VALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

3 9002 06815 0268

Ontario. Education dept.
Jubilee of confederation. 1667-1917,
Toronto, 1917.

"I give th- _ ,
7/or. tie founding if ar College in this. Colony?)

'Y^LH«¥lMH¥IEI^SIinfe - ILIIIBISi&ISy •

JUBILEE OF
CONFEDERATION 1867 -1917

EMPIRE DAY
WEDNESDAY
MAY 23rd. 1917

ONTARIO
DEPARTMENT*OF EDUCATION

Printed by Order of
The Legislative Assembly of Ontario

TORONTO
Printed and Published by A. T. WILGRESS. Printer
to the Kins'* Moit Excellent Maletty
1917

JUBILEE OF
CONFEDERATION 1867 - 1917

EMPIRE DAY
WEDNESDAY MAY 23rd, 1917

ONTARIO
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
0-rv\-_.-ru_ , £__c_a.t\cm Ae.pV,
Printed by Order of
The Legislative Assembly of Ontario

TORONTO
Printed and Published by A. T. WILGRESS, Printer
to the King's Most Excellent Majesty
1917

FORMATION OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA, Ist July,
Statesmen who inaugurated the Union of British Provinces in North America.

1867.

10 F B I C.rlc. Nr*Fo.r
II A. Shea. Newlc.n-I.r.
12 J Ch.p.li. C.i-.:;.. Ej;

IB Sir C E C."

1867—1917

On July 1st, 1917, fifty y^,rs will have
elapsed since The British North America
Act came into force, and the Dominion of
Canada started on her wonderful career.
As it is not- practicable to observe the
Jubilee of Confederation at the beginning of
July, it has been decided to celebrate the
occasion on Empire Day, Wednesday, May
23rd, 1917.
The accompanying programme will pro
vide suitable material for the exercises of
the day.

EMPIRE DAY, 1917

JUBILEE OF CANADIAN
CONFEDERATION

PROGRAMME
9.00- 9.10 1. Scripture Reading— *salm 91.
2. Prayer — The Lord's Prayer.
9.10- 9.15 3. 'National Anthem — God Save the King.
9.15- 9.35 4. The iStory of Our Flag — See Teachers' Manual
on History, page 68.
9.35-10.15 5. Lesson: History — The Provinces before Con
federation.
10.15-10.30 6. Song — "O Canada." (Educational Music
Course, page 170.)
10.30-10.45 7. Intermission.
10.45-11.30 8. Lesson: Geography — Geographical Expansion
of Canada since Confederation.
11.30-12.00 9. Lesson: Literature — "A Song of Canada,"
Third Reader, page 140.
12.00- 1.30 10. Noon.
1.30- 2.00 11. Lesson: History — The British North America
Act.
2.0O- 2.35 12. The Assembling and Saluting of the' Flags of
Britain and Her Allies.
2.35-2.55 13. Address on Sir John A. Macdonald.
2.55- 3.05 14. Song — " My Own Canadian Home." (Educa
tional Music Course, page 146.)
3.05- 3.25 15. Address on Hon. George Brown.
3.25- 3.40 16. Intermission.
3.40- 3.50 17. Song — "The Land of the Maple." (Educa
tional Music Course, page 108.)
3.50- 4.10 18. Address — Canada, To-day and in Prospect.
4.10- 4.20 19. Special Prayer.
4.20- 4.30 20. National Anthem— God Save the King.

It is assumed that the public will be invited to these
Empire Day exercises, particularly in the afternoon.
This programme, which is intended primarily for ungraded
Public and Separate Schools, is suggestive only. It should be
modified freely where necessary and in particular with other
types of schools.
It is not intended that any or all of the material in this
bulletin should be read to the students, or even used. The
bulletin is merely an accessible source of information for the
teacher. Any of the pictures may be detached from this
pamphlet — so as to be viewed by the pupils.
The teacher should conduct the lessons in geography and
history. He may also conduct all the other exercises. It is1
suggested, however, that he invite the co-operation of the
local clergy or of prominent citizens or public men, especially
in connection with the addresses.

THE PROVINCES BEFORE CONFEDERATION
It is difficult for the boys and girls of to-day to realize
that only fifty years ago there was no Dominion; but, in
its place, a group of small and comparatively unimportant
British colonies. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince
Edward Island were then separate, sparsely settled col
onies, intent upon their own local problems, and having
little intercourse with the rest of British North America.
The Province of Canada was better settled and more im
portant, but the great North-West was only a vast wilder
ness, still under the control of the Hudson's Bay Company.
A few missionaries, traders, and settlers were there, but
the whole white population did not exceed 20,000 in num
ber. Still farther west, many thousands of miners had
been attracted to British Columbia, by the discovery, in
1857, of gold in the bed of the Fraser Biver, but, after the
first rush was over, only a few thousand remained, and the
white population of the colony was barely 12,000 in 1861.
It is not Very surprising, therefore, that a memb.er of the
British Parliament declared a few years earlier that the
whole colony was not worth £20,000.
After the union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841,
the united Province of Canada made rapid progress. The
population rose from 1,100,000 in 1841 to 2,507,657 in
1861; and yet, in comparison with what they are to-day ,-
the chief cities were still small. Montreal had only 90,323
inhabitants in 1861, Toronto 44,821, Hamilton 19,096,
and London 11,555. On the other hand, many of the
villages and some of the towns were far larger and more
prosperous than they are now. For instance, the town of

Whitby, from which a very large amount of grain and
lumber was then exported by vessel to the United States,
had a population of about 8,000 in 1862.
In the period just before Confederation most of the
people of Canada were engaged in agriculture and lumber
ing. Grain was grown more extensively then than now,
and many parts of central and southern Canada still con
tained great pine forests. Moreover, the operation of the
Beciprocity Treaty created a very large and lucrative trade
with the United States in the products of the farm and
the forest. Much of the grain and lumber was carried by
water, and as a result many an Ontario harbour on Lake
Erie and Lake Ontario was then a very busy point of de
parture for sailing vessels and steamers engaged in this
export trade. At the same time the valley of the Ottawa
produced an immense quantity of squared timber, most of
which was exported to Europe. On the other hand, manu
facturing was confined almost exclusively to the supplying
of local needs, and little attempt was made to export manu
factured goods. As a result, factories and workshops were
generally small and scattered. Every good-sized village
had a wagon shop, a planing mill, a grist mill, a harness
shop, and one or more shops for manufacturing boots and
shoes. In the fifteen years before Confederation a very won
derful development in railways took place in Canada. The
first railway in the country, the sixteen-mile line between
Laprairie and St. Johns, L.C., had been opened in 1836,
but in 1851 there was not yet a single mile of railway
track in Upper Canada. In the following years, however,
development was rapid, and, by 1865, 2,14814 miles were
built and in use.

PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF CANADA IN OPERATION
JAN. 1, 1861
(All Railways of 50 miles or more)
Corporate Name of Length
Railway Date of Opening in Miles
Great Western  Main line. Suspension Bridge to
Windsor  Nov. 1853— Jan. 1854.. 229
Branch lines, Harrisburg to Gait,
Gait to Guelph. Hamilton to
Toronto, Komoka to Sarria. .Aug. 1854— Dec. 1858 . 116
Grand Trunk  Main line, Sarnia to Riviere du
Loup  Spring, 1847— Nov.
_, „ 1860  872
Northern  Main line, Toronto to Colling-
wood  June, 1853— Jan. 1855 95.14
Buffalo and Lake
Huron  Main line, Fort Erie to Goderich.Nov. 1856— May, 1860 162.27
Ottawa and Prescott  Dec. 1854  54
Montreal and
Champlain  Montreal to Lachine, Caughna- •
waga. to Moer's Junction, St,
Lambert's, to St. Johns, (old
portion, 1836) St. Johns to
Rouse'sPoint  Nov. 1847— Aug. 1852 81.76
Port Hope, Lindsay
and Beaverton .Port Hope to Lindsay. Milbrook
to Peterborough  Dec. 1857— Aug. 1858 56.50
Brookville and
Ottawa  Brockville to Almonte, Smith's
PallstoPerth  Feb. 1869— Dec. 1860 63.54
In the Maritime Provinces railways had made little
progress, and in 1865 New Brunswick had only 196 miles,
and Nova Scotia only 93.
Even after the construction of all these railways, col
onization roads, built through the bush by the government,
continued to be very important for giving access to those
parts of the country not to be reached by the railways, and
for encouraging settlement. In 1863 there were seven of
these roads in Upper Canada, and five in Lower Canada.
As would be indicated by the activity of the Canadian
Government in building colonization roads, great efforts
were being made to induce immigrants from Europe to
settle in Canada. Government publications declared that
7,000,000 acres of crown lands were surveyed and open for
sale, at from thirty cents to one dollar per acre. Each
settler had to put twelve acres under cultivation within
four years, build a log house twenty feet by fourteen, and
reside on his lot until these conditions were fulfilled.

10
In 1861, 24,587 immigrants arrived in Canada, but of
these a little over 10,000 proceeded to the United States.
Those who remained settled in the following districts :
Western part of Upper Canada  9,500
Ottawa District  !>544
Eastern Canada  1,500
Gasp.  40°
Unknown  943
13,887
Upper anti Lower Canada, in the period just before
Confederation, and, indeed, for years after that, were mak
ing the same appeal to the European immigrant that is
now being made by our great western provinces. Three
years after Confederation, a "Handy. Guide to Canada"
spoke thus of this country as a field for settlement:
" Canada proper is now divided into two parts, called the
Ontario and Quebec Provinces; but the most eligible dis
trict for British subjects is tbe former, or ' Upper Canada.'
Exclusive of what has already been taken up by emigrants,
there are fully 50,000,000 acres of a soil which, for variety
and adaptability to the best purposes of agriculture, can
bear comparison with any in Europe." In many parts of
the country settlers were hewing homes out of the forest,
and meeting many of the same difficulties that had been
encountered eighty years earlier by the United Empire
Loyalists. Even in the older and better settled parts of Canada
social life was much simpler fifty years ago than it is to
day. There was less difference between the city and the
country, between the rich and - the poor. Departmental
stores and great industrial establishments had not yet
concentrated business, wealth, and population in the cities
For instance, the finest private residence in America in
1862, was said to' be the one built in Whitby by Sheriff

CANADA AT CONFEDERATION IN 1867
(ONTARIO, QUEBEC. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK)

.Sk^=sJ-'i r^3 of Y-*^-Ys
¦,, -^ C / ¦ \
I? ~J}>„ Y~ ¦ V_Yf*^

h*"V

m

y§jb

CANADA IN 19H, SHOWING THE EXTENSION OF BOUNDARIES OF QUEBEC.
ONTARIO AND MANITOBA, AS EFFECTED IN 1912

11
Beynolds, and now forming a part of Whitby Ladies' Col
lege. Samuel Day, a visitor from Britain, described it
thus in his English America : " The castellated man
sion of the sheriff, with its elegant towers, imposingly
situated on rising ground, is considered the largest and
handsomest detached dwelling on the whole American con
tinent; so I presume the sheriffalty is rather a lucrative,
if not quite a sinecure office in these parts." In those days
Canada had few millionaires, but in the older sections there
was a high degree of general prosperity.
Canadians were not only prosperous at that time, but
they had high hopes for the future of* the country. They
looked forward to the ultimate union of all the British
North American colonies, and were ready to prophesy that
this great new Confederation would one day rival the
United States in population.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION OF CANADA
SINCE CONFEDERATION
The Dominion of Canada, as it appears on present-
day maps, is not the Dominion of Canada created in
1867 by the British North America Act. Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick, when they entered Confederation,
had the same area as they have tofday, but Ontario
and Quebec were then much smaller than they are at
present. In fact, in 1867, they had no definite northern
boundaries, as the rough country to the north was little
known, and the disputes about boundaries had not yet
begun. However, as the areas in 1867 of Ontario and
Quebec are usually given as 121,000 and 210,000 square
miles, a tentative northern boundary must have been in
dicated, though the early maps do not- attempt to mark it.
Add to these areas those of Nova Scotia and New Bruns-

12
wick, 21,000 square miles and 28,000 square miles re
spectively, and we obtain the total area of the new Do
minion of Canada, which was about 380,000 square miles.
As Canada to-day has an area of 3,729,000 square miles,
or almost ten times the area of the Dominion at Confed
eration, it is evident that her growth in area has quite
kept pace with her development in. other directions.
The chief areas of British North America, not in
cluded in the original Dominion, were Newfoundland and
Prince Edward Island on the east, and British Columbia
on the west; Bupert's Land, a vast territory around
Hudson Bay with no distinct boundaries; the Bermudas,
the British West Indies, and Honduras.
The more populous and wealthy possessions, which had
been consolidated into the Dominion, formed a powerful
centre toward which the more outlying possessions would
naturally be attracted. Canada had always asserted a
claim to the watershed of Hudson Bay, and now began to
make that claim effective. This vast district had been
under the control of the Hudson's Bay Company for
almost two hundred years, and this Company claimed the
right not only to exploit the fur trade, but also to govern
the sparse population. Indeed, for many years the factors
of the Hudson's Bay Company had dispensed a rough sort
of justice from Labrador to the Bocky Mountains. Im
mediately after Confederation, the Canadian Government
endeavoured to come to terms with this powerful Company,
and finally purchased for $1,500,000 all their claims to
the ownership and the government of the district. In 1870
a part of this North- West Territory — as it was called — was
organized into Manitoba, which thus became the first new
province added to the Dominion.
British Columbia had long been a neglected colony. It
was so isolated from the other parts of British North

13
America by the mountain barrier forming its eastern
boundary, and by the vast stretch of prairie beyond, that a
union with Canada seemed far away. But the government
of Canada had men of vision who pictured a Greater
Canada stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
Through the influence of Sir John A. Macdonald, Mr.
Anthony Musgrave was made Governor of British Colum
bia in 1869. He had formerly been Governor of New
foundland, and had exerted all his influence to bring the
ancient colony into the Confederation. His efforts were
more successful in British Columbia, and in 1871 it be
came a province of the Confederation^ the Canadian Gov
ernment pledging itself to connect British Columbia with
eastern Canada by means of a railway within ten years.
This was the genesis of the Canadian Pacific Bailway.
It might have been thought that Prince Edward Island
would come into Confederation' at once, but she held
out for six years. Surrounded on three sides by Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick, separated from these pro
vinces only by Northumberland Strait, and inhabited
by the same race, she was bound soon to enter the Con
federation. As Canada offered her generous terms in
1873, when financial assistance was needed, she joined the
Dominion as the last province to enter from without.
With the completion of the Canadian Pacific Bailway,
a new era dawned in Western Canada. Population poured
in to cultivate the fertile land of the prairies, and by 1905
the development had advanced so far that the Dominion
Government under Sir Wilfrid Laurier formed two new
provinces out of the parts of the North-West Territory
which lay between Manitoba and British Columbia. These
were called Alberta and Saskatchewan. Thus was com
pleted the chain of provinces from the Atlantic to the
Pacific. One further change is worthy of mention. In

14
1912 the boundaries of Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec
were greatly extended to the north.
Only Newfoundland, of all the colonies adjoining the
Dominion of Canada, has remained out of Confedera
tion. Several times Canada has endeavoured to woo the
ancient colony with generous terms, but up to the present
these have always been rejected. As the soldiers of
Canada and Newfoundland fight side by side in France,
perhaps a new bond may be produced which will bring
the two together. In fact, the Great War has already
developed such a bond of union among the parts of the
Empire that it is not too much to hope and expect that
soon the Dominion of Canada will include not only New
foundland, but also the Bermudas and the British West
Indies. Thus all the parts of British North America
would be consolidated into one of the great democracies
forming the British Empire.
THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT
The idea of Confederation took vague and indistinct
form as long ago as the close of the American Revolution.
As George III and his ministers contemplated what they
gloomily called " the ruins of a once respectable Empire,"
the more far-seeing among them began to cast about for a
means of consolidating what was left. Foremost among
these was Lord Dorchester, better known to Canadians as
Guy Carleton. He and his Chief-Justice, William Smith,
a Loyalist refugee from New York, were firmly of the
opinion that, to avoid a repetition of such a catastrophe
as the American Revolution, it was advisable to establish
a general government for all the British dominions in
North America. A letter from Mr. Smith to Lord Dor
chester contains the striking prophecy that the "new

THE MAKING OF THE BRITISH NORTH AMERICA ACT, 1866-7.
Conference Chamber, Westminster Palace Hotel, London, Eng.

In this room the delegates lo the London Council,
of the~Crown. framed the British North America Act, under
Attorney- General Upper Canada . Hon. George Ellenne Cai
Lan.evin. M.P.P. Postmaster-General, Hon W. P. Hi
General. N 5 . Hon. J McCully, M LC.

sled by ihe Colonial Secretary, the Earl ol Carnarvon. His E'cellency Lord Monck. Goverm
ch was formed "The Dominion o( Canada." The following Is a list of the delegates present
M P.P.. Attorney General. Lower Canada, Hon A T Gait, M.P.P , Hon Wm. McDouga1
land. Minister of Finance. Nova Scolia— Hon. Charles Tupper, M P P , Provincial Secretary. N
A G Archibald, M.P P ; Hon. William Johnson Ritchie. Sollcllor-G.i

Johns

M PP.. Allorney-General. N B. Hon. P Mitchell. M LC Hon, Charles Fisher, M PP. and Hon, Robert Duncan WltmoL Hon John A Macdonald acted as ch.n

¦General of Canada, and several law officers
Canada— Hon John A Macdonald, M P P,
, M PP. Provincial Secretary. Hon H L
5.. Hon Wm A Henry. MP P. Attorney-
.am.el Tilley, Prov. Sec . N B . Hon J M

n of the

15
nation about to be created would be a source of strength
to Great Britain." The British Government, through Lord
Grenville, however, expressed the opinion that such a gen
eral legislature for British possessions in America was
open to too many objections, and thus the first proposal
for Confederation was definitely set aside.
The war of 1812 was the next event which emphasized
the defenceless position of Hpper and Lower Canada. Nor
did the common danger serve to unite them. From 1814
on, they quarrelled bitterly over the division of the rev
enues, and so strained did the relations become that in
1822 the Imperial Government introduced a Bill of Union;
but it was regarded so coldly by both provinces that it was
dropped. In 1824 Mr. William Lyon Mackenzie wrote to
-Mr. Canning, pointing out that a properly modelled cen
tral government wo aid be in the interests both of Britain
and of Canada. But Mackenzie, instead of throwing all
his splendid powers into this work, hurt Confederation by
his mad scheme of armed rebellion. Then came Lord
Durham, who reported that all the best minds of the pro
vinces were anxious for union, but he, too, erred when he
suggested that one of the objects of Confederation was to
absorb the French-Canadian race into the prevailing
British type. The Act of Union, passed in 1840, again
set aside Confederation for twenty years, and was far from
a satisfactory solution of the difficulties.
The obstacles in the way of a federal union of the
British dominions in America must certainly have ap
peared well-nigh insurmountable, even to the most daring-
statesman. Chief of these, perhaps, was the great distance
and lack of communication between Canada and the Mari
time Provinces, and, indeed, between Upper and Lower
Canada. The city of Quebec was practically as far from
Toronto as Ottawa is from Vancouver to-day. Sir Bichard

16
Cartwright tells of a train which took four days to go
from Prescott to Ottawa. Each Province had its own
tariff, code of laws, postal regulations, and even currency,
which all added to the difficulty of promoting friend
ship and commerce. In both Canadas politics were bitter
and personal. French Canada naturally dreaded a union
which would be overwhelmingly British. Upper Canada
was' divided between " Grits " and " Tories," who could
no. see alike on any single question. The people of the
three Maritime Provinces were jealous of the preponderat
ing strength of the Canadas. Another deterrent was the
case of the United States. Their much vaunted federation,
whose perfections had been shouted across the border for
eighty years, was torn asunder by the civil war (1861-
1865), and seemed likely for a time to break down com
pletely. Then, too, many British statesmen looked askance
at a union of the Canadas. Had not such a union of the
American colonies been a prelude to secession from the
Mother Country? And so a dread of a similar result in
the case of the colonies which still remained made them
wish to keep the Canadas separate. Finally, other states
men believed that Canada would never " pay," and should
be encouraged, or at least permitted, to cut loose from the
Mother Country.
In spite of all these- difficulties the belief had formed
and developed in the minds of far-sighted Canadian states
men that some form of federal union was essential if
Canada was ever to become the great nation which her
geographical position and natural wealth warranted. Many
of the difficulties in the way of union were removed or
lessened by time. In the early sixties, steamships began to
cross the Atlantic regularly and to ply on the lakes and
rivers; the Grand Trunk Bailway was pushed right
through the two Canadas ; the Intercolonial Bailway from

17
Quebec to the sea through the Maritime Provinces was
projected and would give Canada a winter port on her own
territory. But the expense of constructing the road was
too great unless the provinces united their resources. Then
there was the case of the United States, which furnished an
argument for, as well as against, federation. In 1865 the
Union triumphed. Men saw how, from the time the
States had united, their wealth and population had doubled
and trebled in a way little short of marvellous. Might not
a similar result follow in the case of British North
America? The American Civil War, too, had stirred
afresh the old ill-feeling between the#United States and
Britain. The North accused her of conniving at privateers
in the Southern interests. Disbanded soldiers under
Fenian auspices made raids into Canada, 'causing her some
uneasiness and great expense. The United States and
Britain were on the brink of war, and union was necessary
for efficient defence of the' country. The United States
refused to renew the Reciprocity Treaty of 1865, thinking
thus to bankrupt Canada and force her into annexation.
Thus the necessity of military defence and of finding new
markets made for union. In 1864 the three Maritime
Provinces formally considered a union at a conference
held in Charlottetown. To this Canada was permitted to
send delegates, and the Maritime union fell through auto
matically when the two big Canadas proposed a general
Confederation. But "the immediate cause of Confederation was the
chaotic condition of the government of the Canadas. By
the Act of Union each Province had forty-two members in
the Legislative Assembly. At first what was known as the
Double Majority Principle had been adopted; that is, any
measure affecting one of the provinces particularly had to
receive a majority not only of the whole house, but of the

18
members from that province. While this was a common-
sense idea, it was found to be unworkable, and was frankly
abandoned by the Hon. John A. Macdonald. Another
cause of trouble was the question of " Representation by
Population." The census of 1861 revealed the fact that
Upper Canada had a larger population than Lower Canada,
and the former began to clamour for larger representation
in the Assembly. Lower Canada protested, and the result
was a dead-lock. The wheels of Government refused to go ;
ministry followed ministry, each with no better success
than its predecessor. There were sixteen Cabinets be
tween 1841 and 1864 — one, led by the Hon. George Brown,
holding office for two days. Seeing the absurdity of such
backing and filling, Mr. Brown suggested, in 1864, that
the opportunity be seized of settling forever the difficulties
between the two provinces. A coalition government was
formed, with the object of forming a confederation of all
British North America, if possible, or, at any rate of the
two Canadas.
John A. Macdonald, the Conservative leader in the
united Parliament of the Canadas, was the man who
was mainly instrumental in bringing about this happy
consummation. He has been likened to Lord Beaconsfield
for his foresight, tact, and skill in managing men, and,
oddly enough, they were much alike in appearance. He was
ably assisted in Upper Canada by the Hon. George Brown,
who disliked and mistrusted Macdonald intensely, and yet,
to his undying credit, he forgot his personal feelings for
the sake of the cause that was dear to him, and did as much
as any one to bring about Confederation. Lower Canada
was swung into line, and held there by an enlightened
French-Canadian statesman, Sir George E. Cartier. The
Maritime Provinces had to be placated, and their natural
dread of being swamped allayed. In Nova Scotia the most

19
prominent statesman was Joseph Howe, who had almost
single-handed won Responsible Government for his pro
vince. He blew hot and cold, and finally became a bitter
opponent of the Union. But a young leader, Mr. Charles
Tupper, by skilful management, won his province to the
cause. With less difficulty Sir Leonard Tilley brought in
New Brunswick, while Prince Edward Island definitely
decided to stay out.
The final step was taken when a conference was held in
1866 in London, between British and Canadian statesmen.
The result of their work was the British North America
Act, which passed the British House practically unopposed,
and came into force July 1st, 1867.
The Act provided that Canada (Upper *and Lower),
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick should be united under
one federal government, but that each should manage its
purely local affairs. The united country was to be called
the Dominion of Canada, and henceforth Upper and Lower
Canada were to be known as Ontario and Quebec. It is
interesting to note that the first draft of the Bill calls the
country the "Kingdom of Canada." This did not mean
an independent kingdom, but an auxiliary one, with the
monarch of England at its head. The term " Dominion "
was substituted, lest, forsooth, the word " kingdom " might
offend the Republican susceptibilities of our American
neighbours ! Many names were suggested for our country,
some of them unsuitable, such as New Britain, Laurentia,
Acadia, Cabotia, and Ursalia,
A Governor-General to represent the sovereign of Great
Britain was to be appointed for five years. Each province
was to have a Lieutenant-Governor appointed by the Gov-
ernor-General-in-Council for five years. The functions of
Governors were to call, prorogue, and dissolve parliaments,
to choose councillors, to assent" to measures passed by Par-

20
liament, and to exercise a general care over the interests of
the country.
The real governing power was left to the councillors,
whom the Governor or Lieutenant-Governor should choose
from the party in majority in the House of Commons or
Assembly. This, of course, is the principle of Besponsible,
Government. The first Dominion Ministry was as follows :
Sir John A. Macdonald ... Prime Minister and Minister of
Justice.
A J F. Blair  President of the Privy Council.
H. L. Langevin  Secretary of State for Canada.
A. T. Gait  Minister of Finance.
Wm. McDougall  Minister of Public Works.
Alex. Campbell  Postmaster-General.
Jean C. Chapais  Minister of Agriculture.
Sir George K. Cartier  Minister of Militia.
Sir Leonard Tilley  Minister of Customs.
Wm. P. Howland  Minister of Inland Revenue.
Peter Mitchell  Minister of Marine and Fisheries.
Adams G. Archibald  Secretary of State for the Pro
vinces.
Edward Kenny  Receiver-General.
The Dominion Parliament was to consist of two houses,
the Senate and the House of Commons. The Senate was
to have 72 members: 24 from Ontario, 24 from Quebec,
and 24 from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick combined.
The Senators were to be appointed for life by the Gover
nor-General. A Senator must be at least thirty years of
age, and must be possessed of at least $4,000 worth of
property. The Senate's functions are identical with those
of the British House of Lords prior to 1911. The House
of Commons was to be elected by the people. With respect
to its membership, the principle of representation by popu
lation was adopted. Quebec was taken as the standard and
given 65 members, while the numbers from the other pro
vinces were to bear the same relation to their populations
that 65 did to the population of Quebec.
The Provincial Parliaments were to be similar to that

FIRST LEGISLATURE OF ONTARIO, 1867-1871.
Met In Lhe Legislative Buildings, Front Street West, Toronto.

1 Hon S!-?-..-n RithWi N ..;.:.

II.

A M.:KH!-j'. Bo'h-ell

71 H D Smith. Leeds and Cren- 32. W Anderson, Prince Ed*ar

43 Hon, John Stevenson Sieger

52. John C Rykerl. Lincoln. 62. James Craig. Glergarry

73 Daniel Luton. Esse.

John Carnejte. Jr, W
berou.h
Those In the galleries are
Harry Klnloch. Pnuate
Hon. J S- Macdonald
Wm. Colebrook
George Hollind. (he Globe
George Klngsmlll. the Tel
Sam. Watson.
E. P Rodin, the Leader
A. H. Dymond. the Globe

1:

Pf.-C--. S. Wei'lrjic-i.

ville. 33 John McLeod, W Durham

Lennoi.

53 Fred W Cumberland. Algoma 63 N Currie. W Middlese.

74 Henry Corby. E H_t i;-.

3' Thos. Sw-.i".on. Card. fK
13
J. _<:¦- U'.OiuaX S Renfrr*
23 Donald Sinclair. N Bruce 34 James Evans, E Mlddlese
•™ Ll-Col C. T Gi!V,o. Clerii _
54. Robert Lyon. Cailelon 64, Nlcol MiColl. W. Elgin
75. Abraham Code. S Lanark
4. Thos R F<rr6u5on, S. Sin-.:*
Be-!.-*iin T-u. 3 L"ds
24 Robt. Christie. N Weniworlh. 35. J M. Williams. Hamilton.
the House.
55. S Wigle. Esse* 65. James Wilson, N. Norfolk
BS
5. Willi.- Beany. Wrlland
15
T. 8 F-s-Jee. Lambton,
25. William Se.lon S Wenlworth 36. Dr Jacob Baiter. H.ldlm.n
d. 45. Hon. R. W. Scott Olla...
56 S McCall. S Norfolk 66 A D. Ferrler. C. Wellington
n.s.
6. Hon E B Wood. _ B-ant
16
D D Cj1' n Franlenac
26 J S. Smith. N. Middlesei 37. Isaac Clemens, a Waterloo
46 John Smuh. Kent.
57. James Trow S Perth 67. M. W. Strange. Kingston
78 George Secord. Monck
7 Hon £d*j-d Bl.ite S E-.-:-
17
JjT.es 8.,d. Prescoll
27 William Barber. Hallon. 38. Moses Springer. N Waterlo
47. A. P. Co.kburn. N. Victoria
58 Hon M C. Cameron. E Toronto. 68 Dr C H. Boulter. N. Hasting
79 Andrew Monleuh N. Penh
6690
_ Hoi JoS- Sandlierd-Micdci.il.!
IE
A!*< Fnser.W Northumberland
28. H. Flnlayson. N. Branl. 39. H P. Crosby. E. York.
48 Wlllam Lounl, N. Slmcoe.
59 A W Lauder. S. Grey. 69 Thos Malehelt, S Victoria.
80 MacNcil Clarke. S Grenvll
Cor. "all.
19
John Eve. E. Northumberland
29, Robert McKlm, N. Wellington. 40 George Perry, N Onford.
49. W Craig. Russell
60 John Coyne, Peel 70 George Read. E Peterborough.
81 W T. Hays. N Huron.
9 Hon. JoSn W.Mui"cK. N Yc-fc
30
Daniel G.ibrallh. N Lanaik
30. Thos. Pa.ton. N Ontario 41. S S Cook. Dundas.
50 Thos Scott. N Grey
61 Li-Cot A T H Williams. E 71 W Fllislmmons. Brockville.
82 Isaac Carling. S Huron
93
[0 Adjn-.OI-.tr S 0«'c-d
21
W- f-'.Ci" S Ontario.
31. Thomas Murray. N. Renfrew 42. Fred J Glackmeyer, Serg
an- SI John Willis. W Toronto
83. E J. Hooper. Addm.ton.
NOTE-Th
fo!!m
Irj constituencies nett first represented by these members- Fronlenac. Sit Henry Smuh, who died durln
Parliament. North Renfre. J.t-., Supple
-*ho retired during Parliament: Prince Edward, Abiotom Greeley, S. Lanark,
W. M N. Shaw. S. Huron, Robe
also retired during Parliament Fred J Clackmey
r 1471. Sergeant -at- Arm s. a-dCol Gillmor
44). Clerk of the House, are Included In this picture.
'"""'
. whe
21
of the Dominion, except that it was left optional whether
a province should or should not have a Senate. To avoid
confusion, the old names, Legislative Council and Legis
lative Assembly were to be the official names of the pro
vincial houses.
The duration of the Dominion Parliament was fixed at
five years, that of the Provincial Parliaments at four years:
All Parliaments were to meet once a year.
The seat of the Dominion Government was to be
Ottawa ; the provincial seats were :
Ontario  Toronto.
Quebec  Quebec.
Nova Scotia  Halifax.
New Brunswick  Fredericton.
The Dominion Parliament was to have control of the
general affairs of the country. Such were: regulation of
trade, postal system, public debt and borrowing money on
public credit, military and naval matters, navigation, fish
eries, currency and coinage, banks, bankruptcy, Indian
affairs, naturalization of aliens, customs, marriage and
divorce, public works, railways, criminal law, commercial
law, etc. The Dominion Parliament was also given power
to disallow Provincial Acts, but it was decided that " the
course of local legislation should be interfered with as
'little as possible, and bhe power of disallowance exercised
with great caution, and only where the general welfare im
peratively demanded it."
The Provincial Parliaments were given power over di
rect taxation within the province, borrowing of money on
provincial credit, management of public lands, timber, etc.,
licenses, public works within the province, civil and prop
erty rights, provincial courts, prisons and imprisonment,
enforcement of the law of the province, education, muni
cipal institutions, and generally of all matters of a local or
private nature within the province.

22
Other important provisions of the Act were :
There should be absolutely free trade between the pro-
'vinces of Canada. Money bills must originate in the
House of Commons. In Parliamentary debates either the
English or French language might be used, and proceed
ings must be recorded in both. The construction of the
Intercolonial Railway was to be commenced within six
months. It was also provided that other provinces might
be admitted at any time.
It is often said that our constitution is a direct copy
of that of the United States. This is untrue in some very
important respects. In the United States the central gov
ernment receives its power from the " Sovereign States "
within clearly defined limits. Everything which the states
did not specifically part with at the outset, is jealously
guarded. Thus, theoretically, it is a very slender thread
which binds a state to the union, and it was largely this
centrifugal force which caused the American Civil War.
The framers of the British North America Act took warn
ing from the weak points in the American scheme. The
provinces ceded all their powers to the Crown, and received
back such measures of self-government as their represen
tatives had agreed upon as desirable. That is, the United
States system works from below, up; ours, from above,
down. Again, with us, judges are not elected by popular
vote as in the United States, but are appointed by the
Governor-in-Council for life, and thus are not dependent
" on the caprice of the people of a province for their nom
ination and retention in office."
It is. enough to say that Confederation has fulfilled the
expectations of its most sanguine advocates. The Act
stands to-day as on July 1st, 1867, except that several new
provinces have been admitted — an added proof of the ad
vantages of union,

2§

THE FLAG OF BRITAIN
Flag of Britain, proudly waving, over many distant seas;
Flag of Britain, boldly braving blinding fog and adverse
breeze.
We salute thee, and we pray, bless, 0 God, our land to-day.
Flag of Britain! Wheresoever thy bright colours are out
spread;
Slavery must cease for ever, light and freedom reign instead.
We salute thee, and we pray, bless, 0 G-od, our land to-day.
Flag of Britain! 'Mid the nations, may it'ever speak of peace,
And proclaim, to farthest nations, all unworthy strife must
cease.
We salute it, and we pray, ,bless, 0 God, our land to-day.
But if duty sternly need it, freely let it be unfurled,
Winds of heaven then may speed it to each quarter of the
world.
We salute it, and we pray, bless, O God, our land to-day.
Love of it, across the waters passing with electric thrill,
Binds our distant sons and daughters heart to heart with
Britain still.
We salute it, and we pray, bless, 0 God, our land to-day.
Regions East and West united, all our Empire knit in one;
By right loyal hearts defended, let it wave beneath the sun.
We salute it, and we pray, bless, O God, our land to-day.
— E. A. Walker
At the words " We salute," the hand should be raised
in the attitude of salute. At the words, "And we pray," the
head should be bowed, still retaining the hand at the salute.
It is desirable that the Union Jack should be raised during
the singing or the recitation of the song.

24

SIR JOHN A. MACDONALD
There were giants in those Confederation days. There
were, to mention a few, Brown and Cartier, Gait and
Howe, Mowat and McDougall, Tilley, Tupper, and McGee.
But foremost amid these giants of politics, leader among
leaders — primus inter pares-1— stands John Alexander
Macdonald, subject of this sketch. That "this is no mere
figure of speech, but sober fact, the history of his time
and the tributes of his contemporaries offer convincing
testimony. Sir Wilfrid Laurier, speaking as leader of the
Opposition from his place in Parliament, on the occasion
of Sir John A. Macdonald's death in 1891, expressed this
aptly. " It may be said without any exaggeration what
ever, that the life of Sir John Macdonald, from the date
he entered Parliament, is the history of Canada, for he was
connected and associated with all the events, all the facts,
•which brought Canada from the position it then occupied
— the position of two small provinces — to the present state
of development which Canada has reached. He, who is
no more, was in many respects Canada's most illustrious
son, and in every sense Canada's foremost citizen and
statesman." When we consider the remarkable extent and
dharacter of his career in Parliament and remember the
stirring times in which he lived, times marked with furious
' political passions and fraught with destiny for Canada,
we can understand how hard it is for Canadian historians
of the present day, not yet far removed from his own, to
give an impartial estimate of his work, or view him apart
from that atmosphere of adulation on the one hand or
hostility on the other which naturally surrounds such a
great party leader. Por he was both the best loved and
also the best abused man of his day. His Parliamentary
career, in respect of both duration and distinction, is

25
almost without parallel in the history of democracies. He
entered Parliament in 1844 and remained there until his
death in 1891, an unbroken stretch of forty-seven years;
and during all- that time, except for the life of one Parlia
ment only, he sat for the same constituency of Kingston
for which he was first elected. Moreover, within three
years after his first election he was called to a place in
the Conservative government of the day, became the chief
means of holding that party together during the six years
of its unpopularity which followed" defeat in 1848, was
the prime mover of the coalition or fusion with the
moderate Liberals in 1854 out of whiah grew the Liberal-
Conservative party, attained the position of Premier in
1857, was recognized as the guiding spirit in the coal
ition of parties that made Confederation possible, bore a
leading part in the conferences that framed the British
North America Act, was knighted for his services, and
invited to form the first Cabinet after Confederation as
the first Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada. This
office of Premier, Sir John A. Macdonald continued to
hold, with one interruption of five years, from Confeder
ation in 1867 to the time of his death in 1891.
Eight at the outset of his political life, highly con
troversial issues were dividing the public mind. Echoes
of the "family compact" troubles and the "rebellion of
'37" were still to be heard. Though he had attached
himself to the Conservative party, he was never wholly in
sympathy with the Tory ideas of the "family compact"
school. Eebellion, however, he could not tolerate, and
he had himself shouldered a musket in 1837. He used
to' tell humorously how wearied he became with the first
day's march and how relieved he was that the affair was
so soon over. The sense of loyalty was a compelling
motive with him from first to last. His first address to
his constituents at Kingston contained the sentence: "I,

26
therefore, need scarcely state my firm belief that the
prosperity of Canada depends upon its permanent con
nection with the Mother Country, and that I shall resist
to the utmost any attempt which may tend to weaken that
union." So also his last manifesto to the wider con
stituency of the Dominion, contained the famous phrase :
" A British subject I was born, and a British subject I
will die." As his wife, Baroness Macdonald, expressed it
in an article of reminiscences written six years after his
death', " This fixed idea of a United Empire was his guid
ing star and inspiration." Accordingly, when some
members of his party, in the heat of indignation over the
Eebellion Losses Bill in 1849, which was construed as an
encouragement to treason, joined in a movement that was
marked by the mobbing of Lord Elgin the Governor-
General, by the burning of the Parliament Buildings in
Montreal, and the issuance of an Annexation manifesto,
we do not find Macdonald countenancing these extremes.
Though strongly opposed to the Bill, he confined himself
to censuring the government for its lack of precaution
against the violence it should have foreseen, and to ally
ing himself with the British American League whose chief
doctrines were permanent connection with the Mother
Country, the union of all North American colonies, and the
protection of home industries. Though Macdonald was
no fiery apostle of reform, neither was he the uncom
promising upholder of privilege. And when convinced
that the people demanded the secularizing -of clergy re
serves in Ontario and the abolition of seigniorial tenure
in Quebec, he took an active part in the coalition of
moderates from both parties, by means of which a reason
able solution of these Vexed questions was evolved. The
ten years of troubled politics preceding 1864 served to
prove the Act of Union between the two Canadas un
workable. It was the period of changing party align-

27
ments, of race and creed animosities, of political in
trigues, of dubious majorities, and the sudden downfall of
governments. The short administration of Brown and
Dorion lasted scarce forty-eight hours. In the last three
years of the period there were two general elections and
four changes of government. In this period Macdonald
was sometimes premier, sometimes associate premier, and
sometimes out of office. In fact, in one case, he changed
offices over night. That was in 1885, on the occasion of
the " double shuffle " between Macdonald and Cartier,
" that altogether too clever trick/' as Parkin has called it,
by which "they avoided the expense •and uncertainty of
an election." During this period, too, he encountered his
bitterest opponent in the redoubtable George Brown, and
found his staunchest supporter in the courageous Cartier.
Brown, with his propaganda of " Eepresentation by Popu
lation," had Ontario behind him, and Cartier prevailed in
Quebec. Nevertheless John A. Macdonald was the dom
inating figure in the House. And it was perhaps with
reference to the qualities of political skill, which the main
tenance of this ascendancy rendered necessary, that he
was wont to say in later life that his greatest triumphs
were won before Confederation.
The vivid portrait of him at this period given by his
biographer, Sir Joseph Pope, is worth reproducing :
" Without pretension to oratory in the strict sense of the
word, the intimate knowledge of public affairs, joined to the
keen powers of argument, humour, and sarcasm, the ready
wit, the wealth of illustration and brilliant repartee, gave to
his speeches, set off as they were by a striking presence and
singularly persuasive style, a potency which was well-nigh
irresistible. Those of us who knew Sir John Macdonald only
when his voice had grown weak, his figure had become
stooped, his hair thin and gray and his face seamed with lines
of anxious care, and remember the power which under these
disadvantages of age he exercised over the minds and hearts
of men, can well understand how it came to pass that, in the
days of his physical prime, he inspired, not merely his fol
lowers, with a devotion which is almost without parallel in

28
political annals, but drew to his side first one and then an
other of his opponents, until he could truly say at the end of
his days that he had the proud satisfaction of knowing that
almost every leading man who had begun political life as his
opponent ended by being his colleague and friend."
Worth quoting also is the acute estimate of another
biographer, George E. Parkin, on the effect of this
period upon his future :
" On Macdonald the influence of this period was for both
good and evil. It increased in him that laxity of political
methods noted by Sir Alexander Campbell; it led him to
think 'fighting fire With fire' a venial political sin; but it
also brought out to the full his marvellous adroitness, his
power of managing men and shaping coalitions. The skill
with which he guided the tangled negotiations from 1864 to
1867 was won in the conflict of the previous ten years."
Macdonald had apparently begun to weary of the futile
turmoil of politics and was contemplating the resumption
of his profession of law, when the dead-lock resulting from
the defeat of the Taehe-Macdonald ministry in 1864 was
unexpectedly solved by the historic offer of support by
George Brown, on the understanding that a scheme of
federal union should be prepared. The vision of a con
federation of British North America was not new to
public men ; and in particular to Joseph Howe, " The
Tribune of Nova Scotia ", and Alexander Gait had strongly
advocated the idea. Macdonald himself had subscribed
to it as one of the objects of the British American League
in 1849, and the ideal had long been cherished in his
mind. But he was now slower than the impetuous Brown
to undertake the carrying out of a project whose diffi
culties he foresaw. But when, after consultation with
Cartier and his Quebec associates, he consented to a coal
ition of forces for this, purpose, he became the one man
upon whose steadfastness, ability, and diplomatic skill,
the successful issue of the proposal most depended. So

29
that, as one writer has put it, though John A. Macdonald
was only one of the fathers of Confederation, it was chiefly
through his fostering care that the tender infant became a
vigorous child. He showed his customary spirit of com
promise in the conference at Quebec, by withdrawing his
own cherished plan of " legislative union ", in which the
only Parliament would be the general one for the united
provinces, in favour of a " federal union ", in which each
province was also to have its own local government. He
showed admirable patience and courage in the crucial
years of '65 and '66, when the withdrawal of Prince
Edward Island and Newfoundland, the disaffection of the
Maritime Provinces, and the doubtful attitude of Quebec,
threatened to disrupt the scheme. Fortunately he had the
powerful aid of Tilley in New Brunswick ; Tupper in Nova
Scotia was • resolutely combating the influential Howe,
who had now become the champion of the malcontents;
while Cartier, who with the potent aid of his Church, was
dauntlessly fighting the battle for Confederation in Quebec.
In Ontario, too, Brown was giving loyal support to the
movement, though he had left the government. Nowhere
were Macdonald's powers better shown than in the con
ference of the four provinces with the Home Government
at Westminster, where the British North America Act
was framed.
A record of this is given by Sir F. Eogers, the under
secretary of the colonies at the time : " Macdonald was
the ruling genius and spokesman, and I was greatly struck
by his power of management and adroitness. He stated
and argued the case with cool, ready fluency, while at the
same time you saw that every word was measured, and
that while he was making for a point ahead, he was never
for a moment unconscious of the rocks among which he
had to steer."

30
What most appealed to Macdonald in Confederation
was its national and imperial possibilities. He saw in it
the opportunity of building " a nation, a subordinate but
still a powerful people, to stand by Britain in North
America, in peace or in war." And now, fifty years after
ward, as we read the news from the battle-field of France,
of the Canadians at Vimy Bidge, how can we withhold
admiration of Macdonald's foresight? He lamented that
the British government failed to recognize Confederation
as an epoch in the history of the Empire, and to dignify
United Canada with the title of kingdom.
It was surely this clearness- of vision, this courageous
optimism, this steadfast belief in the future of Canada and
the Empire, that inspired Macdonald to embark upon the
notable enterprises that followed his assumption of. the
reins of government as Canada's first Premier. It was,
we may well believe, the recognition of this quality that
had much to do with the long lease of power bestowed upon
him by the people of Canada. And it is this quality
which most commends him to Canadians and Britons of
this generation, and will give him an enduring place
among national and imperial statesmen.
The delicate task of setting in motion the machinery
of the new government was accomplished by Sir John
with consummate skill. Examples of his skill were to be
seen in the coalition Liberal-Conservative government, in
the selection of the so-called Liberal, Sandfield Mac
donald, to form a government in Ontario, and of the
" patriote " Chauveau in Quebec, the reconciling of Nova
Scotia by "better terms," and the final winning over of
Howe. Caution was the watchword with Prince Edward
Island and boldness with British Columbi'a. The ap
parently audacious promise of a railway from the Pacific
to the Atlantic within ten years furnished a political issue
for the parties, which soon became definitely aligned as.

31
Conservatives and Eeformers. The purchasing of the
great North-West from the Hudson's Bay Company was.
also successfully accomplished. But the creation of the
Province of Manitoba, left to the management of sub
ordinates, was attended with such blunderings that a
military expedition became necessary to quell the " Eiel "
rebellion. The strain of these troubles brought on
Macdonald a very serious illness, which deprived the
country of his services for five months. Only the de
voted nursing of his wife brought him through. This
same firebrand, Eiel, returned in 1884 to head another
half-breed revolt, and his subsequent 'execution, while
acclaimed by English-speaking Canada, alienated from
Macdonald much French- Canadian sentiment. One of
the most difficult positions in which Sir John ever found
himself was when he was appointed a member of the
Imperial Commission in 1871, to settle with the United
States matters of dispute between Great Britain and that
country. He felt that, in the desire for peace, Canadian
interests might be sacrificed, and that he would be the
scapegoat in Canada. Both his fears were realized.
But it speaks volumes for his courage that he consented
to act, and for his influence in Canada that he succeeded
in having Parliament ratify the Treaty of Washington.
The subsequent Halifax Commission went far to assuage
the wounded feelings of Canada. Sir John's speech in
Parliament on the Washington Treaty was one of his best
efforts. It is said that the President of the United States
remarked that " our fellows thought they had diplomatic
children to deal with, but Sir John Macdonald euchred
them all."
But from the next difficult situation Macdonald could
not so easily extricate himself. We refer to the situation
created by the so-called "Pacific Scandal." Among. other
reasons, the failure of the Washington Treaty to deal with

32
the Fenian claims and the mismanagement of affairs in
.the North-West, had made uncertain the return of the
government in the elections of 1872. However, the
majority, though reduced, was sufficient, and the business
of the railway was being considered, when suddenly came
the charge of a corrupt bargain between the government
and the promoting company. Though the contribution to
the party funds was admitted, yet Sir John always re
pudiated any personal bargain. " These hands," he said,
" are clean." Notwithstanding a fervid personal appeal,
the feeling of the House set against the transaction, and
the verdict of the country was also unfavourable. Without
doubt Sir John was quite sincere in his belief that the best
interests of Canada and Confederation depended on the
continuance of his policy, "till the gristle," as he ex
pressed it, "had settled into bone." Without doubt, also,
election corruption has not been confined to one party in
Canada. But one may be permitted to regret that a
statesman of his high patriotic ideals regarding the welfare
of Canada and the Empire did not also lend his command
ing influence in a greater degree to the repression of the
reprehensible campaign methods of that day. One quality
that always commended him to the people was his frank
ness and absence of hypocrisy. He freely acknowledged
that "he took men as he found them." To one follower
who complained of the calibre of some of his government
associates, he said : " Give me better wood and I will give
you a better cabinet." His inclination to play upon the
foibles of men, as well as to utilize their strength, some
times took an amusing turn. When a certain Governor-
General, who was accompanied by Sir John, made a speech
in Greek on the occasion of a University Convocation, the
newspaper report next day referred to the excellence of
the Governor's accent and idiom. "Where did the re
porter get that ?" said a friend to Sir John. " Why, from

myself," replied Sir John. "But you do pot know
Greek." " No," said Sir John, " but I know men."
Having a picturesque personality and a fondness for
anecdote, about him have gathered as many stories as
about Abraham Lincoln. A number of these have been
collected in a volume by his friend, E. D. Biggar; and
they serve to illustrate not merely his humour but his
genuine kindliness of heart. On account of the fact that
the lives of our own public men have not, until recently,
been available in attractive form for the study of Can
adian youth, we have been made more familiar with the
early struggles of Lincoln and GarfiehJ as examples of
men who " from low estate have grown to greatness."
But youth may learn this lesson equally well and more
patriotically from the early life of Sir John A. Macdonald.
For his youth had none of the advantages of family
riches, high birth, or great connections, and he owed his
high place to his own exertions. His fath,er emigrated
from Glasgow in 1820 when John was five, and lived at
Kingston and other places in the Bay of Quinte neighbour
hood during John's boyhood. He was never a successful
pioneer and it was the mother who " kept the family to
gether," and instilled into this lad of promise those habits
of industry, which were later to prove of such value. The
father died young; but the mother lived to the age of
eighty-five and was ever the object of her distinguished
son's tender care. " I had no youth," Sir John used to
say sadly, referring to the fact that at the age of fifteen,
after five years of school at Kingston, he began work in
a law office. It is sufficient proof of his energy and
ability that he was called to the bar in six years, and
during the eight years preceding his first election, had'
worked up a considerable and growing practice. A co
incidence worthy of note is that two of the first students in
his office were Oliver Mowat and Alexander Campbell,

34
both destined, like himself, to achieve distinction in
politics and to be knighted by their sovereign. Sir
Oliver Mowat recalled in later life that John Macdonald
was as popular with boys as he afterwards became with
men. Predictions were freely made that the disaster of 1873
was to mean the " finish " of Macdonald's career. But
called by their insistence to lead the loyal remnant of his
party in Opposition, he displayed a courage and cheer
fulness! that won respect ; and confident in his own powers
of future usefulness, he waited on events. Nor had he to
wait long. The timid policy of the government on rail
way development, the absence of popular leadership, and
the commercial crisis gave him his opportunity. The
policy of protection had been long in his mind. As with
Confederation, he did not now adopt it impetuously; but
having once taken it up, he embarked upon an enthusiastic
campaign that carried all before it. He shrewdly fostered
the national sentiment to which it appealed, and in a series
of political picnics painted in lively colours the revival of
prosperity and the " tall chimneys " which would follow
its adoption. He was well aware of his supremacy as a
campaigner and he had able support. Though not an
orator, he had the gift of getting quickly to the pith of
any subject and of expounding it in clear and simple
language. But he often left to lieutenants the more serious
exposition of the subject, doubtless recognizing that, as
Parkin has expressed it, "his winning personality, his
natural sociability, his ready wit, his marvellous power of
remembering faces, were far more valuable assets than his
speeches." He had the great art of winning friends, and
his own early experience made it easy for him to have a
sympathetic understanding of the humble. Authentic
instances are recorded of his recognizing and naming a
chance acquaintance after the lapse of forty years.

35
His long lease of power from this election in 1878 to
his death in 1891 cannot be explained merely by the per
sonal devotion of his followers, unparalleled though that
was, or by his powers of political strategy, which were
acknowledged as consummate. The people of Canada
must have also preferred his chief policies as more nearly
representing their national sentiment. The policy of
protection is still the national policy. The Canadian
Pacific Eailway is everywhere regarded as a great national
asset. These stand as monuments of his constructive
genius and far-sighted leadership. Without reflecting on
the genius and industry of its great promoters, it is not
too much to say that without the courageous support of
Sir John A. Macdonald at critical times the completing of
the Canadian Pacific Eailway would not have been possible.
There were, of course, various measures of his govern
ments in that long period of power which were not above
criticism. The management of North-West affairs in 1884
was no happier than in 1870. Sir John was never a
believer in universal suffrage; and the Franchise Act of
1885 and especially the " Gerrymander " of 1882 met with
much opposition. His " centralizing " policy brought him
into a conflict with Oliver Mowat as the upholder of pro
vincial rights — a conflict from which Macdonald did no.
always emerge triumphant. The " sins of omission and
commission," as Sir John himself phrased it, of any
democratic government which lasts too long, and the de
pression in trade made his re-election in 1891 doubtful.
The Liberals advanced Unrestricted Eeciprocity with the
United States as a remedy for the commercial crisis. But
making use of the circumstances that some of the advocates
of the policy happened to be annexationists, and shrewdly
recognizing the profound suspicion that Canadians of
that period had regarding the United States, Sir John
issued his famous "manifesto of loyalty" and rode to

36
victory for the last time on the cry of "The Old Flag,
The Old Man, and The Old Policy." So loud was the
call for his presence that he had felt it needful to take an
active part in the winter campaign. But the strain was
too great for his failing strength, and he was seized with
illness soon after the meeting of the House and died on
June 6, 1891. He met this last crisis with his customary
calm fortitude. The outburst of grief was universal.
Never had statesman inspired such affection. All Canada
went into mourning. Crowds thronged to Ottawa for a
last look. Queen Victoria sent a wreath of roses for the
bier of her "faithful and devoted servant." A memorial
service was held in Westminster Abbey, and many noble
tributes were paid to his memory. Lord Eosebery, in
unveiling the bust erected to his memory in St. Paul's
Cathedral, said:

" Up above there sleep Wellington and Nelson, those lords
of war who preserved the empire; below here we have effigies
of Dalley and Macdonald, who did so much to preserve it.
We have not, indeed, their bodies. They rest more fitly in the
regions where they lived and laboured; but here to-day we
consecrate their memory and their example. We know nothing
of party politics in Canada on this occasion. We recognize
only this, that Sir John Macdonald had grasped the central
idea, that the British E!mpire is the greatest secular agency
for good now known to mankind; that that was the secret
of his success, and that he determined to die under it, and
strove that Canada should live under it."
Sir John A. Macdonald had been fond of power- but
he had also been devoted to service. Canada recognized
this; and the words he used in his own dark hour would
be accepted by his countrymen as his fitting epitaph :
" There does not exist in Canada a man who has given
more of his time, more of his heart, more of his wealth
more of his intellect and power, for the good of this Dominion
of Canada."

IhpHon Gpurue Brown J
LEADERS OF CONFEDERATION

37

GEORGE BROWN

In reading the history of Canada, no one can fail to be
impressed by the number of Scotchmen whose character
and ability have had an enormous effect on the develop
ment of our country. In the early days, the Hudson's Bay
factors in the West and the Scotch pioneers in Ontario
played important parts in opening up the country. Later,
in railway building and industrial and. commercial de
velopment, Scotch names meet us at every turn. Even
more important was the work of Scotehmen in winning
for Canada responsible government and the freedom of
civil and religious life that we now enjoy. To none of
these men do we owe more than to George Brown.
George Brown was born at Alloa, on the Forth, on
November $9, 1818. His father, Peter Brown, was a
merchant and builder. His mother was of Highland
blood. To this parentage he owed the sane common-
sense and impulsive energy which were the foundation of
his character. Both his parents were keenly interested in
the religious struggle in Scotland which ended in the
disruption of the Church, and their sympathies lay with
those who believed that it was the fundamental law of
the Church that no pastor should be intruded on any con
gregation contrary to the will of the people. All the re
ligious influence of the household through young Brown's
early years was on the side of freedom, and its effect
is seen in his later life, when he constantly opposed the
establishment of a State Church in Canada.
He was educated at the High School and Southern
Academy in Edinburgh. Even at this time signs of his
future career were not lacking. " This young man," said
Dr. Gunn, of the Southern Academy, "is not only en
dowed with high enthusiasm, but possesses the faculty of

38
creating enthusiasm in others." While one must not
attach too great significance to praise given to a school
boy, it is true that these words strike the key-note of
Brown's character and reveal the source of his power over
men. In 1838 business reverses caused the Browns to emi
grate to America. For four years they earned a living
by contributing to Tlie Albion, a weekly newspaper pub
lished in New York for British residents in the United
States. In 1842 they established in New York The British
Chronicle, a paper designed for Scottish and Presbyterian
readers in the United States and Canada. An attempt
to increase the Canadian circulation of this paper brought
George Brown to Canada in 1843. As a result of his
survey of the Canadian field, the Browns removed to
Toronto, where they published The Banner, a weekly
paper, partly religious and partly political, in both fields
championing the cause of government by the people.
Politics gradually occupied more and more space in its
columns, until on March 5, 1844, The Globe was estab
lished as an avowed political paper and advocate of respon
sible government.
For the next seven years The Globe absorbed all of
Brown's energies. The problem of the settlement of the
Clergy Eeserves, the effort to combat sectarian control of
education, the battle of constitutional right against the
undue interference of executive power, and the question
of reciprocity with the Maritime Provinces and the United
States, were the great issues of the day. In all these the
growing influence of Brown through The Globe was
exerted to obtain freedom in commerce, Church, and
State. In 1851 Brown was elected to Parliament for the first
time. He rapidly rose to a commanding position in the
assembly, entirely through his own energy and force of

§§
conviction. His industry and capacity for work were
wonderful. He spoke well and on a wide range of sub
jects requiring careful study and mastery of facts. Dur
ing this period, he obtained a hold upon the affections of
the people of Upper Canada which was never lost. Even
journals opposed to his political convictions paid him
tribute. For instance, the Cobourg Star estimates his
character as follows : " In George Brown we see no
agitator or demagogue, but the strivings of common-
sense, a sober will to attain the useful, the practical, and
the needful. He has patient courage, stubborn endurance,
and obstinate resistance, and desperate daring in attack
ing what he believes to be wrong and defending what he
believes to be right. There is no cant or parade or tinsel
or clap-trap about him. He takes his stand against open,
palpable, tangible wrongs, against the tyranny which
violates men's roofs and the intolerance which vexes their
consciences. His leading principle is to reconcile progress
with preservation, change with stability, the alteration of
incidents with the maintenance of essentials." '
We have an interesting description of Brown as he
appeared at this time at a banquet given in his honour at
Gait. " He was a striking figure. Standing fully six feet
two inches high, with a well-proportioned body, well-
balanced head, and handsome face, his appearance not
only indicated much mental and physical strength, but
conveyed in a marked manner an impression of youth-
fulness and candour. These impressions deepened as his
address proceeded, and his features grew animated and
were lighted up by his fine expressive eyes."
By 1857 Brown had become the acknowledged leader
of the Eeform party in Upper Canada. All his efforts
were directed toward finding a remedy for the evils aris
ing from the ill-advised legislative union of Upper and
Lower Canada. He demanded representation by popula-

40
tion, to give Upper Canada its just influence in the legis
lature. He wished to bring about the entire separation
of Church and State, placing all denominations on an even
footing and leaving each to support its own religious
establishments from the contributions of its own people.
Despite all opposition and numberless discouragements,
the agitation was carried on under his leadership, until
the Act of Confederation gave the people of Ontario fair
representation and complete control over local affairs.
Not only did Brown work energetically for the federa
tion of the Canadas, but he also had the necessary breadth
of view to see that all British America should be united
in one great country. Speaking at a Eeform Convention
held in 1859 to deal with the question of Confederation,
he said in answer to a query whether federation was a
step toward nationality: "I. do place the question on
grounds of nationality. I do hope there is not one Cana
dian in this assembly who does not look forward with
high hope to the day when these northern countries shall
stand out among the nations of the world as one great
Confederation. What true Canadian can witness the tide
of emigration1 now commencing to flow into the vast terri
tories of the North-West without longing to have a share
in the first settlement of that great, fertile country ? Who
does not feel that to us rightfully belong the right and the
duty of carrying the blessings of civilization throughout
those boundless regions, and making our own country the
highway of traffic to the Pacific ?"
In 1862 Brown sailed for Great Britain, and there had
an interview with the Duke of Newcastle, in which the
Canadian situation was freely discussed. While in Britain
he married Miss Anne Nelson, the daughter of the well-
known publisher, Thomas Nelson. This was the begin
ning of a most happy domestic life, lasting until his

41
death in 1880. His wife survived him until May, 1906.
On his return to Toronto, his popularity was shown by
the crowd of thousands of friends waiting to welcome
him at the Station. In reply to a complimentary address,
he said : " I have come back with strength invigorated,
with new and, I trust, enlarged views, and with the most
earnest desire to • aid in advancing the prosperity and
happiness of Canada."
In 1864 he .was appointed chairman of a committee to
consider the difficulties connected with the government of
Canada. On June 14 he brought in a report recommend
ing "a federative system, applied either* to Canada or to
the whole British North American provinces." Negotia
tions followed, resulting in the formation of a coalition
government, in which John A. Macdonald and George
Brown were *the leaders. In October a conference was
held at Quebec, in which a scheme of confederation was'
elaborated. In December Brown went to England to
obtain the views of the British government, and was able
to report that the scheme had given prodigious satisfac
tion. Largely because of his work, Confederation became
a reality. In 1867 he was defeated in South Ontario. He re
garded this as an opportunity to retire from parliamentary
life. He had long determined to make his farewell bow
as a politician as soon as the position of the Liberal party
was satisfactory. He desired to be free to write of men
and things without restraint., and he realized that party
leadership and the conducting of a great journal did not
harmonize. He had to chose either the position of a
leader in parliamentary life or that of a monitor in the
public press. His own words give his preference. " In
view of all the grand offices that are now talked of —
governorships, premierships, and the like — I would rather

42
be editor of The Globe with the hearty confidence of the
great mass of the people of Upper Canada than to have
the choice of them all-."
In 1873 Brown was appointed to the Senate. There
his career was without incident, as his interests lay else
where. Left comparatively free to follow his own inclina
tions, he plunged into farming, spending money and
energy freely on the raising of fine cattle on his estate
near Brantford. His farm and The Globe filled the last
years of his life.
On March 25, 1880, he was attacked by a discharged
employee named Bennett. This man entered the Senator's
office in The Globe Building, and demanded his signature
to a certificate of five years' service with The Globe. On
being refused, he drew a pistol and fired. The shot
passed through the leg, and the wound was not considered
dangerous. But week after week passed without any
improvement. Throughout April, Senator Brown became
weaker and weaker, and finally he passed away on May 10.
It is in the work done by George Brown in connection
with Confederation that our interest chiefly lies. When
we compare our present country, strong and united, with
all the essentials of a great nation, bearing her due share
of the heavy burden the present war has laid upon the
Empire, with the weak and scattered" British provinces of
fifty years ago, and we realize that much of this is due to
the energy, ability, and foresight of George Brown, no
praise can be too great for the man or his work. His in
fluence — and it was great — was ever exerted on the side of
freedom and justice. In all things he showed himself a
true man and noble patriot.

43

CANADA TO-DAY AND IN PROSPECT
The Twentieth Century is Canada's. It does not
need the eye of a prophet to see that in the very near
future Canada's population will be trebled or quadrupled.
The temperate regions of the earth have few vacant places,
the tropical practically none. Yet the people of the earth
continue to increase and multiply. The southern parts
of western Canada, southern Siberia, certain parts of
South America, South Africa, and Australia are but
sparsely peopled at present, yet all are eminently suited
for settlement by white races. Population will pour into
these places as air rushes into a vacuum. It cannot be
prevented, for it is the law of evolving nature. And of
all the countries mentioned it would seem as if Canada
would be first to receive the great tides of emigration.
She appears to be better prepared and better fitted to re
ceive -them. This prospective rapid development of Canada
demands the careful organization and utilization of her
wonderful material resources. It also obligates Canadians
to see to it that only the worthy are invited to participate
in the coming prosperity. The factors and conditions
which will determine Canada's future will now be dis
passionately brought under review.
According to the census of 1911 Canada had an area
of 3,729,665 square miles, about one-third the area of the
British Empire, and a population of 7,20.6,643. The
present-day population can only be estimated, but it is
certainly not less than 8,000,000. Canada is truly the
country of broad acres, for she has no less than
2,387,000,000 of them. But her people are few in num
ber, less than two per square mile of land area. If
Canada were as densely peopled as the British Isles, the
population would be 2,000,000,000. This figure Canada

44
will never, of course, be able to reach, because of her
geographical situation, since large areas have an arctic or
sub-arctic climate.
The most southerly point of Canada is in the Western
Peninsula of Ontario, on the shores of Lake Erie. This
point, about 42° north latitude, is on the same parallel
as Madrid and Eome. The most northerly point is on
the Arctic Ocean, within a few hundred miles of the
North Pole. Only a small fraction of the country lies
south of the 49th parallel, which forms the southern
boundary from the Pacific to the Great Lakes. From east '
to west along the southern boundary the country.'is more
than 3,000 miles across. These features, combined with
great variety in elevations, make for a varied climate and
for varied agricultural resources.
Canada's population is uniquely distributed. Prac
tically the whole of it is found to-day within a strip of
100-200 miles along the southern boundary. Geographic
al factors determine this condition. The vast areas
of northern Quebec, Yukon (207,076 sq. m.) and the
North-West Territories (1,242,224 sq. m.) will never con
tain a large population. They lie beyond the wheat line,
where the indigenous population must, in the main, be car
nivorous in diet. Still, with all these limitations, Canada
has many thousands of square miles with a temperate
climate awaiting the coming of the settler.
Canada's present-day population is largely of British
or French descent, 55% British and 28.5% French. The
remainder is made up of people of German descent
(5.5%), other Europeans (6.3%), and people of various
origins (5.6%). The people of French origin are found
mainly in Quebec, although French settlements are found
in western and northern Ontario, in the prairie provinces,
and wherever lumbering is carried on. They cling tenaci-

45

ously to their religion, their language, and their customs.
People of British origin are found in every province and
particularly in the Maritime Provinces and Ontario. The
non-English-speaking immigrants of the past two decades
have settled largely on the prairie lands of the North-
West. Of Canada's population in 1911, 78% was native-
born, 7.21% English or Welsh, 2.35% Scotch, 4.21%
American, and the remainder Irish, German, Austro-
Hungarian, Eussian, Chinese, etc. The probable influence
of future immigration upon the population of the country
can be judged from the following statistics :
IMMIGRATION INTO CANADA

Year

British

Continental

U. S. A.

Total

1905 

65,317
112,638156,984 49,879

36,213
'65,851
146,103 50,392

44,424
124,602115,751 68,659

145,954303,091418,838

1910 

1913 

1914 

168,930

1,012,641

703,604

893,012

2,609,257

During the decade under discussion, British, and
Americans largely of British stock, are seen to prepon
derate. For many years to come, immigrants from pres
ent enemy countries will find but a cold welcome. Con
sequently it may be assumed that in the immediate
future' immigrants from the British Isles, largely ex-
soldiers and their families, will make up a great part of
Canada's newcomers. These immigrants will be desirable
in many ways. The task of locating them will be a
tremendous 'one, largely because conditions of life in
Canada differ so greatly from those of the British Isles.
But it is a task that Canada will have to face immediately
after the present war.

46
Canada's resources may be discussed from many angles.
Only a few of the more important will be touched upon.
First and foremost comes the grain industry, for the
prospect of expansion in the immediate future is very
bright. Canada, in 1913, harvested 700,000,000 bushels of
grain. To this total, wheat contributed 231,000,000, oats
404,000,000, barley 48,000,000, and flax 17,000,000
bushels. While all the provinces contributed, the greatest
amount was produced in the three prairie provinces, now
a recognized granary for the world. At present less than
10% of the arable area of these provinces has been touched
by the plough. Government returns shows that only
16,150,000 acres are under cultivation, while a conserva
tive estimate shows that 272,000,000 acres are still avail
able for agricultural purposes. The crop for 1915 in these
three provinces was the largest in their history, being
605,000,000 bushels, divided as follows: wheat
265,000,000, oats 300,000,000, and barley 40,000,000
bushels. A crop of 800,000,000 bushels of wheat is easily
possible for the prairies. Canada will then be the greatest
wheat-producing country in the world. At the present
time she stands fifth, being beaten by Eussia, the United
States, India, and France. By 1925 she will have over
taken both France and India, providing she can find the
necessary rural population for her farms. At least
2,000,000 more will be needed before she ousts Eussia and
the United States from the premier position they now
jointly occupy.
Future development depends first and foremost on
population to work the virgin land. Scientific experi
mentation should lead to the production of a quickly
ripening grain which would reduce the risks of early
frosts to a vanishing point. Mixed farming and artificial
manuring will improve the fertility of the soil and the

47
average yield per acre for grains, which now stands at:
wheat, 20 bushels; oats, 45 bushels; barley, 34 bushels,
will be materially increased. Irrigation of the dry region
of southern Alberta — an easy matter since there are
numerous snow-fed rivers on the eastern slopes of the
Eockies — will also add to production. Extension of trans
portation facilities by the construction of branch railway
lines will bring many acres under cultivation that are now
unoccupied. Settlement in Canada follows railway con
struction : in European countries it usually precedes it.
Dairying and the raising of live stock for food are
important industries of Canada to-day, but there is ample
room for almost unlimited expansion and development, as
the following statistics will show:

NUMBERS OF LIVE STOCK IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES, WITH
STATISTICS OF AREA AND POPULATION

, —

Area
sq. miles

Population

Cattle

Sheep

Swine

Canada 
Australia 
United States 

3,729,66s
3.063,041 103,860
3,086,789 1,131,841 120,651
v 307,076 15,042
1,862,524 208,780

7,206,643
¦ 4,872,0231,084,662
91,972,266 7,123,663
45,370,00039,601,509 2,757,076
122,550,700 64,925,993

6,036,817
11,493,167 2,020,171
56.592,000
28,786,168 11,963.60014,705,900 1,281,974
48,896,000
20,182,021

2,058,045
85,046,72474,191,81049,719,00080,401,486
27,629,206 16,467,700 726,879
74,066,000 5,803.445

3,431,261 800,367
348.754
58,933,000 2,900,000

United Kingdom ....

3,305,771 6,903,750 1,467,822

13,508,000

21,923,707

In connection with agricultural resources a word may
not be out of place respecting climate, since that is the
main factor determining them. The July temperatures of
the greater part of the Dominion lie between 50° F. and
70° F. The prairies have a higher, and the land border
ing the Arctic Ocean, a lower range than this. The sum
mer temperatures, therefore, correspond to those of
France, Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. The
winter temperatures, however, are lower than those found
48
in the foregoing European countries. The January range
for certain parts of the Dominion is from 30° above to
30° below zero, corresponding to that of Central Eussia
and Siberia. A wide range of crops can be grown in the
summer. The precipitation in the form of rain or snow
is sufficient, as a rule, for the growth of annual crops.
Only one district, southern Alberta, requires irrigation.
The precipitation in western British Columbia is 100
inches and over, in the St. Lawrence valley from 20 to 40
inches, in Manitoba and Saskatchewan 10 to 20 inches.
Fortunately the rainfall on the prairies is heaviest during
the growing months of June and July.
Practically every known economic mineral is to be
found somewhere in the Dominion. Of some, like the
nickel ores, Canada has practically a world monopoly.
The great Laurentian Plateau stretching from the
Atlantic coast to the Mackenzie Basin is shot through and
through with mineral veins of every description. The
same can be said of the mountains of British Columbia.
What the future holds no man knows, but the proved
mineral-bearing regions, like the Sudbury, Cobalt, and
Porcupine districts of Ontario, indicate that the mineral
wealth of Canada will prove one of her greatest assets.
As the following table shows, coal, nickel, gold, copper,
silver, and portland cement, were the most important
minerals produced in Canada during 1915.
PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL MINERALS IN CANADA, 191
Metallic
Product Quantity Value
Cobalt, metallic  lbs. 211,610 ......
Cobalt, oxide  " 379,219 $502,388
Nickel, metallic  " 55,325
Nickel, oxide  '* 200,032 42,193
Copper, valued at 17.275c. per lb.. 102,612,486 17,726,407
G-old  oz. 916,076 18,936,971
Iron, pig, from Canadian ore. . .tons 158,598 1,740,808

49

Product Quantity Value
Iron-ore sold for export  tons 93,444 $187,682
Lead, valued at 5.60c. per lb  lbs. 45,377,065 2,541,116
Nickel, valued at 30c. per lb  " 68,077,828 20,423,348
Silver, valued at 40.60c. per oz...oz. 28,401,735 14,088,397
Zinc ore  tons 15,553 636,204
NON-METALLIC
Product Quantity Value
Asbestos  '.  tons 113,115 $3,491,450
Asbestic  " 25,700 21,819
Chromite  " 14,291 208,718
Coal- . /  " 13,209,371 31,957,757
Feldspar  " 15,455 59,124
Graphite  " 2,610 121,023
Grindstones  " #2,580 35,768
Gypsum  " 470,335 849,928
Magnesite  " 14,779 126,535
Mica   81,021
Ochres  " 6,248 48,353
Natural gas .  cu. ft. M. 18,319,710 3,300,825
Petroleum, valued at $1,395 per bbl. . 215,464 330,825
Pyrites  tons 296,910 1,028,678
Quartz . . . ¦  " 127,10-8 205,153
Salt  " 119,900 600,226
Talc  " 11,885 40,554

Structural Materials and Clay Products

Product
Cement, Portland  bbls.
Clay Products —
Brick, common, pressed, and paving
Sewer pipe 
Fire clay, drain tile, pottery, etc.
Kaolin  tons
Lime  bush.
Sand and gravel 
Sand lime brick  No.
Slate  Sq.
Stone- Granite 
Limestone 
Marble and sandstone 

Quantity
5,681,032

1,300
4,932,767

23,211.802 397

Value
$6,977,024 2,341,483 795,646 781,071 13,000
1,015,8782,098,683 182,651 2,039
1,634,084 2,504,731 365,784

Total Structural Materials and Clay Products  $18,712,074
Total all other Non-metallic  42,801,694.
Total Metallic  77,046,082
Grand total, 1915  $138,559,850

50
The basic minerals for industrial purposes are coal
and iron. Canada has an abundance of coal, much of
which is at present unworked. ¦ Iron is found at the head
of Lake Superior, in Nova Scotia, and in a few other
places. Fortunately Newfoundland has extensive iron
mines conveniently situated for the Nova Scotia coal-field.
That Quebec- and Ontario should be practically without
coal is a great misfortune. But the substitution of hydro
electric power for steam power in these provinces some
what mitigates the hardship. At present the two most
highly developed coal-fields are situated on the sea coasts
of Nova Scotia and British Columbia. For export pur
poses the situation of these fields could not be improved.
As the prairie provinces become settled, the immense coal
resources of Alberta will be developed and the lignite coals
of Saskatchewan will also be utilized. Canada's coal
resources are estimated as follows: Metric tons
Nova Scotia  9,718,968,000
New Brunswick  151,000,000
Ontario  25,000,000
Manitoba  160,000,000
Saskatchewan  59,812,000,000
Alberta  1,072,627,400,000
British Columbia  76,034,942,000
Yukon  4,940,000,000
North-West Territories  4,800,000,000
Arctic Islands  6,000,000,000
If Ontario is practically coalless, she has compensa
tions in her enormous reserves of peat, which only await
the invention of a satisfactory method of drying to enable
her to use peat commercially on a large scale. Peat con
tains 90% of water, some of which is held as hydro-
cellulose and cannot be dried out by ordinary means.
Still the so-called "wet-process" of drying peat has
proved itself partially successful. The peat is best em
ployed in the production of producer gas. The potential

51
value of the peat can be realized from the fact that the
known peat bogs of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New
Brunswick cover an area of 12,000 square miles. This is
equivalent to 5,400,000,000 tons of anthracite coal.
The nickel industry centres mainly in the Sudbury
district of Ontario. At present it is growing rapidly,
although it may still' be said to be in its infancy. The
ores are situated around the edges of a huge oval basin
and, as far as proved, are believed to be sufficient to
supply the world for the next 2,000 years. When the
nickel mines and refineries of Canada are fully developed,
and when nickel supplants iron for pots,^pans, and other
articles, the industry will employ its hundreds of thou
sands of workers.
Gold is found in every province in Canada with the
possible exception of Prince Edward Island. At the pres
ent time it is obtained chiefly from the alluvial deposits
of the Yukon and of British Columbia, and from the mill
ing ores of Ontario, British Columbia, and Nova Scotia.
Ontario now leads in gold production. The rapid develop
ment of the Porcupine district has made it second to the
Band as a gold-producing district. As new discoveries
over a fairly wide area are being constantly made, the
Porcupine district should rapidly increase in importance.
The great silver district of Cobalt adjoins the gold-
producing Porcupine district. Both are served by a Pro
vincial railway, which makes it possible for a traveller to
drop from a luxurious Pullman car into the heart of
these great mining centres. Cobalt has produced nearly
$140,000,000 worth of silver since mining commenced in
1904, and now produces 2V_ tons of silver each working
day. The gold production of Ontario is worth about
$9,000,000 per year, and bids fair to overtake silver in the
near future.

British Columbia is at present the principal copper-
producing province of the Dominion, although important
amounts are contributed by Nova Scotia, Quebec, and
Ontario. The North-West Territories, in the region be
tween Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean, are known to
possess almost limitless deposits of copper. It is unfor
tunate that the severity of the climate will delay the
opening up of this promising region.
Canada has the most extensive and productive fisheries
of all the countries in the world. Every square mile of
her coastal or inland waters abounds in fish.- The Atlantic
seaboard has 5,000 miles of sea coast, the Pacific 7,000
miles, while the fresh, interior waters occupy 220,000
square miles, and are stocked with whitelian, salmon-trout,
pickerel, black bass, and other excellent food fish. The
principal fishing industries of the Atlantic coast arc con
cerned with cod, lobsters (100,000,000 per annum),
herring, sardines, and oysters. On the Pacific coast the
industry is confined to halibut, herring, and whale fishing,
and in the rivers to salmon. Salmon and lobsters form
the bases of extensive canning industries. The value of
the fisheries in 1912 was $34,667,882, of which Nova
Scotia produced 9% millions and British Columbia
IS1/* millions. The value of the cod alone was IOI/3
million dollars. Everything points to an exceedingly
bright future.
Trees, next to cereals, are the most important product
of the soil. With the exception of the prairies, the barren
lands of the Arctic, and the cleared settlements of the St.
Lawrence Basin, practically the whole surface of Canada
is forest-covered. There are 800,000 square miles of
forest area. The cordillerian forest of British Columbia
is densely wooded and constitutes singly the most valuable
forest area of the Dominion. But the lumbering indus-

, 53
tries of New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario are also
important, and will become increasingly so as the avail
able timber supply of the world diminishes. Canada's
export of lumber in 1915-16 was valued at $51,000,000.
Unfortunately forest fires destroy annually more timber
than is cut for use. Afforestation is probably not yet
needed in Canada. Nature will see to the replenishment
of forest areas if only man will prevent destructive fires
from raging. With the increasing demand for lumber and
with the development of the wood-pulp industry for paper-
making, Canada's forests should prove as great an asset
as her minerals and her fertile prairie lands.
Since the outbreak of the Great War Canada has,- made
rapid strides as a manufacturing country. In spite of
great agricultural and mineral resources, almost one half
(46%) of her people dwell in urban centres. Ontario and
Quebec practically monopolize the manufacturing indus
tries of the Dominion. The value of manufactured pro
ducts of these Provinces for 1911 were: Ontario $579,-
810,225, Quebec $350,901,656, out of a total value for the
Dominion of $1,165,975,639. Canada used to be a debtor
nation, that is, the value of her imports exceeded that of
her exports. This state of affairs is now reversed, and
the balance of trade is no longer against her. For ex
ample, Canada's trade for the fiscal year of 1915-16
reached a total of $1,424,000,000. Exports amounted to a
total of $741,000,000, distributed as follows :
Manufactures  $242,000,000
Agricultural products  250,000,000
Animal products  102,000,000
Minerals  66,000,000
Lumber  51,000,000
Fish  22,000,000
Imports were valued at $507,000,000, of which $289,-
000,000 were dutiable goods and $218,000,000 free goods.

54
Canada's chief customers were Great Britain and the
United States. The manufactures of Canada are varied.
Agricultural implements and the manufacture of products
having a close connection with the agricultural, mineral,
and forest resources occupy the leading positions. As in
almost every other field, Canada's future as a manufactur
ing country seems very bright indeed.
Transportation in Canada is conducted chiefly by
means of water and rail. The cold winter closes all
navigation in Canada for three or four months of the year
except on the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. This is a
severe handicap. Moreover, Canada's river systems for
the most part drain into the Arctic Ocean or Hudson Bay,
which increases the handicap still further. The chief
waterway is the St. Lawrence Eiver and the chain of
Great Lakes. The largest ocean-going ships can pass to
the port of Montreal, 1,000 miles inland. Smaller vessels
can pass from Montreal to the head of the Great Lakes.
With the cutting of new canals and the deepening of
existing ones, navigation from the mouth of the St.
Lawrence almost to the foot of the Eocky Mountains
should become possible. For the produce of British
Columbia the new Panama Canal affords a convenient
waterway to the markets of Europe. The new Welland
Canal will have a depth of 25 feet, thu^s permitting the
transportation of wheat and lumber in great vessels from
Fort William to Montreal, with only one transhipment
into barges at Kingston. The enlargement of the St.
Lawrence canals, a difficult matter, will in time do away
with this necessity for even one transhipment. The
Hudson Bay route, practicable for a few months of the
year, is being developed rapidly and will afford, when
completed, a convenient outlet for the products of the
prairie. Port Nelson is as near to Liverpool as is Mon-

55
treal. The prairie rivers — the Assiniboine, the Eed Eiver,
and the Saskatchewan are navigable, but the traffic upon
them is somewhat local in character. With some dredging
and the construction of locks they may in time become
important factors in the transportation of grain.
The Government of Canada since Confederation has
subsidized 157 railways to the extent of $92,566,152. At
present Canada possesses 30,794 miles of railway. This
is enough to care for double the population they now serve.
The main railways are the Canadian Pacific, the Grand
Trunk, and the Grand Trunk Pacific, the Canadian North
ern, the Canadian Government Bailways, and the Timis-
kaming and Northern Ontario Eailway. The Canadian
Pacific, the Grand Trunk Pacific, and the Canadian North
ern are transcontinental lines. The following are a few
of the salient facts connected with Canadian railways for
the year 1912: capital, $1,900,443,784; passengers,
41,124,181; freight, 89,444,331 tons; mileage, 26,727;
earnings, $219,403,753; working expenses, $150,726,540;
proportion of expenses to receipts, 68.7 per cent.; train
mileage, 107,040,298; rolling stock, 4,484 locomotives,
4,946 passenger, baggage and express cars, 151,384 freight
and other cars; passengers per head of population, 5.53:
tons of freight per head of population, 12.05. The above
figures show the great need for population.
What of Canada's future? Enough has perhaps been
said to indicate that the opening statement of this section
"The twentieth century is Canada's," is not a flight of
rhetoric but the sober and literal truth. No country under
the sun has such a promising future before it. But
whether or not this brilliant future is realized depends
wholly on present-day Canadians. None of it will be gained
without hard work, none without intelligence. The appli
cation of science to industry and agriculture should em-

56
ploy the best brains of the community. The soil can be
made more fertile, stock can be improved, natural re
sources such as minerals and water power utilized, and
transportation difficulties overcome only through the in
telligent application of scientific knowledge. Canada s
schools must remain alert to meet new conditions; the
universities must be increasingly developed, especially
along lines of scientific research. But above all, those
ideals of liberty and justice which are peculiarly British,
must be fostered in the people, or all else, material develop
ment and riches, will be largely in vain.

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