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HONORABLE HIRAM BINGHAM
YALE 1898

MEXICO
AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF THE COUNTRY
ITS PEOPLE AND THEIR HISTORY
FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES
TO THE PRESENT

BY
T. PHILIP TERRY, F.R.G.S.
AUTHOR OE ' TERRY'S MEXICO,' ' TERRY'S JAPANESE EMPIRE,' ETC.
With colored Map

BOSTON AND NEW YORK
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
1914

ES FROFIEDAD EN MEXICO
COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
BY T. PHILIP TERRY
IO0O
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL

COPYRIGHT IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE COUNTRIES
COVERED BY THE BERNE CONVENTION
1909

FOREWORD
Although Mexico lies contiguous to the United
States, it is much less accurately known to some than
its importance warrants. As it, no doubt, is destined
to bear a closer relation to us in the future than it has
in the past, it is well that every American should
know as much as possible about the country and its
varied aspects.
Our chief aim in compiling this volume has been to
present in a compact and inexpensive form, a wealth
of compressed data relating to the History of Mexico
and of the many races which inhabit it; and to its
Physiography (Area, Boundaries, States, Mountains,
Lakes, Rivers, Gulf of Mexico), Climate, Govern
ment, Constitution, Army and Navy, etc. The care
fully arranged Chronological Table of the Chief
Events in Mexican History from the Earliest Times
to the Present, is uniquely interesting, and it forms
an epitome of events and dates available for quick
reference and peculiarly valuable to-day.
All the foregoing has been taken from the pages of
Terry's Guidebook to Mexico, and the bracketed num
bers and references which the reader will note in the
text of the following pages relate to that volume.
(See the advertisement at the end of this book.)
T. P. T.
Hinqham, Mass., June, 1914. ,

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MAPA de los FERROCARRIEES
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REPUBLICA M £KICA\NJ_A\
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Physiography: Area. Boundaries. The Mexican States.
Government. Army and Navy. Mountains. Lakes. Rivers.
Gulf of Mexico.
La Republica Mejicana — often called Old Mexico — ex
tends from north latitude 14° 30' to 32° 42', and from 12° 18'
46" of B. longitude to 18° 6' 15'< of longitude W. of the Meri
dian of Mexico City, or between 86° 46' 8" and 117° 7' 8" west
of Greenwich. It is bounded on the N. by the U. S. A., on the
S. by Guatemala, on the E. by the Golfo de M&jico, and on
the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It has a coast-line of 6000 miles,
and a superficial area of 1,958,912 sq. kilom., or 766,000 sq.
miles. Its greatest length, mainly represented by the gigan
tic dorsal ridge of the Sierra Madre, is 1,970 M. in a straight
line from the northwestern extremity of Lower California to
the southern border of the State of Chiapas. Its maximum
breadth, from E. to W. on the line of N. latitude 26°, is
about 750 M. and its minimum, at the Isthmus of Tehuante
pec, 140 miles.
Within this vast territory are many places replete with in
terest. The wonderful ruined palaces of the Peninsula of Yuca
tan; the Casas Grandes, or Big Houses, of the State of Chihua
hua; the dead cities of Palenque, buried in the fastnesses of the
almost impenetrable tropic forests of the State of Chiapas,
and the mute and extraordinarily attractive tombs of the
vanished Zapotec and Mixtec Indian KingB, of Oaxaca State,
are as sustainedly interesting as the stupendous pre-Colom-
bian pyramids of Papantla, Cholula. and San Juan Teotihua
can. The Rio Grande (big river) represents a part of the dividing
line between Mexico and the United States, but the unstable
character of this river, and its persistent efforts to change its
course, occasion many international discussions. New Spain
once included all the territory lying between N. latitude 15°
and 42° ; by the treaty between Spain and the U. S. A. (Feb.
22, 1819) the northern boundary was placed at the mouth
of the Sabine River, in Texas; by the Treaty of Guadalupe,
Feb. 2, 1848, the dividing line was fixed at the Rio Grande.
Prior to this treaty the area of Mexico was 1,650,000 sq. miles,
but the U. S. A. gained over half this territory and an addi
tional 100,000 sq. miles. By the " Gadsden Purchase " Conven
tion (1853) the U. S. A. secured a further addition of 45,535

2 AREA
sq. miles. Mexico stands fourth, on the American continent,
in its possession of territory, being somewhat smaller than the
U. S. A. (including the Dominion of Canada), Brazil, and
the Argentine Republic.
The main body of the Mexican Territory is a vast table
land, a distinct geographical region, traversed by extensive
mountain chains of remarkable heights. These mountains
(Sierra Madre or Mother Range), a continuation of the Cordil
lera of South America, trend northwesterly from the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec and have but a moderate elevation in the
southern States of Chiapas and Oaxaca. But farther north
the mean altitude is 9,000 ft. above sea-level, and two peaks,
Popocatepetl and Orizaba, rise to great elevations: the latter
forms the culminating point of Mexico. At the 21st parallel
the Cordillera becomes very wide, and divides itself into three
ranges. The eastern branch runs to Saltillo and Monterey;
the western traverses the States of Jalisco and Sinaloa, and
subsides in northern Sonora; while the central ridge extends
through the States of Durango and Chihuahua, forming the
water-shed of the northern table-land. The range decreases
in elevation going northward. In these cross-ridges (due to
igneous action), thrown out from the longitudinal system, are
many volcanoes; nine exceeding 10,000 ft. and twenty or
more rising above 4,000 ft. (comp. mts. and altitudes).
The great plateau (mesa) is about 1,500 M. in length, by 530
in breadth, with a mean height of 6,000 ft. above the sea-
level: it is known as La Mesa Central de Andhuac, and it is
widest in the latitude of Mex. City. The surface is cut up into
numerous barrancas (ravines), some of great depth. Two passes
afford outlets to the eastward ; one at Jalapa, now traversed by
the Interoceanic RIy., and through which Cortes built a road
during the Conquest : and one at Saltillo, at present utilized by
the National Rlys. Through this pass the American soldiers
climbed to the plateau during the Mexican War. The central
plateau is subdivided into four minor mesas: Toluca, with a
mean elevation of 8,570 ft. ; Actdpan, with a mean of 6,450 ft.;
Ixtta, 3,320, and the Valley of Mexico, 7,470 ft.
Configuration of the Coast. The Atlantic coast line is
about 1,600 M. long, and the Pacific (and Gulf of California)
about 4,200. The eastern coast is extremely fertile. The most
important ports are Vera Cruz, Tampico, Progreso (in Yuca
tan), Campeche. El Carmen, Frontera, Coatzacoalcos (Isthmus
of Tehuantepec), Tuxpam, and Matamoros. Vera Cruz ranks
highest, with Tampico next. The western coast is fertile and
possesses some splendid harbors. Chief among them are Aca
pulco and Guaymas ; the latter, according to Mex. geographers,
one of the safest harbors on the globe. Manzanillo is of consid-

BOUNDARIES 3
erable importance, and Salina Cruz, the Pacific terminus of the
Isthmian Route, is_ perhaps destined to become as celebrated
as Port Said. Pacific coast ports of minor importance are
Agiabampo, Topolobampo, Altata, San Bias, Las Penas, Cha-
mela, Zihuatanejo, Puerto Angel, Tonala, and San Benito. The
Pacific coast is healthier than the Atlantic. The country con
tiguous to both is low ; but the land rises gradually toward the in
terior. The flat region of the eastern tierra caliente has an average
breadth of 65 M. : that of the western varies from 40 to 70 M.
Earthquakes (terremotos, temblores) are somewhat frequent.
"We are accustomed to consider Mexico as lying entirely
south of the United States, and as entirely hot ana tropical;
but nearly one half of the area is north of the southernmost
points'of the U. S. A. Furthermore, one half of its area, even
much of that extending into the tropics, is cool and temperate.
"Mexico lies at the meeting-place of two zones, — the tem
perate and the torrid; and from its geographical position,
combined with its varying altitudes, possesses a greater vari
ety of soil, surface, and vegetation than any equal extent of
contiguous territory in the world. Basking in the sunshine of
the tropics, her head pillowed in the lap of the North, her feet
resting at the gateway of the continents, her snowy bosom
rising to the clouds, she rests serene in the majesty of her
might. She guards vast treasures of gold and silver, emeralds
and opals adorn her brow, while the hem of her royal robe,
dipped in the seas of two hemispheres, is embroidered with
pearls and the riches of ocean.
"Mother of Western civilization 1 cradle of the American
racel a thousand years have been gathered into the sheaf of
time since her first cities were built. When the Norsemen
coasted our northern shores, she had towns and villages, and
white-walled temples and palaces. When the Pilgrims landed
on Plymouth Rock, a hundred years had already passed since
the soldiers of Cortes had battled with the hosts of Montezuma.
In no country in the world can you pass so rapidly from zone
to zone, — from the blazing shores of the heated tropics to
the region of perpetual winter, from the land of the palm and
vine to that of the pine and lichen, — for in 12 hours this can
be accomplished, and the traveller may ascend a snow-peak
with the sands of the shore still upon his shoes." (Travels in
Mexico, F. A. Ober.)

THE MEXICAN STATES

STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED MEXICAN
STATES
(.Estados y Territories de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos.)

1
2 3 4,
6,6. 7.
89.
10.11.
12. 13.
14.15.16. 17.
18.19.
20.
21. 22.23.24.25.
26. 27.
28.29.30.

States and T.
Aguascalientes Campeche
ChiapasChihuahuaCoahuila
ColimaDurango Guanajuato
Guerrero Hidalgo
JaliscoMexicoMichoacanMorelosNuevo Leon
Oaxaca
Puebla Queretaro
San Luis Potosi
SinaloaSonora
Tabasco
Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Vera Cruz
Yucatan Zacatecas
Territorio de Baja
California
Territorio de Tepio
Distrito Federal

deviations

Area in sq. kilom

Pop.

Ags.

7,644

105,000

Camp.

46,855

86,542

Chis.

70,524

360,599

Chi.

227,468

327,800

Coah.

161,550

297,000

Col.

5,587

65,120

Dgo.

98,470

370,294

Gto.

29,458

1,061,724

Gro.

64,756

479,205

Hgo.
JaT.

23,101

605,000

82,503

1,153,891

Mex.

23,957

934,463

Mich.

52,261

931,000

Mor.

7,184

160,500

N. L.

62,998

400,000

Oax.

91,664

986,000

Pueb.

31,616

1,150,000

Qro.

9,215

232,389

8. L. P.

65,586

600,000

Sin.

87,231

296,701

Bon.

199,244

221,682

Tab.

26,094

160,000

Tam.

84,394

218,948

Tlax.

4,132

172,315

V. C. (also

Ver.) 75,651

981,030

Yuc.

91,201

314,087

Zao.

63,386

462,190

B.C.

151,109

47,624

Tepio

29,211

150,098

D. F.

1,200

600,000

For the purposes of civil administration the Mexican Re
public is divided into a Federal District, 27 States and 2
Territories, known as the Estados Unidos Mexicanos. The
States are free and sovereign in all matters pertaining to their
internal administration, their government being vested in
the State Government, State Legislature, and State Judicial
Power. For convenience the States and Territories are classi
fied as follows, according to their situation : —
Central States: Federal District, Aguascalientes, Du
rango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Quere
taro, San Luis Potosi, Tlaxcala, and Zacatecas, with an area
of 372,480 sq. kil6metros.
Gulf States : Campeche, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Vera Cruz,
Yucatan, and its adjacent Territorio of Quintana Roo, 323,610
sq. kilom.
Northern States: Chihuahua (largest, with an area of
nearly 90,000 sq. miles), Coahuila (which once comprised
Texas), Nuevo Leon, and Sonora, with 658,032 sq. kilom.
Pacific States: Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco,
Michoacan, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, with the territories of Baja

GOVERNMENT 5
(Lower) California, and Tepic; the combined area measuring
629,037 sq. kilom.
These vast possessions represent the most highly mineral
ized region on the globe. In some of the States, three harvests
are annually secured. There are 52 varieties of mammal
quadrupeds, 203 varieties of fowls, 50 kinds of humming-birds,
353 species of birds, 77,000 (catalogued) coleoptera, 43 classes
of reptiles, 13 batrachians, and a greater variety of plant
life than is known to exist in any other country. For de
tailed information referring to the above States and Terri
tories, consult the different headings in the Handbook.
The present Constitution of Mexico, promulgated Feb. 5,
1857, and subsequently amended, declares that the Mexican
Republic is established under the representative, democratic,
and federal form of government, composed of states free and
sovereign in everything relating to their internal administra
tion, but united in one single federation in accordance with
the principles set forth in the said Constitution. The Su-
Ereme Government is divided into three coordinate branches:
legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The legislative power
of the nation is vested in a general Congress, consisting of
two Chambers, the Deputies, and the Senate. The Chamber
of Deputies is composed of representatives of the nation
elected every two years by the Mexican citizens and in the
proportion of one Deputy for every 40,000 inhabitants, or
fraction over 20,000, the term of service being two years.
The requisite qualifications are similar to those of other
countries. The Senate consists of two Senators for each State
and the Federal District, chosen in the same manner as the
Deputies, and subject to certain limitations of age, etc.
The Congress has two ordinary sessions annually — the
first, which may be extended 30 days, beginning on Sept.
16 (the great national holiday) and ending on Dec. 15, and
the second, which maybe prorogued for 15 days, convening
on the 1st of April and adjourning on the last day of May.
The Executive Power is lodged in a single individual, known
as the President (presidente) of the United Mexican States,
with a salary of $50,000 a year. There is also a Vice-President.
The Presidente is elected indirectly by electors chosen by
the people. His term of office is six years (law of May 6,
1904), commencing on the 1st day of Dec. after election. By
an amendment to the Constitution, under date of Dec. 20,
1890, he may be reelected indefinitely.
The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court of Jus
tice and the District and Circuit Gourts. The Government of
the States is divided into the same branches as the General
Government. The States are divided politically, as a rule,
into districts governed by a jefe politico, or a prefect, who is

6 MOUNTAINS — LAKES
responsible to the governor — gobernador. The minor divi
sions are municipalidades; the local authority being an ayun
tamiento, corresponding to the town council in the U. S. A.
The main clauses of the Constitution, with respect to the
rights of men, are similar to those of other advanced coun
tries. Aliens enjoy the civil rights belonging to Mexicans, but
they can be expelled (Article 33) from the country if they
prove to be pernicious to the Government.
Mexico has a small navy, and an effective army of about
40,000 men. The normal revenue of the Government is about
100 million pesos ; the expenditures amounting to about 93
millions. The national debt is about $380,000,000. Mexico's
foreign credit is high.
The Army (ejercito) is composed of regular and auxiliary
troops of the reserve; the strength of the former is fixed by
law at 30,000 men, that of the reserve at 28,000, and that of
the second reserve at 150,000. The infantry is armed with
Mauser rifles of the pattern of 1901, 7mm. calibre, and with
"Porfirio Diaz" rifles; the cavalry with carbines of the same
pattern. Schneider rapid-fire mounted guns are used. The ef
fective strength of the army in time of war is given at 3,500
officers, 120,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, and 6,000 artillery.
At present the regular army establishment is made up of
sections quartered at different points in the Republic.
The Navy (marina de guerra) is modest, and was established
simply to meet the requirements of coast patrol necessary to
a country at peace with all. The personnel of the navy con
sists of some 150 oflBcers and about 350 men.
Mexico is a land of High Mountains ; it is estimated that
there are 156 mts. of a volcanic character scattered through
the mt. ranges of the Repub. The following are the highest:
Name Height States
Orizaba or Citlaltepetl (p. 496) 1 8.225 Vera Cruz
Popocatepetl (p. 463) 17,782 Mexico
Iztaccihuatl (p. 464) 16,060 Mexico and Puebla
Xinantecatl, or Nevado de Toluca (p. 199) 15,000 Mexico
Matlalcueyatl, or Malintzi (p. 497) 14,740 Tlaxcala
Ajusco (p. 434) 13,612 Federal District
Nauchampatepetl (p. 504) 13,403 Vera Cruz
Volcan de Colima (p. 186) 12,782 Jalisco
Pico de Tancitaro (p. 224) 12.653 Michoacan
Cerro de Patamban (p. 224) 12,290 "
Zempoaltepetl (p. 541) 11,965 Oaxaca
Los Llanitos (p. 145) 11,013 Guanajuato
Pico de Quinceo (p. 224) 10,835 Michoacan
Gigante (p. 145) 10,653 Guanajuato
Lakes. There are many lakes (logos) in Mexico, and most of
them are high among the mountains or on the great central
plateau. As a rule they are beautiful sheets of water, amid at-

GULF OF MEXICO 7
tractive surroundings. The chief lakes are Chapala; Patzcuaro;
Cuitzeo; Texcoco; Zirahuen; Yuririapundaro; Zipimeo and
Tecacho; and the Laguna de los Caimanes.
Very few bays indent the coast. Among these are Ascen-
sidn, Espiritu Santo, and Chetmul, on the Yucatan Peninsula;
Manzanillo, on the Pacific; and Magdaiena and others in
Lower California. The east coast is broken by extensive la
goons (lagunas) like that of Terminos in Gampeche State.
The great Gulf of California separates the peninsula of that
name from the main portion of Mexico. The only peninsulas
are Lower California and Yucatan. Some islands of minor
importance lie off the coasts.
The Mexican River System is neither varied nor extens
ive. The rugged configuration of the country converts most
of the rivers into impetuous torrents, which quickly drain the
surface of the table-land and form innumerable waterfalls as
they plunge downward to the tierra caliente, on their way to
the sea. Even the longest rivers are navigable for but a short
distance. Shallow draught steamboats ply inland on some of
the southern rivers — the Usumacinta, the Coatzacoalcos, etc.
Sand-bars obstruct the mouths of nearly all the rivers empty
ing into the ocean, and over these bars but three or four feet of
water is found at low tide. The best known river (1,644 M.
long) is the Rio Grande del Norte, which forms a part of the
boundary-line between Mexico and the United States.
The Gulf of (Golfo de) Mexico, an arm of the Atlantic
Ocean, is bounded on the N. by the United States and on the
S. and W. by Mexico: It is oval in form: its greatest length is
from E. to W., about 1,000 miles ; from N. to S., about 800 M. ;
area about 700,000 sq. M. It has a continuous coast-line of
about 3,000 M. Its maximum depth is about 12,715 ft., and
within the basin, exclusive of the submerged coastal plain, the
average depth is about 9,000 ft. The outlet of the Gulf is on
the E. between the peninsulas of Yucatan and Florida, a dis
tance of about 400 M. The Yucatan channel opens into the
Caribbean Sea, and the Florida Strait enters the Atlantic.
The temperature of the Gulf is from 8° to 9° higher than in
the Atlantic in the same latitude. The temperature at the
point of greatest depth is 39|° C. The chief current is the
Gulf Stream (a name applied to it by Benjamin Franklin),
which enters the Gulf through the Yucatan Channel, circles
the interior, and passes out through the Florida Strait. The
basin off the Mexican coast sinks rapidly to the submarine
plain, and a short distance from the shore reaches the maxi
mum depth. The Bay of Campeche is the largest indenta
tion. The level of the Gulf is thought to be a trifle higher than
that of the Atlantic Ocean, which may account for the great
velocity of the stream (from 60 to 120 miles per day), one of
the strongest on record.

8 POPULATION
Health. Mexico is as healthy as any country similarly
situated. The table-land, or Central Plateau, is unusually
salubrious, and the natives sometimes reach an extreme old
age. The intelligent traveller always takes certain precautions
to guard against diseases prevalent where sanitary devices and
hygienic methods are lacking, and similar measures should be
adopted while in certain of the Mexican towns — chiefly in the
hot lowlands. The one-time great scourges of tropical Mexico,
yellow fever (fiebre amarillo) and cholera (cdlera), have been
permanently eradicated, but some of the coastal towns are not
always free from malaria (calenturas, malaria) and typhoid
(fiebre tifoidea). Typhus (tifo) is sometimes met with,iand is
usually traceable to indiscreet eating or drinking.

Population.
Population. The population of the Mexican Republic is
about 15,000,000, almost equally divided between males and
females. Of these, more than 8,000,000 who have reached
their majority can neither read nor write. The census of 1900
recorded 8,000 persons over 90 years of age, and 700 over 100
years, out of the (then) total population of 13,605,819. There
are 12,000,000 of Catholics, of whom about 3,000 are priests.
Borne 70,000 persons profess no religious belief, and 50,000
or more are divided among the ten different beliefs (with 277
ministers) from Protestant to Mahommedan, thence to Con
fucianism and Buddhism. The two latter beliefs (with Tao
ism) are professed by most of the ten thousand Chinese in the
Republic, while the Japanese, of whom there are some 8,000,
are mostly Shintoists. Of the total population 19% are of
pure, or nearly pure, white race; 43% of mixed, and 38% of
Indian race (comp. Language, p. xvi). Of the mixed Indian
races only a small portion can be regarded as civilized. They
are slowly but surely merging their identity with that of their
neighbors; their national life is almost gone, child mortality
among them is distressingly high — albeit the women are
" much addicted to maternity " — and their customs — which
are not distinguished for pulchritude — aid in their oblitera
tion. The Indians of Mexico enjoy all the political and civil rights
of born Mexicans; but they exercise little influence on the
government and destiny of the nation. Special laws for their
protection are features of the Mexican code. There is httle or
no anti-foreign spirit among them. Some of the Indian women
— not all of whom could be accused of extreme cleanliness —
are very handsome, with large, soft, dark eyes and good fea
tures.

POPULATION 9
The foreign population includes the natives of forty, or more
countries and numbers over 100,000; of whom there are 30,000
Americans (who are in the majority), 20,000 Spaniards, and
about 5,000 British. (American capital to the value of about
$800,000,000 (gold) is invested in the Republic, and the Eng
lish interests are enormous.) About 15,000 Americans and
3,000 or more British (including Canadians) dwell in Mexico
City. This number is on the increase.
" The Mexican of to-day has the blood of more races in his
veins than any other American. Iberian, Semite, Hamite,
Goth and Vandal, Roman and Celt, mingled their blood in that
stream of brave and adventurous men who first set eyes on
Yucatan in 1517, and who conquered Mexico in 1522. Like
Spain from the remotest time, Mexico soon became the meet
ing-ground of races, of peoples, of languages, and of religion.
Within the area of its original territory there were more fami
lies of native languages than in all the Western Hemisphere
besides; and, to complete the chain, there were more kinds
and grades of culture there.1 The Seri Indians, of Sonora
(p. 80), are as abject as the Fuegians, while the NahuaU and
Maya-speaking tribes of the Valley of Mexico and of Yucatan
occupied the most elevated position for culture in the New
World. " The origin of the Mexican aborigines is involved in that of
the American Indians, since within the present boundaries
of the Republic are gathered representatives of every zone
from the Apache, an Athapascan, whose principal home is in
Alaska, to the tribes of Oaxaca and Chiapas, who are the chil
dren of a torrid clime. There are now in Mexico perhaps ten
times more Indians than were ever at any time within the
United States domain."
The linguistic families in Mexico are as follows :
Nahuatlan, 1,750,000. The tribes of this stock are found
in almost unbroken continuity from Sinaloa along the Pacific
slope to the border line of Guatemala. In the Valley of Mexico
they occupied three districts, Tezcuco, Tlacopan, and the an
cient city of Mexico . This family — known as Aztec, or Mexi
can — holds the most prominent, position in the history of the
Conquest. Piman, 85,000. The Opata-Pima of the later Mexican au
thorities occupy the western northern States, as far south as
Guadalajara, lying along the Gulf of California, except where
they are cut off by the Seri, but they do not anywhere ap
proach the ocean, being intercepted by the Nahuatlan tribes.
This stock now occupies the site of the Casas Grandes (p. 54)
and other adobe ruins, and it is reasonable to suppose that
their ancestors were the builders and inhabitants of many
> Otis T. Mason, Mexico. International Bureau of American Repub
lics, Washington.

10 POPULATION
ancient pueblos and cliff sites, both in Arizona and northern
Mexico. The Tarahumares (p. 57) belong to this family.
Yuman, 2,500. The lees of a great tribe which once inhab
ited the California peninsula.
Serian, 200. Dwell in the State of Sonora (p. 80) and on
Tiburon Island (p. 80) off the coast.
Tarascan, 250,000. Inhabitants of Michoacan, Guerrero,
and Jalisco. (Comp. p. 181.)
Zoqtjean, 60,000. Oaxaca chiefly; also Guerrero and
Puebla. Some few dwell in Chiapas and Tabasco, between
the Mayan and Zapotecan tribes. Little is known of their
origin, save a tradition of their having come from the South.
Totonacan, 90,000. N. part of Puebla and Vera Cruz ;
their ancestors were the first natives encountered by Cortes.
Zapotecan, 580,000. Chiefly in Oaxaca; also in Guerrero
and Puebla. The ruins of Mitla (described at p. 534) are
within their territory, with their wonderful artificial hills,
stone buildings, fretworks in cut stones, columns, and wall
paintings. Benito Pablo Juarez (p. 338) was a Zapotec Indian.
Otomian, 709,734. A widely spoken language formerly.
The tribes were among the earliest in the Valley of Mexico,
and they spread themselves over the States of Guanajuato,
Hidalgo, Queretaro (their special habitat), San Luis Potosf,
and Michoacan. They are often called Serranos (mountaineers)
because of their fondness for hilly country.
Mayan, 400,000. Yucatan, Chiapas, and Vera Cruz. The
advance guard of New World progress. Scholars have conse
crated their lives worthily to the Maya civilization. To the
Mayas are assigned the wonderful ruins of Palenque, in Chia
pas, described at p. 567; of Copan, in Honduras, and of Ux
mal (p. 580) and Chichen-Itza (p. 581), in Yucatan. The
42,000 Haustecas, of Vera Cruz, are of this family.
Teqtjistlatecan, 31,000. A nondescript tribe dwelling,
under various names, in Oaxaca.
Huavan, of which there are 5,000, dwell in Chiapas.
Athapascan (Apaches), 8,000, in northern Chihuahua, and
the southwest of the U. S. A.
The above families are widely subdivided and as widely
scattered. For further information under this head consult Mexico,
International Bureau of the American Republics, Govern
ment Printing Office, Washington, pp. 24 et seq. ; Native
Races, by Hubert Howe Bancroft, San Francisco, 1883.

UL.1MATE 11
Climate. The odd physical configuration of Mexico gives it
many temperatures and three distinct climates, all, curiously
enough, within a very few hours' ride of one another.
The relaxing tierra caliente (hot land) begins at the sea-
coast and extends inward and upward to an altitude of about
3,000 ft., where the air is usually delightful, with a yearly
average temperature of 80°-88° Fahr. and an extreme of 100°-
105°. The best-known towns lying along this littoral are
Merida (p. 574), Vera Cruz (p. 469), Campeche (p. 569), and
Tampico, on the Gulf, and Guaymas (p. 78), Mazatlan (p. 90),
Manzanillo (p. 188), Acapulco (p. 460), and Salina Cruzon the
Pacific. The winter climate (Dec.-Feb.) of these places is ad
mirable — like early May days in the Central U. S. A. — but
broken, at intervals, by furious nortes (p. 471), which lower the
temperature and chill the marrow of the thin-blooded inhab
itants. Oddly enough, the summer ' ' dog-days " (caniculares) in
Vera Cruz or Guaymas never scorch or stew one as do the
"sizzards" of New York. The cool land breeze which blows
seaward in the a. m. and returns at nightfall laden with salted
ozone and coolness makes life in tropical, white-clad Vera
Cruz, for example, with its palms and balconies and long mid
day siestas, far more supportable than in New York with its
houses like huge furnaces and its heat-radiating streets.
The tierra templada (temperate land) lies between 3,200 and
6,500 ft., with an average all the year temperature of 73°-77°
Fahr. ; the variation during a season may not be more than 6°
or 8°. The finest of the Mexican climates is found between
these elevations. The immunity from heavy frosts is as com
plete as that from extreme humidity, noxious insects, and
sudden temperature changes. Dryness is the emphatic qual
ity, with freedom in the dry season (Oct.-May) from malaria
and a perpetual exemption from the keen, cold winds of the
higher altitudes and the hygienic deficiencies of the maritime
regions. Semi-tropical products thrive side by side with those
of the tropics, and there are farms where wheat and sugar
cane grow almost within touch of each other. Certain of the
towns in this favored zone are natural, open-air sanitariums,
and the warm, still days and cool, sleepful nights are tonics
which bring many a sufferer (particularly from tuberculosis)
back to health. One of these health stations is Guadalajara
(p. 161), with an almost perfect climate aptly described as
"June with October touches." Other towns in this land of
eternal spring, noted for a climate particularly suited to in
valids fearsome of quick temperature changes, are Orizaba
(p. 489), Oaxaca (p. 528), Cuauhtla (p. 466), Cuernavaca (p.
436), etc. The latter place is celebrated for its attractive
hotels; as being one of the most favored winter stations north
of the Equator ; and for some of the finest views in the Repub
lic. It is unusually free from cold waves (ondas frias) and from

12 CLIMATE
brusque climatic changes. The gradation of the seasons is so
gentle that the trees take on their new spring leaves while
still green with the verdure of the old year.
The tierra jria (cold country) — cold only in comparison to
the heat at the coast — rises above the 6,500 ft. level and ex
tends to snow-line (12,460 ft. in the tropics); above this the
thermometer often sinks below freezing-point. The average
temperature of the alleged tierra jria is 59°-62° Fahr. with
slight changes except in winter, when a norte may bring a
light snowfall to Mexico City and topple the mercury down to
30° or 40°. In Toluca and the high mountain towns, the ther
mometer has been known to register 20°. The rainfall in this
region is only one fifth as much as that of the temperate zone.
In the sunny pockets and sheltered valleys of the tierra jria
the vegetation is often quite luxuriant.
Plants will grow on the southern side of a mountain which
has snow on the opposite side. The sky over all the zones is
noted for its unrivalled blue, and on any winter day he who
seeks the sun in the morning will seek the shadows at noon.
From the elevated mountain peaks one may look down past
the temperate to the torrid zone ; from the frozen cone of some
volcano to the warm waters of the Gulf, embracing in one view
all that class of vegetation which thrives between the Arctic
Ocean and thej Equator.
The climate of Mexico City is usually mild, but exhilarat
ing; ranging during the year from 35° to 75° Fahr. with a
mean temperature of 65° Excepting in the winter, its great
est variations are generally between day and night on the
same day. The tropical heat of the latitude is tempered by
the altitude. Throughout the year the nights are delightfully
cool, and a pair of heavy blankets are always requisite to com
fortable sleep. During the short winter (Dec- Feb.) the tem
perature is apt to be affected by the northers which blow
down the Gulf. These monsoons of the western hemisphere
sometimes precipitate light snowfalls or hail-storms in the
capital, but the snow vanishes with the first touch of sunshine.
Rarely a winter day passes without some sunshine, and then
one instinctively seeks the shady side of the street.
The altitude is unsuitable for snakes, scorpions, and similar
reptilia. It affects culinary operations, and recipes which give
good results at sea-level have to be adjusted to suit the ele
vation. Food values decrease by one-third, it is said.

HISTORY AND RACES 13
History and Races.
The authentic History of Mexico practically begins for us
with the advent of the bold Castilian free lances who under
the Great Captain, Hernan Cort6z, came so jauntily to the New
World in search of militant adventure in the dim twilight of
our time. Although these iron-willed men began at once to
enact one of the most enthralling historical dramas that can
be found in the annals of any country, accompanying them
were certain religious bigots who made their own names as
infamous and as unforgettable as the Spanish cavaliers, by
deeds of appealing heroism, made theirs forever renowned.
Blindly superstitious, and confessedly intolerant of the intel
lectual advancement which characterized the civilization dis
covered by the Spaniards in the Valley of Mexico, such men
as Father Landa, the historian of the Spanish invasion of
Yucatan, and Juan de Zumdrraga, the first Bishop of Mexico,
assembled all the Maya and Nahuatl picture-writings, manu
scripts, books on medicine, astronomy, chronology, geology,
and theology, piled them high in the market-place of the dif
ferent Indian strongholds, and reduced them all to ashes.
At the time of the arrival of the Iberians great quantities
of manuscripts were treasured up in the national archives of
Tezcuco, in Andhuac, for this centre was one of the most cul
tivated capitals of the great Indian Confederacy. Numerous
persons were employed in picture-writing and in the making
of books and codices, and the dexterity of their operations ex
cited the astonishment of the Spaniards. Unfortunately this
was mingled with other and unworthy feelings. The strange,
unknown characters on them excited suspicion. They were
looked on as magic scrolls, and were regarded in the same light
with the idols and temples, as symbols of a pestilent supersti
tion that must be extirpated. Their destruction was an irre
parable loss which mere words fail to express, for with the In
dian libraries perished the records of the first Americans. For
tunately for posterity sufficient has been learned of the early
races to convince one that "of all that extensive empire which
once acknowledged the authority of Spain in the New World,
no portion, for interest and importance, can be compared with
Mexico: and this equally, whether we consider the variety
of its soil and climate; the inexhaustible stores of its mineral
wealth; its scenery, grand and picturesque beyond example;
the character of its ancient inhabitants, not only far surpass
ing in intelligence that of the other North American races,
but reminding us, by their monuments, of the primitive civili
zation of Egypt and Hindustan; or, lastly, the peculiar cir
cumstances of its Conquest, adventurous and romantic as any
legend devised by Norman or Italian bard of chivalry."
(Prescott.) . The merciful hand of Providence has bestowed on the

14 HISTORY AND RACES
Mexicans a magnificent land, abounding in resources of all
kinds — a land where none ought to be poor, and where misery
ought to be unknown — a land whose products and riches of
every kind are abundant, and as varied as they are rich.
It is a country endowed to profusion with every gift that
man can desire or envy; all the metals from gold to lead;
every sort of climate from perpetual snow to tropical heat,
and inconceivable fertility. (Lemprifere, Notes on Mexico.)
"The history of ancient Mexico is substantially that of the
Valley of Mexico (Valeof Andhuac), that beautiful spot where
once beat the heart of the great Aztec Empire. Midway
across the continent, somewhat nearer the Pacific than the
Atlantic Ocean, it stands at an elevation of nearly 7,500 ft.;
oval in form, about 37 leagues in circumference, and encom
passed by a towering rampart of porphyritic rock, which
nature seems to have provided, though ineffectually, to pro
tect it from invasion. The soil, once carpeted with a beautiful
verdure and thickly sprinkled with stately trees, is often bare,
and, in many places, white with the incrustation of salts
caused by the draining of the waters. Five lakes once spread
over the valley, occupying one tenth of its surface. On the
opposite border of the largest of these basins stood the citie3
of Tenochtiildn and Tezcuco, the capitals of the two most
potent and flourishing States of Andhuac, whose history,
with that of the mysterious races that preceded them in the
country, exhibits some of the nearest approaches to civiliza
tion to be met with anciently on the North American con
tinent. "Of these races the most conspicuous were the Toltecs
(people of Tollan). Advancing from a northerly direction,
they entered the territory of Andhuac, probably before the
close of the seventh century. They established their capital
at Tula, 50 M. north of the Mexican Valley, and the remains
of extensive buildings are to be discerned there now. The
noble ruins of religious and other edifices, still to be seen in
various parts of Mexico, are referred to this people, whose
name, Toltec, has passed into a synonym for architect. They
were well instructed in agriculture and many of the most use
ful mechanical arts; were nice workers of metal; invented
the complex arrangement of time adopted by the Aztecs
(people of Aztlan), and were the true founders of the civiliza
tion which distinguished this part of the continent in later
times." (Prescott.)
After a period of four centuries the Toltecs disappeared
from the land as silently and mysteriously as they had entered
it. From their legends and their shadowy history the belief has
been detached that pulque (p. Ixxxii), which was discovered
by them, caused their downfall and final disappearance.
After the lapse of another hundred years, a numerous and

HISTORY AND RACES 15
rude tribe, called the Chichimecs (people of Chichimecan —
place of dogs) entered the deserted country from the regions
of the far North-west.1 " They were speedily followed by other
races, of higher civilization, perhaps of the same family with
the Toltecs, whose language they appear to have spoken. The
most noted of these were the Aztecs, or Mexicans (Mexico,),
and the Acolhuas ('people at the bend of the water'). The
latter, better known in later times by the name of Tezcucans
(from their capital, Tezcuco, on the eastern border of the
Mexican lake), were peculiarly fitted, by their comparatively
mild religion and manners, for receiving the tincture of civil
ization which could be derived from the few Toltecs that
still remained in the country. This, in their turn, they com
municated to the barbarous Chichimecs, a large portion of
whom became amalgamated with the new settlers as one
nation. "The Mexicans came also from the remote regions of the
North — the populous hive of nations in the New World —
and arrived on the borders of Andhuac toward the beginning
of the 14th cent., some time after the occupation of the land
by the kindred races. For a long time they did not establish
themselves in any permanent residence, but continued shifting
their quarters to different parts of the Mexican Valley. After
a series of wanderings and adventures they at length halted
on the south-western border of the principal lake, in the year
1325. They there beheld, perched on the stem of a prickly,
pear, which shot out from the crevices of a rock that was
washed by the waves, a royal eagle of extraordinary size and
beauty, with a serpent in its talons, and his broad wings
opened to the rising sun. They hailed the auspicious omen,
announced by an oracle as indicating the site of their future
city, and laid its foundations by sinking piles into the shallows :
for the low marshes were half -buried under water. On these
they erected their light fabrics of reeds and rushes (tules),
and sought a precarious subsistence from fishing, as well as
the cultivation of such simple vegetables as they could raise on
their floating gardens. The place was called Tenochtitldn 2
in token of its miraculous origin, though only known to Euro
peans by its other name of Mexico, derived from their war-
god Mexitli."
a. Montezuma and his Realm. "After a lapse of two
centuries we find the descendants of these people cemented
into a strong and partly civilized nation, dwelling in palaces, in
the midst of a barbaric pomp and splendor allied to the Ori
ental or Asiatic. From his palace in Tenochtitldn the King
Montezuma wielded his sceptre over a wide and populous
1 It is highly probable that these were Chinese.
' Tenochtitlan, from tell, stone, tlan, on, and rwchtli, cactus, is sup
posed also to have been named for the founder of the city, Tenoch.

16 HISTORY AND RACES
domain. Many rich cities and villages dotted the Crown
possessions, and the annual tributes received therefrom com
prised cotton dresses and mantles of feather-work, exquisitely
made; ornamented armor, vases and plates of gold ; gold-dust,
bands, and bracelets; crystal, gilt, and varnished jars and
goblets; bells, arms, and utensils of copper; reams of maguey
paper; grain, fruits, copal, amber, cochineal, cacao, wild
animals, and birds, timber, mats, etc. Garrisons were estab
lished in the larger cities, and new territory was constantly
being added to the already extensive domains of the empire.
Communication was maintained with the remotest parts of
the country by means of swift couriers. Post-houses were
established on the great roads, about two leagues distant from
each other. The courier, bearing his despatches in the form
of a hieroglyphical painting, ran with them to the first
station, where they were taken by another messenger and
carried forward to the next, and so on until they reached the
capital. Fresh fish was frequently served at Montezuma's
table in 24 hours from the time it had been taken from the
Gulf of Mexico, 260 miles from the capital.
" A vast army was maintained ; the dress of the warriors
being picturesque and often magnificent. Their bodies were
covered with a close vest of quilted cotton, so thick as to be
impenetrable to the light missiles of Indian warfare. This
garment was so light and serviceable that it was adopted by
the Spaniards. The wealthier chiefs sometimes wore a cuirass
made of thin plates of gold and silver. Over it was thrown a
surcoat of the gorgeous feather-work in which they excelled.
Their helmets were sometimes of wood, fashioned like the
heads of wild animals, and sometimes of silver, on the top of
which waved a panache of variegated plumes, sprinkled with
precious stones and ornaments of gold.
"They wore also collars, bracelets, and ear-rings of the same rich ma
terials. Their weapons were the deadly majquahuitl and the javelin. Tho
style and quality of the dress of the inhabitants of Anahuac were superior
to those or the folks along the seacoast. The tilmantli, or cloak, thrown
over the shoulders and tied around the neck, made of cotton of different
degrees of fineness, according to the condition of the wearer, and the
ample sash around the loins, were often wrought in rich ana elegant
figures and edged with a deep fringe or tassel. As the weather grew cool,
mantles of fur or of the gorgeous feather-work were sometimes substi
tuted. The latter combined the advantages of great warmth and beauty.
The Mexicans had also the art of spinning a fine thread of the hair of the
rabbit and other animals, which they wove into a delicate web that took
a permanent dye.
_ " The women wore several skirts or petticoats of different lengths, with
highly ornamented borders, and sometimes over them loose, flowing
robes, which reached to the ankles. These, also, were made of cotton, for
the wealthier classes, of a fine texture, prettily embroidered. The Aztec
women had their faces exposed, and their dark, raven tresses floated
luxuriantly over their shoulders, revealing features which, although of
dusky or rather cinnamon hue, were not unfrequently pleasing, whiU
touohed with the serious, even 'sad expression characteristic of the national
physiognomy.

HISTORY AND RACES 17
" The Palace of Montezuma occupied one side of what is
now the Plaza Mayor, of the new city. This pile of buildings
spread over an extent of ground so vast that, as one of the
conquerors said, ' its terraced roof might have afforded ample
room for thirty knights to run their courses in a regular
tourney.' Its interior decorations were gorgeous; its walls
were covered with fanciful draperies, its roofs inlaid with
cedar and other odoriferous woods.
"The tianguiz, or Great Market, was usually the centre
of animation in ancient Andhuac, and there the customs of the
people could be best observed. The market-place was sur
rounded by deep porticoes, and the several articles had each
its own quarter allotted to it. According to Cortes, who was
astonished at the multitudes assembled there, the market
place was thrice as large as the celebrated square of Sala
manca. Here might be seen cotton piled up in bales, or manu
factured into dresses and articles of domestic use, as tapestry,
curtains, coverlets, and the like. The richly stained and nice
fabrics reminded CorUs of the silk-market of Granada. There
was the quarter assigned to the goldsmiths, where the purchaser
might find various articles of ornament or use formed of the
precious metals, or curious toys, made in imitation of birds
and fishes, with scales and feathers alternately of gold and
erilver, and with movable heads and bodies. These fantastic
little trinkets were often garnished with precious stones, and
showed a patient, puerile ingenuity in their manufacture, like
that of the Chinese.
" In this market were met together traders from all parts,
with the products and manufactures peculiar to their coun
tries ; the goldsmiths of Azcapotzalco, the potters and jewellers
of Cholula, the painters of Tezcuco, the stone-cutters of Tena-
jocan, the hunters of Xilotepec, the fishermen of Cuitlahuac,
the fruiterers of the tierra caliente, the mat and chair makers of
QuauhtiUan, and the florists of Xochimilco, — all busily engaged
in recommending their wares and chaffering with purchasers.
"Tn an adjoining quarter were collected specimens of
pottery, coarse and fine, vases of wood elaborately carved,
varnished or gilt, of curious and sometimes graceful forms.
There were also hatchets made of copper alloyed with tin,
which the natives used instead of iron. The soldier found here
all the implements of his trade; the casque fashioned into the
head of some wild animal, with its grinning defences of teeth,
and bristling crest dyed with the rich tint of the cochineal;
the escaupil or quilted doublet of cotton, the rich surcoat
of feather-mail, and weapons of all sorts, copper-headed
lances and arrows, and the broad maguahuitl with its sharp
blades of itzli (obsidian). Here were razors and mirrors of
this same hard and polished material, which served so many
of the purposes of steel with the Aztecs. In the square were

18 HISTORY AND RACES
also to be found booths occupied by barbers, who used these
same razors in their vocation. For the Mexicans, contrary
to the popular and erroneous notions respecting the aborigines
of the New World, had beards, though scanty ones. Other
shops and booths were tenanted by apothecaries, well provided
with drugs, roots, and different medicinal preparations. In
other places again, blank books or maps for the hieroglyphical
picture-writing were to be seen, folded together like fans,
and made of cotton, skins, or more commonly the fibre of the
agave, the Aztec papyrus.
"Animals, both wild and tame, were offered for sale, and
near thenij perhaps, a gang of slaves with collars round their
necks, intimating they were likewise on sale. The display
of provisions was also an attractive feature of the great
tianguiz. There were meats of all kinds, domestic poultry,
game from the neighboring mountains, fish from the lakes
and streams, fruits in all the delicious abundance of these
temperate regions, green vegetables, and the unfailing maize.
There was many a viand, too, ready dressed, which sent up its
savory steams provoking the appetite of the idle passenger,
pastry, bread of the Indian corn (maize), cakes, and confec
tionery. Along with these were to be seen cooling or stimulat
ing beverages, the spicy foaming chocolatl, with its delicate
aroma of vanilla, and the inebriating pulque, the fermented
juice of the aloe. All these commodities, and every stall
and portico, were set out, or rather smothered, with flowers,
showing — on a much greater scale, indeed — a taste similar
to that displayed in the modern markets of modern Mexico.
" The Spaniards often visited the place, and no one states
the amount of people seen in the tianguiz at less than forty
thousand. Every fifth day the city swarmed with a motley
crowd of strangers, not only from the vicinity, but from many
leagues around; the causeways were thronged, and the lake
was darkened by canoes filled with traders flocking to the
great market. It resembled, indeed, the periodical fairs in
Europe, not as they exist now, but as they existed in the Mid
dle Ages.
"There were amongst us," says the chronicler Bernal Diaz,
"soldiers who had been in many parts of the world, — in
Constantinople and in Rome and through all Italy, — and
who said that a market-place so large, so well ordered and
regulated, and so filled with people, they had never seen."
The Great Teocalli, in the midst of a vast area (on the
site of the present cathedral), was one of the "sights" of the
ancient city. It was constructed by Ahuizotl, who celebrated
its dedication, in 1486, by a great hecatomb of victims, esti
mated at 20,000. It was encompassed by a wall of lime and
stone, about 8 ft. high, ornamented on the outer side by figures
of serpents (a common emblem in the sacred sculpture of

HISTORY AND RACES 19
Anahuac) raised in relief, which gave it the name of coatepantli,
or wall of serpents. This wall, which was quadrangular, was
pierced by huge, battlemented gateways, opening on the
four principal streets of the capital. Over each of the gates
was a kind of arsenal, filled with arms and warlike gear.
Adjoining, were barracks, garrisoned by ten thousand soldiers,
who served as a sort of military police for the capital, supply
ing the emperor with a strong arm in case of tumult or sedition.
The teocalli itself was a solid pyramidal structure of earth
and pebbles, coated on the outside with hewn stones. It was
square, with its sides facing the cardinal points. It was divided
into five bodies or stories, each one receding so as to be of
smaller dimensions than that immediately below it. The
ascent was made by a flight of steps on the outside, which
reached to the narrow terrace or platform at the base of the
second story, passing quite round the building, when a second
stairway led to a similar landing at the base of the third. The
breadth of this walk was just so much space as was left by
the retreating story next above it. From this construction
the visitor was obliged to pass round the whole edifice four
times in order to reach the top. "This had a most imposing
effect in the religious ceremonials, when the pompous pro
cession of priests with their wild minstrelsy came sweeping
round the huge sides of the pyramid, as they rose higher and
higher, in the presence of gazing multitudes, toward the
summit. The first object that met the view on reaching the
summit, was a large block of jasper — the identical sacrificial
stone now preserved in the National Museum. At the other
end of the area, which was paved with broad flat stones, were
two towers or sanctuaries, consisting of three stories, the
lower one of stone and stucco, the two upper of wood elabor
ately carved. In the lower division stood the images of their
gods ; the apartments above were filled with utensils for their
religious services, and with the ashes of some of their Aztec
princes, who had fancied this airy sepulchre. Before each
sanctuary stood an altar, with that undying fire upon it, the
extinction of which boded as much evil to the empire as that
of the Vestal flame would have done in ancient Rome. Here,
also, was the huge cylindrical drum made of serpents' skins,
and struck only on extraordinary occasions, when it sent forth
a melancholy sound that might be heard for miles, — a sound
of woe in after-times to the Spaniards.
"From the summit of the teocalli a splendid view of the city
could be had. Below lay the ancient metropolis spread out
like a map, with its streets and canals intersecting each other
at right angles, its terraced roofs blooming like so many
parterres of flowers. Every place seemed alive with business
and bustle ; canoes glanced up and down the canals, the streets
were crowded with people in their gay, picturesque costumes,

20 HISTORY AND RACES
while from the market-place a confused hum of many sounds
and voices rose upon the air. One could distinctly trace the
symmetrical plan of the city, with its principal avenues issu
ing, as it were, from the four gates of the coatepantli, and con
necting themselves with the causeways, which formed the
grand entrances to the capital. This regular and beautiful
arrangement was imitated in many of the inferior towns,
where the great roads converged toward the chief teocalli, or
cathedral, to a common focus.
" One could discern the insular position of the metropolis
bathed on all sides by the salt floods of the Tezcuco, and in
the distance the clear fresh waters of the Chalco; far beyond
stretched a wide prospect of fields and waving woods, with
the burnished walls of many a lofty temple rising high above
the trees and crowning the distant mil-tops. The view reached
in an unbroken fine to the very base of the circular range of
mountains, whose frosty peaks glittered as if touched with fire
in the morning ray; while long, dark wreaths of vapor, roll
ing up from the hoary head of Popocatepetl, told that the de
stroying element was, indeed, at work in the bosom of the
beautiful valley.
" The interiors of the sanctuaries were incrusted on the sides
with stucco, on which various figures were sculptured, repre
senting the Mexican calendar and the priestly ritual. At one
end of the salon was a recess with a roof of timber richly
carved and gilded. Before the altar stood the colossal image
of Huitzilopochtli, the tutelary deity and war-god of the Az
tecs. His countenance was distorted into hideous lineaments
of symbolical import. In his right hand he wielded a bow, and in
his left a bunch of golden arrows, which a mystic legend had
connected with the victories of his people. The huge folds of
a serpent, consisting of pearls and precious stones, were coiled
round his waist, and the same rich materials were profusely
sprinkled over his person. On his left foot were the delicate
feathers of the humming-bird, which, singularly enough, gave
its name to the dread deity. (Comp. p. 303.)
"One of the sanctuaries was dedicated to a milder deity.
This was Tezcatlipoca, next in honor to that invisible Being,
the Supreme God, who was represented by no image and con
fined by no temple. It was Tezcatlipoca who created the world
and watched over it with a providential care. He was repre
sented as a young man, and his image, of polished black stone,
was richly garnished with gold plates and ornaments, among
which a shield burnished like a mirror was the most characteris
tic emblem, as in it he saw reflected all the doings of the world."
6. The Landing of the Spaniards and their March to
the Capital. The first landing of the Spaniards under Cortes,1
1 The Great Conqueror was born at Medellin, Province of Estrema-
durs, Spain, in 1485. His father, Martin CorUs de Monroy, was a captain

HISTORY AND RACES 21
on Mexican soil, was at Tabasco on March 25, 1519. After a
sharp brush with the natives, in which the invaders came out
victorious, they sailed along the coast until they reached the
spot where the castle of San Juan de Ulua now stands off the
mainland of Vera Cruz. There they cast anchor on the evening
of Thursday of Passion Week; the next morning, April 21,
being Good Friday, CortSs landed, with all his force, on the

of infantry. Hismother -was DoflaCalalina Pizarro AUamarino. In 1504,
when 19 years old, he left Spain for Cuba, where for many years he was
a prominent figure in the life of the new Crown Colony. He sailed for
Mexico Feb. 18, 1519, and perhaps no single man ever exerted a greater
influence on the destiny of that country. He died in the village of Cas~
tilleja de la Cuesta, near Seville (Spain), Dec. 2, 1547, in the 63d year
of his age. His body was transported to the chapel of the monastery of
San Isidro, in Seville, where it was laid in the family vault of the Duke of
Medina Sidonia. In 1562 it was removed, by order of his son, Martin, to
New Spain, not, as directed by his will, to Coyoacan, but to the monas
tery of San Francisco, in Tezcuco, where it was laid by the side of a
daughter, and of his mother. In 1629 the remains were again removed;
and on the death of Don Pedro, fourth "Marquis of the Valley," it was
decided bj; the authorities of Mexico to transfer them to the church of
San Francisco, at the capital.
".A military and religious procession was formed with the Archbishop
of Mexico at its head. He was accompanied by the great dignitaries of
the church and state, and the members of the Audiencia. The coffin con
taining the relics of CorUs was covered with black velvet, and supported
by the judges of the royal tribunals. On either side of it was a man in
complete armor, bearing, on the right, a standard of pure white, with the
arms of Castile embroicTered in gold, and, on the left, a banner of black
velvet, emblazoned in like manner with the armorial ensigns of the house
of CorUs. Behind the corpse came the Viceroy and a numerous escort of
Spanish cavaliers, and the rear was closed by a battalion of infantry,
armed with pikes and arquebuses, and with their banners trailing on the
ground. *' With this funeral pomp, by the sound of mournful music, and the slow
beat of the muffled drum, the procession moved forward till it reached
the capital. The gates were thrown open to receive the mortal remains of
the hero who, a century before, had performed there such prodigies of
valor." Yet his bones were not permitted to rest here undisturbed ; and in 1 794
they were removed to the Hospital de Jesus Nazareno (p. 349). The
mouldering relics of the warrior, now deposited in a crystal coffin secured
by bars and plates of silver, were laid in the chapel, and over them was
raised a simple monument, displaying the arms of the family, and sur
mounted by a bronze bust (by Tolsa} of the Conqueror.
In 1 823, the patriot mob of the capital, in its zeal to commemorate the
era of national independence, and its detestation of the "old Span
iards," proposed to break open the tomb which held the ashes of CorUs
and to scatter them to the winds I The authorities declined to interfere
on the occasion, but the friends of the family entered the vault by night,
and secretly removed the relics. It is generally believed that they are
now in the family vault of the Duke of Terranova, at Palermo, albeit
some persons insist that they are still in Mexico, hidden in some place
unknown to the people.
The sword of CorUs and the remains of the banner carried by him in
the Conquest of Mexico are now in the Museo de Artilleria at Madrid.
The student interested in the exploits of the Great Captain should
consult Prescott's Conquest of Mexico ; Bancroft's History of Mexico :
Gomara's Historia de Mexico (Gomara was the leading biographer of
CorUs) ; Bernal Diaz's Verdadera Historia de la Conquista ; and Oviedo's
Historia General de las Indias.

22 HISTORY AND RACES
Bpot where now stands the city of Vera Cruz. After a num
ber of interviews with envoys from Montezuma and from other
chiefs, CorUs determined to march to the Aztec stronghold —
an undertaking which historians refer to as one of the "most
daring and adventurous in history; demonstrating, in a high
degree, the calibre of those stern and iron-willed conquerors."
Sending his fleet, which lay at anchor in the bay, to coast
along the shore to the north as far as Quiahuiztlan, CorUs vis
ited m person the town of Cempoalla, made allies of the Toto-
nacs there, then returned to Vera Cruz to complete arrange
ments previous to his departure for the capital. Recalling his
ships, he brought on shore the cordage, sails, iron, etc., and
ordered these to be sunk. Then this httle handful of men, on a
hostile shore and arrayed against a formidable empire, turned
their faces toward the interior. To Mexico ! was the cry. " The
destruction of his fleet by CorUs is perhaps the most remark
able passage in the life of this remarkable man. It was an
act of resolution that has few parallels in history."
When CorUs set out from the Totonac capital, his forces
amounted to 400 foot and 15 horse, with 7 pieces of artillery.
From the cacique of Cempoalla he obtained 1300 warriors,
and a thousand tamanes, or porters, to drag the guns and
transport the baggage. He took forty more of their principal
men as hostages, as well as to guide him on his way and
to serve by their counsels among the savage tribes he was to
visit. "It would be difficult to depict the impressions of the Span
iards as they stood, one beautiful morning, and gazed from the
crest of the Sierra de Ahualco over the Valley of Mexico.
Stretching far away at their feet were seen noble forests of
oak, sycamore, and cedar, and beyond, yellow fields of maize
and the towering maguey, intermingled with orchards and
blooming gardens. In the centre of the great basin were beheld
the lakes, their borders thickly studded with towns and
hamlets, and in the midst — like some fair empress with her
coronal of pearls — the fair city of Mexico, with her white
towers and her pyramidal temples, reposing, as it were, on the
bosom of the waters — the far-famed ' Venice of the Aztecs.'
"The 8th of Nov. was a conspicuous day in the history of
Mexico. With the first faint streaks of dawn, the Spanish
general was up, mustering his followers. They gathered, with
beating hearts, under their respective banners, as the trumpet
sent forth its spirit-stirring sounds across the water and wood
land, till they died in distant echoes among the mountains.
CorUs with his httle body of horse formed a sort of advance
guard to the army. Then came the Spanish infantry. The
baggage occupied the centre ; and the rear was closed by the
dark files of Tlascalan (p. 429) warriors. The whole number
was short of 7,000 ; of which less than 400 were Spaniards.

HISTORY AND RACES 23
"For a short distance, the army kept along the narrow
tongue of land which separates the Tezcucan from the Chalcan
waters, when it entered on the great dike (now the Tlalpan
causeway), which, with the exception of an angle near the
commencement, stretched in a perfectly straight line across
the salt floods of Tezcuco to the gates of the capital.
"The Spaniards had occasion more than ever to admire the
mechanical science of the Aztecs, in the geometrical precision
with which the work was executed, as well as the solidity of
its construction. It was composed of huge stones well laid in
cement, wide enough throughout its whole extent for ten
horsemen to ride abreast.
" Everywhere the invaders beheld the evidence of a crowded
and thriving population. The temples and principal buildings
of the adjacent cities were covered with a hard white stucco,
which glistened like enamel in the level beams of the morning
sun. The margin of the great basin was thickly gemmed with
towns and hamlets. The water was darkened by swarms of
canoes filled with Indians, who clambered up the sides of the
causeway and gazed with astonishment at the strangers. The
white-skinned warriors in their glittering armor, the mail-
clad horses which resembled gigantic demons to the timid
Indians, the camp equipages and all the glittering parapher
nalia of Spanish accoutrement, presented a terrific sight to
the amazed Indians, and awed them into a wondering silence.
At the distance of half a league from the capital, they encoun
tered a solid work or curtain of stone, which traversed the
dike. It was 12 ft. high, was strengthened by towers at the
extremities, and in the centre was a battlemented gateway,
which opened a passage to the troops. It was called the Fort
ofXoloc, and became memorable in after-times as the position
occupied by Cortes in the famous siege of Mexico.
" Here they were met by several hundred Aztec chiefs, who
came out to announce the approach of Montezuma, and to
welcome the Spaniards to the capital. They were dressed in
the fanciful gala costume of the country, with the maxtlati,
or cotton sash, around their loins, and a broad mantle of the
same material, or of the brilliant feather embroidery, flowing
gracefully down from their shoulders. On their necks and
arms they displayed collars and bracelets of turquois mosaic,
with which delicate plumage was curiously mingled, while their
ears, under Ups, and occasionally their noses, were garnished
with pendants formed of precious stones, or crescents of fine
gold. Shortly the Spaniards beheld the glittering retinue of
the emperor emerging from the great street which led then,
as it still does, through the heart of the city. Amidst a crowd
of Indian nobles, preceded by three officers of state bearing
golden wands, they saw the royal palanquin blazing with
burnished gold. It was borne on the shoulders of nobles, and

24 HISTORY AND RACES
over it a canopy of gaudy feather-work, powdered with jewels
and fringed with silver, was supported by four attendants of
the same rank.
"Montezuma wore the girdle and ample square tilmaUi
of his nation. It was made of the finest cotton, with the em
broidered ends gathered in a knot round his neck. His feet
were defended by sandals having soles of gold, and the leath
ern thongs which bound them to his ankles were embossed
with the same metal. Both the cloak and sandals were
sprinkled with pearls and precious stones, among which the
emerald and the chalchihuitl — a green stone [jadeite] of high
er estimation than any other among the Aztecs — were con
spicuous. On his head he wore no other ornament than a
panache of plumes of the royal green, which floated down his
back, the badge of military, rather than of regal, rank.1
"When the train had come within a convenient distance,
it halted, and Montezuma, descending from his litter, came
forward, leaning on the arms of the lords of Tezcuco and
Iztapalapan — his nephew and brother. As the monarch
advanced under the canopy, the obsequious attendants strewed
the ground with cotton tapestry, that his imperial feet might
not be contaminated by the rude soil.
" The Spanish army halted as he drew near. Cortes, dis
mounting, threw his rein to a page, and, supported by a few
of his principal cavaliers, advanced to meet him. The inter
view must nave been one of uncommon interest to both.
Whatever may have been the monarch's feelings, he so far
suppressed them as to receive this guest with princely court
esy, and to express his satisfaction at personally seemg him
in his capital.
"Cortes responded by the most profound expressions of
respect, while he made ample acknowledgments for the sub
stantial proofs which the emperor had given the Spaniards
of his munificence. He then hung round Montezuma's neck
a sparkling chain of colored crystal. After the interchange of
these civilities, Montezuma appointed his brother to conduct
the Spaniards to their residence in the capital, and, again
entering his litter, was borne off amidst prostrate crowds,
in the same state in which he had come. The Spaniards
quickly followed, and with flying colors and music, soon made
their entrance into the southern quarter of Tenochtitldn.
"Here again they found fresh cause for admiration in the
grandeur of the city and the superior style of its architecture.
The great avenue through which they were now marching was
1 " Montezuma was at this time about 40 years of age. His person was
tall and thin, but not ill made. His hair, which was black and straight.
was not very long. His beard was thin, his complexion paler than is often
found in his dusky race. His features, though serious in expression, did
not wear tho look of melancholy which characterizes his portrait." (Pres-
oott, Conquest of Mexico.) (Compare p. clxxxii.)

HISTORY AND RACES 25
lined with the houses of the nobles. They were built of a red,
Eorous stone drawn from quarries in the neighborhood. The
at roofs (azoteas) were protected by stone parapets, so that
every house was a fortress. Occasionally a great square or
market-place intervened, surroimded by its porticoes of stone
and stucco; or a pyramidal temple reared its colossal bulk.
" What impressed the Spaniards most were the throngs of
people who swarmed through the streets and on the canals,
filling every doorway and window, and clustering on the roofs
of _ the buildings. Strange thoughts must have filled the Aztec
minds as the inhabitants gazed on the portentous pageant;
as they heard for the first time the well-cemented pavement
ring under the iron tramp of the horses — the strange animals
which fear had clothed in such supernatural terrors ; as they
gazed on the children of the East, reveaUng their celestial
origin in their fair complexions ; saw the bright falchions and
bonnets of steel, a metal to them unknown, glancing like
meteors in the sun, while sounds of unearthly music — at least,
such as their rude instruments had never wakened — floated
in the air ! But every other emotion was lost in that of deadly
hatred, when they beheld their detested enemy the Tlascalan
stalking, in defiance, as it were, through their streets, and
staring around with looks of ferocity and wonder, like some
wUd animal of the forest who had strayed by chance from his
native fastnesses into the haunts of civilization.
"As they passed down the spacious streets, the troops
repeatedly traversed bridges suspended above canals, along
which they saw the Indian barks gliding swiftly with their
little cargoes of fruits and vegetables for the markets of
Tenochtitldn. At length they halted before a broad area near
the centre of the city, where rose the huge pyramidal pile
dedicated to the patron war-god of the Aztecs, second only,
in size as well as sanctity, to the temple of Cholula, and cover
ing the same ground now in part occupied by the great Cathe
dral of Mexico.
"Facing the western gate of the enclosure of the temple
stood a low range of stone buildings, spreading over a wide ex
tent of ground, the palace of Axayacatl, Montezuma's father,
built by that monarch about fifty years before. It was ap-
Eropriated as the barracks of the Spaniards. The emperor
imself was in the court-yard waiting to receive him. Ap
proaching Cortes, he took from a vase of flowers, borne by
one of his slaves, a massy coUar, in which the shell of a species
of craw-fish, much prized by the Indians, was set in gold and
connected by heavy links of the same metal. From this chain
depended eight ornaments, also of gold, made in resemblance
of the same shell-fish, a span in length each, and of delicate
workmanship. Montezuma, as he hung the gorgeous collar
round the general's neck, said, 'This palace belongs to you,

26 HISTORY AND RACES
Malinche, and your brethren. Rest after your fatigues, for
you have much need to do so, and in a little while I will visit
you again.' So saying, he withdrew with his attendants,
evincing in this act a deUcate consideration not to have been
expected in a barbarian.
" On a subsequent visit to CorUs, Montezuma made many
inquiries concerning the country of the Spaniards, their
sovereign, the nature of his government, and especially their
own motives in visiting Andhuac. Cortes explained these
motives by the desire to see so distinguished a monarch and
to declare to him the true Faith professed by the Christians."
c. The Spaniards in Tenochtitlan. "The Spaniards had
not been long in the Aztec capital before the true object of
their visit became apparent to the Mexicans. Their insatiable
greed of gold and their reUgious intolerance were ever in evi
dence. Cortes and his priests lost no opportunity to preach
salvation and the cross to their unwilling host; nor did they
fail to treat the natives with that lofty contempt from which
ecclesiastical missionaries of to-day are not always free. If
Montezuma was steeped in the superstitions of his country,
the iron- willed conqueror was no less bigoted. Neither cared
to yield, and the apparent peace was illusory, and was main
tained only by fear and force of arms. The unfailing hospi
tality of Montezuma, and his princely gifts, failed to awaken
a feeling of gratitude in the breast of the Spaniard ; they but
whetted his appetite. The final seizure of the emperor as a
hostage against any treacherous act on the part of the natives,
and the confiscation of the imperial treasure, were measures
which so incensed the Aztecs that it required all Montezuma's
authority to restrain their impatience."
The middle of May, 1520, six months after the entrance of
the Spaniards into Mexico, was the beginning of a long series
of misfortunes for the invading army. For reasons of safety,
Cortes deemed it advisable to quit Tenochtitldn, descend to
the coast, and settle an account of long standing with Pdnfilo
de Narvaez, a political enemy who had just landed on Mexican
soil with a squadron of 18 vessels, a large number of men, and
military stores; the object of the expedition being to capture
CorUs, supersede him, and return him to Spain to answer
charges which would be submitted to him by the Spanish Court.
With his usual good fortune Cortes defeated Narvaez, won
over his men, possessed himself of the equipment, and with
the reinforcements started back to the capital. On leaving,
he had placed the city under the charge of Alvarado, with
a garrison of 140 men, all the artillery, the greater part of
the little band of horse, and the arquebusiers. But when the
victorious general and his recruits reached the highlands and
began the descent into the Valley of Mexico, their reception
by the natives was significant. " No one came forth to greet

HISTORY AND RACES 27
them ; supplies were granted with an ungracious air, and the
general began to entertain uncomfortable apprehensions
respecting the fate of the garrison in Mexico. But his doubts
were soon dispelled by the arrival of a messenger in a canoe,
from the city, whence he had escaped. He brought de
spatches from Alvarado, informing his commander that for
the last fortnight the garrison had suffered greatly from the
Mexican blockade, but he hoped tranquillity would be restored
on the approach of his countrymen. Montezuma sent a mes
senger also, to the same effect. No effort was made by the
Mexicans to bar the entry of the Spaniards, and with sad
dened feelings they reached the great gate of the palace of
Axay acatl. The gates were thrown open, and Cortes and his
veterans rushed in and were cordially embraced by their
companions in arms.
_ "The first inquiries of the general were respecting the ori
gin of the tumult. The accounts were various, but all agreed
in tracing the immediate cause to the violence of Alvarado.
*' It was common for the Aztecs to celebrate an annual festival in May
in honor of their war-god. It was held in the court of the teocalli in the
immediate neighborhood of the Spanish quarters. They assembled on the
day appointed, to the number of six hundred. They were dressed in their
most magnificent gala costumes, and at their special request, Montezuma
was present. Alvarado and his soldiers attended as spectators. The Az
tecs were soon engrossed in the exciting movements of the dance, accom
panied by their religious chants and wild, discordant minstrelsy. While
thus occupied, Alvarado and his men, at a concerted signal, rushed with
drawn swords on their victims.^ Unprotected by armor or weapons of any
kind, they were hewn down without resistance by their assailants, who
showed no pity or compunction. Some fled to the gates, but were caught
on the long pikes of the soldiers. Others who attempted to scale the Wall
of Serpents, which surrounded the area, shared the like fate, or were cut
to pieces by the ruthless soldiery. The pavement ran with streams of
blood. Not an Aztec, of all that gay company, was left alive ! Not con
tent with slaughtering their victims, the Spaniards rifled them of the
precious ornaments on their persons 1 On this sad day fell the flower of
the Aztec nobility. Not a family of note but had mourning and desola
tion brought within its walls. Many a doleful ballad, rehearsing the in
cidents of the story, and adapted to the plaintive national airs, continued
to be chanted by the natives long after the subjugation of the country.
".No sooner was the butchery accomplished than the tidings spread
like wild-fire through the capital. Men could scarcely credit their senses.
All they had hitherto suffered, the desecration of their temples, the im
prisonment of their sovereign, the insults heaped on his person, all were
forgotten in this one act. Every feeling of long-smothered hostility and
rancor now burst forth in the cry for vengeance. The city rose in arms to
a man; and on the following dawn, almost before the Spaniards could
secure themselves in their defences, they were assaulted with desperate
fury. Some of the assailants attempted to scale the walls; others suc
ceeded in partially undermining and setting fire to the works. But at the
prayers of the garrison, Montezuma himself interfered, and, mounting
the battlements, addressed the populace, whose fury he endeavored to
mitigate by urging considerations for his own safety. They respected
their monarch so far as to desist from further attempts to storm the for
tress, but they threw up works around the palace to prevent the egress of
the Spaniards. They suspended the enemy's supplies, then they quietly
sat down, with feelings of sullen desperation, waiting for the hour when
famine should throw their victims into their hands.

28 HISTORY AND RACES
" CorUs listened calmly to the explanation made by Alvarado.
But, before it was ended, he was convinced that he had made
a wrong selection for this important post. Yet the mistake
was natural. Alvarado was a cavalier of high family, gallant,
and his warm personal friend. He had talents for action, was
possessed of firmness and intrepidity, while his frank and
dazzling manner made the Tonatiuh, as he was called by the
Mexicans, a special favorite with them. But underneath this
showy exterior the future conqueror of Guatemala concealed
a heart rash, rapacious, and cruel.
" When Alvarado had concluded his answers to the several
interrogatories of Cortes, the brow of the latter darkened, as
he said to his lieutenant, ' You have been false to your trust.
Your conduct has been that of a madman ! ' And, turning
abruptly on his heel, he left him in undisguised displeasure.
" On the day that CorUs arrived, Montezuma left his quar
ters to welcome him. But the Spanish commander received
him coldly. Their relations were now those of prisoner and
J'ailer. In order to quiet the revolt of the people, Cortes re-
eased Montezuma's brother, Cuitlahua, lord of Iztapalapan.
He was a bold, ambitious prince, and the injuries he had re
ceived from the Spaniards rankled deep in his bosom. He
was an experienced warrior, and instead of quieting the popu
lace he immediately exerted himself to arrange a definite plan
of operations against the intruders.
"The Spaniards were not kept in suspense. The Aztecs
made a desperate assault on the Spanish barracks, bombard
ing them with a tempest of missiles — stones, darts, and ar
rows — which feU thick as rain on the besieged. The ferocity
shown by the Mexicans seems to have been something for which
Cortes was wholly unprepared. They fought furiously through
out the day, and the ancient walls of Tenochtitldn shook under
the thunders of the artillery, the fierce battle-cries of the com
batants, the hissing sound of Indian missiles, and the shrieks
of the wounded and dying. Believing that the temporary
ebullition of the populace would soon waste itself by its own
fury, Cortes determmed to sally out on the following day and
inflict such a chastisement on his foes as should bring them
to their senses and show who was master of the capital.
" With early dawn the Spaniards were up and under arms.
As the gray light of morning advanced, it showed the besieg
ing army, filling up the great square and neighboring avenues
in more dense array than on the preceding evening. Before
the sun had shot his beams into the Castilian quarters, the
enemy were in motion. The Spanish commander determined
to anticipate them by a vigorous sortie, for which he had
already made the necessary dispositions.
" A general discharge of ordnance and musketry sent death
far and wide in the enemy's ranks, and, before they had time to

HISTORY AND RACES 29
recover from their confusion, the gates were thrown open, and
CorUs, sallying out at the head of his cavalry, supported by
a large body of infantry and several thousand Tlascalans, rode
at full gallop against them. Taken thus by surprise, it was
scarcely possible to offer much resistance. Those who did were
trampled down under the horses' feet, cut to pieces with the
broadswords, or pierced with the lances of the riders. The
infantry followed up the blow, and the rout for the moment
was general.
"Rallying on the other side of a barricade which had been
thrown across the street, the Aztecs poured in turn a volley
of their light weapons on the Spaniards, who, saluted with a
storm of missiles at the same time from the terraces of the
houses, were thrown into some disorder and checked in their
career. The canals were alive with boats filled with warriors,
who with their formidable darts searched every crevice or
weak place in the armor proof, and made havoc on the unpro
tected bodies of the Tlascalans. By repeated and vigorous
charges the Spaniards succeeded in driving the Indians be
fore them, though many, with a desperation which showed
they loved vengeance better than life, sought to embarrass the
movements of their horses by cUnging to their legs, or, more
successfully, strove to pull the riders from their saddles.
And woe to the unfortunate cavalier who was thus dis
mounted, — to be despatched by the brutal maquahuitl, or to
be dragged on board a canoe to the bloody altar of sacrifice 1
" But the greatest annoyance which the Spaniards endured
was from the hail of missiles from the azoteas, consisting
often of large stones, hurled with a force that would tumble
the stoutest rider from the saddle. Galled in the extreme by
these discharges, against which even their shields afforded
no adequate protection, CorUs ordered fire to be set to the
buildings. But the buildings stood separated from one an
other by canals and drawbridges, so that the flames did not
easily communicate to the neighboring edifices. Hence the
labor of the Spaniards was incalculably increased, and their
progress in the work of destruction was comparatively slow.
"They did not relax their efforts, however, till several hun
dred houses had been consumed, and the miseries of a con
flagration, in which the wretched inmates perished equaUy
with the defenders, were added to the other horrors of the
scene. But the Aztecs could better afford the loss of a hundred
lives than their antagonists that of one. And, while the Span
iards showed an array broken and obviously thinned in num
bers, the Mexican army, swelled by the tributary levies which
flowed in upon it from the neighboring streets, exhibited,
with all its loss, no sign of diminution. At length, sated with
jarnage, and exhausted by toil and hunger, the Spanish com
mander drew off his men and sounded a retreat.

30 HISTORY AND RACES
Storming of the Great Teocalli. " Opposite the Span
ish quarters, at only a few rods distance, stood the great
teocalli of Huitzilopochtli. This pyramidal mound, with the
sanctuaries that crowned it, rising altogether to the height
of near 150 ft., afforded an elevated position that completely
commanded the palace of Axayacatl. occupied by the Christ
ians. A body of five or six hundred Mexicans, many of them
nobles and warriors of the highest rank, had got possession
of the teocaKi,whence they discharged such a tempest of arrows
on the garrison that no one could leave his defences for a
moment without imminent danger; while the Mexicans, under
shelter of the sanctuaries, were entirely covered from the fire
of the besieged. It was obviously necessary to dislodge the
enemy, if the Spaniards would remain longer in their quarters.
Cortes, who saw the immediate necessity of carrying the place,
determined to lead a storming party himself. He was then
suffering much from a wound in his left hand, which had dis
abled it for the present. He made the arm serviceable, how
ever, by fastening his buckler to it, and, thus crippled, sallied
out at the head of 300 chosen cavaliers and several thousand
of his auxiUaries.
"In the court-yard of the temple he found a numerous body
of Indians prepared to dispute his passage. He briskly charged
them; but the flat smooth stones of the pavement were so
slippery that the horses lost their footing and many of them
fell. Hastily dismounting, they sent back the animals to their
quarters, and, renewing the assault, the Spaniards succeeded
without much difficulty in dispersing the Indian warriors and
opening a free passage for themselves to the teocalli.
"Cortes, having cleared a way for the assault, sprang up
the lower stairway, followed by Alvarado, Sandoval, Ordaz,
and the other gallant cavaliers of his little band, leaving a
file of arquebusiers and a strong corps of Indian allies to hold
the enemy in check at the foot of the monument. On the first
landing, as well as on the several galleries above, and on the
summit, the Aztec warriors were drawn up to dispute his
passage. From their elevated position they showered down
volleys of lighter missiles, together with heavy stones, beams,
and burning rafters, which, after thundering along the stair
way, overturned the ascending Spaniards and carried desola
tion through their ranks. But the assailants pressed on,
effectually supported by a brisk fire of the musketeers from
belowj which so much galled the Mexicans in their exposed
situation that they were glad to take shelter on the broad
summit of the teocalli.
"CorUs and his comrades were close upon their rear, and
the two parties soon found themselves face to face on this
aerial battlefield, engaged in mortal combat in presence of
the whole city, as well as of the troops in the courtyard, who

HISTORY AND RACES 31
paused, as if by mutual consent, gazing in silent expectation
on the issue of hostilities above. The area, though somewhat
smaller than the base of the teocalli, was large enough to afford
a fair field of fight for a thousand combatants. It was paved
with broad, flat stones. No impediment occurred over its sur
face, except the huge sacrificial block, and the temples of
stone which rose to the height of forty feet, at the further
extremity of the area. One of these had been consecrated to
the Cross. The other was still occupied by the Mexican war-
god. The Christian and the Aztec contended for their rehgion
under the very shadow of their respective shrines: whUe the
Indian priests, running to and fro, with their hair wildly stream
ing over their sable mantles, seemed hovering in mid-air, like
so many demons of darkness urging on the work of slaughter.
"The parties closed with the desperate fury of men who
had no hope but in victory. Quarter was neither asked nor
given ; and to fly was impossible. The edge of the area was un
protected by parapet or battlement. The least sUp would be
fatal, and the combatants, as they struggled in mortal agony,
were sometimes seen to roll over the sheer sides of the preci
pice together. Cortes himself had a narrow escape from the
dreadful fate. Two warriors seized on him and were dragging
him violently toward the brink of the pyramid. Aware of
their intention, he struggled with aU his force, and, before they
could accompUsh their purpose, succeeded in tearing himself
from their grasp and hurling one of them over the walls with
his own arm!
"The battle lasted with unremitting fury for three hours.
The number of the enemy was double that of the Christians,
but the invulnerable armor of the Spaniard, his sword of
matchless temper, and his skill in the use of it, gave him ad
vantages which far outweighed the odds of physical strength
and numbers. Resistance grew fainter and fainter on the side
of the Aztecs. One after another they had fallen. Twoorthree
priests only survived, to be led away in triumph by the vic
tors. Every other combatant was stretched a corpse on the
bloody arena, or had been hurled from the giddy heights. The
Spaniards lost 45 of their best men: and nearly all the remain
der were more or less injured.
"The victorious cavaliers now rushed toward the sanctu
aries. Penetrating into their recesses they had the mortifica
tion to find the image of the Virgin and the Cross removed.
But in the other they beheld the grim figure of Huitzilopochtli,1
with his censer of smoking hearts, and the walls of his oratory
reeking with gore, — not improbably of their own country
men I With shouts of triumph the Christians tore the un
couth monster from his niche, and tumbled him, in the pre-

» This statue is now in the Museo Nacional at Mexico Oity.

32 HISTORY AND RACES
sence of the horror-struck Aztecs, down the steps of the
teocalli. They then set fire to the wooden tower of the ac
cursed building. The flames speeduy ran up the slender
towers, sending forth an ominous light over city, lake, and
valley, to the remotest hut among the mountains. It was the
funeral pyre of paganism, and proclaimed the fall of that
sanguinary religion which had so long hung Uke a dark cloud
over the fair regions of Anahuac.
"Having accomplished this good work, the Spaniards de
scended the winding slopes of the teocalli with more free and
buoyant step, as if conscious that the blessing of Heaven now
rested on their arms. They passed through the dusky files of
Indian warriors in the court-yard, too much dismayed by the
appalling scenes they had witnessed to offer resistance, and
reached their own quarters in safety. That very night they
followed up the blow by a sortie on the sleeping town, and
burned 300 houses, the horrors of conflagration being made
still more impressive by occurring at the hour when the Aztecs,
from their own system of warfare, were least prepared for
them. " Hoping to find the temper of the natives somewhat sub
dued by these reverses, Cortes made them a vantage-ground for
Eroposing peace terms. In a parley with the principal chiefs
e pointed out that they had seen their gods trampled in the
dust, their altars broken, their dweUings burned, their war
riors falling on aU sides. ' This,' he said, ' you have brought on
yourselves by your rebellion. If you do not lay down your
arms and return once more to your obedience, I will make
your city a heap of ruins, and leave not a soul alive to mourn
over it.'
"But the Spanish commander did not yet comprehend the
character of the Aztecs, if he thought to intimidate them
by menaces. It was true, they answered, he had destroyed
their temples, broken in pieces their gods, massacred their
countrymen. Many more doubtless were yet to fall under
their terrible swords. But they were content so long as for
every thousand Mexicans they could shed the blood of a single
white man ! ' Look out,' they continued, ' on our terraces and
streets; see them stiU thronged with warriors as far as your
eyes can reach. Our numbers are scarcely diminished by our
losses. Yours, on the contrary, are lessening every hour. You
are perishing from hunger and sickness. Your provisions and
water are failing. You must soon fall into our hands. The
bridges are broken down, and you cannot escape! There will
be too few of you left to glut the vengeance of our gods 1 ' As
they concluded, they sent a whole volley of arrows over the
battlements, which compelled the Spaniards to descend and
take refuge in their defences.
"The fierce and indomitable spirit of the Aztecs filled the

HISTORY AND RACES 33
besieged with dismay. The annunciation respecting the"bridges
feU like a kneU on their ears. All that they had heard was too
true; and they gazed on one another with looks of anxiety
and dismay.
"A spirit of mutiny broke out, especially among the recent
levies drawn from the army of Narvaez, and the men de
manded, with noisy vehemence, to be led instantly from the
city, and refused to serve longer in defence of a place where
they were cooped up like sheep in the shambles, waiting only
to be dragged to slaughter. In all this they were rebuked by
the more orderly, soldier-like conduct of the veterans of
Cortes. These latter had shared with their general the day of
his prosperity, and they were not disposed to desert him in
the tempest.
_ " Cortes calmly surveyed his condition, and weighed the
difficulties which surrounded him, before coming to a decision.
Independently of the hazard of a retreat in the face of a watch
ful and desperate foe, it was a deep mortification to surrender
the city where he had so long lorded it as master, to abandon
the rich treasures which he had secured to himself and his
followers; to forego the very means by which he had hoped to
propitiate the favor of his sovereign and secure an amnesty
for his irregular proceedings.
" In this condition he had yet to learn the tidings of a fresh
misfortune in the death of Montezuma. A short time before,
the Indian monarch had received a javelin wound while
addressing the infuriated people, and since receiving this
wound he had declined rapidly. Perceiving his end approach,
he summoned CorUs and recommended his three daughters to
his care. He earnestly commended these children to his pro
tection, as 'the most precious jewels that he could leave him.'
He besought Cortes to care for them : to protect them from
the wrath of the people who believed Montezuma a traitor to
them. On the 30th of June, 1520, he expired in the arms of
some of his own nobles, who still remained faithful to him. At
the time of his death Montezuma was forty years old. He had
reigned 18 years."
d. The Retreat from Tenochtitlan. "As there was no
longer any question as to the expediency of evacuating the
capital, the Spanish commander caUed a council of officers to
deliberate on the matter. It was his purpose to retreat on
Tlascala, and there to decide on his future operations. The
general's first care was to provide for the safe transportation
of the treasure. He delivered the share belonging to the Crown
to the royal officers, assigning them one of the strongest
horses, and a guard of soldiers to transport it. Much of the
treasure was necessarily abandoned, from the want of adequate
means of conveyance. The metal lay in shining heaps along
the floor, exciting the cupidity of the soldiers. 'Take what

34 HISTORY AND RACES
you will of it,' said CorUs to his men. ' Better you should have
it than these Mexican hounds. But be careful not to overload
yourselves. He travels safest in the dark night who travels
lightest.' His own more wary f crtlowers took heed to his coun
sel, but the common soldiers rushed on the treacherous spoil,
greedily loading themselves with as much as they could carry.
" CorUs next arranged the order of march. The van, com
posed of 200 Spanish foot, he placed under the command of
the vaUant Gonzalo de Sandoval, supported by Diego de Ordaz,
Francisco de Lujo, and about twenty other cavaliers. The
rear-guard, constituting the strength of the infantry, was en
trusted to Pedro de Alvarado, and Velasquez de Leon. The
general himself took charge of the ' battle' or centre, in which
went the baggage, some of the heavy guns, the treasure, and
the prisoners. These consisted of a son and two daughters
of Montezuma, Cacama, the deposed lord of Tezcuco, and
several other nobles, whom CorUs retained as important
pledges in his future negotiations with the enemy. The
Tlascalans were distributed equaUy among the three divisions ;
and CorUs had under his immediate command a hundred
picked soldiers, his own veterans most attached to his serv
ice, who, with Cristobal de Olid, Francisco de Morla, Alonso
de Avila, and two or three other cavaliers, formed a select
corps, to act wherever occasion might require.
The general had already superintended the construction
of a portable bridge to be laid over the open canals in the
causeway. This was given in charge to an officer named Mar-
garino, with forty soldiers under his orders, aU pledged to
defend the passage to the last extremity."
e. La Noche Triste, or Sad Night. "At midnight the
troops were under arms, in readiness for the march. Mass was
performed by Father Olmedo, who invoked the protection of
the Almighty through the awful perils of the night. The gates
were thrown open, and on the first of July, 1520, the Spaniards
for the last time salUed forth from the walls of the ancient
fortress, the scene of so much suffering and such indomitable
courage. "The night was cloudy, and a drizzling rain added to the
obscurity. The great square before the palace was deserted.
Steadily, as noiselessly as possible, the Spaniards held their
way along the great street of Tlacdpan, which so lately had
resounded with the tumult of battle. All was now hushed in
silence, and they were only reminded of the past by the occa
sional presence of some solitary corpse, or a dark heap of the
slain, which too plainly told where the strife had been hottest.
As they passed along the lanes and alleys, which opened into
the great streetj or looked down the canals, whose polished sur
face gleamed with a sort of ebon lustre through the obscurity
of night, they fancied that they discerned the shadowy forms

HISTORY AND RACES 35
of their foe lurking in ambush and ready to spring on them.
But it was only fancy: the city slept undisturbed even by the
prolonged echoes of the tramp of the horses and the hoarse
rumbling of the artillery and baggage-trains.
"As the Spaniards drew near the spot where the street
opened on the causeway, and were preparing to lay the port
able bridge across the uncovered breach, several Indian
sentinels who had been stationed here, took the alarm and
fled, rousing their countrymen by their cries. The priests,
keeping their night-watch on the summits of the teocallis,
instantly caught the tidings and sounded their shells, while
the huge drum in the desolate temple of the war-god sent forth
those solemn tones, heard only in seasons of calamity, which
vibrated through every corner of the capital. The Spaniards
saw that no time was to be lost. The bridge was brought for
ward and fitted with all possible expedition. Sandoval was
the first to try its strength, and, riding across, was followed
by his little body of chivalry, his infantry, and the Tlasoalan
allies who formed the first division of the army. Then came
CorUs and his squadrons, with the baggage, ammunition-
wagons, and a part of the artillery. But before they had time
to defile across the narrow passage, a gathering sound was
heard, like that of a mighty forest agitated by the winds. It
grew louder and louder, while on the dark waters of the lake
was heard a plashing noise, as of many oars.. Then came a
few stones and arrows striking at random among the hurrying
troopB. They fell every moment faster and more furious, till
they thickened into a terrible tempest, while the very heavens
were rent with the yeUs and war-cries of a myriad combatants,
who seemed all at once to be swarming over land and lake.
"The Spaniards pushed steadily on through this arrowy
sleet, though the barbarians, dashing their canoes against the
sides of the causeway, clambered up and broke in upon their
ranks. But the Christians, anxious only to make their escape,
declined all combat except for self-preservation. The cavaliers,
spurring forward their steeds, shook off their assailants and
rode over their prostrate bodies, while the men on foot,
with their good swords or the butt of their pieces, drove them
headlong again down the sides of the dike.
"But the advance of several thousand men, marching on
a front of not more than twenty abreast, necessarily required
much time, and the leading files had already reached the sec
ond breach in the causeway before those in the rear had entirely
traversed the first. Here they halted, and as they had no means
of effecting a passage, smarting all the while under uninter-
mitting volleys from the enemy, who were clustered thick on
the waters around this second opening, sorely distressed, the
vanguard sent repeated messages to the rear to demand the
portable bridge. At length the last of the army had crossed,

36 HISTORY AND RACES
and Margarino and his sturdy followers endeavored to raise
the ponderous framework. But it stuck fast in the sides of the
dike. In vain they strained every nerve. The weight of so
many men and horses, and above aU, the heavy artiUery, had
wedged the timbers so firmly in the stones and earth that it
was beyond their power to dislodge them. Still they labored
amidst a torrent of missiles, until, many of them slain, and aU
wounded, they were obUged to abandon the attempt.
" The tidings soon spread from man to man, and no sooner
was their dreadful import comprehended than a cry of despair
arose, which for a moment drowned all the noise of conflict.
All means of retreat were cut off. Scarcely hope was left. The
only hope was in such desperate exertions as each could make
for himself. Intense danger produced intense selfishness.
Each thought only of his own Ufe. Pressing forward, he tram
pled down the weak and wounded, heedless whether it were
friend or foe. The leading files, urged on by the rear, were
crowded on the brink of the gulf. Sandoval, Ordaz, and the
other cavaliers dashed into the water. Some succeeded in
swimming their horses across. Others failed, and some, who
reached the opposite bank, being overturned in the ascent,
rolled headlong with their steeds into the lake. The infantry
followed pell-mell, heaped promiscuously on one another,
frequently pierced by the shafts or struck down by the war-
clubs of the Aztecs: while many an unfortunate victim was
dragged half-stunned on board their canoes, to be reserved
for a protracted but more dreadful death.
"The carnage raged fearfully along the length of the cause
way. Its shadowy bulk presented a mass of sufficient distinct
ness for the enemy's missiles, which often prostrated their
own countrymen in the blind fury of the tempest. Those
nearest the dike, running their canoes alongside, with a force
that shattered them to pieces, leaped on the land, and grap
pled with the Christians, until both came rolling down the
causeway together. But the Aztec feU among his friends,
while his antagonist was borne away in triumph to the sacri
fice. The struggle was long and deadly. The Mexicans were
recognized by their white cotton tunics, which showed faint
through the darkness. Above the combatants rose a wild and
discordant clamor, in which horrid shouts of vengeance were
mingled with groans of agony, with invocations of the saints
and the Blessed Virgin, and with screams of women ; for there
were several women, both natives and Spaniards, who had
accompanied the Christian camp. Among these, one named
Maria de Estrada is particularly noticed for the courage she
displayed, battling with broadsword and target like the
etanchest of the warriors.
"The opening in the causeway, meanwhile, was filled up
with the wreck of matter which had been forced into it, am-

HISTORY AND RACES 37
munition-wagons, heavy guns, bales of rich stuff scattered
over the waters, chests of soUd ingots,1 and bodies of men and
horses, till over this dismal ruin a passage was gradually
formed, by which those in the rear were enabled to clamber
to the other side. CorUs found a place that was fordable, and
halting, with the water up to his saddle-girths, he endeavored
to check the confusion, and lead his followers by a safer path
to the opposite bank. But his voice was lost in the wild up
roar, and finally, hurrying on with the tide, he pressed forward
with a few trusty cavaliers, but not before he had seen his
favorite page, Juan de Salazar, struck down, a corpse, by his
side. Here he found Sandoval and his companions, halting
before the third and last breach, endeavoring to cheer on
their foUowers to surmount it. But their resolution faltered.
It was wide and deep, though not so closely beset by the
enemy as the preceding ones. The cavaliers again set the
example by plunging into the water. Horse and foot followed
as they could, some swimming, others with dying grasp cling
ing to the manes and tails of the struggUng animals. Those
fared best, as the general had predicted, who travelled Ughtest;
and many were the unfortunate wretches who, weighed down
by the fatal gold which they loved so well, were buried with it
In the salt floods of the lake. CorUs, with his gaUant comrades,
Olid, Morla, Sandoval, and some few others, still kept in the
advance, leading his broken remnant off the fatal causeway.
The din of battle lessened in the distance; when the rumor
reached them that the rear-guard would be whoUy over
whelmed without speedy relief. It seemed almost an act of
desperation: but the generous hearts of the Spanish cavaliers
did not Btop to calculate danger when the cry for succor
reached them. Turning their horses, they gaUoped back to
the theatre of action, worked their way through the press,
swam the canal, and placed themselves in the thick of the
mSlee on the opposite bank.
" The first gray of the morning was now coming over the
waters. It showed the hideous confusion of the scene which
had been shrouded in the obscurity of night. The dark masses
of combatants, stretching along the dike, were seen struggUng
for mastery, until the very causeway on which they stood
appeared to tremble, as if shaken by an earthquake; while
the bosom of the lake, as far as the eye could reach, was dark
ened by canoes crowded with warriors, whose spears and
bludgeons, armed with blades of volcanic glass, gleamed in
the morning light.
"The cavaliers found Alvarado unhorsed, and defending
himself with a poor handful of followers against an over
whelming tide of the enemy. His good steed, which had
1 One witness estimates that over 2,000,000 pesos were lost during that
night.

38 HISTORY AND RACES
borne him through many a hard fight, had fallen under him.
He was himself wounded in several places, and was striving
in vain to rally his scattered column, which was driven to the
verge of the canal by the fury of the enemy, then in possession
of the whole rear of the causeway. The artiUery in the earlier
part of the engagement had not been idle, and its iron shower,
sweeping along the dike, had mowed down the assaUants by
hundreds. But nothing could resist their impetuosity. The
front ranks, pushed on by those behind, were at length forced
up to the pieces, and, pouring over them like a torrent, over
threw men and guns in one general ruin. The resolute charge
of the Spanish cavaliers, who had now arrived, created a
temporary check, and gave time for their countrymen to
make a feeble rally. But they were speedily borne down by
the returning flood. Cortes and his companions were com
pelled to plunge again into the lake, though all did not escape.
Alvarado stood on the brink for a moment, hesitating what
to do. Unhorsed as he was, to throw himself into the water,
in the face of the hostile canoes that swarmed around the
opening, afforded but a desperate chance of safety. He was
a man of powerful frame, and despair gave him unnatural
energy. Setting his long lance firmly on the wreck which
strewed the bottom of the lake, he sprung forward with all his
might, and cleared the wide gap at a lefip 1 Aztecs and Tlas
calans gazed in stupid amazement, exclaiming, as they be
held the incredible feat, ' This is truly the Tonatiuh, the child
of the Sun 1 ' The breadth of the opening is not given. But
it was so great that the valorous captain, Diaz, who well re
membered the place, says the leap was impossible to any
man. To this day the spot is familiarly known to every in
habitant of the capital; and the name of the Calle del Puente
de Alvarado [p. 339] — street of the Bridge of Alvarado — stiU
commemorates the exploit.
' ' CorUs and his followers now rode forward to the front, where
the troops were marching off the fatal causeway. The atten
tion of the Aztecs was diverted to the rich spoil that strewed
the battle-ground, and, but Uttle molested, the jaded Span
iards were allowed to defile through the adjacent suburb of
Popotla. "The Great Captain there dismounted from his tired steed,
and sitting beneath a giant tree [comp. p. 418] gazed mournfully
on the broken files as they passed before him. The cavalry,
most of them dismounted, were mingled with the infantry, who
dragged their feeble limbs along with difficulty ; their shattered
mail and tattered garments dripping with the salt ooze, show
ing through their rents many a bruise and ghastly wound,
their bright arms soiled, their proud crests and banners gone,
the baggage, artillery, and all that constitutes the pride and
panoply of glorious war, forever lost. Cortes, as he looked

HISTORY AND RACES 39
wistfuUy on their thin and disordered ranks, sought in vain
for many a f amiUar face, and missed more than one dear com
panion who had stood side by side with him through aU the
perils of the Conquest. Though accustomed to control his emo
tions, the sight was too much for him. He covered his face
with his hands, and the tears which trickled down revealed
too plainly the anguish of his soul.
" He found some consolation, however, in the sight of several
of the cavaUers on whom he most relied. Alvarado, Sandoval,
Olid, Ordaz, Avila, were yet safe. He had the inexpressible
satisfaction, also, of learning the safety of Marina, the Indian
interpreter. Aguilar, the other interpreter, had also escaped.
And it was with no less satisfaction that CorUs learned the
safety of the ship-builder, Martin Lopez. The general's soKci-
tude for the fate of this man, so indispensable to the success
of his subsequent operations, showed that, amidst all his
affliction, his indomitable spirit was looking forward to the
hour of revenge.
"The loss sustained by the Spaniards on this fatal night,
according to Cortes's own letter, did not exceed one hundred
and fifty Spaniards and two thousand Indians. But Thoan
Cano, one of the cavaUers present, estimated the slain at
1,170 Spaniards and 8,000 allies. Forty-six of the cavalry
were cut off. The greater part of the treasure, the baggage,
the general's papers, including a minute diary of transactions
since leaving Cuba, were swallowed up by the waters. The
ammunition, the beautiful Uttle train of artillery with which
CorUs had entered the city, were all gone. Not a musket re
mained, the men having thrown them away, lest they retard
their escape on that disastrous night. Such were the results
of this terrible passage of the causeway ; more disastrous than
those occasioned by any other reverse which had stained the
Spanish arms in the New World ; and which have branded
the night on which it happened, in the national annals, with
the name of la noche triste, 'the melancholy night.' "
/. Siege and Downfall of Tenochtitlan. "In the spring
of 1521 we find the Great Captain once more in the Valley
of Mexico, blockading and besieging the ancient Aztec city.
Provided with fresh arms and military stores; with fresh re
cruits and an inexhaustible supply of new energy; strongly
supported by thousands of Indian allies thirsting for the com
plete annihilation of the Aztec stronghold, the Spanish com
mander set about the downfaU of the doomed city with a
singleness of purpose that brooked no defeat. Building a num
ber of brigantines, he launched them on the lake and defeated,
in a bloody encounter, the Indian flotilla that came to meet
them. Day after day the intrepid Aztecs sallied out to meet
the Spaniards, and as frequently were they forced back. For
weeks and months the invaders Uved a life of incessant toil

40 HISTORY AND RACES
almost too severe for even their stubborn constitutions. Many
of their desperate assaults were repulsed by the besieged, whose
proud spirit seemed not to weaken, albeit famine was now
gradually working its way into the heart of the beleaguered
city. On one occasion the Spaniards made a general assault
on the city, but they were defeated with such loss that for a
time their position was critical.
"A day was fixed for the final assault, which was to be
made simultaneously by the two divisions under Alvarado
and the commander-in-chief. Sandoval was instructed to
draw off the greater part of his besieging forces from the
northern causeway and to unite himself with Alvarado, while
seventy picked soldiers were to be detached to the support
of CorUs. On the appointed morning the two armies advanced
along their respective causeways against the city. They were
supported, in addition to the brigantines, by a numerous fleet
of Indian boats, and by a countless multitude of aUies, whose
very numbers served in the end to embarrass their operations.
CorUs divided his forces into three bodies. One of them he
placed under Alderete, with orders to occupy the principal
street. A second he gave in charge to Andres de Tapia and
Jorge de Alvarado; the former a cavaUer of courage and ca
pacity, the latter a younger brother of Don Pedro, and pos
sessed of the intrepid spirit which belonged to that chivalrous
family. These were to penetrate by one of the paraUel streets,
while the general himself, at the head of the third division,
was to occupy the other. A smaU body of cavalry, with two
or three field-pieces, was stationed as a reserve in front of the
great street of Tacuba, which was designated as the rallying-
point for the different divisions.
"CorUs gave the most positive instructions to the captains
not to advance a step without securing the means of retreat
by caref uUy filling up the ditches and the openings of the cause
ways. The neglect of this precaution by Alvarado, in an assault
which he had made on the city but a few days before, had
been attended with such serious consequences to the army
that CorUs rode over to his officer's quarters for the purpose
of publicly reprimanding him for his disobedience of orders.
On his arrival at the camp, however, he found that his offend
ing captain had conducted the affair with such gallantry that
the intended reprimand subsided into a mild rebuke.
''The arrangements being completed, the three divisions
marched at once up the several streets. CorUs, dismounting,
took the van of his own squadron, at the head of his infantry.
The Mexicans fell back as he advanced, making less resistance
than usual. The Spaniards pushed on, carrying one barri
cade after another, and carefully filling up the gaps with rub
bish, so as to secure themselves a footing. The canoes supported
the attack, by moving along the canals, and grappling with

nisiUKY AND RACES 41
those of the enemy; while numbers of the nimble-footed
Tlascalans, scaUng the terraces, passed from one house to
another, huriing the defenders into the streets below. The
enemy, taken apparently by surprise, seemed incapable of
withstanding the fury of the assault. The facility of his
success led CorUs to suspect that he was advancing too fast.
Determined to trust no eyes but his own, he proceeded to
reconnoitre the route followed by his victorious troops.
"His conjecture proved too true. Alderete had followed the
retreating Aztecs with an eagerness which increased with
every step of his advance. He had carried the barricades
which had defended the breach, and, as he swept on, gave
orders that the opening should be stopped. But the blood of
the high-spirited cavaliers was warmed by the chase, and no
one cared to be detained by the ignoble occupation of filling
up the ditches. In this way they suffered themselves to be
decoyed into the heart of the city. Suddenly the horn of
Guatemozin — the sacred symbol, heard only in seasons of
extraordinary peril — sent forth a long and piercing note
from the summit of a neighboring teocalli. In an instant, the
flying Aztecs, as if maddened by the blast, wheeled about and
turned on their pursuers. At the same time, countless swarms
of warriors from the adjoining streets and lanes poured in
upon the flanks of the assailants, filling the air with the fierce,
unearthly cries which had reached the ears of CorUs, and
drowning, for a moment, the wild dissonance which reigned in
the other quarters of the capital.
"The army, taken by surprise, and shaken by the fury of
the assault, was thrown into the utmost disorder. Friends
and foes, white men and Indians, were mingled together in
one promiscuous mass. Spears, swords, and war-clubs were
brandished together in the air. Blows fell at random. In
their eagerness to escape they trod down one another. Blinded
by the missiles which now rained on them from the azoteas,
they staggered on, scarcely knowing in what direction, or
fell, struck down by hands which they could not see. On they
came, like a rushing torrent sweeping along some steep decUv-
ity, and rolUng in one confused tide toward the open breach,
on the farther side of which stood CorUs and his companions,
horror-struck at the sight of the approaching ruin. The fore
most files soon plunged into the gulf, treading one another
under the flood, some striving ineffectuaUy to swim, others,
with more success, to clamber over the heaps of their suffo
cated comrades. Many, as they attempted to scale the oppo
site sides of the sUppery dike, feU into the water, or were
hurried off by the warriors in canoes, who added to the horror
of the rout by the fresh storm of darts and javelins which they
poured on the fugitives.
'.' CorUs, with his brave followers, kept his station undaunted

42 HISTORY AND RACES
on the other side of the breach. With outstretched hands he
endeavored to rescue as many as he could from the watery
grave, and from the more appalling fate of captivity. He as
vainly tried to restore something like presence of mind and
order among the distracted fugitives. His person was weU
known to the Aztecs, and his position now made him a con
spicuous mark for their weapons. Stones, darts, and arrows
fell around him as thick as hail, but glanced harmless from
his steel helmet and armor. At length a cry of 'Malinche,
Malinche,' arose among the enemy; and six of their number,
strong and athletic warriors, rushing on him at once, made a
violent effort to drag him on board their boat. In the struggle
he received a severe wound in the leg, which, for the time, dis
abled it. There seemed to be no hope for him : when a faithful
follower^ Cristdbal de Oka, perceiving his general's extremity,
threw himself on the Aztecs, and with a blow cut off the arm
of one savage, and then plunged his sword in the body of an
other. He was quickly supported by a comrade named Lerma,
and by a Tlascalan chief, who, fighting over the body of the
prostrate Cortes, despatched three more of the assailants,
though the heroic Olea paid dearly for his self-devotion, as he
fell mortally wounded by the side of his general.
"With the aid of his cavaliers CorUs at length succeeded
in regaining the firm ground and reaching the open place
before the great street of Tacuba. Here, under a sharp fire
of the artiUery, he ralUed his broken squadrons and beat off
the enemy.
"That night the jaded Spaniards from their camp saw a
long file of priests and warriors climbing to the flat summit
of the teocalli. Among them were several men stripped to the
waist, some of whom, by the whiteness of their skins, they
recognized as their own countrymen. Their heads were gaud
ily decorated with coronals of plumes, and they carried fans
in their hands. They were urged along by blows, and com
pelled to take part in the dances in honor of the Aztec war-
god. The unfortunate captives, soon stripped of their sad
finery, were stretched, one after another, on the great stone
of sacrifice.
" We may imagine with what sensations the stupefied Span
iards must have gazed on this horrid spectacle, so near that
they could almost recognize the persons of their unfortunate
friends, see the struggles and writhings of their bodies, hear
their screams of agony! Their limbs trembled beneath them
as they thought what might one day be their own fate : and
the bravest among them, who had hitherto gone to battle
as careless and light-hearted as to the banquet-room, were
unable, from this time forward, to encounter their ferocious
enemy without a sickening feeling, much akin to fear, coming
over them.

HISTORY AND RACES 43
" But amidst aU the distress and multiplied embarrassments
of their situation, the Spaniards still remained true to their
purpose. They relaxed in no degree the severity of the block
ade. Their camps still occupied the only avenues to the city,
and their batteries, sweeping down the long defiles at every
fresh assault of the Aztecs, mowed down hundreds of the
assailants. " Soon there was no occasion to resort to artificial means to
precipitate the ruin of the Aztecs. It was accelerated every
hour by causes more potent than those arising from human
agency. Pent up in their suffocating quarters, nobles, com
moners, and slaves, men, women, and children, faced inevitable
starvation. They wandered about in search of anything that
might mitigate the fierce gnawings of hunger. Some hunted
for insects and worms on the borders of the lake, or gathered
the salt weeds and moss from its bottom, while at times they
might be seen casting a wistful look at the green hills beyond,
which many of them had left to share the fate of their breth
ren in the capital. Hundreds of famished wretches died every
day from extremity of suffering.
" CorUs offered the dying Aztecs a chance to capitulate, but
they refused. As long as they were able to stand they made
murderous assaults on the Spanish camps, to be ruthlessly
beaten back or slaughtered by the invaders.
"It was the memorable 13th of August, 1521, the day of
St. Hippolytus, — from this circumstance selected as the patron
saint of modern Mexico, — that CorUs led his warlike array
for the last time across the black and blasted environs which
lay around the Indian capital. On entering the Aztec pre
cincts, he paused, willing to afford its wretched inmates one
more chance to escape before striking the fatal blow. He
obtained an interview with some of the principal chiefs, and
expostulated with them on the conduct of their prince. 'He
surely will not,' said the general, 'see you all perish, when
he can so easily sa^ve you.' He then urged them to prevail
on Guatemozin to hold a conference with him, repeating the
assurance of his personal safety.
"The messengers went on their mission, and soon returned
with the cihuacdatl at their head, a magistrate of high author
ity among the Mexicans. He said, with a melancholy air,
that ' Guatemozin was ready to die where he was, but would
hold no interview with the Spanish commander': adding,
in a tone of resignation, ' it is for you to work your pleasure.'
'Go, then,' replied the stern conqueror, 'and prepare your
countrymen for death. Their hour is come.'
"He still postponed the assault for several hours. But the
impatience of his troops at this delay was heightened by
the rumor that Guatemozin and his nobles were preparing to
escape with their effects in piraguas and canoes which were

44 HISTORY AND RACES
moored on the margin of the lake. Convinced of the impoUcy
of further procrastination, CorUs made his final disposition for
the attack, and took his own station on an azotea which com
manded the theatre of operations.
" When the assailants came into the presence of the enemy,
they found them huddled together in the utmost confusion,
all ages and sexes, in masses so dense that they nearly forced
one another over the brink of the causeways into the water
below. Some had climbed on the terraces, others feebly
supported themselves against the waUs of the buildings.
Their squalid and tattered garments gave a wildness to their
appearance which still further heightened the ferocity of
their expression, as they glared on their enemy with eyes in
which hate was mingled with despair. When the Spaniards
had approached within bowshot, the Aztecs let off a flight
of impotent missiles, showing to the last the resolute spirit of
their better days. The fatal signal was then given by the
discharge of an arquebuse, — speedily followed by peals of
heavy ordnance, the rattle of firearms, and the hellish shouts
of the confederates as they sprang upon their victims. It is
unnecessary to stain the page with a repetition of the horrors
of the preceding day. Some of the wretched Aztecs threw
themselves into the water and were picked up by canoes.
Others sank and were suffocated in the canals. The number
of these became so great that a bridge was made of their dead
bodies, over which the assailants could climb to the opposite
banks. Others again, especially the women, begged for mercy,
which, as the chroniclers assure us, was everywhere granted
by the Spaniards, and, contrary to the instructions of CorUs,
everywhere refused by the confederates.
"While this work of butchery was going on, numbers were
observed pushing off in the barks that lined the shore, and
making the best of their way across the lake. They were con
stantly intercepted by the brigantines, which broke through
the flimsy array of boats, sending off their voUeys right and
left, as the crews of the latter hotly assailed them. The battle
raged as fiercely on the lake as on land.
"Sandoval had particularly charged his captains to keep
an eye on the movements of any vessel in which it was at all
probable that Guatemozin might be concealed. At this crisis
three or four of the largest piraguas were seen skimming over
the water and making their way rapidly to the shore. A cap
tain named Garcia Holguin came alongside one of the piraguas,
and ordered his men to level their cross-bows at the boat. But
before they could discharge them a cry arose from those in
it that their lord was on board. At the same moment a young
warrior, armed with buckler and maguahuitl, rose up, as if
to beat off the assailants. But as the Spanish captain ordered
his men not to shoot, he dropped his weapons, and exclaimed,

HISTORY AND RACES 45
'I am Guatemozin. Lead me to Malinche: I am his prisoner:
but let no harm come to my wife and my followers.'
" The news of Guatemozin' s capture spread rapidly through
the fleet, and on shore. When the warriors heard it they ceased
fighting. It seemed as if the fight had been maintained thus
long to divert the enemy's attention and cover their master's
retreat. "On the day foUowing the surrender, Guatemozin requested
the Spanish commander to aUow the Mexicans to leave the
city and to pass unmolested into the open country. To this
CorUs readily assented. The whole number who departed from
the stricken place is estimated at from thirty to seventy thou
sand, besides women and children who had survived the sword,
pestilence, and famine. Of the whole number who perished
in the course of the siege it is impossible to form any accurate
computation. The accounts range widely, from 120,000, the
lowest estimate, to 240,000. The number of Spaniards who
fell was comparatively small. The historian of Tezcuco asserts
that 30,000 of his own countrymen perished.
"The booty found by the Spaniards fell far below their
expectations. It did not exceed, according to the general's
statement, a hundred and thirty thousand castellanos of gold,
including the sovereign's share, which, indeed, taking into
account many articles of curious and costly workmanship,
voluntarily relinquished by the army, greatly exceeded his
legitimate fifth. It is believed that the Aztecs sunk vast
treasures in the waters of the lake.
"Thus, after a siege of nearly three months' duration,
unmatched in history for the constancy and courage of the
besieged, seldom surpassed for the severity of its sufferings,
feU the renowned capital of the Aztecs." (Prescott's Conquest.)
g. The Vice-Regal Period. Mexico was under the iron rule
of Spain from 1521 to 1821, and during those three centuries
it was ruled by five (Hernan CorUs first) Governors (1521-28),
two Audiencias (1528-35), and sixty-two Viceroys (1535-1821),
the last of whom was Francisco Novella. Personal ambition
and reUgious zeal stimulated CorUs to the Conquest, and
covetousness and the love of power were the salient character
istics of many of the peruked and bespangled rulers who fol
lowed him. These viceroys (virrey es) were for the most part
Spanish nobles, prelates, or court politicians, who sought the
position for selfish purposes and with the idea of repairing
their dilapidated fortunes in the New World. They ruled over
one of the most extensive empires of the world — a colony
which extended over 20 degrees of latitude, which embraced
every known climate, and which contained millions of human
beings. They were responsible only to the King of Spain and
the powerful Consejo de las Indias (thousands of miles away),
and during their incumbency of office, the conquered territory

46 HISTORY AND RACES
was exploited for the Viceroys, the Church, and the Spanish
Crown. The vice-regal salary was forty thousand pesos a year
(raised in 1689 to $70,000), and despite enormous expendi
tures, some of these petty kings were enabled to return to
Spain after a lapse of a few years with vast fortunes wrung
from the coerced and enslaved natives. Foreigners were ex
cluded from the country, education was monopolized by the
clergy, and the best land, the most profitable commerce, and
the most influential government offices were held by the native
Spaniards. But among the men of this long vice-regal succes
sion were some whose ambition was to uplift the oppressed
Indians and to govern their country for them, wisely and
well. Their names are conspicuous in Mexican history and
their memory is revered by the people.
Antonio de Mendoza (Conde de Tendilla y Comendador de
Socuellanos) , the 1st Viceroy (1535-50), was distinguished for
his humane efforts to mitigate the hardships of the enslaved
Indians. He sent expeditions northward on voyages of dis
covery; founded the cities of VaUadolid (now Morelia) and
Guadalajara; issued the first money minted in Mexico; aided
Fray Pedro de Gante to establish schools, — particularly the
celebrated school of Santiago TlaUelolco, — and caused the
first printing-press to be brought from Spain. The noble
missionary fray Bartolome' de las Casas reached Mexico during
his reign and received his ardent support. The mines of
Guanajuato and Zacatecas were exploited. The admirable
precedent of this benevolent man strongly influenced
Luis de Velasco, 2d V. (1550-64). The example of Lat
Casas (" Defender of the Indians ") for good was so great that
Velasco emancipated 150,000 Indians enslaved by Spanish
landowners. He founded (1553) the first University in New
Spain, and the Hospital Real; distributed Crown Lands
among the Indians ; and by means of expeditions northward,
he essayed to pacify and civilize the nomad tribes of those
regions. One of his captains discovered the stiU enormously
productive silver-mines of FresniUo and Sombrerete. Silao,
Durango, and San Miguel de Allende were founded during his
reign, and the great Dike of San Lazaro was built. He died
In Mex. City July 31, 1564, and he is revered as the great
"emancipator." Gaston de Peralta, 3d V. (1566-68), was succeeded by
Martin Enriquez de Almanza (Knight of Santiago), 4th V.
(1568-80). He was known as the "Inquisitor," because the
Inquisition was established in Mexico during his reign. During
his incumbency of office the Jesuits reached Mexico (1572);
the corner-stone of the Mex. City Cathedral was laid (1573),
and the city of Leon was founded (1576). During the time of
Lorenzo Juarez de Mendoza, 5th V. (1580-84), the fabulously
rich mines of San Luis Potosi were discovered.

HISTORY AND RACES 47
Pedro Moya de Contreras (Archbishop of Mexico), the 6th
V. (1584), was succeeded (in 15§5) by
Alvaro Manriquez de ZtMiga (Marque's de Villa Manrique),
7th V. (1585-90) , who extended the commerce between Mexico
and the Far East.
Luis de Velasco (Marques de Salinas) , a son of the "Emanci
pator, "was the 8th V. (1590-95). He framed just laws for the
protection of the Indians, and was a wise and benevolent
ruler. Gaspar de Z-dniga y Acevedo (Count of Monterey), the 9th
V. (1595-1603), extended the Spanish dominions into Cali
fornia, founded there the town of Monterey, another of the
same name in the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon, and Santa F6
in New Mexico. He also conveyed to Spain the astounding
information that since the coming of the Spaniards to Mexico,
the native population had fallen off three fourths !
Juan Manuel Hurtado de Mendoza y Luna (Marquis de
Montesclaros) , 10th V. (1603-07), was succeeded by
Luis de Velasco, who returned from Peru and became Viceroy
(11th), for the second time (1607-11). The great Cut of
Huehuetoca (p. 135), aimed to drain the Valley of Mexico,
was begun by his order.
Archbishop Garcia Guerra, 12th V. (1611-12).
Diego Fernandez de Cdrdova (Marques de Guadalcazar) ,
13th V. (1612-21).
Diego Carrillo de Mendoza y PimenUl (Conde de Priego y
Marques de Gelves), 14th V. (1621-24).
Rodrigo Pacheco Osorio (Marque's de Cerralvo), 15th V*
(1624-35). Lope Diaz de Armendariz, 16th V. (1635-10).
Diego Lopez Pacheco Cabrera y Bobadilla (Duque de Escalona
y Marques de Villena), 17th V. (1640-42).
Juan de Palafox y Mendoza (Bishop of Puebla), 18th V.
(for about 5 months).
Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomayor (Count of Salvatierra), 19th
V. (1642-48).
Marcos Lopez de Torres y Pueda (Bishop of Yucatan), 20th
V. (1648-50), was a zealous bigot, who caused 15 persons to
be strangled and burned by the Inquisition.
Luis Enriquez de Guzman (Count of Alba Liste), 21st V.
(1650-53). Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva (Duque de Albuquerque),
22d V. (1653-60).
Juan de Leiva y de la Cerda (Marquis de Leiva y de Ladrada),
23d V. (1660-64).
Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas (Bishop of Puebla), 24th
V. (for a few months in 1664) was succeeded by
Antonio Sebastian de Toledo, Molina y Salazar, 25th V.
(1664-73).

48 HISTORY AND RACES
Pedro Nuno Colon de Portugal y Castro (Duque de Veraguas),
26th V. (for six days in 1673).
Fray Payo Enriquez de Rivera (Archbishop of Mexico), 27th
V. (1673-80), was a wise and progressive ruler, untainted
by the bigotry which at that time was a clerical trait.
Tomds Antonio Manrique de la Cerda, 28th V. (1680-86).
Melchor Portocarrero Laso de la Vega (Count of Monclova),
29th V. (1686-88), founded Monclova (State of Coahuila), and
buUt, at his own expense, the great aqueduct which formerly
brought water from Chapultepec to Mexico City.
Gaspar de la Cerda Sandoval Silva y Mendoza (Conde de
Galve), 30th V. (1688-96), accomplished the Conquest of Texas
(1691) ; founded (1692) the city of Pensacola (Florida) ; sent
many colonists to New Mexico, and proved an energetic,
far-sighted, and just ruler. During his reign the first Amer
ican newspaper, El Mercurio Volante, was estabUshed.
Juan de Ortega Montanez (Bishop of Michoacan), 31st V.
(1696), was replaced by
Josi Sarmiento Valladares (Conde de Montezuma), 32d V.
(1696-1701), who wedded Maria Andrea Montezuma, third
Countess and fourth in descent from Montezuma II, through
his son,1 Pedro Johvalicahuatzin Montezuma.
Juan de Ortega Montanez became Viceroy (33d) a second
time in 1701.
Fernandez de la Cueva Enriquez (Duque de Albuquerque),
34th V. (1701-11), colonized New Mexico and founded the pre
sent town of Albuquerque (U. S. A.).
Fernando de Alencastro Marona y Silva (Marquis de
ValdafuenUs) , 35th V. (1 71 1-1 6) .
Baltazar de Zuftiga Guzman Sotomayor y Mendosa, 36th V.
(1716-22). Juan de Acufia (Marquis de Casafuerte), 37th V. (1722-34),
conducted the affairs of the Province in a Uberal and enlight
ened way. He was a Peruvian, and the only American-born
Viceroy. Juan Antonio de Vizarron y Eguiarreta (Archbishop of
Mexico), 38th V. (1734-40).
Pedro de Castro Figueroa y Salazar, 39th V. (1740-42).
Pedro Cebrian y Agustin (Conde de Fuenclara), 40th V.
(1742-16), made the first effort to coUect and tabulate prac
tical statistical information concerning Mexico.
Juan Francisco de Giiemes y Horcasitas, 41st V. (1746-55).
Agustin de Ahumada y Villalon, 42d V. (1755-60).

1 The Spaniards impressed their wishes and their personality so strongly
on the Indians that many of these subjects— some through inclination;
others through fear— discarded their own names for Spanish titles. In
certain cases proper names were retained and Castilian Christian names
were added.

HISTORY AND RACES 49
Francisco Cajigal de la Vega (ex-Governor of Cuba), 43d
V. for a brief period.
Joaquin de Monserrat (Marquis de CruiXlas), 44th V. (1760-
66), organized for the first time a regular army in Mexico.
Carlos Francisco de Croix (Marquis de Croix), 45th V.
(1766-71), raised the salary of the Mexican Viceroys from
$40,000 to $70,000 a year. Many civic improvements. He
doubled the size of the Alameda ; sent a royal convoy to Spain
(1770) with thirty millions of silver pesos, and was instru
mental in enforcing the royal order (of June 25, 1767) which
expelled the Jesuits from Mexico. An able ruler.
Antonio Maria de Bucareli y Ursuat 46th V. (1771-79),
a wise, benevolent, and thoroughly admirable man, whose in
fluence is yet felt in Mexico. He developed the country in a
variety of ways; increased commerce; minted $127,396,000
in Mex. silver; fostered the military strength of the nation,
and carried to completion more civic reforms than had all the
viceroys combined who preceded him. With this man arose
the star of New Spain. A book could be filled with the stories
(stiU current among the people) of his wisdom, kindness, and
judgment. He died in office April 9, 1779, and was buried
with great honors in the church of Nuestra Senora de Guada
lupe. Several of the principal streets of the city (the Calles
de Bucareli, p. 371) were named for him, and his memory is
fresh and sweet in the hearts of inteUigent Mexicans.
Martin de Mayorga (Governor of Guatemala), 47th V.
(1779-83). Matias de Galvez, surnamed "The Diligent," 48th V. (1783-
85), an earnest, quiet worker, with an ambition to elevate the
people to better things.
Bernardo de Galvez (son of Matias de G.), 49th V. (1785-87),
constructed the Castillo de Chapultepec (p. 386).
Alonzo Nunez de Haro y Peralta (Archbishop of Mexico),
50th V. (1787).
Manuel Antonio Flores (Governor of Bogota), 51st V.
(1787-89). Juan Vicente de Giiemes Pacheco de Padilla (Conde de
Revillagigedo) , 52d V. (1789-94), a stern and eccentric
nobleman with an aptitude for civic reform. He ably seconded
the work begun by Bucareli; caused the streets of Mexico
City to be cleaned, paved, and lighted ; organized an efficient
poUce force; executed a number of highwaymen; established
weekly posts between the capital and outlying intendencies,
and remodelled the military organization. He started an ex
pedition from Mexico that reached as far north as Behring's
Straits. He was wont to prowl the city's streets at midnight
in search of abuses, which he summarily corrected, and he
placed a locked box with a slit in the lid, in a public place, for
the receipt of petitions and complaints from those who could

50 HISTORY AND RACES
not obtain a personal interview with him. One night he
entered a street flanked by squalid dwellings and terminating
in a cul de sac. The corregidor (mayor) was at once ordered to
open a wide highway and to have it completed so that he,
the Viceroy, might drive through it on his way to mass the
following morning. A smaU army of workmen were routed
out of their beds, and the next morning the Calle de Revil-
lagigedo (which now intersects the Avenida Juarez at the
Alameda in Mex. City) was completed.
Miguel de la Grua Talamanca (Marquis de BrandforU, an
Italian adventurer), 53d V. (1794-98), secured his appoint
ment by chicanery, and before his retirement succeeded in
making himself the most cordiaUy detested official in the
Colony. During his reign all that portion of Florida (now
U. S. A.) lying west of the Perdido River was ceded to France.
Miguel Josi de Azanza, called "The Bonapartist," 54th V.
(1798-1800). Felix Berenguer de Marquina, 55th V. (1800-03), caused to
be made the splendid equestrian statue (comp. p. 373) of
Carlos IV, at Mexico City.
Josi de Iturrigaray, "The Monarchist," 56th V. (1803-08).
Pedro Garibay, "The Revolutionist," 57th V. (1808), ad
interim. Francisco Javier Lizana (Archbishop of Mexico), 58th V.
(1809-10). Pedro Catani (Presidente of the Audiencia), 59th V. (1810),
ad interim.
Francisco Javier Venegas, 60th V. (1810-16). Coincident
with the opening of his reign began the Revolutionary period.
Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, 61st V. (1816-21), was known as
"The Unfortunate," because he reached Mexico when the
power of Spain was declining, and the country was in the throes
of a revolutionary war which the Spanish troops were unable
to quell.
Francisco de Novella, Azabal, Perez y Sicardo, 62d V. (1821),
remained in office but a few months, and was the last of the
vice-regal line. He was relieved by
Juan O'Donoju, Captain-General of New Spain, and the
last Spanish ruler in Mexico. He reached Vera Cruz in 1821,
took the oath of office there Aug. 3, but was prevented by
the revolutionists from exercising his authority. He died
at Mexico City Oct. 7, from an attack of pleurisy brought on
— it is said — by chagrin at the thought that Mexico was no
longer a Spanish colony.1
h. War for Independence. During the reign of the Span
ish Viceroy Josi de Iturrigaray, in Mexico, the internal affairs
1 Portraits in oil of all the succession of rulers, from Cortes to O'Donoju,
may be studied in the National Museum (p. 298), and in the Palacio
Municipal (p. 292) at Mexico City.

HISTORY AND RACES 51
of Spain were hopelessly muddled ; Carlos IV had abdicated
in favor of Ferdinand VII, who, in turn, had been fogged to
step aside in favor of Joseph Bonaparte. Iturrigaray WM&ved
that Mexico should govern itseU (with a Spanish Viceroy as
King), and he convened an assembly of notables with the aim
of securing the necessary power. He won over the masses by
promising to relinquish the regency as soon as another Spanish
King should occupy the Spanish throne. The Spaniards in
Mexico rebelled, seized the Viceroy, and imprisoned him in the
fortress of San Juan de Ulua (at Vera Cruz), whence he was
sent back to Spain.
The independence idea appealed to the people and they
nursed it. Centuries of despotism and misgovernment had
failed to kill out the patriotism and strength of the Mexicans,
and independence soon became the chief thought of every
one. Correspondence clubs were established in some of the
towns, and plans for an early uprising were formulated.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, parish priest of the vUlage of
Dolores (in Guanajuato), took the idea of freedom for Mexico
nearest to heart. He was a Creole (born May 8, 1753), nearly
sixty years old, with a powerful influence over the Indians of
his parish. He began the manufacture of lances, and planned
an uprising during the annual Indian fiesta which began in
Dec. His nearest confidants were the several members of an
alleged Society for the Study of the Fine Arts, established in
1808 in the city of Queretaro. From this centre a sustained
influence was soon radiating, and the society counted upon
many members in the adjoining State of Guanajuato. The
influence of the Mayor (Corregidor) of Queretaro was soon
secured, as weU as that of his wife, La Corregidora, Dona
Josef a Ortiz de Dominguez. Coincidently arms and ammuni
tion, and the adherence of Captains Ignacio Allende and Juan
Aldama of the King's Regiment, stationed hard by, were also
obtained. Mariano Galvan, a traitor to the cause, imparted his know
ledge to the Queretaro postmaster, who immediately repaired
to Mexico City and disclosed the revolutionary plans to the
Government. On the night of Sept. 13, an intimation of the
pubUcity of the plans reached the ears of Rafael Gil de Leon,
an ecclesiastic judge of Q., and because of his friendship for
the mayor he warned him. The latter at once sought the ad
vice of his wife, who in turn sent a trusty messenger to warn
Hidalgo of his peril. The Cura was told (at 2 a. m. Sept. 16)
that the conspiracy was discovered, and he decided to strike
the blow at once. At early mass, he announced to his parish
ioners that "Spain was no longer Spanish, but was French,
and that the time for Mexico to be free had come." He dwelt
upon how the Spanish soldiery had oppressed even the peace
ful inhabitants of his own village, stealing their savings,

52 HISTORY AND RACES
ruining their fields, and violating their homes. The modest
silk industry started by Hidalgo had been destroyed, as the
Spaniards had cut down the mulberry trees. The Indians
appeared ripe for a revolt. Hidalgo then rang the famous
liberty bell (comp. p. 268), and voiced the stirring appeal
known since as the Grito de Dolores (the cry from Dolores).
This was, in substance: "Long live our most Holy Mother
of Guadalupe! Long live America, and death to bad govern
ment!" The zealous patriot began the march forthwith.
Passing the church of Atotonilco, he took therefrom a banner
bearing a picture of the Virgin of Guadalupe, and, affixing it
to his lance, adopted it as the standard of the "Army of In
dependence." The making of the struggle a reUgious war as
well as one for freedom was more the promptings of a pious
mind than a premeditated stroke of diplomacy. The priest
felt that with so redoubtable a patroness victory would assur
edly be theirs.
The idea filled the Indians with enthusiasm, and when the
insurgents reached the town of San Miguel that night, the
regiment to which Captain Allende belonged declared at once
for independence. Celaya surrendered on Sept. 21, as the
army marched through on its way to the rich city of Guana
juato. An organization of the army was attempted at Celaya,
and Hidalgo was proclaimed Captain-General of his 20,000
troops. Guanajuato, capital of the Province of G., contained 80,000
inhabitants, the richest silver-mines in Spanish- America, and
was, in point of wealth, second to Mexico City. After desperate
fighting, the place was captured. The Spaniards took refuge
in the Alhondiga, or Castle of Grenaditas, and one of
the bloodiest battles of the revolution soon raged round its
walls. The insurgents were for the most part armed with bows
and arrows, slings, machetes (cane-knives), and lances, and
while the provincial militia fought with great determination,
under skilled officers, the impetuous onslaught of the patriots
won. Despite Hidalgo's earnest entreaties, a general massacre
took place. Three centuries of Spanish misrule and oppression
told upon the Indians, and their war-cry, "Mueran los Gachu-
pines " (death to the Spaniards), was emphasized by three days
of carnage and destruction.
From the Alhondiga, Hidalgo secured five millions of pesos,
which went to swell the treasury of the revolutionists. The
province declared for him and many of the provincial muitia
deserted to his standard. He at once had the bells of the city
cast into cannon, employed the mint to coin money (in the
name of Ferdinand VII), and continued his attempts to organ
ize his army.
Meanwhile the Viceroy had awakened to the dangers of the
situation, and was sending out troops under skilled command-

HISTORY AND RACES 53
ers to combat the insurgents, and to protect places along
their proposed line of march. The Church became alarmed at
the peril which threatened it through a government over
which it had established a quasi-protectorate. The Bishop
of Michoacan hurled edicts of excommunication against all
insurgents, and Archbishop Lizana issued a pastoral letter
combating the principles upon which Hidalgo justified the
revolution, and ordering the Spanish and Creole clergy to
declare from their pulpits, and cause it to be everywhere
known, that the purpose of the revolution was to subvert the
Holy Catholic Church. The Inquisition charged Hidalgo with
every error of which that tribunal took cognizance. The Vice
roy Venegas published a proclamation offering a reward of
ten thousand pesos for the capture, dead or aUve, of Hidalgo
and his two chief military companions.
The army left Guanajuato (Oct. 10) and proceeded to
Valladolid (now Morelia), which immediately declared for
independence. Upon the approach of the army, the Bishop,
Council, and civil authorities evacuated the place. Here Hi
dalgo's force was swelled by a considerable body of soldiery,
and the erstwhUe country priest found himself at the head
of an undisciplined army of 80,000 men. He took vast sums
from the coffers of the Valladolid Cathedral, but was excom
municated by the Bishop of the diocese for the act. Here he
also learned of a vice-regal proclamation decreeing that any
one taken with armB against the Government would be shot
within fifteen minutes after capture without the " benefit of
clergy." The army began its march to Mexico City, gaining new
adherents by the way. Hidalgo reviewed his troops at Acam-
baro and was proclaimed " Generalisimo." Oct. 30, he fought
his first engagement with the royal forces in the field (at
Monte de las Cruces), and won a signal victory over the Span
ish forces under General Truxillo. The defeat demoralized
the vice-regal army, and had Hidalgo moved at once upon the
capital, it is probable that it would have faUen into his hands
and given success to his plans. Herein he proved a poor
generalisimo, and showed a lack of military sagacity. After
advancing to the hacienda of Quaximalpa (5 leagues from the
panic-stricken capital) and sending a summons (which elicited
no reply) to the Viceroy to surrender, he retreated with his
army toward the interior of the country. On Nov. 7, the army
encountered a train of artillery and 10,000 well-equipped
Creole troops commanded by General Felix Maria Calleja del
Rey, who had been sent out to concentrate the vice-regal
forces. In the desperate battle which ensued, Hidalgo's In
dians displayed more courage than discretion; rushing with
their clubs and improvised lances upon the bayonets of the
enemy, to fall in heaps. They were so ignorant of the effects

54 HISTORY AND RACES
of artillery that they ran up to cannon in action and attempted
to stop them with their sombreros. After beating a hasty re
treat, it was found that they had suffered a loss equal to the
entire Spanish force.
Entering Guadalajara, Hidalgo concentrated his forces and
organized a government. Calleja went to Guanajuato, and
made that city the scene of notable cruelties in retaliation
for the excesses committed by Hidalgo's Indians. Fourteen
thousand of the inhabitants were butchered.
A commissioner sent by Hidalgo from Guadalajara to the
United States was captured by the Spaniards, the patriot's
plans and resources were learned, and his downfaU hastened.
While he was engaged in promulgating decrees abolishing
slavery and stamp duties, royal forces were sent against him,
a battle was fought at PuenU de Calderon (Jan. 16, 1811),
and the army of independence dispersed. Hidalgo, Allende,
Aldama, and Jimenez held together and started northward,
intending to secure assistance and purchase arms in the
United States. They were captured and later executed,
and their heads taken to Guanajuato and placed upon pikes
at the four corners of the Alhondiga, as "a warning to Mex
icans who chose to revolt against Spanish government."
There the heads remained until independence was won. In
1823, their bodies were buried under the Altar de los Reyes,
in the apse of the Mexico City Cathedral.
Hidalgo's logical successor was his pupil, Josi Maria More
los, a Mestizo, a Catholic priest, an intrepid fighter, and a com
mander of marked ability. He took over the command and
began a successful and destructive campaign against the Span
iards. In six-and-twenty hard-fought engagements he was
successful in all but two. In a battle near Acapulco (whither
he was sent by Hidalgo in 1810), he defeated the vice-regal
troops, captured 800 muskets, 5 pieces of artillery, 700 pris
oners, much ammunition, and a large sum of money. After
the war he was known as "The Hero of a Hundred Battles."
Among the trusted lieutenants of Morelos was another
priest, Mariano Matamoros, noted for his military genius.
Aiding him were the celebrated Dr. Cos, the Bravos brothers,
Galena, Manuel de Mier y Teran, Felix Hernandez, Ignacio
Lopez Rayon, Josi Maria Liceaga, and a host of ambitious
patriots. Early in 1812 two battalions of Spanish troops, including
a famous regiment of Asturias (which had won the title of
"the Invincibles" in the Peninsula), came to Mexico to sup
port the vice-regal government, and to assist in reducing the
Independents to subjection. The insurgents were severely
punished, but their military exploits were not checked. A
guerrilla warfare now raged throughout the colony, and the
royal troops were harassed incessantly. The exploits of the

HISTORY AND RACES 55
rancheros (ranchmen) formed one of the most picturesque
chapters of the long war. Expert in the use of the lariat:
born with an aptitude for guerrilla fighting, hardy, brave, and
persistent, they were to the Spaniards what Morgan and his
shifty band were to the Northern troops during the American
war of 1864. They travelled usually in small groups, and
scattered when danger threatened, to reunite at some given
point miles away. Each unit was a formidable fighting ma
chine, at once dreaded and detested by the Iberian troops,
who were unused to being dragged from their saddles by a
hurtling lasso, bumped across a cacti-strewn plain and trussed
and hustled like yearling steers.
Morelos now called a Congress of Mexicans, and essayed to
organize an Independent Nation. Forty deputies assembled
at Chilpancingo in Sept., 1813, and Morelos was nominated
Captain-General of the Independent forces; decrees were
passed abolishing slavery, imprisonment for debt, and the
collection of tithes for the support of religious societies. The
Congress removed to Tlacotepec, and finally convened in
Apatzingan, where it published (Nov. 16, 1813) its formal
Declaration of Independence of Spain. " Mexico was declared
free from Spanish control, with liberty to work out its own
destiny, and with the Roman Catholic religion for its spiritual
guidance." The name chosen for the new nation was "The
Kingdom of Andhuac." A Constitution, liberal in its pro
visions, was adopted. Copies of this, and the Declaration,
were, by order of the Viceroy, ceremoniously burned in pub
lic in the City of Mexico, and in the principal towns of the
RepubUc. Morelos now undertook to traverse a section of the country
in possession of the Spaniards, and was captured (near Tex-
malaca), loaded with chains, and taken as a prisoner to the
capital. He was brought before the Holy Office, condemned,
and his auto-de-fi was the last pronounced by the Inquisition
in Mexico. After being degraded by the priesthood he was
handed over to the secular arm, and was shot at San Crist6bal
Ecatepec in Dec, 1815.
The heroic days of the revolution ended with Morelos, and
the cause soon languished. When (Sept., 1816) Calleja del Rey
was succeeded in the Virreinato by Juan Ruiz de Apodaca, the
insurgents were apparently under Spanish control. Every
captured revolutionist had been summarily shot. With the
exception of the freebooting expedition of Francisco Javier
Mina, in 1817, Mexico was so little disturbed by actual war
until 1820, that the Viceroy, whose policy was conciliatory,
reported to the Regent that he would answer for the safety
of Mexico, and that there was no need of sending any more
troops from Spain.
But a formidable uprising soon occurred, and the Viceroy

56 HISTORY AND RACES
appointed Agustin de Iturbide, commander of the District
of the South. After fighting a few engagements with the in
surgents under General Vicente Guerrero, Iturbide met the
latter and proposed that they should unite in proclaiming
the independence of Mexico. In conformity, Iturbide pub
lished (Feb. 24) the famous Plan de Iguala known as Las
Tres Garantias, in that it provided for the conservation of the
Roman Catholic Church, for the absolute independence of
Mexico as a moderate monarchy, with an ostensible adhesion
to Ferdinand VII, and for the union of Spaniards and Mex
icans in the bonds of friendship. The plan received the im
mediate support of the clergy, who just now found themselves
in an awkward situation.1
The colors of the Mexican flag (adopted April 14, 1823)
represented the Tres Garantias : white (religious purity) ; red
(union of Spaniards and Mexicans); green (independence).
Iturbide's army was thereafter called the Army qf the Three
Guarantees. Revolutionary leaders, who had retired from the struggle
discouraged, came to the front, the people arose en masse,
and Mexico was soon aflame with the sacred cause of patri
otism. The Viceroy, Apodaca (the Unfortunate), was forced
to resign, and Francisco de Novella became Viceroy ad interim.
The Plan de Iguala was a popular success, and Iturbide cap
tured the cities of Valladolid, Queretaro, and Puebla, and
laid siege to Mexico City. When General Juan O'Donoju,
bearing the commission of Captain-General, arrived at Vera
Cruz (July 30, 1821) to supersede the Viceroy Novella, he
found the country in the hands of the Independents, and Vera
Cruz itself in the possession of the Independent Chief, Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna (b. Feb. 21, 1795, d. June 21, 1876).
The Spanish representative was placed in the embarrassing
position of having to ask of Santa Anna the privilege of land
ing upon the continent, and of requesting of Iturbide a safe
conduct to the capital. Perceiving that it would be impossible
to arrest the revolution by force, O'Donoju proposed to treat
with Iturbide. They met at Cordoba (Aug. 24, 1821), and
O'Donoju signed, on behalf of his Government, the "Treaty
of C6rdoba." It embodied the Plan de Iguala; declared Mexico
sovereign and independent; provided for a constitutional
1 In 1820 the Spanish revolutionists proclaimed the Constitution of
1 812, and Ferdinand found himself under the necessity of supporting it.
This Constitution dissolved the convents, abolished the Inquisition, or
dained the freedom of the press, and seized the tithes of the secular clergy
on the ground that the money was required by the State in a great emer
gency. The Mexican clergy at once found their privileges and alleged
rights menaced, and despite the fact that nine years before, they had
opposed the revolution in Mexicol and had denounced as heretical the
idea of Independence or separation from Spain, they now discovered
that their interests demanded "an absolute separation from Spain and
its radicalism!"

HISTORY AND RACES 57
representative monarchy, for the caU of the Bourbon family
of Spain to the throne, and for the immediate establishment
of a provisional government, pending the arrival of the
chosen monarch. It also assured to the people the liberty of
the press, and the equal rights of Spaniards and Mexicans,
and provided that the Army of the Three Guarantees should
occupy the capital, and that the Spanish troops should be
sent out of the country as soon as possible.
Iturbide made his triumphal entry into Mexico City Sept.
27, 1821, and on that date ended the Spanish power in Mexico.
He was hailed as " Liberator," and the occasion was marked
by great rejoicing. The title of Lord High Admiral was con
ferred upon him, and as Generalisimo of the Army and head
of the nation, the people addressed him as Serene Highness.
Guatemala voluntarily united with Mexico Feb. 21, 1822
(it seceded July 1, 1823), and Iturbide found himself the mas
ter of a nation whose territorial extent was one of the greatest
in the world — China and Russia alone being larger. Its pos
sessions comprised, in addition to the present Republic of
Mexico, Guatemala on the south, and on the north all the
region between the Red and Arkansas Rivers and the Pacific
Ocean, extending as far north as the present northern bound
ary of the United States.
To the great disgust of the old Spanish nobility he instituted
an order of nobility, calling the members Caballeros (gentle
men) de Guadalupe, and embarked upon a riotous course
which soon caused his downfall.
i. First Empire. The First Congress of the Mexican Nation
convened Feb. 24, 1822, and was found to comprise three
distinct parties, notwithstanding the oath taken by each
deputy to support the Plan de Iguala and the Treaty of C6r-
doba. One party — composed of the army, the clergy, and
a few malcontents — wanted to place Iturbide on the throne.
The Republicanos wanted the "Plan" set aside and a Federal
Republic established. The Independents and the Spaniards
— united only in their hatred of Iturbide — desired to have
executed exactly the Plan de Iguala by placing on the throne
a Spanish Prince. The meeting was the signal for hostilities
which extended over nearly fifty years.
On May 18, 1822, the "Liberator" forced a pronuncia-
miento in his favor in the cuartel (barracks) of San Hipolito
(Mexico City), and in a turbulent meeting of Congress, from
which RepubUcan members were excluded, Iturbide was
elected Emperor of Mexico by a vote of 75 to 15. He immedi
ately took the oath of office before Congress, and organized
a Provisional CouncU of State. On the 21st of July he and his
wife were anointed and crowned with great solemnity in the
Mexico City Cathedral; Iturbide assumed the title of Agustin
I, Emperador. His first act was to dissolve the existing Con-

58 HISTORY AND RACES
gress, imprison its most contumacious members, and replace
them by a junta composed of two deputies from each province,
of his own selection.
j. Fall of the Empire and Rise of the Republic. A mon
archical government for Mexico was unsatisfactory to the
Revolutionary leaders. The bombast of the arrogant, pageant-
loving Mestizo seemed a poor result for the sacrifice of the
good cura Hidalgo, of the intrepid Morelos, Allende, Aldarna,
and a hundred other pure-minded patriots. For a time Iturbide
was able to quell the uprisings by the aid of national troops,
but the empire fell into disrepute, and soon collapsed. Gen
eral Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna headed (Dec, 1822) a for- ,
midable uprising in Jalapa, and in a month's time Iturbide's
alleged empire was reduced to the limits of Mexico City.
Guerrero and Bravo followed the example of Santa Anna and
led a revolt in the North. The country was soon aflame with
anger, and rather than provoke a civil war Iturbide abdicated
(March 20, 1823), and under a declaration of banishment from
the country, he was permitted to retire from the capital. His
salary as Emperor had been $125,000 a year (which he paid
to himseU from forced loans and with paper money issued by
his commands), and in recognition of his eminent services to
Mexico he was granted a life annuity of $25,000. Soon after
his retirement he wrote from London to the Mexican Govern
ment, warning it of the machinations of the " Holy AUiance"
to restore Spanish rule in Mexico. He offered his services
should an attempt be made. Congress replied (April 28) to his
letter by a decree declaring that should Iturbide return he
would be regarded as a traitor and be put to death. Unaware
of this, Iturbide landed in disguise at Soto la Marina (July
14, 1824), was arrested, brought before the legislature of the
State of Tamaulipas, and condemned to death. He was shot
July 24, 1824.
The Plan of Iguala, with its three guarantees of ReUgion,
Independence, and Union, and the Treaty of C6rdoba were
now repudiated by Congress. The bars of green, white, and red
in the flag of the Tres Garantias had been horizontal ; they
were now changed to upright, with the green bar next to the
staff, and this was adopted as the flag of the Republic. The
national coat-of-arms, showing an eagle upon a nopal cactus,
strangling a serpent, was also adopted.
A Congress was installed (Nov., 1823) to discuss the adoption
of a fundamental law for the country, and it drew up an in
strument closely resembling that of the Constitution of the
United States. It contained thirty-six articles (proclaimed
in the form of a Constitution, Oct. 4, 1824) and it defined the
government to be Popular, Representative, Federal, and Re
publican. It proclaimed the national sovereignty; the inde
pendence of the States (allowing them independent govern-

HISTORY AND RACES 59
ment in internal affairs, without prejudice to the rights of the
Federal Government) ; the organization of the supreme power,
the independence of the judicial powers, and guaranteed to
the clergy their already vested rights. This new Republic
comprised five territories and nineteen states; each of the
latter with a governor, legislature, and a tribunal of justice.
The States were to organize their governments in conformity
to the Federal Act. The general powers of the National Gov
ernment resided in the Federal District (Mexico City) and
comprised a General Congress, a Supreme Court of Judicature,
and a President — of the United Mexican States — with four
Ministers. The legislative power was vested in a Congress
comprising a Senate and House of Representatives. The
Supreme Court was to be composed of 11 judges, elected by
the legislatures of the several States.
The third article of the Constitution was significant: "The
Religion of the Mexican Nation is, and will perpetually be,
the Roman CathoUc Apostolic. The nation wiU protect it by
wise and just laws, and prohibit the exercise of any other
whatever." The Constitution was received by the people with custom
ary enthusiasm. Felix Fernandez, who styled himself Guada
lupe Victoria (in homage to the Virgin of Guadalupe), took the
oath of office (Oct. 4, 1825) as the first President of Mexico,
and the country began its career as a Constitutional Republic.
In 1825 the fortress of San Juan de Ulua (Vera Cruz), until
then held by the last of the Spanish forces, was evacuated,
and the Republic of Mexico received the formal recognition
of England and the United States. The paternal support
received by the fledgeling Republic from the great American
Republic at the north gave it an impetus which had potent
bearing on its future. The message of President Monroe (Dec,
1823) to the Congress of the United States contained the fol
lowing significant declarations :
'. (1) The American Continents, by the free and independent condition
which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be con
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any foreign power : (2)
Any attempt on the part of European Powers to extend their political
systems to any portion of the Western Hemisphere would be considered
dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. Any interposi
tion by such Powers for the purpose of opposing or controlling the gov
ernments which have declared their independence and maintained it,
and whose independence had been acknowledged by the United States,
could not be viewed in any other light than as a manifestation of an un
friendly disposition to the United States; that the political system of
European Powers could not be extended to any portion of either of the
American continents without endangering the peace and happiness of
the United States, nor would such extension be regarded with indiffer
ence." This "Monroe Doctrine" bomb-sheU "launched into the
armed camps of Europe" enabled the Mexican Republic to
start on its eventful career unhampered by foreign interf er-

60 HISTORY AND RACES
ence ; it was effectual in preventing Spain from making further
serious attempts to reclaim her lost provinces in America,
although she withheld the recognition of the Republic of
Mexico until 1836. (Comp. p. clx.)
The Free and Independent Republic progressed during the
wise administration (4 years) of its first President. He signal
ized (1825) the anniversary of the Grito de Dolores by the Ub-
eration of certain slaves purchased by the Government with
a fuhd raised for that purpose; and of other slaves given un
by their owners with the same object in view. A law was
passed (1826) abohshing all titles of nobility and restricting
parents with regard to the distribution of property among
their children, thus striking a blow at the Spanish institu
tion of mayorazgo, or primogeniture. The treasury was full of
money (the remainder of a loan of sixteen millions of doUars,
negotiated at London in 1823 and known as the "English
Debt"), and the future was bright.
But the Church — then a hot-bed of insurrection and
unrest — squirmed under its restrictions and the loss of power
arrogated to itself under vice-regal rule. Any government
not wholly ecclesiastical was viewed by the clergy with dis
trust, and the first rift in the lute came (1827) in the form of
an insurrection headed by two Franciscan friars, who aimed
to restore the prestige lost by Spain and the Mother Church.
The incident caused a strong anti-Spanish f eeUng, and a decree
was secured (1828) by the FederaUsts for the expulsion of all
Spaniards from Mexico.
A great warring ensued between the Centralists or Con
servatives (the Church party) and the Federalists or Liberals
(Republican party), and albeit the Spaniards were permitted
to remain in the country, peace was henceforth but Ulusory,
and was maintained by force of arms.
Prominent among the turbulent spirits of this era was
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, a shrewd but unprin
cipled Creole ; accomplished, courageous, and quick to espouse
any cause that promised personal advancement. He attained
to the presidency in 1832 — after a series of "mimic revolu
tions " which extended over four or five years — and until his
final overthrow the Republic was in a turmoil which made
material progress impossible.
Combating retrogression and striving to advance their
country, such men as Vicente Guerrero, General Manuel Gomez
Pedraza, General Bravo, and Valentin Gomez Farias (at one
time Vice-President) were prominent among the honorable,
intelligent, and democratic spirits of the epoch. Gomez Farias
aimed to secure the absolute liberty of the press ; the aboUsh-
ment of special class privileges whereby the clergy and the
army gained great advantages over the masses; the separa
tion of Church and State, including the suppression of monas-

HISTORY AND RACES 61
tic institutions (the great idea made effective by the Leyes de
Reforma of President Juarez nearly three decades later);
the aboUtion of the right of ecclesiastics to interfere in secular
affairs ; the restoration and maintenance of the national credit
by a readjustment of the public debt; and a host of measures
which would have worked for the country's good.
He succeeded in establishing a decree abolishing the system
of tithes levied as a tax for the support of ecclesiastical insti'
tutions; and another enjoining the civil courts from maintain
ing the binding force of monastic vows, leaving members of
religious organizations free to abandon their convents if they
chose to do so. In many wise acts he began the system of
government reforms which it took the remainder of the nine
teenth century to see accomplished.
Santa Anna, who meanwhile had been in retirement on his
hacienda at Mango de Clava, secured again the reins of gov
ernment (1834), annulled the liberal decrees of Gomez Farias,
deposed that able and honorable man from the Vice-Presi
dency, and compelled him to leave the country. The lovers of
Uberal institutions and good government looked on with dis
may, but without power to interfere. Mexico's universal repu
tation for unstable government was now assured. Its people
were regarded as restless and revolutionary, and in some quar
ters as being savage and uncivilized. The elevation of Santa
Anna to the unlimited power of Dictator was destined to con
firm this evfl reputation.
In May, 1835, the Plan de Toluca was promulgated, whereby
the Federal System was declared changed into a Central
ized Government, termed by decree the Central Republic.
A new Constitution was adopted by Congress, known as Las
Siete Leyes — the seven laws. It confirmed the Centralized
System, with but one House of Legislature for the entire
country. The States were changed into Departments, under
the control of Military Commandants, who were responsible to
the chief authority of the nation. The RepubUc now became
a miUtary oligarchy, and until 1847 the supreme power was
vested in whoever might be, at the time, the most successful
military leader. Conditions in Mexico were almost anarchical ;
life was unsafe, property was not respected, and the reputation
of the country abroad was of the worst.
h. The War with the United States.1 "In 1820, Moses
Austin, a resident of Missouri, U. S. A., obtained the privilege
of settling in Texas under the plea of being a Roman Catholic
Eersecuted by Protestants. A certain element in the U. S. A.
elieved that Texas belonged more to their Government than
to that of Mexico, and that President Monroe, in voluntarily
surrendering it to Spain (at the time of the cession of Florida),
1 Consult History of the American Civil War, by John W. Draper;
M.D., LL.D. (New York, 1868.)

62 HISTORY AND RACES
acted unwisely. Moses Austin died prematurely, but his son,
Stephen F. Austin, carried out his intentions, and the Ameri
cans obtained a foothold in the country. In 1821, Mexico
granted certain charters to colonists, which from time to time
were renewed by the successive governments. In 1827 and
1829, ineffectual attempts were made by the American Govern
ment to purchase Texas from Mexico. It was obvious that the
possession of it was absolutely necessary to the South, in order
that her system might have freedom of expansion westwardly,
and an equipoise be maintained with the North, in Congress.
Adventurers were often encouraged by the prevailing public
sentiment to emigrate to it, with the intention of detaching it
forcibly from Mexico. The Anglo-Saxon traditions of these
settlers were so at variance with Spanish institutions, that
the fickle and dictatorial government of Santa Anna soon
goaded them into rebellion. Many arbitrary acts on the part
of the Mexican Government aided in the precipitation of this
revolt, which, on account of the many internal dissensions,
it was little able to counteract.
"When the Federal Mexican Government abrogated the
State Constitution, in 1835, thus despoiling the Texans of the
rights granted them by the Constitution of 1824, it precipi
tated a crisis. General Sam Houston, a Virginian by birth,
led the Texans in their fight for independence. Santa Anna,
whose ' uninterrupted military successes had emboldened him
to adopt the self-assumed title of the Napoleon of the West,'
set out, in Feb., 1836, at the head of an army of 8,000 of the
best troops of Mexico, to suppress the rebeUion. The Texans
were defeated at the Alamo and Goliad, and those of them
who were taken prisoners of war were atrociously murdered
in cold blood. The whole garrison of the Alamo was put to the
sword. The Texans had hitherto belittled the valor of their
antagonists, but the barbaric despotism of Santa Anna goaded
them to fury and made peace impossible. On the 23d of
April, 783 men, under General Houston, met the Dictator at
the San Jacinto River, and after a battle which lasted only
20 minutes, they captured the whole Mexican army, including
Santa Anna. The character of this conflict may be understood
from the statement that the Mexicans killed were 630, the
wounded 208. Nothing but the firmness of the American com
mander saved Santa Anna from immediate execution. The
Mexican President, thus constrained in his extremity, was
obliged to acknowledge the independence of Texas. Hereupon
he was liberated, and allowed to return to his country by way
of the United States. This, he seemed in no hurry to do, and
he did not return to Mexico City until nearly a year after his
capture by the Texans. He then addressed a letter to the Mexi
can Secretary of War, disavowing all treaties and stipulations
made with the Texans under duress. MeanwhUe the new

HISTORY AND RACES 63
Republic of Texas was established in October, 1836, with a
Constitution modelled on that of the United States, and with
General Houston as its first President. The United States
forthwith acknowledged its independence, as did France,
England, and Belgium. The new Republic maintained its sep
arate existence until 1844. Repeated efforts were made to
have it annexed to the U. S. A., and it soon became a political
touchstone, an important point in American civil policy.
"President Tyler, on the last day of his term of office, con
cluded a treaty with Texan representatives, by which Texas
became a State of the Union. This treaty was ratified by
the American Congress in March, 1845. It was characterized
by General Juan N. Almonte (who was captured at the San
Jacinto River along with Santa Anna, and who was at this
later period Mexican Minister at Washington) as an act of
aggression, 'the most unjust which can be found in the annals
of modern history.' This fiery general (who owed his life to
the clemency of the then President of the annexed district)
succeeded in arousing feelings of great bitterness in Mexico.
Diplomatic relations between Texas and Mexico were sus
pended, General Almonte demanded his passport and returned
to Mexico, and General Taylor, the United States commander
in the Southwest, received orders to advance to the Rio
Grande. The Mexican President Herrera issued a proclama
tion declaring the annexation a breach of international faith,
and called upon the citizens of Mexico to raUy to the defence
of the territorial integrity of the country.
"While General Taylor was approaching the Rio Grande,
troops were sent north to enforce the claims of Mexico to the
territory in dispute.
"General Taylor reached the Rio Grande at Matamoros
March 26, 1846, and in May the battles of Palo Alto (May 8)
and Resaca de la Palma (May 9) were fought, resulting in
victories for the Americans."
On May 13, the American Congress appropriated $10,000,-
000 for the prosecution of the war, and 50,000 volunteers
were ordered to be raised. General Stephen W. Kearney was
sent to occupy the then Mexican province of California,
Colonel Doniphan was ordered to proceed southward toward
Chihuahua, and General Scott to besiege Vera Cruz and
march to the capital therefrom. Santa Anna, who had been
in Cuba, in exile, returned to Mexico and took command of
the Mexican army. This army was poorly equipped, and
though the men fought with the coolness and bravery charac
teristic of the Mexican soldier, they were defeated on every
hand. The battle of Sacramento was fought Feb. 28, 1847, and on
March 2, Doniphan's command occupied Chihuahua. Mean
while a revolt had been excited in California against Mexican

64 HISTORY AND RACES
rule, and formal possession of the country was taken by Com
modore Stockton. On March 9, 1847, 12,000 men, under
General Scott, were landed in a single evening at Vera Cruz,
and after a five days' bombardment from sea and land the
city surrendered, 5,000 prisoners and 500 pieces of cannon
being taken. Scott now commenced his march to Mex. City
along the National Road. Approaching the heights of Cerro
Gordo, he found they were occupied by Santa Anna with
15,000 men. In the attack that ensued the position was
forced, 3,000 prisoners and 43 guns being captured. The Cas
tillo de Perote was soon taken, and on May 15, Worth's Divi
sion, numbering 4,000 men, camped in the Plaza of Puebla.
Scott's army, now reduced to 4,290 men, was obUged to re
main in Puebla until August 7, awaiting reinforcements.
These came, and the invading army, now amounting to
11,000 men, marched through the Pass of Rio Frio and on
toward the capital.
On August 20, the Mexican outposts were taken, San An
tonio was captured, the fortified post of Churubusco was
assaulted and gained, and the road leading to Mexico City
was opened. In these operations the American loss in HUed,
wounded, and missing was 1,053. The Mexican loss was four
times as great, and 37 guns were taken.
Delayed by an armistice and by abortive negotiations for
peace, it was not until Sept. 7 that Scott renewed active opera
tions for the possession of Chapultepec. Two formidable out
works, Molino del Rey and Casa Mata, were carried, though
with severe loss, Chapultepec (comp. p. 381) was stormed and
captured, and on Sept. 14, 1847, the flag of the United States
was hoisted on the National Palace of Mexico. Scott made
a triumphant entry into Mexico City at the head of less than
6,000 troops.
Meanwhile the battles of Buena Vista had been fought,
Monterey was stormed and taken, and the Northern army of
Mexico ruined. The capture of the City of Mexico was a de
cisive blow, and on Feb. 2, 1848, the Peace Treaty of Guada
lupe-Hidalgo was made.
In this treaty New Mexico and Upper California, comprising
522,955 square miles of territory, were ceded to the United
States. The lower Rio Grande, from its mouth to El Paso,
was taken as the boundary of Texas. The United States agreed
to pay fifteen mulions of dollars in five annual instalments.
The claims of American citizens against Mexico, not exceed
ing three and a quarter millions of dollars, were also assumed.
For a treaty dictated by a conquering army, in the capital
of the nation treated with, this instrument stands unparaUeled
in history.1
1 The cost in money to the United States was $166,500,000; 25,000
men were killed or died.

HISTORY AND RACES 65
L Withdrawal of the American Army, Internecine Strife.
Coincident with the retirement of the American army from
Mexico, President Herrera removed his seat of government
from Queretaro to the capital, and the sadly demoralized
country set about perfecting the organization for future
government and prosperity. For a year or more the wise,
economical, tolerant, and progressive Herrera was permitted
to bind up the wounds caused by the war and to start the
country once more on its way to peace and happiness. But
during this period the disturbing elements in the social econ
omy of Mexico were only quiescent, in order that they might
regain their wonted strength.
General Mariano Arista was constitutionally elected Presi
dent in 1850, and was installed in office in Jan., 1851. It was
the first instance in the history of the Republic that a con
stitutionally-elected President had been allowed to take his
seat. He began by reforming the army, and the clergy at once
took alarm at his liberalism. In July, 1852, a revolution,
fomented by the Conservatives, broke out in Guadalajara,
spread to Chihuahua, and even as far south as Oaxaca. It
took the name of the Plan del Hospicio. Arista, averse to
involving his country in another civil war, and disheartened
at the course affairs were taking, resigned the presidency, left
the country, and died a year later, in poverty and obscurity,
at Lisbon. Santa Anna, who had been temporarily squelched
by the American invasion, again came into prominence, and
on April 15, 1853, took the oath as President. An era of the
most despotic absolutism ensued. The ecclesiastical party
was once more uppermost, and the Jesuits were reestablished
by a decree, dated May 1, 1853. The Dictator provided him
self with ample funds, by the sale to the United States, for
ten miUions of dollars, of a tract of land (border land amount
ing to 45,535 square miles), known as the Gadsden Purchase.
He reestablished the Order of Guadalupe, originally instituted
by the Emperor Iturbide, made himself the Grand Master
thereof, and demanded that he be addressed as "Serene High
ness." On the 16th of Dec, 1853, he issued a decree declaring
himself "Perpetual Dictator." A government was thereby
established more absolute than any Mexico had ever known.
The press was muzzled, high Liberals were imprisoned, and
the ''court" of the Dictator was filled with the most vicious
members of society. Santa Anna's personal vanity carried
him to the extent of madness, and hastened his downfall.
A revolution, long brewing, broke out in Acapulco, and was
called the Plan de Ayutla. It caUed for a Congress to form
a new Constitution, by which a Federal Republican system
would take the place of the Dictatorship established by Santa
Anna. The leader of the plan was General Juan Alvarez, a
revolutionary hero. It soon attracted the attention of Ignacio

66 HISTORY AND RACES
Comonfort, who promptly organized an army sufficient in
numbers to assume the aggressive against the Dictator at the
capital. Unable to stem the tide of popular discontent, Santa
Anna secretly left the city on the 9th of Aug., 1855, and went
into voluntary exile. Between the flight of Santa Anna and
the election of Comonfort as President, Dec. 12, there were two
Presidents and an incipient revolution at the capital. The
latter of these Presidents, Juan Alvarez, arrived in the capital,
with his body-guard of Indians, in Nov., and organized his
government with Comonfort as his Minister of War, and Benito
Juarez (comp. p. 338) as Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical
Relations. This government was destined to be of transcen
dental importance to the entire future life of the RepubUc.
Benito Juarez had long studied the welfare of his country;
with prophetic insight he had located the cancerous growth
that for nearly four centuries had sapped the life, energy, and
wealth of the nation. Quietly, but with true Indian dogged-
ness, he cut straight at the heart of the evfl. One of the first
acts of this new government of men rather than of inflated
puppets, was the passage (Nov. 23, 1855) of the Ley Juarez
(not to be confounded with the Ley de Reforma), a law in
tended to regulate the administration of justice and the organ
ization of the courts of law. Its most significant feature was
the suppression of special courts and the removal of the juris
diction, in civil cases, from mflitary and ecclesiastical powers.
" One of the inheritances Mexico had received from the period
of Spanish rule was the exclusive jurisdiction claimed by
ecclesiastical and mUitary courts in all cases, civil and criminal,
in which clerics or soldiers were involved. The evils of such
a system are easily seen when it is considered that half the
crimes committed in Mexico were by men amenable only to
military courts, and that these courts were exceedingly lax
in the administration of justice. More than a quarter of the
landed property in the country belonged to clerics; and even
the women who kept house for them, and their servants,
evaded the payment of just debts because the tradesmen
could not enforce their claims in the civfl courts."
The ecclesiastics saw at once that the Ley Juarez meant
an attack on the sacred rights of the Church, and they opposed
it vigorously. This brought into prominence the Rev. Antonio
Pelagio de Labaslida y Ddvalos, Bishop of Michoacan, who had
been but recently advanced to the Episcopate. He denounced
as heretical the liberal doctrines promulgated, and threw all
his influence against the Government. Despite the concen
trated opposition of the Church, Comonfort vigorously repressed
both the army and the Church ; enforcing his decrees with the
portion of the army that remained loyal to his Government.
His next decisive step in the direction of reform was the
famous Ley Lerdo, the production of Juarez and Ocampo,

HISTORY AND RACES 67
though revised and introduced in Congress by Miguel Lerdo
de Tejada and passed on June 25, 1856. This law, known
as El Decreto de (the decree of) Desamortizacidn (or Mortmain
Statute), circumscribed the authority of the Church, and or
dered the sale, at its assessed value, of all landed estate held
by it. The Church was to receive the money proceeds of such
sale, while the lands, passing into private hands, and freed
of mortmain, would become part of the mobile and available
wealth of the country at large. Up to the end of the year
1856, the total value of property transferred under this decree,
officially termed Ley de Desamortizacidn Civil y Eclesidstica,
was over twenty millions of pesos.
The Clericals made strenuous efforts to defeat this law.
The Bishop of Puebla protested against the intervention of the
Government in matters belonging to the Church, and preached
sermons of a seditious character thereupon. The Archbishop
of Mexico desired to submit the question to the Pope at Rome
— a proposition which was at once indignantly refused by
the Government of Mexico. A reactionary movement was
organized in Puebla and 15,000 troops were mobilized by the
Clericals. Comonfort not only acted with great promptness and decision
in suppressing the revolution, but he issued a decree punish
ing the reactionary officers and causing the sequestration of
enough of the Church property in the Diocese of Puebla to
pay the expenses of the war, and to indemnify the Government
for all damages sustained thereby. The Clericals throughout
the land were stunned. Henceforth it was war to the knife
between ignorance and superstition and progress and enlight
enment. The war-cry of the Clerical Reactionaries was Re
ligion y Fueros (Religion and Church Rights). A conspiracy,
fomented by the monks in the convent of San Francisco in
Mexico City, was discovered Sept. 16, 1856, and the next day
Comonfort decreed the closure of the convent, and through
the convent garden he caused to be cut a wide street which was
named " Independencia" (comp. p. 322). Another big section
of the vast property of the San Franciscans was opened up,
and was converted into what is now the Calle de Gante (p. 320).
"The clergy to some extent defeated the purposes of the Ley
Lerdo by denouncing all who would purchase the lands of
the Church under the law, and declaring that the 'Curse of
God ' would rest upon them because of their unholy traffic in
holy things. By these threats the public was restrained from
purchasing at the Government sales, and few bidders were
found with courage to risk the 'Curse.' Those who bought
in the property at low figures made fortunes at slight outlay,
albeit they gained the bitter enmity of the Church. All this
served to make the task of the Government more difficult."
(Noll, Empire to Republic.)

68 HISTORY AND RACES
A new Constitution, framed by Congress and subscribed
to by Comonfort, was adopted Feb. 5, much to the chagrin
of the Church Party. The Bishops throughout the country
denounced it, and certain high officials in Mexico City were
excommunicated. This Constitution (substantiaUy that of
Mexico to-day) was a direct affront to the Church. No sooner
was it published than great excitement prevailed in aU parts
of the country, and wherever the clergy were dominant,
the people were incited to rebelUon. An allocution was re
ceived from Pope Pius IX, declaring the Government of
Mexico apocrypha, and putting it under the anathema of the
Church. The hitherto stanch Comonfort wavered beneath
the powerful influence brought to bear upon him, and ten
days after he had sworn to support the Constitution he gave
way to the Clerical Party, set aside the Constitution, and
tried to resume government under the "Bases of PoUtical
Organization" of 1843. To further placate the Church Party
he cast Benito Juarez (Minister of Domestic Relations) into
prison. When too late he tried to correct his mistake. He
released Juarez, restored the Constitution, reorganized the
National Guard, and took steps to suppress the insurrection
in the capital. Failing to undo what he had done, he fore
saw his own downfall and left the country Feb. 5, 1858.
Immediately upon the flight of Comonjort the Reactionary
Party proclaimed Felix Zuloaga President. The Liberals,
assembled in Queretaro, organized under the Constitution of
1857, recognized Benito Juarez as Constitutional President,
and had him instaUed on the 10th of Jan., 1858, several days
before the election of Zuloaga. Juarez at once departed for
Guadalajara, where he organized his government. During
the troublous times that followed in Mexico City, Juarez
went to the Pacific Coast, thence to the United States, and
returned to Vera Cruz. Here he maintained his government
for three years. The Reactionaries, who succeeded in holding
the capital, governed the country by a succession of what
are now termed "Anti-Presidents."
m. The War of the Reform (La Guerra de la Reforma),
the culmination of the long struggle between the Conserva
tive Clerical Party and the Liberal and Progressive Fac
tion, lasted from 1855 to 1861, and was characterized by the
cruelty which is usually a feature of wars wherein religious
fanatics are engaged. It was precipitated by the Ley Juarez,
and though bitterly contested and prolonged by the enorm
ous accumulated wealth of the clergy, it was decisive, for
it wrested Mexico forever from the crippling grip of the
friars, and launched it on its present career of usefulness
and enlightenment. The motto of the reactionary opposi
tion was religion y fueros, the clergy themselves promoting
revolution with the aid of the discontented military. The

HISTORY AND RACES 69
reactionists plunged into the fight with the zeal of those who
realize that their all is at stake, and civU war soon flamed
in many parts of the Republic. General Miguel Miramon,
one of the anti-Presidents, led the reaccionarios, and was
for a time successful. Benito Juarez and his adherents, the
Juaristas, fought their opponents all over the country,
and finding Vera Cruz the best point from which to con
duct his campaign, Juarez established his government there
(in 1858), and based his claims on the Constitution of 1857.
Engagements were hotly contested at Queretaro, San Luis
Potosi, Las Cuevitas, Pachuca, Perote, and Ahualulco. Prior
to these, the clergy at Puebla revolted, under the leadership
of Bishop Haro, and that town was the scene of battles and
sieges. Juarez narrowly escaped execution at Guadalajara
in 1857, and by the capture of Zacatecas, General Leandro
Marquez attained eminence as a reactionary leader, and began
a career of cruelty scarcely paralleled in Mexican history.
Encouraged by his successes, Miramon attempted (Feb.,
1859) to capture Vera Cruz, the seat of the Constitutional
Government: for a month he ineffectually besieged the port,
and was then forced to hurry to the capital, which was
threatened by the Juaristas. A furious battle was fought
at Tacubaya, and General Marquez, not content with victory,
executed a number of prisoners, among them six physicians
who had gone from the capital to care for the wounded
Juaristas. This exploit gained him the title of El Tigre
(tiger) de Tacubaya, and for the town, the title of Tacubaya de
los Mdrtires.
Early in 1860, Miramon returned to his design of captur
ing Vera Cruz, and in March — after having borrowed
$300,000 from the clergy at Mexico City — he appeared
before that port. In preparing to besiege the city he sent to
Havana and purchased two steam vessels and munitions of
war, to be brought to V. C. to cooperate with his land
forces. The approach of these two vessels (the General
Miramon and the Marquis de la Habana) was disputed by
the squadrons of other nations, then in the port of V. C,
and as they were unable to show ship's papers, they were
regarded as semi-piratical. Juarez requested the United
States squadron to examine the papers of the two vessels,
and in the attempt to do so the General Miramon made some
resistance and a U. S. frigate was fired upon. The commander
at once seized the ships and took them to New Orleans
for further investigation. The delay gained by their deten
tion was valuable to the Juaristas, resulting in Miramon's
failure in his attack on V. C. Later the siege was renewed
and the town was bombarded from the 15th to the 20th of
March. March 21, the siege was raised, and the disgusted
reactionists returned to the capital.

70 HISTORY AND RACES
On July 12, when the prospects of victory seemed the most
doubtful, Juarez showed his Indian doggedness and his belief
in a just cause by issuing the celebrated Leyes de Reforma
(Reform Laws), the most transcendental decrees issued by
a Mexican up to that time. They contributed greatly toward
the ending of the war. These laws deprived the reactionaries
of their resources and broke the power of the party. They
provided for religious toleration, for the general curtailment
of the power of the clergy in the exercise of their alleged
rights, exclaustrated conventual holdings, adjusted the law
of civil marriage, and secularized the cemeteries. Religious
orders and religious communities were dissolved, as being
contrary to public welfare. The nation was entitled to pos
sess aU the properties of the clergy, both reUgious and sec
ular, and the Church was denied the right to possess landed
properties. Church and State were separated, and religious
freedom of thought was established. The clergy were disal
lowed a stipend from the State, and were thenceforth to
receive such compensation for their services as might be vol
untarily bestowed by their parishioners. Marriage, by being
considered a civil contract only, was freed from restraints
and expenses previously imposed upon it by the clergy —
a provision far-reaching in its power for good. The opera
tion of the law converted the country from the position of an
immense priest-ridden camp to that of a free nation.1
The Church did not submit tamely to this tremendous
edict. It had ruled the helpless people for over three cen-
1 The wealth of the Church in Mexico, says an authority, was astound
ing. A census taken 15 years previously had estimated that there were
2,000 nuns, 1, 700 monks, and 3,500 secular clergy in Mexico, and that the
number of their conventual estates was 150. The nuns alone possessed
58 estates, or properties, producing an annual revenue of 8560,000; in
addition to a floating capital of $4,500,000. producing an annual income
of $250,000. While the above number of clergy was inadequate to the
spiritual needs of a population estimated at seven millions, it was small
indeed to be the possessor of estates worth at least $90,000,000, which, at
that time, was said to be at least one third of all the wealth in Mexico.
Huge convents occupied a considerable part of the site of Mexico City,
Puebla, Morelia, Guadalajara, Queretaro, and other cities. A portion of
the income of the convents was derived from endowments, amountingto a
large sum. To support the high ecclesiastics, great amounts were derived
from tithes. The Archbishop of Mexico had an income of $130,000 a year;
the Bishop of Puebla, $110,000; of Michoacan, $100,000; and of Guada
lajara, $90,000. Mexico City was more like a great religious camp than a
mercantile centre. The enormous wealth of the Church made it a very
prominent factor in politics, and it could upset and establish governments
at its pleasure, or ferment the many revolutions which were constantly
breaking out. When the Mexicans rose in their war for independence, the
royal authorities took a portion of the Church's wealth — which had been
wrung from the Mexicans — to defeat them in their struggle.
Mexico City owes many of its fine streets to the Reform Laws, which
enabled the Government to demolish churches and convents and cut
avenues through their spacious grounds.
There are said to be over ten thousand churches and chapels at pre
sent in Mexico which are subject to Roman Catholic control.

HISTORY AND RACES 71
turies, and it now stirred up the national strife to the extent
of pitting members of the same family against each other.
It threw the religion-loving people into a panic by threaten
ing to excommunicate all who professed Liberal ideas. The
priests so crazed the populace that the temporary ambition
of every Mexican seemed to be to kill some one. Nearly two
hundred thousand Mexicans were engaged in the war, and the
loss of life was appalling. The conflict between the Liberals
and the Conservatives waged in nearly every section of the
country. The roads swarmed with bandidos, and the con
dition of the country was deplorable.
But in the quiet, stern, far-seeing Indian from Oaxaca the
Church in New Spain found its Waterloo. The task which
confronted Juarez would have staggered a less determined
man. One of his first acts, after he entered the capital,
Jan. 11, 1861, was to banish the Bishops and with them the
Papal Nuncio and the Spanish Envoy. The properties left
to the Church were confiscated, and former clerical estates
were let out to farmers on payment of 12% of their values.
Archbishop La Bastida, ex-President Miramon, and other
Conservatives went to Paris, and from there still planned
the undoing of long-suffering Mexico. An act of doubtful
statesmanship on the part of the new Congress aided them
in their plans. In July, 1861, Congress approved the decree
issued by the President suspending, for two years, all pay
ments on account of foreign debts. Juarez was heart and
soul for Mexico — the stanch friend of the United States,
but suspicious of Europe. Mexico at this time owed Great
Britain some $50,000,000, contracted by the splendor-loving
Santa Anna during his meteoric career. Financial ruin stared
Mexico in the face, and Juarez meant well for the country
when he suspended interest on this foreign debt. Two years
would enable him to bring order out of chaos, and then a
progressive Mexico could easily meet its obligations. But
this suspension gave the ecclesiastical malcontents the open
ing they desired, and paved the way for —
n. The French Intervention, Maximilian and the Sec
ond Empire. "For a better understanding of the causes
which led up to the execution of this unfortunate Prince of
the House of Hapsburg, it is well to recaU that after the
peace of VUlafranca, the Emperor Napoleon III was sin
cerely desirous to heal the political wounds which had been
made by his military operations in Italy, and to find some
compensation for the injuries he had inflicted on the Em
peror of Austria.
"From certain eminent Mexicans who were residing in Paris,
among them La Bastida, the ex- Archbishop of Mexico; the
ex-President Miramon, Gutiirrez de Estrada, and Almonte — the
Emperor learned that various Papal intrigues were under way

72 HISTORY AND RACES
and that attempts had been made by leaders of influence in
the then seceding Southern States of America to come to
an understanding with persons of similar position in Mexico
with a view to a political union.
" Among the advantages expected by the Southern States
from such a scheme was the alluring prospect of a future bril
liant empire, encircling the West India Seas, and eventually
absorbing the West India Islands. To the Mexicans there
would be the advantage of a stable and progressive govern
ment, with an emperor at its head, and the cessation of the
internecine strife that had long torn the country. The Mexi
can refugees in Paris saw in the success of this scheme an
end of their influence in their native country, and they con
sidered it better for them to induce a French protectorate.
The Emperor saw in this an opportunity for carrying out
his friendly intentions toward the House of Austria. He im
mediately determined to encourage the secession of the South
ern Confederate States with the view of curtailing the power
of the North, to overthrow, by a mihtary expedition, the
existing Government of Juarez in Mexico, to establish by
French arms an empire, and to offer its crown to the Aus
trian Archduke Maximuian.1
" To separate the Union for the purpose of crippUng it, but
not to give such a preponderance to the South as to enable
it to consummate its Mexican designs, was the guiding aim
of the French Government. That principle was satisfied by
the recognition of belligerent rights, and by avoiding a recog
nition of independence. The French expedition was thus
based on the disruption of the United States — a disruption
considered not only by the Spanish Court and by the Em
peror Napoleon as inevitable, but even by the British Gov
ernment. "The Spanish Minister in Paris, in November, 1858, had
suggested to the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, the
advantages that would accrue from the establishment of
a strong government in Mexico. Subsequently the views of
the English Government were ascertained, and in April,
1860, the Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs stated that
France and England were looking favorably upon the matter.
The stumbling-block in the way was the opposition which
might be expected from the United States. That opposition
was embodied in a formula under the designation of the
Monroe Doctrine, which expressed a determination not to
permit the interference of European Powers on the North
American Continent.
"In April, 1860, the project having advanced sufficiently,
Lord John Russell informed Isturitz, the Spanish Minister,
' History of the American Civil War, by John William Draper, M.D.:
LL.D. (N. Y., 1870).

HISTORY AND RACES 73
that England would require the protection of the Protestant
worship in Mexico. The project was characterized by the
selfishness which is usually the underlying principle of all
nations, and the aims of the three contracting parties event
ually became apparent. Spain expected that a Bourbon
prince would be placed on the Mexican throne, and that she
would thereby recover her ancient prestige and bind more
Becurely to her the valuable island of Cuba. Perhaps she
might even recover Mexico itself, and again bind that free
dom-loving country in the chains of the ignorance and tyr
anny which were its lot during Spanish dominion and mis
rule. England, remembering the annexation of Texas, saw
that it was desirable to limit the ever-threatening progress of
the Republic westwardly; to prevent the encircling of the
West India Seas by a power which, possibly becoming hostile,
might disturb the rich islands she held ; nor was she insensible
to the importance of partitioning what seemed to be the
cotton-field of the world. France anticipated — but the
Emperor himself, concealing his real motive of compensating
Austria for his Italian victories, has given us his ostensible
expectations in a letter to General Forey.
"In this letter, dated July 3, 1862, Napoleon III says:
' There wUl not be wanting people who will ask you why
we expend men and money to found a regular government
in Mexico. In the present state of the civilization of the
world, the prosperity of America is not a matter of indifference
to Europe, for it is the country which feeds our manufac
tures and gives an impulse to our commerce. We have an
interest in the Republic of the United States being powerful
and prosperous, but not that she should take possession of
the whole Gulf of Mexico, thence commanding the Antilles
as weU as South America, and be the only dispenser of the
Eroducts of the New World. We now see by sad experience
ow precarious is the lot of a branch of manufactures which
is compelled to produce its raw material in a single market,
all the vicissitudes of which it has to bear. If, on the con
trary, Mexico maintains her independence and the integrity
of her territory, if a stable government be there established
with the assistance of France, we shaU have restored to the
Latin race on the other side of the Atlantic all its strength
and prestige; we shaU have guaranteed security to our West
India colonies and to those of Spain; we shall have estab-
Ushed a friendly influence in the centre of America, and
that influence, by creating numerous markets for our com
merce, will procure us the raw materials indispensable for
our manufactures. Mexico, thus regenerated, will always
be well disposed to us, not only out of gratitude, but because
her interests will be in accord with ours, and because she
will find support in her friendly relations with European

74 HISTORY AND RACES
Powers. At present, therefore, our miUtary honor engaged,
the necessities of our poUcy, the interests of our industry
and commerce, aU conspire to make it our duty to march
on Mexico, boldly to plant our flag there, and to establish
either a monarchy, if not incompatible with the national
feeling, or at least a government which may promise some
stability.' " As soon as it was ascertained that the Southern States
were sufficiently powerful to resist the National Government,
and that a partition of the Union was impending, the chief
obstacle in the way of the Mexican movement seemed to be
removed. Throughout the spring and summer of 1861, the
three contracting powers kept that result steadfastly in
mind, and omitted nothing that might tend to its accom-
Elishment. This was the true reason of the concession of
elligerent rights to the Southern Confederacy in May.
The downfall of Juarez was the next business in hand.
" Affairs had so far progressed that, on November 20, 1861,
a convention was signed in London between France, England,
and Spain. In this it was agreed that a joint force should be
sent by the three alUes to Mexico; that no special advantages
should be sought for by them individuaUy, and no internal
influence on Mexico exerted. A commission was designated
to distribute the indemnity they proposed to exact. The
ostensible reason put forth for the movement was the decree
of the Mexican Government, July 17, 1861, suspending pay
ment on the foreign debt.
" The allied expedition reached Vera Cruz about the end
of the year. Not without justice did the Mexican Minister
for Foreign Affairs complam of their 'friendly but inde
finite promises, the real object of which nobody unravels.'
Although M. Thouvenel was incessantly assuring the British
Government, even as late as May, 1862, that France had no
intentions of imposing a government on Mexico, it became
obvious that there was no more sincerity in this engagement
than there had been in imputing the grievances of the invaders
to the Mexican decree of the preceding July. The ostensible
cause was a mere pretext to get a military foothold in the
country. Very soon, however, it became impossible for
the French to conceal their intentions. England and Spain
withdrew from the expedition, the aUeged cause on the part
of the former being the presence of Almonte, and other
Mexican emigrants of known monarchical opinions, with the
French, and a resolution not to join in military operations in
the interior of the country; on the part of the latter, the true
reason was that not a Spanish prince, but Maximilian, was
to be placed on the Mexican throne — a disappointment
to the Spanish commander, the Count de Reuss (General
Prim), who had pictured for himself a viceroy's coronet.

HISTORY AND RACES 75
" The French entered the City of Mexico in July, 1863.
The time had now come for throwing off the mask, and the
name of MaximiUan was introduced as a candidate for the
empire. Commissioners were appointed to go through Paris
and Rome to Miramar with a view of soliciting the consent
of that Prince. A regency was appointed until he could be
heard from. It consisted of Almonte, Salas, and the Arch
bishop La Bastida. MaximUian had already covenanted
with the Pope to restore to the Mexican Church her mort
main property, estimated at two hundred millions of dollars.
In Mexico there were but two parties, the Liberal and the
Ecclesiastical. The latter was conciliated by that covenant :
but as to the national sentiment, the collection of suffrages
in behaff of the new empire was nothing better than a mere
farce. " An empire was established in Mexico. Well might the
leaders of the Southern Confederacy be thunderstruck! Was
this the fulfilment of that promise which had lured them into
the guff of revolt — the promise which had been used with such
fatal effect in Charleston? Well might it be expected in
France, as is stated by Keratry, that ' the Confederates pro-
Eosed to avenge themselves for the overthrow of the secret
opes which had been encouraged from the very outset of the
contest by the cabinet of the Tuileries, which had accorded
to them the beUigerent character, and had, after all, aban
doned them.'
" Yet no one in America, either of the Northern or the
Southern States, imputed blame to the French people in these
bloody and dark transactions. AU saw clearly on whom the
responsibility rested. And when, in the course of events, it
seemed to become necessary that the French army should
leave Mexico, it was the general desire that nothing should be
done which might by any possibiUty touch the sensibilities
of France. But the RepubUc of the West was forever aUenated
from the dynasty of Napoleon.
" Events showed that the persons who were charged with the
administration of the Richmond Government had not ability
equal to their task. The South did not select her best men.
In the unskilful hands of those who had charge of it, secession
proved to be a failure. The Confederate resources were reck
lessly squandered, not skilfully used. Ruin was provoked.
" When it became plain that the American Republic was
about to triumph over its domestic enemies in the Civil War,
and that it was in possession of irresistible military power,
they who in the Tuileries had plotted the rise of Maximilian in
1861, now plotted his ruin. The betrayed emperor found that
in that palace two languages were spoken. In the agony of
his soul he exclaimed, ' I am tricked I ' In vain his princess
crossed the Atlantic, and though denied access, forced her

76 HISTORY AND RACES
way into the presence of Napoleon III, in her frantic grief
upbraiding herself before him that, in accepting a throne
from his hand, she had forgotten that she was a daughter of
the race of Orleans 1 — in vain she feU at the feet of the Pope
deliriously imploring his succor.
" The American Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, adopted a
firm but dignified course with the French Government. With
a courteous audacity, he did not withhold his doubts as to
the sincerity and fidelity of the Emperor; with inexorable
persistence he demanded categoricaUy that the French occu
pation should come to an end. A date once set, he held the
French Government to its word. 'Tell M. Moustier,' he says,
in a despatch to the American Minister in Paris, 'that our
Government is astonished and distressed at the announce
ment, now made for the first time, that the promised with
drawal of French troops from Mexico, which ought to have
taken place in November (this month), has been put off by
the Emperor. You will inform the Emperor's Government
that the President desires and sincerely hopes that the evac
uation of Mexico wUl be accompUshed in conformity with
the existing arrangement, so far as the inopportune compUca-
tion necessitating this despatch will permit. On this point
Mr. Campbell will receive instructions. Instructions will also be
sent to the military forces of the United States, which are
placed in a spot of observation, and are waiting the special
orders of the President: and this will be done with the con
fidence that the telegraph or the courier wiU bring us inteUi-
gence of a satisfactory resolution on the part of the Emperor
in reply to this note. You will assure the French Government
that the United States, in wishing to free Mexico, have no
thing so much at heart as preserving peace and friendship
with France.'
" The French recognized that the position of the two nations
had become inverted. The United States now gave orders.
Even by the French themselves it was said, 'The United
States tracked French policy step by step; never had the
French Government been subject to such a tyrannical dic
tation. Formerly France had spoken boldly, saying, through
M. Drooyn de Lhuy to Mr. Dayton, the American representa
tive at Paris, "Do you bring us peace or war?" Now Maxi
milian is falling in obedience to orders from Washington. He
is falling a victim to the weakness of our Government in al
lowing its conduct to be dictated by American arrogance.
Indeed, before rushing into suchperilous contingencies, might
not the attitude of the United States have been easily fore
seen? Our statesmen needed no rare perspicuity to have dis-
1 Marie Carlota Amelie (born near Brussels June 7, 1840) was the
daughter of Leopold I, King of Belgium. She married Maximilian June
27, 1857.

HISTORY AND RACES 77
covered the dark shadow of the Northern Republic looming
up on the horizon over the Rio Bravo frontier, and only biding
its time to make its appearance on the scene.'
" Only one thing was now thought of in Paris, and that
was to leave as soon as possible this land of destroyed illu
sions and bitter sacrifices. Was there ever such a catalogue
of disappointed expectations as is presented in this Mexican
tragedy? The Southern secession leaders engaged in dreaming
of a tropical empire which they never reaUzed: they hoped it
would bring a recognition of their independence, and they
were betrayed. The English were begufled into it as a means
of checking the growth of a commercial rival, and of protect
ing their West Indian possessions. They were duped into the
belief that there was no purpose of interfering with the Gov
ernment of Mexico. They consented to theperilous measures
of admitting the belUgerent rights of the South. They lent
what aid they could to the partition of a nation with which
they were at peace. They found that the secret intention was
the estabUshment of an empire in the interests of France, the
conciliation of Austria for miUtary reverses in Italy, and the
curbing of the Anglo-Saxon by the Latin race. England ex-
Eected to destroy a democracy, and has gathered her reward by
ecoming more democratic herself. The Pope gave his coun
tenance to the plot, having received a promise of the eleva
tion of the Mexican Church to her pristine splendor, and the
restoration of her mortmain estates; but the Archbishop La
Bastida, who was one of the three regents representing her
great influence, was insulted and removed from his political
office by the French. In impotent retaUation, he discharged
at his assailants the rusty ecclesiastical blunderbuss of past
days — he excommunicated the French army. The Span
iards did not regain their former colony; the brow of the
Count de Reuss was never adorned with a vice-regal coro
net. The noble and devoted wife of Maximilian was made a
wanderer in the sight of aU Europe, her diadem removed, her
reason dethroned.
"For Maximilian himself there was not reserved the pagean
try of an imperial court in the Indian palaces of Montezuma,
but the death-volley of a grim file of Mexican soldiers, under
the frowning shadow of the heights of Queretaro. For the
Emperor of Austria, there was not the homage of a transat
lantic crown ; Mexico sent him across the ocean, a coffin and
a corpse. For France, ever great and just, in whose name
so many crimes were perpetrated, but who is responsible
for none of them, there was a loss of that which in her eyes
is of infinitely more value than the six hundred millions of
francs which were cast into this Mexican abyss. For the
Emperor — can anything be more terrible than the despatch
which was sent to America at the close of the great Exposi-

78 HISTORY AND RACES
tion? — ' There remain now no sovereigns in Paris except the
Emperor Napoleon III and the spectre of MaximiUan at his
elbow.' "
Toward the close of December the Spanish squadron cast
anchor in the harbor of Vera Cruz. Early in January, 1862,
English and French war-ships arrived. They jointly took
possession of the port, and sent a note to the Mexican Gov
ernment explaining the ostensible causes and aims of the
expedition. The Government invited them to a conference
haying for its aim the reaching of an amicable settlement.
This conference was held in Orizaba. As the Mexican Govern
ment was unprepared for war with a foreign power, it was
agreed that the allies should hold C6rdoba, Orizaba, and
Tehuacan pending a satisfactory adjustment. If an agree
ment were not reached, the allies were .to retire to the coast
before beginning hostilities.
While negotiations were in progress, the commissioners of
the English and Spanish Governments (April 9) announced
their intention to withdraw and reembark their troops. This
was done as speedily as possible. The French commissioner
declared it was the intention of his government to push the
enterprise to completion.
Violating their agreement to retire to the coast, they awaited
reinforcements, which arrived under the command of Gen
eral Lorencez. At the head of six thousand men he marched
toward the capital. He appeared before Puebla May 4, and
on May 5, began the assault of the city. He was defeated
by General Zaragoza at the head of 4,000 Mexican troops.
The French again attacked Puebla, which was heroically
defended by Gonzales Ortega with 12,000 men, aided by Gen
eral Comonfort with a strong outlying division. On May 8,
Bazaine routed Comonfort, and on the 17th Puebla capitu
lated to vastly superior forces. The French continued their
march to the capital. President Juarez, after issuing a mani
festo to the nation, exhorting them to continue the struggle,
abandoned the city May 31. He retired toward the north, ac
companied by troops under Generals Don Porfirio Diaz and
Don Juan Josi de la Garza.
On June 11, Mexico City was officiaUy occupied by the
French troops. The Conservative Party accorded General
Forey an enthusiastic reception. A junta composed of 35
members of the Conservative Party was formed, and they in
turn created another junta with the title of Regencia and
headed by Don Juan Almonte, one of the most active agents
in the establishment of the monarchy in Mexico.
On June 10, 1863, a junta convoked by General Forey and
composed of 200 adherents of the Conservative Party form
ally declared : —
" The Nation accepts an hereditary monarchy headed by a

HISTORY AND .RACES 79
Catholic prince who wiU bear the title of Emperor. It offers
the crown to Archduke Fernando Maximilian of Austria."
Meanwhile Juarez had established his temporary govern
ment in San Luis Potosi, whence, on June 10, it moved to
SaltiUo. Later it moved to Chihuahua, and thence to Paso
del Norte, now Ciudad Juarez.
MaximiUan accepted the crown of the new empire in con
sideration of three million pesos advanced by Napoleon III
to enable him to pay some of his debts. The compact was
signed at the Chateau of Miramar, April 10, 1864. From that
date his allowance was $125,000 a month: that of Carlota
$16,666.66, making a sum total of $1,700,000 annuaUy paid
by impoverished Mexico for the privilege of having its dis
tracted country mismanaged by a foreign potentate.
The Archduke and his consort embarked on the Austrian
war-ship La Novara, April 14, 1864. Arriving at Civita-
Vecchia they went direct to Rome, where they lodged at the
Palacio Marescotta. After a visit from the King of Naples
and Cardinal AntoneUi, they attended a special mass at the
Vatican, received the communion from the hands of the Pope,
and sailed for Mexico April 20.
On May 28, La Novara dropped anchor in the harbor of
Vera Cruz. The next morning Maximilian and his suite dis
embarked and received the keys of the city. Gayly decorated
carriages conveyed them up the mountains to C6rdoba and
Orizaba, where they were received with flowers and acclama
tions. They arrived at Puebla June 5, where a great celebra
tion was held (the 7th) in honor of Cariota's birthday. They
passed the night of the 11th at Guadalupe, and made their
triumphal entry into the capital on the morning of June 12.1
Coincident with the arrival of MaximiUan, the monarchical
form of government began its functions. Troubles also arose.
The Archduke was not lacking in advanced ideas, and from
the first he essayed to win the good wiU of the Liberals,
a difficult task in view of their intense hostility to the Con
servatives whom the Emperor represented. In turn he gained
the iU wiU of the Conservatives by refusing to annul or modify
the Leyes de Reforma.
Money was the shibboleth of his brief reign. The extra
vagant etiquette of the Austrian Court was implanted in the
Aztec capital, and it became the theatre of glittering court
1 In view of the fact that one of the ostensible causes of the French in
tervention was the decree repudiating Mexico's foreign debts (because of
her inability to pay them), it is interesting to notethe minor expendi
tures consequent to bringing Maximilian and his suite to Mexico.
Given to various persons to induce the Emperor to come . $104,902.32
Furniture and improvements in the Palace at Mexico . . 101,011.83
Furniture and art objects for Chapultepec and Orizaba . . 15,210.50
Reception at Vera Cruz and Mexico City  115,348.41
Total . . $336,473.06

80 HISTORY AND RACES
balls, regal receptions, and splendid social functions. To meet
the ever-increasing expenses of the lavish court, loans were
contracted in Paris and London, and valuable franchises were
sold to the foreign adventurers who flocked to the seat of the
new empire.
In marked contrast to affairs at the capital, turmoil reigned
in the interior cities and towns. In those garrisoned by a
sufficient number of French troops, an iUusory peace was
maintained by force of arms. A perpetual guerrilla warfare
was waged in many of the country districts. At first the
Mexicans suffered heavily at the hands of the French, but
the revolutionists gained strength, and in 1866 disquieting
rumors reached the capital and disturbed the Emperor in
his fancied security.
With a woman's perspicacity, the Empress detected the trend
of events and she proposed a trip to Paris and Rome, with the
aim of urging Napoleon III to fulfil the promises made at
Miramar, and to invite the aid of the Pope to unravel the
ecclesiastical tangle which perplexed the struggUng monarchy.
On July 6 a special Te Deum was held in the Cathedral, and on
the 13th the Empress embarked at Vera Cruz on the Empera-
triz Eugenia. When she left Mexico she turned her back upon
her husband and an imperial diadem, both forever lost to her.
Napoleon received the Empress coldly. Both indulged in
violent and acrimonious recrimination ; the Emperor refus
ing absolutely to furnish further resources, whether military
or pecuniary. The interview served only to strain the already
tenuous relations between Napoleon and Maximilian. The
vainglorious French Emperor had his own troubles. Spurred
and vexed by the veiled orders of the United States to with
draw his troops from American soU, he sought but the means
to comply and preserve his dignity. The soldiers themselves
were constantly harassed by the Mexican guerrillas, and they
yearned for La Belle France and for the cessation of a boot
less struggle on alien soil.
A victim to the darkest forebodings, the unhappy Empress
repaired to Miramar, where, on the 16th of Sept., a banquet
celebrating the Independence of Mexico was given. Unwill
ing to relinquish the Mexican crown and again be merely
an Archduchess of Austria, the ambitious woman started for
Rome with aU her hopes centred in the Pope. She made
her official visit to the Vatican on September 27. On being
received by the Pontiff she feU into a nervous paroxysm, and
as if possessed of an awful terror she exclaimed: "I have
been poisoned by order of Napoleon III, and those without
have accomplished it." * Hope had died out of her proud
heart and her reason went with it.
1 There are Mexicans who say the Empress was secretly poisoned with
Marihuana (a deadly native drug) before she departed from Mexico

HISTORY AND RACES 81
The sad notice all but crushed MaximiUan, and his sole
remaining ambition was to leave Mexico and reach the side
of his unfortunate wife. Prevailed upon by the Conservative
Party to remain, he did so, and unwittingly sealed his own fate.
The year 1867 opened menacingly for the empire. The
Liberal forces in the north had captured town after town.
Napoleon had named early spring as the date for the with
drawal of his troops, but the urgency of Mr. Seward and the
interview with the Empress Carlota hastened his plans,
and the last of the French troops reached Mexico City Jan.
15, homeward bound. On Feb. 5, the French flag was hauled
down from over the home of the Marshal, in Buena Vista
(p. 340), and the army filed out of the city. From behind the
curtained window of the palace, Maximilian watched its de
parture in silence.
Hard-pushed by the Liberals, the generals of the Imperial
ist cause had united in Queretaro. Accompanied by his
Ministers of State, aides, doctor, secretary, and two thousand
armed men under General Leonardo Marquez, MaximUian
left the capital Feb. 13. A special Te Deum was sung in the
Cathedral at Queretaro the day of his arrival. On the same
day General Mendez arrived on his retreat from MoreUa.
On March 20, Queretaro was closely besieged by the Liberal
forces. When the Emperor left Mexico City, he believed he was to
lead a campaign against the enemy. Great was his surprise
to learn that he had deliberately entered a beleaguered city,
now completely surrounded by Liberal troops under Generals
Escobedo and Corona. Once trapped, his position was peril
ous. Numerous but ineffectual attempts were made to break
the cordon. Ammunition grew scarce, rations diminished, and
the city was taken by the Republican forces May 15. Max
imilian, Miramon, and Mejia were imprisoned in a cell in the
existing Capuchin Convent. The court-martial that tried
them was convened in the Yturbide Theatre at 10 a. m., June
14. The Emperor was suffering from an acute attack of illness
and was not present. On June 15, the court united in a sen
tence of death.

When she made her piteous appeal for help to Napoleon III, she was
quite sane, though sadly wrought up by intense emotion, but failure un
hinged her mind, and when she hurried off to the Pope, she was demented.
To the horror of the Papal Court, she burst into the presence of His Holi
ness wearing a bonnet instead of the black mantilla rigorously insisted
upon in sucn an audience; and to the still greater horror of Cardinal
Antonelli and of the Pope himself, she insisted on staying overnight at
the Vatican. As, however, force could not be used to eject her, the Pope
had to order two beds to be placed in the library for the Empress and one
of her ladies — an unheard-of desecrationl Indeed, they could get rid of
the hapless Empress next day only by the ruse of getting two nuns to
Eersuade her to visit their convent, where she became so violent that she
ad to be put into a strait-jacket I

82 HISTORY AND RACES
The President of the United States and the sovereigns of
Great Britain, France, and Austria tried to save his life.
Victor Hugo wrote Juarez a strong and stirring appeal, and
besought him to pardon Maximilian. The Princess Salm-
Salm rode 120 miles across country, and on her knees im
plored Juarez to spare his life. He refused to annul the order.
In connection with the Austrian, Belgian, and Italian Ministers
and the French Consul, she planned a nocturnal flight from
the convent. This plan failed. MaximiUan's counsel went to
President Juarez at San Luis Potosf and urged a commuta
tion of the sentence. But as MaximiUan himself had, in his
famous decree of October 3, condemned to death any Mexi
can found with arms against the monarchy, Juarez refused
the plea. He confirmed by telegraph, at 11 a. m., on June 16,
the death sentence pronounced against Fernando Maximuian
of Hapsburg. The jailer immediately announced the news to
the prisoners.
Shortly after daylight on the morning of June 19, 1867,
a division composed of 4,000 men marched to the suburb of
Queretaro and formed a square at the foot of El Cerro de
las Campanas — The HiU of the Bells. In their cells in the
Capuchin Convent three men dressed for the ordeal.
They had scarcely finished when a soldier opened the
heavy door and said : fYaeshora! — the time has come. Maxi
milian, Miramon, and Mejia, accompanied by a Catholic priest,
Father Soria, stepped into the carriage awaiting them and
were quickly driven through a silent multitude to the place of
execution. The carriage reached El Cerro de las Campanas
at 7.15. Maximilian descended first and was foUowed by his
generals, who walked with firm steps. About halfway up the
hill was an adobe waU, constructed during the siege as a breast
work, guarding the more important fortification upon the
summit — the last point to surrender and where MaximiUan
was captured. In front of this wall the prisoners were stationed
and the firing-parties told off. The men embraced each other,
and took a last look at the winsome blue sky of a faultless day.
Maximilian distributed some gold coins among the soldiers
who were to shoot him, and in a clear, vibrant voice exclaimed :
" I die in a just cause, the Independence and Liberty of Mexico.
I forgive all, and I pray that all may forgive me. May my
blood flow for the good of my adopted country. / Viva Mexi
co ! " Miramon uttered a few words. Mejia remained silent.
It is said that Mejia comforted Maximilian in his last hours
by assuring him that Carlota had died in Europe. Maxi
milian asked as a favor that he might be shot in the body, so
that when his body was sent to Austria his mother might once
more look upon his face.
Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia fell dead at the first
volley. A second fire was directed against the body of the

HISTORY AND RACES 83
Emperor. It was then placed in a rude coffin and taken to a
room in the Palacio de Gobierno. The body was there in
spected by President Juarez.1
o. The Restored Republic. When Juarez again entered
the capital on July 15, 1867, after an absence of five years,
his return signalized the rise of the new Republic and the
culmination of his own fame. The Constitution of 1857 was
made once more effective, and the national energies were
directed toward repairing the waste caused by the long war.
Railways and telegraphs were installed, and the country was
developed internally.
Congress reelected Juarez president in Oct., 1871, and he
took the oath as a constitutional president for the third time
on Dec. 1. A number of would-be presidents "pronounced"
against him, but each attempt to return to the old method
of governing the country by force was promptly squelched.
The sudden death of Juarez on July 18, 1872, raised Sebas
tian Lerdo de Tejada (then president of the Supreme Court
of Justice) to the presidency. During his three years' tenure
of office several articles were added to the Constitution;
one in particular suppressing the last remaining religious
order — the Sisters of Charity. The government under
Tejada was unpopular with the people, and a remedy was pro
vided in the revolt headed by General Porfirio Diaz in 1876.
The new revolution, which soon plunged the entire country
into another civil war, had for its base the Plan de Tux-
tepec, promulgated in Oaxaca, Jan. 15. It was the most signi
ficant of aU the revolutions to date, since it gave Mexico
its greatest ruler. Under the command of General Diaz the
revolutionary army carried out an energetic and successful
campaign. Tejada fled to the United States, and General
1 The body of the unfortunate Emperor now lies in the Austrian Im
perial vault in the Capuchin Church at Vienna. The Prince was a rear-
admiral in the Austrian Navy, and before his ill-starred expedition to
Mexico, where he was sacrificed to the perfidy of Napoleon III, he resided
in Trieste in a beautiful chateau called Miramar. In the Piazza Giuseppe,
inTrieste, stands a fine bronze monument (by Schilling), erected in 1875
to his memory. Miramon and Mejia are buried in the Panteon de San
Fernando (Mexico City) . There are good paintings of Maximilian and the
Empress Carlota in the National Museum at Mex. City.
The student should consult History of Mexico, by Hubert Howe Ban
croft (San Francisco, 1888), vol. vi, pp. 318 etseq. — My Diary in Mexico
in 1 867, including the Last Days of the Emperor Maximilian, with Leaves
from the Diary of the Princess Salm-Salm, by Felix Salm-Salm, Lon
don, 1JS68. — Dife of Maximilian I^Late Emperor of Mexico, with a sketch of
the Empress Carlota, by Frederic Hall, New York, 1868. — Mejico desde
1808 hasta 1867, by Francisco de P. Arrangoiz, Mexico, 1872 (a good
historical picture of the Second Empire). — Resena Hist&rica de la For-
macidn y Operaciones del Cuerpo de Ejercito del Norte durante la Inter
vention Francesa, Sitio de Queretaro y Noticias Oficiales sobre la captura
de MaximiUano, su Proceso Integra y su Muerte, by Juan de Dios Arias,
Mexico, 1 867. — Guerre du Mexique ^ 1861-1867, by L. Le Saint, Paris,
1868. — Erinnerungen aus Mexico, Geechichte der letzten zehn Monate des
Kaiserreisch, by S. Basch, Leipsic, 1868.

84 HISTORY AND RACES
Diaz entered Mexico City Nov. 24, 1876, and was proclaimed
Provisional President. The following April, Congress form
ally decreed that he be Constitutional President for a term
ending in Nov., 1880. A strong man was now at the head of the
government. Diplomatic relations with France were resumed ;
railway construction was pushed; incipient revolutions were
killed in their cradle, and the nation was led gently but firmly
into the path of peace and progress.
In 1880, the term for which Diaz had been elected expired,
and albeit many of his great plans for the regeneration of the
country were still in embryo, he steadfastly adhered to his
purpose of abiding by the constitutional provision that ren
dered him ineligible for a succeeding term. The moral worth
of the man had perhaps never been subjected to a severer test.
On Sept. 25, 1880, General Don Manuel Gonzalez was
legally elected the successor of the retiring president. The
high principles of Diaz were beyond the grasp of the new
president, whose reign was characterized by riots, and similar
manifestations of the popular discontent. In 1883, the " nickel
riots " came near to ending the Gonzalez administration, as
did likewise the proposal of a very unpopular plan for Uqui-
dating Mexico's EngUsh debt. The admirable administration
of Porfirio Diaz had elevated the nation to a higher moral
plane than it had occupied hitherto; the dormant national
conscience had been awakened, and the Mexicans, for the
first time in many years, had acquired an interest in their
reputation at home and abroad. A new element had been
introduced into national affairs. So deep and so lasting was
the impression made by this greatest Mexican that the people
refrained from ousting Gonzalez: biding their time, they
shelved their grievances, and patiently waited until events
should once more place Diaz at the head of the nation.
This occurred in 1884, when General Diaz was, with prac
tical unanimity, reelected. His second term was soon marked
by financial reforms which aided to repair the large deficit
left by the Gonzalez administration. The credit of the nation
was soon recognized by aU the exchanges of Europe. Im
mense sums were spent on public improvements ; free schools
were organized; education became compulsory, and the
alcabales, or local state duties — a long-surviving and perni
cious relic of Spanish colonial days — were abolished. The
drainage canal — that colossal project which had puzzled the
minds of Mexico's rulers since the 14th century — was un
dertaken and carried to successful completion. The solving of
this great problem alone was of incalculable benefit to the
inhabitants of the Valley of Mexico.
Diaz also instituted other wholesome reforms : he reduced
the president's salary from $30,000 to $15,000, and ordered a
reduction of from 15 to 20 % in the salaries of many govern-

HISTORY AND RACES 85
ment employees. The matter of reorganizing the army was
handled with consummate skill; ere long the country was rid
of the bandidos which had formerly infested the highways,
and the most prominent bandit chiefs not only became stanch
supporters of the Government, but zealous exterminators of
their own kind as well. Transcendental results were attained
in the stimulus given to education. In 1888, the Constitution
was, by popular acclamation, amended to allow a president
two consecutive terms. As the now thoroughly aroused na
tion began to fear that it might lose its famous leader, all
limitations were aboUshed (in 1892), and as no single man
in the Republic was found to embody the remarkable wisdom
and statesmanship of Porfirio Diaz, this Greatest Mexican
succeeded himself in the presidency with a lack of friction
that would have amazed the older political agitators. This
great man possessed the wisdom and the statesmanship, the
strong arm and the steadfast purpose, necessary to weld the
warring factions, to reconcUe the antagonistic parties, and to
lift Mexico from retrogressive chaos and launch it on a career
of unexampled prosperity. Under his wise and far-seeing
administration the country advanced from a position of a
nondescript Latin- American RepubUc — not unfrequently a
synonym for revolutions — to that of one of the progressive
nations of the world. The Mexico of Diaz was orderly, pro
gressive and respected. Its credit was of the highest.
Porllrlo Diaz was born in Oaxaca City, Sept. 15, 1830. His father was
of Spanish parentage; his mother was a Mestiza (of a Spanish Asturian
father and a pure-bred Mixtec Indian) , and both were poor and humble.
At an early age Porfirio showed such marked characteristics that they
attracted the attention of Benito Juarez, then Governor of the State of
Oaxaca, who later instilled into him many admirable qualities. The lad
took to things military just as did the young Napoleon. Reserved, stu
dious, brave, and wise, he soon became noted for a fervid patriotism, rare
executive ability, and an unalterable wiU. A captain in the army at 32,
his bravery soon obtained for him the title of General, and ere long he
became a prominent figure in the military life of the Republic. From hiB
second election to the presidency in 1 884, his fame, separated from spec
tacular military exploits, began to acquire a solid and enduring form. He
is the wisest and most beneficent ruler Mexico has ever had . Few men are
more patriotic, few more far-seeing and more self-sacrificing, and few
indeed are more beloved. Nowords can add to.ordetractfrom.hisfame,
which is as enduring as the hills.
Consult Life of Porfirio Diaz, by Hubert Howe Bancroft (San Fran
cisco, 1887), Porfirio Diaz, by MrB. A. Tweedie (London, 1907), Porfirio
Diaz La Evolution de su Vida, by Licenciado Rafael de Zayas Enriquez
glew York, 1908), Vn Pueblo, un Siglo y un Hombre, by Dr. Fortunate
ernandez (Mexico, 1909), Porfirio Diaz, by Jos<5 F. Godoy (New York,
1910).

86 CHIEF EVENTS IN MEXICAN HISTORY
Chronological Table of the Chief Events in Mexican
History.
L From the Earliest Times to the Spanish Conquest,
7th Cent. The Toltecs, advancing from a northerly direction,
entered the territory of Anahuac at the close of the
Seventh Century.
1100. The Toltecs, who had extended their sway over the
remotest borders of Anahuac, disappeared from the
land as silently and as mysteriously as they had en
tered it.
1200. A numerous and rude tribe, called the Chichimecs,
entered the deserted country from the far North
west.
1200-1300. Other races, of a higher civilization, followed the
Chichimecs and reached the country from the North.
The most noted of these were the Aztecs, or Mexicans.
1325. The Mexicans establish themselves in the VaUey of
Anabuac and call their settlement Tenochtitlan.
1485. Hernan Cortes is born at Medellin, Estremadura, Spain.
1492. Christopher Columbus discovers America.
1502. Montezuma II is raised to the Aztec throne.
1504. Hernan Cortes sails for Cuba.
1517. Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, in the course of a
voyage of adventure from Cuba, discovers the coast
of Yucatan, March 4.
TL The Spanish Invasion and the Downfall ol the Aztec Empire.
1519. Cortes sails from Havana Feb. 10, lands at Tabasco
(or Grijalva) March 20, at Vera Cruz April 21, begins
his march to the Aztec metropolis Aug. 16, enters
Tlaxcala Sept. 23, and Tenochtitlan Nov. 8.
1520. Montezuma dies June 20. The Spaniards evacuate
Tenochtitlan on the night (Noche TrisU) of July 1.
1521. Cortes lays siege to Tenochtitlan, which is subjugated
Aug. 13. m. Mexico under the Spanish Viceroys.
1522. Cortes is Governor, Captain-General, and Chief Justice
of the conquered territories of New Spain. The first
CathoUc church established in Mexico is founded at
Tlaxcala.
1524. Consejo (council) de las Indias perfected by the King
of Spain. Arrival in Mexico of the Franciscan Friars
known as the Twelve Apostles.
1527. Bishopric of Mexico created. The first Bishop, Juan
de Zumarraga, coUects the picture-paintings, writings
and historical MSS. of the Indians from the great de-

CHIEF EVENTS IN MEXICAN HISTORY 87
pository of the national archives at Tezcuco, and from
other sources, assembles them in the market-place of
Tlaltelolco, and burns them. Bigotry thus destroys the
priceless annals of the first Americans.
1531. Alleged miraculous apparition of the Virgin of Guada
lupe in Mexico.
1547. Death of Hernando Cortes, at Castilleja de la Cuesta,
Spain, Dec. 2, in the 63d year of his age.
1571. The Tribunal of the Inquisition is formaUy established
in the City of Mexico.
1691. Conquest of Texas.
1693. First newspaper established in New Spain.
1767. The Jesuits are expelled from Spanish America.
1806. Benito Pablo Juarez born March 21.
1808. Intervention of Napoleon Bonaparte in Spanish affairs.
Revolution in Spain. The idea of Mexican independ
ence germinates.
IT. Beginning of the Mexican War for Independence.
1810. The Parish Priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, fugleman
of Mexican freedom, sounds the "Grito de Dolores"
(Sept. 16) and the death-knell of Spanish misrule in
Mexico.
1811. Hidalgo captured and shot.
1813. First Mexican Congress meets at Chilpancingo Sept.
14. Formal Declaration of Mex. Independence Nov. 6.
1814. First Constitution at Apatzingan, Oct. 22.
1820. Inquisition suppressed in Mexico, May 31.
V. Independent Mexico. The First Empire.
1821. Mexico wins Independence from Spain.
1822. First Mexican Congress. Regency installed.
Agustin de Iturbide named Emperor, May 19. Antonio
Lopez de Santa Anna proclaims a republic.
V. Collapse of the First Empire. Rise of the Mexican Republic.
1823. Iturbide abdicates ; the empire falls into ruins. Central
ist and Federalist parties formed. The Monroe Doc
trine (of transcendental interest to Mexico) proclaimed
by the United States. Iturbide shot at PadiUa, July 14.
1824. Federal Constitution proclaimed. Estados Unidos
Mexicanos organized.
1825. The Spanish troops evacuate El Castillo de San Juan
de Ulua. Extinction of Spain's power in Mexico.
1830. Porfirio Diaz, the Greatest Mexican, born Sept. 15.
1835. RebeUion of Texas.

88 CHIEF EVENTS LN MEXICAN HISTORY
1843. Bases Orgdnicas Politicas de la Republica Mexicana
and final Centralization of the Government.
1845. Annexation of Texas to the United States.

vn The War with the United States.
1846. Advance of the American General Taylor to Monterey.
California and New Mexico taken by the United States.
Monterey (Mexico) stormed and captured.
1847. Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, Chihuahua occupied
Feb. 28.
General Scott entered the VaUey of Mexico Aug. 9.
Battle of Churubusco, Aug. 20. Battle of -'Casa Mata"
and "Molino del Rey," Sept. 8. Chapultepec stormed
and captured Sept. 13. Entry of American Army into
the capital Sept. 15.
1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo (Feb. 2) ends war with
the United States.
1856. President Comonfort issued (June 25) decree of desa-
mortizacion ordering the sale, at its assessed value, of
aU landed estate held by the Church.
1859. Benito Juarez proclaims (July 12) the Reform Laws.

vm. The French Intervention.
1861. Treaty of London (Oct. 31) adopted by England,
France, and Spain. Their forces arrive in Vera Cruz
to carry out provisions of the treaty.
1862. Treaty of London dissolved. England and Spain with
draw from Mexico. French Army advances and is
defeated at Puebla in famous battle of Cinco de Mayo.
Suppression of reUgious orders in Mexico.
1863. French troops capture Puebla and advance on the
capital. The RepubUcan Government retires to San
Luis Potosf, thence to SaltiUo, and later to Monterey.
The French organize a government at the capital and
elect Maximilian of Hapsburg Emperor of Mexico.

EX. The Second Empire. Mexico under the Austrian Archduke
Mn-rimman
1864. Maximilian reaches Mexico and is crowned June 12
as Emperor of Mexico.
1865. The United States Government demands the with
drawal of French troops from Mexico.
1866. The Juarez Government returns to Chihuahua.
1867. The French troops are withdrawn from Mexico in Feb,
General Porfirio Diaz captures Puebla April 2.

CHIEF EVENTS IN MEXICAN HISTORY 89
X. Downfall of the Second Empire. Modem Mexico.
1867. MaximiUan surrenders May 15 to General Escobedo,
at Queretaro. Execution, on June 19, of Maximilian
and Generals Mejia and Miramon, at Queretaro.
General Porfirio Diaz takes the City of Mexico June 21.
1876. General Porfirio Diaz enters Mexico City (Nov. 24) at
the head of a revolutionary army and is proclaimed
Provisional President.
1877. Porfirio Diaz is elected Constitutional President.
1884. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
1888. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
1892. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
1896. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
1900. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
The great canal for draining the Valley of Mexico is
completed at a cost of sixteen millions of pesos.
1904. Porfirio Diaz is again made President.
Guided by the strong hand of Porfirio Diaz, the
greatest Mexican, the United Mexican States join
the rank of great nations.
1906. Establishment of the gold standard.
Great influx of foreigners and foreign capital.
The Diaz Government inspires confidence, revolutions
are things of the past, and $800,000,000 of foreign
capital comes to Mexico.
1907. The national revenues exceed the expenditures by
twenty-nine rmllions of pesos.
1908. A shrewd financial plan, conceived by Jos6 Yvez
Limantour, Mexico's greatest Minister of Finance,
places the vast Mexican Central Railway System
under Government control; the lines are merged with
the Mexican National System under the title of Los
Ferrocarriles Nacionales de Mexico.
1909. Unexampled prosperity marks the Diaz administration.
1910. Porfirio Diaz, though in his 80th year, is again elected
President by an overwhelming majority.
In September the nation celebrates, with great splen
dor, the 100th anniversary of its independence.
The Mexican Southern Railway is absorbed by the
National Railways of Mexico.
1911. A revolution, organized by Francisco Madero, causes
the resignation of Porfirio Diaz as President. Civil war
breaks out. Mexico is crippled in her march toward
civilization.
1913. Death of Madero. Victoriano Huerta is made Con
stitutional President.
1914. Civil war rages in many parts of the Republic. Com
plications with the United States, -

Cfie ntersibe ptt^
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