YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY zeuifJprU3o*i8o6, l^Ridil'halipj-JsreviXrilgi JtreM TRAVELS IN PARTS OF SOUTH AMERICA, DURING THE YEARS 1801, 1802, 1803, & 1804; containing A DESCRIPTION OF THE CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF CARRACCAS, WITH \, AN ACCOUNT OF THE LAWS, COMMERCE, AND NATURAL PRODUCTIONS OF THAT COUNTRY; AS AI.SO A VIEW OF THE CUSTOMS AND MANNERS OF THE SPANIARDS AND NATIVE INDIANS. F. DEPONS, AGENT FaOM THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT TO CARRAi:CA3. LONDON: printed for RICHARD PHILLIPS, 6, new bridge street, By J. 6, Barnard, 57, Snow-Hill. 1806. ADVERTISEMENT. .T ROM the extreme jealousy of the Spanish Go* vernment, no stranger is permitted to land, far less to reside for any length of time, in any of their foreign settlements, especially on the American con tinent, without an express order to that effect from the king, which it is very difficult to obtain. On the other hand, the Spaniards themselves, instigated by the prospect; of immediate gain, held out to them by the mines of Mexico and Peru, flock in great numbers to these provinces ; while the more eastern part of Terra Firma is regarded by these adventurers as comparatively of little value, though the fertility of its soil, and the richness and variety of its productions, are unequalled in any other part of America. As the whole Spanish nation, and even the government itself, appear in some measure to participate in this erroneous opinion respecting the true value of their American pos sessions, it cannot be matter of surprise, that no individual of that nation has hitherto devoted his talents and leisure to explore a country, which is regarded by his fellow citizens with perfect indifference. Hence that part of Spanish America, which forms the subject of the following work, is very imperfectly known to Europeans. To supply this deficiency, and to correct the inaccurate accounts respecting it, which have found their way into our best modern geograpliical works, is the A 2 IV ADVERTISEMENT. professed object of the present undertaking. The author's long residence in the provinces he de scribes, fitted him in a peculiar manner for the task he imposed on himself; while his official situ ation, and the esteem in which he seems to have been held by those at the head of the government of Carraccas, opened to him the most valuable and authentic sources of information. The reason, M. Depons- informs his readers, which led him to give the new appellation of the Eastern Part of Terra Firma to the country he describes, was, in order to distinguish it from the more westerly part, dependent on the vice-royalty of Santa-F6, and which is bounded to the north by Cape Vela, and to the west by the isthmus of Panama. TRAVELS SOUTH AMERICA. DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICA. DIVISION OF THE CAPTAIN-GENERALSHIP OF CARRACCAS TEMPERATURE MOUNTAINS. MINES. PEARL-FISHERIES. SALT. MINERAL WATERS. SEASONS, RAINS. — EARTHQUAKES. FORESTS. PLANTS, GUMS, RESINS, AND MEDICINAL OILS. LAKES. RIVERS. — SEAS, TI DES,W1N DS. PORTS, BAYS, &C. &.C. Sagacity and Intrepidity of Columbus. JL HE discovery of America justly appears to us, and must appear to the most remote posterity, an astonishing phenomenon, and its conquest almost a miracle. Christopher Columbus, an enlightened and learned astronomer, had been led to conjecture, from the figure of the earth, that the existence of another hemisphere was essential to the equi librium of the globe. The hints on this subject scattered through the works of the ancients, opened to his mind a vast field for meditation ; his astronomical, geographical, and physical know ledge supplied the rest. Plato, Aristotle, Pliny, and Strabo had suggested to his mind the idea of a problem which his sagacity enabled him to solve, and of a project which his ardent love of glory impelled him to execute. It is not my intention to enter upon the history of the different expeditions to South America, but to confine myself to the con- 6 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. sideration of the eastern part of Terra Firma and Spanish Guiana. Of all the conquests made in the new world, in the name of the king of Spain, that of the country in question was the most tedious, arduous, and we may add, the most incomplete. The mountainous nature of the ground, the numerous rivers, which often swell to such a degree as to cut off all communica tion between one part of the country and another for a consi derable portion of the year, the lakes, marshes, and deserts, presented difficulties which only the most determined courage could have overcome. But what tended still more to retard the progress of the conquerors in several parts of America, was the number of small governments, which, unlike the extensive em pires of Mexico and Peru, rendered the victories of the Spaniard* less decisive, and their negociations more difficult. It was sel dom that any of the numerous caciques formed a league amongst themselves : and still more seldom that they either offered or accepted a challenge to try their strength with the Spaniards in the open plains. The overthrow of a single tribe seldom gave to the conquerors possession of more than a few leagues of ground; and in order finally to gain a secure footing in the country, it was necessary to support the greatest privations, and to en counter the greatest dangers with exalted courage and unwearied perseverance. It was during the third voyage of Columbus, in 1498, that he discovered that part of the continent, known under the name of Terra Firma. His intention was to proceed to the equator, but he was prevented by the calms which prevailed, and was carried along with the. currents to the mouths of the Dragons, situated between the island of Trinidad and Terra Firma. Lopez de Gomara asserts that Columbus discovered all the coast as far as Cape Vela; but Oviedo, whose testimony 1 have always found worthy of credit, affirms that he only coasted Terra Firma as far as Point Araya, which bears north and south from the western point of Marguerite, whence he steered north for St. Domingo. Fernando Columbus, the admiral's son, relates that his father, after having discovered the gulph of Paria, steered along the coast of Terra Firma, west of the island of Testigos ; after which he shaped his course towards Saint Domingo. From this concurrent testimony, it must be sufficiently obvious that the assertion of Lopez de Gomara is deserving of little credit. From the account transmitted to the court of Spain, by Columbus, of his recent discovery of this part of Terra Firma, of the manners of the inhabitants, aud of the richness of the country, particularly in pearls, the government was induced to grant permission to Captain Alphonso Oyeda still farther to pro- CLIMATE OF THE CARRACCAS. 7 cecute this discovery. He was accompanied in his voyage by ¦ Americus Vespusius, a man who has since enjoyed an usurped celebrity over Columbus, and who was instigated to this cnter- prize by cupidity rather than a love of glory. This expedition reached in twenty-seven days the land of Maracapana, in 1499, and afterwards proceeded along the coast as far as Cape Vela, entering the different ports in their course, with the view of taking un accurate survey of them. From Cape Vela he imme- diatelv returned to St. Domingo, according to Oviedo and Robertson ; but some other authors relate that he previously re visited Maracapana, situated on the coast of Cumana. On his return to Europe, Americus Vespusius found means to make it be generally credited, that he himself was the real .discoverer of America, and that Columbus had only discovered some islands, which could be regarded in no other light but as avenues to the main land. This bold fabrication at first passed for truth ; the name of this adventurer was given to the new world, which it still retains, notwithstanding the efforts of his torians to restore to Columbus an honour so hard earned, and so justly his due. DIVISION OF THE CAPt A! N-GENERALSHIP OF C ARRACC AS. That part of the new world which constitutes the Captain- Generalship of Carraccas, is more particularly the object of the present work. Jt comprehends the province of Venezuela in the centre, the government of Maracaybo to the west, Guiana to the south, the government of Cumana to the east, and the island of Marguerite to the north-east. This department is bounded by the sea towards the north, from the 75° of long, west from the meridian of Paris, to the 62° that is, all the space from Cape Vela to the promontory of Megilones or of Paria ; and to the east by the sea from the 1 2° to the 8° of north lat. Dutch Guiana and Peru form its boundary to the south ; and the kingdom of Santa-Fe to the west. TEMPERATURE. From the situation of this country, which lies beyond the 12° of north lat. we might be led to imagine that its soil would be barren and parched, and that it would be nearly uninhabitable by the extreme heat ; but here the temperature is so diversified by a variety of causes, that many places enjoy an uninterrupted spring ; whilst in others the influence of the latitude is fully felt. MOUNTAINS. The difference of temperature evidently depends on a range pi moiuitains, which stretching from the Andes of Quito, S TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA, crosses Merida and the distinct of Varinas, after which it trends northwards towards the coast ; whence proceeding in an easterly direction, and gradually becoming less elevated, it terminates near the island of Trinidad. The space occupied by these mountains, which cross the provinces of Carraccas, seldom exceeds fifteen leagues in breadth ; in some places it is however twenty, but in none does it fall below ten. From their small degree of elevation they are in most places susceptible of cultivation, and adapted to be come the residence of man ; except the eastern Picacho near the Carraccas, and Tumeriquiri in the province of Cumana, the former of which is 1278, and the latter 935 toises above the level of the sea. These inequalities of the ground necessarily produce great va riety of temperature, which proves extremely favourable to dif ferent productions. . On the mountains there uniformly prevails such a temperature as approaches to coldness. The immense valleys which they form are proportiouably cool, according to their exposure, and the degree of elevation. After traversing these mountains, which stretch from north to south, we arrive at immense plains, running from east to west, from the village of Pao, which is situated in the 67° of west longitude, from the meridian of Paris, to the very base of the ¦ mountains of Santa-Fe. They are bounded on the south by the great river Oroonoko, and by the country known under the name of Guiana. The heat experienced in these plains is excessive. According to the generally received theory respecting the formation of primary mountains, those of Venezuela are not sufficiently elevated to be considered as belonging to this class, neither is their form sufficiently pyramidal, nor their sides des titute of verdure, which is a constant effect of the particles of earth being carried along w ith the rain waters ; on the contrary, they are covered with a vigorous and abundant vegetation. Hence it is evident that they are composed of strata of different sub stances, formed by the hand of time. This opinion is farther strengthened by the calcareous matters found in these moun tains, as "well as marble, which is well known to be produced from the shells of madrepoores and other marine animals, that are only met with in secondary mountains, which derive their ex istence from some of the revolutions sustained by our o-lobe. Humboldt has, notwithstanding, found in the mountain of Selle the. highest, part of this chain, very pure granite, of which quartz, feld spath, and mica, are the constituent parts ; which seems to prove at least, according to the theory of M. Pallas that this mountain, is either primitive, or has emerged Aom the bosom of the deep at a much more early period than others of yut^-'* Ty*?** &>'- 4. iSjiirt ) unless his wife be the complainant. In the Spanish dominions females are reckoned marriageable at twelve, and males at fourteen ; and nothing is more common in this country than to see a husband and wife, whose united ages do not exceed thirty. Congeniality of senti ment and disposition, is never considered in forming such con nections ; passion is mistaken for affection, and that important tie, which is to form the future happiness or misery of life, is entered into with as little reflection, as if it was only to remain binding for a single day. This precipitancy of entering into the marriage state, proceeds ih a great measure from the Spanish laws, which in this respect give the parent too little authority over his child. It is true the Spanish law fixes the period of majority at twenty-five, and till that age the consent of parents is necessary to constitute a legal marriage ; but this salutary re gulation is frequently evaded and rendered nugatory: because a boy of fourteen and a girl of twelve years old, who long to be united in indissoluble bonds, demand, in the manner which the law prescribes, the consent of their parents. If the morals, education, or manners of either of the parties be deemed ex ceptionable, their parents have a right to refuse their consent. But this refusal, which in every other country would be sufficient to render any ulterior contract null and void, in Spain only Opens a door to a vexatious and scandalous process between the child and his parents ; and the law so far from aiding parental autho rity, forces them to furnish a marriage portion to their disobe dient children/ according to their circumstances, and to pay the expences of the process instituted to this effect. The only plea admitted in these courts, as sufficient to warrant a parent with holding his consent to the marriage of his child, is inferiority of birth. But if he fails to establish this point, neither the bad OP MARRIAGES. 37 conduct of the patty, disparity of age, or inequality in point of fortune, will prevent the tribunal from ordering the immediate celebration of the marriage. In a country like Spain, where hereditary greatness is alone held in estimation, it is easy to per ceive the ruinous consequences, and implacable hatred, which niust necessarily flow from this unjust and impolitic law. There is another, and a more simple mode, by which a child may elude parental restraint in any of the Spanish dominions, but which is nevertheless very seldom resorted to. It is suffi cient to constitute a legal marriage, that the parties declare pub licly in the presence of the cure of their parish, that they take each other for husband and wife* When this formality is com plied with, neither the non-publication of banns, nor the oppo sition of parents, can prevent the celebration of the marriage. It is true the civil laws, in this respect, are in opposition to the canonical law, and proscribe such sort of contracts; but as they inflict no penalty upon the offending parties, and as parents can only seek redress by means of a tedious prosecution, they have little alternative but either to pardon, or finally throw off their offending offspring. That domestic unhappiness so evident in this country is, we think, justly attributable to too early marriages. To the im petuosity and effervescence of passions, succeeds the calm of reflection ; and a difference of character and disposition sooa begins to manifest itself, which was never dreamt of by the young lovers, that frequently embitters every succeeding moment of their lives. They endeavour to support an appearance of cordiality, while their hearts are filled with mutual hatred; and fidelity becomes a farce> which they strive to get rid of as soon as possible. The children, who have continually under their eyes the infidelity of their father, and the intrigues of their mo ther from their most tender infancy, soon learn to despise every moral obligation ; and thus vice becoming hereditary, is trans mitted from generation to generation. The blind protection afforded by the Spanish laws to females in opposition lo their husbands, is another cause of unhappy marriages. No being can be more unfortunate than a Spanish husband, whoste wife is jealous, dissolute, or peevish. If tor mented by the first of these passions, she readily finds access to the civil and ecclesiastical authority, who in such cases evince a disposition implicitly to believe every thing, that a heated imagination can suggest against her husband. The most common complaints are, that the husband keeps a mistress, that he spends all his fortune in dissipation, while she and her fami ly are allowed to want the common comforts of life, &c. No proof is requited of these or similar assertions; she is believed 38 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. on her simple word. The husband, in such cases, according to the rank he holds in society, is either cited to appear, in order that he may receive a severe reprimand, or he is instantly, and without farther inquiry, thrown into prison, where he continues until his liberation is requested by his wife. If a husband, on the contrarv, complains of the bad conduct , of his wife, she has only to bring forward an accusation which attacks his honour, and the poor husband is condemned to si lence, and greater discretion ; happy even if he is not subjected to the penalty, which ought to have been incurred by his wife. A Spanish husband cannot undertake a journey without the consent of his wife, and without making a provision for her. during his absence; if he does not return within the time limited in the permission he obtained, the judge, on the first applica tion of the wife, orders his immediate return, were he even in Chili, or California, or whether his business be terminated or not : the wife has only to speak, the husband must obey. Mi litary officers, and those employed in civil capacities, are forced., to appropriate a portion of their pay, never less than two thirds, to the maintenance of their wives ; and if this be not done vo-. lnntarily, the treasury has power to retain it oh their behalf. Notwithstanding what has been said, it would be uncandid not to declare, that many Spanish families live in the greatest har mony,' and afford an example of every domestic virtue to their children. There is an habitual air of frankness and candour in the most trifling actions of this people, which, judging from appearances, would lead us to believe that in no country was filial obedience more respected! Every evening and morning, the Spanish chil dren of every rank and condition, solicit and receive on their knees the parental benediction ; and the same ceremony is repeated during the day, on the return of any part of the family after an occasional absence. The mode of address used by children towards their parents, is also marked with the greatest humility. They employ su merced, which is never used but by a slave to his master, or a free man to a white person of high rank, But such external homage proceeds less from sentiment than frorn fashion and habit, and may be justly ranked among those absurd ceremonies so numerous among the Spaniards. Many ceremonies and customs, which for more than a century past have been ridiculed in most other countries, are still held by the Spaniards in the greatest veneration. Those who dare to violate them are regarded as vulgar and ill-educated, poor hombre trato. The Spaniards, and indeed all those who speak the Spanish language, employ the third person of the verb in place of tho MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 39 second. The you is never used but in the second person plural, and in sermons and public discourses, in conversation they speak of your favour, xuestra merced, which they pronounce syncope usted. The prebendaries, heads of colleges, members of the audience, the fiscal auditor, and the military officers, from the colonel to the field-marshal, are addressed both in conversation and writing by the title of your Excellency, vuestra sennoria, which they pro nounce ousia ; the bishop has the title of su sennoria ilustri- sima. The term sennor is indiscriminately applied, except in their public acts, wherein it is restricted to those who have a ligitimate right to this title. The don correspon/ls to the de formerly used in France; with this difference, that the Spaniards do not prostitute it so much as it was done by that nation at no- very distant period : at present it is given to every white who is not a mendicant. Either a stranger, or a native who has been long absent, ex pects to be first visited, except by his superiors ; who even fre quently condescend to pay him such a compliment. This cere mony may either be performed personally, by letter, or by a sim ple message. A neglect of this attention often creates a coldness between the parties, which can only be effaced by a public apo- logy- ... . ... The laws of civility are supposed to be violated by an indivi dual leaving his residence without intimating his departure to his friends and neighbours,, by a circular letter, which is answered by a personal visit, unless the families have been not only strangers but enemies. , Visits are also paid by their friends and acquaintances to every new married couple, and the same ceremony on^the birth of each child, or after the recovery of any of the members of a family from a fit of sickness. All the Spaniards receive their friends on the anniversary of their patron saint; and a neglect to comply with this custom would be considered as a heinous offence against the laws of good breeding. On entering a house, a Spaniard generally makes a noise in order to warn the family of his approach, and waits for permission to enter. If any one was perceived silently to enter the dwelling of another, it would be supposed he either meant to surprise them when off their guard, or to listen unperceived to their discourse. The Spanish ladies always receive company seated on a sofa ; and this custi. .1 is never deviated from whatever may be the rank, a^e, sex or intimacy of the visitor. When they intend o-oing abroad, they send in the morning a recado, or message, in timating this intention ; and these visits are always paid between 40 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. five and eight o'clock in the evening. Husbands very seldom accompany their wives on such occasions ; they go without any retinue, merely followed by two or three servants, in a black pet ticoat and a white veil. If you praise the sword, the cane, the watch, or even the house, wife, or children of a Spaniard, he replies with the most ridiculous grimace, " they are at your disposal !" The dress on days of ceremony, is a coat and breeches of taf- fety satin, or velvet ; the Spaniards never wear cloth except they be in mourning, or when it is richly embroidered. The waist coat is either of gold or silver stuff, or at least covered with em broidery ; they wear a cocked hat : but their dress after all would be deemed incomplete without the accompaniment of a wold or •ilver-hilted sword. Several acts of the government are regulated by the same ridiculous attention to etiquette, or to speak more correctly, are purely ceremonial. The most prominent of these are, the anni versary of the patron saint of the iing, queen, and of the prince <6f Asturias ; they term such ceremonies dias de besamenos, days* of kissing hands. Like all the other Spanish festivals, they are strictly religious. The military officers repair to the house of the governor and captain-general, from whence they proceed to church, preceded by the captain-general, as president of the au dience, with the regent and oidors. After assisting at a solemn Te Deum, during which a batalhon of troops of the line fire three discharges, the procession returns in the same order to the government-house, where all the civil and religious functionaries attend to pay their compliments to the captain-general, as repre sentative of the king. Some difficulty having arisen respecting the propriety of the bishop submitting to this ceremony, it was re ferred to the king, who determined it in the affirmative; but in order to soften the mortification of this determination, it was at the same time ordered, that the moment the prelate had fulfilled this duty, the captain-general and suite should proceed in their turn to wait on him as head of the church. The extreme respect paid by the Spaniards to so many idle and unmeaning ceremonies render them extremely vindictive and irritable, while apparently they possess the greatest equanimity and calmness of temper. An indiscreet expression, or equivocal word respecting the family antiquity, or the nature of his titles, throws the Spaniard into the greatest rage, and fills his mind with an ardent thirst of vengeance. He will more easily pardon a jest upon himself than on his ancestors. Duelling, which is con demned by reason, and proscribed by the laws of every well- regulated state, is nevertheless sanctioned every where by public opinion and the laws of honour, except in the Spanish empire } FREQUENCY OF LAW-SUITS. 41 where a duel is never deemed sufficient to wash away an affront, nor even lead to frank and sincere reconciliation. When a Spa niard conceives hatred against any one, it only ends with his life, and is not unfrequently handed down for several succeeding gene rations, according to the nature of the offence. But their ven geance never occasions the effusion of blood ; it produces law suits, perverts justice, and ruins the character and circumstances of the party with whom they are at variance. Few Spanish families of any distinction, but are involved in several processes, which proceed solely from wounded pride or self-love. The Spanish Americans are more frequently engaged in pro cesses before the different tribunals, for some contested point respecting prerogative, than on account of mercantile and pe cuniary concerns. They are passionately attached to fight with the pen, and this disposition, which frequently terminates in the ruin of both parties, administers to the subsistence and rapacity of a set of lawyers, whose reputation augments in proportion to their talents at fomenting discord. Speaking with that frankness and impartiality which preside over my thoughts, and guide my pen, I am free to say, that in no other country in the world are there so many processes as in Spanish America ; and particularly in the island of Cuba. Is it possible to believe that in the city of the Havannah alone, there were in 1792, sixty-two lawyers, independent of those who were scattered through the other cities and villages of the island, amounting to thirty-four, making with the sixty-two in the capital, - a total of one hundred and six ? The attornies and notaries abound in the same proportion. The population of the island at this period amounted only to two hundred and fifty-four thousand eight hundred and twenty-one persons, including slaves ; and the territorial exports did not reach five millions of piastres. Some of the most respectable and most enlightened inhabi tants, estimate the sums annually expended in carrying on pro secutions before the court of audience in Carraccas, at one million five hundred thousand piastres ; and I have conversed with none who reduce it below one million two hundred thousand. If the number of such prosecutions, and the expence attending a decision, could be reduced to one third, how greatly would commerce, agriculture, and public morals, profit by such a reformation. The Spanish Creoles, or Europeans established in America, are not apparently of a character to delight in litigation. Instead of being petulant, active, or enterprising, they are gentle, honest, affable, and polite tp excess. They do not indicate much bold ness of character, and still less audacity. All their undertakings partake of a certain degree of timidity, which they call prudence. They never enter on extensive speculations ; hence if they do not depons.] f 42 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA* accumulate rapid and overgrown fortunes, they are seldom com pletely ruined. Notwithstanding that the extreme caution and solemnity of the Spanish character appears extremely favourable to the sta bility of the government, and affords to the mother country an almost certain pledge that her sovereignty in South America, will be of long duration ; yet in 1797 a very dangerous revolution had been nearly effected in the province of Venezuela. It is true that many circumstances, which cannot again happen, concurred to give to this conspiracy a serious character. The example of the French revolution, acting on the imagi nation of a few sanguine minds, induced them to attempt a si milar change in the government of Terra Firma ; and the poli tical state of Europe at that period appeared extremely favour able to the execution of their design. Spain, exhausted by her struggle with France, and still more so by a new war with Eng land, did not appear to be in a situation to afford much opposi tion to such a project. Besides, could she even have spared a sufficient number of troops for this purpose, what probability was there of landing them in safety on- the shores of South America, while the ocean continued covered with the fleets of the English ? and would not that nation, from a barbarous, but too frequent policy, do every thing in her power to assist and forward the designs of the insurgents? Another and more immediate cause concurred to inspire the factious with the hope of effecting a successful revolution in the Carraccas. Discontents had been for several months gaining ground among the inhabitants, occasioned by a measure of po lice that was extremely oppressive in its operation. Already had the government been assailed by the clamours of the discon tented, which might have proved of serious consequence, but for the decisive conduct of the Captain-General Carbonuell, who, in opposition to the Audience, did every thing in his power 'to redress the grievances of the inhabitants, being con vinced of the justness of their complaints. This chief, by the firmness and moderation of his measures, had the satisfaction of beholding order restored, and of quieting the general alarm, though it is probable much dissatisfaction still remained. Such was the state of the public mind, when three state pri soners were sent from Old Spain, who had been condemned on account of revolutionary practices, to be confined for life in the fortress of Goayre. They declared themselves to be the martyrs of liberty, and victims of despotism. Gifted with the power of persuasion, they interested the guards in their favour, and received every indulgence it was in the power of the officers or soldiers to bestow. They were permitted to walk within the ANECDOTE OF CHARLES IVY 43 fortress For the benefit of the air, and suffered freely to converse with any one who approached them. Profiting 'by this indul gence, they formed the project of realizing their revolutionary maxims in the province of Venezuela ; and cautiously unfolded their intentions to a few individuals whose principles accorded with their own. After some time spent in sounding the disposi tions, and in endeavouring to make converts among men of all tanks and conditions, they began to perceive the impossibility of setting in motion the cold and apathic inhabitants of Venezuela, and therefore turned their attention to the best means of secur ing their own freedom. Under the pretence of collecting their adherents scattered through the provinces, and of proceeding to the English islands, in order to secure" their co-operation in their measures, they not only obtained their liberty, but were fur nished with the means of secretly leaving the country: it is scarcely necessary for me to add, that they have never re appeared. On the 1 3th July, 1797, the secret so carefully guarded for several months, Was discovered, and the whole transaction made known to the government. As the focus of the conspiracy existed at Goayfe, an order was immediately sent thither to imprison all those concerned in it ; and a similar precaution was taken at Carraccas. These measures produced the desired effect. The principal conspira tors fled : the one, an officer of the line, retired from service ; and the other, corregidor of the village of Macuto, near Goayre. Others of them took advantage of the pardon held out by the Audience, and named their accomplices, in proof of their repentance. I add, with regret, that in this respect the promises of the government were not altogether fulfilled. I proceed to record with satisfaction a trait of clemency which does honour to the reign of Charles IV. Scarcely had that mo narch been apprized of the event in question, than he transmitted a secret order to the Audience of Carraccas, enjoining them to Spare the effusion of human blood, and to enter into a compro mise with men who appeared rather to have been seduced through ignorance, than to have acted from any preconcerted design. This order threw the Audience into a state of great perplexity, and forced them to abkndon a sysfem of rigour they had com menced. They spared several victims; it was the intention of the King that all should have been spared. The opinion that a general amnesty had been granted, induced one of the chiefs to leave the asylum he had found in the Ehglish colonies, and return at the expiration of two years,' to his family at Goayfe. But no sooner was the return of the fcorregidor of Macuto made known to the new captain-general Don Manuel de Guevara Vasconzelos, F 2 44 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. than he caused him to be arrested, and thrown into the prison of Carraccas. He was executed on the eighth of May, 1799. Se venty-two individuals were implicated in this conspiracy ; seven of whom were ordered to be executed ; thirty-three were con demned to the gallies, or to te.mpor,ary imprisonment from two to eight years ; and the remaining thirty-two were sent to Spain to be disposed of by the king, who pardoned them in 1802, on condition of their not returning to Venezuela, promising at the same time that they should be employed in Spain in the same rank and station in which they had served in America. Twenty-five of those engaged in this plot were Europeans, and forty-nine Creoles. After the conquest of America, the court of Spain hesitated between the alternative of establishing slavery in their new pos sessions, or relinquishing the great benefits which would arise from the cultivatibn of the fertile soil of the new world ; when Barthelemy de las Casas, a priest, and afterwards bishop of Chiapa, presented himself, in 1517 before Charles V. in order to plead the cause of the natives. From the general principle of the natural liberty of man, he drew the strange conclusion, that the slavery, of the Indians was a crime, whilst that of the Africans was dictated by necessity. He entreated with all the enthusiasm of philanthropy, for the liberty pf the, fprmer, while with the most cold-blooded tyranny he pleaded for the necessity of enslaving the latter. From his representations the government was in duced to purchase four thousand of those unfortunate beings, whom they landed on the islands of Saint Domingo, Cuba, Ja maica, and Porto-Rico. Thus negro slavery was first esta blished in America; and every European state that has suc cessively obtained possessions in that quarter of the . globe, has been led to the adpption of the same cruel policy. The Spaniards could not conceal from themselves, that to traffic in human beings was repugnant to every principle of their religion; but by a subtile compromise with their consciences they persuaded themselves there could be no crime in purchasing the Africans when brought upon their shores. The government therefore, in conformity to this idea, have at different periods entered into a treaty with foreign merchants, to introduce a cer tain number of blacks into different districts of their South American possessions. The planters were besides permitted to purchase an additional number of slaves from any of the neighs houring colonies, until the revolution in Saint Domingo, rendered ^uch a practice extremely dangerous , since it was not improbable ideas of insubordination might be imported by means of such negroes. «, The number of slaves employed in the captain-generalship of TREATMENT OF THE SLAVES. 45 Carraccas, in cultivating the land, and as domestics, amounts to two hundred and eighty thousand four hundred. It is generally believed that they are treated with greater humanity in the Spanish possessions than in those of any other power ; but although this may be true in some respects, it is not so universally. Each country adopts a particular System for the government of their slaves, which necessarily partakes of the manners and character of the nation whence it emanates. The English treat them with a harshness, which affords a sin gular contrast with the principles of humanity they affect on all other occasions. The French, without holding much intercourse with their slaves, only require that they shall work a certain num ber of hours, but never demand anyr.accouut of their actions during the intervals appropriated to relaxation or repose. They are only punished for flight, drunkenness, and laziness. Exten sive hospitals, and the best medical attendance are provided for the sick; and labour is duly apportioned to the strength of each individual. They are furnished with proper clothing and habi tations suitable to the climate ; and the tribunals are vigilant in restraining any abuse of authority on the part of the master. The Spaniards-are much more familiar with their negroes than either the English or French, but there is a mixture of self- love mingled with this condescension. They wish them to learn more prayers, and to be better versed in the catechism, than is commonly the case with other christians. The master becomes ,the inquisitor of his slaves, he forces them to comply with all the rites enjoined by the established religion of his country, and .guards them as much as possible from all licentious intercourse with their fellow slaves. In the country, as well as in the city, they lock up every night the young female negroes, from the age jof sixteen until they are married. They watch their steps, and lose sight of them as seldom as possible. But this vigilauce does not answer the purposed end, since as great, if not greater, licen tiousness prevails among the Spanish slaves, than among those belonging to any other state. The Spanish negrpes receive from their master only a supply of prayers, since they are very scantily provided with food and clothes; and the law is silent on this subject. The conse quence of which is, that except from a few proprietors, whose hearts are not altogether steeled against the feelings of humanity, they receive no other provisions than what they cultivate on spots of ground allotted to them for that purpose, whether the harvest be productive or not, and they are suffered to go about literally covered with rags. The domestic negroes are little better attended to m these re spects than the field negroes : the allowance they receive for the 46 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. whole day is scarcely sufficient to furnish a comfortable breakfast; intrigue, rapine, and libertinism supply the. rest. They receive no clothes but those which are termed de livree, because they are only worn when they go abroad in the train of their master : at Other times they remain naked, or covered with rags undeserving the name of garments. In sickness they are wholly abandoned to nature ; no proper habitations are provided for their reception, nor have they any medical assistance whatever. A royal edict was sent out, dated 3 1st May, 1?89> which had for its object the amelioration of the condition of the slaves in respect to abuses above-mentioned, as well as several others ; but this edict has not hitherto been carried into execution. In all our modern oolonies, cultivated by slaves, no provision is made for their enfranchisement; it always proceeds from the generosity of the master, or is more frequently the wages of pros titution. But the greatest number of governments, far from favouring such acts, render them extremely difficult to be per formed, from the forms necessary to be gone through, and the taxes imposed On such transactions. In fact, in a population of seven hundred and twenty^eight thousand persons, who consti tute the captain-generalship of Carraccas, it is estimated that there are t\vo hundred and eighty-one thousand two hundred en franchised slaves, or individuals born of parents who had re ceived their freedom, and who are known under the gerierie appellation of men of colour. The first regulations respecting men of colour placed them on an equal footing with the whites ; but by art edict of the king, dated 7th of June, 1621, and two succeeding ones, their privi leges were considerably curtailed. They were declared incapa ble of holding any public employment, or serving in the army. They were also subject to a capitation tax ; and the dress Of the females was regulated by sumptuary laws, which prohibited them from wearing gold, jewels, and certain other ornaments ; but this law has not, for the last few years, been strictly ex ecuted. In very few instances the king has been indnced to grant his special protection to some families of Colour, who thereby attained all the rights of the other Spanish inhabitants. A casfe of this Irihd occurred during my stay at Carraccas ; on which occasion the females of the family, released from all restraint, displayed an, ostentation and luxury, which rendered them truly contefnptible in the eyes of common sense. Alliances betweenwhites and people of colour, though not prohibited by law, is nevertheless more rare in the Spanish pos sessions than elsewhere; and the first families are extremely careful not to admit such a mixture into their blood. FORMER STATE OF POPULATION, &C 47 in the Spanish possessions; and while we behold, in the city, and provinces of Carraccas, churches richly endowed, and every species of religious societies overgrown with wealth, not a single hospital has been erected for the reception and education of those deserted beings. CHAP. III. GOVERNMENTS AND POPULATION OF AMERICA BEFORE ITS CONQUEST BY THE EUROPEANS. PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONSTITUTION OF THE INDIANS— PROPENSITY TO WAR. RELIGION. WORSHIP PAID TO THE TOAD, AND TO VARIOUS IDOLS. — OPINIONS RESPECTING THE SOUL AFTER DEATH. FUNERALS OF THE INDIANS. — LAZY AND SLUGGISH LIFE LED BY THE INDIANS, WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE OTOMAQUES.— TORTOISE FISHERY. MARRIAGES.— MISERABLE CONDITION OF THE OROONO KO FEMALES, POLYGAMY. — DIVORCE. ADULTERY. EXCHANGE OF WIVES. EDUCATION OF CHI LDREN.--HA- TRETJOF SONS AGAINST THEIR PARENTS.— DRESS. THE GUARAUNOS AND GUAJIROS, INDIANS NOT YET CON QUERED.— THEIRCONN ECTION WITH RIO-DE-LA-HACHE AND WITH THE ENGLISH.— INTEREST WHICH THE SPA NISH GOVERNMENT HAS IN OVERCOMING THOSE TRIBES CIVILIZED INDIANS.— EXTREME MILDNESS OF THE LAWS IN THEIR FAVOUR. PRIVILEGES GRANTED TO THEM. LOADED WITH FAVOURS BY THE CHURCHi — • MELANCHOLY RESULTS. DIFFICULTY OF CONVERT ING THEM INTO CITIZENS, AND THE STILL GREATER DIFFICULTY OF MAKING THEM CHRISTIANS.— PROPER TREATMENT OF THE INDIANS.— NEW REGULATIONS FOR THIS PURPOSE. — RESULT OF THESE REGULA TIONS. W ITHOUT entering into the question, how or whence America was first peopled, I shall confine myself to a descrip tion of the state of Terra-Firma, on the arrival of the Europeans, compared with what is at the present day. POPULATION. In general America was very thinly peopled; the state in which agriculture and the arts were found by the Europeans, afford a confirmation of this fact. The inhabitants subsisted 48 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. merely by hunting and fishing, and had not even attained to a knowledge of pastoral life. Mexico and Peru were the only countries where the principles of civilization had begun to unfold themselves. Monarchs who possessed unlimited power over their subjects, were in these states at the head of governments, which seemed to have originated from the necessity of union, in order to repel numerous and warlike hordes. Bogota, the present Santa-Fe, formed the third American government ; but which was more recent than the two former, and much more imperfect. All the rest of America was occupied by particular tribes of Indians, although often the number of members did not amount to a thousand, and seldom exceeded six thousand. Such was the state of the New World when the Europeans im ported into it their virtues and vices, their talents and ferocity, their knowledge and their prejudices. All the coast, from cape Vela to the river Esequebo and the river Oroonoko, was thinly peopled with Indians. The plains were nearly uninhabited ; because nature had been there less bountiful thail elsewhere, and because as these plains are covered with rain-water during the greatest part of the year, they presented to the Lidians no advantages to compensate for this inconvenience. Each tribe possessed a circumscribed territory, and obeyed, in case of war, a chief called cacique, quebi, or guajiros, ac cording to the idiom of the nation. So tenacious was each ca cique of the limits of his possession, that the smallest encroach ment gave occasion to the most bloody and sanguinary wars. Nothing can better prove the little intercourse between these tribes or nations, than the great diversity of their languages, and- the multiplicity of dialects spoken by them. All the Spanish authors who have written concerning the In dians, as well as those missionaries who have been engaged in their conversion, have discovered in their language analogous to the scantiness of their ideas. M. Condamine, whose judgment must always carry weight has made the same remark ; aud notwithstanding my wish to find them mistaken, 1 have been at last compelled to acquiesce in the justness of their observations. It is indeed natural to sup pose, that a silent people, without external relations, destitute of any religious system, unacquainted with the refinements and delicacy of love, unambitious of -riches, and wholly ignorant of agriculture and commerce ; it is natural, I repeat, that such a people should possess only a very limited vocabulary, and that we should uselessly endeavour to find in their language words The exposing illegitimate children is a very frequent practice' LAZINESS OF THE INDIANS. 49 expressive of abstract ideas, as existence, fatality, mind, con ception, 8cc. &c. I have heard the language of the Incas, which is still spoken in Santa-Fe, highly extolled for its richness; in proof of which, it is maintained that it is much better calculated to express the passion of love, than the Spanish tongue. But admitting this assertion to be a tact, the copiousness of the lan guage of die Incas, does not flow from it as a legitimate con sequence. The dialect of the Creoles, which is spoken in the French colonies, is preferred in the intercourse of love to the French language : but surely we cannot hence affirm that it is more rich or abundant; on the contrary, 1 should suppose that it is owing to its simplicity, and the infantile modulations of which it is susceptible, that it finds its way to the heart, and lays it open to seduction under the veil of innocence. Very few physical or moral distinctions of character are dis coverable among the different Indian tribes. The structure of body common to the whole of them, is a straight forehead, eyes of a middle size, long and soft black hair, pointed nose, a wide mouth, large visage, and the head very big; they are in general of a copper colour, which varies according to the temperature of the province they inhabit ; their ordinary height is from four and a half to five feet, but a few tribes are from five and a half to six feet. They have little or no beard, and few hairs on those parts of the body usually covered with them; but it is not true, as some writers have affirmed, that they are wholly beardless. Their members are large and muscular, which would seem to indicate that they are extremely robust: this appearance is, however, de ceitful, as they are wholly incapable of any labour which requires much strength or exertion. Laziness, taciturnity, a paucity of ideas, and a strong, propen sity to falsehood and deceit, may be ranked among the charac teristic traits of the South American Indians. It has been justly observed, that those who lived in the interior of the country, are less iruel than the inhabitants of the coast. Among the latter were found many anthropophagi, but not one among the former. There appeared to be among these tribes no other mode of termi nating any differences that might arise, but by an appeal to arms. Vindictive and ferocious, their contests were carried on with a rage more resembling the fury of a wild animal, than the valour of an honourable warrior. Deceit and treachery were ranked by them among the .first of military virtues. Poisoned arrows were in general use ; they murdered the prisoners taken in battle, and not unfrequently afterwards devoured them. From the po verty of the different tribes, the love of plunder never animated ^themto the attack; their object in going to war was to devastate DEPONS.] G 50 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. rather than conquer, to destroy rather than possess. But not withstanding their thirst for blood, two Indian armies were never observed to meet on the open plains. In Terra-Firma, the Ca.- ribs, who inhabited the banks of the Oroonoko, alone openly , attacked their enemies; hence they enjoyed a reputation, which made them the terror of all the surrounding tribes. They owed to their courage the peaceable possession of a vast track of coun try, on which no other nation durst attempt an establishment All the Indian tribes believe in the immortality of the soul of man, as well as of brute animals; but this is the only point in which they appear to be agreed, since their ideas respecting the destination of the soul after death, varies according to the opi nions held by the chiefs or pontifs of each nation. It is somewhat remarkable, that the Indians of Terra-Firma admit only of an evil spirit; while all other barbarous nations with which we are yet acquainted, believe in a good and an evil principle. This singularity is attributable to the extreme cowar dice of their characters. In the countries which now compose the provinces of Venezuela, Maracaybo, and Cumana, religion was united to the healing art. The same individuals exercised the functions of priest and physician, but their education was chiefly directed with a reference to this last prefession. They wer« known under the name of P laches. After having been taught the elements of medicine and magic, which were regarded as in separable, they submitted to a seclusion of two years in caverns, situated in the deepest recesses of the forests. During this period they eat no animal food ; they saw no person, not even their pa rents. The old P laches or doctors, went and instructed them during the night. When they were • supposed to have acquired sufficient knowledge, they obtained the title of Piaches, in virtue of which they acquired the right to cure diseases, to invoke evil spirits, and to predict future events. The practice of these professors of the healing art, consisted in licking and sucking the affected part, in order, according to them, to eliminate the peccant humour. When the fever or pain in creased, suction of the joints, as well as friction over all the body with die hand, was employed. During the performance of this operation, some unintelligible words were pronounced, with a loud ^oice, commanding the evil spirits to depart out of the patient's body. If the malady did not readily yield, the Piache or phy sician had recourse to a particular kind of wood, known to him self alone, with which he rubbed the breast, throat, and mouth of the patient; a practice which seldom failed to produce sick ness and vomiting. In the mean time, the Piache on his side littered dreadful exclamations, howled, shook, and made a thou sand contortions with his body. If the sick person recovered, CHARACTER OF THE PIACHES. 51 every thing contained in the house was given to the Piache; if he died, the fault was imputed to destiny, never to the physician. The Piaches were supposed to be gifted with the power of prophecy. They foretold whether there would be war or peace; whether the crops would prove scanty or abundant ; and, in short, if Lopez de Gomara may be credited, no people were more grossly ignorant. From what has been said, we may readily sup pose, that the Piaches were every where much respected, and feared by the inhabitants. Their influence over the minds of the people was absolute, but they very seldom exerted it. According to the creed of all the civilized Indians, and even of some of the Spaniards themselves, diseases proceeded from witchcraft. They even sometimes accused the Piaches of this -practice; but they never reproached them on that account, be cause, according to them, they only could counteract or destroy it. It was an universal opinion among all the Indians of Terra- Firma ,that the soul, when emancipated from the body, could not exist without food. They mourned much at the funerals of their friends, and chanted the exploits of the deceased. They some times interred their dead, but more frequently converted the body- into a kind of mummy by means of heat, aud afterwards hung it up in their habitations. When they adopted the former mode, they uniformly buried provisions along with it. Tf the deceased belonged to a superior class, his friends regularly assembled, and celebrated his anniversary. These ceremonies, or rather orgies, Were performed during the night. They disinterred the body, if it had been buried; and spent the whole night in dancing, drinking, and howling. Such was the stupid character of the Indians of Terra-Firma, that it never entered into their minds to enquire into the cause of the wonderful harmony of nature. Insensible to her benefits, they never offered her any homage; she never excited in their minds, either admiration or gratitude. They resembled man in nothing but the mere figure ; their organization indicated the most wretched degradation. The Indians of the Oroonoko, who were not much less igno rant or stupid, believed, however, in an author of all things, to whom they addressed their prayers and adoration. Some tribes, father Caulin tells us, considered the sun as the supreme being and the first cause ; it was to him diat they attributed the pro ductions of the earth, scanty or copious rains, and all other tem poral blessings : others, on the contrary, believed that every thing- depended on thefinfluence of the moon, and conceived, when she suffered an eclipse, that she w;s angry with them. When such a phenomenon occurred, these Indians practised the most ridicu- & 2 52 TRAVELS AN SOUTH AMERICA. lous ceremonies, in order to prevent the chastisements w ith which they believed themselves to be threatened on account of their in dolence and ingratitude. They played on warlike instruments, or took arms in their hands to evince their valour, felled wood,. or undertook other laborious exercises, to prove that they could not be charged with effeminacy, and punished without injustice. The women left their huts, threw maize and other grains into the air, sending forth, at the same time, the most dolorous cries, promising to amend what was amiss in their conduct, and to be more labo rious for the future. No sooner, however, was the eclipse over, than they congratulated each oiher on having averted the moon's' wrath by specious promises ; they afterwards gave themselves up to dancing, which terminated, like all their other festivals, in drinking, and other acts of brutality. The Indians who have not yet been subjugated, still preserve all these customs; and even several of the civilized tribes still retain a few of them. Some other tribes of Indians, who likewise dwelt upon the banks of the river Oroonoko, paid to toads the honours due to the divinity. Far from injuring these animals, they carefully kept them under pots, in order to obtain rain or fine weather ; and so fully persuaded were they of their power in this respect, that they scourged them as often as their petitions were not answered. The only religious rite performed by some other of these tribe*, was that of dancing, to the sound of very noisy instruments, before two small idols, to which they paid reverence by chanting, extemporaneous couplets. All the Indians appear to agree, as we have already observed, respecting the immortality of the soul, but they do not concur as to what becomes of it after death. Some are of opinion that the soul takes up its aboad in the same fields which the individual, to whom it belonged, cultivated during life. Others suppose that it retires to certain lakes, and is swallowed by monstrous serpents, which transport it to a paradise, where its time is occu pied in constant dancing and drinking. When an Indian slays a wild beast, he opens its mouth, and pours down its throat some intoxicating liquor, in order that its soul may inform others of a similar species of the kind reception it received, and that they may be encouraged to come and share the same favour. Drinking and indolence constitute the supreme felicity of the Indians. The most inebriating liquors are considered as pre ferable to all others. Their women formerly prepared a species of vinous liquor from fruits, such as ananas, &c. which possessed very intoxicating qualities ; it was called chkhe : but since the introduction of tafia and other similar liquors, it is seldom pre pared. The Indians spend all their time in drinking and sleep- GREAT NUMBER OF TURTLE. 43 ing : they never leave their hammocks unless when imperious necessity forces them to go a hunting or fishing; on which oc casions they take their measures so Well, that by a single day's exertion, they generally secure subsistence and repose for a whole week. The Otomaques, who occupy the upper parts of the Oroo noko, constitute an exception to this rule ; possessing greater intelligence and activity than the other Indians, they spent almost their whole time, before the entrance of the missionaries among them, in constant action and sport, except those moments which were dedicated to sleep and lamentations over the dead. On the rising of the sun. all of them who were capable of labour, repaired to their respective chiefs, who assigned to each his task for the day- In seed-time and harvest, a certain number of individuals also applied themselves to the labours of* the field, the products of which were lodged in public granaries, and shared out by the chiefs Next to the Otomaques, the Guaraunos, who inhabit the islands at the mouth of the Oroonoko, are supplied most abun dantly with food. They seldom feel the effects of scarcity, ae from their situation they can generally take as much fish as is necessary to satisfy their wants. They cultivate besides a speciea. of palm termed murichi, which supplies them with bread, and from which they make a kind of wine ; but in general the sub sistence of the Indians is both precarious and scanty. They are not always successful in their hunting and fishing excursions; neither can they at all seasons procure vegetables in a sufficient quantity ; when in addition to these circumstances we consider the improvident character of the Indians, it must be obvious that they would be frequently under the- necessity of prolonging their sleep, in consequence of having nothing to satisfy their hunger, if they did not find a resource in the turtle with which their shores abound. Annually, on the decrease of the waters of the Oroonoko, which occurs during February, incredible numbers of turtle repair to the banks of that river to deposit their eggs in the sand, and re main till they are sufficiently grown to procure subsistence for themselves. At this period, all the Indian tribes, who live near the borders of the Oroonoko, resort with their families to the shores of that river, to lay in a supply of turtle, which, after drying by means of heat, they store up for future use. They also preserve the eggs, except those from which they extract an oil, that is no ways inferior to the best olive oil. With these articles, independent of home consumption, they carry on a considerable traffic with the Indians living at a distance from the Oroonoko. 54 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. Marriage is established among all the Indian tribes through out America. This instrtution, coeval perhaps with the world itself, is not considered by them as a religious rite ; on the con trary, its sanctity is profaned by the universal -practice of poly gamy. But though there be no code prohibiting alliances be tween near relations, incestuous unions are never sanctioned by the form of marriage. Fathers possess no controul over the inclinations of their male children; but they exercise the'most unlimited sway Over those of the females of their family. They must implicitly submit to give their hand to the man, or rather to the tyrant, of their parent's choice. Instead of giving a portion with his daughter, the father receives one from his new son-in-law, who pays it under the form of labour, in game, fish, or other articles. Dancing and drunkenness con stitute the whole ceremony of marriage. The relations on both sides are invited on such occasions ; the men bring along with them materials proper to build a hut for the young pair, and the females present them with fish, fruit, bread, and drink ; the former chant couplets to the bridegroom, and the latter to the bride. As soon as it becomes dark, the young wife 1* presented to her husband, which concludes the ceremony. In erdtr to render a female worthy of the hand of a chief, it is ne cessary she should be descended from a family distinguished by military exploits, or should have had one ancestor, at least, a great warrior. The same ceremonies prevail among all the tribes inhabiting the banks of the Oroonoko ; they merely differ with respect to the kind of couplets chaunted by the old women to the bride. "Ah my daughter," says one of these matrons, " what torments hast thou prepared for thyself I couldst thou have foreseen them, never Kjouldst thou have married." "Ah!" says another, " into what an . error hast thou fallen! Canst thou believe that thou wilt pass a sin gle minute in the married state without shedding tears of blood?" " Tlie pains of child-birth,''' says a third, " are nothing in compa rison with those thy husband will make thee suffer; he will be thy tyrant, and thou zdlt be his victim." These prophecies are fully justified by the event: the Indian female experiences the most cruel treatment; every species of labour is performed by her, whilst the barbarous husband, stretch ed in his hammock, smokes his pipe and swallows spirituous li quors, without addressing a single word to his fatigued and ex hausted companion. The Otomaques are the only Indians who admit their women to participate in their diversions : among them, as elsewhere, the whole weight of domestic labour falls upon the females ; but they are at least allowed occasionally to associate in their public amuse- FREQUENCY OF DIVORCES. 55 ments. They are besides the only tribe among whom the practice of polygamy is not admitted. A singular custom also prevails among these Otomaques, of always uniting a young man to an old woman, and an old woman to a young man: the reason assigned by them for establishing such alliances, is, that the older party is thus ena bled to guide and instruct the younger. The other Indians marry as many wives as they please ; but they are all, without distinction, equally oppressed, equally unfortunate. From the practice of polygamy, we may naturally infer the fre quency of divorces; and in fact a single word from a discontented husband, is sufficient to effect a separation from a wife, who is, by this means, condemned to perpetual infamy. It has been affirmed, that jealousy cannot exist independently of .'ove; notwithstanding, by a kind of fatality attached to the Indian women, the same man who never regards them with the eye of affection, punishes with the greatest severity their slightest infidelities. Among the Caribs adulterers are put to deadi by the people, in the public streets ; but among the greatest part of the other tribes, the husband himself takes vengeance upon the offend ing wife, and his vengeance is always commensurate to the offence. Anodier practice common among these people, is that of ex changing their wives with each other for a limited time ; at the expiration of which, they are received back without the smallest objection being started on either side. From the manners of the Indians, we may readily conceive what kind of education they bestow upon their children ; it is suf ficient to have seen them as husbands, to be convinced how ill they must perform the duty of parents. From die tenderness they sometimes bestow upon their young children, they have been pronounced Hot wholly destitute of parental affection ; but these demonstrations of kindness proceed from a different nature. As soon as the children are able to procure sustenance for them selves, the father never thinks more of them, but to give them lessons of laziness, drunkenness, falsehood, and deceit. On the contrary, there are no children more unnatural than those of the Indians. Far from respecting the author of their being, they bear towards him the most implacable hatred, and frequently wait with impatience, until their own increasing strength, and his weakness, enable them to lift their hand against his life; and this species of outrage is always committed with impunity. The Indian children bear not, however, the same haired towards their mother : witnesses of her sufferings, and the companions of her unfortunate life, until they arrive at a state of adolescence, they feel for her sentiments of pity, which ripen into affection. An Indian never believes himself in a proper costume unless his whole body be covered with red paint. Even infants at the SO TRAVELS IN SOUTH AjlEEICA. breast are bedaubed in the same manner, twice a day. It is a law of hospitality among these tribes, when a stranger arrives at their dwelling, to cause the women to remove the paint from their bodies and apply it anew. On the occasion of any public festival, in- addition to the red paim, they ornament the body with designs of different colours, and the men appear with plumes of feathers on Iheir head, and bits of gold or silver suspended from the ears and nose. Such were the men with whom the Spaniards found it necessary to dispute the possession of Terta-Firma ; and such at this day are those tribes, who have still preserved their independence, notwithstanding the arms of the conqueror, and the religion of the missionary. The greatest number of these tribes are found towards the south-west of Guiana, and above the cataracts of Atures. The zeal of the Franciscan mission of Cumana has been vainly exerted to overcome their antipathy to a civilized life. If they suffered their approach, it was only in order more easily to deceive them. If they apparendy listened to their discourses, it was with the view of obtaining those small presents which were bestowed as a re ward for their attention. The deserts, lakes, mountains, and rivers, presented obstacles to the missionaries, which it was im possible for them to -surmount. It is indeed highly probable that , the immense tract of country situated between the sources of the ' Oroonoko and the Amazons, will long remain unsubdued. This nation, which occupies the numerous islands formed by the Oroonoko, is also one of those which have neither received the Spanish laws, nor the Christian religion. Situated between the civilized part of Spanish Guiana, and the province of Cumana, they remain independent of the Spanish government, and atheists in the midst of Christians. The Guaraunos amount to eight thousand souls, and except the Otomaques, are the gayest of the Indian tribes. They fre quent the civilized villages to the north and south of the Oroo noko, in order to sell fish, which they alwavs procure in great abundance, as well as a kind of hammocks of their own manu facture. The missionaries never fail oni the occasion of these visits to renew their attempts to convert them to Christianity, and to give them a relish for civilized life ; but if we are to judge from their want of success, for more than a century past, these Indians prefer the savage state more from choice than from ignorance of the conveniences attached to civilized life. Politically speaking, ^heir independence is a matter of great indifference to the Spa nish government, since they neither possess the power, nor evince the smallest inclination, to interfere with any of their concerns. CRUELTY OF A MISSIONARY. 57 Extremely different, however, is the character of the Goahiros,. who occupy a tract of country situated between die district of Maracaybo, and the Rio, or river de la Hdche,- exterkhng more than thirty leagues along th-e coast, and as far into the interior of the country. They have at all times been regarded as the most ferocious of the maritime Indians. The Spaniard.-; never attempt ed to subjugate them. At the period when the system of mis sions .was adopted, they sent among the Goahiros, Capuelmis from the kingdom of VaL-uce, who, with much patience and per severance, endeavoured to imbue their minds with the truths of Christianity, and to convince them of the necessity of subordina tion to the Spanish authority. Some hopes were even entertained that these attempts might have ultimately succeeded; when an event that occurred in 176S, replun^ed them into all their origi nal barbarity. A missionary being informed that an Indian from a neighbour-. ing village came regularly to pass his nights with an Indian fe male, living near the residence of this Capuchin, ordered him to be secured and whipt. This order was, unfortunately, too punc tually executed, (aiid the Indian retired to his friends thirsting for vengeance against his persecutor. The whole nation instantly took arms, and fell upon the village where the chastisement had been inflicted. They indiscriminately murdered all the inhabi tants, and destroyed, and set fire to every thing which fell in their Way. Although the missionaries were solely tt> blame in this transaction; they alone had the good fortune to escape. Since this unfortunate affair, it would prove certain destruction for any missionary to appear among" this tribe. They are in num ber about thirty thousand, and are governed by a cacique, for whom they have erected' a citadel, on a small eminence, which they term la Tela, at a few leagues distance from the sea. They breed horses, on which their troops are mouuted, and each sol dier carries his carabine, cartouch-box, and his bow and quiver. They have found in the English of Jamaica, friends who aid" them with their counsel, aad supply them with what arms they stand in need of. So intimate a connection subsists between this tribe and these islanders, that they send their children to Jamaica to" learn the use of arms, and the proper mode of managing ar tillery. This strange policy of the English can have no other motive but that of securing -allies, in the event of undertaking an hostile expedition against Terra-Firma. The Spanish city most frequented, by the Goahiros, is that of RiO de la Hache, "dependant on' the vice-royalty of Santa-Fe; they proceed thither in large companies, to traffic with the inha bitants, frequently preceded by their wives, who not only carry the children, but are loaded like beasts of burden. They have UEPONS.] H 58 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. ' never adopted the use of money ; they usually give horses and black cattle in exchange for ardent spirits, to which they are pas sionately attached. When their wants are extremely pressing, they threaten the nearest city or village ; and the Spaniards gene rally find it necessary to sacrifice a few casks of spirits, in order to procure peace. Such is the perfidy and ferocity of the Goa hiros, that their friends, the English, seldom land in their country, from a dread of being assassinated. Their exchanges are usually made on ship-board. Any vessels unfortunately wrecked upon their shores, instantly become a prey to the ferocity of these cannibals, who pillage the cargo, and murder and divide the crew amongst them. Towards the east of the Goahiros territory, dwells the tribe of Cqcinas; but they are so cowardly and pusillanimous, that the former maintain over them all that ascendency which courage must ever possess over timidity. These savages are, indeed, properly speaking, only the vassals of the Goahiros. The necessity of subjugating the Goahiros Indians, is fully acknowledged by the rulers of Terra-Firma. The present go vernor of Maracaybo, D. Fernando Miyares Gonzales, a man of talent, employs every means in his power to repress the excesses of which they are frequently guilty. In 1801, he had forty-nine of them as hostages in the prisons of Maracaybo; one of them was a cousin of the cacique, and him he refused to surrender, until his tribe first delivered up Martin Rodrigues, a mulatto of Rio de la Iiache, who had stimulated them to some hostile en terprises against the Spanish settlements. This demand not hav ing been complied with, the Indians, as late as 1 803, still re mained in the power of the Spaniards. Various representations have been made at different periods to the viceroy of Santa-Fe, requesting permission to attack Goahiros on the west, while an enterprise was undertaken at the same time, on the side of Mara caybo. The viceroy, who lives at two hundred leagues distance, connot issue the necessary orders, without first requesting the advice of the governor of Rio de la Hache, who has hitherto succeeded in delaying, and sometimes even in putting a decidtxl negative upon the measure. The system of rigour adopted by the first conquerors of Spanish America, was quickly succeeded by one of greater mildness and hu manity. Few foreign writers have rendered complete justice to the Spaniards in this respect. The Abbe Raynal, more enthusiastic than impartial, more vehement than accurate, gives a picture of the state of the South American Indians, which is not applicable to any of the Spanish possessions, and still less to that of the captain-generalship of Carraccas. Robertson, a more correcS PRIVILEGES GRANTED TO THE INDIANS. 5§ historian, though also a philosopher, approaches nearer to the truth; but the Spanish laws are even more favourable to the Indians, than he is inclined to represent them. The Spanish legislature appears to have given to this class of men, all the advantages it did not believe to be incompatible with their dependance on the mother country. The principal regulations adopted by the mother Country, to ensure their sovereignty over America, was to deprive the Indians of all weapons whatever, either offensive or defensive ; to inter dict the practice of riding on horse-back ; to prevent an Indian from learning the use of arms, or remaining in the house of any person from whom they could acquire the least idea of fabrica ting, repairing, or handling them; they -likewise forced them to live united in villages, and never to remove from one place to another, or to change their abode, under pain of receiving twenty- strokes with a rod : and the cacique who had permitted it, was fined at the same time forty piastres; the Spaniards and mulattoes are interdicted from taking up their abode in any of the Indian villages, from a dread that they might diffuse among the inha bitants, ideas destructive of public tranquillity. The first act of generosity of the Spanish government in favour of the Indians, was that of allowing them to choose magistrates from among themselves. All the villages, under the Spanish dominions, are governed by a cacique, descended from a family holding that rank before the conquest, if any such exist, other wise he is named by the king. But it is indispensible that he be an Indian, without any mixture of European or African blood. In the provinces dependant on Carraccas, the Indian villages are governed by a cabildo or municipality, composed of two alcades, and two Indian regidors, if there be more than eighty houses. The principal duty of these magistrates, is to repress drunkenness, libertinism, and impiety; but so infected are they themselves with the same vices, that not unfrequently, their ex ample tends to propagate and extend them. In order, as far as possible, to remedy these and similar abuses, th# Spanish govern ment has interposed between the magistrates and the people, a corregidor, as he is termed in Terra-Firma, or a protector of die Indians, as they style him in other parts of America. This func tionary is always a Spaniard, and is obliged to reside in die In dian village over which he is appointed ; his duty is to prevent the Indian magistrates from abusing their authority, or inflicting. excessive and disproportionate chastisements. The fiscals, or procureurs generaux of^the courts of audience, are appointed to defend the Indians, both in civil and criminal causes. T!,3 caciques, and their descendants, enjoy all the privileges of the Spanish nation. The Indians are exempted fro ui the aka* h 3 60 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. vain, or annual tribute on every male from the age of eighteen to fifty; but the most valuable privilege accorded to them, is that of being considered as minors. They are not obhg.d to fulfil any contract entered into with a Spaniard, without the interven tion of the judges; and such compacts are seldom found valid, when they appear to be ericLntly detrimental to the Indian. The Inquisition, which maintains an absolute sway over the consciences of all Spaniards, assumes no right over those of the Indians. When they are charged with the crimes of heresy and apostacy, it is referred to the tribunal of bishops; and for any other crimes, they are amenable to the civil tribunals. The only instruction necessary to fit an adult Indian for baptism, is, that he should be able to indicate, either by signs, or in words, that idolatry, the worship of images, lying, and superstition, are mor tal sins; that fornication, adultery, incest, aud sodomy, are. hor rible sins; and that drunkenness, is likewise a sin. It is a general practice, to cut off the hair of an adult on bis receiviug baptism ; and this custom the early missionaries ob served with respect to the converted Indians ; but these savages have such a particular affection for their hair, that sooner than part with it, they chose rather that the gates of heaven should for ever remain shut against them. The king being informed; of this obstacle to their conversion, ordered, that it should be dis continued, hi opposition to the precept of Saint Paul on the sub- JectV ^Notwithstanding all the pains taken by the missionaries, it has been found impossible to imbue the minds of the Indians with the necessity of confession.; if they ever approach the confessional chair, it is neither with a view- of acknowledging their sins, nor, oi correcting thsin. '.I is seldom they even assume the posture of a penitent; if they kneel, on entering, they very soon seat, them selves on the ground, and instead of declaring their- sins, they, strenuously de;>.y having committed those which the priest^urges. home to them, from. a .previous knowledge of their habits. It is o.-i!y after beiug'chariy convicted of falsehood, that thev allow, themselves to rp.ve been culpable in any respect; and when driven, to th;s extremity, they frequently load with curses, those who k.ye iuibs-m-Al liis priest. A similar confessiou would not be adrtntied horn. a Spaniard, or a;ry other christian; but made by an Indian, it has been docliu-d valid by different learned theolo gians, provided the confcs-uir can extort from him a token of contrition, a condition that is easily fulfilled by dictating an act of re pen; a nee, which, the Indian confusedly mutters afterliis spi ritual pu'sde. His i.jncruico.is so great, :>n'd his faculties so limit ed, that no'.!iiucT more it is believed can be required or" him ¦ and in conformity to the theological i/:a.\im, facienti quod est )'n *e, ZEAL OF THE SPANISH MISSIONS. 6l ¦Dens /.l0H dcnrgat auxilhtm, they conclude that the Indian is also properly and duly confessed. By a special indulgence from the Pope, they are not obliged to confess during the pascal season; it is sufiicient if they confess once a year, even extra tempora pascha. They are not obliged to attend mass above one half of the number of holydays prescribed to the Spaniards, and even the slightest excuse is deemed sufficient to exempt them from the performance of this duty. To conclude, so fully are the missionaries persuaded that the only way to bring these savages within the pale of the church, is to give them the tastes and habits of civilized life, that it became a matter of dispute, whether or not they ought to be permitted to eat human flesh; and what adds to the singularity of the ques tion, is, that it was decided in the affirmative. Montenegro, supporting his opinions from the doctrine of Lesio and Diana, seriously asserts in his lilnerario de Parochos de Indios, lib. 4. trat. 5. sect. 9. num. 8. that in case of necessity they may eat human flesh zclthout any species of sin, because it is not in itself evil. But how, we are fairly infilled to enquire, can a case of such urgent.necessity occur in the most fertile spot of the globe, covered with forests, abounding in game, and watered by rivers full of turtle and various species of fishes? From what has been said, it must be evident what great efforts have been made by the Spanish missions, gently to lead the In dians of Terra-Firma from a savage to a civilized life. What people so barbarous, that so many cares would not have softened, or that would have remained insensible from generation to ge neration ? The most ferocious animals, in the end, afford demon strations of gratitude to those who continually caress them. The Indian alone possesses an indifference, an apathy which is found in no other living being. His heart, shut equally to pleasure as to hope, is accessible only to terror. A stranger to courage, cowardice and timidity are his only inheritance: his soul is with out resource, his mind destitute of activity. Incapable of con ceiving or of reasoning, he passes his days m a kind of stupor, which indicates that he has no idea of his own nature, or of the objects by which he is surrounded. His ambition or his desires- never reach beyond the present moment. This character is somewhat less prominent in those Indians who reside in cities, than among those who inhabit the villages under the direction of the cure orSpanish corregidor; although four or five generations have passed away since their quitting the savage state. Neither the instruction they have received, on entering into so< iety, nor the favours with which they haVe been treated, are found- sufiicient to inspire, them with a disrelish. for the, savage 62 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. unite; although the present generation know it only by tradition. There are, in fact, few Indians who do not sigh after a life in the .'ousts, and who do not retire thither whenever they can escape si.e vigilance of their governors : and this propensity does not pioectd from a love of liberty, but from the opportunity such a life affords them of indulging their melancholy, superstition, and soiriempt for the most sacred rights of nature. There are perhaps no other human beings in a state less proper to be converted to Christianity than a South American Indian. Too limited in his capacity to seize its truths ; too indolent to eleyate his vis ws to heaven ; too little accustomed to reflect, to conceive i- ven the existence of one God, he neither occupies his mind with bis pi t. scut nor his future state of existence. He listens to the doctrines which have been taughthim, and even repeats them with an air of d< >ciliry which has the appearance of submission, but which in fact proceeds from his want of curiosity. If the idea of one plies: has he seen it? rcho told him si ¦? who has returned fivm ii'i If mortification and absti- INDIFFERENCE OP THE INDI ANS TO RELIGION, 63 nence constitute the topic of his discourse, the Indian asks: why does not the priest, who inculcates this doctrine, practise it IiL it self? If confession be the subject, he attributes it to the curi osity of the father, and affirms that God does not require to be told what is done by the Indians; so that with these and similar commentaries, the sermon is usually move hurtful than beneficial to the progress of faith. I'rom what has been said, we conceive it must be admitted. that even those Indians who have been under the protection of the Spanish laws for upwards of a hundred and fifty yca.-s, approach more nearly to a state of barbarism than civilization. The cause. of this might well be looked for in the nature of this species of men, whose excessive stupidity caused* at one time, the question to be agitated, whether they really possessed the faculty of rea son ; and it was only after a very serious examination, that Paul the third declared in 1537 in favour of the affirmative. Indus ipsos, says the bull, utpote, veros homines, non solum chrls'lame Jidel capaces existere decern! mus et declaramus. It is, however, highly probable that under a different system of government, llieir inaptitude in acquiring knowledge, might in a great measure lie overcome. It appears to me that this part of the population of Terra-Firma, would have been less immersed in superstition and vice, if they had made a law obliging every Indian to per form a certain degree of labour, and at the same time assured him of receiving the full reward of his exertion. By renderinw these men laborious, they would at the same time have rendered them good fathers, good husbands, and good christians ; because all the social virtues flow from the love of labour. The Indian population in the captain-generalship of Carraccas amounts to seventy-two thousand eight hundred individuals of all ages and sexes. By employing them in easy labour, such as in the culture of cotton and coffee, in which the women, the old men, and the children might likewise be useful, there would necessarily result a great augmentation of commodities, a: id a 'considerable increase of commerce. Supposing that these seventy-two thousand Indians only per formed one-half of the daily labour of an European, and that in place of a thousand pounds of coffee, for example, he should only raise five hundred pounds, even this would be a means of adding eighteen millions twelve hundred and fifty pounds to that exported at present ; the produce of which would serve to pur chase many objects of European manufacture. By such means new energy would be given to navigation and commerce, which would be attended with advantages so evident, that I deem it wholly unnecessary to occupy the time of my reader in detailing them. 64 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA CHAP. IV SPANISH G#VERNMENT IN CARRACCAS.— COUNCIL OF THE INDIES. REPRESENTATIVE OF THE KING. ROYAL AUDIENCE. — CABILDOS.— THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN SPAIN, AND IN AMERTCA. LIEUTENANTS OF JUSTICE. OTHER TRIBUNALS. MILITARY FUERO. — REFLEC TIONS ON THE SPANISH LAWS.— ARMED FORCE. DE FENCE OF THE SEA-PORTS.— LANDING UPON THE COASTS. ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMED FORGE.-— TROOPS OF THE LINE. — MILITIA. _ T may readily be supposed, that the political and civil consti tution of the Spanish possessions in the new world, could only be the work of time ; it far exceeded all human power to esta blish, at the period of their discovery, a< complete code of laws for countries till then unknown, and for settlements of a nature so very different from those of ancient and modern times. The idea of converting countries of such an immense extent into dependencies on the Spanish crown, naturally .suggested that of establishing the same constituted authorities in .them, as in the mother country. The supreme power was veste^ in chiefs, un der the title of viceroys or captains-general. The Spanish possessions in South America' are divided into four vice-royalties, viz. Mexico, Peru,. Buenos- Ayres,, and Santa Fe ; and six captain-generalships, viz. Porto Rico, Havannah,. Carraccas, Guatimala, Chili, and the Philippine islands iii Asia. The police was, asrin old Spain, committed to tlie supferin-- tendence of the cabildos. At- first they established them in every village as soon as it was founded ; even when the population did ' not exceed thirty individuals, they built a church and established a cabildo; but for tlie laSt century they have not appointed -alcades and regidors until the inhabitants became more numerous. For, the administration of justice there are at' present thirteen courts of audience, which hold their sittings at Mexico, Guada- laxara, . Guatimala. the isle of Cuba, Lima, Charcas',. Chili, Santa Fe, Quito, Buenos- Ayres, Carraccas, disco, and the Phi-- LAws Of the Indies. 63 hppines. The religious establishment consists of bishoprics, chapters, and convents ; besides which there are several archbi shoprics, and thirty-seven vicarages. The power delegated to these different authorities is extended or restrained according to circumstances ; but the viceroys enjoy too many opportunities of abusing the prerogative entrusted to them. The cabildos, who are composed of Creoles, or Spaniards destined to pass their lives in America, ' generally sacrifice the in terests of the mother country to those of her colonies; on which account it has been found necessary to restrain their power. The case is, however, different with respect to the courts of audience, the members of which are all in the immediate pay of the king ; it is the royal authority alone which can confer on them promotion, and the law leaves at their disposal no efficient force to undertake any enterprize that can endanger the authority of the mother country. It was not then dangerous, on the Contrary, it could not but prove useful, to invest these superior tribunals with great authority, to Serve as a check to the ambition bf the chiefs, and with a view to prevent any acts of injustice they might be otherwise led to commit. Religion has also contributed to cement the royal authority in SoHth America ; .it is an engine which politicians always know how to render available for their own purposes. All the laws respecting South America, which were found useful on trial> have been collected together, and form a code for the Spanish possessions under the title of the laws of the Indies. This respectable tribunal, to which the Spanish throne owes all its lustre, dates its origin from 1511. The great qualities necessary in order to be admitted one of its members, have operated to produce, in the public mind, a degree of respect for this tribu nal, so much the more merited, as its decisions have been uni formly marked by impartiality, wisdom, and experience. Its jurisdiction extends over all the Spanish settlements in South America and the West Indies. It takes cognizance by a kind of appeal, termed by the Spaniards recurso, of all causes determined before the courts of audience : all its deliberations are determined by a majority of voices, except in enacting or re voking laws, in which case, according to the constitution, two-thirds are requisite. Appointments to all civil and ecclesiastical employments, re wards due to meritorious services, superintendence of the tribu nals, the military, finances, and commerce, all depend on the council of the Indies, its power, which has gradually augment ed, has never been abused : it is at present so powerful as to be paramount over all Spanish America. lis integrity operates sb DEPONS.] * 66. TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. much to defeat all intrigue, that- every Spaniard whose cause is not founded on principles of justice, employs all his efforts to withdraw it from the council f the Indies. The immediate representative of the king in the government of Venezuela and its dependencies, is a captain-general, who acts also as governor and president of the royal court of audience, and of" all the tribunals, excepting those which regulate taxes, and superintend the interests of commerce. As captain-general, the authority of the governor extends over all the provinces of Venezuela, Maracaybo, Varinas, Guiana, Cumana, and the island of Marguerite. Every thing relative to fortifications, arms, de fence, in short, the whole n ilitary department is immediately un der his controul. In matters of great moment, however, he frequently has recourse to an assembly or commission, composed of the first military officers, which is denominated the junta de gitcrra. To him also it belongs exclusively, to watch over the political relations between his own department and foreign colonies. As governor, his authority is limited to the province of Venezuela. Guiana, &c. have also their particular governors, to whom the same powers are delegated as to the governor of the Carraccas* They are nominated for the period of five years. In all criminal and civil causes every governor is obliged to employ a lawyer or jurisconsult, who arranges and signs. the decisions. He is ap pointed and paid by the king, exclusively of the fees he receives from the causes which come under his cognizance. These deci sions, however, are of no force without the signature of the go vernor. If they appear to be contrary to justice, he may transmit them to another assessor, named ad hoc, who can reverse them. The governor may, if he choose, decide in opposition to the opinion of the jurisconsults; buthe seldom employs this powrer unless when he can justify the parthe has taken. Besides these prerogatives, the governor possesses that of presiding over the court of audience. When he ai rives, the guard is drawn out, and the cry resounds — "His excellency, the president 7" All the civilians and scriveners, &.c. wait upon him and follow in his train. On entering the court, all the audience rise up and receive him : when the sitting is ter minated, he is re-conducted to his palace with similar honours. It is the undoubted right of the governor, president, and cap tain-general, in doubtful cases not provided for by the law, to take the measures he may deem best calculated to secure the public tranquillity ; but the responsibility to which he is liable renders him cautious in the exercise of this right. The powers with which he is invested are unquestionably great ; but they are more so in appearance than in reality. To the vulgar, who are ever ready to confound honours with pov. er, he appears almost PREROGATIVES OF THE CAPTAIN GENERAL, &C. 67 omnipotent, whilst in the eye of the law his power of justice is alone unlimited. His ambition and tyranny are restrained by the strict account he must give of all his official acts at the expiration of his government. According to the constitution of the Indies, nothing has been overlooked that could render these representatives of majesty isolated beings. All their affections are kept enchained. They must not possess throughout the whole extent of their jurisdic tion more than four slaves ; they are prevented from carrying on any kind of trade, from marrying, themselves or children, from being present at weddings or funerals, or from acting as sponsors at the baptismal font. The salary of the captain-general of the Carraccas is 9,000 piastres annually ; and the perquisites attached to the office nearly double this sum. He can only remain in power for the term of seven years, unless when war, or any other unforeseen circum stance, occurs to prevent the appointment of a successor. In case of sickness he may delegate his powers to the next in succession ; but as soon as he receives the sacrament he possesses no longer any choice. The commander in chief immediately assumes the reins of government, and the governor cannot resume ¦his functions until his complete recovery has been fully ascer tained. All the district which at present forms the audience of Carrac cas made a part of that of St. Domingo, from the discovery of Terra-Firma until 1718, at which period it was put under the Jurisdiction of the audience of Santa-Fe. The great distance of this city from the Carraccas, the difficulty, and sometimes even the impossibility of travelling, particularly in times of war, join ed to other circumstances, induced the Spanish government to establish by a royal order in 1786, the audience comprehending the provinces of Venezuela, Maracaybo, Cumana, Veniias, Gui ana, and the island of Marguerite. This court held its first sitting in July, 1787. It is composed of a president, who is always the captain-ge neral for the time being; a regent, with a salary of 5,300 piastres; three oidors, with salaries of 3,S00 piastres; two fiscals, one for the civil and criminal department, and the other for that of the finance, with each a salary of ,3,300 piastres ; a reporter with 500 piastres, and a right to fees in causes between parties ; and an alguazel, without any salary but what he receives voluntarily. The judges dress in black, and wear a black silk robe made ¦in the form of a mantle. They formerly wore a white wand, suspended from one of then buttons, which in Spain is regarded as an emblem of jurisdiction, before which every one trembles. This court sits everv day from eight o'clock in the morning till i 9 Humidity, according to the hygrometer of Deluc, usually, 47 Maximum, , ...... 58 Minimum 37 The mercury, which rises in the southern parts of Europe, and during the variations of the atmosphere, even to eleven lines of a Paris inch, never ascends in the eastern parts of Terra-Firma above two lines. There are observed at Carraccas, in every season of the year, four atmospheric tides in the twenty-four hours; two during the day, and two in the night. Blue portion of the sky, according to the cyanometer of Saus- sure, usually, 18. In a hundred parts of the atmosphere are contained twenty- eight of oxygen, and seventy two of nitrogen. The maximum of the first is, .... 29 The minimum, 27 J Magnetic declination C7th of September, 1799, 4° 38' 45''. Inclination of the pole, usually, . . - 43T5|. Oscillations of the pendulum in fifteen minutes, 1 270. The city of Carraccas, which covers a space of two square miles, is built in a valley four leagues in extent, running in a di rection from east to west, between the great chain of mountains which skirt the sea from Coro to Cumana: it is also bounded on the north and south by mountains of an equal height. The ground on which it stands is broken and irregular, so that in walking the streets it is necessary continually to ascend and descend ; but the greatest declivity is from north to south. From the port of Pas- tora towards the north, to the river Goayre, which limits this city to the south, the distance is seventy-five toises. Carraccas is wa tered by four rivers; the first, Goayre, flows along its southern extremity without entering it. The second, Anauco, bathes the eastern part of the city. Candelaria is the point where it most nearly approaches it, and at this spot a bridge has been erected, which greatly facilitates the communication with the valley of Chacao. The third, Caroata, flows over the rocks in a bed formed by high and steep banks. In its course, which is from north to south, it separates from the other, that quarter of the city named St. John : they are, however, united by means of a bridge very well constructed, but not so regular as that of Candelaria. The fourth, Catucho, supplies with water the public aud pri vate cisterns erected in different parts of the city. These four rivers unite in a single bed, cross the valley of PUBLIC SQUARES, &C. 93 Cbacao, covered with fruits, live stock, and articles of com-: merce ; and at last mingle their waters with the Tuy, which flows into the sea twelve leagues east of cape Codera. The streets of Carraccas run at right angles with each other; they are about twenty feet wide, paved, open to the four cardiual points, and at the distance of nearly three hundred feet from one another, There are only three public squares which deserve that name, though even they are not free from faults. The largest, called placa mayor, is disfigured by small shops built in it from east to west, which are let out to the merchants of the city ; and for the miserable pittance received on this account, the eye is deprived of a view for which nothing can compensate. This square occupies three hundred square feet. It is well paved, and is employed as a market for all kinds of provisions ; vegetables, fruits, butchers' meat, fish, poultry, game, bread, parrots, apes, aud birds of every species are here exposed to sale in the greatest abundance. The cathedral church in the east side of the square, is disproportioned to the rest of the buildings. This square has two entrances on each side. The second square, Candelaria, is surrounded by an iron railing upon masonry of unequal height. Being built on an ar gillaceous soil mixed with sand, it is much better than the best pavement, and all together presents an agreeable appearance. The only edifice worth notice is the church of Candelaria, which, though not constructed with geometrical accuracy, is ornament ed by a fagade of sufficient beauty to divert the eye from dwelling on the defective parts of the square. The third is that of Saint Paul, which is a regular square, or namented by a fountain in the middle. The church of Saint Paul is situated at the south-east angle of the square, with the other buildings in which it has not the smallest agreement. This square is neither levelled nor paved. The other squares, five in number, do not deserve particular notice. In "that of Saint John, which is pretty extensive, the horse militia are exercised. Many houses belonging to individuals are handsome and well built; some of them are of brick, but the greatest part are built of stone, nearly in the manner of the Romans; those of the prin cipal inhabitants are elegantly furnished. There is generally in each house one principal apartment, which is ornamented in the richest and most expensive manner, and which is never employed by the family, but only, opened for the reception of company on days of ceremony. In the city of Carraccas there are no public edifices but those dedicated to religious purposes. The captain-general, the royal audience, the inteiidaut, and all the other tribiuials, hold their sittings in houses hired for the purpose. Even the military hos- ©4 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. pital is in a private house. The eontadorie, or treasury, is th® only royal building; and its appearance does no honour to the taste or munificence of the king. On- an emineuce above the city stand the barracks, which consist of nine edifices of equal height, and a double court. They might conveniently lodge two thousand men, but are only occupied by a single troop of the line. The barrack for the mi litia, that is, the house employed as si*ch, stauds in the opposite quarter of the city. It is to be regretted, that the ground had not been levelled for the extent of three or four hundred feet round these barracks, and surrounded by a wall two feet in height, surmounted by an iron railing, which would have afforded an agreeable walk to the inhabitants, a convenient place for the troops to exercise in, and; cpuld not have been attended wjth much additional expence. Carraccas is the seat of the archbishop of Venezuela, whose diocese is bounded by the sea to the north, from the river Unara to the jurisdiction of Coro; to the east by the province of Cu mana, to the south by the Oronooko, and to the west by the bishopric of Merida. The cathedral church only merits notice from the rank it holds in the hierarchy of temples. ' It is truly astonishing that in a city so well peopled as Carraccas, and wherq Christianity is so much respected, there should not be erected a church more consonant to the importance of the archbishopric and the grandeur of the city. It is not sufficient that the interior be adorned with golden tapestry, that the sacerdotal habits and sacred vessels announce the supremacy of the temple to which they belong ; while its construction, its architecture, its dimen sions, and distribution, have nothing grand, striking, or regular, It is about two hundred and fifty feet in length, and seventy- five in width. It is low, and supported within by twenty-four pillars, distributed in four ranges- lengthwise. The two center rSnges form the nave, twenty feet wide, and the two others di vide the under sides at the distance of twelve feet and a half each j so that the nave alone is of greater width than the two lower sides, which lie to the right aud left. The grand altar, instead of being in the center, is fixed against the wall. The choir occu pies one half of the nave ; and the arrangement of this temple is sc,ch, that not above four hundred persons can obtain a view of the priest officiating at the altar. The exterior of this building owes nothing either to the taste or execution of the workmen, The steeple without having received any embellishment from art, possesses at least the merit of solidity. The only clock in Car raccas is fixed in this steeple; it strikes the quarters, and is on the whole extremely accurate. Besides the cathedral, there are four parishes in Carraccas, DESCRIPTION &FTHE CHUKCHES, &C 951 Saint Rosalie, Saint Paul, Candelaria or Cha.ndeleur, and Atta- Gracia ; three monasteries, the Franciscans or Cordeliers, the Dominicans, and the Mercenaires ; a chapel ; an hospital of Capu chins ; two convents of nuns, one of the order of Carmelites^ and the other of the Conception ; a house of Educandas, or of fe male education ; three churches, Saint Maurice, Trinity, Divina Pastora, termed by the Spaniards Ermites, because they belong not to any parish, convent, or hospital. These churches are al ways erected at the expence of the faithful ; each of them has a priest, who regulates aud dispenses the ceremonies, and collects the alms. In general the churches in Carraccas are well built ; but the one which surpasses all the rest, is the parish church of Alta- Gracia, the architecture of which would do honour to the first cities in Europe. It was erected by the free men of colour in habiting that quarter of the city where it stands, and ornamented at their expence, and by some contributions from the whites. That of Candelaria owes its existence in like maimer to the Ca- warians. All the churches are gilded from the base of the altars to the ceilings. The authors, who, like Robertson, have boasted so much of their riches, have not surely taken up this idea from those of Carraccas, unless they have mistaken these gildings for ' pure gold. The churches possess every thing necessary for the decent celebration of religious worship, but they are neither sumptuous nor in great profusion. The linen,, beads, tapestry, the habits of the Virgin and of the saints, when they are carried in procession, or exposed during their particular feasts, are cer tainly objects of considerable expence, but cannot be considered as a source of riches. It is gold, silver, and diamonds alone which possess any intrinsic value ; and these are not found in great profusion in tlie churches of Carraccas. We may judge of this by the priests of other churches being obliged to borrow the large silver chandeliers and other ornaments from the cathedral, when they celebrate any of their grand festivals. The Spaniards are very assiduous in their attendance on divh>e ordinances ; that is, on mass, sermons, and processions ; for they do not reckon vespers among the exercises of religion, as is done both in France and Spain. The men usually attend church in their common dress : it is, however, necessary that they either wear a proper habit, or be covered with a cloak or great-coat; neither rank nor colour ex empts the individual from this regulation. Females, when attending church, especially tlie whites, are rigorously restricted to wear black. Their dress consists of a black petticoat and veil. The slaves only are permitted to appear in Q5 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERlC/4. white veils. The gauze veils worn by females of the higher rafife are so- thin as to afford a perfect view of their features. The rest of their dress is usually made either of silk, or velvet trimmed with beautiful blond lace, and costs from 400 to 800 piastres'. Those who blush to appear poor by wearing less expensive clothes, subject themselves to every kind of privation, in order to rival their more opulent neighbours ; while others, despising such rigid economy, sacrifice their honour to their vanity, and obtairt rich apparel as the price of their charms. Several females, who in order to avert a threatened evil, or obtain an anxiously desired good, make vows to assist for a determined length of time at certain religious ceremonies, and appear in a habit emblematical of the power they have invoked to their aid. Thus, when their prayers are addressed to our lady of IMonut-Carmel, they adopt a violet-coloured habit, with amedallion on the left side ; if to Saint Francis, they wear the habit of his order, which in Spanish America is blue, &c. &,c. Those who cannot afford to procure such characteristic gar ments, are obliged, under similar vows, to attend the celebration of mass before daybreak, which they term mlssa's de madrugadd. The reason assigned for this practice is, that without an appro priate dress it would be indecent to enter the churches during daylight. The festivals kept by the Spaniards, are those found in the Roman calendar. They are so numerous at Carraccas, that scarcely a single day elapses without the occurrence of some saint's day in one or other of the churches. What infinitely multiplies these ceremonies, 'is, that each festival is preceded by nine days consecrated to prayer, and followed by eight ; during which the faithful, not only of the parish where such festival is kept, but from every part of the city, join to their prayers pubjjc amuse ments, as fire-works, music, balls, Sec. The procession of the saint forms the most brilliant part Of these festivals. The image of the saint, which is always as large as life and richly dressed, is carried about at noon upon a small ta ble highly decorated, and followed or preceded by some other saint belonging to the same church, but less sumptuously habited. Many banners and crosses are carried before the procession; the men walk tw o abreast, and the principal part of them carry a taper in their hand; then follow the musicians, the clergy, the civil authorities, and lastly the women, surrounded by a guard with fixed bayonets. The retinue is always very nu merous. All the windows in the streets through which the pro cession passes, are ornamented with flags, which give an air of gaiety and festivity to that quarter of the city; they are also- HISTORY OF OUR LADY COBANA. 97 crouded with females, who repair hither to witness this amusing and agreeable exhibition. The devotion of the Spaniards is almost exclusively paid to the Blessed Virgin. They . have an image of her in all their churches, under different denominations, and each of them has been brought into notice in a manner more or less miraculous, particularly two, the history of whose inauguration is so remark able as to deserve being recorded. The first is our Lady of Copa Cobana. An Indian, says the tradition, walking along the streets of Carraccas, pulled off his hat, on which he observed a demi-real; much astonished, he ran with it to the first cabaret, and purchased some ardent spirits. Afterwards going to seat himself at the corner of the street, he had occasion to again pull off his hat, when another piece of the same value fell at his feet; more astonished than before, he also barteredit for his favourite potion. A moment afterwards, pulling off his hat for the third time, another demi-real tumbled on the ground. On picking it up, and examining it with care, he ob served the figure of a virgin impressed on it. He instantly con signed this precious relic to the scapulary he wore around his neck, underneath his shirt. A shou time afterwards, having as sassinated a man, he was taken, imprisoned, and condemned to . be executed. On the executioner putting the cord round his neck, it instantly broke; a stronger cord was substituted in its stead, which shared the fate of the former; on which the Indian declared, that this miracle was produced by our Lady of Copa Cobana. He requested they would examine his scapulary, when, in fact, they actually discovered the demi-real, which had become as large as a piastre; and the figure of the virgin was sad and covered with perspiration. The Indian requested that it might be deposited in the church of St. Paul, and that prayers might be put up to the virgin, in order to obtain the favour of Heaven. This request was granted, and the Indian suffered the execution of his sentence. The ca bildo or municipality of Carraccas decreed, that all prayers for rain should be offered up to this virgin. In fact, whenever they suffer from long continued drought, they proceed in procession to St. Paul's, in order to seek pur L:.dy of Copa Cobana, and carry her to tlie cathedral, where she remains two days, which are kept as festivals. They afterwards return to St. Paul's with the same solemnity. The archbishops, the chapter, the priests, cures, and monks of all the different convents, the captain-gene- ral, the royal audience, and the cabildo assist at these two pro cessions. The second virgin established at Carraccas by a miracle, is our Lady of the Soledad. A rich female of Carraccas, possessing goods PEPONS.] N 98 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. upon the coast between Porto-Cavello and Goayre, had ordered from Spain an image of our Lady of Sohdid, which they adored at Madrid, in a chapel dedicated to her service. Walking one day on the shore, she beheld upon the sand a large case directed to herself. Astonished at this circumstance, she caused it to be carried to her dwelling. On opening the case, a fine statue of our Lady of Soledad struck the eyes of the assistants. They prostrated themselves, exclaiming, " a miracle !" and henceforward their vows and prayers were all addressed to this virgin. A short time after, the vessel arrived in the port of Goayre, on board of which the statue of the virgin from Madrid had been shipped. The captain waited on the lady, delivered her a letter, and bathed in tears, acknowledged, that having experienced a terri- rible storm at sea, he was obliged to throw every thing overboard, in order to lighten the vessel ; and that the case containing the virgin had shared a similar fate. On comparing dates, it was discovered, that the virgin had been found on the shore on the very day the storm occurred at sea. The cry of a miracle was set up anew. The news of this event was quickly diffused abroad, aud the reputation of our Lady of Soledad established on an immovable foundation. It was left by the lady at her death to the convent of Franciscans, where it is invoked by a numerous tribe of votaries. The only public amusements at Carraccas, is the exhibition of comedies during the festivals. Admittance to them costs only a single real ; which affords a sufficient indication of the (ability of the actors, and the elegance of the theatre. The pieces are ill written, and still worse performed. The declamation of this' stage resembles the tone in which a child six years old recites a lesson he does not perfectly remember. They possess neither grace, action, inflexion of voice, easy gesture, nor, in one word, any quality which constitutes an actor in an ordinary theatre. The comedians of Carraccas may be compared to those itinerant players who frequent fairs, living rather on what is produced by the pity, than the approbation of their audience. From the above picture, every person must be inclined to sup pose, that similar exhibitions would be wholly deserted, or at most only attended by those possessing neither taste nor educa tion. This, however, is far from being the case; the rich and the poor, the old and the young, nobles and plebeians, governors and governed, all assiduously frequent this species of amusement. The only problem 1 have not been able to resolve among all my observations, on Carraccas, is the indifference of the inhabitants of this city, who are in other respects not destitute of taste, and have received much instruction, respecting a point so essential to public amusement. PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS AT CARRACCAS. 99 When speaking of the public amusements at Carraccas, I am taaturally led to notice the game of tennis-ball, which is played either with the hand or with a battledore. TheBiscayans first introduced this diversion among the na tives, who, although far from being adepts, yet play with suffi cient address to afford amusement to the by-standers, who are fond of such sports. When the whites play at tennis-ball, which is very seldom, they generally make use of a battledore. Besides tennis-courts, there are also a few billiard-rooms kept in this city, but they are very little frequented. These constitute nearly the sum total of the amusements in Carraccas. It must not, however, be inferred from this circum- ¦stance, that the Spaniards are not given to gambling; on the contrary, they are more blindly devoted to it than even the French. On such occasions, neither loss nor gain is marked by any visible change in the features. The sensations either of good or bad fortune they confine wholly within themselves' in short, it i9 only during play, that they seem to attach no value to money. Tlie police exerted all its power to counteract this destructive propensity to gaming, but in vain ; for in order to elude its vigi lance, they occasionally shifted the place of their meetings, and admitted none into the secret but those who were of the party. If there were at Carraccas either public walks, lycea, literary societies, or coffee-rooms, this would doubtless be the proper place to notice them. But to the disgrace of this great city, I am forced to say, nothing of the kind is to be found. Every Spaniard resides in his own house as in a prison. He never leaves it but to go to church, or to transact professional business. The city of Carraccas, according to a census taken by the clergy in 1802, contains thirty-one thousand two hundred and thirty-four souls; but from all the information I could collect On this subject, it appears to me that the population is much more considerable) and may amount to upwards of forty thou sand. All the whites boast of being noble : to speak correctly, a Spaniard is never considered a commoner unless he be poor. They are either farmers or merchants, or enter into the army, or become priests, or monks, or procure some situation in the, financial or justiciary departments. None of them exercise any trade, or mechanical employment. A Spaniard, and stiil more particularly a Creole, however poor he may be, would think himself disgraced if he earned his subsistance by the labour of lis hands, or the sweat of his brow. He suffers hunger, thirst, and every species of hardship with admirable stoicism, since he considers nothing degrades man so much as labour. According to him, he can only preserve his own dignity, and that of his fa- 100 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. mily, by entering into the civil or military service, or by be coming a member of the church. The Europeans who reside in this city, form two very distinct. classes. The first comprehend those who receive appointments previous to their leaving Spain. The abuses which they commit in their official capacities, tend greatly to irritate the Creoles, who consider it as an act of injustice, that such appointments should be conferred on others, rather than on themselves. The attempts of the Creoles to rival them in profusion and magnifi cence, very forcibly brought to our recollection the fable of the ox and the frog. If the contest was for superiority of under standing, the prize would unquestionably be adjudged to the Creoles; for in general, the emigrants from Europe are much less intelligent than themselves. The Creoles, as I have before observed, possess great natural parts. To an ardent desire for knowledge, they add the capa bility of application : both in the pulpit and at the bar, many of them have displayed great talents. If we do not likewise find among them profound economists, it must be owing to their studies being restricted to the canon or civil law alone. The second class of Europeans who migrate to Carraccas, is composed of those who are attracted to it by a love of gain. Of all the provinces of old Spain, Catalonia and Biscay send out the greatest number of emigrants. The natives of these pro vinces evince an equal degree of industry ; but the Biscayan„with apparently less effort, directs his exertions to a much better pur pose. He is bolder in his commercial speculations, and more persevering in agriculture, than the Catalonian, who, though per haps surpassing him in attention, displays not equal powers of mind, nor such comprehensive views. The former is never appalled by the magnitude or hazard of any speculation ; he trusts much to chance arid to good fortune. The second acts with greater circumspection. He never undertakes any enterprise but such as he judges easy of execution, and adapted to his powers. Their minds are so completely engrossed by the idea of amassing wealth, that they wholly neglect all intellectual im- prpvement. Both are distinguished among their fellow citizens, by integrity in their transactions, and punctuality in their pay ments. The Spaniards of the Canary islands, who are stimulated ra ther by want than ambition, to leave their native country, with the view of settling at Carraccas, possess not less industry than the Catalonians or Biscayans. In disposition, they resemble, however, more tlie latter than the former. All of them have proved themselves useful citizens, which in fact must ever be CHARACTER OF TJIE FEMALES OF CARRACCAS. 101 the case with those who endeavour to gain a livelihood by the exertion of honest industry. Beauty, sensibility, mild and engaging manners; characterize the female sex in the city of Carraccas. Their long black hair, their large and expressive eyes, the carnation colour of their lips, contrasted with the whiteness of their skin, all concur to render them extremely beautiful. Perhaps, it may be regretted, that their stature seldom corresponds with the exact symmetry of their figure. In general, they are rather beneath than above the mid dle size ; their feet are, however, large in proportion to the other parts of the body. As they spend much of their time seated at windows, it should seem that nature had taken a delight in ren dering that part of the body most captivating, which they expose most to public view. Their dress is very elegant, and well cal culated to set off their charms to the greatest advantage. The education of boys attracts little attention in the city of Carraccas, but that of girls is wholly neglected. There is no seminary what ever appropriated for their instruction. They learn nothing except what their parents teach them. The whole of their edu cation consists in being taught to say prayers, to read ill, and to write a wretched hand. They never receive any instruction from masters in dancing, drawing, or music. All that they acquire of the latter, scarcely enables them to execute a few airs ou tho guitar and the piano-forte. It is even rare to find any of them acquainted with the rudiments of music. This picture must only, however, be considered as applying to those whose hus bands or relatives possess any fortune, or lucrative employment for the females at Carraccas, whom fate has condemned to earn a livelihood, are scarcely acquainted villi any other moans of dragging out a wretched existence, than that of prostituting them selves for hire. More than two hundred unfortunate females spend their lives, covered with rags, in paltry habitations, which they never quit unless during the night, in order to procure by the practice of vice a pitiful subsistance for the ensuing day. Their, dress consists of a white veil aud petticoat, with a paste board hat covered with taffety, to which is attached a sprig of artificial flowers aud false jewels. Very frequently, the same dress serves alternately, even during the same night, two or three of the unfortunate beings who abandon themselves to such a course of life. What they fail to procure in this way, they en deavour to supply by soliciting -charity. This, indeed, becomes their only resource, as soon as age and infirmities reuder them in capable of pursuing the same career of libertinism. Domestic slaves are very numerous at Carraccas. An indi vidual is judged rich in proportion lo die number of slaves whom he supports. Unless he maintains iu his house four times more 102 TRAVELS tN SOUTH AMERICA. domestics than is necessary, it is considered as an indication of poverty, which every one is anxious to conceal. A poor white Woman is frequently attended when she goes to mass with two negresses, or mulatto slaves, who constitute the whole of her property. Those who are well known to be rich, have frequently four or five servants in their train, whilst every white of the same family, who attends at another church, is allowed the same num ber. There are houses at Carraccas, containing from twelve to fifteen female servants, exclusive of valets and other domestics* The only infallible means of diminishing the absurd prejudice id favour of retaining so many domestics, would be to impose a heavy tax on each useless servant. If from false vanity, the rich should continue to support their usual establishment of domestic slaves, the product of the tax might be employed in the support of some public undertaking, which would Compensate society for the privation of their labour. There is not perhaps throughout the West Indies, a city where* in reside so many effranchised slaves, or their descendants, in pro-* portion to the other classes, as in Carraccas. They exercise all those trades which the whites consider as degrading, such as carpentry, masonry, &c. In none of these trades do they, however, excel ; because learning them mechanically, they are wholly ignorant of their principles. The indolence of temper, which is besides natural to them, extinguishes that spirit of emu* lation to which the arts are chiefly indebted for their advance ment. In general, these workmen being burthened with families,} live cooped up in wretched hovels, with no other bed than a bullock's hide, and no provisions but those which are raised in the country. Exceptions to this rule are extremely rare. In this state of poverty they can undertake no work that is not paid for by advance, never having in their possession a sufficient stock of materials ; the consequence of which is, that they are always tardy in fulfilling their engagements. In fact, the majority of this class of men never labour but when stimulated by the calls of hunger ; their predominant passion is to pass their lives in the exercise of religion. They form religious brotherhoods, which are connected with particular churches. Each of these fraternities adopts a habit differing- only from one another in co lour. It is a species of close robe, resembling that worn by monks. They assist at processions and at funerals. All the mem bers walk in regular order, being preceded by the banners of the society to which they belongi It is worthy of observation, that there is not a single instance of any of these men having ever directed his attention to agricultural pursuits. The youths at Carraccas, and throughout the archbishopric, receive their education in an united college and university. The UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE OP CARRACCAS. 103 establishment of the college preceded that of the university by more than sixty years. It was formed by the worthy bishop Antoine Gonzales d'Acunna, who died in 1682. The Latin lan guage was only taught in it, and there were no professorships, except those of philosophy and theology, until the augmentation pf the city of Carraccas suggested the idea of enlarging the field of instruction by founding an university. For this purpose his holiness the pope granted a bull on the 19th August, 1722, which was afterwards confirmed by Philip II. The installation took place on the 11th August, 1725. In this enlarged institution, besides a school for reading and writing, and three for the Latin language, there are established two professorships of philosophy, one of which is held by a secular priest and the other by a Dominican; two for scholastic divinity; one for ethics; and one for positive divinity*. This last ought-always to be bestowed on a Dominican. There are also a professor of civil law, one of canon law, and another of medicine. The university and college of Carraccas possess only a capital of 47,748 piastres 6 J reals, yielding an annual interest of 2,387 piastres 3} reals. From this sum are defrayed the salaries an nexed to the twelve professorships. The different degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor, may be obtained at this university ; the first is conferred by the rec tor, and the two others by the chancellor, who hold at the same time a canon-ship with the rank of schoolmaster. Every graduate takes an oath to maintain the truth of the im maculate conception, neither to teach nor practice regicide or tyrannicide, and to defend the doctrine of Saint Thomas. In 1802 there were sixty-four boarders in this university, and four hundred and two day-scholars, distributed as follows : in the lower classes, including rhetoric, *¦ - 202 Philosophy - - - - 140 Theology ... SQ Canon and civil law 55 Medicine - - 11 Music - - - - 22 466 It is to this seminary that the church is indebted for its mi nisters, the law for its magistrates, and the country for its de fenders. ? Or that which is agreeable to the positions and tenets of the fathers of fhe church. T 304 TRAVELS IN SOUTJ AMERICA. The Spaniards are perhaps of all people the most inattentive to regulations of police. Their natural sobriety, and especially their phlegmatic character, render quarrels and tumults extremely rare. Hence there is seldom heard any noise in the streets of Carraccas. The most melancholy silence reigns every where. Three or four thousand individuals, when leaving church, "make scarcely any noise ; while so many Frenchmen, in the same si tuation, would produce such a bustle, as to be heard at a con siderable distance. But though the magistrate has nothing to apprehend from tumults, be would be very much to blame, if he slackened his vigilance on that account. Assassinations, robberies, frauds, and intrigues rf nder both zeal and sagacity needful, in order that ' he may take such steps, and enter into such investigations, as to briup; the delinquents to justice. The Spaniard is no more exempt than another from a vin dictive spirit, which is so much the more dangerous in him as he never aims his blows but in secret, and covers himself with the mask of friendship, in order more certainly to accomplish his ne farious purpose. He who by his rank in society can only avenge himself by his own hands, scarcely evinces any resentment when an offence is committed against him; but from that moment he watches the first opportunity, which seldom escapes him, of plunging his poniard into the heart of his.new enemy; which being accomplished, he seeks his own safety by flying to some sanctuary or sacred asylum, in order that the ecclesiastical tri bunal nay interfere, to represent as an unfortunate accident his premeditated murder, and as a slight crime an act deserving the " punishment of death. The Spaniards of Andalusia are in particular reproached as guilty of this criminal habit. I was assured at Carraccas, that .such unfortunate events have only occurred since the year 1778, at which' period the liberty of trading with the provinces of Ve nezuela, formerly confined to the company of Gnipuscoa, was extended to almost every port in Spain, and attracted to Car raccas many Spaniards from all the provinces, but especially from Andalusia. Almost all the assassinations which occur at Carraccas, are perpetrated by Europeans. Those of which the Creoles stand accused, are as rare as the robberies charged upon the former. The whites, or pretended whites of 'the country, who through idleness, and the vices which it engenders, plunge into drunken ness and every species of dissipation, and the emancipated slaves, who consider it as an unsuffcrable hardship to support them-! selves by their own labour, are those alone on whom the reproach is cast of committing all the robberies at Carraccas. POLICE OF CARRACCAS, MENDICITY, &C 105 The adoption of false weights and measures, and the adulte ration of provisions of every kind, are likewise very prevalent at Carraccas ; for such practices are considered less as acts of knavery than of dexterity, of which the individuals make a boast. Here then is sufficient business to occupy all the vigilance of the police magistrates. Many other matters equally require their attention, such as supplying the inhabitants with provisions, who in gene ral seem to think that they are extremely remiss in the perform ance of this part of their duty. However incredible it may appear, it is certain that Carraccas, the capital of provinces which might supply cattle to all the foreign possessions of Ame rica, is frequently destitute, for several days during the year, of butcher's meet. If filth does not accumulate in the streets,, it is owing more to the abundant rains than to the attention 6f the police; for theyare seldom swept, except in contemplation of some approach ing procession. Those through which such processions do not pass, are covered with the panicum dactylum, Lin. creeping panic-grass. Mendicity in all countries claims the attention of the police; but no cognizance is taken of it in Carraccas. The streets are crowded with beggars of both sexes, who chuse rather to owe their subsistence to the bounty of passengers than to the exer tion of their own industry. Religion, which in this respect is so very ill understood, interdicts, according to the Spaniards, all investigation into the capability of mendicants procuring them selves a livelihood by any other means than soliciting charity. They believe, or act as if they believed, that the recommendation in the gospel to give alms, is an invitation to demand them. As soon as an individual embraces this condition of life, instead of being annoyed, he is protected by the police. The decrepid and robust, ffie old and the young, the blind and those who enjoy their sight, are all considered as having an equal right to charity. Every one withholds or gives according to his abilities, without reflect ing on the real necessity of the mendicant. A stranger is at first at a loss how to reconcile this indiscriminate charity of the Spaniards, with the revolting picture which beggars exhibit every night, sleeping in the open streets, or by the side of church- walls, &c. without any covering to protect them against incle ment weather, or against the noxious dews of the torrid zone. On a cursory view, we are induced to believe ourselves in a coun try inhabited by cruel savages ; but on a nearer inspection, we readily discover that such wretchedness proceeds from mistaken piety. Those whom we conceive to be unfortunate beings are merely mendicants, who are prevented by intoxication from peeking a more convenient asylum, and who shun sleeping in DEFONS.] o JOS TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. the hospitals, because, in that case, they would not be permit ted to dissipate their gains in procuring tafia, or other strong liquor. The police is wellacquainted with these abuses, but cannot repress them, without incurring the charge of impiety. The religious garb of the mendicant frees him from all re straint, exempts him from censure of every kind, and renders his person inviolable. In order to form some idea of the number of mendicants in Carraccas, it is only necessary to mention, that at a general alms giving, held every Saturday by the archbishop, each of them re ceives half an escalin, or the sixteenth part of a piastre, and that on such occasions a less sum than 75 or 76 piastres, is never distributed. Hence there cannot be fewer than twelve hundred mendicants, exclusively of the industrious poor, who exceed that number, and on whom the worthy prelate D. Francois d'Ibarra, a Creole of Carraccas, bestows a great portion of his revenue in private donations. Ought not a well-regulated police to separate from the profligate the helpless indigent, and pro vide for them in houses appropriated for that purpose? Ought it not to coerce the others to labour in proportion to their capa bility, which would more than compensate for their mainte nance? Can it be seriously believed that to constrain men to labour is a work less acceptable to the Deity, than that of supporting them in a state of idleness and vicious habits, which are equally of fensive to religion, morality, and public order? These abuses will doubtless be eventually remedied by some alterations in the existing municipal laws. God grant that the prejudices of habit may yield to reason, and that the city of Carraccas may enjoy the advantages of a- wise administration, on which depend the peace, the union, and the happiness of any people ! , Though Carraccas is naturally the centre of all communica tion with the interior, yet the roads, as may readily be conceived, from the vast extent of the country, and its scanty population, are in a very wretched state. Sloughs and the inundations of rivers, equally destitute of bridges and ferry-boats, render the roads impassable during the rainy season, but at no period of the year are they convenient. Distances are computed not by leagues, but by days' journies; each of which, according to my own experience, may be equal to ten geometrical leagues. Government dispatches are transmitted by express, as w^ell as all the accounts and complaints laid before it. Couriers only proceed at regular intervals from the capital to Maracaybo, Por to-Cavello, Santa-Fe, Cumana, and Guiana. ' Official di -patches from the mother country arrive every month at Carraccas. A king's packet sails on the first, second, or third TOWN AND PORT OF GOAYRE. 107 day of every month from Corunna, touches at the Canaries, and after landing its letters for these islands, proceeds to the Havannah, and delivers, in passing Porto-Rico, the dispaches for that inland, as well as those for the Carraccas, which last are im mediately forwarded in small vessels built for the express pur pose. During war, the Spanish packets, instead of touching at Porto- Kico, land at Cumana the letters destined for Carraccas; and its dependencies, after which they proceed to Carthagena with those for the kingdom of Santa-Fe, &c. and always put in at the Havannah, whence they set sail for Europe at stated periods. All the letters from Carraccas, whether official or not, are trans mitted' to Spain in merchant vessels, which take their departure from Goayre for Cadiz. The reader has already been made acquainted with the trade carried on in Carraccas, and the European articles which are most valued in the different provinces. If the port of Caravalleda had not been abandoned by its inhabitants, as already related, Goayre would most probably have continued to be only the re sort of fishers, as it is in every respect greatly inferior to the former. The city, or, according to the Spaniards, who never bestow this appellation on any place where a cabildo is not established, the village of Goayre is so buried in the midst of very high moun tains, that the fragments of rock which are frequently loosened from them, do considerable mischief. There is no visible horizon, except toward the sea, on the north, from which may be readily explained the cause of the great heats that prevail during nine months of the year. Here Reaumur's thermometer usnally in dicates from 25° to 28°. Every year in the months of July, August, and September, the inhabitants are very generally at tacked by putrid and malignant fevers, which prove extremely fatal, particularly to those who have newly arrived from Europe. Goayre is an irregular city. The streets are narrow, ill-paved, not lighted, and the appearance of the houses extremely wretched. The batteries by which it is defended, are regularly built, and are the only thing worthy the attention of a traveller. The go vernment wished to render it simply a military post, while the merchants, on the contrary, were anxious to preserve it as a com mercial port. . Very few merchants reside at Goayre. All commercial affairs are transacted at Carraccas, and they only proceed to that place in order to receive the cargoes assigned to them from Europe, or those which they may purchase on their arrival in port. In both cases they are sent to Carraccas to be sold; no part of the lading is left, except what is sufficient to supply the wants of tlie o 2 108 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. inhabitants. The commodities stored up at Carraccas, are nl return sent to Goayre, in order to be shipped. The road between these two cities, though steep, is extremely good, except during the rainy season. The distance is computed to be about five leagues, and the journey usually performed by mules moderately laden, in five hours. The saddle mules, pro ceeding at a slow pace, accomplish it in three hours and a half. Immediately on leaving Goayre, the road ascends, according to the measurement of Humboldt, nearly six hundred and eighty four toises, and again descends two hundred and thirty four, before reaching Carraccas. At the height of five hundred and seventy-six toises, stands an inn, where the traveller usually reposes himself and his cattle. The city of Goayre is supplied with water from a rivulet, which takes its rise in a small mountain about two leagues distant from the sea. It is disagreeable to drink this water, from its being always tepid; it is reported to possess an anti-syphilitic quality, contracted by flowing over soil abounding with the roots of sar saparilla. This city is governed by a commander, who likewise holds the office of lieutenant of justice. He is invested with the right, in the first instance, of determining all civil causes, but his decision is subject to an appeal before the royal audience. His principal duty consists in daily rendering an account to the captain-general of the arrival and departure of vessels in and from the road. He dare not suffer any foreigner to proceed to Carraccas, without having previously obtained the captain-general's permission to that pur pose, which is easily obtained, if the motives alledged for the request be satisfactory. The ordinary garrison at this place is composed of a company taken from the regiment of Carraccas. In time of war it is re inforced from other regiments of the line, and from the militia of Carraccas. The population of Goayre is estimated at six thousand indivi duals, of whom a hundred and thirty are employed in armed ves sels; seven hundred and eleven constitute the garrison,, or are employed in guarda-costas, or in galleys : their chaplain performs the functions of cure . There is but one parish church in the place, the duty of which is performed by a cure. The port of Borburata, situated a league to the east of Porto- Cavello, or Porto-Cavallo, as it is sometimes termed, was long in the exclusive possession of the trade of that part of the province of Venezuela, which at piesent centres in this last port. From the first conquest of America by the Spaniards; until the establishment of the company of Guipuscoa, Porto-Cavello was occupied by fishermen, and those concerned in carrying on the DESCRIPTION OF PORTO-CAV ELLO. 10$ contraband trade with the Dutch. This company immediately took advantage of the excellence of the harbour, in order to esta blish one of their principal magazines in this place. Their naval superiority afforded a ready means of accomplishing so desirable an object. From this period the lawless and motley inhabitants of Porto-Cavello found themselves compelled to submit to cer tain municipal restrictions; but though this circumstance, and the progressive influx of European settlers, have in a great measure destroyed their original character, Porto-Cavello still continues, after the lapse of a century, to afford an asylum to individuals of both sexes, whose crimes or misconduct have forced them to fly from the interior of the provinces. A magnificent pier was constructed by the orders of the com pany, ninety-two feet long by twelve broad, for the accommo dation of the shippiug, and forts erected for their defence. Aa extensive building served for a store-house, &c. and still remains, though the company have been deprived of its privileges. The system it adopted of employing only Biscayans on board its ves sels and in its warehouses, attracted a great number of indivi duals of this province from those places where they had been formerly settled. It cannot then be a matter of surprise to find, in Porto-Cavello, a class of Europeans composed only of Bis cayans, who are no less remarkable for their morality and indus try, than for the singularity of their language. The city, properlv so called, is built so near the sea, that part of it stands on ground, which is daily washed by the tide. It is evi dent from the walls of this city, that its founders did not expect it would increase so rapidly as it has done, and which has rendered it necessary to extend the buildings over twice the space originally marked out as its limits. The old city is surrounded by the sea, except for about a hundred toises to tlie west, where a canal has been cut to join the two arms of the sea ; so that it is impossible to leave the city, except by a bridge, on which is stationed the principal guard, and where a gate is erected, which is shut every evening. The houses beyond the city are chiefly erected on a tongue of land to the west, which is never covered by the waters; they are built at random without any fixed plan, and are not subject to the same regulations as those within the walls; but the com mandant has it in his power localise them to be erazed, if he deem it necessary to the furtherance of the public service. ILnce when the first street was formed, called Calle, or Rite de la IIerin DESCRIPTION OF TOCUYO. 121 C\ise the inhabitants of great indolence ; but when we cast our eyes over the different plantations, and on the vast herds of eattie feeding in the plains ; and when we reflect on the difficulty attend ant on the carriage of Commodities to the seaports, the near est of which and the most frequented lies at fifty leagues distance, it Would be unjust to withold our praises from the inhabitants of Barquisimeto. The appearance of the city sufficiently indicates the affluence of the inhabitants, who amount to eleven thousand three hundred; the houses are well built; the streets run at right angles with each other, and are sufficiently broad to admit of a free circulation of air. The parish church is a" handsome structure, in which the duty is performed by two cures. There is in this church the representation of a Christ, which is the object of pub lic veneration and devotion to all the inhabitants for twenty leagues' round. Here is also a convent of Franciscans, as well as an hospital, but it is very ill endowed. The judicial and mu nicipal functions are exercised by a cabildo and lieutenant nomi nated by the governor. Barquisimeto is situated eighty leagues west-south-west from Carraccas, one hundred and fifty leagues north-north-east from Santa Fe, and fifteen leagues north-east from Tocuyo. The city of Tocuyo stands in a valley formed by two moun tains ; its streets are spacious, and run at right angles with one auother: a very well constructed edifice serves as a parish church, with which is connected a chapel of ease ; there is also a con vent of Franciscans, and another of Dominicans. Tocuyo is go verned by a cabildo. The atmosphere is here often cloudy, and the air rather cold than warm : on the whole, however, it is ex tremely salubrious. The soil is of such a nature as to furnish almost every kind of production, and the inhabitants avail themselves of this advantage. They are husbandmen, agriculturists, artizans, and merchants. The cheese made in Tocuyo is reckoned the best in the whole province, and several cities in the interior are supplied with it. They also export annually from eight to ten quintals of flour to Barquisimeto, Guanare, Saint Philippe, and Carraccas. They manufacture from the wool of their sheep bed-cover lets, which they send to Maracaybo and Carthagena. They have also tanneries and manufactures of white leather, and like the inhabitants of Carora, they work up as many of their raw materials as possible, and dispose of the remainder. Another profitable branch of commerce carried on by the inhabitants of Tocuyo, is that of salt, which they bring from the salt-pits of Coro. Such is their activity, that they contrive to engross the exclusive sale of this article of the first necessity. Tocuyo is computed to contain ten thousand two hundred in- depons.] 2 122 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. dividuals: the practice of suicide is extremely common amongst them. A creole of this city thinks nothing of cutting his throat or hanging himself. Once having imbibed a distaste for life, it becomes insuppoitable,and they throw it offwith the same serenity that a man disencumbers himself of a heavy burden. This sys tem of cowardice rather than courage, extravagance rather than philosophy, has, nevertheless, many advocates in this city. Tocuyo is ninety leagues south-west of Carracca3, and twenty north of Truxillo. In Gnanare, which was founded in 1593, there are the same civil and religious institutions as in all the other cities of Teira Firma. Its situation is highly honourable to the taste of its founder. It stands on the bank of a river which affords excellent water for every domestic purpose, as well as for the irrigation of the adjoining fields, and drink for their flocks and herds; a pure air circulates in the city, so as greatly to moderate the heat of the atmosphere. To the west of this place, the soil is extremely fertile, and well adapted for every species of culture ; and towards the south and east are im mense plains, suited to the support of cattle of every description. It is to the rearing of animals that the inhabitants chiefly devote themselves. They supply the whole province with bullocks and mules, and transport the surplus lo Coro, Porto-Cavello, or Guiana. Formerly they cultivated very excellent tobacco in the vallies of Tucupio, Sipororo, and upon the banks of the river Po; tugaise ; hint since the establishment of the exclusive trade in this article, these plantations have experienced the fate of all those found beyond the territory selected by the administration for the culture of this plant on account of the king. The population of Guauare is estimated at twelve thousand three hundred souls. The streets are wide, and the houses, with out being entitled to the appellation of elegant, are extremely neat. There is one hospital, the revenues of which are moderate ; but the parish church is a large handsome structure. It owes a part of its splendour to the possession of our Lady of Comoroto, the fame of whose miracles attracts great multitudes of devotees from all the neighbouring provinces. This city is situated ninety- three leagues south-wuth-west from Carraccas, and twenty-four south-east from Truxillo. The city of Araurc was founded by the first Capuchin mission sent from Andalusia. Its situation "is commanding,, agreeable, and convenient. Three rivers water the surrounding territory, and contribute to enrich the snil; though il must be confessed the inhabitants do not always fully avail themselves of the advan tages of their situation, their chief and almost sole occupation being the breeding of cattle. They cultivate only cotton, and a MIRACULOUS DISCOVERY OF OUR LADY OF CORTEZA. 123 very little coffee. They are, however, extremely industrious. The city is regular, and its appearance on the whole agree able. The houses are well built, but the streets are rather narrow ; the church is an extremely handsome edifice. Our Lady of the Corteza, or of the Ecorce, occupies the first place in this church. She not only enjoys the public veneration of all the faithful in Araure, but in the whole of the surrounding villages. Her miraculous appearance took place, acccording to tradition, in 1702, in the neighbourhood of the city. A mulatto woman, named Marguerite, going to perform her devotions at the shrine of our Lady of Cormoroto, fastened her beast to a tree. "On unloosing it, she perceived upon the bark an image of the virgin, which she carefully cut out with her knife. On ar riving at the village of Acasigua, she placed the image in the cor ner of her apartment, set before it a lighted candle, and began to address to it her prayers. A missionary Capuchin, named Mi chel Placentia, came into the house in order to learn the history of the image, which she immediately related to him; on which he earnestly requested that it might be put into his possession. This she refused to do, until he offered her in exchange a shrine, two prints of the Virgin, one of Rosaire, and another of the Con ception. On this condition he was suffered to depart with our Lady of Ecorce, which he placed in the parish church of Araure, where she performed many wonderful miracles. She has never, however, attained to the same celebrity as our lady of Como ro to. Calaboso is another city of a recent date : it was at first an Indian village, and afterwards enlarged by the Spaniards, from its being a convenient station for superintending their herds and flocks. The air is in this place excessively hot, although regularly moderated by a land breeze from the north-east. The lands in the vicinity of the town afford excellent pasturage for Cattle, which are extremely numerous. For some time, however, either owing to an increased corruption of manners, or relaxation of vigilance on the part of the magistrate, this kind of property has become very insecure. Bands of rob bers continually prowl about the plains situated between Cala boso and the river Guarapiche; they carry off great numbers of the cattle and mules, which they drive secretly to Guiana, or transport to the island of Trinidad. They frequently kill even the cattle on the spot for the sake of their skius. The city of Calaboso stands between two rivers, the one named Guarico, to the west, and the other, termed Orituco, to the east; but it is much nearer the former than the latter. These two rivers run from north to south, and join each other at about five leagues below Calaboso; tweuty league* further on, they flow e 2 124 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. into the river of Apure, which empties itself into the Oroonoko. During the rainy season, the two first rivers overflow their bank$> which greatly incommodes the inhabitants of Calaboso. Every kind of labour is then necessarily suspended ; their herds and flocks seek refuge in the heights, where they remain until the waters have subsided. The streets and houses of Calaboso form on the whole a very pleasant prospect ; the church is a plain and simple edifice. In i786, Calaboso and its five subordinate villages were reckoned to contain five hundred and forty-nine houses, and eighty whites, eleven hundred and eighty-six free Indians, three thousand three hundred persons of colour, nine hundred and forty-three slaves, a hundred and sixteen plantations of different kinds, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-two mules, twenty-six thousand five hundred and fifty-two horses, and sixty-seven thousand four hundred and fifty-seven oxen and cows. At present, 1804, the popula tion of Calaboso amounts to four thousand eight hundred persons, It is situated fifty-two leagues south from Carraccas, and nearly at an equal distance north from the river Oroonoko. The city of San-Juan-Baustista-Del-Pao is regularly laid out, and contains about five thousand five hundred individuals. The parish church is more striking for its neatness and simplicity, than for the elegance of its architecture, The heat would be al most insupportable at San- J nan were it not frequently moderated by brisk north-east winds : it is, however, remarkably healthy, Wholly exempted from all pestilential maladies, the inhabitants are unacquainted with any diseases, except those to which man is subject in whatever quarter of the globe he may reside. The river passes on the east of the city, and runs in a direction from north to south. It discharged its waters formerly into the, lake of Valence ; bnt in consequence of one of those revolutions which frequently occur in the progress of time, it has now taken its present direction. During its course it becomes greatly augt mented by a succession of tributary streams, with which it swells the river Apure in its turn, and at last empties itself into the, Oroonoko. The new direction which the river Pao has taken, might easily be rendered available to the opening of a direct communication between Valence and the Oroonoko, acrOss a space of one hun dred leagues. Nothing seems wanting to establish this inland navigation, but to hollow out and deepen the bed of the river Pap for ten or twelve leagues near its source. The advantages which commerce would derive fronr such a communication are incalculable ; since by this means, during war in particular, the necessary relations might be maintained between the province of Venezuela, and Guianaj in spite of all the efforts of the enemy's MIRACLES WROUGHT BJT OUR LADY OF VALENCIANOS. 125 cruisers to counteract them. It requires no great stretch of abi lity to perceive that by this passage, which no enemy could shut, ready succours could be at all times afforded to Guiana in case of its being threatened with an attack. The distance of this city from Canaccas, to the south-west side of which it lies, is fifty leagues. The city of Saint Louis de Cura is situated in a valley formed by rocky mountains of a very grotesque appearance. This valley is extremely fertile, and yields abundant crops, but by far the greatest part of it is appropriated to grazing. The temperature is here hot, aud the atmosphere dry. The soil, which is of a red- dish| argil], becomes extremely heavy and tenacious during the rainy weather. The water used for domestic purposes, although wholesome, is not very limpid. The inhabitants of this city amount to four thousand, and are governed by a cabildo. The parish church, hitherto little famed, has now acquired a degree of celebrity, which future ages will find it difficult to destroy. It arose from miracles said to have been performed by our Lady of Valencianos. This virgin was found in a ravine of the same name, by an aged Indian, who immediately carried her to his hut, and exhibited her to the veneration of the faithful. This image, with no other light than that of a wretched candle, and without any other shelter than a straw roof, performed as many miracles as if she had occu pied a ma • .ficent palace. No sooner was the cure informed of this circumstance, than he repaired to the house of the old Indian, and peremptorily insisted that the virgin should bedelivered up to him, in order that he might place her in the church. The Indian at first refused to resign so inestimable a treasure; but at last the influence of the cure prevailed, and the virgin was carried in procession to the church, and placed in a situation worthy of her dignity. The report was soon spread throughout the province ; the people flocked from all quarters ; donations were liberally poured in, and the virgin every day received fresh jewels in return for the favours conferred by her. Such presents greatly augmented the casual perquisites of the cure. In short, every thing ap peared in a prosperous train, when the jealousy or piety of tlie cure of Saint Sebastian de los Reyes dissipated this flattering prospect. He insisted that die virgin ought injustice to be given, up to him, in as much as the ravine of los Valencianos, in which she had been found, being within the boundaries 'of his parish, it was indisputable that she appertained to his church. The cure of Saint- Louis de Cura urged still more weighty argu ments in support of his right than those adduced by his opponent. A law-suit immediately commenced, the litigants were animated e 126 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. with equal fury against each other, and equally eager to prove the superiority of their claim to die possession of the virgin. . The bishop of Carraccas, who was greatly perplexed how to decide this singular question, commanded that the virgin, the source of the litigation, should be transferred to Carraccas, and lodged in the episcopal palace, where she was allowed quietly to remain until his death. At last, in 1802, the bishop of Fran cisco Ibarra, a prelate possessed of every moral and religious virtue, proposed to the new cure of Saint Sebastian de los Reyes lo desist from the pretensions of his predecessor, and suffer the virgin to be returned to the cure of Saint-Louis de Cura. The affair terminated according to the pacific wishes of the venerable bishop. The process was extinguished, discord ceased, and our Lady of los Valencianos returned in triumph to Saint- Louis de Cura, after an absence of thirty years. The city of Saint-Louis de Cura is twenty -two leagues south west from Carraccas, and eight leagues south-east from the lake of Valence. The city of Saint-Sebastien de los Reyes was founded in the sixteenth century, and consequently had from its origin a cabildo and a cure. Though the soil in this district be fitted to receive any species of crop, the inhabitants have hitherto confined them selves to the culture of maize, placing their chief dependance on the possession of numerous flocks and herds of cattle. The city upon the whole is not handsome, and e^. '. ntly bears the marks of its early origin. Its situation is agreeable, though a residence in it be far from desirable, on account of the intense heat which prevails, aud which is very little moderated by a con stant breeze from the north-east. The water is here muddy, but in great abundance. Besides the parish church, there is only one hospital, which is of little importance. The inhabitants amount to three thousand five hundred. This city is eighteen leagues south-west from Carraccas. The city of Saint Philippe, which is at present so remark able for the activity and industry of its inhabitants, was form erly a wretched village, known under the name of Cocorote. Its population, which amounts to six thousand eight hundred per sons, is chiefly composed of individuals from Barquisimeto, and Spaniards from the Canaries. The soil around this place is re markable for its fertility: to the east flows the river Yarani, and to the west that of Arva; the ground is intersected in every di rection by small streams and ravines, and being alternatively ex posed to abundant rains and extreme heat, is covered with per petual verdure. The inhabitants cultivate cocoa, indigo, coffee, a little cotton, and a very few sugar-canes. The uncommon rich ness of the soil greatly contributed to draw the city of Saint- Phi- WORTHLESSNESS OF THE SAMBO RACE. 127 lipe from its original obscurity ; and the company of Guipuscoa completed the work, by making choice of this place to establish magazines of goods, for which there was any demand in the in terior, as well as for those they received in return. Saint Phi lippe is regularly built ; tlie streets are wide, and run at right angles with each other; and the parish church is a neat handsome edifice. A cabildo is entrusted with the execution of the municipal laws, and the administration of justice. The atmosphere is here ex tremely warm and humid, which consequently renders this city unhealthy. It is affirmed, however, that syphilitic maladies are more common than any other. Saint-Philippe stands fifty leagues west from Carraccas, fifteen leagues north-west from Valence, and seven leagues north-west from Nirgua. This last city, one of the first that was founded in the province of Venezuela, was built on account of the mines dis covered in the vicinity of its site, but which were, as has been already related, never rendered productive. The surrounding lands are fertile, but the air is extremely unwholesome. Even the natives themselves are frequently attacked by acute diseases, which for the most part terminate fatally. Many of the whites who formerly inhabited this city, have abandoned" it, as they conceived they could no longer enjoy tranquillity ; after that the Sambos, in return for services rendered to the king, obtained from him the appellation of his faithful and loyal subjects. All the places m the cabildo, or municipality, are filled by Sambos. The lieutenant of justice, who is nominated by the governor, is the only white holding any office in this city. Nirgua exhihits all the symptoms of decline. The houses are rapidly falling into a state of dilapidation, without any effort to counteract it. Its population is calculated at three thousand two hundred persons. A Sambo is the offspring of a negress with an Indian, or of a negro with an Indian woman. In colour he nearly resembles the child of a mulatto by a negress. The Sambo is well form ed, muscular, and capable of supporting great fatigue ; bin un fortunately his mind has a strong bias to vice of every kind. I he word Sambo signifies in the language of the country every thing despicable and worthless, a knave, a drone, a drunkard, a cheat, a robber, and even an assassin. Of ten crimes committed in this district, eight are chargeable on this villanous and accursed race. Their immorality is peculiar to themselves; for it is never perceived to prevail to the same degree either among ne groes, mulattoes, or any other race pure or mixed. A pheno menon which frequently struck me is that the children of a white with an Indian, whose colour is of a pale white, are all delicate, agreeable, good, docile, and that increasing years, far Iromde- 123 TRAVELS II* SOUTH AMERICA. stroying these qualities, tend, on the contrary, to render them more obvious. The city of Nirgua is situated forty-eight leagues from Car raccas. The city Of San-Carlos owes its foundation t6 the first mis sionaries of Venezuela, and its increasing size and beauty, 16 the industry and activity of the inhabitants. The chief part of the white population of this place is composed of Spaniards from the Canaries ; and as they left their native country expressly with the design of meliorating their fortune, they brought along with them that spirit of perseverance and enterprise which \4 necessary to attain the object they had in view. Their example communicated, even to the Creoles, a spirit of emulation, which tended still farther to increase the public prosperity. Oxen, horses, and mules, which they possess in abundance, Constitute the principal part of their wealth. Agriculture is not, how ever, wholly neglected by them ; they raise indigo and Coffee in considerable quantities ; the quality of the soil gives an exqui site flavour to their fruits, especially to the oranges, which are much famed for excellence throughout the province. The city is large, handsome and well laid ont ; the inhabit ants amount to nine thousand five hundred. The parish church, by its construction, and the liberal manner in which it is eiv dowed, reflects honour on the industrious activity and piety of the parishioners. The heat experienced at San-Carlos is intense, and would be nearly insupportable, were it not partly moderated by the violence of the north-east wind.- San Carlos stands sixty leagues south-west from Carraccas^ twenty-four south-south-west from Valence, and twenty from Saint Philippe. The government of Cumana comprehends two provinces, the one termed Cumana, and the other Barcelona. It is not well known how Barcelona obtained the title of a province, sinc6 it never had any appropriate governor, and from the time of it3 conquest by the Spaniards, has constantly made a part of the go vernment of Cumana. The government of Cumana is bounded towards the north and east by the sea, to the west by the river Unare, and to the south by the Oroonoko, except in those parts where the left bank of this river is inhabited. The jurisdiction of the gover- , nor of Guiana extends to within a cannon-shot of the establish ments situated to the north of Oroonoko. From the river Unare, to the city of Cumana, the land is suf ficiently fertile; but from the promontory of Araya, for the dis tance of twenty to twenty-five leagues more towards- the easf^ CAVERN OF GUACHARO. 129 the coast is arid, sandy, and steril. That part of the province which borders the Oroonoko is only fit for pasturing cattle, and is appropriated by the inhabitants to this purpose alone. The rest of the ground is extremely fertile; the plains, the vallies, and the hillocks, are covered with the most luxuriant verdure, and the most abundant crops : but what must appear truly surprising in this delightful region, neither the tygers, cay- mens, nor even the apes, betray the smallest terror on the ap proach of man. The most valuable trees, such as the guiacum, brasil, and logwood, &c. are found even on the coast of Paria itself; aud the woods abound with rare and beautiful birds. In the interior of the province are several lofty mountains, the highest of which, Tumeriquiri, is nine hundred and thirty- five toises above the level of the sea. In this mountain is situated the. cavern of Guacharo, which is so celebrated among the Indians. It is very extensive, and serves as a habitation to an immense number of nocturnal birds, especially a new species of the caprimulgus, Lin. from the fat of which is procured the oil of Guacharo. Its situation is commanding, and ornamented by the most luxuriant vegeta tion. From this cavern issues a river of considerable size, and in the interior is heard the doleful cry of the birds, which the Indians attribute to the souls of the deceased, which, according to them, must of necessity pass through this place in order to enter the other world. This privilege ihey immediately ob tain when their conduct has been irreproachable throughout life. In' the contrary case, they are confined for a longer or shorter time in the cavern, according to the magnitude of their of fences. It is this dark and dreary abode that forces from them those groans and lamentations which are heard without. The Indians' are so fully persuaded of the truth of this tra dition, which has been handed down to them from time imme morial, that immediately on the death of any of their relations or friends, thev repair to the mouth of the cavern, in order to ascertain whether their, souls have encountered any obsta cles, or been allowed to pass. When they cannot distinguish their voices, they retire overwhelmed with joy, and celebrate the event by ebriety and dances characteristic of their hap piness; but when, on the contrary, they conceive the voice of the defunct is heard, they hurry away to drown their sorrow in in toxicating draughts, accompanied by dances calculated to mark their despair. Thus whatever be the fate of the defunct's soul, thev give themselves up to the same excesses, making no diffe rence but in the nature of the dance. All the Indian tribes of Cumana, as well as those inhabit, n; the banks of the Oroonoko, who are not converted to christ.- PEPONS.J K 130 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. aci'v, and even many others who pretend to be so, are as fully convinced as their forefathers, of the truth of this tradition. It appears even that this fable, is not, like many others of a si- miliar kind, the offspring of fraud or fanaticism; for it is not ac companied by any religious ceremony which could prove pror ductive of emolument to the inventor. Neither does the cavern itself display anv monument of that sway which imposture ex ercises over the" minds of the credulous. This tradition seems therefore to have originated merely trom the influence of fear on the mind, which is ever fertile in creating phantoms, and in devising expedients to sooth its imaginary terrors. Among the Indians who live even at the distance of two hundred leagues from this cavern, to descend to Guacharo is synonymous with to die. The principal establishment dependent on Cumana, such as Barcelona, Piritu, Clarinas, &c. Twelve leagues to the south east of Cumana lies the valley of Cumanacoa, wherein much tobacco is cultivated for the behoof of the king. Its soil ap^ pears to he well calculated for this species of production, as the tobacco raised thereon is considered in the country as much sut perior to that produced in any other part of Terra-Firma. Tn the environs of Cumanacoa are situated the Indian villages, San- Fcrnando, Arenas, Aricagua. The land adjoining to them is extremely fertile, but uncultivated. Farther in the interior lie the vallies of Car6pe, Guanaguana, Cocoyar, &c. which, though equally fertile, as the land above mentioned, also remain in a state of nature. All the settlements on the banks of the gulph of Paria, from the mouth of the river Guarapiche, to the most northern mouth of the Oroonoko, are in a prosperous state. Since the English took possession of Trinidad in 1797, the villages of Guiriaand Guinima have been formed by French and Spanish refugees from that island. The rapid progress of agriculture, during this short interval, renders it presumable that this district will in a few years become the most productive part of the province. It must be admitted that the vicinity of Trinidad since it has been in possession of the English, holds out greater inducements to the cultivator to proceed in his improvements on the coast Of Paria, than any where else. Besides obtaining at a reasonable, rate, and often on credit, all the implements and apparatus ne-! cessary to the success of his establishment, he disposes of his commodities on the spot free of duty, and with little expence for freight, at prices greatly exceeding those which he could procure for them in the Spanish ports. Whether government ought to tolerate this clandestine trade, which, in fact, is only a slight evil when compared with the advantages of which it is ACCOUNT OF CUMANA. 131 productive to the province, or to adopt measures suited to coun teract it, is a question which, it must be confessed, it is-not very easy to resolve. But it appears to nse that it would be bad policy to interfere with it, until that these settlements be so far advanced in improvement, as to attract to themselves the com merce of the mother country. Cumana is intersected in all directions by ravines, brooks, and rivers, equally applicable to irrigation, to the erectir.n of water-mills, and to navigation. It has been already mentioned that the rivers Neveri and Mansanares, which discharge their waters into the sea towards the north, run but a very sh it way, and are of inconsiderable magnitude ; while those which flow towards the east, and into the gulph of Paria, traverse a much greater extent of country. Some of these rivers, such as Colo rado, Guatatar, Caripe, Punceres, Tiure, Guayuta, &c. empty themselves into the Guarapiche, which is navigable for twenty- five leagues from the sea; others pursue a southerly direction, and after watering the province, discharge their waters into the Oroonoko. According to convenience, goods may be sent either by the Way of Barcelona and Cumana, by the gulph of. Paria, or by the Oroonoko. What rapid improvement might not be made in a country so favoured by nature, and which contains a population of eighty thousand persons, exclusive of the Indian tribes not yet finally subjected, and who still continue to exercise the zeal and pa tience of the missionaries ! Spain ought to derive greater commercial advantages from the province of Cumana alone than from all its other posses sions, because there are few countries that unite to an uncom mon richnes of soil, such a facility, from local situation, for inland and foreign navigation. The city of Cumana, is situated Within a quarter of a league of the sea, upon a dry and sandy soil. It lies 10° 37' 37" N. lat. ; and 66° 30' W. long, calculat ing from the meridian of Paris. Reaumur's thermometer usi ally indicates in July during the day 23°, and 19° in the night. Maximum .... 27 Minimum . . » . 17 The elevation of the city is fifty-three feet above the level of of the sea. In July the hygrometer of Deluc usually marks from 50 to 53° of humidity. Maximum . . . . 6S Minimum .... 46 132 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. According to the cyanometre of Saussure, there are here 24 i° c-c blue in the sky, while at Carraccas there is but 18°, and in Europe generally only 14°. The seat of the government of the two provinces is in the city of Cumana. The governor, who is nominated for five years, is at the same time vice-patron ; in which capacity he appoints to the vacant cures, and indeed to all places connected with public worship, of which the patronage is vested in the crown of Spain. As sub-delegate of the intendant, he is en trusted with the administration of the finances of his district ; he superintends the receipt of the taxes, obviates any doubts which may occur, regulates the payment of the Ordinary expences, and receives the accounts of the officers of the administration: but his power is subordinate to the captain-general of Carraccas, in whatever respects the political relations with foreign colonies, as well as the military department ; he is also accountable to the intendant in the financial and commercial departments. The governor of Cumana, D. Vicente Emparan, a native of Biscay, took upon himself, however, during the continuance of the war of 1793 and 1801, to permit the entrance of neutral ships into the ports of his government, notwithstanding an express order to the contrary. By this prudent conduct, his department experienced no scarcity, while all the rest of Terra-Firma laboured under a want of every thing, except dry goods,with which the English supplied them. Hence this war, which would have otherwise proved ruinous to the provinces of Cumana and Barcelona, operated, on the contrary, rather as a benefit, which must for ever endear lo the inhabitants, the name of a governor who'had the courage to hazard the reproaches of his majesty, for the good of the country committed to his charge. His catholic majecty, so far, how ever, from blaming the conduct of the governor, bestowed on him the highest praise, and allowed him to retire in 1804, with the whole of the salary as governor of Cumana. Towards the north of the city of Cumana lies the gulf of Ca riaco, which has been already mentioned. The river Mansanares, which separates the city on the south, from the suburbs inhabited by the Guayqueris Indians, bounds it on the south and west. The water of this river is that alone which is drank by the inhabitants. Though often not limpid, it is yet reckoned very wholesome. Cumana is extremely healthy, notwithstanding the great heat of the atmosphere. The sea breeze, however, which blows very regularly during a great part of the day, contributes much to moderate the, intense heat of the sun. But in order to enjoy this breeze, it is frequently necessary to ascend a morne rising behind the city and stretching towards the east. A single fort) erected upon this eminence, constitutes the sole defence of Cu- EARTHQUAKES IN CUMANA. 133 mana; the garrison of which consists of two hundred and thirty troops of the line, aud a company of artillery. During war, this force is augmented by calling out the militia. At Cumana, there is only a single parish church, which stands on the south-east side of the city, near to a dilapidated fort. There are also two convents, one of which belongs to the order of Saint Dominic, and the other to that of Saint Francis. The inhabitants are reckoned at twenty-four thousand. Its augmentation has been so rapid, that they have of late been forced to build on the left bank of the river Mausanares, to the west of the village Guayqueris. These new buildings already constitute a populous village, which communicates with the city by means of a bridge. To the first street the inhabitants gave the name of Emparan, in honour of the governor who contri buted so much to promote their interest. All the houses in Cumana are low and superficially built. The frequent earthquakes which it has experienced for ten years, have constrained the inhabitants to attend more to their personal safety, than to elegance and beauty in the construction of their houses. The violent shocks which occurred during the month of Decem ber, 1797, overturned nearly all the houses built with stone, and rendered uninhabitable those which remained. The earthquake which was felt in the month of November, 1799> occasioned a variation of the needle of 45'. According to the opinion of Humboldt, Cumana must be ex posed to frequent earthquakes by the proximity of the gulph of Cariaco, which appears to have some communication with the volcanoes of Cumucuta, from which are rejected hydrogen gas, and hot and sulphureous waters. It is worthy of being remarked, that earthquakes occur most frequently after rains, and that then the caverns of Cuchivauo emit an inflammable gas, which, du ring the night, may be seen burning at the height of one hundred toises. The population of Cumana mostly consists of white Creoles, who generally evince much goodness of disposition. They uni formly display a warm attachment to their natal soil, and for the most part pursue the same occupation as their fathers. Some engage in agriculture; while many others procure a competency by entering into trade, or by adopting a sea-faring l'fe, 8tc. A great proportion of the fish caught on the shores of Cumana, is salted and sent to Carraccas, and the other cities of these pro vinces, as well as to the islands situated to leeward; from which they import in return, implements of agriculture, provisions of different kinds, and contraband goods. The cargoes are gene rally of trifling value, and ihey content themselves with very mo derate profits, but which they endeavour to enhance by making 134 TRAVELS IN" SOUTH AMERICA. frequent voyages. A capital of from 4000 to 5000 piastres, which in any other place woi;!d be wholly insufficient to under take any commercial speculation, here serves to maintain five or six families. The Creoles of Cumana, who devote themselves to literary pursuits, are characterized by their penetration, judgment, and application. We do not, indeed, see among them, that quickness of perception which marks the Creoles of Maracaybo; but they on the other hand more than compensate for this deficiency, by a greater portion of solidity and good sense. Trade, whether in retail, or on a large scale, is carried on at Cumana by Catalonians, and natives of the Canary islands. Among the different productions exported by the merchants' of Cumana, cocoa, and the oil expressed from it, deserves par ticularly lo be mentioned. Various medicinal plants, which grow in the country, might also find a ready market, if the inhabitants possessed any knowledge of their virtues, and knew how to pre pare them. Cumanacoa is situated fourteen leagues south-east from Cu mana, in the middle of a valley of the same name. It is reckoned to contain four thousand two hundred individuals. Nothing ap pears w anting to render this city flourishing, but a sufficient degree of energy in the inhabitants to avail themselves of the uncommon fertility of the soil by which it is surrounded. The fruits possess a flavour, taste, and mellowness, which they are rarely found to have in other places. The government gave to this city the name of San-Baltasar de Los-Arias, but it is much better known under that of Cuma-< nacoa. The city Cariaco, which is situated upon a river bearing the same name, is designated in the archives of government, under the name of San-Philippo de Austria. It contains only about sis or seven thousand inhabitants, but is in a very flourishing condi tion. The staple production is cotton, which far surpasses in beauty that raised in any other part of Terra-Firma. ¦ Its territory alone furnishes annually more than 3000 quintals. Its inhabitants also cultivate cocoa and the sugar cane. New Barcelona, which was founded in 1634, by D. Juan- Urpin, is situated in a plain upon the left bank of the river Ne* Veri, at a league from its mouth. Its p^mlation amounts to fourteen thousand inhabitants; besides one parish church, there is also a convent of Franciscans, the structure of which is nei ther elegant nor handsome. Its streets which remain un- paved, are remarkably dirty during the rainy season, and in dry weather are so covered with dust, as to prove extremely incom modious. From the prodigious number of hogs which are ACCOUNT OF BARCELONA, 135 reared by the inhabitants such a quantity of filth is accumulated, as to vitiate the air, and frequently engender pestilential maladies. The cabildo or municipality, whose principal function it is to watch over the health of the city, views with perfect indifference, and takes no measures to correct this evil ; though he himself be equally exposed as the rest of the inhabitants to suffer from the noxious miasmata which exhale from such nuisances I have, however, been since informed, that M. Cagigal, the commandant of the place, towards the end of 1803, adopted such measures as were calculated to obviate this evil. The city of Barcelona was first peopled by emigrants from Christophe aud Cumanagoto. Agriculture is very much neg lected, not only in the immediate vicinity of the city, but in the surrounding country. Among the best cultivated vallies, those of Capirinial and Brigantin are the most Conspicuous. There are many others not less fertile, but which fri.>tii want of culture, do not produce, taken altogether, more than three thousand quin tals of cocoa, aud a very inconsiderable quantity of cotton. The slaves in this district are far from being numerous. It is estima ted that there is not above two thousand upon an extent of ter ritory, the cultivate n of which might fully occupy six hundred thousand ; besides, tbe one halt of those two thousand are em ploy d us domestics. Tlie rich pastures, with which the immense plains dependant on Barcelona are covered, have induced the inhabitants to direct their attention principally to the rearing of tattle. Besides the live cattle which they dispose of in th country, or for exporta tion, prodigious numbers are slaugiiteied, the flesh of which, when cured, they regularly export to the adjacent isles, as well as to the Havannah, and sell it at a hundred per cent profit. The tallow and hides form another of their staple articles .>f com merce. At present, this source of profit is considerably dimi nished by the frequent depiedations committed among the cattle, by people who make a trade of carrying them off in such great . numbers, as scarcely to leave sufficient lo supply the home con sumption. The population is composed of nearly an equal proportion of whites and people of colour; these latter here, as every where else, are far from being industrious agriculturists. Among the. whites, there are some Catalonians, who devote themselves ex clusively to commerce; but their speculations are chiefly confined! to prohibited articles. Their frequent expeditions to Tiimdad are seldom undertaken with any other view than that of bringing. back contraband goods, which are deposited at Barcelona, and afterwards sent into the provinces either by land or water. The 136 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. money annually sent from Barcelona to carry on this clandestine traffic, is computed to amount to 400,000 piastres. Barcelona is two leagues distant from Cumana by water; but the roads are in such a wretched state, that they reckon the dis tance by land equivalent to-twenty. Conception del Pao must not be confounded with Saint-Jenn- Baptiste del Pao, which is situated in the province of Venezuela. Its inhabitants, who amount to between two and three thousand, are enabled from the extreme fertility of the soil, to live in very- easy circumstances. The air is good, and there is abundance of excellent water; the only inconvenience to which the inha bitants are subjected, proceeds from the great heats, and the inun dations produced by the long aud heavy rains. It is distant about forty-five leagues from Barcelona, fifty-five from Cumana, and nearly eighty south-east from Carraccas. The island of Marguerite, which is situated in 10° 56' lat. and between the 66th and the 67th degree of Ion. west from the meridian of Paris, has been long celebrated for its pearl fishery, from which it obtained its present appellation, it lies to the north of Terra-Firma, from which it is only separated by an arm of the sea, about eight leagues in breadth. The productions of this island are of very little importance; it is chiefly valuable as a commercial aud military station : since being divided from the' continent only by a narrow strait, and lying to windward of Terra- Firma, it might be rendered, under a judicious system, a conve nient store-house for Cumana, Barcelona, Carraccas, Goayre, and all the cities of the interior. The island of Trinidad, though less favourably situated for this purpose, yet carries on a contra band traffic to a prodigious extent; which would necessarily be confined to Guiana, if the inhabitants of the eastern part of Terra- Firma could procure at- Marguerite, at a cheaper rate, those articles which they are at present obliged to purchase at a greater distance. Besides these advantages, there are others arising from the possession of Marguerite, which are not less important. We have already mentioned the channel which separates this island from the main land; this channel is not, however, navigable through its whole extent. The Isle de Coche, which lies in the' middle, leaves for ships only a very narrow passage, about two ¦ leagues in breadth, through which they must necessarily pass. All ships coming from Europe to Cumana, Barcelona, and even to Goayre, must k-ave Marguerite on the south. If this island should ever come into the possession of the enemies of Spam, all intercourse, not only with Europe, but with the adjacent islands, would be interrupted; because those vessels, which should ¦ avoid die channel, would be inevitably taken by the privateers, IMPORTANCE OF MARGUERITE TO SPAIN. 1S7 t<> which Marguerite Would afford an asylum. The posses sion of Marguerite would at all times enable an enterprising enemy to fit out expeditions against auy part of Terra-Firma which it might wish to invade. For these and various other reasons, it is the interest of Spain to retain possession of this island; not because she can derive any direct advantages from it, but because she would suffer great injury from its falling under the dominion of any other power. Throughout the coast of Marguerite, there are only three ports or harbours. Of these the first and the principal is Pampatar, which lies east-south-east ; the second, called Pueblo de la Mar, is about a league to leeward of the former ; and the third, known under the name of Pueblo del Norte,. is situated on the northern side of the island. Near to Pampatar are erected all the fortifi cations, supposed to be necessary for the defence of the island. The city of Assumption, which is the capital of Marguerite, stands nearly in the centre of the island. Its population con sists of five thousand five hundred whites, two thousand Indians, and six thousand five hundred slaves and free men of colour, making in all fourteen thousand persons. Its principal riches "are derived from the fisheries established at the isle of Coche. Ihey are carried on by the Indians of Marguerite, who engage in this employment during three months of the year, for the, small pittance of a single real a day each, and a loaf of bread made of maize or Indian corn, which constitute their whole sub sistence. In 1803, five individuals belonging to Marguerite, farmed these fisheries, which proved extremely productive, yield ing much turtle, and an immense quantity of fish, which after being cured, they sold on the continent, and in the neighbouring islands. They fabricate at Marguerite, hammocks of cotton, the tex ture of which is far superior to that of any other made in South America. Cotton stockings of an extreme fineness are likewise manufactured in 'this island; but they are excessively dear, and rather regarded as articles of luxury than of real utility. Parrots and other curious birds are so abundant in the island, that every ship which touches at it.carries off great numbers of them. Many of the poor inhabitants besides find a considerable resource from the turkeys and other poultry which they rear, and dispose of in the neighbouring islands. As less vigilance is employed at Marguerite than in many other of the Spanish settlements, to prevent contraband traffic, the inhabitants avail themselves of this circumstance to import mules from Terra-Firma as, if on their own account, but which they afterwards furtively export to foreign colonies. Maracaybo is the capital of an extensive district of the same depons] s 138 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. name. This district is of very little extent from east to west ; but it extends for more than one hundred leagues towards the south, on which side it is bounded by the kingdom of Santa Fe. The territory of Rio-de-la-Hache, which is dependent on the kingdom of New Grenada, bounds it on the west ; the sea on the north ; and the province of Venezuela, according to the new division, on the east. The territory of Maracaybo is steril and unproductive even to a considerable distance from the capital : the whole east side of the lake is uninhabited, being arid and insalubrious, and co vered with Indian fig-trees and thorny shrubs of different kinds ; while on the west side, the land is fertile for more than twenty- five leagues to the south of the city. The country which lies on the south side of the lake, may vie, in point of fertility, with the richest spots in all South America. Nothing is wanting but exertion and industry, to render this a flourishing province, and to enable it to export annually commodities sufficient to load two thousand vessels, each of three hundred tons burden. The city of Maracaybo is situated upon the left bank of a lake of the same name, and at about sixty leagues distant from the sea. The soil, in its immediate vicinity, is sandy, and wholly* destitute of vegetable mould. Its temperature is so much hotter as the land breezes are faint, and far from being regular, as the ground is not watered by any running stream, and as rains fall very seldom. From the month of March to that of October, the heat is excessive ; but during July and August, it is so in supportable, that the air seems as if it issued from an oven or fur nace. The only effectual means to obviate the effects of this ex treme heat, is to bathe frequently in the lake ; a practice very- common among the inhabitants. Maracaybo is, however, very healthy, and endemic maladies are unknown. Individuals, when once accustomed to the climate, enjoy, to the full, as good health as in many other countries where the heat is much less excessive. The trade winds usually blow from March to the latter end of June, or the beginning of July. During the months of August and September, calms generally prevail, unless when interrupted by a south wind, which, in the vernacular language of the country, is called iv'rasow, on account of its insalubrity. It is remarked, that when the laud breezes are moderate, the year is rainy; and that when they are violent, drought invariably follows. At Mara caybo, storms and tempests frequently occur. There thunder storms are dreadful ; and not unfrequently are ships, houses, &c. set on fire and consumed by the lightning on such occasions. They never, however, experience any of those tremendous hur ricanes which are so frequent in the Antilles. Dreadful and de- DESCRIPTION OF MARACAYBO. 139 structive as the tempests are, to which Maracaybo is subject, the inhabitants think their occurrence fortunate, as they tend, in their opinion, to prevent earthquakes. The rains which fall during these storms, are so copious that they produce torrents, which, running through Maracaybo with irresistible fury, carry along with them every thing that impedes their passage. Fortu nately, these storms are seldom of long duration. The principal part of the city is situated on the borders of a small gulf or bay, nearly a league in extent, which forms the lake towards the west. The other part of the city lies to the north, on a neck or opening of the lake, which, at this place, is only three leagues in extent, but which afterwards swells out towards the south. The point where the city begins, is called the promontory of Marac'aybo ; and that where the gulf originates, is termed the promontory of Arrieta, situated nearly opposite that of St. Lucia. Many of the houses at Maraeaybo, are built with lime and sand, and with much taste ; but, notwithstanding the abundance of wood and the cheapness of tiles — notwithstanding the fre quency of fires, by which often entire streets are consumed, many of the inhabitants still continue to cover the roofs of their houses with reeds instead of tiles ;- which, in their opinion, ren der them more susceptible of taking fire. The species of reed which they employ for this purpose, is called, by the Spaniards, enea, and grows in great abundance on the borders of the lake. This intermixture of houses covered with reeds, gives to the city the appearance of a mean village ; and tends greatly, when fires occur, to increase their activity. Some of the inhabitants are so much under the influence of this prejudice, that, although in affluent circumstances, they construct their houses entirely of reeds, and similar materials. As there is no other water except that of the lake, the in habitants are forced to use it, although somewhat disagreeable to the taste ; its quality, however, is not bad, excepting only during the fresh gales which blow in spring, when it becomes brackish. In that case, the poor supply themselves with this necessary article, by digging pits in the .ground ; but the water thus obtained, is neither pleasant nor very wholesome. The rich obviate this inconveniency by having cisterns constructed iq their houses for the purpose of collecting rain-water. The inhabitants of Maracaybo, according to a census taken in 1801, amounted to twenty-two thousand souls: since that period, the population has been greatly augmented by Spanish refugees from the island of St. Domingo. The habit, which, the citizens acquire at an early age, of sailing on the lake, whe ther for pleasure, fishing, or other business, gives them a predU s % 140 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. lection for the sea, and induces them to repair in great number* to Porto-Cavello, Goayre, &c. in order to procure employ ment, and gratify their ambition. They perform coasting, or long voyages, with equal facility ; and when all trade is sus pended by the operation of war, they enter privateers. Bred up in the neighbourhood of the lake, they are mostly all expert swimmers and excellent divers. Their reputation stands equally high as soldiers. Those who do not enter into the sea service, form plantations, or assist in cultivating those which belong to their fathers.. Nothing proves better their aptitude for this kind of occupation, than the immense flocks of cattle with which the savannas of Maracaybo are covered. But what confers the greatest honour on the inhabitants of Maracaybo, is their application to literature; in which, not withstanding the wretched state of public education, they make considerable progress. While the business of instruction was committed to the Jesuits, many of their pupils acquired such a degree of proficiency in the Latin language, as to be able to gpeak it with equal elegance and simplicity. They likewise ac quired the art of elocution, and of writing their mother tongue with the greatest purity ; in a word, they possessed all the quali ties which characterise men of letters. But from the period of the expulsion of those learned men, education has declined at Maracaybo. Lawyers are a great pest at Maracaybo, for they tend to foment discord, and frequently contrive to render causes, which might be easily settled, endless and ruinous to both par ties. The penal laws which the legislature has enacted in order to diminish the number of petty-fogging attornies, teirned, by the inhabitants pendo\istas, sufficiently prove the magnitude of the evjl. After allowing that the inhabitants of this city possess activity, genius, and courage, we have nothing farther to say in their praise. They are accused of violating their promises, and even of attempting to break through written engagements. Their character, in this respect, is so notorious, that every stranger whom business induces to visit Maracaybo, affirms, that it would be much better to enter into commercial speculations with the women, because they appear alone to possess that sin cerity and good sense which are every where else considered as \>c 'onging particularly to man. While speaking of women, it would be unpardonable not to mention that the females, of Maracaybo, whether in the single or married state, conduct themselves with decorum and propriety, After marriage, all their attention and care are exclusively de- • voted to their husbands, the management of his household, and jhe education of their children, VVhat constitutes die chief of DESCRIPTION OF MERIDA. 141 their amusements, is music ; in particular, so much are they at tached to the harp, that there is scarcely a house in which the harmonious sounds of that instrument may not be heard every evening, and especially on holidays. There is only a single parish church in this city, to which is attached a chapel of ease, called San-Juan de Dois. Maracaybo is the residence of a governor, who is invested with the same powers, and receives the same salary, as the go vernor of Cumana. It is situated in 10° SO' lat. and 74° 6' Ion. west froin the meridian of Paris : it is distant from Carraccas about a hundred and forty leagues. The city of Merida, which was founded in 1558, by Rodriguez Snarez, under the name of Santiago de Los Caballeros, is situated in a valley, three leagues in length, and about three quarters of a league in its greatest breadth. It is encompassed by three rivers ; the first of which is called Mucujan, and derives its origin from a district termed in the country, los Paramos de los Conejos. It flows from north to south, and enters the city by its eastern extremity : the se cond of these rivers, known by the name of Albarregas, pursues- a north-westerly course, and passes to the west of the city : the third, which is termed Chama, and whose source lies eastward, leaving Merida to the south, runs in a northerly direction till it empties itself into the lake of Maracaybo. The two former of these rivers flow into the Chama near Merida, by the influx of which, as well as many other tributary streams, it is successively augmented, and at last acquires the magnitude of a large river. Over each of these three rivers, a strong wooden bridge has been thrown ; so that they may be passed, at all seasons, either on foot or horseback. None of these rivers are navigable, by rea son of the rapidity of their- currents, and various obstacles, such as immense masses of rocks and mountains, which frequently so nearly approach each other as to contract the bed of the river, and form cascades, precluding the passage even of the smallest vessels, without incurring the danger of being dashed to pieces. These difficulties might perhaps have been surmounted, had not the extreme unheal thiness of the country, lying near that part of the lake into which the river Chama empties itself, hitherto pre vented it. So unhealthy, indeed, is this spot, that if any person remains on it for only two hours, he seldom escapes a fever of the most malignant kind, which quickly terminates in death. The rivers which water the environs of Merida, tend greatly to promote the success of agricultural operations; and it must be acknowledged, to the praise of the inhabitants, that they avail themselves of this advantage. At some distance from the city, they cultivate the sugar-cane, cocoa, and coffee; the quality of* which is greatly superior to the same commodities produced in 142 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. other parts of the province. Besides a profusion of different fruits, there are also raised, in the vicinity of Merida, maize, beans, and peas, of various species ; potatoes, cassnda, wheat, barley, &c. All these articles are consumed on the spot, and are in such abundance, that even the most indigent are always enabled to procure for themsehes more than enough for their subsistence. Varinas and Pedraza are supplied with butcher's meat from Merida, at a low price, and of an excellent qua lity. Tlie temperature of Merida is so extremely variable, that all the changes of the four seasons are frequently experienced in the course of a single day. Nevertheless, the inhabitants affirm, that neither the cold nor heat is ever so intense as to prove in convenient; and that silken or woollen stuffs may be worn indif ferently all the year round : but they cannot deny that the varia tions of temperature are sometimes so very sudden, as to give rise to diseases. The west wind is particularly dreaded by the inhabitants ; as it never blows without leaving traces of its nox ious influence. Rains fall during every season of the year ; but they are more especially abundant from March to November. The city of Merida is the see of a bishop and chapter. It possesses a college and seminary, in which are educated priests of the Romish church; and where boys are taught those branches of knowledge suited to their rank and condition in life. A rector and sub-rector preside over all the schools in this seminary, under the immediate controul of the bishop. The inhabitants lately petitioned his Catholic Majesty to allow them to establish an university ; but though hitherto the prayer of their petition has not been granted, it is highly probable that their efforts will eventually be crowned with success. Exclusive of the cathedral, there are various churches and chapels of ease, the number of which is proportioned to that of the inhabitants. The orders of St. Dominic, St. Augustine, and St. Claire, have each their respective convents. The num ber of the inhabitants of Merida, is estimated at eleven thou sand, including slaves and persons of all descriptions. The whites of this city are characterised by great frankness of dispo sition, solid sense, and a taste for literature. Labour is not con sidered, by any class, as a degradation. The whites devote them selves to agriculture, the rearing of cattle, or enter into the church. Persons of colour engage in useful occupations, which evince equally their intelligence and application. They manu facture stuffs of cotton and wool, which are in great request, being generally preferred to European linens. With the wool of 'the country, they work carpets of an ell in length, and more than half an ell in width. These are ornamented with flowers, and DESCRIPTION OF TRUXILLO. 14& dyed with indiginous plants of various colours, equally beautiful and durable as those of our most celebrated fabrics. After hav ing mentioned the industry of the inhabitants, it is scarcely neces sary to add, that they are generally in affluent circumstances. The latitude of Merida is 8° 10'; its longitude 73° 45'.— Its dis tance from Maracaybo is eighty leagues south ; from Carraccas one hundred and forty leagues south-west, and from Varinas twenty-five leagues also to the south-west. I he city of Truxillo is situated between two mountains. The air is here very salubrious, but the water employed for domestic purposes, though light and clear, is impregnated with metallic par ticles, which occasion those swellings in the throat usually termed goitres, without, however, producing any bad effect upon the ge neral health. The soil is extremely fertile, and yields, with little cultivation, sugar, cocoa, indigo, coffee, and in general all the productions of the torrid zone, as well as some of those of our own temperate climates. The wheat, which is raised in this dis trict in great abundance, is of a superior quality, and the flour differs little from that of Europe ; it affords to the cultivator a profitable article of commerce. Agriculture is not their only occupation. Several of them earn a subsistence by rearing sheep and goats, which are of a larger species, and their flesh more delicate, than1 in any other part of the province. Their cheeses are also preferred to those made at other dairies. The extreme attention they, pay to washing and preparing the wool, enables them to manufacture several fabrics, for which they always find a ready market and receive a good price. The women, who are more industrious at Truxillo than else where, apply themselves to making different kinds of sweatmeats, a great many of which are sold throughout the province. This species of traffic, though apparently trifling, nevertheless pre serves many of the lower classes of society in Truxillo, from that extreme wretchedness, which is but too observable among the Same orders in all the other cities. There is some commercial intercourse kept up between Trux illo and Maracaybo, by means of the lake which is twenty-five leagues to the west of that city ; but their greatest trade is with Carora, to which place they send the hides of their goats and sheep, in order to be prepared. The communication, however, with this last place, is attended with great inconvenience, be cause, being obliged to cross the plains of Llouay, which are extremely unhealthy, unless the journey be performed with un common speed, the traveller is almost certain of being attacked with a malignant fever of the most dangerous nature. There is nothing remarkable in the public buildings of this 144 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. city; the parish church is constructed wjth little taste, but is a solid and decent edifice, A chapel of ease is attached to it, called Calvaire. There is also a monastery of Dominicans, another of Franciscans, and a society of female Dominicans, who have de voted themselves to a life of celibacy. Eaph of the sisters la bours in solitude at various kinds of fancy works, which are much admired and eagerly purchased, on account of the extreme deli cacy and beauty of the execution. At Truxillo, there is likewise an hospital, dedicated to our lady of Chiquinquira ; and a cabildo, for the administration of justice and police. The distance of this city from Carraccas is a hundred and five leagues to the north ; from Merida twenty leagues to the south ; and from Guanare thirty leagues to the south-east. The district of Varinas, which was only detached from Mara caybo, and erected into a separate government, in 1787, has been long famous in Europe on account of the fancied superiority of its tobacco. This opinion, however, seems to have originated altogether from prejudice, as it is inferior in every respect to tiiat which is raised in many other places, particularly in Cuma nacoa, in the province of Cumana. Nevertheless, the opinion of its superiority is so prevalent, that every cargo of tobacco imported into Amsterdam, or Hamburg, under any other name than that of Varinas, is sold at twenty-five per cent. less,whatever may be its quality. The Spaniards, availing themselves of this prejudice, ship for die European market most of their tobacco, in whatever province it may have been raised, under this denomination. Favoured with a fertile soil, and happily situated, the province of Varinas carries on a considerable traffic. Sugar, cotton, cof fee, indigo, and in general all the fruits of the torrid zone, thrive exceedingly, and are of an excellent quality. The inhabitants, who for a long time considered the soil of this province as only suited to the raising of tobacco, confined themselves to its culture; but this prejudice is now happily done away, and has given place to a' more enlarged system. They send their commodities, for the most part, by water to Guiana^ These are shipped on the river Portugaise, five leagues above the city, at a place termed Toru- nos. In Vafinas, they also rear black cattle and mules, which are either exported by the Oronooko, or consumed in the country. TKe flourishing state of this province, which it would be easy to invade by means of the navigable rivers emptying themselves into the.Oroonoko, induced the government in 1803, to establish a militia, and to appoint a garrison for the city of Varinas. This city is very healthy, though Reaumur's thermometer sel dom stands below twenty-four degrees. The inhabitants are DESCRIPTION OF SAN JAYME, &C. 145 reckoned to amount to ten thousand. Its only public edifices are a parish church and an hospital. The governor enjoys the same salary as those of the other provinces. San-Jay me is a very insignificant city, whether we consider its population or the trade which it carries on. Its situation is more singular than agreeable. It stands near the confluence of several rivers, which, after uniting for about twelve leagues, flow into the river Apure. Thus surrounded by rivers on all sides, it has no thing to protect it against their annual inundations, but a mount of sand on which it is situated. Hence the inhabitants cannot frequently, during these inundations, either leave or enter their houses without the assistance of canoes. This city is in 7° 50' N. lat. and lies seventy-five leagues south from Carraccas. The city of San- Fernando d' A pure, owes its existence to the inhabitants of Guanare, having extended their flocks over a vast extent of country. In proportion as its population increased, those who found the land preoccupied, turned their views to wards the south, and fixed upon the right bank of the celebrated riyer Apure, where the richness of the pasture completely an swered their expectation. When their numbers became augmented, they requested to be formed into an independent parish, and shortly after, that their village might be honoured with the privileges and the title of a city. This request, however singular, was acceded to. The property of the inhabitants, consists chiefly of flocks of black cattle and mules; they raise very few provisions of any kind. The temperature is here very hot, but the situation is healthy, and the water extremely good. The houses, without being ele gant, are well built, and the church, without having any preten sions to grandeur of design, is a decent and convenient edifice. The population of this city is reckoned at six thousand. CHAP VIII. s DIVISION OF GUIANA. — THE RIVER OROONOKO. IM PORTANCE OF GUIANA; ITS EXTENT AND POPULA TION. — LOWER GUIANA. — UPPER GUlANA. — ST, THO MAS, &C. x\.LLthe space included between the river Oroonoko to the north, that of the Amazons to the south, the sea to the west, and the 70° of longitude from tho meridian of Paris, is strictly that which is designated under the name of Guiana. The coast from the mouth of the Amazons to that of the Oroonoko, occu pies an extent of a hundred and twenty leagues, and is possessed by four different powers. The Portugu-eze occupy the southern PEPONS.J t 146 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. part, which, previous to the treaty of peace concluded with France in 1801, extended from the mouth of the Amazons to cape North, to the east of the island of Carpori. According to this treaty, the limits of Portugueze and French Guiana are marked by the river Carapana, which discharges it self into the Amazons, in 20' north latitude, above fort Macafa. These boundaries are marked out by the course of the river to its source, whence they take a direction towards the great chain of mountains, the sinuosities of which they follow to the nearest point of Rio-Bianco, between the 2 and 3 of north latitude. Portugueze Guiana, therefore, lies altogether on the left bank of the Amazons, and is bounded on the north by the French pos sessions as far as the 55° of longitude. On the west, the Portu gueze territory borders upon that belonging to Spain. The equi noctial line," according to stipulations, ought to mark the limits of the respective possessions of these two crowns ; but die Por tuguese have so encroached upon the Spanish territory, that their establishments extend thirty-two leagues north beyond the line; since Isle Saint-Joseph, and the mountain of Gloria del Cocui, are considered as constituting the present boundaries. French Guiana is bounded on the south by the river Carapana, which mingles its waters with those of the Amazons; on the north by the river Maroni ; on the east by the sea ; and on the west by the Spanish possessions. Surinam, Essequibo, and Demerraa, belong to the Dutch, and are bounded on the east by the sea; on the south by the river Maroni; on the west by Spanish Guiana ; and on the north by the river Essequibo: but on this side they have extended their settlements as far as cape Nassau. Spanish Guiana is bounded on the east by the sea, from cape Nassau to the mouth of the Oroonoko, the distance between which is about thirty leagues. The river Oroonoko bounds it on' the north for the extent of a hundred and fifty leagues from the sea, at which point it becomes its western boundary, as it turns back towards the south for the space of a hundred leagues, where it receives the waters of Guaviari: from thence, the Oroonoko pursuing an easterly course, serves no longer as a boundary to Spanish Guiana, which in this part has for its confines the Por tugueze possessions, Before entering, however, upon a description of Spanish Gui ana, which seems destined from the fertility of. its soil, and its advantageous situation, to become a flourishing state, it is proper that I should here give some account of the Celebrated river Oroonoko. 'The sources of the Oroonoko are as little known to the Spaniards, as those of the Nile were to Europeans, and even to the Africans themselves, before the publication of SOURCES OF THE OROONOKO. 147 Bruce s travels. Some geographers, among whom is M. Bonne, deduces its origin from lake Parima, situated to the south of the capital of Guiana, while others derive its source from the moun tains lying to the north-west of the lake already mentioned. This is the opinion most generally entertained, and apparently de serving of most Credit ; nevertheless, it is very difficult to arrive at complete certainty" on this head, since the native Indians ren der it very difficult to explore the country. M. Humboldt had a proof of this in his journey in 1800, to Rio-Negro. When he had arrived at the place where the Casiquiari emerges from the Oroonoko, he was anxious to explore the true sources of this celebrated river, but he found that impracticable, and was obliged to rest satisfied with the information he received from some Indians. The mountains termed by the natives Iburinoco, give rise to several rivulets, which, uniting at eight or ten leagues from their source, form a river, which, in the course of five hun dred leagues that it traverses, before reaching the sea, receives the waters of an infinite number of tributary streams, to which it owes the honourable denomination of a river, which, geogra phers, as well as the natives, call Oroonoko. It is conjectured, that the Oroonoko proceeds;- for the first hundred leagues, from north to south, leaving lake Parima at the distance" of sixty leagues from its left bank. From the num ber of streams which flow into it during this part of its course, it acquires the magnitude and rapidity of a very large river. From the Esmeraldes to San Fernando of Atahapa,the Oroonoko runs from east to north-west. Here the river Casiquiari forms a communication between the Oroonoko and the Amazons, by means of the Rio-Negro. The Oroonoko, from its source to the Atures, traverses a country wholly inhabited by Indian tribes, who will probably remain long unsubdued, from their remote situation. Before reaching the Atures, the Oroonoko runs to the north nearly as far as the mouth of the river Meta, from whence it bends to the north-east, and at last taking an easterly direction, pursues an undeviating course towards the sea. The Los Saltos de Atures, are immense cataracts formed by rocks in the bed of the Oroonoko, over which its waters, aug mented by the rivers Guaviari and Vichada, dash with incon ceivable fury, making a tremendous noise, and throwing up im mense columns of white spray or foam. No vessel, however small, can pass these cataracts. The mariners have therefore no other resource, either in ascending or descending this river, but to run their vessel on shore, aud drag it to a point beyond the reach of danger. Beneath these cataracts, the Oroonoko receives on the east T 2 148 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. side, the river Abacuna, and on the west the river Bichao; the Meta, which is a very considerable river, flows into the Oroonoko thirty leagues below the cataracts of Atures, and a hundred and twenty-five leagues from St. Thomas, the capital of Guiana. The navigation of the superior part of die Oroonoko, is far from being so safe and easy, as the immense magnitude of the river might induce us -to "suppose; for not only do numerous islands obstruct its channel, frequently causing it to shift its bed, but it is full of numerous rocks of different sizes, some of which are on a level with the water, while others remain at a greater or less depth, according to the state of the season; it is, besides, subject to sudden and violent gusts of wind : all these circum stances render it evident, thai to navigate the Oroonoko with safety, skilful pilots are not only necessary, but that the vessels ought to be of a certain construction and capacity. What is here said, must, how ever, be considered as applying to the navigation from the port of Guiana on ascending the Oroonoko, or from the mouth of the Meta in descending towards the capital. As the Oroonoko, for the distance of forty leagues from the shore, is every where interspersed with numerous small islands, it dis charges its waters into the sea by means of fifty mouths, seven of which arc only navigable ; of these last, that which is generally preferred, is termed la Bouche des Vaisseaux, because it is through it that vessels usually pass and repass, which carry on a trade with Guiana. Nothing can be better suited to captivate the admiration of the traveller, than the scenery presented to his view, when sailiug on the Oroonoko. At one time he beholds immense and lofty forests, stored with various species of birds, not less striking by the splendour of their plumage, than by the melody of their notes. Asses and nionkies of different kinds, greatly contribute also to enliven the enchanting prospect by their cries, their tricks, and their gambols. Here savage man lives in perfect harmony wjth the birds of the air, and the beasts of the field, and enjoys in common with them the productions of the earth. At other times are seen extensive plains covered with the richest pasture, which relieves the eye fatigued by contemplating such magnificent fo rests. In short, every thing concurs to excite in the mind of man, the highest admiration of the order and harmony of nature, and to elevate him in imagination, as it were above, himself. The pleasure experienced in viewing a succession of such prospects, is, how ever, allayed by the necessity of constantly sleeping on the hard ground, by exposure to insects, rocks, and storms, to rains and noxious dews, by the danger of encountering wild beasts, and of perishing for want. Hitherto, the Oroonoko has been so little known, that it is DESCRIPTION OF THE OROONOKO. 149 generally ranked as the last in the scale of rivers, though it ap pears to be very problematical, whether any other be entitled to dispute with it the superiority. This opinion receives additional support from M. Humboldt. It is true, that most geographical writers consider the Ama zons, in point of magnitude, as superior to every river on the sur face of the globe ; but M. Humboldt informs us, in a letter written by him, in 1800, to the captain-general of Carraccas, on returning from his excursion to the Rio-Negro, that though upon comparing his estimate of the Oroonoko, with the one made by the celebrated M. Condamine on that of the Amazons, it results that the latter is by far more extensive than the former at its mouth, yet that the Oroonoko merits the same consideration as to the volume of water it contains in the interior of tlie coun try; for at the distance of two hundred leagues from the sea, its channel, without any intervening island, measures from two thou sand five-hundred to three thousand toises. The breadth of the Oroonoko at the capital of Guiana, is 3,500 toises. Its depth, when measured at the same , place, by an order from his Catholic majesty hi 1734, was found to be sixty-five fathoms, during the month of March, when the waters were at the lowest. With so much velocity and force does it discharge its waters into the sea, that they are perfectly fresh at more than thirty leagues from its mouth, and at more than forty leagues their colour is distinguishable from that of the sea. The Oroonoko, like the Nile, and many other rivers, expe riences an annual and periodical inundation. This inundation uniformly begins in April, and terminates in August. During the whole of September, it remains altogether stationary, and presents a spectacle highly sublime, and worthy of admiration. The usual increase of the Oroonoko is thirteen fathoms near St. Thomas. It is even evident at the distance of three hundred and fifty leagues from its mouth, and gradually increases in pro portion as it approaches the sea. This increase is not uniformly the same every year, but the difference seldom exceeds more than one fathom. In the country they affirm, that there is an extraor dinary increase of one fathom every twenty-five years. Early in October the inundation of the Oroonoko begins to decrease, and its waters gradually return to their former channel. Towards the end of February it falls to its minimum, and remains stationary till the beginning of April. During this in terval the turtles leave the river -in order to deposit their eggs on the shores; the humidity of which, aided by the heat of the sun, contributes greatly to develop the principles of fecundation. The waters of the Oroonoko are potable; the inhabitants 150 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. attribute to them many medical virtues, and affirm that they possess the power of dispelling wens, and suchlike tumours. The tide, which runs very strong at the mouths of the Oroonoko, is so much diminished in force by the numerous channels through , which it enters, that ij becomes scarcely perceptible before it reaches St.Thomas, excepting only during summer, and when a strong wind blows from the sea. The Oroonoko abounds with a great variety of different spe cies offish, so as amply to repay those who pursue fishing as their principal occupation. Many of these fishes are of a different species from those in the European wraters which bear the same names, though they somewhat resemble them in external appearance. I shall not here enter into a minute enumeration of all the different varieties of fishes found in the Oroonoho, as such de tails more properly belong to a work on natural history, but con tent myself with describing those to which the Spaniards give the name of curblnata and caraibe. The first, which never exceeds two pounds in weight, is of an excellent flavour, and abounds in the Oroonoko. But it is not so much as an article of subsistence that it is valued, as on ac count of two stones situated in its head, exactly in the place which is usually occupied by the brain. These stones, which are regarded as a specific in cases of retention of urine, sell for their weight in gold. The dose is three grains of this stone, well pul verized, mingled in a cup-foil of water or wine: this is said to produce an instantaneous effect; it is even affirmed, that any. excess in this dose will occasion incontinence of urine. These stones are of the shape of an almond, and resemble in c,olour, mother of pearl. The second, which is smaller than the cwbinata, attacks with great ferocity every animal, whether dead or alive, which falls within its reach. It even wounds the legs of any one who may happen to proceed a short way into the river, and these injuries are supposed to be attended with very serious consequences. The name caraibe has been given to this fish, on account of its ferocious habits. I cannot, however, so slightly pass over the amphibious ani mals which frequent the Oroonoko, since they are distinguished by many peculiarities from those of- the same class in Europe, The cayman, w hich many naturalists confound with the alliga tor and the crocodile, is very different from these two species, as has been fully demonstrated by the Abbe Bonaterre, in the Cyclopedic Methodique. Of a much larger size than the croco-. dile and even than the alligator, it is also more sluggish and stupid. It would likewise be more dangerous than the crocodile, if it made the most of its strength. Like all the animals of this DESCRIPTION OF SOME AMPHIBIA. 151 species, it is of the lizard form, and from fifteen to eighteen feet hi length. Its mouth, which 'is extremely large, is furnished with a double range of sharp teeth, a little separated from each other. Its eyes are prominent, and the animal usually keeps on a level with the surface of the water ; it is thus enabled to view every object, without being observed in its turn. Its skin is covered with strong sharp scales, impenetrable by a musket-ball. It de vours vast numbers of fishes, and is regarded with great terror by the inhabitants. The Indians eat its flesh, which is white, but of an insipid taste ; it is caught by means of large iron hooks. Its teeth are employed by the Indians as an ornament for the neck and arms; they are also regarded as an antidote to certain poi sons, and as an alexipharmic in general. The teeth, and other parts of its body are exhibited in a pulverized state, in the dose of twelve grains of either the one or the other, or six grains of each, as an antispasmodic, and repeated according to the necessity of the case. A drop of the gall insinuated into the inner angle of the eye, is regarded as a powerful remedy in cases of cataract and dimness of sight. It produces at first a sensation of heat, which soon, however, abates. The fat of the cayman when melted, is employed to cleanse the ears. It is supposed to produce the same effect on the men- sentcric veins, and on that account is prescribed to those who eat earth, in the dose of a cup-full in a quantity of mucilage. The guana is very common in the Oroonoko. It is of the lizard tribe, about two feet and a half long, and of a green colour; it is furnished w ith a row of sharp points along its back, like the cayman, which gives it a horrible aspect. It frequently remains •on trees ashore, but retreats into the water on the slightest ap pearance of danger. The Indians, as well as the Spaniards, re gard them as a luxury, equal to that of the finest chicken. The female lays from twenty-five to thirty eggs, about the size of a nut, which are of a yellow colour, and covered with a pellicle or membrane, instead of a shell; they are usually eaten roasted, in the same manner as the eggs of domestic fowls. Another animal which abounds in the Oroonoko, and the neighbouring rivers, is termed by the Caribs capigua, by the Indians chiqulre, and by the Spaniards quardalinnjas. lis muzzle resembles that of a sheep, its skin is red, and the tail so short, as scarcely to be perceptible. These animals are eaten by the inhabitants on- fast days, from the idea that they partake more of the nature of fish, than of that of laud animals. They always swim in shoals, and occasionally raise their heads abeve water in order to respire. They feed upon the herbs which grow on the banks of the lakes and rivers, and are regarded by 152 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. the Indians as a delicious morsel ; they consequently kill them in considerable numbers by means of their an ows. The lapa, which is another amphibious animal, common to Guiana and most parts of Terra-Firma, is called by the Indians tamcuu. It is about the size of a terrier dog. Its hair is red, and variegated with whitish spots. Its flesh is extremely tender, and resembles that of a sucking pig. It feeds upon the herbage and fruits growing on the banks of the rivers which it inhabits, but on the least noise, retires to the waters. It is esteemed a great delicacy by the South Americans. An animal to which the Spaniards have given the appellation of water-dog, is also found in the Oroonoko; it belongs to the genus Phoca, and much re- rembles thr beaver. Its head is about the size of that of a mid dle-sized dog, and its ears exactly similar to those 6f the beaver ; its tail is long, and the fore feet of the same shape, but somewhat larger than those of a fox ; its hind feet are flat and membranous, and the skin soft and of a whitish colour. It inhabits holes, which it scoops out on the banks of rivers, from which, however, it frequently proceeds a considerable distance into the country. This animal does not live solely upon herbs and fruits, but de vours a considerable number of fishes, which it catches with in conceivable dexterity. A small amphibious animal known by the name of liron, is also frequently met with in the rivers and marshes of South America. It is covered with thick soft white hair, with black bands so disposed, as greatly to add to the beauty of its appear ance. Its head is small, like that of the dormouse, and is fur nished with whiskers like a cat. Its feet are membranous, and its tail prehensile, and destitute of hair from the middle to the extremity. This animal is provided with a sack or pouch under its belly, in which it carries its young. The last of the amphibia, which we shall here notice, is the manati, or sea-cow. It is ill proportioned and of a hideous ap pearance. It nearly equals an ox in magnitude, and like it, ru minates its food. The eyes of this animal are extremely small, and its organs of hearing almost imperceptible; it is not provided with fins, which forces it frequently to leave the water, in order to respire. Its hide is much thicker than that of an ox, and is employed for the purpose of making thongs for oxen, horsej whips, Se. To its breast are attached two small arms or paws without hoofs, which assist its loco-motive powers when on shore. The female carries under these arms her young, which usually consist of a male and female. She presses them against her breast, and nourishes them with milk until they attain sufficient ' strength to follow her on foot. The fleth of the manati is extremely fat and tender; the ACCOUNT OF GUIANA. 153 greatest part of it is convertible into good lamp oil ; the In'- dians take them in the same manner as the whales are caught at Spitsbergen. Whether we consider the extent of Guiana, or the fertility of its Soil, it is questioned, if Spain, among all her foreign dominions,has a settlement superior to it in importance. Spanish Guiana, from the mouths of the Oroonoko to its junction with the Por tugueze territory, extends overa space of more than four hun dred leagues. Its breadth for eighty leagues eastward, does not exceed thirty leagues, in which direction it is bounded by the Dutch possessions, but it afterwards widens to more than one hundred and fifty leagues. The population of this immense territory, including persons of all descriptions, is only estimated at thirty-four thousand, of which nineteen thousand four hundred and twenty-five Indians, are under the jurisdiction of the missionaries, six thousand five hundred and seventy-five reside in the capital, and the remaining eight thousand are scattered through the different villages. This territory is divided into Upper and Lower Guiana ; and the capital has been adopted as the point of division, though the river Caroni seems better calculated for this purpose, as it forms the western boundary of a portion of Guiana, that is insulated by having the Oroonoko to the north, the sea to the east, and the river Essequibo, to the south. This district intersected in all directions by numerous rivers, which have for time immemo rial contributed to increase the quantity of vegetable mould on its surface, is surpassed, in point of fertility, by no other portion of territory throughout America. The missionaries who were first deputed to civilize the In dians by the introduction of Christianity, began their operations in this part of Guiana. But though the erection of twenty-seven villages to the east of the river Caroni, attests the success of these early missionaries, they have never ventured to approach nearer to the coast than thirty leagues, from its being inhabited by Caribs, the most ferocious of all the Indian tribes, who have never failed to massacre the preachers of Christianity sent to convert them. There can be no doubt that the ferocity of the Caribs would have in time yielded to the efforts of the missiona ries, had they been left to the impulse of their own feelings ; but the Dutch of Surinam, who are interested in extending their commerce into Spanish Guiana, have uniformly endeavoured to foment the hatred of the Caribs against the Spaniards, with a view to prevent the approach of the latter towards the coast. It is, in fact, certain, that Spanish Guiana, which in the best charts is made to occupy thirty leagues from the mouth of the Oroonoko to cape Nassau, never extended so far in that direc PEPONS.J v 154 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA natives, who have uniformly asserted their independence, and, never having been either converted, reduced, or subjugated, continue still as free as they were before the discovery of the New World. The Dutch have always strenuously endeavoured to. maintain a strict alliance and friendship with the Caribs. In this they succeeded more readily, as they never inculcated on them the rigid and troublesome morality of the Spaniards, but, on the contrary, made every allowance for the difference of their manners and ha bits. It is even affirmed, that on all occasions they never failed to foment their hatred against the Spaniards, and to attach them to their own interest: what appears to prove the truth of these assertions, is the libertv that the Caribs have granted them of keeping a military guard in their territory, with a view to protect the contraband traffic which they carry on. The Spaniards of Guiana, and the Dutch of Surinam, are therefore far from living on terms of amity with each other. The Spaniards affirm that the Dutch do not respect the boundaries betweeen the possessions of the two countries, but are continu ally encroaching on their territory; that they injure the Spanish commerce in Guiana, by the constant traffic which they carry on; that they continually excite the Caribs to revolt; and that they prevent their subjugation by the arms with which they sup ply them. The Dutch in their turn ascribe the desertion of their slaves in Surinam to the Spaniards, who, they assert, never fail to af ford them an asylum in Guiana. It must be admitted, that for a long time the Spanish government favoured the slaves of Suri nam, who fled to them for protection, more out of hatred to the Dutch than from principles of humanity. They have even peo pled with these fugitives two very considerable villages on the banks of the river Caura, into which are also received the In dians, whom the Caribs force to fly, in order to avoid becoming the slaves of the Dutch. From such a heterogeneous popu lation, without civilization, it is greatly to be feared, that sooner or later the public tranquillity may be endangered. _ These, and similar complaints have continued to be made by the respective governments for the last seven or eight years, and different treaties have been entered into, with a view to remedy such evils in future. One of the stipulations is, that the Spa niards shall either send back, or pay the full value of every slave who takes such refuge in their dominions, If this condition continue to be faithfully executed, it will greatly tend to preserve iarmony. between the two countries. That tract of country lying to the east of the river Caroni, from about a league above St. Thomas, is included under Upper FRANCISCAN MISSIONARIES. 155 Guiana, and is placed under the care of a Franciscan mission. If we are to estimate the zeal of these missionaries by the pro gress of Christianity among the Indian tribes, we must suppose it to have been very lukewarm indeed ; but when we reflect upon the obstacles they had to surmount, the difficulties they had to encounter, and, above all, the indifference, or rather the decided repugnance of these tribes to receive the light of Christianity, it must, we think, be admitted that the Franciscans have done as much on the. upper banks of the Oroonoko, as it was possible for man to atchieve under such circumstances. While we thus do justice to the zeal of these spiritual guides in the propagation of their faith, we cannot but lament that they had not endeavoured to establish among their converts habits of industry and a love of labour; instead of which, if they only muttered over a few pray ers at stated hours, they were suffered to pass the rest of their time in sloth and idleness. If any of them, more active than the rest, raised a few provisions round his hut, he was deemed a pro digy of industry. The consequence of such an erroneous system has been, that on the richest land in the universe, we only be hold a few scattered and wretched habitations, situated thirty leagues to the south of the capital of Guiana. Here the pro prietors raise some cotton, a .sniall quantity of sugar-canes, and some of the culinary vegetables of the country. The land hi this neighbourhood is well suited to the culture of tobacco, if we may judge by the excellent quality of that which is raised in the vicinity of Saint Anthonio Uspata,on account of the king. The city of Saint Thomas, situated on the right bank of the Oroonoko, is the residence of a governor, who enjoys a salary of three thousand piastres. He enjoys all the rights, and exercises all the functions of the other governors, but subject in the military, political, and financial departments, to the controul of the cap tain-general of Carraccas. The bishop of Guiana also resides in this capital ; but there is not one decent edifice dedicated to religious purposes. Divine worship is performed in a mass-house, of which the most insig nificant village would be ashamed as a parish church. The bi shop has made many representations on- this subject to the Spa nish-government, which have hitherto been wholly fruitless, and, with the limited income he enjoys, nothing is left for him to do but to breathe his ardent wishes for the erection of an edifice worthy of the grandeur of the object to which it is set apart. The police of the capital of Guiana is administered by a ca bildo, the only one in the province, consisting of two alcades, an alguazil, an a/ferez real, and a notary. v , In the province of Guiana there are only three-cures, baint U2 156 TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA. Thomas, Saint Rose of Maruante to the east, and Caycara a hundred leagues to the west. The air is extremely pure and healthy in Saint Thomas. The breezes are regular from November to the month of May; but during the rest of the year they are frequently interrupted by calms ; the streets are regular, and all paved ; the houses, like those ofCarraccas, are mostly built of lime and sand, with terraces above, where the inhabitants sleep during the hot season. Storms are here very frequent during the months of August, September, and October, but they are never visited by earthquakes. The tythe throughout Guiana was farmed in 1803, at 4,000 piastres. Now, supposing the farmer to gain fifty per cent, which, added to the former sum, makes 6,000, the annual value of the exports, &c. throughout the province of Guiana, will amount to 60,000 piastres. It requires little penetration to estimate the , share which can be appropriated to commerce. It is true, that in this calculation the fythe of the profits of the flocks of the missionaries are not included; because they are ex empted from the tax. It is estimated that they possess cattle to the amount of a hundred and fifty thousand, which constitutes part of the riches of Guiana. From 1791 to 1794 there were exported from the port of Guiana ten thousand three hundred and eighty oxen, and three thousand a hundred and forty mules, all either bred in the pro vince itself, or brought from Varinas ; in return, was imported two hundred Blacks, and 349,448 piastres in specie. From 179 1 to 1 795 the silver exported to Europe, amounted to - 25,203 piastres. In commodities - ... 363,397 Total 388,600 At present this commerce is reduced to less than one half. Toward the conclusion of 1803 there were thirty small vessels employed in the coasting trade between Guiana and the other colonies ; and this trade was chiefly in the hands of some Cata- lonians, but the indolence of the inhabitants', and other circum stances, rendered their speculations in a great measure abortive. One great obstacle to the exertion of industry in Guiana is the difficulty of communication between the different parts of the province, owing to the numerous rivers with which it is every where intersected, and the want of good roads. The port of St. Thomas is likewise subject to continual inju ries from the shooting-in of the earth, which exposes the houses to be inundated, particularly during the months of July, August, and- September, but which might easily be remedied by die PORT OF ST. THAOMAS. 157 erection of a solid quay on that part called la Almeda. What would still farther improve this harbour, would be to blow up the large rocks, which at present render the anchorage ground unsafe and incommodious. The most proper season for per forming the operation would be the beginning of February, when the waters of the Oroonoko are at the lowest. Another improvement, suggested by the inhabitants, would be to render more navigable the channel of Mamo, which is seven leagues below the capital, since in its present state no vessel can sail through it from the month of January to that of April. , With a view of better protecting Guiana from foreign attacks, the Spanish government has placed the capital at the immense distance of ninety leagues from the mouth of the river; but, in my opinion, this purpose would have been more effectually ac complished by placing it nearer the sea ; since an enemy in this case could not have penetrated into the country till they had first rendered themselves masters of it. Whether we consider the subject iu this point of view, or with respect to trade and navigation, it must, I think, appear evident, that a worse situ ation could not have been chosen. The voyage from that mouth of the Oroonoko termed la Bouche des Vaisseaux to Saint Thomas's, generally takes from fifteen to twenty or thirty days; and if we add to the time thus lost, the risks to be encountered, it must be allowed that there are few navigators who would not prefer making a voyage to Europe, rather than undergo the danger, anxiety, and delay atr tendant on the navigation of the Oroonoko. END OF DEPON S TRAVELS. EXPLANATION Of the Map of the City of CARRACCAS, in South Ame rica, the Capital of the Provinces of Venezuela, Mara caybo, Varinas, Guiana, and the Island of Marguerite. A THE Cathedral a Placa Mayor, or prin- 1 Archbishopric B Parish of St. Paul cipal square 2 Town-house C of Altagracia b Square of Candelaria 3 Edifices building - for D—— of Candelaria c of St. Paul public offices E Church of St. Maurice d of Trinity 4 Barracks of St. Anne F of Pastora ,. f of Lion 5 Barracks of the Militia G of Trinity, & g Small Sq. ofSt.Lazarus 6 Convent of Misericorde Chapel of Candelaria h of Pastora 7 Bivouac H Parish of St. Rosalia 1 of Altagracia 8 Shops let out by the city Y Monastery of St. Hia- m of Iliacinthe 10 Custom-house of Pas- cinthe n : of St. Phi- tora I . of St. Fran- lippeofNervi li Road from the Val- cois o of Rosalia ley of Pastora K of Mercy p Cemetery of the Ca- 12 Road from Petare L — of Carmi- thedral 13 House of Prayer lites q Play-house 14 Houses let out M — — — ofConcep- r House building for the 15 State Prison tion residence of the Cap- 16 House of Correction N Oratory of St.Philippe tain-General 17 Prison of Inquisition of Neri t Military Hospital 18 of the Treasury O New Church, left un- u Seminary of Female 19 House of the Royat finished Education Audience I* Convent of Capuchins 20 Royal, Adrai- Q Hospital of St. Paul nistration. It ofSt.Lazarus 21 Bridges S Convent and Chapel 22 Public Fountains of the Daughters of 23 Reservoirs, of the Charity Fountains T College and University U Hermitage of Calvaire INDEX. AMERICA, difficulty of the Spa niards in conquering some parts of, accounted for, 6. — America consider ed before its conquest, 17 ; its po pulation and government, 48. — A- meTicus Vespusius, futility of his pretensions to the discovery of the continent of America, 7. — Amuse ments, public, state of the, at Car raccas, 98. — Araya, the point of, necessity of knowing it in entering the port of Armana from Europe, 27. — Audience, the court of, remarks on the, their power, &c. 67. — Au thority, parental, observations on it, in South America, 36. Barcelona, particulars relative to the port of, 26. — Barquisimeto, excel lence oi its situation, 120. — Bays, sketch of the principal, in the pro vince of Carraccas, 23. — Bodegas, their advantageous trade, 88. Cabildos, account of the institution of the, 68. — Calaboso, account of the city of, 123. — Caratapona, account of a small island so called, in the lake of Valence, 17.— Caravaleda, foundation of the city, causes x>f its abandonment, 25. — Cariaco, account of the gulph of, 20. — Cariaco, the gulph of, convenient for landing on account of -its depth, 2~. — Carib bean sea, origin of its name, boun daries, &c. 21. — Carora, description of the city of, 119 — Carraccas, di vision of She captain-generalship of, 30. — Carraccas, attempt to excite a revolution there frustrated, 42. — Carraccas, the Indian population in, ¦63 j sketch of the Spanish govern ment, 64 ; account of the represen tative of the king, his prerogatives, &.c. 66 ; facility*)? making a descent in these parts, 7 1 ; military esta blishments, 73; religious function aries, 75 ; trade with the mother country, 81 ; clandestine trade with the English, 84; Carraccas, the city of, climate, -topography, &c. S3 ; remarks on the inhabitants, 95 ; population, &c. 99. — Ceremonies, JSpauish, description of some cu rious, 38, 40.— Charles IV. anec dote of, illustrative of his philan thropy, 43. — Cobano, Lady, history of our, 97. — Columbus, Christopher, his sagacity and intrepidity in the discovery of America, 5. — Consulate, the, its jurisdiction and object, 89 ; indolence of that assembly, 90 — Coro, the second European esta blishment in America, account of, 117. — Corteza, Lady, miraculous discovery of our, l--'3. — Creoles, their attachment to their -native country, 32 ; their capacity for science, 35. — Cumana, account of the city and its harbour, 27. — Cumana, its situ ation, fortifications, &c. 72. — Cus toms, Spanish, description of some peculiar, 38. Divorces, their frequency among the Indians, 55. — Dutch, their contra band trade with Spanish America, 81. Earthquakes, their frequency in tho southern part of America, 11 — Edu cation, public, reflections on it in the Carraccas, 32. — Education of Indian children, evil effects of the loose, 54 —Emigration from Spain to South. America, 31. — English, their clan destine trade with the province of Carraccas, 84. Females, their extravagant luxury in dress, 95. — Females at Carraccas, their character, 100. — Festivals, in what manner observed by the Spa niards, 96. — -Forests, abundance of timber by them on the mountains of Venezuela, 11. — Fowling, curious and advantageous method of used by the Indians, 15. Goahiros, the most ferocious of the maritime Indians, 57. — Goayre, brief account of the port of, its inconve niences, 21. — Goayre, account of the town and port of, 107. — Gua- naro, its population, trade, &c. 122. — Guaranos, their customs, man ners, culture, &c. 56. — Guarapiche, source, extent, and navigation of the, 21.— Guipuscoa company, its origin, increase, and abolition, 81. INDEX. — Guigues, origin, course, and ex tent of the river, 19. husbands in South America, restraint imposed upon them with respect to their wives, 37. Incas, remarks respecting the copi ousness of their language, 49. — In-. dians, observations relative to the physical or moral distinction of their character, 49 ; sketch of their reli gious principles, superstition, 50 ; customs, manners, &c. 54. — Indi ans, privileges granted to them by the Spaniards, 59 ; their preference of the savage state to civilization, 61 ; their indifference to religion, 62. — Inquisition in South America, power of the, 75. lake of Valence, account of the sin gular phenomenon relative to it, 16. Law-suits, propensity of the Spa nish' Americans to frequent, 41. — litigation, the spirit of. evident from the number of attornies in South A- merica, 41. — Lizards deemed deli cious morsels near the lake of Va lence, 18. Manzanares, utility of the river in fer tilizing the lands, 20. — Maracaybo, description of the lake, its course, importance, &c. 14 ; account of the city of, 72. — Marguerite, account of the island of, 73. — Marriages, early, remarks on their frequency in the Carraccas, and result, 3o. — Mines, motives of the Indians for resisting the working of the gold mines in Carraccas, 9.-*— Missionary, dreadful consequences occasioned by the cruelty of a, 57. — Missionaries, their religious traffic with the In dians, 78. — Missions, zeal of the Spanish, 60. — Mountains, hypothe sis respecting their formation, 8. Ocumare, eommodiousness of the bay, 24. — Otomaques, their superiority to other Indian tribes, 53. Faria, the gulph of, its site, extent, navigation, &c. 28. — Pearl-fishery, the, at Cubagua, abandoned by the Spaniards, 9. — Piaches, character of- the, 50. — Police of Carraccas, re marks on the, 104. — Port Francois, convenient for conveying the goods of the neighbourhood, 26. — Porto Cavallo, account of the harbour of, its superiority to every other in Ame rica 23, 72.- — Porto-Cavallo, de scription 'of, 108.— Priests, their de crease in South America accounted for, 79. — Pulperias, see Rodequs. Rivers, brief notice of the most re markable in the proviuce of Carrac cas, 17. Sambo race, worthlessness of the, 127. —Sanz, M. J. his enlightened ideas of public education in the Carraccas, 32. — Sarsaparilla, increase of its ex portation from a port of Goyare, 13. — Slavery, in America, its first in troduction by the Spaniards, 41. — Slaves, their treatment' in America considered, 45.— South America, its seasons, climate, &c. L0. — Spain, commercial system of, with hei^ co lonies, 80 ; her impolicy, 84. — Spa niards, obstacles to their emigration to South America, 31.— Spaniards, their cruel conduct to the American Indians exaggerated, 50. — Spaniards, their aversion to manual labour, re marks on the conduct of those who migrate to Carraccas, 99. — Super' stition, curious instances*of, 113. Tar, mineral, immense quantities of, obtained near the lake of Maracaybo, 14. — Timber, its abundance on the mountains of Venezuela, variety of purposes to which it is applied, 12. , — Tocuyo, its situation, soil, manu factures, trade, &c. 121. — Tribunals, Spanish, remarks on the different, 70. — Tribunal, commercial, its esta blishment, object, &c. 88. — Turtle, the abundance of, on the shores of the Oroonoko, 53. Valencianos, miracles wrought by Our lady of, 125. — Venezuela, deriva tion of the name, 15. — Victoria, ac count of the village, its trade, &c, 116. — Villages, aquatic, description of some on the lake of Maracay bo, 14. Unare, notice of this river forming the boundaries between Carraccas and Cumana, 20. — University of Car raccas, state of the, 1 02. Winds, remarks tm#the winds preva lent on the coasts of Carraccas, 92. ¦ — Wives, Spanish, partiality of the laws to, 37. Yaracuy, navigation of the river, 1.9.