given an opportunity of yielding anything approaching the commercial returns of which it is capable. There are, of course, numerous smah ports such as Camerones, Santa Cruz, and Gallegos. This latter port, by the way, although smah, is remarkable for the extraordinary variations of the tide in its vicinity. The difference here between high and low water is no less than fifty-four feet ! This unheard of phenomenon facihtates the docking arrangements of the few steamers which touch at the port. As a rule these time their arrival to coincide with high tide and, approach ing the port, run gently ashore. When the tide has receded PORTS 295 the vessels are left high and dry. Their cargo is unloaded as rapidly as possible in order that the business may be completed before the return of the waters. Thus Gahegos may be said to possess the simplest and cheapest docking arrangements of any port in existence. Punta Arenas lays claim to being the southernmost town in the world. Forming part of Chilean territory — it is not generally reahsed that, by means of this port Chile has direct access to the Atlantic ocean — the city now con tains over ten thousand inhabitants and is situated in the Magehan Straits. As a port it is not to be despised in view of the fact that the yearly tonnage which visits the place amounts now to almost a milhon. Punta Arenas represents the most Southerly outlet for the pastoral and shipping industry in this neighbourhood. It now contains several freezing estabhshments and this branch of its industry is increasing with great rapidity. The city certainly stands for one of the most remarkable features of South America, since its plazas, wide streets, and numerous imposing buildings now enhven what until a few years ago was a desolate and wild streak of land scape, which the few daring inhabitants of that neighbour hood could scarcely imagine as ever hkely to be productive of any numerous groups of houses, to say nothing of the important town which has now come into being. Steaming westwards from Punta Arenas through the tortuous Magehan Straits, we emerge into the waters of the Pacific, waters which are very frequently inchned to be stormy, in these regions. To the East are the countless islands which make up the multitudinous Chilean archi pelagos. Steaming along the broken shore, for the most part forest covered, no ports of any industrial consequence are to be seen until we arrive at the port of Corral in Lati tude 40 S. Corral is a very picturesque small town situated 296 THE SOUTH AMERICANS in a Bay so entirely shut in by wooded hills as to resemble a lake when viewed from the inner waters. This port serves the important Southern Chilean town of Valdivia, and from here much timber, fruit and general agricultural products are shipped. Steaming Northwards from Valdivia, probably through troubled waters but always advancing towards the warmer latitudes, we arrive at the port of Talcahuano, the ocean outlet which serves the town of Concepcion, a few miles inland, and its surrounding districts. Concepcion is the largest town in Southern Chile, and the third most im portant in the whole Repubhc. The port of Talcahuano, therefore, sheltered by the wide deep Bay, is an extremely busy one, and much hfe is added to the neighbourhood from the fact that it constitutes the Government naval station and dockyard : the fine modern ships of the Chilean navy making this their head-quarters. Proceeding Northwards towards the Equator, the next port of consequence is Valparaiso : the chief coastal town of the South American Continent on the Pacific. Valparaiso, notwithstanding its great importance, is somewhat lacking in natural shelter, and when the wind blows inshore with any force the anchorage can still prove a fairly uncomfortable one. Breakwaters are now being extended in order to provide additional refuge against the North and West winds, which are the ones most dreaded. The contract for this is in the hands of Messrs. Pearson & Sons, Limited of London, and is to the value of nearly three million pounds sterhng. When this is completed the advantage to Valparaiso will be incalculable, since at the present time the larger steamers do not come alongside to wharves, but conduct their embarkation and disembarka tion by means of barges and small boats — a method, which is, of course, far too cumbersome and protracted to be PORTS 297 suited to a great and busy shipping centre such as Val paraiso. Valparaiso has two floating docks, and the larger of these is of a size sufficient to accommodate a four thousand ton steamer. The. town itself is undoubtedly one of the most pleasant ports on the West coast. The suburb Vina del Mar is especiahy fortunately situated and as a pleasure resort is largely frequented by Chileans and foreigners who arrive at the spot from Santiago and elsewhere. The chmate of these Chilean latitudes, it should be added, is delightfully cool and bracing. To those northward bound Valparaiso represents the last port of first class importance which deals with pastoral and agricultural products in Chile. It is true that we have la Serena, the capital of the Pro vince of Coquimbo, a port of some sixteen thousand in habitants which still has some concern with the fertile areas, but which is nevertheless employed rather in hand ling minerals and the like than anything else. Antofagasta, moreover, is largely associated with minerals and also with the Salitre or nitrate. After these we arrive httle by httle at the barren and arid regions where the nitrate beds give employment to so many thousands of workmen of all nationahties. The chief of the nitrate ports is Iquique, from which a vast amount of nitrate is exported as well as important quantities of minerals. All the nitrate ports, in these latitudes of course, were once Bolivian ; but since the war of 1879 — the guerra del Pacifico — waged by Chile on the one hand, and by Peru and Bohvia on the other, the coasthne is now Chilean and Bohvia has no direct outlet to the Pacific. We have now arrived at the Peruvian coast, and the main agricultural regions, that is to say of the temperate zone, have been left far to the South. At the same time 298 THE SOUTH AMERICANS it must be said that the coast-hne here is of a very different character and far more fertile than that of the barren nitrate regions. Indeed there are regions even here notable for their fertihty. Nevertheless in Peru, as has been fully explained elsewhere, the national wealth is chiefly derived from mineral rather than vegetable sources, notwith standing the numerous smihng and green valleys possessed by the Repubhc. Steaming past Arica and Mollendo of gold exporting fame, the bows of the vessel turning shghtly to the North-West, we pass by a coastal region which contains nothing of real importance in the way of ports, and then, saihng by the famous Chincha Islands, the haunts of Guano, we arrive at Callao, the port of Lima, the capital of Peru. Callao, although lacking the full and grim romance of some Panama coastal-towns, stands for one of the most historical towns of the Pacific. In the old days it was frequently raided by the enemies of Spain. In one sense, of course, this may have been poetic justice, when the early acts of Pizarro and his conduct towards the unfortunate aboriginals are taken into consideration. But this doubt less afforded small comfort to those latter-day dwellers, who knew httle about these early occurrences and troubled less. Callao was on various occasions plundered, and on one occasion suffered an even greater visitation, at the hands of the elements this time : for an enormous tidal wave swept the houses of Cahao like match-boxes into the Ocean, while the earthquake itself which had caused this terrible phenomenon destroyed Lima a few miles away. Cahao ranks as the third port on the entire Pacific coast, San Francisco coming first and Valparaiso second. It is separated by only eight miles from Lima, by which it is connected both by electric trams and steam railways. It is by these means that direct communication is obtained PORTS 299 between Callao and the celebrated Oroya railway which soars up to a height of nearly sixteen thousand feet into the Andes. In the neighbourhood of Cahao are numerous seaside pleasure resorts which are now extremely weh equipped with all the paraphernalia of their kind, and are eagerly visited not only by the Peruvians, but by the resident and touring foreigners. Cahao itself is an extremely well-found port, and a great deal of money has been spent on its docks and wharves. Its population is supposed to exceed thirty thousand ; while the annual tonnage must now approach one and a half milhons. Coming weh to the north now, towards where the lati tudinal numerals diminish into very modest figures, we arrive at Trujiho, about three hundred miles to the North of Cahao, and the second port of Peru. Trujiho, too, can lay considerable claim to historical interest, although its present-day commercial and industrial importance is of not very much consequence. It is, notwithstanding, a very pleasant old-fashioned port, enjoying a fine chmate con sidering the latitude. Its inhabitants, moreover, constitute some of the aristocracy of the Repubhc, descended as some of them are from the upper classes of the Spaniards who lorded it here in proud fashion in the days of the Empire. Payta is the most northerly of the important ports of Peru. This town, of considerable historical interest, deals with the staple products of Northern Peru. From this region much tobacco is shipped — also a considerable quan tity of the famous Panama hats, the great majority of which are not made in Panama at all, but in these northern regions of Peru. We are now approaching the equator, and leaving the Peruvian coast-hne aside, steam along the coastal regions of Ecuador. Of the sea-towns here none are of any great 300 THE SOUTH AMERICANS importance, but the chief of these in any case is Guaya quil, which can boast a population of some hundred thou sand inhabitants, and is situated at the junction of the rivers Guayaquil and Daule : the joint stream forming the Estuary of Guayas. The river front of Guayaquil presents a very animated scene, and the town in general seen from a distance presents an extremely pleasing effect, although, when more closely approached, hke many of these tropical cities, it loses somewhat in its amenities. There are, as a matter of fact, very few stone buildings in Guayaquil. Owing to the prevalence of earthquakes these are, as a precautionary matter, contrived of wood, bamboo, and mud in a special manner so as to be capable of resisting the most violent earthquake. Many of the necessarily flimsy structures have been erected with extreme ingenuity, and, if not too closely inspected, resemble massive erections of stone. The colour of these houses is, more over, extremely brilliant, a circumstance which lends much to the vivacity of the scene. Guayaquil cannot boast of a good reputation as a health resort. It has, in fact, been visited at too short intervals by serious tropical epidemics. But energetic measures are now being taken by the municipahties, and it is possible in a very short while that this city, so enchanting to the eye, may be able to give a better sanitary report of itself. The annual amount of tonnage visiting Guayaquil in the course of a year is in the neighbourhood of half a milhon. The port is one of the regular places of call for European steamers. We now arrive at the coast of the country at which we started, Colombia ; but we are now on the South side of the Isthmus of Panama instead of upon its Northern boundary. Here there are very few ports of any consequence : indeed the only two worthy of mention PORTS 301 are Buenaventura and Tumaco. Both these ports are noted for the shipment of vegetable ivory. Buenaventura is a pecuharly beautiful spot held by both Colonel Church and Mr. Eder to be the most lovely port of the Pacific coast. The trade of Buenaventura is considerable ; for in addition to vegetable ivory it is concerned with rubber and gold-dust. Nevertheless such trade would seem to come about in spite of the facihties of the port rather than because of them, since a good deal is stih lacking to bring the place up to date. Tumaco to the South of Buenaventura possesses a popula tion of less than five thousand, and while handhng similar commodities to Buenaventura it is of considerably less importance. The only capitals of South America which do not find themselves on the sea coast, are those of Chile, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Bohvia. Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, although in one sense it should come within this category, is, nevertheless, a port, since it has communica tions with the ocean by means of the River Plate. Santiago de Chile is one of the finest cities in South America. The town is most beautifully laid out on its tableland, among the lower slopes of the Andes, and having on the eastern side the snow peaks of the Cordillera. The effect of its surroundings is, in the morning and evening especiahy, enchanting. The original city was built around the hill of Santa Lucia, a rocky eminence now planted with flowers, trees and shrubs, about which the central portion of the town still clusters. The most famous street of Santiago is the Alameda, a very broad and long thorough fare, planted with various rows of trees. Santiago prides itself as being the centre of Chilian learning and science, as well as of state-craft, and on these attributes it has no small reason to pride itself. 302 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, has httle claim to any special celebrity, although the town is admirably laid out. Its present population amounts to very nearly one hundred thousand inhabitants. It was founded in the year 1577, and has played a notable part in the history of the north of the continent. On one occasion it attained to the distinc tion, an unenviable one it is true, of being sacked by some Enghsh buccaneers, a fate which has very seldom befahen an inland town. Bogota, the capital of Colombia, is situated at a height of something over eight thousand feet, and owing to this altitude is a very healthy spot, although the sanitary con ditions might be improved upon. Bogota is situated in the midst of most dehghtful country, and has a chmate which permits the growth of European fruits. The town, moreover, is famous for its artistic atmosphere. It is indeed, noted as a hterary centre, and is provided with an admirable pubhc hbrary, and further, with an opera- house, which is freely patronised. Bogota, in its way, is as commendable as any other town in the continent. If Bogota is celebrated for its altitude, it cannot at ah compare in this respect with La Paz, the capital of Bohvia. La Paz is, in its way, the most extraordinarily situated city in the world. It lies in a great mountain hohow, but this hollow itself- is poised, as it were, nearly thirteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. This constitutes a record for a capital, indeed, it is somewhat curious to feel that one is hving an ordinary life at an altitude which closely approaches that of Mont Blanc. I have said " an ordinary hfe," since this of course is so in the majority of respects, but nevertheless, this great height occasionahy exercises its influence on the inhabitants of the town, more especially on visitors, who have been known to succumb for a short while to the effects of the PORTS 308 rarefied air. Indeed, a town such as La Paz is no place for a person in possession of a weak heart, although on the other hand, as a cure resort for consumption it has pro bably no rival in the world, and, were it in Europe, the lofty cup in the mountains, which holds the city, would doubtless be thronged with patients. It would seem the popular procedure for these inland capitals to make up for their want of coast-hne by the extent of their altitude above the ordinary earth levels, for Quito, the capital of Ecuador, is situated at an altitude of over ten thousand feet. Quito, hke La Paz, recalls associations of the old Inca history. It was, in fact, the second city of the Incas. At one time it is said to have contained practically half a milhon inhabitants, but now its population has become reduced to some ten thousand. Quito is distinguished for the number of its churches, all of which are very fine, that of the Jesuits being pecuharly notable. Quito is most pleasantly situated, its altitude providing it with a chmate infinitely fresher and more brac ing than might be expected from the latitude of the town. CHAPTER XVII RAILWAYS Ethics of Travel in South America — Its Influence on Politics — Result of Acceleration — Railways and River Steamers as Enemies of Unrest — British Influence in the Railway World of the Continent — An Incident at Home — The American Railway Engineers Compared with the British — The Attitude of a British Board and Its Consequences — Competition Between Great Britain and the United States — British Railways in South America — Their Extent and Ramifications — Some Engineering Feats Achieved — Steam Ferries and Notable Tunnels — South American Attitude Towards Railway Enterprise— 'The First Line in Argentina — Circumstances of the Venture — The Trial Trip — A Minor Catastrophe and Its Result — Growing Popularity of the New Species of Locomotion — Ramifications of the Lines — Their Influence Upon the Pastoral and Agricultural In dustries — Light Railways versus Campo Roads — The Oroya Railway — An Amazing Example of Human Ingenuity — The Transandine Railway — The Sao Paolo Line — The Aerial Line at Rio de Janeiro — Statistics of the Various Railways — Extent of the Lines in the Various Republics— The Railways of Argentina — Privately Owned and State Lines — Rami fications of the Various Systems — Freights Carried and Various Districts Served — The Brazilian Railway System — A Comparison in Inter-Com munications — Methods Employed in Railway Construction — British Enterprise in Brazil — State Railways — The Various Lines and the Dis tricts They Serve — Chilian Railways — The Longitudinal System — A Notable Enterprise — Extent of Its Completion Up to the Present — Various State Lines — Strategic and Commercial Significance of the Various Systems — The Railways of Uruguay — Companies Concerned — Totals of Their Exteht and Services — Peruvian Lines — Engineering Feats in that Country — Totals of the Various Systems — Venezuelan Lines — The Railways of Bolivia — An Industry in Its Infancy — Possibihties and Difficulties of Communication in Bolivia — Colombian Lines — The Railway of Ecuador — Paraguay — New Communications now Possessed by the Inland Republic IT is certain that no factor of civilization has played so great a part in the development of South America, and in the bringing of that Continent to its present industrial status as the acceleration of travel. The cause of the troubles, confusion, and unrest which splashed so 304 RAILWAYS 305 redly and tragicahy the early days of the Continent was after all, in the main, the mere remoteness of the various smah settlements, added to the meagre population of the colonial days, and of those periods which followed closely on the state of independence. When a Governor of a province the size of Great Britain had to deal with a certain number of communities amount ing to no more than a thousand or two of inhabitants all told, and these scattered at the widest intervals to the north, south, east, and west, it is evident that however good his intentions, and however able his administration, the control over the populace placed in his care, could not be effective. Minor revolts, outrages, and wrongs fre quently not only occurred without the faintest chance of their being avenged or rectified at the time, but moreover it happened often enough that such crimes of violence had actuahy been relegated to past history and had been fol lowed by a fresh set of lawless deeds before the news reached the central authorities. Pohtical unrest has had no greater enemies than the railways and the river steamers, and there seems httle doubt that when the entire Continent is adequately equipped with modern means of communication, the most backward of the minor republics will take its place in the forefront of civilization. The evolution of land travelhng has been fairly rapid in South America. On the advent of the Spanish conquistadores the Indians, and even the com paratively civilized Incas, knew no other method of pro pulsion save by that of their own feet. Thus the state progress of the emperors themselves was in htters borne by men. The llama served more or less efficiently as a beast of minor burden ; but there all enterprise of the kind ceased, and even the llama was restricted to the moun tainous districts of the central west. 306 THE SOUTH AMERICANS The introduction of the horse turned the aboriginals of the plains, uplands, and valleys, as well as the Spaniards, into equestrians, and at a later period the buhock-cart and the stage-coach came into existence to supply the needs of transport. With the advent of the quite modern era and the intro duction of railways comes a period on which the British have every reason to look with pride. Working hand in hand with the South Americans of the various repubhcs, they can claim to have nursed this great steam traffic from its very tender infancy to the monumental position it occupies to-day in the history of the world's industries. With regard to this point a recent event in the railway affairs of England calls for some notice : although it by no means went unremarked at the time. Some httle stir was caused at the beginning of last year by the appointment of an American Railway official as General Manager of an Enghsh Railway Company. The appointment, no doubt, in itself was admirable, and were a British Railway sufficiently narrow-minded to object to being managed by an American, the outlook for that particular railway would be very disastrous. The American Railway Engineer is acknowledged to be an expert in his profession ; and seeing that his methods have so much in common with our own, none could cavil at the decision. There is no doubt that the introduction of fresh blood is generally accompanied by good results. So much for the intrinsic situation as it stood at the beginning of the year. Had the matter ended there all would have been well. But when the occasion was taken 'advantage of to introduce comparisons between British and American methods and when, as was openly stated, with what foundation I know not, that the selection had been made because no suitable man could be found in RAILWAYS 307 Great Britain, those responsible for statements such as these could not for one moment have reflected on the ex treme gravity of their action. It is not my place to criticize the inner workings of any railway company. That matter is one for experts. But one thing is sufficiently clear to anyone who has been enabled to watch, even from a lay point of view, the progress of the Railway world both in Great Britain and in other countries where the systems are managed by Enghshmen, and that is that if a suitable British Railway Manager could not be found in Great Britain to manage a British Rail way the failure was emphaticahy the fault of the persons who were put in a position to choose this official, and of no one else. Of course the situation resolves itself into another variation of the old and very true dogma : " How httle knows he of England who only England knows " ! Had the responsible person in Great Britain had the opportunity of watching British enterprise in foreign countries, he would have reahzed what great injustice a statement of the kind was rendering to the average British Railway Official, and how grievously, though unwittingly, unpatriotic was a statement of the kind. I cannot imagine any action which could produce more mischievous effects on a Continent, for instance, such as South America, where at the present moment, the British and North Americans are competing for the control of the South American rail way systems and where millions of British capital are in vested in these very Railways. Of late there has been a tendency on the part of the North Americans to push strenuous attacks against the sohd British enterprises of the Continent. New Companies have been formed, and here is a point to be observed by those who cavil at the efficiency of the British Railway- men : these new Companies are largely controlled by 308 THE SOUTH AMERICANS American capital and occasionally worked under the Stars and Stripes, yet a number of their chief directors and officials are British ! Now is not this turning the tables with a vengeance ! Nevertheless it is easy to imagine the enormous advan tage that a statement of the kind referred to must neces sarily give to those who are at present, in however friendly and fair a spirit, working against British interests. What has >the American financier to say in order to cause the ears of his Latin American hsteners to prick up beyond the fact that in England the Railway Companies, unable to manage themselves, have appealed to America to manage them ! Imagine the result. Whether this propaganda is being used or not I do not know ; but if it is not, I have very much underrated the shrewdness of our American cousins, who, as business men, can hardly refuse to handle a com mercial sword so very obligingly tendered to them. Per haps this is laying too great a responsibihty upon a sentence or two ; yet I think not, and the rank injustice of the affair may yet find echoes in South America and elsewhere, very prejudicial to British interests. It must not be thought from this that I bear ill-will towards the North American enterprises. On the con trary, after those of the British surely these are those which should receive the most hearty sympathy of ah. In deed, one would naturally follow our cousins of North America with quite undivided enthusiasm ah the world over — did not the British exist ! As it is, most clearly I would put ourselves first, and so urge the rightful retention of our Railway supremacy. As a matter of fact, the British Railways in South America represent one of the chief monuments of British enterprise in the Continent. In almost every Repubhc RAILWAYS 309 the principal Railway concerns are British, and the manner in which these Railway Companies are worked evokes the admiration — occasionahy unwilling — of all nationalities in South America. The sole country where the Railway system is of any real importance which is not concerned with British management is Chile ; and this is merely for the reason that the Repubhc itself takes charge of its Railways. But even in Chile one of the most momentous railway achievements is in the hands of the British. This is the Transandine, which brings passengers across the Andes from Argentina into Chile, and which has thus broken through the lofty chain which for so long served as a barrier between the two Repubhcs. Argentina, of course, represents the greatest field for British railway enterprise, and after this come Brazil, Uruguay, and then Peru. It is to British effort, too, that the recent notable achievements have been brought to pass in the engineering world in South America. Thus it was purely due to British initiative that the great steam ferry was instituted which bore the train across the wind ing Parana river and into Entre Rios, and thus opened that province to Railway communication. It was owing to this same enterprise, moreover, that the further extension of the line was due and that, owing to one more ferry enterprise of similar kind, Paraguay became directly linked by rail with Argentina and the outer world. The same must be said of the Brazilian and Uruguayan Railways and of the very notable junction and extension of the hnes which now gives Railway communication with Brazil and Uruguay, and thus incidentally allows travehers to disembark at Rio de Janeiro and to travel by train the whole way to the Northern bank of the River Plate. The same may also be said for the great tunnel cut through the Andes, and for the dizzy lines soaring upwards 310 THE SOUTH AMERICANS in Peru to the topmost peaks of the Cordiheras : of trie astonishing Railway which chmbs from Santos to Sao Paolo in Brazil, and indeed of too many feats for one to enumerate here. Moreover, although the actual company owning the enterprise is of a cosmopohtan nature, the very remarkable Madeira-Mamore railway has been brought into being largely by British effort. This railway is certainly not notable on account of its length, since the total planned hne only just exceeded two hundred miles. The construction of this, however, has been remarkable not only in its plan which has the effect of indirectly overcoming the obstacles pro vided by the great fahs on the river Madeira, and thus, by means of this railway, linking one portion of the river system of the Amazon with another, but for the conditions under which it was carried out. It was only due to the excellent medical staff and to the elaborate hospital pre cautions that the enterprise was carried through, since it was conducted in one of the most fever-stricken districts in South America. We have, indeed, much to be proud of in the Railway achievements of South America. It is possible enough that we have not yet advertised them quite sufficiently in view of the great fanfare which has so frequently accompanied the opening of some moderately commonplace enterprises in other hands, and I should imagine that a rather more elaborate shop-window pohcy on the part of our South American enterprises, whose headquarters are in London, would do no harm. But, after ah, this is only regarding the matter from the lay — and the outside — point of view. Space will not allow many details concerning the first beginnings of the numerous Railway enterprises throughout the Continent. In nearly every instance the idea of the iron rails was warmly welcomed by the authorities of the RAILWAYS 311 various countries. A short explanation of the inception of steam traffic in the River Plate may not be without interest. In 1853 a group of enterprising Argentines decided that the level plains in the neighbourhood of Buenos Aires should no longer remain unharnessed by the iron road. So the Sefiores Mariano Haedo, Manuel Jose Guerrico, Bernardo Larrude, Norberto de la Riestra, Jaime Llavohol, Daniel Gowland, and Adolfo van Praet, applied to the Government for leave to construct a short line, less than twenty miles in length, which should sally out from the capital towards the West. The enterprise, it must be admitted, was launched under unfavourable auspices. The inhabitants of the more con servative order objected strongly to anything so unsetthng and unnerving as a steam engine with its trail of wagons behind. Nevertheless the Company was formed, and im mediately met with a financial set-back, since many who in an access of somewhat reckless enthusiasm had promised to take up shares found themselves in the end unable to supply money for this purpose. On this the Provincial Government came forward with a substantial proof of its enterprise. It guaranteed a sum of fifty-two thousand dohars ; so that the enterprise went more or less merrily for ward, and the rolling stock was purchased and brought out from Europe. This original equipment, it must be ad mitted, was of a somewhat miniature nature ; both the engine and the single wagon that was intended to fohow it being of a size which, compared with the present, was toy-like. After a considerable amount of labour and a larger amount of worry the first Argentine railway was ready, and the Directors prepared to embark on the initial journey. The httle train, pulled by its little engine, steamed busily 312 THE SOUTH AMERICANS outwards over the Campo, while the stray ostriches fled in sheer terror, and doubtless any chance Gaucho that this first train encountered would dearly have loved to have imi tated the birds had his dignity permitted any such course. Having arrived, justifiably exultant, at Railhead, it was now the turn of the engine to draw the enterprising party back to the capital. By this time the driver had gained a great confidence in the concern, an imphcit faith which he proceeded to put somewhat too deeply to the test. On the return journey in order to crown the triumph of the day, he spurred his machine on with such vigour that, attaining a speed of over twenty-five miles an hour, it leaped headlong from the rails and dragged its coach for some distance along the sleepers ere the " outfit " came to an abrupt and shaken halt. In one sense the passengers were sufficiently fortunate, and had had the proud experience not only of having en joyed the first ride in a train ever accomplished in Argen tina ; but had at the same time experienced the first rail way accident which the repubhc knew ! At the time their feehngs were probably mixed. The heads of the Sefiores van Praet and Gowland were brought together with sufficient shock to cover them with blood, while Senor Moreno, another director, was shot forward like an arrow, his head, according to the graphic account rendered at the time, completely depriving the body of Senor Llavohol of wind ; while perhaps the most acute sufferer of all was Senor Miro, who was smoking a cigarette, which in some inexphcable fashion lodged itself between his shirt and his neck, and caused him much acute discom fort before the matter was rectified — doubtless by his sympathetic co-directors. The course adopted by the gallant directors after the catastrophe was one which has never been easy to frail RAILWAYS 313 human nature, thus proving them men of a determined nature in ah respects. They kept their sufferings to them selves, since a proclamation of the disaster was considered hkely, and with reason, to influence in a mischievous direc tion fickle pubhc opinion. It must, in justice to this engine which caused ah this dismay, be said that the machine eventually retrieved its character completely, and toiled for many years up and down the hnes without, I think, ever leaving them again, until the day arrived for its final retirement from active business. It now rests in a museum, and on a certain anniversary was recently em bowered in flowers and flags — a proof that a wild first youth may frequently be fohowed by a useful maturity and by sedate, tranquil, and honoured old age. With the public opening of the line the benefits of this new species of locomotion rapidly became evident, and in 1859 the Government made themselves responsible for no less than ten milhon dohars in order to prolong the hne to Moron. In i860 it was prolonged to Moreno ; in 1864 to Lujan, and in 1865 to Mercedes. This railway was christened " The Western Railway of Buenos Aires." In 1862 a concession was obtained from the Governor for the estabhshment of the Southern Railway, and the remaining hnes rapidly fohowed until something resembhng the pre sent great network of the repubhc had been brought into being. The influence of these railways upon the pastoral and agricultural industries was almost immediate. From the earhest days the question of the Campo roads had always remained unsolved. Although in summer the passage of the stoneless rich ahuvial soil could be accomphshed at the cost of httle beyond amazingly dense dust-clouds, the transport in the midst of the winter's rains represented quite another matter, and the churning up of the deep 314 THE SOUTH AMERICANS mud-holes was attended not only by innumerable delays but by almost as many complete breakdowns ; thus para lysing the traffic between the interior and the port of Buenos Aires. In this way the introduction of the railways effected more than the mere increase of speed in the matter of travel and transport, it enabled for the first time regular communications to be maintained, and thus permitted the farmers to send in their produce and to receive their supplies from the townships with a regularity that in itself went far towards bringing about a condition of prosperity. Even now the problem of the Campo roads remains un solved, and it seems likely enough that the system of hght railways wih, in the end, increase to a degree known in few other countries, but to a degree, nevertheless, which the wealth of the Argentine soil justifies to the full. South America can now point to a good many engineer ing feats of no mean order in connection with its railways. The famous Oroya railway represents one of the most notable of these ; and indeed it has been claimed for this with reason that it is one of the most stupendous engineer ing feats in the world. This mountain-chmbing railway, starting from Callao on the sea-coast of the Pacific, takes Lima, the capital of Peru, on its way, and then begins to chmb up the vahey of the Rimac until it reaches the " Cumbre " of the Cordillera — the crest of the range, which in this region has attained a height of no less than four thousand seven hundred and seventy metres : the highest point in the world, I beheve, where the iron road runs. Some of the bridges on this extraordinary line, such as the Puente de Verrugas, are amazing examples of what can be done by human ingenuity, and as they hang poised, as it were, over the immense abysses, the traveller whose RAILWAYS 315 lot it is to cross them must possess a steady head and a good nerve to gaze downwards. Another achievement in this way is, of course, the Transandine Railway, aheady referred to, which connects Buenos Aires and Mendoza in Argentina with Santiago and Valparaiso in Chile; thus bringing the Atlantic Ocean in direct communication with the Pacific. The engineering feats which have been accomplished amid the heights and snows of the Andes in the shadow of Aconcagua are amazing, and at the Cumbre, here pierced by a very long tunnel, the height attained comes to within a very few thousand feet of that achieved by the Oroya Railway. Beyond these there is another enterprise very worthy of remark : that of the Sao Paolo Railway in Southern Brazil which connects the port of Santos, with its flourish ing town and district, with Sao Paolo, and is responsible for the carriage of nearly all the coffee which leaves Brazil for other parts of the world. The hne here which chmbs the mountain side with the assistance of steel cable power, is of magnificent construction. Enormous sums have been laid out on every conceivable improvement and it stands as one of the finest models of enterprise throughout the world. It is not merely a model enterprise however ; it is a profitable undertaking — a consideration which by no means always goes with the first. One of the most startling achievements in the entire Continent, however, from the engineering point of view, is one of which the actual industrial and commercial scope is far more limited. This is the new wire Railway at Rio de Janeiro, by which it is possible to reach the summit of the famous Sugar-loaf Mountain which guards the entrance to the Bay. Whether this has actually been completed in its entirety I do not know. But, as it was when I last 316 THE SOUTH AMERICANS saw it, the sight of this method of transit gave one pause ! Indeed to see the car saihng through mid-air, soaring higher and higher, something after the fashion of a box kite until it reached the summit of one of the intervening peaks was one not likely to be forgotten. There are doubtless many who wih throng this aerial car — in its way a true bird of passage ! From the point of view of panorama, the ex perience is, of course, almost unique. We may now take the various conditions of the railways in the respective states of South America. The rate of progress, rapid as it is, is necessarily elusive. Where the length of the hnes is continuahy being added to, it is some what risky to attempt to give definite figures. Such as are quoted here, therefore, must be considered as merely relative. In Argentina at the present moment the system is more developed than that of any other repubhc. Here, the length of the various lines amounts to over 33,000 kilo metres, while Brazil possesses some 10,000 kilometres less, and Chile, the third in importance, has not yet reached a total of 6,000 kilometres. Peru and Uruguay are, for the moment, each content with about 2,500 kilometres, and Venezuela with a thou sand. After these, httle of importance in the way of rail way development remains, since Bohvia at the present moment only appears to possess a httle more than 800 kilometres, as does Colombia, while Ecuador can total only 500, and Paraguay no more than 250 kilometres. The degree of general industrial progress achieved by the various nations are fairly accurately shown by these rela tive figures, although, of course, it is necessary to take the populations of the respective repubhcs into account when comparing the railway extent of one with another. Taking these states one by one, Argentina, of course, claims seniority, owing to her position of prime importance. RAILWAYS 317 The railways of Argentina are divided into three sections — those of the broad gauge, the medium gauge, and the narrow gauge. The broad gauge railways comprise eight lines: the Great Southern, the Central Argentine, the Buenos Aires Western, the Buenos Aires and Pacific, the Argentine Great Western, the Bahia Blanca section of the Pacific, and the Rosario to Puerto-Belgrano, and finally the Patagonian hne. The Great Southern is generally spoken of as the premier line. It possesses over 5,500 kilometres, and serves the very important pastoral, agricultural, and grain districts in the south of the province of Buenos Aires and in that of La Pampa. The Great Southern, moreover, possesses a most notable outlet in the flourishing port of Bahia Blanca, for the commercial side of which the railway has stood godmother. The Central Argentine runs from Buenos Aires (which, it wih be remarked, is the great terminus of all the chief railway systems) to the north-west of the repubhc by way of Rosario, serving the sugar-cane and tobacco-growing districts of Tucuman, Santiago del Estero, and the neigh bouring provinces. The Buenos Aires Western traverses the central agricul tural districts of the repubhc, starting out direct to the west from Buenos Aires. The Pacific serves the same agricultural and pastoral area, and its original main hne strikes out to the west across the state until it meets with its terminus at the town of Mendoza, whence, as a matter of fact, the route over the Andes to Chile is continued by the narrow gauge Transan- dine railway. The new and important section of the Buenos Aires and Pacific system is that which runs to the south, having for its terminus the port of Bahia Blanca, which this railway serves in common with the Great Southern. 318 THE SOUTH AMERICANS The Argentine Great Western is worked in conjunction with the Pacific, and deals with a portion of the same country as the latter railway so far as its western branches are concerned. Coming to the last two representatives of the broad gauge, the hne from Rosario to Puerto-Belgrano runs north ward from the former port, and is concerned principally with grain and agricultural produce, while the Patagonian railway is chiefly concerned with the produce of the dis tricts in the neighbourhood of the Rio Negro. The total length of the lines of these broad gauge rail ways is now considerably in excess of 20,000 kilometres. We now come to the four railways which comprise the medium gauge section of the Argentine system. These are the Entre Rios railway, the Argentine North Eastern, and two smaher hnes, the Central and the Eastern. The Entre Rios railway is connected with Buenos Aires by means of the Buenos Aires Central line which runs to Zarate, thence by means of a great steam ferry, which takes the train on its decks, and strikes the land again at Ibicuy in the province of Entre Rios. This company opens up the fertile province of Entre Rios, and in some respects serves as a link between the capital and the Argentine North Eastern railway. The two systems join ,at Con cordia. From this point the Argentine North Eastern gives access to Paraguay. This is achieved by means of another steam ferry at Posadas, which takes the train over to the Paraguayan shore, thence to Asuncion, the capital. The remaining two railways of medium gauge, the Central and the Eastern, are comparatively insignificant in length, the first comprising under 300 kilometres, and the second some 130 kilometres. The narrow gauge systems of Argentina comprise eleven lines. The most important of these, so fax as length is RAILWAYS 319 concerned, is the Central Northern, a state railway, which now counts considerably over 2,500 kilometres. This railway serves the west and north-west portions of the repubhc, and is concerned with grain, agricultural produce, and timber, while the Northern Argentine, another state hne, pushes boldly to the north-west, to the town of La Quiaca on the Bolivian frontiers, serving such districts as Salta, Tucuman, and Santiago delEstero on the way. The Northern Argentine hne, moreover, has thrown out branches into the forests of the Chaco territory. These state lines, as a matter of fact, were in the first instance constructed largely for political and strategical reasons. Their completion, however, has entirely justified the commercial aspects of their existence. Indeed, it has become an axiom, almost throughout South America, that trade wih spring up with the advent of a railway, sufficient to keep the concern busy, in almost every state and neigh bourhood. The Central Cordoba railway possesses three narrow gauge sections, the Northern, the Eastern, and the Buenos Aires extension. The Northern serves the town of Cordoba as weh as those northern provinces of Santiago del Estero, Tucuman, and the districts in the neighbourhood the produce of which is handled as well by the hnes previously mentioned. This is by far the most important section of the C6rdoba railway, and includes the province of Catamarca. Thus, in common with the other hnes, it obtains as freight cereals, tobacco, grain and fruit, wine and timber. The Eastern section of this railway is concerned with the important grain town of Rosario, and the Buenos Aires extension needs no explanation. The Buenos Aires provincial railway, a French enter prise, also runs to Rosario, and is concerned with the 320 THE SOUTH AMERICANS districts to the north of Buenos Aires and Santa Fe. It is now extending southwards, and proposes to found a terminus at Bahia Blanca. The C6rdoba and Rosario railway is a concern owning somewhere in the neighbourhood of 300 kilometres, dealing with the districts specified. One of the most important strategic railways in South America is, of course, the narrow gauge hne and extension of the Pacific system to Mendoza, which connects Mendoza in Argentina and Los Andes across the Cordillera in Chile. This Argentine Transandine railway comprises nearly 200 kilometres, and at the summit of the Andes, pierces the mountain range by means of a lengthy tunnel. This railway, as a matter of fact, by no means possesses an unique distinction in crossing the Andes, but it is so far unique in that it is the sole hne by which access is given from the Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. The sole remaining narrow gauge railways are those of the Central Chubut, a short hne of 86 kilometres which serves a smah portion of the rapidly progressing province referred to, while beyond this there remains the steam tram way of Rafaela, which possesses much the same length of line. The railway situation in Brazil differs considerably from that in Argentina. The vast extent of the repubhc has been instrumental in preventing, owing to the comparative shortage of hnes, anything hke the same degree of inter communication which prevails in Argentina. The nature of the country in Brazil, of course, renders the task of railway construction far more difficult than in Argentina. Whereas throughout ah the central districts of the latter country gradients are to all practical intents and purposes conspicuous by their absence, the mountainous country of Brazil demands some engineering feats of a very different Xo ¦x a o ¦j «: D o RAILWAYS 321 order. The advantage to the chief Brazilian hnes is that, once built, the nature of the soil renders them permanent, whereas the soft alluvial earth of Argentina is naturally always hable to " washouts." The enterprise of to-day, it is true, is tending rapidly to extend the various systems of Brazil. Thus, it is now possible to travel by rail from Rio de Janeiro to Montevideo in Uruguay : but a similar extension to the north of the capital is so far lacking. The plan fohowed in Brazil has been to throw hnes into the interior from the various important sea-ports, a method which, no doubt, is by far the most practical and best suited to the nature of the coast, for, compared with Argen tina, Brazil possesses some very notable assets in the number and situation of her natural harbours. From the financial point of view, moreover, the situa tion in Brazil differs somewhat from that of Argentina. In Argentina, the great railways are almost without exception capitahsed and managed by Enghshmen. This may stih be said to be largely the case in Brazil, so far as private companies are concerned. Nevertheless, the entry of the Brazihan Railway Company into the field has caused a certain revolution, or at ah events something in the nature of a new minghng of interests, since the Brazihan Railway Company was registered in the United States, and is said to be largely concerned with American, Canadian, Belgian, and French capital, as weh as British. Thus, the United States engineers and capitahsts have been responsible for making a bold bid for supremacy in Brazil and North-east Argentina, the final result of which stih remains to be proved. We may deal first, however, with the State railways of Brazil. The most important of these is the hne which runs from Rio de Janeiro southwards to Sao Paolo. This line, of course, serves one of the richest districts in the 31 322 THE SOUTH AMERICANS wealthy repubhc of Brazil, and carries agricultural produce in general, as well as such coffee as does not proceed from Sao Paolo to the port of Santos. Other sections of this line proceed to Pirapora and Juiz de Fora. Another state line of importance is the Western Minas railway which runs between Sitio and Parapabao, and handles notable quantities of minerals. There are, more over, other hnes, proceeding to Sao Pedro, and one or two quite minor enterprises of the kind between Lorene and Piquete, a baby concern of some 20 kilometres, of neghgible importance. Other hnes have been leased to the Government, such as that serving the goldfields of Tubarao, in the province of Santa Catarina. In the north, the more tropical districts are served by various hnes, such as the Central Pernambuco, the Sao Francisco, the Alagoas, and the Southern Pernam buco and others, while the port of Bahia is served by three concerns, the Bahia de Sao Francisco railway having a length of 205 kilometres, and the Sao Francisco railway with some 450, as well as the Central Bahia, which is said to own a length of 315 kilometres. The main products here are, of course, tropical, and consist largely of sugar, tobacco and other produce of the kind. The Southern Minas railway comprises the Minas to Rio section and the Muzambinho section, controlling 275 kilo metres, and thus almost double the length of the first men tioned, and finally, the Sapucahy section of stih greater length, counting just over 600 kilometres. The hne from Minas to Rio hauls coffee and tobacco for the most part, while in addition, that of Muzambinho deals with cereals and hve stock, as weh as timber, while Sapucahy is concerned with pastoral and mineral produce. The railway system of the south of Brazil is now of con- RAILWAYS 328 siderable importance, more especially those hnes which are controhed by the Brazil Railway Company, now in communication with Uruguay. One of the most important of these branches is that which proceeds from Barra o Quaraheim, a strategic point where the frontiers of Argen tina, Brazil and Uruguay meet, to Itaquy, with another branch to Sao Borga. The two great railway systems which serve the wealthy coffee and agricultural districts in the neighbourhood of Sao Paolo, are the Paohsta Company and the Mogyana, as weh as the famous Sao Paolo railway, which connects the port of Santos with the city of Sao Paolo. The Leopoldima railway controls not less than twenty- seven hnes, to say nothing of some very minor branches. The total length of the entire ramification is said to exceed 2,600 kilometres. The country served is chiefly in the neighbourhood of the capital and to the south of the pro vince, some hnes proceeding inland, and others to the port of Sao Francisco, while another runs from the port of Victoria to Baguary, in the state of Minas Geraes. Another section is being constructed to Diamantina ; the hne thus is much concerned with minerals as weh as with agricultural produce. The Sorocabana group comprises eight distinct sections, totalling nearly 1,400 kilometres, and is also concerned with the wealthy agricultural districts in the neighbour hood of Sao Paolo. An important Brazilian railway which has only recently been completed is the Madeira Mamote in the Amazon basin, the details of significance of which have already been referred to. In Chile the railway systems are, for the most part, con trolled by the Government. The important point in con nection with the general system of the Republic is the 324 THE SOUTH AMERICANS longitudinal railway, which is planned eventually to run the entire length from North to South of the country— the entire length, that is to say, so far as the configuration of the country will permit to the South, where the mainland eventually becomes broken up into involved series of islands, inlets, and rivers. Proceeding southward from Santiago, the capital, a section of 1,090 kilometres of this railway has been concluded as far as Puerto-Montt. This comprises the main line of the system and serves an agri cultural and timber country, as weh as the mineral districts of importance and gold-fields of the southern coast hne. In addition to this main line, there are nineteen branches, most of these ramifications making their way to the coast. To the north of Santiago, the sections of this longitudinal railway are by no means in so advanced a condition, various lengthy gaps intervening. A number of these sections are so far nothing much more than hnes branching inland from the coast in order to serve the respective districts. Nevertheless, since the Chihan has determined to possess this valuable system in its entirety, it may be taken for granted that the enterprise will be carried out in the near future. Proceeding first from Santiago, the state line runs to the junction of Llai Llai where communication is estabhshed with both Santiago and Los Andes, at which latter point the Chihan side of the Transandine railway begins. From Llai Llai the various sections run, more or less without a break, to Coquimbo, but after this the breaks become more con spicuous by their presence than by their absence. As has been said, however, much good work is being achieved and there is no doubt that in a reasonable time, the longitudinal railway, so far as Chile is concerned, wih be complete. A very important hne from the strategic, as well as from RAILWAYS 825 the commercial point of view, is the Arica and La Paz line in the north of the Repubhc. This hne runs from Chihan into Bolivian territory, and thus connects the inland Re pubhc of Bohvia with the sea. Another hne from Arica, that of the Arica and Tacna railway is hkewise important, in that it serves the very valuable nitrate district. The majority of the nitrate ports, it should be said, are pro vided with small narrow-gauge railways of their own. Uruguay, considering the comparatively small area of the repubhc, is well provided with railways, the three chief hnes being, the Uruguay Central, the Midland, and the North Western. The Uruguay Central, with its eastern and northerri extensions, serves the wealthy districts of the Rio Negro, Florida and Durazno. A branch of this hne runs to Rivera on the Brazihan frontier, at which point it obtains connec tion with the Brazihan line at the town of Santa Anna, this town being actually the northern half of the Uruguayan town of Rivera. It is at this poirit therefore, that the important hnk is brought into being between Rio de Janeiro and Monte Video. The Midland Uruguay is a very important hne which taps the rich agricultural districts bordering on the great river system, while the North Western serves the left bank of the Uruguay River, its principal districts being from Salto to Quaraheirri. Although the railways of Peru do not exceed in mileage those of Uruguay, they nevertheless claim a special in terest, owing to the circumstances of their construction. Peru, for instance, can boast of two lines which bear right across the Andes. One of these is known as the Southern Railway : this connects the port of Mollendo with Are- quipa and has its terminus at Puno on the shores of Lake Titicaca, the highest lake in the world. There is also 326 THE SOUTH AMERICANS another branch of this railway, which connects with the historical city of Cuzco. The difficulties which have been thrown in the way of the construction of this hne may be imagined, when it is explained that it attains an altitude in the Cordillera of 4,510 metres. The second mountain line comprises the famous Oroya railway, already described, which runs from the port of Cahao to Oroya, and proceeds onward to the extraordinarily wealthy country of Serra de Pasco, while another branch proceeds to Huancayo. As an engineering feat, this Oroya railway surpasses its twin Peruvian enterprise. The country it traverses is yet more broken, and the ravines, cliffs, and precipices to be dealt with are of a still more awe-inspiring nature. This Oroya railway, moreover, mounts upwards until it attains to the astonishing altitude of 4,770 metres before it begins its descent on the opposite side of the Cordillera. This hne is not only the most astonishing in the re pubhc, but it is the most important from the industrial and commercial point of view. As a matter of fact, these two concerns are by far the most important of all in Peru. Of the other hnes, not one, I think, exceeds 100 kilo metres in length, that between Piura and Paita, having an extent of 97 kilometres, being the longest. In the rice, sugar, and cotton country, there are a number of hnes such as that from Chiclayo to Chocoyape, 52 kilometresy Eteh to Ferrenafe, 43 kilometres, Pientel to Lambayeque 24 kilometres, and that from Eten to Cayalti, 37 kilometres. There is beyond this a railway system in the neighbour hood of the city of Trujillo, of which the most important is that from Salaverry to Trujiho, having a length of 76 kilometres. RAILWAYS 827 Peru, as a matter of fact, is rather notable for the num ber of quite short hnes, some of the extent of no more than 3 kilometres, which serve the numerous agricultural districts, and give connection with the numerous ports of secondary importance. The chief group of railways of Venezuela are those which give connection between its capital, Caracas, and the interior, although another important hne runs from the city of La Ceiba, on Lake Maracaibo to Mototan, and thus taps the important coffee and sugar cane districts of those neighbourhoods. Other hnes are those which lead from the town of Santa Barbara to that of El Vigia, and that from the town of Encontrados to La Uraca, this latter possessing an exten sion of nearly 120 kilometres. There is a further hne be tween Caracas and Valencia, which can boast of a rather more important length, its total distance being about 180 kilometres, while that between Caracas and Santa Teresa amounts to some 60 kilometres. The railways of Bohvia are, of course, in their quite earliest infancy. In this very mountainous repubhc, enormously rich in minerals as it is, probably a greater number of difficulties and natural obstacles he in the path of the pioneer railway engineer than in any other. At the present moment, the total length of the Bolivian rail way hnes does not amount to 1,000 kilometres, of course, an altogether insignificant length when compared with the enormous area of the state. There are four hnes which make up this total, all of which, as a matter Of fact, serve to give communication between Bohvia and the Pacific coast. Thus, the line from Oruro to La Paz is, of course, the continuation of the famous route beginning at the Peruvian port of Cahao, while that from La Paz to Charana is the one which con- 328 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tinues as far as Arica on the Chihan coast. The line from La Paz to Guaqui, in the same way, gives connection as far as Lake Titicaca, across whose lofty waters the journey is continued in steamers, the traveher being picked up again on the further side by the Southern Peruvian Rail way, which carries him down to the coast, while last of ah, the line from Oruro to Oyahua, considerably the most im portant in extent, being of no less than 450 kilometres, is a narrow gauge concern which is connected with the Anto fagasta railway. The chief Colombian railway is the hne which runs from the port of Santa Marta to the town of Fundacion, possessing a length of some 140 kilometres. This enter prise is much concerned with the increasing banana in- dnstry of the country. Other lines are those from the town of Cartagena to Calamar, and that from Honda to Beltran. An important line runs from Girardot to Facatativa while from here the La Sabana railway, a state hne, communicates with Bogota. Other railways are those which run between Bogota and Zipaquira, that between Medelhn and Puerto-Berrio, and that between the port of Bonaventura and Bogota. There are, beyond these, some smaller hnes in the neigh bourhood of Barranquiha, which, although of minor extent, are of no small commercial importance. The sole railway in Ecuador is represented by the hne which runs from Guayaquil, the chief port of the republic, to Quito, its capital. This enterprise serves, for the most part, a country productive of cacao, rice, and cereals in general. Like Ecuador, Paraguay is possessed of only one hne of railway. Nevertheless, the strategic importance of this cannot be overrated, since this line, running from the capital, Asuncion, to Viha-Encarnacion on the Argentine RAILWAYS 329 frontier, has the effect of linking up the inland state of Paraguay with the outer world for the first time by means of a railway. This achievement has only been definitely brought about within the last three years, and the results cannot fail to be of benefit to Paraguay. The total length of the hne is some 250 kilometres. CHAPTER XVIII GENERAL LOCOMOTION The Tramways of South America — Popularity of This Enterprise — Uses to Which the Tramway is Occasionally Put — An Example in Asuncion — General Appearance of the Tramways — An Exception to this Rule — An Incident in Mendoza — The Roads of the Continent — Difficulties Met With in the Tropics — A Too Exuberant Nature — Mountain Routes and Their Construction — The Roads of the Southern Plains — Propensities of the Soil — Chief Means of Travel and Transport — Saddle and Draft Animals —The Ox Cart— Links With Europe— Chilian Sledges— The Galera— The Extinct Hammock of Brazil — Methods of Crossing the Andes — The Indian as a Beast of Burden — Advent of the Motor Car — Its General Apprecia tion — The Automobile in Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay — Importations from Europe and North America — A Word of Warning — Aviation — Death of a Prominent Aviator — South America as a Tourist Field — Natural Beauty Spots — Hotel Enterprise — Intercommunication Between the Various Republics — The Exchange of Necessities — Argentina and Chile as Mutual Benefactors — Relations Between the Two Republics — Questions of Transport and of Markets THE Latin seems to take naturahy to tramways. Although many tramway enterprises in various parts of the world have been initiated and worked by British Companies, there is no doubt that these particular tramways have in the past, by a curious irony of circum stances, been far ahead of the tramways in England itself. For some reason or other — it may be that the sight of the tramways and of the lumbering cars offend his aesthetic sense — the average Englishman in his own country does not take kindly to tramways. In South America, on the other hand, tramways are no new thing, and, curiously enough, in a Continent where carriages and motor-cars and every private method of 33« GENERAL LOCOMOTION 831 conveyance are unusuahy costly in their upkeep, the rates of the tramway fares have been kept very low. There is scarcely a town of importance in all South America which does not possess its tramway system. In deed without this, the hfe of the average South American would undoubtedly be bereft of one of its greatest conveni ences, for the benefits of the tramway are keenly appreciated. Indeed, in some of the more remote centres the uses to which the tramway hnes are put appear strange enough to the foreigner. Thus in Asuncion, the capital of Para guay, and in two or three places beyond, there is a special tramway funeral-coach, which, an elaborate hearse in itself, runs on the tramway lines, and is propelled in exactly the same way as the ordinary tramcar. This, at ah events was the case until a year or so ago, when these cars were drawn in the old-fashioned way by a number of small horses. Now that the hne has been electrified whether the hearse proceeds in the newer and more rapid fashion upon the same hnes, I do not know. To a casual visitor in many of the Brazihan towns the existence of the tramway is a great boon, for he may in the course of a hurried visit, frequently jump into one of these convenient tramcars, and be whirled out along the country, right through trie tropical beauties of the bush, and thus obtain a ghmpse of the scenery beyond the town, which in no other circumstances would he have obtained. For ah that, the tramways have certainly not been con structed for the benefit of such casual visitors. If the convenience is so much appreciated and meets with so many comments on the part of casual foreign travellers, the benefit which it affords to the dwehers themselves in these various cities may be imagined. As it is, these tramway systems have entered very deeply into the hves of the South Americans. Like the telephone and similar appliances, 332 THE SOUTH AMERICANS they form part of the equipment of the new world, and are frequently to be met with in cities, the comparative remote ness and small size of which would in the ordinary way lead one to hope for nothing of the kind. Only on occasion, I think, has the inception of tramway enterprise met with a hostile reception. This circumstance happened to occur some ten years ago in the town of Mendoza, the most important city in the far west of Argen tina. Here the advent of the tramway was most acutely resented by the cabmen of the town. The numbers of these latter were considerable, and, instead of tamely yielding up the greater part of their profitable field to the new enterprise, they determined to enter upon a death struggle of competition. So the rates of the cab-fares immediately fell to correspond with those of the tramway, and the com fortable victorias sped ceaselessly to and fro with their complacent passengers — who were obtaining the use of a private hired vehicle at the cost of a public tramway car ride. Ah the time the tramways were plying to and fro in their desolate emptiness, and in the end were driven with ignominy from their hnes. The triumph of the cab was a remarkable one. But in the hght of quite modern events, the attempt could scarcely be repeated with success. The question of roads, in very many districts of the Continent, has proved a pecuharly difficult one. In many of the most important countries of South America the cutting of highways through the forest lands such as those of many parts of Brazil and the neighbouring repubhcs was in itself sufficiently strenuous. Moreover, where the tropical vegetation had to be dealt with, the mere initial cutting of the road represented nothing more than the first of innumerable and endless struggles. The rapidity of the growth of tropical vegetation can scarcely be beheved by those who have not seen its process — I say seen advisedly, GENERAL LOCOMOTION 838 because in many regions, if one cannot actually remark the sprouting in the course of a minute or two, it is easy to watch the astonishing development which takes place in the course of a few hours ! In these tropical regions a smah army of men must be continuahy at hand in order to thrust back time after time the attacks of the soft green waves which would smother up, if left to themselves, the thin bare streak of road. This, as has been said, is one of the chief difficulties experienced in road-making in Brazil and in the general run of tropical countries of South America. In such spots as these it is still man and his works who remain on sufferance hedged in on every side by the overwhelming vegetation. Moreover, some very extraordinary occurrences wih have to come about in the distant future before this situation is likely to be altered. Along the great Andes chain and in the mountainous countries such as that of Bohvia, the difficulties of road- making are, of course, too patent to need any explanation here. Even the boasted roads of the ancient Incas were httle beyond slender paths, which, as a matter of fact, were ah that were needed at a period when neither mules, horses, nor wheeled traffic, were known. Here and there, where the nature of the country permits it, more ambitious highways have been planned. But in the remoter districts such tracts as exist are usually of a precarious order, and cling giddily to the sides of the precipices which infest the regions. In the Southern plains of Argentina an entirely different set of difficulties in road-making arise. Here the chief obstacle in the way of perfect communications is the com plete want of stone, and when the rich alluvial soil is churned up into mud by a series of heavy rains the " going " here is probably among the heaviest of the entire world. 884 THE SOUTH AMERICANS A similar state of affairs prevails in some parts of Para guay, and Southern Brazil, where the rich red soil, which in outward appearance somewhat resembles that of Devon, possesses some quite unusual chnging propensities, which manifest themselves in an unmistakable and unpleasant fashion after a heavy fall of rain. The countries most suitable for roads are, of course, those fairly open territories, weh provided with rock and stone, such as prevail in parts of Uruguay, Chile, Peru, arid indeed, in certain regions in almost every repubhc in the Continent. Apart from the mechanical methods, already referred to, the chief means of travel and transport in South America are those of mules, horses, coaches, ox-carts, llamas, and sledges. As elsewhere, of course, the mule is, in general, the accepted beast of burden or of saddle for the moun tainous districts, the horse for the plains or rolling countries. The llama is the only South American aboriginal creature which has ever been found in the least adapted to trans port and even then the capacity of the animals is very hmited ; since it does not at all approach the ordinary load carried by the hghtest mule. Nevertheless the llama serves weh enough for the mountainous regions of Peru and Bohvia, and since the animal is completely domesticated, it is very popular with the Indians of these neighbourhoods. It is, of course, owing to the presence of the llama as well as the mule for transport in Peru and Bolivia that so many of the highways represent nothing beyond bridle tracks; Many of the districts, indeed, through which they have to pass would permit of nothing more elaborate. 1 The ox-cart is, on the whole, the most ubiquitous and general vehicle of transport throughout the Continent. These carts, naturally, differ widely in pattern, as do the oxen themselves for the matter of that, since to compare GENERAL LOCOMOTION 835 the scraggy and hardy warriors of the tropics with the sleek creatures of the uplands and of the south is to picture two quadrupeds which might be of different races. In Brazil many of the ox-carts are not unhke the original types in Portugal, from which they have been evolved, and in many districts here, a similar custom prevails, that of not greasing the axle. By this means every single ox cart in those districts where the habit prevails becomes a musical instrument, or, at ah events, a vehicle of most potent noise. A shrill chorus of most piercing sounds is continuahy produced from the thing when in motion which the drivers allege comforts the oxen, but which may be generally supposed to comfort the drivers still more ! These sounds, so reminiscent of Portugal and also of parts of Spain, are repeated here in Brazil, and other repubhcs of South America. Speaking of the Continent as a whole the ox-carts undergo a remarkable metamorphosis in the boggy and swampy neighbourhoods, where the great height of the wheels prevents the vehicles from becoming stuck. In such cases as these the circumference of the thing is wont to increase in proportion to the depths of the morasses. In certain parts of the Continent, such as the Southern districts of Chile, wheels are dispensed with altogether, and runners take their places. The vehicles in this case are smah ox-drawn sledges which shde their way along the hilly Southern forest thoroughfares, sometimes over tens of thousands of tree trunks laid side by side, in the strenuous endeavour to form a permanent and efficient highway. So far as rapid horse transit is concerned, this is effected in the Southern plains by means of the ordinary private coach, drawn by four to six horses, or by the pubhc Galera or omnibus which still serves the by-ways of the repubhcs. This Galera is as a rule a picturesque vehicle, resembhng 336 THE SOUTH AMERICANS somewhat the old French dihgence, piled with luggage on its roof and attended by an extraordinary number of assistant horses. These, when their services are required, are attached to the galera by ordinary hide ropes and re strained by nothing beyond these. Thus they are free to puh in great numbers, as is sometimes necessary in the course of the winters' rains and the consequent bad con dition of the highways. Some of the earlier methods of transport in South America have now completely died out. Thus in Brazil it was common for the wealthier classes to be carried in hammocks or in species of palanquins by slaves. Many of these were quite elaborate in their construction, and were hung with rich curtains, but with the abohtion of slavery this method of transport naturahy died out, as no freemen were found ready to undertake the strenuous method of conveyance involved. In crossing the Andes, moreover, in Peru a not uncommon method of travel was to sit on a chair firmly attached to the shoulders of an Indian. The wayfarer had his back to that of the Indian, and was seated at the level of the latter's shoulders. In this fashion many of the older travellers were carried across the steep ascents and descents of the Peruvian Andes, and although the process may have saved a certain amount of fatigue, for mental comfort and peace of mind one cannot help believing the older fashioned progress of " shank's mare " would have given better results. For to negotiate the sides of precipices seated on a chair on the back of an Indian must necessarily have afforded an experience not only inhumane, but exceedingly. trying to the nerves ! As for the Indians themselves, cer tainly none but the most muscular and agile can ever have embarked on so trying a profession as this. To turn from these older methods of transit to the GENERAL LOCOMOTION 387 newest, the motor-car has, of course, won its way ah over the Continent wherever roads permit. One of the most notable cities for magnificent motor-cars is Rio de Janeiro, whose streets abound in fine touring vehicles of very high horse-power, whose services may be hired by the hour. This, of course, is to say nothing of the exceptionally great numbers of very fine private cars which the city can boast. Many of the roads in the neighbourhood of this town are admirably laid- out, and very finely engineered, in view of the deep gradients along which they have to pass. The flat and broad sweep of the sea-side avenues such as that of Beira Mar of course afford a superb run for automobiles. These superb thoroughfares, as a matter of fact, are much appreciated and fully taken advantage of by the inhabi tants of the beautiful capital of Brazil. Argentina, from the nature of its soil, is far less weh adapted to the use of the automobile, notwithstanding the level nature of its central districts. Nevertheless in Buenos Aires itself there are, to say the least of it, as many cars as are to be met with in any other city of its size ah the world over. For the convenience of the many thousands of these vehicles two special motor-roads have been made. One leads to the favourite river resort of the Tigre, a score of so of miles distant ; the other to the provincial capital La Plata, about the same distance as the other from the Federal capital. Beyond these exceptions, no long motor routes are possible from the centre of Buenos Aires. In deed, the two already completed constitute a greater achievement than might be imagined by one not famihar with the soil. It has often been suggested that enormous use would be found for an automobile of the kind which would be enabled to make its way across the soft Campo of Argentina. That is to say, a car which not only would be able to con- 338 THE SOUTH AMERICANS tinue its progress across the alluvial soil in the summer dust, but also to plough through the winter's mud. Various attempts have been made to fulfil these require ments ; but so far, none would appear to have proved very successful. Were such an invention ever to come about the results both to the inventor and to the country would be phenomenal ! In Uruguay various metalled roads, very fine specimens of their kind, extend for some distance from Montevideo outwards, perhaps the best of which is to the inland town of Pando. On these the motor-cars are allowed full swing and their numbers are very rapidly increasing. With the increasing demand for automobiles in South America the importation of cars from Europe and North America has now attained to very large proportions, and the majority of the important manufacturers are now repre sented in the chief centres of the Southern Continent. A word of warning in this respect may not be out of place as regards the cars of those makers who possess no representative in South America. However admirable one of these machines may be in itself, it constitutes in a sense an extreme danger to its possessor. Should anything go wrong, the entire car becomes useless, since it is impos sible, of course, to replace the part injured, and thus it is necessary for the unfortunate owner to wait until the fresh spare parts have been shipped to South America from Europe. I lay stress on this point, since such happenings have on various occasions been brought to my notice. On more occasions than one the unsatisfactory result has been only too clear of the commercial endeavours of some enterpris ing but inexperienced person, who, travehing to South America, has brought with him a car by a maker who had no agent in the town in which he wished to sell it. The GENERAL LOCOMOTION 339 result, however magnificent the car, was evident in some thing of a slump in that particular make. Aviation, of course, received a great impetus from the Southern Continent, seeing that the famous Brazilian, Santos Dumont, was one of the chief pioneers of the giddy craft. Aviation is now carried on to a greater extent in Argentina than elsewhere, and there is a large mihtary aviation ground on the outskirts of Buenos Aires. Argentina has on various occasions broken records for flight, and last year one of the most daring ever attempted ended in disaster, when George Newbery was killed while practising as a prehminary to an attempt to fly over the Andes. As a tourist field the greatest efforts of South America are undoubtedly reserved for the future. It is true that a certain number of beauty spots and natural curiosities are already known to the average traveller and globe trotter. Thus it is no uncommon thing now for the tourist to take steamer to Buenos Aires, to hasten by train across the Cordillera, and to return to Europe via the Pacific, a procedure the popularity of which the opening of the Panama Canal cannot weh fail to enhance considerably. The harbour of Rio de Janeiro is now beginning to assert its claim to world-wide fame, and, I beheve, although I am not quite certain, that it is now possible to obtain a tourist ticket to the falls of Iguazu, those wonderful rapids which thunder on the frontier of Brazil and Argentina. From the harbour of Santos in Southern Brazil, which a score of years ago was cumbered with deserted yehow fever vessels, special trains now grind up those wonderful wooded slopes of the Brazihan mountains on their way to Sao Paolo. Pleasure trains, these, carrying hundreds of tourists who land from the mail boats for no other purpose than this, and who, having achieved this remarkable 340 THE SOUTH AMERICANS climb and descent, return to their vessel to be swept on wards again. Of course I do not mean to imply that all South America is a country as yet fitted for the ordinary excursionists. Yet some of its neighbourhoods have certainly advanced — some would say retrograded — to this very state. Men deeply interested in horseflesh are just beginning to con sider whether it is not worth their while to run out to Buenos Aires for the racing season there, just in the same way that the South American comes northwards to visit the corresponding European pleasure resorts. Indeed to what an extent certain parts of this greatest and newest Continent of all have been tamed may be gathered from the new Hotel at Guaruja, the Brazihan seaside resort in the neighbourhood of Santos, which a few years ago was nothing beyond a coastal strip of jungle, and a fringe of shining sand by the side of the deep blue ocean. Now, conjured up in no time from nowhere, there are gardens by the side of the sands, and a great hotel which has claimed the jungle which presses on to its build ings for its own purposes, and has cut pathways through that wonder of vegetation — paths that are smooth and rolled, and along which the visitor may saunter gazing about him in search of the creatures of the Brazihan jungle. It is somewhat of an unique experience. It is a httle difficult to realize whether one is in South America or in Kew Gardens, since to walk along a swept path in the genuine jungle is an amazing experience to one who is wont to hack his way through with a machete, his hmbs bruised and torn, and his sight obscured by the smother of the twigs and giant leaves. It is surely a sign of the times that this unique taming of the jungle should have been effected at the hands of a modern, and therefore, I suppose an utterly prosaic, hotel ! GENERAL LOCOMOTION 841 Having dealt with the various species of land travel, we arrive at a subject which is worthy of some remark : the intercourse of the one state with the other. Intercom munication between the various Repubhcs is in many in stances in a somewhat primitive state. Moreover owing to the geographical conditions, and in some cases the lack of internal thoroughfares, it will be some time before this state of things is altered. It is true that the temperate countries supply the tropical regions with meat, and that these latter reciprocate in the way of exotic fruits, while the forest lands have already begun to provide the open, treeless plains with the timber of which the latter stand so much in need. But so far ah these affairs are in their infancy, and on very few frontiers has an exhaustive dovetaihng process in the way of in dustrial interchange been effected. Perhaps one of the most notable progressions in this respect has been that between Argentina and Chile. In the old days Chile was the South American State the most remotely shut off of ah from the outer world. The barrier of the Andes made the passage of its Cordillera extremely difficult, and thus from its situation Chile stood out as the most distant country of all in South America so far as Europe was concerned. It is a curious fact that in general commodities and national wealth that which Chile lacks Argentina possesses, and vice versa. By this, of course I do not mean to imply that the two countries have not much in common. The fruits of Chile are already famous, and so are those of Mendoza and other districts of Argentina. Again, Chile possesses in her central and southern districts many lands which are eminently suited for the cultivation of grains. But as an agricultural country Chile can never attempt to compete with Argentina. Such stretches as are available 342 THE SOUTH AMERICANS for the purpose are confined to those delightful but small valleys of the centre and south, the area of which is neces sarily hmited when brought into comparison with the enormous sweep of Argentina's gigantic pastoral and agricultural fields. On the other hand, Chile can boast of a mineral wealth with which no portion of Argentina can for a moment attempt to compete ; notwithstanding the fact that the larger republic does possess- a certain number of mines of her own. Thus, looking towards the future it would cer tainly seem as though while Argentina will remain the greatest pastoral and agricultural republic of South America, Chile will take its place by her side as probably the most important manufacturing state of the Continent. Chile, in fact, possesses almost every requisite which a manufacturing nation can desire. Not only is the repubhc populated by enterprising people, but it holds the two great factors without which no industry of the kind can be carried on with any hope of success : coal and iron. Both these Chile possesses in abundance, and there is no doubt, I think, that her evolution will soon declare itself to be on the lines of an important development in manu factures. When this position of affairs has become clearer the relations between Argentina and Chile wih, of course, be come even closer than they are at present ; since the one will supply exactly what the other lacks. In order to hasten this period the cry is already for more railways; for iron lines which shall pierce the Andes, not at one point but at a dozen, and which, moreover, towards the South shall climb over the lower slopes with an ease such as the snowy peaks of the higher latitudes do not permit. In this respect there are some circumstances which cannot fail to affect Western Argentina. The fertile lands of these GENERAL LOCOMOTION 843 Western Provinces of the Repubhc are undoubtedly at the present time labouring under some disadvantage merely from the extraordinary length of transit which their pro ducts have to undergo before they reach the Atlantic. To the Chilean centres and coast-hne on the other hand the distances from these points just to the East of the Andes are, of course, not more than two, or at the most three, hundred miles. With increasing communication, therefore, and new railways between Argentina and Chile, the mutual benefits which must ensue are clearly enormous. That this wih be the pohcy of the future there can be no doubt. There are some who no doubt will wonder what effect the opening of the Panama Canal wih have on a predicted state of affairs such as this. The general opinion would appear to be that the effect of the Canal on Chile wih be gradual rather than instantaneous, and that there wih be no sudden and dramatic industrial flare up such as a few had anticipated ; although, of course, there is no doubt that the eventual influence of the Canal on Chile cannot fail to be of the best. But this is another question. In this chapter I am re ferring only to the inland communications between one State and another — a process which so far as Argentina and Chile are concerned must develop automatically and naturally, without the assistance of the Canal. CHAPTER XIX INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION Evolution of the River Traffic in South America — Aboriginal Craft — The Peruvian balsas — Quaint Vessels — Effect of the Introduction of Cattle on the Inland Navigation — Boats of Stiffened Hides — Types of River Sailing Vessels — The Navigation of the Great Rivers — Disad vantage of the Want of Steam — The Three Great River Systems of the Continent — The Amazon, the River Plate, and the Orinoco — Phenomenal Area of the Ramifications — The Territories served by the Amazon and the River Plate respectively — The Meeting of the Waters Only Prevented by a Few Miles — Effect of the Andes Ranges on the River Systems of the Continent — The Streams of the Atlantic Compared With those of the Pacific — The Navigation of the Amazon — Steamship Lines Involved — Types of Vessels employed for the Shallower Streams — Indian Watermen — The Rapids of the Amazon Tributaries — Method of Shooting the Falls — The Dangerous Method of Traffic — Comprehensiveness of the Smaller Streams — The Unexplored Districts — Characteristics of the Amazon Soil — The River Plate System — Points of Resemblance between it and that of the Amazon — Vessels Employed in the Navigation — The Limits of Ocean-going Steamers — The Local Services — Method of Cross ing the Smaller Streams — The Islands of the Parana — The Rio Negro — The Difference between this River and the River Plate — The Navigation of the Orinoco River — Shipping on the Magdalena — A Beautiful Stream — Typical Scenery on the Amazon — The Monotonous Wealth of Vegeta tion — Beauty of the Topmost Stratum of Leafage — Streams of the Guianas — River System of Southern Chile — Ocean Steamship Lines — The Royal Mail — The Pacific Steam Navigation Company — Lamport and Holt — Present Day Importance of the R.M.S.P. and its Allied Lines— The Growing Size of the Vessels — Ports of Call — Other Shipping Com panies, British and Foreign — South American Lines — Some Commercial Statistics THE evolution of the River traffic in South America has been at least as momentous as that of land travel. Before the advent of the conquistadores this species of travel in the majority of districts was as crude as ah else. In this pre-Spanish era canoes were to be met with to a considerable extent on the rivers in the 344 INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 345 tropical forest regions. These craft were, and in many dis tricts remain to this day, crude things — '* dug-outs " con trived from the large trees on the banks of the Rivers. In the South, where the great river systems water treeless plains, any craft, even of this rude species, were entirely unknown, and here the broad rivers in consequence formed a practically impassable barrier between the various tribes. Perhaps the sole specimens of vessels of an advanced type employed in South America in the days when the aboriginals stih held sway were the balsas of the Peruvians, used more especially on Lake Titicaca. These queer craft, constructed chiefly of straw and twigs, remain, of course, in use to this day. The sight of the first one that met the eyes of Pizarro and which to the amazement of the conquistadores was propehed by sails, caused no httle wonder in the stern breast of the conqueror of the Incas. Nothing so advanced in the way of navigation had been met with in the Continent until then, and these curious craft were subsequently found to be unique. The introduction of cattle by the Spaniards was re sponsible for a new type of river vessel, employed almost exclusively for the purpose of ferries. The edges of stiffened hides would be curled up and made thus to form a species of natural bulwark by which means a vessel of hide was obtained. But these queer conveyances are described on a later page, and therefore need no further comment here. The later trading vessels, such as survive to the present day, on the large river systems were of the topsail-schooner type, a type which continues more especiahy popular on the river systems of the Plate. On many of the Brazihan streams more cumbrous vessels are in vogue, broad-beamed craft over the stern of which is erected a roof, by which means a species of raised cabin is obtained. Perhaps nowhere was the introduction of steam more 346 THE SOUTH AMERICANS momentous than on the waters of these great river systems — far more so in any case than on any oceans in the world. The sea-board, or rather river-board of these vast networks of streams has in itself an area equal to the coast-lines of many a large country. Thus in the days of saihng the journeying up-stream from the mouth to a port far inland was frequently a matter not only of weeks but of months ! When contemplating a journey from Buenos Aires to Asuncion, the captains of the old-fashioned River Plate saihng vessels would seldom promise to arrive before four weeks or so, and this, of course, was without providing for the unforeseen delays which were wont to prove of so fre quent and annoying an occurrence. It naturally follows that here, as well as in the case of the even greater Amazon, the introduction of steam reduced the period of the inland up-stream journeyings from a certain number of weeks to a corresponding number of days. Speaking now of modern times it may be said that the inland navigation of South America is undoubtedly the most notable of that of any of the continents. This will be evident enough when the three great systems of the Amazon, the River Plate, and the Orinoco are taken into consideration. Speaking generally of any river, it is clear that the mere length of the stream does not consti tute its sole claim to importance. It is true that, so far as the Amazon is concerned, the total extent of water between the mouth and the town of Iquitos, the last port on the way upstream for ocean-going steamers, is no less than 3,220 kilometres, while that of the Paraguay at Asuncion is practically one thousand miles from the mouth of the River Plate. Such figures are eloquent enough, and mere length without breadth, so far as rivers are concerned, is not to be sneered at by any country desirous of water communication. But in the case of South America, this INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 347 phenomenal length of the rivers is accompanied by alto gether corresponding advantages in the way of breadth, and thus the area served by these great rivers is most unusuahy comprehensive. Perhaps one of the best proofs of this may be shown from a fact in connection with the systems of the Amazon and the River Plate, which is not quite so generahy known as it might be. These two great river systems are cer tainly never imagined by the popular mind as having the least connection with each other. Neither have they. But the two have escaped contact only by the narrowest margin. The mouth of the Amazon, it is obvious enough, is situated in the very heart of the tropics, and, indeed, is crossed by the Equator itself. The mouth of the River Plate, on the other hand, hes in the neighbourhood of 35" South, and the thousands of miles which intervene between the two estuaries cause any detailed explanation concerning the difference in chmate and general circumstances to be quite superfluous. It is weh enough known that the River Plate estuary is essentiahy of the temperate nature, so far as its chmate is concerned, and that it is one which in mid-winter suffers occasionally from touches of frost — but there is no need to become eloquent on points such as these ; a single glance at the map here will be worth more than half a dozen pages of explanation. The main stream of the Amazon of course flows due east, that of the River Plate due south. Nevertheless, so enormous and far-reach ing are the ramifications of these two giant systems, that it so happens that in the centre of the Continent there are neighbourhoods where the slender young tributaries of the northern river are separated from the first trickhngs of those of the River Plate by an expanse of only a few score miles. Could the interval be bridged, the result would be to cause the river navigation of South America to be even 348 THE SOUTH AMERICANS more remarkable than is at present the case. I would not say that it would be the most remarkable in the world, since that would be obvious, the present river system already claiming that status. The Andes range has, of course, exercised a curious but inevitable influence on the course of the great rivers of the Continent. It is owing to its presence that the entire length of the west coast of South America is devoid of any stream of first-class importance, every one of these latter having its mouth on the east coast. Referring to the river systems singly, we must of course start with that of the Amazon, the largest in the world. It has already been explained that ocean-going steamers proceed along this river up-stream as far as Iquitos, over 3,200 kilometres from the coast. The steamship lines which chiefly serve this main branch of the river are those of the Booth Line and the Amazon Steam Naviga tion Company, while beyond Iquitos, communication is continued by means of steam launches and large canoes. These minor means of communication, as a matter of fact, hold good throughout all the tributaries, commencing from the point where the waters become too shallow, first for the ocean-going steamers, and then for the regular river craft which ply to and fro. Here and there, more especi ally on those tributaries of the Amazon which lie to the south, are numerous rapids, which have to be shot in the native craft. As watermen, the Indians are pecuharly expert, and the somewhat cumbrous-looking craft are usually safely navigated through these boiling cauldrons of dark, rushing waters. At the same time, it must neces sarily happen that both hves and cargoes are lost from time to time on ventures such as these, and it is in order to obviate such risks that the Madeira-Mamore railway has been constructed, this tropical railway connecting one INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 849 point of the great Amazon system with another, and thus obviating the necessity of negotiating the more formidable series of falls. As a matter of fact, the ramifications of the broad Amazon streams is so enormous and comprehensive, that no one who has not travelled over the outlying portions of its dis tricts can ever obtain any idea of its true extent. Any attempt at a conscientious exploration of the main hnes, as it were, of the system, would mean an undertaking of years, even if conducted in a rapid steam launch, and this, of course, is to say nothing of those minor lanes and by-paths of water — of the insignificance, say, of our own river Thames !— which ghde along in so comphcated and tre mendous a network as to cause considerable confusion in the mind of a pioneer. There are, of course, many thousands of miles of these waters which have never yet been explored, and which are stih left to the native Indian, armed with his blowpipe or bow and arrow, who paddles his way to and fro at will in his dug-out canoe on greater or lesser currents, as the case may be. As it is, the pilots even of the better-known waterways possess no sinecure in their situations. The Amazon, running its great bulk through the rich ahuvial soil, has matters very much its own way. It is true that the fah of the territory over which it runs is shght, and therefore that its current lacks in rapidity. Indeed, hke all giants, the Amazon tends, if anything, towards sluggish ness. Nevertheless, so soft and phable is the soil with which it has to deal, that at the first hint of a rising on the part of the waters, the Amazon earth gives way at once, caves in, and permits the stream to wander more or less where it will. It is owing to this that the course and channels of the river vary so considerably — not, of course, so far as the great main streams are concerned, for these 350 THE SOUTH AMERICANS are, in a way, seas in themselves, but in the case of the minor tributaries where eddies begin to have their effect, and sandbanks begin to bear a real importance. The River Plate system is navigated in much the same fashion as the Amazon. Ocean-going steamers of a moderate size can penetrate along the Uruguay river as far as Fray Bentos, while on the more important Parana, they can proceed as far as Santa Fe. After this, in both instances, the river communications are taken up by shallow draft steamers, very handsome craft for the most part, con structed on the American principle and owning several decks. The most important river steamers are capable of carrying hundreds of passengers. In those places where the waters become too shallow for the ordinary screw and paddle boats, the traffic is taken up by quite small vessels, fitted with a stern-wheel. These are of exception ally light draft, and can therefore penetrate into every corner of the river system. Beyond this, here too, as in the Amazon, are the dug-out canoes of the Indains, but these, instead of abounding throughout the whole length of the system, as is the case with the Amazon, are confined to the upper reaches of the River Plate system, since on the banks of the lower stretches no Indians exist. The method of negotiating the smaller streams in the upper regions of the River Plate area was, in the past, somewhat ingenious. I have already briefly referred to this, and will now enter into the details. Thus it would frequently occur that a traveller, on his way through cer tain districts, would have to negotiate the crossing of half a dozen or a dozen streams which might be of any width from ten to some hundred yards. Seeing that in the comparatively unpopulated districts the want of accommo dation made it necessary for a traveller to carry many impedimenta with him, the crossing of these streams did INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 851 not alone involve the comparatively simple matter of swimming one's horse through the water. The luggage had to be considered. The method which was put into use to deal with this was not a httle ingenious. In a country overflowing with cattle, the uses to which hides were put seem to have been almost unending. In this case, the traveller would carry on one of his horses a species of hide raft ; that is to say, this was an ordinary bullock-skin, weh stiffened with hide ropes which, when let through the edges and pulled towards the centre, gave the effect of miniature bulwarks to the quaint structure. On one or more of these, the luggage was wont to be put, and by these means it was usually floated across, not that accidents were unknown, as may be imagined. I have referred to this ingenious custom as though it were altogether of the past. This is so, without doubt, in the great majority of districts. There remain, however, plenty of remote territories where these hide boats still obtain, and where their employment is very much appre ciated. In one or two spots, indeed, there are people who act as ferry agents, and supply these curious craft ; but, as may be imagined, such places as these are altogether what the Americans would term " way back." The same difficulties concerning navigation which exist on the Amazon apply also to the Parana. Islands grow more or less at their own sweet will, while others are drowned and die away, ah according to the sweep of the tide, or perhaps the stranding of some chance drift-wood or water hyacinth plant, which in the course of time collects about it other vegetation and soil, and thus forms the first beginnings of an island, which in some years may attain an area of dozens of acres. But in the same way, as is the case with the majority of the stretches of the Amazon, an occasional bumping on the mud is of very httle account 352 THE SOUTH AMERICANS to the river steamers ; for so soft is the bottom of the river that these craft may charge obstacles over and over again, until by sheer force of propelling power they win their way across. Argentina can boast one other navigable river system besides that of the River Plate, for the Rio Negro in the south waters a very considerable extent of territory. The nature of the soil through which this stream runs is, as a matter pf fact, very different to that of the great river systems. It passes through a country which is largely mountainous, and the stream is therefore far more rapid, and, in some places, broken. Owing to this reason, the Rio Negro is only navigable by steamers of any size for a comparatively short length. After this it may be traversed by craft draw ing no more than three feet. The navigation of the Orinoco river is, for the most part, carried on by fleets of river steamers. The upper reaches of this river system are, as is natural in view of the lesser extent, somewhat more fickle than those of the Amazon and the River Plate system, for here in the Orinoco, the dry season is wont to leave many parts of the stream almost denuded of water, and in any case, in a condition quite impossible to be navigated. Another river of great importance as regards internal navigation is the Magdalena, which gives so easy an access from the coast to the interior of the Repubhc of Colombia. The main centre of the river shipping here is at Barran quilla, and the river steamers proceed up-stream from this point, the majority of these drawing rather less than five feet of water. Parts of this Magdalena river, it may be said, are very beautiful, and are of course more easily appreciated than those vast stretches of the Amazon, where the stream is altogether too broad for the beauty of the banks to be URUGUAYAN WATERS, NEAR MERCEDES INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 358 appreciated. Indeed, so far as the Amazon is concerned, there is no doubt that even the magnificent tropical wealth of the vegetation tends to become monotonous to the eye when for hour after hour and day after day the steamer or canoe has ghded past those densely set and impenetrable green walls. Here and there, of course, where the glades are open, the scene is one of entrancing beauty, but so far as the Amazon forests in general are concerned, the real splendour and gorgeousness of colour is confined to the topmost stratum of vegetation, where these blossoms of breathless beauty and incredible size display them selves, basking in the blinding sunhght. There is no doubt that in order to obtain a really true idea of the beauties of these Brazihan forests, one should take a hint from Peter Pan's most notable action in that last scene of his, and hve in a house on the topmost branches. Having concluded with the Magdalena river, we have finished with the great systems of the Continent. It is true that there are many remaining which would be suffi ciently important in lands less generously served by water ways. The streams of the Guianas, for instance, are by no means to be sneezed at, and even the Pacific coast, served for the most part only by insignificant streams as it is, can produce one or two rivers in the far south, some of which are already important, and many others which wih un doubtedly one day bear a very considerable proportion of the commerce of the South on their waters. Indeed, the southernmost districts of Chile resemble in many respects the Norwegian coast, or perhaps it would be more accurate to say the Finland coast, since this entire territory is one mass of islands and water-ways, as has already been remarked. At the present time, nearly all these islands are densely wooded, and since the demand for timber is very great in S3 354 THE SOUTH AMERICANS the southern centres of the Continent, it is clear that a great deal of navigation will eventually be called into being to transport this into the Argentine and Chilean dis tricts before this timber district is cleared, and the ground is devoted to pasture and agriculture, as must one day occur. We now arrive at the larger field of general shipping. The important hnes which are concerned with the ocean and river traffic of South America now exceed seventy in number, a somewhat formidable total. Every nation inter ested in transport is represented in this traffic. It must be explained, however, that of this great number of com panies there are a certain proportion which, although running under their own flags, are now the property of a single enterprise. Of this perhaps the most noteworthy example is that of the Royal Mail. The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company may be said from its inception to have been the premier steamship Company connected with the Southern Con tinent. It has almost from its first days had as its chief rival the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, which not only serves the East coast of South America but proceed ing to the South steams Northward again to represent in itself the premier Company of the Pacific. By an arrangement which was undoubtedly favourable to all concerned, the Royal Mail now controls not only the Pacific line of traditional fame, but also the Nelson, and Lamport and Holt hnes. So far as the Royal Mail itself is concerned this by no means concludes its ramifications, since the Shire hne to the East, and numerous amicable and important arrange ments such as that entered into with the African lines have also to be taken into consideration. Thus the enterprise is now the largest which the shipping INLAND AND OCEAN NAVIGATION 355 world has ever known, which is quite a pleasant thing to consider, since records of this kind appear to be at pre sent just a httle out of fashion in Great Britain. The size of these vessels bound for South America has steadily increased, and so far as the East coast is concerned the increase would have been undoubtedly more rapid than has actually been the case, were it not for the fact that the port of Buenos Aires which represents in so many cases the terminus of the hnes has to be approached by way of the River Plate, the waters of which, as is well known, are too shallow to admit of vessels of any great draft. Thus although in some cases the Royal Mail vessels now approach sixteen thousand tons, there does not seem much immediate prospect of augmenting this tonnage to any important extent in the near future. What may happen in the more distant times to come when yet further transformations have been effected in the main South American ports it would, of course, be very rash to at tempt to foreteh. Some lines now maintain direct services between Rio de Janeiro and Europe and others between Buenos Aires and Europe. On the whole, however, the more popular route is for the Mail vessels to call first of all at Pernambuco and subsequently at the more important ports of the Atlantic which comprise Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo, and Buenos Aires. The remaining British Steamship Companies which serve the various South American ports are the Houlder Line, the Allan, Houston, Maciver, Prince, Norton, Harrison, and Merchant lines; the London and Northern Steamship Company; the British and Argentine Steam Navigation Company ; the Nantilus Steam Shipping Company ; while the steamers of New Zealand Shipping Company and the Shaw, Savill Line call at Montevideo on their way home from 356 THE SOUTH AMERICANS New Zealand. The Booth hne is largely concerned with the trade between Europe and the Amazon Ports. Germany is represented by the Hamburg Amerika, the Hamburg Sud Amerika, the Hansa, the Norddeutscher Lloyd, and the Kosmos hnes. The French Companies are the Compagnie de Navigation Sud Atlantique ; the Messageries Maritimes ; the Com pagnie des Chargeurs Reunis ; and the Societe Generate de Transports Maritimes a Vapeur. Italy is very generously served by the Navigazione Generale Italiana ; La Veloce, Lloyd Italiano, Lloyd del Pacifico, Ligure Braziliana, Sicula Americana, Societa di Navigazione a Vapore, and the Italia lines. The Spanish hners concerned in this traffic are the Com- pania Transatlantica de Vapores Espanoles, the Sociedad Anonima de Navegacion Transatlantica, and the Compaiiia Transatlantica de Barcelona. These countries are perhaps the most important of ah represented in the shipping world. There are however various other notable enterprises such as that of the Royal Holland Lloyd, the Austrian Lloyd, and the Belgian- Argentine Line. All this does not, of course, represent the total scope of marine enterprise, as, as has already been remarked, every country in the world owning an inter national shipping interest is concerned with South America. The principal local lines serving the coast of South America are the Chilean Compaiiia Sud Americana de Vapores ; the Compafiia Peruana de Vapores ; the Lloyd Brasileiro ; the Argentine Navigation Company ; the Brazilian Empresa de Navegacao ; Lage Irmaos, another Brazilian firm, and various lesser enterprises. TRADE AND POPULATION The Following Table will be of Interest, showing the Trade or the Various American Countries. The Imports and Exports being lumped together in each case, so as to make a Grand Total ; the Amounts being in Gold Dollars, equivalent more or less to 4s. 2d. The United States of America The Argentine Repubhc Canada BrazilChile . Cuba . MexicoUruguay-British West Indies Puerto Rico Peru . Bohvia VenezuelaColombia Newfoundland EcuadorBritish Guiana Santo Domingo Costa Rica . Guatemala . French West Indies Haiti . Panama Salvador Paraguay Nicaragua Dutch Guiana HondurasFrench Guiana British Honduras Miquelon, San Pedro 1911-12 3,996,460,487 IQI2 865,244,725 I9II-I2 841,002,814 1912 695,630,053 1912 271,284,071 I9II 244,913,897 1912 214,382,364 1912 108,129,445 I9II-I2 106,658,238 1912 95,966,633 I9II 69,518,811 I9II 56,852,233 191 1 42,485,491 I9II 41,942,213 I9II-I2 26,272,602 19IO 25.576,790 I9II-I2 19,055,337 1911 18,812,975 I9II 18,458,370 I9II 18,126,406 I9IO 17,600,400 1911 16,192,801 19H 12,253,802 191 1 9,898,765 1912 9,586,333 I9II 7,667,830 I9IO 6,576,150 I9II-I2 6,466,839 I9IO 5,794,070 I9II-I2 5.773.133 I9IO 2,901,200 357 The Following Table, compiled by the Argentine Government, will give a good idea of the commerce of argentina, brazil, Chile, and Uruguay, compared with the respective Populations of each of these Republics. The Figures include the Imports and Exports and are worked out in Gold Dollars, equivalent to 4s. 2d. Year. Argentina. Brazil. Chile. Uruguay. 1894 194,476,611 217,846,908 118,282,384 61,404,032 1895 215,164,228 224,066,908 127,760,781 62,100,692 1896 229,045,607 217,079,306 117,164,936 59,960,464 1897 199.458.247 243.649,515 103,045,036 52,347,677 ' 1898 241,258,247 261,843,618 102,185,302 59,025,688 1899 301,768,202 101,820,533 66,707,292 1900 268,085,481 272,296,150 111,968,429 57,233,080 1901 281,675,851 321,521,812 117,613,090 55-159,353 1902 282,525,983 304,177,669 120,320,487 61,294,437 1903 352,191,124 309,738,547 127,291,591 66,971,450 1904 451.463,494 329,741,617 141,050,648 62,692,000 1905 527,998,261 375,290,099 171,538,520 66,016,615 1906 562,224,350 434,768,245 197,127,117 72,781,084 1907 582,065,052 477,310,685 214,755,815 74,329,635 1908 638,978,077 401,115,466 221,664,205 77.134.957 1909 700,106,623 508,214,387 214,897,790 86,448,050 1910 724,396,711 520,763,242 236,746,276 86,857,148 1911 691,508,224 622,438,717 260,215,093 90,389,569 1912 865,244,725 695,630,053 271,284,071 108,129,445 Pop. 7,467,878 Pop. 23,070,969 Pop. 4,000,000 Pop. 1,112,000 358 INDEX A.B.C. Alliance, 48 Aboriginal writing, lack of, 1 10 Aboriginals, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71. 72, 73. 92, 93. Jo6 Acosta, Cecilio, 119 Advertisement rates, 121 Afforestation, 190-192 African, the, 16, 66, 104, 105, 108, 146, 162 Agassiz, 157 Agouti, 248 Aguardiente, 26 Alameda, Santiago, 301 Alfalfa, 220, 221 Algarrobo, 60, 61, 187, 188 Allan Line, 355 Alligator, 234, 248 Alpaca, 245 Amazon River, 260, 261 Ambassador, United States, 49 Amethysts, 201 Andes, 333 Anglo-Saxon workman, the, 36, 37 Antofagasta, 297 Ant-eater, 247, 251 Ants, 250, 251 Arana, Barros, 119 Araucania, 71 Area of minerals, 194, 195 " Argentina, La," 122 Argentine Great Western Railway, 3i7 Argentine North Eastern Railway, 317 Argentine postal statistics, 182 " Argentinische Tagblatt," 125 Arica, 298 Arica and La Paz Railway, 325 Arica and Tacna Railway, 325 Aristocracy, white, 13 Armadillo, 248 Armies : Argentina, 171, 172 Bolivia, 174 Brazil, 173, 174 Chile, 172 Armies {continued) : Paraguay, 171 Peru, 174 Uruguay, 172, 173 Asado, 24 Asuncion, 292, 293 Atacama desert, 204 Atahualpa, 59 Austrian Colony, 10 1 Austrian Lloyd, 356 Auchmuty, General, 154 Avenidas, Rio, 54, 272 Aztecs, 2 B Bahia, 68, 105, 266, 267 Bahia Blanca, 56, 67, 293, 294 Balmaceda, President, 11 Balsas, 151, 345 Bananas, 4, 206, 226 Barranquilla, 256 Beans, 228 Beasts of burden, 334 Bee farming, 245, 246 Beef industry, 137 Beira Mar, 272, 273. Belgian Argentine Lloyd, 356 Belgian interests, 159 Bella Vista, 292 . Bello, Andres, 119 "Bife," 23 Bismuth, 195 Bitterns, 249 Black beans, Brazilian, 24 Blancos, 85, 86 Blowpipes, 349 Boa constrictor, 249 Boer Colony, 10 1 Bogota, 44, 45, 69, 302 Bolas, 73 Botnba, 59 Bombachos, 25 Bombilla, 213 Bonpland, 157 Booth Steamship Line, 356 Borax, 195 Bougainville, de, 157 359 360 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Brazil : Abilities, 168, 169 Customs, 162 Government, 8, 9 Pohtics, 167, 168 Temperament, 162, 163 Brazil nuts, 262 Brazihan Railway Co., 321 " Brazilian Review," 125 Brazilian timber, 186-189 Breweries, 61, 62 Bridles, 25 British and Argentine Steam Navi gation Co., 355 British commercial errors, 140, 141 — emigration, 133, 134 Buenaventura, 301 Buenos Aires, 22, 254, 282-291 — (Province), 217 Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway, 294 Buenos Aires Western Railway, 317 Bullock carts, 306 Bush rats, 248 Bustards, 250 Cabinet woods, 187 Cacao, 122, 263 Calderon, F. Garcia, 118 Caliche, 204 Callao, 298, 299 Cafia, 60 Canelones, 82, 217 Caoutchouc, 212 Caracas, 69, 302 Carancho, 250 Caras y Caretas, 122 Carassow, 249 Card-playing, 39 Carnivals, 57, 58, 59, 89, 90 Caro, Miguel Antonio, 119 Carpincho, 248 Cartagena, 256 Casuela, 24 Cattle, 4, 5, 236-243 Central Argentine Railway, 317 Central Cordoba Railway, 319 Central Northern Railway, 319 Cerro Fort, Montevideo, 89 Chaco Indians, 99, 104 Charrua Indians, 79 Cheese making, 241, 242 Chicha, 26, 59, 60 Children, 37, 38 Chile, 37 Chilean labour, 103, 107 — postal statistics, 182 Chilean timber, 187 Chilling industry, 239, 240 Chimangu, 250 Chincha Islands, 298 Chinchilla, 245 Chinese labour, 94, 108 Chipchas, no Cholo, 107 Chubut, Central Railway, 320 Chuquisaca, 198 Churches in Brazil, 43 Churrinche, 240 Cigarette trusts, 137, 138 Climate, Chile, 37 Clydesdales, 244 Coal, 195, 200, 201; 202 Coast line, 255 Cochabamba, 198 Cocktails, 28 Coconut palm, 189 Coffee, 5, 146, 206, 207, 208, 209 — crisis, 5 1 Colastine, 292 Colombia, 108 Colon, 291 Colonia, 82, 217 Colonial literature, in Colonies, 101, 102, 113, 114 Colorados, 85, 86 " Commercio," 124 Compagnie de Navigation Sud Atlantique, 356 Compagnie des Chargeurs Reunies, 356 Concepcion, 103, 291 — (Chile),. 296 Concordia, 291 Condor, 249 Conquistador es, in Constitutions, 17 Cookery, 22, 23 Coot, 249 Copper, 195, 200, 202 Coral Reef, Pernambuco, 267 Corcovada Mountain, 269 C6rdoba, 217 C6rdoba and Rosario Railway, 320 Coronel, 203 Corral, 294 ' ' Correspondencia, " 128 Cosmopolitan press, 125, 126 Costra, 204 Costume, 25 Cotton, 146, 263 " Courier de la Plata," 125 Criollo cattle, 23.8, 240, 243 Crude fermentation, 61 Cuerbo, 250 Cuzco, 124 INDEX 361 D Dairy farming, 241, 242 Darwin, 157 Deei, 247 Dentistry, 159, 160 " Deutscher La Plata Zeitung," 125 Devon cattle, 240, 242 "Dia," 123 " Dia," La Paz, 124 Diamonds, 195, 200, 201 " Diario de la Plata," 123 " Diario de Pernambuco," 123 " Diario," el, 122 " Diario," Lima, 124 " Diario," Santiago, 123 Dice, 28 Diplomacy, 49, 50 " Dips," cattle, 240 Dishes, Brazilian, 24 Distinction between states, 14-16 Dobrizhoffer, Padre, 213 Dominguez, 120 Dorado, the, 234 Doves, 250 Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, 1 14 Draught horses, 244 Drought, 52 Duck, 249, 250 Dug-out canoes, 350 Durham cattle, 240-242 Dutch cattle, 240 — occupation, 153, 154 Eagle, 250 Early intercourse with foreigners, 152-156 Earthquakes, 52 Ecuador, 108 Education, 44-46 Elections, Argentina, 11, 34 Electric eels, 234 Embrace, methods of, 39 Emeralds, 199 Emigrants, 17 English workman, the, 103 Entre Rios, 217 Entre Rios Railway, 318 Ercilla, Alonso de, 1 1 1 Espiritu Santo, 207 " Estado de Sao Paolo," 123 Estancias, 241 Estanciero, Uruguay, 85, 86 Eucalyptus, 4 European vegetables, 228, 229 Excursionists, 339, 340 Exploration, 144, 145, 149, 150 Falkland Islands, 245 Fazendas, 146, 147 Feather work, 71 Female suffrage, 33 Fiambre, 23 Fireflies, 251 First Argentine railroad, 311, 312, 313 Fish, 227, 231, 232, 233, 234 Flamingo, 249 Floating docks, Valparaiso, 297 Food, 20, 22, 23 Football, 160, 161 Foreign girls, 34-36 Forests, 184-192 — tropical, 353 Fortune, computation of, 30 Fossil remains, 157, 198 Fox, Magellan, 247 Fray Bentos, 291 " Fray Mocho," 122 Freezing industry, 239 French expedition to Brazil, 154 — influence, 160 — military instruction, 174 Frontier dehmitation, 47 Fruit (Chile), 227 " Gaceta de Noticias," 123 Galera, 335, 336 Gallinunes, 249 Gaucho, 99, 100, 10 1, 102 Georgetown, 258, 259 Germans in Brazil, 105, 106 — in Chile, 103 — military instruction, 170-173 Gold, 195, 198, 199, 200 Gowland, Senor Daniel, 311 Graham, R. B. Cunninghame, 119 " Grande " lottery, 38 Grapes, 62 Great Southern Railway, 294, 317 Guaruja, 56, 340 Guatavita, Lake, 150 Guava, 228 Guayaquil, 300 Guerra del Pacifico, 297 Guerrico, Senor Manuel Jose, 311 Guianas, 108, 154 Gypsum, 202 H Haciendas, 241 Hackneys, 244 362 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Haedo, Senor Mariano, 3 1 1 Hamburg American Line, 3 56 Hamstringing cattle, 239 Harrison- Line, 355 " Herald," Buenos Aires, 125 Hereford cattle, 240-242 Herons, 249 " Hiberno-Argentine Review," 125 Hide vessels, 345 Hides, 5 Holditch, Sir Thomas, 47 Honey, 246 Horns, 5 Horse-breeding, 244 Hospitality of the Brazilian, 21 Hospitals, 95 Hotels, 20, 22, 55, 56, 57 Houlder Line, 355 Houston Line, 355 Huazo, the, 103 Humboldt, 157 Humitas, 24 Humming birds, 250 Ibis, 249 Iguanas, 248 Iguazu, 339 Ilex Paraguayensis, 214 " Illustrated Times," 125 " Inca Chronicle," 126 Incas, 2, no Indian carnivals, 59 — industries, 71-73 " Industria," la, 124 Industrial development, 3 Ingeniero White, 294 Inquisition, 41 Insects, 250-252 Intellectual feats in Brazil, 143 Iquitos, 124, 263, 264 Irish emigrants, 96 preference to, 155, 156 Iron, 195 Itahan bees, 246 — immigrants, 95, 105, 106 J Jaguar, 246 Jersey cattle, 240, 242 Jewish Colony, 10 1 Jockey Club, Buenos Aires, 288 Jornal do Brasil, 123 Jornal do Commercio, 123, 124, 127 K Kestrei, 250 Kinkajue, 248 " La Araucana," in, 112 Labour, 91-108 Lace, Paraguay, 71 La Guayra, 258 Land, Uruguay, 82-84 Lange, Mr. Algot, 248 Language, 45 Lapacho, 187 La Paz, 69, 292, 302, 303 La Plata, 337 La Plata River, 281, 282 Larreta, Enrique R., 118 Larrude, Senor Bernardo, 3 1 1 La Rioja, 62 La Sabana Railway, 328 Las Casas, 92, 113 La Serena, 297 Latin spirit, the, 29, 30 La Veloce, 356 Laws of the Indies, 153 Lead, 195 Leaf-cutting ant, 250 Leicester sheep, 245 Lefiatero, 250 Leopoldina Railway, 323 Lift, Bahia, 267 Ligura Braziliana, 356 Lima, 22, 69 Lincoln sheep, 245 Literature, 110-131 Llai-Llai, 324 Llama, 305. Llanos, Venezuela, 237, 238 Llavallol, Seiior Jaime, 311 Lloyd Italia no, 356 Lobos Island, 232, 233 Local colour, 19, 20 Locusts, 251, 252 London and Northern Steamship Co., 355 Lone wolf, 247 Lopez, Vicente, 120 Lota coalfields, 203 Lotteries, 38 Lottery tickets, 285 Lubbock on Brazil, 143, 144 Lujan, 313 Lumber industry, 1 59 M Macaws, 249 Maciver Line, 355 Mackenna, Vicuna, 120 Mackinnon, Commander, 8* Macuto, 258 Madeira-Mamore Railway, 94, 323 INDEX 363 Magdalena River, 256, 257 Magnitude of Brazil, 10 Maize, 218, 219 Mariana, La Paz, 124 — Santiago, 123 Manaos, 262, 263 Manatee, 233 Mandioc, 229 Manganese, 195, 202 Mango, 228 Manto, 42 Maracaibo, 257 Marble, 202 Mar del Plata, 56 Market gardening, 135, 136 Markham, Sir Clements, no Marmol, Jose, 119 Marriage, 35 Martineta, 250 Mattis, Hans, 72 Meal, Brazilian, 21 Medina, Jose Toribio, 116, 117 Mendoza, 62 " Mercurio," Santiago, 123 ¦"Mercurio," Valparaiso, 123 Merino sheep, 245 Messageries Maritimes, 356 Mestizo cattle, 243 Mestizos, 66 Mica, 195 Mihanovich steamers, 89, 90 Minas Geraes, 207 Minerals, 193-204 Minero, 214 Mining, 196-202 Ministers, 49, 50 Mitre, Bartolome, 120 Mogyana Railway, 323 Mollendo, 298 Monkeys, 248 Monroe Doctrine, 73-75 Monte Caseros, 291 Montevideo, 68, 88, 89, 90, 278-281 — Port regulations, 279, 280 " Montevideo Times," 125 Montt, Luiz, 120 Moreno, Mariano, 119 Motor cars, 270, 337, 338 Mummies, 72, 73 Murphy, Charles, Governor of Para guay, 155, 156 Mushrooms, 229, 230 N 'J Nacion," la, 122 Nandubay, 187 Nassau, Prince Maurice of, 153 Nautilus Steamship Co., 355 Navies : Argentina, 175, 178, 179 Brazil, 175, 177 Chile, 175, 179 Colombia, 176 Ecuador, 176 Paraguay, 176, 177 Peru, 179 Uruguay, 180 Venezuela, 176 Navigazione Generale Italiana, 35ft Negro, the, 16, 66, 92, 104, 105, 108, 162 New Amsterdam, 259 Newbery, George, 339 New Zealand Shipping Co., 279, 355 Nickel, 195 Nictheroy, 269 Nitrate, 195, 199, 203, 204, 297 — war, 204 North American, the, 75, 76, ¦/¦/, 78, 159, 160, 287 Norton Line, 355 Nutria, 248 O Obidos, 262 Oficinas (Nitrate), 204 O'Higgins, Ambrose, 156 — Bernardo, 1 56 Olmedo, 119 Ombu tree, 186 Onyx, 200 Opossum, 248 Orange, 4, 225, 226 Oroya Railway, 197, 314, 326 Ortiz, 119 Ostentation, 53 Ostrich feathers, 247 Otter, 248 Outrages, rubber, 210 Oven bird, 250 Oviedo y Valdez, Gonzalo Fernan dez de, 113 Owls, 250 Ox-carts, 334, 335 Paca, 248 Pacific coast, 147, 148 Pacific Steam Navigation Co., 354 " Pais," el, 122 Paita, 264 Palms, 228 Pan American Bureau, 75 Congress, 75 Panama Canal, 56, 147, 148, 343 364 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Panama hats, 230, 231 Pando, 338 Pablista Railway, 323 Para, 260, 261 — rubber, 190 Paraguayan, the, 103, 104 Paraiso, 4, 191 Parana (Brazil), 105 — River, 292 Parroquets, 250 Parrots, 249, 250 Partridges, 250 Patagonian Indians, 38 • — Railway, 317 Patio, 285 Patriotic priests, 41 Paysandu, 80, 291 Payta, 299 Paz, La, 124 Peach trees, 191 Peccaries, 248 Pecho Colorado, 250 Peculiarities of speech, 116 Pejerrey, 231 Perai, 234, 248 Percherons, 244 Pernambuco, 68, 105, 153, 265, 266 Peru, Southern Railway of, 325 " Peru To-day," 126 Petroleum, 200 Pigeons, 250 Piracuru, 233 Piriapolis, 89 Pizarro, 59 Plantain, 4 Plantation life, 146 Platinum, 199 Pocitos, 56, 89 Poles, 105 Pohce, 180, 181 — Brazilian, 9, 181 Policy of Spain, 6 Polish Colony, 10 1 Polled Angus cattle, 240 Poplar, 191 Population, 64-70 — statistics, 358 Porcupines, 248 Port Stanley, 245 Poftefio, 287 Portuguese immigrants, 163-167 Potato, 229 — sweet, 229 Potosi, 196 Power of the President, 18 Prawn, 231 Prensa, Buenos Aires, 122 • — Lima, 124 ¦ — Santiago, 123 Prescott, no Press, no, 131 Prince Line, 355 Prince Henry of Prussia, 141 " Progreso," el, 124 Progress, general, 1, 2 Progressive force, 69 Pronunciation, South American, 115 Publications, 1 21-126 Puchero, 24 Puerto Cabello, 257, 258 Puerto Galvan, 294 Pulque, 61 Puma, 246, 247 Punta Arenas, 295 Q Quebracho wood, 5, 104, 187 Queer journalism, 127-131 Quicksilver, 195 " Quipu," the, no, in Quito, 303 Race admixture, Brazil, 97 Racial characteristics, 13-18 Racing, Montevideo, 88 Railways, 304-329 Raleigh, 200 Ramirez, 89 " Razon," la, 122 Relations between states, 46-49 Rehgion, 41-44 " Review of the River Plate," 125 Rice, 146, 222 Riestra, Senor Norberto de la, 311 Rio de Janeiro, 9, 20, 21, 53, 54, 105, 207, 254, 268-274 Rio Grande do Sul, 105 Rio Negro, 82, 217 River navigation, 345-353 River Plate vegetation, 185, 186 River systems, 347, 348 R.M.S.P., 280, 354, 355 Roads, 335-338 Rock salt, 189 Romney Marsh sheep, 245 Rosario, 67 Rosario-Puerto Belgrano Railway, 317. 318 Royal Holland Lloyd, 356 Royas, Ricardo, 118 Rubber, 210-212 — atrocities, 97 — market, 5 1 — trees, 189, 190 INDEX 365 Russian Colony, 101 — immigrants, 95, 96, 102, 105 Saddles, 25 Salto, 291 •San Jose, 217 Santa Catharina, 105 Santa Cruz, 198 Santa Fe, 217, 292 Santa Marta, 256 Santarem, 262 Santiago, 22, 68, 301 Santos, 105, 274, 275 Santos Dumont, 339 Sao Paolo, 9, 68, 105, 202, 208, 209, 210, 275 Railway, 315 Sapphires, 200 Sausages, Brazilian, 24 Savanilla, 256 Savannahs, Orinoco, 238 Scent, carnival, 58 Scissor birds, 250 Scotch whisky, 26, 62 Sealing, 233 Secretary birds, 250 Shaw Savill Co., 280, 355 Sheep, 4, 244, 245 Shipping, 354, 356 Sicula Americana, 356 " Siglo," 123 Siks, 108 Silver, 195, 198, 199, 200, 202 Slaves, 70, 97, 98 — trading, 153 Sledges, 335 Sloth, 247 Societe generale de Transports Maritimes, 356 Sombrero, 25 Soriano, 82, 217 Sorocabana Railway, 323 South Pacific Mail, 126 Southdown sheep, 245 Spanish immigrants, 95 Spoonbills, 250 Sports, 161 Stage coach, 306 ¦"Standard," Buenos Aires, 125 State, loans, 158 — railways, 320, 324 Statue of Christ, 47 Sting Ray, 234 Stirrups, 25 Strike, Montevideo Tramways, 87 Suffrage, 34 Sugar. 4, 219, 220 Sugar-loaf peaks, 269 Surubim, 233, 234 Swiss colonists, 96, 102 Talcahuano, 296 Tangos, 284, 285 Tapir, 247 Teal, 250 " Telegrafo Maritimo," 123 Telephone services, 182, 183, 331 Temperament of the South Ameri can, 12, 13 Termite ants, 2 5 1 Teru-Tero, 250 Texan cowboys, 243 Theatres, 139, 140 " Tiempo," el, 124 Tigre, 337 Tijuca, 269 Timber, 189 Tin, 195, 199 Titicaca, Lake, 72, 151, 345 Tobacco, 4, 222, 223, 224, 263 Topaz, 201 Touring companies, 139, 140 Trade, inter-republican, 341-343 — statistics, 356 Tramways, 158, 331, 332 Transandine Railway, 103, 315 Transport, 334-338 — mining, 196-198 Triumphs of peace, 47 Troubles, Brazilian political, 8, 9 Trujillo, 299 Tumaco, 301 Tunnel, Rio, 273 Turtle, fresh water, 234 U Ugarte, Manuel, 118 " Union," Santiago, 123 "Union," Valparaiso, 123 United States, 49 Unrest in Peru, 11, 12 Uruguay, 79-89 Uruguay Central Railway, 325 Uruguay Midland Railway, 325 Uruguayan timber, 192 Vacano, Max Josef von, 72 Valdivia, 103, 295 Valorization scheme (coffee), 265, 209, 210 Valparaiso, 22, 68, 296, 297 Van Praet, Senor Adolfo, 3 1 1 366 THE SOUTH AMERICANS Vapores Espafiales, Compaiiia Transatlantica de, 356 Vega, Garcilasso de, 113 Vegetables, 227-229 Vegetation, tropical, 332, 333 Venezuela, 108 Venezuelan Railways, 327 Verrugas, Puente de, 314 Vicuna wool, 245 Villa Concepcion, 293 Villa Encarnacion, 328 Vina del Mar, 297 Vineyards, 62, 63 Vizcacha, 245, 248 W Wages, 98, 99 Walsh, the Rev. 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