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From the Library of
CHARLES HOPKINS CLARK
Class of 1 87 1
1929

W&t Ifetotical Bible

THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS
OF JESUS
ACCOEDINQ TO THE EARLIEST RECORDS

THE HISTORICAL BIBLE
By CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Pn.D., JLrrr.D.
Professor of Biblical Literature in Yale University

ARRANGEMENT OF VOLUMES!
I The Heroes and Crises of Early Hebrew His
tory. From the Creation to the Death of
Moses.
U. The Pounders and Rulers of United Israel.
From the Death of Moses to the Division
of the Hebrew Kingdom.
III. The Kings and Prophets of Israel and Judah.
From the Division of the Kingdom to the
Babylonian Exile.
IV. The Makers and Teachers of Judaism. From
the Pall of Jerusalem to the Death at
Herod the Great.
V. The Lifeand Teachingsof Jesus. Accord
ing to tlw Earliest Records.
VI. The Work and Teachings of the Apostles.
From the Death of Jesus to the End of
the First Century

34° 30'
I 
PALESTINE IN THE
Time of Jesus
(4B.C.-30 A.D.)
 SCALE OF MILES

Proconsulate of
Pontius Pilate.
Tetrarehy of
Herod Autipas,
Tetrarehy of Philip,
Under Province
of Syria,
Free Cities
(directly under Rome)

Cbe historical T5Mt

THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS
OF JESUS
ACCORDING TO THE EARLIEST RECORDS

BY
CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D., Litt.D.
-WOOL&EJY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE TJNTVERSXTY

WITH MAP AND CHART

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
NEW YOHK CHICAGO BOSTON

Copyright, 1913, bx
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
Published February, 1918

KtI

PREFACE
Within the past few years a rapidly increasing body of thoughtful
men and women, inside and outside the church, have learned to appre
ciate and appropriate the practical 'results that have come from a
thorough, constructive application of modern historical and literary
methods of study to the Old Testament. Time is demonstrating more
and more clearly that these (methods, instead of destroying, are re
vealing anew the beauty and permanent significance of those ancient
records. What is eminently true of the Old is destined, in even larger meas
ure, to prove true of the New Testament. The gospels, like the his
torical books of the Old Testament, embody older oral and written
sources which reflect the earliest impression that Jesus' personality
and words made on the minds of his followers. The first step, there
fore, in the quest of the real Jesus is to distinguish and to separate
"these oldest records from the later variant accounts which blur or con
ceal the original portrait. The more vital the questions involved,
the more important is it that the records be carefully studied and tested
by the most thorough methods known to modern historical research.
Men rightly demand to-day a definite rational basis for their faith.
Before Christianity can make the appeal which it should to the indi
vidual and to society, it must rest on firm, unassailable historical
foundations. Jesus was so many-sided that no one of the gospels gives a complete
or proportionate portrait of him. A harmony of the gospels, with it3
widely divergent readings, is a most unsatisfactory text-book for a
constructive study of the life and teachings of Jesus. Even more con
fusing and misleading is a composite gospel which, like Tatian's Diates-
saron, combines all the variant statements of the four gospels. Practical
experience is demonstrating that what is demanded to-day is a single
narrative that will embody the oldest records embedded in the four New
Testament gospels. This must be so arranged that it will give a simple,
logical, and, as far as possible, a chronological view of Jesus' life and
teachings. The primary aim of the present volume is to meet this need in the
most direct and practical way. The vividness and consistency of the

PREFACE
portrait of Jesus furnished by what are recognized as the oldest records
in the gospels are the best demonstration that we have here the testi
mony of the earliest eye-witnesses whose words have been preserved.
Through their eyes we can again look upon the divine Friend and
Teacher of men. As we listen to his words, as they have recorded
them, we are captivated anew by their irresistible truth and charm.
Involuntarily we echo the words of an early auditor: "Surely never
man taught as he taught." Here is the eternal Jesus, practically
unobscured by later philosophies or doctrines. He is it who is surely
destined again to draw to himself, as he did in the days of his flesh, the
busy men of affairs, who are "bound to the wheel of things" or who
are blinded by ignorance or prejudice; for he has for each of them a
plain, practical message that means freedom and happiness and the
fulness of life.
In the Introduction and in connection with each chapter, the most
important data, which enable the student to distinguish between the
older and later records, have been presented and the significant gos
pel parallels noted. The detailed references in the Appendix will
guide the student to the larger literature, as well as suggest my indebt
edness to previous writers. The conclusions and convictions pre
sented in this volume have been gradually wrought out in the class
room and in the larger school of experience. The constant aim has
been to present in clear, non-technical form the essential facts and thus
to enable the reader to draw his own conclusions regarding the many
vital questions involved.
To five men, who have read the manuscript and from their knowl
edge of the Bible and of life have contributed valuable suggestions,
especially regarding the best form in which to present the results, I
owe a large debt: Professor Jeremiah W. Jenks, of New York Uni
versity; Henry A. Sherman and Harold B. Hunting, of the house of
Charles Scribner's Sons; and William D. Murray and Harrison S.
Elliott, of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian
Association. I am also under obligation to two of my colleagues in
the University, Professors Frank C. Porter and Benjamin W. Bacon,
for the light they have thrown, both in their published works and in
private discussion, upon the interpretation of the life and teachings of
Jesus.
C. F. K.
Yale University,
Christmas, 1912. vi

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE RECORDS OF THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF JESUS
CHAPTER PAGB
I. The Records Outside the Gospels  1
I. Christianity at Work in the World. — II. The Roman
Historians. — III. The Jewish Writers. — IV. Evidence
Found in the Catacombs. — V. The TJncanonical Gos
pels. — VI. The Recently Discovered Sayings of Jesus.
— VII. The Writings of the Church Fathers. — VIII. The
Apocryphal Gospels. — IX. Acts and Revelation. — X.
Paul's Epistles. — XI. The Value of the Extra-Gospel
Testimony.
n. The Contents and Characteristics of the Four Gos
pels  10
I. The Contents of the Gospel of Mark. — II. Its Plan.
— III. Its Characteristics. — IV. Aim of the Gospel. —
V. The Contents of Matthew. — VI. Characteristics
and Aims of the Gospel of Matthew. — VII. The Con
tents of the Gospel of Luke. — VIII. Characteristics of
This Gospel. — IX. Aim of the Gospel. — X. The Con
tents of the Fourth Gospel. — XI. Characteristics and
Aim of the Fourth Gospel. — XII. A Comparison of the
Four Gospels.
HL The Written Sources Underlying the Gospels  19
I. The Relation of the First Three Gospels to Each
Other. — II. Their Agreement in Substance and Verba!
Detail. — III. The Synoptic Problem and Its Solution.
— IV. The Important Variations of the Fourth Gospel.
— V. The Early Tradition Regarding the Origin of the
Gospel of Mark. — VI. Mark's Sources. — VII. The
Earliest Record of Jesus' Work and Teachings (Q). —
VIII. Characteristics and Value of the Earliest Source.
IV. .The Literary History and Date of the Gospels. . 28
I. The Period of Oral Transmission. — II. Influences
that Gave Rise to the Gospels. — III. The Earliest
Records. — IV. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke. —
V. The Gospel of John. — VI. Conclusions.
vii

CONTENTS

CHAFTBB
V. The Historical Background of Jesus' Life and Work.
I. The Division of Palestine After the Death of Herod
the Great. — II. Judea under the Rule of Rome. — III.
Duties of the Procurators. — IV. The Organization and
Authority of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin. — V. The Rule
of the Procurators. — VI. The Character and Rule of
Herod Antipas. — VII. Rome's Strength and Weak
ness. — VIII. The Needs of the Roman World.

faqs 34

THE EARLY LIFE AND WORK OF JESUS

§ CXXI. Jesus' Berth, Boyhood, and Early Training.
Luke 21-7. «•¦ »-".
I. The Account of Jesus' Birth. — II. The Place and
Date or His Birth. — III. His Home. — IV. The Life at
Nazareth. — V. Jesus' Educational Opportunities. —
VI. His Visit to the Temple at the Age of Twelve. —
VII. His Acquaintance with the Scriptures of His Race.
— VIII. The Young Master Builder.
S CXXH. The Personality and Teaching of John the
Baptist 
Luke 3'. «, Matt. 3«", Luke 3'-" {cf. Matt. 3>-«. Luke
3», Matt. 3'-").
I. The Records of John's Birth and Work. — II. His
Character and Aims. — III. His Teachings. — IV. His I
Symbol of Baptism. — V. The Results of His Work.

43

J CXXIII. Jesus' Baptism and Temptation.

Mark l»-« {cf. Matt. 3»-», Luke 3«. =). Matt. 4«-"
{cf. Luke 4'-", Mark 1". ").
I. The Reasons Why Jesus Went to John. — II. Lit
erary Form of the Record. — III. The Significance of
the Baptismal Vision. — IV. The Meaning of the Ac
count of Jesus' Temptation. — V. The Different Phases
of Jesus' Temptation.

§ CXXIV. Jesus and John the Baptist.

57

62

69

Matt. 14«-« {cf. Luke 3»- «, Mark 6»-*>), Mark 1". »;
Matt. 11'-" {cf. Luke 7>»-»), Matt. 14«-« {cf. Mark
6"-").
I. The Gospel Evidence That Jesus Worked First in
Judea. — II. John's Arrest. — III. Hia Later Message
to Jesus. — IV. Jesus' Estimate of John. — V. The Ac
count of John's Death.
% CXXV. Jesus' Early Work in Galilee  75
Matt. 4"«, Mark 1«-m {cf. Matt. 4""-" Luke 5»-"),
John i«i>-»», Mark 1"-" {cf. Luke 4»-", Matt. 8"-").
viii

CONTENTS
PAOB
I. The Record. — II. Reasons Why Jesus Went to Ca
pernaum. — III. The Aims and Methods in the Early
Galilean Work. — IV. The Call of the Six Fishermen. —
V. The Site of Capernaum. — VI. A Sabbath in Caper
naum. — VII. Jesus' Significant Decision.
S CXXVI. Jesus' Popularity and the Beginning of the
Pharisaic Opposition  84
Mark 2'-" {cf. Matt. 9»-u, Luke 5"-»), Luke 5M-«;
7"-», Mark 2is-s» (cf. Matt. 91*-", 12i-«, Luke 5"*-6".
131"-1', 14i-»).
I. The Record of the Growing Opposition. — II. The
Causes of the Pharisaic Opposition. — III. The
Charges Which the Pharisees Made against Jesus.
§ CXXVH. The Gospel Miracles  93
Matt. 1238. ». «. « (cf. Luke ll»-«, 12"-», Matt.
16>-«), Mark 3'-« {cf. Matt. 4»- », 12»-n. Luke 6«-")J
Mark 4»-5« {cf. Matt. 8'». *»-«, 9IS-M, Luke 8»-»«).
Matt. 86-". » {cf. Luke 7i-">), Mark 6i-« {cf. Matt.
13»-«, Luke 4"-«°), Mark V-» {cf. Matt. 4*. &'•*;
Luke 4", 5«-»).
I. The Significance of the Gospel Miracles. — II. Jesus'
Attitude toward Miracles. — III. Miracles in the His
tory of Early Religions. — IV. The Canons of Interpre
tation Employed by Critical Historians. — V. The
Different Types of Recorded Miracles. — VI. The Sig
nificance of the Illustrations of Jesus' Power Over
Nature. — VII. Conclusions.
§ CXXVIH. The Call and Training of Jesus' Disciples 108
Mark 3«-». »¦» {cf. Luke 6"-", 8"-». 11». », Matt.
10", 12«-«>)., Luke 9"-« {cf. Matt. S"-"), Luke 14»-«*.
»». jo. <a-tt (C/. Matt. 10". »«, 5", 15", 10". », 12»-»,
7"-», Mark 9"), Mark 9"-" {cf. Luke 9". »), Luke 8>-«,
10"-", Matt. 9»-» {cf. Luke 10». «), Luke 10"/" {cf. '
Matt. 10>->«, Mark 6'-", Luke 9i-»), Matt. 7>, Luke
10" {cf. Matt. 10"), Mark 6». •» {cf. Luke 9">, 10").
Matt. 11»-" {cf. Luke lO1'-").
I. Jesus' Purpose in Calling His Disciples. — II. The
Personnel of the Twelve. — III. The Conditions of
Active Discipleship. — IV. Jesus' Fellowship with His
Disciples. — V. The Ministering Women. — VI. Jesus*
Commission to the Twelve. — VII. Jesus' Reason foe
Bending Out the Twelve. — VIII. The Return of the
Twelve.
JESUS' FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS
S CXXIX. The Aims and Methods of the Great Teacher 122
Matt. 5L »• >'-M, ll'»-"», 7«-» {cf. Luke 6"-*; Mark 1»),
Mark 4>-». ». » {cf. Luke 8«-«, Matt. 13»-». «¦-». »-». <*).
ix

CONTENTS

I. Jesus the Teacher. — II. His Attitude toward the
Earlier Teachers of His Race. — III. His Alms as a
Teacher. — IV. The General Characteristics of His
Teaching Methods. — V. The Literary Form of His
Teachings.
$ CXXX. God's Attitude toward Men  134
Luke 15 {cf. Matt. 18«-'<), Matt. 7'-" {cf. Luke ll»-"»).
I. Current Jewish Ideas of God. — II. The Growth of
the Belief in the Fatherhood of God. — III. Jesus'
Teaching Regarding the Nature of God. — IV. God's
Readiness to Forgive the Sinner. — V. Jesus' Teach
ing Regarding God's Readiness to Answer Prayer.
§ CXXXI. Man's Attitude toward God  142
Matt. 5»-»>, 6i-'. »->». '• », Luke ll1-' {cf. Matt. 6«-«).
Luke 181-", 17'. «, Mark un-n {cf. Matt. 21». *9. Matt.
6»-« {cf. Luke 12»-2»), Matt. 628-" {cf. Luke 12"-«).
I. Jesus' Conception of Man. — II. The Importance of
the Right Attitude in Worship. — III. Jesus' Type of
Prayer. — IV. The Value of Persistency and Humility
in Prayer. — V. The Invincible Power of Faith. — VI.
Trust That Leaves No Place for Worry.
§ CXXXII. The Kingdom of God  156
Matt. 13". « {cf. Mark 4>«-», Luke 13™. »), Luke 13»-«,
Mark 4M-!», Matt. 13M-«. «-'», Luke 17!«. n, 14«. "-»,
Mark 10«-" {cf. Matt. 19»-». Luke 18"-"). Matt. 13«-«.
Mark 9«-« {cf. Matt. 6". ">).
I. The Different Conceptions of the Kingdom of God
In the Old Testament. — II. Jesus' Description of the
Characteristics of the Kingdom of God. — III. Con
ditions of Entrance into the Kingdom. — IV. Riches a
Barrier to Entrance into the Kingdom of God. — V.
The Place and Meaning of the Kingdom in Jesus'
Teachings.
§ CXXXIII. The Obligations of Citizenship in the King
dom of God  167
Matt. 6»-» {cf. Luke 12». «, ll"-" 16"), Luke 12»-«,
16, Matt. 2S»-2» {cf. Luke 19»-«, Mark 4»).
I. Single-Minded Loyalty to God. — II. The Right Use
of Wealth.— III. The Improving of Present Oppor
tunities. — IV. The Use of Natural Gifts.

§ CXXXIV. Man's Duties to His Neighbor and to Him
self 
Matt. 5»-«", 18", Luke 17« {cf. Luke 17»), Matt. 18«-»,
7>-» {cf. Luke 6"-«), Matt. 5"s-" {cf. Luke 0». «°. »: »a-»)
Matt. 7" {cf. Luke 6"). Luke 10»-" {cf. Mark 12"-'']
Matt. 22«-«°), Mark 12«-«.
X

176

CONTENTS

I. The Fatal Crime of Wrong Thinking. — II. Rev
erence and Regard for the Person of Another. — III.
Forgiveness. — IV. Charitable Judgment. — V. Jesus'
Law of Love. — VI. The Expression of Love toward
a Neighbor.
§ CXXXV. Man's Responsibility to Society  188
Mark 10>-» {cf. Matt. 19'-», 5". ", Luke 16"), Matt.
19"-". 17M-", Mark 12"-"* {cf. Matt. 22's-m, Luke
20M«), John 7"-8u, Luke 17'. ' {cf. Mark 9". Matt.
18«. 0, Matt. 18»».
I. Jesus' Method as a Social Teacher. — II. His Teach
ings Regarding the Family. — III. Obligations of the
Individual to the State. — IV. Treatment of the Crim
inal. — V. Care of the Poor. — VI. Protection of the
Weak and Ignorant.
§ CXXXVI. The Rewards of the Christian Life  202
Luke 14>. »-», Matt. 20»-". Luke 17>». '->», Mark 10»-»
{cf. Matt. 19"-«. Luke 18"-«°), Matt. 5»-« {cf. Luke
6jo, a). Matt. 5'-« {cf. Luke 6M. »).
I. Jesus and the Jewish Doctrine of Rewards. — II.
The Rewards of Faithful Service. — III. The Place of
Happiness in Jesus' Teaching. — IV. The Original
Form of the Beatitudes. — V. The Conditions of True
Happiness.

THE CULMINATING EVENTS OF JESUS' LIFE
§ CXXXVII. The Crisis in Galilee  216
Luke 9'-» {cf. Mark 6"-», Matt. 14>. '), Mark 6"-"
{cf. Matt. 14»-«, 152"-», Luke 9iob-i7, Mark 81-"1),
Mark 6«-« {cf. Matt. 14»-»), Mark 7>-» {cf. Luke
1117-n, Matt. 15'-»), Luke h«-m {cf. Matt. 12**-". «-«.
Mark 3»-"), Luke 12». \ Matt. 10"-" {cf. Matt. 10"-",
Luke 12"-»), Luke 12i°, Matt. hm-m (Cf. Luke 10"-").
I. The Attitude of Herod Antipas toward Jesus. — II.
The Culmination of Jesus' Popularity. — III. The
Grounds on Which Jesus Condemned the Scribes and
Pharisees. — IV. His Warnings to His Disciples. — V.
The Influence of This Crisis upon His Method of Work.
J CXXXVIII. Jesus in Retirement with His Disciples . . 227
Mark 7«-»o {cf. Matt. 15»-"«), Mark 7" 8**-9» {cf. Mark
7»-«, Matt. 16"-17», Luke 9>»-«).
I. The Request of the Syrc-Phoenician Woman. — II.
Peter's Confession. — III. Jesus' First Prediction of His
Passion. — IV. The Story of the Transfiguration. — V.
The Healing of an Epileptic. xi

CONTENTS
PAOB
§CXXXIX. Incidents of the Last Journey to Jerusalem 239
Mark 9»-«. « {cf. Matt. 18i-», Luke 9«-«), Luke 95'-".
Mark 101, Luke 13M {cf. Matt. 19'. *), Matt. 7"- ", Luke
13«-js (Matt. 7"-2", 8". ", 23"-™), Mark 10"-", Luke
22"b {cf. Matt. 20" ¦", Luke 18*'-", 22»-"«, Mark 10«).
Luke 191-1", Mark l0"b-«2 {cf. Luke 18»-«, Matt. 20»-»).
I. Jesus Facing Jerusalem. — II. The Narrow Way or
Salvation. — III. The Request of James and John. —
IV. The Blind Man and the Tax-Collector at Jericho.
SCXL. The Renewal of Jesus' Public Activity in
Jerusalem  250
Mark 11'-'° {cf. Matt. 21'-" Luke 19»-«), Mark II".
Luke 13«-> {cf. Mark 11"-". *». «, Matt. 21«-«), Mark
liub-u (Cf. Matt. 21"-", Luke 19«-«), Mark ll«'-» {cf.
Matt. 21»-«, Luke 20'-'), Matt. 21"-«. "¦, Luke 201"*
{cf. Mark 121-", Luke 20"-". »»), Luke 13'-», Mark
12"-?' {cf. Matt. 22»-«, Luke 20«-«°, Mark 12»-« {cf.
Matt. 22«-23'. '-', Luke 20«-«), Luke 11" {cf. Matt.
23«), Matt. 23". a». &• "¦ 2»-"2 {cf. Luke 11". "¦ ").
Luke 11«»-" {cf. Matt. 23"-"), Mark 12«-« {cf. Luko
21'-«).
I. The Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. — LT. The Story
and Parable of the Fig Tree. — III. The Public Re
buke of the Temple Authorities. — IV. Public Discus
sions with the Leaders of Judaism. — V. The Arraign- '
ment of the Scribes and Pharisees.
§ CXLI. Jesus' Preparations for His Death  265
Mark 13»-«". « {cf. Matt. 24i-*«. ", Luke 21*-'), Matt.
25'-", 24"-" {cf. Mark 13*b- "• "•-»', Luke 12"-", 17M-",
21»-»«), Mark 14'-» {cf. Matt. 26'-", Luke 22L »), Luke
21". », Mark 141°-" {cf. Matt. 26"-'*, Luke 22»-«. »'-»).
I Cor. ll»-ai, Mark 14*«-« {cf. Mark 14k-», Matt.
22«-«, Luke 22"-2». ». "-»»).
I. The Prediction of the Temple's Destruction. — II.
Jesus' Warnings to His Disciples. — III. The Anoint
ing at Bethany. — IV. Judas' Bargain with the High
Priests. — V. Jesus' Last Supper with His Disciples. —
VI. Jesus' Farewell Words to His Disciples.
§ CXLII. Jesus' Arrest and Trial  278
Mark 14«-« {cf. Matt. 26"-", Luke 22"-"), Luke
22«-23" {cf. Mark 14»>". ••-". «. »>>-«, 151-11, Matt.
26&TB, 60-75. 67, 68, S7b-06( 271. S. H-M),
I. The Struggle in Gethsemane. — II. The Arrest of
Jesus. — III. His Examination before the High
Priests.— IV. His Trial before Pilate.
J CXLIII. Jesus' Death and Burial  288
Mark IS"-" {cf. Matt. 27"-", Luke 23«-«5).
I. The Record of Jesus' Crucifixion. — II. His Last
xii

CONTENTS

Words. — III. The Place and Manner of the Crucifix-
Jon. — IV. Jesus' Burial. — V. The Date of His Death.
— VI. The Meaning of His Death.
§ CXLIV. The Living Christ  297
I Cor. 15i-« {cf. Mark 16, Matt. 28, Luke 23"-24",
Acts Ii-").
I. The Immediate Effect of Jesus' Crucifixion upon
His Disciples. — II. Their Sudden Recovery of Faith
and. Courage. — III. Paul's Testimony. — IV. A Com
parison between the Current Conceptions of the
Resurrection from the Dead and that of Paul. — V. A
Comparison of the Different Gospel Records of the
Resurrection. — VI. The Naturalistic Interpretations
of the Resurrection Stories. — VII. The Supernatural
Explanations. — VIII. The Spiritual Interpretation.

5 CXLV. Jesus the Saviour of Mankind .

310

John 31*-*1, 423> M, 627> **, 85, g"b-d, 31b-d, 82. 84b-86, 10"-"e
113Sb-36»( 12**b-B0( 1313-16, 34, 66, 140b~7. 10-17, 21, 17llo-12». 15-26,
I. The Fourth Gospel's Conception of Jesus as Teacher
and Saviour. — II. Jesus' Self-Designation. — III. His
Interpretation of the Extent of His Mission. — IV. Why
Jesus Is the Universal Saviour of Mankind. — V. The
Reasons Why Christianity Is a Conquering World
Religion.

APPENDIX I. A Practical Bibucal Reference Library 323
APPENDLX n. General Questions and Subjects for Spe
cial Research  326

MAI? AND CHART
Palestine in the Time of Jesus  Frontispiece
Chart Indicating the Origin and Approximate Dates of
the Gospels  to face page 33

INTRODUCTION
THE RECORDS OF THE LD7E AND TEACHINGS OF
JESUS I
THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS
I. Christianity at Work in the World. Christianity is not a
dead but a living religion. The most convincing and universally valid
testimony to the historical reality and divine nature of Jesus' person
ality and work is the effect of Lis life and teachings upon the world
to-day. Though often misinterpreted and misrepresented, they are
slowly but surely transforming the life, the ideals, and the thought of
humanity. Christianity is unquestionably the most potent moral and
religious force in human history. The child, even before he reaches
self-consciousness, feels the all-pervading influence of Christian civili
zation. Throughout his life this force surrounds him and gives to him
all that is best and richest in his thought and experience.
In the final analysis, Christianity is a personal attitude toward God
and man — a way of living that finds its present inspiration, as well
as its historical illustration, in the personality, spirit, and teachings
of Jesus. During the intervening centuries it has received additions
from many sources; but the only satisfactory explanation of the
unique elements in Christianity is the historical Christ. His own
¦tandard, "By their fruits you shall know them," applies equally to
himself. If we had no written records, we should know his ideals and
methods through the mighty inspiration that he has imparted to hu
manity. By the calm faith in the heavenly Father that sustains his
followers in the presence of trials and temptations, we know the faith
of the Master. By the spirit of love and fidelity that inspires them to
perform deeds of heroic self-sacrifice, we know the spirit of the modest,
tireless, courageous Man of Nazareth. By the ever-deepening social
consciousness that recognizes the responsibility of the strong to help
1

,THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS
the weak, we know the Shepherd of men who devoted not only his
energies but his life to "saving lost sheep." Not in perishable books,
but in the life and ideals of men Jesus wrote the imperishable and uni
versally intelligible record of his work and teachings.
II. The Roman Historians. From the point of view of imperial
Rome the brief career of Jesus in a distant and despised province was
so insignificant that to find even an incidental allusion to it in contem
porary Roman history is surprising. Four of the Roman writers of
the second Christian century, however, refer either to Jesus or his fol
lowers. By far the most significant statement is that of Tacitus, the
well-known Roman historian, who wrote between 115 and 117 a.d. In
bis Annals he affirms (XV, 44) that "in order to suppress the rumor
[that the Emperor himself had set fire to Rome in 64 a.d.] Nero falsely
accused and punished with most acute torture persons who, already
hated for their shameful deeds, were commonly called Christians. The
founder of that name, Christus, had been put to death by the procu
rator Pontius Pilate, in the reign of Tiberius; but the deadly supersti
tion, though suppressed for a time, broke out again, not only through
out Judea, where this evil had its origin, but also through the city
(Rome), whither all things horrible and vile from all quarters flow and
are encouraged. Accordingly, first those were arrested who confessed;
then on their information a great multitude was convicted, not so much
of the crime of incendiarism as of hatred of the human race." The
passage reflects the proud, supercilious attitude of Rome toward the
Jews. But it also establishes definitely the outstanding facts regard
ing Jesus and suggests the numbers and character of his followers, who
were found in Rome as early as the middle of the first Christian century.
The historian Suetonius, writing about the same period, states that
Claudius "expelled the Jews from Rome because they were constantly
raising a tumult at the instigation of Chrestus." The popular error
which led Suetonius to believe that the founder of the Christian sect
was still in their midst does not invalidate this incidental reference to
the presence of Christians at Rome. More exact and informing is the
letter which Pliny the younger, while governor of Bithynia, in northern
Asia Minor, about 112 a.d., wrote to the Emperor Trajan. In his
official communication the cultured Roman official describes in detail
the Christians, whom he found in his distant province, and asks for ad
vice as to how to deal with them. Witnesses "affirm that the sum of
their guilt or error was to assemble on a fixed day before daybreak, and
sing responsively a hymn to Christ, as to a god, and to bind themselves
2

THE ROMAN HISTORIANS
with an oath not to enter into any wickedness, or to commit thefts,
robberies, or adulteries, or to falsify their work, or to repudiate trusts
committed to them. When these things were ended, it was their cus
tom to depart, and, on coming together again to take food, men and
women together, yet innocently."
The satirist Lucian, writing between 165 and 170 a.d., speaks of the
founder of the Christian religion as "a man who had been fixed to a
stake in Palestine, and who was still worshipped for having introduced
a new code of morals in life." Speaking of the followers of Jesus, he
declares that their master has persuaded them that they are brothers,
and they believe that they will live forever. Thus, before the end of
the second Christian century the followers of the humble Nazarene
had become so prominent in the Roman Empire that the leading his
torians and writers of the day, although despising them, could not pass
them by without at least a brief mention.
III. The Jewish Writers. The references in the Jewish writings
which come from the first Christian century are equally significant.
In his Antiquities (XX, 91) Josephus records the condemnation and
death of "James, the brother of Jesus, the so-called Messiah (or Christ)."
Josephus also apologizes for this act, saying that it was inspired by the
Sadducees, whose judgment is always harsh, and that the milder Jews
would not have approved it. Origen in three different passages con'
firms this reference of Josephus to Jesus (Contra Celsum, I, 47; II, 13;
Matt. X, 17). The famous passage in his Antiquities, XVIII, 3', in
which Josephus is made to assert that Jesus was a wise man, a worker
of miracles, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with joy, that
he was, indeed, the Christ, and that, although crucified, he rose again
on the third day, is clearly a later Christian addition. Although found
in all the extant Greek manuscripts of Josephus, it was unknown to
Origen and was first referred to by Eusebius. Hence it was probably
inserted between 250 and 300 a.d. Josephus's reference to the work
of John the Baptist still further supplements and confirms the biblical
narrative. Otherwise the Jewish writers of the period simply estab
lish the fact that Jesus lived; but they furnish no detailed informa
tion regarding his life and work. In all their references the later hos
tility between Jews and Christians is clearly reflected. Jesus is referred
to as "that man," "the one hung," "the Nazarene," "the fool," and
"Absalom ben Stade" (son of the stake).
IV. Evidence Found in the Catacombs. Very different is the
pathetic but effective testimony which comes from the Roman cata-
3

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS
combs. Over ten thousand inscriptions have thus far been deciphered.
Tradition states that in these underground quarries the bodies of a
hundred and seventy-four thousand Christians, many of them mar
tyrs, found their final resting-place. From the days of Hadrian, the
phrase "In Christ" became a constant recurring element in burial
inscriptions. Even more significant are the symbolic pictures which
decorate the walls of the catacombs. Over a hundred and thirty-two
themes are thus treated. As a result of the careful work of the Ger
man scholar Wilpert (published in his Corpus), these are now dated
with reasonable certainty. Twenty of these pictures come from the
first Christian century and are found in the famous room of Domi-
tilla of the Flavian family. The influence of Graeco-Roman art was
still strong. Three symbolic pictures, however, have biblical themes:
(1) Daniel among the lions, symbolizing God's protection of the faithful
in danger. (2) Noah, also symbolizing God's protection of his people.
(3) The Good Shepherd, represented by Cupid, the Roman god of love,
as a shepherd. In the paintings of the second century a great variety
of themes are introduced, such as the incarnation, represented by the
adoration of the wise men; the annunciation; and the divine nature of
Christ, illustrated by the healing of the paralytic and the woman with
the issue of blood. Christ's work as Saviour is illustrated by many
different symbols, as, for example, the sacrifice of Isaac, the Good
Shepherd, Noah, and Daniel among the lions, the last judgment, the
resurrection, and the life of the blessed in paradise. Even such sacra
mental themes as baptism and the eucharist are represented by Moses
striking the rock, the breaking of bread, the multiplication of loaves,
and other symbolic scenes. These pictures reflect, more clearly than
any contemporary literature, the popular religious thought of the early
Christians. They strongly confirm the main facts of the gospel story
and illustrate the beliefs of the early church. Above all, the heroism
and devotion which inspired them testify to the invincible power of
the spirit and teachings of Jesus.
V. The Uncanonical Gospels. During the first three centuries
many accounts of Jesus' life and teachings were written, but were so
legendary and of so little value that they were not included in the
canon, that is, the final authoritative edition of the New Testament-
but were known as uncanonical gospels. More than twenty-five such
gospels are referred to either by title or in quotations preserved by the
early Christian writers. Many of these writings bear the names of Jesus'
disciples, as, for example, the Gospel of Andrew, the Gospel of Bar*
4

THE UNCANONICAL GOSPELS
tholomew, and the Gospel of the Twelve. Of these many attempts to
record the life and teachings of Jesus, the majority were clearly later
than the canonical gospels, and possess little intrinsic value. Three un
canonical gospels, however, are of especial interest. The first is the
Gospel of the Hebrews. It was probably first written in Syriac, not
earlier than the second century. Among the early Christians of Pales
tine it ranked in authority with the Fourth Gospel. It was frequently
quoted by the early Church Fathers, who were the authoritative in
terpreters of the beliefs of the Christians during the second and third
centuries. About twenty-five of these quotations survive. Among
other things they tell of how Jesus' mother and brothers urged him to
go with them and be baptized by John. They also present a variant
account of Jesus' baptism, of his temptation, and of the story of the rich
young man. The value of this lost Gospel of the Hebrews is very dif
ferently estimated by scholars. Its point of view is in many ways
similar to that of Luke. The apologetic aim is also prominent. It
may possibly have preserved certain fugitive facts; but recent dis
coveries show that it is inferior in almost every respect to the canoni
cal gospels, and especially to the Gospel of Matthew, upon which it is
evidently based.
In 1886 there was discovered in upper Egypt a fragment of the Gos
pel of Peter, which comes from the second Christian century. This
fragment tells of the trial, crucifixion, and death of Jesus. It also
contains two resurrection stories. Its reference to Jesus as preaching
to those in the underworld is closely parallel to the corresponding pas
sage in I Peter 319. The book contains little supplemental historical
data, but is simply a fanciful version of the earlier gospel history. It
illustrates, however, the development of Christian thought during the
second century, and marks the transition from the canonical to the
distorted apocryphal gospels. The Gospel of the Egyptians, which is
known only through a few unimportant quotations, doubtless possessed
the same general characteristics as the Gospel of Peter. The earliest
references to it come from about 200 a.d. Apparently during the third
and fourth centuries it enjoyed a certain authority among the Chris
tians of Egypt.
VI. The Recently Discovered Sayings of Jesus. It is not im
probable that many of the sayings of Jesus which have recently been
discovered in Egypt are derived from the Gospel of the Egyptians. In
thought and form they are closely related to the Gospel of John, upon
which they appear to be based. It is doubtful whether any of them
5

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS
may be dated earlier than the second century. While they suggest
the fascinating possibility that almost contemporary records of the life
and teachings of Jesus may yet be discovered, those thus far unearthed
add little to our knowledge of his original utterances. One or two may
contain the actual words of Jesus, as, for example: "Jesus saith, ' Where-
ever they are . . . and there is one . . . alone, I am with him. Raise
the stone and there thou shalt find me; cleave the wood and there am
I.'" The following utterance: "Jesus saith, 'Let not him who seekg
. . . cease until he finds, and when he finds, he shall be astonished,
and astonished, he shall reach the kingdom, and having reached the
kingdom, he shall rest,'" probably reflects an original saying It is
preserved by the Church Fathers in the briefer form : "He who wonders
shall reign, and who reigns shall rest." Several of these sayings are
colored by that ascetic and ritualistic spirit which is the exact opposite
of that which Jesus taught and did: "Jesus saith, 'Except you fast to
the world, you shall in no wise find the kingdom of God; and except
you keep the Sabbath, you shall not see the Father.' " Most of these
utterances seem but the reverberating echoes of the sayings which the
canonical gospels present in their more nearly original form.
VII. The Writings of the Church Fathers. It is natural to
expect that in the voluminous writings of the learned and devoted
Church Fathers many facts and teachings not preserved in the New
Testament would be found. This expectation, however, is unfulfilled,
and the reason is because the data were no longer available. The pos
session of written gospels evidently led the Christians of the second
and third generations to relax their zeal in preserving current oral tra
ditions. Justin Martyr, the successor of the apostles, adds a little
information regarding Jesus, as, for example, the statement that in his
home in Nazareth he made yokes and ploughs; yet it is not clear whether
even in this case the basis was not a conjecture drawn from Jesus'
command, "Take up my yoke, " rather than the memory of an actual
fact Of the sayings of Jesus reported by the Church Fathers, practi
cally all, in form and content, resemble the teachings found in the gos
pels. The most significant are: "Be approved money-changers; dis
approving some things, but holding fast that which is good." "Never
rejoice except when you have looked upon your brother in love."
"They who wish to behold me and lay hold on my kingdom must re-
wive me by affliction."
VIII. The Apocryphal Oospels. Far more barren than the writ
ings of the Church Fathers are the so-called apocryphal gospels. These

THE APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
fanciful accounts of supposed incidents in the life of Jesus, like the
apocryphal books of the Old Testament, were written too late to be
included among the New Testament writings. They deal for the most
part with the birth and infancy of Jesus, and supply by the aid of pious
imagination the answers to the popular questions which werq.raised
with increasing insistency by the later church. Two of them, the
Proto-Evangelium of James and the Arabic Gospel of the Infancy, may
come from the latter half of the second Christian century. The re
mainder cannot be dated earlier than the third, fourth, and fifth cen
turies. Most of them have survived and are highly esteemed in the
Roman Catholic and Greek churches. They not only reiterate in
greater detail the stories found in the opening chapters of Matthew and
Luke, but state that the Virgin Mary was also immaculately conceived
and guarded from all that might defile. The Gospel of Thomas con
tains grotesque and almost blasphemous stories regarding Jesus' boy
hood, attributing to him miracles that are purposeless and unethical.
The titles suggest the contents of the following gospels: Concerning
tbe Birth of Mary, History of Joseph the Carpenter, and the Passing
of Mary. The Acts of Pilate contains a popular tradition regarding
the trial of Jesus and makes the Roman procurator bear testimony to
the innocence and divine character of the great Teacher. These gos
pels have practically no historical value, but they reveal the tendencies
later at work in the church, and the profound impression that Jesus'
personality and work made upon the world.
IX. Acts and Revelation. The New Testament books, other
than the four gospels, like the writings of the Church Fathers, supply
surprisingly little supplemental data. Acts 2035 has preserved thi3
priceless and undoubtedly original teaching of Jesus: "It is more blessed
to give than to receive." The apostolic sermons found in Acts are
valuable, however, not so much for the information regarding Jesus"
life and teachings, as for the evidence which they furnish regarding the
trend of early Christian thought and teaching. The chief aim of the
early apostles was to convince their hearers that Jesus was, indeed, the
Messiah, and to interpret the shame of the cross in the light of the older
scriptures. Similarly, the book of Revelation is of historical value be
cause it shows how prominent were the Jewish apocalyptic ideas in the
Christian church during the latter half of the first Christian century.
These Jewish messianic and apocalyptic tendencies strongly influenced
the writers of the New Testament gospels and explain why so much atten
tion is given in these narratives to Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection.
7

THE RECORDS OUTSIDE THE GOSPELS
X. Paul's Epistles. The writings of Paul contain the oldest biblical
reference to the life and teachings of Jesus. His earliest epistles, those
to the Thessalonians and Galatians, were written only about two dec
ades after the death of Jesus. Before the close of the first quarter-
century following that event the great apostle to the Gentiles com
pleted his work and probably sealed it by martyrdom at Rome. If
Paul did not himself stand among the crowds to whom Jesus spoke,
he associated closely with his disciples and had ample opportunity,
first as a zealous persecutor and later as a devoted follower, to learn
from the lips of eye-witnesses the details regarding his Master's life
and work. The facts which Paul preserved are, therefore, profoundly
significant; yet they are also exceedingly meagre. The reason for his
comparative silence regarding the events of Jesus' life is obvious. Paul,
as he frequently states (II Thess. 25 I Cor. II23 15'), was writing to
those who had already been instructed in the main facts of the Christian
faith. In his letters he was also dealing with specific problems that
had arisen in the churches. He, in common with those to whom he
wrote, was looking for the speedy return of Christ. Hence his gaze
was fixed on the present and future rather than on the past. Above
all, he was interested in the death and resurrection of Jesus as Messiah
and Saviour, rather than in the details of his life and teaching.
Paul speaks of Jesus as born of the seed of David (Rom. I3), under
the Mosaic law (Gal. 44). He also describes Jesus as meek and gentle
(II Cor. 101) and as a man who knew no sin (II Cor. 5")- He refers
to Jesus' preaching ministry (Gal. I9 Rom. 15s) and to his sending out
apostles (Gal. 2s I Cor. 9»). He declares that he lived the life of obe
dience (Rom. 51'), for the sake of mankind endured poverty (II Cor. 8»),
and suffered the death of the cross (Rom. 4^ 56-10). Paul refers re
peatedly to Jesus' crucifixion. In I Corinthians ll"-** he gives a de
tailed account of the Lord's supper, and in 151"8 is found the oldest and
clearest description of the visions of the risen Jesus that came to his
disciples after his death. The centre of Paul's interest is shown by
the fact that he refers to the resurrection thirteen times. These scat
tered references in Paul's epistles represent the oldest New Testament
records of the life and teachings of Jesus. While this earliest gospel
is exceedingly brief, it confirms the more important incidents reported
in the gospel histories.
XI. The Value of the Extra-Gospel Testimony. If our four
canonical gospels had been lost, the main facts regarding Jesus' life
would nevertheless have been preserved: his serene trust in God, his
8

THE VALUE OF THE EXTRA-GOSPEL TESTIMONY
kindliness and friendliness toward all men, his life of poverty and ser
vice, his dauntless spirit, his work as a teacher, the date and manner of
his death, the rapid increase of his followers, and their devotion, which,
like that of their Master, flinched not in the presence of death. The
extra-gospel sources tell also of the beliefs, as well as the spirit, which
Jesus inculcated in the minds of his followers. This testimony is not
that of one but of many groups of writers. Supercilious Roman his
torians, hostile Jews, ardent apostles like Paul, learned Church Fathers,
and heroic martyrs all unite in testifying to the historical certainty of
Jesus' life and work. This army of witnesses is reinforced by the
innumerable heroes and heroines of the commonplace who, touched
by the spirit of Jesus, bear uncontrovertible testimony to the potency
of his personality and ideals. In establishing the historicity of Jesus
and in conforming the data underlying the New Testament records,
the testimony of these many Roman, Jewish, and Christian witnesses
is invaluable; but the fact remains that, beyond one or two clearly
authentic sayings, they add practically nothing to what is found in
the canonical gospels. Evidently the New Testament gospel writers
garnered the field so thoroughly that no important gleanings were left.
In the writings of the second and following centuries pious imagina
tion or dogmatic philosophizing vainly sought to supply what memory
had failed to retain. For the historical details of Jesus' life and teach
ing we must turn to the New Testament gospels, and especially to the
older records embodied in the first three, as our chief and practically
only sources.

n
THE CONTENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
FOUR GOSPELS
I. The Contents of the Gospel of Mark. The Gospel of Mark
is to-day recognized by all authorities as the oldest of the gospels. It
is pre-eminently the narrative gospel. It falls naturally into three
great divisions, with an introduction and an epilogue. Inasmuch as
it furnishes the chronological framework for both Matthew and Luke,
a detailed analysis of its contents is essential to a use of the gospel data
in reconstructing the life and teachings of Jesus. The following out
line suggests its structure:
Introduction: Summary of John's work and of Jesus' baptism
and temptation, l1-13.
A. Jesus' Work in Galilee, l"-?28.
1. Beginning of his work of teaching and healing, l"-«.
2. Growth of pharisaic opposition, 2u-3*.
3. The call of the Twelve, S1'^.
4. The teaching by parables, 41_M.
5. Confirmation of his authority by miracles, 4SS-6U.
6. The fate of John the Baptist, 61*-29.
7. Miracles illustrating Jesus' power over nature, 630-5*.
8. Conflict with the scribes and Pharisees, 71-*8.
B. Jesus in Retirement with His Disciples, ^"-lO68.
1. Miracles of healing, 7M-82».
2. Revelation of his coming death, W-Q**.
3. Glory through service, 933'50.
4. The spirit of renunciation, 101-31.
5. The rewards in the kingdom, 1032-46.
6. Healing the blind beggar at Jericho, lO48-51.
C. The Closing Scenes at Jerusalem, ll'-ie8.
1. Assertion of his God-given authority, 11*— 12u.
2. Teaching in the temple, 12"-".
3. Warning of coming judgment, 13.
4. Events leading to the betrayal, 14l-ra.
10

THE CONTENTS OF THE GOSPEL OF MARK
5. Peter's denial, 1463' "• <*-™.
6. Jesus' trial and crucifixion, 1468-84 151-88.
7. The burial and the empty tomb, lS40-^8.
Epilogue: The resurrection experiences, 169-20.
II. Its Plan. The general order of the Gospel of Mark is both
chronological and geographical. The chronological data, however, are
exceedingly vague (cf. 21 81, "in those days"). They become definite
only in the detailed account of passion week. Within the main sub
divisions the narratives appear to be arranged, not chronologically, but
topically, so as to conserve the evangelist's purpose. A detailed study
of the contents of this gospel confirms the conclusion that when it was
written the exact sequence of many of the events in the life of Jesus
was so far forgotten that to record them in the exact order in which
they occurred was no longer possible.
The brevity of Mark's introduction reveals his purpose. His in
terest centred in the active work of Jesus rather than in his childhood
and in the experiences that led up to his public activity. In this re
spect Mark is typical of the first generation of Christians. Unfortu
nately the original conclusion of the gospel has been lost, for it breaks
off abruptly in the middle of the eighth verse of the sixteenth chapter.
The present epilogue in 169"20 is apparently a later addition. Its vo
cabulary, literary style, and representation are all different from those
found in the body of the gospel. It is in reality a composite of verses
taken from other gospels. By an early tradition it was attributed to
the presbyter Aristion, who lived about 110 a.d.
Jesus' statement in Mark 1428 that "after I am raised up I will go
before you into Galilee" implies that the original conclusion told of
Jesus' appearance in Galilee. It was probably lost either through an
accident that befell the last leaf of the manuscript or else because its
contents were not in accord with the tradition which later won the chief
place in the teaching of the church.
III. Its Characteristics. The characteristics of the Gospel of
Mark are clearly defined and throw much light upon its purpose as
well as upon its historical value. It is the most vivid of all the gos
pels. The different incidents are portrayed with great detail and rich
local cslor. The words are chosen because of their strength and fit
ness to portray action. The present tense is frequently employed and
is often abruptly introduced into the context where Greek and Eng
lish usage demand the past tense. The constant recurrence of the
adverb "immediately" adds greatly to the vividness of the narratives.
11

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR GOSPELS
Simplicity and clearness are also characteristic of the gospel. It con
tains few involved sentences. "And" is the common connection, a3
in the simple narratives of the Old Testament. The presence of cer
tain Latin words and idioms and the author's habit of constantly reck
oning in Roman money impart to it a Roman atmosphere. The au
thor often uses colloquialisms and words drawn from the common
speech of the people, for which the cultured Luke, when he quotes
from the Gospel of Mark, substitutes more classic synonyms. In many
cases the syntactical constructions are loose and the antecedents in
definite. These characteristics all suggest that Mark gathered his mate
rial from popular sources and from the lips of those who were in close
touch with the humblest classes in the early Christian community.
The spirit of this gospel is modest and joyous. It portrays clearly
the humanity of Jesus. Thus in 66 it states that he was unable to do
any mighty works in his home town. It records the many early morn
ing hours spent by Jesus in earnest prayer (l35). It tells how his family
and friends attempted to put a stop to his activity, thinking him rash,
if not insane (320, 21) . In its accounts of certain miracles, as, for example,
that of the healing of the blind man (S24-26), the different stages in the
cures are described. Nowhere else in Christian literature do we find
more interesting and illuminating flash-light pictures of the real Jesus,
whose sincerity and charm were irresistible. These artless reminis
cences, far better than a formal biography, introduce us to the ener
getic, tireless worker, devoted to his God-given task of helping men to
find their true goal in life. He is fond of children (9s8 10"); he loves
the rich young man (10a), as well as the shepherdless masses. He is
stirred by indignation and torn by grief (36). He yearns for the intel
ligent appreciation of his friends (S27"29). He is profoundly distressed
by the evidences of their disloyalty (1434"37). Through these earliest
pictures we look upon the face of Jesus and realize why he drew all men
to himself.
IV. The Aim of the Gospel. The Gospel of Mark is more than a
mere historical record. Like all the gospels it was written for a prac
tical, evangelistic purpose. That purpose was evidently to provide a
gospel for the guidance and use of the early Christians and especially
of the missionaries, as they went forth, like Paul, to proclaim Jesus to
the Gentile world. For this reason the author rarely refers to the Old
Testament. Whenever he introduces references to Jewish customs or
Jewish places he explains them. As in the sermon attributed to the
apostle Peter in Acts 10, its aim was to lead the heathen to a faith in
12

THE AIM OF THE GOSPEL
Jesus by showing how "God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy
Spirit and power and how he went about doing good and curing all
oppressed by the devil: for God was with him" (Acts 1038). This
practical purpose explains the prominence given to miracles and espe
cially to the cure of demoniacs. The method of the author was objec
tive and dramatic, He sought to kindle faith and to lead the Gentiles
into loyal discipleship, not so much by telling what Jesus taught as by
vividly portraying what he was^nd by recounting the miracles which
he performed. This hand-book for the use of early Christian evange
lists was well fitted to inspire personal devotion and loyalty to that
marvellous healer of men's bodies and minds and souls.
V. The Contents of Matthew. The German scholar Julicher has
called the Gospel of Matthew "the most important book ever written."
In the early church it was certainly the most influential and popular
of all the gospels. Its contents fall into five main divisions:
A. Introduction, V-4?3.
1. Birth and childhood of Jesus, 1, 2.
2. The work of John the Baptist, 31"11.
3. Jesus' baptism and temptation, 313-41T.
B. Jesus' Work in Galilee, 4I8-1368.
1. His teachings, 418-729.
2. His miracles, W-Q*.
3. Call and mission of the Twelve, 9»-10«.
4. Effects of his work upon the people, upon the Pharisees,
and upon his methods, 11-13.
C. The Crisis and Rejection in Galilee, and the Founding of
the Church, 14-18.
D. Activity in Perea and Jerusalem, 19-25.
E. The Passion and Resurrection, 26-28.
The general plan of the Gospel of Matthew is closely parallel to that
of Mark; but there is a strong tendency to arrange the material within
the divisions in groups of five or ten. Thus the section 8l-9a contains
ten examples of Jesus' work of healing. The great body of his teach
ings is massed in the "Sermon on the Mount" (5-7), and is classified
logically rather than chronologically. In contrast to the order and
plan of Mark the teachings are assigned the central place, and the nar
ratives are introduced simply to give them an effective setting.
VI. Characteristics and Aims of the Gospel of Matthew. In
Mark Jesus is presented as the Healer and Friend of men; in Matthew
he is pre-eminently the great Teacher. In contrast to the Gospel of
13

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR GOSPELS
Mark, the atmosphere of Matthew is distinctly Jewish. References to
Jewish customs and Palestinian places are common and the interpre
tation of their meaning for Gentile readers is rare. The one custom
that is interpreted, that of releasing a prisoner at the Passover, was
Roman rather than Jewish in its origin. This gospel contains over
forty quotations from the Old Testament. Apparently one of the
chief aims of the author was to demonstrate that Jesus and his work
were the fulfilment of the older messianic prophecies. These fact*
imply that the author had Jewish Christians primarily in mind. There
is also a marked tendency to idealize the disciples and to ignore the
incidents that present them in an unfavorable light. The passages in
the" Gospel of Mark which illustrate Jesus' humanity are, as a rule,
not quoted. Jesus' prophetic and miraculous power is emphasized.
The later church and its problems are far more prominent. There is
also a strong tendency to adjust the teachings of Jesus to the needs.
and customs of the growing Christian communities; but the spirit of
the gospel is thoroughly broad and catholic. Jesus' mission is by no
means limited to the Jews. Their opposition and rejection of the
great Teacher are denounced in strongest terms. What the Jews have
rejected is here offered to all mankind. The lessons learned by the
Christian church during the half-century following the death of Jesus
are woven into the gospel. The word "church" is here found on the
lips of Jesus (1618 18"), even though it would seem that the term was
first used long after his death.
In the light of these characteristics it is clear that the Gospel of
Matthew aims primarily to prove that Jesus is the promised Messiah,
not only of the Jews, but of all the human race, and to establish the
fact that his kingdom is universal. The contents and arrangement
of the material also indicate that the author was seeking to present
the teachings of Jesus fully and systematically in order to provide for
the use of converts and the instruction of the young a practical manual
of Christian faith and conduct.
VII. The Contents of the Gospel of Luke. Renan has called
the Gospel of Luke "the most beautiful book ever written," and few
will question this statement. Its literary unity is more complete than
that of the other gospels. The following is its general plan:
A. Introduction: Birth and childhood of Jesus and the work of
John the Baptist, 1-3.
B. The Beginnings of Jesus' Work, 4-6.
C. The Height of His Galilean Activity, 71-9!0.
14

THE CONTENTS OF THE GOSPEL OF LUKE
D. Incidents and Teachings in Connection with His Journey
to Jerusalem, OP-IO*.
E. Activity at Jerusalem, 1928-2138.
F. The Passion and the Resurrection, 22-24.
Luke follows in general the order of Mark, but adds the account of
the birth and boyhood of Jesus. He omits, for the most part, Mark's
account of Jesus' period of retirement and inserts instead a large group
of teachings, chiefly parables, which are peculiar to this gospel. He
also distributes the teaching material, adjusting it to the historical set
ting. Thus he combines in balanced proportion the narratives which
are primarily emphasized in Mark with the teachings which are made
central in Matthew.
VIII. Characteristics of This Gospel. The Gospel of Luke con
tains from beginning to end illustrations of its author's finished literary
style. The quotations from the simple Gospel of Mark are often re
cast and replaced by classic Greek words and phrases. The sentences
are balanced and closely knit. The vocabulary is large and rich.
Many medical terms and phrases are used. The style is fluent and
refined. At times the language is hyperbolic and is thus rendered
exceedingly impressive. Striking contrasts abound, for example, be
tween light and darkness, the rich and poor, God and Satan. Its tone
is supremely joyous and happy. Prayer and praise resound through
out it from beginning to end. Children frequently appear on its pages.
It is pre-eminently the gospel for the young. Women occupy an
especially prominent place in this gospel. Its opening chapters con
tain the songs of Elizabeth and Mary. It alone introduces us to the
home of Mary and Martha and to the ministering women who, like
the disciples, shared in Jesus' work. It recounts the parable of the
quest of the housewife for the lost piece of money and the story of the
healing of a sadly afflicted woman.
It is also the gospel of repentance. Forgiveness and faith are
characteristic notes. The poor and afflicted are frequently mentioned.
The humanitarian motive is strong. The author's interest is with the
needy rather than with the rich and powerful. Luke alone has pre
served the wonderful parables of Dives and Lazarus and of the good
Samaritan. It is evident that when the book was written the narrow
Jewish bonds had been broken and the gospel message had become
universal. Thus the Gospel of Luke adds many beautiful and essen
tial elements to the portrait of Jesus. It reveals, as does no other
gospel, his love for the poor and needy, and emphasizes those broad so-
15

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR GOSPELS
cial principles which give his teachings their pre-eminent value in this
modern social age.
IX. Aim of the Gospel. The author of the Gospel of Luke, with
the truly scientific spirit that characterizes his writings, has clearly
stated in his opening paragraph the motive that impelled him to write:
"Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compose a narrative, upon
the themes that are a matter of conviction among us; even as they
were transmitted to us by those who were eye-witnesses and servants
of the word from the beginning, I also determined, as I have accurately
investigated all from the very first, that I would write for you in order,
most excellent Theophilus, to enable you to understand the reliable
truth about the affairs of which you have been informed." The con
tents of the gospel cpnfirms the author's statement of his aim. It
was designed to give a systematic and complete picture of both the life
and teachings of Jesus. It aimed to point out thereby to all men the
way of life; for the needs of Luke's Greek friend Theophilus were
felt by every one who had been touched by the spirit and ideals of
Jesus. The aim of the gospel was, therefore, in a true sense historical;
but in common with all the gospels it was primarily religious and
practical. X. The Contents of the Fourth Gospel. In passing from the
first three gospels to the fourth, a marked change in plan as well as
atmosphere is at once recognized. This gospel contains three great
divisions, with a brief introduction and an appendix:
Introduction: The word Incarnate, l1-18.
A. Jesus' Activity in Galilee, Judea, and Samaria, lI9-671.
B. His Work in Judea and Perea, 7-12.
C. The Final Scenes at Jerusalem, and His Self-Revelation to
His Disciples, 13-20.
Appendix, 21.
The Fourth Gospel lacks the literary as well as the general chrono
logical unity of the first three. The connection at many points is sud
denly broken. For example, a more satisfactory logical order is ob
tained if chapter 716-24 is placed after 5, and 15 and 16 after 1&1*. It
is possible that, in the process of transmission, these sections have been
disarranged and that the order suggested is the original. While there
are evidences of a general chronological plan, the detailed incidents
and teachings are grouped so as to conserve the practical aims of the
gospel. Seven great signs or miracles are recorded, beginning with the
changing of the water into wine at Cana and concluding with the raisins
16 g

THE CONTENTS OF THE FOURTH GOSPEL
of Lazarus. These signs are introduced to illustrate the main teach
ings of the gospel. Thus, for example, the feeding of the five thousand
introduces the teaching that Jesus is the bread of life. The raising of
Lazarus is the prelude to the memorable utterance, "I am the resur
rection and life." The Fourth Gospel presents universal principles and
truths rather than mere historical facts. Different witnesses to the
character and claims of Jesus are marshalled in their turn: John the
Baptist, the disciples, the multitudes, the typical miracles, Jesus' own
declarations, and last of all the account of his resurrection.
XI. Characteristics and Aim of the Fourth Gospel. The Gos
pel of John is in diction the simplest but in thought the profoundest of
all the gospels. Its vocabulary is even more limited than that of Mark.
Only a few of the most prominent connectives are employed; and yet
in this seemingly most lucid of gospels are found the deepest and most
complex theological doctrines. The same teachings are presented with
the aid of a great variety of allegorical figures, as, for example, the
bread of life, the living water, and the vine. The thought is philo
sophical, although the illustrations are concrete, and the figures are
exceedingly vivid. The tone of the gospel is richly spiritual. It is
obviously the product of mature meditation and wide experience. The
point of view is that of the later church. The chief themes are the great
problems which, near the end of the first century, stirred it to its very
foundations. To meet these problems and to deliver the church from
the perils which beset it the author of the Fourth Gospel wrote. His
purpose was also personal and practical. He definitely states his aim
in 2031. It is "that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah the Son
of God, and that believing you may have life in his name." In the
author's mind, belief is the chief essential for man's salvation, and the
two essential beliefs are that Jesus was the Messiah and that he was
in a unique sense the Son of God. All the details of this marvellous
gospel are shaped to prove this thesis. Its object, therefore, is not to
give, as do the first three gospels, a picture of what Jesus actually did
and taught, but rather to substantiate the beliefs regarding him that
were held by a growing body of Christians and so to reveal the soul of
the Master that men may find their true life through him.
XII. A Comparison of the Four Gospels. There are certain
characteristics common to the four gospels. The first is their absolute
sincerity. The second is their intense devotion to him whose life and
teaching they seek to record or to interpret. The third is their recog
nition of his divine character and authority. They were all inspired
17

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR GOSPELS
by intensely practical aims and were intended to meet certain definite
needs, which arose in the early history of the church.
Each has its own marked individuality. The brief, simple, vivid
narrative of Mark may be described as the popular, evangelistic gospel.
It presents those dramatic personal facts in which the common people
were intensely interested. It relegated to the background detailed
teachings and doctrinal questions which concerned only the learned.
Matthew is pre-eminently the teaching gospel. The prominence given
to the teachings of Jesus and the topical arrangement of its material
made it the manual that was most widely used in the early church for
instruction regarding the work and teachings of Jesus. Luke is the
humanitarian, social gospel. It makes sharp distinctions between the
rich and the poor, the ruling classes and the masses. It defines the
fundamental obligations of the individual, not only to God, but to his
fellow-men, in terms of love and sympathy and service. It is the gospel
which presents most clearly Jesus' teachings regarding the way along
which society must proceed in order to solve its social problems. The
Fourth Gospel is the doctrinal gospel, for its avowed and dominant
aim throughout is to establish the fundamental doctrines of the early
church and to interpret in universal, philosophical terms the signifi
cance of Jesus' character and work.
Although in many details the gospels contradict, yet, as a whole, they
richly supplement each other. The character and work of Jesus were
so many-sided that in order to interpret and appreciate them it is
necessary to consider them from many different points of view. Each
gospel represents a different and indispensable point of approach. The
task of the historian is first to determine the point of view of each of
these witnesses and then to estimate and combine their testimony so
as to gain a true impression of what Jesus actually was and did and
taught. That the gospels contain the data for the satisfactory accom
plishment of this most vital of all tasks is the conviction of all construc
tive biblical scholars.

18

ra
THE WRITTEN SOURCES UNDERLYING THE
GOSPELS
I. The Relation of the First Three Gospels to Each Other.
The first and most important step in the study of the life and teachings
of Jesus is to distinguish the older historical sources incorporated in the
gospels, to determine their date and point of view, and to estimate
their historical value. In accomplishing this task two guides are avail
able: (1) A careful study of the contents of the gospels and of their re
lation to each other. (2) The testimony of early Christian tradition.
In many ways this problem is similar to that presented by the earlier
historical books of the Old Testament, only it is more complex. The
same historical and literary methods are applicable and lead to similar
constructive results.
The comparison of the contents of the first three gospels has shown
that they agree in the general order of events. Even such a discon
nected incident as the healing of the paralytic appears in the same
relative position in all three gospels. Matthew, on the whole, shows
greater freedom in departing from the order of Mark than does Luke,
but in both the first and third gospels these divergences are rare. It
is only in chapters 22 and 23, which contain the account of passion
week, that Luke departs radically from the narrative of Mark. Ma
terial not found in Mark is usually grouped together in Matthew and
Luke, as, for example, in Matthew 5-7 or Luke 6^-83 or 961-1814-
II. Their Agreement in Substance and in Verbal Detail. A
comparison of the first three gospels shows that they agree not only
in general order but also in contents. Three-fourths of the gospel of
Matthew is practically a duplicate of Mark, and eleven-twelfths of the
entire Gospel of Mark is reproduced in the same or in a slightly variant
form in Matthew. With three or four exceptions, Matthew quotes,
either wholly or in part, every narrative found in Mark. If the Gos
pel of Mark were to be lost, nearly three-fourths of it could be found
in or reconstructed from Luke. The material found in Mark but not
in Matthew or Luke represents less than an ordinary chapter. This
19

WRITTEN SOURCES UNDERLYING THE GOSPELS
original Marcan material includes the parable of the seed of corn in
428 -*• and the reference to the flight of the young man at the time of
Jesus' arrest (1461' 62). Furthermore, the Gospel of Matthew has prac
tically no narrative material not found in Mark, except the stories of
infancy, the account of the healing of the centurion's servant, and of
the way in which Jesus paid the temple tax (1724-27), and certain minor
incidents in his trial before Pilate. Luke, on the other hand, has con
siderable narrative material not found in the other gospels. It in
cludes such stories as the raising of the widow's son at Nain (711"17),
the anointing of Jesus' feet (736-60), Jesus at the home of Mary and
Martha (1038"42), the healing of the crooked woman (1310"17), the ac
count of the ten lepers (1711-19), the conversion of Zaccheus (191-10),
Jesus before Herod (236-12), the penitent thief (2339_43), and the journey
to Emmaus (2413"36).
The gospels of Matthew and Luke contain an exceedingly large
number of the sayings of Jesus which are not found in Mark. In many
passages the agreement both in narratives and teachings between these
two gospels amounts to practical identity (cf., e. g., Matt. II2"19 and
Luke 718-35). This verbal agreement extends through verses and some
times through long paragraphs. Peculiar words and phrases and even
the detailed order of sentences are thus reproduced, proving beyond
doubt that the two gospel writers drew not from oral but from the same
written sources. Frequently in one of the gospels, as, for example,
Matthew, the parallel narrative found in Mark is condensed or ex
panded (cf., e. g., Mark 614"29 Matt. 143"12). Luke as a rule recasts
the material which he quotes from Mark or the teaching source more
freely than does the author of Matthew. More rarely, one of the gos
pel writers combined a narrative found in Mark with a variant account
of the same incident evidently taken from the teaching source common
to Matthew and Luke (e. g., Matt. lO6'42 231"39). In the Fourth Gos
pel, on the contrary, close parallels, such as are found between the first
three gospels, are almost unknown. In a few cases the author of this
gospel has freely paraphrased a story found in a preceding gospel, as,
for example, the description of the feeding of the five thousand (cf.
61-13); but ordinarily the narratives and teachings of the Fourth Gos
pel are fundamentally different from those found in the first three.
III. The Synoptic Problem and Its Solution. These signifi
cant coincidences and variations between the different gospels are the
basis of what is technically known as the synoptic problem. From
the closing years of the eighteenth century the first three gospels, be-
20

THE SYNOPTIC PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION
cause of their striking similarity in or»!er, contents, and point of view,
have been known as the synoptic gospels. The energy and acumen of
New Testament scholars during the past two centuries have been de
voted to examining the coincidences and variations between the gos
pels with the practical purpose of determining their origin and relative
historical value. Every verse and phrase has been subjected to the
most careful study and comparison. While there is yet no general
agreement regarding minor questions, in its significant aspects the
synoptic problem may be said to have been practically solved. With
out discussing the detailed evidence, we may accept two points as es
tablished: (1) The Gospel of Mark is the source from which Matthew
and Luke derived their order of events and their common narrative
material. The theory that Mark was derived from Matthew and Luke
is no longer regarded as tenable, for both Matthew and Luke share in
common with Mark certain material which is found there in a fuller
and evidently the original form. Moreover, as has been noted, Mark
contains certain narratives not found in either Matthew or Luke. (2)
For their accounts of the work of John the Baptist, the baptism and
temptation of Jesus, and for most of their reports of Jesus' teachings,
Matthew _and Luke drew from a common written source or sources
no longer extant (ordinarily designated as Q, from the German word,
Quelle, source, cf. VII).
IV. The Important Variations of the Fourth Gospel. The
wide and fundamental variations of the Fourth Gospel present another
exceedingly complex but vital problem. At certain points this gospel
agrees with the other three, especially in regard to Jesus' trial, cruci
fixion and resurrection; but in general it follows its own order and
presents a radically different picture of Jesus' life and teachings. The
chief scene of Jesus' activity is not Galilee, but Judea and Samaria.
The proclamation of his messiahship and his cleansing of the temple are
placed, not at the end, but at the beginning of his work (l41"46- " 218"20).
His" relation to the Jews is represented as being from the first one of
bitter opposition and denunciation. Even the miracles differ widely
from those recorded in the first three gospels. The changing of water
into wine in Cana of Galilee and the raising of Lazarus to life after he
had been four days in the grave are nowhere mentioned in the synoptic
gospels, even though the latter miracle falls in the period which they
record most fully. The Fourth Gospel adds many details, as, for ex
ample, Jesus' words to Judas at the last supper (1327) and his procla
mation of his kingly authority before Pilate (1833"37). Like the Gospel
21

WRITTEN SOURCES UNDERLYING THE GOSPELS
of Matthew, it omits most of the narratives which illustrate his human
traits. The literary form of Jesus' teachings in the Gospel of John is also
very different. The same vocabulary and idioms appear throughout
and strongly indicate that the teachings, as well as the narratives, come
from the same pen. Long discourses and allegories, as, for example,
that of the vine and branches, replace the brief epigrammatic prov
erbs, paradoxes, and parables of the synoptic gospels. In general,
Jesus is represented as emphasizing, not the character of the kingdom
of God and how it can be entered, but his own personal claims and
men's obligations to him. The earlier doctrine of repentance almost
entirely disappears, and individual salvation is defined primarily as a
recognition of Jesus' divine authority. Paul's doctrine of the pre-
existence of Jesus and of his right of divine homage takes the place of
the simple synoptic portrait of the divinely gifted Teacher and Friend
of sinners who knew and satisfied men's deepest spiritual and moral
needs. These wide variations indicate that, while the Fourth Gospel
is of the greatest importance in interpreting the broad significance of
Jesus' work and in revealing the point of view and beliefs of the early
Christian church, it is only of secondary and supplemental historical
value. The one important exception is the priceless story of Jesus'
treatment of the woman taken in adultery, which in certain versions is
appended to John 7. Otherwise the oldest and chief historical sources
for both the life and the teachings of Jesus are found in the synoptic
gospels. V. The Early Tradition Regarding the Origin of the Gospel
of Mark. Inasmuch as both Matthew and Luke depend chiefly upon
Mark for their narrative material, the origin and history of the Second
Gospel are questions of great importance. Papias, the bishop of Hier-
apolis, in Phrygia, who wrote between 130 and 160 a.d., states that
"Mark, who was Peter's interpreter, wrote down accurately, though
not in order, all that he recollected of what Christ had said or done.
For he was not a hearer of the Lord, nor a follower of his; he followed
Peter, as I have said, on a later date, and Peter adapted his instructions
to practical needs, without any attempt to give the Lord's word system
atically. So that Mark was not wrong in writing down some things
in this way from memory, for his one concern was not to omit or falsify
anything he had heard." The Mark to whom Papias refers was John
Mark, the son of Mary of Jerusalem and a nephew of Paul's missionary
companion Barnabas. He must have been a young man at the time
22

THE ORIGIN OF THE GOSPEL OF MARK
of Jesus' death. The fact that the Gospel of Mark alone preserves
the obscure statement regarding the young man who fled away on the
occasion of Jesus' arrest (1461- 62) suggests, although it does not abso
lutely prove, that the one thus introduced was John Mark. In any
case, he appears to have been little more than a boy when the events
which he records transpired. He therefore cannot properly be counted
as an eyewitness, although it is not improbable that certain details
regarding the passion week are the report of his own personal obser
vation. Mark accompanied Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary
journey (Acts 13s). Later, Paul refused to take him with him, although
afterward he was reconciled to him. Colossians 410 refers to a visit
Mark was soon to make to the Colossian church. These few histori
cal facts indicate that Mark, though a Jew by birth, was intimately
acquainted with the Gentile world. He fully understood the problems
and need of the Christians outside Palestine and the necessity of plac
ing in the hands of the missionaries of the second generation a popu
lar, vivid account of those incidents which illustrated Jesus' character
and method. Mark's residence in Jerusalem also brought him into
close personal touch with Peter and the other apostles; in fact, his
home from the first was an important meeting-place of the early Chris
tian community. Hence, of all the Christians of his generation, Mark
was in many ways uniquely fitted to write the gospel which bears his
name. VI. Mark's Sources. The contents of Mark's gospel in general
substantiates Papias's statement that it was based on the memory of
incidents related by Peter, although it contains additional matter. It
is made up of loosely connected memorabilia. Its strong Aramaic
flavor is probably derived from the original language which Jesus used
and in which Peter doubtless preached to his Jewish hearers. It con
tains precisely the material which a popular preacher like Peter would
naturally use to impress the people. Further evidence that Peter
speaks through this gospel is the fact that up to 8" (where he comes to
the forefront) the narrative is disjointed; after that the arrangement
is systematic. In the list of disciples found in 316-1' Peter is men
tioned first, even though the important sons of Zebedee are introduced
immediately after him, and Peter's brother Andrew is given fourth
place, indicating that the arrangement is not accidental but deliberate.
Peter is unquestionably, next to Jesus, the most important character
in the book, and details are recorded which at first were only known
23

WRITTEN SOURCES UNDERLYING THE GOSPELS
to him. The frankness with which his faults and mistakes are set
forth is probably due to his spirit of self-effacement — a characteristic
that we naturally expect to find in a true disciple of Jesus. It is not
entirely clear whether the present order in the Gospel of Mark is due to
Mark or to a later editor. At first glance Papias' s statement suggests
that the arrangement is not the work of Mark. But Papias evidently
had in mind the order of the teachings in the Gospels of Matthew and
Luke, which were regarded much more highly by the early church;
for he refers to the lack of systematic arrangement of words rather than
of incidents. It is probable, therefore, that the gospel, practically in
its present order, comes from Mark, and that in this form it was used
by the authors of Matthew and Luke.
The clearest evidence of editorial work is in 13. The nucleus of this
chapter seems to have been certain original utterances of Jesus regard
ing the fate of Jerusalem; but the passage as a whole voices the pop
ular beliefs regarding Jesus' second coming that were current in the
later church (cf, e. g., II Thess. 2). A discourse extending through
a long chapter is without parallel elsewhere in the Gospel of Mark.
The language of the passage is also different from that of the rest of
the gospel. The statement in 1314: "Let him who reads understand,"
implies that this apocalypse was in written form when it was intro
duced into the Second Gospel. It was apparently intended to restrain
the fanatical hopes of the Christians in the troublesome days that
marked the destruction of Jerusalem and the scattering of the Jewish
race in 70 a.d.
In addition to the information derived from Peter, Mark appears
to have incorporated some of the doctrines of Paul. An educated
Christian, living after the middle of the first Christian century, and
closely associated with the great apostle to the Gentiles, could not fail
to feel the influence of that master of men. Yet in comparison with
the Fourth Gospel, the Gospel of Mark contains surprisingly few traces
of Paul's peculiar ideas and phrases. Its broad universalism is char
acteristic of the church of the day. The earliest apostles, as well as
Paul, were interested in the problem presented by Jesus' crucifixion
and found in his resurrection its satisfactory solution. Jesus' human
ity, as well as his divine character, is fully recognized by Mark- but
there is no trace of Paul's doctrine of Jesus' pre-existence. Withal
the influence of Paul is here exceedingly small compared with that of
Peter and the early disciples. Thanks to Mark's concrete rather than
philosophical type of mind and his early associations, he has given us
24

MARK'S SOURCES
a marvellously faithful record of that unique impression which Jesus
made upon his first disciples.
There are indications that he was also acquainted with a part, if not
all, of the common teaching source (Q), quoted by both Matthew and
Luke. In the account of John the Baptist, of Jesus' temptation, of
his commission to his disciples, and in the allusions to other incidents
and teachings, Mark shows a familiarity with a fuller narrative and
teaching source than his actual quotations indicate. Thus, for exam
ple, he simply epitomizes Jesus' directions to his disciples which are
quoted in fuller form from their common teaching source by Matthew
and Luke" (cf., § CXXVIII*).
VII. The Earliest Record of Jesus' Work and Teachings (Q).
The exact extent of the older source that lies back of the synoptic gos
pels and constitutes one of the two chief foundations of Matthew and
Luke is still an open question. There are certain data that may be
interpreted as evidence that it originally consisted not of one but of
several independent written documents. Furthermore, it is not clear
whether or not a majority of the teachings of Jesus found only in Mat
thew or in Luke come from this common source. Their use of Mark
indicates that neither of them quoted all of their available material,
and that some themes interested one gospel writer more than another.
The analogy is still further instructive. As a rule, Matthew quotes
Mark more literally than does Luke, while Luke is more careful to
preserve the original order of incidents. The same habits probably
governed them in their use of the common teaching source or sources.
Whether or not this common material was found in one or in two or
more originally independent documents is comparatively unimportant,
It possesses literary, doctrinal, and historical characteristics which
indicate that all was written from the same general point of view, if
not by the same hand, so that it may be treated as one collection of
Jesus' sayings. Furthermore, if Luke's order be accepted as repre
sentative of the original, these quotations together constitute a more
or less closely knit literary unit; but it is practically impossible to
reconstruct a writing simply from later citations.
The testimony of Papias confirms the internal evidence furnished
by the gospels; for, after describing the work of Mark, he adds: "Now
Matthew composed the sayings [of the Lord] in the Hebrew [Aramaic]
language and every one interpreted them as he was able." The Mat
thew thus referred to is in all probability the disciple of Jesus who
bore that name. Papias's statement implies that this early Aramaic
26

WRITTEN SOURCES UNDERLYING THE GOSPELS
gospel consisted chiefly of utterances of Jesus. The general character
of the teaching material common to Matthew and Luke accords so
well with this description that its identification with Matthew's orig
inal Aramaic collection of Jesus' sayings is reasonably certain. Minor
errors, found in both Matthew and Luke and due to translation, indi
cate, however, that the authors of these gospels did not have the orig
inal Aramaic text but Greek translations of these sayings before them.
Papias's statement, "Every one interpreted them as he was able," sug
gests such versions. These were probably larger than the original
Matthean collection. In addition to the sayings of Jesus, this earliest
source appears to have contained accounts of the work of John the
Baptist, of Jesus' baptism and temptation, of the healing of the cen
turion's servant, and possibly of the feeding of the multitudes.
As in the case of Mark, the author of Matthew appears to have
quoted the common teaching source more exactly and fully than did
Luke. It is difficult to determine how many of the teachings peculiar
to the Third Gospel were derived from this source, for Luke freely re
casts his material and readjusts it to his aims and point of view. In
any case the original collection was probably larger than the quota
tions indicate. Its great intrinsic value would, however, lead the gos
pel writers to neglect no important teaching, so that it is not impos
sible that we know it practically in its entirety.
VIII. Characteristics and Value of the Earliest Source. The
literary characteristics of the sayings thus quoted are distinctive. Even
though they are obscured by oral transmission and the exigencies of
translation from a Semitic to an Aryan tongue, they undoubtedly in
troduce us, more nearly than do any other writings in the New Testa
ment, to the leading characteristics of Jesus' style and thought. Here
the poetic parallelism of the earlier prophets and sages reappears. The
literary style is simple, concise, and direct. Dramatic contrasts abound.
The figures are forcible and thought-compelling. They appeal to the
reason, the feelings, and to the will. The geographical horizon is
practically limited to Galilee. The point of view is distinctly Jewish;
but the hypocrisy and unreasonable ceremonial demands of the Phari
sees are sternly and uncompromisingly opposed. God's kingdom or
rule, in the present as well as the future, in the human heart as well
as in organized society, is made the goal for which every man should
strive. Here the whole emphasis is placed, not on what later genera
tions thought of the messenger, but on his message.
There are few traces of a nationalistic, apologetic, or ecclesiastical
26

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARLIEST SOURCE
bias. The influence of Paul's pervasive thought has not touched it.
Here it is that we gain the clearest insight into the purposes and ideals
of Jesus. Although two decades may lie between the days when Jesus
delivered his revolutionary message to the men of Galilee and the hour
when one of his disciples attempted to commit it to writing; yet, by
the aid of this oldest source, it is possible to hear his lifegiving words
as they fell from his lips; even as through the eyes of Peter and his
faithful interpreter Mark, we may see the Friend of sinners healing
the sick and teaching the eager crowds beside the Sea of Galilee.

27

IV
THE LITERARY HISTORY AND DATE OF THE
GOSPELS
I. The Period of Oral Transmission. In the light of the pre
ceding inductive study of the data, it is now possible to trace tenta
tively the history of the gospel records. There is no evidence that
Jesus ever wrote down any of his teachings. Like the rabbis of his
day, he depended entirely upon his disciples to preserve and transmit
them. On their minds and characters he inscribed his priceless mes
sage to humanity. The ideal disciple of that age was "one quick to
hear and slow to forget" (Sayings of the Jevnsh Fathers, 518). Another
favorite maxim of the scribes was "when a scholar of the scribes sits
and forgets a word of his Mishna, they account him worthy of death"
(Sayings of the Fathers, 312). Jesus' personality and work were cal
culated to make an indelible impression upon the minds of his fol
lowers. His teachings were cast in a form both easy to understand
and difficult to forget: the pointed proverb, the picturesque metaphor,
the epigrammatic precept, the thought-provoking paradox, and the
familiar parable. Justin Martyr, the earliest of the Church Fathers,
truly declares: "Short and concise came words from Christ, for he
was no sophist, but his word was a mighty work of God." Not only
was the attitude of Jesus' disciples toward his teaching receptive, but
these teachings were fixed in their memories by constant repetition as
they went about teaching and preaching. With true intuitions the
Christian church has recognized that the Spirit of God was at work in
the minds of his followers helping them to retain and proclaim the
truth (John 1613"15 142«).
There is every reason, therefore, to believe that during the two dec
ades following the death of Jesus they retained a remarkably faithful
impression of his life and teachings. While eye-witnesses survived
who could tell of what they themselves had heard and seen, there was
no need of writing. Those to whom the disciples spoke also had lit
tle acquaintance with books, while the widespread expectation of the
•peedy coming of Jesus left little incentive to write. That which the
1%

THE PERIOD OF ORAL TRANSMISSION
disciples orally transmitted included their reminiscences of the more
important incidents in his public activity, disconnected teachings,
and the stories that illustrated his teachings. To these were soon
added the doctrines which rapidly gained acceptance in the early
church. The homely, personal incidents in Jesus' life were first forgotten.
Of his ordinary intercourse with the people and with the disciples
there are but a few priceless reminiscences. Most of these human
touches, which are of especial interest to modern students, have largely
faded from the portrait. A few have survived in Mark; but they
have almost completely disappeared in the later gospels. But the
great outstanding facts and the most important teachings were evi
dently transmitted during the two decades following the death of Jesus
with marvellous vividness and detail.
II. Influences That Gave Rise to the Gospels. The impulse
that produced the earliest gospels came from both within and without
the church. The characteristics of these earliest gospels, as well as
the conditions amidst which Christianity expanded, indicate that they
were written to meet the growing need of records adapted to the in
struction of the young and of newly converted Christians. The death
of many of those who had themselves seen and heard Jesus led certain
scholars of the second generation, as Luke plainly states in his pref
ace, to collect from surviving eye-witnesses those facts and teachings
which they were still able to recall. The needs of the missionaries and
of the Greek-speaking Christians strengthened this tendency. While
there is every reason to believe that Jesus and his disciples originally
taught in Aramaic, by 60 a.d. a large proportion of his followers were
either Gentiles or Jews who lived in Egypt and the other lands of the
dispersion and so were unacquainted with that language. They there
fore required records of Jesus' life and teachings translated into Greek.
As early as 50 a.d. Paul began to write his epistles, and through them
a large section of the early church became acquainted with the use and
value of written records. This fact doubtless further intensified the
demand for written gospels.
III. The Earliest Records. Between 50 and 65 a.d. the influences
just considered became exceedingly strong. If Papias's statement that
the apostle Matthew made an Aramaic collection of the sayings of
Jesus be accepted, it may be dated a little before — certainly not long
after 50 a.d. It was, therefore, practically contemporary with Paul's
earliest writings. Whether or not Luke and the author of the present
29

THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE GOSPELS
Gospel of Matthew used the same translation of this older Aramaic
source is uncertain, but the internal evidence favors the conclusion
that the Greek version used by Luke was slightly different in detail,
if not in quantity, from that known to the author of Matthew. Pos
sibly Luke knew the earlier collection of the sayings of Jesus, simply
as it had been incorporated in one or more of the fragmentary gospels
to which he refers in his preface.
Mark's gospel must have been issued some time between 55 and 75
a.d. Ancient Christian tradition dates it after the death of Peter
(64-65 a.d.) and confirms the evidence within the gospel that it was
written at Rome. As has already been noted, the earlier collections
of the sayings of Jesus, probably in their Aramaic form, were already
in existence and known to Mark. If it was also accessible to his read
ers, many of Mark's significant omissions are at once explained. To
Peter's reminiscences he doubtless added data drawn from his own
observation and from the rapidly growing body of Christian traditions.
That his gospel might be adapted to the growing needs of the church
outside Palestine, he probably wrote in Greek, although the influence
of his earlier Aramaic oral sources are evident at every point and have
led some scholars to conclude that he must have written originally in
Aramaic. The Christian apocalypse quoted in Mark 13 and Mat
thew 24 must have been written about a decade later, soon after the
destruction of Jerusalem, for it reveals an intimate familiarity with
that event. Many New Testament scholars hold that this apocalypse,
and probably extracts from certain other written sources (e. g., Mark
73U-826) were added by Mark or a later editor of the gospels. At least
the detailed allusions to the destruction of Jerusalem seem to indicate
that the present Gospel of Mark was not completed until after 70 a.d.
The memory of the great catastrophe was still fresh in the mind of its
final reviser, so that there is every reason to believe that at least by
75 a.d. the gospel was current in its present form.
IV. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke. The obvious depend
ence of the Gospel of Matthew upon Mark in its final form indicates
that it must have been completed after 70 a.d. In addition to copious
quotations from Mark, it incorporated passages from the Christian
apocalypse quoted in Mark 13. It also drew largely from the earlier
collection of Jesus' sayings by the apostle Matthew. Not only the
sayings which it shares with Luke, but also the majority of the teaching
peculiar to it, probably came from this early source. This fact doubt
less explains why the first gospel bears the name Matthew. Side by
30

THE GOSPELS OF MATTHEW AND LUKE
side with the waning current of direct oral tradition, which had been
largely incorporated in the writings of Mark and the earlier collections
of Jesus' teachings, there appeared an increasing volume of ecclesiasti
cal tradition. This aims, on the authority of Jesus' teaching and ex
ample, to solve the new problems that confronted the Christian com
munity, to establish the doctrines which were being widely accepted,
and to reduce the principles laid down by the Master to definite rules
of conduct (cf., e. g., Matt. 1816"19). From this same source the author
of Matthew may have derived the stories of the infancy, which he tells
in his own characteristic literary form. There will doubtless always
be a difference of opinion as to how long a period these later additions
represent. Fortunately the question is comparatively unimportant.
The essential fact is that the heart of the gospel comes from Jesus' own
generation. The Gospel of Matthew in its final form may, in the light
of all the evidence, be dated between 75 and 80 a.d.
Contemporaneous with the original Gospel of Mark, that is, between
55 and 80 a.d., the early fragmentary gospels, to which Luke refers
in his preface, must have been written. They appear to have con
tained both narrative and teaching material. Possibly the author of
the Gospel of Matthew was acquainted with one or more of these
shorter gospels. It is probable, if not practically certain, that Luke,
as he implies in his preface, derived from them a large part of the
narratives and teachings found in chapters 96U-1814 of his gospel and
peculiar to it.
Luke's quotations indicate that his main sources were the Greek
version of the early sayings of Jesus and the Gospel of Mark. In addi
tion, like Mark, he probably drew from the testimony of eyewitnesses
and from popular oral traditions. His account of Jesus' birth, which
stands at the beginning of his gospel, still retains the simple idioms and
the poetic figures that characterized the speech and thought of the
common people. Luke's dependence upon Mark, his possible acquaint
ance with the Gospel of Matthew, and his apparent familiarity with
Josephus's writings are regarded by many as convincing evidence that
he did not write his gospel before 80; although a recent writer (Har-
nack, Neue Untersuckungen zur Apostelgeschichte, 86) would date it
as early as the sixth decade of the first century. A date about 80 a.d.
on the whole best accords with the internal evidence. That Luke,
the physician and friend of Paul, who later wrote the book of Acts as
a sequel, is the author of this gospel is now established beyond rea
sonable doubt. 31

THE LITERARY HISTORY OF THE GOSPELS
V. The Gospel of John. The author of the Gospel of John was
acquainted with all three of the synoptic gospels, so that he must have
written some time after 85 a.d. One of his chief sources is the teach
ing of the apostle Paul, whose influence was becoming ever stronger
in the Christian church during the second half of the first century.
Another source was the peculiar Grseco-Roman philosophy that ex
erted a powerful influence upon the Christian church during the second
and third centuries. This influence is revealed in the opening chapter,
where Jesus is declared to be the incarnation of the Logos or Word of
early Greek and Stoic philosophy. The problems with which the Fourth
Gospel deals and the beliefs which it sets forth are those which filled
the minds of the Christians of Alexandria and Ephesus during the
last decade of the first century and the opening years of the second
century. Notwithstanding the Palestinian atmosphere, the geographical ref
erences, the intimate personal touches, and the implications that the
author of the Fourth Gospel was an eyewitness of at least the closing
events in Jesus' life, modern students find it increasingly difficult to
hold, in the light of all the facts, that he was John, the son of Zebedee.
Even those who maintain ,that he was, frankly confess that the fiery,
ambitious "son of thunder," who figures in the gospel records, must
have undergone such a fundamental transformation and have drunk
so deeply at the fountain of Greek philosophy that he was in every
sense another man. The evidence is also becoming cumulative that
John, the son of Zebedee, early met a martyr's death. This event
is attested by the prophecy attributed to Jesus in Mark 1039 (before
75 B.C., cf. Matt. 2023). Papias also states clearly that "John was killed
by the Jews, thus plainly fulfilling, along with his brother, the prophecy
of Christ concerning him." This testimony has been still further con
firmed by the recently discovered Chronicle of Philip Sidetes, which
asserts that "Papias, in his second book, says that John the Divine
and James, his brother, were killed by the Jews." In the earliest church
calendars John and James are also commemorated as martyrs. The
ecclesiastical tradition that John, the son of Zebedee, lived to an old
age, seems to have arisen because he was confused with John the Pres
byter whom Papias mentions in connection with the son of Zebedee
and other prominent apostles. This confusion may also explain the
origin of the corresponding tradition, of which there is no trace earlier
than the second half of the second century, that John, the son of Zebe
dee, was the author of the Fourth Gospel. The prominence of John
32

A.D, 30

40

50

CO

70

80

90

100

SOURCES AND APPROXIMATE DATES OF THE GOSPELS

Rome

Call; ula

JESUS' LIFE AND DEATH

PETER'S S E R

18-36Caiaphas High Priest
26-36Pontius Pilate procurator
20-42Literary activity of Philo
37 Banishment of Herod Antipas
38 Persecution of Jews at Alexandria

IMPORTANT EVENTS

Clau iua

M O
N S

41-4:4 Reign of Herod Agrippa I.
44 Rebellion led byTheudas

50 Jews banished from Rome
50-60 Paul's missionary work
50-100 Agrippa II.
52-06 Rebellions in Palestine

09

04 Burning of Rome
Nero's persecution of Christians
66 Jews declare war against Rome

Vesp Lsian
79
— «m»
81
Don tiau

EJ-

70 Jerusalem and Temple destroyed
70-80Building of Colosseum
75-79J0sephus' Jewish War

80 Founding Rabbinical School at Jamnia

GOSPEL OF JOHN

90 Synod at Jamnia and the completion
of O.T. canon
93 Josephus' Antiquities
95 Persecution of Christians at Rome

THE GOSPEL OF JOHN
the Presbyter favors the conclusion, held by certain scholars, that he
was the author of the Gospel of John. The description, in John 2124' 25,
of the disciple who was the author of the Fourth Gospel, also applies
to him with singular appropriateness, for he was one of the two, outside
the ranks of the Twelve, whom Papias calls a "disciple." From the
evidence furnished by the Fourth Gospel and ecclesiastical tradition
it seems probable that he was a Jewish Christian, originally from Je
rusalem, who spent the latter part of his life in Asia Minor, making his
home at Ephesus. There he held a position of high authority, and
through his teaching and writings exerted an influence on the thought
of the Christian church that was only surpassed by that of Jesus and
Paul. VI. Conclusions. The history of the gospel records, as told by
the Church Fathers and revealed by the internal evidence, is far from
simple. The four canonical gospels do not represent parallel and dis
tinct lines of tradition. Instead, they and their sources interlace at
many points. The accompanying diagram aims to represent graphi
cally their complex relationship. Back of the earliest written sources
was a rich body of local traditions, preserved by those best fitted to
retain and transmit the treasures intrusted to their keeping. The
motives that led the earliest gospel writers to undertake their tasks
were natural and sincere. An earnest zeal faithfully to present the
facts characterizes all their work. Three primary written sources may
be distinguished: (1) the early collection of the sayings of Jesus, (2)
the original gospel of Mark, and (3) the other early fragmentary gos
pels from which Luke, and possibly Matthew, quotes. It is generally
agreed that these sources are the foundations of our four gospels.
The excellence and authority of the four gospels explain why the
stream of oral tradition dried up so quickly, for when once the early
Christians could turn to written records, they became independent of
the testimony of eye-witnesses. Furthermore, between 60 and 70 a.d.
these eye-witnesses began rapidly to pass away. These facts suggest
the reason why so few of the details regarding Jesus' life and teachings
have been preserved outside the gospel records. Fortunately the data
found in the gospels, although not so complete as we might wish, are
sufficient to give a faithful and life-like picture of what Jesus actually
was and did and of the immortal principles that he proclaimed.

33

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JESUS' LITE
AND WORK
I. The Division of Palestine after the Death of Herod the
Great. The year 4 B.C. marks a great transition in the political his
tory of the Jews and of Palestine. Hitherto the Maccabean kingdom
had been preserved practically in its integrity. Under Herod the Great
its bounds had been extended; but in 4 B.C. it was finally dismembered.
After a disastrous period of anarchy the details of Herod's will were
confirmed by Augustus, except that Archelaus was appointed tetrarch
rather than king. To this incompetent son of Herod were given
Judea, Samaria, and Idumea; to Herod Antipas, Galilee and Perea;
to Philip, the territory east of the upper Jordan (including Auranitis,
Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, Batanea, Banias, and Iturea). Of these three
subdivisions the territory of Archelaus was by far the richest. Geo
graphically it was the most unified, but the different races within its
bounds were bitterly hostile to each other. Archelaus unfortunately
possessed the evil, not the redeeming, characteristics of his father.
His rule, according to Josephus, was barbarous and tyrannical. He
succeeded in arousing the hatred of the chief men of Judea and Sa
maria, so that in 6 A.D., after a reign of less than a decade, he was ac
cused by them of mismanagement and banished by the imperial court
to Vienne in Gaul.
Quirinius was then sent to Judea to make a census of the population
and an estimate of the value of the property as a basis for taxation.
The bitter opposition aroused among the Jews suggests that it was
the first census imposed upon them by Rome. They resented it not
only because of their traditional superstition of being numbered, but
also because it was evidence of subjection to the hated heathen, and
made the payment of the Roman tax unavoidable. It was at this
time that the Zealots first appear in Jewish history. Although Galilee
was not affected by this census, these Zealots instituted there a revolt
which spread through Judea. They were the embodiment of the nar
row Jewish nationalistic spirit. Their watchword was: "No Lord but
34

THE DIVISION OF PALESTINE
Jehovah; no tax but that to the temple; no friend but the Zealot."
Their ambition was to throw off the yoke of Rome, and to realize it,
they showed themselves ever ready to unsheath the sword and to at
tempt the impossible. They were the extreme expression of that rest
lessness and bitter hatred of authority which increased rather than
diminished under the rule of Rome.
II. Judea under the Rule of Rome. Under Herod Jerusalem
had been transformed into a city of marble palaces and large public
buildings. Here were gathered the accumulated wealth and power of
the Jewish kingdom. Although, when Archelaus was deposed, the
capital of the Roman province had been transferred to Caesarea, beside
the Mediterranean, Jerusalem retained its old prestige. In their treat
ment of the Jews the Romans aimed to give as much freedom as pos
sible and to guard against stirring up their religious prejudices. The
image of the emperor was not placed on the coins that circulated
in Judea. The Roman standards were kept outside Jerusalem. The
Sabbath was regularly observed, and the Jews were permitted to slay
any foreigner who entered the inner precincts of their temple court.
Inasmuch as Judea was one of the eastern outposts of the empire and
subject to frequent revolts, it was placed under the immediate direction
of the emperor rather than that of the senate. Over it was appointed
a procurator, or governor, who was chosen from the ranks of the eques
trian or military class, and who reported directly to the emperor. Thus,
Judea was subjected to a type of military rule which was rigorous
although not onerous as long as its inhabitants submitted peaceably.
IH. Duties of the Procurators. The duties of the procurators
were of three kinds. Their first duty was to maintain order and to
administer the government of the province. In performing these func
tions they had the support, not of the regular Roman soldiers, but of
the auxiliaries. These were recruited from the Samaritans and the res
ident Greeks, for the Jews were not compelled to serve in the army.
The second duty of the procurators was to supervise the collection
and disbursement of the taxes. Of these the major tax was probably
levied by the local sanhedrin in each of the eleven townships or to-
parchies into which Judea was divided. It was then turned over to
the procurator, who, after making the necessary expenditures for im
provement and administration, sent the balance to Rome. The poll-
tax was probably collected in the same way.
Far more burdensome was the customs tax, for, in keeping with the
ancient oriental usage, it was farmed out, the "farmer" paying to the
35

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JESUS' LIFE
treasury a fixed sum, but collecting much more. This tax included
export and import duties levied on goods transported from city to
city or to or from the province, market taxes, taxes on necessities such
as salt, and tolls levied on bridges and harbors. The publicans, as they
are called in the English translations, were the men who bought these
local rights from the Romans and ultimately collected the customs
taxes. They were subject to peculiar temptations and were the vic
tims of an iniquitous system. They had to pay the exorbitant prices
imposed by those from whom they bought the privilege. On the other
hand, they were able, by threats and underhanded methods, to extort
outrageous sums from all classes in the community. Hence they were
the object of intense hatred, and were ordinarily classed, not without
reason, with sinners and outcasts. Jews, tempted by cupidity to take
up this occupation, were especially despised and hated, for they were
regarded not only as unprincipled robbers, but also as the allies and
agents of the heathen conquerors.
The third duty of the procurators was to administer justice in all
cases in which Gentiles were involved. Ordinary civil and even crimi
nal cases, in which only Jews were concerned, were apparently decided
by each local Jewish sanhedrin or else referred to the national sanhe
drin at Jerusalem. The right of capital punishment was taken from
the sanhedrin some time before 30 a.d., so that to carry out this ex
treme sentence the approval of the procurator was required. Questions
involving both Jews and Gentiles were also decided by this Roman
official or by his representatives. In all ordinary cases he was the
court of final appeal. Roman citizens, however, possessed the right
of appealing directly to the emperor. Thus, Rome, in keeping with
its usual wise provincial policy, introduced as far as possible its prin
ciples of justice and systematic administration, but at the same time,
for politic reasons, recognized local customs and institutions.
IV. The Organization and Authority of the Jerusalem San
hedrin. The sanhedrin first emerged into prominence as a national
institution during the Maccabean struggle. It was clearly the sue
cessor of the older Gerousia or assembly of the elders. Herod the
Great deprived it of most of its power, but this was restored under the
procurators. Its chief task was to administer the Jewish law. Hence
its functions were civil, criminal, moral, and religious. Its civil au
thority was limited to Judea, but its religious influence extended to
the farthest bounds of the Jewish world. It not only administered
the laws, but also enacted them. The statement in Josephus's Jewish
36

ORGANIZATION OF THE JERUSALEM SANHEDRIN
War, II, 7', implies that it collected the Roman tax both in Jerusalem
and throughout the province of Judea. It was also the municipal
council that administered the affairs of the city. According to the
Mishna, it had seventy-one members. At its head sat the high priest.
Vacancies were apparently filled by the sanhedrin itself. New mem
bers were chosen from the leading Jewish families. Although the high
priestly or Sadducean party was represented in the sanhedrin, the Phari
sees were in the majority, and through this representative national
assembly they ruled the Jewish world.
V. The Rule of the Procurators. Little is known regarding the
rule of the first three procurators, Coponius (6-9 a.d.), Ambivius (9-12),
and Rufus (12-15). Gratus was appointed by the Emperor Tiberius
the year following his accession in 14 a.d. According to Josephus,
Gratus deposed Annas, and appointed his son Eleazer in his stead.
After a year the procurator placed a certain Simon at the head of the
temple priesthood, and a little later Caiaphas, who figures in the gos
pel story. Tacitus (Annals, IV, 42, 43) states that while Gratus was
procurator (15-26 a.d.), the Zealots kept the people in a ferment,
and that there was much discontent because of the heavy taxation.
Gratus was succeeded in 26 by Pontius Pilate, who held the office of
procurator for a decade. He is described by Agrippa I as a man "of
unbending and recklessly hard character" (Ad Caium, 38). His chief
faults were his failure to understand the Jews, his rashness in stirring
up their prejudices, and his weakness in yielding ultimately to their
demands. Thus, contrary to the well-established Roman usage, he
attempted to bring the Roman flags into Jerusalem by night. He also
made the creditable attempt to bring water to Jerusalem by means of
an aqueduct; but in each of these instances he yielded to the storm
of protest which his action aroused. Later, when he set up certain
votive shields in the temple, the emperor himself, in response to a pe
tition of the Jews, condemned the act. He was finally dismissed in
disgrace because of his cruel treatment of certain deluded Samaritans
who attempted to follow a false Messiah. Thus Pilate's reputation
with contemporary Roman writers corresponds to the tragic r61e which
he played in the gospel records.
VI. The Character and Rule of Herod Antipas. Herod Antipas,
in contrast to his father, might well have been called Herod the Little,
for he inherited most of his ancestor's characteristics; but his achieve
ments and his vices were small in comparison. His building ambitions
found expression in the rebuilding of his first capital, Sepphoris. This
37

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JESUS' LIFE
Galilean village, situated on a hill a few miles west of Nazareth, he
surrounded by a strong wall and adorned with public buildings. At
tracted by the beauty and the tropical climate of the Sea of Galilee,
Herod later selected as a site the narrow stretch of coast plain along
the western side of the lake and there built a new capital, which he
named, in honor of his imperial patron, Tiberias. This city he also
surrounded by a strong wall and built within it a palace and a stadium.
Through it ran a street with colonnades; the general plan and appear
ance of the city was Graeco-Roman rather than Jewish. It was also
organized as a Greek city, with a council of six hundred and a com
mittee of ten with an archon at its head. The other two scenes of
Herod's building enterprise were Bethharan, across the Jordan from
Jericho, and the castle of Machaerus at the extreme southern end of
Perea. On this wild, picturesque site he also built a royal palace or
castle, which commanded a marvellous view of the Dead Sea and the
Judean hills on the west.
Jesus' designation of Herod as a fox well characterizes his fundamen
tal weakness. The term must, of course, be interpreted in the light
of the biblical conception of the fox — the skulking, treacherous animal
that destroyed or undermined the results of honest labor. This char
acteristic is well illustrated by Herod's treachery in secretly reporting
a victory won by the Roman general Vitellius before the real victor
could gain the favor of Tiberius. By this act Herod incurred the bitter
enmity of Vitellius, who, when governor of Syria, retaliated by bring
ing charges against him which resulted in his banishment by Caligula
in 37 a.d. Herod's failure to restrain his passion also led him to di
vorce his wife, the daughter of the Arabian king Aretas. This base act
influenced his former father-in-law to join later with Vitellius in charges
against him. His evil genius was Herodias, the wife of his half-brother
Herod Boethus, who left her former husband to share Herod's throne.
Notwithstanding his despicable personal character, Herod Antipas
appears to have given his subjects on the whole a peaceful and pros
perous rule. Galilee and Perea, with their broad valleys and rounded,
well-watered hills, supported a dense and active population. Here farm
ers, shepherds, fishermen, and tradesmen lived side by side. Across
Galilee ran the many highways which brought to it the products
of the outside world and in turn opened favorable markets. Herod's
subjects were for the most part the descendants of the Jewish colo
nists who had settled in Galilee and Perea under the rule of the
later Maccabean kings. While they were loyal to the laws of their
38

THE CHARACTER AND RULE OF HEROD ANTIPAS
race, they were not priest-ridden as were the Jews of Judea. They
were a simple, liberty-loving people, easily stirred to action by popu
lar leaders, as is shown in the history of the many uprisings led by
the Zealots. Among them were cherished the nobler ideals of Israel's
earlier prophets and sages. Nowhere in all the Roman world were
men to be found who were freer from heathen superstitions or narrow
fanaticisms. Hence it was not because of the mere accident of birth
that Jesus turned to Galilee as the most promising field for his work.
The province of Herod's third son, Philip, joined that of Herod Anti
pas on the east. Of the three sons of Herod, Philip was by far the best.
Although the rocky, diversified territory over which he ruled contained
the greatest variety of population — Jews, Greeks, Syrians, and Arabs
¦ — he established a strong and equitable government. His chief aims
seem to have been to develop the resources of his province and to con
serve the cause of justice and the best interests of his subjects. On
the fertile, well-watered plain south of Mount Hermon he established
his capital and named it Caesarea Philippi. Here he built a strong
Graeco-Roman city, the ruins of which still remain. At the northern
end of the Sea of Galilee, where the Jordan breaks through the Gali
lean hills and runs with many windings through a delta into the Sea
of Galilee, he built another Roman city. This he named Bethsaida
Julias, in honor of the daughter of Augustus. As its Jewish name
("House of Fish") indicates, it was the centre of the great fishing
industry that flourished at the northern end of the lake. This was
the Bethsaida which, with Capernaum and Chorazin, was the scene
of most of Jesus' public activity and the object of his saddest and
severest denunciations.
VII. Rome's Strength and Weakness. The larger background
of Jesus' work is the great Roman Empire. At the beginning of the
Christian era Rome represented two things: (1) the practical unifica
tion of the civilized world and (2) the universal establishment of law
and order. Rome's geographical position fitted her to be the mistress
of the lands encircling the Mediterranean. By gradual conquests the
Roman Empire had extended its bounds until under Augustus its power
was absolute throughout this favored centre of the world's earliest
civilization. Its unity was in part due to its strong military policy,
which enlisted in its armies men of all races, and taught them to fight,
not against each other, but for Rome. It was also considerate of the
customs and interests of the local peoples, and jealously guarded their
peace and prosperity. Broad, well-built highways were constructed
39

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JESUS' LIFE
over rivers, mountains, and deserts. These roads bound even the
most distant provinces closely to the home city. Over them passed
not only Rome's armies, but traders bearing from one part of the em
pire to another the ideas as well as the products of many different
peoples. Upon the conquered races Rome left the stamp of that pow
erful Graeco-Roman civilization which had reached its highest develop
ment under Augustus. To the beauty of Greek art and architecture
Rome added strength and utility. In connection with magnificent tem
ples and other public buildings there were constructed paved streets,
aqueducts, and sewers. These constructions were carried on even in
the most distant parts of the empire. On the borders of the desert
east of the Jordan the travellers still find many most impressive illus
trations of Rome's marvellous power to lift a semi-barbarous people to
a level of material civilization almost equal to that of the parent city.
Rome was also able to impress upon the conquered that high regard
for law and order which was the corner-stone of the empire. The re
sult was that the reigns of Augustus and of his immediate successors
were characterized by almost uninterrupted peace.
Notwithstanding her strength, Rome was pitiably weak at many
points. The old republican form of government had yielded to what
soon became an almost absolute despotism. Men like Tiberius, Cali
gula, and Nero proved unworthy of this great trust. About them they
gathered a nobility which grew more and more corrupt and profligate,
as it preyed upon the helpless masses. Even the senate and Tiberius
himself were appalled by the luxury and profligacy of their day, and
confessed their inability to check the glaring evils. Imperial Rome,
with its population of over a million and a half, was the centre of this
corruption. More than half of its inhabitants were paupers or slaves.
Slavery in Rome was far different from the mild institution found in
early oriental countries. The lot of these slaves, who were the victims
of the refined cruelties which only a highly developed but brutal civ
ilization is able to inflict, was pitiable and practically hopeless. They
were also a grave menace to the integrity of the empire. Above all,
the old religions, which in the earlier days had developed personal
strength and virtue, had become degenerate. Their priesthoods con
nived to prey upon the masses. Among the ruling class the worship
of the emperor was rapidly taking the place of the older cults. The
religions of the East, especially the seductive cults of Egypt and Phoe
nicia, attracted a wide following, even in the imperial city, and exerted
a pernicious and degrading influence. 40

THE NEEDS OF THE ROMAN WORLD
VIII. The Needs of the Roman World. Already, in the first
Christian century, the more thoughtful in the Roman Empire were
beginning to appreciate keenly the needs which the civilization of the
day failed to meet. One of these needs was a more powerful and per
manent unifying force than Roman arms and rule. A philosophy or
religion was also demanded that would satisfy the requirements of all
the varied elements in the empire. Each individual, whether a ruler or
subject, needed a standard of morals, enforced by religion, which would
enable him to strive for and obtain that which is of abiding value in
life. Of the current philosophies, Stoicism in many ways held up the
highest ideals. It taught the importance of virtue. Virtue alone is
good, for welfare and happiness depend entirely upon virtuous action.
Every man has a natural capacity for virtue. Hence Stoicism sought
to inculcate habits of sobriety and self-restraint and to lead its fol
lowers to live in accordance with the laws of nature. It emphasized
man's duties to himself, to God, and to all men. It enjoined considera
tion even for slaves. Epictetus taught that all men have God as their
father and are therefore by nature brothers. "Wherever one man is,
there is the place to do a good deed." But Stoicism was cold and self-
centred. It lacked enthusiasm and devotion to an heroic personality
that embodied its ideals. It failed to appreciate the joy that comes
from the complete giving of one's self to service. Above all, it was the
religion simply of the favored classes, and offered little hope and inspi
ration to the toiling masses. Stoicism, however, was one of the great
pioneers that preceded Christianity, and, hke Judaism, it prepared the
way for the new and greater force that was soon to be felt in the life
of the world.
Already Judaism had entered upon that proselyting movement which,
during the centuries immediately preceding and following the begin
ning of the Christian era, attracted many thoughtful Gentiles to the
religion of Israel's prophets and lawgivers. In Hillel, who died about
6 B.C., Judaism found in many ways its noblest exponent. He was
a brilliant and ardent student of Israel's scriptures. He was broad,
tolerant, and kindly in his attitude toward men and their problems.
Among his famous sayings was that one which recalls the correspond
ing teaching of Jesus: "What you do not like yourself do not to an
other. This is the whole law. All else is but amplification." He
also taught: "Be among the pupils of Aaron, who loved peace and pur
sued peace, who loved all creatures and guided them to the law."
Equally noble was his precept: "If you are where no men are, show your-
41

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF JESUS' LIFE
self a man." He was keenly alive to the importance of teaching, and
gathered about himself a large and enthusiastic body of disciples. His
influence was doubtless still strpng in Jerusalem when Jesus, as a boy of
twelve, visited the capital city. Judaism as a whole, however, was
inclined to follow the leadership of HillePs conservative contemporary
Shammai. The prevailing trend was toward ceremonialism. Rehgion
was made something austere and cold. For the ordinary sinners and
even the common toilers, who by virtue of their occupations could not
conform to the exacting demands of the ritual, the Pharisees had no
comforting or saving message. The Sadducean, high-priestly party,
which was in control of the temple and influential in the sanhedrin,
was grasping and unprincipled. Furthermore, Judaism was still only
a national religion. The spiritual heritage received from its earlier
prophets and sages was to a great extent forgotten or ignored. In
stead, hatred for Rome, contempt for everything not Jewish, emphasis
on the obligations of the ceremonial law, and impossible messianic
hopes occupied the attention of the great majority of the race. Ju
daism needed a great spiritual leader to loose its bonds, to single out
what was eternal and universal in its teachings, to adapt it to human
needs, and by his personality and life, as well as by his words, to inter
pret clearly and concretely man's divine possibilities.

te

THE EARLY LIFE AND WORK OF JESUS
§ CXXL JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
Now it came to pass in those days that a decree came from 1. The
Caesar Augustus that a census should be taken of the whole 5an
world. This was the first census when Quirinius was gov- census
ernor of Syria, and all went to have themselves registered, 2-.V
everyone to his own city. Now Joseph also went up from 2.
the city of Nazareth in Galilee into Judea, to the city of birth
David, which is called Bethlehem, because he belonged to (3 ')
the house and family of David, to have himself registered,
with Mary his wife, who was great with child. And while
they were there, the days were fulfilled that she should be
delivered, and she brought forth her first-born son. And
as there was no room for them in the inn, she wrapped him
in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger.
And when eight days had elapsed for circumcising him, 3. His
his name was called Jesus. "?^e
Now the child Jesus grew, and became strong; and the 4. De-
grace of God was upon him. ™enT
And his parents went every year to Jerusalem at the feast (")

visitto
Jeru salem

of the Passover. And when he was twelve years old, they First
went up to the feast as usual. And when the days were
completed and they were on their way back, the boy Jesus
remained behind in Jerusalem. And his parents knew it and Sis
not; but supposing him to be in the caravan, they went a f^ 're-
day's journey; and they sought for him among their kins- Jj**^
folk and acquaintances. And when they did not find him, tion"
they returned to Jerusalem, seeking for him. And it came (<1 so)
to pass, after three days they found him in the temple, sit
ting in the midst of the teachers, both listening to them,
and asking them questions; and all who heard him were
amazed at his understanding and his answers. And when
Joseph and Mary saw him, they were astonished; and his
mother said to him, Child, why have you treated us in
43

(SI-S2)

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
this way? Behold, your father and I sought you sorrowing.
And he said to them, Why was it that you sought me?
Did you not know that I must be in my Father's house?
But they did not understand the saying that he said to them.
6. And he went down with them and came to Nazareth; and
ienctuai, he was subject to them. And his mother kept all these
spirit- savmgS m ner heart. And Jesus kept on advancing in wis-
and dom and stature, and in favor with God and men.
physi
cal?™^th L The Accounts of Jesus' Birth. The interest of the oldest gos
pel writers was focused, not on the place or manner of Jesus' birth, but
upon his personality and his teachings. Mark and the early teaching
source (Q) began their narratives with an account of the work of John
the Baptist; but Luke, in pursuance of his purpose to give a compre
hensive and chronological account of Jesus' life, gathered the current
accounts of his birth and lineage. The Gospel of Matthew, interpret
ing the sign by which Isaiah sought to convince the vacillating Ahaz
(7U) as a messianic prediction, gives an account of the birth that is
quite independent of that of Luke. Thus, for example, in Luke the
angel that announces the birth of Jesus appears to Mary, but in Mat
thew, to Joseph. In Luke the announcement of the birth of the child
was made by the angels to the shepherds near Bethlehem; but in Mat
thew it was to the Magi by the star. In Luke the child is first taken
by his parents to the temple to be presented before the Lord. There
they find the aged Simeon and Anna the prophetess. "After they had
accomplished all things that were according to the law of the Lord,
they returned to Galilee to their own city, Nazareth" (Luke 289). But
Matthew states that they fled at once to Egypt to escape the merciless
persecution of Herod.
Notwithstanding the wide variations, both gospels agree (1) that
Jesus' Davidic descent was through Joseph, and (2) that he was born
amidst the most humble surroundings. All these stories emphasize
the profound, world-wide significance of his birth. For Jew and Gen
tile, king and shepherd, the wise and the lowly it meant indeed:
Glory to God in the highest,
And on earth peace among men.
Men's conclusions regarding the exact manner of Jesus' birth will
probably always differ, for there is strong biblical jvidence to support
44

THE ACCOUNTS OF JESUS' BIRTH
the belief in his natural as well as in his supernatural genesis. Only
Mary could decide absolutely that much-debated question, and none
of the gospels claim to present her direct testimony. Jesus nowhere
referred to the manner of his birth. Instead, he declared, when his
mother and brothers came to turn him aside from his mission: "Who
is my mother and my brother? He who does the will of God is my
brother and sister and mother" (Mark 3113' si). In all his teachings he
asserted that spiritual kinship was infinitely more important than mere
physical relationship.
Paul, the oldest witness and interpreter of Jesus, says nothing about
a supernatural birth. He employs idioms which would naturally be
used to describe the ordinary process of generation. Thus, in Romans
l3, he states that Jesus was "born of the seed of David according to
the flesh"; in 8s that he was "born in the likeness of sinful flesh"; in
9s he refers to the fathers of the race "of whom Christ was according
to the flesh" (cf. Gal. 41). The Epistle to the Hebrews makes the
fact that Jesus was "tempted in all points even as we are" the basis of
his work as the Friend and Saviour of men. Matthew, Mark, and
Luke, except in one verse (l34, which many scholars regard as an inter
polation that destroys the unity of the context), constantly speak of
Jesus as the son of Joseph the carpenter. In so doing they support
the unmistakable implication of the genealogies and of the Old Syriac
version of Matthew l18 which reads: "Joseph begat Jesus." The con
text of Luke 2s also favors the Old Latin translation, based on Greek
manuscripts of the second century, that reads "wife," instead of the
variant readings of the later Greek texts, "betrothed" and "betrothed
wife." On the other hand, the Christian church, since the second century,
has held tenaciously to the belief that Jesus was not born in the ordi
nary way. That belief appears to have been in part the popular ex
pression of a profound consciousness of Jesus' uniqueness and divinity.
It aimed to define that divineness in terms of origin rather than of
personality and teaching. It also reflects the influence of the prevail
ing attitude toward physical generation. The ancient Canaanites and
Phoenicians regarded the process of reproduction as a sacred mystery;
but in time, through their licentious religious practices, they so de
graded it that Jews and Christians alike, in their horror and revulsion,
ceased to appreciate its divine significance and sanctity. Hence, in
contemporary Judaism the belief was widespread that, as Philo ex
presses it (l13' m), "Every child of promise was born miraculously.'*
45

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
Elsewhere he states that "the Lord begat Isaac" (l1*7). The real hus
band of Leah was "the unnoticed." Zipporah was found by Moses
"pregnant, but not by man" (l147). Samuel was born of a human
mother who became pregnant on receiving divine seed. The tendency
was also general throughout the ancient world to regard the fleshly
nature as inherently sinful. This was one of the fundamental beliefs
of the Gnostic sects of the second century, and it permeated to a con
siderable extent the thought of the orthodox Christian writers. Later
it led to the development of monasticism, and the error still prevails
in many minds and many quarters. The creeds formulated during
the early Christian centuries teach that Jesus "was conceived of the
Holy Ghost and born of the Virgin Mary." The apocryphal gospels
which come from the same period still further develop this doctrine and
teach that Mary was likewise miraculously conceived, and that her
birth and life were attended by a series of prodigious portents.
Inasmuch as the biblical testimony is inconclusive, the question re
garding the manner of Jesus' birth is naturally answered according to
each man's individual training and point of view. The significant
fact, however, is that, whichever answer be accepted, Jesus remains
as unmistakably the Son of God as he is the Son of man. To all
thoughtful Christians the fact is self-evident that their conception of
God is almost wholly derived from the life and teachings of Jesus. As
the revealer of the divine Father he is divine. His life-giving words,
his heroic deeds, and his invincible power over the lives of men attest
convincingly to this scientific age, as they did to his earliest disciples,
his divine character and authority. To the men of to-day this uncon
trovertible testimony of practical experience is even more satisfactory
and convincing than the angels' songs and the supernatural portents
that strengthened, as well as expressed, the faith of the early church.
In a humble peasant village, amidst the insignia of poverty and toil,
Jesus was born. His birth and early training allied him with the count
less army of humble toilers whose physical, mental, and moral burdens
he sought to take from their weary shoulders. The beautiful narra
tives that have gathered about his birth will always continue to have a
large religious value and to hold an important place in the thought of
his followers, for they reflect humanity's ultimate appreciation of his
God-given mission and its world-wide meaning. Yet the fact should
never be overlooked that the marvellous charm of these narratives, lies
in those inimitable touches which link him with our common experiences
and needs. This element is especially strong in Luke's peerless ac-
46

THE ACCOUNTS OF JESUS' BIRTH
count of the humble peasant father, and mother and of the birth in
the lowly manger-cradle. Born "according to the flesh under the law,"
"tempted in all points hke as we are," Jesus set out on the narrow way
that led to complete oneness with his heavenly Father. As our elder
brother, he calls upon us to follow him along the same narrow path,
and thus to become perfect as he became perfect.
II. The Place and Date of Jesus' Birth. The answer to the often
mooted question, whether Jesus was a native of Nazareth or Bethle
hem, depends largely on the accuracy of Luke's detailed chronological
note in 21"4. The historical difficulties presented by his statement
regarding the enrolment under Quirinius have long been recognized.
Contemporary records indicate that Quirinius was not governor of
Syria until 6-9 a.d. and that Herod the Great died in 4 B.C. The evi
dence is conclusive that there was no universal census throughout the
empire under Augustus between 6 and 4 B.C. Although Josephus's
account of the closing years of Herod's reign is detailed, he makes no
reference to a local or imperial census in Palestine at this time; but in
6 a.d. Quirinius was governor of Syria and instituted a census in Judea.
It aroused such widespread opposition that it would seem to have been
the first taken in that province. The aim of an imperial census was to
establish the basis for a local property and poll-tax. It is, therefore,
not entirely clear why, as Luke implies, each Jew was required to re
turn to the home of his family or clan. In the light of these facts many
scholars hold that Luke here made a. mistake in dating the census of
Quirinius in 6 B.C. rather than 6 a.d.
On the other hand, it is urged in the light of a recently discovered
inscription that, as early as 6 B.C., Quirinius was serving under the
legate of Syria and might have been despatched to conduct a census in
Judea at that time. Evidence has also been found that the Romans
carried through a census in the province of Egypt a little before 6 B.C.
This may have extended to the neighboring territory of Herod. His
subserviency to the will of Augustus is well known. If the census had
been taken under his direction, it would doubtless have been arranged
so as not to arouse Jewish prejudices. Luke's historical accuracy, as
illustrated elsewhere in his writings, lends weight to his detailed state
ment in 21'4. Acquainted, as he was, with many of those who had
themselves known eye-witnesses of these early events, he was appar
ently in a position to verify his facts. His assertion, therefore, that
Jesus was born at Bethlehem carries large weight. Certain recent
writers have endeavored to identify Jesus' birthplace with the Galilean
47

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
Bethlehem, about ten miles from Nazareth, the modern Bet-Lahm
(.cf. Rix, Tent and Testament). The early church traditions, however,
as does Luke's narrative, point unmistakably to the Judean Bethle
hem, the home of David.
Outside the opening chapters of Matthew and Luke the implication
is that Jesus was born in Nazareth. In Mark 61"4 Galilee is spoken of
as his own country (cf. also Matt. 1364). The question in John l48,
"Can any good come out of Nazareth?" carries the same implication.
If the author of the Fourth Gospel had known that Jesus was born in
Bethlehem he would probably have stated that fact in his reply to the
objections of the Jews who raised the question, "Does the Christ come
out of Galilee? " For it was in keeping with the popular belief that the
Messiah must come "of the seed of David and from Bethlehem, the
village where David was." It has been urged that the stories which
associate Jesus' birth with Bethlehem were the logical outgrowth of
the Jewish belief that the Messiah must be of Davidic descent and
therefore born at the home of Israel's early king (cf. Micah 5s). In
view of the conflicting evidence the Christian church will continue to
think of Bethlehem as Jesus' birthplace until more conclusive proof to
the contrary is discovered.
The biblical evidence regarding the date of Jesus' birth is also not
entirely clear. There is little doubt that it occurred before the death
of Herod the Great in 4 B.C., but not long before that event. The Ger
man scholar Oefele has recently published an Egyptian papyrus roll,
now found in the British Museum, which gives the position of the
planets from 17 B.C. to 10 a.d. He computes on the basis of this docu
ment that between April 15th and December 27th of 6 B.C. there were
repeated conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn, and that on
the 27th of December the planet Jupiter became stationary in Aries.
Inasmuch as these remarkable conjunctions occurred only once in
many thousand years, they undoubtedly attracted widespread atten
tion throughout the ancient world and furnish the most natural expla
nation of the story of the visit of the Magi. In the light of all the
evidence the birth of Jesus may be dated with considerable assurance
in 6 B.C.
As is well known, the present system of reckoning time is due to an
error of mediaeval scholars. The exact day of Jesus' birth is, of course
unknown. The early church celebrated it on the same day as the
Epiphany, on January 6. The Armenian church still follows this
ancient custom. It is definitely known that in the fourth century
48

THE PLACE AND DATE OF JESUS' BIRTH
the Roman church began to observe the anniversary of Jesus' birth
on the 25th of December. As in the case of many minor questions in
the life of Jesus, the details have long since been forgotten; but fortu
nately the great facts of his work and teaching are established beyond
all doubt.
III. Jesus' Home. Jesus was probably the oldest of five brothers.
He had at least two, and possibly more, sisters. The names of his
brothers alone are given: James, Joses, Judas, and Simeon. The house
in which the peasant family lived was doubtless similar to the houses
found in Nazareth to-day: square, built of stone or brick, with a dirt
floor and a single door. The house was intended as a protection from
the heat of summer, the cold of winter, and the marauder by night.
Therefore there were few, if any, windows. In these narrow quarters
the family ate their frugal meal and, wrapped in their blankets, slept at
night on the cold floor or on mats. The level house-top, reached by a
stairway on the outside, was the common place of gathering in the day
time. There they often slept during the hot summer nights. Within
these same narrow quarters Joseph and his sons probably plied their
carpenter trade.
Jesus' high conception of fatherhood strongly suggests that Joseph
was wise, just, and considerate, and that he knew how to "give good
gifts to his children" (Matt 711). Unlike many oriental fathers, he
apparently took his children, and especially his eldest son, Jesus, into
his confidence, and thus established that relation of paternal comrade
ship which is prominent in Jesus' teachings. That he died before Jesus
entered upon his public activity is a well-established tradition, con
firmed by the reference in Mark 332 to Mary, where Joseph would nat
urally be mentioned, if he were living. The spirit of Jesus' home was
strongly religious. Three times a year the family probably went up
together to Jerusalem to the great feasts. According to John 73"10
Jesus' brothers on one occasion urged him, apparently against his incli
nation, to go with them to the Passover at Jerusalem. The motive
which led his kinsmen to seek to stop his public preaching was prob
ably their horror because he questioned the teachings of the learned
scribes and Pharisees. How early the responsibilities, which in an
oriental home rest heavily on the eldest son at the death of his father,
devolved upon Jesus we do not know. It was probably in early man
hood, and, if so, these responsibilities were important factors in the
training of the future Friend and Teacher of men.
IV. The Life at Nazareth. The town of Nazareth lay on a hill
side sloping to the southeast. The hill above it, on the west, rose to
49

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
the height of fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea and fully
a thousand above the Plain of Esdraelon to the south. , This hQl, easily
accessible from the town which lies in the hollow below, commands a
marvellous view of the historic scenes of central Palestine. To the
northwest, five miles across the rolling hills, was Sepphoris, the early
capital of Herod Antipas and the strongest military centre in Galilee.
To the west were the blue waters of the Mediterranean and the sharp
outlines of Mount Carmel, jutting far out into the Plain of Esdraelon.
This scene recalled the courageous work of Ehjah and the great victory
in early Hebrew history won through the inspiring leadership of Debo
rah. On the southeast rose the elevated plateau of Mount Gilboa,
the scene of Saul's last battle. Beyond were the hills of Samaria, with
Mount Ebal in the distance. Eastward the view extended across the
Sea of Galilee to the bold headlands of Gilead and the Jaulan. In
the nearer eastern horizon stood the rounded top of Mount Tabor,
only an hour and a half away. Near it ran the main highway through
the heart of Palestine from Egypt to Babylonia. Other roads ran
directly from Nazareth to the southwest, joining the great coast high
ways from Egypt to Phoenicia. On the northern horizon rose in ma
jestic succession the lofty plateaus of upper Galilee crowned by the
snow-clad summit of Mount Hermon. On the near-by hill-top the boy
Jesus must have spent many hours meditating on the picturesque
and significant world spread before his vision.
The town of Nazareth to-day has a population of about ten thousand.
In antiquity it was probably considerably smaller, for it was not fitted
by nature to be a large city. One copious spring furnishes the water
supply for the entire town. Here the men and women and children
gather as they doubtless did in the days of Jesus. In a small town
like Nazareth the life resembles that of a great family rather than that
of our modern cities. The weddings, with their glad songs and dan
cing, the funerals, with their sad laments, the losses and good fortunes
of each citizen are shared by all. The page of human life is opened
wide so that here he who will may read. Nazareth, with its slaves, its
laborers, its poor beggars, its just and unjust judges, was an epitome
of Galilee; and Galilee with its varied population was a type of the
larger Graeco-Roman world. In Nazareth, therefore, Jesus had ample
opportunity to study intimately the varied phases of human life, so
that in time it was unnecessary that any one should tell him, "for he
knew what was in the heart of man."
V. Jesus' Educational Opportunities. The training of every
Jewish child began in the home at the age of five and six, and his first
50

JESUS' EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
teacher was his mother. Before he could understand the meaning of
the words he waa taught the Shema, Israel's impressive creed, found
in Deuteronomy 64' 6 T: "Hear, O Israel. The Lord thy God is one
Lord. Thou shalt love the Lord, thy God, with all thy heart and with
all thy soul and with all thy might. The Lord did not set his love upon
you nor choose you because ye were more in number than any people,
for ye were the fewest of all peoples; but because the Lord loveth you."
As a child grew he was taught to write down these words and thus he
learned his letters. Later his mother interpreted their meaning and
told him the stories of Israel's heroes. At the age of six he was prob
ably sent to the synagogue school, where, in the common meeting-room,
the man who kept the synagogue further instructed the children in
the law and how to read and write. Cross-legged they sat in a circle
about their teacher, reciting aloud the Shema. These nineteen verses,
taken from Deuteronomy 64"9 11>3"21 and Numbers 15s7"41, were the con
fession of faith which every Jew throughout the world repeated each
morning and night. The training in the synagogue school was sup
plemented by the daily prayers and reading in the home. A prayer
was offered before and after each meal. At the first glimpse of the
rising sun the boy was taught to stop and give thanks. Probably
even at this period in the development of Judaism a metal box contain
ing the opening words of the Shema was placed at the door of the house.
This the boy was to touch whenever he left or entered his home. In
the Sabbath service at the synagogue he also listened to the reading
of the law and to the interpretation of a passage of the prophets by
the leader of the service or by some wandering scribe. In addition
to Aramaic, which was the language of his home, Jesus probably had
a reading acquaintance with both Hebrew and Greek. Hebrew and
Aramaic were but variant dialects of the same Semitic language, so
that the opportunities of the home and of the synagogue school were
sufficient to give him this working knowledge. The Greek version
of the Old Testament was also used by the Jews of Palestine as much,
if not more than the Hebrew version. A majority of the quotations,
even in the gospels, are from this later translation. In the larger cities
of Galilee and Judea Jesus constantly came into contact with a Gentile
population who spoke Greek, so that he had an opportunity to acquire
a certain familiarity with that language. It is not probable that his
family possessed a roll of the law or the prophets. At the synagogue,
in charge of the Chazzan, who cared for the building, were kept rolls
of the law, the prophets, and the other sacred writings. To these Jesus
51

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
doubtless had access. His words to the scribes, for example, in Mark
2M: "Have you never read what David did?" or in Mark 1210-M: " Have
you not read even this scripture?" (cf. also Matt. 125 194) imply that
he, like them, had not only read but carefully studied these ancient
scriptures. VI. Jesus' Visit to the Temple at the Age of Twelve. Another
great door of opportunity was opened to Jesus by the repeated journeys
which, after the age of twelve, he made to Jerusalem on the occasion
of the three great annual festivals. His first visit was an epoch-making
event in his life. It occurred at about the time when Archelaus was
deposed and Quirinius was instituting his hated Roman census. All
Judea was in a ferment. The impression made upon the mind of
Jesus is, perhaps, reflected in the parable of the nobleman who left his
estates to his servants and went into a far country, for Archelaus ap
pears here to have been the ruler that he had in mind. If the ven
erable Hillel was not still living, his disciples doubtless thronged the
temple courts and the echoes of his broad ethical teaching must have
fallen upon the receptive ear of the boy Jesus. Shammai at this time
probably stood at the head of the temple teachers, and his emphasis
upon the ceremonial rites of the temple and the traditions of the past
determined the accepted tenets of Phariseeism. This first visit was made
at an eventful moment in the development of the boy Jesus, for the
age of twelve marked the transition from boyhood to young adolescence.
It was the period of the first spiritual awakening when every normal
boy begins to feel strongly the stirrings of the social and religious im
pulse. The journey to Jerusalem was the culmination of the preced
ing years of training in his home and in the synagogue at Nazareth,
for now he assumed the full religious responsibilities that devolved upon
every faithful Jew. Henceforth he was under obligation to resort to
the temple three times a year (Ex. 34"' B) and to observe all the exact
ing demands of the law.
It requires little imagination to follow the boy from his home at
Nazareth, as he with his parents made his first pilgrimage to Jerusa
lem. Three highways were open: one ran southwest across the Plain
of Esdraelon to the Plain of Sharon, and thence up over the Pass of
Bethhoron to Jerusalem. The second and most direct road ran almost
due south along the great plains of central Samaria. Large companies
of pilgrims made this journey in safety, but, as a rule, all Jews avoided
the hated Samaritans. The route probably followed by Jesus' parents
ran first to the southeast, across the great central highway, along the
52

JESUS' FIRST VISIT TO THE TEMPLE
Plain of Jezreel to Scythopolis, the ancient Bethshean, and thence
along the western side of the Jordan Valley. A journey of four days
brought the pilgrims to Jericho. Thence they ascended four thousand
feet from the low tropical plain of the lower Jordan over the rounded,
barren, robber-infested hills of the wilderness of Judea up to Jerusalem.
Jesus' later reference to this road in the parable of the good Samaritan
indicates that he was intimately acquainted with it.. At last, passing
through Bethany and over the southern spur of the Mount of Olives,
the pilgrims gained their first glimpse of the Holy City. Then passing
across the Valley of Kedron, they probably entered the temple area
through the sheep gate on the northwest. Here they would find in
the great Court of the Gentiles, with its encircling colonnade, a med
ley of races, Jew and Gentile. Their ears would be deafened by the
cries of the money-changers and those who sold animals for sacrifice.
Proceeding toward the temple to the east, they next would ascend
the steps that led to the higher platform and enter the Court of the
Women. Leaving Mary here, Joseph and his son doubtless entered the
court of the Israelites and stood before the great rock-cut altar, on
which the priests were offering sacrifices, and listened to the songs of
the temple singers. Their attention was also attracted by the gilded
facade of the famous temple, which symbolized Jehovah's abiding
presence. Later, in the hush of Friday evening, either in the temple courts
or, more probably, at the home of some friend on the Mount of Olives,
or possibly at Bethany, Jesus, with his parents, kinsmen, and friends,
celebrated the solemn Passover meal. The introductory prayers, the
impressive formulas, the dramatic attitudes of the participants, and
the historic associations all aroused the patriotic and religious im
pulses latent within the young boy of Nazareth. The Passover re
called Jehovah's past .deliverances of his people and the sacred obliga
tions which they owed to him and to all the needy members of their
race. The feasts and ceremonies of the seven ensuing days were joy
ous as well as impressive. They gave large leisure for social inter
course and for personal contact with the acknowledged teachers of
the nation. That Jesus improved this opportunity to gain satisfactory
answers to the many questions that were already stirring in his mind
is plainly recorded in Luke's vivid narrative. It is only the Arabic
Gospel of the Infancy that represents him as a prodigy, instructing
the rabbis in the statutes of the law and the mysteries of the prophets.
Jesus' attitude was rather that of an eager learner whose earnest,
53

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
searching questions and answers amazed the by-standers. It reveals
a child who had improved in the fullest degree his earlier opportunities
and who was already intently studying and meditating upon the script
ures of his race.
His zeal for knowledge was so strong that it kept him in Jerusalem
even after the seven days of the feast were over. The departure of his
parents, leaving him behind, shows, incidentally, how complete was
their confidence in him. His mother's words on returning are also an
index of that strong, sincere affection which they felt for their eldest son.
Jesus' reply to their question has been variously interpreted. It cer
tainly is not a rebuke to his mother. The literal words are, "Did you
not know that I must be in the things of my Father?" The meaning
seems to be clear. The aim of all Jewish education and the purpose
of their visits to the temple was to learn about God, his commands,
and how to keep them. The boy of twelve, as often in his later public
activity, answered a question by propounding another: Am I not doing
that for which we made our pilgrimage to Jerusalem? The incident
reveals the presence at this early age of those interests which in maturer
years became the commanding motives in his life. Viewed from one
point of view, this simple story discloses to us what for the lack of a
better term we are wont to call a genius; but from another point of
view Jesus was simply a normal boy. Luke declares that Jesus grew
in wisdom even as he grew in stature, and that in increasing measure
he won the favor both of God and man. Luke strongly emphasizes
the fact that his development was gradual, progressive, and normal.
It illustrated Jesus' own words, "first the blade, then the ear, then
the full corn in the ear." These long years of natural intellectual and
spiritual growth are often forgotten; and yet they are of supreme im
portance in interpreting his character and work.
VII. His Acquaintance with the Scriptures of His Race. It is
significant that Jesus spent from twenty-eight to thirty years in prep
aration for a ministry which lasted not more than three years and pos
sibly only one. His world-transforming work was the culmination
of prolonged experience, observation, meditation, and thorough study.
From the records of his later teachings it is possible to distinguish
the ancient writings with which he was especially familiar. Although
doubtless acquainted with the legal writings as a whole, such deeply
spiritual passages as Deuteronomy 513"18 or 82' 3 or Leviticus 1918 ap
pealed to him most strongly. With the marvellous stories that fill
the pages of the Old Testament he was thoroughly familiar- Noah
54

HIS ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE SCRIPTURES
the Sodomites, David, Solomon, the Queen of Sheba, Elijah and the
poor widow, Elisha and Naaman, and the prophet Jonah, all figure
in his teaching.
Jesus was well acquainted with the great statesman prophet Isaiah,
from whom he drew the outlines of his parable of the vineyard keepers,
and the figure of the people who worship God with their lips but not
with their hearts (cf. Isa. 2913 Mark 76). Hosea's memorable words
(66), "I desire mercy and not sacrifice," were fundamental to all of
Jesus' teachings. In Jeremiah's arraignment of the religious leaders
of his nation (Jer. 711) he found the inspiration for his bold attack upon
the rulers of the temple who had made it again a den of thieves. From
Ezekiel, Daniel (713), and the book of Enoch, he appears to have de
rived his favorite self-designation "the Son of man." In the II Isaiah's
marvellous portrait of the suffering servant of Jehovah, Jesus found
the clearest formulation of his own ideal of service and of the way in
which it was to be realized.
The words of the psalmists were eagerly read by the youth of Naza
reth. He had committed to memory many passages from the Psalms,
for he repeatedly quotes them in his discussions with the scribes or to
express the deepest emotions of his soul (e. g., Ps. 22, 91, 102, 1101,
U822, 26) The Psalms, as no other Old Testament book, reveal the
simple, natural, deeply spiritual atmosphere in which Jesus' faith de
veloped. Although the fact is often overlooked, Jesus was also intimately
acquainted with the teaching of Israel's wise men or sages, and espe
cially with their pointed proverbs. Repeatedly he identifies himself
with these earlier teachers of men (cf. Matt. II19 Luke 736). Many
of his parables are based on figures suggested in the proverbs of the
Jewish sages. In one instance, at least, he reiterates a teaching of that
noble friend of humanity Ben Sira (cf. Luke 1216"21 and Ben S. 51). The
evidence is convincing that he singled out and assimilated all that was
best in the message of Israel's earlier teachers and made it the basis
of his own.
VIII. The Young Master Builder. In the gospel narratives Jesus
is called a carpenter and the son of a carpenter. The Greek word used
in Mark 63 suggests one who not only used the tools of this trade but also
planned and even directed constructive work. That Jesus' occupa
tion was limited to making yokes, as Justin Martyr states, is nowhere
confirmed by the implications of the older records. His interest in
the foundations of the temple, his parable of the houses built on a rock
55

JESUS' BIRTH, BOYHOOD, AND EARLY TRAINING
or on the sand, his allusions to the destruction of the temple and to
its being rebuilt, to the man who pulled down his granaries that he might
build larger, and to the builder who exhausted his resources before
completing his work (Luke 14s8"80) all imply that Jesus was a master
builder. The skill with which he trained and sent forth his disciples
indicates that he was accustomed to directing men. Several of the
parables, as, for example, that of the talents, or of the equally paid
laborers, or of the two sons who were asked to work for their father,
represent the point of view of the employer rather than that of the
employed. So also does his quick appreciation of the words of the
centurion who was accustomed to issuing coromands. At the same
time, it is clear that Jesus worked with his own hands, as well as di
rected others. His task was doubtless to build the roofs and the simple
woodwork required in the square houses of Nazareth. It may have
also included the building of the stone and mud foundations and walls
and the rude furniture and tools required by the citizens of the upland
village. But the main occupation of a carpenter in a settled town like
Nazareth was to rebuild the houses or barns that had fallen into dis
repair. In the rigorous climate of Galilee the mud walls and roofs
must constantly be restored, so that the chief task of the many that
fell to the local builder was to rebuild. If these conclusions are cor
rect, they throw much light upon Jesus' training for his life-work.
Amos as a shepherd, accustomed to be on a constant watch against
Arab marauder or wild beast, was thereby trained to be the watchman
who proclaimed to northern Israel the advance of the Assyrian lion.
Even so Jesus' work as a master builder led him to see the possibilities
in those whose moral character needed fundamental repair. His in
terests and methods, in contrast to those of the earlier teachers of
his race, were thoroughly constructive. He was pre-eminently a re-
builder and upbuilder. Under his powerful, positive influence diseased
bodies were restored to health, disordered minds became clear and
normal, men and women, held captive by the sinister power of their past
sins and wrong habits, were freed from their fetters. Jesus, with trained
insight, not only perceived the divine possibilities in each human being
however humble, but also showed him how to realize those possibilities.
Thus the Master Builder, by study, by meditation, and practical expe
rience, was trained in God's own way to become the master builder of
men. Moreover, he was able to train those who in turn became -build
ers of men so skilfully that through them his influence has gone forth
throughout all the world. 56

THE PERSONALITY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST

§CXXII. THE PERSONALITY AND TEACHING 30F JOHN THE
BAPTIST
Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, 1. The
Pontius Pilate being governor of Judea, and Herod being ^"of
tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the John
region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Sap-
Abilene, in the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas, the ^*ke
word of God came to John, the son of Zacharias, in the 3>» '
Wilderness of Judea: Repent, for the kingdom of Heaven 3$/.
is near. Now this John had a garment of camel's hair and §*?{•
a leather girdle about his loins, and his food was locusts
and wild honey.
Then Jerusalem and all Judea and all the country around 2. its
about the Jordan began to go out to him, and to be bap- ^®ctJ
tized by him in the River Jordan, confessing their sins. Liike^'
He said, therefore, to the crowds that went out to be bap- 3" "
tized by him, You offspring of vipers, who warned you to 3 His
flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth, therefore, fruits |^uto^
worthy of repentance and do not say to yourselves, 'We are TncT
descendants of Abraham' ; for I tell you, that God is able of $:"kc'.
these stones to raise up children to Abraham. Already the axe Matt.
is laid at the foot of the trees; every tree therefore that does
not bring forth good fruit is cut down, and cast into the fire.
And the crowd kept asking him, saying, What then must 4. His
we do? And he answered and said to them, He who has g™[-
two coats, let him give to him that has none; and he who coun-
has food, let him do likewise. And there came also tax- die-0
collectors to be baptized, and they said to him, Teacher, g™°4
what must we do? And he said to them, Extort no more (Luke
than is assigned to you. Soldiers also asked him, saying,
And we, what must we do? And he said to them, Use vio
lence toward none, neither accuse any one wrongfully;
and be content with your wages. 5. His
Now as the people were in expectation and all were argu- ^Si0"
ing in their minds about John, whether possibly he were f8!^-
the Christ, John answered, saying to them all, I indeed bap- ^Ices-
tize you with water; but one is coming mightier than I, the <L„ke
latchet of whose shoes I am not worthy to untie. He will *T^tt
baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire. His fan is 3".»)
57

THE PERSONALITY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST
in his hand and he will thoroughly cleanse his threshing
floor, and gather the wheat into his barn; but the chaff he
will burn up with unquenchable fire.
I. The Records of John's Birth and Work. John the Baptist,
except in Luke, appears in the gospel narrative entirely without intro
duction. The birth stories in Luke indicate how deep was the impres
sion that the personality and work of John made upon later generations,
for they believed that his birth was announced by an angel and at
tended by miraculous signs. These beautiful stories, preserved by Luke,
who was skilful in detecting the heart-beat of the people, indicate
that John was a Judean and born in a God-fearing, priestly family.
His home was in a village outside Jerusalem. The name of the town
has disappeared from the gospel story, and the later conjectures of
pious pilgrims apparently have no historical basis. His home was
probably near Jerusalem. His father's occupation often took him to
the temple and gave him an insight into the inner life of his nation
which he doubtless imparted to his son. The one fixed date in gospel
history is the year of John's first appearance as a public preacher.
Luke (31"3) states that John the Baptist began his work in the fifteenth
year of the Emperor Tiberius. Inasmuch as Tiberius began his reign
in 14 a.d., John must have entered upon his public activity either dur
ing the latter part of 28 or the beginning of 29 a.d.
The few details that have been preserved by the synoptic gospels
regarding the work of John the Baptist are well attested. The under
lying source is the early collection of Jesus' sayings (Q) from which
Matthew and Luke drew much of their data. The brief summary of
John's work at the beginning of Mark's gospel also appears to have
been based upon the same source. In the account of John's public
preaching, Matthew and Luke have quoted almost verbatim from this
teaching source. In 3l°-14 Luke adds a quotation, either from this
source or else from another known only to him. Its literary form, its
contents, and its agreement with the facts given by both Matthew
and Luke all confirm its historical accuracy. To this account Luke
has added in 316' 18a a statement in his own words regarding the impres
sion which John's teaching made upon the multitudes. From a de
tailed comparison of the texts it is possible to reconstruct with assur
ance the original narrative.
II. John's Character and Aims. In his character and teachings
John closely resembled the early Hebrew prophets. The content of
his message was in many respects similar to that of Amos. Like the
58

JOHN'S CHARACTER AND AIMS
princely Isaiah, he stepped out of his class. Like Jeremiah, he sac
rificed all personal interest to the realization of his God-given mission.
His conviction that a new and nobler era was about to dawn reflected
the buoyant hopefulness of the II Isaiah. His habits and costume, as
well as his boldness, reminded the people of the prophet Elijah. It is
not strange, therefore, that they regarded John as the fulfilment of
the prediction of the second coming of that pioneer prophet recorded
in the closing verses of the prophecy of Malachi. Jesus also recog
nized in tbe spirit and methods of John the essential fulfilment of the
earlier prediction.
In the light of the earlier prophetic analogies and of contemporary
conditions, it is possible to understand John and his work. Already
there were many indications of a widespread reaction against the cold
formalism and deep-rooted corruption that prevailed throughout Pal
estine and even in Jerusalem under the shadow of the temple. The
sect of the Essenes represented one phase of this reaction. While
they retained the ceremonialism of Judaism, they sought through
asceticism and the observation of certain rules to realize their high
ideals of personal purity. Although he did not subscribe to their tenets
as a whole, it is practically certain that John knew and came into con
tact with this peculiar sect. Many of them found their homes in the
deep ravines which ran through the wilderness to the lower Jordan,
the scene of John's public activity. In his emphasis upon personal
morality, upon deeds of justice and mercy, and upon sharing possessions
with the needy, John was in perfect accord with the Essenes, although
in other respects he differed widely from them. John stood for three
things: (1) as a link between what was best in Israel's past and present;
(2) as a protest against existing conditions; and (3) as the herald of a
new era.
III. His' Teachings. The gospel record is silent regarding John's
prophetic call. It introduces the prophet in the full tide of his public
activity. Like the earlier prophets, he addressed his nation as a whole
and strove to prepare it for the new era which he declared was about
to dawn. The phrase "kingdom of Heaven" was variously inter
preted by the Jews of his day. It meant literally the reign or rule of
God, for, since the days of the Maccabees, Heaven was commonly
used as a synonym for God. John manifested no sympathy with the
popular, nationalistic hope of his race. Possibly the current apoca
lyptic expectations which included a supernatural overthrow of exist
ing conditions, the exaltation of the pious and faithful to positions of
59

THE PERSONALITY OF JOHN THE BAPTIST
highest authority, and the inauguration of a new political and social
organization, in which the people of Jehovah would rule supreme over
all mankind, may have been present in John's thought; but this belief
is not implied by the gospel records. John held fast to the ethical
ideals of the pre-exilic prophets like Amos and Isaiah. His statement
that "God is able of these stones to raise up children to Abraham"
indicates that in his mind God's reign was not limited to the Jews.
Instead, he declared that the axe was laid at the root of the trees, that
Judaism was threatened with immediate destruction. Furthermore,
he taught that only by bearing good fruit could the individual or the
nation escape the impending judgment. Among those who came out
to hear him were not only Jews, but also Gentiles and Samaritan sol
diers, and for them all he had the same practical, ethical message. A
characteristic and surprising element in John's teaching was his decla
ration that his own work was incomplete. He fully recognized his
limitations as a reformer. He was able to help men to break free from
the influence of their past habits and life and wrong motives; but he
also saw the need for a greater teacher who would completely destroy
the corrupt elements in the nation, conserve all that was good, and,
above all, so inspire men with the spirit of God, the Holy One, that
their motives and characters would be fundamentally changed. In
the belief that this greater teacher was soon to come John was influenced
not only by his clear recognition of the insistent needs of his age, but
also by the predictions of earlier prophets, like the author of Malachi
31"3, and, above all, by the portrait of the servant of Jehovah in Isaiah
42-53. It was regarding this servant of Jehovah that the earlier
prophet had declared in the name of Jehovah:
I have put my spirit upon him,
That he may set forth law to the nations (421).
IV. John's Symbol of Baptism. Although John reacted against
the current ceremonialism, he made use of the symbol of baptism, and
because he used this he was commonly known as "the Baptizer." Sym
bolic purification by the use of water was no new idea in Judaism. In
Ezekiel 36M' M Jehovah declares to the scattered Jewish exiles: I will
gather you from the nations "and I will sprinkle clean water upon you
and you shall be cleansed from all your filthiness." In the same con
nection the prophet adds, speaking for Jehovah, "I will put my spirit
within you and cause you to live according to my statutes." Possibly
from this context John gained his idea of the Greater One who would
60

JOHN'S SYMBOL OF BAPTISM
baptize the people with the spirit of the Holy One. Isaiah's words:
"Wash you, make yourselves clean" (l18), must have deeply influenced
John. Washing was also required by the Jewish ritual to remove
various types of ceremonial pollution (cf. Ex. 1910 Lev. 156"8' 10_21' 2'
17n 226). A ceremonial bath w'as necessary if a Gentile desired to
become a proselyte. John, however, made it the chief symbol in his
work, not because of its ceremonial associations, but because it was
the universally recognized symbol of cleansing from filth. His aim
was to provide a simple, direct means whereby the common people*
and especially those burdened with sin, could find access to God and
be assured of his forgiveness. Immersion of the entire man was doubt
less the type of baptism which John employed, for it is adapted to his
spirit and purpose. He sought by word and symbol to bring about in
each man, not partial but complete moral purification. It is obvious
that to a man like John, whose emphasis was entirely moral and spirit
ual, this outward act was but a convenient sign used to symbolize a
deeper reality. For the men who were baptized by John it meant
three things: (1) public confession of guilt and renunciation of past
sins; (2) a prayer for divine forgiveness and for consecration to a purer
life; and (3) preparation for God's coming rule in the life of the indi
vidual and the nation.
V. The Results of John's Work. John appears for a time to have
shaken the foundations of Judaism's self-assurance. Pharisees, as well
as the masses, came to him as he taught and baptized on the banks of
the lower Jordan. Men of all classes, including those far beyond the
pale of Phariseeism, were attracted to him. Jews and Gentiles alike
went out to hear this uncompromising preacher of justice and ethical
religion. What for them was John's charm? His appearance, and
what might be called sensational methods, doubtless attracted many,
for his generation ran eagerly after every new religious enthusiast;
but the foundation of John's power lay deeper. The boldness and
intense earnestness of the man proclaimed his absolute sincerity. The
more thoughtful Jews recognized in him the spirit and message of the
ancient prophets. Many were attracted by the note of expectancy,
and hoped that he was but the herald announcing the early realization
of their own peculiar type of messianic hope, whether national and
kingly or apocalyptic and catastrophic. The majority went to John
because his words stirred their consciences and promised release from
the burden of sin that oppressed them. His dramatic symbol of bap
tism at once suggested that he had a message fitted to meet those needs.
61

JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
The Jewish writer, Josephus, bears strong testimony to the character
of the man and the impression that he made upon his race: "He was
a good man and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as jus
tice toward one another and piety toward God, and so to come to bap
tism; for baptism would be acceptable to God, if they made use of it;
not in order to expiate some sin, but for the purification of the body,
provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteous
ness" (Ant., XVIII, 52). John, like the rabbis of his day, gathered
about him a group of disciples whose fidelity is attested not only by
their devotion at the death of their master, but also by the fact that
they evidently disseminated his teachings widely throughout the Graeco-
Roman world. A quarter of a century later Paul found in distant
Ephesus a body of John's followers who believed and lived in accord
ance with the teachings of their martyred master (Acts 191"7). From
certain passages in the Fourth Gospel it would appear that as late as
the close of the first Christian century many were found who still fol
lowed the teachings of John and in some cases were inclined to regard
them as more authoritative than those of Jesus. The influence which
John exerted upon Jesus marks, however, the culmination of his work.
§ CXXIH. JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
1. His Now it came to pass in those days that Jesus came from
tSmai Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan.
ImmE ^n°- at once> as ne came up from the water, he saw the skies
i'-".cf. part asunder and the Spirit, like a dove, come down upon
fit*?; him. And a voice out of the skies said, Thou art my Son,
L,u^) the beloved, in thee I delight.
2. Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to
tatiSi" be tempted by the devil. And when he had fasted forty
j£atifl- days and forty nights he afterwards hungered. And the
cation tempter came and said to him, If thou art the Son of God,
41""/. command that these stones become bread. But he answered,
jlj£ It is written: 'Not on bread alone is man to live, but on
Luke every word that proceeds from the mouth of God.'
3!"t0 Then the devil takes him to the holy city and, setting him
unfair on me pinnacle of the temple, says to him, If thou art the
means Son of God, throw thyself down; for it is written, 'He will
4"?"/. give his angels charge concerning thee and in their hands
L»Jsj they will bear thee up, that thou mayest never dash thy foot
62

(Matt.
4»-», cf.

JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
against a stone.' Jesus said to him, Again it is written,
4 Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God.'
Once more the devil takes him to a very high mountain 4. To
and shows him all the kingdoms of the world and their glory, p?™"
And he said to him, All these things will I give thee if thou g'se
wilt fall down and worship me. Then Jesus says to him, idea1
Begone, Satan, for it is written, ' Thou shalt worship the
Lord thy God and him only shalt thou serve.' JlSHn
Then the devil leaves him.
I. The Reasons Why Jesus Went to John. The Gospel of the
Hebrews states that Jesus was induced by his brothers to go and listen
to the stirring sermons of John the Baptist. Possibly there was a
certain historical basis for this statement, but in any case the reasons
why Jesus went to John were more fundamental. In such a small
country as Palestine it was practically inevitable that the works and
teachings of John should be well known, and they were of a character
to attract the Master Builder of Nazareth. Jesus recognized in John
one who, hke himself, had seen through the hollowness and superfici
ality of Phariseeism and was eager to bring life and joy to those who
were unable to fulfil the narrow, impossible demands of the Jewish re
ligion. Both were spiritual disciples of the great ethical prophets of
their race, so that they met on common ground. Jesus' later utter
ances regarding John indicate that he was attracted by the charm of
the Baptist's personality. His boldness, his moral earnestness, and his
interest in all classes drew the Nazarene to him. John was the first to
voice that new, divine humanism that found not only its echo but
its full expression in Jesus. John apparently crystallized feelings and
convictions already in the mind of the young Master Builder.
II. Literary Form of the Record. Each of the synoptic gospels
records Jesus' baptismal vision. They all appear to have drawn their
material from the older teaching sources. In the Marcan version the
vision of his divine calling comes only to Jesus. Luke adds the im
portant and impressive fact that it came while he was praying. Luke
also implies that the multitudes were present. In Matthew the divine
proclamation is to all mankind; while in the Fourth Gospel it comes
not to Jesus but to John the Baptist.
Some scholars hold that these various narratives represent simply
the attempt of the early church to trace back Jesus' messianic call to
the baptism; but it seems far more probable that each gospel writer,
63

JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
in his characteristic way, records Jesus' endeavor to make clear to his
disciples his inner experience at the critical moment when he openly
allied himself with John. Other analogies in the gospels indicate that
the vision was the usual literary form in which Jesus and the evange
lists were wont to describe a subjective experience. Thus, according
to Luke 1018, Jesus said, on the successful return of the disciples after
their preaching mission: "I saw Satan fall as lightning from heaven."
According to Matthew 1617 he declared after Peter's confession: "Flesh
and blood have not revealed it to you, but my Father who is in heaven,"
Obviously it is impossible and misleading to interpret the account of
the baptism and temptation with absolute literalness. The phrase,
"the heavens are opened," is the regular idiom by which the New Testa
ment writers introduce a spiritual vision (cf., for example, Stephen's
vision in Acts 766). The physical impossibility of seeing all the nations
of the world at one glance has long been recognized. The narrative
also reflects the universal belief of the ancients that the world was flat.
The bold suggestion that Jesus should bow down to Satan was in itself
too repulsive to constitute for him a real temptation.
In its literary form the account of the temptation is closely akin to
such a narrative as that in Genesis 3, in which the struggle within the
mind of woman is made objective by means of the dialogue with the ser
pent. It illustrates Jesus' superlative skill as a teacher. Even if he
had described his inner struggle in the abstract terms of philosophy
and psychology, he would have conveyed little to the untrained minds
of his disciples. Told in the form of a narrative, full of vivid pictures,
this account not only suggested to their intuitive and imaginative minds
the nature of his temptation, but also enabled them to remember and
transmit the essential facts, so that they may to-day be interpreted
in the light of their historical setting and the larger knowledge and ex
perience that has come to the race.
In character and purpose the narrative is similar to the visions by
which Amos, Isaiah, and Jeremiah each communicated to his disciples
the nature of the inner struggle which culminated in his prophetic call.
Thus, for example, in the sixth chapter of his prophecy Isaiah tells of
the vision which came to him in the temple on the death year of King
Uzziah, when his consciousness of Jehovah's character and the needs
of his nation led him to the great decision expressed in the words
"Here Lord, send me." The close of the narrative reflects his later
experiences and indicates that the story was not told to his disciples
until many years had elapsed. Jesus likewise appears to have de-
64

LITERARY FORM OF THE RECORD
scribed his own decisive struggle not until later in his ministry, when
the minds of his disciples had been in part prepared to understand it.
The occasion was probably after Peter had openly declared at Csesarea
Philippi his belief that Jesus was the Messiah. Jesus' quick rejoinder,
"Get thee behind me, Satan," with which he met Peter's protest against
the thought that his master was about to face death, indicates that Peter
voiced one phase of the temptation which was present with his master
throughout his pubhc and private activity (cf. Luke 22a). In the
accounts of his baptism and temptation Jesus was also endeavoring to
make clear to this inner group of followers the lofty spiritual ideal that
guided him in all his work and teaching.
III. The Significance of the Baptismal Vision. Jesus' baptism
clearly marks a great turning-point in his life. It was the moment
when he gave up his former occupation for his new vocation. The
baptism represented not the decision of a moment but the culmina
tion of all his previous training and thought. He had lived in closest
touch with the people of Nazareth and had moved among the throngs
that filled the crowded cities of Galilee. He recognized their deep
need of a spiritual guide who would lead them to their divine Father
and reveal to them the forgiveness and the inspiration which God was
eager to give. In his own experience Jesus had found that eternal
source of peace and strength. His clear consciousness that his own
personal knowledge of God and of the way of life alone would satisfy
the needs of the people was the compelling force in his call. When he
left his shop at Nazareth and took his stand beside John, who with
splendid courage and success was addressing himself to these moral
and spiritual needs, Jesus publicly signified his response to that divine
call. The message which came to him was expressed in the language
of Psalm T: Jehovah said to me, "Thou art my son;
This day have I begotten thee,"
And Isaiah 421: Behold my servant whom I uphold,
My chosen, in whom I take delight;
I put my spirit upon him,
That he may set forth the law to the nations.
It was an absolute assurance of his divine sonship and of God's approval
of his act. With it came an overwhelming sense of responsibility. The
65

JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
fact that the words of the II Isaiah were in his mind suggests the way
in which he interpreted that responsibiUty. It is also significant that
when he later returned to his home at Nazareth and attempted to make
clear to his fellow-townsmen the nature of his mission, he quoted, ac
cording to Luke 417-19 (cf. Isa. 611' 2), one of the memorable passages
from the same prophet who had defined in most spiritual terms God's
eternal purpose and the way in which it was to be realized. The oldest
gospel records imply that Jesus' full messianic consciousness came at
his baptism. How far that consciousness was removed from the popu
lar expectations of his day is indicated by the story of the temptation,
as well as by his later teaching and work. In a far deeper sense than
any Old Testament prophet had predicted, Jesus realized that he was
the Son of God, called to do a work so personal, so revolutionary, and
so spiritual that it would fail completely to meet the narrow, material
istic, impossible expectations of his people.
IV. The Meaning of the Account of Jesus' Temptation. Many
questions gather about the story of Jesus' temptation: Does it con
cern the character or the method of his work, or both? Does it repre
sent the temptations of a brief period or of a lifetime? Are the com
mon human temptations begotten by passion and ambition the basis,
or does it represent a conflict between Jesus' own spiritual ideal, as it
had been in part defined by the II Isaiah, and the material expecta
tions of the people? Do the different incidents of the narrative repre
sent different phases of the temptation, or are they but varied illus
trations of the same inner struggle?
Psychologically a period of struggle and decision was practically in
evitable after a moment of great spiritual exaltation. Persian tradi
tion states that Zarathustra (Zoroaster), at the beginning of his work
as a prophet, was tempted by an evil spirit to renounce the good law
and so gain power over the nations. Confucius spent three years in
solitude before he took up his work as a teacher. Paul of Tarsus, after
his vision on the way to Damascus, spent months, if not years, in medi
tation and readjustment apart from men, in the solitude of the Arabian
desert. The traditional setting of Jesus' temptation was the wilder
ness of Judea, which, with its rounded, barren, treeless hills and deep,
rocky ravines, rises abruptly on the west of the Jordan Valley. It offered
the same quiet seclusion that Jesus later sought and found on the hill
tops north of the Sea of Galilee. Here he meditated on his God-given
task and the way in which it was to be accomplished. The different
incidents in the gospel account apparently represent different phases
66

MEANING OF ACCOUNT OF JESUS' TEMPTATION
of temptation that came to him as he faced his life-work. That he
might have yielded to the temptations that assailed him is definitely
implied. In the gospel story there is little trace of the baser passions
that attack men most strongly during the adolescent period. This
fact does not prove that Jesus had failed to feel their influence. His
profound sympathy with sinners suggests that he had; but, if so, they
had been overcome in the thirty or more years of struggle, training,
and growth in quiet Nazareth. The temptations which now came to
Jesus are those which appeal to a strong man in the full flush of his
manhood. In many respects they are typical and, as such, constitute
one of the strongest bonds that bind the perfect son of man to his fel
lows. V. The Different Phases of Jesus' Temptation. The back
ground of the first temptation is the hunger begotten by the protracted
sojourn in the barren, uninhabited wilderness; but the real motive is
evidently something far deeper than mere physical hunger. Jesus'
answer, quoted from Deuteronomy 83, "Man shall not live by bread
alone, but by every word that comes from the mouth of God," indicates
that it was primarily a struggle between his higher conception of his
task and the natural desire for ease and quiet and popularity. He
loved men and society. Should he use his power for his own self-
gratification? It is the insidious temptation that comes to every man
after the first burst of youthful enthusiasm has spent itself. It was the
temptation that mastered the man whom Jesus portrays with superla
tive insight in the parable of the rich and successful landholder who
said to himself, I will tear down my barns and build larger, and then
settle down to a life of ease and luxury. It was because Jesus knew the
deadly power of this temptation that he declared, "If any man will
come after me, let him deny himself." He knew that self-indulgence
was a deadly foe to efficiency and that it would never meet his deeper
moral and spiritual needs or those of the men who looked to him for
leadership. He recognized that no man could live by bread alone.
Not material ease or luxury, but an intimate acquaintance with God
and a consciousness of doing his will, whatever be the cost, could alone
satisfy man's deep hunger.
The background of the second phase of the temptation is the popular,
apocalyptic, messianic hopes that were strong in the minds of the men
whom he wished to reach. These hopes voiced the political, social,
and religious ideals of his race. Whether he spoke to the masses, to
the Pharisees, or to his own disciples, these popular messianic expecta-
67

JESUS' BAPTISM AND TEMPTATION
tions confronted him at every point throughout his ministry. To a
pious, patriotic son of Abraham they presented a temptation that was
strong and insistent. Repeatedly the scribes and Pharisees in his
later ministry came to him demanding miraculous proofs of his divine
authority. In every case he sternly refused to grant their request.
His reply to this temptation is voiced in the language of Deuteronomy
616, "Ye shall not test Jehovah, your God." Tersely it expresses the
profound truth that man has no right, even if he could, to force the
hand of the Almighty. It illustrates the superb poise and sanity which
characterized Jesus' attitude toward the current apocalyptic hopes and
toward the subtle temptations that they presented to one eager to gain
the ear of the people. He knew that by performing some portent, or
by even publicly proclaiming that he was the Messiah, he might gain
a large and immediate following. Expressed in modern terms, it was
the temptation to yield to the lure of selfish and base ambition and to
seek to attain quick popularity and success by unfair means. Jesus
saw clearly the selfishness and the ultimate futility of these sensational
and questionable methods. Work that abides is not so done; least
of all a work that is to touch and transform the beliefs, the motives,
and the fives of men.
The third phase of the temptation was an appeal, not merely to
Jesus' natural ambition for power, but also to his noble desire to ex
tend widely the influence of his personality and message. In its es
sence it appears to have been the temptation to lay aside for the moment
those severe, seemingly impossible spiritual ideals that in time trans
formed the natural leaders of his race into enemies, and thus by a spe
cious compromise to broaden his field of service. Satan was represented
by the powerful Pharisees and by the corrupt hierarchy which, with
the grafter 'Annas as its virtual head, ruled enthroned in the temple
at Jerusalem. Should he contend against this mighty power, as he
did practically alone until it treacherously slew him, or should he bow
before it and by thus compromising his ideals mount to public favor
and influence? It is in many ways the most insidious temptation that
can assail a strong man intent on attaining success and on doing a
noble work. The author of Matthew has rightly made this the culmi
nating phase of the temptation. Jesus, however, saw clearly the pitfall
into which every man inevitably stumbles who compromises the ideal
which God reveals to him and allies himself with injustice and graft,
even though such an alliance may seem to be the only road that leads
to large success and service. He whose supreme aim was to bring men
68

THE DIFFERENT PHASES OF JESUS' TEMPTATION
mto intelligent, loyal relation to God knew that he could not perform
his mission if disloyal in the slightest to the promptings of the divine
voice within him. It was his single-eyed, unswerving devotion to the
service of God that made Jesus the universal Saviour of men.
This marvellous story of the temptation is apparently also an
epitome of- Jesus' inner struggle and victory during his public ministry.
It reveals at the beginning of the gospel narrative the ideals, the mo
tives, and the heroism that guided him to his final triumph on the cross.
It is the open window of his soul, through which it is possible to study
the simple yet divine principles that found expression in all that he
taught and did. It reveals the one absolutely normal and therefore
perfect man. It shows that Jesus regarded life and humanity with
eyes that had looked into the very heart of the Father, and that he
recognized that he was therefore in a unique sense called to reveal God
to his fellow-men. The fulfilment of this divinest of all missions led
Jesus to disappoint almost every hope that in the minds of the people
was associated with the magic word "Messiah." And yet in the sense
in which he interpreted that ancient hope and in the higher meaning
which he gave it, he knew, with growing conviction, that he was indeed
the Servant of Jehovah, the One anointed and called to do God's work,
Israel's true Messiah.

&CXXIV. JESUS AND JOHN THE BAPTIST
Then Herod seized John the Baptist and bound him, and 1.
put him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his brother {^^.
Philip's wife. For John had said to him, It is not lawful for onment
you to have her. And although Herod wanted to put him J41""'
to death, he feared the people for they held John to be a £{iL2u,ke
prophet. Mark
Now after John was put in prison Jesus came into Galilee I" M>
preaching the good tidings of God, and saying, The kingdom j!j^f
of God is near. Repent and believe in the good tidings. preach-
When John heard in prison about the deeds of Jesus, he (mL*
sent by his disciples and said to him: Are you he who is to g"'^,
come, or are we to look for some one else? And Jesus in reply w
answer said to them, Go and report to John what you see (Matt. ip-«,
c/.Luke

and hear: the blind regain their sight, and the lame walk,
the lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are 3^*)
69

JESUS AND JOHN THE BAPTIST
raised up, and the poor have good tidings preached to them.
And blessed is he who shall find no cause of stumbling in me.
4. His And as these men went away, Jesus began to speak to the
^¦e people about John: What did you go out into the wilderness
of to see? A reed shaken by the wind? But what did you go
(Matt, out to see? A man clothed in soft robes? Behold, those
cf. Luke who wear soft robes are in kings' houses. But why did you
ysi-M) go out? To see a prophet? Yea, I say to you, and much
more than a prophet! This is he of whom it is written,
Behold I send my messenger before my face,
Who shall prepare thy way before thee.
Verily I tell you, Among those born of women, no one hath
arisen greater than John the Baptist; but he who is least in
the kingdom of Heaven is greater than he. For all the
prophets and the law prophesied until John: yea, if you are
willing to receive it, this is Ehjah who is to come. He who
has ears to hear, let him hear. And from the days of John
the Baptist until now the kingdom of Heaven suffers vio
lence, and the violent seize it. To what shall I compare this
generation? It is like children sitting in the market places,
who call to their playmates and say, We piped to you tout you
did not dance. We lamented, but you did not beat your
breast. For John came, neither eating nor drinking, and
men say, 'He has a demon.' The Son of m^n came eating
and drinking, and men say, 'Here is a glutton and a wine-
drinker, a friend of tax-collectors and sinners.' Yet wisdom
is vindicated by her deeds.
c. Now when Herod's birthday came, the daughter of Hero-
dSth3 dias danced before them, and pleased Herod. Whereupon
(Matt, he promised with an oath to give her whatever she should
cj\Mark ask. And she, being prompted by her mother, said to him,
Give me here, on a dish, the head of John the Baptist.
And although the king was sorry, yet because of his oath,
he commanded that it be given her. So he sent and be
headed John in the prison. And John's head was brought
on a dish, and given to the girl; and she brought it to her
mother. And John's disciples came and carried away the
body, and buried him. Then they went and told Jesus.
70

$21 -2»)

THE GOSPEL EVIDENCE OF JESUS' WORK IN JUDEA
I. The Gospel Evidence that Jesus Worked First in Judea.
The synoptic gospels are singularly silent regarding Jesus' activity
immediately after his baptism and temptation. Mark, however, re
cords the fact that immediately after John was imprisoned "Jesus
came into Galilee preaching." This statement impfies that he had
remained for a time with John. That he did not return to his work
as a carpenter at Nazareth is probable, for the exalted vision of his
mission which he had received at his baptism made that practically
impossible. Judea, already aroused by John's stirring message, seemed
to furnish the most promising field in which to enter upon his work.
John S22"26 refers definitely to a Judean ministry, although the tra
dition bears the marks of the later point of view. From John I40"42
it may also be inferred that the two brothers, Andrew and Peter, were
numbered among the disciples of John the Baptist, and that Jesus first
met them during his work in Judea. If so, the readiness with which
they later, beside the Sea of Galilee, responded to his call is fully
explained. The exact nature of Jesus' activity in Judea is not clear. Apparently
he at first took up the message and methods of John the Baptist. Mark
l16 states that, even when Jesus returned and began to preach in Galilee,
his words were an echo of John's: "The kingdom of God is near. Re
pent." The Fourth Gospel adds that Jesus, while still in Judea, bap
tized and gathered about him disciples, as did John, and that the reason
for his return to Galilee was that he might not eclipse John's work.
Even though the tradition is late, and is intended to magnify the work
of Jesus in comparison with that of John, it strengthens the evidence
for a brief Judean ministry. That Jesus made any superior claims for
himself or sought to rival the work of John is disproved by the spirit
and conception of his mission revealed in the account of the tempta
tion and also by John's later message to him. Jesus' sojourn in Judea
must have been primarily a period of training and testing. It also
made clear to him the difficulties of the Judean field, and probably led
him finally to choose Galilee as the chief scene of his activity. His
later lament over Jerusalem (Luke 133*) also implies that he seriously
attempted to gain a hearing and a following in Judea and failed. There
is no evidence regarding the length of Jesus' sojourn in Judea, but it
was probably short, for John's imprisonment appears to have come
soon after Jesus' baptism.
H. John's Arrest. Mark's gospel implies that the event which
led Jesus to turn from Judea to Galilee was John's arrest and impris-
71

JESUS AND JOHN THE BAPTIST
onment. Josephus states that Herod's reason for making the arrest
was that the multitudes followed the Baptist and listened to him so
gladly that the suspicious tetrarch "feared lest the great influence John
had over the people might put it in his power and inclination to raise
a rebellion, for they seemed to do anything that he advised. Accord
ingly John was sent a prisoner, because of Herod's suspicious character,
to Machserus," the gloomy castle on the heights east of the Dead Sea.
The three synoptic gospels give more detailed reasons for John's arrest.
It was in keeping with the spirit of the intrepid John that he should
publicly — possibly in the presence of Herod — protest against his un
just and immoral act in marrying the divorced wife of his kinsman,
Herod Bcethus. John's protest was all the more distasteful to Herod
because it voiced incensed public opinion. This courageous act of
the Baptist undoubtedly deepened the popular impression that he was,
indeed, the Elijah whose coming was predicted in the closing verses of
Malachi. Even as Elijah of old had publicly condemned Ahab's des
potism and murderous cruelty in seizing Naboth's vineyard at the sug
gestion of Jezebel, so John, according to the gospel narratives, raised
his voice in stern protest against Herod's crime that had been prompted
by the wiles of Herodias. John himself absolutely repudiated the tide
of Messiah, but the popular reception of his teachings tended to con
firm Herod's fears that he was a religious enthusiast who might stir
the people to rebellion. Josephus's reference to John is also significant,
for it reveals the popular beliefs then rife and Herod's attitude toward
them. John's arrest must have made a deep impression upon Jesus. His
departure from Judea was evidently not prompted by fear, for in leav
ing Judea and Perea for Galilee he came more directly under Herod's
power and surveillance. John's imprisonment must have struck dis
may into the minds of the people of Judea and chilled their enthusiasm
so that they had little desire to listen to disciples of the Baptizer or to
teachers like Jesus. He therefore sought a more familiar and favor
able field; but he who at this time proclaimed himself a teacher and
champion of the common people, even in Galilee, faced from the first
the danger of imprisonment and death.
III. John's Later Message to Jesus. The records of Jesus' later
contact with John are taken from the oldest teaching source (Q). The
quotations in Matthew and Luke are practically identical. Luke ex
pands the narrative in 721- 22a, stating in his own language, by way of
explanation, the effect of Jesus' work upon the multitudes. This vivid
72

JOHN'S LATER MESSAGE TO JESUS
early narrative contains a remarkable illustration of Jesus' superlative
skill in dealing with men. Evidently a rumor of his work and teach
ing had reached the ears of John through his disciples. With tense
interest John sent them to ascertain whether Jesus was, indeed, that
greater one whom he hoped was soon to come. It was a critical mo
ment in Jesus' ministry, when these devoted followers of John, prob
ably in the presence of the multitude, put to him their eager question.
If Jesus had attempted to answer John's definite inquiry, he would
undoubtedly have been misunderstood. In a sense he was not the
realization of John's hope, for the reality was far greater than the expec
tation. If he had proclaimed himself the Messiah, he would not only
have thwarted his purpose, and involved himself with Herod, but would
also have given the people and John a wrong impression. Instead,
with rare pedagogical skill, he asked the disciples of John to stand by
and witness with their own eyes the work he was doing. The words
of Jesus as he describes his work are at many points an echo of those in
Isaiah 611"3 (cf. also Isa. 427), which, according to Luke 416"21, he read
and applied to himself on the occasion of his memorable visit to Naza
reth. To one like John, familiar and in fullest sympathy with the
teachings of the earlier prophets, Jesus' reply was equivalent to saying,
"I am not the Messiah of the popular expectation, but I am doing the
work of Jehovah's servant as defined by his most spiritual prophet."
To an ethical teacher like John, who looked for one who would do a
greater and more profoundly spiritual work than himself, Jesus' reply
must have been in the highest degree satisfactory. Jesus' concluding
words, however, "Blessed is he who shall find no cause of stumbling
in me," implies that already he had met many who were dissatisfied
with the interpretation which he was giving to his task. Possibly
he also spoke as he did because he feared that John's disciples would
fail to grasp the deeper significance of his work.
IV. Jesus' Estimate of John. In the ancient narrative, pre
served practically verbatim in both Matthew and Luke, we have a
clear statement of Jesus' estimate of John. It also well illustrates
the clarity, vigor, and compelling power of the language with which
Jesus clothed his thoughts. In a series of brief questions he prepared
the minds of his hearers for a true appreciation of John. His words
reflect the deep impression that the Baptist's unflinching courage, his
disdain of luxury, and his spiritual message made on Jesus. He also
declared that John realized the hope expressed in Malachi 31: "Behold,
I am about to send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before
me." Mark, who begins his gospel with the statement that John was
73

JESUS AND JOHN THE BAPTIST
the fulfilment of this prophecy, may well have had in mind this ut
terance of Jesus. Without hesitation, Jesus placed John among the
greatest teachers of the human race. And yet Jesus recognized that
John failed to appreciate the full significance and possibilities of God's
rule. With that calm assurance which came from conviction and ex
perience, Jesus declared that whoever stood in the full light of his own
more spiritual interpretation of God's relation to man and of man's
larger life in God was greater than the latest and most heroic of all the
long line of Israel's prophets.
The words which follow have all the characteristics of Jesus'
epigrammatic style. Their meaning has been variously interpreted.
Luke gives their logical if not their original order, but Matthew has
the more exact form. The thought seems to be that the teachings of
Israel's earlier lawgivers and prophets were the guides of the nation
until John appeared. He presented a simpler and more spiritual con
ception of the kingdom of God. But Jesus' later experience had con
vinced him that what the people demanded was not the rule of God
in their hearts and lives, but an actual material kingdom which they
were ready, if necessary, to establish by violence. Thus, the older
prophetic conception of the kingdom, or rule, of God had suffered vio
lence at their hands. This interpretation is confirmed by Jesus' further
statements regarding the unreasonable demands of the generation to
whom he spoke. He likened them to children sitting in the market
places complaining of all who attempted to entertain or interest them.
The austere John they characterized, in the language of their day, as
insane. Jesus, who met all classes on the common basis of friendship
and good-fellowship, they called a glutton and a friend of the disrepu
table classes. At the same time he expressed the firm conviction that
the fruits of his work would justify the wisdom of his method and
demonstrate the divine origin of his spiritual ideal.
V. The Account of John's Death. Mark's record of the closing
scene in the life of John the Baptist shows in certain minor details the
influence of popular transmission. Herodias, Herod's evil genius, was
not, as it states, the former wife of Philip, but of Herod Boethus. He-
rodias's daughter Salome, who is represented as dancing before Herod
and his assembled guests, and is spoken of as a young girl, must have
been at least twenty-eight years of age at the time, for her second hus
band (the Philip the tetrarch mentioned by Luke) died in 34 a.d. It
was also contrary to all known precedents for a Jewish or Roman ruler
to permit one of the members of his family to dance at a public feast.
Herod's promise that he would give to the maiden whatever she asked,
74

THE ACCOUNT OF JOHN'S DEATH
even to the half of his kingdom, is more in keeping with the language
and spirit of the book of Esther than with the habits and authority of
a tetrarch like Herod, who was but an agent of Rome. Luke's keen
historical sense led him to omit the story. Matthew's briefer and more
conservative version has been followed in the text adopted above.
Even though a later generation may have embellished the Marcan
version of the story, the fact that John the Baptist paid for his courage
by death at the hand of Herod is a tragic but well-established fact.
The news of John's death undoubtedly made a profound impression
upon Herod's subjects, and most of all upon Jesus. It revealed clearly
to him the forces with which he must deal and the fate that awaited
an intrepid herald of God's truth. Viewed in the light of history,
the chief significance of John's work is that he was, as he declared,
the forerunner of the one greater than he, the latchet of whose shoes he
was unworthy to loosen. John was the forerunner of Jesus in that he
aroused the conscience of his nation and taught them the comparative
insignificance of form and ceremonial and the pre-eminent value of
righteous deeds and of loyalty to God. He also attracted an earnest
group of disciples and so trained them that some of them became faith
ful followers of Jesus. Above all, he taught his hearers to look for the
speedy inauguration of God's reign. Finally, through contact with
him, Jesus gained a clearer consciousness of his own divine task; and
where John the Baptist laid down his work, the Master Builder of
Nazareth took it up.
§ CXXV. JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE
Leaving Nazareth, Jesus went and dwelt in Capernaum, 1. At
which is by the sea. naunT
Now Jesus was passing along beside the Sea of Galilee ; W"tt>
and he saw Simon, and Andrew the brother of Simon casting 2. cau
a net into the sea; for they were fishers. And Jesus said to °l^e
them, Come with me, and I will make you fishers of men. ^s^r-
Then at once they left the nets and followed him. And (Mark
going on a Uttle further, he saw James the son of Zebedee, '/'Matt.
with John his brother, who also were in the boat mending *™
the nets. And immediately he called them; and they left s"»)
their father Zebedee in the boat with the hired servants, and
went with him.
Then Jesus found Philip and said to him, Follow me.
Now, Philip was from the city of Andrew and Peter. Philip
75

JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE ,
3. of finding Nathanael, said to him, We have found him of whom
andllp Moses in the law, and the prophets wrote, Jesus of Naza-
Na- reth the son of Joseph. And Nathanael said to him, Can
aefn" anything good come out of Nazareth? Philip said to him,
lu°h") Come and see. Jesus saw Nathanael coming to him and
said of him, Look, an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile !
Nathanael said to him, How is it that you know me? Jesus
answered and said to him, Before Philip called you, when
you were under the fig tree, I saw you. Nathanael answered
him, Rabbi, thou art the Son of God ; thou art King of Israel.
Jesus answered and said to him, Believest thou, because I
said to thee, I saw thee beneath the fig tree? Thou shalt
see greater things than these.
4. , Now Jesus and his disciples entered Capernaum; and on
^us' the next sabbath day he went into the synagogue and began
(M°riky *° *eacn* An** *ne PeoPle were astonished at his teaching,
p.", for he taught them as one who had authority, and not as the
£L#e scribes.
5. His Now there was in their synagogue a man with an unclean
to^e spirit; and he cried out, saying, What business have you
the in- with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us?
(Ma* I know who you are, the Holy One of God. And Jesus re-
'/Luke buked the unclean spirit, saying, Silence! Come out of
4»-»j him ! So after the unclean spirit had shaken the man, and
had made him cry with a loud voice, it came out of him.
And the people were all so amazed that they talked about it
among themselves, saying, What is this? A new teaching
with authority? He commands even the unclean spirits and
they obey him! And the news regarding Jesus went out
Peter's at once in all directions throughout Galilee.
moth- And immediately after going out of the synagogue, they
faw1- came into the house of Simon and Andrew, with James
$3* and John. Now the mother of Simon's wife lay sick of a
e/8Luke fever; and immediately they told Jesus about her. And
Matt, he came, and taking her hand, he raised her up; and the
?"'Acts fever left her, and she ministered to them.
of heal- Now in the evening, when the sun had set, they brought to
(sfark him all who were sick, and possessed by demons. And all
'/Luke the Pe°Ple of me citv were gathered at the door. And he
4«'». « healed many who were sick with various kinds of diseases.
« *"r7) and cast out many demons. 76

4*2, «)

JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE
And very early the next morning, long before day, he rose 8. H5»
and went out into a desert place, and there prayed. And %££%~
Simon and they who were with him followed after him, and ^Fay
found him; and they said to him, All are seeking thee. And preach
he said to them, Let us go elsewhere into the next town, that ,(M5ark
I may preach there also ; for that is why I came out. Then he SkL"ke
went through the whole of Galilee, preaching in the syna
gogues and casting out demons.
I. The Record. The basis of the gospel account of the beginning
of Jesus' work in Galilee is the vivid narrative of Mark. The inci
dents gather about Peter's home at Capernaum and imply that his direct
testimony is here the chief source. Mark's narrative reveals at every
point a remarkable insight into Jesus' aims and methods. At this
period, when Jesus touched Peter so intimately, there is every reason
to believe that the chief disciple has recounted events in their original
order. The description of the cleansing of the leper in Mark I40"46 is,
however, loosely connected with its context. Matthew and Luke have
a simpler and probably a more exact account. Matthew inserts it
immediately after the so-called Sermon on the Mount, intending, per
haps, to illustrate thereby Jesus' careful observation of the Jewish cere
monial law. Luke adjusts it to its implied setting in Mark, and places
the scene of the event in one of the cities outside Capernaum.
John l34"61 contains an account of the call of Philip and Nathanael.
The incident is introduced by the author of the Fourth Gospel to illus
trate his thesis that Jesus' messiahship was publicly recognized from
the beginning of his ministry. While this position is contrary to the
clear testimony of the synoptic gospels, which make Peter the first to
call him Messiah, the narrative itself has probably preserved a nucleus
of fact.
II. Reasons Why Jesus Went to Capernaum. Jesus' transfer
of his home and the centre of his activity from Nazareth to Capernaum
reveals the aim of his early work in Galilee. He fully realized that a
prophet is not without honor save in his own country. The fact that
the home of Peter and Andrew was in Capernaum may also have at
tracted him to that city; but the more fundamental reason was prob
ably because Capernaum was to Galilee what Jerusalem was to Judea.
Unlike the other cities about the Sea of Galilee, which were strongly
Greek in population and civilization, Capernaum was Jewish. It was
the centre of an active, teeming population. Past it ran the central
77

JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE
highway from Egypt to Babylonia. Another highway from the east
of the Jordan ran through it, along the northern end of the Sea of Gali
lee and across the broad valleys to the west, until it reached the great
coast road from Egypt to Phoenicia. It was, therefore, in close com
munication with the other important cities of Palestine and with the
commercial capitals of southwestern Asia. It was also, by virtue of
its geographical and commercial position, one of the cities in which the
Jews of Palestine came in closest touch with the Grseco-Roman civ
ilization and its corrupting influence. The resulting luxury and im
morality furnished the dark background of Jesus' healing and teaching
ministry. In and about Capernaum he found in largest numbers "the
lost sheep of the house of Israel," whom he sought to shepherd. The
insistent needs of the broad field, therefore, drew him thither, even as
similar needs have attracted his heroic, devoted followers to the dark
est spots on the face of the earth.
III. The Aims and Methods in the Early Galilean Work. As
Jesus plainly declares, he came, "not to call the righteous, but sinners,"
the outcasts from the synagogue upon whom the Pharisees looked only
with contempt and disapproval. His aim was to find and to heal those
who were morally and spiritually sick. He sought not only to lead
them to repent and to break their past habits, but to teach them how
to live a richer, more joyous life. He endeavored to do so by bringing
them into vital touch with God and by awakening in them a sense of
their divine sonship and their human brotherhood. Thus, as an ex
perienced master builder, he aimed to rebuild the ruined lives of men
according to the plan of the divine Architect, and to make them effective
members of God's kingdom. He aimed, also, to free that most demo
cratic of Jewish institutions, the synagogue, from the dogmatic and
ceremonial restrictions with which the scribes and Pharisees had sur
rounded it, and to restore it to the common people to whom it right
fully belonged.
His methods were carefully adapted to the realization of these defi
nite aims. He depended primarily upon personal touch and friendship.
Rejecting the ascetic habits of John the Baptist, he associated closely
with all classes: with the fishermen along the shore, with the crowds
in the market-places and on the streets, and with the multitudes as
sembled in the synagogues on the Sabbath day. His method was not
so much that of the preacher as that of the teacher. It was only as the
crowds gathered in large numbers about him that he resorted to preach
ing, and even then he always held himself open to questions and in
78

AIMS AND METHODS IN EARLY GALILEAN WORK
turn propounded questions to the people, after the manner of the teach
ing rabbis. There are suggestions in the gospel records that he re
garded his healing ministry as incidental and in many ways a hindrance
to the realization of his main purpose. He sought to restore the rights
of the synagogue to the people, not by denouncing the cold formalism
of the scribes, but by making it the open court in which the vital ques
tions of the daily religious life should be frankly and helpfully discussed.
As ever, his method was constructive rather than destructive. Thus,
his aim and his method in his earlier Galilean ministry were first, by
public address and by mingling with all classes, to spread wide the net
that he might draw to himself those who were needy and ready to listen
to his message; then to teach them by word, by example, and by close
personal contact the principles that were essential to the larger fel
lowship with God and man.
IV. The Call of the Six Fishermen. The account of the begin
nings of Jesus' work is so meagre that we are dependent in part upon
inferences drawn from the gospel records. John the Baptist had evi
dently attracted many followers from the cities about the Sea of Gali
lee, as was natural, for they were situated in the Jordan Valley that had
been the scene of his work. These men were the nucleus of a larger
following which Jesus soon drew to himself. The quick response of
the two brothers, Andrew and Peter, and of the two sons of Zebedee
to Jesus' invitation to join in his work indicates that they already were
personally acquainted with him and partially understood him and his
aims. The way in which Jesus calls them reveals that rare tact which
characterizes all his dealings with men. From the first he set before
them a large task, but one for which they were fitted and which there
fore appealed to them individually. Their response to Jesus' call does
not necessarily mean that they abandoned entirely their occupation as
fishermen. The famous Jewish rabbis and their followers had their
regular vocation as well as their avocation. After Jesus' crucifixion
the disciples apparently returned at once to their work as fishermen.
Jesus may have at first demanded only a part of their time. He sim
ply requested that they aid in the work which he had undertaken. It
is not stated whether or not they all followed him in his first preaching
and teaching throughout Galilee. Mark l38 implies that Peter at least
accompanied him.
John l35"61 indicates that the two brothers,. Philip and Nathanael,
early joined the growing ranks of Jesus' followers. They, like Simon
Peter and Andrew, were natives of Bethsaida. Philip bore a Greek
79

JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE
name, that of the tetrarch who had recently made their fishing town
a centre of Greek culture, and had named it, in honor of the daughter
of Augustus, Bethsaida Julias. It was situated on the left bank of the
Jordan, on a slight eminence which rose about fifty feet above the sur
rounding plains. At this point the Jordan, after its rapid descent
through the northern hills, begins to twist and wind more leisurely
through the delta by which it enters the Sea of Galilee. Ruins of
Roman structures still mark the spot. Below it, where the Jordan en
ters the Sea of Galilee, is the best place for fishing in all the lake. This
was without reasonable doubt the only Bethsaida on the shores of the
Sea of Galilee.
V. The Site of Capernaum. The much-debated site of Caper
naum, which was probably the home of James and John, is at last
practically determined. The identification with Khan Minyeh is dis
proved by an overwhelming weight of evidence. Most decisive of all is
the complete absence of any Grseco-Roman ruins in its vicinity. The
ruins found there come clearly from the later Arab period. ' It was not
until the seventeenth century that Capernaum was identified with this
site. The confusion arose from the assumption that the northeastern
limit of the Plain of Gennesaret was the hill now known as Tel Ormei-
meh, rather than the famous spring which bears the name Tabighah.
It was this spring which, according to Josephus, was called Capernaum.
It clearly marked the western bounds of the city by that name, which
therefore lay, as Josephus states, on the border of the Plain of Gen
nesaret. The early pilgrim, Bishop Arculf, about 670 a.d. visited this region
and gives detailed descriptions of different sacred sites. Standing near
the spring of Tabighah, he thus pictures the Capernaum of his day:
"It had no wall, and, being confined to a narrow space between the
mountain and the lake, it extended a long way upon the shore from
west to east, having a mountain on the north and a lake on the south."
This description corresponds exactly with the topography of the north
western end of the lake. Immediately to the east of the spring Tabig
hah the hills come down close to the shore, but gradually recede, leav
ing an ever-widening plain in the midst of which is found to-day the
Grseco-Roman and Arab ruins of Tel Hum. The Dominican monk
Burkhard, near the close of the thirteenth century, in describing the
spring Tabighah, says: "Josephus calls this fountain Capernaum be
cause the whole land from the fountain to the Jordan — a distance of
two hours — belonged to Capernaum."
80

THE SITE OF CAPERNAUM
The adopted home of Peter and of Jesus, therefore, extended for
miles along the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. The synagogue,
which marked the centre of the town, was two miles to the east of the
famous spring. Where the home of Peter was situated is, of course,
only a matter of conjecture. It is a significant fact that to-day, as in
the past, with the exception of the Jordan delta, the best place for fish
ing is just below the spring of Tabighah, which sends its warm waters
into the lake and attracts the fish. Here, perhaps, where fishermen
would most easily follow their trade, and away from the din of the
great city, Peter and his family found their adopted home.
Just above this spring rises the abrupt hill where Jesus could find
quiet for meditation apart from the noisy fife of the city. This near-by
vantage-point, which commanded a marvellous view of the fertile plain
of Gennesaret on the west and southwest, of the towering hills of Gali
lee on the northwest, of the widely extended town of Capernaum on
the northeast, and of practically the entire coast line of the Sea of Gali
lee on the south, was probably one of the places to which Jesus often
retired alone or with his disciples.
VI. A Sabbath in Capernaum. Mark has preserved in the latter
part of the first chapter of his gospel a detailed and suggestive picture
of a Sabbath day's work in Capernaum. It opens in the synagogue.
From the context it would appear that there was but one central syna
gogue in the great city. This conclusion is confirmed by the results
of excavations at Tel Hum. While the ruins of the great synagogue
that has' been excavated by the Franciscan brothers may be dated not
later than the second Christian century, they probably represent an
earlier, first-century synagogue and suggest its general character and
structure. According to Luke 75 the older synagogue was built by a
rich centurion, and it is not impossible that the present ruins are a part
of the original structure. It stood a few hundred feet from the lake,
which it faced, and commanded a superb view of its blue waters and
the many-colored hills which enclosed the Sea of Galilee on the east,
south, and west. On the right bank, close to the water's edge, rose
the splendid buildings of Herod's capital, Tiberias. On the heights to
the south was the great Greeco-Roman city of Gadara. On the heights
to the east of the lake were the heathen cities and villages over which
the tetrarch Philip ruled. Thus, while the synagogue at Capernaum
was the centre of a strongly Jewish population, the tangible evidences
of heathen culture and dominance were visible on every side. In
front of the synagogue was a great platform approached by steps which
81

JESUS' EARLY WORK IN GALILEE
led up from the east and west. From this platform three doors led
into the synagogue. The central door was six feet wide and the other
two four and one-half feet wide. The building itself was seventy-
eight feet long and fifty-nine feet wide. The interior was surrounded
on three sides by rows of Corinthian columns which supported the
galleries. In its size and the character of its architecture the original
synagogue of Capernaum was doubtless superior to those found in the
other towns and villages of Galilee.
The synagogue was the most democratic of all the institutions of
Judaism. It was wholly under the control of the people, who ap
pointed certain rulers chosen from the elders to direct its services.
Its objects were twofold: (1) public worship and (2) study of the
scriptures. It stood, therefore, for inspiration and instruction. The
congregation took part in reciting the shema, or public confession of
faith, and in certain of the prayers, which preceded and followed the
reading of the passages from the law. Itinerant scribes, rabbis, or any
who were able to interpret and exhort, were invited to address the
people. These addresses usually followed the reading of the passage
from the prophets, and this passage was ordinarily used as a text. In
the early synagogue an opportunity was probably given for questions
and discussion, for its service was exceedingly informal. It was en
tirely different from the temple ritual, which it was intended to supple
ment. Jesus was naturally invited to speak in the synagogues, as were
Paul and the later apostles on their missionary tours. In a very true
sense, the Jewish synagogue was the birthplace of Christianity. This
democratic institution, with its strong emphasis on teaching, explains
many of the fundamental characteristics of early Christianity. Its essen
tial elements are still preserved in the modern Christian prayer-meeting
and Sunday-school, the essential functions of which it combined.
Mark simply records the effects of Jesus' teaching upon the people
and especially upon a "man with an unclean spirit." The term was
used by Jesus' contemporaries to describe a moral degenerate who
was the victim of his own evil acts and habits. Whether these were
revealed by a deranged mental condition or simply by his depraved
appearance, words, and action is not clear. The man was sufficiently
possessed of his reason to be deeply affected by the personality and
words of Jesus. His exclamations reveal the powerful impression that
Jesus had made upon him. The title, "the Holy One of God," is not
necessarily messianic but simply describes his exalted conception of
Jesus' sanctity. Jesus' calm words of authority not only freed the man
82

A SABBATH IN CAPERNAUM
"rom his derangement, but also from the bondage of his past sins and
habits, thereby revealing the divine possibilities latent within him.
Mark chiefly emphasizes the effect of this scene upon the people. The
Jews were accustomed to acts of healing by their famous rabbis and
especially by those who were renowned for their sanctity. What most
astonished the people of Capernaum was the new, ringing note of au
thority that distinguished Jesus' teaching, and his remarkable influ
ence upon men of depraved minds and morals. This incidental testi
mony contributes much to the portrait of Jesus. Unlike the scribes,
he did not draw his authority from Moses and the interpretations
of the earlier rabbis. Its ultimate basis was his profound apprecia
tion of the needs of the lost sheep of the house of Israel and his abso
lute conviction that God was able and eager to meet those needs. It
was an authority expressed in countenance, in manner, in act, in words,
and in personality. Learned Pharisees, moral degenerates, and self-
respecting fishermen, the strong and helpless alike, recognized it, and
resented it or bowed before it.
Jesus' sympathy made it impossible for him to resist the many ap
peals which came to him from the sick and needy in their extremity.
His words in the Matthew version of the parable of the talents (2540),
"Even as you have done this to the least of these my disciples, you
have done it unto me," voiced the spirit that actuated him in his work.
He who uttered the parable of the good Samaritan could not turn a
deaf ear to the cry of distress. His work, therefore, was necessarily a
healing as well as a teaching ministry. In the home of Simon and
Andrew he found Peter's mother-in-law afflicted by one of the fevers
which still prevail along the low-lying northern shores of the Sea of
Galilee and explain why to-day it is almost without inhabitants.
Under the influence of Jesus' presence and encouragement the sick
woman quickly rose and ministered to him and his followers.
As was inevitable, the report of what Jesus had done for the poor
demoniac and for Peter's mother-in-law quickly spread throughout
Capernaum, so that by nightfall he found himself surrounded by a horde
of those afflicted by physical and mental disorders who had come to
be healed by the holy rabbi. The narrative does not say that all were
restored to health, but simply that many went away healed. Mark
or a later editor adds the comment that Jesus did not permit the
demons to speak "because they knew him."
VII. Jesus' Significant Decision. That the experiences of this
eventful Sabbath in Capernaum represented a new stage in Jesus' work
83

JESUS' POPULARITY
is clearly shown by the testimony of the gospels. Apparently his repu
tation as a healer and wonder-worker had come to him unexpectedly
and without his having sought it. The statement that "very early
the next morning, long before day, he went out into a desert place and
there prayed" suggests that the new situation presented to him a grave
problem, if not a temptation. Should he remain in Capernaum and
gratify the desires of the people, as his sympathies prompted? It
meant immediate popularity and a wide extension of his influence; but
it also meant that his time would be largely, if not wholly, occupied
in the mere work of physical and mental healing. The report of Simon
Peter and his other followers that "all are seeking you" brought the
issue to a climax. Even Mark, who is especially interested in the
miracles as evidences of Jesus' divine authority, has preserved the
decisive answer which Jesus made to this popular cry. Leaving the
waiting multitudes behind, he sought a new field where he would not
be thus handicapped, for, as he plainly declared, his primary object
was not to heal but to preach. He desired by public address and pri
vate teaching to satisfy the deeper moral and spiritual needs of the
people. Thus, from the very first, by act as well as word, he proclaimed
the broader spiritual aim of his mission. Incidentally he healed men's
bodies and minds; but his larger task was "to seek and to save the
lost."

§ CXXVI. JESUS' POPULARITY AND THE BEGINNING OF
THE PHARISAIC OPPOSITION
i. Now when Jesus entered Capernaum again, after some
£^£ days, it was reported that he was at home. And many peo-
that ^e 6atnerec* together, so that there was no longer room for
thl* them, not even about the door; and Jesus preached to them.
Pyt&s An? four men came, carrying a man who was paralyzed, and
sins trying to bring him to Jesus. And when they could not
ft,?.6 come close to Jesus on account of the crowd, they uncovered
(Marit me roof where he was. And when they had torn it up, they
2j-'. cf. let down the bed on which the paralytic was lying. And on
92a3 • seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralytic, Son, thy sins
^« are forgiven. But certain of the scribes were sitting there
and saying to themselves, Why does this man speak thus?
He blasphemes! Who can forgive sins but God alone?
84

JESUS' POPULARITY
And Jesus at once perceived that they were saying such 2. The
things to themselves and said to them, Why do you say {J^
such things to yourselves? Which is easier: to say to the <M?2rk.
paralytic, 'Thy sins are forgiven'; or to say, 'Rise and take Matt
up thy bed and walk'? But that you may know that the £'uke
Son of man has authority on earth to forgive sins (he said s"26)
to the paralytic), I say to thee, Rise, take up thy bed, and
go to thy house. Then the man rose, and immediately took
up his bed and went out before them all. So they were all
amazed and glorified God, saying, We have never seen any
thing like this.
Then Jesus went forth again by the sea side; and all the 3. can
crowd came to him, and he taught them. And as he passed (Mark1
by, he saw Levi, the son of Alphaeus, sitting at the custom ff "•
house ; and he said to him, Follow me. And he arose and Matt.
followed him. %!$*
Now it came to pass that Jesus was eating dinner in his 4. The
house and many tax-collectors and sinners sat down with Sf j&-e
Jesus and his disciples. And the scribes and Pharisees, g"g"_
seeing that he ate with the sinners and tax-collectors, said sion
to his disciples, Does he eat with tax-collectors and sinners? 2«-"Ic
And when Jesus heard it, he said to them: *fc9 ">-!»'
They who are well have no need of a physician, but they $"%
who are sick;
I came not to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.
And one of the Pharisees invited him to eat with him. s. a
And he entered into the Pharisee's house, and reclined at Z°™~
the table. And behold a woman that was a sinner in the *"¦?£"*£,
city found out that he was reclining at table at the Pharisee's itude
house, and she brought an alabaster flask of ointment. And (7\iaJtf
as she stood behind at his feet, she began to wet his feet
with her tears and to wipe them with the hair of her head.
And she kept tenderly caressing his feet and anointed them
with the ointment.
Now when the Pharisee, who had invited him, saw it, he 6. The,
said to himself, If this man were a prophet, he would know gj£'of
what kind of woman this is who is touching him; for she is a ^
sinner. And Jesus answering, said to him, Simon, I have debt-
something to say to thee. And he replied, Say it, Teacher. "£!»)
85

JESUS' POPULARITY
A certain money lender had two debtors; one owed him five
hundred denarii (about $90.00) and the other fifty denarii
(about $9.00). As they were not able to pay, he forgave
them both. Now which of them will love him the more?
Simon answered and said, He, I suppose, to whom he for
gave the more. And he said to him, Thou hast rightly
judged.
7. And turning to the woman, he said to Simon, Seest thou this
de3i£ woman? I came into thy house ; thou gavest me no water
tjft011 *or my *ee*' Du* sne nas wetted my feet with her tears and
the dried them with her hair. Thou gavest me no kiss, but she,
™™~ since the time I came in, has not ceased tenderly caressing
sins my feet. Thou didst not anoint my head with oil, but she
for- has anointed my feet with ointment. Therefore, I say to
fiX™ thee, Her sins, which are many, are forgiven, for she has
loved much; but he to whom little is forgiven, loves little.
And he said to her, Thy sins are forgiven. And his fellow-
guests began to say to themselves, Who is this who even
forgives sins? And he said to the woman, Thy faith has
saved thee ; go in peace.
8. His And John's disciples and the Pharisees were fasting; and
they came and said to him, Why do the disciples of John
and the disciples of the Pharisees fast, but thy disciples fast
detail not? And Jesus said to them, Can the bridal guests fast,
while the bridegroom is with them? As long as they have
the bridegroom with them they cannot fast. But the days
Jewish5 will come, when the bridegroom shall be taken away from
them, and then will they fast in that day. No one sews a
piece of unshrunken cloth on an old garment, else the piece
tears away from it, the new from the old, and a worse tear is
{$!<?) made. And no man puts new wine into old wine skins ; else
the wine will burst the skins, and both the wine and the
wine skins be destroyed. Instead one puts new wine into
9. His fresh wine skins.
And it came to pass that he was going on the sabbath day
through the grain fields; and his disciples began, as they

reason lor not
following the

in
junc tions
of the

law (Mark
218-22
c/.Matt.914-17

inter-preta-tion of
the
sab- went, to pluck the ears. And the Pharisees said to him,
(ivurk Behold, why do they do that which is not lawful on the sab-
cf'nktt kam day? And he said to them, Have you never read what
ii' -8 " David did, when he had need and both he and those with
s"1)6 him were hungry? How he entered into the house of God,
86

Luke
6«-u I310-17
I41-8)

JESUS' POPULARITY
when Abiathar was high priest, and ate the show-bread,
which only the priests may eat, and gave also to those with
him? And he said to them, The sabbath was made for man,
and not man for the sabbath; and so the son of man is also
lord of the sabbath.
And he entered again into the synagogue. And a man 10. His
was there who had a withered hand. And they watched oforks
Jesus to see if he would heal him on the sabbath day, that Jjjf1^
they might accuse him. And he said to them, Is it lawful sab-ua
on the sabbath day to do good or to do harm? to save a life (j^k
or to kill? But they remained silent. And when he had M'a8ttc/-
looked around on them with anger, grieved at the hardening i2=-»
of their heart, he said to the man, Stretch forth thy hand.
He stretched it forth; and his hand was restored. And the
Pharisees went out and at once began to take counsel with
the Herodians against him, how they might destroy him.
I. The Record of Growing Opposition. The narrative of Mark
is still the principal guide. Historical scholars find here, however,
several difficult problems. Chief among them is how far later Chris
tian thought has shaped the gospel story.» It was natural that the
evangelists who lived in the midst of the bitter conflicts between Jew
and Gentile should be eager to prove by the authority of Jesus that
his followers were not under obligation to observe the strict ceremonial
laws of Judaism. Are the sayings regarding old and new cloth, for
example, simply put into the mouth of Jesus as some scholars claim,
or do they represent his original teachings? The vigorous, epigram
matic form of these utterances is certainly characteristic of the great
Teacher of Nazareth rather than of his later followers. These teach
ings are in perfect harmony with his acts and words during his early
Galilean ministry. Mark 2L-36 also records the beginnings of that al
most inevitable breach between Jesus and the narrow leaders of Juda
ism to whom these figures of speech refer. Hence there are strong
grounds for regarding them as his original words.
At the same time, the influence of the later point of view is traceable
at several points in the Marcan narrative. Thus, for example, Mark
26-io atates that Jesus proclaimed the forgiveness of the poor paralytic
on the basis of his unique authority as the Son of man. Luke, however,
in his parallel version (735"60) simply records Jesus' statement, "Your
sins are forgiven." An important element in Jesus' work, like that of
87

THE BEGINNING OF PHARISAIC OPPOSITION
John the Baptist, was not only to proclaim to these outcasts God's
readiness to forgive, but also to assure them, if they manifested true
penitence, that their individual sins were forgiven. John the Baptist
dramatized this vital truth by means of his symbol of baptism. Jesus
depended upon his simple, direct assurance or else, as in the parable
of the prodigal son, emphasized the great truth by means of graphic
illustrations. His authority, like that of the earlier Hebrew prophets,
was his personal knowledge of God's character and of his attitude
toward the penitent sinner.
II. The Causes of the Pharisaic Opposition. At first Jesus was
apparently regarded by all classes as a self-taught rabbi who had
gained his knowledge from study, meditation, and practical experience.
In many respects he closely resembled the itinerant scribes and rabbis
who were familiar figures to the men of his day. Like them, he aimed
to reach! teach, and help the people. His teaching methods were also
practically identical with theirs. He preached and taught in the syn
agogues and wherever opportunity offered. He never turned away
from those whp came to him privately for information and counsel.
The literary forms in which he cast his teachings were likewise those
of the rabbis (cf. § CXXIXV). He, like them, emphasized the impor
tance and authority of the earlier scriptures of the race, and sought
to interpret them clearly and practically. He and his disciples made
pilgrimages to Jerusalem to observe the great feasts, in accordance
with the spirit, if not the detailed commands, of the Jewish law. In
all his preaching he taught the necessity of repentance as the basis for
divine forgiveness. Above all, he sought, like the rabbis, to give the
people a clear conception of the character and demands of God and to
teach them how to live moral lives. It is not strange, therefore, that
at first the scribes and Pharisees were frequently found among Jesus'
attentive listeners and that many of them invited him into their homes.
The differences between Jesus and the Pharisees were, however,
equally fundamental. His mission and appeal were primarily to the
classes who were beyond the pale of orthodox Judaism. His aim was
not to make servants of the law, but intelligent, devoted sons of God.
He was not dreaming, as were the Pharisees, of a nation that would for
at least one day completely meet the demands of the ritual, but of
true happiness and the fulness of life for each individual. While many
of them longed to see a supernatural demonstration of their racial pre
rogatives, he labored to establish a great fraternity in which all should
be bound together by common love and devotion to the divine Father.
88

THE CAUSES OF THE PHARISAIC OPPOSITION
He either ignored or rejected the later traditions that were so jealously
guarded by the Pharisees. His message was one of good tidings for
all who in penitence sought God's forgiveness. Like the early proph
ets, he taught that the right attitude toward God and one's fellow-men,
expressed in unselfish service, was inSnitely more important than the
observance of detailed ceremonial laws. But Jesus never sought to
irritate the Pharisees; indeed, he endeavored to conciliate and to meet
them on common ground; but they could not long remain blind to
the fundamental difference between their aims and teachings and those
of the Master Builder of Nazareth.
III. The Charges Which the Pharisees Made against Jesus.
Mark has clearly indicated the four or five reasons why the Pharisees
took exception to the work and teaching of Jesus, and has presented
them in what is probably their original chronological order.
The first charge was precipitated by the healing of the paralytic.
Contemporary Judaism had not entirely forgotten the broader teach
ings of its spiritual prophets, but the narrow ritualists held that there
was no forgiveness without requital (Weber, Alt Synag. Theohgie,
267-300). This doctrine meant that true repentance and contrition
were not sufficient to secure Jehovah's immediate forgiveness, but
that some form of penance was required. Upon those who had sinned,
therefore, and especially upon those who were unable to meet the ex
treme requirements of the Jewish law, there continued to rest a bur
dening sense of guilt long after they had truly repented. To these
Jesus declared unqualifiedly, "Your sins are forgiven." His words
to the woman who anointed his feet in the house of Simon the Pharisee
were simply an echo of the teachings of Israel's earlier prophets and
sages regarding God's character and attitude toward the penitent
wrong-doer. In reviving this forgotten truth and in freeing the peni
tent outcasts from a painful burden imposed upon them by a false the
ology, Jesus tore down the barriers men had reared between the loving
Father and his children. His calm, authoritative assurances naturally
aroused that immediate and bitter opposition of the Pharisees which
was practically inevitable in an age when religious tolerance was almost
unknown. A second charge which they brought against him was that he asso
ciated constantly with sinners. These included those who had lived
or were living immoral lives and also those who, like many of the toil
ers of the land, were unable to satisfy the impossible demands of the
Pharisees. Many of these sinners were the women of the street and
89

THE BEGINNING OF PHARISAIC OPPOSITION
the detested tax-collectors. For the strict Pharisees, mere association
with them meant ceremonial uncleanness. The result was that, as
far as possible, the Pharisees left them strictly alone. Jesus, however,
not only preached to them and taught them, but made them his friends,
and even entered into their homes as a guest. To them he devoted
himself pre-eminently, and from their ranks he drew many of his fol
lowers. When the murmurs of the Pharisees became audible, Jesus ex
plained his action by declaring that his mission was to heal those who
were morally maimed or sick.
The third charge was that, unlike John and his disciples, Jesus failed
to observe the detailed ceremonial laws, and especially those which
commanded fasting on certain fixed days. He made no attempt to
refute this charge, but at once set forth the broader principle that
guided him: "For him who came to proclaim good tidings, fasting was
as unseemly as for guests at a wedding." From the concrete illustra
tion he rapidly passed to the broader generalization, as he contrasted
his teachings with the demands of Judaism. With quiet humor he
declared that to try to combine them was like sewing a piece of un-
shrunken cloth on an old garment. To restrict his teaching regarding
the larger meaning and use of life to the narrow bounds fixed by Juda
ism was like putting new and unfermented wine into old and weak
wine-skins. Jesus refused to allow his joyous, hopeful message to be
constricted by Jewish ceremonialism. Even John had found it impos
sible to respect these limitations and had been compelled to develop
a new rite. Jesus, ignoring all rites, sought simply to lead each man
to develop his divine gifts under the limitations and in the immediate
surroundings in which God had placed him. The new and glorious
truth which Jesus proclaimed must needs be expressed in new ways.
By such teachings as these he not only revealed the independence and
breadth of his own vision, but also made evident that deep chasm be
tween legalistic Judaism and Christianity which later generations of
his followers were destined to appreciate still more keenly.
The fourth and, from their point of view, the strongest charge which
the Pharisees brought against Jesus was that he disregarded the elabo
rate Sabbath laws which they deemed fundamental. Indeed, the later
Jewish law went so far as to make work on the Sabbath a capital crime,
and a large proportion of the time and energies of the scribes were
devoted to guarding and interpreting these regulations. The result
was that in reality they made the Sabbath for themselves and for the
people a day of anxiety and strenuous mental labor. As with the ex-
90

THE CHARGES AGAINST JESUS
treme Puritans who followed their guidance, the close of the Sabbath
day marked the beginning of a much-needed period of rest and relaxa
tion. The faithful were but slaves of the institution, in constant fear
lest they should offend Jehovah by failing to ke<*p all its regulations.
It is true that the Talmudic teachers taught that "the Sabbath was
made for man and not man for the Sabbath." This saying, attributed
to Jesus in Mark, but lacking in one of the most important texts (B),
may be a later insertion in the gospel narrative. It voices, however,
Jesus' conviction, which is reiterated in different language in the suc
ceeding verse (cf. Mark 227' 28). It was his teaching and example that
revealed the impossible inconsistencies in the prevailing Jewish inter
pretation of the Sabbath and brought again before his followers the
truer content of that noble institution.
As has already been noted (I § XXV) the earlier prophets had de
clared that the Sabbath was for man's rest and that each man owed
this rest not only to himself, but also to all dependent upon him, in
cluding even the toiling ox and ass. As the context implies, Jesus in
his original utterance declared, not that he, the Son of man, alone
possessed divine authority to interpret the significance of the Sabbath,
but that every man was master of the Sabbath. This statement, as
the parallel passage clearly indicates, meant that the Sabbath was
God's good gift to man. Man was under obligation, therefore, to use
it like all other good gifts for his best physical, mental, and spiritual
re-creation. He was master of the Sabbath, not only in that he was to
use it for his own best development, but also for that of society as a
whole. This social and humanitarian interpretation of the meaning
of the Sabbath is illustrated repeatedly by Jesus' own example. Not
only did he abstain from involving others in unnecessary labor, but
also constantly aimed on the Sabbath as on other days to serve men as
opportunity offered. Indeed, the narrative of Mark implies that, if
possible, he was even more active in his work of preaching and healing
on the Sabbath than on other days.
Luke, in 1310"17 and 141"6, has preserved two illustrations, one of the
healing of the sick woman on the Sabbath in a synagogue and the other
of a man afflicted with dropsy in the house of one of the rulers of the
Pharisees. These acts naturally brought upon him the open condem
nation of the Pharisees. Jesus' recorded reply reveals his innermost
convictions regarding Sabbath observance. It implies that, like every
Jew of his day, he aimed to conserve its sanctity, that is, to keep it
distinct from other days, but distinct in a new and larger sense. He
91

THE BEGINNING OF PHARISAIC OPPOSITION
appealed to their humane instincts which prompted every man to lead
his thirsty ox or ass from the stall to give it water, or to draw and re
lieve from its distress any animal which may have fallen into a well.
Even so he claimed the right, indeed, insisted upon the obligation, to
relieve any human being who might then appeal to him for help. One
of the best Western texts (D) preserves in connection with Luke 6'
a saying which may be original: "Observing a man at work on the
Sabbath, he said to him, 'Man, if thou knowest what thou art doing,
happy art thou; but if thou knowest not, thou art cursed and a trans
gressor of the law.'" The same teaching appears among the sayings
of Jesus recently discovered in Egypt. It expresses his attitude toward
the Sabbath: The man who had in mind the principle underlying the
Sabbath regulations and responded to the call of necessity or service
to the needy was a law to himself; but he who did not have that higher
consciousness was still under obligation to observe the ancient law of
his race.
In the eyes of the stricter Pharisees, Jesus was a heretic, a law-breaker,
and a man ceremonially defiled. Their attitude toward a true prophet
and new truth is not without many analogies in human history. It
is only fair to note that some of the Pharisees were doubtless at first
sincere in their opposition, for they failed to see that Jesus was but
insisting on principles already proclaimed by their earlier prophets.
During the intervening centuries the law, with all its detailed ceremo
nial regulations, had been consecrated by the blood of martyrs and
exalted to a position of highest authority, so that every orthodox Jew
loved and revered it as the absolute word of God. Little wonder that
they strenuously opposed the peasant teacher who quietly ignored
many of the commands that they held to be infallible. The supreme
tragedy of Israel's tragic history is that they did not recognize the truth
of his assertion that he was not destroying but simply freeing them
from the narrow bondage of the law by giving to its fundamental prin
ciples a fuller and diviner interpretation.

92

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES

§ CXXVTL THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
Then some of the scribes and Pharisees addressed Jesus,
saying, Teacher, we would see a sign from thee. But he
answered and said, It is an evil and adulterous generation
that craves a sign, and there shall be no sign given it, but
the sign of Jonah, the prophet. The men of Nineveh shall
stand up at the judgment along with this generation and con
demn it; for they repented at the preaching of Jonah, but
behold, a greater than Jonah is here! The queen of the
south shall rise up at the judgment along with this genera
tion and condemn it, for she came from the ends of the earth
to hear the wisdom of Solomon, but behold, a greater than
Solomon is here !
And Jesus withdrew to the sea with his disciples. And a
great multitude followed from Galilee, Judea, Jerusalem,
from across the Jordan, and about Tyre and Sidon — a great
multitude, on hearing all that he was doing, came to him.
And because of the crowd, he told his disciples to have a
small boat ready for him, that he might not be crushed; for
he had healed many, so that all who had plagues were press
ing on him to touch him. And whenever the unclean spirits
saw him, they fell down before him and cried out, Thou art
the Son of God. But he charged them repeatedly not to
make him known.
Now on that day at evening he said to them, Let us cross
over to the other side. So leaving the crowd, they take him
with them in the boat just as he was, and other boats were
with him. And a great squall of wind arose and the waves
began to beat into the boat so that the boat was already
filling, and he was in the stern asleep on the cushion. So
they wake him and say to him, Teacher, carest thou not that
we are perishing? Then awakening, he rebuked the wind,
and said to the sea, Peace, be still! And the wind ceased
and there was a great calm. Then he said to them, Why
are you anxious? Have you no faith yet? And they feared
greatly and said to one another, Who then is this, that even
the wind and the sea obey him? 93

1.
Jesus'refusalto grat
ify the
popular de
mandfor a
sign (Matt.
1238- *s<
41, 42
c/.Luke 1|2S-S2 12M-SI
Matt. 16' -«)

2. His
workofheaJ- ingaiMj
his en
deavortoavoid
Sub- city
(Mark
3'-12,
c/.Matt.424. 36
12ii-n
Luke
«jl7-l»)3.Jesus in a
storm on the
Sea of
Galilee (Mark
435-41
c/.Matt. 818. 23-27
Luke g22-25)

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
4. His And they came to the other side of the sea, into the coun-
Sl61" try of the Gerasenes. And as he stepped out of the boat,
tiiehde- k-e was at once met kv a man fr°m tne t°mDS> with an unclean
moniac spirit, who had his dwelling in the tombs. And no man
the'sea could bind him any longer, not even with a chain; for he had
of Gai- often been bound with fetters and chains, and the chains
(Mark had been torn apart by him and the fetters broken in pieces
LukV*' ^^ no man na(i strength to tame him. And constantly,
8«-n night and day, in the tombs and in the mountains he kept
328%.) crying out and cutting himself with stones. And when he
saw Jesus from afar, he ran and threw himself down before
him, crying out with a loud voice, What have I to do with
thee, Jesus the son of the most high God. I adjure thee,
by God, torment me not. For Jesus was saying to him,
Evil spirit, leave the man. Then he asked him, What is thy
name? And he said to him, My name is Legion, for we are
many. And they repeatedly besought him not to send them
away from the country.
5. His Now a large drove of swine were there, feeding on a
mountain side; so they besought him, saying, Send us into
the swine, that we may enter them. And he gave them
sTi'-m," permission. And the unclean spirits went out and entered
84^uke the swine; and the drove, about two thousand in number,
Matt, rushed down the steep slope into the sea, and were drowned
in the sea. And they who fed them fled and told it in the
city and in the villages. And the people came to see what
had happened. And they came to Jesus and saw the man
who had been possessed of demons, sitting clothed and in
his right mind, even he who had had the legion. And they
were afraid. And they who had seen it described to them
what had happened to the man who had been possessed
by demons and to the swine. And they began to beg of
Jesus to depart from their territory. And as he was entering
the boat, the man who had been possessed by demons be
sought him that he might accompany him. But Jesus would
not allow him, but said to him, Go home to thy friends, and
tell them how great things the Lord hath done for thee, and
all his mercy on thee. So he went his way and began to
proclaim in the Decapolis region how great things Jesus had
done for him. And all marvelled, 94

cure of
the de
moniac (Mark

6. Jai-
rus'sappealin be
half of

daughter

an af
flicted woman (Mark

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
And when Jesus again crossed over in a boat to the other
side, a large crowd had gathered to meet him. And there
comes one of the rulers of the synagogue, Jairus by name ;
and on seeing Jesus, he falls at his feet, and beseeches him hfs
insistently, saying, My Uttle daughter is at the point of
death; I pray thee, come and lay thy hands on her, that she pj«k
may be made well, and Uve. And Jesus went with him; and cf. Luke
a great crowd f oUowed him, and they pressed about him. Matt.
And there was a woman who had had an issue of blood £I8'^e
twelve years, and had suffered many things, under many cure o?
physicians, and had spent aU her money, yet was none the
better, but rather had grown worse. Having heard about
Jesus, she came in the crowd behind him and touched his 5»"<,
garment. For she kept saying, If I touch but his garments, I 8«^"ke
shaU be made weU. And immediately the flow of her blood "»«¦
was dried up, and she felt in her body that she was healed of
her plague. And Jesus knew immediately that power had
gone out from him, and he turned around in the crowd, and
said, Who touched my garments? And his disciples said to
him, Thou seest the crowd pressing around you, and yet
thou sayest, 'Who touched me?' And he looked round
about to see her who had done this thing. But the woman
knowing what had been done to her, came and feU down
before him in fear and trembling, and told him all the truth.
And he said to her, Daughter, thy faith hath made thee well.
Go in peace, and be healed of thy plague.
While he was stul speaking, messengers came from the 8. The
house of the ruler of the synagogue, saying, Your daughter is
dead; why trouble the Teacher any further? But Jesus,
without heeding the word spoken, said to the ruler of the ter
synagogue, Fear not, only have faith. And he would not £M"k
let any man go with him, except Peter and James, and John *L^ke
the brother of James. And they came to the house of the Matt.
ruler of the synagogue. And seeing a tumult, and many
persons weeping and wailing loudly, Jesus said to them, Why
make a tumult and weep? The child is not dead, but asleep.
And they laughed him to scorn. But after putting them all
out, he takes the father of the child, and her mother, and
those who were with him, and goes into the room where the
chUd was. And taking the child by the hand, he says to her,
95

recovery of
Jairus' s
daugh-

923-26)

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
Talitha cumi, which means, Little girl, I say to thee, Arise.
And immediately the Uttle girl rose up, and began to walk.
(She was about twelve years old.) Then they were immedi
ately filled with great amazement. But Jesus charged them
earnestly that no man should know of this. And he told
them to give her something to eat.
9. Now when he entered Capernaum, a centurion came to him
Sgathe an(l besought him, saying, Lord, my servant is lying at home
centu- sick with paralysis, terribly tormented. Jesus said to him, I
servant will come and heal him. But the centurion answered and
s"*";, said, Lord, I am not worthy to have you come under my
«/Luk'e roof. Only say the word and my servant wiU be cured.
For indeed I am a man under authority, with soldiers under
me : I say to this man, ' Go,' and he goes ; to another, ' Come,'
and he comes ; to my slave, ' Do this,' and he does it. When
Jesus heard it, he marvelled and said to his foUowers,
Verily, I teU you, I have not found such faith as this with
anyone in Israel. And Jesus said to the centurion, Go, be it
done to thee as thou hast beUeved. And the servant was
healed in that hour.
10. And he went out from there and entered into his native
j^j^. city; and his disciples foUowed him. And when the sabbath
ity to day came he began to teach in the synagogue. And many on
Ibrm hearing him were astonished, saying, Whence has this man
Stesat these things? And what wisdom is this which has been
Naza- given to him? And have such miracles been wrought by
(Mark his hands? Is not he the carpenter, the son of Mary and
Matt.c/" brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon? And
i3"-« are not his sisters here with us? And they were offended
4"jS) because of him. But Jesus went on to say to them, A
prophet is not without honor except in his own city and
among his kinsmen and in his own house. And he could
not perform there a single miracle except that he laid his
^e hands on a few sick people and healed them. And he mar-
cieans- veiled because of their unbelief . So he went about the sur-
a°leper rounding villages, teaching.
|J?"k Then he went and preached in their synagogues through-
c/Matt. out all Galilee, and cast out demons. And a leper comes to
Luk,T him, beseeching him and kneeling down to him, and saying to
g;j.1() him, If thou wUt, thou canst make me clean. Being moved
96

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
with compassion, he stretched forth his hand and touched
him, and said to him, I wiU; be clean. Then at once the
leprosy left him and he became clean. But Jesus strictly
charged him and immediately sent him off, saying to him,
See thou teU no one anything; but go, show thyself to the
priest and offer for thy cleansing what Moses commanded,
as a proof to them. But he went away and began to pro
claim it widely and to spread the matter abroad, so that Jesus
could no longer enter a city openly. But he stayed outside
in desert places; and the people came to him from every
quarter. I. The Significance of the Gospel Miracles. To understand
the miracles recorded in the gospels it is necessary to have a clear con
ception of the conditions in the Galilee of Jesus' day and of his char
acter and aims. Since the days of Alexander the vice of the East and
West had poured into Palestine. Wrong living and thinking had dis
torted the bodies and minds and souls of men. At every turn beggars,
afflicted with all kinds of loathsome diseases, cried for help and heal
ing. Oriental charity then, as now, was lavish; but it pauperized rather
than permanently relieved the needy. The lot of the insane was es
pecially pitiable. The current scientific explanation of most types of
insanity attributed it to malignant demons that took possession of
those abnormally afflicted. The victims of insanity also shared this
ancient theory, and it only added to the horrors of their hallucinations.
Into this life Jesus entered, with a robust, wholesome body, ¦ with a
mind that was clear and sane and that recognized many of the hidden
causes that lay back of the guilt and suffering which confronted him.
He was inspired by a divine pity and an intense passion not only to
relieve but to heal and save the ignorant, shepherdless, suffering masses
that crowded about in the eager hope that he could help them. Joy
ously, confidently, he met the human needs that appealed to him, for he
knew that life and health and happiness were the good gifts that the
heavenly Father was eager to bestow upon his needy. children. Viewed
in the broad perspective of history, it is incredible that a teacher and
lover of men like Jesus could have lived and worked in the Galilee of
his day and not healed men's bodies and minds, as well as their souls.
The miracles of Jesus have a fourfold significance: the first is their
evident influence on his thought and methods of work. In the second
place his power to heal aided him greatly in fulfilling his mission, for
97

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
it was necessary first to remove the physical and mental barriers be
fore he could deal effectively with men's deeper moral and spiritual
problems. His work of healing established between himself and those
whom he wished to reach a basis of gratitude, friendship, and absolute
trust which were essential before he could implant in their minds his
higher spiritual teachings and stir their wills to noble and persistent
action. In the third place Jesus' miracles, as the gospel narratives
clearly state, made a profound impression not only upon the crowds
who gathered about him, but also upon his own disciples. Men learned
far more readily through the eye than through the hearing of the ears.
The deeds which they beheld confirmed their convictions regarding
his character and mission. The memory of the miracles that their
Master performed was ever in the mind of the early Christians and
carried the church through the perilous crises that overtook it during
the second and third centuries.
In the fourth place, Jesus, by his acts of healing, set an example to
his followers throughout all the ages. His representatives in the pres
ent, as well as in the past, are called to deal not merely with the intel
lectual and spiritual problems of the people, but in solving these to
contribute that which is indispensable to men's mental and physical
well-being. The man of to-day, as in the past, needs, even more than
he does the ordinary physician, one who can, like the Physician of souls,
teach him how to think and live aright. Modern science is beginning
to appreciate how powerful is the influence of mental and moral states
upon the health of the individual. Following the example of Jesus,
many are seeking to enlist these potent forces in healing mental and
physical maladies. Jesus' example also gave the impetus to that
movement which, under the influence of Christianity, has established
dispensaries and hospitals and asylums throughout the civilized world,
and, through the heroic work of medical missionaries, is bringing help
and healing to thousands suffering under the dark shadow of hea
thenism. II. Jesus' Attitude toward Miracles. The striking contrast be
tween the attitude of Jesus toward miracles and that of the people of
his day is well illustrated by the conversation recorded in Matthew
12's-« The narrative comes from the earliest collection of the sayings
of Jesus and is reproduced practically verbatim in Luke lira-^ where
Jesus' words are addressed to the assembled crowds rather than to the
Pharisees. Mark simply states that the Pharisees ycame seeking a sign
from heaven, that is, from God, in order to test Jesus. It was the
98

JESUS' ATTITUDE TOWARD MIRACLES
same popular demand that had come to him at his first great tempta
tion. Pharisees, Zealots, and the common people all expected that
the one who was to realize their messianic ideals and to do Jehovah's
work was to be attested by miraculous signs. A few years later even
the Samaritans followed in great numbers an impostor, who, claiming
that he was the Messiah, led them forth to the top of Mount Gerizim,
where he promised to perform mighty miracles. Mark has preserved
one significant fact unrecorded in the other gospels: Jesus' first reply
to the request of the Pharisees was a deep sigh which revealed the
depth of his disappointment and showed that he realized the difficulties
of the task which confronted him. Then with his usual directness
he declared plainly to the Pharisees that no miraculous signs would be
given them. He even condemned them on the ground that their de
mand was unreasonable.
The author of the Gospel of Matthew, in 1240, recalling the miracle
recorded in the book of Jonah, offers an explanation of Jesus' state
ment that no sign would be given except that of the prophet Jonah,
which obscures the original teaching. He, like the Pharisees, still
clings to the popular belief that the Messiah must be attested by a
miracle: "For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly
of the sea-monster, so the Son of man shall be three days and three
nights in the heart of the earth." Luke's silence suggests that this
explanation was not found in the common teaching source (Q). Mat
thew, however, has, with this exception, preserved what appears to
be the logical and probably the original order of Jesus' words. Their
meaning is clear. His message, like that of Jonah, was a plain call to
repentance. The Ninevites, heathen though they were, heeded and
repented at the teaching of Jonah. Therefore their ready response
to an appeal to their consciences was a rebuke to the irresponsive
Pharisees and leaders of Judaism who were listening untouched to the
greater message of John the Baptist and of Jesus. Even the heathen
queen of Sheba put to shame the men of Galilee, for -she came from
afar to hear the teaching of Solomon, who represented Israel's wise
men, but Jesus' contemporaries rejected the teachings of him who was
greater than the wisest man of Israel's past. In this figurative way
Jesus declared to the men of his race that his mission was spiritual,
and that his authority was attested, not by signs and miracles, but by
the appeal which his message made to the human conscience. His
words but confirm the evidence already noted regarding his attitude
toward miracles. Not only did he early turn his back upon the sick
99

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
of Capernaum, that he might carry on unimpeded his larger work of
teaching and preaching, but also, according to Mark, he constantly
commanded those whom he had healed not to report what had been
done to them. Whenever he made a statement regarding the object
of his work, he asserted that it was primarily to seek and to save not
the sick but sinners.
The absence of any reference in Paul's writings to the miracles of
Jesus is also significant. He himself believed in works of healing, as
the book of Acts abundantly testifies. The only satisfactory expla
nation of his silence is that he deemed miracles merely incidental and
not essential to Jesus' work and to the interpretation of his character.
Mark's narrative implies that Jesus' power to work miracles came to
him unexpectedly. The fact that he continued to heal men's physical
maladies indicates that he appreciated and used this gift, not as an
attestation of his divine authority, but as an important aid in his work.
III. Miracles in the History of Early Religions. It is signifi
cant that miracle stories are associated with practically all the great
religious leaders of the past. Gautama, the famous Buddha, who lived
about 500 B.C., is in many respects the best illustration of this fact.
The miracle stories told about him come from northern India and can
not be dated earlier than 300 B.C. Probably some of them are much
later. They state that Gautama was descended from heaven and
was miraculously incarnated in his mother's womb. Mighty portents
marked his birth; on the day on which he received his name a Brahmin
foretold his future greatness. After seven years of spiritual struggle
he gained that insight which made him a blessed Buddha. Before
entering upon his work he was tempted by Mara, the spirit that repre
sented the lust of the world. Many miracles are attributed to him.
He gave sight to the blind, and at one time fed five hundred monks
out of a basket of cakes with a Uttle milk and ghee. On another occa
sion one of his disciples was made to walk on the water. He predicted
his death three months before it took place. Later he was translated
in the presence of two of his disciples.
As a rule the miracle stories found in the Jewish scriptures also
gather about certain great characters, such as Moses, Samuel, Elijah,
and Elisha, who lived before written records became common. About
the prophets of the classical period, such as Amos, Hosea, Jeremiah,
and Ezekiel, no miracles are recorded. Isaiah is the only prominent
exception, and the miracles associated with his name are found only
in late writings. Furthermore, the different strata of narratives as
100

MIRACLES OF EARLY RELIGIONS
for example, those which record the opening events in Israel's history,
differ widely in this respect. The oldest accounts of the Egyptian
plagues, the exodus, the crossing of the Jordan, and the work of Samuel,
as a rule, trace the various events which they record to natural causes.
In the later accounts of the same events the explanation is almost
universally miraculous. For example, the Hebrew escape from Egypt
as the result, not of a series of natural calamities, as in the early rec
ords, but of seven miracles that take place at the command of Moses.
Instead of being driven back by the east wind, or held temporarily by
a landslide, the waters of the Red Sea and the Jordan stand on either
side as a wall, while the Israelites march through the depths dry-shod.
In contrast to the simple, direct, natural narrative of Samuel and Kings,
the later stories of the Chronicler represent the development of Israel's
oistory as due to a succession of miracles. The spirit of I Maccabees is
deeply religious and the history probably comes from an eye-witness
of the events, yet it contains no miracle stories; but in the later par
allel narrative of II Maccabees they appear at every point. These
familiar facts illustrate the tendency of the later Jewish writers to
emphasize and magnify the physical miracles in their national history
and in the careers of their great leaders, rather than those elements
which were of deeper moral and religious import.
IV. The Canons of Interpretation Employed by Critical His
torians. On the whole, the simplest and most satisfactory definition
of a miracle is that it is a phenomenon not explained by known natural
laws. According to its derivation the word miracle describes that
which seems wonderful to those who witness it. Hence the miracles
of one generation may be the common events or at least the scientifi
cally accepted facts of a succeeding generation. Although the realm
of the known is constantly being extended, it is still relatively insig
nificant compared with that which is unknown. Even as many of
the miracles of yesterday are explained by the science of to-day, so,
beyond doubt, many present-day mysteries will be explained in the
future and the laws which govern them definitely formulated. What
we call natural laws, however, are merely certain uniform modes of
behavior which we observe in our study of natural phenomena. To
explain an event in accordance with these laws is merely to classify it
under one or another of these prevailing modes of behavior; but this
does not explain the ultimate cause. There are certain phenomena
which in their essential character are miracles, that is, they are not
subject to explanation in accordance with natural laws. These phe-
101

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
nomena are the result of free choices of moral personalities. The su
preme miracle in the life of Jesus and in human history is his tran
scendent moral character and its effect upon men.
It is sometimes said that there is a tendency among modern scien
tists to eliminate entirely the miraculous or supernatural. In a certain.
sense this statement is true. There are some students of human his
tory who would reduce it to the mere interplay of economic and social
laws. Others deny the freedom of the will and regard human life
as governed entirely by physical laws. Against this type of scien
tific theory all our innermost convictions and our higher interests re
volt. But the best corrective of this extreme materialism is not a
blind, dogmatic conservatism, but rather a willingness to accept the
results of sane and reasonable scientific investigation in the biblical
as well as in other fields of research.
Inasmuch as the gospels themselves contain widely variant accounts
of the same miracle, the demand of the historical critics that certain
well-established canons, equally applicable to the Old and New Testa
ments, be carefully applied, in order to ascertain the ultimate basis of
historic fact underlying these accounts, seems reasonable. These can
ons may be formulated as follows:
1. Of several accounts the oldest should ordinarily be followed.
Two centuries of New Testament scholarship have demonstrated that
certain strata of the narrative are older than others. For example,
as has already been noted, the older collection or collections of the say
ings of Jesus, quoted by Matthew and Luke, evidently antedate Mark's
narrative. Mark's gospel, in turn, represents a record probably several
decades earlier than that of the Fourth Gospel. In some rare cases a
later account preserves important facts; but ordinarily the narrator who
stands nearest to the incidents which he records is the most reliable.
2. Of several different accounts or possible interpretations of the
same incident, the simpler or more natural should be adopted. Thus,
in the narratives of Mark (l«-»o) and Matthew (418-»), Jesus simply
called his earlier followers and they without hesitation responded; but
in the parallel account of Luke (51"11) their call is preceded by a mirac
ulous draught of fishes. In the account of the recovery of Jairus's
daughter most earlier interpreters were inclined to find a miracle.
As a matter of fact, according to the oldest record, Jesus himself
declared, "The child is not dead, but asleep."
3. Due allowance must be made for popular ignorance of natural
laws and for the tendency to interpret with mechanical literalness
102

THE CANONS OF INTERPRETATION
what was originally simply a figure of speech. It must be remembered
that the gospel writers lived in an age when it was customary to regard
that which was marvellous, or even that which to us seems natural, as
supernatural. To the ancients an eclipse was even a greater miracle
than the raising of the dead to life. All forms of insanity and mental
derangement were attributed to the influence of personal demons.
The gospel writers rarely describe the therapeutic methods which
Jesus employed in his work of healing. They were naturally more
interested in the result than in the process. In a few instances Mark
has suggested the ways in which Jesus reinforced the faith of those
whom he sought to heal, as, for example, touching the sick or the
wetting of the eyes of the blind with saliva from his own mouth. In
certain instances even Jesus' disciples interpreted his expressive figures
with misleading literalness. A familiar example of this is their failure
to understand his allusions to his coming death and his warnings to
beware of the leaven of the Pharisees. Luke has fortunately preserved
the parable of the fig tree, by which Jesus describes the fate awaiting
the Jewish people; but in Mark the original parable has been trans
formed into an account of the cursing of a barren fig tree and the miracle
of its sudden withering (cf. § CXL3> n).
4. The historical value of each miracle story must be determined
largely by whether or not it is consistent with Jesus' character, acts,
and teachings as revealed by the oldest sources. Only one or two
miracles appear to have been recorded in the earliest collection of Jesus'
teachings, although this fact may be due to the peculiar purpose of these
writings. The primitive source, however, together with the earliest
narrative in Mark, gives a vivid, consistent picture of what Jesus was
and did. It is reasonable to use this as a standard by which to test
the historical value of the later narratives. Thus, for example, in the
popular account of the healing of the demoniac east of the Sea of Galilee,
Jesus is represented as wantonly destroying a herd of swine. It was
a region peopled not by Jews but by heathen. Even if the swine be
longed to Jews, it is difficult to believe that Jesus' point of view was so
narrowly Jewish that he would for a moment have justified on cere
monial grounds the destruction of that which inevitably meant serious
loss to the owners. Many hold that we have here the popular inter
pretation of what was originally simply a coincidence; for, if a herd of
swine, terrified by the wild cries of the demoniac, rushed into the lake,
their strange actions would naturally have been attributed to the in
fluence of the great Wonder-Worker. 103

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
V. The Different Types of Recorded Miracles. The gospels
attribute to Jesus four distinct types of miracles: (1) those of moral
and spiritual healing; (2) of mental healing; (3) of physical healing,
and (4) those illustrating his power over natural forces. The transfor
mations in the character of such men as Levi and Zaccheus, the cor
rupt tax-collectors, were as unmistakable miracles as any recorded in
the gospels. To-day we are so familiar with such transformations
that their miraculous character often escapes us. Psychology also
helps us in part to fathom the mental states which result in these mar
vellous transformations, but they are still shrouded with mystery. On
the other hand, the reason why this type of miracle did not impress
the contemporaries of Jesus nearly as deeply as did the other won
ders that he performed was because it was less concrete and objective.
Mark was chiefly impressed by Jesus' ability to heal disordered minds.
Whether or not Jesus himself accepted the popular explanation of
insanity as due to demoniacal possession, he adopted it for practical
reasons as a basis for the cures which he worked, even as he did the
prevailing conceptions of the universe. In the thought of the gospel
writers and the Church Fathers, who held the current beliefs regarding
the causes of disease and especially of insanity, these acts of healing
were regarded as the most convincing proof of Jesus' power and au
thority over Satan, who they believed controlled these evil spiritsj
As might be expected, it was in the field of moral and mental dis
orders that Jesus' powerful personality was able to accomplish most.
It is significant that his first recorded act of healing was a cure of the
demoniac in the synagogue at Capernaum, and that the great majority
of his miracles appear to have been of this character. His growing
reputation inspired ever greater faith in the minds of the crowds and
of the afflicted, so that in the regions about Capernaum it became in
creasingly easy for him to effect these cures. On the other hand, Mark
states that when Jesus returned to his home at Nazareth and was sur
rounded by those who knew him as a boy and youth, he failed to find
that faith or, in the language of modern psychology, that suggestible
attitude which was absolutely necessary in order to effect cures, so that
there he was able to heal only a few. Matthew 1243-15, which appar
ently here records a saying of Jesus preserved in the earliest collection,
possibly suggests that certain of these acts of mental healing were only
temporarily effective, and that a recurrence of their maladies sometimes
left the poor victims in a more pitiable state than before. It may have
been that among the growing number of followers who accompanied
104

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RECORDED MIRACLES
Jesus there were some who remained with him because they realized
that only in his presence could they find permanent relief.
Many of the recorded miracles of physical healing are in certain
respects paralleled by well-authenticated analogies to-day. The sci
entists who investigated the miracles effected by the Holy Coat of
Treves, after eliminating all cases which could be explained by other
causes, found well-attested cures of the atrophy of the optic nerve, of
paralysis of the arm due to dislocation, of the complete loss of the use
of arms and legs as a consequence of rheumatic gout, of Saint Vitus's
dance, of blindness of one eye and of paralysis of one arm as the result
of brain-fever, of a chronic intestinal disorder, of a cancerous tumor, of
caries of the spine, and of chronic inflammation of the spinal marrow.
(See Korum, Wunder und gottlicher Gnaderweiss bei der Austellung des
heiligen Roches zu Trier im Jahre 1891.)
Striking illustrations of the power of the mind over physical states
are now so common that they are recognized by medical science, and
the laws which govern them are beginning to be formulated. Modern
scientists and historians, therefore, approach the gospel accounts of
physical healing with an entirely new attitude. They simply ask that
the established canons of historical interpretation be faithfully applied
to each narrative. As a rule, the historical accuracy of these records
is signally confirmed by critical investigation. In many cases the
natural laws lying back of them are also revealed. For example, the
account of the healing of the woman afflicted with an issue of blood
is regarded by many medical authorities as a case of auto-suggestion.
It has commonly been held that Mark l4"-* records the cure of a case
of real leprosy, which has hitherto proved incurable; but Jesus' com
mand that the man go to the priest and perform the ablutions provided
in Leviticus 141"32 for certain types of skin affections, which were popu
larly called leprosy but were in reality curable, suggests the nature of
the disease.
VI. The Significance of the Illustrations of Jesus' Power over
Nature. There are many who feel that their religious faith must
stand or fall with the nature miracles of Jesus. They contend that if
these are rejected, Christianity must be regarded as a mere human
development rather than as a unique and supremely divine revelation.
This conservative position is worthy of the utmost sympathy and re
spect, nor can it be denied that it is logically tenable, for many able
thinkers hold it to-day. They maintain that the unique personality
of Jesus was to a certain extent unfettered by ordinary human limita-
105

THE GOSPEL MIRACLES
tions. More progressive thinkers, on the other hand, believe that the
moral grandeur of Jesus is obscured by certain of the nature miracles
popularly attributed to him; that without genuine human limitations
to surmount and conquer, heroism and noble self-sacrifice are impos
sible. They believe that Jesus is only the more truly divine because
he was so completely human, being " tempted in all points even as we
are." In any case it seems clear that the great essentials of our faith
remain unshaken whatever view we hold regarding these nature mir
acles, for, since the days of Horace Bushnell, it is universally agreed
that the corner-stone of the Christian faith is the moral and spiritual
character of Jesus.
Measured by critical historical canons, two miracle stories stand
in a very different category from most of those found in the gospels.
The one is the story of the raising of the widow's son at Nain. It is
recorded only by Luke (711"17) and bears on its face the marks of late
origin. Thus, for example, Jesus is designated here for the first time
in Luke as "the Lord," and he is later called a prophet. The close
analogies between this narrative and the ancient story of the healing
of the boy by Elijah and the variant form of the same story in II Kings
4 have been noted by many interpreters. The account of the raising
of Lazarus from the dead is recorded only in the Fourth Gospel. The
silence of the synoptic writers would be more easily explained if the
miracle had been performed in some remote village, but according to
the Fourth Gospel it took place at Bethany, a near suburb of Jerusa
lem, and during Jesus' last week at Jerusalem, when every day and
almost every hour of his activity is recounted with unparalleled detail
by the early evangelists. This silence suggests that the story of the
raising of Lazarus was unknown, not only to Paul and the Twelve, but
also to the first generation of gospel writers. It is also important to
recall that the Fourth Gospel is to a great extent allegorical — more so
than we ordinarily realize in this matter-of-fact age. It is quite prob
able that the evangelist never intended his account of the raising of
Lazarus to be understood as literal history, but rather as an allegorical
illustration of Jesus' spiritual power. This interpretation brings the
narrative into harmony with the implications of the earliest evangelists
that Jesus healed only those to whose faith he could personally appeal.
There are relatively few nature miracles recorded in the synoptic
gospels. The account of the changing of the water into wine at Cana
is not found in the older gospels. It appears for the first time in the
Fourth Gospel, where it is in all probability to be interpreted allegori-
106

ILLUSTRATIONS OF JESUS' POWER OVER NATURE
cally. In this connection it is important to note how frequently that
gospel disparages mere physical signs as the ultimate basis of personal
faith in Jesus (e. g., 2»-** 4* 62"14' 83 11" 2029). The account of Jesus
stilling the tempest on the Sea of Galilee is recounted in Mark and
reproduced almost verbatim in the parallel passages in Matthew and
Luke. To interpret the incident rightly, it is important to study it in
the light of its physical setting. Squalls on the northern end of the Sea
of Galilee are famous for the quickness with which they sweep down
over the lake and the equal suddenness with which the waters become
calm when the storm is past. Jesus' words, "Peace, be still," are even
more appropriate, if originally addressed to his perturbed disciples
rather than to the troubled sea. The words which follow in Mark
420, "Why are you fearful? Have you not yet faith?" are, in fact, ad
dressed to them. It is easy to see how the sudden passing of the squall
and the almost immediate quieting of the waves would be attributed
to Jesus' divine power, so often revealed in dealing with the fears and
passions that perturbed the spirits of men. It is also possible that a
familiar Old Testament passage (Ps. 899) was in the mind of Mark
when he described the incident:
Thou rulest the pride of the sea,
When its waves arise thou stillest them.
The most familiar of the four or five stories that are told by the gos
pel writers to illustrate Jesus' power over natural forces is the account
of how he fed the multitudes beside the Sea of Galilee. Like the ac
count of the stilling of the waves, it has a powerful hold on the artistic
and poetic imagination of the Christian world and on the heart of hu
manity. Jesus' use of the figure of bread in the Fourth Gospel, never
theless, raises the question whether the food with which he fed the wait
ing multitudes was physical or spiritual. The details of the narrative
differ widely in the various gospel accounts. They all agree, however,
that the multitudes stayed long with Jesus, yet went away fed. His
torical students call attention to the fact that the inhabitants of Pales
tine, in the past as to-day, rarely set out on a journey, even of a few
hours, without placing some of the soft, easily transported oriental
bread in their wallets. Jesus certainly allayed the spiritual hunger
of the multitudes. As he did so he aroused their desire to remain and
hear him. He also inspired in them the spirit of unselfish giving which
would lead each to share what he had with his neighbor. Hence, in
107

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
giving them the bread of life, Jesus satisfied both their physical and their
spiritual needs.
VII. Conclusions. Thrown into the crucible of historical criticism,
the great majority of the gospel miracles emerge unscathed. This is
pre-eminently true of the miracles which are the expression of Jesus'
strong love and compassion for men. It is the miracle stories cited
by the evangelists to illustrate his power over natural forces that fail
to meet the tests of the critical historian. This result is in complete
accord with Jesus' own assertion that he was not a wonder-worker
whose authority was to be attested by miraculous signs, such as turn
ing stones into bread or throwing himself down from a height. The
miracles which Jesus performed were of a diviner, more spiritual char-
¦acter. The abiding value of the narratives of the storm at sea and of
his feeding the multitudes is that they illustrate his complete devotion
to his followers and his marvellous control of their fears and of their
naturally selfish impulses. From the modern point of view, as well
as from that of Jesus, the gospel miracles are not so much his divine
credentials as they are the revelation of his Godlike spirit and of his
truly miraculous power over the bodies and minds and souls of men.
Thus interpreted, the gospel miracles possess an increasing value for
each succeeding generation, for only as our experience and knowledge
broaden end deepen can we fully appreciate the many-sided personality
and work of him who healed men's bodies and minds and souls.

§ CXXVm. THE CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
1. The Then Jesus went up into the mountain, and called to him
point- th°se whom he would; and they went with him. And he
ment appointed twelve that they might be with him, and that he
Twelve might send them out to preach, and to have authority to cast
3™"? out demons: Simon, to whom he also gave the name Peter;
tf.Luke and James the son of Zebedee and John the brother of
Matt. James; and to these two he gave the name Boanerges,
w"> which means, Sons of thunder; and Andrew, and PhiUp, and
Bartholomew, and Matthew, and Thomas, and James the
son of Alphaeus, and Thaddeus, and Simon the Cananean,
and Judas Iscariot, who also betrayed him.
Then he came home and again the crowd gathered, so
that they were not able so much as to get their food. And
108

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
when his relatives heard it, they went out to seize him, for 2.
they said, He is out of his mind. And his mother and his ^Xi-
brothers came and, standing outside, they sent to him and Jjoi of
called him. And the crowd was seated around him. And

truekinship (Mark
3Wb-a.

they said to him, Here are your mother and your brothers
outside seeking you. And he said to them in reply, Who " ,s. </.
are my mother and my brothers? And looking around jS""'«
on those who were sitting in a circle about him, he said, Be- gSHf
hold, my mother and my brothers ! Whoever does the will n27 M)
of God, that one is my brother, and sister, and mother.
And as they journeyed on the way, a certain man said to 3. The
him, I wiU foUow thee wherever thou goest. Then Jesus ^de-
said to him, The foxes have holes and the birds of the J^"^
heavens have their resting places, but the Son of man hath cipie-18"
nowhere to lay his head. He said to another, FoUow me; (u&e
but the man said, Let me first go and bury my father. But £/ Matt
Jesus said to him, Let the dead bury their own dead. Go 8»-»)
thou and proclaim the kingdom of God. .Another also said,
I wiU foUow thee, Lord, but first let me bid fareweU to those
of my household. But Jesus said to him, No man who looks
back after having put his hand to the plow is fit for the
kingdom of God.
Now large crowds were journeying along with him. And 4. The
he turned and said to them, If any one comes to me and hates {anceoV
not his father and mother and wife and children and brothers gj""^
and sisters, yes, and his own life also, he cannot be my cost
disciple. And he who does not carry his own cross and {\S^f
come after me cannot be my disciple. For which of you, J^fi-
wishing to bmld a tower, does not first sit down and count
the cost, to see if he has money to complete it? Lest after
he has laid the foundation and has not the means to finish,
aU those looking on begin to mock him, saying, 'This man
began to build, but was not able to finish.' Or what king, on
going to war with another king, wiU not first sit down and
take counsel whether he is able with ten thousand men to
meet him who is coming against him with twenty thousand?
And if not, when the other is stiU far away, he sends an
embassy and asks for terms of peace. So then every one of
you, who does not renounce aU his possessions, cannot be
my disciples.
Salt indeed is good, but if even salt has lost its savor,
109

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
Use- wherewith shaU it be seasoned. It is fit neither for the land
of nor for the dunghill: men throw it out. He who has ears to
hear, let him hear.
icss"1 He also spoke to them a parable :
(Luke
tf Mark ^'an a blind man guide a blind man?
(MMatt. ShaU they both not faU into a ditch?
i.\he P°r a disciple is not above bis teacher;
d1sciof ^et every finished disciple shaU be like his teacher.
pleship (Luke
«*»¦£. For there is no sound tree that brings forth rotten fruit,
i5» "' Nor again is there a rotten tree that brings forth sound
fruit;

the
faith-

1Q24, 26)

7. For each tree is known by its own fruit.

Char

acter" Men do not gather figs from thorns,
gjjjfo. Nor do they pluck grapes from a bramble-bush.
effect- The good man from the good store-house of his heart brings
teach- out what is good,
(Luke An°- me bad man ^rom me Da<* store-house brings out
6fmk - what is bad:
i^-a "• For out of the abundance of his heart the mouth of man
speaks.

718 -20)

8. The John said to him, Teacher, we saw a man casting out
lesson demons m my name, who did not foUow us. And we tried
ance" to Prevent nmi> because he did not foUow us. But Jesus
(Mark said, Prevent him not. For no one shall work a miracle in
'/xiike my name and then be able quickly to speak evU of me. He
9". 5») wno is not against us is for us.
Now it came to pass soon afterwards that Jesus jour
neyed about from city to city and village to village, preach-
Ouke" ing and bringing the good tidings of the kingdom of God.
And he was accompanied by the Twelve and certain women,
who had been healed of evU spirits and illnesses : Mary, who
was called Magdalene, from whom seven demons had gone
out, Joanna, the wife of Chuzas, Herod's steward, Susanna
and many others were ministering to them out of then-
possessions. Now in the course of their journey Jesus entered a vUlage,
and a certain woman named Martha received him in her
house. And she had a sister named Mary, who seated her-
110

9. The
minis
tering women

81-')

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
self at the Lord's feet and Ustened to his words. But Martha 10.
was distracted with much serving. And she came to him Tr^
and said, Lord, carest thou not that my sister has left me emi
to serve aU by myself? Bid her, therefore, help me. But
the Lord said to her, Martha, Martha, thou art anxious and
troubled about many things, yet few things are needed — or of'tiietude in dis-
cinle- ship (Luke
1038-42)

nent importance

only one; Mary has chosen the good portion, which shaU
not be taken away from her.
And Jesus went about, through aU the cities and viUages, s$5j>
teaching in their synagogues, preaching the good tidings of
the kingdom, and healing all kinds of disease and sickness. ] 'sus
But when he saw the crowds he was moved with compassion rea-
for them, harassed and scattered, like sheep without a shep- fS? s
herd. Then he said to his disciples, The harvest is plente

sending out

is-

ciples (Matt.
c/.Luke

ous, but the laborers are few. Beseech, therefore, the lord hisd_
of the harvest to send forth laborers into his harvest.
Go on your way. Behold, I send you forth as lambs in
the midst of wolves. Carry no purse, no waUet, no sandals, lo™)
and salute no man on the road. And whatever household liys m
you enter first say, Peace be to this household. And if the Ttf^s
son of peace be there your peace shaU rest upon him; but if to his
not, it shaU return to you again. Stay in the same house, $5?"
eating and drinking what they provide, for the laborer is <J;"£e
worthy of his hire. Go not from one house to another, cf.
Also whatever city you enter and the people receive you, eat JJ*"'
the things that are set before you, heal the Ul in it, and tell J1,**
them: 'The kingdom of God is near you.' But whatever Luke
city you shaU enter and the people receive you not, go out ,lb)
into its streets and say, ' Even the dust from your city, which
clings to our feet, we wipe off against you. But know this,
"The kingdom of God is near." ' I teU you, on that day
it shall be more tolerable for Sodom than for that city.

Give not that which is holy to the dogs, lok-To
And throw not your pearls befc
Lest they trample them under
And turn again to devour you.

And throw not your pearls before swine; aider
Lest they trample them under their feet, wtude"oftheirhearers
He who hears you hears me, 7\att"
And he who rejects you rejects me,
And he who rejects me rejects him who sent me. M«t't'
111 "")

Luke
10' «. cf.

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
14. And the apostles gathered to Jesus, and they told him aU
retuSi mat mev had done ^d *& iiuit mev had ta^11*- Ani he
(Mark said to them, Come by yourselves into a desert place in pri-
c/.Luke vate, and rest a Uttle.
2JJ,j At that season Jesus answered and said,
Jesus- I praise thee, Father, Lord of heaven and earth,
prayer That mou didst j^ mege NthmgS from the wise and prudent,
g1*^- And didst reveal them to babes;
(Matt. Yea, Father, for so it pleased thee.
cf "'
JjfS'.fo) AU things have been intrusted to me by my father,
And no one knows the Son but the Father,
Nor does anyone know the Father but the son,
And he to whom the Son may wish to reveal him.
I. Jesus' Purpose in Calling His Disciples. In his choice of
disciples Jesus reveals the aims and methods of a teacher. Most of
the great teachers of his race had gathered about them a group of dis
ciples. When Isaiah's counsels were rejected by king and people in
the crisis of 735 B.C. he turned to his disciples as the agents through
whom to ultimately communicate his teachings to his nation: "Bind
ing up the admonition and sealing the instruction among my disciples,
I will wait for Jehovah, who is hiding his face from the house of Ja
cob, and in him will I trust" (Isa. 816). Baruch and the other faithful
scribes, from whom has come the present book of Jeremiah, were de
voted disciples of that prophet of Judah's decline. All the famous
rabbis of Jesus' day had disciples who sat at their feet, drank in the
teachings that fell from their lips, and in turn transmitted them to
their own followers. For fully two centuries the doctrines of Hillel
and Shammai were thus treasured, for the Jews were strongly opposed
to committing to writing anything that might rival the sacred written
law of the Old Testament. Like Isaiah, Jesus chose a definite group
of disciples. The formal choice came at the critical moment when the
opposition of the leaders and the inability of the masses fully to appre
ciate his teachings were becoming more and more evident. His first
object, therefore, in choosing disciples was to impress upon their minds
and characters the truths which he desired to impart to the needy of his
race. As the earliest records of his work and teachings, they proved
far more effective than cold, impersonal writings.
The Gospel of Mark states that Jesus chose his disciples that "they
112

JESUS' PURPOSE IN CALLING HIS DISCIPLES
might be with him." It is evident that Jesus felt strongly the need of
friendship and enjoyed exceedingly the companionship of men. This
side of his nature has been often overlooked. But it was not merely
to supply his social needs that he drew these busy men from their daily
tasks. It was because of what this companionship meant to them.
In doing some worthy task together men learn best to know each other's
inner thoughts and motives. Jesus taught his disciples by action and
association, as well as by words. From the first he appears to have
set before them that missionary ideal which they later recognized in
even larger measure than he had anticipated. "Follow me and I will
make you fishers of men," were the kindly, almost playful, and yet
richly suggestive words with which he first summoned Peter and An
drew. He saw how plenteous was the harvest and how great the need
of effective reapers. It was, therefore, to make men who would in
turn become makers of men that Jesus called and trained his disciples.
II. The Personnel of the Twelve. The scene of the formal call
of the Twelve appears to have been the quiet table-land that rose
abruptly from the narrow plain on the northwestern end of the Sea of
Galilee. Their call marked an important moment in Jesus' career.
Henceforth his attention was devoted largely to teaching and training
them. Why he chose exactly twelve is not quite clear. Matthew
1928 and its parallel in Luke 22s0 imply that it was because there were
twelve tribes of Israel and that each of the disciples might later sit on
a throne judging one of these tribes. The idea, however, is apocalyp
tic and cast in the characteristic Jewish terminology adopted by the
later church. The explanation of his choice of twelve appears to be
much simpler. As he sent them out two by two he naturally chose
an even number. In the lists in Matthew and Acts the disciples are
arranged in pairs. Of those who gathered about him there were twelve
who gave large promise of future helpfulness.
Four lists have been preserved; all differ in minor details. They
go back, however, to two original lists. The one is that of Mark 313""a,
which Matthew follows in 102"1 with only minor changes in order. The
other is that of Luke 612-111, which is reproduced in Acts l13- " in a slightly
different order. The only fundamental variations between these two
independent lists is that in Mark the name of Thaddeus appears, while
in Luke the name of Judas the son of James takes its place.
In the gospel narratives the personality and work of Jesus are
made so prominent and commanding that the individual portraits of
the Twelve are exceedingly dim. Peter's is by far the clearest. Thi3
113

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
rough, energetic fisherman of Capernaum is a surprising combination
of strength and weakness. The explanation of the seeming contra
dictions in his character lies in his mercurial disposition. Confidence
and despondency, insight and obtuseness, boldness and cowardice mark
his career. Jesus, almost at the same moment, called him a rock and
Satan. Paul, likewise, in the same chapter called him a pillar and a
dissembler (Gal. 2'- a). John's character has been popularly inter
preted by the Fourth Gospel which bears his name. The sharp con
trasts between this portrait and the few allusions to him in the synop
tic gospels have long been recognized, so that the convincing evidence
that he was not its author removes a cause of confusion. He and his
brother James are called "the sons of thunder," and the few facts that
are recorded of them confirm the impression that they were men with
strong, impulsive, ambitious natures. They and Peter were the three
disciples who proved Jesus' closest friends and associates.
Simon, the Cananean, came from the ranks of the Zealots. The
appellation Cananean in Mark and Matthew is the Aramaic equivalent
of Zelotes in Luke and Acts. He represented, therefore, that en
thusiastic, intemperate body of Zealots who were especially strong in
Galilee and who were ever ready to take up the sword against Rome.
His presence among the Twelve still further illustrated the type of men
that Jesus drew about him. They stood close to the common people
and reflected their needs and hopes. They came neither from the
aristocracy nor the rabble, but from the respectable middle class. It
is an astonishing fact that apparently they were all mature men whose
occupations and manner of thinking were already fixed. Although
far removed from the narrow dominance of the priests, they were ac
customed to bow^ before the authority of the scribes and Pharisees.
They were better acquainted with deeds than with creeds. They
were also familiar with the teachings of the earlier Hebrew prophets
and were looking for a new and better era. Above all, they were en
thusiastic, impressionable, and responsive to an exacting call to ser
vice. Their ignorance of the subtle requirements of the scribal law
rendered them more teachable than the more learned Jews of Judea.
Their close, practical touch with real life made them appreciative of
the simple, practical message which Jesus brought them.
III. The Conditions of Active Discipleship. The surprising in
cident recorded in Mark 319b- 2a and in its immediate sequel (a'"36) shows
that Jesus had broken away completely from his inherited Semitic
point of view which placed supreme emphasis upon the ties of blood
114

THE CONDITIONS OF ACTIVE DISCIPLESHIP
relationship. The failure of his family to appreciate his aims and
methods may have strengthened this tendency; but it was in keeping
with his spirit and attitude toward men. It was a dramatic moment
when he publicly declared that the bonds of a common loyalty to God
were far stronger than those of kinship. Mark is probably right in
introducing this sweeping declaration immediately after the account
of the formal choice of the Twelve. Henceforth Jesus regarded them
and the larger group of disciples who gathered about him as his true
kinsmen. For over thirty years he had faithfully performed the duties
imposed by birth. Now he recognized as paramount the obligations
of that larger family relationship in which God is the Father and all
men are kinsmen.
The strenuous emphasis that he placed on the necessity that a true
disciple be ready to break all home ties that might retard him in his
larger service suggests the struggle through which Jesus himself had
passed. His words are hyperbolic. Never was the hypocrisy of mak
ing the demands of the ceremonial law an excuse for neglecting personal
duty to parents more scathingly denounced than by Jesus. We have
every reason to believe that there was never a more loyal son than he.
The assertion, therefore, that a man must hate his own kinsmen is but
his characteristically effective way of proclaiming the principle that,
to become his active disciple, a man must be ready to forego every
thing. It was the readiness that he demanded, not necessarily the
act. Peter certainly remained loyal to his home ties. This was prob
ably true of the other disciples. For the mighty task that Jesus es
sayed he required the help of heroic men who, hke himself, were ready
to sacrifice all and to dare all. He asked each man at first to sit down
and with absolute sincerity count the cost. As subsequent events
proved, a selfish, calculating disciple (Judas) was fatal to his cause.
Men who were to sweeten and to purify the corrupt life of Palestine
must have tested courage, a spirit of complete self-sacrifice, and enthu
siasm. The experiences of the opening days of his public activity had
made clear to Jesus the magnitude of his task. That knowledge, in
stead of daunting him, led him to perfect bis plans and to select his
followers more carefully. Nowhere is Jesus' heroic purpose and spirit
more clearly revealed than in the conditions which he imposed upon
his immediate followers. It is no vague, impractical dreamer that is
here disclosed, but an heroic, practical, resourceful leader who know3
conditions and men. His methods are as definite as his aims. The
conditions that he imposes upon others — personal purity and sincerity
— he has already accepted for himself. ,.115

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
IV. Jesus' Fellowship with His Disciples. Jesus told his dis
ciples from the first that he had nothing to offer of those things which
men ordinarily strove to attain, and that to follow him meant not
only the giving up of many of the things which they held dearest, such
as home, calling, friends, and possessions, but it meant also a life of
danger and privation. Why did these mature, practical men follow
him? Beyond the opportunity for self-sacrifice and service, he made
them no definite offers. Their later words and actions show that they
had a very imperfect conception of his real aims. Clearly that which
led them to leave all and follow him was primarily the charm of his
personality. They accepted the Teacher long before they did his
teachings. His courage, optimism, enthusiasm, good-fellowship, and
practical idealism were irresistible.
The Gospel of Mark gives a few vivid illustrations of the nature of
the relation that existed between Jesus and his disciples. More and
more Jesus himself recognized the importance of this companionship.
Even during the strenuous days at Capernaum he found time to with
draw with them to the quiet of the near-by heights or out upon the lake
or to the solitudes on the eastern side of the Sea of Galilee. "The
first steps toward a new life of brotherhood were taken here in still
ness and privacy; it was the first wonderful stirrings of a new human
ity" (Bousset, Jesus, 64). It is a side of Jesus' activity that is almost
overlooked by the later gospel writers, who were intent upon report
ing his teachings and deeds and upon interpreting the larger meaning
of his work; but the older sources record the priceless truth that the
corner-stone of Christianity was a noble brotherhood that found its
inspiration in Jesus' personality.
Jesus was the close personal friend of each of his disciples; but he
also maintained his dignity as their teacher and master. Ordinarily
in their journeys he appears to have gone ahead and they to have fol
lowed a short distance behind (Mark 9s3' M 1032). When they wished
to ask a question or he desired to communicate with them, they came
forward and then fell back again. There are repeated references in
the earlier gospels to their coming to him and to his summoning them
(Mark 8i 9M 1032 12"). Usually, as he preached and healed in public,
they were grouped behind him (1023). Frequently he took three of
them (Peter, James, and John) with him, leaving the others behind
(e. g., 5s7). This natural reserve and dignity only enhanced the sig
nificance of the friendship between Jesus and his followers.
V. The Ministering Women. Luke alone of all the gospel writers
has preserved a detailed record of the presence of ministering women
116

THE MINISTERING WOMEN
among the larger group of Jesus' disciples and followers. Mark 1540' a,
however, confirms Luke's valuable information, for it states that
among the timid, heart-broken witnesses of the crucifixion were Mary
Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the younger and Joses, and
also Salome, who, when he was in Galilee, followed him and min
istered to him, and many other women who came up with him to
Jerusalem. These statements show how little sympathy Jesus had
with the contemporary asceticism — for example, that of the Essenes.
All classes who sought his help received it impartially and unstintingly.
None needed it more than the women of his day, and especially the
type which gathered about him.
Prominent in this group was Mary of Magdala. This city lay on
the western shore of the Sea of Galilee and on the southern side of the
Plain of Gennesaret. It was at this point that the great highway
from Egypt to northern Syria and Babylonia reached the Sea of Gali
lee and joined the road that came up along the Jordan and the western
shore of the lake. About it were broad, fertile fields, so that its sit
uation made it in Jesus' time famous for its wealth and corruption.
Here the atmosphere was Graeco-Roman, with all the social immoral
ity that characterized this civilization in its Eastern setting. Tradi
tion is, therefore, probably right in saying that the woman out of
whom Jesus "cast seven devils" was a victim of the immoral life of
Magdala, although it is well to remember that this is only a con
jecture. The other women whose names are given evidently came from quite
a different class. Joanna was the wife of Herod's steward. Possibly
her husband is the royal official, mentioned in John 4*6-63, who believed
with his whole household. Mary, the mother of James and of Joses,
and Salome also appear to have been women of high standing in the
Christian community. In the account of Jesus' visit to the home of
Mary and Martha, Luke had given a vivid picture of the great Teacher
amid domestic scenes. Even during his short sojourn there he found
an opportunity to instruct the family and to commend Mary's wisdom
in listening to his words. Although none appreciated genuine hospi
tality more highly, he mildly rebuked Martha's zeal, which led her to
neglect his teachings in order to provide for his entertainment, by pro
testing that his physical needs were few (following what appears to
be the original reading). These two sisters are representatives of
that larger group of unknown followers who realized Jesus' ideal of
discipleship in the quiet of the home and in their daily tasks, even
117

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
though they did not actually leave all to follow him in his itinerant
ministry. VI. Jesus' Commission to the Twelve. The sending out of his
disciples was apparently but an incident in Jesus' brief ministry. In
asmuch as it has no close connection with the rest of the narrative,
its historical character has even been questioned. It is recorded, how
ever, in the two oldest sources, and these are quoted in each of the
synoptic gospels. It is also in complete harmony with Jesus' purpose
as revealed at this period in his activity. Mark has possibly abridged
the earlier teaching source. Matthew has apparently combined the
material which he found in his two sources. Luke has dealt with the
variant accounts which he found in his two sources (Q and Mark) in
a bold and characteristic way. In 91"6 he follows Mark in the descrip
tion of the sending forth of the Twelve. In 101"12 he introduces the
account of the sending out of the apostles, which he found in the early
teaching source (Q), to describe a mission of the seventy (or, as it ap
pears in certain texts of 10", seventy-two). This account, however, is
almost identical with the description of the sending out of the twelve
disciples which Matthew evidently drew from the same teaching source
and which he has preserved in its original setting. Luke's object in
substituting "seventy" for "the disciples" may have been to establish
a traditional basis for the subsequent mission of the Christian apostles
to the heathen nations. The number seventy corresponds to the num
ber of the nations mentioned in the table of Genesis 10; the number
seventy-two to the number found in the Greek version of that chap
ter. The command that they should go forth two by two corresponds
to the custom followed by the early Christian missionaries. The Gos
pel of Matthew, on the other hand, in keeping with its characteristic
point of view, inserts a command not found in Luke: "Take no road
to the Gentiles, and enter no city of the Samaritans; rather go to the
lost sheep of the house of Israel." While these words represent the
practice of the Twelve, as well as that of the early Jerusalem church,
they reflect a problem which did not arise until after Jesus' death.
This command was, perhaps, introduced by the author of Matthew as
a preparation for that broader command which he introduces in 2819:
"Go then and make disciples of all the nations." Aside from his
radical alteration at the beginning of the narrative, Luke has appar
ently preserved the more nearly original order and version of Jesus'
directions to his disciples. Mark, familiar with the customs of the
later Christian missionaries, gives a different version of the original
118

JESUS' COMMISSION TO THE TWELVE
command; the disciples are here permitted to take a staff and a pair
of sandals. Otherwise Mark confirms Luke's order.
VII. Jesus' Reason for Sending Out the Twelve. According
to the gospel record Jesus sent out his disciples because he felt strongly
the limitations of time and space, which prevented him from satisfying
the needs of the many whose suffering and ignorance appealed to him.
Matthew, in 9s5 > 86, prefaces his quotation from his older source with a
description of Jesus' teaching and healing work throughout Galilee, and
of his deep compassion for those who were like a scattered, shepherd-
less flock. Jesus' words also imply that his deeper reason for sending
out his disciples was thereby to train the laborers for their task. He
realized that only in the laboratory of actual experience could their
training be completed so that "they would be like their teacher."
The report of their actual work is meagre, but sufficient to indicate
that it was similar to his own, namely, healing and preaching. Mark
adds that their message, like that of John and of Jesus in his earlier
ministry, was to call the people to repentance. This is also implied
by the words found in Matthew: "The kingdom of heaven is at hand."
Thus their primary task was to preach; but, like the later Christian
apostles, they also performed acts of healing.
In the light of oriental custom the practical wisdom of Jesus' de
tailed directions are obvious. In the Semitic world hospitality was
regarded as a fundamental virtue. Jesus fully appreciated the psy
chological principle that they who give readily are the most ready to
receive. On the other hand, oriental customs, and especially those
followed in salutations, were so elaborate that they consumed a vast
amount of time. Expressed in modern terms, Jesus commanded his
disciples to do their work in the simplest and most direct way, to avoid
unnecessary hindrances, and to work only where conditions were favor
able. He also sought to impress them with the supreme importance
and dignity of their task and to prepare them for the misunderstand
ings and affronts which they were sure to meet. The later church
has rightly found in the principles which underlie these commands
the incentives for its world-wide missionary activity.
VIII. The Return of the Twelve. The gospel records are
strangely silent regarding the results of the mission of the Twelve.
Luke, in 1017"20, contains a brief account which is clearly colored by
the language and thought of the later missionary period in which he
lived and wrote. Mark's account of the return of the disciples is much
simpler and apparently more historical. Luke, however, has intro-
119

CALL AND TRAINING OF JESUS' DISCIPLES
duced, in connection with his account of the return of the disciples,
a remarkable utterance of Jesus. It was evidently derived from the
teaching source (Q), for Matthew has preserved it practically ver
batim, although in a slightly different setting. The words fit that
period in Jesus' activity when the inability of the multitudes and the
refusal of the learned scribes and Pharisees to accept his teachings
had become plainly manifest. The thought is expressed in poetic
form and reveals strong emotion. Appreciating thi3 fact, Luke pre
faces them with the words, "At the same time, Jesus rejoiced in the
Holy Spirit and said." This brief prayer of thanksgiving is another
of the open windows through which it is possible for us to look into the
depths of Jesus' soul. Experience had taught him the profound sig
nificance of that insight into God's character and purpose which had
been revealed to him. At the same time it had taught him how
difficult it was to make clear to the learned but prejudiced and self-
satisfied leaders of his race the simple and yet all-important truths
that filled his soul and made him and his work unique. Possibly in
desperation he had turned to the ingenuous group whom he gathered
about him as his disciples, in the hope that by virtue of their individual
needs and freedom from prejudice they might understand and accept
him and his teachings. The result of this experiment had given prom
ise that his hope would yet be fulfilled. Jesus' actual words are too
hyperbolic to admit of exact translation. The word translated "babes"
means, literally, those who, like infants on their mothers' breasts, were
still unable to speak.
In its present form the second stanza of Jesus' prayer would seem
to be the later form in which the teachings regarding his personality
and mission were expressed by his followers. An earlier and more
logical form of the utterance is preserved in Christian writings which
come from the second and third centuries:
All has been intrusted to me by my Father,
And no one has known the Father except tke Son,
Nor the Son except the Father,
And those to whom the Son reveals [himsBlf].
Attractive and on the whole convincing is the suggestion in Die Schrif-
ten des Neuen Testaments (I, 322) that the original Aramaic word,
Abba, which elsewhere in the gospels is translated, according to the
context, father, the father, and my father, be here rendered as a voca-
120

THE RETURN OF THE TWELVE
tive, thus preserving the same type of prayer as is found in the pre
ceding stanza. Following this suggestion the passage may be ren
dered: All is now revealed to me, O Father,
And no one knows thee, O Father, except thy Son;
No one knows thy Son, O Father, but thou,
And those to whom the Son reveals himself.

JESUS' FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS
§ CXXIX. THE AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT
TEACHER
1. Now on seeing the crowds Jesus went up into the moun-
alm^to tam- And when he sat down, his disciples came to him.
perfect Then he opened his mouth and taught them, saying:

cientteachtags

Think not that I came to destroy the law or the prophets :
(Satt I came not to destroy but to fulfil.
»».'») For I teU you, unless your righteousness sb.aU excel that of
the scribes and Pharisees,
You shaU not enter the kingdom of Heaven.
2. The Come to me aU you who are weary and heavy laden,
tog*Sn" And I wiU give you rest.
waWsof ^a^e mv y°^e uPon y°u> and learn from me,
uving0 For I am meek and lowly in heart,
{ Jlf'o') And you shall find rest for your souls ;
For my yoke is useful and my burden Ught.
3. its Everyone who hears these words of mine and does them
™'auo Shall be compared to a wise man, who built his house upon
offfe & r0Ck5
rnatt. And the rain feU, and the floods came,
If' M' The winds blew and beat upon that house;
L«i<e yet it feU not, for it was founded upon a rock.
4. The And everyone who hears these words of mine and does them
peril _nt
of fail- not
ing to ShaU be compared to a thoughtless man who built his house
it upon the sand;
i«a"; And the rain feU, and the floods came,
ifuke ^ne wmas D*ew ^d Deat uPon that house;
«") e And it fell, and great was its downfall.
122

AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
And it came to pass when Jesus finished these words s. Ef-
that the crowds were astonished at his teaching, for he je^s?"
taught them as one who had authority, and not like their P^^
.T. J ' ings
scribes. (Matt.
And again on another day, Jesus began to teach by the I}'' "'
seaside. And a great crowd gathered about him, so that he jjark
entered a boat, and sat in it on the sea. And all the crowd 6. The
were by the sea on the land. And he taught them many gj£^"f
things in parables, and said to them in his teaching, Listen! *heer
The sower yonder went out to sow, and as he sowed some (Mark
seed feU along the road, and the birds came and ate it up. Luke'*
And some feU on the rocky ground, where it had not much gj^
earth; and it sprang up at once, because it had no depth of 13")
earth; and when the sun rose, it was scorched by the heat,
and because it had no root, it withered away. And some
seed feU among the thorns, and the thorns grew up and
choked it, and it bore no fruit. And some feU on the good
soil, and came up and grew and bore, some thirty-fold, some
sixty-fold, and some a hundred-fold. And he said, He who
has ears to hear, let him hear.
And when he was alone his companions and the Twelve 7. The
questioned him about the parables. And he said to them, rw™p-
Do you not understand this parable? Then how are you to ^Iug?f
understand aU the parables. The sower sows the word, tlaea-
And these are they who are along the road where the word (^f|rk
is sown; and when they have heard, Satan immediately 4'°-".
comes and takes away the word sown among them. And in Luke
the same way, these are they who are sown upon the rocky fH'^
places : the ones who, when they have heard the word, receive i31,ja>
it immediately with joy; yet have no root in themselves, but
survive for a time ; then when distress or persecution arises
because of the word, they at once fall away. And others are
those who are sown among the thorns ; they are the ones who
have heard the word, yet the anxieties of the world, the de
ceitfulness of riches, and the desires for other things enter
in and choke the word, and it becomes unfruitful. And
these are they who are sown upon the good soU; the ones
who hear the word and accept it, and bear fruit, thirty-fold,
sixty-fold and a hundred-fold. 123

ALMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
8. The And he said to them:
So^to Is **"> lamP brought to be put under the bushel or under
Impart the bed?
truth Is it not to be put on the lamp stand?
$S[k For nothing is hidden, except to be disclosed,
«f- ' And nothing is concealed, but that it should come to light.
8 "-if) If anyone has ears to hear, let him hear.
And he said to them:
Take heed what you hear.
With what measure you measure, it shaU be measured to
you, and more shall be given to you.
For he who has, to him shaU be given,
And he who has not, from him shaU be taken even that
which he has.
o. And with many parables like these he spoke the word to
^^ them as they were able to hear it; except in parables he did
para- not speak to them; but in private he explained everything
(Mark to his own disciples.
Matt. I. Jesus the Teacher. Jesus was pre-eminently a moral and re-
h) ligious teacher. This side of his activity is most clearly set forth in
the two earliest sources (Q and Mark) which underlie the gospel rec
ords. By his contemporaries and disciples he was addressed most
frequently as Rabbi, or Teacher. In this r61e he can best be under
stood. Jesus combined the divine passion and enthusiasm of Israel's
prophets with the moral purpose and didactic skill of the scribes and
of their forerunners, the Hebrew sages. He sprang from a race of
teachers and inherited and utilized the results of the experience gained
during a thousand years, in which the best energies of Israel's spiritual
leaders had been devoted to interpreting and making effective the will
of God in the life of the nation and of the individual.
That which primarily distinguished Jesus from the scribal teachers
of his day was the quiet note of authority that characterized all his
teachings. This quality was one of the chief sources of his charm and
effectiveness. It was the authority, not of dogmatism, but of deep
conviction born of personal experience. He manifested at every point
a profound reverence for the teachers of Israel's past; but there was
no need for him to cite their authority, when the truths which he pro
claimed were daily attested by bis own observation and consciousness.
124

JESUS THE TEACHER
For this reason he constantly called upon his hearers to use their own
good sense and moral judgment. Thus, for example, one of his im
portant teachings regarding the delicate question of Sabbath observ
ance was based upon a matter-of-fact comparison of the relative value
of men and beasts.
Jesus' greatness as a teacher was due, in the first place, to that inti
mate knowledge of God which was the mystery and yet the inspira
tion of all that he did and taught. This possibility of a personal ac
quaintance with God was the supreme reality which he was endeavor
ing, with all the skill of an inspired teacher, to make clear to his dis
ciples; and out of the fulness of his heart his mouth spoke. A second
source of Jesus' skill as a teacher was his knowledge of men. He
knew the ideals and hopes, as well as the joys and sorrows, in the minds
of his hearers. Although he only rarely, as in the case of the hostile
scribes and Pharisees, expressed his judgments publicly, yet it is clear
that he knew intimately the different classes with which he came into
contact and analyzed with unerring instinct their motives as well as
their acts. Above all, his judgments were prompted by love and sym
pathy and the strong desire to help rather than to criticise. Described
in modern terms, Jesus was the great psychologist, as well as the prophet
and philanthropist of his age.
The third reason for Jesus' greatness as a teacher was the clarity
and concreteness of his method of teaching. It was in marked con
trast to the verbose, complex methods of reasoning employed by the
rabbis of his day. He undoubtedly thought as he taught, in figures
drawn from nature or from the every-day life of the people. No
complicated theology or philosophy obscured his vision of the eternal
verities. For the unsophisticated fishermen and for the fallen women
of the street, as well as for the learned Pharisees, he had a clear,
concrete message. The fourth reason why Jesus was pre-eminently a
great teacher was that his aims were definite and his methods in
tensely practical. He knew what were the needs of the people and
what would satisfy those needs. With unprecedented skill, he adapted
his methods to the realization of his aims. The principles which he
employed are the shibboleths of modern pedagogy. To his marvellous
message he added the marvellous charm of his personality, so that it is
not strange that wherever he went, during his Galilean activity, he was
surrounded by crowds of listeners who plied him with eager questions.
Spontaneously and unreservedly he gave himself to all who came to
him, whether in public or private. He did not even wait for men to
125

AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
come to him, but went forth to find them. In the bazaars and on the
streets he taught them. In the synagogues he' sought and found atten
tive audiences. Later, when the people were ready to follow him, he led
them forth to the quiet spots along the northern shore of the Sea of
Galilee or else upon the upland plateaus, which at points rise a few
yards from the shores of this sunken, inland lake. A comparatively
late Christian tradition has fixed upon one of these heights, the Horns
of Hattin, to the south of the Plain of Gennesaret, as the scene of the
so-called "Sermon on the Mount." The earliest Christian tradition,
however, which comes from the seventh century, identifies the scene
with the hill to the north of the famous fountain of Tabighah, and
therefore just north of the western suburbs of ancient Capernaum.
It is exceedingly probable that many of the sayings which the author
of Matthew has grouped together in chapters 5-7 were first uttered
on this spot. As Jesus in time turned from the multitudes and de
voted himself to the training of his disciples, he sought retired places
like this/ in which they would be free from the distractions that were
peculiarly characteristic of the city and village life of the ancient East.
II. Jesus' Attitude toward the Earlier Teachers of His Race.
As has already been noted, the foundation of much of Jesus' thought
and teaching was laid on the earlier scriptures of his race; but he ac
cepted as authoritative, not the detailed laws, but the principles un
derlying them. He recognized that the Jewish scriptures represented
simply a stage in Israel's moral and religious evolution. This fact
explains his own broad statement regarding his attitude toward them:
"I came not to destroy the law and the prophets, but to fulfil." As a
matter of fact, he quietly rejected practically all the religious institu
tions upon which the pharisaic scribes placed chief emphasis: fasting,
rigid Sabbath observance, and the laws of ceremonial cleanliness. To
circumcision and similar Jewish institutions he apparently never re
ferred. While he did attend the great feasts, there is no evidence that
he ever brought offerings to the temple. In the passage recorded in
Matthew 913 (cf. also 127) he reiterated the words of Hosea, "I desire
mercy, not sacrifice." By example as well as word he declared that
"love was more than burnt-offering and sacrifice" (Mark 12M). In
a well-authenticated passage (Matt. 523' 24) he advised his followers to
go and right any wrongs which they had committed against their asso
ciates before bringing offerings to Jehovah's altar. These familiar ex
amples illustrate the meaning of his words regarding his relation to
the ancient scriptures. He was not an iconoclast; but his profound
126

JESUS' ATTITUDE TOWARD THE EARLIER TEACHERS
reverence for the truth led him to distinguish clearly between the
universal and the national, between the eternal and the temporal,
between the spirit and the letter.
Jesus appears to have accepted the current traditions regarding the
origin and authorship of the Old Testament books, even as he did the
scientific and unscientific ideas of his age. Nowhere does he claim
to speak with authority except in the fields of morality and religion.
At the same time, as has been truly said, "Jesus was the higher critic
of his day." With that quiet note of conviction and authority that
amazed the assembled multitudes, he set aside the commands that
had come down from the "men of old." For the time-honored laws
regarding murder, adultery, and oaths, which dealt simply with ex
ternal acts, he substituted his own fuller statements of the principles
which underlie them. By his teaching and example, Jesus rendered
obsolete much that is found in the Old Testament; but in so doing
he did not destroy; rather he brought to full fruition and expression
the germinal principles contained in the old law and the prophets. To
the scribes and Pharisees, whose eyes were fixed on the letter of the
law, he seemed, indeed, a destroyer of their sacred scriptures. Jesus,
who saw through the letter to the spirit, knew that he was the true
champion and fulfiller of the law and the prophets. Regarding certain
fields of thought and teaching, he was silent, because he realized that
here the utterances of the earlier teachers were sufficient. Earlier
prophets, like Amos and Isaiah, had set forth the social and political
principles that govern society so fully that Jesus quietly accepted
them as the basis of his own teachings. These earlier teachers of Israel
had spoken to the nation, but Jesus spoke, above all, to the individual.
He sought to make their words simple and practically applicable to
the needs of each and every man. In his use of the older scriptures
he was governed, not by the casuistical laws of rabbinical interpreta
tion, nor by a blind reverence for the text, but by a keen appreciation
of the moral and spiritual needs of the crowds who gathered about him
and by the desire to bring to them that which was really valuable in the
records of God's earlier revelation through the life of his people.
III. Jesus' Aims as a Teacher. Jesus' work was so many-sided
and comprehensive that it is difficult to define his aims in a few brief
statements. He declared repeatedly that he "came not to save the
righteous, but sinners." The record of his activity confirms the con
clusion that his primary aim was to deliver men from the effects of
wrong beliefs, motives, and habits of living, and to restore them to
127

AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
complete physical, mental, moral, and spiritual health. He desired
that they "might have life, and that abundantly," that they might
"know the truth, and that the truth might make them free." Jesus
aimed not only to present a clear and true conception of God, but to
establish a vital personal relation between him and each individual, and
to inspire a childlike faith that would leave no place for anxiety or un
certainty regarding the tasks and problems of life. He desired to give
each of his fellow-men that knowledge of the Father which was the
inspiration of his own thought and activity. This was the mystery
which Jesus sought to reveal to his" disciples. In this way Jesus aimed
to teach men how to live — not under the compulsion of a rigid set of
rules, but guided by a genuine, commanding love for God and man.
His yoke, which he invited men to place upon their shoulders, was not
a burden, but was intended to relieve those who were laden, not only
with their own sins, but also with the heavy load that Jewish legalism
placed upon their shoulders. It was the same yoke that had enabled
him serenely and joyously to bear the heavy burdens which had rested
upon him during the responsible days at Nazareth, in the stress of his
early Galilean activity, and amidst the turmoil of pharisaic persecution.
It was a yoke which had been tested and had proved not pnly easy,
but also supremely useful — as the exact meaning of the Greek words
suggests — because it had made those burdens light. Furthermore, Jesus
aimed to give men a worthy goal for which to strive, and so to train
them as disciples that they might surely attain it. Finally, he en
deavored, by leading all men into common allegiance to the common
Father, to unite them in the universal fraternity, which he described
as the kingdom or reign of God, and thus to develop a perfect social
order. IV. The General Characteristics of Jesus' Teaching Methods.
Jesus endeavored to realize his aims in the most natural and direct
way. At first glance it would appear that he had no distinctive
method. This impression, however, is due to the fact that he adapted
his method with marvellous versatility and skill to the person or class
which he wished to reach. If they were fishermen, he drew illustra
tions and figures from the common life and experiences of that class.
If it was a woman, he spoke, for example, of the loss of the coins which
had been received as a part of the marriage dowry. When a learned
disciple of the scribes came to him, he began to discuss the law. In
every case he first established a point of contact by using a figure or
a story that aroused the interest of his hearers. More than that, Jesus
128

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF JESUS' TEACHING
always endeavored to establish from the first a basis of personal friend
ship between himself and those whom he sought to help and teach.
Some were bound to him by gratitude for an act of healing, others
by the charm of his personality and friendliness. With the eye of a
skilled teacher, Jesus saw, behind the immoral lives or petty acts of
those who gathered about him, the real man that each aspired to be
or could be. With intense zeal and superlative skill he strove to
develop that true manhood. Sometimes he appealed to their reason
and sometimes to their feelings, but always to their wills, for he was
never contented unless1 he stirred men to action and thus developed
their character.
Another characteristic of Jesus' method was its simplicity and direct
ness. Even the imperfect records show clearly that he never employed
unnecessary words. By his use of familiar figures he was able to ex
press by a word or phrase more than otherwise could be stated in many
sentences. After having established a point of contact, he quickly
led his hearers from the atmosphere of the petty and the commonplace
to the highest moral and spiritual points of view. Then he directed
their vision to that which was universal and eternal. Sometimes he
himself formulated the principle after he had fully illustrated it. He
also appreciated the high, didactic value of concrete illustration. To
teach the attitude of trust he placed a child in their midst. Many
of his most important teachings, as, for example, those regarding Sab
bath observance and the forgiveness of sins, were called forth by ex
periences in connection with his disciples. Many incidents illustrate
the fact that he fully appreciated the value of the laboratory method
in teaching moral and spiritual truth. By his own example, by their
fife together, and by the work which they performed under his direc
tion, even more than by precept, Jesus trained his followers so that
they, as "finished disciples, should be like their master."
Another marked characteristic of Jesus' teachings is their positive
rather than negative quality. The earlier teachers of his race had
expressed their message largely in the form of denunciations and warn
ings. "Thou shalt not" rings through the Old Testament; but al
most completely disappears in the gospels. On rare occasions Jesus
denounced the Pharisees and the mercenary high priests, but ordi
narily he was content to commend the good rather than to denounce
the evil. He called men's attention to the great truths of life and ex
perience, and trusted that the errors and falsehoods would be speedily
recognized and so disappear. It was because his message was simple,
129

AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
positive, and constructive that he succeeded in drawing all classes to
himself and has held them through the succeeding ages. By virtue
of the example of its founder, Christianity has from the first been a
teaching religion. Its success in the past has been determined by the
fidelity with which it has adhered to this ideal; its conquests in the
future depend upon the thoroughness with which Jesus' followers make
his teaching aims and methods their own.
V. The Literary Form of Jesus' Teachings. The exquisite
beauty of literary form which characterizes Jesus' recorded teachings
was evidently not the result of accident but of careful thought. Un
doubtedly much of their literary beauty has been lost in transmis
sion; but enough has been preserved to indicate that Jesus almost
universally employed the balanced parallelism of Hebrew poetry in
expressing his teachings. Frequently he repeated the same thought
in slightly different form in the second line of a couplet. Thus, for
example, he taught:
Nothing is hidden, except to be disclosed,
And nothing is concealed but that it should come to light.
Often he used the element of contrast by bringing out in the second
line of a couplet the antithesis of the thought expressed in the first.
More often the second and succeeding lines completed and supple
mented the thought presented in the first. A favorite type was the
enveloping or introverted parallelism. Here the first and fourth lines
are closely related, and the second and third are not only parallel to
each other but also supplement the thought of the first line. This
type is illustrated by the familiar teaching:
Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me,
For I am meek and lowly in heart,
And you shall find rest for your souls;
For my yoke is useful and my burden light.
In certain cases a close parallelism is traceable between succeeding
stanzas. Thus, in the description of the house built upon a rock each
of the first five lines is closely paralleled by the corresponding lines in
the succeeding stanza, which describes the house built upon the sand.
By these artistic methods Jesus not only appealed to the aesthetic
sense of his hearers, but also imparted to his teachings a marvellous
clarity and impressiveness. 130

THE LITERARY FORM OF JESUS' TEACHINGS
Mark's assertion that Jesus spoke only in parables must be inter
preted in accordance with the larger meaning of the Hebrew word for
parable, maschal. This type of literature was frequently used by
Israel's sages, and included not only that which is to-day known as
the parable, but also the proverb, the metaphor, the didactic simile,
the paradox, and even the allegory. Thus interpreted, Mark's asser
tion is true, for it is difficult to find a discourse, or even a brief saying
of Jesus, which is not adorned and illuminated by some one of these
figures of speech. They are the matchless word pictures which give
beauty and variety to the gospel narratives. Mark's statement in
412 that their aim was to conceal rather than to reveal the thought is,
however, misleading, and is evidently based upon a wrong applica
tion of the words used by Isaiah in describing his mission (Isa. 69- 10).
The large use of these figures of speech is in perfect harmony with
Jesus' teaching aims and methods. They imparted to his sayings a
picturesqueness and suggestiveness otherwise unattainable. Above all,
they enabled him to present abstract truths in simple, concrete form,
and in language equally intelligible to all ages and all races. The
figures are most of them drawn from the simple peasant life of Pales
tine. Their atmosphere and setting is that of the home and, above
all, of nature, but the themes possess a universal human interest.
Jesus was the master of the effective metaphor. In concise phrases,
as, for example, "the leaven of the Pharisees," or "the lost sheep of
the house of Israel," or "the salt that has lost its savor," he expressed
truths which commentators cannot set forth with equal clarity in
many pages. By means of the didactic simile, also, he associated his
teachings with the common objects and experiences in the daily life
of his hearers. In this way he not only made clear his thought and
commanded the interests of his disciples, but also provided a constant
reminder of his message. For example, they who had listened to his
teachings regarding the wise and the foolish man could never again
discuss the foundations on which they should build their houses with
out being reminded of that abiding foundation on which he exhorted
them to build their faith. Jesus also appreciated the importance of
making his hearers think and of directing their thoughts so that of them
selves they would arrive at right conclusions. Like the great teacher
of Greece, he frequently used what is known to-day as "the Socratic
method." To impress upon them the responsibility of transmitting
the teachings which they had received, he plied them with homely
questions: "Is the lamp brought to be put under the bushel or under
131

AIMS AND METHODS OF THE GREAT TEACHER
the bed? Is it not to be put on the lamp stand?" Having thus pre
pared their minds for the answer, he formulated it for them: "No truth
is imparted in secret, except that it may be publicly proclaimed."
One of the most effective ways in which Jesus compelled his dis
ciples to think was by use of the paradox. The seeming contradic
tion aroused their curiosity. In discovering the solution, they fixed
in their minds the underlying truth. Certain of Jesus' profoundest
teachings are thus expressed: "Many who are first shall be last, and
the last first." "He who has found his life shall lose it,
And he who has lost his life for my sake shall find it."
The literary form which Jesus used most often was the parable
proper. It may be defined as a narrative drawn from nature or com
mon experience to suggest or illustrate a moral or religious truth.
The rabbis had long employed this effective type of teaching, but
there is a simplicity and naturalness in Jesus' parables which is largely
lacking in those which have come down from other Jewish teachers.
They are suffused with the personality of the great Teacher. He
alone opened wide the great storehouse of nature and drew from it
those suggestive parables which remain for all time our best guides to
the vivifying thoughts in the mind of the Master. Frequently these
illustrations appear to have been suggested by something at the mo
ment before the eyes of his hearers. The graphic "Behold," or "Yon
der," which introduces the parable of the sower implies that Jesus,
as he uttered it, pointed to a man sowing grain beside the lake.
Ordinarily, Jesus' parables were intended to illustrate one central
truth. To endeavor to find in each element an underlying symbolism
leads to serious error. At the same time many of his parables approach
the allegory, in which the parts as well as the whole are typical. In
Jesus' interpretation of the parable of the sower, which Mark records,
not only does the story, as a whole, illustrate the importance of the
right attitude on the part of the hearer, but it also describes in de
tail the four types of hearers. The first represents those whose hab
its and inclinations are so thoroughly perverse that they are utterly
irresponsive to the truth. The second includes those who are not
devoid of good impulses, but who lack courage and persistency, so
that their faith is quickly destroyed by trouble or opposition. The
third, represented by the seed thrown among thorns, includes those
132

THE LITERARY FORM OF JESUS' TEACHINGS
who hear but are under the control of base ambitions and the false
standards of the social class in which they live, and whose time is so
absorbed in the pursuit of material things that the truth bears no fruit.
The fourth type comprises the faithful disciples, who not only hear
but heed, and apply the truths in their own lives. While there are
only traces of the allegory in the synoptic gospels, it is the prevailing
form in which the teachings of Jesus are presented in the Fourth Gos
pel. "The light of the world," "the bread of life," and "the vine and
its branches" are figures which have become the common possessions
pf Christendom.
Rarely Jesus used irony and satire, but usually these were tempered
by a kindly humor. An excellent illustration is his reference to the
Pharisees as "those just persons who need no repentance!" (Luke 157).
No eareful student of the gospels can fail to appreciate that quiet vein
of humor which runs through many of Jesus' teachings. An example
is his reply to the preposterous charge of certain of his foes that "in
the name of Beelzebub, the ruler of the demons, he was casting out
demons," that, "if Satan is divided against himself how shall his king
dom stand: if I am casting out demons with the help of Beelzebub,
with whose help do your sons cast them out? Therefore shall they be
your judges." He makes the proud Pharisees ridiculous in the pict
ure of those who place themselves in the chief seats in the synagogue
and then are compelled to their shame to retire to the position which
rightfully belonged to them. The saying, "Cast not your pearls be
fore swine," contains an unmistakable element of humor.
The intense earnestness of Jesus' purpose is also illustrated by his
frequent use of hyperbole. The instincts and enthusiasm of the teacher
led him to put those teachings, which might have otherwise been mis
understood or neglected, in a form well calculated to arrest atten
tion. The necessity of exaggeration is an accepted principle in element
ary education. If Jesus sometimes indulged in an overstatement, he
trusted to the sense of his hearers and to his teachings on other occa
sions to correct it. It is important to recognize this characteristic in
order to interpret rightly Jesus' message as a whole. Familiar illus
trations of his use of hyperbole are the statements that "it is easier
for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to
enter the kingdom of Heaven," or that a man, in order to become his
disciple, must leave his own father and mother. An example of his
humorous use of hyperbole is his charge that the scribes " strain out a
gnat and swallow a camel." 133

GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
Like the scribes, Jesus taught the spirit and manner of worship by
means of prayers, of which the familiar Lord's Prayer survives as the
classic example. Another effective literary form in which Jesus pre
sented his teachings was the beatitude. Occasional examples of the
beatitude are found in the Psalms, but Jesus appears to have em
ployed this literary form very frequently. In reality it is an exclama
tory sentence. It expresses an axiomatic truth based on observation
and experience. Without arousing opposition or inviting discussion,
it admirably voices those profound convictions which impart to Jesus'
teachings their distinctive note of authority. Of the many literary
forms which Jesus employed, the most characteristic are the meta
phor, the proverb, the didactic simile and parable, and the beatitude.
These gave to his teachings that variety and adaptability which to a
great extent explain their perennial charm and effectiveness. In form
as well as in content, the great Teacher of Nazareth, indeed, "taught
as never man taught before."

ICXXX. GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
1. Now aU the tax-coUectors and the sinners were drawing
e'^m- near ro Jesus to hear him, but the Pharisees and scribes
?edaim were complaining, saying, This man receives sinners and
the*1111 eats with them. So he spoke to them this parable: What
(ifuke man °f y°u» Wflo has an hundred sheep and has lost one of
£/Matt ^em> does not leave the ninety and nine in the wilderness
i8i>") ' and go after the lost one until he finds it. And after finding
it he lays it on his shoulders rejoicing. And on coming home,
he caUs his friends and neighbors together and says to
them, Rejoice with me, for I have found my sheep that was
lost. I teU you that even so there shaU be joy in heaven
over one sinner that repents more than over ninety-nine
righteous people who have no need of repentance.
2. His Or what woman, having ten pieces of sUver, if she has lost
?orethe one piece of sUver does not Ught a lamp, sweep the house
lost clean, and search diligently until she finds it; and after find-
i58"o)e ing it she caUs her women friends and neighbors together,
saying, Rejoice with me, for I have found the piece which
I lost. So I teU you there is joy in the presence of the
angels of God over one sinner who repents.
134

GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
And he said, A certain man had two sons. And the 3. The
younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the part of 'her'a
your property that belongs to me. So the father divided his f?£-
property between his two sons. And not many days after, SStof
the younger son gathered aU his possessions together and
went away into a distant country, and there he wasted his

(ll-M)

the re
pentant
money in riotous living. Now when he had spent it all, it fa?11
came to pass that there was a great famine in that country;
and he began to be in want. And he went and worked for
one of the citizens of that country, who sent him into his
fields to feed swine. And he used to be so hungry that he
was ready to fill himself with the pods that the swine were
eating; but no one ever gave him anything. But when he
came to himself he said, How many of my father's hired
servants have bread enough and to spare, while I am perish
ing here with hunger! I wiU arise and go to my father, and
wiU say to him, 'Father, I have sinned against God, and
against thee. I am no longer worthy to be called your son;
make me as one of your hired servants.' So he arose and
went to his father. But while he was stiU a long way off,
his father saw him and took pity on him, and ran and f eU on
his neck and kissed him again and again. And the son said
to him, Father, I have sinned against God and against you;
I am no longer worthy to be caUed your son. But the father
said to his servants, Quick, bring the best robe and put it on
him, and put a ring on his hand and shoes on his feet. And
bring the fatted calf and kiU it, and let us eat and make
merry; for my son here was dead and has come back to life;
he was lost and has been found.
Now his elder son was in the field. And when he came 4. The
and drew near to the house, he heard music and dancing.
And he called to him one of the servants, and inquired what
was the meaning of these things. And the servant said to T2*"1)
him, Your brother has come ; and your father has killed the
fatted calf, because he has him back safe and sound. But
he was angry and would not go in. So his father went out
and pleaded with him. But he answered and said to his
father, See, aU these years have I worked for you, and I
never disobeyed one of your commands ; and yet to me, you
never gave a kid that I might make merry with my friends.
135

protest
of the
older
son

GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
But when your son here came, who has wasted your posses
sions with wicked women, you kiUed for him the fatted calf.
And the father said to him, Son, you are always with me,
and aU that is mine is thine. But it was right to make merry
and be glad, for your brother here was dead and has come
back to life ; though lost, he has been found.
s. Ask, and it shall be given you,
read!- Seek, and you shaU find,
ness to Knock, and it shaU be opened to you:
answer _ ' i_ i •
prayer For every one who asks, receives,
$|1JL And he who seeks, finds,
«£ k' And to him who knocks, it shaU be opened.
n». ">)
6. to Or what man of you wiU give his son a stone, if he ask him
f£e for a loaf?
best Or wiU give him a serpent, if he ask him for a fish?
to his If you then, evU as you are, know how to give good gifts to
g£" your chUdren,
(Matt How much more shaU your Father which is in heaven give
cf.K good things to those who ask him?
Luke
HI"-") I. Current Jewish Ideas of Qod. Jesus was not a theologian;
yet his conception of God was fundamental to all that he taught. The
passages which record his teachings regarding God are so familiar that
their original meaning and significance have been largely obscured.
Only by comparison with the current Jewish ideas regarding God can
their full meaning and originality be appreciated. The Judaism of
Jesus' day had departed far from the teachings of its earlier prophets.
The reasons for this departure were in part historical. Prolonged con
tact with the oriental despotisms of Babylonia and Persia, and later
with the vast Greek and Roman empires, had transformed the early
simple faith of Israel. Jehovah was no longer thought of as ever-
present in their midst, revealing himself personally to his prophets
and priests, but as a mighty potentate dwelling in the distant heavens,
ruling his people from afar, and communicating with them through
angelic messengers. Like the oriental kings who had ruled over the
Jews for centuries, he was conceived of as rigorous in his insistence on
the external proofs of man's allegiance. Sacrificial offerings, prayer,
fasting, and the strict observance of the Sabbath were the gifts which
136

CURRENT JEWISH IDEAS OF GOD
the Jews of Jesus' day felt compelled to present to their divine king
as evidence of their loyalty. The logic of legalistic Judaism seemed
simple and irrefutable: the divine king was also the great lawgiver.
Man's primary duty, therefore, was to show his loyalty to Jehovah by
keeping all the commands of the divine law. Since God was just,
each man, if not here, in the life beyond, would receive his just de
serts. Ceremonial legalism was a cold, logical, pitiless religion which
divorced the individual from personal contact with God and imposed
upon him a burden heavy to bear, for no one was able to meet each
and every demand of the law. Upon the poor and lowly and outcast
this burden rested most heavily, for they were hopelessly handicapped
by virtue of their occupations, their birth, and their lack of education.
True, other more spiritual types of faith were current in Judaism, but
they were not emphasized or ordinarily taught by the leaders of the
nation. II. The Growth of the Belief in the Fatherhood of God. In
leading his race back to a simpler, truer conception of God, Jesus ex
pressed the essence of religion in the one all-embracing word, Father.
His teaching was the culmination of a process which may be traced
from the beginnings of human history. In the early days, when the
gods were thought of as supermen, the Babylonian and Egyptian kings
claimed physical descent from the chief deity of their nation. Jere
miah denounced his contemporaries for saying to an idol, "Thou art
our father" (227). With the growth of the belief in one supreme Deity,
and that he was a God of spirit, the idea of divine fatherhood was
spiritualized. According to Exodus 4a, Moses declared, in the name
of Jehovah, "Israel is my son, my first-born." With superlative ten
derness Jeremiah, in 319, voices the yearning of Jehovah for the loy
alty and love of his people:
But I had thought, "Now I will make thee like sons,
And I will give thee a pleasant land, a noble heritage!"
I had also thought, "You will call me Father, and will not turn away
from me."
The unknown prophet of Isaiah 6316 (cf. also 648) prays, "Thou, O
Jehovah, art our Father, our Redeemer." That Jehovah was the
father of the nation was a familiar teaching of Israel's early prophets.
The more intimate belief in him as the father of the individual appears
in the Psalms and the writings of Ben Sira, which record the inner life
137

GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
of the more spiritual-minded Jews in the days immediately preceding
the Roman period. Closely akin to the teachings of Jesus are the
words of the psalmist in 103 l3:
Like as a father pitieth his children,
So Jehovah pitieth those who fear him.
In the strong childlike faith of the lowly and afflicted, who have given
us the spiritual psalms of the Psalter, we find the religious atmos
phere in which Jesus lived and taught. The noble sage, Ben Sira,
also addresses God as "Lord, Father, and Master of my life" (231' ')•
The same personal faith in God's fatherhood is reflected in Ben Sira
49, 10; Be as a father to the fatherless,
And take the place of a husband to the widow;
So will God call you his son,
And be gracious to you and save you from destruction.
III. Jesus' Teaching Regarding the Nature of Ood. Jesus'
teaching regarding the fatherhood of God is none the less significant
because it has a historical background extending through thousands
of years. He gave to the term, father, a reality and a personal con
tent that made his teaching a new message to men. He divested the
term of all national limitations and interpreted it universally. He
spoke not only of my Father, but of the Father, your Father, and our
Father, and used these titles interchangeably. In Jesus' thought this
term expressed concretely that kindred nature of man and God which
is taught in the first chapter of the Old Testament. The designation
assumed that those qualities which man learns to know in his fellow-
men are also found in God; that it is possible for man to communicate
with God and to know him intimately, even as he does his fellow-men.
The foundation of Jesus' teachings regarding God, therefore, was the
supreme mystery, and yet reality, of human experience: the possi
bility of man's entering into personal relations with his divine Father.
Developing the same simple, forceful figure, Jesus taught God's con
stant care and guidance of each human child who turned to him in
the attitude of submission and trust. Not only in the life of man, but
also in the world of nature, in the life of the beast and of the flower,
Jesus saw the evidence of this fatherly care. For a cold, pitiless law
138

JESUS' TEACHING REGARDING GOD'S NATURE
Jesus substituted the consciousness of the personal presence of a loving
Father able and eager, in his infinite wisdom, to guide each individual
in his daily life. Jesus taught, therefore, that man was no longer the
slave of the law, but a child being trained by a loving parent.
With true intuitions the church is beginning to realize that the ulti
mate historical foundations of Christian theology are to be found, not
in its later creeds, but in the parables of the lost sheep and of the prodi
gal son. Although Jesus never taught in abstract terms that God was
love, as did a later disciple with inspired insight, it is the God of love
who is revealed even more clearly than words could describe in these
parables. Jesus believed not in the far-distant, exacting, austere Deity
of the Pharisees, nor in a transcendental Being who was to reveal him
self in some distant future, as did the apocalyptic teachers of the day,
but in a personal, immanent, loving Father.
Undoubtedly, the author of John 4M has also interpreted correctly
Jesus' conception of God in the familiar words, "God is a Spirit, and
they who worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." Jesus
placed supreme emphasis on the love of God, for this quality was funda
mental and largely overlooked by the teachers of his day; but he also
appreciated those divine qualities of justice and majesty which earlier
prophets, like Amos and Isaiah, had portrayed with convincing power.
His earnest words, "There is none good but God," reveal the humility
with which he bowed before the God of infinite goodness. In another
passage he emphasizes Jehovah's majesty and justice: I tell you, my
friends: Fear not those who kill the body,
And after that can do nothing further.
I will tell you whom to fear:
Fear him, who, after he has killed,
Has power to throw into Gehenna —
Yea, I tell you, fear him (Luke 124- 6).
This passage, however, is the prelude in Luke to the illustration of
God's constant and tender care for his children, of which the sparrows
were an apt illustration.
The other familiar term by which Jesus described God was that
of King. It is implied in the phrase so often on his lips, the kingdom
of God. In Jesus' use of the two terms, Father and King, they are
closely related and supplement each other. The fatherhood of God
implies a world-wide brotherhood. The idea of a universal fraternity
139

GOD'S ATTITUDE TOWARD MEN
in which all are united by loyalty to a common King is also the es
sence of his teachings regarding the kingdom of God.
While the terms which Jesus used and the germs of all that he taught
regarding God are to be found in the Jewish scriptures, that which
makes it a new message is its simplicity, its concreteness, its personal
quality, and its inspirational power. Back of Jesus' teaching regard
ing God clearly lies his own experience and belief. In the ultimate
analysis the potency of his message depends not upon the clearness and
beauty with which Jesus expressed his belief, but upon the fact that
he was able to lead his disciples into the same transforming personal
relation to God, and that they in turn have been able to make other
men "one with God even as he was one."
IV. God's Readiness to Forgive the Sinner. Jesus knew the
reality of sin. He saw the evidence of it, not only in the distorted
lives, but in the diseased bodies of the men and women who crowded
about lu.il seeking mental and physical healing. He appreciated the
insufficiency of the current Jewish doctrines to meet the needs of these
classes. These doctrines raised a hopeless barrier between the peni
tent sinner and God. This barrier Jesus sought to tear down. To
accomplish this he used three methods: (1) he began by declaring
that his message was primarily to outcasts, and that he could and would
save them; (2) he assured many whom he healed, as, for example, the
paralytic, who was let down through the roof of Peter's house, Thy
sins are forgiven; (3) by a remarkable series of parables preserved
in Luke 16, he substituted for the current conception of a relentless
Deity, who had little interest even in repentant sinners, the picture
of a forgiving Father. Hosea, Jeremiah, and certain of the psalmists
had caught clear visions of Jehovah's forgiving love, but never before
was it set forth so beautifully and convincingly. Dickens has truly
^said of the parable of the prodigal son, "It is the most touching pas
sage in all literature." Each of the three parables in Luke 15 empha
sized the one common teaching: God's intense love even for the sinner,
and his eager desire to reclaim him. Matthew's version of the parable
of the lost sheep limits it to the Christian converts who had fallen away
from the faith, but Luke gives it a universal application. The parable
of the lost piece of money is peculiar to Luke. It is a companion to
the parable of the lost sheep, and illustrates the effective way in which
Jesus adapted his teachings to different classes of hearers.
The concluding section presents with marvellous clearness the mer
cenary pharisaic doctrine of proportionate rewards. Measured by hu-
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GOD'S READINESS TO FORGIVE THE SINNER
man standards, the older brother, notwithstanding his narrowness and
jealousy, deserved all that his father had to give him, and the prod
igal nothing. This parable show's how far Jesus had broken away
from the doctrine of rewards, and illustrates, as does no other passage
in the gospels, the true character of that God who had revealed him
self in the great Teacher. The portrait corrects the errors of later
Christian theology as well as those of contemporary Judaism. There
is no place here for the harsh doctrine of an angry God or need of a
vicarious offering in order to propitiate a divine judge. The one es
sential requirement in the eyes of the father had been met by the
full repentance of the son and by his desire to return and ask forgive
ness. Quietly, without denunciation or discussion, Jesus thus swept
away the casuistry and error which hitherto had concealed the face of
the divine Father, and thereby revealed him in his true character to
his needy children.
V. Jesus' Teaching Regarding God's Readiness to Answer
Prayer. Jesus' teaching regarding prayer is the logical outcome of
his conception of the fatherhood of God. He again effectively uses
the analogy of the relation between the human father and son to inter
pret that higher relationship between each man and his divine Father.
In his thought it is an axiomatic truth that God is intensely eager to
meet every reasonable desire of his children. At the same time Jesus
nowhere declares that men's prayers will be answered in the exact form
in which they voice their petition. If a man asks for a loaf, he may not
receive a loaf, but he certainly will not receive something inferior, as,
for example, a stone. Out of his wisdom and love the heavenly Father
will "give good things to those who ask him." With effective reitera
tion, but in purposely general terms, Jesus emphasizes the absolute
certainty that he who comes to God in a receptive attitude shall surely
receive, and implies that the gift, as human experience constantly
demonstrates, will far surpass the request. The form of Jesus' words
also suggests that he had in mind, not petitions for material things,
but those more abiding gifts, knowledge, insight, peace of mind, and
the joys of efficient service, which he constantly set before his disciples
as the true goals for which to strive. These, he declares, God is ready
to grant in unstinting measure. The only limit is man's lack of faith
and zeal and ability to receive them.

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MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD

§CXXXL MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
1. Eev- You have heard that it was said by the men of old, Thou
for God sh^t not swear falsely, but thou shalt pay thy vows to the
and for Lord.
one a
per-s^Jr But I teU you, Swear not at aU;
(Matt. Neither by heaven, for it is God's throne,
5*>-«) j^or ^y eajthf because it is the footstool of his feet,
Nor by Jerusalem, because it is the city of the great King,
Nor shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not
make one hair white or black.
Let what you say be 'Yes' for 'Yes,' or 'No' for 'No';
Whatever exceeds that is from the evil one.
2. Acts Take care that you do not your righteousness before men, to
charity be seen of them;
donlin Otherwise you have no reward with your Father who is in
order heaven.
U win ^y]jen) therefore, thou givest alms,
man's Sound not a trumpet before thee,
God-s As do the hypocrites in the synagogues and in the streets,
provai That they may be honored by men.
<*'¦') I teU you truly, they get their reward.
But when thou givest alms,
Let not thy left hand know what thy right hand is doing,
That thine alms may be in secret;
And thy Father, who sees in secret, shall recompense thee.

3. And when you pray, you shaU not be like the hypocrites;
prayer For ^gy iove to pray standing in the synagogues and on the
direct- street corners,
aod That they may appear before men.
^n*0 I teU you truly, they get their reward.
(•• •) But thou, when thou prayest, go into thine inner chamber,
and shut the door,
And pray to thy Father, who is in secret,
And thy Father, who sees in secret, shall recompense thee.
142

4

ing to
be un
ostentatiouswithmind

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
And when you fast,
Do not look dejected, like the hypocrites, f&«*<
For they disfigure their faces to appear to be fasting before
men.
I teU you truly, they get their reward.
But when thou fastest, fixed
Anoint thy head and wash thy face, Smlely
That thou mayest not appear to men as one fasting, m
But to thy Father, who is in secret,
And thy Father, who sees in secret, shaU recompense thee.
In praying do not use vain repetitions, as the Gentiles do, 5.
For they think that they shaU be heard for their much tobeer
speaking. anldi
Now be not like them, rect
For your Father knoweth what things you need, before you
ask him.

('¦")

Now it came to pass, while Jesus was praying at a certain e.
place, when he ceased, one of his disciples said to him: typ^fof
Lord, teach us to pray, just as John also taught his disciples. W^f
And he said to them, When you pray, say, ' Father, thy name 11"', e
be haUowed. Let thy kingdom come. Give us each day $!$)*•
our bread for the coming day. And forgive us our sins; for
we also forgive each one who is indebted to us. And lead
us not into temptation.'
And he said to them, Which of you shaU have a friend, 7. im-
and shaU go to him at midnight, and say to him, 'Friend, ^'ce
lend me three loaves; for a friend of mine has come to me ofper-
from a journey, and I have nothing to set before him'; and
he from within shaU answer and say: 'Do not disturb me;

sistr-enc;

prayer
the door is now shut and my cmldren are in bed with me ; I (Luke
cannot rise and give you anything.' I teU you, though he
will not rise and give him anything because he is his friend,
yet because of bis friend's persistency, he wiU arise and give 8 TBe
him as much as he needs. para^
And he spoke a parable to them regarding the necessity of the un-
always praying and never losing heart. There was a judge J^1"
in a certain city, who had no fear of God, nor respect for widow
men; and in that city there was a widow; and she used to w%"
143

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
come to him, saying, 'Give me a judgment against my
adversary.' Yet for some time he would not. But after
wards he said to himself: 'Although I have no fear of God,
nor respect for man, yet since this woman troubles me, I will
give her a judgment, lest she annoy me by forever coming.'
And the Lord said, Listen to what the unjust judge says!
And shaU not God avenge his chosen ones, who cry to him
day and night, though in so doing he is longsuff ering? I tell
you, he will vindicate them speedUy.
9. The He also said this parable to some who were confident of
"tH-1, their own righteousness and despised aU other people. Two
t^Jj1 men went up to the temple to pray; one was a Pharisee
(Luke and the other a tax-coUector. The Pharisee stood up and
is»-") prayed thus by himself, ' O God, I thank thee that I am not
like the rest of men — extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or
even like this tax-coUector. I fast twice a week. I pay
tithes upon all my income.' But the tax-collector stood afar
off and would not so much as lift up his eyes to heaven, but
kept beating his breast, saying, ' O God, be gracious to me,
the sinner!' I teU you this man went down to his house
justified more than the other.
For every man who exalts himself shall be humbled,
And he who humbles himself shall be exalted.

10. The And the apostles said to the Lord, Give us more faith.
But the Lord said, Had you faith like a grain of mustard
seed, you would have said to this mulberry tree, Be rooted
it '™) up and planted in the sea, and it would have obeyed you.
ii. And Jesus said to them, Have faith in God. I teU you
7mpor- truly, Whoever says to this mountain, 'Be lifted up and cast
tonceof into the sea,' and hesitates not in his heart, but beUeves that
«tudae what he says shaU be done, he shaU have it. Therefore, I
mfJt saY to you, beUeve that you have received aU things for
1} Matt wn^cn vou Prav ano- as^» an(^ vou sh^ have them. And
ji'si, 2-)" whenever you stand praying, if you have anything against
any one, forgive, that your Father who is in heaven may also
forgive you your trespasses.
Be not anxious for your life, as to what you eat,
Nor yet for your body, as to what you wear;
144

power
of
faith (Luke

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
Is not life more than food, 12.
And the body than raiment? S™f*
Look at the birds of the air, leaves
They sow not nor reap, nor gather into barns, worry
Yet your heavenly Father feedeth them. f^
Are you not worth more than they? («»«-
Which one of you by being anxious can add a cubit to his
stature?

626-27,cf.
Luke
1222-20)

Why then be anxious about what you wear? 13.
Consider the UUes of the field, how they grow; doth*
They toU not, neither do they spin. *jfatt
Yet I teU you that even Solomon 6*« V
In all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. Luke
Now if God thus clothes the grass of the field, 122C 28>
Which to-day Uves and to-morrow is thrown into the oven,
ShaU he not much more clothe you, O men of Uttle faith?

Be not anxious then and say, 14
' What are we to eat, or to drink, or how are we to be clothed?
(For after aU these things the Gentiles seek) and"do
For your heavenly Father knows that you require aU these. go<j s°
But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness,
And aU these things shah be given to you besides.
Be not anxious, therefore, about the morrow; (Matt

Seek
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will the
remedy for

For the morrow wiU be anxious for itself.

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Cf.
Sufficient for the day is its evU. Luke
* 12a9-32)
I. Jesus' Conception of Man. Jesus was the most democratic
teacher the world has ever seen. His teachings reveal a profound
appreciation of the value of each individual. His deep insight and
sympathy enabled him to see the divine possibilities in every man,
even the humblest. He had no sympathy with the ideas, current both
in Gentile and Jewish circles, that sinners and outcasts were of com
paratively little value. His conception of man was the corollary of
his belief regarding God's attitude toward his children. He taught
that man was the crown of God's creation. All that concerned man,
even the hairs of his head, was of deepest interest to his heavenly
Father. No man was outside the pale of his love. At the same time
Jesus recognized that man could barter away his divine birthright,
145

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
No one taught the freedom of the will and the resulting responsibility
more clearly than did he. No one hated sin more intensely, for he
realized that, on the one hand, it thwarted the divine purpose, and on
the other tended to destroy the divine possibilities inherent in each
individual. Jesus distinguished clearly between the sin and the sin
ner. He apparently never gave up hope, even of the most perverse
wrong-doer. In his treatment of the sinner he spent Uttle time de
nouncing sin. He sought rather to develop right motives and to put
wholesome ideas in the centre of focus. Above all, he aimed to bring
each individual into the right relations to his heavenly Father and to
his fellow-men, and thus to restore his spiritual and moral health.
Jesus' conception of the dignity of man and of man's proper attitude
toward God is concretely illustrated by his teachings regarding oaths.
Here he again took direct issue with the laws found in Leviticus 19u,
Numbers 303, Deuteronomy 23a> ffl, and the customs of contemporary
Judaism. From earliest times the vow had occupied a prominent
place in the religious life of the individual. It was regarded as a sa
cred contract with Jehovah, and as such perpetuated that mercenary
interpretation of religion which was the weakness of all primitive cults.
The early Semitic peoples used oaths almost constantly. The evils
inherent in the practice are obvious. It weakens the plain, unadorned
statement and is a confession that a promise, to be binding, must be_
enforced by the fear of divine judgment. This is precisely the effect
of the use of oaths among the modern Arabs, whose plain assertions
can rarely be trusted. This free and constant use of the divine name
is not only in itself irreverent, but by easy stages engenders a habit
of profanity. Other teachers of Judaism were awake to these evils
and were striving to correct them. Ben Sira was the first openly to
protest:Accustom not your mouth to an oath;
And do not form the habit of calling upon the name of the Holy One;
For as a servant, who is continually scourged, is not without bruises,
So he who swears and takes the name of God continually shall not
be free from sin.
A man of many oaths shall be filled with iniquity,
And the scourge shall not depart from his house (239"").
Philo defined the goal to which Jesus was trying to lead his disciples:
"In everything so speak that each word will have the value of an
146

JESUS' CONCEPTION OF MAN
oath" (De Decal., 17M). The form in which Matthew has preserved
the teachings of Jesus is not in harmony with the meaning of the pas
sage as a whole, for, according to the Talmud, the repetition of the
words "yes" or "no" was in itself a form of oath. James 5U has
beyond reasonable doubt preserved the intent, if not the exact form of
Jesus' original teaching: "But above all, my brothers, swear not; nei
ther by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other oath. Let your 'Yes'
be a simple 'Yes,' and your 'No' a simple 'No' — that you may not
fall under condemnation." The ideal of Christian manhood which
Jesus set before bis followers was that of a man whose every word
should be so true to truth that to embellish it with an oath would be
an act of dishonor. He also aimed to develop in the minds of his dis
ciples, not that idolatrous avoidance of the name of the Deity which
characterized the Judaism of the day, but such a profound love and
reverence for God that it would be impossible for them to use bis name
irreverently or in connection with the petty transactions of daily life.
Here, as elsewhere, Jesus was endeavoring to illustrate a principle
rather than to lay down a specific rule. Christian sects, which have
interpreted this passage literalistically, have therefore failed to appre
ciate its real meaning.
II. The Importance of the Right Attitude in Worship. The
foundation of Jesus' teachings was that the chief thing in a man's life
was to realize his divine right and to come into real, vital, constant
touch with his heavenly Father. Not to do so was the one great
tragedy in human experience. It was to "lose a man's life." Any
thing, therefore, that stood in the way of that intimacy was disastrous.
Jesus sought to guard men against those mistakes which might pre
vent them from finding God. From this point of view, it is perfectly
clear why he taught that worship performed with eyes fixed on one's
fellow-men was worse than useless, for it made the intimate personal
relation between that man and God impossible. There is a certain
humor in Jesus' reference to the hypocrites, "who sound the trumpet
before them in the synagogues and in the streets." "These find what
they seek," he declared; "but I set before you a higher goal." Again
he uses that strong type of hyperbole which he frequently employed
to state his profoundest truths: "Let not your left hand know what
your right hand is doing" (that is, let not your own self -approval or
that of others be your motive), "and thy father, who looks into the
hearts of men, will reward thee with that which he alone can give."
In three stanzas, in language and figures that are closely parallel,
147

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
Jesus deals with the three current conventional forms of worship:
alms-giving, prayer, and fasting. None of these did he condemn, al
though he does not appear to have encouraged fasting among his dis
ciples. He taught that the value of each was entirely dependent upon
the motive and upon whether or not it brought the individual into
natural living touch with him who was the sole object of all true wor
ship. Jesus himself appears to have usually retired for prayer to some
hill-top or upland plateau. The command to go into the inner chamber
and shut the door is but the antithesis of the public praying in the syna
gogues and on street corners which characterized the conventional relig
ious practices of the scribes and Pharisees. Freedom from distraction
and an opportunity to enter into spiritual relation with the God of
spirit was what Jesus desired for his disciples.
The same strong emphasis on the purity of motive appears in his
teachings regarding fasting. It is improbable that he actually expected
his disciples, whenever they fasted, to anoint their heads and wash
their faces, as in preparing for a wedding feast. Such ostentation was
as foreign to his purpose as dejected looks and disfigured faces. Rather,
by his emphasis on that which was the direct opposite of current prac
tice, he aimed to guard his disciples against all ostentation in worship.
Obviously, many of the elaborate forms and ceremonies which have
developed in connection with the worship of the Christian church are
contrary to his spirit and teachings. Only in so far as they lead the
individual into closer personal touch with God are they justifiable or
of real value.
III. Jesus' Type of Prayer. It is interesting to note that that
prayer which has guided the faith of countless millions throughout
the ages was, like Paul's immortal apostrophe of love in the thirteenth
chapter of I Corinthians, simply an incident in the work of a great
teacher. According to Luke, it was uttered in response to the request
ol one of his disciples. The context implies that it was given them
simpVy as a type. It illustrates those characteristics which distinguish
all of Jesus' prayers: brevity, directness, sincerity, and absolute con
fidence in the heavenly Father. Two versions of it are preserved, one
in Luke and one in Matthew. Both come from the common early
teaching source (Q). Luke has retained the older, briefer version. It
consists of but five short sentences. The familiar version in Matthew
is generally recognized as being later. It illustrates the strong, natu
ral tendency of his followers to expand the original utterances of the
Master in order to make their meaning clear. Still another version
J4£

JESUS' TYPE OF PRAYER
is found in the Teachings of the Twelve Apostles. The gnostic writer,
Marcion, was acquainted with a fourth, slightly variant version.
There are many close points of contact between the Lord's Prayer
and those employed in the Jewish synagogue, and especially the eigh
teen prayers which were used in the ordinary services. "Father" is
the common term with which the Deity is addressed. In the third
Jewish prayer are found the words: "Let us hallow thy name in this
world, as thy name is hallowed in the high heaven." In another syn
agogue prayer this suggestive phrase is found: "Honored and hal
lowed be thy great name in the world which He has created according
to His will. May He establish His kingdom during your life and dur
ing your days, and during the life of all the house of Israel, even speedily
and at a near time, and ye say, Amen." This is still used as the
mourner's prayer in the morning service at many Jewish synagogues.
Five of the eighteen Jewish synagogue prayers are represented in
Matthew's version of the Lord's Prayer. The teaching regarding the
forgiveness of others is the one altogether new element in the Lord's
Prayer; yet, noble as were the prayers with which the Jewish race
voiced their faith and aspirations, there is a world-wide difference
between them and the type of prayer which Jesus set before his dis
ciples. The Jewish prayers bear the mark of their racial origin and
point of view. Jesus' prayer is individual yet universal, concrete and
practical, yet deeply spiritual.
The simple word, "Father," is that with which Jesus began his
prayer in Gethsemane. The initial petition, "Hallowed (or sanctified)
be thy name," is a familiar phrase in the Old Testament. Ezekiel, in
36s3, declares, in the name of Jehovah, "I will sanctify my great name."
Again, in Isaiah 29M occurs the phrase, "They shall sanctify my great
name." The name of Jehovah here, as in the Old Testament, rep
resents Jehovah's character. This petition is not abstract but per
sonal. It was a profession of reverence and individual devotion. The
thought is closely connected with that of the second petition, "Thy
kingdom come." In praying that God's reign may be established on
earth the petitioner thereby commits himself to the task of bringing
about its speedy inauguration. In the version in Matthew this theme
is developed more fully in the closely parallel petition: "Thy will be
done, on earth as in heaven," for the doing of the will of the divine King
was the essential element in the establishment of his reign.
The third petition appears in widely different form in the various
versions. Luke reads literally, "Give us day by day our bread for
149

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
to-morrow." This reading is confirmed in part by that of the Gospel
to the Hebrews: "Give us to-day our bread for to-morrow." In part
it follows Matthew, which reads: "Give us this day our daily bread."
In each case the meaning is clear. Here for the first time the petitioner
presents his personal, material needs; but the prayer is an expression
of confidence in God's provision rather than a mere request for definite
gifts. Its meaning is, "Provide for us each day that which thou, in
thy fatherly care and wisdom, seest is needful for us." It is proba
ble that Jesus had in mind the very similar petition in Proverbs 308:
"Break off for me the bread of my portion."
The fourth petition is also evidently found in its original form in
Luke. It is closely parallel to that of Matthew except that in the lat
ter "debts" is substituted for "sin." The necessity of first forgiving
others is a teaching which Jesus repeatedly emphasized.
The fifth and last petition in the Lucan version: "Bring us not into
temptation," has clearly been expanded by the author of Matthew;
but he suggests its true meaning: "Deliver us from temptations which
we are unable to withstand." The author of James lu was probably
dealing with the problem presented by these words when he declared:
"Let no man, who is being tempted, say, 'My temptation is from God,'
for God is not to be tempted himself by evil and he tempts no man, but
each man is tempted with evil when he is drawn away by his own lusts
and enticed." The subsequent passages, retained in the familiar ver
sions of the Lord's Prayer, are found only in certain later texts of Mat
thew and in the Teachings of the Twelve Apostles. They are late
additions and are the results of the tendency to expand the five brief
sentences of Jesus into an elaborate prayer.
Nowhere is man's right attitude toward God expressed more com
pletely and divinely than in the five short sentences that constituted
the original prayer, as it came from the lips of Jesus. B.everence,
loyalty, trust, contrition for sin, and the sense of the need of constant
help in the battle of life are here all plainly voiced. Prayer is also
defined, not as the asking for material things, but as that loyal, trust
ful attitude toward the divine Father which make his good gifts pos
sible. It is man's outreach toward God and his realization of the
privileges of sonship. The spirit which characterizes this prayer is
that which made possible God's unique revelation through Jesus.
IV. The Value of Persistency and Humility in Prayer. By
word and example Jesus condemned the long and repetitious prayers
of the Pharisees. Yet he emphasized strongly the importance of per-
150

THE VALUE OF PERSISTENCY EST PRAYER
sistency in prayer. Two parables illustrating this point have been pre
served, one by Matthew and the other by Luke. Both illustrations
are drawn from the ordinary homely life of the people. One is that of
the friend who came late at night and by his insistence succeeded at
last in securing that which he sought. As in the majority of Jesus'
parables, but one point is emphasized, that of persistency. An alle
gorical interpretation, which finds in each element in the story a defi
nite symbolism, gives a conception of Jehovah which was entirely
contrary to Jesus' teachings elsewhere. Moreover, it is not constant
reiteration of the request by the petitioner which Jesus desired to com
mend, but that intense desire which is the necessary condition, if God
is to give his best gifts. The same principle of interpretation may be
applied to the parable of the unprincipled judge who ultimately yielded
to the request of the widow because, as the Greek literally expresses
it, "he feared that in the end she would give him a black eye."
The conclusion of this parable has apparently been revL, xl by Luke.
The original probably emphasized, like the preceding parable, the
importance of the persistent attitude in prayer. ' In the conclusion,
however, it is God's attitude that is emphasized. "His chosen ones"
designates the members of the later Jewish-Christian community.
The promise is given them that, although they cry to him constantly
in the midst of their persecutions, without any apparent response, he
will ultimately punish their Jewish and heathen persecutors. This
Lucan ending, therefore, not only anticipates conditions that arose
after the death of Jesus, but restricts in its application the teaching
which was originally of universal significance. Jesus, as usual, was
laying down a principle rather than giving a detailed promise. To
this parable Luke, or possibly a later editor, has also appended the
question: "But when the Son of man comes, will he find faith on the
earth?" It reflects the later Christian belief that the Messiah would
come again as judge, and implies that when it was written certain of
Tesus' followers had proved faithless.
Among the matchless parables of Jesus, none illustrates the spirit of
true prayer more effectively than that of the Pharisee and the publi
can who went up to the temple to pray. When we recall that it was
probably uttered at Jerusalem, when the Pharisees were already taking
measures to slay him treacherously, we appreciate the courage which it
reveals. In the thought of the people the Pharisees and tax-collectors
stood at opposite extremes of the social and moral scale. The pict
ure here presented of Pharisaism is inimitable. Without bitterness,
151

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
but with that superb realism which is the charm of all his teach
ings, Jesus pictured the pride and hypocrisy of that class which had
largely lost sight of the higher spiritual ideals. The Pharisee, not
withstanding his many words, asks for himself nothing and gets noth
ing. The tax-collector says little, but asks much and receives much.
Jesus here not-only teaches that pride and self-righteousness are harm
ful; he also shows the reason. They are based upon a false assump
tion, and therefore are equivalent to a lie. More important still, they
reveal a low personal ideal. They are usually the sins of men who,
like the Pharisees, have good inheritances and a conventional type of
morality, but who fail to set before themselves a lofty goal. They are
the moral Esaus, whom God himself cannot help, because they are
thoroughly satisfied with themselves and contented to drift. No one
emphasized more than Jesus the importance of wholesome self-respect.
This is the essence of real humility, for the man who respects himself
is, like the tax-collector in the parable, not contented with himself
until he has attained the highest gifts that God is able to give him.
This wholesome type of humility means growth for its possessor, for
it makes it possible for God to realize in him his divine ideal.
V. The Invincible Power of Faith. Mark has appended to his
account of the withered fig tree an important saying of Jesus, which
appears to have been originally uttered not at Jerusalem, but in the
vicinity of the Sea of Galilee and during his early Galilean activities.
Luke, as in the case of many of Jesus' teachings, illustrates the same
thought by a different figure: not that of the mountain, but that of the
mulberry tree. Both forms of the teaching probably go back to origi
nal utterances of Jesus. Both are characterized by the vigorous, hy
perbolic language which he was wont to employ in driving home a great
truth. Paul, in I Corinthians 132, in the words, "though I have faith
enough to remove mountains," probably refers to Jesus' words. The
statement, as we have it, is unqualified, but its concreteness is due to
Jesus' method. Nowhere did he teach his disciples to ask for material
things, except as their daily needs required, or to dictate to God in
their prayers. A disciple who followed the injunctions just considered
could never ask for that which was impossible or impracticable for God
to give. Jesus taught his followers first to pray, "Thy will be done."
The two essentials in prayer that he most strongly emphasized were:
(1) an absolute childlike trust, which is the only right attitude toward
God, and (2) the spirit of forgiveness, which is the right attitude toward
one's fellow-men. Jesus' concluding words also imply that, as else-
15?

THE INVINCIBLE POWER OF FAITH
where, he had in mind spiritual blessing, not the purposeless removal
of mountains and mulberry trees. Also his words, "Believe that you
shall receive all things for which you pray and ask and you shall have
them," leave no doubt that what he was aiming to do was not to make
the fatal mistake of using prayer as a means of realizing their selfish
desires, but rather that their faith might make it possible for them to
receive what God was eager to give. Underlying these often misin
terpreted utterances is the larger truth that the all-wise and all-loving
Father "is far more able and willing to give all good things to his chil
dren than they are to ask." The chief function of prayer is to create
the right attitude in the mind of the petitioner that will make those
good gifts possible.
VI. Trust That Leaves No Place for Worry. Jesus' words regard
ing anxiety are among the best attested in the gospels. Both Mat
thew and Luke quote them from their common teaching source (Q)
almost verbatim. Matthew has retained throughout the question form
of teaching which Jesus employed so often and effectively. Luke,
writing for more cosmopolitan readers, has substituted ravens, the
birds that haunted the towns and cities of the East, for the wild birds
that made the air of Galilee melodious. At one or two points Luke
has abridged the original, thereby destroying its carefully balanced
poetic parallelism. Possibly in the concluding verses, where he de
parts from Matthew, he has preserved the older saying:
Rather seek his kingdom,
And these things shall be given you besides.
Fear not, little flock,
For it is your Father's good pleasure to give you the kingdom.
The Aramaic flavor of the version in Matthew, however, supports its
originality. "And his righteousness" is probably an addition of the
author of that gospel, for the phrase is peculiar to him. Origen (De
orat. libell., c. 2), Clement of Alexandria (Strom., I, 24168), and other
Church Fathers have preserved a saying, attributed by them to Jesus,
which may be the still older original:
Ask for the great things,
And the small shall be added to you,
Ask for the heavenly things,
And the earthly shall be added to you.
*53

MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD GOD
Each version conveys the same underlying idea and helps to inter
pret it.
This passage, which teaches childlike trust in God, reveals more
clearly than any other Jesus' attitude toward nature and his love for
it. The lilies of the field are probably the beautiful red anemones
that in the spring-time clothe the hills and fields of Palestine with a
sunset splendor. Their stalks and roots were gathered by the peas
ants for fuel and furnished a quick, blazing fire. Solomon stood in
oriental tradition (as he does to-day in the East) as the superlative
type of royal pomp and magnificence, overshadowing in popular imagi
nation the glories of Herod's temple and the beauties of the newly
built cities, Tiberias and Caesarea Philippi. Jesus' words imply that
in his judgment all these products of man's skill were inferior to God's
workmanship as revealed on hill and field. He here discloses the aes
thetic side of his nature that rejoiced in the simple and beautiful — in
the physical as well as in the moral world. It was the happy, joyous
side of nature that impressed him rather than "the groaning and
travail of creation" that caught the ear of Paul (Bom. 8M). Like
Israel's psalmists, Jesus saw in nature the revelation of God. Like
the modern scientists, he was keenly alive to the evidence of order
and law.
Interesting in this connection is the recently discovered saying of
Jesus (New Sayings, §§ 9-14): "[You ask who are these] who draw us
to the kingdom which is in heaven? The birds of the air, and all beasts
that are under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of the sea."
While this saying may not be original, it expresses a thought that was
inherent in Jesus' teachings. He did not merely say, Do not be
anxious, but appealed to the reason of his disciples. The heavenly
Father, whose care is plainly revealed in the life of even the humblest
things, will surely care for man, the crown of his creation. For life
and growth every man must and does perforce trust him. Surely he
has equal reason to trust his loving care for the necessities of life, for
food and the things required to clothe and protect the body.
Jesus was not disparaging industry and wise provision for the future.
The lack of these necessary qualities he condemns in such parables as
those of the foolish maidens and of the man who began to build without
first counting the cost. Rather he is dealing with that petty worry
and apprehension regarding food, clothing, and personal safety which
was almost inevitable with primitive man, but which his more civil
ized descendants have failed to conquer. With our more complicated
154

TRUST THAT LEAVES NO PLACE FOR WORRY
life and tenser nerves the possible causes of worry have seemingly mul
tiplied, until this minor weakness of the race is undermining its physi
cal, mental, and spiritual efficiency. Anxiety was the insidious sin
that preyed upon the common people whom Jesus first addressed. He
presented the only antidote to worry known to man, and that is a faith
and trust in God so simple and strong that it leaves no place for anxious
care regarding those things over which man in the end has no control.
To develop this faith requires courage and persistency. Possession of
it is the mark of a noble soul. The lack of it is disloyalty to God as
well as to one's self. It is essential to all real peace and happiness.
That his followers might win the steadfast faith that under God's
protecting care only good can befall them, Jesus first appealed to their
reason, so that the most familiar scenes, the birds and the flower-
covered fields would remind them of the Father's love; but he also
indicated a still more effective way. He commanded them to place
loyalty to God's interests in the centre of focus:
Seek first his kingdom,
And all these things shall be added to you besides.
Psychology and practical experience demonstrate the eminent wisdom
of this command. Only when men are intent on doing the will of God
are they in a position to receive the gifts that he is eager to give. Anx
ious worry is usually due to false perspective. The whole-hearted en
deavor to establish God's reign in one's life and in the world restores
the perspective. Petty cares cease to harass a man who is absorbed
in the larger interests of the kingdom of God. His own burdens slip
from his shoulders when he attempts to relieve others of their burdens.
Complete trust in the goodness and wisdom of the heavenly Father
and single-minded devotion to the realization of his will in the life of
the individual and in society are the only and the complete remedies
for anxious care and harassing worry, as the experiences of countless
millions throughout the centuries have amply demonstrated.

155

THE KINGDOM OF GOD

§CXXXH. THE KINGDOM OF GOD
1. its Another parable Jesus set before them, saying, The king-
(Mattth dom of Heaven is Uke a grain of mustard seed, which a man
13"< "', took and sowed in his field. Though smaller than aU other
mark seeds, yet when it grows it is greater than herbs and becomes
Luke a tree, so that the birds come and lodge in its branches.
i3»- ») Another parable he spoke to them, The kingdom of
trans- Heaven is Uke leaven, which a woman took and hid in three
fngef- measures of meal, until the whole was leavened.
(tuke ^Jlcl ne sa"*' ^° *s tne ^m6dom °* God, as though a man
13 " ») should cast seed upon the earth and sleep and rise by night
p^*8 and by day, while the seed sprouts and springs up — he
gres- knows not how. The earth bears crops of itself, first the
veiop- blade, then the ear, then the fuU grain in the ear. But when
(Mark the crop is ripe, he has the sickle put in at once because the
4"-") harvest is come.
4. The Another parable he set before them, saying, The kingdom
f™[d of Heaven is compared to a man who sowed good seed in
evil his field, but while men were asleep, his enemy came and
flour- sowed tares also among the wheat and went away. Now
by side when the blade sprouted and brought forth fruit, the tares
(Matt- appeared also, and the servant of the master of the house
came and said to him, 'Sir, didst thou not sow good seed
in thy field? How then does it contain tares?' And he
said to them, 'An enemy has done this.' The servants say
to him, 'Wilt thou have us go then and gather them?'
But he said, ' No, lest while you are gathering the tares, you
might root up the wheat with them. Let both of them grow
together until the harvest; then at the harvest time I will
say to the reapers, " Gather the tares first, and bind them in
bundles for burning; but gather the wheat into my barn." '
5.u Again the kingdom of Heaven is Uke a net that was cast
into the sea, and gathered fish of every kind; when it was
filled, they drew it up on the beach, and sat down and
at the gathered what was good into vessels; but the bad they cast
the age away. So it shaU be at the end of the age. The angels
("-'"') shaU come forth and separate the wicked from among the
156

|321-»)

Theirseparation to
come

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
righteous and shaU cast them into a furnace of fire. There
shaU be weeping and gnashing of teeth.
Now on being questioned by the Pharisees when the e. The
kingdom of God was to come, he answered them and said, ![{£§"
The kingdom of God comes not with observation, nor shall unseen
men say, 'Behold here it is,' or, 'There!' For behold, the spirit-
kingdom of God is within you. (Luke
And it came to pass that Jesus went into the house of w°- 21>
one of the rulers of the Pharisees to eat and one of the 7. its
guests said to him, Happy is the man who eats bread in the FegeT
kingdom of God. But he said to him, A certain man was £gen,u°
giving a great supper, and had invited many people. And only
he sent forth his servants at supper time to say to those who who6
had been invited, ' Come ; for things are now ready.' Then ^P^
they aU alike began to make excuses. The first said to him, them
'I have bought a field, and must go and see it. I pray thee, Joy' eD~
excuse me.' And another said, 'I have bought five pair of ^JjJe
oxen and I am on my way to try them. I pray thee, excuse M'j-
me.' And another said, 'I have married a wife and there- u"")
fore I cannot come.' So the servant came and told these
things to his master. Then the master of the house in anger
said to his servant, 'Go out quickly into the streets and
lanes of the city, and bring in here the poor and the crippled,
the blind and the lame.' And the servant said, ' Sir, what
thou hast commanded has been done; yet there is stiU
room.' And the master said to the servant, 'Go out into
the roads and the hedges and compel the people to come in,
that my house may be fined. For I teU you, not one of those g. The
men who were invited shaU taste of my supper.' Son 'of
And they were bringing Uttle chUdren to Jesus, that he partie-
might touch them; but the disciples rebuked them. But I'm ark1
when Jesus saw it, he was indignant, and said to them, Let If^it.
the Uttle chUdren come to me, and forbid them not; for of i9»-:"
such is the kingdom of God. I teU you truly, Whoever shaU
not receive the kingdom of God as a Uttle chUd, shaU by no Ricijf
means enter it. Then he put his arms around them and a bar-
blessed them, as he laid his hands on them. "mrar!{
And as he came out upon the road, a man ran to him, lf^u
knelt before him, and asked him, Good Teacher, what shall »>•-« "
I do to inherit eternal life? Jesus said to him, Why caU me «" %
157

Luke18ls-»)

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
good? No one is good except God alone. Thou knowest
the commandments: Do not murder; Do not commit adul
tery; Do not steal; Do not bear false witness; Do not de
fraud; Honor thy father and mother. He said to him,
Teacher, all these things have I observed from my youth.
And as Jesus looked upon him he loved him, and said to
him, One thing thou lackest ; go, seU whatever thou hast, and
give to the poor; so shalt thou have treasure in heaven.
Then come, follow me. But his countenance feU at the
saying, and he went away sorrowful, for he was one who had
great possessions. Then Jesus looked around and said to
his disciples, How difficult it is for the wealthy to enter the
kingdom of God! And the disciples were amazed at what
he said. But Jesus addressed them again, saying, ChUdren,
how difficult it is to enter the kingdom of God. It is easier
for a camel to pass through a needle's eye than for a rich
man to enter the kingdom of God! And they were exceed
ingly astonished, and said to themselves, Then who can be
saved? Jesus looked at them and said, With man it is im
possible, but with God all things are possible.
10. The kingdom of Heaven is Uke treasure hidden in a field,
J^gfe which a man found and hid. Then in his joy over it, he
value goes, and seUs aU that he has and buys that field. Again,
king-6 the kingdom of Heaven is Uke a merchant, who was seeking
<jnatt. **ne Pearls* On finding a pearl of great price, he went off
i3u") and sold aU that he had, and bought it.
11. au Should thy hand cause thee to stumble, cut it off;
lonai It is better for thee to enter life maimed,
gjg^. Than with thy two hands to depart into Gehenna, into the
uons unquenchable fire.
JScri- And should thy foot cause thee to stumble, cut it off;
f^ft It is better for thee to enter life lame,
CMark Than with thy two feet to be thrown into Gehenna.
c"iHatt. And should thine eye cause thee to stumble, cast it out;
5"' M) It is better for thee to enter the kingdom of God with one eye,
Than with two eyes to be thrown into Gehenna.
I. The Different Conceptions of the Kingdom of God in the
Old Testament. The kingdom of God occupies so prominent a place
in the teachings of Jesus that it is essential to trace its earlier meaning
158

CONCEPTIONS OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD
and usage. In the primitive Hebrew code of Exodus 23 every Israelite
is commanded to appear three times each year before Jehovah with
gifts in his hand. These offerings corresponded to the tribute which
the Hebrews brought to their tribal chieftains and, after the establish
ment of the monarchy, to their king. This ancient law indicates that
Jehovah was early regarded as Israel's divine King; but the oldest
definitely dated passage in which he is so described is found in Isaiah's
initial vision (66), where the prophet exclaims:
I am dwelling among a people with unclean lips,
Yet mine eyes have seen the King, Jehovah of hosts.
The same conception underlies the protests against the appointment
of Saul as king, which were probably placed on the lips of Samuel by
a later disciple of Hosea: "You said to me, 'Nay, but a king shall reign
over us,' when Jehovah your God is your king" (I Sam. 1212). To a
majority of the Hebrews, however, the belief that Jehovah was their
divine King did not prevent them from paying homage to their earthly
king. They also cherished the hope that a human Messiah would
come to establish a world-wide kingdom. His chief task was to be
to extend Jehovah's authority and glory throughout the whole earth.
This expectation, as held by the common people in the days of Jesus,
and especially by those who sympathized with the Zealots, is expressed
most clearly in the Psalter of Solomon 1723: "Behold, O Lord, and
raise up to them their king, the son of David, in the time which thou,
O God, knowest, that he may reign over Israel thy servant. ... He
shall destroy the ungodly nations with the word of his mouth. . . .
And he shall gather together a holy people. ... He shall judge the
nations and the peoples with the wisdom of his righteousness. And he
shall possess the nations of the heathen to serve him beneath his yoke.
And he shall glorify the Lord in a place to be seen by the whole earth;
and he shall purge Jerusalem and make it holy even as it was in the
days of old."
Among the Pharisees and educated leaders of Judaism, who were
fully aware of the impossibility of throwing off the yoke of Rome, the
belief prevailed that the kingdom of God would be miraculously es
tablished. This expectation is voiced in Daniel 2M: "In the days of
these kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom which shall never
be destroyed, nor shall the sovereignty be left to another people; but
it shall break in pieces and destroy all these kingdoms and it shall
159

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
stand forever." The same hope is found in the Sibylline Oracles (III,
767) : "Then a kingdom over all mankind for all time shall God raise
up. . . . And out of every land they shall bring frankincense and
gifts to the house of God. . . . And all pathways of the plain and rough
hills and high mountains and wild ways of the deep shall be easy in
those days for crossing and sailing; for perfect peace for the good shall
come on earth."
In Psalms 24, 29, 47, and 95 to 100 a third conception of the reign
of God is presented. The human king and Messiah completely dis
appear. Jehovah alone reigns over all nations and races. His rule
is to be just, merciful, and unending. This lofty ideal of the king
dom or reign of God is the outgrowth of the teachings of the pre-exilic
prophets, of the II Isaiah, and of the larger political vision which
opened before the Jews in the post-exilic period. It is by far the
broadest and noblest conception of the kingdom of God to be found in
the Old Testament.
II. Jesus' Description of the Characteristics of the Kingdom
of God. Which of these current conceptions of the kingdom of God
did Jesus accept? Or did he reject them all and proclaim a new
interpretation of the ancient hope? On this point New Testament
scholars to-day differ widely. Some hold that Jesus was in every
sense a son of his age and race and looked forward, like the majority
of his people, to the ultimate establishment of a temporal kingdom
with himself enthroned at its head. A greater number of modern
scholars maintain that Jesuc shared the current apocalyptic hopes and
that he expected and taught his speedy second coming and the miracu
lous establishment of a supernatural kingdom. Others are convinced
that he expected and labored for the establishment of a world-wide
spiritual kingdom in which God alone should rule. While our faith
in Jesus does not depend upon the answer to this question, the con
clusions adopted will inevitably affect our conception of his character
and work. It is a question which can be answered only in the light
of a most careful analysis of the historical sources and a scientific weigh
ing of the evidence, for the gospels contain many passages to support
each of these views. Due allowance must certainly be made for the
different beliefs current in Christian as well as Jewish circles in the
days when the gospel narratives were taking form. Among these, the
more widespread and powerful was the expectation of the speedy su
pernatural appearance of the Messiah and the miraculous establish
ment of his rule. The best basis for answering these difficult ques-
160

JESUS' DESCRIPTION OF THE KINGDOM
tions is furnished by the large body of Jesus' ethical teachings, de
rived from the earliest collections of his sayings (Q) and from the
original narrative of Mark.
Jesus illustrated the characteristics of the kingdom of God by a
wealth of figures and parables. To no subject did he devote greater
attention. He evidently recognized the necessity of a clear and mi
nute description, for it was a subject regarding which there was much
confusion and misunderstanding. In several instances he adopted
the question method, endeavoring thereby to formulate the problem
definitely in the minds of his disciples. The parables of the mustard
seed, the leaven, and the seed that silently germinates, each illustrated
certain characteristics of the kingdom. By these figures he taught
that the growth of God's kingdom was natural, slow, and silent, yet
pervasive and transforming; that it was due not merely to the work
of man in planting the seed, but to God, who constantly nurtured and
fostered it. The parable of the wheat and the tares deals with the
problem of evil which so deeply stirred the soul of the author of Job.
Possibly it reflects an earlier struggle in the thinking of Jesus; but
the words indicate that he had reached the calm of a higher vantage-
point. He fully appreciated the fact that the good could thrive side
by side with the evil, and that to attempt to root out the evil by force
was to injure even the good. Thereby-she inculcated that broad toler
ance wtiirjwfta.rar-terizes all his-teachings. "The^xplanation in Mat
thew 133*"** reflects the later Jewish-Christian eschatological point of
view that frequently appears in the quotations which that gospel
takes from its independent sources. It also lacks Jesus' positive note.
From verse a, as well as from the parallel in Luke, it is clear that in
the original not the Son of man but God himself was declared to be the
one who would ultimately separate the tares from the good seed. This
conclusion is confirmed by the corresponding figure of the net (in "-60)
which contains no suggestion of the presence of the Son of man.
The parable of the tares stands in the same relative position in Mat
thew as that of the man "who sowed seed on the ground, and then
slept and rose day and night until it sprang up and grew, he knew not
how," in Mark 4M"M. The many points of similarity between the two
parables suggest that they go back to a common original. The sim
pler form is found in Mark. It describes the gradual growth of the
kingdom in the present. Mark's version is also closely parallel to the
parables of the mustard seed and of the loaves, which are found in
Luke. The Gospel of Matthew, however, in 133S"48, interprets the par-
161

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
able of the good grain and of the tares as a prediction of the future
appearance of the Son of man at the final judgment. It is significant
that this interpretation does not follow immediately after the parable,
but is found in the midst of a section that is apparently from the editor.
This passage is of value because it illustrates the tendency to interpret
Jesus' original teaching in the light of the problems that later came to
the Christian community and to read into them the popular hope of
his second coming with his angels to judge the world. It is, therefore,
one of the many signs which indicate that sometimes we must go back
of the synoptic gospels in our quest for the real Jesus and his original
teachings. The parable of the net filled with fishes is a variant of that
of the tares. The one was adapted to an audience consisting of farm
ers, the other to the fishermen's point of view.
The crowning feature in Jesus' description of the characteristics
of the kingdom of God is found in Luke 1720' ™. The words were
evidently taken from an earlier source — possibly the Greek version
of Matthew's sayings of Jesus. They were introduced by the ever-
recurring question of the Pharisees as to when the kingdom of God
would come. It reflected their belief that it was to be something sud
den, catastrophic, and revolutionary, instituted by God without man's
co-operation. With this popular expectation Jesus took direct issue.
He declared that the kingdom of God does not come in a form to be
seen with the human eye. When it comes, no one can say, "See, here
it is," or,. "There it is." In giving his reason for this conclusion, Jesus
made the most illuminating statement found in all the gospels regard
ing his conception of the kingdom. Unfortunately, the Greek idiom
admits of two possible interpretations. The one interpretation, "For
the kingdom of God is in your midst," is supported by the common
meaning of the phrase in classical Greek. If this be the correct trans
lation, it means that the kingdom of God is not to be looked for merely
in the future but is already in the process of being established. In
the light of Jesus' teaching and ministry it can refer to nothing else
than the evidence furnished by Jesus' work, for God's spirit was not
only transforming and controlling the minds and bodies of certain men,
but they were also willingly and joyfully acknowledging his rule as
supreme in their lives. If this translation be adopted, the passage
emphasizes the moral and spiritual character of the kingdom of God
rather than the external and material elements which were prominent
in the popular hope.
The meaning of the phrase, however, in the Greek translation of
162

JESUS' DESCRIPTION OF THE KINGDOM
the Old Testament, in such passages as Psalms 39» 1031 109K Isaiah
1611 and Daniel 1016, supports the current rendering, "Behold the king
dom of God is within you." This testimony is exceedingly strong,
for the gospel writers were more powerfully influenced by the Greek
version of the Old Testament, which they constantly quoted, than by
the classical Greek usage. If, as seems reasonably certain, this trans
lation represents the thought in the mind of Jesus, it indicates that he
definitely rejected the popular nationahstic conception of the kingdom
of God, and taught that it was individual and spiritual, something
within the heart of man. This interpretation is also in accord with
his teachings regarding God and man and the strong emphasis which
he always placed upon that which was personal, inner, and spiritual,
rather than upon that which was national, external, and material.
It is not impossible that Jesus shared to a certain extent the belief
that God would ultimately interpose in a supernatural way to estab
lish his universal rule on earth. Jesus' chief concern, however, was
with the present. "Of the future no man knows" expressed his atti
tude toward the vague hopes that stirred so many of his countrymen.
Not until he faced the practical certainty that the period of his activity
on earth was nearly ended did he apparently begin to meditate on what
the distant future held in store. Then his calm faith in the justice
and goodness of the Father, the God of the ever-living, failed him not.
He declared in words, perhaps suggested by the current apocalyptic
hopes, his absolute conviction that he would speedily be vindicated,
that the rule of God would surely be established, and that he, as well
as his disciples, would have a prominent place in it.
III. Conditions of Entrance into the Kingdom. Jesus' teach
ings are equally explicit regarding entrance into the kingdom. While
at the beginning of his ministry he echoed the words of John the Bap
tist, "Repent, for the kingdom of Heaven is at hand," and he never
ceased to recognize the fundamental importance of repentance, in his
later teaching he added the positive note, "Believe." Thus, in Mat
thew 183, he declared: "Except you turn and become as little children,
it is impossible for you to enter the kingdom of Heaven." He taught
that what was required for entrance into the kingdom was not merely
a renunciation of a man's past life, ideals, and acts, but that childlike
attitude of receptivity which was absolutely essential if God's divine
rule was to be established in the mind and life of man. All personal
barriers, therefore, that kept men from placing their will completely
under the control of the divine will must be torn down. This teaching
163

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
Jesus put in his usual concrete, dramatic form. If a man's hand or
foot or eye, his most treasured and necessary possessions, constituted
such a barrier, he must cut them out and cast them away, for they are
of insignificant value compared with membership in God's kingdom.
In the parables of the treasure hidden in the field and of the pearl of
great price he emphasizes the necessity of giving up,- if need be, every
material possession in order to attain the larger good. In the same
connection he pointed out that the entrance into the kingdom of God
depended upon the voluntary and decisive action of each individual.
Like all the great issues of life, it is a choice between the greater and
lesser good.
IV. Riches a Barrier to Entrance into the Kingdom of God.
Jesus' teaching regarding riches is vividly illustrated by the story of
the man who came to him with the question as to what he should do
in order to attain that larger and unending life which the great Teacher
proclaimed was alone possible to those who were members of the king
dom. The narrative is taken from Mark and is modified slightly by
Luke and Matthew. Matthew, for example, changes Jesus' original
words (preserved both in Mark and Luke), "Why callest thou me good;
none is good except one, even God," into the statement: "Why askest
thou me concerning what is good. One there is who is good." The
real question, however, is, What is the import of Jesus' original words?
• The first and most natural inference is that he did not claim for him
self absolute perfection any more than he did for the man who stood
before him; but his words are by no means a confession of sin. They
simply indicate that God himself represented the absolute ideal of per
fection which Jesus, as well as his disciples, was striving to attain.
They were evidently intended to encourage the man who knelt before
him in the attitude of an earnest seeker for truth. They also aimed
to prepare the man's mind for the great sacrifice that he was asked to
make that he, as a true disciple of Jesus, might be perfect, even as his
heavenly Father was perfect.
The story also illustrates the way in which Jesus built on the older
law and teachings of his race. He passed over the commands regard
ing external worship to which the man, as a disciple of Judaism, had
hitherto given the first place. Instead, he emphasized simply those
commands which inculcate positive moral and social virtues and de
fine man's duty to his fellow-men. When the man replied that he had
kept these from his youth, Jesus was profoundly impressed by his spirit
and character. Not in rebuke, but with growing enthusiasm at hav-
164

RICHES A BARRIER TO ENTRANCE
ing found one whom he might at once admit into the ranks of his im
mediate followers, Jesus answered his question in the sense in which
he had asked it. He proposed a definite act which would at once
commit the man to the exalted ideals which Jesus proclaimed: "Go
and transform your wealth into treasure current for all time, and fol
low me, poor and homeless, yet the happiest of men." But the pride
of possession and the habits of a lifetime held the man back from enter
ing the great door of opportunity that was thus flung open to him.
Only rarely in the ancient East were great riches justly amassed.
The taint of money was far more universal than to-day; yet the psy
chological principles illustrated by the incident are equally true at all
times. Recognizing these, Jesus turned to his disciples and uttered
one of those broad generalizations which voice universal human ex
perience: "How difficult it is for those who possess riches to enter the
kingdom of God." Noting the amazement of the disciples on hear
ing this statement, so diametrically opposed to the popular estimate
of riches, Jesus analyzed the problem still more deeply: "The reason
is because, like this rich man, they trust to their riches and therefore
do not feel that hunger and thirst which participation in the kingdom
of God alone will satisfy." In his graphic, concrete, hyperbolic way,
Jesus declared that it was almost impossible for a rich man to attain
this higher good. Yet he added, in response to the astonished ques
tions of bis disciples, that which, from the point of view of psychology
and experience, seems impossible to man is nevertheless possible to
God, for he is working to save the rich as well as the poor.
The incident, among other things, reveals Jesus' superlative breadth
and sanity. It also corrects the impression, made by certain passages
in Luke, that he was alone interested in the poor and the outcast. It
does, however, emphasize the fact that he who, by inheritance or by
virtue of his own achievement, possesses more than ordinary wealth
is thereby often handicapped in his quest for the highest things which
life can offer. He is limited, not because God is unwilling to give them,
but because he himself lacks the motive and the passionate, single-
minded desire to acquire them. In his teachings regarding wealth
Jesus did not declare that its possession was a crime. He only sought
to set forth plainly its effect upon the motives and ideals of its posses
sors. His conviction regarding material possessions, implied in the
familiar prayer, "Give us each day our bread for the coming day,"
was probably expressed in the petition of the ancient sage (Prov.
307"»): 165

THE KINGDOM OF GOD
Two things I ask of thee;
Deny them me not before I die:
Deceit and lying put far from me,
Poverty and riches give me not;
Provide me with the food I need.
Lest I be full and deny thee,
And say, "Who is Jehovah?"
Or be needy and steal,
And profane the name of my God.
V. The Place and Meaning of the Kingdom in Jesus' Teach
ings. The term, kingdom of God, or its equivalent, kingdom of
Heaven, occurs over eighty times in the gospels. The author of the First
Gospel prefers the form, kingdom of Heaven. In later Jewish writings,
as, for example, I Maccabees, Heaven was constantly employed as a
synonym for God. Both forms of the term appear to have been
used in the early teaching source (Q). Why does Jesus give so great
prominence to the kingdom of God in his teachings? One, and pos
sibly the chief reason is because it was uppermost in the minds of all
the different classes with which he came into contact. It was un
doubtedly prominent in the atmosphere in which he was reared. It
was a watchword in the preaching of the courageous John the Baptist.
The term was constantly on the lips of the scribes. His followers fre
quently raised questions regarding it. It furnished, therefore, to a
wise teacher like Jesus, the most natural and effective point of contact
with his hearers. Its nationalistic interpretation was the will-o'-the-
wisp luring the Jewish nation into disastrous rebellion against Rome.
Its apocalyptic interpretation dulled the sense of personal and moral
• responsibility; but the use of the term in the Psalms had prepared the
minds of the more thoughtful students of the older scriptures for that
individual, ethical, and at the same time universal interpretation that
Jesus gave to it.
It is significant that Jesus never attempted to define the term, king
dom of God. The vast number of cumbersome definitions with which
scholars have attempted to describe it confirm his wisdom. In its
real meaning — the dominion or rule of God — is found the simplest and
best definition. It is God's rule not only in nature and in human his-
jWy, but, above all, in the minds and hearts and wills of men. It is
man's acknowledgment of God's sovereignty in every thought and
act. It is not the arbitrary rule of a despotic Deity, but is based upon
166

THE PLACE AND MEANING OF THE KINGDOM
man's voluntary submission of his will to that of God. It is a divine
gift, and yet is something to be achieved through human volition and
effort. In its origin it is individual and spiritual, within, not without,
the mind of man. But in its ultimate development God's kingdom or
rule is destined to transform society, for devotion and loyalty to the
divine King, the common Father of all mankind, is the strongest and
only universal bond that can bind all men together. Hence, in their
final realization, Jesus' teachings regarding the kingdom of God have
a large social as well as individual significance, for they contemplate
a universal brotherhood or democracy in which all men are united in
the common desire to do the will of God.

ICXXXHL THE OBLIGATIONS OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE
KINGDOM OF GOD
Store up no treasures for yourself on earth, 1. The
Where moth and rust consume, Styof
And where thieves break through and steal; a "'?«*
But store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, £<aiive
Where neither moth nor rust consume, effort11
And where thieves do not break through or steal. («¦>"'.
For where thy treasure is, c/.Lu'ke
There shaU thine heart be also. ,2"- M)
The lamp of the body is the eye; 2. of
If thine eye then be perfect, %0Ler-
Thy whole body shall be Ughted up. ous
But if thine eye be useless, and
Thy whole body shaU be darkened. ^n
If the Ught in thee is darkness, ™«d
How great is that darkness ! 6* .*». '
cf. Luke
I1H-M)
No man can serve two masters ; 3. of
For either he wiU hate the one and love the other, ^g;
Or else he wUl hold to one and despise the other. ed ioy-
You cannot serve God and mammon. GoS *°
(Matt.
6". cf.
And a man out of the crowd said to him, Teacher, teU my lb*.
brother to share the inheritance with me. But he said to

I6«'

167

CITIZENSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD
4. The him, Man, who made me a judge or an arbiter over you?
andy And he said to them, Take heed and keep yourselves from
danger every kind of covetousness, for a man's life consists not in
greed having more possessions than he needs.
JLSf) And he spoke a parable to them, saying, The ground of a
5tahe certam "ch man bore large crops. And he argued with
tud'eof himself, saying, 'What shaU I do, for I have no room to
mate? store my crops?' And he said, 'This wUl I do: I will pull
riaijsm down my barns and buUd larger ones ; and there I wiU store
aU my grain and my goods. And I will say to myself, "Now
you have many goods laid up for many years ; take your ease,
eat, drink, and be merry." '
6. its But God said to him, 'FooUsh man! this very night thy
j^n^i life is demanded of thee. And the things which thou hast
quen- prepared — whose shaU they be? ' So is the man who stores
°^ »o up treasure for himself instead of being rich toward God.
7. An And he also said to his disciples, There was a certain rich
man, who had a steward, and this steward was accused to
him of squandering his goods. So he called to him and
weaith said to him, What is this I hear about thee? Render the
tainb" account of thy stewardship, for thou canst be steward no
trovai" l°n£er- •N°W the steward said to himself, 'What am I to
of°God do, seeing that my master is taking the stewardship from
mel me. I have no strength; to beg I am ashamed. I know
i6"«e ,wnat I ^U do, so that when I am put out of the stewardship,
people may receive me into their houses.' Then railing to
him every one of his master's debtors, he proceeded to say
to the first, 'How much dost thou owe my master?' And
the man said, 'A hundred barrels of oU.' And the steward
said to him, 'Take thy bond; sit down at once and write
fifty.' Then he said to another, 'And how much dost thou
owe?' And the man said, 'A hundred measures of wheat.'
The steward said to him, 'Take thy bond and write eighty.'
And his master commended the dishonest steward, because
he had acted shrewdly; for the sons of this world are more
shrewd in dealing with their own generation than are the
sons of the Ught. And I teU you:
Make friends for yourself with the mammon of dishonesty;
So that when it fans, they may admit you to the eternal tents.
168

illus tration
of the
use of

CITIZENSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD
He who is faithful in what is least is faithful also in much; a fi-
And he who is dishonest in what is least is dishonest also in ¦Jfthe'
much. weaftb
If then, you have not proved faithful in the dishonest mam- aifevi-
mrm dence
mon, of
Who wiU trust you with the true? cnar-3/CLPr*
And if you have not proved faithful in what is another's, (»-¦>)
Who will give you what is your own?
Now the Pharisees, who were lovers of money, were 9. Re-
Ustening to aU this and sneering at Jesus. So he said to otthe
them, You are they who justify themselves in the sight of f^f
men, but God knoweth your hearts; for what is exalted sees
among men is an abomination in the sight of God. ("' 16)
Now there was a certain rich man, and he was clothed in 10. An
purple and fine linen and Uving sumptuously from day to
day. And a poor man named Lazarus lay at his gateway,
covered with sores, and desired to fill himself with what foijy

illustrationof the
fatal

of ig
noringthe re-

feU from the rich man's table; yes, even the dogs used to
come and Uck his sores. Now it came to pass that the poor soon-
man died and was carried away by the angels into Abra- sjbm-
ham's bosom. The rich man also died and was buried, wfaith
In Hades, he lifted up his eyes, tormented as he was, and ("-")
saw Abraham afar off and Lazarus in his bosom. And he
cried aloud and said, 'Father Abraham, have mercy on me,
and send Lazarus to dip the tip of his finger in water and
cool my tongue; for I am in anguish in this flame.' But
Abraham said, 'My son, remember that thou didst get thy
good things in thy lifetime and Lazarus likewise his evil
things. Now here he is comforted, but thou art in anguish.
And besides aU this, between us and you a great gulf is
fixed, that those who would pass from here to you may not
be able, nor may any cross from there to us.' And the rich
man said, 'Then I pray thee, father, send him to my father's
house— for I have five brothers — that he may bear testimony
to them, so that they may not also come to this place of
torment.' But Abraham said, 'They have Moses and the
prophets; let them Usten to them.' But he said, 'Nay,
Father Abraham, but if some one were to go to ¦ them
from the dead they would repent.' But Abraham said to
him, 'If they do not Usten to Moses and the prophets, they
169

CITIZENSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD
wiU not be persuaded, not even if one were to rise from the
dead.'
11. The kingdom of Heaven is Uke a man going abroad; so
faith- he caUed his servants and put his possessions into their
fui use charge. And he gave to one five talents, to another two, to
divw- another one; to each according to his individual abiUty.
uai tei- 1^^ ne went on his journey. Immediately the servant who
2"?"' had received the five talents went and traded with them
c/.Luke and gained five other talents. In the same way he who had
19"'K) received the two, gained two more. But he who had re
ceived the one went away and dug a hole in the ground, and
hid his master's money. Now after a long time the master
of those servants comes and settles his account with them.
And he who had received the five talents came forward and
brought five more talents, saying, 'Master, you deUvered to
me five talents. Look, I have gained five more talents.'
His master said to him, 'WeU done, good and faithful ser
vant ! You have been faithful over a few things, I wiU set
you over many things. Enter into the joy of thy lord.'
And he who had received the two talents also came forward
and said, 'Master, you deUvered to me two talents. Look,
I have gained two talents more.' His master said to him,
' WeU done, good and faithful servant ! You have been faith
ful over a few things, I wiU set you over many things. Enter
into the joy of thy lord.' And he who had received the one
talent also came forward, and said, 'Master, I knew that
you were a hard man, reaping where you did not sow, and
gathering where you did not winnow. So I was afraid and
went and hid your talent in the ground. Look, you have
what is yours.' But the master answered and said to him,
'You wicked and slothful servant! You know that I reap
where I have not sown, and gather where I have not win-
12 nowed. You ought, therefore, to have placed my money with
The the bankers, and at my coming I should have received my
£|ftB own with interest. Take away the talent from him, there-
forythe *ore> an<^ 6*ve it to him who has the ten talents.'
wor- (Matt. For to every one who has shaU be given, and he shaU have
Mark'' abundance ;
4", But from him who has not shall be taken even that which
t$)e he has. :"0

SINGLE-MINDED LOYALTY TO GOD
I. Single-Minded Loyalty to Qod. Jesus did not promulgate a
system of morals or philosophy; but there is perfect consistency in
the principles that underlie his teachings. It is also important to note
that these prmciples are in full accord with the established conclusions
of modern science, for both rest on the same ultimate basis of fact and
experience. Jesus taught that the, motive dominant in the mind of
the individual determined his character as well as his acts. He had no
fear that the individualacts would be wrong if the motive that prompted
them was right. It was for this practical reason that he placed the
strongest possible emphasis on the absolute necessity of single-minded
loyalty to God. Human effort he thoroughly approved. He himself
was a tireless worker; but he laid down as a first condition for mem
bership in God's kingdom the axiomatic truth that "no man can serve
two masters." He admitted no neutral ground. The strong, hyper
bolic terms that he employed — "love and hate" — indicate how in
tense was his conviction. The old heathen gods had long ceased to
have any attraction for the men of his race. More subtile temptations
assailed them. Already the Jew was an important factor in the com
mercial life of the Roman world. Galilee itself was the home of an
active, prosperous people. In the simple life of Capernaum, Zebedee
and his sons were probably regarded as wealthy. Not to the rabble
of the streets, but to the men of ability, from whose ranks Jesus drew
his disciples, came the promptings of innate greed. This was the god
whom Jesus described by the Aramaic word, mammon. The term
means riches and material possessions of every kind.
In the story of the man who pulled down his barns to build larger,
Jesus analyzed, with absolute fidelity to human experience, the in
sidious character of that innate selfishness which debars men from
true fellowship with God and man. The desire for the material pos
sessions, which represent ease and luxury and a certain type of pleas
ure, is what keeps men from their highest good. It is a result of the
natural impulse which man shares with the beast and inherits from his
childhood. To be rich and to have what wealth can buy was the am
bition of at least three out of every four of the men and women whom
Jesus met in Capernaum. It is still the chief motive with the ma
jority of the human race. This was the master whom Jesus taught
his disciples to hate and despise.
Jesus urged four reasons for the acceptance of his revolutionary
principle. Two were calculated- to appeal to the intelligence of the
most superficial: (1) No man can be assured that his life will be pro-
171

CITIZENSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD
longed even for an hour to enjoy material possessions. God alone
has man's life in his keeping and may take it at any moment. Hence
he is the only master whom a man's self-interest, if nothing more, should
prompt him to serve. (2) Material possessions are but perishable and,
therefore, do not reward the effort and sacrifice. The same teaching
is expressed in the Testament of Levi (136): "Do righteousness, my
sons, on earth that you may have treasure in heaven."
The other two reasons are psychological and more fundamental.
Man cannot have two chief centres of interest. In Jewish thought,
the heart was the seat of thought and intelligence. If a man's mind
is intent on storing up treasures on earth, he can have no other higher
centre of interest. It is, therefore, impossible for him to focus his
attention on the establishment of God's rule within himself or in others.
Finally, if a man's motives are selfish and niggardly, he thereby blinds
his eyes to all visions of truth and gropes in darkness. Jesus' use of
the metaphor of the eye was familiar to his Jewish readers. In the
Old Testament an evil eye represented avarice and greed, and a good
eye, generosity (Deut. 159 Prov. 236 2S22). Ben Sira is very explicit:
"An evil eye is grudging of bread" (1410). In these teachings Jesus
went to the heart of the human problem and suggested its only solution.
His message to men striving and toiling for those things which only
brought passing pleasure, if won, and discontent, if lost, was: "Look
up. Set a goal before you that is worth while. Let the one passion
of your life be loyalty to God. Then your joys will be wholesome and
permanent, and you shall walk in the light, not in darkness."
II. The Right Use of Wealth. Certain teachings of Jesus inter
preted by themselves convey the impression that he regarded riches
as altogether evil. He told the rich young ruler to sell all his posses
sion and give to the poor; he commanded his disciples to take no
money with them on their journeys; he himself possessed neither home
nor wealth; he taught his followers to hate mammon; and yet these
represent but one side of his teachings. His words regarding his own
poverty are not the utterance of an ascetic, but reveal, instead, the
sacrifice which he was making for the larger life of service upon which
he had entered. His commands to the rich ruler and to his disciples
were given to exceptional men called to a unique task. In his daily
work Jesus constantly associated with the rich and shared their hos
pitality without protest. By his harsh critics he was called "a glutton
and a wine-drinker." The fact that the tax-collector Zaccheus re
tained half of his possessions did not weaken Jesus' approval of his
172

THE RIGHT USE OF WEALTH
action. It was not wealth in itself, but the slavish pursuit and the
wrong use of it that Jesus sternly condemned, and he did so simply
because of the baneful effect upon the individual. This aspect of
the problem of wealth was ordinarily overlooked and hence was most
strongly emphasized by him.
Luke, who was inclined to regard all wealth as evil, has preserved
a unique, although easily misunderstood parable which clearly illus
trates Jesus' teachings regarding the use of wealth. The story of the
unjust steward was evidently told, not to the crowd, but to Jesus' dis
ciples, and was intended to illustrate simply one main point. It is a
discussion, not of personal honesty, but of the way in which riches
may be rightly and effectively used. Jesus commends, not the methods,
but the practical wisdom and foresight of the steward, who he plainly
states is dishonest. There is a gentle irony in his comparison between
the readiness of unprincipled " sons of the world " and the failure of " the
sons of the light" to work for their best interests; but this contrast
brings out the teaching of the parable. The phrase "mammon of dis
honesty" is probably due to Luke's extreme attitude toward wealth.
The logic of the context strongly suggests that Jesus simply said,
"Make friends by means of mammon" (wealth); that is, make it your
slave rather than your master. This conclusion is supported by the
broad statement that follows:
He who is faithful in what is least is faithful also in much;
And he who is dishonest in what is least is dishonest also in much.
Either this verse does not belong here or else the dishonesty that is
condemned is the failure to put the intrusted wealth to a wise use. In
either case the teaching is the same: wealth is a sacred trust; when
acquired and used with a single-minded loyalty to the divine King, it
can be made not a curse but a blessing to its possessor. Jesus' teach
ings, therefore, are very clear: the acquisition and possession of wealth
as an end in itself means slavery and moral blindness for the individual,
injustice to society, and disloyalty to God. Regarded as a trust and
used faithfully for the service of God and man, riches have their im
portant place in the kingdom of God.
III. The Improving of Present Opportunities. The parable of
the r\ch man and Lazarus raises many questions. In its present form
the only sin of the rich man is his riches; the only virtue of Lazarus
is his poverty and suffering, which are so extreme that the unclean,
173

CITIZENSHIP IN THE KINGDOM OF GOD
oriental dogs lick his sores, like vultures anticipating the feast that
awaits them. It is a dramatic illustration of Luke's version of the
beatitudes: "Happy are you poor, for yours is the kingdom of God,"
and "Happy are you who hunger now, for you shall be filled." The
popular Jewish conception of life after death is the background of the
story. As in Enoch Qlu and 703, the righteous go immediately to
Paradise. There is no suggestion here of a temporary place of abode
or of a future judgment or resurrection.
In the latter part of the parable the later apostolic point of view is
assumed. The words of Abraham are a condemnation of the Jews
who refused to accept the testimony either of Moses and the prophets
regarding the Messiah or the evidence furnished by Jesus' resurrec
tion. It is also the only parable in which the name of one of the char
acters is given. Lazarus is the Latinized form of the Hebrew name
Eleazer. In the Fourth Gospel it is the name of the man whom Jesus
raised from the dead (ll1-12u). It is possible that there is a connec
tion between the two stories. Certain scholars have even urged that
the closing line of the parable, "If one rise from the dead," suggested
the miraculous story found in the Fourth Gospel.
We have every reason to believe that back of the narrative in Luke
lies an original parable of Jesus. The intuitions of the Christian church
have also found in it the broad principle which he wished to teach,
even though Luke, because of his extreme interest in the poor and op
pressed, has obscured it. It teaches that wealth and position are un
important in themselves. The one essential is whether or not each
man improves his present opportunities and fully meets the responsi
bilities entailed by his position in life. The implication is that the
rich man's guilt was due to no definite crime except his failure to
recognize his stewardship and help the man who lay at his door. If
he had been awake to his responsibility, the scene portrayed in the be
ginning of the parable would have been impossible. The presence of
the needy beggar was an opportunity and a challenge. The rich man,
intent on his own selfish interests, lost his great opportunity. The
application of the principle is universal. As long as want and suffering
""exist, the citizens of the kingdom of God are under obligation to do all
in their power to relieve them. The greater their resources and in
fluence the greater is their responsibility.
IV. The Use of Natural Gifts. The familiar parable of the tal
ents comes from the older teaching source (Q). The oldest version is
apparently found in Matthew. It is introduced by the words: "For
174

THE USE OF NATURAL GIFTS
like a man going abroad." Evidently it was given to illustrate cer
tain characteristics of the kingdom of God. Luke prefaces it with the
words: "He spoke a parable because they supposed that the kingdom
of God was to appear at once." Luke departs at many points from the
version in Matthew. Instead of five talents to one, two to another,
and one to another servant, a pound is given to each of ten servants.
The master is also a nobleman journeying to a distant country to se
cure a kingdom. The historical example is probably Archelaus, who at
the beginning of his reign went to Rome to lay before Augustus his claim
to a part of the kingdom of his father Herod (Jos., Ant., XVII, 112).
Even though it obscures the original parable, the fact that the Jews
sent an embassy to Rome to protest against the rule of Archelaus is
here introduced. The reason for so doing is probably because it sug
gested to the later church the rejection of Jesus by the Jews. Luke
has also adjusted the parable to the setting which he gives it, so that
it is a prediction that at Jesus' second coming the Jews who rejected
him would receive the judgment that they deserved, while his true
servants would receive their due reward. The author of Matthew
has also added a verse which carries in part the same implication:
"C^st out the unprofitable servant into the outer darkness; there shall
be weeping and gnashing of teeth." The reference is to the punish
ment that is to follow the final judgment. It introduces a figure for
eign to the original parable, unless the phrase "joy of thy lord," in
81 • a, refers to the bliss of those who were to share in the return of the
Christ. In its original form the parable was not limited in its application,"
but evidently illustrated the principle that in the kingdom of God each
man must have courage and faith, and that he will be rewarded accord
ing to his fidelity. A talent was equivalent to about one thousand
dollars, and possessed twice the purchasing power of the same sum
to-day. The rewards did not depend upon the amount earned but
upon the spirit and fidelity shown. They consisted not of money, but
of larger responsibility and opportunity for service. Failure to use
the one talent meant that the one to whom it had been intrusted would
lose the opportunity and the ability to serve. The principle is true in
the natural as in the spiritual world.
As usual Jesus emphasizes not the external rewards but the effecrT\
of the attitude and the action upon each individual. Two become N
ever more efficient and able to undertake the larger trusts. One is
paralyzed by the insidious fear of failure or mediocrity, and so not only
175

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
forfeits the confidence of his master, but also loses the power to achieve.
This principle is further illustrated by the command to take from the
cowardly, self-conscious servant, who distrusted his own ability and
the master's judgment, the one talent and to intrust it to the one who
had demonstrated his fitness to administer the ten talents. In con
clusion Jesus puts this teaching in the form of a paradoxical general
statement. The "one who has" is he who has proved his ability to
use his talents efficiently; the "one who has not" is the man who
through cowardice or false pride has forfeited his opportunity and there
fore failed to develop efficiency.
The obligations of citizenship in the kingdom of God, as defined by
Jesus, are simple but insistent. They require that a man be ready
to give all to God: possessions, talents, his complete loyalty and love.
Every thought and act are to be prompted by loyalty to his sovereign
King. He is God's slave, but voluntarily so; his steward, intent solely
upon guarding his master's interests. His obligations do not neces
sarily require him to leave the world or to reject possessions or to lose
one of the real joys of life. Complete acknowledgment of the rule of
God in a man's economic, social, intellectual, moral, and religious life
gives him a right conception of wealth and its use, a proper social con
sciousness, a normal relation to the universe, true ethical standards,
and, above all, the knowledge that he has the approval of his divine
King and Father.
§ CXXXIV. MAN'S DITOES TO HIS NEIGHBOR AND TO
HEVISELF
1. The You have heard that it was said by the men of old, Thou
o"me shalt not kUl, and whoever kUls shaU be liable to the local
ifhlng court> But * teu y°u>
angeragainst Everyone who is angry with his brother shaU be Uable to the
other local court;
in.%" And whoever says to his brother, 'Ignoramus!' shaU be
Uable to the Sanhedrin.
And whoever says to his brother, 'Fool!' shaU be Uable to
the Gehenna of fire.
So if thou art offering thy gift at the altar and rememberest
there that thy brother has something against thee, leave thy
176

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
gift there before the altar. Go, first be reconcUed to thy 2. The
brother, then come and offer thy gift. Come quickly to terms l^rf
with thine adversary while thou art stUl with him on the J*£, ^
road; lest the adversary deUver thee up to the judge and the recon-
judge to the officer, and thou be thrown into prison. I teU uoa
you truly, Thou shalt not leave that place until thou hast paid (M2S>
the last penny.
You have heard that it was said, Thou shalt not commit 3.. The
adultery. But I teU you, Every man who looks at a woman oF^m-
f or lust has committed adultery with her already in his heart. f^ht (27, 28)
Now if thy brother sin, 4.
Go show him his fault between thee and him alone; mre^t"
If he Usten to thee, thou hast won over thy brother. of <*¦
And if he sins against thee seven times in the day, doer18"
And turns back to thee seven times, saying, 'I repent,' isls8""
Thou shalt forgive him. Luke
" 17', cf.
Luke
Then Peter came and said to him, Lord, how often is my l71)ob.
brother to sin against me and I to forgive him, seven times? Usa-
Jesus said to mm, I say not to thee, Seven times, but sev- forgive
enty times seven. ^-j^y"
Therefore the kingdom of Heaven may be compared to a (Matt.
certain king, who wished to settle his accounts with his 6. The
servants. And when he had begun to settle them, one ^hy°na
was brought to him who owed him ten thousand talents m^I(J
(about $10,000,000), but as he was unable to pay, the master forgive
commanded him to be sold, together with his wife and chU- broth-
dren and aU that he had, and payment to be made. The «
servant, therefore, feU on his knees and prostrated himself
before him, saying, ' Master, have patience with me, and I
wUl pay you everything.' Then the master having pity on
that servant, released him and forgave him the debt. But
on going out, that servant found one of his feUow servants
who owed him a hundred denarii (about $20). And he laid
hold on him, and took him by the throat, saying, 'Pay what
thou owest.' His feUow servant then feU down and kept
begging him, saying, ' Have patience with me and I wiU pay
thee.' And he would not, but went and had him cast into
prison, until he should pay what was due. So when his
177

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
feUow servants saw what had been done, they were exceed
ingly sorry; they came and told their master aU that had
taken place. Then the master called him, and said to him,
' Thou wicked servant, I forgave thee aU that debt, because
thou didst beg me. Oughtest not thou also to have had
mercy on thy feUow servant even as I also had mercy on
thee.' And his master in anger deUvered him to the tor-
menters, until he should pay aU that was due. So also shaU
my heavenly Father do to you, unless each of you sincerely
forgives his brother.
7. The Judge not,
gallon That you may not be judged;
make ^or ^^ what judgment you judge,
Mr You shaU be judged,
^fr. And with what measure you measure,
itabie it shaU be measured to you.
mentis Why look at the splinter in thy brother's eye,
7M»f'/. And consider not the beam in thine own eye?
Luke Or how wUt thou say to thy brother,
Come, let me pull the splinter out of thine eye,
When behold the beam is in thine own eye?
Hypocrite ! first puU the beam out of thine own eye,
Then thou shalt see clearly to puU the splinter out of thy
brother's eye.
8. The You have heard that it was said, An eye for an eye and a
tude tooth for a tooth. But I teU you:
of non-
Sncf" Resist not the evU man;
<^att. But whoever smites thee on the right cheek,
c/.Luke Turn the other to him also.
6"- so) JJ any one wishes to sue thee for the possession of thy coat,
Let him have thy cloak also.
Whoever shaU force thee to go one mUe,
9. Love G° two with him.
for en- Give to him who asks thee,
(Matt. Turn not away from him who would borrow of thee.
Liike You have heard that it was said, Thou shalt love thy
neighbor and hate thine enemy. But I teU you:
178

6" 0'i-T6)

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you,
That you may become sons of your Father who is in heaven;
For he makes his sun rise upon evU and good,
And sends rain upon just and unjust.
For if you love those who love you, what reward have you?
Do not even the tax-coUectors do the same?
And if you salute your brothers only, what are you doing
beyond others?
Do not even the Gentiles do the same?
You are to be perfect then, io.Tne
As your heavenly Father is perfect. (j^tt
5" cf.
Luke
AU things, therefore, that you would have men do to you, JWhe
So do you also to them; for this is the law and the prophets. e°jden (Matt.
71!, cf.
And there was a certain lawyer, who stood up to make Luke
trial of Jesus, saying, Teacher, what shaU I do to inherit 12.
eternal life? He said to him, What is written in the law? j^fs
How readest thou? He replied, Thou shalt love the Lord duty
thy God with aU thy heart, with aU thy soul, with aU thy io^I
strength, and with aU thy mind; also thy neighbor as thyself. cf(ark
And Jesus said to him, Thou hast answered correctly; do »2M-JI
this and thou shalt Uve. 22»%
But as he wished to show that he was right, he said to 13. An
Jesus, And who is my neighbor? Jesus answered and pi£™f"
said, A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to g"|
Jericho; and he feU in with robbers, who even stripped him God
and after beating him, went off, leaving him half dead. JJ£j,
Now it happened that a certain priest was going down by (Luke
that road; but when he saw him, he went past on the oppo<- '
site side. And in the same way, a Levite, when he came to
the place and saw him, went past on the opposite side.
But a certain Samaritan, travelling, came to where he was.
And on seeing him, he was fiUed with pity. And going to
him, he bound up his wounds, pouring on them oU and wine.
And putting him on his own beast, he brought him to an inn,
and took care of him. And on the following day, he took out
two denarii and gave them to the innkeeper, saying, Take
179

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
care of him and whatever more you spend, I wiU repay you
when I return. Which of these three thinkest thou proved
himself the neighbor to him who feU in with the robbers?
He said, The man who dealt mercifuUy with him. Jesus
said to him, Go thou, and do likewise.
14. And the scribe said to him, Of a truth, Teacher, thou hast
Hgion6" rightly said that he is one, and beside him there is no other.
of the Also to love him with aU the heart, with aU the understanding,
an|rt and with att the strength, and to love one's neighbor as one's
"wark self ls much more than aU whole burnt-offerings and sacri-
1232-m) fiCes. And Jesus seeing that he answered intelligently, said
to him, Thou art not far from the kingdom of God. And
after that no one dared question him.
I. The Fatal Crime of Wrong Thinking. Jesus recognized that
a man's duties to himself and to his fellow-men were indissolubly con
nected. He taught that, if a man was true to his own highest interests,
he could not fail to discharge his obligations to his neighbors. Con
versely he taught that, if a man was faithful to the interests of his
fellow-men, he could not be faithless to his own. Hence, in dealing
with the relations of a man to his fellow-men, Jesus was chiefly con
cerned with the thought and motive in the mind of the individual. No
teacher emphasized more strongly than he the truth that "as a man
thinks in his heart, so he is." With him the deadly sins were, not
neglect of the ritual nor even crimes punishable by the laws of all civ
ilized nations, but wrong ideas, motives, and feelings. Even in his
teaching regarding a man's duty to his neighbor, he decried the fatal
effects of hatred and jealousy in the mind of the individual more ve
hemently than he did the acts that hate and jealousy prompt. Mod
ern physiology, psychology, and criminology signally confirm the prac
tical wisdom of his teaching. These evil passions destroy a man's
physical vigor and efficiency. They pervert his mental perceptions
and render him incapable of resisting the temptation to commit acts
of violence. They undermine his moral health. By insidious stages
they transform the man who cherishes them into a criminal. On the
other hand, if they are banished, and wholesome, kindly thoughts and
emotions take their place, the man is incapable of crime. Right
thoughts and feelings, if persistently kept in the forefront, inevitably
lead to right acts. "A good tree bears good fruit, an evil tree, evil
fruit," lies at the foundation of Jesus' ethical teachings. His whole
180

THE FATAL CRIME OF WRONG THINKING
effort was to make the tree good, for when that end was achieved, the
good qualities of the fruit were assured.
II. Reverence and Regard for the Person of Another. The
principle underlying Jesus' teachings regarding man's duty toward his
neighbor is well illustrated by his treatment of the ancient laws con
cerning murder and adultery. The laws of society in the past, as to
day, punished simply the act. Jesus did not for a moment question
the justice of so doing; but with that vehemence and emphasis which
showed how intense was his conviction and how important he regarded
the teaching, he declared that the feeling of anger or revenge, which
prompted murder, were as reprehensible as the crime itself. He con
demned not so much the angry word, raca, which means empty and is
equivalent to our modern word, stupid! or ignoramus! as the unbroth-
erly spirit which it revealed and the fuel which the expression added
to the flame of anger. The word translated, "fool," is stronger than
ignoramus, for, as in the Psalms and Proverbs, it implies impiety, as
well as lack of sense. These are the concrete terms by which Jesus
portrayed uncontrolled anger. The manner in which he described the
guilt of entertaining, even for a moment, anger against a fellow-man
is equally concrete and dramatic. Anger unrestrained, like murder,
deserves to be punished, he declared, before the local courts. Anger
that leads a man even mildly to condemn his brother is a crime that
might well be tried before the supreme court of the nation. Hot pas
sion that impels a man to strike a revengeful blow at his brother's
reputation is a crime that must be judged before God's judgment
throne. As a matter of fact, none of the three crimes were recognized
a3 such by Jewish law. Passion that flamed only in the heart could not
be punished by the state. It was not a law but a principle that Jesus
proclaimed: the supreme crime against one's self and against society
is to cherish anger, even for an instant; much more to intensify it by
giving the slightest expression to the feeling of hatred toward another.
Jesus' revolutionary treatment of the law regarding adultery is pre
cisely similar. The impure thought, he declares, is the primary sin.
If this is banished from the mind, it is impossible for a man to commit
that heinous social crime. The great Chinese teacher, Laotsze, pro
claims the same truth: "Not contemplating what kindles desire keeps
the heart unconfused."
Jesus' incisive utterances also teach that deep reverence for the
person of another which is one of the chief correctives of the passions
that lead to murder and adultery. In his eyes, the personality of every
181

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
man and woman is sacred because of its divine origin and possibilities.
There is a remarkable reserve and delicacy in his treatment of the inti
mate relations between the sexes. No teacher ever held up a higher
ideal of social purity. For him there was no double standard. The
primary responsibility was thrown upon the man; but the principle
was equally applicable to both sexes. Having laid down the principle,
Jesus did not spend his time denouncing current immorality, as did
many another earnest prophet. Rather he set about healing social
sores. The penitent outcasts always found in him a friend. When
the religious teachers of the day condemned and hunted them to death,
he reached out to them the helping hand. But his method of dealing
with the major crimes that afflicted mankind was primarily preventive
and, therefore, fundamental. In the place of hatred and lust he sought
to inspire in his disciples deep reverence and strong brotherly love, and
thereby to save the neighbor by first saving the individual.
III. Forgiveness. Jesus taught that forgiveness was a duty not
only to the offender but also to the one wronged. Prolonged resent
ment, like hot anger, is a deadly menace to a man's physical, mental,
and spiritual health. It injures him who cherishes it far more than
its object. Jesus placed reconciliation before the formal acts of wor
ship. He declared that resentment or the sense of injustice done
or received made true worship impossible. He also taught that the
direct personal method was the only right way to express forgiveness
and to effect reconciliation. "Go to thy brother," was his reiterated
counsel. He recognized that resentment fed on suspicion and often
grew fastest when secretly repressed.
To Jesus' brief teachings regarding forgiveness, which were quoted
by both Matthew and Luke from the early teaching source (Q), the
author of the First Gospel has added certain detailed regulations that
were observed in the apostolic church: "If thy brother does not listen
to thee, take one or two others along with thee, so that by the testi
mony of two or three witnesses every case may be decided. But if he
will not heed them, tell the church, and if he will not heed even the
church, treat him as a Gentile or a tax-collector" (1816' 17). The last
regulation means that when all else had failed, the case was to be re
ferred to the public courts. These wise rules doubtless governed the
early Christian communities at Jerusalem and elsewhere, and repre
sent the beginning of that huge body of ecclesiastical laws which grew
up after the death of Jesus. Of the same origin and tenor is the regu
lation (found only in Matthew): "I tell you truly whatever you shaU
182

FORGIVENESS
prohibit on earth shall be prohibited in heaven, and whatever you shall
permit on earth shall be permitted in heaven" (1818). In Matthew
1619 this power is given especially to Peter. Each of these passages
record the tendency in the church to make its action final and to as
sume an authority corresponding to that claimed by the Jewish hier
archy. The extreme claims of the Holy Catholic Church represent
the culmination of this tendency. In the same context in Matthew
the noble thought of the Jewish proverb, "Where two sit at the same
table and talk about the law, the glory of God lets itself down upon
them," is expressed in its Christian form: "Where two or three are
gathered together in my name there am I in the midst of them"(20).
The logical sequel of Jesus' teaching regarding forgiveness in Mat
thew 1815 is found in 213S. In reply to Peter's question he declared that
there is no limit to the number of times a man should forgive his brother.
This was the implication of the complete number seven, which Jesus
used in the command that Luke has quoted. That there might be
no shadow of doubt regarding this important question, Jesus told one
of his dramatic stories in which the numbers were purposely exagger
ated. The debt of the unforgiving servant amounted to more than ten
million dollars, while the debt of his fellow-servant, which he refused
to overlook, was only about twenty dollars. The amazing contrast
recalls Jesus' other hyperbolic figure of a beam and a splinter. By
this means he drove home the truth that reconciliation and that inti
mate union with the heavenly Father, which is the source of all peace
and strength, is impossible unless a man feels only reverence and love
for his fellow-men. Forgiveness, therefore, is the essential foundation
of a normal relationship with God, as well as with men.
IV. Charitable Judgment. The same principles are illustrated
in Jesus' teachings regarding the almost universal tendency to con
demn another man's character and acts. Luke has apparently ex
panded the saying, taken from the older teaching source (Q), in order
to interpret it: Judge not and you shall not be judged;
Condemn not, and you shall not be condemned;
Release and you shall be released;
Forgive and it shall be forgiven you.
While Luke gives a more natural setting for the Jewish proverb, which
reappears in the Mishna (Sota, I, 7), "With the measure with which
183

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
man measures it shall be measured to him," Matthew has the simpler,
more consistent version. The teaching is universally true: a man is
judged according as he judges others. Luke is right in paraphrasing
Jesus' "judge not" by "condemn not." It is the spirit and attitude
toward others that the great Teacher emphasizes. His words leave
no doubt that he expects his followers to form their own estimates of
others. His command that they first correct their own glaring faults
and then help their brothers to correct theirs implies a moral judgment.
He is aiming to give each man a true perspective for judging and over
coming his own faults, and to substitute for harsh and sympathetic
censure a zeal to help another remove the obstacles that prevent hh
clear-seeing. The psychological basis of the command is the fact
that harsh censure of others destroys the mental and spiritual health.
Like greed and anger it is the foe of the normal religious life, and is a
thousand times more baneful to the man who indulges in it than to
the object of his condemnation, for, even if it does not arouse within
him resentment and anger, it drives out love and sympathy.
V. Jesus' Law of Love. Again Jesus took issue with the pre
vailing Jewish attitude toward law and, like a true prophet, went back
to the foundations of all legislation. He sought a principle so simple
and so broad that every man might find the higher law of God in his
own heart and so be freed from the detailed precepts and casuistry of
the scribes. This comprehensive principle was love. He did not de
fine it, but, as was his wont, showed by a series of dramatic illustra
tions what it was in essence and in practice. These illustrations come
straight from the older teaching source (Q). Matthew and Luke have
reported them in almost identical form. The chief difference is that
Luke introduces the vigorous injunction to offer no resistance to un
just demands in order to illustrate the duty of love to enemies. Mat
thew's more general setting is probably original.
Jesus was strenuously opposing the ancient law of revenge. In the
Code of Hammurabi (about 1900 B.C.) this cruel, elemental principle
is the basis of fifteen laws. Thus, for example: "If a man has knocked
out the eye of a patrician, his eye shall be knocked out." Exodus
2122-26 jjg,, taught: "Thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, branding for branding, wound for
wound, stripe for stripe" (cf. also Lev. 2413). Revenge and retaliation
are instinctive in the child and in the undisciplined man, as they were
among primitive peoples. Even in civilized states the lex talionis was
a corner-stone of both civil and criminal law. The more enlightened
184

JESUS' LAW OF LOVE
leaders of Judaism, however, had begun to break away from this grim
principle. In Tobit 4U is found the injunction, "What thou thyself
hatest, do to no man." Hillel, when asked for a summary of the whole
law, echoed this noble teaching, but still expressed it in negative form.
Jesus built upon these older Jewish foundations, but far more glori
ously. He not only taught the duty of refraining from doing hateful
things, but enjoined love and unstinted service even toward an enemy.
Thus, again, he did not destroy but fulfilled the ancient law.
To understand Jesus' paradoxical words it is important to note that
he is laying down principles not specific regulations, and that for the
moment he is concerned more with the individuals whom he addresses
than he is with their neighbors and enemies. He is not, however, as
has sometimes been falsely urged, presenting an ideal for a favored few
or for merely the men of his own generation. He is striving to show
how each and every man, subject to the ordinary human passions, may
"be perfect as his heavenly Father is perfect." To men enmeshed in
wrong prejudices and beliefs, he was struggling to tell how he had
found in the midst of the turmoil and contentions of ordinary existence
perfect life in God. Modern science and a deeper study of society
and of the mind of man are enabling us to understand more clearly
the universal truth that he proclaimed. Anger and hate are the
deadly foes of the normal life. The physical act that expresses for
giveness and deliberate non-resistance aids immeasurably in develop
ing those divine qualities. The angry countenance and the clinched
fist add fuel to the flames of anger and hate in the heart of the man
who does not control them, as well as in the heart of his foe. "Turn
ing the other cheek" is simply Jesus' dramatic way of showing that
the injured man feels no resentment but only forgiveness and love.
Experience abundantly proves the benign effect of non-resistance even
upon unprincipled and barbarous enemies. Although the immediate
effect sometimes seems disastrous, its ultimate results are well illus
trated by Jesus' own experience. He did not resist, even though he
was the victim of a nefarious plot and of cruel injustice. The im
measurable impression that he made upon human history is the final
proof of the practical wisdom of the principle that he proclaimed.
The attitude of non-resistance is the evidence and at the same time
the preservative of that love toward an enemy which Jesus declared
was an essential characteristic of every true son of God.
The Old Testament teachers had already in part enunciated this
crowning principle of Jesus' doctrine regarding man's duty to his neigh
bor and to himself. Leviticus 1917- 18> M contains the command: "Thou
185

MAN'S DUTIES TO HIS NEIGHBOR
shalt not hate thy fellow countryman in thy heart. Thou shalt not
take vengeance nor bear a' grudge against the members of thy race;
but thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." Deuteronomy 1019 went
still further: "Love the resident alien, for you were once resident
aliens in the land of Egypt." Jesus spiritualizes, universalizes, and
at the same time personalizes these commands. The motive that he
urges is loyalty and gratitude to the heavenly Father. Love is to
overleap all racial barriers, for the ideal is the perfect man. Here
most scholars are inclined to follow Luke's version: "Be merciful even
as your father is merciful." But this does not fit the context, for the
question under discussion is not mercy toward others, but a man's
attitude toward his enemies. Matthew's version probably gives the
original reason which Jesus urged:
You are to be perfect then,
As your heavenly Father is perfect.
This absolute standard Jesus repeatedly presented in the recurring
exhortation, "become sons of your Father who is in heaven," for the
Semitic phrase, "son of," expressed kinship and likeness. Godlike
love, not cold, but warm, not impersonal, but tender and strong, ex
pressed in look and act toward friend and foe alike, is the mark of
membership in the divine brotherhood that Jesus sought to establish.
VI. The Expression of Love toward a Neighbor. In its social
application the law of non-resistance presents certain difficult problems.
Offering the other cheek to a bully may encourage him in his cow
ardice and cruelty. Giving a cloak to a thief, who seeks to steal a
tunic, makes vice easy. Indiscriminate giving pauperizes the objects
of charity. Evidently nothing was further from Jesus' purpose. No
man ever resisted intrenched graft more sternly than did Jesus when
he rebuked the corrupt rulers of the temple. No stronger denuncia
tions are found in all literature than those which he uttered against the
Pharisees (§ CXXXVII, CXL). In his law of love he was not legis
lating for a state or for organized society. His primary object was to
develop right motives and emotions in the individual. Yet in the
generalization, which both Matthew and Luke have quoted from the
older teaching source (Q) in practically identical form:
All things that you would have men do to you,
So do you also to them.
Jesus guards the best interests of the neighbor as well a3 of the indi
vidual. The "doing to others as you would have them do to you"
186

EXPRESSION OF LOVE TOWARD A NEIGHBOR
does not mean that the neighbor's unreasonable demand will be granted
nor that the disciple will be governed by his own selfish desires. "The
golden rule" teaches plainly that in the treatment of others each man
is to be guided by his enlightened sense of what is best for his neigh
bor and, therefore, for society. To pauperize himself for others and
to countenance theft or social injustice are foreign to its intent. And
yet its demands are revolutionary. Jesus declared that in the divine
brotherhood each man must give the interests of others absolutely
equal consideration with his own; that in the character and lives of
others he should ever strive to realize his highest ideals; that thus in
losing his life he might find it; that as servant of all he should be great
est of all.
The classic illustration of the love which Jesus described is found
in the story of the good Samaritan. The lawyer of Luke 1025"37 and
the scribe of Mark 1228-34 are probably identical. Matthew quotes
Mark, but calls the questioner a lawyer, as in Luke. The summary of
man's whole duty is based on Deuteronomy 64, 6 and Leviticus 191*.
The passage reveals the central place that the law of love held in Jesus'
teaching. Paul echoes the same in his declaration that "he who loves
another has fulfilled the law. To love then is to fulfil the law" (Rom.
138"11). Mark 1232 implies that Jesus, in his reply to the scribe, also
quoted the opening words of the familiar Jewish confession of faith,
"He [God] is one and beside him there is no other." Jesus' answer
was undoubtedly acceptable to the more liberal leaders of Judaism, like
Hillel, but not to the narrow legalists, for, as interpreted by the great
Teacher, it placed the whole emphasis on feeling, attitude, and service,
and said not a word regarding ceremonial obligations.
The story recorded by Luke is a definition not only of man's duty
to his neighbor but also of true worship. It is a concrete example
rather than a parable, and was apparently told during the closing days
at Jerusalem. The scene is the rocky, uninhabited wilderness through
which the pilgrims found their way from the Jordan Valley to Jeru
salem. Josephus, in his Jewish War, IV, 812, vividly portrays the
dangers of the way. The priest and Levite represent the ceremonial
type of religion and its barren fruits. The Samaritans in Jewish eyes
were counted with the tax-collectors and Gentiles. In the face of all
this prejudice Jesus chose a Samaritan as the example of true piety.
The Samaritan's spontaneous, friendly act to a member of a hostile
people is the great Teacher's concrete definition of brotherly love. The
love which he sought to call forth finds its source in every heart un-
corrupted by prejudice and false doctrine. It is the Godlike gift that
187

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
enables man worthily to worship and love him who is infinite love. It
is the invincible power which alone is capable of overcoming anger
and resentment and of enabling each man to love and serve his neigh
bor as himself. It is the divine flame which Jesus kindled and which,
as it burns on through the ages, is fusing all mankind into a common
brotherhood in which God is recognized as the Father of all.

§ CXXXV. MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
1. Mar- Now certain Pharisees came to Jesus and asked him in
tajus- order to test him, Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife?
soluble And he answered and said to them, What did Moses com-
cause a mand you? And they said, Moses gave permission to write
$„ely a biU of divorce, and so divorce her. But Jesus said to
estab- them, Because of the hardness of your heart he wrote you
insti- this commandment. But from the beginning of the creation
(Mark male and female he made them. For this cause a man shall
io". leave his father and mother, and the two shaU become one
Matt, flesh. What, therefore, God hath joined together, let no
,9,8> man put asunder.
2. Di- And in the house, his disciples asked him again in regard
fo/r?- to this matter. And he said to them:
mar-eqmva- Whoever shaU divorce his wife and marry another commits
aduN° adultery against her;
tery And if she divorces her husband and marries another, she
io1"" commits adultery.
cf. s>iV The disciples say to him, If that is the status between a
Luke man and his wife, it is not expedient to marry. But he said
»61B> to them,
Somecalledto vol-

All men cannot comprehend this saying, but those to whom
"$?¦"* it is given.
bacy For there are eunuchs who are born thus from their mothers'
service WOmb,
king.? And there are eunuchs who are made eunuchs by men,
dom And there are eunuchs who made themselves eunuchs for the
Jplo*") sake of the kingdom of Heaven.
He who is able to comprehend it, let him comprehend it.
188

atti tudetoward

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
Now when they came to Capernaum, those who collected 4.
the temple tax came to Peter and said, Does your teacher Jesu
not pay the temple tax? Yes, he said. And when he came
into the house, Jesus spoke first -to him, saying, What think- the
est thou, Simon? From whom do the kings of the earth ta™"16
coUect customs or taxes, from their own sons or from (Matt.
strangers? And he said, From strangers. And when he
said, Strangers, Jesus said to him, Therefore, the sons are
free. But that we may give them no offence, go to the sea,
cast in the hook, and take the first fish that comes up. Open
its mouth and thou shalt find a stater. Take that and give
it to them for me and for thyself.
Then the high priest sent to Jesus certain of the Phari- 5.
sees and Herodians, to catch him in his talk. And when Sonre-
they came, they said, Teacher, we know that thou art truth- gar*-
ful, and carest not for anyone; for thou dost not regard the Roman
person of any man, but teachest in truth the way of God. ^2k
Is it right to pay taxes to Caesar or not? Should we pay, or If"'"''
should we not pay? Matt.
But he, knowing their hypocrisy, said to them, Why do you L^7
make trial of me? Bring me a denarius, that I may see it. 20^)
And they brought it. And he said to them, Whose likeness to ay
and inscription is this? They said to him, Caesar's. And Jjjjjjj8
Jesus said to them, Render to Caesar the things that are d^e k
Caesar's and to God the things that are God's. And they i2i"-»,
were filled with wonder at him. $att>
Now aU the people went to their own homes, but Jesus 22>»-«
went to the Mount of OUves. But early in the morning he 2o^*«)
came again to the temple, and aU the people came to him, 1^^.
and he sat down, and began to teach them. Then the scribes ment
and the Pharisees bring a woman caught in adultery. And 2rim-
after they had placed her in the midst of the company, they £Joii„
say to him, Teacher, this woman has been caught in the very 75J-8»)
act of adultery. Now in the law Moses commanded us to
stone such women. What then do you say? And they said
this to test him, that they might have something of which
they might accuse him. But Jesus stooped down and began
to write with his finger on the ground. And when they
kept on asking him, he stood up, and said to them, Let him
who is sinless among you fling the first stone at her. And
189

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
again he stooped down and went on writing with his finger
on the ground. Now when they heard this, they went out,
one by one, beginning with the oldest; and Jesus was left
alone with the woman. Then he stood up and said to her,
Woman, where are they? Did no one condemn thee? And
she said, No one, Master. And Jesus said, Neither do I
condemn thee. Go thy way. Henceforth sin no more.
8. or And he said to his disciples:
tempting the
J^°- It is inevitable that temptations should come,
and But woe to him through whom they come !
weak It were better for him if a mUlstone were fastened about his
(Luke neck and that he were thrown into the sea,
cf. ' ' Rather than that he should be a source of temptation to one
$"k of these Uttle ones!
Matt.
9. of See that you do not despise one of these Uttle ones;
j^nng For I teU you that their angels in heaven look ever on the
™™ face of my Father who is in heaven.
18") ' I. Jesus' Method as a Social Teacher. Jesus was not primarily
a social reformer. Though keenly alive to the social injustice and evils
of the system under which he lived, he persistently refused to be drawn
into class and party strife. Though himself a manual laborer, penni
less, the friend of outcasts, and in the end rejected by the rich and pow
erful of his nation, he set his face against every attempt to proclaim
him the popular Messiah, the champion of the oppressed who was
expected to overthrow existing evils and to institute a rule of justice
and equality. Even when a private grievance was referred to him,
he protested, "Who made me an arbiter?" (Luke 1213- M). This silence
and deliberate inaction was certainly not due to a lack of knowledge
or of interest in social questions. A partial explanation, often urged,
is that the political and social conditions of his day were exceptional.
Largely through the folly of their former rulers, the Jews were helpless
in the hands of Rome. To stir their patriotism would be but to pre
cipitate a suicidal rebellion. Moreover, the social consciousness, as in
most oriental lands to-day, was still undeveloped. Hence, it is urged,
there were no social ideals or social sense to which to appeal. There
is truth in these assertions; yet in his denunciation of the greed of the
temple rulers and the cruel hypocrisy of the scribes and Pharisees,
190

JESUS' METHOD AS A SOCIAL TEACHER
Jesus' burning words vividly recall the social sermons of Amos and
Isaiah. In his mind there was certainly a keen social consciousness
and his woes against the blind, corrupt guides of the nation must also
have awakened a strong response among those who were in spirit dis
ciples of the earlier prophets.
Diametrically opposite conclusions have been drawn from the facts
presented by the gospel records. Many, since the days of the brill
iant French scholar Renah, have found in Jesus a social agitator, the
forerunner of all socialistic propagandists. Others have declared with
equal insistence and conviction that he had no social message or pro
gramme for his own or for the present age. Each of these extreme
statements is false, and each is in a sense true. Jesus was not a so
cialistic agitator and did not present a programme of social reorganiza
tion; and yet no one was ever more intent upon bettering social con
ditions or has done more for the evolution of society than he. What
is the explanation of this seeming paradox? It is found in the char
acter of both his method and his message. He sought to perfect society,
not by popular agitation or by reorganization, but by perfecting the
individual. He recognized the fatal fallacy in the dream of those who
hoped to make a perfect state out of imperfect individuals. The ideal
social state, which he described as the kingdom of God, was a common
wealth in which all men were united and governed by a commanding
love both for God and for their neighbors. Jesus was a prophet, not
an organizer. Hence his social teachings are not detailed or syste
matic. In a sense they are only incidental, and yet they are of inesti
mable present-day value. He sets forth not programmes but principles.
He alleviates evil social conditions by putting the right ideals into the
minds, of the men whose duty it is to correct them. He instituted an
ideal social order because he freed the minds of his true followers from
greed and hate and implanted within them a self-giving love for all
mankind. In its demands the social message of Jesus is far more
radical and revolutionary than that of the most advanced modern
socialism. It makes the possession of wealth and position a heavy
responsibility rather than a privilege. It declares that each man is
"the keeper," not only of the members of his party or class or race,
but of all with whom he comes into contact directly or indirectly. It
demands equal love for friend or foe. Jesus' social message, instead of
being antiquated, is the lone star that inspires hope in men depressed
by the social injustice of our modern civilization and by the failure of
cherished plans for social betterment, and guides them onward toward
191

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
that perfect state in which love shall be the supreme controlling prin
ciple. II. His Teachings Regarding the Family. On one point at
least Jesus took absolute issue with modern anarchistic socialism, as
well as with powerful tendencies in the Roman and Jewish world of his
day. He declared that the marriage relation was of divine origin
and that under no conditions should its claims be set aside. Here
for once he departed from his usual method and laid down a definite
law. This fact indicates how important was the place that he attrib
uted to the family in the development of the individual and of society.
Back of his teaching lay centuries of human experience. The wisdom
of his conclusions is confirmed by modern sociology, which recognizes
in the family the historical and actual basis of all stable society. To
day the prevailing disregard of the rights and duties of the family is
demonstrating anew their supreme importance. Leaders in modern.
thought are beginning to see clearly that the only final solution of our
gravest political, social, and economic problems must come through
the faithful and efficient training of the individual in the home. The
shame of our divorce courts and of our modern social system is slowly
but surely preparing the present generation to listen attentively to
Jesus' strenuous teaching regarding marriage.
Jesus' decisive declaration is recorded both in the early teaching
source (Q) and in Mark: "What God hath joined together,, let no man
put asunder." Matthew alone adds that fornication is a sufficient
reason for divorce and remarriage. This clause destroys the logical
and literary unity of the passage. The fact that it is lacking both
in Mark and in Luke's quotation from the early teaching source (1618)
indicates that it was probably not found in the original record of Jesus'
words. Adultery under the Jewish law was punishable by the death
of the culprit, so that divorce was unnecessary and there was no oc
casion for Jesus to discuss this question.
Mark has given the historical setting of Jesus' teaching regarding
divorce. Like many of his profoundest utterances, it was incidental.
The Pharisees, seeking to entrap him, came with the much-debated
question, "Is it ever lawful for a man to divorce his wife?" Jesus'
answer left no doubt in their minds. Here he again took direct issue
with the Mosaic law. The regulation in Deuteronomy 243 was origi
nally intended to relieve the injustice of a Semitic custom which made
the divorce of a wife easy and possible whenever the husband desired
it. This law, in providing that the husband must state in writing the
192

HIS TEACHINGS REGARDING THE FAMILY
charges against his wife, simply made the divorce more difficult but
did not prevent it. This compromise Jesus set aside and reaffirmed
the deeper principle laid down by the early prophetic writer in Genesis
224, 26 jje appealed in reality from the traditional law of Moses to
the unchanging law of God. He declared that the marriage bond is
sacred because it rests upon the innate characteristics and needs of
man and woman and, therefore, of society. It is no more to be set
aside than the relation between parent and child. It is, indeed, more
divinely sacred and inviolable than that close natural bond.
In response to the question of his disciples, he embodied the broad
principle in a plain, unqualified statement: "Whoever shall divorce
his wife and marry another commits adultery against her." Again
it was the motive even more than the act that he emphasized. He
said nothing agamst separation or even divorce for sufficient reasons.
He dealt directly with the motive: "He who divorces his wife in order
to remarry commits the vilest of crimes." He brands it as the most
unsocial of acts, for it is a menace to the welfare not only of the indi
viduals involved but also to that of the family and of society. Mark,
writing for the larger Roman audience, which, unlike the Jewish, were
acquainted with laws which made it possible for a woman to divorce
her husband, applies the same principle to the woman. Even if this
second injunction is not original, it is true to the intent of Jesus'
teachings. Matthew alone has preserved the conversation in which this theme
was further developed by Jesus and his disciples. The high ideal of
marriage which Jesus set forth prompted them to exclaim: "If this is
the status between a man and his wife, it is not expedient to marry."
It is the protest that is urged to-day with increasing insistence and
fortified with strong arguments and a grim array of facts. Jesus,
however, offered no qualifications or modifications to the law that he
had laid down. Instead, he acknowledged its rigorousness and the
fact that many would be unable to comprehend its full significance
and apply it.
To this statement he added a saying that may well reflect his own
feeling and experience. "Some men," he declared, "are born inca
pable of marriage; others are rendered so by their fellow-men; but
there are others who deny themselves the joys of marriage that they
may give their time and strength wholly to the service of the kingdom
of Heaven." Whatever be the exact meaning of this difficult saying,
it certainly does not teach the superiority of celibacy to marriage, for
193

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
that would be but a denial of Jesus' assertion that marriage was di
vinely ordained. Neither does it teach that all of Jesus' disciples
should refrain from marriage. The teaching of I Timothy 32, "A
bishop must be unblamable, the husband of one wife," and the usage
in the early church are decisive on this point. If original, as they
probably are, these words of Jesus mean that he, like Jeremiah, regarded
the renunciation of the joys of married life as a great but voluntary
sacrifice which he and certain of his followers were called to make that
they might devote themselves uninterruptedly to doing the will of God
in the fields, already white for the harvest, that opened before them.
Paul and others in the later history of the church have demonstrated
the eminent wisdom of this saying of Jesus, which is an observation
rather than a command.
The insistent question still remains and will doubtless be hotly de
bated in the future as in the past, "Is not Jesus' absolute prohibition
of divorce with a view to remarriage cruelly unjust?" Thousands of
examples may be cited in which the wife or husband is the innocent
victim of deception or infidelity. Shall they be denied the joy of a
happy remarriage? Jesus, who was pre-eminently the champion of
the rights and liberty of the individual, here replies, "For the sake of
society they shall." The justice of this seemingly harsh law can be
rightly apprehended only in its social bearing and in the light of Jesus'
teachings as a whole. Statistics and scientific observation have dem
onstrated beyond a doubt that lax divorce laws are not the solution
of social evils. Where divorce is easy, the duties of marriage are
hastily assumed and lightly esteemed. The modem innocent victims
of unhappy marriages are largely the result of a wrong conception of
that most sacred of all human relations. Jesus was not seeking to
place an intolerable burden upon their shoulders, but to save the count
less millions who would share their fate unless the sanctity of marriage
was thus absolutely safeguarded. This law was in harmony with the
preventive measures that he always advocated. Furthermore, it did
not stand alone but was a part of that absolute and yet pre-eminently
sane and practical ideal that he placed before the individual and so
ciety. When he asserted the inviolability of marriage, he proclaimed
at the same time the dethronement of greed, lust, hate, worry, and all
the brood of selfish, cowardly motives that destroy the peace of the
family life and result in the heart-rending tragedies that deeply ap
peal to our sympathy and lead us at times even to question the wisdom
of Jesus' law. 194

HIS TEACHINGS REGARDING THE FAMILY
Earlier teachers, "because of the hardness of men's hearts," had
compromised their ideals. Not so the great Teacher. He knew that
only the absolute truth and strict adherence to it would make men
wholly free. His sympathy with suffering, whether innocent or sinful,
was boundless; but he never attempted to relieve it by compromise.
To the innocent victims of wrong social ideals he calls, asking them to
share with him the God-given task of saving society by voluntary,
patient renunciation and by thus losing their life to find it.
III. Obligations of the Individual to the State. Political con
ditions in the Palestine of Jesus' day gave him little opportunity to
declare his attitude toward the state. Two incidents are recorded
which are intended to illustrate his teachings on this subject. Mat
thew alone contains the account of his payment of the temple tax.
This tax consisted of a half-shekel of the sanctuary and was equivalent
to two drachmse (about 33 cents). The stater was equal to four
drachma?, and therefore represented the annual tax for both Jesus and
Peter. This poll-tax was paid by all faithful Jews for the support of
the temple. Like many of the independent narratives in Matthew,
the story was apparently told in order to establish a precedent for the
guidance of the Christian community in Palestine. The sons of the
divine King are the followers of Jesus. He had taught them that they
owed direct allegiance to God and that the formal ritual of the Jewish
temple was no longer essential. Hence it became an insistent ques
tion whether or not they should continue, out of their limited resources,
to pay the temple tax. The answer suggested by the story probably
reflects Jesus' own practice, as well as that of the early Christian com
munity in Palestine. He aimed never to give offence unless a prin
ciple was at stake. Jesus may have instructed Peter to return for a
time to his old occupation of fishing in order to secure the needed
money. The value of the narrative lies not in its suggestion that
Jesus' ordinary wants were supplied in a miraculous manner, for this
is contrary to the teaching of the story of his temptation, but in the
belief of his early followers that he, by his example, encouraged them
to support the organized religious agencies of their race. The temple
tax also represented the support of the state, as well as the church,
for the high priests retained the surviving vestiges of the political
power once held by Israel's kings.
Jesus' answer to the captious question of the Pharisees and Hero-
dians, as to whether or not it was right for faithful Jews to pay a poll-
tax to Csesar, is recorded in each of the synoptic gospels. The incident
195

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
belongs to the closing days of his ministry when the opposition was
bitter. The question was a burning one in Judea. The Pharisees
contended that to pay tribute to a heathen king was disloyalty to their
divine King. Refusal to pay it was equivalent to rebellion against
Rome. The flattery with which the cunning question was introduced
reveals the eagerness of the Jews to entrap him. Either "yes" or
"no" was certain to crystallize opposition. His answer is one of the
many illustrations of his mental alertness and his broad outlook. He
sympathized neither with the narrow Jewish piety nor with the popu
lar hatred of Rome. His attitude was that of a prophet who refused
to be involved in the contentions of the hour. With a touch of humor
he unmasked their hypocrisy: "You are glad to be able to carry about
the coins of Caesar: therefore pay to him, whom you thus acknowledge,
the money that is his due. But be sure that you do not fail to give
also to your divine King fitting proofs of your loyalty."
Jesus' epigrammatic words are variously interpreted. Certainly they
do not proclaim the divine right of kings. A clear distinction is drawn
between the material things which are Caesar's and the divine things
which are God's. Jesus' primary interest was in the things that are
God's; but his absolute sense of justice demanded that Rome be paid
for whatever service she rendered. It was inevitable that he should
speak contemptuously of such rulers as Herod Antipas, Caiaphas,
Annas, Pilate, and Tiberius. Their pride, their greed for power, and
their selfishness were all patent to him (Mark 1042). Jesus' patriotic
spirit is shown by the boldness with which he denounced the blind
guides who, like wolves in sheep's clothing, were perverting their office
and preying upon the helpless people. The intensity of his invectives
(§ CXL""19) shows how deeply he was interested in pure government and
how eager he was to uphold just authority. He has also left a price
less example of courageous citizenship to his followers. He accepted
the political principles which had already been proclaimed by Israel's
earlier prophets; but the one supreme standard which he set forth
was that of service. His was the most democratic political principle
ever enunciated. Hereditary authority, power attained by intrigue or
violence, the pride and pomp of office all go down before it. "Who
ever would be first among you, let him be your servant." While
Jesus' teachings regarding the state were revolutionary, they were not
iconoclastic. He proposed no sudden or forcible overthrow of existing
conditions. His method, as always, was to work from within rather
than from without. Moreover, he did not aim to level all distinctions.
196

OBLIGATIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO THE STATE
He fully recognized the differences in ability and, therefore, the dif
ferent degrees of individual attainment and honor; but for the pre
vailing incidental and superficial standards he substituted the one abso
lute standard, that of social efficiency. His ideal was that of a social
organization in which every man would have the joyous consciousness
of laboring and striving, not for himself, but for the welfare of his
fellowmen, and where the highest rewards and honors would go sim
ply to those who were able to contribute the most to society.
IV. Treatment of the Criminal. Jesus' quiet but commanding
note of authority led both friends and foes to refer difficult questions
to him for a decision. In the closing days of his work at Jerusalem the
Pharisees repeatedly attempted to induce him to commit himself to
a position that might be used as the basis of a charge of treason against
the law of Moses or of Rome. In the third-century texts of the Fourth
Gospel there is found a remarkable illustration of Jesus' attitude toward
the criminal. The account of the woman taken in adultery has no
connection with the context in John and is not found in the early Greek
texts; yet it shares all the characteristics of the oldest synoptic nar
ratives. It was probably taken from an early written source and at
tached to the Fourth Gospel at the close of the seventh chapter. In
some manuscripts it stands after the thirtieth verse, in others after the
forty-fourth, but in the majority at the end of that chapter and at
the beginning of the eighth.
Its contents attest its historical character. The incident took place
on the Mount of Olives, to which, according to the synoptic record, Jesus
frequently retired during the last perilous days at Jerusalem. Accord
ing to the Jewish law of Leviticus 2010 and Deuteronomy 22M, a married
or betrothed woman, convicted of adultery, was to be stoned, and the
witnesses were to fling the first stones. The fact that Jesus' foe3
brought the woman to him suggests that her case presented certain
features that they believed would appeal to his sympathies. Their
act was probably inspired by their knowledge of his reputation as a
friend of sinners. If so, it was an implied insult: "Here is one of your
friends; what will you do for her? " With his usual tact Jesus reserved
his answer until his foes had departed and he was alone with the woman.
His appeal was from the harsh Jewish law, which was concerned simply
with protecting society from an insidious peril, to the higher moral
law, that considered the welfare of the individual, as well as that of
society. He also rebuked the unjust double standard that visited the
heaviest penalties for social crimes upon the helpless weaker sex. Paul
197

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
undoubtedly had good authority for asserting that Jesus made no dis
tinction between male and female (Gal. 3™). The incident is one of
the most dramatic and significant in the gospels. One after another
the woman's accusers went out self-accused. The lesson best calcu
lated to save society from the social evil had been taught. The prob
lem that remained was individual. It was not to shield the guilty
woman from the inevitable consequences of her crime, but to redeem
her. Stoning certainly would not save her. Counsel, sympathy, and
an opportunity to redeem herself might. Those Jesus gave her.
More he could not give, for her shame and suffering were essential to
her redemption.
Jesus' action illustrates those higher Christian principles that are
to-day beginning to govern the attitude not only of the individual but
also of society toward the criminal. Remedial methods are rightly
taking the place of mere punishment. The individual criminal is be
ing considered as well as outraged society. Prison reforms, indeter
minate sentences, and the humane, scientific treatment of criminals
are being substituted for cruel, simply punitive methods. The result
is that criminals are being redeemed instead of being confirmed in their
hostile attitude toward society. Society in turn is not only being de
livered from the menace of the individual criminal, but is beginning
to profit by his restoration to the ranks of its productive citizens.
V. Care of the Poor. Jesus sprang from a race that has always
been pre-eminently considerate and faithful in its care of the poor.
The Old Testament laws, and especially the code of Deuteronomy,
abound in regulations and injunctions concerning liberality and charity
to the needy and dependent classes. In all Semitic countries giving
alms is regarded as an essential virtue. Responsibility for the unfortu
nate and dependent was a survival of the tribal and communal stage
in Semitic civilization. It was strengthened by the strong Jewish
sense of racial unity. It was even extended to the resident aliens
who identified themselves with the race and local community. This
philanthropic virtue evidently met with Jesus' full approval. It has
passed as a heritage to the Christian church and has inspired many of
the noblest achievements in human history.
In view of these facts it is surprising that the gospels record no in
stance in which Jesus was appealed to for alms or gave them. Aside
from the command to the rich man who came to him, he appears to
have given no direct command to his followers to distribute to the
poor (Luke 18*2 Matt. 1921). In the few cases in which he advocated
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CARE OF THE POOR
charity, it was more for the sake of the giver than the recipient. His
conviction is clearly expressed in the beatitude: "It makes a man hap
pier to give than to receive." Jesus' teaching that wealth was to be
held in stewardship meant not only its faithful administration but
also its wise and efficient distribution. Although the later practice
of the Christian church has often created a wrong impression, Jesus
never taught indiscriniinate giving either by word or example. When
he saw that his work of healing was creating a wrong impression and
distracting the people from his more vital message, he at once left the
multitudes. All his recorded giving was individual rather than gen-
•eral. He gave as opportunity offered in connection with his daily
task. He adapted his gifts to the needs of each recipient. His giving
was doubly valuable, for he gave himself, his intelligent sympathy, and
his love and inspiration.
What Jesus taught his followers by his example he also embodied
in the parable of the good Samaritan, who is the most perfect type of
the ideal giver in all literature and life. He was a busy traveller in
tent on reaching his destination. The motive which prompted him
to give was. absolutely free from the blight of ostentation. It was a
spontaneous brotherly sympathy so strong that it conquered all self-
interest. He first investigated carefully the needs of the unfortunate
man who had fallen among robbers. Then he supplied them in the
most direct and practical way. He gave what the unfortunate man's
wants required, but not so as to demean or tempt him. Thus Jesus
taught his followers to give not thoughtlessly nor unsystematically,
but sanely, practically, personally, as opportunity offered and as their
trained intelligence and feelings prompted. Practical sociology and
philanthropy are daily making clearer the wisdom of his counsel. In
such wise, considerate stewardship of wealth lies the solution of our
most difficult social and industrial problems, for it transforms but does
not destroy society and ennobles both the giver and the one helped.
VI. Protection of the Weak and Ignorant. Jesus' knightly
spirit is revealed not only in his heroic acts but also in his advice to his
followers regarding the weak and ignorant. From the context of Luke
and Mark it is clear that the term "little ones" included not only the
children but the weak and helpless, the lost sheep of the house of Israel
who commanded Jesus' first attention. Pity and contempt are min
gled in the strong words with which he denounced those who tempted
or misled these "little ones." The millstone was the heavy circular
stone used for grinding grain in every Palestinian home. The words
199

MAN'S RESPONSIBILITY TO SOCIETY
of Jesus are so familiar that they have lost for us their original vigor.
"Better that a man be deliberately drowned in the sea than that he
put an obstacle in the way of the weak that may cause them to stumble
either in faith or act." This is the teaching that Paul nobly expands
in the fourteenth and fifteenth chapters of his letter to the Romans:
"It is an excellent plan to abstain from flesh and wine or anything at
which thy brother stumbles. We who are strong ought to bear the
infirmities of the weak instead of pleasing ourselves. Let each of us
please our neighbor to do him good, to bind him up; for Christ also
did not please himself." Jerome also reports what is possibly an
original utterance of Jesus: "He commits a great crime who makes sad
the spirit of his brother." By such teachings as these Jesus sought to
call forth the courageous, militant qualities inherent in all men, and to
teach the strong not to crush and mislead but to deliver and guide the
weak and helpless classes. The principle laid down is the condemna
tion of the disastrous industrial and military systems that are the bane
and disgrace of modern civilization. At the same time it solves the
deeper problems that underlie these systems. Jesus' chivalrous ideal
offers to the bold and strong tasks worthy of their courage and strength.
It develops heroism and self-sacrifice without the horrors of war and
cruel, competitive industrialism. The "Uttle ones " of to-day are the un
derfed, overworked, ignorant, often vicious masses who even in the time
of peace bear the burdens of war and of our unjust industrial system, and
who are the victims not only of their own vices but also of those of the
ruling classes. "Despise not one of these little ones," is Jesus' exhor
tation, " for they are especial objects of God's care and love." Paul's
familiar words express Jesus' challenge to the men of strength: "You
who are strong ought to bear the burdens of the weak." The great
Teacher appealed to the natural spirit of competition implanted within
every normal man; but the goal he set was not personal honor or pos
sessions but the glory of the heroic, self-sacrificing, efficient service for
those who need the help of the strong.
VI. The Application of Jesus' Principles to Society. Jesus
began with the individual, but the influence of his work and teachings
touch and transform all social relationships. He provides a remedy
for every social evil, for he commands the motives that control the men
who collectively constitute society. His cure, for example, for murder
and violence, class strife, war, and social immorality is the banishment
of angry, revengeful, selfish, impure thoughts from the minds of men.
His corrective of poverty is to develop a sense of social responsibility
200

APPLICATION OF JESUS' PRINCIPLES TO SOCIETY
so strong that on the one hand the possession of wealth and authority
become a heavy burden rather than a privilege. On the other hand,
his principles of living, when they are practically applied, eliminate
the crime and shiftlessness which are the chief causes of poverty. In
the place of self-interest and class interest and narrow national patriot
ism, he inspires interest in human society as a whole. Above all, it
is an interest kindled by love for a common Father and expressed in
intelligent, devoted service for one's neighbor — the man who, like him
who fell among robbers, needs a helping hand.
Jesus' conception of an ideal society must be inferred from his inci
dental utterances and from the way they were interpreted by the
primitive church. His ironical references to the prevailing social and
political order indicate that he was keenly aware of its vanity and im
perfections. He regarded no existing institution as final. Each must
be tested by its fruits. With him society was but a means to an end
and that end was the perfecting of the individual. For one whose
eyes were fixed with love and adoration upon a divine King whose rule
knew no bounds or limitations, the pretences and contentions of the
rulers who lorded it over their fellows seemed trivial and petty. Jesus,
like certain of Israel's earlier prophets, had in mind a universal king
dom in which the principles of justice and mercy should guide all men
in their relations to one another, in which organized society would not
merely protect the interests of each member, but also give him ample
opportunity to express himself in largest measure. He sought to lay
the foundations for a society in which the chief ambition of each citi
zen should be not to be ministered unto but to minister.
The family, with its close interrelationships, with its ample demands
and opportunities for service under loving, parental guidance, accord
ing to his conviction, furnished the natural basis for such a social struct
ure. This undoubtedly was the fundamental reason why he guarded
the sanctity of the family with such strenuous zeal. The second stage
in the social structure which Jesus apparently contemplated may be
designated as the communal unit. It is implied in his tragic lament
over the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, the towns on
the northern shores of the Sea of Galilee where he had sought to realize
this phase of his social ideal. It included all who by proximity or
residence in the same community were bound together by common
economic, social, and religious interests. It corresponded to that won
derful brotherhood of disciples that he rallied about him. In certain
aspects the primitive church at Jerusalem appears to have realized
201

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
this ideal. The third and final social unit was intended to include all
men. It was the ultimate, concrete expression of Jesus' ideal of the
kingdom of God. The realization of this ideal was the inspiration
of all of Jesus' work and of that of his disciples throughout the suc
ceeding ages. The Holy Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Em
pire were intended to be the embodiment of this ideal; but in their
thirst for power the leaders in this great world movement forgot the
fundamental principles laid down by Jesus, so that their work in the
end became a mere mockery rather than the fulfilment of the plan of
the Master Builder who inspired them. Jesus' social ideal, therefore,
remains a goal which humanity has yet to attain. The watchwords
of to-day, efficiency, democracy, fraternity, world-unity, and, in certain
of its aspects, socialism, are the heralds of that divine social order, seen
from afar by Hebrew prophets but proclaimed by Jesus so clearly that
it is still the inspiration of every man of faith and courage who is
ready to acknowledge as Master the heroic Son of God and the peer
less Lover of men.

§ CXXXVI. THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
1. True Now it came to pass that when Jesus went into the house
comes of one of the rulers of the Pharisees, to take a meal on the
tSosie*0 Bsfobatia. day, they watched him closely. And he spoke a
who6 parable to those who had been invited, when he observed
J^er k°w they selected the chief seats. He said to them, When
seu^ thou art invited by anyone to a marriage feast, do not recline
tog " on the chief seat, lest perhaps the host has invited some one
pride of a higher rank than thyself. Then he who invited you
I i4iuke D°th shaU come and say to thee, Give up your place to this
»-") man and then thou shalt begin with shame to take the lowest
place. But when thou art invited, go and recline in the lowest
place, that when he who has invited thee comes, he may say
to thee, Friend, come up higher. Then thou shalt have
honor in the presence of thy feUow-guests.
For everyone who exalts himself shaU be humbled,
And he who humbles himself shaU be exalted.
He also said to the man who had invited him, When thou
givest a dinner or a supper, do not caU in thy friends or thy
202

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
brothers or thy kinsmen or rich neighbors ; lest perhaps they 2. un«
too invite thee in return and so thou be repaid. Rather |^£,
when thou givest a feast, invite the poor, the cripples, the for
lame, the blind. Then thou shalt be happy; for they have who6
nothing with which to repay thee; for thou shalt be repaid afone"
at the resurrection of the just. pf iast-
For the kingdom of Heaven is like a householder, who value
went out early in the morning to hire laborers for his vine- (12")
yard. And after agreeing with the laborers for a denarius a 3. Re-
day, he sent them into his vineyard. And on going out at w£rds
about nine o'clock, he saw other men in the market place pend-
standing idle. And he said to them, ' Go also into the vine- upon
yard and I wiU pay you whatever is right.' So they went. ™j.
Again on going out again at twelve o'clock and three o'clock ity
in the afternoon, he did the same thing. And on going out spirit
about five o'clock in the afternoon, he found other men ^jjJT"
standing. And he said to them, 'Why stand here aU the <g^tt.
day idle?' They said to him, 'Because no one has hired us.' l*w)
He said to them, ' You go also into the vineyard.' Now when
evening came, the owner of the vineyard said to his steward,
' CaU the laborers and pay their wages, beginning from the
last up to the first.' And when those who had been hired
about five o'clock in the afternoon came, they each received
a denarius. And when the first men came, they supposed
that they would receive more. Yet they too received a
denarius each. So on receiving it, they began to murmur
against the householder, saying, 'These last worked but a
single hour, yet thou hast made them equal to us, who bore
the burden of the day and the scorching heat!' But he
answered and said to one of them, ' Friend, I am doing thee
no wrong. Didst thou not agree with me for a denarius?
Take what is thine and go. I wish to pay this last man
what I pay thee. Is it not lawful for me to do what I wish 4. The
with what is mine own? Or dost thou look on with envious ^^l6
eyes, because I am generous.' So shaU the last be first and of duty
the first last. basis
And he said to his disciples, Which of you is there who ^^
has a servant plowing or guarding the sheep and wUl say to re-
him when he comes from the field, 'Come forward at once; J^kl
Ue down and eat.' WUl he not rather say to him, 'Get %l°-
203

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
something ready for my supper. Gird thyself and wait
upon me, until I have eaten and drunk. Then after that,
thou shalt eat and drink thyself?' Does he give thanks to
the servant for doing as he was instructed? So too of your
selves, when you have done aU things as you are instructed,
5. The say, 'We are useless servants. We have only done that
mabie which it was our duty to do.'
^jg Peter began to say to him, Behold, we have left aU and
of self- foUowed thee. Jesus said, I teU you truly, there is no man
1?c% ' who has left house, or brothers, or sisters, or mother or
i$fik father or chUdren or lands for my sake and for the sake of
cf. ' the gospel, without receiving a hundred-fold now in this
i»S"'j time: houses, brothers, sisters, mothers, chUdren and lands,
is>"<i) ^th persecutions, and in the age to come eternal life. But
6. many who are first shaU be last and the last first,
Super-
happ6- Happy the poor in spirit!
those0f For theirs is the kingdom of Heaven.
<g«er Happy the meek!
Gods For they shaU inherit the earth.
tt£jr in Happy they who mourn !
Vjwatt ^or ^ ^ ke comforted.
s**cf. Happy they who hunger and thirst for righteousness !
J"".kS) For they shaU be satisfied.
7. Of
^e Happy the merciful!
are de- For they shaU obtain mercy.
to the Happy the pure in heart!
welfare For they shaU see God.
others Happy the peacemakers!
For they shaU be called sons of God.

(Matt
5'-')3. Who
endure perse
cution eousness
because

Happy they who have been persecuted on account of right
eousness !
For theirs is the kingdom of Heaven.
sus^d Happy are you when men shaU denounce you and perse-
ws cute you,
to£h- Speaking falsely on account of me, and say aU manner of
s^.f"/ evU against you!
Luke ' Rejoice and exult! For great is your reward in heaven*
For so they persecuted the prophets who were before you'
204

6". ")

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
Happier they who give than they who receive ! 9- who
[For their Father in heaven shall recompense them.] £vely
(Acts
20»»)
I. Jesus and the Jewish Doctrine of Rewards. In all early
religions rewards are made the important, if not the chief incentives for
right conduct. In the Jewish religion of Jesus' day the fear of punish
ment and the hope of present good fortune and of future blessedness
were the leading motives that influenced the individual. The new-born
belief in personal immortality spiritualized the ancient doctrine of re
wards; but it did not eliminate the mercenary element. The motive
for right-doing was still largely selfish. According to the prevailing
pharisaic teaching, a title to blessed immortality was assured only
when a man's righteous deeds exceeded his evil acts. This type of
religion made God a mere book-keeper and judge. It developed the
selfish and egoistic rather than the altruistic and social impulses in
men. It encouraged the invention of superficial devices, such as long
prayers, alms-giving, fasting, and different types of ceremonial sacrifice,
whereby men thought that they might add to their credit with God
and to their claims upon his favor. This selfish, mercenary concep
tion of religion has always proved the worst foe of vital personal faith.
Even in the gospel records of Jesus' teachings there are traces of its
baneful influence. Thus, for example, in the important utterance
preserved by Luke (141J_M), in which Jesus emphasized the importance
of an unselfish motive in doing deeds of kindness, the pharisaic phrase,
"Thou shalt be repaid at the resurrection of the just," appears. The
next verse states that "on hearing this, one of his fellow-guests said to
him, 'Happy the man who eats bread in the kingdom of God,'" indi
cating that the original words probably referred to participation in the
responsibilities as well as the joys of God's kingdom. Jesus was con
tending against the false doctrine of rewards. "Invite those who can
not repay you," was his exhortation to his disciples. "The poor, tht
cripples, the lame, and the blind present to you a rare opportunity,
for they have nothing with which to repay you." In Jesus' teachings
rewards are regarded not as the motives but as the results of unself
ish action. Herein lies a vital distinction between the Christianity
of Jesus and all other religions. "When thou hast entertained those
who are unable to repay you, thou shalt be happy and hast indeed
entered into the kingdom of God," was Jesus' conclusion. The mo
tive as well as the act must be unselfish. Then and only then happi
ness comes as a result, even as effect follows cause.
205

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
Jesus was also well aware that he who pushes himself forward thereby
arouses the antagonism and rivalry of his fellows, and that he who
claims less than his due thereby makes all men his champions. In
the quieter, conventional life of the ancient East this truth was more
often illustrated than in the rushing modern world. The illustration
in Luke 147-11 is drawn from the oriental banquet in which all the
guests reclined and where great attention was given to the order of
precedence. It is the adaptation of the figure already developed in
Proverbs 256- 7. It is one of several graphic illustrations of Jesus'
epigrammatic teaching:
Every one who exalts himself shall be humbled,
And he who humbles himself shall be exalted.
In Luke 189"14 Jesus applies the same principle to man's relations to
God and illustrates it by the story of the Pharisee and the tax-collector
who went up to the temple to pray. In this parable Jesus emphasizes
the sharp contrast between his own teaching regarding rewards and
that of the Pharisees. The Pharisee, confident of divine favor because
of his good deeds, entered boldly into the divine presence and began to
recount them. He returned to his home unblessed; but the poor tax-
collector, who was conscious of no deserts and expected no rewards,
gained the divine blessing that he sought.
In the new divine order that Jesus proclaimed, the law of the family,
not of the market-place, prevails. The spirit and the quality of ser
vice, not the quantity, are essential. This principle is illustrated by
the parable of the laborers in the vineyard. According to the law of
rewards, the claim of the men who had labored longest, that they de
served the larger compensation, was entirely valid. Their complaint
was akin to that of the older brother in the parable of the prodigal
son. It is noteworthy that Jesus did not deny God's favor to these
jealous protestants. The heavenly Father's goodness was boundless
enough to overlook their faults and to reward their worthy acts. But
to those who had labored one hour he gave the same gifts. In any
case those gifts so far exceeded their deserts that none had cause to
complain. This fact Jesus illustrated by the story of the servant (lit
erally, slave) who did simply the task assigned to him. The thought
is: "We all belong to God, as slaves to their master. Even if our con
duct is perfect, it gives us no claim to special rewards." The word
"useless" is not found in the old Syriac version and is possibly a later
206

JESUS AND THE JEWISH DOCTRINE OF REWARDS
addition. Even if the original read, "We are servants; we have done
that which it was our duty to do," the meaning of the passage is the
same. II. The Rewards of Faithful Service. Although Jesus rejected
the mercenary doctrine of rewards, he knew well that if a man is to do
his best he must have a worthy goal for which to strive. The more
attractive that goal the more effective his effort. The way in which
Jesus attracted and held his disciples was by appealing to their nobler
ambitions. "Leave your fishing and I will teach you a far nobler
craft: I will make you fishers of men," were the words with which he
drew four of his disciples to him. There is no reference to material or
personal rewards; but the request of James and John on their last
journey with Jesus to Jerusalem (§ CXXXLX9) shows how selfish their
ambitions were. The statement of Peter, recorded in Mark 1028,
"Behold we have left all and followed thee," throws further light upon
their motives. Peter's words suggest a natural, universal human
question, "What are the advantages to be gained by leaving all and
following Jesus' way of tMnking and living?" The answer that the
Christian church has frequently given in the past is but a reassertion
of the Jewish doctrine of rewards: "You shall have a sure title to
blessedness in the future life."
Jesus declared that this was one of the results of membership in
God's kingdom; but its attainment was by no means the chief goaf
that he set before his disciples. References to future blessedness are
as rare in the earliest records of Jesus' teachings as they are promi
nent in the later ecclesiastical versions of his utterances. The cruel
persecutions which decimated the ranks of the Christians during the
second half of the first century led them to contemplate with increas
ing desire the prospect of rewards beyond the grave. Monasticism
and the many forms of asceticism that crept into the church also turned
men's attention from society to themselves, from this life to that be
yond. Jesus' distinction between things earthly, that is, material, and
things heavenly, that is, spiritual, was also transformed into a sharp
contrast between the interests of the present life and those after death.
Jesus himself recognized no such contrast. He taught that the king
dom of God was both present and future. God is "God not of the dead
but of the living." Eternal life begins here and now. Death simply
marks a transition, not the end of life. The goal, therefore, which he
sets before men was the attainment of full life with God in the present,
not merely in a distant future. That life itself is the supreme reward
207

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
of man's self-denial and effort. It is what he described as entering
the kingdom of God. It is on the one side a complete acknowledg
ment of God's mastery; on the other it is the enjoyment of the mul
tiple gifts which the heavenly Father can and will bestow.
When Peter came to him with the implied question, "What are the
rewards for our self-denial and fidelity?" the apostle apparently had
in mind material honors and possessions. Jesus' answer, as recorded
in Luke 1889' 30, was: "No man who leaves house or wife or brothers or
parents or children for the sake of the kingdom of God without re
ceiving in this time manifold more and in the age to come life eternal."
Instead of "for the sake of the kingdom of God," Mark has "for my
¦sake and for the sake of the gospel." He also adds a list of the posses
sions that come to those who give up all for Jesus' sake. "Brothers
and sisters and mothers and children" are, as in Romans 1614 and I
Peter 513, the kinsmen in Christ, the members of the larger Christian
family. "The houses and fields" are the common possessions which
the earlier followers of Jesus shared with each other (Acts 2M 432).
Possibly the promise of eternal life in the age to come is a later addi
tion to Jesus' original saying. Matthew here vividly illustrates how
strong was the influence of the current apocalyptic hopes even upon
the evangelists. In the Matthean version of Jesus' reply to Peter the
promise of eternal life is expanded into an elaborate apocalyptic pre
diction :
At the restoration, when the Son of man shall sit on the throne of his
glory,
You who have followed me shall also sit on twelve thrones, judging
the twelve tribes of Israel.
Back of these later interpretations of Jesus' words lies his bold, para
doxical statement of eternal principles: "He who seems to lose his life
shall find it"; he who gives up all through loyalty and love for his
divine King shall receive infinitely more. Often in practical experience
these manifold things include material possessions and the honors that
men confer. Many a man finds that when he ceases to strive selfishly
for something, it suddenly comes to him. But Jesus' teachings as a
whole, as well as Christian experience, reveal the nature of the mani
fold things which come to those who adopt his way of living and think
ing. They are the permanent, the only altogether satisfactory pos
sessions that man can acquire: the peace and confidence and the per-
208

THE REWARDS OF FAITHFUL SERVICE
feet physical, mental, and spiritual health which are possible only as
a man stands in an honest, trustful, helpful relation to God and his
fellow-men. The goal which Jesus set before his followers was eman
cipation from greed, anger, jealousy, fear, and worry, and the complete
and normal development of their divine powers through right think
ing and unselfish, efficient service. Not things nor mere rewards, butf
perfected, divine manhood, with its resulting happiness, is that for.
which he bids men strive. All nature and history testify that this is
the object for which God himself is striving. Jesus, therefore, urges
men to become co-workers with God and in the perfecting of them
selves and of their fellow-men to find their supreme reward.
III. The Place of Happiness in Jesus' Teaching. Too often
in its history Christianity has been interpreted as a harsh, gloomy re
ligion. The followers of Jesus have sometimes forgotten that "happy"
or "blessed" was one of the words most frequently on his lips. The
true happiness of men was the chief aim for which he labored. The
author of Matthew emphasizes this fact by placing the beatitudes at
the beginning of his major collection of Jesus' teachings. They cor
respond in certain respects to the decalogue in the Old Testament
legal system. In the briefest possible statement they indicate the
conditions of real happiness. Their broad significance lies in the fact-
that they give happiness the central place in his teachings. Like all
beatitudes, they are axiomatic. They state not that the gentle and
merciful and the peace-maker will ultimately be rewarded by attaining
happiness, but that they are already happy. Happiness is the inevi
table result of the possession of these qualities. Each beatitude also
states the reason why.
Unfortunately, happiness to-day suggests to many minds something
selfish and trivial. Puritanism dethroned happiness from the high
place Jesus assigned it and gave it largely over to the devil. The re
sult is that the son of the Puritan to-day experiences certain twinges
of conscience whenever he is thoroughly happy and unconsciously ex
pects that he will soon be the victim of a corresponding calamity.
Jesus taught that to make personal happiness the chief goal of one's
endeavor was selfish and suicidal. Also he pointed out the barrenness
of many things that are popularly supposed to be sources of happiness.
With the vulgar, superficial conceptions of happiness he had no sym
pathy. The happiness of which he spoke is the fruit of whole-hearted
self-denial, sacrifice, and service. It is freedom from the fears, the
jealousies, the unsatisfied ambitions that are the foes of happiness.
209

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
It is the exuberance that comes from abounding mental, moral, and
spiritual health. It is the joy that springs from the sense of perfect
adjustment with one's environment, from love and loyalty to God, and
from good- will toward men. Jesus was, indeed, "a man of sorrows and
acquainted with grief," and yet he maintained and demonstrated in
his own life that happiness was the rightful possession of every son of
God. Though persecuted and cruelly wronged, he remained the most
dauntless optimist the world has ever seen, for he taught men how
poverty, hunger, persecution, men's hate, and all the pains of life might
be made the stepping-stones on which they might mount to the serene
heights of perfect peace and happiness.
IV. The Original Form of the Beatitudes. The peculiarities of
Matthew and Luke explain the wide variations of the beatitudes and
of the four corresponding woes. The first three are:
Happy you who are poor now!
For yours is the kingdom of God.
Happy you who are hungry now!
For you shall be filled.
Happy you who are weeping nowl
For you shall laugh.
The mechanical form of the woes indicates that they were probably
added by Luke, who had in mind the contrast between the righteous
and the wicked in the beatitude which stands as an introduction to
the Psalter (cf. also Secrets of Enoch 52). Contrary to Jesus' teaching
elsewhere, they condemn unqualifiedly the possession of wealth:
Woe to you who are rich I
For you are getting your comfort.
Woe to you who are satisfied now!
For you shall hunger.
Woe to you who laugh nowl
For you shall mourn and weep.
The fourth beatitude in Luke is practically identical with that which
the author of Matthew appends to the beatitude:
Happy are they who have been persecuted on account of righteousness I
For theirs is the kingdom of Heaven. 210

THE ORIGINAL FORM OF THE BEATITUDES
This beatitude is peculiar to Matthew and has the characteristic phrase,
"on account of righteousness," which strongly suggests that it is from
the author of that gospel. The beatitudes in Luke are all in the second
person and were evidently addressed to Jesus' immediate followers.
In Matthew they are in the third person and more impersonal. The
only exception is the last beatitude, in which the second person appears.
The simplicity and directness of Luke's version suggests that in this
respect it stands nearer the original. Probably Jesus spoke in the
second person; but Luke's version reveals the evangelist's peculiar
ideas regarding riches and wealth. The beatitudes in Luke refer to a
condition in life, while those in Matthew emphasize, in general, char
acter and acts. The difference, however, is not so great as first appears.
The term "the poor" was evidently used, by Jesus, as by the psalmists
(e. g., Ps. 912 346), not in an economic but in a social sense. They
were those of whom the Pharisees say in John 749, "As for this mob,
with its ignorance of the law — it is accursedl" They were not neces
sarily poor in material possessions, but had no social or religious stand- .
ing in the Jewish community. They were represented by the tax-
collector, who went up to the temple with the self-righteous Pharisee.
That f amiliar parable is the best commentary on the meaning of Jesus'
paradoxical words. For modern readers Matthew, therefore, gives the
truer interpretation of the original intent of these beatitudes.
The other beatitudes peculiar to Matthew are probably from an
independent source. Their contents are sufficient proof of their au
thenticity. The only possible exception is the beatitude which stands
third in most texts, but second in others:
Happy are the meek!
For they shall inherit the earth.
It is an adaptation of the thought in Psalm 37u:
The meek shall inherit the earth,
And shall delight themselves in the abundance of peace.
It is also closely parallel to the first beatitude which it logically follows.
In Matthew the beatitudes are arranged in three groups. The first
four refer especially to the character and spirit; the next three to a
man's attitude toward society; the last two, which are duplicates,
are intended to comfort and encourage Jesus' followers amidst the
211

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
bitter persecutions that came to them in the years following his
death. Many other beatitudes are found in the gospels (Matt. II6 13ls
16" 24« Luke ll28 12" John 20M). Strangely enough, one of the
most important has escaped the evangehsts. It is recorded in Acts
2035 in the form: "It makes a man happier to give than to receive"
(R. V., "It is more blessed to give than to receive"). According to
the analogies in the gospels, the original form of the beatitude was:
"Happier they (or you) who give than they (or you) who receive."
In the light of Jesus' teachings recorded in Matthew 64 we may con-
jecturally supply the missing member:
Happier they who give than they who receive!
For their Father in heaven shall recompense them.
V. The Conditions of True Happiness. The beatitudes are not
the beginning but the crown of Jesus' teachings. They also present
a marvellous portrait of the great Teacher. They reveal the individual
traits which, blended, produced that divine serenity which shone from
his face and are reflected in all his words and acts. They are the sim
ple principles by which every son of God may attain the same divine
peace and happiness. They involve no mystery except the supreme
mystery of God's incarnation in man. They present the goal which
mankind is endeavoring to reach by the longer, more tortuous path
of scientific investigation and experimentation. They teach that the
ultimate sources of happiness are not things nor even achievements,
but thoughts and emotions. They assume that it is God's purpose
that all men should be perfectly happy and that he has provided the
means and the conditions necessary for their happiness. Jesus' mes
sage is not for an ideal or impossible world, but for humanity and so
ciety as they actually are. Although he spared no effort to banish
sorrow and pain, he demonstrated that they were not necessarily hos
tile to individual happiness.
Each beatitude describes not a distinct class of men, but the essen
tial qualities which must be combined in the same individual to insure
perfect happiness. In these eight or nine paradoxes Jesus analyzes
the essentials of man's mental and spiritual well-being. The first
beatitude emphasizes the receptive attitude. The "poor" stood in
contrast to the proud and self-satisfied. The poor in spirit alone pos
sessed the childlike trust and the sense of need that were essential to
212

THE CONDITIONS OF TRUE HAPPINESS
admission to God's kingdom. They were happy because they enjoyed
the privileges of the kingdom. This beatitude was, perhaps, suggested
to Jesus by Isaiah 611: "Jehovah hath anointed me to preach good
tidings to the poor." The meek and gentle are the unresisting and
submissive who, like the poor, figure prominently in the Psalter. The
two terms describe slightly different characteristics of the same class.
In the original passage (Ps. 3711) the meek are those who are submis
sive to God's will. In the thought of the psalmist, the earth or the
land which the meek were to inhabit was probably Palestine, the land
of their fathers; but in Jesus' teaching their heritage, as in the first
beatitude, was citizenship in God's spiritual kingdom. As in the first
beatitude, the happiness of those who mourn was, perhaps, suggested
by Isaiah 61. The second and third verses of that immortal chapter
state that the supreme task of Jehovah's faithful servant was
To comfort all who mourn,
To give them a head-dress instead of ashes,
Oil of joy instead of a garment of mourning,
A song of joy instead of a crushed spirit.
The II Isaiah had in mind those who were mourning over their na
tion's humiliation and guilt. Paul uses the same Greek word to de
scribe those who were mourning over their own sins or the guilt of their
fellow-Christians (cf. Rom. 7M I Cor. 5* II Cor. 1221). In the beatitude
the mourners are those who are filled with a divine discontent with
their own spiritual attainments, as well as with that of their race.
When God's rule is fully established in their lives and in the lives of
men, they shall be comforted. Luke's version is even stronger: "You
shall laugh."
The thought of the fourth beatitude is similar. Luke limits it to
physical hunger; but the Matthean form evidently expresses Jesus'
thought. It is akin to that of Psalm 1079:
For [Jehovah] satisfieth the longing soul,
And the hungry soul he filleth with good.
The righteousness of which Jesus speaks is not merely that which comes
through conformity to the law, but the personal consciousness of God's
approval (cf. also Ps. 376, 6). As in the parable of the tax-collector
and the Pharisee praying in the temple, it is the intense longing for
God's forgiveness and approval that is essential to happiness. In each
213

THE REWARDS OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE
of these first four beatitudes Jesus emphasizes the extreme importance
of the open, receptive attitude toward God and of that spirit which
says "thy will be done," and yet is insistent in the quest for the high
est spiritual blessings.
The next three beatitudes describe in concrete terms that loving
attitude toward his fellow-men which is essential to the happiness of
the individual. "Merciful" includes more than mere forgiveness of
others. It means kindliness expressed in helpful acts, as illustrated
by the parable of the good Samaritan. Jesus teaches that it is not
only a source of joy to the one who has it, but essential, if God is to
show mercy to men. Again, while using the popular language, Jesus
avoids the mercenary doctrine of rewards: God's merciful attitude is
not a reward but an inevitable result.
The s£*ne principle is illustrated in the next beatitude. Its setting
strongly suggests that when Jesus used the term "pure in heart" he
had in mind Psalm 243-6:
Who shall go up to the hill of Jehovah?
Who shall stand in his holy place?
He who has clean hands and a pure heart;
Who has not lifted up his soul to falsehood,
And has not sworn deceitfully;
He shall receive a blessing from Jehovah,
And righteousness from the God of his salvation.
The purity absolutely essential to happiness is purity of thought,
purpose, and act. The sixth beatitude, therefore, has both a religious
and a social significance, and embodies a foundation principle in Jesus'
teaching. To lead men to "see God face to face" (I Cor. 13u), "to
see him as he is" (I John 32 Rev. 224), was the primary aim in the great
Teacher's work. His ethical teachings all have this larger end in view;
for greed or anger or an impure thought or motive weakens or destroys
the power of spiritual vision. "If thine eye is useless how great is that
darkness!" In the seventh beatitude Jesus reveals his method and the incon
testable basis of his own claim to be the Son of God. Both the Greek
and the Aramaic word, translated "peace," has a far larger meaning
than we ordinarily attribute to it. The corresponding Hebrew word
suggested by such titles as "the Prince of Peace" (Isa. D6), comes
from a root which means, to be well, to be whole or complete. The
214

THE CONDITIONS OF TRUE HAPPINESS
peace-makers are not cowards, who avoid the difficult issues of life,
but the whole-makers and the harmony-makers. They are not passive
but aggressive and efficient champions of health, wholesomeness, and
perfection in all the varied relations of life. Their dominant aim is to
bring peace and harmony and completeness into their own life, into
that of the family, into the economic world, and into all departments
of organized society. Their aims and methods, therefore, are the same
as those of God himself. In striving to do the will of God they show
their kinship with him, and so win the divine title that Jesus gave
them — "the sons of God."
The last beatitude in Matthew, which appears in two versions (Matt.
510 and "• u), constitutes a fitting conclusion, for it sets forth that
quality of heroic endurance, prompted by loyalty to God, which through
the ages has been the crowning mark of Christian knighthood. It is
the incontrovertible evidence of citizenship in the kingdom of God.
It reveals that Christ-like fearlessness and that complete devotion to
the service of God and man which, like the other divine qualities em
phasized in the beatitudes, are essential to perfect happiness.
The Christian martyrs throughout the ages have also proved the
truth of the all-comprehending beatitude:
Happier they who give than they who receive!
In the laboratory of human experience men are demonstrating by in
numerable experiments the absolute truth of this fundamental prin
ciple, directly opposed though it is to their ordinary impulses and prac
tices. It is the superlative paradox and yet the logical conclusion of
Jesus' revolutionary teachings. Not only does he counsel men to ex
change all their material possessions for those things which are spiritual
and eternal, but he declares that they shall find real happiness in so
doing. Other philosophies and systems of ethics seem superficial and
petty beside the teachings of Jesus. Their full acceptance and applica
tion represent the narrow way that alone leads to life. He who, with
mind open to God's revelation and guidance, lives in accordance with
the divine will, eternally craves for himself and others the highest
spiritual blessings, heroically and unreservedly labors for the peace and
well-being of society and the establishment of God's rule on earth, will
not only find for himself real happiness, but will need no other proof that
the great Teacher of Nazareth was divine and his message eternally
true. 215

THE CULMINATING EVENTS OF JESUS' LIFE
§CXXXVH. THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
1. The Now when Herod the tetrarch heard of aU that was taking
Farpeil place, he was greatly perplexed; for some said, John has
ttoate risen from the dead, some, Elijah has appeared, and others,
jesus One of the old prophets has risen again. Herod said, John
wS^f. I beheaded; but who is this of whom I hear such things?
J*"**- So he sought to see him.
Mark And Jesus and his disciples went off by themselves in a
'.' The boat to an uninhabited place. But many people saw and
ofthe* recognized them as they were going. And running together
muitf- on foot from aU the cities, they arrived before them. So
(Mark when Jesus disembarked, he saw a large crowd. And
£"""¦ moved with pity for them, because they were Uke sheep
Matt, without a shepherd, he began to teach them many things:
Luke An^ as the day was now far advanced, his disciples came to
9»b-n jj^ an(j ggj^ jt js a desert place and it is now late in the
8»" day. Send the people away that they may go to the neigh-
fsS-»} boring farms and vUlages, and buy themselves something
to eat. But he answered and said to them, You give them
something to eat. And they said to him, ShaU we go and
spend two hundred denarii upon bread and give them to
eat? And he said to them, How many loaves have you?
Go and see. And when they knew, they said, Five, and
two fishes. Then he commanded them to recline in groups
on the green grass. So they lay down in companies, by
hundreds and by fifties. And he took the five loaves and
the two fishes, and, looking up to heaven, he blessed and
broke the loaves in pieces. And he went on giving them to
the disciples to set before them. He also divided the two
fishes among them aU. And they aU ate and were satisfied.
Also they took up twelve baskets fuU of fragments of the
bread and of the fish. And those who ate the loaves were
five thousand men. 216

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
Then he immediately made his disciples enter into the 3.
boat and go before him to the other side, to Bethsaida, whUe n^.'
he himself sent the crowd away. And after taking leave of lngh
them, he departed into a mountain to pray. And when ws
evening came the ship was in the midst of the sea, while he $^'~
was on the land alone. When he saw them distressed as ^rta
they rowed, for the wind was against them, he came to them of dan-
about the fourth watch of the night wanting in the sea. And ?Mark
he would have passed them. But when they saw him walk- J*6-"'
ing in the sea, they imagined that it was an apparition, and Matt.
cried out. For they aU saw him and were troubled. But 14B~")
he immediately spoke with them and said to them, Be of
good cheer; it is I, be not afraid. And he went up to them
in the boat, and the wind ceased. And they were greatly
amazed within themselves.
Now there gathered to Jesus the Pharisees and certain 4. The
of the scribes, who had come from Jerusalem. And they hSus
had observed that some of his disciples ate their food with g^s-
unclean (that is, with unwashed) hands. For the Phari- of the
sees and aU the Jews do not eat without washing their hands f^'
very thoroughly. Also after coming from the market place £M,a&
they do not eat before taking a bath; and there are many Luke'
other things which they have been taught that they hold to, jvlatt!
such as the washing of cups and pots and brass vessels. 1s1')
And the Pharisees and the scribes asked him, Why do not
your disciples do as the early teachers taught, instead of
eating their food with unclean hands?
And he said to them, WeU did Isaiah prophesy about you 5.
hypocrites, as it is written: ^U3'
dem-
This people honoreth me with their Ups; Sf their
But their heart is far from me ; ^ot'
Yet in vain do they worship me, iM"rlJ
Teaching doctrines which are only precepts of men. Matt.Luke
Disregarding the command of God, you hold to man's tra- ""-")
dition. And he went on to say to them: A fine thing it is
for you to set aside God's command, that you may keep your
own tradition! For Moses said, 'Honor thy father and thy
mother,' and, • He who speaks evU of father or mother, let
217

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
him surely die.' But you say, 'Ii a man says to his father
or his mother, "What I might have used to help thee is
Korban"' (Le., given to God), you no longer aUow him to do
anything for his father or his mother. Thus you set aside
the word of God by your tradition, which you have handed
down. And you do many such things.
e. The Then calling the crowd to him again, he said to them,
^Jirce Hear me, all of you, and understand :
of un-
ness11' Nothing can make a man unclean by entering him from
£M.S* outside;
«£ t| But it is what comes out of a man that makes him unclean.
1510-M) And when he had gone into the house away from the crowd,
his disciples began to question him about the parable. And
he said to them, Are you, too, so ignorant? Do you not
understand that whatever from outside goes into a man
cannot make him unclean? For it goes not into his heart,
but into his beUy and passes out into the drain. (He thus
made ail foods clean.) And he said, What issues from man
is what makes a man unclean, for out of the heart of man
within issue evil thoughts, fornications, thefts, murders,
adulteries, coveting, wicked acts, deceit, sensuality, envious-
ness, slander, pride, fooUshness: aU these wicked things
issue from within and make a man unclean.
7. , And he was casting out a dumb demon. And it came to
refuta- Pass when the demon had gone out, that the dumb man
of°the sPoke» ana the crowds marveUed. But certain of them said,
charges It is with the help of Beelzebub, the ruler of the demons,
Phari- that he casts out demons. But others, to test him, asked
(Luke °* "mn a s*^n from heaven. But he, knowing their thoughts,
n"-a>? said to them, Every kingdom divided against itself becomes
Matt, desolate, and house falls upon house. If Satan is also di-
"%"' vided against himself, how shaU his kingdom stand? Be-
Mark cause you say, 'By Beelzebub I cast out demons.' But if I
3""2,) cast out demons by Beelzebub, by whom do your sons cast
them out? Therefore, they themselves shaU be your judges.
If I, by the finger of God, cast out demons, then the king
dom of God has already reached you. When a mighty man,
clad in fuU armor, guards his own dwelling, his possessions
218

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
are undisturbed. But when a stronger man comes against
him and conquers him, he seizes his full armor, upon which
he trusted, and divides his spoils. He who is not with me
is against me. And he who gathers not with me, scatters.
Whenever the unclean spirit leaves a man, it passes through
waterless places in search of rest, and not finding it says,
'I wiU return to my house, which I left.' And on coming,
it finds it swept and in order. Then it goes and takes seven
other spirits, more harmful than itself, and entering, there
they dweU. And the last state of that man is worse than
the first.
Meantime, while the crowd was gathering in thousands, s.
so that they were trampling on one another, he began to say Words
to his disciples, first of aU : warn

ing and
encour- age-

Matt. 1027-38,

Luke IZ3-.)

Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees, which is hypocrisy.
Nothing is covered up, which shaU not be revealed, ment
Or bidden, which shaU not be made known. o?sci-e
What I tell you in the darkness, speak forth in the Ught; (ufke
And what you hear in the ear, proclaim on the housetops. i£
Then fear not those who kiU the body, but are not able to
km the soul; #att
Rather fear him who is able to destroy both body and soul <om ¦»
in Gehenna.
Are not two sparrows sold for a penny?
And yet not one of them shaU faU to the ground without
your Father.
Yea, and as for you, the hairs of your head are all numbered.
Fear not, then, you are worth more than many sparrows.
Everyone, therefore, who shaU confess me before men,
I wiU also confess him before my Father in heaven;
But whoever shaU disown me before men,
I wiU disown him before my Father who is in heaven.
Everyone, also, who speaks a word against the Son of man 9.
shaU be forgiven; j^smy
But whoever shaU speak a word against the Holy Spirit, it ^fnst
shaU not be forgiven him. koiy Spirit
, (Luke
Then he began to reproach the cities m which most of j^,0'c^
his mighty deeds had been performed, because they did not 12*"'
219

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
10. La- repent: Woe to thee, Chorazin! Woe to thee, Bethsaida!
otot* for had the mighty deeds that have been performed in thee
cities °een performed in Tyre and Sidon, they would have re-
tnat3 pented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. Yet I teU you,
failed Tyre and Sidon shaU find it more bearable on the day of
to heed judgment than you. And thou, Capernaum, shalt thou be
weoSrds exalted to the sky? Thou shalt go down to Hades! For
(ipoa"- had the mighty deeds performed in thee, been performed
^uki in Sodom, it would have remained until this day. Yet I
loiz-fs) teU you the land of Sodom shaU find it more bearable on
the day of judgment than thou.
I. The Attitude of Herod Antipas toward Jesus. Jesus' teach
ings reveal the motives and principles that governed him in the great
crisis which came to him during the closing days of his activity. At
points his acts and words during these last weeks may have been
partially obscured by the later traditions which gathered about them;
but the gospels contain certain vivid pictures which make it possible
to trace, not only the external course of events, but also Jesus' inner
thoughts and purposes.
According to the implications of the context in Mark and Luke, the
immediate cause of the suspicion of Herod Antipas was the return
of Jesus' disciples from their successful healing and teaching mission.
Matthew connects it with Jesus' visit to Nazareth; but Mark 6" in
dicates that it was probably due to the report of Jesus' acts of healing.
The passage records the impression his teachings and personality made
on the various classes in Galilee and their conceptions of his character
and work. The impression that he was the prophet Elijah returned
to life was doubtless due to the boldness of his teaching and his fearless
attitude toward the leaders of the nation. Others, who knew his spirit
and teachings better and interpreted them more truly, compared him
with such prophets as Isaiah and Jeremiah. Herod's guilty conscience
identified him with that bold herald of righteousness and of the com
ing kingdom of God, John the Baptist, whom he had beheaded. The
passage stands detached in Mark; yet it is plainly intended to explain
the radical change in Jesus' field and method of work that now took
place. Herod's eager desire to see Jesus was doubtless prompted by
more than mere curiosity. His new capital, Tiberias, was but five
miles from Capernaum, along the level Roman, road that encircled the
western side of the Sea of Galilee. He who had imprisoned and be
headed that popular champion of the people, John the Baptist, was a
220

THE ATTITUDE OF HEROD ANTIPAS TOWARD JESUS
sinister foe. Jesus' later allusion to him as "that fox" indicates that
he was well aware of the crafty, treacherous nature of this unprincipled
son of Herod the Great. John's work had been done in a remote bor
der of Herod's kingdom; but Jesus, as John's successor, had rallied
about him great multitudes in the most populous centres of Galilee.
Not only was Herod watching Jesus, but Jesus was doubtless aware of
the significance of that surveillance. The news that John had been
beheaded was to Jesus the unmistakable sign that the days of his
activity in Galilee were limited. Mark 36, probably referring to this
period, states plainly that the Pharisees, with the Herodians, were
planning how they might destroy Jesus. The Herodians were the un
principled spies and sympathizers connected with the court of Herod
Antipas. The situation was perilous, not only for Jesus, but also for
his cause. The two strongest forces in Palestine were allied against
him. Both were inspired with the jealous fear that his growing au
thority with the masses would endanger their own. Herod possessed
the power, and when he struck, the blow would be sudden, secret, and
deadly. There is also reason to believe that the imprisonment or death
of Jesus at this stage would have endangered the permanent results of
his work. The truth had been scattered broadcast, but it had not yet
had time to germinate and bear fruit in loyal, intelligent, efficient
discipleship. II. The Culmination of Jesus' Popularity. Two stories are
associated with this crisis. Each suggests an important side of Jesus'
activity. The first is the account of the feeding of the needy multi
tudes. It marks the culmination and close of Jesus' work in Galilee, for
suddenly the crowds lost their enthusiasm. He himself a little later
spoke of his work at Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum as though
it had proved an almost complete failure. A reasonable explanation
of this sudden loss of popularity is that the crowds, intent chiefly on
physical health and miraculous signs, were dissatisfied with the ethical
and spiritual food that he gave. The four gospels have preserved six
slightly variant versions of the story. Mark 6 states that the disciples
found in the crowd five loaves and two fishes. Mark 8 speaks of seven
loaves and a few small fishes. According to Mark 6, the crowds had
been with Jesus one day; but Mark 8 states that they had been with
him three days. According to Mark 6, five thousand were fed and
twelve baskets full of food were gathered after the feast; Mark 8
records that four thousand were present and seven baskets full were
collected. The two versions can scarcely refer to distinct events, for
221

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
the words of the disciples in Mark 84, "Where can men get bread to
satisfy these men here in a deserted place?" indicate that they were
ignorant of any previous miraculous feeding of the multitudes. Mark
gn-21 (Matt. 166) contains an illustration of the way in which even
Jesus' disciples interpreted with misleading literalness one of the many
luminous figures of speech which he so often employed in his teachings.
When Jesus told them to beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and
Herod, they understood him to be speaking of material bread. Jesus'
words in Matthew 1611 may throw light on the popular accounts of his
feeding of the multitudes: "How is it you do not understand? I did
not speak to you about bread." In connection with its account of the
feeding of the crowds, the Fourth Gospel has possibly preserved an echo
of the words of Jesus which lie at the basis of the familiar story: "Work
not for the food which perishes, but for the food which abides until
eternal life, which the Son of man will give you. I am the bread of
life; he who comes to me shall not hunger" (John &"• 56a).
To this critical period also belongs the vivid description of the dis
ciples' heroic all-night struggle against the head winds and waves. It
reveals not only Jesus' love, but bis constant solicitude for them. It
is not entirely clear what facts underlie the variant accounts of this
incident. The simplest explanation of the later versions is that the
Greek translators transcribed the original Aramaic preposition, which
meant either in or on (cf, e. g , Dan. 31, ffi' ", where it has both mean
ings), so that an original account of how Jesus, in the blackness of the
night, waded out to meet his disciples has been unintentionally clothed
with a miraculous splendor. The Fourth Gospel adds the definite state
ment that just as Jesus met his disciples they reached the land. In
any case it records an important incident in the experience of that
heroic brotherhood which Jesus built up about him. Mark may have
introduced the story here because of its deeper significance. For Jesus,
as well as for his disciples, this was a period of seemingly hopeless strug
gle against overwhelming opposition. Doubts and fears were begin
ning to sweep over them. These fears assailed Jesus; but his absolute
trust in the wisdom and goodness of God brought peace to them, as
well as to him, for his words, "Be of good cheer. It is I; be not afraid,"
gave them confidence even in the wildest storm.
III. The Grounds on Which Jesus Condemned the Scribes and
Pharisees. During his early work in Galilee Jesus carefully avoided
a breach with the Pharisees and the scribal interpreters of the Jewish
law. As a youth, he undoubtedly shared the popular respect and
222

WHY JESUS CONDEMNED THE SCRIBES
veneration for them. His references to them in his early parables, as,
for example, the father's words to the elder brother in the parable of
the prodigal son, were always courteous and conciliatory. He recog
nized that there was much that was good in their character and work.
But the radical nature of his teachings and the success of his work in
Galilee had, in time, transformed their critical attitude into active
opposition. It is not clear whether or not "the Pharisees and certain
of the scribes who had come from Jerusalem," mentioned in Mark
631, had been officially sent by the sanhedrin to investigate the teach
ings of this new and famous rabbi. It is probable that they had, al
though their presence may have been due to some other cause. It is
evident from the incidental references in the gospels that Jesus' ac
tivity had already made a deep impression upon the people of Pales
tine. In the palace at Tiberias, as well as in the humblest homes of
Galilee, his deeds were the common subjects of report and discussion.
The question which the pharisaic scribes propounded to him suggests
that they came as inquisitors. It raised at once the main issue between
them and the new teacher. It was more than a question; it was a
charge against him: "Why do not your disciples do as the earlier teach
ers taught, instead of eating their food with their hands ceremonially
unclean?" Jesus met the issue squarely, and yet he appears to have
reserved for the closing days of his activity his final scathing denuncia
tion of these "blind leaders of the blind" (cf. § CXLV). According to
Mark, Jesus at this time first applied to them the word hypocrite. In
its earlier usage the word did not have its modern malign meaning.
In the classical Greek it means (1) an interpreter, or expounder, and
(2) one who plays a part. Its secondary meaning is dissembler, or
pretender. By the use of this word, as well as those which follow,
Jesus transferred the attack from himself to the Pharisees. In sub
stance he declared: "These detailed ceremonial laws, which you re
gard as all-important, are not the essential teachings of the older script
ures. They are but the precepts and traditions of the later scribes;
yet you place the chief emphasis upon them. In so doing you disre
gard the spirit and intent of the older law. Moses, for example, made
the obligation of the child to the parent of primary importance; yet
you teach your disciples that it is more important to bring gifts to the
temple than to give to their parents that assistance which is their
due." The principle involved had been discussed for ages by prophet
and priest. It concerned the relative importance of deeds and char
acter on the one hand, and of ceremonial worship on the other. Jesus
223

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
allied himself unequivocally with the prophets. He knew how im
portant was the issue and how difficult it was to make a permanent
impression upon the minds of the scribes and Pharisees in his audience.
Therefore, he appealed to the crowd in the hope that they, less blinded,
would see the truth. The words with which he addressed them recall
also the voice of the ancient prophets: "Hear me, all of you, and under
stand" (cf., e. g., Micah l2). In conclusion he gathered up the entire
discussion in one of the broad generalizations which characterize his
teachings: Nothing can make a man unclean by entering him from outside;
But it is what comes out of a man that makes him unclean.
In answer to the questions of his disciples, he made clear the meaning
of this principle which, with one stroke, swept away that vast, cum
bersome body of laws which represented, to a great extent, contempo
rary pharisaic Judaism. "The food," he explained, "which a man
takes into his mouth, and which affects only the physical side of his
nature, has no moral or religious significance. It does not touch the
heart. The thoughts in a man's mind and the acts prompted by them
are the only things that can make him unclean."
Mark, in the dislocated passage 322-30, and Matthew, in 1224, place
the charge that Jesus cast out demons by the help of Beelzebub in the
mouth of the pharisaic scribes, but Luke attributes them to certain
men who spoke for the crowd. The name Beelzebub was a popular
and contemptuous designation of Satan. The original form, Baalze-
bul (literally, master of the dwelling, that is, of heaven, the dwelling
of the gods), had been transformed by a slight change into the vulgar
epithet, "Master of the dung-heap." The logic of Jesus' reply was
incontrovertible. In essence he declared, "The character of my deeds
shows which Lord I serve." The standard by which he proposed
they test his theology was not theoretical but pragmatic.
IV. Jesus' Warnings to His Disciples. The open attacks of the
pharisaic scribes evidently made a deep impression upon the crowds
that hitherto had gathered about Jesus. Luke 121 implies that the
people still followed him in even greater numbers; but there were
indications that their enthusiasm was changing to suspicion. The
logic and authority of the scribes appealed to their life-long training
and to their deep veneration for the traditions of their race. Inde
pendence of thought and action are far more unusual among orientals
224

JESUS' WARNINGS TO HIS DISCIPLES
than among occidentals. The earlier prophets had rarely carried their
audiences with them. Jesus turned, henceforth, from the masses to his
disciples, and appealed to their reason, to their courage, to their personal
devotion to him, and, above all, to that unfaltering faith in the divine
Father which he had endeavored to inculcate. His words regarding
the "leaven of the Pharisees" are those of a shepherd defending his
sheep from wolves disguised as shepherds. The figure of leaven was
well chosen. It was hidden, pervasive, contagious, and transforming.
It suggests the shrug of the shoulder, the sarcastic question, the poi
sonous libel whereby these now sworn foes of Jesus endeavored to de
stroy the effect of his work with the people.
Jesus' words to his disciples, as recorded in Matthew 1026"33, contain
echoes of much that he had taught them before. They suggest the
struggles and the victory of faith in his own soul. They represent
the principles which he had earlier proclaimed in process of practical
demonstration. Luke has transformed Jesus' glorious promise that,
Every one who shall confess me before men,
I will also confess him before my Father which is in heaven,
into a form more in keeping with the thought and expectations of the
later church:
Every one who shall confess me before men,
Him shall the Son of man also confess before the angels of God.
Luke is probably right, however, in introducing here the words re
garding blasphemy against the Holy Spirit which have proved a fertile
source of discussion in the Christian church. They are significant be
cause they reveal Jesus' natural humility and his inclination to place
his own personality in the background. At the same time they testify
to his profound appreciation of the importance and divine authority
of his teachings. He appears to have had in mind primarily the hypo
critical Pharisees and the pernicious leaven which they were dissem
inating. Their unjust attacks against him were forgivable, but their
defiant and persistent refusal to listen to the spirit of God, the Holy
One, speaking through Jesus and revealed in the deeds which he was
performing, was unforgivable. The malicious libel, "He has Beelze
bub," revealed to Jesus their attitude and called forth his warning
protest. It was directly contrary to his most profound and sacred
conviction that his power and message were not his own but had been
given him from above. Nothing was so well calculated to stir his
225

THE CRISIS IN GALILEE
deepest and holiest indignation as the assertion that the power which
worked in him was not divine but devilish. These words also revealed
the perilous tendency in the minds of the Pharisees to stifle their deeper
convictions and to close their ears to truth. The misuse of their spirit
ual organs meant that they would be gradually atrophied so that they
were in danger of becoming incapable of seeking or of receiving that
forgiveness which God is ever ready to give to every truly penitent
sinner. Jesus nowhere specifies any who had committed the unpar
donable sin, but, being a profound and sympathetic student of human
character, he saw the danger that, as in the case of the Pharisees, de
liberate and repeated rejection of the truth would crystallize into a
habitual attitude of mind which would render a man incapable of true
repentance and destroy his ability to ask or receive God's forgiveness.
V. The Influence of This Crisis upon Jesus' Method of Work.
In many ways this crisis in Jesus' work in Galilee was the greatest
tragedy in his life. At the moment of apparent success he was com
pelled suddenly to give up his work and to flee for his life beyond the
bounds of Galilee. Luke 1331 states one, possibly the chief, reason for
Jesus' departure. It was because Herod intended to kill him. He
departed, therefore, not merely to save his own life, but also his cause.
His departure at this time proves that he was no blind enthusiast who
courted death, as some have interpreted him, but that each of his
acts was determined by a deliberate purpose. The other reason for
his departure was the changed attitude of the people. Jesus' words
concerning the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Capernaum, the
scenes of his chief activity, reveal the bitter sense of disappointment
and failure that came to him at this time. In Matthew his words
stand detached from their context. Luke, because of the mention of
Sodom, connects them with Jesus' reference to the Sodomites in his
charge to his disciples. These words come from the earliest teaching
source (Q). They were, perhaps, uttered by Jesus as he set out with
his disciples along the northern road which led from Capernaum through
Chorazin to the territory of Tyre and Sidon on the north. The heights
near the inland town of Chorazin commanded a view of the rocky glen
that led southward to Capernaum, two miles away. Over the hills to
the southeast was Bethsaida, and beyond were the quiet uplands where
he had frequently taken refuge with his disciples. Before him on the
south lay the blue waters of the Sea of Galilee, and to the southwest
the hills where he had often gone for quiet prayer and meditation.
Even to-day, in its utter loneliness, it is one of the most beautiful
scenes in all Galilee. The hush that has fallen upon this region vividly
230

INFLUENCE UPON JESUS' METHOD OF WORK
recalls the sad woes pronounced upon those populous cities which are
now but deserted ruins. So complete is their desolation that their
identification until the present has been a matter of much dispute.
Before him as his objective lay the territory of Tyre and Sidon.
These typical heathen cities probably suggested to him the compari
son which he drew between them and the three strongly Jewish cities
which for months had witnessed his acts of healing and listened to
the simple, life-giving truths which he had proclaimed. It was not a
curse which Jesus pronounced upon these scenes of his activity; it
was rather a statement of fact put in the characteristic oriental form
of a lament. A great opportunity had come to their citizens, but most
of them had rejected it. Jesus had longed and labored to lay in these
favored centres the corner-stone of God's kingdom on earth. He had
sought to banish from their streets all pain and ignorance and sin. He
had yearned to teach young and old alike how they might find that
peace and joy and fulness of life which he knew would be theirs if
they would but turn from their sins and follies and learn to love and
serve their heavenly Father with all their powers and their neighbors
as themselves. Here he had hoped to found a perfect community.
Jesus' words reveal the intensity of his desire to realize this ideal and
his tragic sense of failure.
Apparently only once, and possibly only for a few hours, did he
return to Capernaum. His task from this time on was to perfect the
training and the faith of the few who were loyal to him. In accom
plishing this task, private conversation takes the place of public ad
dress. Deliberate choice, as well as necessity, led him to seek for this
new work a quiet field beyond the authority of Herod Antipas where
the leaven of the Pharisees could not permeate. This place of tem
porary refuge was found among the lofty hills of upper Galilee, in
closest touch with the land and people whom Jesus loved, but out of
reach of his foes.
iCXXXVm. JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
Then Jesus arose and went away into the territory of and13
Tyre. And going into a house, he wished no one to know syro-
of it. Yet he could not escape notice. But at once a woman, Phoeni-
whose Uttle daughter had an unclean spirit, when she heard woman
of him, came and feU down at his feet. Now the woman was £M.fork
a Greek by faith and a Syro-phcenician by race. And she $£,«"*¦
227

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
begged him to cast the demon out of her daughter. But
he kept saying to her, Let the chUdren be satisfied first, for
it is not fair to take the children's bread and throw it to the
dogs. But she answered and said to him, True, sir, yet
the Uttle dogs under the table eat the children's crumbs.
And he said to her, For this saying go thy way. The demon
has gone out of your daughter. And on returning home
she found the child lying on the bed and the demon gone
from her.
^ Then once more he left the territory of Tyre and went
iripof a through Sidon to the Sea of GalUee, through the middle of
^d the district of DecapoUs. And he with his disciples came to
(Mark Bethsaida. And the people bring him a blind man and
» c/M beseech Jesus to touch him. And he took hold of the blind
7"-") man's hand and brought him out of the village. And after
spitting upon his eyes and laying his hands upon them, he
asked him, Dost thou see anything? And he looked up
and said, I behold people. I see them wanting Uke trees.
Then Jesus laid his hands once more upon the man's eyes,
and he looked intently and was restored, and began to dis
tinguish everything clearly. And he sent him away to his
home, saying, Do not even enter the village.
3. t Then Jesus went away with his disciples to the village of
decfi3 Caesarea PhUippi. And on the way he asked his disciples,
ration saying to them, Who do people say that I am? And they
8»-*>. told him, 'John the Baptist'; others say, 'EUjah,' but
Matt, others, 'One of the prophets.' And he asked them, But
Luke you— who do you say that I am? Peter answering, said to
9i8.20) him. Thou art the Christ. And he kept charging them to
teU no one about him.
4. t And he began to teach them that the Son of man must
S3' suffer many things, and be rejected by the elders, and the
itaaof" kfe11 Priests> ^d the scribes, and be kUled, and after three
the days rise again. And he made the statement openly. Then
thathe Peter took him and began to rebuke him. But Jesus turned
OMafk an(^ on seeing his disciples, he rebuked Peter, saying, Get
«»-«, thou behind me, Satan, for thou art not thinking the
#iatt. thoughts of God, but of men.
Luke Then he caUed the crowd to him with his disciples, and
9". £) said to them: 228

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES

If any man will come after me,
Let him deny himself, take up the cross, and foUow me.
For whoever would save his Ufe shaU lose it;
And whoever shall lose his Ufe for my sake and the gospel's
shaU save it.
For what use is it for a man to gain the whole world and
forfeit his Ufe?
For what could a man give in exchange for his Ufe?
For whoever is ashamed of me and my words in this adul
terous and sinful generation,
The Son of man shall also be ashamed of him, when he
comes in the glory of his Father with the holy angels.
And he said to them, I teU you truly, There are some of those
standing here who shall not taste death until they see the
coming of the kingdom of God with power.
Now after six days Jesus took Peter and James and Jphn
apart and brought them up to a high mountain privately,
alone. And he was transformed before them; and his gar
ments gUstened with an exceeding whiteness, as no fuller
on earth can whiten them. And Ehjah, together with Moses,
appeared to them, and they were talking with Jesus. Then
Peter, interrupting, said to Jesus, Rabbi, it is weU for us to
be here. Now let us make three booths, one for thee, and
one for Moses, and one for Elijah. For he did not know
what to say; for they were greatly frightened. And a cloud
came overshadowing him and there was a voice from the
cloud, This is my son, the beloved; hear him. And sud
denly, on looking round, they no longer saw anyone, except
Jesus alone with themselves.
And as they were coming down from the mountain, he
charged them not to teU anyone what they had seen until
after the Son of man should have arisen from the dead.
And they kept the saying, discussing among themselves
what the arising from the dead meant. And they went on
to question him, saying, How is it that the scribes say,
'Elijah must first come.' And he said to them, Elijah in
deed comes first and restores aU things. And yet how is it
written regarding the Son of man, that he is to suffer much
and be despised? But I tell you, Elijah has reaily come
229

5. The
costand re
ward of
fidelityto him
(Mark
8n-9',
cf. Matt. 1621-28
Luke
923-27) i

6. The
trans
figuration (Mark
9>-», cf.
Matt. I71.7
Luke928 -M)

7. Eo
lation
ofJesus'work to ear
lierprophecy (Mark
9»-», cf.
Matt.17»-ii)

eVi^StTS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
and they have done to him even as they pleased, even as it
is written of him.
s. And when they came to the disciples, they saw a large
Sgo? crowd about them and the scribes discussing with them.
anepi- And on seeing him, aU the crowd were immediately as-
boy'by founded, and running to him, saluted him. And he asked
(M«k them, What are you discussing with them? And one of the
9»-», crowd answered him, Teacher, I have brought thee my son,
Matt, who has a dumb spirit. And whenever it seizes him, it
Luke burls him down and he foams and grinds his teeth. And he
9"-»») is pining away. And I told thy disciples to cast it out, but
they were not able. Then Jesus answered them and said,
O unbeUeving generation! How long shaU I be with you?
How long shaU I bear with you? Bring him to me. And
they brought him to him. But on seeing him, the spirit at
once threw him into convulsions, and throwing him to the
ground, he roUed about, foaming. And Jesus asked the
father, How long is it since this has come upon him? And
he said, From childhood ; and many a time it has thrown him
both into fire and into water, to destroy him. But if thou
canst do anything, have pity on us and help us. And Jesus
said to him, 'If thou canst!' AU things are possible for
him who beUeves. Immediately the father of the child
cried out and said, I do beUeve; help mine unbelief!
Now when Jesus saw that the crowd came running together,
he rebuked the unclean spirit, saying to it, Thou dumb and
deaf spirit, I command thee, leave him and never enter him
again. Then after crying and throwing him into a great
convulsion, it came out. And the boy became as a corpse,
so that many said, He is dead. But Jesus took him by the
hand and raised him. And he arose. And when Jesus
went into the house, his disciples began to question him in
9. sec- private, How is it that we could not cast it out? And he
fnthna- sa*a to them, This kind can come out by nothing except
tion prayer.
death Then they departed from there and passed through GaU-
9M-firk lee. Yet he wished no one to know it, for he was teaching
cf. ' his disciples, and telling them, The Son of man wiU be de-
i7».sa Uvered up into the hands of men and they shall kill him,
9«b5£) but when he is kUled he shall rise again, after three days.
230

ffBSUS-IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
But they did not understand the saying and they were
afraid to question him.
I. The Request of the Syro-Phcenician Woman. Jesus always
avoided the large Gentile cities. There is no evidence that in his quest
for a place of refuge and quiet with his disciples he even approached
the cities of Tyre and Sidon. According to Josephus (Jew. War, 3s8),
the territory of Tyre extended eastward across the foot-hills of the Leba-
nons, so that it constituted the northern boundary of Galilee. Mark
distinctly states that Jesus passed over this northern border into the
territory of Tyre. Here, among the elevated plateaus that lead up to
the Lebanons, he was still in the midst of a largely Jewish population.
At the same time he here came into closer contact with the Gentile
world than in any other period in his activity. Mark, followed by Mat-
:hew, has at this point recorded an exceedingly significant incident in
the life of Jesus. Once before (as recorded in Matt. 85"10) a centurion,
representing that outer world, had come to Jesus with a request that
had been readily granted. Now Jesus was again met with a similar
request. According to Mark 3s, news of Jesus' power to heal had, at
an earlier period, penetrated the Galilean hills, so that people, even
from the territory of Tyre and Sidon, had come to be healed by him.
His reputation as a healer now brought to him a woman of that mixed
race and faith which had resulted from the conquests of Alexander
the Great and of the Greek culture which he brought with him. Mat
thew describes her as a Canaanite, and undoubtedly the blood of the
ancient Canaanites ran in her veins. By faith she was a Greek, prob
ably worshipping the old Semitic gods under their Greek names. She
represented, therefore, that type of heathen which was most hateful
and repulsive to the Jew. There was ample grounds for this feeling,
for that gross immorality which had characterized the Canaanite race
and religion from its earlier days had only been intensified by its con
tact with the degenerate Greek civilization.
Matthew's version of the incident emphasizes the woman's faith;
Mark's purpose is to illustrate Jesus' attitude toward the heathen. In
Matthew Jesus replies to the woman, "I was only sent to the lost
sheep of the house of Israel." While this may possibly be the original
form of the statement, it is probably due to the tendency of the author
of the First Gospel to emphasize the fact that at first Jesus' mission
was solely to the Jews. It is parallel to the command, found only in
Matthew, that the disciples on their mission were to go simply to th.9
231

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
house of Israel and were to avoid the cities of the Gentiles. The same
thought, however, underlies Jesus' words in the Marcan versioa As
they stand they seem harsh and repellent; and yet, as the narrative
indicates, there must have been something in Jesus' tone or face that
encouraged the woman to persist in her request. His words may re
flect the painful experiences, still fresh in his memory, of his rejection
by his own people. It is possible that he here formulates the narrow
Jewish attitude toward all foreigners because he himself is beginning to
question its validity. Mark is probably right in interpreting this inci
dent as another important turning-point in Jesus' life. Should he
give the food which the children had rejected to the heathen dogs?
The Greek has probably reproduced the original word, which gave the
woman a basis for hope and which she used effectively in attaining the
end which she desired. The ordinary dog of Palestine is simply a
scavenger, an outcast without an owner. The term which Jesus used,
however, in describing the woman and her class means puppies or lap-
dogs, which enjoyed very much the same care and attention as do pet
dogs to-day. They were not only tolerated at banquets, but were fre
quently fed with dainties. It was this privilege, therefore, which she
claimed. Jesus evidently granted her request, not merely because of
her quickness of wit, but because he was prompted to do so both by
his sympathy and judgment. In so doing he set an example to his
disciples which at first they were slow to follow, but which has become
in time the inspiration of that missionary movement which is Chris
tianizing the world.
There was evidently great uncertainty in the minds of the evange
lists regarding the order and nature of events during Jesus' period of
retirement. Mark has introduced, immediately after the story of the
Syro-Phoenician woman, an account of the healing of the deaf mute.
It is apparently a duplicate of an equally detailed account of the heal
ing of the blind man at Bethsaida, found in Mark 8s2-26. The language
of these sections differs from the ordinary New Testament Greek and
is very similar to that used in the Septuagint. There is strong evi
dence that Mark had in mind such passages as that in Isaiah 29ls, "In
that day shall the deaf hear the words of the book, and the eyes of the
blind shall see out of obscurity and out of darkness." Certain scholars
hold that both narratives are but variants of Matthew 122*: "Then
they brought to him a man with a demon, who was both blind and dumb
and he healed him so that the dumb man both spoke and saw." Of the
two narratives, that in Mark 822-20 is the more detailed. The scene is
232

THE REQUEST OF THE SYRO-PHOXNICIAN WOMAN
Bethsaida, east of the Jordan. The setting to which Mark has assigned
it implies that Jesus had returned from the territory of Tyre. He prob
ably passed down the eastern side of the Jordan, where he would still
be outside the territory of Herod Antipas, to Bethsaida, the home of
certain of his disciples. Possibly the account of the healing of the
blind man is simply symbolic and represents the blind Pharisees to
whom Jesus frequently refers. The details, however, strongly suggest
a definite incident in Jesus' healmg work. Certain simple therapeutic
methods, which he employed to aid the man's faith, are also described.
The story also indicates that certain of Jesus' cures were gradual rather
than immediate.
H. Peter's Confession. By far the most important incident that
occurred during Jesus' period of retirement is the confession which he
drew from his disciples. It is told so simply and briefly in Mark that
its import is easily overlooked. Matthew has transformed and ex
panded it in accordance with the experiences and beliefs of the later
church. In the original narrative, Peter is condemned by Jesus be
cause of his failure to appreciate the spiritual character of the Mes
siah's work, but in Matthew's account he is unqualifiedly commended.
He is the rock upon which Jesus is to build his church, against which
the gates of Hades shall not prevail. To him are given the keys of
the kingdom of Heaven, which in Luke are intrusted to the disciples
as a whole. Luke, like Mark, knows nothing of the later expansion
of the Petrine tradition, and the oldest gospel leaves no place for it.
A comparison of these variants well illustrates one of the marked ten
dencies of the Gospel of Matthew.
Jesus' question to his disciples was the culmination of a long period
of training. The experiences of the preceding weeks had prepared
them for it. The crisis in Galilee had brought to the front certain
traits in his character and in his interpretation of his mission which it
was essential that they should know before they could fully appreciate
his ideals. Hitherto they had known him only as the personal friend,
the popular hero, and the faithful teacher. Now he was a fugitive, dis
credited by the religious leaders of the nation and rejected by a ma-
jority of the people. Now they knew him, too, undaunted by failure.
Their loyalty to him was demonstrated by the fact that they followed
him in his retreat. What men said about him was of interest to Jesus;
but far more important was their answer to the intimate question:
" Who do you say that I am?" Interpreted in its historical setting,
Peter's reply in behalf of the disciples possessed a far greater signifi
cance than it would have had in the prosperous days in Galilee.
233

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
It is difficult to determine exactly what Peter's words, "Thou art
the Messiah," meant to him. Doubtless Peter himself would have had
difficulty in interpreting them. At least it did mean, "We regard you
as the fulfilment of Israel's highest hopes." Peter, in common with
the other disciples, still retained many of the ideas that entered into
the popular expectation regarding the Messiah. The later requests of
James and John indicate that they hoped soon to see Jesus seated on
a heavenly throne, if not on the restored throne of David at Jerusalem.
Having associated closely with Jesus and having listened to his teach
ings, they were not wholly oblivious to the spiritual elements in their
master's conception of the task of the Messiah; and yet it was only
through hard and painful experiences that they could be led to appre
ciate and accept it fully. Hence, the reason is obvious why Jesus en
joined upon them the same silence regarding his messianic character
that he himself had hitherto so strictly observed.
III. Jesus' First Prediction of His Passion. Did Jesus, at this
period, definitely predict the fate that awaited him at Jerusalem, or
are the repeated predictions found in the gospels simply due to the
tendency to read back later history into this earlier setting? This
question has been answered both "yes" and "no." A third alterna
tive is possible. Did he, during these days of retirement, interpret to
his disciples the unmistakable meaning of the crisis which confronted
him, and intimate to them that he was considering a course of action
which would, according to all probability, lead to a practically inevi
table result? The latter seems to be the intent of the earliest gospel
records. Jesus never claimed to be a seer (e. g., Mark 1332). He de
clared plainly that "no one knows the future except God alone." At
the same time the meaning of the situation which had developed was
clear. To continue his work in Galilee was impossible, for it meant
the increased opposition of the Pharisees and probably imprisonment
and death at the hands of Herod. To seek permanent refuge in a for
eign land meant inevitable failure and disgrace, for it was equivalent
to abandoning his ideals and followers. His temporary retirement
was that he might meditate upon the situation and prepare his dis
ciples for the greater crisis that impended. To perform his mission
he must face Israel's leaders, declare himself at Jerusalem, and, if need
be, die for the truth which he proclaimed. Gradually these facts had
forced themselves upon the mind of Jesus. His lament over Chorazin,
Bethsaida, and Capernaum, and, later, over Jerusalem, leave no doubt
that he had ardently hoped that the outcome would be different, His
prayer in Gethsemane shows beyond doubt that he at times prayed
234

JESUS' FIRST PREDICTION OF HIS PASSION
that he might not be obliged to drink the bitter cup of suffering and
seeming failure; but as a careful student of the II Isaiah and of the
larger book of life, he recognized that the way in which the servant
of Jehovah was to perform his task was the way of seeming shame
and of patient suffering and of complete self-sacrifice. It is clear,
therefore, that his question to his disciples was intended to precipitate
their opinions and prepare them for the probable fate which awaited
him. In their original form the words which followed may have been
but an assertion that if the Son of man goes up to Jerusalem he must
suffer many things. The details of the prediction now found in the
gospels are, without reasonable doubt, due to the evangelists, who were
familiar with the subsequent events, for that familiarity could not fail
to color their narratives.
The statement that Peter took Jesus aside and began to rebuke him
is consistent with the situation. The intensity of Jesus' feeling is
shown by his quick response to Peter. In the reproaches of his most
enthusiastic followers Jesus recognized a temptation similar to that
which came to him when he earlier decided the nature and methods of
his mission. The exact words of Jesus at this critical moment were
probably impressed upon the mind of Peter, so that they are reproduced
verbatim in Mark's realistic record, "Get thee behind me, Satan, for
thou art not thinking the thoughts of God, but of men." These words
still further reveal Jesus' interpretation of the task of the Messiah.
He was fully aware of the sharp antithesis between the thoughts and
expectations of men and those of God. The words which follow have
the poetic form (rare in Mark) in which Jesus usually expressed his
fundamental teachings. They vividly recall the ideal of the II Isaiah
and embody the essence of Jesus' teaching. It is only by losing his
life to proclaim the good tidings that a man can make his life count for
the most. This revolutionary truth, so far removed from ordinary
human practice, was evidently at this time uppermost in Jesus' mind.
It guided him in the great crisis which confronted him, and as he medi
tated on the way in which he could in the trying circumstances serve
God most effectively. His chief solicitude was for his disciples. If
he could but bring them to his point of view and lead them fully to
accept his ideals, no seeming shame nor calamity could prevent the
realization of his divine mission. His absolute faith in God left no
doubt in his mind regarding the ultimate results of his work. As a
keen student of history and of men, he knew that the more violent
«nd unjust the opposition, the sooner and more inevitable the reaction.
235

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
His sure conviction that God would soon vindicate the right is clearly
the basis of the promise, also attested by Paul's words in I Thessalo-
nians 417 and Philippians 321: "Some of those standing here shall not
taste death until they see the kingdom of God coming with power."
In this, the oldest form of the saying, Jesus did not speak of his own
coming, but of the establishment of God's rule. His followers, however,
soon transformed it, as they did many other of his teachings regarding
the coming of the kingdom, into a prediction that the Son of man would
himself come again to establish by supernatural means his reign upon
earth. Another illustration of this tendency is found in the preceding
verse in Matthew, where Jesus' original utterance, already quoted:
Whoever shall disown me before men,
I will disown him before my Father which is in heaven,
is transformed into the apocalyptic statement:
Whoever is ashamed of me and my words in this adulterous and sinful
generation,
The Son of man shall also be ashamed of him, when he comes in the
glory of his Father with the holy angels.
In the complete overthrow of the temple, the central stronghold of
Judaism, in the heroic loyalty of Jesus' followers, and in the marvellous
growth of the early church many who listened to Jesus' words, indeed,
saw the "coming of the kingdom of God with power."
IV. The Story of the Transfiguration. No narrative in the gos
pel is beset with more difficulties and more differently interpreted than
the story of the transfiguration. Some interpreters regard it as sim
ply another version of the preceding account of Peter's confession.
Others find in it only a creation of the faith of the later church. In the
recently discovered fragments of the Bevelation of Peter it apparently
followed the account of Jesus' resurrection. If it is the oft-mentioned
but otherwise lost account of Jesus' resurrection appearance to Peter, the
interpretation of the story in its present form in Mark would be sim
plified, for students have long recognized the difficulty of reconciling
a revelation, in its present form and setting so marvellous and unmis
takable, with the misunderstanding and infidelity of the disciples re
corded in the succeeding chapters. Emotional and changeable though
Peter was, it is almost incredible that he could have openly denied
236

THE STORY OF THE TRANSFIGURATION
Jesus only a few days later if he had, with his physical eyes, seen him
walking with Moses and Elias and heard with his ears the voice of
God proclaiming Jesus' divine sonship and authority. Scholars have
also noted the many analogies with the earlier account of the revelation
to Moses at Sinai. As the skin of Moses' face shone as he came down
from the sacred mount, so, according to Mark, Jesus' garments ap
peared to be glistening white. As at Sinai, a cloud overshadowed the
mountain. According to the Syriac version, which has probably pre
served the Marcan original, this cloud rested not upon the disciples,
but upon Jesus. As at Sinai, God was represented as speaking audibly.
Luke gives certain important details which suggest his own inter
pretation of the story. He states that it was while Jesus was praying
that the appearance of his face was changed; also that Peter and the
other two disciples, who were with Jesus, were overpowered with sleep.
This fact is implied by Peter's confused words recorded in the Marcan
version. The gospel narratives all indicate that Peter, and probably
the two other disciples, failed at the time to understand the full im
port of the transfiguration. Apparently they, as well as the evange
lists, attempted to interpret it, as was natural, by the aid of older anal
ogies and in the light of Jesus' resurrection and of their own maturer
thought and experiences.
Like the baptism and the temptation, Jesus' transfiguration was
primarily of significance to himself. Its background is his rejection
by the multitudes in Galilee, the malignant attacks of the Pharisees,
and the ominous suspicions of Herod. In the foreground is his pro
posed journey to Jerusalem and the perils and probably death which
he could see there awaited him. The intensity of the struggle in his
mind was revealed by his tense question addressed to the disciples and
his almost passionate reply to Peter's protest, which tempted him to
turn aside from the path that led to practically inevitable martyrdom.
The transfiguration was the visible evidence of the crowning victory
won on the quiet mountain height. Apparently the necessity for the
supreme act of self-sacrifice had gradually dawned on Jesus' conscious
ness. It would seem that while the conflict still raged within him he
endeavored to present the problem to his disciples; but they proved
of little help. Out of the larger group he singled the three who stood
closest to him that they might be with him; but the ultimate decision
rested with him alone.
Luke, with his usual keen insight, indicates that prayer was the
immediate setting of Jesus' transfiguration. The radiance which filled
his face was not merely the peace and joy of victory won, but the
237

JESUS IN RETIREMENT WITH HIS DISCIPLES
reflection of the very face of God himself and the visible evidence o'
bis approval. It was the same divine radiance that so illumined and,
transformed the face of Moses that to those who looked upon him his
very skin seemed to shine. Sometimes, in lesser measure, at moments
of great decision and victory, even to-day the light of God's presence
shines through the faces of Jesus' followers and discloses the divine
radiance that transfigures them. Even the obtuse disciples could not
but a,t once vaguely realize that they stood in the presence of God.
Their later experience and meditation also aided them greatly in inter
preting the truer and larger significance of that which they at first had
only dimly understood. Jesus' decision, like the revelation to Moses
at Sinai and through Elijah to the people on Mount Carmel, was one
of the great focal points in human history when, through the heart
of his willing child, the eternal Father revealed in large measure his
gracious purpose for mankind. Henceforth, Jesus quietly, unflinchingly
faced danger, public shame, and death, for from his soul there never
faded the radiance of the transfiguration.
Luke omits the conversation between Jesus and his disciples regard
ing the second coming of Elijah. This current Jewish hope was based
on the prediction in Malachi 4*. While Jesus practically assented to
the conclusion that John, through his reformatory work, had fulfilled
the spirit of that early prediction, he turned the attention of his dis
ciples to the more significant prediction in Isaiah 53 that the true
Messiah must suffer and be despised. It is evident that his disciples
only partially realized the meaning of Jesus' significant words during
these days of quiet training. His purpose is obvious. With all his
skill as a teacher, he was endeavoring to adjust his followers^to the new
situation and to give them a true appreciation of the real task of the
Messiah and of the way in which that task must be accomplished.
V. The Healing of an Epileptic. The three synoptic gospels
agree in assigning the story of the healing of an epileptic to a place
immediately after the account of the transfiguration, although the
content of the narrative suggests a Galilean environment. It is diffi
cult, however, to see why Mark has placed it here, unless for historical
reasons. He also binds it closely to the story of the transfiguration,
for he states that, as Jesus drew near to the crowds, they were im
pressed by that divine radiance which still shone from his countenance.
Jesus' words to his disciples and to the multitude (19) implied that his
work was nearly ended.
The symptoms of epilepsy are described with unusual detail in Mark.
In Matthew and Luke the story is greatly abridged. The act of heal-
238

THE HEALING OF AN EPILEPTIC
ing corresponds to many recorded in the Galilean ministry. In Jesus'
presence the child was seized with a paroxysm and then fell in a swoon
from which Jesus revived him. The incident was introduced to empha
size the importance of faith and prayer in performing acts of healing,
and therefore was of peculiar interest to the early church, where sim
ilar cures were of common occurrence.
The record of the days spent by Jesus with his disciples in retire
ment concludes with a second prediction of his coming death at Jeru
salem. The vagueness of this second prediction suggests that the
first was far more general than the gospel record implies. Luke, in
his version of the second prediction, seeks to reconcile it with the
disciples' surprise at its fulfilment. He is certainly right in affirming
that they failed to grasp the full meaning of Jesus' words. The state
ment that he would "rise after three days" may possibly have been
suggested by Hosea 62, "After two days he will revive us, and on the
third day we shall rise up and live' before him," or else it may be a
later addition to the narrative. Pathetic, yet heroic and majestic, is
the picture which the gospels give of Jesus during these days of read
justment. Wandering amid strange environment, almost overwhelmed
with a deep sense of disappointment, apprehensive regarding the loy
alty of even his immediate followers, facing death and the shame of
seeming failure, he prepared not only himself but his disciples for the
supreme sacrifice which they were called to make.
§CXXXK. INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO
JERUSALEM
And Jesus and bis disciples came to Capernaum. And l.The
when he was in the house he questioned them, What were ^f^
you discussing on the way? And they kept sUence, for they grece-
had been disputing with one another on the way about who anfong
was the greatest. Then he sat down, called the Twelve and f^'
said to them, If anyone would be first he shaU be last of aU l^6™
and servant of aU. And taking a Uttle child, he set him in 9» •"«'.
their midst. And putting his arms around him, he said to $,att I8'» '
Luk*
9«-«)

them: p-'Luk*

Whoever shall receive a Uttle child Uke this in my name,
receives me ;
And whoever receives me, receives not only me but him
who sent me; 239

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
For whoever shaU give you a cup of water to drink because
you are Christ's,
I teU you truly, he shall not lose his reward.
a. The Now it came to pass, when the days for, him to be taken
StaT UP were nearr7 come, Jesus set his face steadfastly to go
ftyaof to Jerusalem. And he sent messengers before him. And
mar?-3'" as they went, they entered a viUage of the Samaritans in
(Luke orQer to make ready for him. But the people would not
9"-") receive him, because his face was turned toward Jerusalem.
And when his disciples, James and John, saw it, they said,
Lord, wUt thou not have us bid fire come from heaven and
consume them? But he turned and rebuked them. And
they went on to another viUage.
3. The And rising up he went from there into the territory of
ney " Judea, and across the Jordan. And crowds again gathered
<M<"k to him; and again he taught them, as was his custom. And
Luke he passed through the cities and villages, one after another,
Mattf' teaching as he journeyed on to Jerusalem.
l91^e And a certain man said to him, Lord, are they few who
narrow are saved? And he said to them:
way of
life (Luke Enter in by the narrow gate ;
Matt. For wide is the gate and broad is the way that leads to
7" u) destruction,
And those who are entering in by it are many;
For narrow is the gate, and strait the way that leads to
Ufe,
And those who are finding it are few.
5. The Strive hard to enter by the narrow gate ;

For many, I tell you, shaU seek to enter, but wUl not be able.

danger of not
tod- When once the master of the house has risen up and shut
(Luke fast the door,
lfU'°- And you begin to stand outside and knock at the door, say-
Matt- ing, ' Open to us, Lord ! '
ail.") He shall answer and say to you, 'I know not whence you
come.'
Then you shaU begin to say, 'We ate and drank in thy pres
ence,
And thou hast taught in our streets.'
240

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
And he shall say, 'I teU you, I know not whence you come;
Depart from me, aU you workers of iniquity.'
There shaU be weeping and gnashing of teeth,
When you see Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and aU the
prophets in the kingdom of God,
But you yourselves thrown out.
Yea, they shall come from east and west and north and south,
And they shall recline in the kingdom of God.
And behold ! there are last which shaU be first,
And there are first that shaU be last.
At that very hour, certain Pharisees came and said to him, 6.
Go forth, leave this place, for Herod wishes to kiU thee, re^i?'
But he said to them, Go and teU that fox, 'Behold I cast out to
demons and perform miracles to-day and to-morrow, and XI™"
on the third day I am finished ! But to-day and to-morrow ffSJSf*
and on the foUowing day I must go on my way, for it cannot (Luke
be that a prophet perish outside Jerusalem ! '

1331-31)

Oh, Jerusalem, Jerusalem! that kuleth the prophets and 7. La-
stoneth them who are sent to her! ™ot*
How often would I have gathered thy chUdren together, J enisa-
Even as a fowl her brood under her wing and you would not ! (Luke
Behold, your house is left desolate to you ! """ *•
I teU you, you shaU not see me until you say, Matt.
' Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.'

Now they were on the way going up to Jerusalem, and 8. The
Jesus was going before them. And they were in dismay. &£&
And they who foUowed were afraid. And he once more Jara-
took the Twelve aside, and began to teU them what things rtjard-
were to happen to him, saying, Behold, we are going up to fe^Ms
Jerusalem; and the Son of man shafl be deUvered to the jjjfj*
high priests and scribes, and they shall condemn him to cf. '
death, and deUver him to the Gentiles. And they shaU 20^"-
mock him, and spit on him, and scourge him, and kill him; JgJ"
yet after three days he shaU rise again.
And James and John, the sons of Zebedee, came to him,
and said to him, Teacher, we want thee to do for us what
ever we shaU ask. And he said to them, What do you want
241

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
a. me to do for you. And they said to him, Grant that we may
fothe sit, one on thy right hand and one on thy left hand, in thy
jjequest glory. But Jesus said to them, You do not know what you
James are asking. Are you able to drink the cup that I drink, or
John to De baptized with the baptism with which I am baptized?
<Mark And they said to him, We are able. And Jesus said to them :
cf. %%% The cup that I drink, shaU you drink;
And with the baptism with which I am baptized, shaU yoss
be baptized;
But to sit on my right hand and on my left is not mine to
grant.
It is only for those for whom it has been prepared.
p. And on hearing this request, the ten disciples began to be
tme indignant at James and John. But Jesus calling them to
stand- hun, said to them:
ard of '
great- (Mark You know that they who are regarded as leaders of the
Luke Gentiles lord it over them,
22" ° And their great men exercise authority over them.
Matt. Rut it is not so among you;
3gj£™ Nay, whoever would become great among you, must be
io«r your servant,
22"<kn«) And whoever would be first among you, must be servant
oi aU.
And I am in your midst as one who serves.
11. t And he entered and was passing through Jericho. And
Jesus' mere was a man by the name of Zaccheus; and he was the
^fzL- kea<* °* me tax-coUectors, and was rich. And he tried to
vieua " see who Jesus was, but could not for the crowd, because he
was short in stature. So he ran on ahead and climbed up
into a sycamore tree to see Jesus, for he was to pass that way.
And when Jesus came to the place, he looked up, and said
to him, Zaccheus, come down; for to-day I must stay at thy
house. Then Zaccheus made haste to come down, and re
ceived him with joy.
But on seeing it, everyone began to complain, saying, He
h 9S gone in to eat with a man who is a sinner. But Zaccheus
242

(Luke

Thesaving

Heal- }
ing the i

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
stood up and said to the Lord, Behold, Lord, the half of my 12
goods I wUl give to the poor. And if I have taken anything "
from any man wrongfuUy, I wiU give it back fourfold. Then of zao-
Jesus said to him, To-day has salvation come to this house, (j-«™
for he is also a son of Abraham. For the Son of man came
to seek and to save what has been lost.
And as he was leaving Jericho with his disciples and a 13.
considerable crowd, a blind beggar, Bartimaus (the son Z
of Timaus), sat beside the way. And when he heard that £{™|ai.
it was Jesus of Nazareth, he began crying out and saying, at jeri-
Jesus, thou son of David, have mercy on me! And many (M°ark
people reproved him, that he might keep sUence. But he io*,b-ia.
cried out aU the more, Son of David, have mercy on me! Luke
Then Jesus stood stiU and said, CaU him. So they caUed Matt.'
the blind man, saying to him, Be of good cheer; rise, he is 2o»-»>
calling thee. Throwing away his garments he sprang up
and came to Jesus. And Jesus, addressing him, said, What
wUt thou have me do to thee? The blind man said to him,
Rabbuni, let me regain my sight. And Jesus said to him,
Go thy way, thy faith has made thee whole. And imme
diately he regained his sight and proceeded to foUow him
on the way.
I. Jesus Facing Jerusalem. Ever since the great crisis in Galilee,
Jesus' face had been set toward Jerusalem. Apparently he was wait
ing, before going thither, until he could be sure that the training of his
disciples was reasonably complete. His choice of the Passover season
was probably not an accident, but a result of his deliberate plan. At
this, the greatest of the annual Jewish festivals, he could be sure that the
crowds from Galilee, as well as the leaders of the people, would be as
sembled at Jerusalem. Then, if ever, he could appeal successfully to
the better conscience of the nation. Whatever the outcome, it would
be sure to make a deep impression upon his race.
There is no evidence in the gospel narratives that Jesus was con
scious of following a preordained programme. On the contrary, they
testify that even to the last he cherished the hope that Jerusalem would
not maintain its evil reputation of killing its prophets. Like a mother
bird, he longed to gather her children together and protect them from
the fate that he saw was inevitable if his nation continued to follow
its false ambition. But Jesus knew well the forces with which he had
243

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
to deal, and the evidence is cumulative that he went up to Jerusalem
in the spirit of a martyr, fully aware of the dangers which confronted
him. Luke has introduced, in 95L-1814, a large group of narratives and
teachings peculiar to his gospel. These have sometimes been regarded
as the records of a Perean ministry, concerning which the other gospels
are silent; but it is evident that Luke has here grouped in an artificial
manner narratives that belong in part to the Galilean ministry, so
that the order is editorial rather than historical. Jesus did, however,
pass through Perea. As he set out with his disciples from Capernaum,
he doubtless avoided the more direct road along the western side of
the Sea of Galilee, for it ran through Herod's capital, Tiberias. He
either passed along the east side of the lake or more probably went by
boat. At the southern end of the Sea of Galilee he appears to have
taken the west-Jordan road, skirting the territory of Galilee and Sa
maria. From the vicinity of Scythopolis he probably sent certain of
his disciples to ascertain whether the direct road, which ran through
the ancient Tirzah and the heart of Samaria to Jerusalem, was open to
the Jewish pilgrims. As was frequently the case, they found the Sa
maritans unfriendly and so reported to Jesus. The request of James
and John that Jesus command them to call down fire from heaven
on these inhospitable Samaritans is in keeping with their reputation
as sons of thunder. Jesus' rebuke to his disciples suggests that pity
which he ever felt toward this despised race.
To this same geographical and historical setting Luke has assigned
the healing of ten lepers, of whom one only, a Samaritan, returned to
give thanks to Jesus. Luke's story, however, is probably an expanded
duplicate of the narrative of the healmg of the leper recorded in Mark
l40-*5 and Luke 512"18. The numbers differ, but otherwise the details
are strikingly similar. In each case the malady appears to have been
not the incurable disease which we know as leprosy, but the so-called
leprosy which was recognized as curable by the ancient Levitical law.
Finding the direct road barred, Jesus crossed the Jordan into Perea.
Here he was again in the territory of Herod Antipas, but this change
in his itinerary was so sudden and his sojourn east of the Jordan was
so brief that there was little danger of pursuit. It was here, however,
that certain Pharisees came to Jesus, told him of Herod's desire to kill
him, and advised that he leave at once. Luke has again preserved one
of those rare passages which reveal Jesus' heroic spirit and incidentally
supplement the evidence that he was fully convinced that the days of
244

JESUS FACING JERUSALEM
his pubKc activity were numbered. His words are concrete and yet
figurative: "To-day and to-morrow I continue to do my work, but on
the third day (that is, in a few days more) it shall be finished. Not at
the hands of Herod, but like a prophet, at Jerusalem, at the hands of
my ungrateful countrymen, shall I meet a martyr's fate."
II. The Narrow Way of Salvation. In Perea Jesus was largely
beyond the influence of the leaven of the Pharisees. Here he was
among the people who had responded most readily to the earlier preach
ing of Jolm. Again the crowds gathered about him and he taught
them, as was his custom. Leisurely he appears to have journeyed
from village to village, for he had ample time before the feast of the
Passover. According to Luke, a group of his priceless sayings were
precipitated by the question of a certain unknown hearer, "Lord, are
they few who are saved?" Matthew has retained what is clearly the
older form of this teaching, but has included it in the so-called, "Ser
mon on the Mount." These sayings and the application which follows
belong most naturally in the setting to which Luke has assigned them,
for they share the characteristics of the farewell messages which come
from this period. Their background is the refusal of the majority
of the Jews to enter the narrow gate and to walk the strait path of
life which Jesus had pointed out. These sayings were taken by Luke
and the author of Matthew from their older teaching source (Q).
They are among the most significant utterances of Jesus. They show
the effect which the rejection of his teachings by the Jews and his
recent contact with the Gentiles had upon his own thinking. Too
late and with bitter laments would the sons of Abraham realize the
meaning of their refusal to enter the kingdom of God. From the east
and from the west, from the north and from the south, and from the
lands of the heathen should come those who would share the privi
leges of the kingdom which the Jews themselves had disdained. Thus
those who felt that they had the first claim to divine favor should be
the last to enjoy it. And those who were despised as heathen dogs
and outcasts should receive it in fullest measure.
The figure of the narrow gate and the straitened way was doubt
less suggested to the mind of Jesus by the narrow gateways that led
out from the Palestinian cities, and by the rocky paths, often only
wide enough for a single foot-passenger or beast, that ran from village
to village. The other figure, that of the great feast, was a familiar
one in Jewish thought. Thus, in the Sayings of the Fathers 3!0 is
found the saying, "Everything is prepared for the banquet." It was
245

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
also suggested by the lavish oriental hospitality with which Jesus
was received at the different villages which he visited. The dominant
note in these sayings, as in all the utterances which come from this
period, is the necessity of self-denial, steadfastness, and loyalty to the
will of the divine Father. Out of the depths of his own trying expe
rience Jesus taught the multitudes and his disciples the one lesson,
which it was absolutely essential for them to learn, if there were to be
efficient citizens in the commonwealth of God.
The synoptic gospels, following Mark, agree in recording at this
point a third prediction by Jesus of the fate that awaited him at Je
rusalem. The language and content of the prediction is practically
identical with those preceding, except that it adds certain details.
Like the preceding predictions, it is probably colored by the evange
list's knowledge of later events. Luke, as before, recognizes the psy
chological difficulty and endeavors to explain the disciples' obtuseness
in apprehending that which, in the present form of the narrative, is
a detailed reference to the closing events of Jesus' life. The passage
is significant because it emphasizes the fact that the chief aim of Jesus
during this period was to lead his disciples to see that he would not
and could not fulfil the popular hopes which they associated with the
magic word Messiah, but that through self-renunciation and suffering
he was to accomplish his mission.
III. The Request of James and John. To this same period prob
ably belongs the request of James and John, recorded in Mark 1035 ~46
and quoted in abridged form by Matthew (2020_ffl). Luke introduces
his account of the contention among the disciples as to who was greatest,
recorded in Mark 933"36, and Jesus' statement regarding the only valid
standard of preferment immediately after the drinking of the cup at
the last supper; but Mark's order (followed by Matthew) is evidently
the original. The incident is significant because it reveals the com
plete failure of the disciples, even at this time, to understand the real
meaning of Jesus' teachings. The narrative is colored throughout by
the point of view of the age in which Mark lived. According to Acts
122, James was put to death by Herod Agrippa in 44 a.d. As has
already been noted (p. 32), John, his brother, had probably met a
martyr's death before the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 a.d. Both of
these events were, therefore, fresh in Mark's mind when he wrote.
Underlying the narrative is the historical fact that the disciples still
hoped that Jesus would set up a temporal kingdom at Jerusalem. It
was also natural that the two favorite disciples should request for them-
246

THE REQUEST OF JAMES AND JOHN
selves a pre-eminent position in it. In Matthew their request appears
less selfish because it is presented by their mother. The figure of the
cup which Jesus was to drink, which recurs in his prayer at Geth-
semane, was common in the later prophets and Psalms, as, for example,
in Isaiah 51" (cf. Jer. 2516 Ps. 166):
Jerusalem, who hast drunk at Jehovah's hand the cup of his wrath,
The bowl of reeling thou hast drunken, thou hast drained.
Jesus' conception of political conditions throughout the heathen world
is that of the Jews of his day. His whole emphasis is placed upon the
importance of the spirit of service. In the spiritual kingdom which
he founded, conquest and rule by force had no place. In these words
to James and John he entirely repudiates the Jewish ambition to con
quer and rule the heathen world.
The logical and probably original conclusion of Jesus' reply to his
disciples is found in the parallel passage in Luke 2227b: "And I am
in your midst as one who serves." For this Mark has a teaching
which reflects the influence of Paul and of the age in which the evange
list wrote: "For the son of man also came not to be ministered to, but
to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many." It assumes that
Jesus had already come and completed his mission. It is the result
of that mature meditation on the deeper and broader meaning of his
life-work which is presented still more fully in the Fourth Gospel. It
introduces the Jewish idea of substitution, which is not found elsewhere
in the teachings of Jesus or even in the synoptic gospels. It is a doc
trine which may be traced in Isaiah 53, but it is most clearly expressed
in IV Maccabees 62*1 s (cf. 1722): "Be propitious to thy people. Let
the punishment suffice thee, that we have borne in its behalf. Let
my blood be a purification for them and accept my life as a substitute
for their life." The words in Mark do not state in what sense the ran
som was effective, nor to whom it was given, whether to God or to
Satan. These questions belong to the refinements of later theology.
Possibly Mark had in mind Paul's teaching in Galatians 48: "But at
that time, since you did not know God, you were in servitude to gods
that by nature were no gods" (cf., also, I Cor. 122). According to the
oldest gospel records, it was by Jesus' work as Friend and Brother and
Teacher that he delivered men, not from an angry God, but from servi
tude to false ideas and wrong habits. He saved them, not by magic
or by a miracle, but by teaching them how to find their heavenly
247

INCIDENTS OF THE LAST JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM
Father and their true life, as Jesus himself had found it, in the service
of God and men. Narrow is the gate and strait is the way which he
pointed out, and each man must decide for himself whether he will walk
in it or not. But it leads to life, as Jesus himself fully demonstrated.
IV. The Blind Man and the Tax=Collector at Jericho. All
east-Jordan highways converge at Jericho. In the days of Jesus, next
to Jerusalem, Jericho was the most important city in Judea. It lay
on the western side of the Jordan Valley, which at this point is fourteen
miles in width. The plain is naturally dry and barren, but when irri
gated becomes a fertile garden. Herod the Great and Archelaus had
conducted the waters of the Wady Kelt, which come down from the
western hills, out across the plain, so that a large area was brought
under cultivation. The Roman city of Jericho extended almost to
the Jordan and far up and down the valley. Its climate was hot but
equable. Here the fruits of the tropics flourished luxuriantly. Jeri
cho was important as the eastern commercial outpost of Judea and
commanded the northern trade routes which ran on either side of the
Jordan, or directly across Gilead to Damascus and the Far East. From
Jericho traders set out for Petra and the more distant Arabia. High
way and boundary customs were here levied on all merchandise, so
that at this point the office of chief tax-collector was important. In
this corrupt, half-heathen city the temptations to extortion and excess
were especially strong. Luke alone has retained the account of the
impression which Jesus made upon the rich, corrupt tax-collector of
Jericho. The incident illustrates the great Teacher's tactful method
in dealing with men of all classes. Denunciation would have only
confirmed Zaccheus in his wrong manner of life. Hospitality was his
pride and one virtue. Through this open door Jesus entered his life.
What Paul declared of himself, "I am all things to all men," was equally
true of Jesus. Jesus' act naturally called down the disapproval of all
orthodox Jews in Jericho, as it had in Galilee. Zaccheus, however,
justified Jesus' method. His quick repentance took form, not in words
only, but in acts. Zaccheus, the prosperous, unprincipled grafter, was
an excellent example of "the lost" which Jesus came to seek and to
save. Contact with the great Teacher enabled him to see his former
acts in their true significance, led him to repudiate the evil and to
devote himself and his possessions to a life of service. Truly did Jesus
declare, "To-day has salvation come tp this house."
Another incident at Jericho is recorded by each of the synoptic gos
pels, and indicates that even in his hour of disappointment and dis-
248

THE BLIND MAN AND THE TAX-COLLECTOR
tress Jesus neglected no opportunity to help those who appealed to
him. Mark has retained the earliest record of the incident, and Luke
has reproduced the Marcan narrative practically verbatim. Matthew
tells of two blind men instead of one, but otherwise the details of
the narrative are practically identical. The independent narrative in
Matthew 927"31 is apparently only a variant of this same story. Be
side the road which led from Jericho up over the hill to Jerusalem sat
a blind Jewish beggar. He was one of the hundreds that the traveller
finds in Palestine to-day, as in the past, some of them wholly blind,
many partially blinded through the effects of the hot sun and the filthy
dust, which are disastrous to the eyesight. In his journeys between
Nazareth and Jerusalem, Jesus had often gone through Jericho. He
may have also been known to the citizens of that town through his
association with John the Baptist. The report that Jesus the Naza
rene was passing by put hope in the heart of the dirty beggar. His
case was like that of scores of the needy whom Jesus helped or healed.
But the term, Son of David, with which Bartimaus addressed him,
struck a new note, for, as he used it, it was a messianic title. Did he
employ this term, prompted by oriental politeness, or was he voicing
a popular hope which was still strong in Jericho, where false messiah3
before and after met with a ready reception? Or was it because Jesus'
disciples had communicated their expectations to the multitude and
these had been caught up by the keen-eared son of the streets? The
narrative gives no answer to these questions. Mark evidently intro
duces the incident here as a prelude to his account of Jesus' triumphal
entry into Jerusalem. Jesus quietly ignored the messianic title. With
the simplicity and directness that marked all his activities, he requested
that the beggar be brought to him; then he relieved his malady. As
so often in connection with the acts of healing recorded during this
period, Jesus assured the man that it was his own faith that had made
him well. These two accounts of the healing of men morally and
physically blind furnish a fitting conclusion to the record of Jesus'
activity outside of Jerusalem. They proclaim far more clearly than
abstract words that his greatness consisted in his unbounded capacity
to serve and that he was godlike because, like God himself, he saw the
possibilities in even the lowliest, and was able to awake the divine
qualities latent in every man.

249

cf.

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
§CXL. THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY IN ;
JERUSALEM
1. When Jesus and those who were with him drew near to
en^9 Jerusalem, to Bethphage at the Mount of OUves, he sent two
tato06 °* k*s °isciples an(i sa"* to them, Go into the viUage yonder,
jerusa- in front of you; and as soon as you enter it, you wiU find a
(Mark c°lt tied, on which no one has ever yet sat. Untie it and
'''"". bring it. And if any one says to you, 'Why are you doing
Matt, this?' say, 'The Master needs it, and he wiU send it back
Luke here at once.' And they went away and found a colt tied
i92»«) af me ^oor outside in the open street, and they untied it.
And certain men who were standing there said to them,
Why are you untying the colt? And the disciples spoke to
them just as Jesus had told them, and the men let them
go. And they brought the colt to Jesus, and they cast their
garments on it; and Jesus sat on it. And many spread
their garments on the road, and others green branches that
they had cut from the fields. And those in front, and those
who foUowed kept shouting:
Hosanna!
Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord !
Blessed is the kingdom to come, the kingdom of our father
David!
Hosanna in the highest!
2. At And he entered Jerusalem and went into the temple;
temple an<* after looking around at everything, as it was already
|Mnark late in the day, he went out to Bethany with the Twelve.
3. The And on the next day after they left Bethany, they came to
Sfera" Jerusalem. And Jesus spoke this parable: A certain man
barren a ^. *ree P^anted in his vineyard; and he came seeking
nJTtree fruit on it, but found none. So he said to the vinedresser,
$L"»ke 'Here, three years I have come in search of fruit on this
Mark ***> *ree aa^ Munc^ none ' Cut it down. Why should it still
n*ru. cumber the ground?' And he said in reply to him, 'Sir,
Matt. leave it alone this year also, until I dig around it and enrich
2i18-") it. If it bears fruit henceforth, weU! but if not, thou shalt
cut it down.' 250

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
Then Jesus entered the temple, and began to drive out t.
those who sold and those who bought in the temple; and £^
overturned the tables of the money-changers, and the seats the
of those who sold doves ; and he would not allow any man to (IwlSk
carry a vessel through the temple. And he taught and said 'j16""1'-
to them, Is it not written, ' My house shall be called a house Matt.
of prayer for aU the nations? But you have made it a den Luke
of robbers ! ' And the chief priests and scribes heard it, and I91Si8) !
tried how they could destroy him; for they feared him, since
all the crowd was astonished at his teaching. But whenever
it was evening, they went outside the city.
And they came again to Jerusalem. And as he was wanting 5.
in the temple, the high priests, the scribes, and the elders $£"*' ,
came to him; and they said to him, By what authority art f^g
thou doing these things? Or who gave thee this authority God-
to do these things? And Jesus said to them, I wUl ask of autlor-
you one question; answer me, and I wiU teU you by what V$ark
authority I do these things. Was the baptism of John from n«*»,
heaven or from men? Answer me. And they argued %att.
among themselves, saying, If we say, 'From heaven'; he L,s£j|
wiU say, ' Why then did you not beUeve him?' But should 2v»)
we say, 'From men' — they feared the people, for aU be-
Ueved that John was truly a prophet. So they said, in reply
to Jesus, We do not know. Then Jesus said to them,
Neither do I teU you by what authority I do these things.
What do you think? A man had two sons ; and going to e. Par-
the first, said, ' Son, go, work to-day in the vineyard.' And {j1^
he answered, 'I wiU not'; but afterward he changed his two
mind and went. And going to the second, he spoke in the (Matt.
same way. And he answered, ' I wiU go, sir ' ; but he did not 2lsa't2>
go. Which of the two did what his father wished? They
say, The first. Jesus said to them, I teU you truly, the tax-
collectors and sinners shaU enter the kingdom of God before
you. For John came to you in the way of righteousness, yet
you did not beUeve him. But the tax-coUectors and harlots
beUeved him. And when you saw it, you did not even
change your minds afterward, that you might beUeve him.
Hear another parable: A man who was a householder
planted a vineyard; he set a hedge about it and dug a pit for
the wine press and built a tower. Then he leased it to
vinedressers and went abroad. And at the season he sent
251

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
7. or a servant to the vinedressers, that he might receive from
wicked the vinedressers the fruits of the vineyard. But they took
™j^ and flogged him and sent him away empty-handed. Then
erT3" again he sent to them another servant; and this one they
2^"* wounded on the head and insulted. Then he sent another.
Luke J^nc^ tn's one *^ey k"^ ano- manv others, flogging some
iiSU? and killing some. He had yet one, his beloved son. Him
$ark he sent last of aU to them, saying, 'They wiU reverence my
Luke son"' **ut tnose vinedressers said to themselves, 'This is
201'-". the heir. Come, let us kill him and the inheritance wiU be
"** ours.' So they took and killed him, and threw him outside
the vineyard. What wiU the owner of the vineyard do?
He wUl come and destroy the vinedressers and give the
vineyard to others. Have you not even read this scripture :
The stone which the buUders rejected,
This has been made the head of the corner;
This is the Lord's doing,
And it is marveUous in our eyes.
Then they sought to seize him, but they feared the crowd;
for they knew that he spoke the parable against them.
8. Re- Now at that time there were some people present who
ofCthen told him about the GalUeans, whose blood PUate had mixed
g°Pu- with their sacrifices. And he said in reply to them, Do you
inter- think those Galileans were greater sinners than all the
tionof GalUeans, because they suffered thus? Not so, I teU you.
caiam- But unless you repent, you shaU aU likewise perish. Or
(Luke those eighteen men whom the Tower of Siloam feU upon
*3'") and MUed? Do you think that they were greater offenders
than aU the men dwelling in Jerusalem? Not so, I teU
you. But unless you repent, you shaU aU likewise perish.
3. The And Sadducees came to hrm (men who say there is no
future resurrection) and they asked him, saying, Moses wrote for
ofthe us that, 'If a man's brother die and leave a wife and leave
vidJai no child, his brother is to take his widow and raise up off-
|:i«"^ spring for his brother.' There were seven brothers. And
«jj-att' the first took a wife, and dying, left no offspring. Then the
22»->» second took her and died, leaving no offspring. And the
jfo^fo) third likewise. And the seven left no offspring. Last of
all the woman died also. At the resurrection whose wife
252

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
shaU she be, for the seven had her as wife? Jesus said to
them, Is it not for this cause that you err, because you are
ignorant of God's scriptures and of the power of God? For
when people rise from the dead, they neither marry nor give
in marriage, but are Uke angels in heaven. But in regard
to the raising of the dead, have you not read in the book
of Moses, in the place of the Bush that God spoke to him,
saying, 'I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac,.
and the God of Jacob?' He is not the God of the dead
but of the living. You greatly err.
And as Jesus taught in the temple, he would ask, How is io.The
it that the scribes say that the Christ is the son of David? S^"
David himself said in the Holy Spirit, 'The Lord said to k*"1*
—.. T «-j . of the
my Lord: Mes
siah
Sit at my right hand, iSL'*
Until I make thine enemies a footstool for thy feet.' $,»«.
22"-**"
David himself caUs him, Lord. How then is he his son? 2o«-S)
And the common people Ustened to him gladly. And in u.
his teaching he said, Beware of the scribes, who are fond of nTjf1"
walking in long robes, and of receiving salutations in the ^tasb
market-places, and the chief seats in the synagogues, and scribes
the first places at feasts; these men, who devour widow's i^f-I^
properties and make long prayers for a pretext shaU receive $jatt'
the greater condemnation. 23«-«V-»
& Luke
20"-")
Woe to you, [scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites] ! 12.
For you bind up heavy burdens and lay them on men's J^f
shoulders, exac-
But you yourselves wUl not move them with your finger. (Luke
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! 23?)
For you shut the kingdom of Heaven in men's faces, ^eiec-
And you enter not yourselves and you wiU not let those tion of
enter who are entering. (Matt.
23". cf.
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! 11V
For you tithe mint and dUl and cummin, i^elr
But you have left undone the weightier matters of the law: ^°°s
justice, mercy, and faithfulness. sS'fa^"
253

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
15. Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!
greed F°r y°u cleanse the outside of the cup and plate,
c26) But inside you are filled with extortion and indulgence.
16. Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!
hypoc- For you are Uke white-washed sepulchres,
$?y Which outwardly appear beautiful,
But inwardly are filled with dead men's bones and aU un-
cleanness.
17. Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites!
Sln^e For you build the sepulchres of the prophets and adorn the
fOT tombs of the righteous,
tyrs" And you say, 'If we had been Uving in the days of our
•Si. fathers,
dermis We would not have shared with them in the blood of the
hate . , .
toward prophets/
propl- So you witness against yourselves that you are the sons of
(Matt those who slew the prophets.
23*»\* FU1 up then for yourselves the measure of your fathers!
cf. Luke is'ro Therefore the wisdom of God also said,
sponsf- I send to you prophets and wise men and scribes;
Hefor gome 0f mem you wUl slay and persecute,
siaugh- That upon you may come the blood of aU the prophets which
oFthe has been shed since the foundation of the world,
proph- jrrom ^e blood of Abel to the blood of Zachariah, whom you
(Luke slew between the temple and the altar.
cf" '' I teU you truly, these things shaU aU come upon this gen-
2334-36) gtbxlotl*
w. And as Jesus was sitting down opposite the treasury he
™| beheld how the crowd cast money into the treasury. Many
piety who were rich cast in much. And a poor widow also came
poor6 and cast in two lepta (which is about half a cent). Then
$ui!rk calling his disciples to him, he said, I teU you truly, this
t2"-«. poor widow has cast in more than aU those who are casting
Luke their money into the treasury. For they aU cast in out of
3ll,) their abundance, but she out of her want has cast in aU that
she possessed, the whole of her Uving.
254

THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM
I. The Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. After a circuitous
journey Jesus at last reached the city of sacred yet tragic memories.
The Marcan narrative (cf. 1046) indicates that he was accompanied,
at least from Jericho, by many besides his twelve disciples. His fol
lowing included women as well as men. The majority were probably,
like Bartimaus, bound to Jesus by the bonds of personal obligation
and gratitude. Mingled expectation and apprehension filled their
minds as they made the steep ascent toward Jerusalem from the bar
ren wilderness of Judea. The manner of Jesus' entrance into Jerusa
lem made a deep impression upon the minds of the disciples. The
Fourth Gospel (John 1216) states plainly that "the disciples did not at
first understand these things," that is, the meaning of the events con
nected with his triumphal entrance. The interpretation given to them
by the early evangelists, therefore, represents the results of the later
meditations of his followers.
The real question is, What was Jesus' purpose in entering Jerusalem
as he did? Was it to incite the people to proclaim him then and there
Israel's promised Messiah, or to inaugurate publicly his work in Jeru
salem and to test his strength with the people? Or was there origi
nally nothing intentionally symbolic in the way in which he entered
Jerusalem, and did he send for an ass simply because he was tired after
his long and arduous journey from Jericho? The first explanation may
be dismissed at once. Mark llu, as well as his acts and utterances
elsewhere, indicates beyond all doubt that he did not for a moment
encourage the people in the hope that he was the Messiah of popular
expectation. If he had given the least public encouragement to that
hope, the fact would certainly have been cited against him in his trial
later before the Jewish authorities.
On the other hand, the authors of the synoptic gospels evidently
regarded the manner of Jesus' entrance into Jerusalem as a fulfilment
of the predictions which they found in Zechariah 99 and 144. Both
passages were interpreted by the Jews of the day as messianic. The
one described a humble, unassuming, peasant deliverer.
Rejoice greatly, 0 daughter of Zion!
Shout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem!
Behold, thy king will come to thee;
Vindicated and victorious is he,
Humble, and riding upon an ass,
Upon the foal of an ass.
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THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
The other passage was interpreted to mean that the kingdom of the
Messiah would be proclaimed on the Mount of Olives. It was there,
according to Josephus (Jewish Ant., XX, 86), that the Egyptian false
Messiah raised his standard, which attracted thousands of fanat
ical followers. The words sung by Jesus' followers and the pilgrims
whom they met also suggested more than a commonplace incident.
They are taken from Psalm 11825, M, and were regularly recited at
the feast of Tabernacles. Mark has probably preserved the more
nearly original form of the popular song. Luke adds, "Peace in heaven
and glory in the highest," a refrain from the angels' song found in his
account of Jesus' birth. The words of the multitude suggest a sudden
revival of their hope that, after all, Jesus, as the Messiah, would fulfil
the promises given to David and his house. If ever this faith was to
find expression, the moment was opportune. The narrative, in the
form in which Mark has told it, does not necessarily imply anything
miraculous or purposely symbolic on the part of Jesus. He was already
acquainted with Jerusalem and evidently had intimate friends living
somewhere on the Mount of Olives. He probably did not anticipate
that sudden burst of popular enthusiasm which greeted his appear
ance. It was induced by the occasion and prompted by a personal
devotion and by the heroism revealed in his faith and actions. It was
a sudden flame to which he added no fuel, and as a result it quickly
died down. But for the events which followed, the incident would
probably not have been recorded.
Yet, in connection with Jesus' subsequent acts, it is exceedingly
probable that the evangelist and the Christian church are right in
attributing to it a more than ordinary significance. It illustrates
Jesus' method during the last few days of his public activity. No
longer does he enjoin silence upon his followers, but rather he courts
publicity, for this was his chief safeguard in the perilous situation
which he now faced. Hitherto he had borne the insults of the Jewish
leaders almost in silence, but now he proceeded to arraign them at the
centre of their power and in terms that are merciless in their severity.
In the public way in which he entered Jerusalem, Jesus proclaimed his
presence to all and at the same time rallied his followers about him.
It was the prelude to that challenge which he made to his nation to
choose between him, the champion of the neglected masses, and their
corrupt, self-seeking leaders. Possibly in the mind of Jesus were
the words of the unknown prophet who speaks in Zechariah 9°, for
they emphasized those qualities of gentleness, humility, and simplicity
256

THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM
which were most prominent in his conception of the Messiah's char-
acter and methods of work. His unassuming action, however, on
reaching the temple, while absolutely consistent with his own character,
forever disproved the conclusion still held by many that he hoped at
this time to establish himself on the throne of David as Israel's long-
awaited messianic king.
Jesus' quiet withdrawal to Bethany, as evening came on, is one of
the many indications, found in the records of this period, that he was
fully aware of the danger that lurked everywhere in Jerusalem. This
point is exceedingly important in understanding and estimating Jesus'
character and purpose. For his followers and for his cause he deliber
ately faced what he knew to be the probability, almost the certainty,
of ultimate death; but he did not court it. Jerusalem, with its narrow
streets and its narrower religious ideas, must have oppressed the Mas
ter Builder of Nazareth, accustomed as he was to the hill-tops, the oper*
fields, and large vistas of nature, as well as of God's truth. It was as-
natural as it was significant that he should retire, whenever it was
possible, to the Mount of Olives, with its larger outlook, and to Bethany,
which was near Jerusalem and yet out of sight of the city with its
clamor and its bickerings. At Bethany, amidst the fig trees and the
olive orchards, he was again in touch with nature. There he was no-
longer shut in by the narrow, rocky Judean hills, but could look far
out over the wilderness of Judea toward the Jordan Valley and the
heights of Gilead and Moab beyond.
II. The Story and Parable of the Fig Tree. Mark, followed by
Matthew, has preserved a narrative which is exceedingly suggestive,
for it shows how readily, even in the days when the gospel narratives
were taking form, a miracle story could come into existence. Mark
relates that on the day following his triumphal entry, as Jesus and his
disciples were returning from Bethany, he was hungry. Seeing a fig
tree in the distance, with leaves, he went to it in the hope that he might
find fruit on it. Finding nothing (for, as Mark states, it was not the
season for figs), Jesus addressed the tree, saying: "May man never eat
fruit from thee after this." The next morning, as they passed by,
they found the fig tree withered to its roots, and Peter called Jesus'
attention to it with the words, "Rabbi, look! The fig tree thou didst
curse is withered." Matthew, in his version, heightens the contra-
natural element by stating that the fig tree immediately withered away
and that the disciples were amazed, saying: "How was it that the fig
tree immediately withered away," and that Jesus replied to their
257

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
question, "I tell you truly, if you have faith and doubt not, you shall
not only do what has been done to the fig tree, but even if you say to
this mountain, 'Be thou taken up, and cast into the sea,' it shall be
done." The difficulties involved even in the simpler Marcan version of the
story have long been recognized. It is exceedingly improbable that
a man of the fields, like Jesus, would make the mistake of expecting
to find fruit on a fig tree in March, when that fruit does not ripen at
the earliest until June. The cursing of a tree because it had no fruit
is equally inconsistent with his methods and spirit. To address a tree
personally has the flavor of popular story or fable rather than of an
historical record.
Fortunately, Luke has preserved the older version of the incident,
and this at once explains these difficulties. What was originally a
parable, later tradition interpreted as a miracle. Possibly the parable
was suggested by a fig tree near Bethany, which had the reputation
of bearing no fruit or else was withered and dying. The teaching of
the parable of the fig tree is suggested by Isaiah's parable of the un
fruitful vineyard (Is. 51"7), and its teaching is similar to that of the
parable of the vineyard leased to the vine-dressers, which Jesus used
at this time with a similar application. He clearly had in mind the
Jewish nation, and especially its pharisaic leaders, whose life and works
sadly belied their promise of fruitfulness. In this marvellously tact
ful way, Jesus arraigned the nation. The method was that of the
ancient prophets. The parable also reveals Jesus' process of thinking.
Gradually the tragic conviction had been borne in upon him that the
race whose rich memories he cherished, the temple with its sacred
associations, and even the high priests and pharisaic scribes were but
dying, fruitless trees undeserving of God's continued favor, and doomed,
«a accordance with an unchanging law of the universe, to destruction.
III. The Public Rebuke of the Temple Authorities. Why did
he, who taught and supremely exemplified the principles of gentleness
and non-resistance, suddenly seize a scourge and attack the peaceful
merchants who plied their trade with the full permission of the temple
authorities. It seems at first thought almost like the deed of a fanati
cal Zealot. Was it due to the hot indignation of the moment or to
deliberate purpose? These are questions which the gospel narratives
leave unanswered except by implication. The author of the Fourth
Gospel, in transferring the cleansing of the temple to the beginning
of Jesus' ministry, has simply lost sight of the historical perspective
258

PUBLIC REBUKE OF THE TEMPLE AUTHORITIES
and offers no solution to the problem. Three acts mark the culmina
tion of the growing opposition between Jesus and the leaders of the
nation. The one is his cleansing of the temple, the second the "woes"
pronounced upon the scribes, and the third, his crucifixion at the
hands of his foes. Considered from the point of view of Jesus' per
sonal interest, his rebuke of the temple authorities was disastrous, for
his death was the direct result. The reasons for his earlier premoni
tions regarding his death become evident when we recognize that to
protest against the crimes of the high priests and the hypocrisy of the
Pharisees was probably the chief reason why he came to Jerusalem
at this time. Here Jesus approaches more closely to the r61e of the
ancient Hebrew prophets than at any other time in his ministry. Sud
denly the teacher became a social and national reformer. Most of
his parables of this period deal not so much with private as with social
and national questions. When Jesus for a brief moment assumed virt
ual control of the temple, he spoke thereby not to individuals or to a
class, but to his race as a whole. His authority was the same as that
of Jeremiah and of the II Isaiah, whose words he significantly quotes
(Jer. 7U Is. 56'). He spoke in the name of justice and of Jehovah,
whose temple he was attempting to reclaim from the hands of the
robbers who had seized it. For the moment even the robbers them
selves bowed before that authority. He rose as the champion of the
helpless people, who were a prey to the greed and rapacity of their
high priests.
It was no exaggeration when Jesus declared that the nation's house
of prayer had become a den of robbers. The high priests of the period
were famous for their avarice and unscrupulous methods. Several of
them had won their place by assassination. As a result of their shame
less intrigues with Rome, the people were victimized. Annas, the
ex-high priest and father-in-law of Caiaphas, the reigning high priest,
maintained a bazaar of doves, probably in the precincts of the temple
itself. Here the poor people purchased, undoubtedly at exorbitant
prices, the wherewithal to make their offerings. The greed of Annas
and his class completely thwarted the aim of the ancient law, which
was to relieve the burdens of the needy. The presence of the money
changers in the temple is explained by the fact that the current Roman
coins, most of which bore the inscription of the emperor, would not
be accepted in payment of the temple tax. Hence, it was necessary
to exchange them for the temple currency. These were a few of the
most obvious ways in which the high priests, through their agents,
259

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
robbed the people by fraud and extortion. The crime which Jesuh
attacked was all the more odious because it was practised under the
guise and authority of religion. It robbed the temple service of the
spirit of worship and made it a scene of contention and injustice.
The incident illustrates a trait in Jesus' character often overlooked
but not inconsistent with those qualities which are elsewhere promi
nent in his rninistry. His courage was of the unquestioning type
begotten by a complete forgetfulness of self and an enthusiastic devo
tion to a just cause. His act was prompted by a hot indignation, not
over a personal affront, but over a wrong to the helpless. It was not,
however, the result of momentary passion but of a carefully developed
plan. It also reveals superlative tact. The occasion, as well as the
method, was carefully chosen. The presence of the crowds that par
tially sympathized with Jesus was necessary to save him from the
fury of the high priests. On the other hand, equally dangerous was the
wild enthusiasm of the multitudes, who might hail him as the Messiah
and bring him at once into a clash with the Roman authorities. So
successfully did Jesus carry through his plan that the sense of guilt and
shame prevented his enemies from making the slightest mention in his
trial of this act, which the Roman authorities might well have regarded
as an index of lawlessness and of revolutionary ambitions. Although
it ultimately cost him his life, Jesus' first public appeal to the conscience
of his nation succeeded. The assembled crowds appear to have listened
to his teachings as never before, and the high priests and their fol
lowers were held back in impotent rage, cowed by their fear of the
masses. IV. Public Discussions with the Leaders of Judaism. The
period which followed the cleansing of the temple appears to have been
for Jesus one of intense activity. A recent writer (Wellhausen, Evange-
lium Marci, 88) raises the question whether or not all the recorded
events could have been crowded into a short week, and suggests that
the Jerusalem ministry extended for a longer period. While this sug
gestion is possible, it seems more probable that we have here simply
a detailed record of an exceedingly active week in Jesus' life. Also
the events took place in Jerusalem, the home of Mark, who is the chief
source of information regarding them, so that it is not strange that the
narrative suddenly becomes more detailed. Each of these incidents
reveal the galling fire to which Jesus was subjected and the valiant
fight which he made for the rights of the people. As he was walking
»n the temple, the scribes and elders, the leading members of the san-
260

PUBLIC DISCUSSIONS WITH LEADERS OF JUDAISM
hedrin, approached him with the tense question: "By what and whose
authority are you doing these things?" The question was an inevi
table one, and Jesus answered it in a manner far from acceptable to
those who asked it. He answered it, as he had many captious ques
tions, by another more incisive: "Was John's call to repentance and
a life of purity, sealed by the rite of baptism, of divine authority, or
by the authority of men?" The dilemma which Jesus' question pre
sented to these corrupt traducers of the people was obvious, for they
hated John and feared the people. Hence, they lamely confessed their
unwillingness to answer. "Neither do I tell you by what authority
I do these things," was Jesus' quick reply. Yet by his question he had
answered theirs: "My authority, like that of John and every God-sent
prophet, is not from men, but from above."
Matthew is doubtless right in assigning to this setting the parable
of the two sons, with its clear-cut application to the situation. The
despised tax-collectors and outcasts, with no professions of righteous
ness, had accepted the principles and the way of life which Jesus had
presented to them; but the high priests and Pharisees, with their
sacred titles and loud protestations of righteousness, were rejecting
Jesus as they had the teaching of John. Even now, when they saw
the truth, they lacked the courage to confess their error and accept the
revolutionary principles that these prophets proclaimed.
The more elaborate parable of the vineyard, which Mark introduces
at this point, teaches the same lesson. It is Isaiah's parable of the
vineyard, found in Isaiah 51"7, which has been adapted to the new sit
uation. It has evidently been worked over from the later Christian
point of view until it resembles in many respects the allegories found
in the Fourth Gospel. Its points of view and teachings resemble
closely those found in the sermons of the earlier apostles recorded in
the book of Acts. It is also based upon the words of Psalm 118M' **.
God is the owner of the vineyard, the Jews are the vine-dressers to
whom he intrusts it, the prophets are the servants whom the owner
sends, and Jesus is the "beloved son," the "stone ¦which the builders
rejected," who, though slain, "has been made the head of the comer."
The others to whom the vineyard was to be intrusted were probably,
in the original parable, the lowly classes, who listened to the teachings
of the kingdom. In the parable, as it stands, they can be none other
than the Gentiles, who, by the end of the sixth decade of the first cen
tury, constituted a very large proportion of the Christian church.
Matthew, in his parallel version, develops this thought still further, and
261

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
declares that the "kingdom of God shall be taken away from the Jews
and given to a nation that brings forth the fruits of the kingdom."
In an isolated passage found only in Luke, Jesus aligns himself
with the author of the poetic sections of the book of Job and takes issue
with the popular doctrine that calamity was always an index of guilt
on the part of its victims. Contemporary history does not record
Pilate's mixing the blood of the Galileans with their sacrifices. The
act, however, is in general keeping with the character of that cruel,
tactless Roman procurator. The event was probably too insignificant
to attract the attention of the secular historians. Jesus simply em
ploys this incident and the fall of the tower of Siloam to illustrate his
familiar teaching that the essential thing in a man's life is not what
befalls him, but rather his attitude toward God and his own acts.
Incidentally, the narrative illustrates Jesus' intimate familiarity with
current events.
The Sadducees also approached him with one of their much-mooted
questions and endeavored to entrap him by their casuistry. Jesus at
once took the question out of the field of mere dialectics, and on the
basis of the ancient Torah or law, which they claimed to be alone
authoritative, endeavored to lead them to an acceptance of his own
conception of God and of the individual. "God is the God of the
living, not of the dead." On this assertion he based his absolute con
viction that he who loves and cares for his children in this life will
continue to do so in the life to come. The logic is not of the schools,
but of the heart In his teachings Jesus said little about the future
life of the individual. The reason is because he took it for granted,
as he did the sunshine and the flowers. Evidently he did not wish to
discuss with the Sadducees whether or not the resurrection of the
individual was to be, as the Jews believed, a bodily resurrection. By
his declaration that when people rise from the dead they neither
marry nor give in marriage, but are like the angels in heaven, he
probably intended to imply that the resurrection was to be spiritual,
not bodily. Paul's teaching supports this conclusion.
Mark gives, in 123S'37, an isolated and difficult teaching which, if
original with Jesus, doubtless comes from this period of conflict and
discussion. The present Greek form implies that it was a question
frequently raised by Jesus: "How is it that the scribes say that the
Christ is the son of David, when David [PS.-1106] called him Lord?"
There is every reason to believe that the psalm was originally addressed
to Simon, the Maccabean leader. It is, therefore, to be dated long
262

PUBLIC DISCUSSIONS WITH LEADERS OF JUDAISM
after the time of David; but in common with the majority of the
psalms in the Psalter, it was attributed by Jesus' contemporaries to
David; and this tradition regarding its authorship is the basis of the
argument here presented. The method of reasoning is that 'of the
rabbis. The meaning of this utterance is obscure, but the most natural
interpretation is that it was intended to prove that the Messiah was not
necessarily to be of Davidic descent. Its isolation, its obscurity, its
peculiar logic, and the fact that Jesus otherwise always avoided pub
lic discussion of the question of his messiahship lend a certain weight
to the contention of some modern scholars that it is not an original
utterance of Jesus, but an argument used by his early followers and
akin to many found in the book of Acts. To Jesus the question of
human descent was certainly unimportant compared with that of doing
the will of his heavenly Father.
V. The Arraignment of the Scribes and Pharisees. The First
and Second Gospels agree in the statement that during this strenuous
period in Jesus' activity he publicly arraigned, not only the high priests,
who led the party of the Sadducees, but also the scribes and Pharisees.
Luke seems inclined to assign the incident to the earlier crisis in Gali
lee, and possibly may be right in so doing; but the synoptic gospels
as a whole convey the impression that Jesus spared no effort to con
ciliate the Pharisees until, during the last week at Jerusalem, it became
evident that reconciliation was impossible.
By the gospel writers the terms, scribe and Pharisee, are used almost
interchangeably. The great majority of the scribes, or learned in
terpreters of the law, belonged to the party of the Pharisees. There
were many in the pharisaic party, however, who were not scribes by
profession. In Mark this class is spoken of under the general designa
tion, scribes. In Luke's version of Jesus' woes the Pharisees are first
denounced and then the lawyers or interpreters of the law. Matthew,
in the corresponding passage, uses the inclusive term, scribes and
Pharisees. It is possible that in his original utterances Jesus used
only the one word, Pharisees. Mark's narrative simply gives a brief
epitome of the characteristics of these proud, self-satisfied, hypocriti
cal leaders of the people. Matthew and Luke have fuller versions of
Jesus' arraignment, which they evidently derived from their common
teaching source (Q). Luke has abbreviated his material, leaving out
that which would be distasteful or meaningless to his Gentile readers.
Matthew, however, has expanded, drawing a part of his description
of the sins of the Pharisees from the Marcan narrative. Matthew's
263

THE RENEWAL OF JESUS' PUBLIC ACTIVITY
version also shows the influence of the bitter contest which raged be
tween Jew and Christian during the latter part of the first Christian
century. Such passages as, "Neither be called masters, for one is
your master, even Christ," recall the exhortations of Paul and the early
apostles rather than the original utterances of Jesus. The denuncia
tion of the pharisaic inclination "to encompass sea and land to make
one proselyte, and when he is become so, you make him twofold more
a son of Hades than yourself," suggests as its background the apos
tolic age rather than the days of Jesus' ministry.
With the aid of Matthew and Luke it is possible to recover with
reasonable assurance the original seven "woes." In the first woe the
scribes and Pharisees are denounced because, through their minute
laws, they imposed intolerable burdens upon the people, while they
themselves showed no inclination to relieve them. In this way the
pharisaic scribes constantly enriched the priesthood at the expense of
the common people. The second charge is that they not only refused
to enter the true kingdom of Heaven, but also deterred others from
doing so, as they had constantly during Jesus' Galilean ministry. The
third charge is that they insist upon the minutest demands of the
ceremonial law, but neglect the far more important questions of jus
tice, kindness, and personal integrity. The next two woes, as recorded
in Matthew, are directed against the hypocrisy of the Pharisees, who
insist upon ceremonial cleanliness and the appearance of morality,
but in reality are given to extortion, indulgence, and immorality. The
last charge is that they pay great homage to the martyred prophets,
while their attitude toward the living prophets is that of their fathers.
The last theme is developed in a quotation from an unknown source.
Luke has preserved what appears, on the whole, to be the older form.
Upon the Pharisees and the race and generation which they represent
will inevitably come the punishment for the cumulative guilt of their
nation. While this arraignment did not apply to all the Pharisees or to all
the scribes, yet at this period in Israel's history it laid bare with mar
vellous insight and justice the faults of the men who, by training and
inheritance, were called to interpret truly to the people the ideals of
the kingdom of God, but had largely failed. In their inner conscious
ness, they appreciated far more clearly than did the sordid high priests
and Sadducees, the real significance of Jesus' message. If they had ac
cepted it, Israel's fate and the course of human history would doubt
less have been far different. They could have carried the majority
of the Jewish nation with them and made it possible for Jesus to have
264

ARRAIGNMENT OF THE SCRIBES AND PHARISEES
realized his ideal and to "have gathered its children together, even as
a fowl her brood under her wing."
In dramatic contrast to the malice and greed of the high priests, to
the materialism and sophistry of the Sadducees, and to the hypocrisy
and moral obliquity of the Pharisees is the picture of the simple piety
of the poor widow, who out of her poverty was willing to cast her all
into the temple treasury. It was indignation aroused by the sight of
greed preying on helplessness and piety of this type that impelled
Jesus to espouse so strenuously the cause of the common people, and
in so doing to give his life for the sheep.

§CXLI. JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
Now as Jesus was going out of the temple, one of his dis
ciples said to him, Teacher, see what splendid stones and
buildings! And Jesus said to him, Seest thou these great
buildings? Not one stone snail be left upon another, that
shall not be thrown down. But in three days another shaU
rise without hands.
And as he was sitting on the Mount of OUves opposite
the temple, Peter and James and John and Andrew ask
him privately, TeU us, when shaU these things be? And
Jesus said to them, No one knows of that day or hour, not
even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, only the Father.
Then shall the kingdom of Heaven be Uke ten maidens,
who took their lamps and went out to meet the bridegroom.
Five of them were fooUsh and five were wise. For the
fooUsh ones, when they took their lamps, took no oil with
them. But the wise took oU in their vessels with their
lamps. Now while the bridegroom was delayed, they aU
slumbered and slept. But at midnight a cry was raised,
Here is the bridegroom! Come out to meet him! And all
those maidens arose and trimmed their lamps. And the
fooUsh ones said to the wise, ' Give us some of your oU, for
our lamps are going out.' But the wise answered, 'Perhaps
there may not be enough for us and for you. Go rather to
those who seU and buy for yourselves.' Now while they
went away to buy, the bridegroom came, and those who were
ready went in with him to the marriage feast. And the
door was shut. Afterwards the other maidens came also
265

1. Pre
diction of tem
ple'sdestruc tion (MarkI3'.»,c/.
Matt.
24'. »
Luke
21' ")
2. His
reply to the
disciples'question (Mark1 ji. ...
". cf.
Matt.
Luke
21') 3. Par
ableof the
wiseandfoolishvirgins (Matt.
251-u)

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
and said, 'Lord, Lord, open to us.' But he said in reply, 'I
teU you truly, I do not know you.' Watch, therefore, for
you know not the day nor the hour.
4. The For as were the days of Noah, so shall be the coming of
Tngof the Son of man. For as in the days before the flood they
jtheson were eating and drinking and marrying and giving in mar-
(Mat" riage, until the day when Noah entered the ark, and knew
£?"¦"• nothing until the flood came and took them away, so shall
{jfb?i. De tbe coming of the Son of man. There shaU be two men
»-" ' in the field. One is taken and one is left; two women shaU
lillfs be grinding at the mUlstone; one is taken and one is left.
3i..j.) Watch then, for you know not on what day your lord is com
ing. But know this, Had the master of the house known
the hour in which the thief was coming, he would have been
on his guard and would not have aUowed his house to be
broken into. Therefore, be you also ready, for at an hour
that you think not the Son of man is coming. Who then
is the faithful and wise servant whom his master has ap
pointed over his household, to give them their food in due
season? Happy that servant, whom his master shaU find
so doing when he comes. I teU you truly, he wiU appoint
him over all that he has. But if that evU servant says in
bis heart, My master is delaying, and shaU begin to beat bis
feUow-servants, and to eat and drink with drunkards, the
master of that servant shaU come in a day when he does not
expect him and in an hour which he does not know and shaU
5 Plot cut ^"n "* two an<^ aPPomt his portion with the hypocrites.
of the There shaU the weeping be, and the gnashing of teeth.
pnests Now after two days it was the Passover and the feast of
(Mark unleavened bread. And the high priests and scribes were
cf.' ' seeking how they could seize Jesus by craft and kUl him,
26?"' for they said, Not during the feast, lest possibly there be a
22^ tumult among the people.
6. _ And whUe Jesus was reclining at dinner in the house of
anoint- Simon the leper at Bethany, a woman came with an ala-
attne Daster flask of pure nard, perfume, most costly. And break-
home ing the flask, she kept pouring it over his head. Some were
simon indignant, saying to themselves, Why this waste of perfume?
(Mark j?or this perfume might have been sold for more than three
cf. ' hundred denarii and given to the poor. And they kept
26?"" finding fault with her. But Jesus said, Let her alone. Why
286

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH

do you trouble her? She has done for me a beautiful deed.
For the poor you have always with you, and whenever you
wish, you can do them good. But me you do not always
have. She has done what she could. She has anointed
my body beforehand for burial. And I teU you truly, wher
ever the gospel shaU be preached throughout the whole
world, what this woman has done shaU also be told in
memory of her.
Now during the day, Jesus used to teach in the temple,
but at night he went out and passed the night on the lull,
which was caUed the OUve Orchard. And early in the morn
ing aU the people used to come to him in the temple to hear
him. Then Judas of Kerioth, who was one of the Twelve, went
off to the high priests, to betray him to them. And when
they heard it they were glad and promised to pay him money.
And he kept trying how he could betray him at a favorable
moment And on the first day of unleavened bread, when people sac
rificed the paschal lamb, his disciples said to him, Where wUt
thou have us go and make ready for thee to eat the paschal
lamb. And he sent two of his disciples and said to them, Go
over into the city. A man wiU meet you carrying a pitcher
of water. FoUow him, and wherever he shall enter, say to
the master of the house, The Teacher says, 'Where is my
guest chamber, where I may eat the paschal lamb with my
disciples?' And he himself wiU show you a large upper
room, made ready, and furnished. There make ready for
us. And the disciples departed and went to the city and
found it just as he had told them. And they made ready
the Passover.
And when it was evening Jesus came with the Twelve. And
he said, I teU you truly, One of you shaU betray me, even
one who is eating with me. They began to be sorrowful
and say to him, one by one, It is not I, is it? But he said
to them, It is one of the Twelve, one who is dipping in the
dish with. me. For the Son of man departs even as it is
written of him. But woe to that man through whom the
Son of man is betrayed. It were better for that man had
he never been born. 267

7. His
dailypro gram (Luke
2137,16)

8.Judas'bar gain (Mark
14i°. ii
cf. Matt.
26"-i» Luke
22»-«)9.Prepara tions
for the
lastsupper (Mark14»»-",|
Matt.
26"-i» Luke
22'-»)

10.
Jesus'
predic tion
of his
be trayal (Mark
1417-21,Matt.
26^» -a
Luke
2221-M)

c.

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
11. Jesus on the night in which he was betrayed broke bread,
tart and when he had given thanks, he broke it and said, This is
supper my body, which is for you; do this in remembrance of me.
u= Sr' In Uke manner also the cup after supper, saying, This cup
uf'kcf, is the new covenant in my blood. This do in remembrance
Marjc ' 0f me. Then, after singing a hymn, they went out to the
Matt. Mount of OUves.
£2u'ke° And Jesus said to them, AU of you shaU be led to fail away,
J3li" for it is written: 'I wUl smite the shepherd and the sheep
12. shaU be scattered abroad.' But after I rise I wiU go before
pre?8 y°u mto GalUee. But Peter said to him, Though all should
fhten be led to faU away, yet I wiU not. Then Jesus said to him:
denial I teU you truly: to-day, this very night, before the cock crows
{HI"* twice, thou shalt deny me three times. But Peter said the
c^tt' more vehemently, Though I have to die with thee, I wiU not
26»-»' deny tee. And aU of them said the same thing.
Luke3ju-«) I. The Prediction of the Temple's Destruction. In the begin
ning of the thirteenth chapter of his gospel, Mark recounts a common
place incident which had a far-reaching result. As Jesus was leaving
the temple court with his disciples, one of them, impressed by the magni
tude of the stones and the beauty of the structures which crowned it,
commented upon them. To Galilean peasants the vast temple reared
by Herod was, indeed, an impressive sight Josephus states that some
of the stones in the temple were twenty-five cubits long, twelve broad,
and eight high. At certain places in the foundation the modern trav
eller may see huge stones twenty-five to thirty feet in length. Memory
of his recent conflict with the high priests and a recognition of the hollow-
ness and hypocrisy of the national religion which it represented caused
Jesus to reply that the time should come when this vast structure would
lie a shapeless mass of ruins. The variants in certain Western texts add
the words, "But in three days another shall rise without hands." These
words are implied by the charges that are later brought against Jesus
(cf. Mark 14" and 15*»). The Fourth Gospel (2U) introduces them in
the conversation between Jesus and the high priests; but they were
probably addressed to Jesus' disciples as they were commenting on the
Herodian temple. The Western variants may be right in restoring
them to the text of Mark. In these paradoxical words Jesus drew the
contrast between the temple of stone, with its empty ceremonialism,
and the spiritual temple, not to be seen with the eyes, but eternal:
268

THE PREDICTION OF THE TEMPLE'S DESTRUCTION
The temple of Herod, with its elaborate rites and traditions and creeds,
stood in the way of that divine temple, in which alone God could be
truly worshipped. In the vivid, concrete language which Jesus used,
three days represented a brief period. The words reveal his absolute
conviction that ere long the true and spiritual temple would take the
place of that structure and type of worship which Israel's faith and
needs had long since outgrown. As has truly been said, Jesus, in utter
ing these words in public, where spies were dogging his footsteps, eager
to catch up any suspicious word, "put a sword in the hands of his foes."
To the minds of the Jews a word spoken against the temple was blas
phemy. The same had been true in the days of Jeremiah, for a similar
prediction nearly cost the life of that great prophet of the earlier days
(Jer. 7 and 26).
The thirteenth chapter of Mark presents many problems to the care
ful student of the gospels. A long discourse, filled with words and
phrases peculiar to the Jewish apocalypses, suddenly takes the place of
the simple narrative. The natural query of the four disciples, as to when
the temple would be destroyed, is answered by a series of predictions
which seem to bear no real relation to the questions raised. Recogniz
ing this fact, the author of Matthew, in quoting Mark, has altered the
question in order to adapt it to the answer given, so that it reads:
"What shall be the sign of thy coming and of the end of the world?"
In Mark IS'0"* two answers are given to the question raised by the
disciples. The one answer (*.°) is very definite: "I tell you truly, this
generation shall not pass away until all these things be accomplished."
The second (*») is entirely different and practically irreconcilable with
the first: "No one knows of that day or hour, not even the angels in the
heavens, nor the son, only the Father." The latter is probably the
answer which Jesus gave to the question of the disciples. He saw with
prophetic insight the germ3 of decay that meant the ultimate destruc
tion of his nation. Like earlier prophets he boldly proclaimed his con
viction; but with equal frankness declared that God only knew when
that destruction would come.
II. Jesus' Warnings to His Disciples. Into the heart of the
thirteenth chapter Mark or a later author has inserted a composite
Jewish-Christian apocalypse. Three distinct divisions may be recog
nized. The first (6"') was intended to warn the Christians against
being led astray by the many false messiahs who came in the years
succeeding Jesus' death. An additional aim was to prevent them from
interpreting wars and natural calamities as proofs that the end of the
269

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
world was at hand. It contains apparent allusions to the Parthian
wars between 51 and 62 a.d., the great famine in Palestine in 46 and
47, and the earthquakes in Asia in 61 or 63. The second apocalypse
(h-23) refers to the destruction of Jerusalem and alludes in detail to the
escape of the Christians. The point of view is that of the later church,
as is well illustrated by 20: "Unless the Lord had shortened the days no
flesh would have been saved, but for the sake of his elect he did shorten
the days." The third division, in the language of such Old Testament
apocalyptic passages as Isaiah 1310 244, "¦ a and Daniel 713, describes
the coming of the Son of man "in the clouds with great power and glory
and the gathering of his elect from the four quarters of the heavens."
The ideas, as well as the expressions of this passage, are as far removed
from the simple, direct, ethical teachings of Jesus as the book of Daniel
is from the teachings of Amos. Evidently the aim of this apocalyptic
prophecy as a whole, like that of Paul in II Thessalonians, was to curb
the fanatical beliefs of the early Christians that Jesus' second com
ing was imminent. The prominence of these beliefs among the early
Christians is revealed by many passages in the epistles, as well as in
the gospels (cf. I Cor. 1551- « I Thess. 4«- « 53"6). •
The synoptic gospels are by no means in agreement regarding the
time of that coming. In Matthew 1023 the promise is put in the words
of Jesus that it will be before the disciples had completed their preach
ing and teaching tour in the cities of Palestine. According to Mat
thew 1627, a and Mark 8s8 91, it was to be while some of the disciples were
still living. In the apocalypse of Mark 1326 and its parallels the implica
tion is that it was to be immediately after the destruction of Jerusalem;
while in Mark 1332 it is clearly stated that no man knows the day or the
hour. Apparently no authoritative and generally accepted statement
regarding the coming of the Son of man was known to the evangelists.
The more fundamental question is, Did Jesus predict his second
coming or is this widespread belief in the early church simply the read
justment of the contemporary Jewish apocalyptic hope to the point
of view of the early Christian community? Paul himself is- a striking
illustration of how many Jewish ideas were still retained even by a
broad-minded follower of Jesus. The atmosphere in which the early
Christian community developed was surcharged with these apocalyptic
hopes. The synoptic gospels are full of proof that the evangelists
themselves were dominated by them. Kepeatedly, as in Matthew's
quotation of the Marcan original, where Jesus spoke of the destruction
of Jerusalem or of the establishment of the kingdom of God, the later
270

JESUS' WARNINGS TO HIS DISCIPLES
evangelists, in transcribing, substituted the coming of the Son of man.
It is also significant that these apocalyptic passages are almost com
pletely lacking in the Fourth Gospel. In view of these established
facts, many scholars think it doubtful if Jesus ever referred to his
second coming. Certainly he never gave it the prominent place in his
teachings that it has in the synoptic gospels. Furthermore, it seems
to be contrary to his conception of the kingdom or rule of God. With
him the kingdom of God was present, not merely future. Its growth
was gradual, not sudden and catastrophic. It was to be instituted,
not through a miracle, but through the voluntary co-operation of men.
History has demonstrated both the absolute truth of his teaching regard
ing the kingdom and the vanity of these apocalyptic hopes. The
belief in the second coming of the Son of man has been a fetter rather
than an aid in the development of Christianity. The question still
remains, Did Jesus give any basis for this belief so widely held by his
followers? It is found embedded in the earliest teaching source (Q).
Paul's testimony indicates that it also reached its height about the
middle of the first Christian century. Jesus, in his conception of nat
ure, in his apparent belief in a personal devil, and in his acceptance
of the Jewish tradition regarding the origin and authorship of the Jew
ish scriptures, showed himself in many respects a son of his age and
race. It would not have been strange if, to a certain extent, he had
also shared its apocalyptic hopes. Many, perhaps a majority, of mod
ern New Testament students hold that he did. But if so, this; belief
evidently exerted little influence upon his thought and teaching. His
robust spiritual nature felt no need of these doctrines which were the
consolation of the persecuted and despairing. They were too indefinite
and lacking in ethical and religious content to appeal to him strongly.
It is significant that the oldest gospel records do not reveal a single
apocalyptic note in those teachings of Jesus which belong to the pe
riod of the Galilean activity. The apocalyptic predictions first appear
among the utterances that come from the closing days of his work at
Jerusalem, when he found himself abandoned by the masses and con
fronting martyrdom at the hands of the leaders of his nation. With
the Jewish prophets who penned the later apocalypses he shared the
undying conviction, even in the face of persecution and calamity and
death, that God was in his world and that the right would surely
triumph in the end. This is the great principle that underlies all the
apocalyptic promises attributed to him. It is also noteworthy that
in the parables and passages, which come from the oldest teaching
271

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
source (Q) and which imply the second coming of Jesus, the emphasis
is not placed on the miraculous element involved in that coming, but
on the personal responsibility of his disciples. "Watch and be faith
ful" is the distinctive note in the parable of the wise and foolish maid
ens and of the faithful and wise servant.
The original basis, therefore, of these teachings, which appear to
have been recast and greatly elaborated under the influence of current
Jewish ideas, are predictions regarding (I) the calamity that was richly
deserved and sure to come upon the Jewish temple and nation, (2) the '
trials and persecutions that would befall his faithful disciples, even as
they had their master, (3) definite assurance that if his disciples proved
faithful, they would ultimately be rewarded, and (4) that God in his
gracious and all-wise way would surely realize his purpose in the world
and that the truths which Jesus had proclaimed would ultimately
prevail and conquer.
III. The Anointing at Bethany. The temper of the high priests
had been clearly revealed to Jesus. Knowledge of their desire to
seize him by craft and kill him had probably already been brought to
him by some of his sympathizers. The record of his activity at this
time makes it clear that he was constantly on the alert to thwart their
purpose. By day in the temple and amidst the multitudes he was
safe from the high-priestly authorities, for they feared nothing more
than a tumult, which would give Pilate and his barbarous soldiery
an excuse for bloody intervention. Evidently Jesus spent his nights
sometimes at one place and sometimes at another, but always outside
Jerusalem. Mark has given one of his clear-cut pictures of the scene at the house
of a certain Simon in Bethany. The fact that he is called a leper im
plies that, like many in Palestine at this time, he had been afflicted with
a disease popularly classified as leprosy, but curable. Even had he
been the victim of real leprosy, in a little village like Bethany, his
wealth and influence may have enabled him to disregard Jewish law.
Jesus had repeatedly shown that he had no hesitation in associating
with this class. The Fourth Gospel has possibly retained a fact over
looked by Mark, namely, that the woman who showed her deep devo
tion to Jesus was Mary the sister of Martha. The exact character of
the perfume with which she anointed Jesus' head is unknown. It
may have been an aromatic oil made from pistachio nuts. Its value,
about seventy-five dollars, suggests that she was a woman of compara
tive wealth. Her act was one of deepest devotion, but to her and to
272

THE ANOINTING AT BETHANY
Jesus, and probably to the assembled guests, it possessed a deeper sym
bolic meaning. Since the days when Samuel had anointed Saul as
king, the public pouring of oil upon the head possessed in Palestine a
unique significance. The word Messiah itself means "the anointed."
Jesus' words to her show deepest appreciation and tenderness, but they
recall what he said to Peter when that disciple first hailed him as Mes
siah. He assured her and the assembled guests that the anointing was
not that he might sit upon a throne, but for his burial. Thus at every
point, even in the ranks of his most devoted disciples, Jesus was as
sailed by the same temptation that confronted him when he left John
beside the banks of the Jordan. With the same firmness and calm
faith, he turned from the dream of material glory to the ideal of the
Messiah, who should do the will of God by humble, tireless service,
even though the path of service led to the cross.
IV. Judas's Bargain with the High Priests. The gospel narra
tives imply that Jesus, by bis care and foresight, had succeeded in cir
cumventing for the time being his high-priestly foes. Luke states that
each night he went across the Kidron Valley to the Mount of Olives
and there spent the night in seclusion at a certain olive orchard, prob
ably at the home of some friend. Fear of the people led the high
priests to at least postpone action until after the sacred Passover festi
val. Knowledge of this situation and of the opportunity personally to
profit by it proved too great a temptation for Judas of Kerioth. The
fact that he was probably a native of one of the suburbs of Jerusalem
may explain why he was eager to win the favor of the Jewish authori
ties even at the cost of treachery. The historical narratives furnish
little basis for the elaborate attempts that have been made to palliate
Judas's crime. It is incredible that he should be so obtuse as to think
it possible by such action to force Jesus to proclaim. himself a temporal
Messiah. The reasons which actuated Judas were probably simpler and more
mercenary. He, like the other disciples, had felt the charm of Jesus'
personality, had noted his influence with the multitudes, and had prob
ably joined with enthusiasm that brotherhood which had shared the
privations and the triumphs of the Galilean teacher. But now he
lacked the courage to bear disappointment and to face ostracism and
personal danger. Possibly he felt personally aggrieved because Jesus
persistently refused to realize the selfish ambitions of his disciples.
The Fourth Gospel (John 12*) declares that he was a thief, and that
he was the one who protested against the waste of the ointment in the
273

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
house of the leper, "because he pilfered what was put into the purse,
of which he had charge." If this statement is historical, Judas's dete
rioration had been gradual and the prospect of receiving a rich reward
for his treachery was not the least of the temptations that lured him
on to commit the crime. The cold-blooded way in which he later
betrayed Jesus by a kiss indicates that his character had become thor
oughly depraved. His was evidently the case of a man of ability,
capable of responding to an exalted ideal, but who, even in the presence
of the supreme incarnation of that ideal, yielded to his naturally selfish
ambition and innate covetousness. Even membership in the wonder
ful brotherhood which Jesus gathered about him did not save Judas
from the faults which he secretly cherished. His act was base and
utterly inexcusable, and yet he was not the most arrant criminal of
history. He was a type of the thousands who listened to Jesus and
then failed to find their lives because they were not willing to lose them
for his sake and for the sake of the truth which he proclaimed. It was
only because he was intimately associated with Jesus that later tra
dition pictured his character so darkly.
Jesus' words to his disciples during this crisis indicate that he sus
pected treachery of this type. With his intimate knowledge of human
nature and his personal acquaintance with his disciples, his suspicions
probably pointed to Judas. This knowledge is evidently" the basis of
his words, recorded in Mark, on the eve of his last supper with his dis
ciples. The countenance and bearing of Judas doubtless confirmed
this suspicion, but there is no evidence in the oldest records that Jesus
indicated upon which one of his disciples it rested. The Fourth Gos
pel has heightened the dramatic element by representing Jesus as say
ing to Judas, "What thou doest, do quickly"; after which the traitor
quickly departed to consummate his crime. According to Mark, Jesus'
words of warning were intended to make clear to Judas the enormity
of his act and, if possible, to deter him. Like many of the incidents
in the Marcan record, the predictive element has possibly here been
heightened, since the account was written in the light of the event, but
Jesus was keenly sensitive to the men and forces with which he had to
deal, and he here reveals that knowledge of men which characterized
bis entire ministry.
V. Jesus' Last Supper with His Disciples. Jesus' intuitive feel
ing that Judas was plotting with the high priests explains his eager
ness to eat once more with his disciples in Jerusalem. The synoptic
gospels, following Mark, state definitely that this supper was on the
274

JESUS' LAST SUPPER WITH HIS DISCIPLES
fourteenth of Nisan, the Friday evening on which the Passover was
inaugurated by the slaying of the paschal lamb. Here many hold that
the Marcan account has been influenced by the later tendency which
grew into the custom of commemorating this event at the same time as
the Jewish Passover. This close association of the Lord's supper and
the Passover was of great practical value to the early church, for many
Jewish Christians were still inclined to observe the Jewish festival.
The Fourth Gospel is, beyond reasonable doubt, right in stating that
Jesus' last supper with his disciples was observed on the Thursday
before the Passover feast (so John 131- » 1828 19"- 31). Even the Marcan
narrative records the fact that the Jewish high priests, unprincipled
though they were, would not countenance a crucifixion on the Pass
over day.
The detailed directions and the secrecy which Jesus observed in re
gard to the place where he was to eat the last supper with his disciples
was in perfect keeping with the caution which he had constantly ob
served since his arrival at Jerusalem. Apparently he did not reveal
the place, even to his most intimate disciples, until the last moment.
Christian tradition, perhaps rightly, associates it with the home of
Mary, the mother of John Mark. If so, this fact explains the unu
sually detailed character of the narrative at this point. Judas was
among the Twelve, and Jesus may well have hoped that his presence
there and the later words of warning might possibly deter him from
his treacherous purpose.
Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians (ll23-25) has given the oldest
account of this last supper. He doubtless tells it as he heard it from
the lips of the apostles. The details correspond to the Kiddush, or
Ritual of Prayer, that was observed by the pious Jewish families on the
night preceding the Passover. It included a preliminary prayer, fol
lowed by the formal breaking of the bread, and the blessing and dis
tribution of a cup of wine by the head of the household. In the early
church the breaking of the bread and the pouring out of wine were more
significant than eating the bread or drinking the wine. In Paul's early
record the memorial element is the most prominent. As has been
truly said, it was "not a sacrament, but an example and parable." It
stood for all that Jesus was and taught: his friendship, his teachings,
his deeds of healing, his ideals, and his self-sacrifice. His purpose was
to keep these vividly before the minds of his disciples. It illustrates
the methods of the great Teacher. There is no clear evidence that
he intended it to be observed, as it later fittingly was by the church,
275

JESUS' PREPARATIONS FOR HIS DEATH
as an institution. In fact, Jesus purposely avoided establishing insti
tutions or laying down laws that might prevent the natural adaptation
and application of the prmciples which he set forth. Bread and wine
were the two most common articles of food with the people of Pales
tine. Necessity compelled them to partake of them each day. By this
constantly recurring act Jesus sought to keep ever vividly before the
minds of his followers their fellowship with him and all that it meant
to them. It was also the reminder of the covenant, which bound them
together closer than the bonds of blood-kinship and of that new personal
relation which Jesus had sought to establish between each of his fol
lowers and their common Father. The figure of the new covenant in
the heart of the individual was probably drawn from the memorable
words of Jeremiah (3131"84) :
Behold the days are coming, is Jehovah's oracle,
That I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel.
Not like the covenant which I made with their fathers,
In the days that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the
land of Egypt —
My covenant which they themselves broke, and I was displeased with
them,
But this is the covenant which I will make with the house of Israel:
After those days, is the oracle of Jehovah,
I will put my teaching on their breast, and on their heart will I write it;
And I will be to them a God, and they shall be to me a people.
And they shall not teach any more, every man his neighbor,
And every man his brother, saying, 'Know Jehovah,'
For they shall all know me, from the least of them to the greatest;
For I will forgive their iniquities and remember their sins no more.
It well describes the work of the great Teacher, who, as the result of his
life and teaching, set aside the old, imperfect covenant between Jehovah
and the nation by proclaiming the possibilities and the conditions of
that new covenant between God and every human child, whatever be
his race and position in life. In its historical content, therefore, the
institution of the Lord's supper suggests, not defeat and gloom, but
heroic, self-sacrificing friendship and a joyous, complete faith in God
which human injustice and sin could not daunt.
VI. Jesus' Farewell Words to His Disciples. Mark, who ap
pears to have heightened the predictive element in Jesus' discourses
276

JESUS' FAREWELL WORDS TO HIS DISCIPLES
during these closing days, records the prediction that not only Peter
would deny him, but that the other disciples would fall away (lit,
would cause to stumble). Their defection was regarded as a fulfil
ment of the prophecy of Zechariah 13': "I will smite the shepherd and
the sheep shall be scattered abroad." Mark also adds the promise,
"After I arise, I will go before you into Galilee," which anticipates
the resurrection appearances beside the Sea of Galilee.
The corresponding passage in Luke 22s8"38 evidently represents an
independent source. Luke is followed by the Fourth Gospel. Mat
thew holds to the Marcan version of Jesus' farewell words, which are
uttered during the walk across the Kidron Valley rather than during
the last supper, as in Luke and John. The Lucan version seeks to
palliate Peter's sin of desertion, and says nothing about that of the
other disciples; but it reveals the depth of affection which bound Jesus
to them and that divine enthusiasm and humanity which drew men to
him: "You are the men who have remained with me throughout my
trials." The promise that they should "sit upon twelve thrones, gov
erning the twelve tribes of Israel," voices the hope and belief of the
later church.
The words, which on their surface seem to contain the command that
henceforth they should resort to the sword, may well be original, for
this is the simplest explanation of why they have been preserved. If so,
they must be interpreted figuratively, not literally. It was Jesus' dra
matic, hyperbolic way of announcing to his disciples the peril and stress
that were imminent. The reference to the ideal of the suffering servant
in Isaiah 5312, "He was reckoned among the wicked," is equally sig
nificant, for it again suggests how prominent at this time in the mind
of the Master was this noblest and divinest of the Old Testament mes
sianic ideals. With these marvellous proofs of Jesus' solicitude for
his disciples and of his complete devotion to the task intrusted to him,
he and the eleven went forth to their usual place of concealment on
the Mount of Olives, while Judas apparently slipped away in the dark
ness to give the fatal signal to the high priest.

277

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL

§CXLH. JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
1. The And Jesus and his disciples come to a place called Geth-
gieand semane. And he says to his disciples, Sit here while I
to?" in Pray# Am* ke takes with him Peter and James and John.
Geth-n And he began to be appalled and greatly troubled. And he
an™" says to them, My soul is very sorrowful, even to death;
jjlfj,11 stay here and watch. Then going forward a Uttle, he feU
cf. on the ground and prayed that, if it were possible, the hour
2^f "»' might pass away from him. And he kept saying, Abba
2™»-S) Father! All things are possible to thee; remove this cup
from me. Yet not what I wUl, but what thou wUt.
2. The Then he comes and finds them sleeping. And he says
nf«xi to Peter, Simon, art thou asleep? Hadst thou not strength
Mas- to watch one hour? Watch and pray, lest you enter into
aiTd ws temptation. The spirit indeed is eager, but the flesh is
|tefp- weak. Then he went away again and prayed, saying the
dis- same words. And once again he came and found them
(/vurk sleeping, for their eyes were very heavy; and they did not
•<"¦"• know how to answer him. And he comes the third time
Matt, and says to them, Sleep on now and rest! It is enough.
Luke The hour has come; behold, the Son of man is betrayed
22"-") mto the hands of sinners. Arise, let us be going. Behold,
the betrayer is near.
3. t And immediately, while he was stiU speaking, Judas, one
irrest of the Twelve, came, together with a crowd, with swords and
l!^k clubs, from the high priests and the scribes and the elders.
cf. Now the betrayer had given them a signal, saying, Him
2?,?'"' whom I kiss, that is he. Seize him and lead him away
^-;,kf3) safely. So on coming, he immediately goes and says to him,
Rabbi, and kissed him. And they laid hands on him and
seized him. But one of those who stood by drew bis sword
and struck the servant of the high priest and cut off his ear.
And Jesus spoke up and said to them, Did you come out as
against a robber, with swords and clubs to arrest me? I
was daUy in the temple with you, teaching, and you did not
seize me. But it is in order that the scriptures may be ful
filled. Then they aU left him alone and fled. But a cer
tain young man accompanied him, with a linen cloth thrown
278

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
around him, over bis naked body. And they seized him;
but leaving the linen cloth, he fled naked.
Now after arresting Jesus, they took him and brought 4.
him to the house of the high priest. But Peter foUowed at £|*g[s
a distance. And when they had kindled a fire in the middle of his
of the court yard and had sat down together, Peter sat down (Lukf
among them. Now a certain maid servant seeing him ™K~W' •
seated by the fireUght, looked steadUy at him and said, This Mark
man also was with him. But he denied, saying, Woman, «-"*'
I do not know him. Then shortly after, another person saw JJf "'
him and said, You also are one of them. But Peter said, ••-'•) '
Man, I am not. After about an hour had passed, another
man confidently declared, Certainly this man also was with
him. And it must be so, for he is a GaUlean. But Peter
said, Man, I do not know what you are talking about. Then
instantly, whUe he was stiU speaking, the cock crowed.
And the Lord turned and looked upon Peter. Then Peter
remembered the statement, how he had said to him, Be- 5. The
fore the cock crows this day, thou shalt deny me three £^jf
times. And he went out and wept bitterly. ^t?3
And aU the men who kept guard over Jesus kept mock- 22«-«,
ing him and beating him. And after blindfolding him, they $ark '
kept asking him questions. Prophesy, who is it that struck jn«
thee? And many other insulting things they said to him. m?* •»)
As soon as it was day, the assembly of the elders of the |xam.
people was gathered together, both high priests and scribes, {°atlon
and they led him away to their councU, saying, If thou art the thl0re
Christ, teU us. He said to them, You wUl not beUeve, if I p^te
tell you, nor wiU you answer, if I ask. But from this time (Luke
the Son of man shaU be seated at the right hand of God's cf."'1''
power. And they aU said to him, Art thou then the Son of ^f/bkM
God? And he said to them, You say that I am. So they Matt.
said, But what further need have we of evidence? For we ?«*'""
have heard it ourselves from his own Ups. liSSa.
Then the whole company of them rose up and led him to taiW
PUate. And they began to accuse him, saying, We found ^1%
this man perverting our nation, forbidding people to give «1-'.
tribute to Caesar and saying that he himself is Christ the Mark
king. But PUate asked him, saying, Art thou the King of Matt.
the Jews. And he said to him in reply, Thou sayest So J^'-
279

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
PUate said to the high priests and the crowds, I find noth
ing criminal in this man. But they were the more insist
ent, saying, He stirs up the people, teaching throughout all
of Judea, beginning from GalUee and coming even here.
Hearing this, PUate asked, Is the man a GalUean? And
when he learned that he belonged to Herod's jurisdiction
he sent him to Herod, as he too was at Jerusalem during
these days.
8. Now when Herod saw Jesus, he was greatly deUghted, for
before he had long wished to see him on account of what he had
h*™! heard of him. And he also hoped to see some sign per-
pas " formed by him. So he questioned him with many words,
2i"ny but he did not answer him at aU. And after Herod, to
gether with his soldiers, had scoffed at him and mocked
him, arraying him in gorgeous raiment, he sent him back
to Pilate. On that day Herod and PUate became friends
with one another, for previously they had been at enmity
with each other.
e. Now after PUate had caUed together the high priests and
piiate a mg n^eTS an(j me pe0pie ne said to them, You brought this
teno^ jQgQ t0 me as a seducer of the people. Yet, behold, I have
33»». examined him before you and have found nothing criminal
Mark in him of those things of which you accuse him; no, nor even
Matt. has Herod, for he sent him back to us. And behold he has
27»-») done nothing worthy of death. I wiU therefore chastise
him and release him. But they aU cried out together, Away
with him! Release for us Barabbas! (a man who had been
cast into prison, because of a riot which had taken place in
the city and on account of murder). But PUate, wishing to
release Jesus, again addressed them. But they kept shout
ing, Crucify him! Crucify him! But he, for the third time,
said to them, Why, what evil has this man done? I have
found nothing worthy of death in him. I wiU therefore
chastise him and release him. But they were insistent,
loudly demanding that he might be crucified. And their
voices prevailed. And PUate gave sentence that their
request should be granted, and he loosed the man as
they requested, who had been cast into prison for riot
and murder. But Jesus he deUvered up according to their
wish. 280

THE STRUGGLE IN GETHSEMANE
I. The Struggle in Gethsemane. The Fourth Gospel states that
Judas left the group of the Twelve before the close of their final supper
together. The earlier records imply, however, that he remained with
them until the close of the supper; but from his countenance and man
ner it was easy for Jesus to see that his general words of warning had
made no impression upon him. Probably Judas accompanied the dis
ciples far enough to ascertain that they were bound for the place on the
Mount of Olives where they had hitherto found refuge at night. His
absence, when discovered, was the unmistakable signal to Jesus that
the tragic hour had arrived. Distances are so short in Jerusalem that
Judas could have given the signal to the agents of the high priests even
while Jesus and his disciples were crossing the Kidron Valley. Luke
has abbreviated and at the same time transformed Mark's account of
the scene in the Garden of Gethsemane by excusing the failure of the
disciples to remain awake during the brief period of Jesus' prayer and
inner struggle. The statement that "an angel appeared to him from
heaven, strengthening him," and that "his sweat became, as it were,
great drops of blood falling upon the ground," is lacking, not only in
the other gospels, but in the best texts of Luke. The reference to the
angel corresponds to the similar allusion in the apocryphal passage in
John 5*.
The exact ate of the Garden of Gethsemane is probably to be found
nearer the top of the Mount of Olives than the spot, far down the Kidron
Valley and only a short distance from the temple walls, which is pointed
out to-day as the scene of Jesus' agony and arrest. In a quiet, rock-
strewn garden, shaded by gnarled olive trees and surrounded by a
rough stone wall, Jesus faced his last great temptation. At the begin
ning of his ministry he had met the temptations peculiar to manhood
and to one consecrated to a great mission. At the transfiguration he
decided to brave the dangers that lurked in Jerusalem and to give him
self, if need be, for bis cause. Now at this third supreme crisis of his
life he was face to face with death, clothed in the hideous garb of treach
ery, hate, greed, injustice, and intrenched graft. In the darkness,
lighted only by the stars, without the consoling friendship of his dis
ciples, who had fallen asleep, overcome by the wearying anxiety of the
strenuous days and the night vigils that had preceded, Jesus resisted
the natural temptation to seek refuge in flight. He also conquered the
deadlier temptation to yield to doubt and despair. He learned then,
as he had before, the truth of the words which he spoke to his disciples,
"The spirit indeed is eager, but the flesh is weak." He learned it not
281

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
through defeat, but through victory. The words of his prayer, which
must have fallen upon the half-awake ears of one of his disciples, admit
of only one interpretation. Jesus still longed, even though with slight
hope, that the impending crisis might be averted. The words are
exceedingly important to a true interpretation of his character. As in
Mark 1038, the cup stands as a symbol of shame and martyrdom. It
was not death that he feared, although he instinctively shrank from it,
as does every normal man, and for him life and friendship and achieve
ment were supremely attractive. The "cup" was rather the sense of
failure and apprehension for his cause. To him had come the clear
vision of the most glorious, and yet the most practical, social order
ever seen by man. During his early Galilean activity he had seemed
on the eve of realizing it. Now, repudiated by the Pharisees, regarded
with suspicion by the people, hated with a murderous hate by the heads
of the Jewish hierarchy, betrayed by one of his disciples, and followed
hesitatingly by the others, he was confronted by the most cruel death
that human barbarity could devise. Yet Jesus' faith in God was such
that he was able to pray, "Not what I will, but what thou wilt." In
so doing he proved himself forever, not only the Teacher, but the
Master and Saviour of men.
II. The Arrest of Jesus. Luke, as usually in his narrative, mini
mizes and Mark magnifies the predictive element. Probably Jesus'
lone vigil had not continued long before the torches of the rabble could
be seen across the Kidron Valley and the sound of their footsteps could
be heard in the still night. Mark is undoubtedly right in stating that
the rabble consisted simply of the menials and dependents of the high
priests and their temple associates. This conclusion is confirmed by
circumstantial evidence, for the one whose ear was cut off in the at
tempt to deliver Jesus from this mob was a servant of the high priest.
Jesus' own words indicate that a disorganized mob with swords and
sticks and clubs came out to seize him, the unresisting Galilean teacher.
The statement of the Fourth Gospel that Jesus was arrested by a cohort
of soldiers, numbering many hundreds, and that they at first fell to
the ground at the sight of Jesus, has all the characteristics of later tra
dition. The same characteristic is illustrated by the statement of Luke
that Jesus miraculously healed the wound inflicted by one of his follow
ers. These later elements are not found in the detailed narrative of
Mark. Luke places the attempt of one of his unknown followers to
defend Jesus before his arrest, but Mark after. From all the records
it is perfectly clear that Jesus made no attempt to resist. His simple
282

THE ARREST OF JESUS
words of protest undoubtedly reveal his attitude. Mark has recorded
an incident so personal that the other evangelists have omitted it.
This reference to the youth who fled is probably due to the vivid
memory of either Peter or Mark, and therefore is psychologically of
great value in testing the historical accuracy of the record as a whole.
Alone, unresisting, deserted by his disciples, Jesus was dragged away in
the midnight darkness to the palace of his relentless persecutor.
III. Jesus' Examination Before the High Priests. Beginning
with the fifty-fourth verse of the twenty-second chapter, Luke intro
duces an account of Jesus' trial and crucifixion which at many points
departs widely from the Marcan record. It presents a far simpler and
more consistent picture of the events than does Mark. The only sat
isfactory explanation of why Luke followed this narrative rather than
that in Mark, which in many ways appealed to him most strongly, is
that he recognized its superior historical value. He may have found
it in the early teaching source (Q). If so, the author of Matthew did
not quote it because he preferred to follow Mark. Certain inconsis
tencies in Mark's record at this point have been noted (cf. Bacon, Begs.
of Gospel Story, 210-11). Mark's aim was apparently (1) to establish
Jesus' messiahship and (2) to fix the responsibility for Jesus' death on
the entire Jewish nation. The superior Lucan narrative leaves no
doubt that Jesus at this time, as on all other occasions, gave no en
couragement to the popular, kingly, messianic hope. Furthermore, the
chief aim of Annas and his fellow-conspirators was to relieve themselves,
as well as their nation, of public responsibility for Jesus' death, and this
aim they nominally realized. Mark's account conveys the definite im
pression that there was a midnight session of the sanhedrin at which
Jesus was formally placed on trial and condemned. The unconstitu
tionality of such procedure, if not its' absolute impossibility, has long
been recognized. Luke's account, on the contrary, is remarkably sim
ple, consistent, and in keeping with the situation. It states that Jesus
was held a prisoner until morning in the court of the high priest. Luke
does not give the name of the arch-conspirator. The author of Mat
thew, reaidling the fact that Caiaphas was the ruling high priest, states
that Jesus was examined at his house. Here, however, the Fourth
Gospel is probably right in asserting that Jesus was first led to the
house of Annas, the ex-high priest and father-in-law of Caiaphas. An
nas appears to have still been the ruling spirit in the Jewish hierarchy
and to have been chiefly responsible for that extortionate policy which
Jesus publicly condemned. There is little doubt that he was the one
283

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
who, inspired by personal spite, planned and carried through the con
spiracy which resulted in Jesus' death.
Mark introduces the account of Peter's denial after the account of
Jesus' midnight trial before the sanhedrin. Peter's disloyalty is repre
sented as an exact fulfilment of the detailed prediction found in Mark.
Luke makes the far more probable statement that Peter's denial came
while Jesus was still under guard in the court of Annas awaiting the
early morning examination. Luke's description is exceedingly vivid
and circumstantial. As Peter and the menials of the high priest
crowded about the flickering light of a fire, he was repeatedly asked if
he was not a follower of the Galilean teacher. His garb, his appear
ance, and his peculiar pronunciation all unmistakably proclaimed his
northern origin. In his fright and confusion, Peter yielded to the great
temptation, until the crowing of the cock proclaimed the approach of
morning and recalled Jesus' warning. Luke has tempered the words
of Peter and omits Mark's statement that in his fright the impulsive
disciple "began to curse and to swear, 'I know not this man of whom
you speak.'" Luke, however, has retained a touching incident in the
story which is consistent with his record of the event. He states that
Jesus' reproachful yet loving look, directed toward Peter, revealed to
him his weakness and transformed him into the disciple who caught
the first true vision of the risen Lord and became the stalwart leader
of the early church.
Luke is also undoubtedly right in stating that Jesus was shamefully
treated by the rude servants of the high priest in the early morning
hours before the private examination rather than by the dignified mem
bers of the sanhedrin after that event. According to Luke the exami
nation was not held until after sunrise. His account, which is prob
ably here influenced by that of Mark, implies that it was an assembly
of the sanhedrin; he describes it as "an assembly of the elders of the
people." The variations in the accounts of this examination are doubt
less due to the fact that Jesus' disciples had already fled. In any case,
they would not be admitted to this secret conclave. It is probable
that at this early hour few besides Annas'and Caiaphas and their fellow-
sympathizers and conspirators were present. It was the morning fol
lowing the strenuous day on which every faithful Jew had been busily
occupied, together with the members of his family, in purifying his
house of all traces of leaven that might pollute the sacred Passover
feast which began at sunset of the day on which Jesus was crucified.
Luke's testimony is very explicit: Jesus was led before the high priests,
284

JESUS' EXAMINATION BEFORE THE HIGH PRIESTS
not for trial, for in their minds he was already condemned, but that they
might gain evidence to aid them in forcing Pilate to put him to death. .
Mark states that they first tried to prove by witnesses that Jesus had
blasphemed against the temple in declaring, "I will destroy this temple
that is made with hands and in three days I will build another, made
without hands." This statement, misunderstood and misinterpreted,
undoubtedly added flames to their wrath; but a charge of this kind,
if proved, would have little weight with Pilate. If they could prove,
as they later attempted, that Jesus had proclaimed himself the Messiah
or Christ, Pilate might thereby be led to recognize him as a dangerous
conspirator against Rome and, therefore, best put to death. According
to Luke's account, this was the question that they put at once to Jesus.
His cautious answer is in keeping with his answers to his persecutors
at other times. Indeed, in the circumstances, it was the only answer
which he could truthfully make. To have asserted definitely that he
was the Christ (as Mark, with less historical insight, records) would,
in the light of the popular interpretation of that term, have been as
misleading as to have asserted that he was not the Messiah. Jesus'
words reveal the dilemma which confronted him. With his usual tact
he replied: "If I tell you, you will not believe, and if I ask you, you will
not answer." The gulf fixed between their conception of the Messiah
and his own was impassable; and yet Luke adds that Jesus could Hot
refrain, at this supreme moment of his life, from asserting that they
would soon see the evidence of his divine calling. These words reveal
the profound conviction in the mind of Jesus that God in his own good
way would quickly vindicate him. His reply prompted the natural
question, "Art thou the Son of God ? " Again Jesus gave a qualified
answer: "You say that I am." These words were neither a denial nor
an absolute assertion. It was a question which only his life and
teachings as a whole could answer. For his accusers, however, it suf
ficed. It gave them the basis which they were seeking for their charge
before Pilate that Jesus claimed to be the Messiah.
IV. Jesus' Trial Before Pilate. Luke states that Jesus' high-
priestly accusers led him at once before Pilate, the Eoman governor.
Pilate's residence at Jerusalem, when he came to guard the city on the oc
casion of the great annual festivals, was either in the Tower of Antonia,
immediately northwest of the temple area, or at the palace of Herod.
The site of this palace appears to have been near the western wall of Je
rusalem, just south of the present Joppa Gate. The Fourth Gospel adds
that the scrupulous high priests and elders would not enter the palace
285

JESUS' ARREST AND TRIAL
of their heathen governor. In accordance with the Roman policy,
Pilate yielded to their prejudices and held court in front of his palace.
The hour was early in the morning, some time between six and eight
o'clock, for Roman judges were accustomed to hold their court early in
the day (Seneca, De Ira, 27; Macrob., Sat., V). The Marcan account
places Pilate's question, "Art thou the King of the Jews," before the
formal accusation of the high priests had been presented. Many think
that this is due to Mark's purpose to demonstrate that Jesus was, in
deed, the King of the Jews, and that it reflects those early contro
versies between Jew and Christian which are still more prominent in
the Fourth Gospel.
Luke preserves the logical order of events and his account again
bears all the marks of superior historical accuracy. The Jewish leaders
prefer a threefold charge against Jesus: (1) that he had perverted their
nation, (2) that he had given command not to pay tribute to Caesar,
and (3) that he claimed that he was the Messiah, a king. The first
charge is that which is made against Jesus in the Talmud, namely,
that he was a seducer. It is equivalent to the modern term, heretic.
Viewed from the point of view of narrow Jewish ceremonialism, there
was truth in the charge; but with the Roman governor it had Uttle
weight. The second charge was a deliberate perversion of the facts,
for Jesus had taken direct issue with the extremists of his nation in
teaching the duty of giving to Caesar his due (fCXXXV111). The
charge was well calculated to rouse the suspicions of Pilate, whose
chief duty was to see that the rebellious Jews paid their regular tribute
to Rome. The last was evidently the chief charge, as is indicated by
Pilate's "question. Again Jesus' answer was carefully qualified. To
have answered "No" might have resulted in his acquittal, but he
could not do so and remain true to his convictions. To have answered
"Yes" would have been equally misleading. In the mind of Pilate,
Jesus' answer was apparently equivalent to saying, "Judge for your
self." The Roman governor's decision, "I find no fault in this man,"
was doubtless based on the impression made upon him by the accused
and by his knowledge of the character and reputation of his accusers.
With this decision Pilate regarded the case as closed, but he soon
found that he had to deal with the pertinacity and devilish ingenuity
of the high priests. Ordinarily the Roman governors were quite con
tent to leave the punishment of Jewish criminals to the native tribunal.
If the sanhedrin in full session had regularly condemned Jesus to death
and thus assumed the responsibility, it is more than probable that
286

JESUS' TRIAL BEFORE PILATE
Pilate would have at once acquiesced in their decision. It is doubt
ful, however, whether the high priests, even with their influence and the
popular prejudice against Jesus, could have carried their point. At
least this would have been impossible, if the laws governing the san
hedrin that are recorded in the Mishna were then in force. For no
criminal could be tried on the day immediately preceding the Sabbath,
or a sacred feast, or condemned at the same session as that at which his
case was tried. The object of the crafty conspirators was plainly to
throw the responsibility on Pilate and thus to be able to say to the
world: "Even the Roman rulers found the Galilean seducer a criminal
worthy of death." Accordingly, Jesus' accusers went on to reiterate
and expand -their charge. Pilate, perceiving their purpose, endeavored
to shift the responsibility to Herod. Even though Luke alone recounts
this incident, the grounds on which its historicity has been questioned
are insufficient. In the light of Pilate's statement to the high priests
in Luke 23:6, that Herod sent Jesus back to them, it appears that verse 10,
which states that they pled their case before Herod, is an interpolation
from Mark 153. Otherwise the narrative is thoroughly consistent with
the situation. Herod's curiosity was natural. Jesus' silence in the
presence of "that fox" was equally so. The circumstantial statement
that Pilate's act established a friendship between himself and Herod
confirms the reliability of the narrative. It is also significant that
the Lucan narrative states that Jesus was mocked and arrayed in royal
garments, not by the soldiers of Pilate, but by those of Herod.
Pilate's policy at this time reveals that vacillation, combined with
selfish cruelty, which marked his career. He was entirely willing to
cruelly scourge him whom he pronounced innocent; but his innate
Roman sense of justice made him eager to release Jesus. The crafty
high priests knew the weakness of the man, and played upon it. In
his extremity he apparently appealed to the crowd, in the hope that ilie
sympathizers with Jesus would support him in refusing the demands
of the leaders of the nation. The attempt, however, was futile. The
high priests had taken good care that their agents and supporters
should be present in goodly numbers, and their cry, "Crucify him!
Crucify him! " decided the issue. Jesus was condemned and Barabbas,
the insurrectionist and murderer, was released. Only Matthew tells
of Pilate's public washing of his hands. Many question this, for it is
doubtful if a Roman official like Pilate would have resorted to such a
measure to vindicate his execution of a humble Jewish prisoner. The
story may, perhaps, be the beginning of the tradition which was later
287

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
expanded in the apocryphal Acts of PUate. It is, however, a symbolic
interpretation of what Pilate was trying to do throughout the trial.
Of similar origin was probably Matthew's account of the dream of
Pilate's wife. In the broad perspective of history we need no official
or miraculous confirmation of Jesus' innocence. His condemnation
was the result of the murderous hate of a group of unprincipled men
and of a gross disregard of the Roman traditions of justice. In justice,
however, it must be said that it was not the act of the Jewish nation
as a whole, nor, in all probability, of its best representatives. It is
equally important to note that Jesus courted death no more than he
feared it. Amidst the passionate scenes of that early morning he alone
was serenely confident, assured that God would surely overrule the
crimes of men and establish his divine reign.

§CXLm. JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
1. The Now the soldiers led Jesus away within the court, that is,
S^k" the Praetorium. Then calling together the whole cohort,
by J*e they clothe him in purple, and after plaiting a crown of
diers thorns, they put it on him. And they began to salute him,
iM£:r£, HaU, King of the Jews! And they smote his head with a
Matt. ree<* ano- they spat on him, and bending the knee they did
27*'- ' homage to him. And when they had mocked him, they
stripped off the purple and put his own garments upon him.

2. The And they lead him out to crucify him, and compel a pass-
fcdon erby to carry his cross, a certain Simon of Cyrene, who was
i slo*r-« coming from the country (the father of Alexander and Rufus) .
«jtt.( And they bring him to the place, Golgotha, which translated
Luke" means, "the place of a skull." Then they offered him wine
23».«> flavorefj ^th myrrh; but he would not take it. And they
crucify him and divide his garments among them, by casting
lots over them as to what each man should take. And it
was the third hour when they crucified him. The super
scription stating his crime was inscribed, THE KING OF
THE JEWS. And with him, they crucify two robbers, one
on his right hand, and one on his left. And those who
passed by reviled him, wagging their heads and saying, Ha!
thou who wouldst destroy the temple and rebuUd it in three
days, save thyself and come down from the cross! Like-
288

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
wise the high priests also mocked him among themselves
with the scribes, saying, Others he saved; himself he can
not save. Let the Christ, the King of Israel, come down
now from the cross, that we may see and beUeve! And
they who were crucified with him kept reproaching him.
And when the sixth hour came, darkness was over the 3.
whole earth until the ninth hour. At the ninth hour Jesus jjeath
cried with a loud voice, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani (which {Mark
translated, means, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken cf '
me?). And on hearing it, some of those who stood by, said, 27?"'
See, he is calling Ehjah! Then one ran and, fining the sponge Luke
full of vinegar, put it on a reed and gave it him to drink,
saying, Hold, let us see if Elijah does come to take him down !
But Jesus, after uttering a loud cry, expired. And the veU
of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom. Now
when the centurion, who stood opposite him, saw that he
thus expired, he said, Truly this man was a Son of God.
Now there were also women, looking on from afar. 4. The
Among them was Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of ant"1*
James the younger and of Joses, and also Salome, women ^™e°
who had foUowed him in GalUee, and had ministered to i5<°ar«.
him; and many other women who had come up with him j&att.
to Jerusalem. wjj^
And now when evening came, because it was the Prep- 2ju«.«)
aration, that is, the day before the sabbath, Joseph of An- jesus-
mathaea, a counciUor of honorable position, who was also bM™'k
himself looking for the kingdom of God, took courage and is<" .
went into Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus. And Matt.
Pilate marveUed that he was already dead. And, calling J?"-'*
the centurion, he asked him if he had been dead for a long 2j»-5)
time. Learning the facts from the centurion, he granted
the corpse to Joseph. And he bought a linen cloth, took
him down, wrapped him in the linen cloth, and laid him
in a tomb, which had been hewn out of a 'rock. Then he
roUed a stone against the entrance of the tomb. And Mary
Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses were looking
on to see where he was laid.
I. The Record of Jesus' Crucifixion. Few are the facts regard
ing Jesus' last hours. This was almost inevitable, for the disciples
had fled. Apparently the only sympathizers to witness the crucifix-
289

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
ion were the ministering women who followed Jesus from Galilee and
who looked on from afar.
Mark's narrative is the basis of the account of the crucifixion found
in the other gospels. The author of Matthew follows it closely, ex
panding it at certain points. Thus, for example, he adds to Mark's
statement that the veil of the temple was rent in two from top to bot
tom: "The earth quaked and the rocks were torn apart, and many
bodies of the saints who had fallen asleep were raised and, coming forth
from the tombs after Jesus' resurrection, entered into the Holy City
and appeared to many." This expansion of the story may be due to
the popular belief that the death of great persons was marked by mar
vellous portents. Vergil, in his Georgics (l46e), states that "at the death
of Csesar there was an eclipse from the fourth to the ninth hour."
Mark's statement that "when the sixth hour came a darkness covered
the whole earth until the ninth hour," is believed by many to be based
on the prediction of Amos 89:
And it shall come to pass in that day
Is the oracle of the Lord Jehovah,
That I will make the sun set at noon,
And darken the earth in broad day.
Similarly the statement that the veil of the temple was torn apart may
be the concrete interpretation of the prediction in Amos 91 that Jehovah
would rend the temple from top to bottom. At certain points in the
description of Jesus' crucifixion it would seem that, not being eye
witnesses and lacking exact historical data, the evangelists turned to
the Old Testament prophecies for help in completing the picture.
II. His Last Words. Apparently the women who heard from afar
the loud cry which Jesus uttered just before he died were unable to
distinguish the detailed words. Each of the gospel writers has en
deavored to supply them as best he could. Mark found them in the
¦srords of the suffering martyr who speaks in Psalm 22. The singu
larly appropriate words of this wonderful psalm may have been in the
mind of Jesus and on his lips during his last hours; but from the evi
dence that we possess, it is doubtful if the initial line:
My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?
expressed his dominant thought. Evidently this conviction was
shared by Luke and the author of the Fourth Gospel, for their silence
290

HIS LAST WORDS
indicates that they were either unacquainted with this part of the
Marcan narrative or else deliberately rejected it. With true intuition
Luke interprets the last loud cry of Jesus in the spirit of his prayer in
Gethsemane, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" The
author of the Fourth Gospel, in keeping with his belief that Jesus came
down from heaven to accomplish a preordained task, interprets the
dying Saviour's last cry with the words, "It is finished." As inter
pretations of the different aspects of the crucifixion, the gospel narra
tives, widely variant though they are, each conveys a great truth. Far
more significant than words, however, is the act itself, and the spirit
in which Jesus endured the disappointment and the cruel injustice of
which he was the victim.
HI. The Place and Manner of the Crucifixion. The established
historical facts regarding Jesus' crucifixion, which have been preserved,
may be briefly formulated. The mocking by the Roman soldiers in
the Prsetorium is paralleled by a somewhat similar incident recorded
by Philo (Flaccum, 6). It reflected the scorn with which the Roman
world regarded the Jews. The reference to Simon of Cyrene is one of
the vivid historical details with which Mark frequently illuminates his
narrative. The earlier or present home of Simon was evidently the
city of Cyrene, in northern Africa, which at that time was a strong
Jewish centre (cf. Acts 6s). The expression, "on his way from the
country," is obscure, but if it implies, as seems probable, that he was
coming from labor in the fields, the fact establishes beyond .all doubt
the implication of the Fourth Gospel that Jesus' crucifixion was on
Friday rather than on Saturday, the day of the Passover, when all
work was absolutely forbidden. Mark's narrative implies strongly
that Simon's sons, Alexander and Rufus, were living when he wrote,
and personally known to many of his readers. Their Graeco-Roman
names confirm the statement that their father was a Jew of the disper
sion. Mark is very explicit in his description of the scene of the era- ;
cifbdon, but unfortunately the data required to identify it absolutely
have long since been lost. Mark states that the place was called
"The Skull." Whether this was because of its appearance or because
it had been used as a place of burial is not certain. The Jewish law
of Leviticus 24" and of Numbers 1535, 3S commanded that all public
executions should be outside the city. Roman custom also provided
that crucifixions should take place at a prominent site, usually beside
an important highway; for the object was to impress all possible male
factors with the fate that would overtake them if they committed
291

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
similar crimes. The identification of the place of the crucifixion de
pends largely upon whether the northern wall of Jerusalem in the days
of Jesus followed in general the line of the present city wall or ran far
ther south, so that the traditional site of the crucifixion, now marked
by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, lay outside the walls. The
probabilities are that the present wall marks the northern bounds of
the Roman city. If so, the deserted height just outside the wall,
north of the temple area, was, without much doubt, the place of "The
Skull." It was probably at that time separated from the city by the quar
ries from which Herod had taken many of the stones with which he
rebuilt the ancient city. Later excavations have extended these quar
ries still farther to the north. As travellers have frequently noted,
the remaining rock front above the so-called grotto of Jeremiah, viewed
from certain angles, still presents a resemblance to the form of a skull.
The heights above were probably, in the past as to-day, covered with
shallow tombs, for the Jews, as well as the modern Moslems, believed
that the final judgment scene was to be in the adjacent Kidron Valley.
Hence they were eager that their bodies might be laid here in order
that they might be among the first to arise when the final trump should
be blown announcing the beginning of the messianic era. Hebrews
1312 describes the place where Jesus suffered as "without the gates."
The details of the Fourth Gospel's account of the crucifixion imply
that it took place close to the city. Of all possible sites about Jeru
salem, that north of the temple area, just outside the present Damas
cus Gate and within sight of the great highway that led northward,
best satisfies the biblical data. If this conclusion be true, the excava
tions of the sixteenth century have probably quarried away the rock
on which the cross stood, so that it is embedded somewhere in the
present walls of Jerusalem, and the actual site of Golgotha is somewhere
in the air, twenty or twenty-five feet above the rocky floor of the present
quarry. While this conclusion does not wholly satisfy that narrow
type of faith which glories in sacred sites, it turns our eyes from that
which is material and temporal to the spiritual and eternal significance
of Jesus' death on the cross.
According to the Roman custom, the soldiers sent out to execute a
criminal were responsible for his death. They therefore remained until
the end. The clothes of those condemned also, according to the pre
vailing custom, belonged to them. To mitigate the intolerable suf
ferings of the crucified, wine mingled with myrrh was frequently
292

PLACE AND MANNER OF THE CRUCIFIXION
offered to the victims. Its object was to dull the senses of the one
crucified. Possibly a similar usage is the background for the strange in
junction in Proverbs 31": "Give strong drink to him who is about to
perish." Jesus' refusal of this kindly offer reveals his dauntless spirit
and his desire to retain full consciousness to the last. According to
Mark's chronology, the crucifixion took place about nine o'clock in
the morning and Jesus' death came at three o'clock in the afternoon.
Contemporary writers assert that those who were crucified often sur
vived two or three days. Jesus' early death testifies to the tense ner
vous, as well as physical agony which he endured, and his sudden end,
marked by a loud cry, implies that death did not come to him, as to
ordinary criminals, through gradual loss of strength, but as the result
of a sudden heart failure or kindred cause.
Roman usage also prescribed that the one crucified should wear on
his way to the crucifixion, hung from his neck, a tablet indicating the
cause for which he was condemned. It was this title which, in the case
of Jesus, was placed over the cross. While each of the evangelists has
a different version of this title, its simplest form, the King of the Jews,
as given by Mark, is, without reasonable doubt, the original. To make
the shame complete, and possibly at the instigation of the malicious
high priests, two criminals were crucified beside Jesus. Luke alone,
interpreting with marvellous insight and skill Jesus' attitude at all times
toward the lowly and outcast, tells the story of the penitent thief.
A fitting conclusion to the story of the crucifixion is the testimony
of the Roman centurion. Jesus' manner, his unflinching endurance,
and, above all, the loud cry that proclaimed a physical and spiritual
strength that defied death, apparently so impressed this heathen sol
dier that he declared involuntarily, "Truly this man was a Son of
God" — or as probably expressed, from his heathen point of view, ''a
son of the gods."
IV. Jesus' Burial. Two acts of loving friendship illuminate the
shadows that surround the close of Jesus' mortal life. The one was
the devotion of the women, who had accompanied him from Galilee,
and who, showing greater courage than the twelve disciples, watched
the crucifixion from afar and probably remained until his body was
laid away in the tomb. The other act was the boldness of Joseph of
Arimathsea, who dared avow himself a friend of Jesus and offer what
was probably his own family tomb as a temporary resting-place for
the body of the crucified one. Arimathaea is usually identified with
Ramathaim, near Lydda, on the Philistine Plain. The town is men-
293

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
tioned in I Maccabees ll4. History records only this incident regarding
Joseph. Mark's description of him suggests that he was at the time
a member of the sanhedrin; at least he was a man of wealth and in
fluence in the Jewish state. He is a type of that doubtless large group
of sympathizers whose names do not appear in the early, comparatively
meagre gospel records which deal chiefly with Jesus' work in Galilee.
The author of the Fourth Gospel is probably right in implying, as he
does in 1938, that Jesus had many secret followers. The rapid growth
of the early Jerusalem church strengthens this inference. The swift
ness and secrecy with which the high-priestly conspirators carried
through their plot suggest strongly that they feared a popular oppo
sition which did not have time to crystallize and to which there is no
direct reference in the gospel narratives.
Ordinarily the bodies of those who were crucified were publicly ex
posed long after their death and then thrown away as common refuse.
The imminence of the Passover feast made it necessary to remove Je
sus' body at once; therefore Joseph's offer was most opportune. That
the interment was but temporary, until the Passover was past, is im
plied by the situation. The exact site of this tomb will, of course,
never be known, for no inscription would be placed upon it. The re
cently discovered, so-called Gordon's tomb, near Jeremiah's Grotto,
a few steps from the quarries (which represent the most probable site
of the crucifixion) possesses a peculiar interest. Even though it may
not be the tomb of Joseph, it is a splendid example of a tomb of the
period. A small door which could be readily closed by a large stone,
leads into a rock-cut room lighted by a small opening in the front.
Two spaces are cut in the rock for the bodies of the dead. In western
terms, it would be called a vault rather than a tomb. In some such
place as this, as the sun was beginning to set over the Western hills
and the Jews were completing their preparations for the approaching
Passover meal, the body of Jesus was temporarily laid to rest
V. The Date of Jesus' Death. The chronology of Jesus' life is
shrouded with uncertainty for the reason that the earliest gospel writers
were interested primarily in his teachings and not in dates. The one
definite chronological datum in the gospels is found in Luke 31"'. It
states that John the Baptist began his ministry in the fifteenth year of
Tiberius. Even here there is a slight element of uncertainty, for it is
held by some writers that this should be reckoned from 12 a.d., when
Tiberius became co-regent, rather than from 14 A.D., when he actually
became emperor. There is no reason, however, for interpreting Luke's
words other than in their natural meaning. The fifteenth year of the
294

THE DATE OF JESUS' DEATH
reign of Tiberius extended from August nineteenth of the year 28 to
August nineteenth, 29 a.d. This date is supported in general by the
statement in John 220, that Herod's temple, which was begun in 19 B.C.,
had been forty-six years in building. Allowing a year or two for the
necesssary preparations for the building, it would establish the date
of the beginning of Jesus' work about 28 or 29 a.d. The date of Jesus'
death turns upon the duration of John's public ministry and later im
prisonment, for Jesus' active work in Galilee appears to have begun at
the time of John's imprisonment and to have ended soon after the
news came of John's death. The radical nature of the teachings of
both John and Jesus suggests that the period of their activity was com
paratively brief. If John began his public preaching in the latter part
of 28 or in the early part of 29 a.d. it is probable that it lasted only a
few months. Furthermore, it is doubtful if John was imprisoned more
than a year. If so, Jesus' public work, probably begun early in 29,
ended at the Passover in March or April of 30 a.d. The testimony of
the synoptic gospels, on the whole, favors a ministry of a year or a year
and a half. It is difficult, however, to believe that Jesus could have
accomplished all that he did in so brief a period. Possibly the days
spent in retirement with his disciples extended to many weeks and
months. The testimony of the Fourth Gospel is usually cited in sup
port of a longer ministry. The evidence turns on John 64, which sug
gests that there was a Passover in the middle of Jesus' ministry that
is not mentioned in the synoptic gospels. This passage in the Fourth
Gospel was apparently unknown to the Church Fathers. The Christian
writers of the second century are unanimous in the belief that Jesus'
ministry was limited to one year. The same belief is shared by many
of the Church Fathers of the third century. The impression given by
the gospels of the strenuousness of Jesus' work and the intensity of the
opposition which it aroused, on the whole, tends to confirm the weighty
testimony of these earliest Church Fathers. If these data be accepted,
the death of Jesus took place in March or April of a.d. 30. Certainly
it was after the year 26, when Pilate entered upon his procuratorship,
and before 33, when Caiaphas ceased to be high priest.
VI. The Meaning of Jesus' Death. No event in history has been
more differently interpreted than the death of Jesus. For Jesus, his
death on the cross meant suffering, shame, and cruel injustice, from
which he naturally, inevitably shrank; but these were only passing
incidents, repulsive and unutterably painful though they were. For
him, as his final words to his disciples indicate, his death meant the
triumphant completion of his life-work and the realization of his ex-
295

JESUS' DEATH AND BURIAL
alted ideal. Leonard, in his The Poet of Galilee has truly said, "One
pain at least was spared Jesus: he had not to suffer the pain of mocking
his own visions by any disloyalty or weakness in himself." Having put,
his hand to the plough, he had not turned back, but quietly and con
sistently had given his all, even his life-blood for those whom he loved
and the Father whom he served. The giving of his life was, in one
sense, his supreme gift to his fellow-men. It was also the highest
expression of his loyalty to God's will as revealed to his inner conscious
ness and by the course of events. In the light of all that he believed
and taught, it is also clear that for Jesus his death was the open door
to a still larger fellowship with God.
The "shame of the cross," which in reality was the glory of the cross,
marked a great transformation in the character and ideals of Jesus'
disciples and of the early church which followed their leadership. It
forever tore away from their eyes the veil of the popular, national,
materialistic type of messianic hope, which had hitherto beclouded
their vision of the ideal which Jesus had sought with all his marvel
lous skill as a teacher of men to set clearly before them. It confirmed,
as no other event could, all that he had taught them regarding himself
and his mission. His departure also threw upon them the responsi
bility of carrying on his work. As so often in human history, great
responsibility developed strong men, and in time transformed the self-
seeking, fearful Galilean peasants into effective preachers and teachers
who did not flinch when they faced a martyr's death. Above all,
Jesus' death revealed to them, far more clearly than his previous teach
ings, the way in which they must perform the task which he left them.
Henceforth they trod unhesitatingly the way of the cross and even
gloried in its pain and shame, for they recognized that this was the way
their Master had trod and that in following it they were assured of
his approval.
For the Jewish nation the death of Jesus meant the rejection through
its leaders of God's highest revelation to them. It was also a tragic
demonstration of the fatal fallacy inherent in the prevailing legalistic
religion. In the eyes of the high priests who hunted him to death
Jesus was, indeed, a dangerous iconoclast. In refusing to observe the
explicit demands of the ritual, in casting aside the bonds of the Sab
bath legislation, and in declaring that God's forgiveness could be se
cured entirely apart from sacrifice and formal expiation, he had trans
gressed the canons of Jewish law which they held to be most binding.
Strictly speaking, Jesus was put to death in accordance with Jewish
law as then interpreted; but by that act the law itself stood condemned.
296

THE MEANING OF JESUS' DEATH
The public rejection of Jesus' teachings, so tragically expressed in his
death, marked the beginning of the destruction of the Jewish nation,
for the only thing that would have saved it was a full acceptance and
application of the principles which he advocated. If Judaism had
faithfully rendered to "Caesar that which was Caesar's and to God that
which was God's," the historian would not have been called to record
the calamities of the year 70 a.d.
For the human race the death of Jesus was the transfiguration of all
that he was and taught. This fact is expressed by the profound words,
recorded in the Fourth Gospel: "I, if I be lifted up, will draw all men
to me." It was the challenge to his race, to his generation, to the whole
world to halt and to heed. History presents many illustrations of thi3
principle. The tragic death of Lincoln, at the height of his power and
usefulness, transfigured and ennobled the simplicity and beauty of his
character and the greatness of his service for humanity. Jesus' death
was the supreme demonstration that the one unfailing way in which
sinners may be saved is the way of love and complete self-sacrifice.
His death was the final, incontrovertible proof of his love and willing
ness to give himself for them and for all who needed his help. In an
equally true and concrete sense it was the noblest expression of God's
love for man. Thus Jesus' death transformed the friend of the dis
ciples, and the shepherd of the lost sheep of Israel, into the Saviour of
the world, and expressed the purpose and meaning of his life in terms
intelligible to all ages and races.
§CXLIV. THE LIVING CHRIST.
Now I make known to you, brothers, that gospel which I 1.
preached to you, which also you received, in which also you ica-u "
stand, by which also you are being saved, if you hold fast J$unt
the word which I preached to you, unless you beUeved in Jesus-
vain. For I passed on to you first of all, that which I also pear-
received ; that Christ died for our sins according to the script- JJgg
ures, and that he was buried; and that he had been raised dis-
on the third day, according to the scriptures and that he oPc™.
appeared to Cephas, then to the Twelve. Then he appeared £j?'"'
to upward of five hundred Christian brothers at one time, Mk. i«
of whom the greater number are stiU aUve, though some Luke*8
are asleep; then he appeared to James; then to all the |J|J-
apostles; and last of aU, as to the chUd untimely bom, he Act.
appeared to me also. 297

THE LIVING CHRIST
I. The Immediate Effect of Jesus' Crucifixion upon His Dis
ciples. The direct evidence that the tomb could not hold Jesus is
threefold: (1) the marvellous transformation in the spirit and work ol
his disciples; (2) the direct testimony of the earliest New Testament
writer, Paul, and (3) the practically universal belief of the early church,
recorded not only in the variant accounts of the resurrection found in
the canonical and extra-canonical gospels, but also in its life and ac
tivity through the succeeding centuries. This evidence rests not merely
upon historical documents but is written in the life of the great civ
ilized nations during the intervening centuries. Unfortunately the
earliest gospel source, the collection of the sayings of Jesus, appears to
have been silent regarding his resurrection. Even the direct testi
mony of Peter ceases with his tragic denial of Jesus. In the light of
the situation, and of occasional references that have survived in the
synoptic gospels, it is possible, however, to picture the immediate effects
of Jesus' death upon his disciples. At first they seem to have been not
only terrified, but stunned. The suggestion that Jesus was to face
death at Jerusalem had at an earlier memorable occasion aroused Peter's
protest. Evidently he voiced the feelings of the other disciples. At
last, suddenly, that which Jesus' followers had thought might be only
the product of his imagination, although, as we can see, a natural an
ticipation, had become an awful reality. The blow was all the more
crushing because it had been struck by the recognized religious leaders
of their nation and with the full authority of Rome. According to the
oldest record, no supernatural portents had recorded the divine disap
proval of the act. The temple still stood and pilgrims by thousands
were busily engaged on that memorable Passover evening in preparing
for the great national festival. The foes of Jesus, the crafty, unscrupu
lous high priests ruled the Jewish nation as they had before, and stood
as the official representatives of Jehovah's power on earth. Rome,
the cruel oppressor of the Jews, was still regnant The sun, as on pre
ceding days, descended in the western sky. Darkness that penetrated
their very souls closed in upon them. They who had been so depend
ent upon their Master were left leaderless. More than that, suspicion,
begotten by the old popular Semitic dogma that found in all calamity
and suffering a sinister significance, crept into their minds and threat
ened for tbe moment not only to crush all hope, but even to shake their
faith in Jesus' goodness and sincerity. Gloom impenetrable and woe
unutterable took possession of them.' And with the darkness came
fear. Like hunted animals they fled, as the oldest account implies,
back to their old haunts in Galilee. There, apparently for a brief time,
298

THE IMMEDIATE EFFECT OF JESUS' CRUCIFIXION
they resumed their former occupations (cf. testimony of Gospel of
Peter and a possible variant, Luke 56-»). For the moment they must
have seemed to themselves like men who had followed a glorious star
over hills and valleys and through trackless wastes, until suddenly it
had vanished and they were left in darkness.
II. Their Sudden Recovery of Faith and Courage. Of the
many marvellous facts recorded in the gospel history none is more
astonishing than the transformation in the character and ideals of the
disciples that came apparently within a few days after the death of
Jesus. What is the explanation of these well-authenticated historical
facts? May the new energy and activity of the disciples be explained
as a result of their quiet but intense meditation on what Jesus had taught
them and of a return of their old love and loyalty to him? Was it
because in the light of the event they now understood the meaning of
his warnings that the way of the true Messiah would be the way of the
cross? Was it also because they reinterpreted the Jewish scriptures
in the light of "the shame of the cross" and saw that what at first had
stunned them was but the fulfilment of those ancient writings? Cer
tainly this method of interpreting the crucifixion occupied a prominent
place in the thought of the early apostles. Thus in I Corinthians
15> • * Paul declares that "Christ died for our sins according to the
scriptures" and "that he was buried and that he rose on the third day
according to the scriptures." In the speech attributed to Peter in
Acts 2M-a* he found in the Psalms predictions of Jesus' crucifixion and
resurrection (cf. also Acts 1334"37 based on Isa. 55s and Ps. 1610).
Similarly Luke and the author of the Fourth Gospel interpreted Jesus'
resurrection as the fulfilment of the scriptures (Luke 24" and John
209). Did their interpretation of these ancient predictions and Jesus'
own words regarding his death and future relations to them and the
associations suggested by the return to scenes which recalled at every
point his personality and teachings create in their minds an impression
of their Master so definite that it was transmitted by suggestion and
contagion from disciple to disciple until that sense of his immediate
presence became the commanding force in all that they thought, said,
and did? Modern psychology is able to produce analogies that are
in many ways exceedingly close. Meditation amidst familiar environ
ment on a departed friend sometimes results in a vision of the departed
which is as vivid and realistic as an ordinary daily experience. These
visions not infrequently come to men and women whose sanity cannot
be questioned. It is not strange, therefore, that there are many mod-
299

THE LIVING CHRIST
ern New Testament scholars, as well as scientists, who are inclined thus
to interpret the resurrection stories.
It is important to note in passing that this view, far removed as it
is from the current doctrines of the church, does not undermine the
historical foundations of Christianity. The essential elements in the
gospel narratives, after all, are what Jesus was and taught; and these
corner-stones stand quite independent of the resurrection stories. In
any case, it was the influence of Jesus' personality and words that re
mained with his disciples and encouraged and inspired them to heroic
actions. Likewise, belief in individual immortality does not primarily
depend upon whether or not Jesus communicated with his disciples
after his death, although the establishment of the fact that he did
would furnish in many ways the strongest support to that hope. God
in any case remains the God of the living, not of the dead, and the evi
dences of his fatherly training and provision for the future life of his
children abide, even though none come back from the grave to attest
these basal truths.
The question, however, remains, Does this naturalistic interpreta
tion satisfactorily explain all the facts and the evidence of the earliest
biblical records?
III. Paul's Testimony. The Christian church in the past has
turned almost exclusively to the gospel narratives for the record of the
resurrection. This tendency was perfectly natural, for they furnish
the logical conclusion to the gospel story. They do not, however, repre
sent the earliest and most direct testimony. That is found in I Co
rinthians, one of the earliest and most unquestioned epistles of Paul.
It was written within the first quarter-century after the death of Jesus
and after the great apostle to the Gentiles had had ample opportunity,
as he states in Galatians l1*, to learn from Peter and James, the brother
of Jesus, the details regarding the events immediately following the
death of Jesus. The subject was of keenest interest to Paul and is
central in all his teachings. His testimony is that of a man famous for
his sanity in action and for his fidelity to his convictions — no matter
where they led him. It embodies not only that regarding which he
was well informed through converse with others, but also his own
personal experience. It is all the more significant because it is entirely
independent and in many respects at variance with the accounts found
in the gospels. It speaks of six appearances to various disciples or
groups of disciples of whom Paul himself is the last. Its exact designa
tions of time and order imply that it records all the appearances known
300

PAUL'S TESTIMONY
at the period when he wrote. Of these six appearances a definite ref
erence is found in the gospels to only one — that to Peter — to which
simply an allusion is made in Luke 24". Paul's reference to the ap
pearance to the Twelve is so brief that it is not clear which of th»
gospel accounts of the appearance to the disciples records this event.
The James mentioned by Paul is clearly the brother of Jesus, who late*
became the head of the Jerusalem church.
It is significant that Paul describes Jesus' appearances to the other
disciples in precisely the same terms as he does the Lord's appearance
to him on the way to Damascus. Herein is found the key to the inter
pretation of the essential facts underlying the variant narratives of
the resurrection appearances. In order, however, to understand the
variations between the testimony of Paul and that of the gospels it is
essential to note the diverse beliefs regarding the resurrection of the
dead that were current in Paul's day.
IV. A Comparison between the Current Conceptions of the
Resurrection of the Dead and That of Paul. Three forms of belief
regarding the life beyond the grave were current in Paul's day. The
Sadducees rejected the comparatively recent belief in individual resur
rection and held with the author of Job 3 that the life after death was
a passionless, joyless existence. With Ben Sira, they believed that
"thanksgiving perishes from the dead as from one who is not." The
majority of the Jewish people, however, accepted the teaching of the
Pharisees that the dead would be again restored to life and inhabit
their former bodies. This belief is clearly expressed in Daniel 12s:
"And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake;
some to everlasting life and some to shame and everlasting contempt."
This firmly established hope is repeatedly expressed in contemporary
Jewish writings (II Mac. 78- I0' "• » 14«; II Esd. 7»-ffi, Jos., Antiq.,
XVIII, 1', Jew. War, III, 86)- The same hope was held by the early
Christians (Acts 4s Rev. 20"). The chief characteristic of this expec
tation was the belief that the dead would be restored again to life on
earth, there to participate with the saints who survived in Jehovah's
eternal kingdom. The conception of individual immortality apart
from the body was foreign to orthodox Jewish thinking. Hence the
Jewish Christians naturally thought of Jesus as reappearing in bodily
form. Tradition taught that Moses and Elijah came back in visible
form to converse with Jesus and that at his death the saints arose from
the dead and appeared to many. Herod believed that Jesus was John
the Baptist returned to life. To the common people of Palestine, from
301

THE LIVING CHRIST
whom came the first and second generations of Christians, the rising
from the dead was no more marvellous than an eclipse.
About the beginning of the Christian era, through the Jews of the
dispersion, the Platonic idea of spiritual resurrection was beginning to
touch certain Jewish minds. While the orthodox Jewish belief is reas
serted in certain parts of the Wisdom of Solomon, this new type of hope
is also reflected, as, for example, in such statements as "God created
man for incorruption" and "the souls of the righteous are in his hand."
A slightly variant type of this belief, very similar to that held by the
Stoics, is expressed in the first century writing, known as IV Macca
bees. The same teaching appears also in the Palestinian Book of
Jubilees, in 2311, B: "The bones of the righteous will rest in the earth,
and their spirits will have much joy."
In Paul's discussion of the resurrection, in I Corinthians 154*"50, he
shows the influence of the pharisaic doctrine of bodily resurrection in
which he had been instructed from his earliest days. It is evident,
however, that his own experience had demonstrated to him its insuf
ficiency. Repeatedly and unequivocally he rejects it He declares
that "flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God," nor does
the "corruptible inherit incorruption." In the last statement he echoes
the teaching of the Wisdom of Solomon, already quoted. Further
more, he adds that "the dead shall be raised incorruptible." Like the
Jews of his day, however, he looked forward to a great judgment scene,
in the twinkling of an eye at the last trumpet, the dead should be raised
incorruptible, and this mortal should put on immortality. From II
Corinthians 51-' it appears that he believed that each individual soul
would after death be clothed with a heavenly body prepared by God
for bis own. Paul, therefore, represents the transition from the ma
terial Jewish belief in the bodily resurrection to that purely spiritual
conception of individual immortality which was the great contribution
of the wisest thinkers of Greece. It is this peculiar Pauline concep
tion of the resurrection that has determined the form of many of the
familiar narratives in the closing chapters of the gospels. Indeed, in
these narratives each of the different conceptions of the resurrection
current in the first Christian century are reflected.
During the second half of the first Christian century, when the gos
pels were written, the leaders of the church were also powerfully in
fluenced by the Gnostic controversy. The Gnostics believed that the
flesh is inherently evil. Hence they refused to believe in a real incar
nation of God in the human Jesus, but taught that the divine Logos
302

CURRENT CONCEPTIONS OF THE RESURRECTION
only appeared to take the form of man. Therefore they were some
times called Docetists — the name being derived from the Greek word
meaning to appear. The tradition of a spiritual resurrection seemed to
support the contention of these Docetists, who were trying to spiritu-
ualize the entire life of Jesus so as to make it a mere appearance. Hence
Ignatius insists, not only that Jesus was "truly crucified and truly
died," but also that he was "truly raised from the dead" (Tral., IX;
see also Smymeans, III). "For I know that after his resurrection also,
he was still possessed of flesh. . . . And after his resurrection he did
eat and drink with them as being possessed of flesh." It is probable
that this fear of Gnosticism and similar heresies was one of the chief
reasons why Jesus' physical resurrection is so strongly emphasized in
the narratives of Luke and John.
V. A Comparison of the Different Gospel Records of the Res
urrection. Nowhere do the gospel narratives present wider variations
than in their accounts of the resurrection. The stories, however, fall
into two general groups: (1) those which place the different revelations
to the disciples in Galilee, and (2) those which gather about Jerusalem.
Unfortunately the original ending of the Gospel of Mark has been lost;
but the fragment which remains indicates that the lost ending recorded
a revelation to the disciples in Galilee. According to Mark 1428, Jesus
promised his disciples, even before his death, that after he was raised
up he would go before them into Galilee. According to Mark, the com
mand given to the women at the empty tomb was to tell his disciples
and Peter: "He goeth before you into Galilee. There shall ye see him
as he said to you." The fragment of the early Mark narrative records
the visit of the three women, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of
James, and Salome, to the tomb on the first day of the week after sun
rise. They find the stone rolled away and a young man dad in a white
robe sitting within. He tells them that Jesus is risen and calls their
attention to the empty tomb. After receiving the promise just quoted,
that Jesus will appear in Galilee, the women fled, but "said nothing to
anyone, for they were afraid." Here the original version of the Gos
pel of Mark ends abruptly.
The Gospel of Matthew quotes the Marcan fragment with certain
additions, as, for example, the statement that there was a great earth
quake and that an angel descended from heaven and rolled away the
stone. It also repeats the commands to the disciples to go to Galilee
where they should see the risen Jesus. It states, however, that the
women, instead of saying nothing to any one, ran and told the disciples,
303

THE LIVING CHRIST
and that on the way Jesus met them, and that they took hold of his
feet and worshipped him. Then Jesus himself gave the command:
"Go tell my brothers that they depart into Galilee and there shall they
see me." The first gospel concludes with a brief account of his appear
ance to the eleven disciples in Galilee "on the mountain which Jesus had
appointed them."
The recently discovered Gospel of Peter apparently also confirms
this older group of narratives, which place the appearances of Jesus to
his disciples in Galilee. Unfortunately the conclusion of the decisive
paragraph is lost The first part reads: "But I, Simon Peter and
Andrew my brother, took our nets and went out on the sea. And with
us was Levi, the son of Alpheus, whom the Lord ..." From the
context it may be inferred with great probability that the origina
described an appearance of Jesus to Peter. It may have been thai
first appearance to which Paul refers in I Corinthians 15. The twenty-
first chapter of John, which is probably a later addition to the original,
also gives a detailed account of an appearance to the disciples beside
the Sea of Galilee in which Simon Peter is the central figure. Thus
the oldest and some of the later accounts are agreed in stating that
Jesus' appearances to his disciples were in Galilee, amidst the familiar
scenes of his work with them. Luke's account of Jesus' meeting with
Peter and the other disciples beside the Sea of Galilee (51-11) is also
regarded by some scholars as a variant of the same narrative. Peter's
words, "Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, O Lord," are more
appropriate in this setting than before his denial of his Master.
While Paul says nothing regarding the place, the appearances which he
records find their most natural setting in Galilee. There five hundred
of his followers might be found gathered together soon after h«s death,
but not in Jerusalem. The revelation of the risen Lord proWdy came
to James, the brother of Jesus, somewhere in Galilee, eitJ* at Caper
naum or Nazareth, for not until he saw the real significwice of Jesus'
character and work would he join his followers at Jerusalem.
The resurrection stories in Luke depart widely from those in Mark.
Their setting throughout is at Jerusalem and Judea; Luke is abso
lutely silent regarding the appearances in Galilee. Even the details
regarding, the initial appearance to the women differ at almost every
point from those recorded in Mark and Matthew. Not after sunrise,
but at early dawn, they go to the tomb, which they at first find empty.
Then not one, but two men, in shining clothing, stand 'before them, and
tell them that Jesin* *"»¦««* dead but risen. The promise that he will
304

DIFFERENT RECORDS OF THE RESURRECTION
appear to his disciples in Galilee here reappears in very different form:
"Remember how he spoke to you when he was yet in Galilee." The
number of women who visited the tomb is also greatly increased.
While there is no evidence in the other gospels that the disciples were
then in Jerusalem, in Luke they are still present, and Peter, on being
informed, rushes at once to the tomb. Luke alone gives an account
of the journey of the two followers of Jesus to Emmaus. In Luke also
the original narrative has undergone a fundamental' transformation
apparently under the influence of the popular Jewish belief that the
spirits of the dead came back and took possession of the physical body.
In these narratives Jesus is represented as walking, eating, and as
inviting his disciples to touch his body that they might be assured that
he was before them clothed in flesh and blood. This element in the
story is strongly emphasized in the subsequent account of his appear
ance to his disciples, in which he declares: "Handle me and see; for a
spirit has not flesh and bones as you behold me having." In conclu
sion Jesus is represented as having led them out in the direction of
Bethany and after blessing them to have been carried up into heaven.
The Lucan version excludes the appearances in Galilee, for its account
of his disappearance in the heavens is at the close of the day on which
he rose from the tomb, and the narrative ends with the statement that,
"after they had worshipped " their departed master, "the disciples were
continually in the temple blessing God." Acts l14 also leaves no place
for the appearances in Galilee, although it states that Jesus continued
to appear to his disciples for forty days.
The Fourth Gospel, following its usual method when there are widely
differing variants in the earlier gospels, combines both the Galilean
and Jerusalem cycles of stories, but gives the Lucan version the prece
dence. The evidence, however, is reasonably conclusive that the Galilean
group is the older. The Jerusalem cycle of narratives recorded in Luke
apparently grew up about the empty tomb and the scene of Jesus' cruci
fixion, and under the influence of the fact that Jerusalem soon became
the centre of the life of the early Christian community. The two ele
ments which the gospel stories all share in common is the account of
the empty tomb and the certainty that Jesus in some form or other
appeared repeatedly to his disciples. Of these two elements only one
is confirmed by Paul. If he had known of the empty tomb, it is difficult
to see why he did not refer to it. The statement in the older Marcan
version, that the women "said nothing of it to anyone," may perhaps
be intended to explain why this was unknown to the Christian com-
305

THE LIVING CHRIST
munity in the days of Paul. If it is but a later tradition that gathered
about some tomb near the scene of the crucifixion, the problem which
it presents needs no explanation. Assuming that the empty tomb
figured in the earliest narratives, many hold that the body was removed
some time between the close of the Jewish Sabbath and sunrise of the
first day of the week, at the command of Joseph, who, under the press
ure of preparing for the Passover feast, had offered the tomb as a tem
porary resting-place for the body of him whom he secretly respected
or revered. Naturally, Joseph would wish to reserve the tomb for the
use of his own family, and the Saturday night following the Passover
feast offered ample time in which to remove the body of Jesus. In any
case the problem of what became of it was of significance chiefly to
those who shared the current Jewish belief in a bodily resurrection.
The fact that Paul had in part rejected this belief and the influence of
his own personal vision of Jesus may explain why the story of the
empty tomb finds no place in his record.
To summarize the facts: The earliest account of the appearances of
Jesus to his disciples was given by Paul. These appearances, Paul
indicates, were not physical, but in the form of visions. Paul makes
no mention of the empty tomb. The oldest gospel narratives, Mark
and Matthew, speak of it; but Matthew implies that Jesus' revelations
to his disciples were not through the physical senses, but through the
inner spiritual consciousness. Suggestions of physical resurrection are
found only in Luke and John. They all centre about Jerusalem, not
only ignore but also exclude the older Galilean group of narratives, and
apparently represent a later development of the belief in Jesus' resur
rection. VI. The Naturalistic Interpretations of the Resurrection
Stories. To-day three distinct types of interpretation are offered to
explain the resurrection stories. The first may be called the natural
istic, the second the supernatural, and the third the spiritual. The
first type assumes two widely different forms. One that at certain
periods has commanded wide acceptance and is being constantly re
vived assumes that Jesus did not really die, but fainted on the cross,
and that, in the haste of the preparation for the Passover, he was placed
in the tomb before death had really overtaken him. In the quiet of
the night he revived. That marvellous power over physical forces
which he had so often used in the healing of others asserted itself, and
he not only revived, but gathered such accessions of strength that he
was able himself to roll away the stone which guarded the entrance to
306

THE NATURALISTIC INTERPRETATIONS
the tomb. In the dusk of the morning he met the devoted women, as
they came to embalm this body, and told them that he would join his
disciples in Galilee. Amidst the familiar scenes about the Sea of
Galilee he repeatedly appeared to his disciples, until at last the cruel
wounds which he had received proved fatal, and he bade his disciples
a last farewell. Then he breathed out his spirit on the lone hill-top
where he took leave of them.
Others, with more fervent imagination, claim that he survived and
went away to live in retirement far from the scenes of his earlier ac
tivity. To some minds this explanation is alluring, for it satisfies the
implications of a bodily presence that are found in certain of the stories
and especially in those in Luke. But it does not satisfy historical
students, for it finds its support simply in the later stratum of the nar
rative. It also fails to explain Paul's testimony and that of the older
gospel narratives. It is fundamentally at variance with Jesus' char
acter and purpose as revealed in the gospels. Furthermore, it fur
nishes no satisfactory explanation of the later activity of the disciples,
nor does it meet the spiritual demands of the Christian world to-day
any more than it would those of the primitive church.
Another view is that Peter, the emotional, living in an age and circle
characterized by the prominence of ecstasy and similar abnormal men
tal states, under the influence of an hallucination, believed that he
actually saw Jesus. It is urged that in this highly wrought state he
so influenced the other disciples that they had similar hallucinations
and believed that they likewise saw the form and heard the words of
the Master, who had been with them only a few days before and whose
crucifixion, death, and burial they themselves had not witnessed. But
there are many obvious difficulties in accepting this explanation. Why
did these hallucinations not continue indefinitely? The older narra
tives give no support to the theory of a self-generated hallucination.
Above all, this explanation does not satisfactorily explain the trium
phant faith of the apostles and the marvellous conquests of early
Christianity. VII. The Supernatural Explanations. On the surface Paul's
account in I Corinthians 15 and the earliest narratives in the gospels
seem to imply that Jesus, clothed in a glorified body, appeared re
peatedly to the disciples, and last of all to Paul. This explanation
accords with Paul's peculiar theory of the resurrection. It furnishes
an explanation of how Jesus could be seen by five hundred of his fol
lowers at once. It is in some respect similar to that which is claimed
307

THE LIVING CHRIST
regarding their departed friends by modern spiritualists. It postu
lates phenomena hitherto entirely uncorrected by modern science.
To the present age, therefore, as well as to the past, it was a miracle.
In support of this explanation it is strongly urged that, if ever in the
world's history conditions called for a miracle, it was in the days fol
lowing the death of Jesus, and that a supernatural appearance alone
explains the faith and the achievements of those who went forth assured
that they had seen the risen Christ. Throughout the intervening cen
turies this has been the conception that has prevailed in the Christian
church. To-day it appeals, as does no other explanation, to all who
crave a supernatural attestation of Jesus' authority. And yet in this
connection one cannot but recall Jesus' words in the parable of Dives
and Lazarus in which he asserted that even though the dead should
return to life men would not believe their words. Throughout his
entire ministry he sternly refused to win men to the truth by external
signs. Either this prevailing explanation is the true one, or else it
was the popular early Christian as well as the Old Testament way of
recording a deeper spiritual experience.
VIII. The Spiritual Interpretation. In determining the real
nature of the historical fact that underlies the stories of the resurrec
tion, Paul remains the one contemporary witness. His experience on
the way to Damascus is the natural key by which to interpret its true
historical meaning. Unfortunately, he has not given in any of his
epistles a complete or detailed account of that experience. The three
accounts found in the book of Acts are valuable, even though they vary
in detail; but they represent second-hand testimony. Acts 9s states
that his companions heard the voice but saw no man. Acts 22* says
that they saw the light but did not hear the voice. In Galatians 1B- 1B
Paul declares: "I did not receive the gospel from man, nor was it taught
me. Rather I had it by revelation of Jesus Christ. When it was the
good pleasure of him who set me apart from my mother's womb, and
called me through grace to reveal his son in me, that I might preach
him among the Gentiles, I did not immediately communicate with
flesh and blood nor go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before
me." These words of Paul imply that the revelation thus given him
was internal and subjective, not external and objective. He also
traces his inner vision to God, who was thus speaking to and through
him, and thereby preparing him to preach Jesus among the Gentiles.
His more detailed description of the same or a similar experience which
he gives in II Corinthians 121-4 likewise suggests an inner vision: "I
308

THE SPIRITUAL INTERPRETATION
must needs glory, though it is not expedient, but I will come to visions
and revelations of the Lord. I know a man in Christ fourteen years
ago (whether in the body I know not or whether out of the body I know
not. God knoweth) that one was caught up into the third heaven,
and I know that man (whether in the body or apart from the body, I
know not, God knoweth) that he was caught up into Paradise, and
heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter."
Certainly these words of Paul do not indicate that he saw a bodily
presence or an apparition, but rather that his vision was subjective,
and that what he saw was under the influence of a divine power that
took possession of him. Paul's vagueness does not indicate that he
was the victim of an illusion or hallucination, but simply illustrates
the difficulty that confronts every man who attempts to describe a
profound spiritual experience in concrete terms. For his early readers
his bare testimony was sufficient, for it was amply substantiated by his
character and work. It was, in fact, the only explanation of his sudden
transformation from a bitter persecutor into an ardent apostle.
On the basis of this definite testimony of Paul regarding the way in
which Jesus appeared to him, it is possible by analogy to analyze the
similar experiences which came to Peter and the other disciples. The
chief guides are (1) our knowledge of the situation and of the thoughts
and hopes in their minds and (2) the analogous experiences of the Old
Testament prophets. In picturing the process by which "God re
vealed his son in him," Paul used in part the very words employed by
Jeremiah in describing his own initial call (cf. Gal. I16 and Jer. I6).
Although Paul's statement that Jesus "was raised on the third day
according to the scriptures," was probably based on the passage in
Hosea 6J, it may also record an important historical detail. The
sturdy fishermen, pursued by fear and anxiety, would easily reach the
Sea of Galilee on the third day from Jerusalem. That the familiar
environment, forever associated with the words and presence of Jesus,
were important precursors of Peter's vision cannot be doubted. If
Isaiah, the devoted patriot, had not gone up to the temple to worship
at the hour when the news came that Uzziah, the great king, was dead,
his mind might never have received the memorable vision of Jehovah's
holiness and the divine call to service recorded in the sixth chapter of
his prophecies. Peter, the impulsive and emotional, to whom later
came another vivid vision, recorded in Acts 10, had been prepared by
the great Teacher himself for the epoch-making revelation which came
to him as he returned to the memory-haunted scenes about the Sea of
Galilee. Possibly the apocryphal Gospel of Peter has preserved the
309

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
true setting of his vision. It may have been while he and Andrew his
brother were casting their nets into the sea that the vision came which
transformed the vacillating disciple into the courageous apostle and
martyr. From the gospel narratives it may be inferred that, even as
Isaiah in his vision saw Jehovah sitting on his throne, so Peter saw
clearly, with the eye of faith, the Friend and Master, whose spirit and
words filled his mind, directing him to the mission that lay before him.
If the early church had been less interested in signs and wonders and
had been able to preserve more accurately the memory of inner spiritual
experiences, we should have fuller knowledge of the exact nature of
the visions of Christ which came to those other disciples to whom God
spoke, even as he did to Peter and Paul.
One fact stands in clear relief: Peter and the other disciples saw
Jesus. Paul likewise saw Jesus. The exact form of those revelations
is not so essential as the effects traceable throughout the entire history
of the primitive church. In the early Christian centuries they became
the great dynamic that carried the apostles of Jesus to the ends of the
world. It was, indeed, the consciousness of the living Christ that alone
explains the spirit of the early Christians, their simple unflinching hero
ism, and the triumphant power of the message which they proclaimed.
Death had no terrors for them, for they knew that their Master had
conquered it. Whether they gained that knowledge through a series
of unprecedented miracles, through visions, or through the still small
voice of God within their souls, one fact is certain: the Heavenly Father,
through Jesus, had spoken to them, as he had to his earlier messengers,
the prophets, calling them to their divine task and giving them their
message and the power to deliver it. To-day also, as in the past, it is
the vivid consciousness of "the Christ who abides" that gives, vital
power and efficiency to Christianity.

§CXLV. JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
i. The As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness,
S'dn or So must the Son of man be lifted up,
son of That everyone who beUeves in him may have eternal Ufe.
man to For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son,
man- That everyone who beUeves in him might not perish but
(John ^SVe etemal Hf*3'
31*11" For God sent not his son into the world to judge the world,
But that the world might be saved through him.
310

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
He who beUeves on him is not condemned ; 2.
He who beUeves not is condemned already, why50™
Because he has not believed on the name of the only Son of ^e
God. do not
And this is the condemnation, that the Ught has come into Iff'S
the world, are
Yet men have loved the darkness rather than the Ught, SoSmed
For their deeds were evU. ("'u)
For everyone who does wrong hates the Ught and comes not
to the Ught,
Lest his works should be exposed.
But he who does the truth comes to the Ught,
That his works may be manifest, that they have been
wrought in God.
The hour is coming and now is, 3.
When the true worshippers shaU worship the Father in t™?
spirit and truth; snip
For such the Father seeketh to be his worshippers. uainot
God is a Spirit, «*;
And those who worship him, must worship in spirit and truth. {&>¦ ")
Work not for the food that perishes, 4.
But for the food that lasts until eternal Ufe, J^"3 '
Which the Son of man shall give to you. bread
For him the Father, even God, hath authorized. from"
For the bread of God is what comes down out of heaven, «$™,
And gives Ufe to the world. «)
Jesus said, I am the bread of Ufe ;
He who comes to me shall never hunger,
And he who beUeves on me shaU never thirst any more.
I am the Ught of the world ; 6. The
He who foUows me shaU not walk in the darkness, {jf h£a
But he shaU have the Ught of Ufe. world (81M»-d)
If you remain in my word, by the*
You are truly my disciples; fTg£
And you shaU know the truth, SfV"*
And the truth shaU make you free. pSS?
311 *> "

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
7. And Everyone who commits sins is the slave of sin;
fromf68 And the slave remains not in the house forever;
bond- ^ne S°n remains forever.
age of If therefore the Son shaU make you free,
(»b-H) You shaU be free indeed.
8. I am the good shepherd,
th£us And I know my own and my own know me,
Bhep- Even as the Father knoweth me and I know the Father;
of au And I lay down my Ufe for the sheep.
god' And other sheep I have which are not of this fold;
oo>«- Those I must also bring,
And they shaU hear my voice ;
And there shaU come to be one flock, one shepherd.

¦•)

a The I am the resurrection and the Ufe;
of"eter- He who beUeves on me, though he die, shaU Uve;
*»i H,fe And whoever Uves and beUeves on me shall never die at all.
(Il»b:
"•J io. Be- He who beUeves on me,
c^ BeUeves not on me, but on him who sent me.
veais And he who beholds me,
char- Beholds him who sent me.
JSJf I have come into the world as a Ught,
w?u That whoever beUeves on me may not remain in the dark-
of the
Father neSS.
£)2<"" And if anyone hears my sayings and keeps them not, I do
not judge him;
For I came not to judge the world, but to save the world,
He who rejects me and receives not my sayings has one to
judge him;
The word that I have spoken, that wiU judge him on the last
day.
For I have not spoken of myself,
But the Father, who sent me,
He hath commanded me what I should say and what I should
speak.
And I know that his commandment is Ufe eternal.
What therefore I speak, I speak even as the Father hath
told me. 312

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
You caU me Teacher, and Lord, u.
And you say rightly, for so I am. Je8™£
If I then, Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, pie of"
You also ought to wash one another's feet. 8^°4
For I have given you an example, $}f"
That you also should do even as I have done to you.
Indeed, I teU you truly,
A servant is not greater than his master,
Or one who is sent greater than he who sent him.
A new commandment I give you, to love one another, 12.
Even as I have loved you that you also love one another. J^ of
By this shaU aU men know that you are my disciples, i°ye
If you have love one for another.
I am the way, the truth, and the Ufe ; 13.
No one comes to the Father except through me. the"
If you had known me, you would have known my Father also ; ^ayhe
Henceforth you know him and have seen him. Father
•> (I4«>-')
BeUevest thou not that I am in the Father and the Father 14.
in me? =*„
The words that I speak to you, I speak not from myself; a°dkg
But the Father who abides in me doeth his works. reveal
BeUeve me, I am in the Father and the Father in me; Father
Or else beUeve me on account of the works themselves. <"• ">
Indeed I teU you truly, 15.
He who beUeves on me, he also shaU do the works that I do ; S™1"
And greater works than these shaU he do, because I am going *£*$„
to the Father. works
And whatever you shaU ask in my name, I wiU do it, T^elr
That the Father may be glorified in the Son. pray-
H you ask for anything in my name I wiU do it. gSbe
H you love me you wiU keep my commandments. grant- (1S-1S1
And I wUl pray the Father, and he shaU give you another 17.
Comforter, spirit
That it may be with you forever, even the Spirit of truth, °futu
Which the world cannot receive, for the world neither be- to be
holds it nor knows it; them"
But you know it, because it remains with you and is in you. <¦"¦ ">
313

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
is. He who holds fast my commands and keeps them,
^d He it is who loves me;
°[. j*e And he who loves me shaU be loved by my Father,
fui (») And I wiU love him and wUl manifest myself to him.
19. Holy Father, keep them in thy name which thou hast given
Jesus' __
prayer me,
forhis That they may be one, even as we are one.
cipies WhUe I was with them, I kept in thy name those whom thou
07'"- l,.rf »i™. ™..
is., hast given me;
"") I pray not that thou wouldst take them out of the world,
But that thou wouldst keep them from the evil one.
They are not of the world,
Even as I am not of the world.
Consecrate them by the truth:
Thy word is truth.
As thou hast sent me into the world,
So I have sent them into the world.
And for their sakes I consecrate myself,
That they may also be consecrated in truth.
20. Not for these only do I pray,
fot aii Qut f or those also who, through their words, beUeve in me ;
believe That they may aU be one,
and'his Even as thou, Father, art in me and I in thee,
^^- That they may also be in us ;
(20-j., That the world may beUeve that thou hast sent me.
And the glory thou hast given me I have given them;
That they may be one even as we are one,
I in them, and thou in me,
That they may be perfected in one,
That the world may know that thou hast sent me,
And hast loved them even as thou hast loved me.
Father I would that they, whom thou hast given me, may be
with me where I am,
That they may behold my glory which thou hast given me ;
For thou hast loved me from the foundation of the world.
O righteous Father, while the world knoweth thee not, I
know thee,
And these know that thou hast sent me;
314

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
And I have made known and wiU make known thy name to
them,
That the love wherewith thou hast loved me may be in them,
And I in them.
I. The Fourth Gospel's Conception of Jesus as Teacher and
Saviour. The Fourth Gospel is in accord with the synoptic gospels in
describing Jesus primarily as a teacher. He was the Saviour because
he was the Teacher of men. Knowing God, he led men to God. Hav
ing found peace, he was able to lead men in the way of peace. Having
learned the value of service, he taught men how to find their life by
losing it in behalf of their fellow-men. The synoptic gospels simply
record Jesus' work as the Teacher and Saviour of a limited group. The
Fourth Gospel aims to interpret the larger significance of his work.
Its underlying doctrine of the pre-existence of Jesus and that he was
the incarnation of the divine Logos naturally pervades all its teachings,
and imparts to them that universal note which is largely lacking in the
synoptic gospels. Yet in its detailed interpretation of Jesus as the
Saviour of mankind it develops motives already found in the synoptic
gospels. His work is described by means of a variety of powerful
figures. As a teacher, he is the light which reveals the character and
will of God. He not only guides men in the way of truth, but their
attitude toward him and his teachings is the supreme test of character.
His teaching is the life-giving bread which gives life to the world.
The figure' is drawn from the Old Testament account of the miraculous
provision of manna in the wilderness. The earlier story had already
been allegorized by Philo. The figure of eating the bread was, perhaps,
suggested by Ezekiel's declaration that he ate the roll on which the
divine message which he was to deliver was inscribed. It suggested a
complete assimilation of the truth. The figure of the good shepherd
was frequently used by the earlier prophets in describing Jehovah as
the restorer and guide of his people. The reference to the "other
sheep, not of this fold," points to the period when Christianity had
broken its Jewish bonds and had entered upon its world-wide conquest.
Nowhere is the Fourth Gospel's conception of Jesus as the universal
Saviour of mankind more clearly and beautifully expressed than in the
words: Those I must also bring,
And they shall hear my voice;
And there shall come to be one flock, one shepherd.
315

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
The Fourth Gospel insists that belief in Jesus is essential to salvation;
but belief in Jesus is defined as belief in the God who sent him and whose
will he interpreted. That belief is not something abstract, but must
be experienced and expressed by obeying the commands of Jesus and
by living in accordance with his teachings. Jesus' work, therefore,
as the Saviour of men, according to the Fourth Gospel, consisted (1) in
giving men a true conception of God, (2) in teaching them how to attain
a larger, freer life, and (3) in leading them into such a harmonious, lov
ing relationship with the Father that he might manifest himself through
each individual, even as he did through Jesus. This is the chief thought
in the wonderful prayer in the seventeenth chapter of John, which inter
prets the purpose and meaning of Jesus' work as no other passage in
the gospels. It expresses with marvellous effectiveness and dramatic
power the heroism and the universal significance of Jesus' patient train
ing of his disciples. The setting of these concluding words of com
fort, counsel, exhortation, and prayer, found in John 14^17, is the great
crisis at Jerusalem and the shadow of Judas's treachery. Never was a
theology presented more dramatically or taught more effectively. Say
ings, possibly remembered by the disciples as they fell from the lips
of Jesus, have here been joined with the words which he doubtless
would have uttered had he clearly before his vision the church which
later rose to carry on his message and work. Although they are but
a later postscript to the gospels, they furnish an appropriate conclusion
without which the records would be incomplete.
II. Jesus' Self-Designation. Direct light is thrown upon Jesus'
own conception of his character and mission by the designation which
he constantly applied to himself. The term Son of man occurs eighty-
one times in the synoptic gospels and almost always in the reported
sayings of Jesus. Allowing for duplications in parallel passages and
for cases where a later editor has substituted the term for an original
I, a score of passages remain in which there is little doubt that Jesus
applied this title to himself. Inasmuch as the later Christian writers
ceased to use it, its presence in the gospels is in all probability due to
the great Teacher himself. Barring a few possible exceptions (Mark
210 Matt. 9"), the term does not appear to have been used by him
until the latter part of his ministry. In one or two cases (e. g.,
Mark 2a) it was clearly employed by him as an equivalent to mankind,
for the famous saying, "The son of man is master of the sabbath,"
cannot from its context refer to Jesus, but rather to mankind, whose
rights he was defending. It is possible, therefore, that Jesus used the
316

JESUS' SELF-DESIGNATION
term, even as did the prophet Ezekiel, to emphasize simply his humanity
and sense of dependence upon God, as well as his close kinship with
the men whom he was endeavoring to reach and teach.
In the Aramaic, the common language of Palestine at the beginning
of the Christian era, the term son of man was simply the equivalent
of the word man. Its meaning, however, to the Jew of the first Chris
tian century was closely associated with its use in Daniel 713. In that
oft-quoted verse Daniel declared that he beheld in a vision "One like
the son of man " coming on the clouds of heaven. While in the original
passage the son of man refers either to the saints, who were to par
ticipate in the divine kingdom about to be established, or else to Israel's
patron angel Michael, it appears to have been regarded by later Judaism
as a messianic title. Thus in the forty-sixth chapter of the Similitudes
of Enoch (about 80 B.C.), in response to the question of the seer as to
who was the Son of man, the angel replied: "This is the Son of man
who has righteousness, with whom dwells righteousness, and who re
veals all the treasures of that which is hidden, because the Lord of
Spirits hath chosen him, and his lot before the Lord of Spirits has sur
passed everything in uprightness forever. And this Son of man whom
thou hast seen will arouse the kings and the mighty ones from their
couches and the strong from their thrones, and will loosen the reins of
the strong and grind to powder the teeth of the sinners" ('¦ *). In
certain Jewish circles, therefore, the term son of man suggested the
chief agent in that great act of deliverance, whereby Jehovah was to
vindicate the righteous and inaugurate a universal reign of justice.
The question which cannot be definitely answered, however, is, How
far was this interpretation of the term son of man fixed in the mind of
Jesus and in the minds of the multitudes to which he spoke? The
fact that it is found in two (Enoch and II Esdras) of the few Jewish writ
ings which come from the period gives good ground for believing that
it was far more widely held than these chance references indicate. It
is also significant that in referring to himself Jesus preferred to use the
third person rather than the more direct first person. His purpose in
so doing is, perhaps, revealed by the fact that he employed the term Son
of man almost exclusively in describing his coming suffering and humil
iation. In the light of all these facts, it is probable that he employed
the term (1) because it emphasized his close kinship with his fellow-
men, (2) because, unlike the term Messiah or Servant of Jehovah, it
did not arouse in the minds of his hearers ideas and hopes at variance
with his own ideals, and (3) because it suggested that the one who bore
317

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
it stood in a unique relation to mankind, and was divinely called,
through his teaching and suffering, to perform a peculiar service for his
fellow-men. At least it is impossible to escape the conviction that
with Jesus, as with his later disciples, it expressed the consciousness
of his spiritual messiahship. Like the term Son of God, which is used
as its equivalent in the Fourth Gospel, it proclaimed his kinship with
hi3 disciples to whom "he gave power to become the sons of God"
(John l12), and yet was at the same time a declaration of his unique
relationship to God, as well as to man.
III. Jesus' Interpretation of the Extent of His Mission. Jesus
stated definitely that his mission was primarily to "the lost sheep of
the house of Israel." In his commission to his disciples, recorded in
Mark 313"" and 67> s he said nothing of the larger world beyond Judaism.
Matthew's parallel version (lO6- 6) states that he expressly enjoined
them: Go not in the way of the. Gentiles,
And enter no city of the Samaritans.
Rather go to the lost sheep of the house of Israel.
It is impossible to conceive how a gospel writer, living in the age when
Christianity was rapidly sweeping through the Roman Empire, would
put such a command on the lips of Jesus unless he regarded it as a true
expression of the Master's attitude toward the broad field that opened
before him.
The request of the Syro-Phcenician woman appears to have come to
Jesus as a surprise. Here for the first time he was squarely confronted
by the Gentile problem. His action in granting her request is signifi
cant. His deep love and sympathy for all mankind left no other way
open. That Jesus had in mind the Gentile world is shown by such say
ings as that found in Matthew 811 (cf. 24" and 26") : "I teU you many
shall come from the east and the west and sit down with Abraham and
Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of Heaven, but the sons of the king
dom shall be cast out." This type of universalism had already been
clearly expressed by many of Israel's earlier teachers (cf. Zech. 821' "
Isa. 49s 56""8). While Jesus fully recognized that the kingdom of
God was open to Gentile, as well as Jew, he appears to have confined
his attention and that of his disciples strictly to the members of his
own race. With that directness and enthusiasm which characterized
all that he did, he devoted himself to the field immediately at hand
This conclusion alone explains the difficulties which his intimate dis-
318

JESUS' INTERPRETATION OF HIS MISSION
cipies later experienced in turning to the Gentile world and the long
controversy which raged between them knd Paul, the great apostle to
the Gentiles. At the same time Jesus, in predicting the destruction
of the temple and in showing the comparative unimportance of ritual,
and of many of the current doctrines of his race, demonstrated the
insufficiency of Judaism and laid the foundations for a universal world
religion. He also addressed himself to the individual and deliberately
avoided all distinctively racial questions, thereby placing his mission
and message on a universal basis. Thus not by word but rather by his
acts and the inner content of his teaching Jesus prepared the way for
that universalism which is fully expressed in the Fourth Gospel and
realized in the history of Christianity. The author of Matthew is,
therefore, in a profound sense justified in saying that Jesus left, as his
parting injunction to his followers, the command: "Go then and make
disciples of all the nations" (2819).
IV. Why Jesus Is the Universal Saviour of Mankind. From
what does man need to be saved? This question must be answered
to-day, not in the light of metaphysics or abstract theology, but 'of
physiology, psychology, political science, economics, and sociology. Man
needs to be saved, in the first place, from the dominance of the baser
animal instincts, from childish impulses which he has not outgrown,
and from over-developed or misdirected egoism. He needs to be saved
from ignorance of himself, of his relation to his fellow-men and to his
larger environment which we call God. He must be saved from worry
and fear, which undermine his physical, mental, and moral vigor, and
from low ideals that thwart the development of the perfect man. He
needs deliverance from the palsying effects of past mistakes and sins.
The ordinary man to-day is not troubled or oppressed by fear of an
angry God. The consequences of his misdeeds haunt him and smite
him in a far more direct and intimate way. Man turns to God not for
abstract forgiveness, but for help to escape from these fetters, forged
by himself or by his ancestors, which bind him to that which is base
and mean. In the light of modern psychology, it is apparent that
while a man may experience instantaneously what is commonly called
conversion, his salvation is not attained in a moment, but is a con
tinuous educational process. It is accomplished not by negations, but
by developing within him nobler impulses and ideals and by bringing
him into normal relations with his environment and by teaching him
how to function, that is, effectively to accomplish his life-work in the
environment in which he is placed. 319

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
This is precisely what Jesus did for the needy men and women who
gathered about him during biS work in Galilee. And what he did for
.them then he is able to do for men to-day, for the needs and the proc
esses of salvation are eternally the same. He was able to perform
his saving work because he himself had felt many of the same needs
and had found the only way of satisfying them. No teacher of the
past was more awake to the weakness of human nature than Jesus;
but he also saw and proclaimed clearly its divine possibilities. He
saw that those possibilities could be realized only as each individual
was brought into normal, living touch with the heavenly Father. This
was the great lesson taught by his own experience. Not until he had
heard in his soul the words: "Thou art my beloved son in whom I am
well pleased," did he enter upon his own work as the Friend and Saviour
of sinners. Having heard those divine words, he could not remain
away from his needy brothers. Jesus' experience in this respect is a
type of universal human experience. A man's recognition of his son-
ship to God opens his eyes at once to the fact that all men are his
brothers. Herein lies the miracle of the religious life. It is the eter
nal mystery of conversion. When once a man enters fully into this
filial attitude toward God and fraternal relation with his fellow-men, he
suddenly finds himself saved from the dominance of his passions, his
selfish impulses, from worry and fear. Even the consequences of his
past sins no longer master him, but a great, alluring field of service
opens before him. With this self-forgetting service there comes peace
and the joy and exultation that crown worthy achievement.
Jesus meets men on the common level of universal human experience,
and, having won their confidence, he introduces them not to a meta
physical God, but to a heavenly Father whose heart throbs with solici
tude and love for his earthly children. Then Jesus bids each take up
his cross and follow him calmly, joyfully, and successfully along the
tortuous path of daily experience that leads to the true heaven that
exists both here on earth and in the life beyond. He also initiates him
into that universal fraternity in which all are bound together by a
common love to a common heavenly Father. Jesus is the Saviour of
men because he was the intrepid pioneer, the dauntless explorer in the
boundless world of religious truth and experience, the successful dis
coverer of God, the elder brother, who, as the teacher of his fellow-
men, is able to show them the true goal and value of life and the art
of living. Fellowship with God, discipleship with Jesus, and brother
hood with man — this is a trinity which Christianity presents to the
world to-day as the supreme object of faith and endeavor.
320

REASONS WHY CHRISTIANITY IS CONQUERING
V. Reasons Why Christianity Is a Conquering World Religion.
A study of the life and teachings of Jesus is incomplete without a brief
review of the chief reasons why the faith which he proclaimed by word
and life meets the universal needs of humanity. The first reason is
historical: Christianity sprang from Judaism, the noblest pre-christian
ethical religion. It was the culmination of a genetic development ex
tending through many centuries. It had a broad and varied national
background and therefore is closely and vitally related to humanity
and human needs. It assimilated and combined the essential elements
in the teachings of Israel's prophets, priests, and sages, and fulfilled
the noblest spiritual aspirations of the Hebrew race. As a learned
Jewish scholar (Abrahams) has recently said, "Jesus did what Judaism
was unable to do: He syncretized and harmonized the prophets and the
law, the spirit and the letter, idealism and pragmatism."
By virtue of its genesis and spirit Christianity is also a growing
religion, capable of assimilating that which is best in the spiritual
thought and experience of each succeeding age. It simply and satis
factorily unites religion and ethics by emphasizing religion and by giv
ing to ethics the inspiration of a strong personal faith. It appeals to
the individual will through both the reason and the emotions. Thereby
it touches and completely commands the whole man: his intellect, his
feelings, his faith, and his acts. It sets before men a worthy goal: in
the present life, true happiness, won through self-denial and service
and preserved by faith that frees men from the harassing fears and
worries of life. For the future it holds out the sure promise of indi
vidual peace and joy and growth, since the object of its faith is "the
God of the living," whose beneficent rule is revealed in every phase of
human experience.
Christianity is the only thoroughly democratic religion known to
man. It appeals alike to all classes: the rich and the poor, the strong
and the weak, the learned and the ignorant. It proclaims God to be not
only the one supreme Ruler of the universe, but the Father of each indi
vidual, a God of justice yet a God of love, constantly watching over and
guiding even the humblest of his children. Christianity offers the only
satisfactory solution of the problem of evil, for it shows on the one hand
that temptation and suffering are indispensable factors in the develop
ment of the individual and the race; on the other hand it teaches that
God himself suffers in all the pains that come to his children.
Christianity is pre-eminently a social religion. It emphasizes not
the racial but the universal bonds of human brotherhood. It aims,
321

JESUS THE SAVIOUR OF MANKIND
by training the individual conscience and will, to establish a closely
knit, world-wide fraternity. It glorifies humanity and all normal hu
man relations. It is in no sense ascetic. Instead of taking men out
of the world, it seeks to develop perfect, godlike men in the midst of
society, and through them to solve the problems of society.
Christianity wins and transforms men by the influence of personality
upon personality. It is a spiritual force emanating from God himself,
finding concrete and noblest expression in Jesus, but rendered continu
ously effective through his apostles and his faithful followers in all ages.
It is an ever-broadening wave of direct personal influence, destined ulti
mately to touch and transform all men, so that they, like Jesus, shall
become godlike. The central figure in Christianity is the Son of man,
"tempted in all points like as we are, yet without sin." In the midst
of life he realized the goal of all life: perfect humanity, which is at the
same time divine. The key-stone, therefore, of Christianity is Jesus, our
elder brother, our example, our Teacher, our Master, and our Saviour.

322

APPENDIX

A PRACTICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY
Books for Constant Reference. The number of books on the
life and teaching of Jesus is legion. It is exceedingly difficult to single
out from a library of a thousand or fifteen hundred volumes the few
that are of pre-eminent value. Moffatt's Introduction to the Litera
ture of the New Testament is the most comprehensive, thorough-going,
and, on the whole, most satisfactory introduction to the gospels, as well
as to the other New Testament books. It presents the data and the
bibliography needful for the scientific investigation of the many prob
lems that gather about the gospels. At the same time its spirit and
method are constructive, so that here the general reader will find clearly
set forth the positive results of New Testament scholarship. Several
excellent harmonies are available: Stevens's and Burton's Harmony of
the Gospels, Huck's Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, and Wright's
Synopsis of the Gospels. The general reader will find the brief com
mentaries on the different gospels in the New Century Bible exceedingly
convenient and, on the whole, satisfying. For the student, the volumes
in the International Critical Commentary are the best, although many
will prefer to substitute for Allen's Matthew, Plummer's Matthew. Pro
fessor Bacon's introduction and commentary on Mark, entitled The
Beginnings of the Gospel Story, is both suggestive and stimulating.
The two volumes on The Synoptic Gospels by the reformed Jewish
scholar Montefiore contain a wealth of fresh material.
No one of the many fives of Jesus occupies a pre-eminent place.
The voluminous Life of Jesus by Oscar Holtzmann contains much val
uable material, but it lacks unity and many of its conclusions will not
command acceptance. Stapfer's three volumes, entitled Jesus Christ
Before His Ministry, During His Ministry, and The Death and Resur
rection of Jesus Christ, contain a brilliant, popular interpretation of the
323

APPENDIX
chief facts about Jesus' personality and work. Among the many excel
lent discussions of the teachings of Jesus, that by Stevens, The Teaching
of Jesus, is the briefest and yet one of the most satisfactory. A more
detailed interpretation of Jesus' teachings in the light of the New Testa
ment as a whole is found in Clarke's fascinating Outlines of Christian
Theology. More scientific and critical, yet untechnical, are Brown's
Christian Theology in Outline and The Essence of Christianity. The
social teachings of Jesus are ably interpreted by two leaders in the
modern social movement, Peabody in his Jesus Christ and the Social
Question, and by Rauschenbusch in his Christianity and the Social
Crisis and in his Christianizing of the Social Order. For the larger
interpretation of the personality of Jesus, Bushnell's The Character of
Jesus remains the message of a modern prophet to the present age.
Additional Books of Reference: Introductions. The reader
who is not in touch with the results of modern New Testament histori
cal research will find the little volume by Wrede on the Origin of the
New Testament a delightful portal to this new world. Hill's Introduc
tion to the Life of Christ deals in a conservative yet scholarly manner
with the extra-biblical, as well as the gospel records of the life of Jesus.
The introductions to the New Testament by Bacon and by Peake
present the modern conclusions regarding the origin and history of the
New Testament books in brief, popular form. A more voluminous
treatment of the same themes is found in Julicher's vivid, illuminating
Introduction to the New Testament. While it does not contain the
minute data so ably tabulated in Moffatt's Introduction, it is parallel
to and in many ways supplements the latter. The Oxford Studies in
the Synoptic Problem contain a series of suggestive papers by Professor
Sanday and his colleagues on the different phases of that problem.
Professor Burkitt of Cambridge, in his little hand-book on The Earliest
Sources for the Life of Jesus, and in his larger work on The Gospel His
tory and Transmission, sets forth the results of his brilliant, although
not always convincing, scholarship.
Harmonies. In addition to the harmonies already mentioned, the
critical Greek student will find Rushbrook's Synopticon indispensable.
Tatian's Diaiessaron, which represents an early attempt to combine
the four gospels, is made available for English readers in Hill's The
Earliest Life of Christ or Hogg's Ante-Nicene Christian Library.
Commentaries. To the commentaries mentioned above should
be added two which lack at points the critical historical basis and yet
are rich in their spiritual and interpretative values; Robertson's The
324

APPENDIX
Gospel According to Matthew and Menzies' The Earliest Gospel. Stu
dents will also find three German commentaries especially valuable,
for they each make their distinctive contribution to the interpretation
of the gospels. Wellhausen's critical translation and interpretation,
contained in his Evangdium Matthaei, Marci, and I/ucae, reveal the
same keen insight and suggestiveness that have enriched in many ways
the interpretation of the Old Testament. Holtzmann, Die Synoptiker,
in the Hand-Commentar zum Neuen Testament, is concise and illuminat
ing. Johannes Weiss's Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments is based
on the results of modern critical scholarship, but emphasizes especially
the historical and religious interpretation of the New Testament books.
Lives of Jesus. Keim's History of Jesus of Nazareth still remains
one of the most stimulating interpretations of the personality of the
great Teacher and especially of his forerunner, John the Baptist, al
though many of its conclusions are no longer tenable. Briefer, and
yet of the same general character, is Bousset's Jesus. Even though
many of his positions are extreme, Schmidt, in The Prophet of Nazareth,
has shed new light on the central figure of all history. Even Renan'3
Life of JesuSi although unhistorical and unscientific in its method, still
makes upon the mind of the thoughtful reader the profound impres
sion of the reality of Jesus and that he must be interpreted in the light
of the age in which he lived. Thompson's Jesus According to St.
Mark is a fresh, frank discussion of Jesus' personality and work as
recorded in the oldest narrative gospel, but it lacks proportion and
completeness. Robertson's Epochs in the Life of Jesus, although un
critical, shows a deep spiritual appreciation of the inner experiences of
Jesus. Hitchcock's The Psychology of Jesus has the faults and the
virtues of a pioneer volume in a field which promises rich results. Gar-
vie's Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus contains many flashes of clear
insight, but its apologetic and theological tone and point of view im
pair its usefulness for the ordinary reader. Watson, in his Life of the
Master, and Rhees, in his Life of Jesus, have succeeded perhaps better
than any others in combining in a brief volume the results of the modern
point of view and a brief, constructive presentation of Jesus' personality
and work. Among the more popular interpretative and inspirational
discussions of Jesus may be mentioned Ross's The Universality of
Jesus, Crooker's The Supremacy of Jesus, Jacobs's As Others Saw Him,
Leonard's The Poet of Galilee, Gilbert's Jesus, and Hyde's Jesus' Way.
The Teachings of Jesus. To the volumes mentioned above should
be added Harnack's critical attempt in The Sayings of Jesus to recon-
325

APPENDIX
struct on the basis of the data in Matthew and Luke the original form
of Jesus' utterances, as they were taken by the gospel writers from Mat
thew's collection of his sayings. Among the older interpretations of
the teachings of Jesus, Bruce's The Kingdom of God, Wendt's Teach
ing of Jesus, and Beyschlag's Theology of the New Testament are exceed
ingly useful. Matthews's Social Teaching of Jesus is also a useful com
panion to the volumes by Peabody and Rauschenbusch. Valuable
discussions of every phase of Jesus' life and teachings are found in
Hastings's Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels, in his five-volume Dic
tionary of the Bible, and in the Encyclopaedia Biblica. In this list should
also be included the admirable biblical articles in the eleventh edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

n
GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL
RESEARCH
The General Questions, as in the preceding volumes, follow the
main divisions of the book and aim to guide the student in collecting
and co-ordinating the more important facts presented in the biblical
texts or in the notes.
The Subjects for Special Research are intended as a guide for
further study in related lines, and aim, by means of detailed refer
ences, to introduce the student and the teacher to the more important
passages in the best English books of reference. In class-room work
many of these topics may profitably be assigned for individual research.
The references are to pages, unless otherwise indicated. Ordinarily,
several parallel references are given, that the student may be able to
utilize the book at hand.
INTRODUCTION: RECORDS OF THE LIFE AND TEACH
INGS OF JESUS
I. The Records Outside the Gospels. General Questions: 1.
What is Christianity? 2. What is the most irrefutable evidence of
Jesus' work and teaching? 3. Describe the testimony of the Roman
historians regarding Jesus and his earlier followers. 4. Of the Jewish
326

APPENDIX
writers. 5. The nature of the evidence furnished by the Catacombs.
6. Historical value of the uncanonical gospels. 7. Of the writings of the
Church Fathers and of the apocryphal gospels. 8. Paul's references to
Jesus. Subjects for Special Research: 1. Write a life of Jesus based
simply on the extra-gospel records. 2. The evidence regarding the
authenticity of Josephus's detailed reference to Jesus. Holtzmann,
Life of Jesus, 13-16; Hill, Introd. to the Life of Christ, 6-9. 3. The
extra-canonical sayings of Jesus. Hill, Introd. to the Life of Christ,
15-20; Hastings, D. B., extra vol., 343-52; Grenfell and Hunt, Sayings
of Our Lord and The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Pt. I, 1-3; Ropes, Spriiche
Jesu. II. The Contents and Characteristics of the Four Gospels.
General Questions: 1. Why is it impossible to determine the exact
sequence of the events in the life of Jesus? 2. Describe the general
plan of the Gospel of Mark. 3. Its distinctive characteristics. 4. Its
aim and the class for which it was intended. 5. The characteristics
and aim of the Gospel of Matthew. 6. Of Luke. 7. Of the Fourth
Gospel. 8. Give a descriptive title to each of the four gospels.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The distinctive contribution
of each gospel to our knowledge of the life and work of Jesus. 2. Luke's
use of medical terms. Hobart, The Medical Language of St. Luke;
Harnack, Luke, the Physician, 175-98. 3. A detailed comparison of
the grouping of the material in Matthew and in Luke. Cf. standard
harmonies of the life of Jesus.
III. The Written Sources Underlying the Gospels. Gen
eral Questions: 1. How far do Matthew and Luke follow the order
of Mark? 2. How much of the material in Mark is quoted by Mat
thew and Luke? 3. What narratives are recorded in only one of the
first three gospels? 4. In what four or five different ways do the au
thors of Matthew and Luke reproduce the material which they drew
from Mark? 5. Describe the general conclusions drawn from the study
of the synoptic problem. 6. In what marked respects does the Fourth
Gospel differ from the synoptic gospels? 7. What is Papias's testimony
regarding the origin of Mark's gospel. 8. The internal evidence regard
ing its origin. 9. The evidence that Matthew and Luke drew from a
common teaching source. 10. The probable character and contents
of this teaching source. 11. Its historical value.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The evidence that Mark was
acquainted with Matthew's collection of the sayings of Jesus. Oz-
327

APPENDIX
ford Studies, 165-183; Moffatt, Introd. to N. T., 204-6; Bacon, Begin
nings of Gospel Story, xx-xxii; Harnack, Sayings of Jesus, 193-227.
2. Original extent and order of this early collection. Oxford Studies,
141-64, 185-208; Moffatt, Introd. to N. T., 197-202; Harnack, Say
ings of Jesus, 127-93. 3. Evidence that different versions of the early
collection were used by Matthew and by Luke. Oxford Studies, 285-6;
Moffatt, Introd. to N. T., 194-7.
IV. The Literary History and Date of the Gospels. Gen
eral Questions: 1. How long and how were Jesus' teachings prob
ably transmitted orally? 2. Why were the earliest gospels written?
3. What were the probable dates of Matthew's Aramaic collection of
(1) the sayings of Jesus (2) and of Mark's Gospel? 4. Of the Gospels of
Matthew and Luke? 5. Of the Fourth Gospel? 6. Trace the literary
dependence of the gospels upon their earlier sources and upon each
other. Subjects for Special Research: 1. Evidence regarding the date
of the earliest collection of Jesus' sayings. Moffatt, Introd. to N. T.,
203-4; Harnack, Sayings of Jesus, 246-9. 2. The reasons for an early
or for a late dating of Luke. Moffatt, Introd. to N. T., 512-3; Har
nack, Neue Untersuchungen zur Apostelgeschichte, 80. 3. The author
ship of the Fourth Gospel. Moffatt, Introd. to N. T., 567-70; Bacon,
The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate; Sanday, The Criticism of
the Fourth Gospel.
V. Historical Background of Jesus' Life and Work. Gen
eral Questions: 1. Describe the final division of Palestine after the
death of Herod the Great. 2. Rome's policy in the treatment of Judea.
3. The threefold duties of the Roman procurators. 4. Organization
and functions of the Jerusalem sanhedrin. 5. Character of Pontius
Pilate. 6. Of Herod Antipas. 7. Rome's weakness and needs.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Rome's provincial policy.
Botsford, Hist, of Rome, 192-3, 208-10; Arnold, Roman Prov. Admin-
ist., ch. Ill; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire. 2. The
strength and weakness of Stoicism. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 5,
8-21; Encyc. Brit.11, XXV, 943-52. 3. HiUel. Holtzmann, Life of
Jesus, 509-12; Encyc. Brit.11, XIII, 467-8.
§CXXI. Jesus' Birth, Boyhood, and Early Training. Gen
eral Questions: 1. In what respects do Luke's and Matthew's ac
counts of Jesus' birth agree and disagree? 2. Describe the testimony
of the earliest biblical records regarding the manner of his birth. 3.
The probable origin and the significance of the two accounts in Luke
328

APPENDIX
and Matthew. 4. The ultimate basis of the belief in Jesus' divine char
acter. 5. The probable date and place of his birth. 6. The influences
of his home at Nazareth. 7. His education. 8. Meaning of his first
visit to the temple. 9. His knowledge of the Old Testament. 10.
His training as a Master Builder.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The claim that Luke 1M> 35 is
secondary. Moffatt, Introd. to the N. T., 268-70; En. Bib., Ill, 2954-7;
Lobstein, Virgin Birth, 42-79. 2. The chronology of the life of Jesus.
En. Bib., I, 801-9; Hastings, Diet, of Christ, 408-16; Schmidt, Proph.
of Naz., 240-7.
§ CXXH. The Personality and Teaching of John the Baptist.
General Questions: 1. Describe the sources of our knowledge re
garding John. 2. His personality. 3. His aims and methods. 4.
His message. 5. What he accomplished.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. A comparison of the per
sonality and message of Amos and of John the Baptist. 2. Origin of
John's symbol of baptism. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, I, 863-4; En.
Bib., I, 471-2.
§ CXXin. Jesus' Baptism and Temptation. General Ques
tions: 1. Describe Jesus' probable motives in going to John. 2. Liter
ary character of the accounts of the Baptism and Temptation. 3. Jesus'
inner experience at his baptism. 4. The three different phases of
temptation which assailed Jesus.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Compare Jesus' vision at the
Baptism with that of Isaiah at the temple, and with Paul's vision on
the way to Damascus. 2. The different interpretations of the ac
count of Jesus' temptation. Montefiore, The Synoptic Gospels, II,
465-70; Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 144-54; Hastings, Diet, of Christ,
II, 714-6; Ross, The Universality of Jesus, 57-67. 3. Jesus' interpre
tation of his mission as revealed by the story of his temptation.
§ CXXIV. Jesus and John the Baptist. General Questions:
1. What are the indications that Jesus worked first in Judea? 2. De
scribe John's arrest and imprisonment. 3. His message to Jesus and
the reply. 4. Jesus' tribute to John. 5. John's death.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The situation of Machserus,
where John was imprisoned and beheaded. Smith, Hist. Geog. Holy
Land, 569-70; Kent, Bib. Geog. and Hist., 244-5. 2. A comparison
of the character and methods of Elijah and of John the Baptist. 3.
The qualities in John which appealed most strongly to Jesus. Rob
ertson, John the Loyal. 329

APPENDIX
§CXXV. Jesus' Early Work in Galilee. General Questions:
1. Describe the character of the Marcan narrative at this point. 2.
The situation of ancient Capernaum. 3. Reasons why Jesus made
this the centre of his activity. 4. His aims and methods in his early
Galilean work. 5. The reasons why he attracted men to himself.
6. The influence of his personality upon the insane. 7. The reasons
why he left the afflicted multitudes at Capernaum.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The archaeological and his
torical evidence regarding the site of Capernaum. Masterman, Studies
in Galilee, 71-89; Kent, Bib. Geog. and Hist., 247-50. 2. Of Chorazin
and Bethsaida. Masterman, Studies in Galilee, 92-106; Kent, Bib.
Geog. and Hist., 250-2. 3. The ancient synagogues of Galilee. Master-
man, Studies in Galilee, 109-25; Palestine Expl. Fund, Memoirs, Vol. I.
§ CXXVI. Jesus' Popularity and the Beginning of the Phar
isaic Opposition. General Questions: 1. Describe the reasons
why the Pharisees opposed Jesus. 2. Compare his aims and methods
with theirs. 3. What were the four distinct charges that they brought
against him? 4. What was his interpretation of the meaning and use
of the Sabbath?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Compare Jesus' definition of
religion with that of the Jewish rabbis of his day. 2. How far did he
conform to the demands of the Pharisees? 3. The then current Jewish
laws regarding Sabbath observance. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 224-7;
Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 540-2: Mishna, Shabbath, and Erubin.
4. Was the Puritan Sabbath a realization of the Jewish or the Christian
ideal? ICXXVTI. The Gospel Miracles. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the conditions in Jesus' day which led him to perform miracles.
2. The contemporary interpretation of abnormal mental states. 3.
Jesus' attitude toward the popular demand for miraculous signs. 4.
In what records are most of the Old Testament miracle stories found?
5. Define a miracle. 6. The canons employed by critical historians in
interpreting miracles. 7. Describe and illustrate the four distinct
types of gospel miracles. 8. What types are best attested? 9. Which
are the most significant?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. How far are the gospel mir
acles paralleled by mediaeval and modern examples? 2. How far are
the miracles of Jesus in harmony with the conclusions of modern psy
chology? 3. Are the gospel miracles as a whole a stumbling-block or
an aid to the faith of the modern generation?
330

APPENDIX
ICXXVin. Call and Training of Jesus' Disciples. General
Questions: 1. Why did Jesus gather about him a group of dis
ciples? 2. From what classes were they drawn? 3. The conditions
which he imposed upon his immediate followers. 4. The nature of the
relationship between Jesus and his disciples. 5. The number and the
duties of the ministering women. 6. The character and purpose of
his directions to the Twelve. 7. The reason why he sent them out.
8. The nature of their work. 9. The impression which the report of
their success made upon Jesus.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Peter's character and work as
recorded in the New Testament. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 349-51;
En. Bib., IV, 4559-4626; Thomas, The Apostle Peter. 2. Jesus' appre
ciation of the peculiar needs of women. 3. A sketch of Jesus' appear
ance and manner as suggested by the earliest records. Thompson,
Jesus According to St. Mark ; Bousset, Jesus.

JESUS' FUNDAMENTAL TEACHINGS
§ CXXIX. The Aims and Methods of the Great Teacher.
General Questions: 1. Describe the chief characteristics which made
Jesus pre-eminent as a teacher. 2. His attitude toward the teachings
of the Old Testament. 3. His methods of interpreting them. 4. His
aims as a teacher. 5. The leading characteristics of his method. 6. His
use of parable. 7. Of paradox and hyperbole. 8. Of beatitudes.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. How far did Jesus anticipate
the fundamental principles of modern education? 2. Examples of
humor in his teachings. Leonard, The Poet of Galilee. 3. A com
parison of Jesus' aims and methods as a teacher with those of Soc
rates. En. Brit.11, XXV, 331-8; Graves, History of Education Before
the Middle Ages, 180-4.
§CXXX. God's Attitude toward Men. General Questions:
1. Describe the contemporary Jewish ideas of God. 2. The Old Testa
ment teachings regarding the fatherhood of God. 3. What did Jesus
contribute to men's beliefs regarding the nature of God? 4. Contrast
his teachings regarding God's readiness to forgive the sinner with those
of the Pharisees. 5. Regarding the way in which God will answer
prayer. Subjects for Special Research: 1. What did Jesus add to the
theology of the Old Testament? 2. How far do the current theologi-
331

APPENDIX
cal doctrines of the church reflect his teachings? 3. From what sources
were the variant elements derived? Abbott, The Evolution of Chris
tianity, 68-95.
§CXXXI. Man's Attitude toward God. General Questions:
1. Describe Jesus' conception of the dignity and possibilities of man.
2. His teachings regarding oaths. 3. Regarding the essentials of true
worship. 4. Meaning of the original prayer which he taught his dis
ciples. 5. The essentials in prayer. 6. Teaching of the parable of the
Pharisee and tax-collector. 7. Why are humility and the spirit of
forgiveness absolutely vital in effective prayer? 8. Jesus' teaching
regardmg worry. 9. Regarding the ways in which it can be over
come. Subjects for Special Research: 1. Early Jewish prayers, Mishna
Berakhoth. 2. The variations between the versions of the Lord's
prayer in Matthew and in Luke. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 57-9;
Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 262-6. 3. Jesus' appreciation of nature.
§ CXXXII. The Kingdom of God. General Questions: 1. De
scribe the growth of the Hebrew conception of God as king. 2. The
three current Jewish conceptions of the kingdom of God. 3. Jesus'
attitude toward them. 4. Reasons why he gave the kingdom of God
a central place in his teachings. 5. Its character as described by him.
6. The conditions of entrance. 7. Jesus' teachings regarding the ad
vantages and disadvantages of wealth.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The Rabbinic teachings re
garding the kingdom of God. Schechter, Some Aspects of Rabbinic
Theol., 57-115. 2. The contrasts between the Jewish and Christian
conception of the kingdom of God. 3. The fundamental points of
agreement. § CXXXIII. The Obligations of Citizenship in the Kingdom of
God. General Questions: 1. Did Jestis place the emphasis on the
act or the motive? 2. What were the chief temptations that as
sailed the Jews of his day? 3. What is the meaning of the parable of
the man who pulled down his barns to build larger? 4. Describe
Jesus' teaching regarding the right use of wealth. 5. Regarding the
use of individual wealth and present opportunity. 6. Of natural gifts.
7. Risumi of his teachings regarding the duties of citizenship in the
kingdom of God.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The teaching of modern psy
chology regarding the relation of motives and acts. Cf. standard psy
chologies by James, Dewey, Judd, Kirkpatrick, and Angell. 2. Does
332

APPENDIX
Luke overstate Jesus' teaching regarding wealth and poverty? Pea
body, Jesus Christ and the Social Question, 192-214.
§ CXXXIV. Man's Duties to His Neighbor and to Himself.
General Questions: 1. What did Jesus declare were the evil effects
of wrong thinking? 2. What evidence is there that he felt a deep
reverence for the person of another? 3. How did he deal with the
social evil? 4. On what did he base the duty of forgiveness? 5. De
scribe his teachings regarding uncharitable judgment. 6. The mean
ing of his law of love. 7. Its practical expression.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The effect of a man's thoughts
upon his physical condition and relative efficiency. 2. The physio
logical effects of anger. Cf. standard works on physiological psychol
ogy. 3. How far is Jesus' law of love practically applicable in the
modern economic world?
§CXXXV. Man's Responsibility to Society. General Ques
tions: 1. Describe Jesus' methods as a social teacher. 2. His teach
ings regarding the importance of the family. 3. Regarding divorce.
4. The duties of the individual citizen to the state. 5. Principles to be
followed in the treatment of criminals. 6. In giving alms. 7. The
responsibility of the strong to the dependent classes. 8. The results
of applying Jesus' social principles in modern life.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Jesus and modern socialism.
Abbott, Christianity and Social Problems, 100-37; Peabody, Jesus
Christ and the Social Question, 13-26. 2. Advances in the treatment
of criminals. Ellis, Tfie Criminal; Abbott, Christianity and the Social
Problems, 297-328; Reports of the National Prison Association; De-
vine, The Spirit of Social Work, 109-26. 3. How far are Jesus' social
teachings applicable to modern society?
§ CXXXVI. The Rewards of the Christian Life. General
Questions: 1. Describe the current Jewish doctrines regarding re
wards for right action. 2. Contrast these with Jesus' teaching on the
subject. 3. What was the goal which he set before his followers?
4. His definition of happiness. 5. What did he declare were the con
ditions of true happiness?
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The contemporary Jewish
doctrines regarding the rewards of the righteous after death. Charles,
Eschatology, Heb., Jew., and Christian, 162-99. 2. The Platonic and
Stoic ideas of happiness. Cf. standard histories of Greek philosophy.
3. Is happiness a valid goal for which to strive? Hilty, Happiness.
333

APPENDIX

THE CULMINATING EVENTS OF JESUS' LIFE
§CXXXVII. The Crisis in Galilee. General Questions: 1.
Why did Herod Antipas fear Jesus and desire to put him to death?
2. Why would Jesus' death at this time have endangered his cause?
3. Describe the historical facts which probably underlie the stories
regarding the feeding of the multitudes. 4. The significance of Jesus'
midnight meeting with his disciples on the shore. 5. The basis of Jesus'
charges agamst the scribes and Pharisees. 6. His reasons for warning
his disciples. 7. The change in the scene and method of his work.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. Herod's new capital, Tiberias.
Smith, Hist. Geog. of Holy Land, 447-50; Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II,
729-30. 2. The different interpretations of "the sin against the holy
spirit." Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 786-8; Stevens, Theol. of N. T.,
102. 3. Compare Jesus' methods at the different stages in his min
istry. § CXXXVIII. Jesus in Retirement with His Disciples. Gen
eral Questions: 1. Why did Jesus seek refuge in the territory of Tyre?
2. What was the real significance of his reply to the request of the
Syro-Phcenician woman? 3. The meaning of Peter's confession. 4.
Jesus' twofold purpose in retiring with his disciples. 5. The facts
that probably lie back of his threefold prediction of the Passion. 6.
The meaning of the Transfiguration (1) to Jesus, (2) to his disciples.
7. The heroism revealed at this crisis.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. A comparison of the different
gospel accounts of the transfiguration. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II,
742-3. 2. The various interpretations of the story. Hastings, Did.
of Christ, II, 743-5; Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 341-5; Ross, The Uni
versality of Jesus, 68-75.
§ CXXXIX. Incidents of the Last Journey to Jerusalem.
General Questions: 1. Jesus' purpose and hope in going up to Jeru
salem. 2. The inhospitality of the Samaritans. 3. His teachings
regarding the narrow way of salvation. 4. His response to the request
of James and John. 5. The conversion of Zaccheus. 6. The healing
of the blind man.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The territory and population
of Perea. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 335-7. 2. The Jewish .doe-
trine of the necessity of a ransom for sin. Schechter, Some Aspects
of Rab. Theol., 293-312. 3. The Jericho of Jesus' day. Smith, HisU
334

APPENDIX
Geog. of Holy Land, 266-8; Josephus, Jew. Ant., IV, 61; XIV, 41; XV,
4 ; XVI, 52; Hastings, D. B., II, 580-2.
§CXL. The Renewal of Jesus' Public? Activity} in Jerusalem.
General Questions: 1. Describe the way in which Jesus entered
Jerusalem. 2. Its meaning to the multitudes and its later interpreta
tion by Jesus' disciples. 3. The facts underlying the story of the bar
ren fig-tree. 4. Jesus' pubhc arraignment of the temple authorities.
5. His rebuke of the leaders of Judaism. 6. His teaching regarding per
sonal immortality. 7. The basis of his stern arraignment of the scribes
and Pharisees.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The scene of Jesus' triumphal
entry into Jerusalem. Kent, Bib. Geog. and Hist., 259-60; Stanley,
Sinai and Pal., 190-4. 2. The duties and powers of the temple au
thorities. En. Bib., IV, 4948-51; Smith, Jerusalem, II, 557-8. 3.
The distinctive beliefs of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Hastings,
D. B., Ill, 821-8; IV, 349-51; En. Bib., IV, 4321-9, 4234-40; Kent,
H. B., TV, 247-54.
§ CXLI. Jesus' Preparation for His Death. General Ques
tions: 1. Jesus' original prediction regardmg the fate of the temple.
2. The different elements incorporated in Mark 13, and their probable
origin. 3. How far did Jesus accept the Jewish apocalyptic expecta
tions of his day? 4. The motive and original content of his predictions
regardmg the future experiences that were to come to his disciples.
5. The significance of his anointing at Bethany. 6. Judas's motives in
entering into negotiations with the high priests. 7. The details and
significance of Jesus' last supper with his disciples. 8. The spirit and
import of his farewell words.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The influence of the apocalyp
tic hopes of the Jews upon the early Christian belief in Jesus' speedy
second coming. 2. Historical origin of the modern pre-millenarian and
Adventists' doctrines. 3. Modern interpretations of the meaning of
the Lord's supper. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 63-76; D. B., Ill,
148-150; Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 460-4.
§CXLII. Jesus' Arrest and Trial. General Questions: 1.
What was the real issue at stake during Jesus' struggle in Gethsemane?
2. Describe the manner of his arrest. 3. The account of his examina
tion before the high priest. 4. Its object. 5. His trial before Pilate.
6. The character of Pilate as therein revealed. 7. The injustice of Jesus'
condemnation. Subjects for Special Research. 1. The traditional and probable
site of the garden of Gethsemane. Smith, Jerusalem, II, 570-1; En.
335

APPENDIX
Bib., II, 1712-3; Hastings, D. B., II, 164. 2. A comparison of the
Lucan and Marcan accounts of Jesus' trial. 3. The legality of Jesus'
trial. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 471-8; Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II,
749-58; Innis, The Trial of Jesus Christ; Buss, The Trial of Jesus:
Illustrated from Talmud and Roman Law.
§CXLIII. Jesus' Death and Burial. General Questions : 1.
The characteristics of the gospel records of Jesus' crucifixion. 2.
Their variant accounts of his last words. 3. The details of the cruci
fixion. 4. The probable place. 5. The original form of the tablet
affixed to the cross. 6. Jesus' death and burial. 7. The probable date
of his death. 8. Its meaning for Judaism, for his followers, and for
the realization of his mission.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The traditional and modern
identifications of the place of Jesus' crucifixion. Kent, Bib. Geog. and
Hist., 262-3; Hastings, Diet, of Christ, I, 655-7; Wilson, Golgotha and
the Holy Sepulchre; En. Brit.11, XXIV, 656-8. 2. The institution of
crucifixion. Hastings, Diet, of Christ, I, 397-8. 3. The various inter
pretations of the meaning of Jesus' death.
§CXLIV. The Living Christ. General Questions: 1. Describe
the immediate effect of Jesus' crucifixion upon the disciples. 2. Their
sudden recovery of faith. 3. Paul's early testimony regarding the
nature of the resurrection appearances. 4. His beliefs regarding the
nature of the resurrection of the dead and those of the Jews. 5. The
variant gospel accounts of the resurrection. Testimony of the oldest
gospel records. 6. The various naturalistic interpretations of the res
urrection story. 7. The supernatural explanation. 8. The spiritual
interpretation. 9. The established facts.
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The apostolic teaching re
garding the meaning of Jesus' resurrection. Hastings, Diet, of Christ,
II, 512-14. 2. In the religious thinking of the present generation.
Hastings, Diet, of Christ, II, 510-12; Lux Mundi, 235.
§CXLV. Jesus the Saviour of Mankind. General Questions:
1. Describe the picture of Jesus as Saviour and teacher found in the
Fourth Gospel. 2. Its definition of that which is essential to salvation.
3. The title by which Jesus designated himself according to the earliest
records. 4. Historical content of the term Son of man. 5. Jesus'
growing vision of the extent of his mission. 6. Its interpretation in the
Fourth Gospel. 7. In the light of modern knowledge and needs, in
what sense is Jesus the universal Saviour of mankind? 8. Why is
Christianity fitted, both in theory and in practice, to be a conquering
world religion? 336

APPENDIX
Subjects for Special Research: 1. The history of the term Son
of man. Schmidt, The Prophet of Nazareth, 94-134; Hastings, Diet.
of Christ, II, 659-65; D. B., IV/579-89; Montefiore, The Synop. Gos.,
I, 93-104. 2. A comparison of the personality and work of Jesus and
of Gautama Buddha. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus, 525-7; En. Brit.11,
IV, 737-42. 3. Of Jesus and of Confucius. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus,
522-3; En. Brit.11, VI, 907-12. 4. Of Jesus and of the Greek philoso
phers, Socrates, Plato, and the Stoics. Holtzmann, Life of Jesus,
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