YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM OLOWKS AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS- I EARLY OR EGYPTIAN. PL. 1. J Jottins HANDBOOK OF AECHJIOLOGY. €g#ptian— <£teefe— (Etruscan— doman. BY HO ODER M. WESTROPP. LONDON: BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET, AND 6, YORK STEEET, COVENT GARDEN. 1867. LORD LYTTON this volume is inscribed IN ADMIEATION OF HIS GREAT TALENTS AND CLASSICAL TASTES BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. Visiting the ancient countries of Egypt, Greece, and Italy, being the chief object of travelling at the present day, and the consequent interest taken in the remains of the former grandeur, magnificence, and high civilization of these countries, has made Archaeology one of the most important and most interesting studies of the present day. Egypt, Greece, and Italy, were the fountain heads of our civilization and the sources of our knowledge ; to them we can trace, link by link, the origin of all that is ornamental, graceful, and beautiful, in our architecture, sculpture, and in the arts of design. Remains, evincing the perfection they have reached in these arts, and attesting the stages of development which have been passed through leading to that culminating point of excellence, are still objects of the greatest interest in those countries. An intimate knowledge, therefore, of the original state and former perfection, and also of the present state of these remains, has been a matter of the deepest interest to many. Each country has found ardent in vestigators in its history and antiquities. The ruins of Egypt have yielded an endless amount of historical information to the ardent researches and zeal of Young, Champollion, Eosellini, Wil kinson, Bunsen, Lepsius, Birch. The temples and Cyclopean remains of Greece have been accurately drawn and described by Chandler, Stuart, Dodwell, Mtiller, Leake, Falkener, Wordsworth, Penrose. The remains of ancient art in Italy have been always a favourite viii PREFACE. theme of writers of different countries, English, French, German, as well as of Italian writers. Braun, Cramer, Dennis, Fergusson, Lanzi, Micali, Ingliirami, Canina, have written largely on these subjects. The works of these authors, treating of the various subjects of ancient art, are for the most part not only voluminous and very costly, but also difficult to be procured. The present work has, therefore, been compiled to supply a want often felt when travelling in Greece, Italy, or Egypt ; a work which would afford concise " general information on the objects of antiquity so frequently met with in these countries. Its chief object has been to condense, within the smallest possible compass, the essence of the information contained in the writings of authors who are considered as authori ties on these subjects We have adopted the following division in this work : — ARCHITECTURE Egyptian, \ Walls, houses, temples, altars, columns, obelisks, Geeoian, ! pyramids, theatres, amphitheatres, nauma- Eteusoan, I chia, hippodromes, stadia, baths, public Roman, ' roads, bridges, gates, aqueducts, tombs. SCULPTURE. Egyptian, Geeoian,Etetjscan, Roman, Statues.Busts. Bas-reliefs. PAINTING . Egyptian,Geecian, Etbuscan, Roman, Frescoes, painted sculpture, painted vases, mosaics. GLYPTIC ART Egyptian, Gkecian,Eteusoan, Roman, Engraved stones, iu intaglio and cameo. INSCRIPTIONS Egyptian,Gkeoian,Eteuscan,Roman, Material, alphabets, languages, abbreviations. PREFACE. ix To avoid notes of reference, appended is a list of the works and writers consulted, and whose words are frequently quoted and in troduced. Bunsen's Egypt. Lepsius' Egypt. Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians. Sharpk's Egypt. Mullee's Ancient Art (Leitch's translation). Fergusson's Handbook of Architecture. Dennis' Etruria. Flaxman's Lectures. Westmacott's Handbook of Sculpture. Gell's Pompriana. Winkelman. Canina's Boma Antica. Vitruvius. Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities. Classical Dictionary. G wilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture. Rawlinson's Herodotus. Wornum's Epochs of Painting. Birch's Ancient Pottery. C. W. King's Antique Gems. Natural History of Precious Stones. Vaux's British Museum. To the kindness of Mr. Samuel Sharpe we are much indebted for the use of several woodcuts from his " History of Egypt." H. M. W. TABLE OF CONTENTS. First Division. MONUMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE. Section I.— WALLS— MORTAR— BRICKS. Walls: Egyptian,pagel; Grecian, 2; Italian, 3 ; Roman, 6. Mortar, 7. Bricks, 8. Section II.— HOUSES. Egyptian, 9; Greek, 9 ; Roman, 10. Section III.— TEMPLES. Egyptian, 15 ; Grecian, 22 ; Etruscan, 27 ; Roman, 28. Section IV.— ALTARS. Egyptian, 36 ; Grecian, 36 ; Roman, 38. Section V.— COLUMNS— OBELISKS. Columns: Egyptian, 39; Grecian, 41 ; Roman, 46 ; Etruscan, 49 ; Monumental, 50 ; Naval, 51 ; Milliary, 52. Obelisks : Egyptian, 52 ; Greek, 55 ; Roman, 55. Section VI.— PYRAMIDS. Egyptian, 57 ; Etruscan 62 ; Greek, 62 ; Roman, 62. Section VII.— THEATRES— AMPHITHEATRES— CIRCI— HIPPODROMES — NAUMACHLE — BATHS, THERM.E— TRIUMPHAL ARCHES — FORA. Theatres : Greek, 63 ; Etruscan, 66 ; Roman, 66. Amphitheatres : Etruscan, 68 ; Roman, 68. Circi, 72. Naumachise, 73. Hippodromes, 74. Stadia, 74. Baths, Balnea?, Thennse, 75. Triumphal Arches, 77. Fora, 80. Section VIH.— PUBLIC AND MILITARY ROADS— BRIDGES- GATE WAYS— AQUEDUCTS. Public and Military Roads: Roman Roads, 82. Bridges: Roman, 84; Etruscan, 86. Gateways, 86. Aqueducts, 89. Tombs, 93 ; Egyptian, 94. Mummies, 97. Mummy Cases ami Sarcopliiigi, 100. Canopi, 101. Papyri, 102. Greek, 104. Etruscan, 107. Roman, 109. xii TABLE OF CONTENTS. SCULPTURE. Egyptian, page 115 ; Etruscan, 121 ; Greek, 123 ; Daidalean, 125 ; ^ginetan, 127 ; Phidian, 129 ; Praxiteleau, 132 ; Decline, 136 ; Roman, 136. MYTHOLOGY OF SCULPTURE. Egyptian, 140. Deities, 140 : First order, 141 ; Second order, 142 ; Third order, 143. Gods and Goddesses of Pure Human Form, 144. Deities of Human Form -with the Head of an Animal, 148. Symbolic Animals, 149. Sphinx, 150. Kings and Queens, 153. Private Individuals, 155. Animals, 156. Sepulchral Tablets, 157. Etruscan Deities, 158. Greek and Roman, 160. Grecian Costume, 161. Roman Costume, 163. The Twelve Olympian Deities : Zeus — Jupiter, 163 ; Hera — Juno, 165 ; Poseidon — Neptune, 166 ; Demeter— Ceres, 167; Apollo, 168 ; Artemis — Diana, 169; Hephaestus — Vul can, 171; Athena — Minerva, 171; Ares — Mars, 175; Aphrodite — Venus, 175 ; Hermes — Mercury, 179 ; Hestia — Vesta, 181 ; Dionysus — Bacchus, 181. Deities in connection with Dionysus : Satyrs, Fauns, 184 ; Sileni, 186 ; Pan, 186 ; Mamades, 187 ; Centaurs, 188 ; Eros — Cupid, 182 ; Hermaphroditus, 190 ; Psyche, 190 ; Charites (the Graces), 190 ; the Muses, 190 ; iEsculapius, 192 ; Hygeia, 192 ; Rhea— Cybele, 193 ; Hades— Pluto, 193 ; Persephone- Proserpine, 193 ; Moirse (the Fates), 193 ; Tyche— Fortune, 193 ; Nemesis, 194 ; Iris, 195; Flora, 195. Nike— Victory, 195; Hebe, 195; Hercules, 195; Theseus, 198 ; Amazons, 198 ; Achilles, 199 ; Meleager, 199 ; Orpheus, 199 ; Perseus, 199 ; The Dioscuri, 200. Bas-reliefs, 201 : Egyptian, 201 ; Etruscan, 202 ; Greek and Roman, 203. Materials of Sculpture, 208. PAINTING. Egyptian, 210 ; Etruscan, 213 ; Greek, 214. Methods of Painting, 218. Poly- chromy, 219 ; Roman, 222 ; Mosaic, 226. PAINTED VASES. Etruscan, 233 ; Greek, 234. Epochs of Painted Vases, 243. Shapes, 246. English and Italian Nomenclature, 248. Second Division. GLYPTOGRAPHY, OR ENGEAVED STONES. Introduction, 251. Origin and History, 252. Materials of the Art, 255. Know ledge and Tests of Engraved Stones, 258. Subjects of Engraved Stones, 262. Glyptographic Collections among the Ancients, 265. Ancient Artists, 266. Celebrated Engraved Stones, 273. Cups, 279. Modern Collections, 283. Glyptography of Ancient Nations, 285; Egyptian, 285; Etruscan, 290; Greek, 294 ; Roman, 297. Mithraic and Gnostic Engraved Stones 299. Rings, 302. TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiii STONES USED FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. Adamas— Diamond, page 309; Smaragdus— Emerald, 310 ; Hyacinthus— Sapphire, 311 ; Lychnis — Ruby, 311 ; Topazos — Chrysolite, 312 ; Chrysolites— Oriental Topaz, 312 ; Topazos Prasoides — Peridot, 313 ; Lyncurium — Hyacinth or Jacinth, 313 ; Amethystos — Amethyst, 313 ; Beryllus — Beryl, 314 ; Chyso- beryllus — Yellow Beryl, 314; Carbunculus — Garnet, 315; Crystallus, 316; Opalus — Opal, 316 ; Asteria — Star Sapphire, 317 ; Prasius — Plasma, 317 ; Heliotropinm, 317; Chrysoprasius— Yellow-green Jade, 317; Jaspis — Chal cedony, 318 ; Sarda — Sard, 318 ; Sard-Achates — Coruelian, 319 ; Onyx — Nicolo — Sardonyx, 319 ; Achates — Agate, 320 ; Murrhina — Fluor Spar, 321 ; Molochites — Nephrite, 322 ; Jasper, 322 ; Prasius — Heliotrope, or Blood stone, 323 ; Sapphirus — Lapis Lazuli, 323 ; Smaragdus Meclicus — Malachite, 323 ; Sandaresos — Avanturine, 324 ; Callais — Turquoise, 324 ; Tanos — Amazon Stone, 324 ; Haematites — Haematite, 325 ; Magnes— Magnetite, 325 ; Obsi- dianum — Obsidian, 325 ; Basaltes — Basalt, 325 ; Porphyrites — Porphyry, 326 ; Ophites — Serpentine, 326 ; Granite, 326 ; Imitations, 326 ; Impressions, 327. PALAEOGRAPHY, OR INSCRIPTIONS. I. Aim and Utility of its Study, 328. II. Materials which bear Inscriptions and Varieties of Inscriptions, 329. III. Relative Importance of Inscriptions, 330. IV. Critical Knowledge of Inscriptions, 331. V. Classification of Inscrip tions, 332. VI. History of Paleography, 333. PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS, Egyptian, 337. Greek, 346. Sigla, or Abbreviations in Greek Inscriptions, 355. Examples of Greek Inscriptions, 357. Etruscan, 363. Examples of Etruscan Inscriptions, 371. Roman, 372. Sigla, or Abbreviations in Roman Inscriptions, 383. Examples of Roman Inscriptions, 388. Christian Inscriptions, 395. Sigla, or Christian Abbreviations, 399. Examples of Christian Inscriptions, 400. APPENDIX. PAGE Table of Egyptian Chronology . 409 Table of Greek and Roman Artists . . . 414 List of the Principal Greek and Roman Architects . . . 421 List of Roman Emperors, Empresses, and their Relations . . . 423 Glossary of Terms used in Greek and Roman Architecture . . . 433 Table of some of the Principal Greek and Roman Temples . . .441 Synopsis of the Proportions of the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders ... ........ 443 List of Obelisks .... 444 Greek and Roman Short Measures of Length 446 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. to face page SEPARATE PLATES. Painted Vases, Plate I. . Plan of the Baths of Caracalla Apollo Belvidere .... Battle of Issus Painted Vases, Plates II., III., IV. The most celebrated Intagli . between pages 278 and 279 Alphabets to face page 350 7G 168 230 248 9. 10.11.12. 13. 14. 15. 10. 17. 18.19. 20. 21.22. 23. 24.25. Masonry .... Cyclopean walls Polygonal walls Walls of Cosa . Irregular horizontal walls Regular horizontal walls . House of Pansa Restored atrium of house at Pompeii Triclinium .... Entrance to Egyptian Temple . Ground plau of Luxor Palace of Edfou Plan of the Temple of Edfou . Temple of Dendera . Temple of Jupiter at iEgina restored Portico of the Parthenon . Temple of the Sibyl, Tivoli Plans of Temples Altars .... Capitals of Egyptian Columns . Pillar, Dendera Osiride Pillar Grecian Doric Column Grecian Ionic Column Corinthian Capital at Tivoli PAGE PAGE 2 26 Grecian Corinthian Capitals . 44 3 27 Caryatide . . . . 45 4 28 Telamones 46 4 29 Roman Doric Column 47 5 30. Roman Ionic Column 47 6 31. Corinthian Column . 48 11 32. Composite Column . 48 33. Tuscan Column 49 12 34. Column of Trajan . 50 13 35. Pompey's Pillar 51 16 36. Obelisk at Heliopolis 54 18 37. Cleopatra's Needle 55 20 38. Plan of Pyramids . 57 21 39. The Pyramids of Gizeh . 58 22 40. Seclion of Pyramid . 59 41. Pyramid according to Lepsius . 61 23 42. Pyramid of Erasmus 62 26 43. Greek Theatre 64 30 44. Roman Theatre 67 32 45. Longitudinal elevation of the 37 Flavian Amphitheatre 70 39 46. Longitudinal Section of the 40 Flavian Amphitheatre 70 40 47. Ground Plan of the Flavian 42 Amphitheatre 71 42 48. Circus of Romulus . 73 43 49. Plan of Baths, Pompeii . 77 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PAGE 50. Arch of Trajan, Benevento 79 97. Kneph 141 51. Restoration of the Roman 98. Neith . 142 Forum. 80 99. Phtah . 142 52. Pons Palatums. 85 100. Pasht . 143 53. GateofSegni* 87 101. Osiris . 143 54. Gateway at Arpino * 87 102. Isis 143 55. Gate at Pompeii 88 103. Nepthys 143 56. Gates at CEniadse S9 104. Athor 143 57. Aqueduot .... 90 105. Chonso 145 58. Aqueduct at Ephesus 93 106. Sevak 145 59. Tomb at Beni Hassan 96 107. Muntu . 145 60. Egyptian Mummy Case 97 108. Hapimou 145 61. Mummy Cases. 100 109. Thoth . 147 62. Genii of Amenti 102 110. Horus 147 63. Judgment of the Soul 103 111. Anubis . 147 64. Stele 104 112. Typhon 147 65. Heroon . 105 113. Serapis 147 66. Epithemata 106 114. Sphinx . 150 67. Tomb of Southern Italy . 106 115. Crio Sphinx . 151 68. Grotta Campana Veii 107 116. The Great Sphinx 152 69. Cippus at Pompeii 110 117. The Phoenix . 153 70. Sarcophagus of Scipio 111 118. Sethi Menepthah II. 154 71. Sepulchral Urn 111 119. Egyptian Figures . 155 72. Columbarium 112 120. Scarabaei 157 73. Street of Tombs, Pompeii 113 121. Grecian Drapery 161 74. Rock-cut Tomb at Petra 114 122. Double Chiton 162 75. Statue of Pasht standing 117 123. Jupiter 163 76. Seated Egyptian Figure 117 124. Jupiter Olympius of Phidias 77. Kneeling Egyptian Figure 118 restored by Flaxman 164 78. Colossal Figure of Rameses II. 120 125. Head of Serapis 165 79. Etruscan Figures . 122 126. Head of Juno 166 80. Minerva 124 127. Neptune 167 81. Early Statue . 124 128. Diana Triformis 170 82. Bronzes of the DaedaleanSchool 125 129. Headof Pallas, with Corinthian 83. Metope from Selinus 126 helmet 172 84. Advancing Figure from iEgine 127 130. Minerva 173 85. Frieze from the Theseum 128 131. Coin of Athens 174 86. Jupiter Olympius, of Phidias 132. Venus of the Capitol 177 restored by Quatremere de 133. Mercury 179 Quincy 130 134. Bust of Indian Bacchus 181 87. Metope of Parthenon 131 135. Bacchus and Ampelus 182 88. Theseus, Parthenon 132 136. Rondanini Faun . 184 89. Cupid of Praxiteles 133 137. Pan . . 186 90. Venus of Cnidos 134 138. Bacchante 187 91. Venus of a Roman period 137 139. Centaur 188 92. Statue of Adrian 138 140. Cupid . 189 93. Bust of a Roman Lady . 139 141. The Muses . 191 94. Bust of Caracalla 139 142. HeadofCybele 193 95. Amun 141 143. Fortune 194 96. Khem 141 144. Head of Hercules . 196 * By a mistake these cu s have been transposed. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 145.146.147.148.149. 150. 151.152.153. 154. 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162.163. 164. 165.166.167.168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 1.74.175. 176.177. PAGE Hercules .... 197 Amazons .... 198 Castor managing a Horse . 200 Egyptian Alto-Rilievo . 202 Alto-Rilievo . . 203 Mezzo-Rilievo . 204 Bas-Relief . . 205 Sarcophagus . . 206 Greek Urns . . 207 An Egyptian Artist seated . 211 Dancing Figure, Pompeii . 223 IPaintings, Pompeii 224, 225 Mosaic Pavement, Pompeii . 227 Mosaic of Dioscorides 228 Mosaic Pavement . . . 229 Painted Vases of the Beautiful Style 245 Vases of the Florid Style 247 Augustus, a Cameo . 250 Taras, a Beryl . . 252 Venus Marina 255 Minerva with iEgis . 258 Faun . . .262 Apollo . . 265 Zeus overcoming the Giants . 266 Cameo of the Ste. Chapelle . 273 Gemma Augustea 274 Tazza Farnese . . . 275 Ptolemy and Berenice . . 276 Jupiter iEgiochus . . 276 Car of Bacchus . . 279 Cup of St. Denys . . .280 Mercury and Fortune . . 283 178. Bellonarius 179. 180,181,182, PAGE . 285 286, 287 . 290 183.184. 185. 186. 187.188.189190.191.192. 193.194. 195. 196.197. 198. 199. 200. 201.202. 203. 204. 205. 206. •Egyptian Scarabaei Fauns sacrificing a Goat The Salii of the Florentine Gallery . . 292 Tydeus ... 293 Council of the Five Heroes before Thebes— a Gem . 293 Bellerophon training Pegasus 294 RudiariusKneph, or Chnubis AbraxasSeth . Cupid and Butterfly Ring of Cheops Ring of Amunoph III. Ring of Horus Ring with Scarabaeus Hands with Rings . 297 300300 300302302303303303304306307 309 \ Roman Rings . Thumb Ring Auctumnus . Examples of Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic Writing . . . 337 Oval of Rameses II. 341 Sigean Inscription . . . 357 Inscription to Balhillus . . 361 Monogram of Christ , . 396 Tomb in a Catacomb . 404 Monogram of Christ, with Palms of Martyrdom . . 406 HANDBOOK OF ARCHAEOLOGY. First Division. MONUMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE. Each nation has its rules, its proportions, and its particular tastes, having always in view the same end — solidity, regularity, and con venience. The architecture of a people is an important part of their history. It is the external and enduring form of their public life : it is an index of their state of knowledge and social progress. The influ ence of climates and public institutions was particularly displayed in the productions of architecture. The material also afforded by the country must necessarily have an important influence on the archi tecture of a people. In our West, temples open to the sky would be as little suited to its climate as to our habits. Scenic representations formed more a part of the national customs of the Greeks and Romans than with us ; and lastly, the art of war, such as it was among the ancients, imposed other principles on military archi tecture. Section I.— WALLS— MORTAR— BRICKS. Walls : Egyptian. — The walls of inclosure of the Egyptian towns are generally constructed of crude bricks, dried in the sun. Their dimensions are various ; the mud of the Nile supplied the material, which, however, required straw to prevent the bricks cracking. Sometimes they bear short hieroglyphic inscriptions enclosed in an oval, which is the stamp of the king under whose reign they were made. Burnt bricks were not used in Egypt, and when found they are known to be of a Roman time. Large and massive stones were used in the construction of the temples. Calcareous stone was generally employed in the walls of buildings. The only works of 2 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Egyptian architecture known are temples, palaces, pyramids, walls of inclosure, quajs, and other public constructions; private construc tions, houses, &c, have disappeared in the lapse of time, either because they were built of clay or brick, or of some other as perishable material. The pyramidal or sloping line was a character istic feature of the Egyptian style in temples and other buildings — the chief object of which was solidity. Another feature was the reed moulding, with lines cut obliquely on it, on the angles formed by the faces of the wall. The walls were surmounted by a projecting cornice. The solidity of Egyptian masonry is well known : it is the result of the good choice of materials, of its extraordinary size, and of the care bestowed on the building. It has been frequently remarked, that in the courses the neighbouring stones were attached to one another by plugs of wood, dove-tailed at each end, and imbedded in the stones. The Greeks and Romans employed bronze and iron for the same purpose. There is no appearance that metallic cramps were ever used among the Egyptians. Mason ky. A The reticulated work (opus reticulatum). ]J The uncertain (opus incertum). C The isodomum. D The pseudisodommu. E ejmrAeKToi* (emplecton). F The SiaTovot or bondstones. G The isodomum (on a larger scale). Grecian. — At first the Greeks built their walls of rono-h stones oflarge proportions ; the interstices were filled up with smaller stones ; remains of similar walls can be seen at Tiryns. At Mycenae, WALLS. 3 Corinth, Eretria, and Cadyanda in Lycia, the most ancient walls are of irregular polygons, carefully cut, and well joined together. When Grecian architecture arrived at perfection, it adopted three different kinds of masonry : — the isodomum ; courses of stone of the same height, and in general very long : the pseudo-isodomum ; courses of stone of irregular height : the emplecton, for extraordinary thicknesses. The two faces of the wall were built with cut stone, and the intervening space was filled with rough stones imbedded in mortar, and, at certain distances, stones (Siovrovoi) long enough to extend to both sides, consolidated this kind of construction. Italian. — In Italy the stages of the development of masonry are not very different from those followed in Greece. The following division of the relative antiquity of the different styles of masonry in ancient walls seems to be approved of by the best authorities, and may answer for the description of walls both in Greece and Italy, for the sequence of styles was similar in both countries. First, the Cyclopean, composed of unhewn masses, rudely piled up, with CYCLOPEAN WALLS. no further adjustment than the insertion of small blocks in the interstices, and so described by Pausanias. Of this rudest style of masonry few specimens now exist; the most celebrated one is the citadel of Tiryns. The second style, which we would call the Polygonal, though generally called the Pelasgian, is a natural and obvious improvement of the former. The improvement consists in fitting the side of the polygonal blocks to each other, so that exteriorly the walls may present a smooth and solid surface. What goes far to prove the high antiquity of this polygonal masonry is the primitive style of its gateways, and the absence of the arch in 4 HANDB OOK OF AR OHM OLOOY. connection with it ; and also that it is found as a substruction under walls built in the horizontal style, which is of later origin, as in the walls of Cosa. This style is prevalent at Mycenae, and also to i 7 i -K X \ 1 POLYGONAL WALLS. be seen in the walls of Cadyanda in Lycia. It is also to be met with in the Etruscan cities of Cosa and Saturnia. Similar polygonal masonry is to be found in the walls of Alatri and Arpino. In the third style, which we shall call the Irregular Horizontal, by some called Etruscan, and also Hellenic, from its being the prevalent style in Etruria and in Greece, the blocks are laid in horizontal WALLS. 5 courses, with more or less irregularity; and the joints, sometimes accurately fitted, are either perpendicular or oblique. Cement was not employed in any of these walls : the massiveness of the parts rendered it unnecessary. An approximation to this style is visible IRKEGILAR HORIZONTAL. at Mj-cenae, but is seen in perfection in the cities of Etruria, many ' of which still retain their ancient walls ; we may name Fiesole, Volterra, Cortona, Populonia, Roselle, and others.* To this maybe * Some attribute the adoption of these different styles of masonry to constructive necessity, and affirm that the character of the masonry is determined by the material, limestone splitting readily into polygonal forms, and travertine having a horizontal cleavage. This theory is however contradicted by the walls of Saturnia, for they are polygonal and built of travertine. If I may be allowed to hazard a conjecture, I would say, that in the art of building, as in every other art, there is a progress from the rudest state to per fection ; each separate style of masonry is the result or necessary consequence of that progress and gradual development in the art of building in any country, and not peculiar to any particular race ; each style marking the stage of development in the art. As in sculpture there are three different styles; the first, rigid, hard, and rude, which was the first beginning of art; the second, when there was more regard to proportion and beauty ; and lastly, the third or perfect style — so in masonry, the first or primitive style was but a piling up of rough blocks which might be suggested to any people; the second style may be considered an improvement of the former ; the third style, a still greater improvement, when the masonry was brought to its most perfect state. Specimens of polygonal and horizontal masonry. 6 HANDBOOK OF ARCHAEOLOGY. added a fourth style, which is the final improvement on the irregular horizontal, and is composed of regular horizontal courses of cut stone, such as was used in the flourishing period of Greece, and similar to that now in universal use. This may be distinguished as the Regular Horizontal ; these different styles are not, however, of REGULAR HORIZONTAL. the same period or age in all countries, but they mark the stages of development of the art of masonry in the country in which they are found. Roman. — At first the Romans imitated the Etruscans their masters, and were ever borrowing of their neighbours, not only civil and religious institutions, but even the sterner arts of war. In the same manner in their architecture and fortification : in the Sabine country they seemed to have copied the style of the Sabines, in Latium, of the Latins, in Etruria of the Etruscans. Afterwards they adopted two kinds of construction : the incertum, or antiquum, com posed of small rough pieces placed irregularly, and imbedded in a with a similar sequence of styles, are found in Peru and in the central parts of America (Missouri), where they cannot be said to be of either Pelasgic or Etruscan origin. According to Mr. Fergusson, examples occur in Peru of every intermediate gradation between the polygonal walls of the house of MancoCapac and the regular horizontal masonry of the Tambos, precisely corresponding with the gradual pro gress of art in Latium, or any European country where the Cyclopean or Pelasgic f-tvle of building has been found. MORTAR. 7 large quantity of mortar : and the reticulaium, composed of stones, cut and squared, but joined so that the line of the joining formed a diagonal, which gave to the walls the appearance of net-work. Vitruvius says, that this mode of building was the most common in his time ; several examples of it still remain : one may be seen in that part of the walls of Rome called the Muro Torto. The Greeks gave it the name of dictyotheton, synonymous with net ; they also communicated to the Romans their emplecton. Another structure of which the Romans made great use, and which was one of the most durable of all, was that composed of flat tiles. Canina distinguishes five species of Roman masonry: (1) when the blocks of stone are laid in alternate courses, lengthwise in one course and crosswise in the next ; this is the most common. (2) When the stones in each course are laid alternately along and across ; this construction was usual when the walls were to be faced with slabs of marble. (3) When they were laid entirely lengthwise ; (4), entirely cross wise. (5) When the courses are alternately higher and lower than each other, as in the temple of Vesta, over the Tiber. The earliest instances of Roman masonry are to be found in the Career Mamer- tinus, the Cloaca Maxima, and the Servian walls. They are con structed of massive quadrangular hewn stones, placed together without cement. Mortar. — The perfection of that of the ancients has passed into a proverb. The Egyptians never employed it in their great construc tions ; but other monuments preserve traces of it : the pyramids were formerly covered with a coating which supposes its use. That plaster, lime, bitumen were employed in the arts, is attested by numerous examples. The Greeks and Etruscans were also acquainted with it, evidences of which are to be seen in a reservoir at Sparta, built of stones, cemented together; and in 1he sepulchral vaults of Tarquinii, which are plastered with stucco, covered with paintings. Necessity must have made the use of mortar familiar to every people. Time, which has hardened it, has caused it to be considered more peifect than the modern. Its extreme hardness may probably be accounted for by merely referring to the circumstance that the long exposure which it has undergone, in considerable masses, has given it the opportunity of slowly acquiring the carbonic acid from the air, upon which its hardness and durability depend. The chief excellence of the mortar of the ancients lay in their knowledge of the art of mixing lime with sand, more or less earthy. So scrupulous were the ancient masons in the mixing and blending of mortar, that the Greeks kept ten men constantly employed for a long space of 8 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. time in beating the mortar with wooden staves, which rendered it of such prodigious hardness, that Vitruvius tells us that slabs of plaster cut from the ancient walls served to make tables. Bricks. — The ancients both baked their bricks and dried them in the sun. The Egyptians used sun-dried bricks in the large walls which inclosed their temples, and in the constructions about their tombs. Pyramids were sometimes built of bricks, which consisted of clay and chopped straw. In some of the paintings in Egyptian tombs, slaves are represented mixing and tempering the clay, and turning the bricks out of the mould. They are sometimes found stamped with the oval of the king in whose reign they were made. They are about sixteen inches long, seven wide, and five thick. Burnt bricks were not used in Egypt until the Roman period. It has been supposed that the Greeks did not employ bricks until after their subjugation by the Romans, as none of the works executed prior to that period, the ruins of which still exist, exhibit any signs of brick-work : yet there are Greek buildings mentioned by Vitru vius, as built of brick. Vitruvius (lib. ii. cap. 8) mentions the walls of Athens, towards Mounts Hymettus and Pentelicus, and the cella of the temples of Jupiter and Hercules. The Greek name for bricks were didoron, pentadoron, tetradoron, from the Greek SZpov, a handbreadth. The didoron was a foot long and half a foot wide. The pentadoron was five dora wide, and the tetradoron four dora wide on each side. All these bricks were also made half the size, to break the joint of the work ; and the long bricks were laid in one course, and the short in the course above them. Vitruvius says, the pentadora were used in public works ; and the tetradora in private. The Romans, according to Pliny, began to use bricks about the decline of the republic ; but a brick building, called Temple of the god Rediculus, still remains, which is said to have been built on the occasion of the retreat of Hannibal. This building is, however, now supposed to be a tomb and an imperial structure, probably of the time of the Antonines. The Roman brick used in the buildings on the Palatine hill, in the baths of Caracalla, and in various remains of Roman buildings in England, is more like a tile than a brick, being very thin compared with its length and breadth. The dimensions of Roman bricks vary, being 7£ inches square and H thick ; 16£ inches square, 2\ thick, and 1 foot 10 inches square, and 21 thick; the colour is red. The terms used by the Romans for bricks dried in the sun, were lateres crudi ; and for bricks burnt in the kiln, lateres cocti, or coctiles. Though HOUSES. 9 Augustus boasted that he found Rome brick and left it marble, brick continued to be generally used in the Roman buildings erected in the times of the later Roman emperors. Section II.— HOUSES. The ancients acted differently from the moderns in this essential part of social customs. It does not seem that they ever occupied themselves in adorning towns by private buildings ; public monu ments had alone this privilege, and the honours decreed to citizens who had them built or repaired at their own expense, turned towards them their attention and the employment of their fortune rather than towards domestic habitations. The degree of comfort exhibited in the arrangement of their houses is a very important characteristic of a nation's degree of civilization, and we may mark the progress of this civilization in its successive stages from a rude condition to a high state of perfection by studying the architecture of a people as shown in their ordinary dwellings. Egyptian. — Egyptian houses were built of crude brick, stuccoed and painted with all the combinations of bright colour in which the Egyptians delighted ; and a highly decorated mansion had numerous courts and architectural details derived from temples. Over the door was sometimes a sentence, as " a good house," or the name of a king, under whom the owner probably held some office. The plans varied according to the caprice of the builders. In some houses the ground plan consisted of a number of chambers on three sides of a court, which was often planted with trees. Others were laid out in chambers round a central area, similar to the Roman impluvium, and paved with stone, or containing a few trees, a tank, or a foun tain, in its centre. The houses in most of the Egyptian towns are destroyed, leaving few traces of their plans ; but sufficient remains of some at Thebes and other places to enable us, with the help of the sculptures, to ascertain their form and appearance. Greek. — The Greeks, according to Vitruvius, and probably the rich Greeks, divided their house into two apartments distinct one from the other, that of the men — andronitis, and that of the women — gynaeconitis or gynaeceum. A porter guarded the entrance of the house, which was generally a long corridor leading to the apart ments, a Hermes, or a statue of Apollo Agyieus, or an altar to that god, adorned the entrance; at the end of this corridor was the 10 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. peristyle of the andronitis, which was a space open to the sky in the centre, and surrounded on all four sides by porticoes, which were used for conversation and for exercise. Round the peristyle were arranged rooms used as banqueting rooms, music rooms, sitting, sleeping rooms, picture galleries, and libraries. A door from this peristyle opened into a passage leading to the gynaeceum, which was at first in the upper story, when the andronitis was on the ground floor ; afterwards it occupied, adjoining the latter, the most distant part of the house. Greek habits condemned women to habitual seclusion. A large hall was destined for their usual employments, surrounded by their slaves ; at the further end of this hall or peristyle was the 7rpocrras or vestibule, on the right and left of which were two bedchambers, the 0aA.ctyu.os and a/i<£<.0aAa/xos, the former was the prin cipal bedchamber of the house. A dining-room, and the other rooms necessary for domestic purposes lay contiguous. Some smaller buildings, next the house, were destined for strangers. It seems that Greek houses had but one story ; the pavement was a very hard cement, the roof was a platform surrounded by a balus trade. The light was admitted more through the upper part of the house than through the sides. Roman. — The Romans, who lived in a common apartment with their women, adopted for their houses a different distribution from that of the Greeks ; they were divided into two parts, one intended for public resort, the other for the private service of the family. The door, ostium, led through the vestibule, or prothyrum, where the_porter, ostiarius, usually had his seat, into the atrium or cavae- dium, a kind of portico built in the shape of a parallelogram, according to the proportions of the different orders of architecture. It was roofed over, but with an opening in the centre, called com- pluvium, towards which the roof sloped, so as to throw the rain water into a cistern in the floor, called impluvium. The atrium was the most important part of the Roman house, it was used as a reception hall. Here the wealth}' Roman exhibited to his numerous clients and flatterers all his wealth and magnificence. The atrium of M. Scaurus was celebrated for the richness of its marble columns and the beauty of its decorations. Vitruvius distinguishes five species of atria: I. The Tuscanicum, or Tuscan atrium, the oldest and simplest of all. It was merely an apartment, the roof of which was supported by four beams crossing each other at right angles, the included space forming the compluvium. It was styled Tuscan from the Tuscans, from whom the Romans adopted it. II. The tetrastyle, or four-pillared atrium, resembled the Tuscan, except HOUSES. 11 that the girders or main beams of the _ roof were supported by pillars placed at the four angles of the impluvium, III. The Corinthian atrium differed from the tetrastyle only in the number of pillars and size of the impluvium. IV. The atrium displuviatum 28 •/a I "10 ti 4" \ ¥^& ? 7T- HOUSE OF PANBA. 1. Prothyrum. 15. Winter aacue. 2. Tuscan Atrium. 16. Large Summer teens. 3. Impluvium. Yl. Fauces from Peristyle to garden. 4. Ala. 18. Kitchen. 5. Open Tablinum. 19. Servant's hall. 6. Fauces. 20. Cabinet. 7. Apartments. 21. Portico. 8. Peristyle. 22. Garden. 9. Open court. 21 , 24. Shops. 10. Private entrance to Peristyle. 25 -29. Baking establishments. 11. Basin. 26. Entrance to Peristyle from side street 12. Bed-chambers. 27. Keservoir. 13. Library. 28. Tank. 14. Triclinium. 12 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. had its roof inclined the contrary way, so as to throw the water off to the outside of the house instead of carrying it into the implu vium. V. The atrium testudinatum was roofed all over, without any vacancy or compluvium. At the further end of the atrium was the tablinum, where the family archives were kept. It was sepa rated from the cavasdium by an aulseum or curtain, like a drop-scene. In summer the tablinum was used as a dining room. Neai the tablinum were two small open rooms (alae), and in a corner of the HOUSES. 13 atrium was the lararium, or small private chapel. By the side of the tablinum was a corridor (fauces) which led to the private apartments — the first of which to be mentioned is the peristyle. It resembled the atrium, being in fact a court open to the sky in the middle, and surrounded by a colonnade, but it was larger in its dimensions. The centre of the court was often decorated with shrubs and flowers, and was then called xystus. The other rooms, besides the bedchambers, the smaller ones for the women (cubicula), others with an alcove (thalami) for the master of the house, for his daughters, were the triclinium, or dining room, so named from the three beds, kAivgu, which encompassed the table on three sides, leaving the fourth open to the attendants. The seci, from oikos, a house, were spacious halls or saloons borrowed from the Greeks- They were used for more extensive banquets ; the aeci, like the ¦SIP \ ""•.. maim TRIOLTNTUM. atria, were divided into tetrastyle and Corinthian ; the pinacotheca or picture gallery, and the bibliotheca or library. The exedra was either a seat intended to contain a number of persons, or a spacious hall for conversation. In the furthest corner of the house was the aulina or kitchen. The floors of the higher order of Roman houses were generally covered with stone, marble, or mosaic. The houses at Pompeii contain specimens of floors in mosaic, exhibiting ex quisite taste in the variety of ornament elaborated in them. The 14 HA NDB OOK OF A RCHE OLOGY. walls of the rooms were sometimes lined with thin slabs of marble ; they were also painted in fresco. Their decorative paintings generally represented mythological subjects, dancing figures, land scapes, and ornamentation in boundless variety. Windows (finestrae) were seldom used in Roman houses. The atria and peristyles being always open to the sky, and the adjoining rooms receiving their light from them, prevented the necessity of windows ; windows were only required when there was an upper story. Roman life, as at the present day, being so much out of doors, windows were seldom wanted. The house of Lepidus was at first considered the finest in Rome ; the thresholds of the doors were of Numidian marble ; but he was soon surpassed by others in splendour and magnificence, especially by Lucullus. At Athens the houses of Themistocles, of Aristides, differed but little from those of the poorest citizen. The Romans had many stories to their houses ; to prevent the inconveniences which would result, Augustus restricted their height to seventy feet, which Trajan reduced to sixty. It was in their villas or country houses that the Romans displayed a boundless luxury ; objects of art and the productions of the most distant nations were collected there in addition to the profusion of other ornaments. Lucullus erected several magnificent villas near Naples and Tusculum, which he decorated with the most costly paintings and statues, in which he lived in a style of magnificence and luxury which appears to have astonished even the most wealthy of his contemporaries. The emperors Nero and Adrian also built magnificent villas, which the arts of Greece and the luxury of the East contributed to adorn. It was in the villas of the emperors, or of the most wealthy citizens, that the most beautiful productions of ancient art have been found. A Roman villa, according to the rule laid down by Vitruvius, and the younger Pliny's description of his Laurentine villa, had its atrium next the door or porch at the entrance. Opposite the centre of the peristyle was a cavaedium, after which came the triclinium, on every side of which were either folding doors or large windows, affording a vista through the apartments, and views of the sur rounding scenery and distant mountains. Near this were several apartments, including bedchambers and a library. Attached to the villa were baths, halls for exercise, gardens (xystus), and every arrangement which could conduce to the pleasure and amusement of a wealthy Roman. The suburban villa of Diomecles at Pompeii presents a somewhat different arrangement to that of Pliny's Lau rentine villa. TEMPLES. ir, Section III.— TEMPLES. Tkmples are sacred edifices destined to the worship of the divinity. All nations have raised them, and the piety which founded them hastened the progress of architecture by the desire to render these edifices more worthy of their destination. The Egyptians have surpassed all nations in the extent and magnificence of these public monuments ; thej had ancient temples when the oracle of Delphi dwelt in a cabin of laurels, and the Jupiter of Dodona had but an old oak for an abode. Eyyptian. — The temple, properly so called, or the cella, or adytum. was in the form of a square, or an oblong square. It was there that the god dwelt, represented by his living symbol, which superstitious minds have taken for the divinity itself. The religious rituals pre scribed in all its minutiae the order of the service of the priests towards these sacred animals, the representatives of the god, chosen and pointed out according to exterior signs prescribed by the ritual. The adytum, or 0-77KOS, the principal part of the temple, is always the most ancient part, and bears the name of the king who had it built and dedicated. The plans of the different temples of Egypt display a great diversity, but evince a certain uniformity in the principal parts. An Egyptian temple, as Mr. Fergusson remarks, is an aggregation of parts around a small but sacred centre, which have been gradually elaborated during several centuries. The larger temples were generally approached by an avenue of sphinxes, and a pair of obelisks was placed in front of the pylons. We extract the following description of the temple known as the Rhamession, from Mr. Eergusson's " Handbook," as affording an accu rate general description of an Egyptian temple. The whole temple was built by Rhamses the Great, in the fifteenth century, b.o. Its facade is formed by two great pylons, or pyramidal masses of masonry, which are the most . appropriate and most imposing part of the structure externally. Between these is the entrance doorway (pro- pylon), leading almost invariably into a great square court-yard, with porticoes, always on two, and sometimes on three sides. This leads to an inner court, smaller, but far more splendid, than the first. On the two sides of this court, through which the central passage leads, are square piers with colossi in front, and on the liwht and left are double ranges of circular columns, which are con tinued also behind the square piers fronting the entrance. Passing 16 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. through this, we come to a hypostyle hall of great beauty, formed by two ranges of larger columns in the centre, and three rows of smaller ones on each side. These hypostyle halls almost always accompany the larger Egyptian temples of the great age. They derive their name from having an upper range of columns, or what in Gothic architecture, would be called a clerestory, through which the light is admitted to the central portion of the hall. Although some are more extensive than this, the arrangement of all is nearly ENTRANCE TO EGYPTIAN TEMrLE. similar. They possess two ranges of columns in the centre, so tall as to equal the height of the side columns, together with that of the attic which is placed on them. These are generally of different orders ; the central pillars having a bell-shaped capital, the under side of which is perfectly illuminated from the mode in which the light is introduced : while in the side pillars the capital was nar rower at the top than at the bottom, apparently for the sake of allowing its ornaments to be seen. Beyond this are always several smaller apartments, in this instance supposed to be nine in number but they are so ruined that it is difficult to be quite certain what their arrangement was. These seem to have been rather suited to the residences of the king or priests, than to the purposes of a temple, as we understand the word. Indeed, palace-temple, or temple-palace, would be a more appropriate term for these buildings than to call them simply temples. They do not seem to have been appropriated to the worship of any particular god, but rather for the TEMPLES. 17 great ceremonials of royalty, of kingly sacrifice to the gods for tne people, and of worship of the king by the people. He seems to have been regarded, if not as a god, at least as the representative of the gods on earth. Though the Rhamession is so grand from its dimensions, and so beautiful from its designs, it is far surpassed, in every respect, by the palace-temple at Karnak, which is, perhaps, the noblest effort of architectural magnificence ever produced by the hand of man. Its principal dimensions are 1,200 feet in length, by about 360 feet in width, and it covers, therefore, about 430,000 square feet. The following description is from Sir G. Wilkinson. The principal entrance of the grand temple is on the north-west side, or that facing the river. From a raised platform commences an avenue of Crio-sphinxes leading to the front propyla before which stood two granite statues of a Pharaoh. One of these towers retains a great part of its original height, but has lost its summit and cornice. Passing through the pylon* of these towers, you arrive at a large open court, or area, 275 feet, by 329 feet, with a covered corridor on either side, and a double line of columns down the centre. Other propylssa terminate this area, with a small vestibule before the pylon, and form the front of the grand hall of assembly, the lintel stones of whose doorway were 40 feet 10 inches in length. The grand hall measures 170 feet, by 329 feet, supported by a central avenue of twelve massive columns, 62 feet high (without the plinth or abacus), and 11 feet 6 inches in diameter; besides 122 of smaller, or, rather, less gigantic dimensions, 42 feet 5 inches in height, and 28 feet in circumference, distributed in seven lines on either side of the former. The twelve central columns were origi nally fourteen, but the northernmost have been enclosed within the front towers or propyla, apparently in the time of Sethi or Osirei, himself, the founder of the hall. The two at the other end were also partly built into the projecting wall of the doorway. Attached to this doorway are two other towers, closing the inner extremity of the hall ; beyond which are two obelisks, one standing on its original site, the other having been thrown down and broken by human violence. Similar, but smaller, propyla succeed to this court, of which they form the inner side. The next court contains two obelisks of larger dimensions, the one now standing being 92 feet high, and 8 feet square, surrounded by a peristyle of Osiride figures. Passing between two dilapidated propyla, you enter another smaller area, ornamented in a similar manner, succeeded by a vestibule, in front of the granite gateway of the towers which form the fagade of * Sir G. Wilkinson terms the pyramidal towers, pro-pyla ; and the entrance gateway the. pylon. Mr. Fergusson seems to reverse this. c 18 HANDS 0 OK OF ARCHE OLOG Y. the court before the sanctuary. This sanctuary is of red granite, divided into two apartments, and surrounded by numerous cham bers of small dimensions, ranging from 29 feet by 16 feet, to :*- » GROUND-PLAN OP LUXOR, 16 feet by 8 feet. The sanctuary, which was the original part of this great group, was built by Osirtasen, the great monarch of the twelfth dynasty. Behind this a palace, or temple, was erected by TEMPLES. 19 Thotmes III., considered by Mr. Fergusson as one of the most singular buildings in Egypt. The hall is 140 feet long, by 55 feet in width, internally, and the roof supported by two rows of massive square columns, and two of circular pillars of most exceptional form, the capital being reversed. Like almost all Egyptian halls it was lighted from the roof. A dromos, or avenue of sphinxes lead from Karnak to the temple of Luxor, in front of which were two obelisks covered with hiero glyphics, remarkable for admirable execution. One of these has been carried to Paris. Immediately in front of the propylon are two sitting statues of Rameses II. Behind these tower two enormous pylons, the facades of which are covered with bas-reliefs, represent ing the wars and victories of king Rameses. Within there was a court, 190 feet by 170 feet, surrounded by a peristyle consisting of two rows of columns. This was built at a different angle from the rest of the building, being turned so as to face Karnak. Beyond this was once a great hypostj'le hall, of which the central colonnade alone remains. To this succeeds a court of 155 feet by 169 feet, surrounded by a peristyle, terminating in a portico of thirty-two columns. Still further back were smaller halls and numerous apart ments, evidently meant for the king's residence, rather than for a temple, or place exclusively devoted to worship. Like the palaces, of Nineveh, the Egyptian temples were, doubtless, palace-temples ; for the sovereigns of Assyria and Egypt combined the offices and duties of priest and king. The irregularity of this temple has led to the conjecture that the whole was not built at once, according to a general plan, but that it was the work of succes sive ages. The southern end was built by Amunoph III. ; the great court, the pylons, statues, and obelisks, were added by Rameses the Great. The temples of Apollinopolis Magna (Edfou), and of Tentyra (Dendera), being of a later age, differ considerably in plan and arrangement from the elder palace-temples, for they are more essentially temples. They are also remarkable for their dimensions and richness of decoration. The large temple at Edfou is built on the grandest scale, and like most Egyptian temples, is covered with paintings and sculpture, representing mythological and regal person ages. It was erected in the age of the Ptolemies. The columns of this temple are remarkable for their elegance and variety, being formed on the type of the different plants and flowers of the country. It has the usual fagade of an Egyptian temple, the two large and massive pylons with a gateway in the centre. Within these is a court. 140 feet by 161 feet, surrounded by a colonnade on three c 2 20 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. sides, and rising by easy steps, the whole width of the court, to the front or portico, which in Ptolemaic temples takes the place of the great hypostyle halls of the Pharaohs. It is lighted from the front over low screens placed between each of the pillars, a peculiarity scarcely ever found in temples of earlier date. Within this is an TEMPLES. 2L inner and smaller porch, which leads through two passages to a dark and mysterious sanctuary. The temple of Dendera, was dedicated to the goddess Athor, the Egyptian Venus. It was built in a PLAN OP THE TEMPLE OP EDFOU. Roman or Ptolemaic, period, and consequently in the decline of Egyptian art. It is a large and massive building, overcharged with hieroglyphic sculpture and ornament, evincing in its profusion and 22 HANDBOOK OF ARC HE OLOGY. gracelessness the decadence of the Egyptian style. It has no fore court, nor propylons. Its columns terminate in a capital represent ing the head of the goddess Athor, repeated four times, surmounted by a quadrangular pylon. Grecian. — Temples in Greece were very numerous. Cities erected them to their tutelary deities : Athens to Minerva, Ephesus to Diana, &c, and the inhabitants of the country to the rustic TEMPLES. 23 divimhes. The temples of the Greeks never equalled those of -&gypt in extent, size was not the object with the Greeks. Their genius was shown more in the exquisite perfection of architectural design and sculpturesque ornament employed in their religious erections. All within the sacred fence, ^tySoAos, which enclosed the temple properly so called, the habitations of the priests, and ground sometimes of considerable extent, was styled the Hieron (lepov), and also repevos. The naos, cella or temple, properly so called, was generally in the shape of a parallelogram. Sometimes a court, surrounded by a portico or colonnade, was placed before it, as at the temple of Isis, at Pompeii, and at the temple of Serapis, at Pozzuoli. A portico surrounded the cella, the extent of which depended on the construction of the temple. It was there that the people assembled, the priests alone had the right of entering the TEMPLE OP JUPITER AT iEGINA RESTORED. cella; the Poribolos, or court, surrounded by a wall which sepa rated it from the rest of the sacred grounds, added still more to the extent of space ; it was generally adorned with statues, altars, and other monuments, sometimes even with small temples. The tem ples of the tutelary divinities were, in general, on the highest point of the town : those of Mercury on the lower grounds ; the temples of Mars, Venus, Vulcan, iEsculapius, outside and near the gates ; the best situations were chosen, and the oracles were also consulted for this purpose. According to Vitruvius, the entrance of the temples looked towards the west, so that those who came to make their sacrifices were turned to the east, whence the statue of the1' 24 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. god seemed to come ; most of the temples, however, still extant in Attica, Ionia, Sicily, have their entrance towards the east. The anterior part, before the entrance of the cella, was called the pro- naos, or -irpoSpofios, the vestibule ; the posterior part, if there was any, the posticum. The opisthodomos was the chamber behind the cella, which sometimes served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept. Above the entablature of the columns arose at both fronts, a pediment or triangular termination of the roof, called Aetos and Aetoma by the Greeks, which was generally adorned with statues and bas-reliefs. The front was always adorned with an equal number of columns — of four (tetrastyle), of six (hex- astj'le), of eight (octastyle), of ten (decastyle). On the sides the columns were generally in an unequal number, and as the length of the temple was generally the double of the breadth, there were thirteen columns on the side of the front of six, seventeen for that of eight, counting both the columns at the angles, which is to be seen in the smaller temple at Paestum, in that of Concord, at Agrigentum, and in the Parthenon, at Athens (see p. 26). The statue of the god to which the temple was consecrated, was the most sacred object in it, and the work of the most skilful artists. The eastern part of the cella, or o-tjkos, was assigned to it, and it always faced the entrance. The place where the statue stood was called eSos, and was generally surrounded by a balustrade. Private persons might place, at their own expense, either in the naos, or in the pronaos, statues of other gods and heroes. Sacrifices were made to them also, and the altars were dedicated to the principal divinity, and the other gods adored in the same temple ; Oeoi o-wvotoi. The altar of sacrifices was placed before the statue of the principal divinity. Sometimes many altars were to seen in the same cella. The interior walls were covered with paintings, representing'the myth of the god, or the actions of heroes. The rich offerings, the spoils carried off from the enemy, which were consecrated to the gods by kings, towns, generals, and private persons, were deposited in the treasury of the temple, frequently placed in the opisthodomos. Sometimes, also, the public treasure was deposited in the temple. Around the temple was a platform of three ascending steps, which formed a basis or substructure, on which the colonnade was placed, this was termed the stylobate, and also stereobate. These structures present the most beautiful models of ancient architecture ; the Doric order characterizes the most ancient, the Corinthian the most beautiful. Among Grecian temples, the most ancient existing specimen of the Doric order is the temple at Corinth. Its massive proportions, the simplicity of its forms, the character of its workmanship, and TEMPLES. 25 the coarseness of the material, are sufficient indications of its anti quity. The latest date that can be ascribed to this temple is the middle of the seventh century, b.c. Seven columns alone remain of it. Next in age to this is the temple of JEgina. The temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, at iEgina, was of the Doric order, and was hexastyle, peripteral, and hypesthral. It is remarkable for the traces of painting on its architectual decorations, and the archaic sculpture of its pediments. The style of its architecture indicates the middle of the sixth century, B.C. The next in 'order of time and style is the Doric temple of Theseus at Athens. It is of a rectangular form, peripteral, and hexastyle. This temple, remarkable fin ite exact proportions, and for being perhaps the best preserved monument of antiquity, probably furnished the model of the Par thenon. As Mr. Fergusson remarks, it constitutes a link between the archaic and the perfect age of Grecian art. Of all the great temples, (we again quote Mr. Fergusson), the best and most celebrated is the Parthenon, the only octastyle Doric temple in Greece, and, in its own class, the most beautiful building in the world. It was constructed by two architects, Callicrates and Ictinus, in the time and by the order of Pericles, and was adorned by Phidias with those inimitable sculptures, fragments of which are now in the British Museum. It was erected about 448, b.c The length is about 230 feet and breadth 100 feet. Its plan is peripteral octastyle. Besides the outer columns there is an inner pronaos hexastyle. The naos was hypaethral, and 98 feet long and 63 feet wide. At the further end of this was the chr3's-elephantine statue of Minerva, by Phidias. Behind was the opisthodomos or treasury of the temple. The sculptures of the pediment, the metopes, the bas-reliefs of the frieze, were the productions of the school of Phidias, and the most perfect examples of sculpture executed. After this comes the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, famous for its size and beauty. Its site can alone be identified at the present day. To the same age belong the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae, its frieze, probably the work of the scholars of Phidias, is now in the British Museum ; the temple of Minerva at Sunium, and the greater temple at Rhamnus. Sicily and Magna Grecia, colonies of Greece, afford a number of examples of Grecian temples. In Sicily, the earliest example is that of Selinus. The style of its sculpture indicates a very early date, about the middle of the seventh century, B.C. At Agrigentum there are three Doric temples, and. one remarkable for its gigantic dimensions. At Segeste is a temple in an excellent state of preserva tion. Paestum, in Magna Grecia, presents a magnificent group of 26 HANDS 0 OK OF AROSE OLOGY. temples. Of these the earliest is the temple of Neptune, supposed to be coeval with the earliest period of Grecian emigrafion to the south of Itaty. It is hexastyle and hypaethral. Solidity combined with simplicity and grace distinguishes it from the. other buildings. TEMPLES. 27 The other temples, the basilica, and the temple of Ceres, betray the influence of a later or Roman style. At Metapontum are the ruins of a Doric temple, of which fifteen columns with the architave are still standing. The earliest Ionic temple of which remains are jet visible is supposed to be that dedicated to Juno at Samos. At Teos, a town in Ionia, there is a very beautiful Ionic temple dedicated to Bacchus. It is now in ruins. The celebrated temple of Diana at Ephesus is said to have been Ionic. Even its site is now unknown. Of Ionic temples in Greece, the oldest example probably was the temple on the Ilissus, now destroyed, dating from about 488 b.c. Of all examples of this order, the most perfect and the most exquisite is the Erectheum at Athens. It was a double temple, of which the eastern division was consecrated to Minerva Polias, and the western, including the northern and southern porticoes, was sacred to Pan- drosus, the deified daughter of Cecrops. The eastern portico, or entrance to the temple of Athena Polias, consisted of six Ionic columns. The northern portico, or pronaos of the Pandroseum, had four Ionic columns in front, and one in each flank. The southern portico, or Cecropium, which was a portion of the Pandroseum, had its roof supported by six caryatides. Within its sacred enclosure were preserved the holiest objects of Athenian veneration — the olive of Minerva and the fountain of Neptune. Its sculptured ornaments exhibit the most perfect finish and delicacy in their execution. Though of Grecian origin, there are few examples of the Corin thian order among Greek temples. The temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens may be considered as the sole example of that order in Greece. It is, however, of a Roman period, having been commenced by the Roman architect Cossurius and completed by Hadrian. It was a magnificent structure, and of vast dimensions, measuring in its length 354 feet, and in its breadth 171 feet. Etruscan.— According to Vitruvius, there were two classes of temples in Etruria. The first circular, and dedicated to one god ; the other rectangular, with three cells, sacred to three deities. Mr. Fergusson believes the original Etruscan circular temple to have been a mere circular cell with a porch. In the opinion of Muller, Vitruvius took his rules of an Etruscan temple from that of Ceres, in the Circus Maximus, dedicated in the year of Rome 261, which was of a rectangular form, and divided in two parts in its length, the outward for the portico, and the inner for the temple, which was divided into three cells. There are no remains at the present day of an Etruscan temple— supposed to be in consequence of their 2 8 HANDS 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOGY. being principally constructed of wood. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome was evidently, from the description of Dionysius, as there are no traces of it at the present day, built in the Etruscan style. According to Dionysius, it had three equal cella? (o-r/Koi) within the walls, having common sides : that of Jupiter in the middle, on one side that of Juno, and on the other that of Minerva, all under the same roof. It was commenced by Tarquinius Priscus and finished by Tarquinius Superbus. Burnt down in the wars of Sylla and Marius, it was restored by the former according to the original plan, upon the same foundations. It occupied the site of the church of the Ara Caeli. Roman. — Rome, the disciple of Greece, imitated it in general, in the construction of its temples, and what has been said of the temples of the Greeks can be almost entirely applied to those of the Romans. " From the Greeks they borrowed the rectangular peri- stylar temple, with its columns and horizontal architraves, though they seldom if ever used it in its perfect purity, the cella of the Greek temples not being sufficient for their purposes. The principal Etruscan temples were square in plan, and the inner half occupied by one or more cells, to the sides and back of which the portico never extended. The Roman rectangular temple is a mixture of these two ; it is generally, like the Greek examples, longer than its breadth, but the colonnade never entirely surrounds the building. Sometimes it extends to the two sides as well as the front, but more generally the cella occupies the whole of the inner part, though frequently ornamented by a false peristyle of three-quarter columns attached to its walls. Besides this, the Romans borrowed from the Etruscans a circular form of temple unknown to the Greeks, but which to their tomb-building predecessors must have been not only a familiar but a favourite form. As used by the Romans it was generally encircled by a peristyle of columns, though it is not clear that the Etruscans so used it. Perhaps this is an improvement adopted from the Greeks in an Etruscan form. In early times these circular temples were dedicated to Vesta or Cybele." (Fergusson) The Romans differed essentially from the Greeks in the arrange ment of the columns placed on the sides. The Romans, in fact, counted not the columns, but the intercolumniations, and Vitruvius informs us that on each side they placed double the number on the front, so that a Roman temple which had six or eight columns on the front, had eleven or fifteen on each side. The temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome has four columns in front and seven on the sides, thus the number of intercolumniations of the sides was double that of TEMPLES. 29 the front. But exceptions are to be found to this rule. The statue of the god was also the principal object in the temple, an altar was raised before it. Some temples had many statues and many altars. The temples of the Romans contained paintings also ; in the year of Rome 450 (304 b.c), Fabius ornamented the temple of the goddess Salus with them, which acquired for him the surname of Pictor, preserved by his descendants. Paintings carried off from the temples of Greece were sometimes placed in those of Rome. The national style of temple architecture of the Romans, with few exceptions, was the Corinthian; that of Greece and its Italian colonies, the Doric. It has been observed that there is perhaps nothing that strikes the inquirer into the architectural history of the Imperial city more than the extreme insignificance of her temples as compared with the other buildings of Rome itself, and with some temples found in the provinces. The only temple which remains at all worthy of such a capital is the Pantheon. All others are now mere fragments. The finest example of a temple of the Corinthian order at Rome is that which is now styled the temple of Minerva Chalcidica. Its three remaining columns are frequent models of the Corinthian order. It was octostyle in front. The height of the pillars was 48 feet, and that of the entablature 12 feet 6 inches. The temple of Vespasian, at the foot of the Capitol, formerly styled the temple of Jupiter Tonans, has only three columns left standing. These Corinthian columns, only slightly inferior in size to those of the temple of Minerva, belonged to a building about 85 feet long and 70 feet wide. This was hexastyle and peripteral. The temple of Saturn, near this, presents a portico of eight Ionic columns, six of which are in front and two in the flanks. The temple of Mars Ultor, erected by Augustus, formerly considered to be a portion of the Forum of Nerva, has only three columns remaining. It is of the Corinthian order. Its cella terminates in an apse — an early instance of what became afterwards a charac teristic of all places of worship. The temple of Antoninus and Faustina, in the Corinthian order of a much later period, affords an example of a pseudo-peripteral temple. Of this class is also the small Ionic temple of Fortuna Virilis. It is the purest specimen of that order in Rome. Of the Composite order, though a Roman invention, there are no examples among Roman temples. The other temples at Rome, the existing remains of which are but few, are the temple of Concord, the temple of Venus and Rome, the temple of Minerva Medica, the temple of iEsculapius, the temple of Remus. Of circular temples the Pantheon is the most famous. It has 30 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. been admitted to be the finest temple of the ancient world. It was dedicated by Agrippa to all the gods. It is a circular building, with a portico in front composed of sixteen Corinthian columns, eight columns of these are in front, and the remaining eight are arranged behind them. The interior of the temple is circular, covered with a dome, one of the features for which modern architecture is indebted to the Romans. The internal diameter is 142 feet. The height from the pavement to the summit is 143 feet. A remarkable feature in this building is the central opening of the top, about 28 feet in diameter, TEMfLE OP THE SIBYL AT TIVOLI. to admit light into the interior. The temples of Vesta and of the Sibyl at Tivoli were circular peripteral. The circular cella of the temple of Vesta is surrounded by a peristyle of twenty Corinthian columns. The entablature and ancient roof have disappeared. It is supposed to have been originally covered by a dome, which rested on the circular wall of the cella. The temple at Tivoli is supposed to have been also dedicated to Vesta. Its cella was surrounded by a TEMPLES. 31 peristyle of eighteen Corinthian pillars, ten of which remain. It is 21-J feet in diameter. The examples of Roman architecture exhibited in the temples of Palmyra and Baalbec are not to be surpassed for extent and magni ficence. The buildings of Palmyra, whose ruins yet remain, were evidently built at very different times, but the prevalence of the Corinthian order must make them rank as Roman structures. The temple of the Sun, the chief building among the ruins, is in an enclosed space 660 feet square. This court was bounded by a wall having a row of pilasters in each face. In the midst of this court are the mighty ruins which formed the temple, exhibiting an amazing assemblage of columns, sculptured profusely with those decorations which constitute the distinctive features of the Roman Ionic and Corinthian orders. The temples of Baalbec form a most magnificent temple group. They consist of three structures : a temple of the sun, or great temple, a smaller temple, and a veiy beautiful circular temple. The great temple which was decastyle peripteral, had ill its front a court nearly 400 feet square, which was approached by an hexagonal court with a portico of twelve Corinthian columns. The terrace on which the temple stands is formed of stones of enormous magnitude ; at the north-west angle are three stones, two of which are 60 feet, and the third 62 feet 9 inches in length. They are 13 feet in height, and about 12 feet thick. Close to this is the smaller temple, it is octastyle peripteral. It is remarkable for the beauty and proportions of its portico. In plan it somewhat resembles a Roman basilica. The circular temple is of the Corinthian order, with niches on the exterior of the cella, and decorated with twelve columns. The Maison Carree, at Nismes is also a Roman temple. It is a pseudo-peripteral Corinthian temple, for the side columns are half imbedded in the walls of the cella. It has a hexastyle portico in front, and eleven columns along each flank. The columns of the back-front are also encased in the walls of the building. There are no windows, and, consequently, it must have been hypaethral. It has been recently shown to have been erected to M. Aurelius and L. Verus. There is also a Roman temple at Evora in Portugal, in excellent preservation. The portico is hexastyle Corinthian. Among the Greeks and Romans the simplest form of the rectan gular temple was the apteral or ao-ruAo?, without any columns ; the next was that in which the two side walls were carried out from the naos to form a porch at one or both extremities of the building. Those projecting walls were terminated on the front, or on both faces of the building, by pilasters, which, thus situated, were called 32 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. antae ; and hence this kind of temple was said to be in antis iv Trapaardcn. It had two columns between the antae. When columns were placed at one extremity of the building, in advance of the line joining the antse, the temple was prostyle, irpoo-rvXo's. It had four columns in front. If columns were placed in a similar way at both extremities of the building, it was said to be amphiprostyle, a/A<^>i7rpo'o-TtiAos. A temple having columns entirely surrounding the MONOPTER AL PROSTYLE CT :ral \\V~=. I o ¦1 1 o 1 DIPTERAL IIYPiTHRAL — PERIPTERAL J.NIPHIPHQSTYLE FERIPTERAl PLAN OP TEMPLES. walls was called peripteral, TrtpiTmpo's, d/^i/aW. A temple was of the kind called dipteral, Am-repos, when it had two ranges of columns, one within the other, and which entirely surrounded the naos. When there were two rows of columns in front and in rear, and only a single row on each flank, the temple was said to be pseudo-dipteral, uVeuSoSun-epos. When a temple had a range of columns in front, and TEMPLES. 33 the side columns were engaged in the wall of the cella instead of standing out at a distance from it, this arrangement was termed pseudo peripteral. It was invented by the Roman architects of a late period for the purpose of increasing the cella without enlarging the whole building. A temple was called hypmthral, iVaiflpos, open above, when the cella was in part exposed to the air. Hypaethral temples, being those of the greatest magnitude, had generally a double range of columns surrounding the naos on the exterior, and contained in their interior two tiers or ranges of columns, placed one above the other, as in the temple at Peestum. The walks round the exterior of the temple were called pteromata. The names given to the temples, according to the number of columns in the front, were the following : T£Tpao-mXos, tetrastyle, when there were four columns in front. l^ao-TvXog, hexastyle, when there were six. o/cTdto-ruAos, octastyle, when there were eight. SeKcto-ruXos, decastyle, when there were ten. Vitruvius gives the following set of terms applied to the temples according to their intercolumniations : ttvkvoo-tvXos, pycnostyle, or thick set with columns ; the inter- columniation was a diameter and a half. This was adopted in the temple of Venus, in the forum of Cassar. Suo-tu/Vos, systyle, the intercolumniation was two diameters. An example of this was to be seen in the temple of Fortuna Equestris. Vitruvius considers both these arrangements faulty. E&rnAos, eustyle, the intercolumniation was two diameters and a quarter. This Vitruvius considers not only convenient but also preferable for its beauty and strength. There is no example of this style in Rome. Aiao-TiAos, diastyle, the distance between the columns was three diameters. 'ApatoV-nAos, arfeostyle, when the distances between the columns were greater than they ought to be. In consequence of the excessive length, the architrave or epistyle was obliged to be of wood. The temples in Rome built in this style were the temples of Ceres, near the Circus Maximus, the temple of Hercules, erected by Pompey, and that of Jupiter Capitolinus. Several of the most celebrated Greek temples are peripteral, such as the temple of the Nemean Jupiter, near Argos; of Concord, at 34 IIANDB 0 OK OF ARCHE OLOG Y. Agrigentum ; of Theseus, at Athens. The Parthenon, the most perfect and the most majestic temple in the world was peripteral and octastyle ; it had eight columns on the front, and seventeen on each flank. The Grecian peripteral was larger than the Roman by two columns. According to Vitruvius, the examples of the peripteral form in Rome were the temple of Jupiter Stator, by Hermodus, and the temple of Honor and Virtue. The dipteral and pseudo dipteral forms of temples were only used in the grander and more expensive edifices, and, consequently, few of them were erected. The cele brated temple of Diana at Ephesus, built by Ctesiphon, and the Doric temple of Quirinus at Rome were dipteral. The temple of Diana, in Magnesia, built by Hermogenes of Alabanda, and that of Apollo by Menesthes were pseudo dipteral. According to Vitruvius, no example of this form of temple is to be found in Rome. The Greeks and Romans built temples of a circular form also ; this invention does not ascend very high in the history of the art, as it is of a late date. These buildings were covered with a dome, the height of which was nearly equal to the semidiameter of the entire edifice. The temples were either monopteral or peripteral, that is, formed of a circular row of columns without walls, or with a wall surrounded by columns distant from this wall by the breadth of an intercolumniation. The Phillippeion, or Rotunda of Philip, at Olympia, was peripteral ; such were also the temples of Vesta at Rome, and that of the Sibyl at Tivoli. This kind of round temples was usually dedicated to Vesta, Diana, or Hercules. Another form, of which we have the chief example in the Pantheon, consists of a circular cella surmounted by a dome, without a peristyle, but with an advanced portico, presenting eight columns in front, surmounted by a pediment. There was an ascent of two steps, and, in general, the temples of the ancients were surrounded by steps which served as a basement. •The temples received their light in different ways : the circular monopteral, formed of columns without walls, received it naturally ; the peripteral through windows made in the wall or in the dome. The rectangular temples received their light according to their dimensions : the smaller temples, generally through the door alone. The large temples received their light from on high through windows. As to the temples with a cella open to the sky, or hypEethral, iVaiflpos, according to the general acceptation of the word, no specimen of it remains. The best solution of the difficulty with regard to the manner in which hypasthial temples were lighted, seems to be the suggestion of Mr. Fergusson, of a clerestory, similar internally to that found in all TEMPLES. 35 the great Egyptian temples, but externally requiring such a change of arrangements as was necessary to adapt it to a sloping instead of a flat roof. This seems to have been effected by counter-sinking it into the roof, so as to make it, in fact, three ridges in those parts where the light was admitted, though the regular slope of the roof was retained between these openings, so that neither the riclge nor the continuity of the lines of the roof was interfered with. This would effect all that was required, and in the most beautiful manner, besides that it agrees with all the remains of Greek temples that now exist, as well as with the descriptions that have been handed down to us from antiquity. This arrangement agrees perfectly with all the existing remains of the Parthenon, as well as with all the accounts we have of this celebrated temple. The same system applies even more easily to the great hexastyle at Paestum. A peculiar feature in Greek temples of the best period, and of which the most remarkable instance is to be found in the Parthenon, must not be omitted here, which is the systematic deviation from ordinarj- rectilinear construction, which has for its object the correction of certain optical illusions arising from the influence produced upon one another by lines which have different directions, and by contrasting masses of light and shade. Almost all lines which are straight and level in ordinary architecture are here 'delicate curves ; and those lines which are usually perpendicular have here a slight inclination backwards or forwards, as the case may be. This peculiarity may be very palpably remarked in the steps of the Parthenon, which rise very perceptibly in the middle, and give to the whole pavement a convex character. The rise is about 3 inches in 100 feet at the fronts, and 4 inches in the flanks. This refinement in the construction of Greek temples was first noticed by Mr. Pennethorne, and afterwards more fully elucidated and developed by Mr. Penrose. We must also notice here the practice adopted by the Greek architects of colouring the architectural decorations of the temples. It cannot admit of a doubt, however repugnant to our cherished notions of the purity of Greek taste, that the Greeks adopted the practice of colouring the architectural decorations of their temples. The mouldings of the cornice and ceiling were brought into promi nence by the aid of lively colouring. The capitals of the antaa, the mouldings of the pediments, were severally adorned with the designs usually distinguished as the Fret, maaander, egg and dart. The tryglyphs were also painted blue. Some even believe they have discovered traces of paint on the marble columns ; but it has been proved that these traces are not results of painting, but natural 36 HANDB 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOG Y. oxidation. The Greeks, however, made a careful distinction with regard to the material on which they painted. The old tufa temples were coloured, because the material required colour ; the marble temples were white, because marble needs no colour. Colouring m marble temples was confined to the mouldings, tryglyphs, and other ornaments alone. The marble columns were never coloured. ^ In later times among the Romans, the practice of colouring buildings seems to have degenerated into a mere taste ior gaudy colours. Pliny and Vitruvius both repeatedly deplore the corrupt taste of their own times. In Pompeii we have several examples of painted temples. The material, however, painted is always stucco or plaster. Section IV.— ALTARS. Their shape is greatly diversified and depends on their destination, either for the purpose of making libations, or for the sacrifices of living animals, or, in fine, for placing vases, or offerings on them. Votive altars are often remarkable for their simplicity, being made of a single stone, more or less ornamented, and bearing an inscription indicating the reasons and jDeriod of their consecration, with the name of the divinity and that of the devotee who had erected it. Many have been discuvered belonging to the Greeks and Romans ; they must not, however, be confounded with the pedestals of statuary dedicated in the same way by the zeal and piety of private individuals. The votive inscriptions bear great resemblance to one another in these two kinds of monuments ; but the remains of the soldering of the statues which they bore, or the holes which served to fix them, can be observed in the pedestals. Egyptian. — Egyptian altars are generally in green basalt and in granite, and made of a single stone. An altar in the British Museum shows the trench for carrying off the libation. An altar was usually erected before a tomb for presenting the offerings. Grecian. — Grecian altars, at first of wood, afterwards of stone, and sometimes of metal, are in general remarkable for the taste exhibited in their execution. These altars were of three kinds : those dedi cated to the heavenly gods (/Jo/xot) were often structures of con siderable height ; those of demigods and heroes were low and near the ground (iorxdpaj.) ; and those of the infernal deities (if such may be called altars) were trenches sunk in the ground (fioOpos kaKKos). They may again be divided into three classes: those for burnt 38 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. offerings (e/x-rrvpoi) ; those on which no fire was used, which were meant for offerings of fruit, cakes, etc., (airvpoi) ; and those on which fire might be used to consume vegetable productions, but upon which no blood was to be spilt (avaip,aKTgi) ; when dedicated to either of the latter classes it was often nothing more than a raised hearth or step. Each temple usually had two altars ; one in the open air before it, for burnt offerings, another before the statue of the god to whom the building was sacred. Altars were often erected where there was no temple. The altars placed in the temples were of different forms, square, circular, or triangular, of brick or of stone ; they never were too high, so as to conceal the statue of the god. The altars destined for libations were hollow, the others solid. They were often made of marble, and elegantly sculptured; they were ornamented with olive leaves for Minerva, myrtle for Venus, with pines for Pan. Sculptors afterwards imitated these ornaments, and the difference of the leaves, of the flowers, or fruits which composed them, indicated the god to whom they were consecrated. Greek altars exhibit Greek dedicatory inscriptions. Roman. — What has been said of the Grecian altars can be, in general, applied to the Roman altars. We must, however, distinguish between altare and ara. The former, as is indicated by the syllable alt, signifying high, was an elevated structure, used only for burnt offerings, and dedicated to none but heavenly gods ; the latter might belong either to the heavenly or infernal gods, or to heroes. Latin inscriptions mark the Roman altars ; we must not, however, forget that the Romans employed only Grecian artists, and the taste of the latter predominates in all their works. The instruments and vessels of sacrifice often occur upon these altars as ornaments: — 1. The securis, or axe, with which the victims were slain. 2. The seces- piter, or culter, with which the sacrifices were cut to pieces. 3. Prefericulum, or ewer, which contained the wine for libation. 4. The patera, or bowl, into which the wine was poured before it was thrown upon the altar. They were also ornamented with heads of victims, roses, bas-reliefs, the subject of which was relative to the sacrifices. Section V.— COLUMNS.— OBELISKS. Columns : A column is a cylindrical pillar, which serves either for the support or ornament of a building, and is composed of the shaft, or body of the column, of a head, or capital, and of a foot, or base. At first they were made of wood, and afterwards of stone and COLUMNS. 39 marble. Columns at first were but supports, but taste and the pro gress of the arts ornamented them afterwards, and the difference of the ornaments, and of the proportions which were given to the different parts of the column, constitute the different classic orders, which have been reduced to five : — Greek orders — Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Roman orders — Tuscan, Roman, or Composite. Speci mens of almost all these orders remain. CAPITALS OF EGYPTIAN COLUMNS. Egyptian,— The form of the genuine Egyptian column, anterior to the influence of the Greeks, is greatly diversified. The simplest 40 HANDS 00K OF ARC HE 0L0GY. form, such as is found in the earliest constructed porticoes, was that of a plain square pier, such as would be suggested by a prop or sup port in mines, or as would be u>ed in quairies. The second stage in PILLAR, DENDERA. OSIRHIE PILLAR. the development of the column was the octagon form, produced by cutting off the angles of the square, with an abacus surmounting it. By furthsr cutting off the angles of the octagon, it was gradually COLUMNS. 41 converted into a polygonal shape, such as is seen in the tombs of Beni-Hassan. The want, however, of room, and a place for sculpturing and painting hieroglyphioal inscriptions and mytho logical figures, led ai a later period to the necessity of adopting a round form of shaft, such as was used in the temples of Karnak and Luxor. These were always covered with sculpture and hiero glyphics. Their proportions varied greatly. Those columns des tined to support large masses, are of a very large diameter in pro portion to their height. Their capitals were in endless variety. Some capitals in the shape of the calyx of a lotos, or of a bell shape, are of extraordinary elegance and richness. On others we have the papyrus plant, with its stem and leaves, and the palm branch, with its leaves and fruit. According to Herodotus the pillars were in imitation of palm trees. Indeed, the imitation of natural objects may be traced in every part of Egyptian columns. One of the most curious capitals is that on the pillars of the portico of Dendera. It is quadrangular, with the head of Athor on each side, surmounted by another quadrangular member, each face of which contains a temple doorway. The square pillar, with a colossus in ft out of it, com monly called Caryatide, has been styled an Osiride pillar by Sir G. Wilkinson, as the colossus attached to the pillar was the figure of the king, in the form of Osiris. Grecian. — The three main portions of the column are : — I. Spira, the Base. It gives the column, besides a broader foundation, a sort of girding at the lower end of the shaft ; it is therefore suitable for slender and more developed forms of columns, whereas the Doric columns of the early period ascend immediately from the pavement. Its divi sions are : — A. In the Attic order: — 1. plinth; 2. torus; 3. scotia, or trochilus ; 4. a second upper torus. B. The Ionic:— 1. plinth; 2. trochilus; 3. an upper tro chilus; 4. torus; in which are not included the sepa rating and preparatory fillets. II. Scapus, the Shaft. It is generally fluted, and the column gains in apparent height by means of the vertical stripes, and also in beauty by the more lively play of light and shade. The external surface of the column is by this means divided either into mere channels or flutings, or into flutings and fillets. In the shaft we observe, in the later Doric and other columns, the evracris, or swell. 42 HANDS OOK OF A RCHE OLOGY. III. Capitulum. Capital. A. The Doric, divided into:— 1. hypotrachelium, neck, with the grooves or channels as a separation from the shaft ; 2. echinus with the annuli or rings (originally, per- GRECIAN DORIC. GRECIAN IONIC. haps, hoops of metal around the wooden capital) ; 3. plinthus s. abacus (in Roman edifices with a cymatium.) B. The Ionic : — 1. hypotrachelium (only in the richer form) ; COLUMNS. 43 2. echinus with an astragalus lesbius beneath (a torus above it in the richer kind) ; 3. canalis, the canal, and the volutes with the oculi and axes on two sides, on the two others the pulvini, cushions, with the baltei, straps ; 4. abacus and cymatium. C. The Corinthian. Two main parts: — 1. calathus, the vase or bell of the capital, the ornaments of which rise in three rows : a. eight acanthus leaves ; b. eight acan thus leaves with stalks (cauliculi) between : four volutes and four scrolls (helices) with acanthus buds and leaves : 2. abacus consisting of cymatium and sima, or otherwise composed with projecting angles, and at the curved parts enriched with flowers. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. TEMPLE AT TIVOLI. The most ancient order among the Greeks was the Doric. It is a column in its simplest suggested form. From its resemblance to 44 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. the pillars at Beni Hassan some wish to argue its Egyptian origin. It was short and massive, such as would be used in ancient and primitive constructions ; yet it combines a noble simplicity with much grandeur. The Doric was at first very thick and very low : it was but four diameters of the base in height : afterwards it was made a little higher ; such are the columns of the two temples at Pa^stum. Later it was given five diameters and a half — this reform was made about the time of Pericles ; those of the propyleea at Athens have nearly six ; and lastly, the columns were given six lower diameters and a half, as at the temple of the Nemean Jupiter, between Argos and Corinth. 1 11 1 II GRECIAN CORINTHIAN CAPITALS. TOWER OP THE WINDS. MONUMENT OP LYS1CRATES. The Ionic order combines simplicity and gracefulness, and is much more slender than the Doric. Its chief characteristic feature is the volute or spiral scroll. In some instances, as in the Erectheum at Athens, there is a hypotrachelium separated from the shaft by an astragal moulding, ornamented with the anfhemion, or honeysuckle pattern. The shaft rests on a base. At first its height was eight diameters. The columns of the Erectheum at Athens are about nine. COLUMNS. 45 Authors differ with regard to the earliest known example, some giving the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, others the temple of Juno at Samos. The principal examples of the Grecian Ionic are in the temples of Minerva Polias, of Erectheus, the aqueduct of CARYATIDS. Hadrian, and the small temple on the Ilissus, at Athens ; in the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene ; of Bacchus at Teos ; of Apollo Didymaeus at Miletus. The Corinthian column, properly so called, is more a Roman than 46 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. a Grecian order, and was only introduced into Greece on the decline of art. According to Mr. Fergusson, the most typical specimen we know of the Grecian Corinthian is that of the choragic monument of Lysicrates (see p. 44). Its capital is formed of a row of acanthus leaves overlapping one another, and rising from a sort of calyx. It is surmounted at each corner by a scroll volute, the intervening space being filled up with scrolls and the anthemion. Its base and shaft partake of the Ionic. Another Athenian example is that of the Tower of the Winds (see p. 44). The capital is in the form of a calyx, with a row of acanthus leaves close to the bell, and without any volutes. This column has no base. The Corinthian columns of the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens belong to the Roman order. Caryatides. Another form of column only used in connection with the Ionic order, is the so-called caryatide (see p. 45) ; a draped matronal figure supporting a cornice. According to Vitruvius, these figures represent the captive women of Carya, a city of the Pelopon nesus. The most famous examples of these are in the temple of Erectheus, at Athens. Others bear baskets on their heads, and are supposed to represent Canephorae, who assisted in the Panathenaic procession. Another foim of support are the Telamones, or giants, sustaining a projection of the roof of the great temple at Agrigentum. TELAMONES. Roman : Doric. — This was considered by the Romans as an im provement on the simpler and severer Grecian Doric. The shaft of the Roman Doric was terminated like the Tuscan, but is distin guished from the Tuscan by the tryglyphs in the frieze. It had also a base ; an example of the Roman Doric may be seen in the lower columns of the Theatre of Marcellus, at Rome. Ionic. — This modification of the Ionic was, like all Roman modifi- COLUMNS. 47 cations, for the worse. The change consisted in turning all the volutes angularly, making them mere horns, as Mr. Fergusson re marks, and destroying all the meaning and all the grace of the order. ROMAN DORIC. ROMAN IONIC. It has an Attic base. The only remaining examples of the Roman Ionic are the temple of Saturn, in the Forum, and the temple of Fortuna Virilis. 48 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. The Corinthian column surpasses all others in elegance and mag nificence. It is, except in its capital, of the same proportion as the 5 CORINTHIAN. COLUMNS. 49 Ionic : but the additional height of its capital makes it taller and more graceful ; the Ionic capital being but one-third of the diameter of the shaft in height, whilst that of the Corinthian is equal to the thickness of the shaft. The capital is composed of two rows of acanthus leaves, eight in each row, and the upper row is placed between and over the divisions of the lower row. Four spiral volutes in each face rise out of two bunches of the acanthus leaf, and two of them are connected at the angles. They support an abacus, the face of which forms the segment of a circle. The capital rests on an astragal, which serves as a base, and which terminates the shaft of the column. The flutings of the shaft are twenty-four, and divided by fillets. It has ====^===v an Attic base. The invention of the capital is ascribed to Callimachus, who, seeing a small basket covered with a tile, placed in the centre of an acanthus plant, which grew on the grave of a young lady of Corinth, was so struck with its beauty that he executed a capital in imitation of it. The best examples are to be sought for rather in Rome than Greece. The most correct examples of the orders that remain are to be found in the Stoa, the arch of Adrian, at Athens ; the Pantheon of Agrippa, and the three columns of Jupiter Stator, or as now styled, Minerva Chalcidica, in the Forum, at Rome. Composite. — The Composite order is a Roman invention, and as its name imports, a compound of others, the Corinthian and Ionic. The capital was composed of the Corinthian acanthus leaves, surmounted by the Ionic volutes. Though con sidered an improvement on the order out of which it grew, it never came into general use. The principal examples of the order in Rome are in the temple of Bacchus, the arches of Septimius Severus, and of Titus ; and in the baths of Diocletian. Etruscan.— The: Tuscan order belongs pro perly to the Etruscans. The height of the tuscan. Tuscan column, the capital and base included was equal to a third of the width of the temple. The lower diameter was one-seventh of the height, and the diminution of the shaft, was, E 50 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. about a fourth of the diameter. The height of the capital was half a diameter. Such are the proportions given by Vitruvius, after the Tuscan temple of Ceres, at Rome. No examples of it remain to the present day. It was thought to be found in the amphitheatre of Verona, but the proportions differ sensibly from the primitive Tus can which is spoken of here. It is probable the Tuscan is only a simplification of the Doric, of which there are so many remains. The only remaining examples of this order of a Roman period are the lower columns of the Coliseum, which are Tuscan, and not Doric, as the entablature wants the distinguishing fea ture of that style, the try- glyph. Monumental. — They are of large proportions, and have been erected in honour of an emperor or military chief. Of this kind there are several still remaining. The column of Trajan, in his Forum at Rome, erected about a.d. 115, was dedicated to Trajan by the Roman senate and people in com memoration of Trajan's two Dacian conquests. It is of the Doric order, and is com posed of thirty-four blocks of Carrara marble. The shaft is covered with bas reliefs, which go round the whole from the bottom to the top in twenty-three spirals. They represent the exploits of Trajan in both his Dacian expeditions. There is a spiral staircase within, which winds thirteen times round, and contains 184 steps, The height from the base to the summit of the capital is COLUMN OP TRAJAN. COLUMNS. 31 124 feet. A bronze gilt statue of Trajan formerly surmounted the whole. The column of Marcus Aurelius, commonly known as the Antonine Column, was erected to him by the senate in eommemora- tion of his victories in Germany over the Marcomanni. The bas reliefs represent these victories. The column is formed of twenty- eight blocks of white marble. It is 88-J- feet high, including the base and capital. This style of column was called columna cochlis. The column or pillar, so called, of Pompey, at Alexandria in Egypt, POMPEY S PILLAR. a later inscription announces to have been erected by a Roman prefect in honour of the Emperor Diocletian. It is 88 feet 6 inches high, and its shaft is of a single piece. The capital announces the decline of the arts. There is also the -column of Phocas in the Roman Forum, erected in a.d. 608, by Smaragdus the Exarch to the Emperor Phocas. It is in the Corinthian style. Nazal, or Columna Rostrata. — In the Capitol at Rome is a plain column of marble, in bas relief, with three prows of ships on each side, and part of an inscription in obsolete Latin ; it is supposed to be the column which was erected by C, Duilius after his first e 2 52 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. naval victory over the Carthaginians, b.c 492. It is mentioned by Pliny. Milliary, also called Lapides. — Milliary columns were erected along the roads throughout the Roman dominions. Augustus erected a column in the Forum, which was called the Milliarium Aureum, from which it is supposed the distances on all the roads of Italy were marked. Some remains of it still exist close to the arch of Septimius Severus. On these pillars were generally inscribed — 1. The name of the town from which the distance was reckoned; 2. The number of miles expressed in figures, with MP (milliarium passuum) prefixed; 3. The name of the constructor of the roads, and of the emperor in whose honour the work was dedicated. On the balustrade of the Capitol at Rome are two of these milliary columns. One marked the first mile on the Appian way. It was found beyond the modern Porta San Sebastiano, about one Roman mile from the site of the ancient Porta C'apena. It has the names of Vespasian and Nerva inscribed on it. The other was erected at the seventh mile on the same road. A column found at Saqueney, in Burgundy, on the road from Langres to Lyons, bears this inscription — AND. MP XXII ab Andematuno milliarium passuum vigesimum secundum. Andematum being the ancient name of Langres. In some parts of Gaul the distances were marked in leagues, as in the following inscription — AB . AVG . SVESS . LEVG VII ab Augusto Suessonum leugae septem. Augusto Suessonum is the ancient name of Soissons. The date of this column was about the time of Caracalla. Obelisks. — Obelisks were in Egypt commemorative pillars. They are made of a single block of stone, cut into a quadrilateral form, the width diminishing gradually from the base to the top of the shaft, which terminates in a small pyramid (pyramidion). They were placed on a plain square pedestal, but larger than the obelisk itself. Obelisks are of Egyptian origin. The Romans and the moderns have imitated them, but they never equalled their models. The word 6/3e\io-Koj22 feet high. Roman. — After the Romans had made of Egypt a Roman province, they carried away some of its obelisks. Augustus was the first who 56 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. conceived the idea of transporting these immense blocks to Rome he was imitated by Caligula, Constantine, and others. They were generally erected in some circus. Thirteen remain at the present day at Rome, some of -which are of the time of the Roman domina tion in Egypt. The Romans had obelisks made in honour of their princes, but the material and the workmanship of the inscriptions cause them to be easily distinguished from the more ancient obelisks. The Barberini obelisk, on the Monte Pincio, is of this number; it bears the names of Adrian, of Sabina his wife, and of Antinous his favourite. The obelisk of the Piazza Navona, from the style of its hieroglyphics, is supposed to be a Roman work of the time of Domitian. The obelisk at Benevento is another, on which can be read the names of Vespasian and Domitian. The name of Santus Rufus can be read on the Albani obelisk, now at Munich, and as there are two Roman prefects of Egypt known of that name, it was therefore these magistrates, who had executed in that country these monuments in honour of the reigning emperors, and then had them sent to Rome. The Romans also attempted to make obelisks at Rome, such is the obelisk of the Trinita- de Monti, which formerly stood in the Circus of Sallust. It is a bad copy of that of the Porta del Popolo. The Roman emperors in the east had also some Egyptian obelisks transported to Constantinople. Fragments of two of these monuments have been found in Sicily, at Catania, one of them has eight sides, but it is probably not a genuine Egyptian work. The use of the obelisk as a gnomon, and the erection of it on a high base in the centre of an open space, were only introduced on the removal of single obelisks to Rome. Section VI.— PYRAMIDS. In the earliest ages the tumulus, or mound of earth, was the simplest form of sepulture for heroes and kings. The pyramid of stone was afterwards adopted by nations as the most lasting form of sepulture for their kings. Many ancient nations have raised pyramids. The,. form of the pyramid is well known. There is, however, this dif ference in the form, that some pyramids are raised with steps, others with inclined plane surfaces. The most celebrated are those of Egypt ; the Etruscans have also erected some, and the Romans imitated them. Some suppose the word -H-upa/us to be derived from nvp, fire ; others from the Egyptian " pehram," •' the sacred place :" the Greeks, adopting the native name, and adding a termination of their own, it was converted into the Greek word Pyramis. Accord- PYRAMIDS. 57 ing to Lanei, it is derived from 'pi-ram;' pi, being the Coptic article : the word ' ram,' besides being a Semitic, is also a Coptic word, with the sense of ' height' (Nott and Gliddon, 583)* Egyptian. — All antiquity has admired the pyramids of the environs of Memphis. They are distinctly mentioned by the oldest PLAN OP PYRAMIDS. Greek historian, Herodotus ; and the three largest are ascribed by him to Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus, three Pharaohs who * Mr. Kenrick gives a more obvious and judicious derivation ; according to him it is probably Greek on the following authority : " Etym. M. voc, nvpa/xts, $i e«r itvpwv Kat [icXltos, wcnrep (retract?, T) e/c (rei, on both sides, Oearpov, a theatre.) Statilius Taurus, the friend of Augustus, b.c 30, erected a more durable amphitheatre of stone, in the Campus Martins. Ever since, this kind of edifice was erected in numbers, in almost all the towns of the Roman Empire. The form of the amphitheatre generally adopted was that of an ellipsis, with a series of arcaded concentric walls, separating corridors, which have constructions with staircases and radiating passages between them. It enclosed an open space called the arena, from its being strewed with the finest sand, on the level of the surface of the ground on which the structure was raised. It was here that were given the combats of gladiators and wild beasts, which were enclosed in cells (carceres) on the same level as the arena. From the innermost con centric wall, which surrounded the arena, and which was of sufficient height, about fifteen feet, to guard the spectators against any danger from the wild beasts, an inclined plane rose upwards over the inter mediate walls, staircases, and corridors, to a gallery, or galleries, over the outermost corridors. The inner and upper part of the inclined plane was covered with a graduated series of benches. On the top of the first concentric wall or parapet (the podium), was a broad prae cinctio, or platform, which ran immediately round the arena. This was set apart for the senators, magistrates, and other persons of dis tinction. Here the magistrates brought their curule seats, or bisellii, and here was the suggestus, a covered seat appropriated to the Emperor. The person who exhibited the games (editor) had his seat here also. Above the podium were the gradus, or seats of the other spectators, which were divided into stories, called mamiana. The first maenianum was appropriated to the equestrian order. Then, after a horizontal space, termed a praecinctio, and forming a continued landing place from the several staircases which opened on to it, succeeded the second maenianum, where were the seats called popularia, for the third class of spectators, or the populace. The AMPHITHEATRES. 69 doors which opened from the staircases and corridors on to the several landing places, were designated by the very appropriate name of vomitoria. Behind the second maenianum was the second praecinctio ; above which was the third maenianum, where there were only wooden benches for the pullati, or common people. The open gallery at the top was the only part of the amphitheatre in which women were permitted to witness the games. The seats of the maeniana did not run in unbroken lines round the whole building, but were divided into portions called cunei (from their wedgelike shape), by short flights of stairs, which facilitated the access to the seats. The whole of the interior was called the cavea. A con trivance, by which the spectators were protected from the over powering heat of the sun, must not be omitted. It was called Velum, or Velarium. This was a vast extent of canvas, which was supported by masts fixed into the outer wall. Projecting stones are still to be seen at the top of the Colosseum and other amphitheatres, which were evidently connected with this contrivance. Sailors were employed for the purpose of straining the canvas. We learn from Lucretius that this covering was coloured, and Dio mentions a purple awning, in the middle of which was a figure of Nero driving his chariot, and stars of gold placed round him. The most famous amphitheatre was the Colosseum or Amphi- theatrum Flavium, at Rome. This amphitheatre was begun by Vespasian in a.d. 72, and dedicated by Titus in his eighth con sulate, a.d. 80. It was completed by Domitian. At the dedication of the building 5,000 wild beasts were slaughtered in the arena, and the games in honour of the event lasted for nearly 100 days. It was the scene of gladiatorial spectacles for nearly 400 years. The amphitheatre is, as usual, elliptical. The wall which surrounds the whole consists of three rows of arches, one above the other, with columns between each arch. In each row there are eighty arches : still higher was a fourth row of pilasters, with forty square windows, but without arches. The Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders were successively employed in the three rows ; and the pilasters of the fourth or upper row were also Corinthian. It was terminated by an entablature. The entrances were by eighty arches in the outer wall, which opened into the first arcade : from thence the people might pass by as many arches into the second, where they found at intervals staircases leading to the seats. The immense crowds which frequented this amphitheatre could enter and depart in a short time, and with little confusion. The arches were all num. bered on the outside, from I. to LXXX. Between XXXVIII. and XXXIX. is an arch a little wider than the rest, without a number, 70 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. and with no cornice over it, which is supposed to have served as the private entrance from the palace of Titus, on the Esquiline Hill. The height of the outer wall is 157 English feet. The major axis of the building, including the thickness of the walls, is 584 feet; AMPHITHEA TRES. 71 the minor axis 486 feet. The length of the arena is 278 feet ; the width 1 77 feet. It covers nearly six acres of ground. According to P. Victor, 87,000 persons would be accommodated in the seats, GROUND-PLAN OP THE FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATRE. 72 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. and some consider it probable that 20,000 more could have found places above. As a delight in the bloody scenes of the arena was peculiarly a Roman feature, and an enjoyment so much indulged in by Roman soldiery, it is natural to expect that we should find amphitheatres wherever we find a Roman settlement. Remains of amphitheatres are to be met with at Verona, Paestum, Pompeii, Pozzuoli, and Capua, in Italy ; at Nismes, Aries, Frejus, Saintes, Autun, in France; at Pola, in Istria; at Syracuse, Catania, and some other cities of Sicily ; even in the remotest parte of Britain and Germany. They are all constructed on the same general principles as the Colosseum. The amphitheatre of Verona was built about the same period as the Colosseum, and is interesting from its interior being nearly perfect. The amphitheatre at Pola derives its chief interest from its exterior being perfect. The amphitheatre of Pola and that of Nismes have nearly the same dimensions — 436 feet by 346 feet. That of Pola is 97 feet high. In the amphitheatres of Capua and Pozzuoli the arena contains many substructures and chambers which are found in no other amphitheatre. Circi. — The circus was another kind of building peculiar to the Romans. At first it was a place for chariot-races and horse-races ; it was afterwards used for combats of gladiators and wild beasts. The circus was of an oblong form, straight at one end and curved at the other, the length being about three times the breadth. At the straight end were the carceres ; in the centre was the ostia, by which the horsemen and the chariots entered. On each side of this were six apertures, or carceres, where the chariots stood before they started. A little in front of these were two small pedestals, to which was attached a chalked rope (alba linea) for the purpose of making the start fair. The space enclosed by the seats was called the area. Running down the centre of the area was the spina (so called from the central position of the spine in the human body), round which the chariots ran, keeping it always on the left. It was a brick wall 4 feet high, at each end of which was a meta, or goal, round which the chariots turned, and on which were placed three wooden cylinders, with an oval ornament at the top. An obelisk sometimes adorned the middle of the spina. There were also little pillars, on which eggs were placed to mark the number of times the chariots had gone round. At the curved end of the circus was the Porta Triumphalis, by which it is supposed the conqueror at the games went out. Seats (gradus, sedilia) were arranged round the area, with similar divisions, as in the amphitheatre. Each C1RC1. 73 curia had its particular place assigned to it, as well as the senators and knights. The emperor's seat, or pulvinar, was placed near the carceres, where the emperor would have the best view of the start and of the arrival at the goal. The Circus Maximus of Rome was built in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. It was enlarged by Caesar, and embellished by Augustus and Tiberius. Caesar separated the area from the seats by a euripus, or ditch, in order that the spectators might not be exposed to the attacks of the animals, which sometimes broke down the barriers. According to Dionysius, this circus was 3 b stadia long, and about 4 plethra (about 400 feet) wide. It contained 150,000 people. Pliny makes it only 3 stadia long, and 1 wide, containing 260,000. Each computa tion is, however, supposed to have reference to different periods, The remains of a circus outside the walls of Rome have afforded means of studying the general arrangements of this, class of build ing. It was formerly named the Circus of Caracalla, but inscrip tions have been discovered, recording that it was erected in honour of Romulus, the son of Maxentius, a.d. 311. Its length is 1,580 feet, CIRCUS OP ROMULUS. and its breadth 260 feet. It is calculated that it could have con tained 20,000 spectators. The-next circus, in point of antiquity, to the Circus Maximus was that of Flaminius, built by the consul of that name, u.c 531, but this has entirely disappeared. The other circi at Rome were the Circus Agonalis, or Alexandri, built by the Emperor Alexander Severus, the exact form of which may be traced in the Piazza Navona. The length was about 750 feet. The circus of Flora was situated in the space between the Quirinal and Pincian hills, now partly occupied by the Piazza Barberini. The circus of Sallust, called Circus Apollinaris was situated in the depression between the Quirinal and Pincian hills. Slight vestiges of it may still be traced. The circus of Nero stood partly on the site of the Basilica of St. Peter. It was destroyed by Constantino when he built the old church, a.d. 324. Naumachi.e. — Naumachiae were mock naval engagements. This kind of spectacle was enjoyed by the Romans. The Naumachiae generally took place in the circi and amphitheatres. Subterranean 74 HANDS 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOGY. canals brought in the water requisite for the entertainment; there were other canals for the purpose of letting it off. These two opera tions were performed in the presence of the spectators, and in a few minutes. Some of the emperors erected buildings on purpose, which were called Naumachiae. Two of the largest were built by Caesar and Augustus. Suetonius, speaking of the former, says a lake was dug in the form of a shell, in which ships, representing the Tyrian and Egyptian fleets, engaged, with a vast number of men on board. It was filled up after Caesar's death. The naumachia of Augustus was on the other side of the Tiber, and was 1,800 feet in length, and 200 feet in width, so that thirty ships could engage in it. Domitian also constructed one, and erected a building of stone round it, with seats for the spectators. It was on the site of the present Piazza di Spagna. The Emperor Claudius changed the lake Fucinus into a naumachia, placing seats round about it for the spectators. In the sea-fight 19,000 combatants were engaged, and there were fifty ships on each side. The combatants were usually captives or criminals condemned to death. Heliogabalus, upon one occasion, filled the euripus with wine, and had naval exhibitions performed in it. P. Victor mentions ten naumachiae. Hippodromes. — Hippodromes were used for chariot and horse races. They were peculiar to the Greeks. The general form of the hippo drome was an oblong, with a semicircular end, and with the right side some what longer than the left. At the other end was the starting- place, in the form of the prow of a ship. Along the sides of this were stalls for the chariots which were to run. When the cord fell, the contending chariots formed into a line, and started. At the further end was the goal they were bound to reach, which was placed in such a manner that but one chariot at a time could pass near it. The Greeks generally managed that the seats of the spectators on one side should be on the slope of a hill. Music accompanied these games. The judges were seated where the race ended. The Greek hippodrome was much wider than the Roman circus. The hippodrome of Olympia was 4 stadia long, and 1 wide. There were two at Constantinople, and the remains of others have been found in Greece, Syria, and Egypt. Hadrian, who erected several structures in imitation of Greek and Egyptian buildings, introduced a hippodrome into his villa, near Tibur. Stadia. — The stadium was also peculiar to the Greeks ; it was generally appropriated to foot races and gymnastic exercises. The stadium of Athens was on the south side of the Ilissus. According to BATHS. 75 Pausanias, it was a hill rising from the Ilissus, of a semicircular form in the upper part, and extending thence in two parallel right lines to the bank of the river. The spectators were seated on the turf until Herodes Atticus constracted Pentelic marble steps, and otherwise completed and adorned the stadium. It is supposed to have been capable of holding 40,000 spectators. Extensive ruins of stadia still remain at Sicyon, Delos, and Delphi. Baths.— Balneje. — Therm*. — The Greek name is /JaWeiov, of which the Roman balneum is only a slight variation, and generally signified a private bath. The bath was in general use among the Greeks, but we have little knowledge of the construction of their baths. The public baths of the Romans were generally called Thermae, which literally means " warm waters," In the time of Scipio Africanus, the Roman baths were very simple ; it was not until the age of Agrippa, and the emperors after Augustus, that they were built and finished in a style of luxury almost incredible. The public baths were opened at sunrise, and closed at sunset. . The price of a bath was a quadrans, the smallest piece of coined money. The usual hour for the bath amongst the Romans was the ninth in winter, and the eighth in summer. The most complete kind of baths were composed of the following separate rooms or halls : I. The Apodyterium of the Greeks, the Spoliatorium of the Romans, where the bathers undressed. Slaves, called capsarii, were stationed here, who took care of the clothes. II. The Aou-rpov of the Greeks, the frigidarium of the Romans, where cold baths were taken. III. The tepidarium was a temperate hall, which was merely heated with wann air of an agreeable temperature, in order to prepare the body for the great heat of the vapour and warm baths, and, upon returning, to obviate the danger of a too sudden transition to the open air. IV. Concamerata sudatio, or sudatorium, the vapour bath, was of a circular form,* and was surmounted by a cupola. In the centre of this cupola was an opening, from which a bronze shield (clipeus) was suspended. This regulated the temperature of the apartment. In the centre of the room was a vase (labium) for washing the hands and face. In this room was the laconicum, a kind of stove, which served to heat the room. * At Pompeii it is a semicircular niche in the caldarium. 76 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. V. The Caldarium, called also the balneum, calida lavatio, was the hot-water bath. In the centre of this was the basin or bath (lavacrum, it is also termed labrum); around, this was a platform (schola) or space for the accommodation of those who were waiting for their turn to enter the bath.* As a further accommodation, a seat (pulvinar) was generally added. VI. The Elaeothesium, or unctuarium : in this were kept the oils and perfumes, which were used on coming out of the baths, as well as before entering them ; this was generally next the apodyterium. VII. The hypocaustum, or subterranean furnace, which distributed heat everywhere where it was required, and in different degrees. In some of the larger baths there was a large hall called a Piscina, which contained a reservoir for swimming. Separate baths were assigned to the women, generally on the same principle as those for the men, but on a smaller scale. The Thermae of Imperial Rome were not alone baths on the grandest scale of refinement and luxury ; they also included pro menades, planted with trees, and covered alleys in which the idle took the fresh air. There were stadia where athletes wrestled and exercised themselves ; there were numerous galleries, magnificent pinacothecae, in which painters exhibited their paintings, sculptors, their statues; libraries also, and halls for conversation (exedrae), where wise men came to read, philosophers to discuss, orators and poets to recite their prose and verse. Such were the baths of Caracalla.* There were not less than sixteen hundred rooms for baths, all separate, and adorned with precious marbles. They were approached by a royal road, and were surrounded by porticoes ; the emperor himself had a palace in it, and a private bath. Many master-pieces have been discovered here. The Hercules of Glycon, the Flora and the Toro Farnese were found in its ruins. Baths of granite and basalt, with other treasures have been discovered within its walls. Next to the Colosseum no ruins afford a greater idea of the magnificence of the structures of Imperial Rome. Size, grandeur, and solidity, with, however, a want of taste in the orna mentation and minor details, were the chief characteristic features of Roman architecture. Diocletian erected baths on the Quirinal, and Titus on the Esquiline. They are inferior, however, in size and magnificence to those of Caracalla. The baths of Titus are remark able for the exquisite frescoes which were painted on its walls, and have been imitated by Raphael. Agrippa also erected baths. Remains of them have been found in the rear of the Pantheon. The * See plan. A B C D E, P G G H H I I K K LI. M M N N OOP P QQ R H A circular room, over which was a roof of copper Apodyterinm. The great hall. The piscina, or natatio. Vestibules-. Rooms for wrestlers to prepare for the palasstra. Peristyles for exercise. The ephebium, or place of exercise The ElEeothesium Vestibules. Laconicum.Caldaria, or warm bath. Tepidarium. Frigidarium. Rooms for spectators. Exedrse, for philosophers. The stadium. TT 0 U WW X X YY "Z2 4 4 5 5 Reservoirs. Cells for bathing. Rooms for conversation. Cisterns.The conisterium. Ornamental recesses for seats.'- Seats for spectators. Apartments for those who had care of the bnhs Kxedraj where gymnastic exercises were taught Rooms for those who exercised in the stadium ' Atria to the academies. Temples. Academies. Arcades for walking. Covered baths. Stairs leading to the top. BATHS OF CARACALLA. LTof< ace page 76. TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 77 site of the baths of Nero is uncertain. The baths of Pompeii are built on a smaller scale, such as would be suited to a provincial town. The Romans carried the luxurious practice of bathing into their remotest provinces. Remains of Roman baths are found in several parts of France and England. 4s..- HSR} &P: .-:A ^i >* ¦^^^P^^^> PLAN OF BATHS, rOMFEII. Mlk's Baths. a o p Entrances. 6 Apodyterium. c Frigidarium. d Tepidarium. e Caldarium. / Lavacrum. g Labrum. h Apartments for stokers i Furnace. j Passage. h Resei'voir for cold water. I Room for attendants. m Court or vestibule to the baths. n Colonnade. Women's Baths. v Entrance. t Apodyterium. s Tepidarium. u Caldarinm. y Labrum. r Court. Triumphal Arches. — Triumphal arches were structures peculiar to the Eomans. They generally consisted of arches erected at the entrance of cities, across streets, bridges, and public roads, in honour of victorious generals or emperors, or in commemoration of some remarkable event. At Rome they were generally placed in the way along which the triumphal procession passed to the Capitol. Some- 78 ' HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. times temporary arches were erected during the triumph, and the more durable afterwards. The more simple structures had but a single arch, decorated with Corinthian columns, such as the arch of Titus at Rome ; that of Verona has two arches, and seems to have served as gates to the town. In those with three arches, the two lateral arches are smaller than the middle one ; such is that of Constantine at Rome. The arches of this kind were surmounted by a very lofty attic, which bore inscriptions, sometimes bas-reliefs, and also supported triumphal cars, equestrian statues. Its archivolts were ornamented with victories bearing palms. The bas-reliefs represented the arms of the conquered enemies, trophies of every kind, and even the monu ments of art which had adorned the triumphal procession. When the conqueror in the triumphal procession passed under the middle arch, a figure of victory, attached by cords, placed a crown on his head. "When a triumphal arch was erected as a monument of gratitude, or in commemoration of some event, and not in honour of a conqueror, no remains of trophies or military symbols are to be found on them. There are a number of triumphal arches still re maining. The principal are: — 1. The arch of Drusus is considered the oldest triumphal arch in Rome, and is ascribed to Nero Claudius Drusus, father of the emperor Claudius. 2. The arch of Titus, the most elegant of all the triumphal arches, was erected by the senate and the people in honour of Titus, to commemorate the conquest of Jerusalem. Some of the vessels and ornaments which belonged to the temple at Jerusalem, and which were carried in the triumphal procession, appear on one of the bas-reliefs in the interior of the arch. On the opposite bas-relief the emperor is represented in a car, drawn by four horses, attended by senators, and crowned with laurel. 3. The arch of Septimius Severus. This arch was erected in honour of Septimius and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, to commemorate two triumphs over the Parthians (a.d. 205). On the summit stood a car, drawn by six horses abreast, containing the statues of the emperor and his sons, as represented on coins. This arch stands at the foot of the Capitol. It is of white marble, and consists of one large arch, with a smaller one on each side, with a lateral communication from one to the other. It is ornamented with eight fluted composite pillars, and has bas-reliefs on each front. 4. The arch of Constantine was erected by the senate in honour of Constantine's victory over Maxentius. This, the largest and most imposing of the arches in Rome, consists of one large arch, with a smaller one on each side, and is ornamented with eight Corinthian columns, surmounted by statues of Dacian captives. The bas- reliefs with which it is decorated, are supposed to have come from TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 79 an arch of Trajan, which stood in his forum. It stands at the foot of the Palatine hill, near the Colosseum, and was built in the Via Triumphalis. 5. The arch of Janus was probably not a triumphal arch. There is no certainty with regard to the date or purpose of this arch. Of arches built to commemorate remarkable events, we may notice, in particular, that of Trajan on the mole at Ancona. ARCH OP TBAJAN AT BENEVESTO. It was erected by the senate and people to Trajan, for having, at his own expense, constructed the mole, and having thus rendered the port safer to navigators. Another arch erected by Trajan at Beneventum, when he repaired the Via Appia, is not only remark- 80 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. able for its excellent pi'eservation, but also as affording, perhaps, the best specimen of Roman workmanship existing. It is a single arch of Parian marble, and entire with the exception of part of the cornice ; both its sides are adorned with four Corinthian pillars raised on high pedestals. The frieze and panels, as well as the interior of the arch, are covered with rich sculpture, representing Trajan's achievements and his apotheosis. The figures are in alto relievo and exquisitely executed. Triumphal arches have been erected in several parts of the Roman empire. Many are to be found in various parts of Ital}r, at Aquino, Aosta, Susa, Rimini, Pola in Istria, several in the south of France, of which the most remark able are those of Orange, Nismes, Saint Chamas, Saintes, the latter two are built on bridges. They also are met with in Macedonia, Athens, Syria, and in Barbary : in Egypt also, at Antinoe, there is a gate which is considered a triumphal arch. Fora. — An important feature in a Roman city or town is the Forum. The Greeks had also a forum, or ayopa, where the citizens collected, but it differed from the Roman, in being of a square form. RESTORATION OP THE ROMAN FORVM. Vitruvius laid down rules for the plan of a Roman forum. Accord ing to him it should be of an oblong form, the breadth being about two-thirds of the length. Adjoining the forum should be situated PUBLIC AND MILITARY ROADS. 81 the basilica, and around it the public buildings, temples, porticoes. and shops. The basilica was a court of justice, it was also used as an exchange. Vitruvius directs that it should be placed in the warmest side of the forum, so that the merchants might assemble there in winter, without being inconvenienced by the cold. It was of an oblong form, and was generally divided into three parts, consisting of a central nave (media portions), and two side aisles, each separated from the centre by a single row of columns. At the end of the central aisle was the tribunal ; on each side of which were small chambers which served as offices for the judges or mer chants. A peculiarity of the basilica was its semicircular and vaulted end (apsis), which has been adopted in the Christian basilica. According to Vitruvius, the treasury, prisons, and curia should also adjoin the forum. The curia was the council-house, where the senate and chief magistrates met to consult and deli berate. The Roman forum was destined for the transaction of public business. Here the comitia were held, here the orators harangued, and through it the triumphal processions passed on their way to the Capitol. The forum of Trajan and other Roman emperors were intended more as embellishments of the city, than for the transaction of business. There were other fora in Rome, but which were only market-places, such as the forum boarium, the cattle market; forum olitorium, the vegetable market; forum piscatorium, the fish market. The forum at Pompeii illustrates the plan laid down by Vitruvius, it is of an oblong form ; at one end are the curia, prisons and treasury, at the other end the temple of Jupiter, at the sides are the basilica, the temples of Venus and Mercury, a granary, a chalcidicum, and the whole was sur rounded by porticoes. Section VIII.— PUBLIC AND MILITARY ROADS— BRIDGES -GATE WAYS- AQUEDUCTS. Public and Military Roads. — Frequent intercourse between diffe rent nations led to the necessity of finding means of communica tion, and thus recourse was had to the plan of laying down and constructing loads. All nations constructed them with more or less solidity and perfection. Roads and pathways have been con structed in Egypt with much care ; but it seems that the Greeks did not give that attention to the laying down of public roads which would have rendered them useful and convenient. The public roads are among the things which Strabo mentions as having G 82 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. been neglected by the Greeks : no people equalled the Romans in this kind of public constructions, which were mainly formed to facilitate military movements. The invention of paved roads was borrowed from the Carthaginians by the Romans. Roman Roads. — Rome was the central point to which all roads converged, by numerous branches which thus united the most remote provinces. In the early ages of the republic, the construction and superintendence of the roads were committed to the censors. Augustus gave particular care to the construction of roads; he esta blished messengers and, later, couriers. The Romans laid out their roads in a straight line, and avoided all winding by filling up valleys, lowering elevations, tunnelling rocks and mountains, and building bridges. Two trenches (sulci), in the first place indicated the breadth of the road, the loose earth between the trenches was then removed, and this excavation as far as the solid ground (gre- mium) was filled with materials to the height fixed on for the road. Some Roman roads were near twenty feet over the solid ground. The lowest course, the statumen, was composed of small stones ; the second, called the rudus, was a mass of broken stones cemented with lime; the third, the nucleus, "was composed of a mixture of lime, clay, fragments of brick and pottery beaten together, on this was placed the fourth course, the summum dorsum, composed of a pavi- mentum of flat stones, selected for their hardness, cut into irregular polygons, and sometimes into rectangular slabs. When the fourth course, or pavement, was not put on, the surface was a mixture of pounded gravel and lime. The ordinary breadth of the principal Roman roads was sixty feet. It was divided into three parts, the middle, somewhat larger, was paved and slightly curved ; the two lateral parts were covered with gravel ; some roads, however, were only fifteen feet wide. Footpaths (margines, umbones) were raised upon each side and strewed with gravel. On the principal roads there were frequently to be seen temples, arches of triumph, villas, and especially sepulchral monuments, which recalled to the passers \>y the memory of illustrious men, or of memorable events. We shall now mention the principal military roads, which were the means of communication between Rome and the provinces. I. The Via Appia, or Regina Viarum, was commenced b c. 312. by Appius Claudius Crecus, the censor. It commenced at the Porta Capena, passed through Aricia, Tres TabernEe, Appii Forum, Terra- cina, Fundi, Formia% Minturnse, Sinuessa, Casilium, and terminated at Capua; it was afterwards prolonged through Calatiaand Candiura PUBLIC AND MILITARY ROADS. 83 to Beneventum, and thence, through Venusia, Tarentum, and Asia, to Brundusium; this extension being made, it is said, by Trajan. It became not only the great line of communication with Southern Italy, but with Greece, and with the most remote eastern posses sions of Rome. At Brundusium there was was a magnificent port, which was the principal point of communication with Greece. This road was famous for the number, beauty, and richness of the sepulchral monuments with which its sides were lined. A number of them, extending for over eight miles beyond the tomb of Cecilia Metella, have been lately discovered and brought to light by the energy and skill of the late Commendatore Canina. II. Via Latina. This road is said to have issued from the Porta Capena. It also led to Beneventum, but kept more inland than the Via Appia. It passed through Anagnia, Frusino, Aquinum, Vena- frnm, Casinum, and joined the Via Appia at Beneventum. It was formed in the time of Augustus, under the direction of Messala. Several tombs, painted with great elegance and taste, have been lately discovered on this road, about two miles from Rome. III. Via Labicana. It commenced at the Porta Esquilina, it passed Labicum, and joined the Via Latina about thirty miles from Rome. IV. Via Prsenestina, formerly Via Gabina, began at the Porta Esquilina. It passed Gabii and Prasneste, and then merged in the Via Latina below Anagnia. V. Via Tiburtina, so called from its leading to Tibur or Tivoli It issued from the gate of the same name. It was continued from Tibur, through the country of the Sabines to Adria under the name of the Via Valeria. VI. Via Nomentana, so called from its leading to Nomentum, a Sabine town. It began originally at the Porta Collina, and after wards from the Porta Nomentana. It crossed the Anio about three miles from Rome, and joined the Via Salaria at Eretum. This road was also called Ficulnensis, from Ficulnea, another town of the Sabines, the situation of which has been lately discovered, about seven miles from the Porta Nomentana. VII. Via Salaria. It ran from the Porta Salaria, so called from the circumstance of the Sabines coming for salt, which gave the name to the road also. It traversed the Sabine and Picinian country to Reate and Asculum Picenum. It then proceeded towards the coast, which it followed until it merged in the Via Flaminia at Ancona. 84 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. VIII. Via Flaininia. It began from the Porta Flaminia (del Popolo). It was commenced in the censorship of C. Flaminius and S. Paulus, u.c. 533. It went by Otriculum (Otricoli), Interamna (Terni), Fanum Fortunse (Fano), to Ariminum (Rimini). Then the Via .ZEmilia began, which was constructed u.c. 567, when M. iEmilius Lepidus was consul. It passed by Bononia (Bologna), Parma, Placentia, Mediolanum (Milan), Brixa (Brescia), Verona, Pata- vium (Padua), to Aquileia. The Via Cassia struck off from the Via Flaminia near the Pons Milvius (Ponte Molle). It passed near Veii, and then traversed Etruria, until it joined the Via Aurelia at Luna. IX. Via Aurelia. It issued from the Porta Aurelia, and ap proached the sea at Alsium (Palo), and then went along the Etruscan and Ligurian coast. It extended as far as Gaul. Via Vitellia also issued from the Porta Aurelia. X. Via Portuensis. It led from the Porta Portuensis to the Portus Trajani, near the mouth of the Tiber. A branch of this road is called the Via Campana. XL Via Ostiensis. It issued from the Porta Ostiensis; keeping the left bank of the Tiber, it led to Ostia, near the mouth of the Tiber. The Via Ardeatina and the Via Laurentina branched off from this road at a short distance from Rome. The first led to Ardea, the second to Laurentum. The Via Severiana was a conti nuation of the Via Ostiensis, along the coast through Laurentum, Antium, Circa3i, to Terracina. Bridges. — It is evident that bridges, at the early periods of Greece, were never used, as well from the smallness of the rivers as from their almost total ignorance of the use of the arch. If any bridge was used, it is probable that it was built entirely of wood, being nothing more than a wooden platform, supported upon stone piers at each extremity. An arched bridge of considerable sizo has been lately discovered in Greece, at Xerocampo, which Colonel Mnre considers to be in a style of masonry which guarantees it a work of the remotest antiquity, probably of the heroic age itself. Several archaeologists, however, who have since seen it, have declared their conviction that, this bridge is of late and of Roman architecture. Roman. — The earliest bridges of the Romans were of timber, such was that which joined the Janiculum to the Moiis Aventinus, called the Pons Sublicius from the beams (sublices) of which it was com posed. The Romans were the first people who availed them selves of their knowledge of the arch to apply it to the construction BRIDGES. the of bridges. They were thus enabled to erect structures on grandest scale, and of such solidity that many still remain at the present day in the Roman pro vinces to attest their strength and utility. The passage way of the Roman bridge was divided into three parts : the centre one, for horses and car riages, was denominated agger or iter ; and the raised footpaths on each side (decursoria), which were enclosed by parapet walls. We shall now mention the principal bridges in Rome, and some of the most remarkable in the provinces. I. Pons Sublicius. This was the first bridge ever constructed in Rome. It was so called from Sublices, a Volscian term for the wooden beams of which it was built. It was erected by Ancus Martius, and became celebrated for the feat of Hora- tius Codes. It was destroyed by a great flood in the reign of Augustus. It was rebuilt in stone by P. iEmilius Lepidus, hence the bridge is some times called Pons iEmilius or Pons Lepidi. II. Pons Palatinus. It was begun by M. Ful- vius, u.c. 574, and finished by Scipio Africanus and L. Mummius, u.c. 611. Some antiquaries have also called it Pons Senatorius. A few arches still remain, it is now called Ponte Rotto. III. Pons Fabricius and Pons Cestius connected the Insula Tiberina with the opposite sides of the river. The Pons Fabricius was built by L. Fabri cius, in the year of Rome 692. It was also called Trapeius. It is now called the Ponte Quattro Capi. It consists of two large arches and a smaller one between them, through which the water runs when it is very high. The Pons Cestius leads out of the island towards the Janiculum. Who Cestius was, from whom the bridge takes it name, is unknown. IV. Pons Janiculensis. The date of this bridge is unknown. Some ascribe it to Trajan, some to Antoninus Pius. It is now called Ponte Sisto. V. Pons Triumphalis, so called because the generals who had conquered in the north and west of Rome passed 86 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. over this bridge in triumphal procession on their way to the Capitol. It was also called Pons Vaticanus. It connected the Campus Martius and the Campus Vaticanus. It is now completely destroyed. VI . Pons iElius was built by the emperor Adrian as an approach to his mausoleum. Medals of Adrian represent it nearly as we see it at the present day, for it has come down to the present time nearly perfect. It consists of three large arches of equal size, and a smaller one on each side. It is now called Ponte St. Angelo. VII. Pons Milvius, on the Via Flaminia, of which the modern name, Ponte Molle, is evidently a corruption.. It is stated to have been built by iEmilius Scaurus, who was censor u.c. 644. It was repaired by Augustus. Near this bridge took place the celebrated battle between Maxentius and Constantine, which decided the fate of the Roman empire, a.d. 312. VIII. The Pons Narniensis, on the Flaminian way. It is con sidered the noblest relic of the imperial times. It was built by Augustus over the river Nar, near Narni, about sixty miles from Rome. It originally consisted of four arches, three of which are broken. The height of the arches was about 112 feet. No modern bridge can equal the stupendous constructions built by Trajan over the Danube. It consisted of twenty piers of stone, 60 Roman feet broad and 150 feet, without the foundations, above the bed of the river. The width between each pier was 170 feet, the piers were united by arches of wood. Another remarkable Roman bridge is that at Alcantara, in Spain. It was built in the reign of Trajan, a.d. 108, over the Tagus, by the architect Caius Julius Lacer, who was buried near his work. The roadway is perfectly level, and is 600 feet long by 28 feet wide. It is 245 feet above the usual level of the river. , Etruscan.— Though the Etruscans were acquainted with the principle of the arch, bridges are rarely met with in Etruria. The Ponte della Badia, at Vulci, is evidently a Roman arch built on Etruscan buttresses, which were the piers of the original bridge, and which may have been connected by an horizontal frame of wood-work. Gateways.— The earliest and simplest form of Grecian or Etruscan gateways, or entrances to cities, was the earliest known plan or GATEWAYS. attempt at an arch, which was by sloping the jambs and placing a long block of stone as a lintel over them; ah early instance of this style will be found in the gateway of Segni. This style of gateway is always found in connection with the polygonal style of masonry. The next form of gateway adopted was that which was generally used in the second stage of the development of the principle of the arch, which was formed by placing horizontal courses of stones, project ing one over another, from both sides, till they met at the top, and then cutting the ends of the projecting stones in a curvilinear form, GATEWAY AT ATtPIKO. as may be seen in a gateway at Thoricus in Attica, and in the almost identical one at Arpino. This style of gateway, and other similar 88 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. attempts at the principle of the arch, are always in connection with those walls which are built of blocks laid in horizontal courses, and are to be met with both in Etruria and Greece, for there was a corres pondence in the sequence and development of styles in arches and walls among the Etruscans and Greeks. The more perfectly deve loped form, or radiating arch, is found in the gateways of Volterra, Fallen, Paastum, and Pompeii, in connection with the regular hori zontal style of masonry. The discovery of this style of arch is gene rally attributed to Etruria ; the existence, however, of radiating arches in Egypt, Nineveh, and Ethiopia, of an ancient date, has inclined some antiquaries to contest the honour of originality with Etruria. It is not, however, inconsistent with the independent progress of deve lopment, that the principle of the arch may have been worked out independently by the Etruscans, while carrying out and following up the development of that principle of the arch. The earliest example of the arch mentioned in history, and now extant, is that of the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, which is of undoubted Etruscan origin. Its perfection, as Mr. Dennis remarks, might lead us to suppose a long previous acquaintance with this construction. At a later date, some cities were entered by double gates, one designed for carriages entering and the other for carriages leaving the city. As at Como, Verona, and in a magnificent example at Treves. In other instances, as at Pompeii, we find only one gate for carriages, but a smaller one at each side of it for foot passengers. Of the gates of Rome, in gate at ponrrpn. the wall of Servius Tullius, not a vestige now remains. Of the gates in the wall of Aurelian, the greater number have been so rebuilt at later periods as scarcely to retain a stone of the former AQUEDUCTS. 89 gateway. The Porta St. Lorenzo, the ancient Poi'ta Tiburtina, and the Porta Maggiore, alone present some remaining portion of the former gateways.* 3 GATES AT OSNIADiE. Aqueducts. — The supply of water in the Grecian towns was chiefly from fountains and wells. Aqueducts were scarcely known in Greece before the time of the Romans. Aqueducts were most extensively need by the Romans. Remains * Col. Mure in his travels in Greece gives drawings of gateways at the ruins of CEniadse which offer a distinct gradation of expedients for covering in such structures, from the simple flat architrave to the regularly vaulted arch. 2, 3, are the development of the principle. 4, an approximation to the perfect arch. 90 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. of those stupendous structures are to be met with not only in the neighbourhood of Rome, but also throughout the Roman provinces in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They were apparent or subterranean. The latter, which sometimes traversed considerable space, and were carried through rocks, contained pipes (fistulse, tubuli) of lead or terra cotta, frequently marked either with the name of the potter, or the name of the consuls in whose time they were laid down. At con venient points, in the course of these aqueducts, as it was necessary from the water being conveyed through pipes, there were reservoirs (piscinae), in which the water might deposit any sediment that it contained. Vitruvius has given rules for the laying down of pipes, and for forming reservoirs. The apparent aqueducts were built on the most stupendous scale. Hills were pierced through by tunnels, and valleys crossed either by solid substructions or arches of masonry, according to the height required, bringing water from sources varying from thirty to sixty miles in distance. At one AQUEDUCT. period of the history of Rome no less than twenty aqueducts stretched their long line of arches, and brought as many different streams of water, across the wide plain or Campagna in which the city stands. For the most part they were built of brick, and consisted of nearly square piers running up to the same height — a slight and uniform declivity being necessarily maintained — and connected by semicir cular arches, over which the conduit (specus, canalis) ran. This conduit had a paved or tiled floor, and was enclosed laterally by walls of brick or stone, and with a transverse arch, or by a simple AQUEDUCTS. 91 flat coping of stone. The water either ran directly through this conduit, or was carried through pipes laid along its floor. These aqueducts were either simple, double or triple, according as they were composed of a single, two or three tiers of arches. At the termination of the aqueduct, within the city, was a vast reservoir called castellum, which formed the head of the water, from which it was conducted through pipes into smaller reservoirs, and thence was distributed through the city, thus supplying the public foun tains, baths, and houses. The chief castellum was, externally, a highly decorated building. The so-called trophies of Marius, at Rome, are supposed by Piranesi to have been a castellum or reservoir of the Aqua Julia. Excavations made some years ago seem to con firm his opinion. Remains of works of art found near it prove that it must have had a very ornamental exterior. We shall begin our enumeration of the principal aqueducts by the most ancient aqueducts in Rome. Before the year of Rome, 441, the city was supplied with water from the Tiber only. In that year (b.c. 313) Appius Claudius, the censor, constructed an aqueduct which brought water from a distance of seven miles ; it was called Aqua Appia, after him. It began to the left of the Via Prasnestina ; and, according to Frontinus, its whole course, except sixty paces near the Porta Caprena, was under ground. This last portion was on arches. No traces of it remain. The Anio Vetus was constructed by Marcus Curius Dentatus, b c. 272, and was finished by M. Fulvius Flaccus. The water was derived from a source of the river Anio, near Augusta, twenty miles beyond Tibur, and about forty-three from Rome. It was of peperino stone. A small portion of this aqueduct is still visible outside the Porta Maggiore. The Aqua Marcia was constructed by the prsetor, Q. Marcus Rex, by command of the senate, b.c. 144. It had its source in a small stieam which runs into the Anio, not far from the present town of Subiaco, about thirty-seven miles from Rome. It was repaired by Agrippa. The latter portion of this aqueduct for about six miles from Rome was on arches, the remains of which form one of the most interesting features of the Roman Campagna. It is remarkable for the excellence and wholesomeness of its water. The Aqua Tepula was constructed by Cneus Ssrvilius Csepio and L. Cassius Longinus, B.C. 126. It had its source near the tenth mile stone on the Via Latina. The Aqua Julia was executed by Agrippa in his sedileship, b.c 33, and was so called in honour of Julius Cassar. This aqueduct 92 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. was a union of three streams : the Aqua Marcia, the Aqua Tepula, and the Aqua Julia, properly so called, which had its source two miles beyond that of the Aqua Tepula. It supplied the Esquiline and Palatine hills. It was built partly on massive substructions and partly on arches. The so-called Sette Sale are supposed to have been a reservoir of the aqueduct for the use of the baths of Titus. The Aqua Virgo was constructed by Agrippa, under Augustus, to supply his baths. Its source was between the seventh and eighth milestone, on the Via Collatina. It, derives its name from the tradi tion that is source was pointed out by a young girl to some thirsty soldiers. It entered Rome near the Porta Pinciana, from whence it was conducted on arches to the Campus Martius. The greater portion of it was subterranean, a small portion of about 700 paces, was on arches. This aqueduct still supplies a large part of modern Rome. The Aqua Alsietina, on the right bank of the Tiber, was brought by Augustus, from the lacus Alsietinus, to supply his naumachia. It was about thirty miles long. The Aqua Claudia was commenced by Caligula, a.d. 36, continued and finished by the emperor Claudius, a.d. 50. The springs from which it derived its water were near the thirty-eighth milestone, on the Via Sablacensis, a few miles from Sublaqueum (Subiaco). It was more than forty -six miles long. At the present day a line of arches belonging to this aqueduct extend for about six miles across the Campagna, forming the grandest and the most picturesque vista on the plain near Rome. The arches were afterwards used by Sixtus V. to supply the city from another source, under the name of the Aqua Felice. The Anio Novus, also built by Claudius, was the longest of all the aqueducts, being nearly fifty-nine miles long. Its source was near the forty-second milestone, on the Ven Sublacensis. This aqueduct, with the Aqua Claudia, entered the city over the present Porta Maggiore, in two channels, one above the other. The upper was the Anio Novus, the lower the Aqua Claudia. It has been calculated that these nine aqueducts furnished Rome with a supply of water equal to that carried down by a river thirty feet broad by six deep, flowing at the rate of thirty inches a second. These magnificent and useful works of the ancient Romans were not confined to the capital alone. Constructions of equal magnificence and utility, some even on a grander scale, are to be found not only TOMBS. 9:! in the provinces near Rome, but even in the remotest parts of the empire. Among those constructions to be met with in the provinces, the most remarkable for the scale of its magnificence and grandeur, far exceeding anything of the kind in Italy, is the so-called Pont du Gard, which supplies Nismes with water. It consists of three rows of arches one above the other : the first tier contains six arches ; the second, eleven; the third, thirty-five. The whole height is 182 feet; the channel in which the water runs is three feet high. The aqueduct of Segovia, in Spain, is also a Roman work, exhibiting great perfection and solidity' in its construction. It is built entirely of stone, in two ranks of arches, the piers being eight feet wide and eleven in depth ; 150 arches still remain. The effect, however, is much marred by the houses and other objects that crowd their bases. In the opinion of Mr. Fergusson the aqueduct at Tarragona bears a character of lightness combined with constructive solidity and elegance unrivalled in any other work of its class. Constructions of AQUEDUCT AT EPHESUS. this kind are to be met with at Athens, Corinth, Catania, Salona, Nicomedia, Ephesus, Smyrna, Alexandria, in the Troad, Syracuse, Arcueil, Metz, Clermont, Auvergne, Lyon, Evora, Merida. TOMBS. Respect for the dead, and a considerate regard for the due per formance of the rites of burial, have been distinctive features in man in all ages and countries. Among the Greeks and Romans great importance was attached to the burial of the dead, as, if a 94 HANDS 0 OK OF ARC HE OL 0 G Y. corpse remained unburied, it was believed that the spirit of the departed wandered for a hundred years on the hither side of the Styx. Hence it became a religious duty to scatter earth over any unburied body which any one might chance to meet. This was considered sufficient to appease the infernal gods. The earliest tomb was the tumulus, or mound of earth, heaped over the dead. It is a form naturally suggested to man in the early stages of his development. There are two classes of primitive tombs, which are evidently of the highest antiquity. The hypergcean, or raised mounds, or tumuli, and hypogozan, which are subterranean or exca vated. The tumulus may be considered as the most simple and the most ancient form of sepulture. Its adoption was universal among all primitive nations. Such was the memorial raised by the Greeks over the bodies of their heroes. These raised mounds are to be met with in all countries. The pyramid, which is but a further develop ment in stone of this form of sepulture, is not peculiar to Egjqit alone ; it has been adopted in several other countries. Examples of subterranean tombs are to be found in Egypt, Etruria, Greece. Those of Egypt and Etruria afford instances of extraordinary labour bestowed in excavating and constructing these subterranean abodes of the dead. Egyptian. — The pyramids were tombs (see p. 56). These monu ments were the last abode of the kings and great personages of their family or of the state. They are to be met with in Lower Egypt alone. In Upper Egypt numerous excavations from the living rock in the mountains of the Thebaid received their mortal remains. Nothing can exceed the magnificence and care with which these tombs of the kings were excavated and decorated. Their entrance, carefully closed, was frequently indicated by a facade cut on the side of the hill. A number of passages, some times intersected by deep wells and large halls, finally lead, fre quently by concealed entrances, to the large chamber where was the sarcophagus, generally of granite, basalt, or alabaster. The sides of the entire excavation, as well as the roof, were covered with paintings, coloured sculptures, and hieroglyphic inscriptions in which the name of the deceased king was frequently repeated. We generally find represented in them the funeral ceremonies, the pro cession, the visit of the soul of the deceased to the principal divini ties, its offerings to each of them, lastly, its presentation by the god who protected it to the supreme god of the Amenti, or Egyptian hell. The splendour of these works, and the richness and variety of their ornamentation, exceeds all conception ; the figures, though TOMBS. 95 in great number, are sometimes of colossal size ; frequently scenes of civil life are mingled with funereal representations ; the labours of agriculture, domestic occupations, musicians, dances, and furni ture of wonderful richness and elegance, are also figured on them ; on the ceiling are generally astronomical or astrological subjects. Several tombs of the kings of the 18th dynasty and subsequent dynasties have been found in the valley of Biban-el-Molouk, on the western side of the plain of Thebes. One of the most splendid of these is that opened by Belzoni, and now known as that of Osirei Menepthah, of the 19th dynasty. A sloping passage leads to a chamber which has been called " The Hall of Beauty.'- Forcing his way further on, Belzoni found, as a termination to a series of chambers, a large vaulted hall which contained the sarcophagus, which held the body of the monarch, now in Sir John Soane's Museum. The entire extent of this succession of chambers and passages is hollowed to a length of 320 feet into the heart of the rock, and they are profusely covered with the paintings and hiero glyphics usually found in these sepulchral chambers. The tombs of the other kings, Rameses III. and Rameses Miamun, exhibit similar series of passages and chambers, covered with paintings and sculptures, in endless variety, some representing the deepest mys teries of the Egyptian religion; but, as Mr. Fergusson says, like all the tombs, they depend for their magnificence more on the paint ings that adorn the walls than on anything which can strictly be called architecture. Private individuals were buried according to their rank and for tune. Their tombs, also excavated from the living rock, consisted of one or of several chambers ornamented with paintings and sculp tures; the last contained the sarcophagus and the mummy. Accord ing to Sir G. Wilkinson, they were the property of the priests, and a sufficient number being always kept ready, the purchase was made at the shortest notice, nothing being requisite to complete even the sculptures or inscriptions but the insertion of the de ceased's name and a few statements respecting his family and pro fession. The numerous subjects representing agricultural scenes, the trades of the people, in short, the various occupations of the Egyptians, varying only in their details and the mode of their execution, were figured in these tombs, and were intended as a short epitome of human life, which suited equally every future occu pant. The tombs at Beni Hassan are even of an earlier date than those of Thebes. Among these the tomb of a monarch or pro vincial governor is of the age of Osirtasen I. The walls of this tomb are covered with a series of representations, setting forth the 96 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. ordinary occupations and daily avocations of the deceased, thus illustrating the manners and customs of the Egyptians of that age. These representations are a sort of epitome of life, or the career of TOMB AT BENI HASSAN. man, previous to his admission to the mansions of the dead. They were therefore intended to show that the deceased had carefully and duly fulfilled and performed all the duties and avocations which his situation in life and the reverence due to the gods required. Near the great pyramid are several tombs of private individuals, who were mostly priests of Memphis. ManjT of these tombs have false entrances, and several have pits with their mouths at the top of the tomb. The walls of these tombs are covered with the usual paintings representing the ordinary occupations of the deceased. MUMMIES. The origin of the process of embalming has been variously accounted for. When, however, we consider that it was a part of the religious belief of the Egyptians that, as a reward of a well- spent and virtuous life, their bodies after death should exist and remain undecayed for ever in their tombs, for we find in the " Book of the Dead" the following inscription placed over the spirits who have found favour in the eyes of the Great God : " The bodies which they have forsaken shall sleep for ever * in their sepulchres, while they rejoice in the presence of God most high," there will be no difficulty in seeing that with this religious creed the Egyp tians should feel the necessity of embalming to ensure the eternal existence of their bodies. Some have considered that the want of ground for cemeteries, and also the excavations made in the moun tains for the extraction of materials employed in the immense * Hence it is evident the Egyptians did not believe in the resurrection of the body. MUMMIES. 97 buildings of Egypt, compelled them to have recourse to the expe dient of mummification. Others consider the custom arose rather from a sanitary regulation for the benefit of the living. According to Mr.-1 Gliddon, mummification preceded, in all probability, tho \ I EGYPTIAN MUMMY CASE. building of the pyramids and tombs, because vestiges of mummies have been found in the oldest of these, and, in fact, the first mum mies were buried in the sand before the Egyptians possessed the necessary tools for excavating sepulchres in the rock. The earliest 98 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. mode of mummification was extremely simple; the bodies were prepared with natron, or dried in ovens, and wrapped in woollen cloth. At a later period every provincial temple was provided with an establishment for the purpose of mummification. The bodies were delivered to the priests to be embalmed, and after seventy days restored to their friends, to be carried to the place of deposit. The mode of embalming depended on the rank and position of the deceased. There were three modes of embalming ; the first is said to have cost a talent of silver (about 250Z.); the second, 22 minaj (60Z.) ; the third was extremely cheap. The process is thus de scribed by Herodotus : — " In Egypt certain persons are appointed by law to exercise this art as their peculiar business, and when a dead body is brought them they produce patterns of mummies in wood, imitated in painting. In preparing the body according to the most expensive mode, they commence by extracting the brain from the nostrils by a curved hook, partly cleansing the head by these means, and partly by pouring in certain drugs ; then making an incision in the side with a sharp Ethiopian stone (black flint), they draw out the intestines through the aperture. Having cleansed and washed them with palm wine, they cover them with pounded aromatics, and afterwards filling the cavity with powder of pure myrrh, cassia, and other fragrant substances, frankincense excepted, they sew it up again. This being done, they salt the body, keeping it in natron during seventy days, to which period they are strictly confined. When the seventy days are over, they wash the body, and wrap it up entirely in bands of fine linen smeared on their inner side with gum. The relatives then take away the body, and have a wooden case made in the form of a man, in which they deposit it ; and when fastened up they keep it in a room in their house, placing it upright against the wall. (This style of mummy was supposed to represent the deceased in the form of Osiris.) This is the most costly mode of embalming. For those who choose the middle kind, on account of the expense, they prepare the body as follows : — They fill syringes with oil of cedar, and inject this into the abdomen without making any inci sion or removing the bowels ; and taking care that the liquid shall not escape, they keep it in salt during the specified number of days. The cedar-oil is then taken out, and such is its strength that it brings with it the bowels and aU the inside in a state of dissolution. The natron also dissolves the flesh, so that nothing remains but the skin and bones. This process being over, they restore the body without any further operation. The third kind of embalming is only adopted for the poor. In MUMMIES. 99 this they merely cleanse the body by an injection of syrmsea, and salt it during seventy days, after which it is returned to the friends who brought it. Sir G. Wilkinson gives some further information with regard to the more expensive mode of embalming. The body, having been prepared with the proper spices and drugs, was enveloped in linen bandages sometimes 1,000 yards in length. It was then enclosed in a cartonage fitting close to the mummied body, which was richly painted and covered in front with a network of beads and bugles arranged in a tasteful form, the face being laid over with a thick gold leaf, and the eyes made of enamel. The three or four cases which successively covered the cartonage were ornamented in like manner with painting and gilding, and the whole was enclosed in a sarcophagus of wood or stone, profusely charged with painting or sculpture. These cases, as well the cartonage, varied in style and richness, according to the expense incurred by the friends of the deceased. The bodies thus embalmed were generally of priests of various grades. Sometimes the skin itself was covered with gold leaf; sometimes the whole body, the face, or eyelids ; sometimes the nails alone. In many instances the body or the cartonage was beautified in an expensive manner, and the outer cases were little ornamented ; but some preferred the external show of rich cases and sarcophagi. Some mummies have been found with the face covered by a mask of cloth fitting closely to it, and overlaid with a coating of composition, so painted as to resemble the deceased, and to have the appearance of flesh. These, according to Sir G. Wilkin son, are probably of a Greek epoch. Greek mummies usuaUy dif fered from those of the Egyptians in the manner of disposing the bandages of the arms and legs. No Egyptian is found with the limbs bandaged separately, as those of Greek mummies. On the breast was frequently placed a scarabasus in immediate contact with the flesh. These scarabsei, when of stone, had their extended wings made of lead or silver. On the cartonage and case, in a correspond ing situation above, the same emblem was also placed, to indicate the protecting influence of the Deity'. The subjects painted upon the cartonage were the four genii of Amenti, and various emblems belonging to deities connected with the dead.. A long line of hieroglyphics extending down the front usuaUy contained the name and quality of the deceased, and the offerings presented by him to the gods; and transverse bands frequently repeated the former, with similar donations to other deities. On the breast was placed the figure of Netpe, with expanded wings, protecting the deceased ; sacred arks, boats, and other things were arranged in different com- h 2 LOO HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. partments, and Osiris, Isis, Anubis, and other deities were fre quently introduced. In some instances Isis was represented throw ing her arms round the feet of the mummy, with this appropriate legend: "I embrace thy feet." A plaited beard was attached to the chin when the mummy was that of a man ; the absence of this appendage indicated the mummy of a woman. MUMMY CASES AND SARCOPHAGI. The outer case of the mummy was either of wood — sycamore or cedar — or of stone. When of wood it had a flat or circular summit, sometimes with a 6tout square pillar rising at each angle. The EGYPTIAN MUMMY CASES. whole was richly painted, and some of an older age frequently had a door represented near one of the corners. At one end was the figure of Isis, at the other Nepthys ; and the top was painted with bands or fancy devices, In others, the lid represented the curving CANOPI. 101 top of the ordinary Egyptian canopy. The stone coffins, usually called sarcophagi, were of oblong shape, having flat straight sides, like a box, with a curved or pointed lid. Sometimes the figure of the deceased was represented upon the latter in relief, like that of the Queen of Amasis in the British Museum ; and some were in the form of a king's name or oval. Others were made in the shape of the mummied body, whether of basalt, granite, slate, or limestone, specimens of which are met with in the British Museum. These cases were deposited in the sepulchral chambers. Various offerings were placed near them,, and sometimes the instruments of the profession of the deceased. Near them were also placed vases and small figures of the deceased, of wood or vitrified earthenware. The most elaborate sarcophagus is that now in the British Museum ; it was formerly supposed to have been tho identical sarcophagus which contained the body of Alexander the Great. The hierogly phic name, which has been read upon the monument, proves it to be that of Nectanebo I., of the thirtieth dynasty, who reigned from b.c. 381 to 363. Its material is a breccia from a quarry near Thebes, and is remarkable for its hardness. A remarkable mummy- shaped coffin is that of Menkare, the Mycerinus of the Greeks, and the builder of the third pyramid; this interesting relic, when found by Colonel Vyse in the sepulchral chambers of the third pyramid, contained portions of a body, supposed to be that of the same king. It is now in the British Museum. CANOPI. The vases, generally named canopi, from their resemblance to certain vases made by the Romans to imitate the Egyptian taste, but inadmissible in its application to any Egyptian vase, were four in number, of different materials, according to the rank of the deceased, and were placed near his coffin in the tomb. Some were of common limestone, the most costly were of Oriental alabaster. These four vases form a complete series ; the principal intestines of the mummy were placed in them, embalmed in spices and various substances, and rolled up in linen, each containing a separate portion. They were supposed to belong to the four genii of Amenti, whose heads and names they bore. The vase with a cover, representing the human head of Amset, held the stomach and large intestines ; that with the cynocephalus head of Hapi contained the small intestines ; in that belonging to the jackal-headed Smautf were the lungs and heart ; and for the vase of the hawk-headed Kebhnsnof 102 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. were reserved the gall-bladder and liver. On the sides of the vases were several columns of hieroglyphics, which expressed the adoration of the deceased to each of the four deities whose symbols adorned the covers, and which gave the name of the deceased. GENII OP AMENTI. Small figures, called shabti, offered through respect for the dead, are to be found in great numbers in the tombs. They were images of the deceased under the form of Osiris, and were to the melancholy Egyptian a reminder of mortality. They are generally of wood, or of vitrified earthenware. The name and quality of the deceased are found on all those in the same tomb, and thrown on the ground round the sarcophagus. They usually bear in hieroglyphics a chapter of the funeral ritual. Some are found with a blank space left for the name of the deceased, which leads one to think that the relations and friends procured these figures from dealers ; the funeral formula, with a list of the customary presentations of offerings for his soul to Osiris were already on them ; nothing was wanting but the name of the deceased ; this being added, they were then evidently offered as testimonies of respect by the relations and friends of the deceased, perhaps at the funeral, and then collected and placed in the tomb. Sometimes these small figures were placed in painted cases divided into compartments. These cases were about 2 feet long and 1 foot high. PAPYRI. Manuscripts on papyrus, of various lengths, have been found on some mummies. These rolls of papyrus are found in the coffins, or under the swathings of the mummies, between the legs, on the breast, or under the arms. Some are enclosed in a cylindrical case. The papyrus of the Museum of Turin is 66 feet long, that at Paris is 22 feet long ; others are of different lengths, down to 2 or 3 feet. That of Turin may be considered as complete. On all, the upper part of the page is occupied by a line of figures of the divinities PAPYRI. 103 which the soul visits in succession ; the rest is filled with perpen dicular columns of hieroglyphics, which are prayers which the soul addresses to each divinity ; towards the end of the manuscript is painted the judgment scene ; the great god Osiris is on his throne, at his feet is an enormous female crocodile, its mouth open ; behind, is the divine balance, surmounted by a cynocephalus emblem of uni versal justice ; the good and bad actions of the soul are weighed in his presence. Horus examines the plummet, and Thoth records the sentence ; standing close by is the soul of the deceased in its cor- JUDGMENT OP THE SOUL. poreal form, conducted by the two goddesses, Truth and Justice, be fore the great judge of the dead. A papyrus of this kind is, according to Lepsius, a history of the soul after death, and for this reason it was placed in the tomb with the deceased. Champollion appears to have regarded this kind of papyrus as a book of rituals — a " livre funeraire," and that it was more or less complete according to the expense the deceased wished to incur ; perhaps, also, according as, by his rank, he had more or less obligations and duties to fulfil towards his god, for, in the opinion of the Egyptians, kings had to fulfil every duty, and great personages more duties than a simple individual. The extract, consequently, from the ritual depended on his rank and on the extent of his duties. Many of these rituals are also found written, not in hieroglyphics, but in hieratic cha racters, which are an abbreviated form of hieroglyphic signs. Papyri with hieroglyphics are nearly always divided by ruled lines into nairow vertical columns of an inch or less in breadth, in which the hieroglyphic signs are arranged one under the other. Sometimes the papyri are found written in the enchorial character. Several manuscripts in Greek on papyrus have been also discovered in Egypt; they are, however, of a late date, and relate to the sale of lands ; many have been discovered referring to lands and possessions about Thebes. 104 IJANDB 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOGY. TOMBS. Greek. — The Greeks also honoured the memory of the dead by public monuments ; those of founders of cities, and those of heroes, were in the interior of the city, and the others outside. At Sparta, however, a law of Lycurgus allowed of burial around the temples and in the city. The most ancient tombs of the Greeks were tumuli or mounds of earth (Yw/ia-ra). Some are still to be seen in the plains of Troy, which have been described by Homer. Subterranean vaults were also used for sepulchral purposes. The so-called " Treasury of Atreus," at Mycenae, and of Minyas at Orchomenos, are supposed to have been royal sepulchres. The structure at Mycenaa consists of a large vault, 50 feet in width and 40 in height, which was the sanctuary of the deceased ; this gave access by a side door to a small chamber excavated in the solid rock; this was probably the burial place. At a later period, a TOMBS. 105 simple cippus or truncated column, surrounded by trees, arose over the corpse, and an inscription gave the name and titles of the deceased. Those of private individuals were generally in the shape of pillars (cmjAat) or upright stone tablets, columns (moves), small buildings in the form of temples (vaiSia, or r)P5>a) : others l|]i^flPpTliK!rtpTnT(i^ c were in the form of altars, but the inscription and emblems on them prevent them from being confounded. Sometimes the stone tablets were surmounted with an oval heading called liriOrnm. These tombs were most frequently built by the side of roads, and near the gates of the city commemorative monuments were also erected, in which 106 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. architecture and sculpture have vied to enhance the splendour of these sepulchral structures. Many have been discovered in Lycia, rich with architectural and sculptural decoration. At . Telmessus OPAIANOI OAVNiSIOI EnKraHi AiKAHmoanpoj OAYMSlOi EPITHEMATA. the rock-cut tombs assume the form of temples. The'Harpy tomb, formerly in the acropolis of Xanthus, now in the British Museum, affords examples of archaic sculpture, its date being probably not later than 500 B.C. ; the sculptures decorated the four sides of a rectangular solid shaft, about 17 feet high, and supported a roof inclosing a chamber 7 feet 6 inches square ; the sculptures are supposed to represent the myth of Pandarus, whose daughters were carried off by harpies. Another remarkable tomb is that of a satrap ,^-,-^ejSSTx: TOMB OP SOUTHEEN ITALY. of Lycia, discovered at Xanthus, now in the British Museum. It resembles a roofed house, with beams issuing forth from the gables, TOMBS. 107 the arch of the roof resembling that of the early Gothic. On each side of the roof is sculptured an armed warrior, conjectured to be Glaucus or Sarpedon, in a chariot of four horses. But the most sumptuous commemorative monument of ancient times was the mausoleum of Halicarnassus, erected by Queen Artemisia, B.C. 353, in memory of her husband, Mausolus, King of Caria. The most celebrated architects and sculptors of the age were employed by the sorrowing queen, as she had resolved to raise a sepulchral monu ment which should surpass everything the world had yet seen/ In Magna Grecia tombs were built underground (v7royaia, or vn-oyaa) ; they were built with large cut stones, and rarely con nected with cement, the walls inside were coated with stucco and adorned with paintings. The corpse was placed on the ground, its feet turned towards the entrance ; painted vases were placed by the side of the corpse, and more were suspended on the walls by nails of bronze. Several rock-cut tombs, with frontispieces in the Ionic style, have been lately discovered at Canosa. GROTTA CAMPANA VEIL Etruscan. — Mr. Fergusson divides Etruscan tombs into two classes: First, those cut in the rock, and resembling dwelling houses ; secondly, the circular tumuli, by far the most numerous and important class. Each of these may be again subdivided into two kinds. The rock-cut tombs include, firstly, those with only a facade in the face of the rock, and a sepulchral chamber within, as at Norchia ; secondly, those cut quite out of the rock, and standing free all round, as at Castel d' Asso. The second class may be divided into those tumuli erected over chambers cut in the tufaceous 108 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. rock, which is found all over Etruria, as at Tarquinii, and those which have chambers built above ground, as in the Regolini Galassi tomb. Besides these rock-hewn and earth-covered tombs, there are at Saturnia, others of a most primitive character, bearing a strong resemblance to the cromlechs of Britain ; rude graves sunk a few feet beneath the surface, lined with rough slabs of rock, set upright, one on each side, and roofed 'over with a single slab of enormous size, covering the whole. Each tomb was evidently inclosed in a mound of earth. In many instances, however, the earth has been washed away, so as to leave the structure standing above the surface. They doubtless date from the infancy of the Etruscan people, and must be considered the first in age. Etruscan tombs were all subterranean, and mostly hewn in the rock ; either beneath the surface of the ground, or in the face of the cliff, or at its foot. They were then shaped by the chisel into a monu ment, the interior taking the form of a cross. They evince an Oriental character in their architectural style. A remarkable characteristic of Etruscan tombs, according to Dennis, is that they generally show an imitation of the abodes of the living. Some display this analogy in the exterior, others in their interior, a few in both. Some have more resemblance to temples, and may be the sepulchres of augurs, or aruspices, or of families in which the sacerdotal office was hereditary. The walls were covered with paintings representing various scenes of every-day life, banquets, love-scenes, dancers, horsemen, games, boar-hunts. Other paintings represent funeral dances, and other ceremonies relative to burial. In one tomb dis covered at Tarquinii, a most remarkable painting represents a pro cession of souls, with good and evil genii; and in another, a group in the frieze running round the tomb, represents the good and evil spirits in the act of drawing, on a car, the soul of the deceased to judg ment.* The corpse was placed on the ground, and around it were * The paintings in the tombs would seem to represent the every-day scenes of life which the deceased passed through, and to show that he had given those entertainments, dances, banquets, gladiatorial combats, races, hunts, which his position in life entitled him to, and which tended to display his wealth. These tombs being evidently of chiefs or of persons of rank and wealth, the entertain ments depicted in them were evidences of the high position of the deceased. Attributing symbolical meaning to these representations is evidently absurd, for, as Mr. Dennis remarks, they are truthful delineations of Etruscan customs and manners; and thus depict, not only scenes of every-day life, but also the common occurrences at a feast, as the cat and domestic fowls gleaning the crumbs. They thus cannot possibly represent the bliss of souls in the other world, as is Gerhard's opinion. Some paintings represent the last offices to the inmate of the tomb ; others represent the spirit of the deceased under the guidance of Charun, the infernal Mercury of the Etruscans, and conducting demons, who are leading TOMBS. 109 the painted vases which are generally found in tombs. Armour, lances, and whatever evinced the occupation of the deceased when alive, were buried with the corpse. Beautiful specimens of gold ornaments have been also found in these tombs. The other charac teristic feature in the Etruscan mode of sepulture is the constant use of the tumulus, which would seem to confirm the tradition of tho Lydian origin of the Etruscans; the tumulus of la Cocumella, at Vulci, bearing a striking analogy to that of Alyattes, King of Lydia, described by Herodotus. One of the most remarkable is the tumulus known as the Regolini Galassi tomb at Cervetri, the ancient Caere. It contains two sepulchral chambers, with sides, and roof vaulted in the form of a pointed arch, with a horizontal lintel at the top, a style of vaulting which is evidence of very high antiquity. The outer chamber evidently contained the body of a warrior, from the number of beautifully embossed shields found near the bronze bier. The inner chamber is supposed to have contained the body of a priest, from the sacerdotal character of the beautifully embossed breast plate, and other articles of the purest gold found in the ashes of the corpse. The tumulus of la Cocumella, Vulci, is a vast mound of earth, about 200 feet in diameter, and must have been about 115 feet high. It is still 50 feet high. It was encircled at its base by a wall of masonry. Other tumuli are to be met with in the necropolis of Tarquinii and Caere. An Etruscan necropolis was always outside the walls of the town. The Etruscans — unlike the Greeks, who, in their colonies in Italy and Sicily, formed their cemeteries in the north of the towns — availed themselves of any site that was con venient, and frequently, as at Veii, buried their dead on several or opposite sides of their cities. Every necropolis in Etruria had its peculiar style of tomb. The tomb near Albano is now generally supposed to be of Etruscan origin, and to be the tomb of Aruns, the son of Porsenna. Mr. Fergusson, however, from the character of the mouldings with which it is adorned, would assign it to a more modern date. It is interesting from the analogy it bears to the de scription of the tomb of Porsenna, as given by Pliny. Roman. — The Romans called sepulcrum, the ordinary tomb, and monumentum, the building consecrated to the memory of a person without any funeral ceremony ; so that the same person could have several monuments, and in different places, but could the soul to judgment. These mythical representations of life after death are generally the result of a later stage in the development of religious ideas, and consequently arc evidences of these tombs being of a much later period. 110 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. have but one tomb. Roman tombs assume different forms'. The tombs of the rich were commonly built of marble, and the ground enclosed with an iron railing or wall, and planted with trees. The best example of a Roman tomb, now remaining, is the well-known one of Ceecilia Metella, the wife of Crassus, and daughter of Quintus Metellus, who obtained the surname of Creticus, for his conquest of Crete, b. c. 67. It is composed of a circular tower, nearly 70 feet in diameter, resting on a quadrangular basement, about 100 feet square. The circular part of the tomb is coated with blocks of the finest travertine, fitted together with great precision; it has a beautiful frieze and cornice, over which a conical roof is supposed to have risen. On a marble panel below the frieze, on the side towards the Via Appia, is the inscription : — " Caecilise — Q. Cretici. F. — Metellas Crassi." Next in age and importance is the tomb of Augustus, erected by Augustus, during his lifetime, in the Campus Martius. It was a circular building, about 300 feet in diameter, and about 60 feet in height. It is thus described by Strabo : — " It is built upon immense foundations of white marble, and covered with evergreens. On the top is a statue of Augustus in bronze, underneath are the vaults for himself, his relations, and dependents." It is now com pletely ruined, and so surrounded with buildings that its plan can be with difficulty made out. The most remarkable and well known Roman tomb is the Mausoleum of Adrian. This massive edifice was erected by Adrian about a. d. 130, on the right bank of the Tiber. It is a massive circular tower, 235 feet in diameter, and 140 feet in height, standing on a square basement, each side of which is 247 feet in length, and about 75 feet high. According to Mr. Fergusson, the whole was crowned, pio- bably by a dome, or at least by a curvilinear roof, which, with its central ornament, must have risen to a height of not less than 300 feet. I In the centre of the mausoleum is the sepulchral — chamber, in the form of a Greek cross, in which was the urn enclosing the ashes of Adrian, The kind of tomb more commonly used was a cippus, or low column, frequently of a quadrangular form, but sometimes round, which bore on its principal face the Latin inscription which gave the name, titles, and the relationship of the deceased. The funereal in scriptions generally commence with the letters D M — Diis Manibus, followed by the name in the genitive case. Sometimes the letters CIPPUS AT POMPEII, ERECTED TO ARRIA, DAUGHTER OP DIO- MEDES. TOMBS. Ill D M are wanting, then the name and title of the deceased are in the dative case. We find frequently on them the age of the deceased, GO KNEUKUVCIV/Tla PIO BARP.ATVSCHMyoe, CTT1E .Rocn/rrVS-FORTIS- VfKi,S/JPENSCyEiOVoWJECRMAVlRTVTDPflRiri5VIVlA [FVlT\GO&50LcnNSORAr&lls 4VK': F WJAI VOWitr-rAlVfl. \-xPa °^ tQe Greeks, formed the base of many other yellows, mixed with various colours and carbonate of lime. Ochre was procured from different parts — the Attic was considered the best ; sometimes the paler sort of sandaracha was used for yellow. Green. — Chrysocolla, which appears to have been green carbonate of copper, or malachite (green verditer), was the green most ap proved of by the ancients ; there was also an artificial kind which was made from clay impregnated with sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) rendered green by a yellow die. The commonest and cheapest colours were the Appianum, which was a clay, and the creta viridis, the common green earth of Verona. Blue. — The ancient blues were very numerous ; the principal of these was cceruleum, mWos, azure, a species of verditer, or blue carbonate of copper, of which there were many varieties. The Alexandrian was the most valued, as approaching the nearest to ultramarine. It was also manufactured at Pozzuoli. This imitation was called ccelon. Armenium was a metallic colour, and was pre pared by being ground to an impalpable powder. It was of a light blue colour, and cost 30 sesterces a pound, about 4s. lOd. It has been conjectured that ultramarine (lapis lazuli) was known to the ancients under the name of armenium, from Armenia, whence it was procured. It is evident, however, from Pliny's description, that the ' sapphirus ' of the ancients was the lapis lazuli of the present day. It came from Media. Indigo, indicum, was well known to the ancients. Purple. — The ancients had several kinds of purple, purpuris- simum, ostrum, hysginum, and various compound colours. Pur- purissimum was made from creta argentaria, a fine chalk or clay, steeped in a purple dye, obtained from the murex (jrop^vpa). In colour it ranged between minium and blue, and included every degree in the scale of purple shades. The best sort came from Pozzuoli. Purpurissimum indicum was brought from India. Tt was of a deep blue, and probably was the same as indigo. Ostrum was a liquid colour, to which the' proper consistence was given by 218 HANDB 0 OK OF AR CHEOL OGY. adding honey. It was produced from the secretion of a fish called ostrum, oo-rpov, and differed in tint according to the country from whence it came ; being deeper and more violet when brought from the northern, redder when from the southern coasts, of the Medi terranean. The Roman ostrum was a compound of red ochre and blue oxide of copper. Hysginum, according to Vitruvius, is a colour between scarlet and purple. The celebrated Tyrian dye was a dark, rich purple, of the colour of coagulated blood, but, when held against the light, showed a crimson hue. It was produced by a combination of the secretions of the murex and buccinum. In pre paring the dye the buccinum was used last, the dye of the murex being necessary to render the colours fast, while the buccinum en livened by its tint of red the dark hue of the murex. Sir H. Davy, on examining a rose-coloured substance, found in the baths of Titus. which in its interior had a lustre approaching to that of carmine, considered it a specimen of the best Tyrian purple. Brown. — Ochra usta, burnt ochre. — The browns were ochres calcined, oxides of iron and manganese, and compounds of ochres and blacks. Black. — Atramentum, or black, was of two sorts, natural and artificial. The natural was made from a black earth, or from the secretion of the cuttle-fish, sepia. The artificial was made of the dregs of wine carbonized, calcined ivory, or lamp-black. The atramentum indicum, mentioned by Pliny, was probably the Chinese Indian ink. White. — The ordinary Greek white was melinum, an earth from the Isle of Melos ; for fresco-painting the best was the African paroetonium. There was also a white earth of Eretria, and the annularian white. Carbonate of lead, or white-lead, cerussa, was apparently not much used by the ancient painters. It has not been found in any of the remains of painting in Roman ruins. Methods of Paintinc. — There were two distinct classes of paint ing practised by the ancients — in water-colours, and in wax ; both of which were practised in various ways. Of the former the prin cipal were fresco, al fresco ; and the various kinds of distemper (a tempera), with glue, with the white of egg, or with gums (a guazzo) ; and with wax or resins when these were rendered by any means vehicles that could be worked with water. Of this latter the principle was through fire (Sia irupos), termed encaustic (ey/cawn/07 encaustica). Fresco was probably little employed by the ancients for works PAINTING. 219 of imitative art, but it appears to have been the ordinary method of simply colouring walls, especially amongst the Romans. Colour ing al fresco, in which the colours were mixed simply in water, as the term implies, was applied when the composition of the stucco on the walls was still wet (udo tectorio), and on that account was limited to certain colours, for no colours except earths can be employed in this way. The fresco walls, when painted, were covered with an encaustic varnish, both to heighten the colours and to preserve them from the injurious effects of the sun or the weather. Vitruvius describes the process as a Greek practice, which they term navcns. When the wall was coloured and dry, Punic wax, melted and tempered with a little oil, was rubbed over it with a hard brush _(seta) ; this was made smooth and even by applying a cauterium, or an iron pan, filled with live coals, over the surface, as near to it as was just necessary to melt the wax ; it was then rubbed with a candle (wax) and a clean cloth. In encaustic painting the wax colours were burnt into the ground by means of a hot iron (called cauterium) or pan of hot coals being held near the surface of the picture. The mere process of burning in, constitutes the whole difference between encaustic and the ordinary method of painting with wax colours. Polyceromy. — We shall now say a few words with regard to the much canvassed question of painting or colouring statues. Its antiquity and universality admit of no doubt. Indeed, the practice of painting statues is a characteristic of a primitive and barbarous style of art. Though it must be admitted that the early Greek artists painted their wooden, clay, and sometimes their marble, statues, we must positively refuse credence to what some would wish us to believe, that the Greek sculptors of the best period coloured the nude parts of their marble statues.* This mistake has arisen from * The application of colour to statues and temples I would consider to belong to a late or Boman period of art. As Nero had the statue of Alexander, by Lysippus, gilt, so we may suppose the colour, the traces of which are found on some Greek statues of the fine period of art, was applied at a much later period to please the false taste of that age. Virgil mentions a Cupid with coloured wings ; the three Corinthian columns of the temple of Minerva Chalcidica, in the Forum, were painted red, and the Trajan column still retains traces of colour and gilding used at that period ; this practice was thus evidently in accordance with the taste then prevailing in Koman art, the extravagance of which has been deplored by Pliny and Vitruvius. The following remarkable passage of Vitruvius is to the pur pose : — " The ancients laboured to accomplish and render pleasing by dint of art, that which in the present day is obtained by means of strong and gaudy colouring, and for the effect which was formerly obtained only by the skill of the artist, a prodigal expense is now substituted. Who, in former times, used minium other- 220 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. a misconception of the word circwmlitio, mentioned by Pliny, which expresses a painting round (ttepiyjoio-is), a framing of the borders of the drapery, the hair ; and sometimes border ornaments variously executed (of which the archaic Minerva in the Museum of Naples is a valuable instance) ; a painting of the ground round the figures, in order to separate and make them stand out, as Quinctilian VIII., s. 2, shows : a " circumductio colorum in extremitatibus figurarum, qua ipsa figura aptius finiuntur et eminentius extant." This prac tice was confined alone to the metopes, bas-reliefs, and the back ground of statues in pediments, and all such objects as were placed high up, and were to be seen from a distance. The effect was calculated for height and distance ; the most ancient instances of which are the metopes from the temple of Selinus. This mode of colouring was practised only at an archaic period, for Plutarch tells that the ancient statues (ra ira\aia twv ayakp-aTuiv) were daubed with vermilion, and no stronger evidence can be adduced of the imperfection, antiquity, and, we may add, barbarism of the art in any nation, than this custom of painting sculpture, as may be seen in the early sculptures of Assyria, India, and Mexico. The Kauo-is applied by the so-called painters of statues, ayaA/xarmv eyKavo-rai, to the nude parts, was not paint or colouring, but white wax melted with oil, which was laid on with a thick brush, and rubbed dry : " ita signa marmorea nuda curantur," Vitruvius says — a practice adapted by Canova. On the other hand, we have no proof that the Greeks coloured the nude parts of their statues ; on the contrary, we have positive evidence that the masterpiece of anti quity, the Cnidian Venus of Praxiteles, was colourless. That the Venus de Medici had her hair gilt, cannot be adduced as any evidence, for in tho opinion of Flaxman, to whose correct taste this fashion was totally repugnant, it is a deteriorated variety of the Venus of Praxiteles, and consequently of a later period, when art was in a declining and degraded state. We may, therefore, be led to this conclusion, that the custom of colouring sculpture, was only practised wise than as a medicine? In the present age, however, walls are everywhere covered with it. To this may be added the use of chrysocolla (green), purple, and azure decorations, which, without the aid of real art, produce a splendid effect." In this passage it is quite evident that Vitruvius places art — that is, beauty of form and proportion, and absence of colour, adopted by the sculptors and architects of the best period — in opposition to the gaudy colouring used by tho artists of his day. Further, we have here evidence that red (minium) could not have been applied in sculpture or architecture by the artists of the best period, as in those times it was used only as a 'medicamentum.' If colour had been applied to sculp ture and architecture by artists of the age of Phidias, Praxiteles, or Lysippus, Vitruvius would doubtless have referred to that practice in this passage. PAINTING. 221 at the worst periods of art, at the archaic period, and when it was in its decline. That Plato mentions that the artists of his age adopted the prac tice of painting statues, is no proof that the eminent sculptors of his age coloured their marble statues, no more than the modern custom in Italy of painting statues of the Virgin and saints, proves that Michael Angelo or Canova coloured their statues. It was evidently a practice of inferior artists in inferior workmanship of clay or wood. It was a continuation of the old religious practices of daubing the early statues of the gods with vermilion, and was done to meet the superstitious tastes of the uneducated. Statues for religious purposes may have been painted in obedience to a formula prescribed by religion, but statues as objects of art, on which the sculptor exhibited all his genius and taste, were unques tionably executed in the pure and uncoloured marble alone. In the chryselephantine, or ivory statues of Jove and Minerva, by Phidias, art was made a handmaid to religion. Phidias himself would have preferred to have executed them in marble. We may further remark that form, in its purest ideal, being the chief aim of sculpture, any application of colour, which would detract from the purity and ideality of this purest of the arts, could never be agree able to refined taste. We must also consider that sculpture in marble, by its whiteness, is calculated for the display of light and shade. For this reason statues and bas-reliefs were placed either in the open light to receive the direct rays of the sun, or in under ground places, or thermae, where they received their light either from an upper window, or, by night, from the strong light of a lamp ; the sculptor having for that purpose studied the effects of the shadows. It must be also remembered that the statues in Greek and Roman temples received their light from the upper part of the building, many of the temples being hypaethral, thus having the benefit of a top light, the sculptor's chief aim. Colour in these statues or bas-reliefs would have tended to mar the contrasts of light and shade, and blended them too much; for example," colour a photograph of a statue, of a statue which exhibits a marked con trast of light and shade, and it will tend to confuse and blend the two. The taste for polychrome sculpture in the period of the decline of art, was obviously but a returning to the primitive imper fection of art, when an attempt was made to produce illusion, in order to please the uneducated taste of the vulgar.* * We may remark here a curious analogy in the development of art to the deve lopment of the individual man. As man in his declining years resumes the child ishness of his earliest days, so we find in the decline of art, a recurrence to its 222 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. On the colouring of temples we have already spoken under the head of temples. Roman. — The Romans derived their knowledge of painting from the Etruscans, their ancestors and neighbours. Tradition attributes to them the first works which were used to adorn the temples of Rome ; and, according to Pliny, not much consideration was bestowed either on the arts or on the artists. Fabius, the first among the Romans, had some paintings executed in the temple of Salus, from which he received the name of Pictor. Julius Caesar, Agrippa, Augustus, were among the earliest great patrons of artists. Under Augustus, Marcus Ludius painted marine subjects, landscape deco rations, and historic landscape as ornamentation for the apartments of villas and country houses.* At this time, also, a passion for portrait painting prevailed ; an art which flattered their vanity was more suited to the tastes of the Romans than the art which could produce beautiful and refined works, similar to those of Greece. Portraits must have been exceedingly numerous; Varro made a collection of the portraits of 700 eminent men. Portraits, deco rative and scene painting seem to have engrossed the art. The example, or rather the pretensions, of Nero, must also have con tributed to encourage painting in Rome ; but Roman artists were, however, but few in number ; the victories of the consuls, and the rapine of the praetors, were sufficient to adorn Rome with all the masterpieces of Greece and Italy. They introduced the fashion of having a taste for the beautiful works of Greek art. Roman artists earliest, simplest, and consequently most imperfect forms, when in its infancy. In the age of the Antonines, when Eoman art was in its decline, this tendency was conspicuously evident in its predilection for the earlier forms of art and in its repro duction of Egyptian statues. In the last stage of the decline of vase-painting a similar tendency is visible. We find the artists recurring to the ancient forms, and imitating the subjects of the earlier vases. The whole field of art being thoroughly exhausted, artists were obliged to have recourse, as a novelty, to the reproduction and imitation of the antique and earlier forms of art. The Pre-Eaphaelite ten dency of the present day, which is also a recurrence to the early forms of art, is an evident sign of the decline of painting. * One of the latest discoveries near Kome is that of the Villa Livia, alluded to by Pliny as Villa Cassaram. It is about eight miles from the city. In it has been discovered an apartment most exquisitely ornamented. The lower portions of the walls, to the height of about five feet from the floor, represent a trellis work, from which spring the most exquisitely painted trees, shrubs, plants. These are loaded with fruit and flowers, among which a variety of birds and insects are feeding, fluttering, or reposing. As these paintings are in a villa built for Livia by Au gustus, the Soman antiquaries have concluded that they are of that period; and consequently may be with good reason attributed to the hand of Ludius. PAINTING. 223 were the pupils of the Greeks ; what we said of the paintings of the Greeks can be equally applied to those of the Romans. The remains of paintings found at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and in tho baths of Titus at Rome, are the only paintings which can DANCING FIGURE, POMPEn. give us any idea of the colouring and painting of the ancients, which, though they exhibit many beauties, particularly in compo sition, are evidently the works of inferior artists in a period of decline. At Pompeii there is scarcely a house the walls of which are not decorated with fresco paintings. The smallest apartments were lined with stucco, painted in the most brilliant and endless variety of colours, in compartments, simply tinted with a light 224 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. ground, surrounded by an ornamental margin, and sometimes embellished with a single figure or subject in the centre, or at equal distances. These paintings are very frequently historical or mythological, but embrace every variety of subject, some of the most exquisite beauty. Landscape painting was never a favourite with the ancients, and if ever introduced in a painting, was subor dinate. The end and aim of painting among the ancients was to represent and illustrate the myths of the gods, the deeds of heroes, and important historical events, hence giving all prominence to the delineation of the human form. Landscape, on the other hand, illustrated nothing, represented no important event deserving of PAINTING. 225 record, and was thus totally without significance in a Grecian tem ple or pinacotheca. In an age of decline, as at Pompeii, it was employed for mere decorative purposes. Many architectural sub jects are continually found, in which it is easy to trace the true PAINTING, POMPEII. principles of perspective ; but they are rather indicated than minutely expressed or accurately displayed ; whereas in most in stances a total want of the knowledge of this art is but too evident. Greek artists seem to have been employed : indeed native painters were few, while the former everywhere abounded, and their superiority in design must have always ensured them the preference. Sir W. Gell thus remarks on the painting of the ancients : " In grandeur and facility of drawing they warrant all that can be said in their praise ; with that feeling for simplicity which distinguishes the ancients from the moderns, many are quite in the taste of the finest bas-reliefs, which, like their tragedies, admitted no under plot to heighten or embarrass. In colouring they are said to be deficient ; want of transparency in the shadows exhibits little knowledge of chiaro-oscuro ; each figure has its own light and shade, while none are obscured by the interposition of its neighbour. But if we are called upon to make allowance in some of these points for the lapse of centuries, when viewing the works of a later age, how much more indulgence may be claimed when two thousand j'ears might reasonably have been expected to leave no traces at all." The walls at Pompeii were carefully prepared for the reception of the fresco painting. They appear to have been prepared in the Q 226 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. manner prescribed by Vitruvius, who directs that, after the first rough coat was applied, a second was to be added of arenatum, composed principally of sand and lime ; this was afterwards to be covered with marmoratum, in the composition of which the place of sand of the arenatum was supplied by pounded marble. The last coat at Pompeii was put on very thin, and seems to have been well worked and rubbed upon the rough exterior of the arenatum, until a perfect level, smooth, and at length polished surface was obtained, nearly as hard as marble. While the last coat was still wet, the colours were laid on, and so done, having, according to Vitruvius, incorporated with the incrustation, were not liable to fade, but retained their full beauty and splendour to a great age. According to Mr. Wornum, the majority of the walls in Pompeii are in common distemper ; but those of the better houses, not only in Pompeii, but in Rome and elsewhere, especially those which constitute the grounds of pictures, are in fresco. All the pictures, however, are apparently in distemper of a superior kind, called by the Italians a guazzo ; it is a species of distemper, but the vehicle or medium, made of egg gum, or glue, completely resists water. He further remarks, "It appears that no veritable fresco painting has been yet discovered, though the plain walls in many cases are coloured in fresco. The paintings upon the walls appear sometimes to have been varnished by an encaustic process ; many specimens bearing a polish, or gloss, to which water does not readily adhere." The Romans divided colours into two classes — florid and grave (floridi, austeri) — the former, on account of their high price, were usually provided for the artist by his employer. These were again divided into natural and artificial or factitious. The florid colours appear to have- been six— minium, red; chrysocolla, green; ar menium ; purpurissimum ; indicum ; cinnabaris ; ostrum ; the rest were the austeri. The natural colours were those obtained immediately from the earth ; the others were called artificial on account of their requiring some particular preparation to render them fit for use. It is the opinion of Sir Humphry Davy, that the ancient painters, like the best masters of the Roman and Venetian schools, were sparing in the use of the more florid colours, and produced their effects, like them, by contrast and tone. Mosaic. — Mosaic, opus musivum, is a kind of painting made with minute pieces of coloured substances, generally either marble, or natural stones, or else glass, more or less opaque, and of every variety of hue which the subject may require, set in very fine PAINTING. 227 cement, and which thus forms pictures of different kinds, rivalling in colour and hue those painted by the brush. Early nations knew the art of mosaic, and it is supposed to derive its origin from Asia, where paintings of this kind were composed, in imitation of the beautiful carpets manufactured at all periods in those countries. The Egyptians employed it very probably for different purposes ; no traces of it have, however, been found in the temples or palaces, the ruins of which remain. There is in the MflM MOSAIC PAVEMENT, POMPEII. Egyptian collection at Turin a fragment of a mummy case, the paintings of which are executed in Mosaic with wonderful precision and truth. The material is enamel, the colours are of different hues, and their variety renders with perfect tiuth the plumage of birds. It is believed to be the only example of Egyptian mosaic. The Greeks carried the art of mosaic to the highest perfection. Skilfully managing the hues, and giving to the figures in their com position an exquisite harmony, they resembled at a slight distance real paintings. Different names were given to the mosaics, accord ing as they were executed in pieces of marble of a certain size ; it was then lithostroton, opus sectile ; or in small cubes, in this case it was called opus tesselatum, or vermiculatum. The name of asaroton was given to a mosaic destined to adorn the pavement of a dining hall. It was supposed to represent an unswept hall, on the pavement of which the crumbs and remains of the repast which fell from the table still remained. Mosaic was used to adorn the pavements, walls, and ceilings of public and private edifices. The Greeks in general preferred marble to every other material. A bed of mortar was prepared, which served as a base, which was covered with a very fine cement. The artist, having before him the coloured design which he was to execute, fixed the coloured cubes in the cement, and polished the entire surface when it had hardened, taking care, however, that too great a polish, by its reflection, might not mar the general effect of his work. The great advantage of mosaic is that it resists humidity, and all which could change the colours and the beauty of painting. Painting could not be employed in the pavement of buildings, and q 2 228 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. mosaics gave them an appearance of great elegance. The mosaic of the Capitol, found in Adrian's Villa, may give an idea of the perfec tion which the Greeks attained to in that art. It represents a vase full of water, on the sides of which are four doves, one of which is in the act of drinking. It is supposed by some to be the mosaic of Pergamus mentioned by Pliny. It is entirely composed of cubes of marble, without any admixture of coloured glass. Mosaics of this kind may be considered as the most ancient; it was only by degrees that the art of colouring marble, enamel, and glass, multiplied the materials suited for mosaics, and rendered their execution much more easy. It was then carried to a very high degree of perfection. The mosaic found at Pompeii, which represents three masked figures playing on different instruments, with a child near them, is of the MOSAIC OF DIOSCORIDES. most exquisite workmanship. It is formed of very small pieces of glass, of the most beautiful colours, and of various shades. The hair, the small leaves which ornament the masks, and the eyebrows, are most delicately expressed. What enhances the value of this mosaic is the name of the artist worked in it — Dioscorides of Samos. The subjects represented in mosaics are in endless variety, and generally are derived from mythology or heroic myths. Landscapes and ornaments in borders, in frets, in compartments, intermingled with tritons, nereids, centaurs, are to be found on them. The prin- PAINTING. 229 cipal subject is in the centre, the rest serves as a bordering or framework. MOSAIC PAVEMENT. The Romans brought the art of mosaic to the highest perfection, not with regard to taste and composition, but by adding new materials to those which had been employed by the Greeks. They obtained their knowledge of this art by their conquests ; and towards the end of the republic they transported to Rome the most beautiful pavements of this kind found in the Greek cities which they had conquered. The first mosaic of Roman origin was executed in the temple of Fortune at Palestrina, which was restored by Sylla, where it was discovered in 1640. The subject of it has given rise to much controversy. The subject is now supposed to be Egyptian, and it is generally considered to represent a popular fete at the inundation of the Nile. Mosaics from this period came into general use, and some were made small enough to be carried about in the tents of generals in their campaigns. Caesar carried one with him in his military expe ditions. In the time of Augustus, coloured glass was generally employed, and under Claudius the artists succeeded in staining marble, and giving it different colours. The most interesting and valuable of all ancient mosaics is the one found at Pompeii, in the house of Pansa. It is supposed to have represented the Battle of Issus.* It is remarkable for the beauty of * See plate. 230 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. its design and composition, and is composed entirely of very small cubes of coloured marble ; no glass has been used. It has been calculated that the entire composition, when perfect, was composed of 1,384,000 cubes of marble, for 7000 can be counted in each square palm. In order to know the age of a mosaic, particular regard must be paid to the nature of the materials of which it is composed. Its antiquity will depend on whether it exhibits artificial compositions or not. The stained marbles and artificial compositions will be proofs of later date. The common Roman pavements are made of cubes of common stones, and form borders more or less wide, of different colours, and rather coarsely put together, examples of which may be seen in the baths of Caracalla at Rome. The number of Roman mosaics which have come down to us, sometimes in an excellent state of preservation, are considerable. Some excellent specimens have been found in the villa of Adrian, near Tivoli. They have been also found in the various Roman colonies. Some very valuable specimens have been lately discovered at Carthage ; several have been also found in the Island of Sardinia, now in the Museum of Turin. Some have been discovered in the south of France. That of Vienne represents Achilles recognised by Ulysses among the daughters of Lycomedes. A very fine specimen is in the Museum of Lyons. It represents the Circensian games. The Romans carried their luxurious tastes as far as Britain, for several mosaics have been found in many parts of England. In the Lower Empire mosaics were made at Constantinople of pearls and precious stones. The richness of the material was substi tuted for the beauties of an art which had degenerated. PAINTED VASES. Painted Vases may be considered as the most curious, the most graceful, and the most instructive remains that have come down to us from ancient times. The beauty of the forms, the fineness of the material, the perfection of the varnish, the variety of the subjects, and their interest in an historical point of view, give painted vases a very important place among the productions of the arts of the ancients. Painted vases have been collected with great eagerness ever since they have been known, and the most remark able have been engraved by celebrated artists, and explained by profound archaeologists. Modern art and archaeology have obtained from them beautiful models and important information. They Fold out PAINTED VASES. 231 were known for the first time in the seventeenth century"; La- chausse published some of them in his Museum Romanum, in 1690 ; Beger and Montfauoon imitated his example ; Dempster subsequently wrote on them more fully; Gori, Buonarotti, and Caylus, added some general observations to those of Dempster; Winckelman could not omit them in his immortal work on the history of Ancient Art, and modified, by the accuracy of his observations, the theories of his predecessors. Lastly, the beautiful collection of Sir William Hamilton, published by Hancarville in 1766, brought them more fully into public notice ; Passeri still supported after him the Italian opinion in regard to the origin of these vases ; Tischbein, Boettiger, and Millin, declared themselves of the same opinion as Winckelman ; and the study of these beautiful objects confirms it at the present day in every respect. Painted Vases received at first the denomination of Etruscan Vases; Dempster, a great abettor of what was called Etrusco- mania, gave them this denomination, and Tuscan antiquaries have defended it as a title of glory for their country. The impartial comparison of remains of antiquity had not as yet established any fundamental distinction between the Etruscan style, properly so called, and the ancient Greek style. Every composition characterised by the stiffness of the features, the straight folds of the drapery, and long braided hair, was attributed to the Etruscans. Painted vases which presented these characteristics were therefore attributed to them, and in spite of the evidence of the subjects borrowed from the mythic ideas of the Greeks, in spite of the inscriptions, all Greek, which were read on them, general opinion, too readily followed, recognised in them every thing that could explain the manners, customs, creed, and even the history of the Etruscans. It was further generally' believed that these vases had issued from the manufactures of Arezzo, because Martial praises the potteries of that town ; and, that those which were found in Campania, Puglia, and even in Sicily, had been carried there by the Etruscans themselves. This theory could not be maintained, even after a slight examination, especially as painted vases have been found at Athens, Megara, Milo, in Aulis, in Tauris, at Corfu, and in the Isles of Greece. The greater number, indeed, are found even at the present day in Magna Graecia, Nola, Capua, Psestum, and in Sicily, but they are found in every country where Greek domination prevailed. The extent of the domination of the Tyrrhenians in Italy was not sufficiently extensive to attribute to them all the painted vases. Eucheir and Eugrammus came, according to Pliny, into Etruria, and taught 232 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. there the plastic arts, but this does not prove that they invented there the art of making painted vases, for these two artists who worked in clay, being from Corinth, might have brought this art from Greece. Everything leads us to conclude that we must attri bute their origin to Greece. In their forms they bear a great resemblance to the vases which we see on the medals and some of the sculpture of the Greeks; the style of the figures which ornament them entirely corresponds with that of the fig rues of the ancient Greek style ; lastly, the myths which are represented on them, the inscriptions in Greek characters which frequently accompany the figures, are sufficient to establish this opinion. But we must acknowledge that Greek myths are always expressed with peculiar circumstances, which probably are derived from the alterations which Greek traditions had experienced in ancient Italy. Painted vases were, to a considerable extent, objects of traffic and of export from one country to another. They may be generally traced to Athens as the original place of exportation. Corinth also exported vases, for the products of Corinthian potters have been found in Sicily and Italy, and there can be no doubt that Corinth had established an active trade in works of art with the Greek colonies all over the Mediterranean. Athenian vases were carried by the Phoenicians, the commercial traders of the ancient world, as objects of traffic to the remotest parts of the then known world. In the Periplus of Scylax, the Phoenicians are mentioned as exchanging the pottery of Athens for the ivory of Africa. They were, in fact, the ornamental china of the ancient world. The variety of opinions with regard to the origin of these vases, has produced a similar diversity with regard to their denomination. To that of Etruscan Vases succeeded that of Greek Vases, still too general ; Visconti wished to name them Graeco-Italian ; Arditi, Italo-Greek; Lanzi, Campanian, Sicilian, Athenian, according as they were found in Campania, Sicily, or at Athens ; Quatremere de Quincy, Ceramo-graphic Vases (of painted clay) ; and Millin, Painted Vases in general, adding the name of the place where they were discovered. We may, however, be able to class them more systematically, on considering, in the first place, that painted vases form a class apart among the remains of antiquity ; secondly, that it is recognised at the present day, that the Etruscans manufactured them also, as well as the Greeks ; thirdly, that the subject itself of the painting is the most certain type of their origin, especially with regard to Etruscan vases, for we cannot suppose that the Greeks, who cultivated the arts after the Etruscans, would have painted on the vases the myths, creed, and the history of Etruria, though the PAINTED VASES. 233 Etruscans might have done so for the Greeks : lastly, that vases which bear subjects purely Greek are found in many countries, and in different places, without, however, their bearing any local charac teristic, all belonging alike to Greek art, and without any other distinction than that which results from the style itself, according to the greater or less antiquity of the execution. We may, there fore, adopt the general denomination of Painted Vases, distinguished into Etruscan, for those which are the work of that people, and into Greek for those, in far greater number, which can have no other origin ; while these can be classed according to their relative anti quity, proved by the style of the figures, the characters, the form and the orthography of the inscriptions when they accompany the painting. We adopt this division, which appears to us as the most simple and most natural, which can be equally applied to the painted vases of every other country., if any should happen to be discovered. We shall further observe on this subject, that there is no passage of any ancient author which could serve to throw any light on the uncertainty produced by the various opinions published with regard. to painted vases : nothing relative to them has been hitherto found in Greek or Latin writers ; and this singularity, when we consider the beauty, the variety, and the number of these remains of anti quity,, has been very justly remarked. Etruscan. — Vases, the Etruscan origin of which cannot be dis puted, have been found at Volterra, Tarquinii, Perugia, Orvieto, Viterbo, Acquapendente, Corneto, and other towns of ancient Etruria. The clay of which they are made is of a pale or reddish yellow, the varnish is dull, the workmanship rather rude, the orna ments are devoid of taste and elegance, and the style of the figures possesses all those characteristics already assigned to that of the Etruscans. The figures are drawn in black on the natural colour of the clay : sometimes a little red is introduced on the black ground of the drapery. It is by the subject chiefly that the Etruscan vases are distinguished from the Greek vases. On the former, the figures are in the costume peculiar to ancient Italy ; the men and the heroes are represented with their beards and hair very thick ; the gods and genii have large wings ; we may also observe divinities, religious customs, attributes, manners, arms, and symbols, different from those of Greece. If an inscription in Etruscan characters, traced invariably from right to left, accompanies the painting, certainty with regard to their origin may be considered as complete. It is true that the greater number of the letters of the ancient Greek 234 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. alphabet are of the same form as those of the Etruscan alphabet ; but there are in the latter some particular characters which will prevent any confusion. We must also observe, that Etruscan painted vases are very rare, and are but few in number, compared with those for which we are indebted to the aits of Greece. Dennis, in his work on Etruria, gives a specimen of a vase of undoubted Etruscan manufacture, as it bears an Etruscan subject and an Etruscan inscription. It is an amphora, with a Bacchic dance on one side ; on the other side, the parting of Admetus and Alcestis, whose names are attached, between the figures of Charun and another demon. Of late years vases are found in great numbers in Etruria, more particularly at Vulci ; but most of these painted vases are imitations of those of Athens. Greek. — They are made of a very fine and light clay; their exterior coating is composed of a particular kind of clay, which seems to be a kind of yellow or red ochre, reduced to a very fine paste, mixed with some glutinous or oily substance, and laid on with a brush ; the parts which are painted black have all the brilliancy of enamel. The colours being laid on in a different manner in the earlier and later vases has caused them to be distinguished into two general classes. In the earlier the ground is yellow or red, and the figures are traced on it in black, so as to form kinds of silhouettes. These are called the black or archaic vases, they are generally in an ancient style ; their subjects belong to the most ancient mythological traditions, and their inscriptions to the most ancient forms of the Greek alphabet, written from right to left, or in boustrophedon. The drapery, the accessories, the harness of the horses, and the wheels of the chariots, are touched with white. At a later period, the whole vase was painted black, with the exception of the figures, which were then of the colour of the clay of the vase ; the contours of the figures, the hair, drapery, &c, being previously traced in black. There are then two general classes of Greek vases, dis tinguished by the figures, which are black or yellow. They are in general remarkable for the beauty and elegance of their forms. There is a great variety in their sizes ; some being several feet high, and broad in proportion ; others being not higher than an inch. The subject is on one side of the vase ; sometimes it occupies the entire circumference, but more generally it is one side alone (called in Italy the parte nobile), and then there is on the reverse some insignificant subject, generally two or three of old men leaning on a stick, instructing a young man, or presenting him with some instrument or utensil ; a bacchanalian scene is sometimes represented PAINTED VASES. 235 on the reverse. Some vases have been found with two subjects on the sides of the vase. On some of the finest vases, the subject goes round the entire circumference of the vase. On the foot, neck, and other parts are the usual Greek ornaments, the Vitruvian scroll, the Meander, Palmetto, the honeysuckle. A garland sometimes adorns the neck, or, in its stead, a woman's head issuing from a flower. These ornaments are in general treated with the greatest taste and elegance. Besides the obvious difference in the style of the vases, there is a remarkable difference in the execution of the paintings. They are not all of the highest merit, but the boldness of the out lines is generally remarkable on them. They could be executed only with the greatest rapidity, the clay absorbing the colours very quickly, so that if a line was interrupted, the joining would be per ceptible. Some thought that the figures were executed by the means of patterns cut out, which being laid on the vase, preserved on'the black ground the principal masses in yellow, which were finished afterwards with a brush. But this opinion of Sir William Hamilton has been abandoned by himself, particularly since the traces of a point have been recognised, with which the artist had at first sketched on the soft clay the principal outlines, which he finished afterwards with a brush dipped in the black pigment, without, how ever, strictly following the lines traced by the point. The traces of the point are rarely observed ; all depended on the skill and talent of the artists. They must have been very numerous, as these vases are found in such numbers, and the greater number may be con sidered as models for the excellence of their design and the taste of their composition. Not unfrequently, the artists, by whom the designs have been painted, have placed their names on them ; the principal names known are those of Lasimon, Taleides, Asteas, and Calliphon. Taleides is the most ancient; his designs evince the infancy of art, those of the other artists display greater progress in the art ; the name can be recognised from the words EIIOIEI or EIIOIE2EN, and ETPAtfE, made or painted, which follow them immediately ; the two former being united with the name of the potter, and the latter with the name of the painter. Other in scriptions are sometimes found on vases, which enhance their value greatly. They are generally the names of gods, heroes and other mythological personages, which are represented in the paintings. These inscriptions are of great interest for two reasons : in the first place, from the form of the letters and the order according to which they are traced, the greater or less antiquity of the vase can be recognised, these inscriptions necessarily following all the changes of the Greek alphabet ; care must be taken to examine whether the 236 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. inscription goes from right to left, whether the long vowels HO, the double letters * 3 are replaced by the silent vowels, or single letters ; these are in general signs of relative antiquity which prove that of the vase itself; secondly, because the names invariably explain the subject of the painting, and even indicate by a name hitherto un known, either some personage who sometimes bore another name, or a person whose real name was unknown, in fine, some mythic beings of whom ancient writers give us no information. The infor mation derived from vases is of great importance for the study of Greek mythology, viewed in its different epochs, and for the inter pretation and understanding of ancient tragic or lyric poets. Moral or historical inscriptions, in prose and in verse, have been also found on vases. The letters of these inscriptions are capital or cursive ; they are very delicately traced, and often require a great, deal of attention to perceive. They are traced in black or white with a brush, sometimes they are incised with a very sharp point. The word KAAOS is very frequently found on vases which bear inscrip tions, almost always accompanied by a proper name.* It seems to be nothing more than an epithet, expressive of admiration, applied to the most remarkable and conspicuous personage represented on the vase, as on a vase in the Vatican Museum we see a painting representing Priam, Hector, and Andromache, with their names over each; over Hector is the inscription E/crwp KaAos, "The noble Hector."f In the form KaXoKayados, it signified brave and beautiful, the very acme of praise given to a person. On some which had been gifts to some " beautiful youths," we find the inscription tj o 7r Cantharus, 32 Scyphus. 33 Olpe. 34 Cotyliskos. 35, 36 Lecythus. 37 Oenochoe. 38, 39, 40, 42 Proehous. 41, 43 Rhyton. 44, 45 Ascos. 46 Bombylios. 47, 48 Alabastron. 49, 50 Aryballos. Italian Nomenclature. 29 Bicchiere. 30 Tazza con manichi orizzontali. 32 33 Urceolo. 3435, 36 Lagrimale. 37 Prefericolo. 38 Prefericolo a becco. 41 Riton. 44 Unguentario. 46 Balsamario. 47 Unguentario. 49 Balsamario con mnnico. 250 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. augusti s. Ccnuen Second Division. GLYPTOGRAPHY, OR ENGRAVED STONES. INTEODUCTION. The Art of engraving on precious stones and gems is styled " gty'pti0/ alm the description of these engraved stones which have come down to us from ancient times, glyptography, from y\vIAOY. Cupid rescuing Pysche.— Sard. B.M. Achilles playing the lyre. — Amethyst. Paris. Achilles. — Sard. Devonshire. Pergamus ; nEPrAMOY. Faun dancing.- — Stosch. Hercules carrying a bull. — Stosch. A young Bacchante. Philemon; 4>IAHMONOC, HAIE EnOIEI. Diomedes and Ulysses carrying off the Palladium. — Sard. Marl borough. Head of Mercury. — Red jasper. Paris. Quintillus ; KYINTIA. Neptune in a car. — Beryl. Ludovisi. Mercury. — Sard. Poniatowsky. Rufus; POY$OY, POY*OG EIIOIEL Aurora guiding the solar car. — Cameo. St. Petersburg. Head of Ptolemy Physcon. — Sard. Raspe. A number of engraved stones bear Roman proper names, but they are supposed to be the names of the proprietors of the stones, and not of the engraver. Engravers of the Lower Empire. Chajremon ; XAIPHMON. The head of a Faun. Nicephorus ; NIKH$OPOO. Mercury. — Onyx. Man seated, forging a helmet. — Sard. Thorns. Phocas ; 3>OKAC. An Athlete holding a palm. —Jacynth. Caylus. One of the most remarkable works of this period is the stone called the Sapphire of Constantine, in the Rinuccini Cabinet, Florence. It represents the Emperor Constan tine attacking a wild boar, near Caesarea, in Cappadocia. CELEBRATED ENGRAVED STONES. 273 CAMEO OF THE STE. CHAPELLE. CELEBRATED ENGRAVED STONES. Some ancient engraved stones have acquired celebrity frofn the perfection of the workmanship, from the beauty or size of the material. Among Camei the most celebrated are I. The Cameo called that of the Sainte Chapelle in the Biblio theque, at Paris. It is a Sardonyx composed of two brown and two white layers, and is an oval of 13 inches by 9. It was brought from T 274 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. the East by king Baldwin and given to the Sainte Chapelle by king Charles V. It presents three scenes. In the upper portion is the Apotheosis of Augustus. In the middle portion, are Tiberius under the figure of Jupiter, and Livia, his mother, under the figure of Ceres. They receive Germanicus on his triumphal return to Rome a.d. 1 7. Agrippina, his wife, assists him in taking off his helmet, and his son, Caligula, stands behind him. The young man who carries a trophy, is Drusus, son of Tiberius. In the lower portion are vanquished nations personified under the figures of warriors dressed in the costume of eastern and western nations. GEMMA ATOfSTEA, OF VIENNA. II. The Cameo of Vienna, or the Gemma Augustea, is not so large as that of Paris, and presents but two scenes. It is su perior as a work of art, and is in better preservation. It passed from the Abbey of Poissy to Germany, having been purchased by Rudolph II. for 1200 ducats. It is considered the finest work in relief extant. It has but two layers. Its shape is elliptical, 9 by 8 inches. The subject is the reception of Drusus (father of Ger manicus) after his victory over the Rhaiti and Vindelici, b.c. 17. Augustus as Jove, and Livia as Rome, seated on thrones, welcome the hero and his brother Tiberius. Behind Augustus are Neptune and Cybele, who seem to be symbols of his powers over land and sea. CELEBRATED ENGRAVED STONES. 275 TAZZA FARNESE. III. The Tazza Farnese, at Naples. It is composed of a single piece of sardonyx, and is nearly a foot in diametei'. The subject of the sculpture has given rise to much learned and elaborate disquisition. It is generally supposed to represent the apothe osis of the first Ptolemy. According to Professor Quaranta, it represents Ptolemy Philadelphus, consecrating the festival of the harvest instituted by Alexander the Great, at the time of the foundation of Alexandria. The outside is ornamented with the head of Medusa. The place of its discovery is uncertain. It is supposed to have been found in the Villa Adriana, near Rome. IV. The portraits of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and his first wife Arsinoe. According to Visconti, the head of Ptolemy Energetes, and Berenice. This cameo is of sardonyx, but is composed of •r 2 276 HANDS 0 OK OF ARCHE OLOGY. several pieces. The collars and ornaments given to each head conceal the joinings. It is in the Imperial collection of Russia. PTOLEMY AND BERENICE. Cameo. JUPITER jEGIOCHUS V. The head of Jupiter ^Egiochus. This cameo was found at Ephesus, and is now in Venice. CELEBRATED ENGRAVED STONES. 277 VI. The Carpegna cameo in the Vatican. It represents the triumph of Bacchus and Ceres in a car drawn by Centaurs. This cameo is remarkable as being the largest slab of sardonyx known, being 16 inches long by 12 deep. It is composed of five layers. The Museum of Venice possesses several other magnificent camei, especially those which represent Orestes, the car of Nep tune, Rome and Augustus, Claudius and his family. In Paris, in the Bibliotheque, there are many remarkable camei. The apo theosis of Germanicus, Agrippina and Germanicus under the figures of Ceres and Triptolemus, Ulysses, portraits of Tiberius, Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, Faustina, Adrian, Antinous. In the British Museum and in the Devonshire collection are some smaller, yet beautiful specimens of Greek and Roman work. In the collection at Naples is the cameo by Athenion, representing Jupiter hurling his thunderbolts against the Titans. Among the most celebrated intagli are Of Dioscorides, the Io, considered by Visconti as one of the finest engravings in existence. It cannot be reproduced exactly in the plaster cast on account of the under cutting of the nose, the intaglio being a three quarter face. It is far superior, both in delicacy and correctness, to the Demosthenes by the same artist. The Demosthenes. This is on a splendid amethyst, but shows some what of stiffness and hardness of manner. Both these intagli are much more deeply cut than is usual with antique gems, and differ in this respect from his Diomede, master of the Palladium, which is in flat relief. It may be set down as one of his earliest productions. (C. W. King.) Diomede, master of the Palladium. The hero appears seated, with one leg extended, and contemplating the statue placed on a cippus before him. It is on a red sard in very flat relief. Mercury Criophorus. A naked and wingless figure holding a ram's head in his left hand, and in his right a caduceus. The head presents a full face. A sard in the Devonshire collection. Perseus resting his hand on a shield with a Medusa's head, and a sword. A sard in the Museum at Naples. The head of Augustus. The Medusa, of Solon. Following the invariable rule of Greek art never to represent anything hideous or repulsive, Medusa is here represented with features of exquisite beauty. Eleven serpents are twined in her hair. It was found in a vineyard on the Monte Celio, near St. Giovanni e Paolo. It is 278 HANDS 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOGY. engraved in chalcedony. It was formerly in the Strozzi collection, and is now in that of the Due de Blacas. The Pallas, of Aspasius. The richly ornamented helmet is sur mounted by a lofty crest, and by a sphinx, the emblem of celestial intelligence ; two griffins, placed in the lateral parts, present an analogous emblem ; and over the visor, eight horses in front, in full gallop, present a sublime image of the power and the rapidity with which the divine mind acts. It is supposed to represent the head of the Pallas of Phidias. The Julia, of Evodus. It is the portrait of Julia, the daughter of Titus and Marcia, with diadem, curled hair, necklace, earrings. It is engraved on a beryl or pale sapphire, of extraordinary magnitude. The size and beauty of the stone and the high finish of the work, render this gem very re markable. It is in the collection of the Imperial Libraiy at Paris. The young Hercules, of Cmeus. An exquisite example of the Greek type of head, and a most perfect specimen of Greek work. The Esculapius, of Aulus. It is a bust of Esculapius. The name of the artist is engraved on a tablet. This is con sidered the finest of the works of Aulus. There are several other engraved stones bearing the name of this artist, but from their inferior workmanship, are evidently not by the same engraver. The Pallas, of Eutyches. It is a bust of Pallas, by Eutyches, the son or pupil of Dioscorides. She wears the Corinthian helmet, such as is worn by the Pallas of Velletri, and as she is represented on the coins of Corinth. She holds her robe on her breast. The stone is a pale amethyst, deeply engraved. . The Dionysiac Bull, of Hyllus. The bull is girt with ivy, and over him a thyrsus. It is almost similar in style to the bull on the coins of Sybaris. There are several antique copies of this intaglio. The Achilles Citharasdus, of Pamphilus. It represents Achilles seated on a rock playing the lyre. It is engraved in amethyst, and is now in the Bibliotheque in Paris. The signet of Michael Angelo. The subject is a vintage, and Bacchic festival, and in the exergue is a boy fishing. It is a sard, and has given rise to many opposite opinions with regard to the representation of the subject, as also with re- THE MOST CELEBRATED INTAGLI. (The same size as originals) ACnACIOY. YAAOY. AnOAADNIOV. 5 CKYMNOY. tYTYXHC AIOCKOYPIAOV AirtAIOC 61i. ANTEPHTOC. TEYKPOY. AIOCKOYPIAOY. AIOCKOYPIAOY. AIOCKOYPIAOY. 1. The Head of Pallas . By Aspasius. . . Red Jasper . . Vienna. 2. Diana Montana . By Afollonius . . Amethyst . Naples, 3. Head of Medusa . Blacas. 4. Head of the Young hercules . . , j- By G-njeus . Beryl . . Strozzi. 5. Head of Micdusa , By Sosthenes . . . Calcedony . . Carlisle. 6. Bacchus . . . . . By Aulus . . JACINTH . . PlOMBINO. 7. Artadne abandoned . By Hyllus . . Sard . . British Museum. 8. Bust of Pallas . . (By Eutyches, son * t Dioscourides . y Tale Amethyst . Marlborough. 9. Bacchus with a Pan ther • . . r Br Scysinus . . . Sard. - - 10. Hercules c\krying a Bull r By Antepos . . Sard Devonshire. 11. Nereus and Doris . _ „ Amethyst . Florence. 12. Hercul.es and Iole , By Teuceii . . Amethyst . . Florence. 13. Head of Medusa . . — — Amethyst . . Blacas 14. Mercury Cuiophorus. . By Dioscourides . Sard . . . Devonshire. 15. Head of Io ... . Br Dioscourides . Sard . . Poniatowsky. 16. Victory leading Four .} - . Bt Dioscourides . 18. Hermaphrodite re clining . . . r By Dioscourides . . Amethyst . . WObSELEY. [Between pages 218 and 2V9, CUPS. 279 gard to its antiquity. Those who believe it to be antique, consider the boy fishing as the symbol of the Greek engraver AAAIfiN ; others, on the other hand, deem it a rebus upon the name of the artist Gio Maria da Pescia, the celebrated engraver, and friend of Michael Angelo. CAR OF BACCHUS. Sard. CUPS. Though, strictly speaking, not included under the head of engraved gems, we must not omit to notice drinking cups and vases, parti cularly as they are sometimes found ornamented with mythic subjects in relief, and, as Mr. King remarks, may be considered as huge camei. They are generally of the same stone as used for camei, sardonyx. The ancients were fond also of decorating their drinking cups with precious stones and camei. They called such vessels "gemmae potoriae." The most splendid agate vase of this kind is the two-handled cup or carchesium of St. Denys, usually styled the cup of the Ptolemies. Its sculptures represent masks, vases, and other Bacchic emblems. It is supposed to have been executed for Ptolemy Dionysus. But Mr. King considers it to be from its style of the time of Nero. It was presented by Charles the Bald,* in the ninth century, to the Abbey of St. Denys, and was always used to hold the wine at the coronation of the kings * M. Labarte says it was given by Charles III. ("the Simple). 280 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. of France. It is now in the collection of antiquities at Paris. Another celebrated vase, is the Brunswick vase, of sardonyx, which represents the myth of Ceres in search of Proserpine, and that of Triptolemus. It is an alabastron, or tall perfume jar, with narrow neck, five inches high by two in the greatest diameter. Its style is supposed to indicate the age of the Antonines. It originally belonged to the Gonzaga family but was stolen at the sacking of Mantua, in 1630, by a soldier, who sold it for 100 ducats to the Duke of Brunswick. It is now in Paris. We must not omit also to mention the celebrated murrhine vases of antiquity, upon which such high value was set by the ancients. They are thus men- '1HE TWO-HANDLED CEP OF ST. DENTS. tioned by Pliny : " Pompey was the first who introduced murrhine vases at Rome. He being the first to dedicate, at the conclusion of his triumph, vases and cups made of this material, in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, a circumstance which soon brought them into private use; small dishes even, and eating utensils made of murrhine being in great request. This species of luxury, too, is CUPS. 281 daily on the increase ; a simple cup, which would hold no more than three sextani (pints) having been purchased at the price of 70,000 sesterces." He thus describes the material of which these vases were made : " The East sends us murrhina* (the pieces in the rough). For they are found there in several places, in not very re markable parts of the Parthian dominions, principally however in Carmania. They are supposed to be formed of a moist substance solidified by subterraneous heat. In superficial extent they never exceed that required for small dishes (abaci). In thickness, they are rarely large enough for a drinking cup, such as already men tioned. The polish they take is without strength, being rather a gloss or lustre than a brilliant polish. But their value lies in the variety of their colours — the spots, or strata, winding around, here and there, presenting hues of purple and white, and a third colour made of both, which assumes a fiery tint, as if by the passage of the colour through the purple, or that the milky white colour assumes a ruddy glow. Some especially admire in them the ends or boundaries of the colours, and a certain play of colours, such as is seen in the rainbow. To others the opaque spots, or strata, are more agreeable ; any transparency' or paleness in them is con sidered a defect. Murrhine exhibits also crystals and warts, not prominent, but frequently as if imbedded in the substance itself. There is some recommendation also in the agreeable odour." The material that answers best to this description of Pliny, is the piece of " murra" found under the ruins of a house by a dealer in antiquities in Rome. It was purchased by the Jesuits, was cut up into thin slices, and now forms the front of the altar in the Chiesa del Gesu, at Rome. It fully answers the description of Pliny. It is purple in colour, with strata of dull white through it ; on the edges of the white layer there is a slight iridescence. In some parts it has a reddish hue. It exhibits crystals also.f The specimens of it shown to Mr. Tennant and Mr. Davis of the British Museum have been pronounced by them to be fluor spar, the white stratum being a layer of hornstone, sometimes, but rarely found * Here Pliny is evidently speaking of the material itself, pieces in the rough, and not of vases or vessels as generally understood. t If the word " sales," is to be translated crystals, as in Mr. Bostock's translation of Pliny, it would confirm the view of the murrhine being of fluor spar, as fluor is characterized by crystallizing in regular cubes. Agate exhibits no crystallization. In farther confirmation of the murrhine vases being of fluor spar, we may adduce Pliny's statement of a person of consular rank, who used to drink out of a murrhine vase, and grew so passionately fond of it, as to gnaw its edges ; this could be done to fluor spar, as it is of a very brittle nature, and could be easily abraded by the teeth, but could not be done to agate or any other siliceous stone. 282 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. running through fluor spar, the crystals also being those of true fluor spar. Mr. King's remark, that the material itself was brought to Rome in the rough, and there wrought up into dishes and flat bowls, would seem to confirm the supposition that this piece in the rough found at Rome is a piece of the true " murrhina." Some have con sidered the " murrhina " to be agate, but this could not be, as numerous specimens of agate cups have been found, and no specimens of agate answering to the "murrhina " of Pliny have been found in a cup or bowl, or in any of the broken portions frequently to be met with; besides, the murrhine vases were exceedingly rare, while the agate cups were, in comparison, rather common. Further, the agate was well known as a distinct class of stone, originally coming from a river in Sicily, Achates, whence it derives its name, whereas the "murrhina" came only from the East. It has also been conjectured that the murrhine vases were made of Oriental alabaster. In the passage, however, of Lampridius "in murrhinis et onj^chinis minxit," it is clearly distinguished from Oriental alabaster, for judging from Pliny's description " onychina and onyx" were terms applied to Oriental alabaster.* The name onyx was afterwards exclusively appropriated to the gem still called by that name. The murra and the onyx (Oriental alabaster), however, bear a resemblance to one another, as they are striped, and exhibit zones and bands of various strata. Pliny also mentions varieties of coloured glass imitating the murrhine. The portions of coloured glass belonging to cups, found at Rome, bear a closer resemblance to the striped or zoned ap pearance of the murra and onyx (Oriental alabaster) than the agate. As a result we may come to this conclusion, that the " murrhina " were pieces of fluor spar, with a stratum of hornstone, of which the piece found at Rome (called murra) is a specimen. The onyx, or onychina, were Oriental alabaster, and the Achates was the agate as commonly understood at the present day. * Seneca also distinguishes the murrhine vases from sardonyx ; for he speaks of the wealthy having mules to carry their vases of crystal, murrhine, and those engraved by the hands of famous artists, evidently meaning by these last, vases of sardonyx carved in relief by celebrated artists. MODERN COLLECTIONS. 283 MERCURY AND FORTUNE. Sard. MODERN COLLECTIONS. The example given in Italy by the Medici, found imitators in other parts of Europe ; collections of ancient engraved stones were formed in different places by princes, rich private individuals, learned men, and artists. The Crusaders brought several from the East ; Peiresc collected engraved stones at the same time that he collected inscriptions, manuscripts, and medals ; he propagated that taste by his example. The kings of France gave some very valuable stones to churches and abbeys ; these precious objects became afterwards the property of the crown, and were placed in the royal cabinets, and those of princes ; and after the sixteenth century, several col lections enjoyed great celebrity. Time has dispersed some and increased others. At the present day the most remarkable among public collections are those of the Florence Gallery, the stones of which are considered to be over four thousand in number ; of the Vatican, at Rome, of the Museum at Naples, of the King of Prussia, of the Emperor of Austria, of the King of Denmark, at the castle of Rosenburg at Copenhagen, of the Emperor of Russia, which contains the Natter and d'Orleans cabinets ; and among the cabinets which do not belong to sovereigns, the most celebrated are the Strozzi and Ludovisi collections in Rome, the Poniatowsky in Russia, the Devon shire, Marlborough, Besborough, Carlisle, and Bedford collections 284 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. in England ; and the collections of the Due de Blacas, the Count Pourtales, and the Baron Rogers at Paris. Some very beautiful works, both ancient and modern, are to be found in these collec tions. Many learned men have devoted themselves to the interpretation of engraved stones. Leonardo Agostini published, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, a collection of them, several editions of which have been published. The collection of La Chausse appeared at Rome in 1700, that of Gorlaaus was printed several times in Leyden, and the collection of Ebermayer, at Nuremberg, in 1720. Some antiquarians devoted especial attention to a particular class of these stones, as Chifflet to abraxas, Passeri to astrological stones, Ficoroni to those which bore inscriptions. Afterwards there appeared par ticular descriptions of the most celebrated cabinets ; such are the great works known under the title of Pierres gravees, by Gori, by Bossi, the Museum Florentinum of Gori, the " Galerie de Florence," by Wicar and Monge, the Museum Odescalchum, by Galeotti ; the description of intagli of the cabinet of the King of France, by Mariette, that of the engraved stones of the Duke of Orleans, by Leblond and Lachaux, of the cabinet of Vienna by Echkel, of the cabi nets of Gravelles, Crassier, and Stosch, by Winkelnian ; the descrip tion of the cabinet of the Duke of Marlborough, and that of the Imperial Cabinet of St. Petersburg, by M. Koehler. A valuable work has been published by Millin, entitled, "Pierres gravees inedites tirees des plus celebres cabinets de l'Europe." Other archaeologists have also devoted their attention to engraved gems, in particular, or in works containing different branches of archaeology. Among these are Montfaucon in his " Antiquite Expliquee ; " the Count de Caylus, in his important " Recueil," and also Amaduzzi, Rasponi, Vivenzio, Lippert, and Raspe. Several other archaeologists have published works, laying down rules for the study of engraved stones ; works for this purpose have been published by Millin, Marcelli, Murr (Dresden, 1606), and by the senator Vettori (Rome, 1739), Busching (Hamburg, 1781), Aldius (Cesena, 1789), Eschem- burg (Berlin, 1787), M. de Koehler (St. Petersburg, 1810). The most important work of the present day is that of Mr. King, on " Antique Gems," which displays an extensive critical knowledge of engraved stones, combined with exquisite taste. GLYPTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 285 bellonarius. Lust/ration. GLYPTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. After making those few general remarks on Glyptography, it will be necessary to enter into some particular details on the productions of that art which have come down to us from each of the ancient nations, the antiquities of which we have undertaken to illustrate. In the paragraphs of this section will be found some special observa tions on the engraved stones of the Egyptians, the Etruscans, the Greeks, and Romans ; some particulars which ought to be especially observed, so as not to be misled with regard to their authenticity, the genuine expression of the subject, the characteristics of the workmanship, and their classification. Egyptian Glyptic Art. The most general form of Egyptian engraved stones is that of the scarabaeus or beetle, with an oval flat base ; the surface of which re ceived the engraving in flat intaglio. This base is pierced in its length. The insect is more or less in relief over the base, according to the 286 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. finish of the workmanship . Egyptian scarabaei may be considered at one and the same time as camei and intagli. Sometimes the execution in relief of the figure of the insect is so carefully finished, as to leave no doubt that it is an accurate representation of the scarabaeus sacer, at the present day found in Barbary and all along the coast of Africa. It was sacred to the sun, and to Pthah, and was adopted as a sacred emblem of the God who made all things out of clay. Its Egyptian name was Cheper, Creator. The elytra or upper wings of the stone scarabaei are generally united, and sometimes marked with furrows. They were generally used for ornamental, funereal, and historical purposes, and were usually worn as seals and amulets. EGYPTIAN SCARAB.*)!. The greater number of scarabaei were mounted in rings, which fre quently bore the name of the wearer, the name of the monarch in whose reign he lived, and also the emblems of certain deities ; they were so set in the gold ring so as to allow the scarabaeus to revolve on its centre, it being pierced for that purpose. They were also strung in necklaces. Scarabaei are of various sizes, and were made of different substances, of green stone, cornelian, haematite, granite, serpentine, agate, lapis lazuli, plasma, amethyst, and other mate rials ; a cheaper kind was made of limestone, stained to imitate a harder and dearer quality, or of the ordinary blue pottery. Scarabaei GLYPTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 287 have been used at all periods of Egyptian history. According to Mr. Birch, they are of all ages, from the fourth dynasty down to the Roman Empire. The principal period of their manufacture was, however, the reign of Thotmes III. of the eighteenth dynasty, one tenth of these amulets bearing his name. A great number of others are referable, from their style, to the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth dynasties. The large and small scarabaei form two separate classes, distin guished by the use each class was put to. Those from one to three inches in length belong to the larger class, and from the study of their inscriptions, it is now proved that the large scarabaei were for EGYPTIAN SCARAB.EI. the most part funereal. The representation of these large scarabaei may be seen in papyri taken from mummies, among the different objects traced on their mortuary rituals. They have been also found on mummies, either in the centre of their necklaces, or placed on their breast. A scarabaeus was also placed on the outer case of the mummy, between other symbolical images. The inscription on their face is generally a formula or prayer for the deceased, such as is found traced or repeated on mummies, papyri, and other funereal objects. Tho only difference being that the name of the deceased is changed. Sometimes a royal oval gives the date of the scarabaeus, but large scarabaei of this kind are of very rare occurrence. Many 288 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. scarabaei are found uninscribed. Some have a blank left in the inscriptions, which was for the name of the deceased, which proves the universality of the use of scarabaei for funereal purposes, and further, that they were prepared beforehand with the usual formula from the consecrated type, to which the name of the deceased was afterwards added. Some of these large scarabaei are very carefully finished ; on some the elytra and corslet of the insect are ornamented with figures. Some rare examples are found with human heads. Others were historical. Some of three inches long, belonging to the reign of Amunoph III, of the eighteenth dynasty, have been found, recording the marriage of the King Amunoph with Taia ; the name of the queen's parents, and the limits of the Egyptian Empire ; the number of lions killed by the king, and other state ments. The smaller scarabaei are more numerous than the larger kind, and more interesting also for the study of the periods of Egyptian history. They are valuable documents for the annals and chro nology of Egypt. . On them will be found engraved representations of Egyptian deities, under their three forms, religious symbols, funereal formulae, sacred and civil emblems, the names of kings, of queens, of private individuals, various ornaments, animals, plants ; dates and numbers expressed in cyphers have also been recognised on the inscriptions. Others have been found inscribed with mottos, such as "A happy life," " Sacred to Amun," "Good luck," being probably used as seals in epistolary correspondence. The variety of subjects leads to the following classification of small scarabaei ; they may be distinguished as : mythological, for all subjects, figures or inscriptions which are connected with religion ; historical, for those which bear ovals or royal names, names of private individuals, or figures relating to civil customs; physiographical, those on which have been engraved animals or plants, which are connected with consecrated symbols ; various, or those which bear alone ornamental designs to which no special meaning can be assigned. Those ought to be particularly observed which bear ovals containing the name of a king or queen. Sometimes the elliptical shape of the stone forms itself the oval which contains the name. These royal names give especial interest to the small scarabaei. Some ascend to the highest period of Egyptian history. These scarabaei are found made of every kind of material. The most ancient are almost all of common materials, and the hieroglyphics exhibit a want of finish. A collec tion of scarabaei might be formed displaying a chronological series of the names of the kings of Egypt, ranging from the highest antiquity down to the second century of the Christian era. GLYPTOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 289 Some beautiful examples of Greco-Egyptian art in intaglio were executed in the age of the Ptolemies, of which we may instance the wonderful portrait of one of the Ptolemies, in dark sard, formerly in the Herz collection. Some good intagli were also executed in the earlier style, under Hadrian, when the Egyptian religion was again revived. We must also notice here a class of engraved stones, which bear an analogy to engraved gems, though they differ in their form, yet were probably used for the same purpose, for seals. We would speak of cylinders. They are of a cylindrical form and are made of hard materials, of basalt, jasper, haematite, agate, and also of blue pottery, ranging in their lengths from one to three inches. They are perforated in their entire length, and their surface is covered with figures and inscriptions. They were evidently intended for signets. These cylinders have been generally supposed to be peculiar to the Persians and Assyrians, and cylinders have been found in Egypt bearing Egyptian figures and Persian inscriptions. This did not tend to contradict the general opinion on their origin, these objects having possibly been manufactured in Egypt under the domination of the Persians. But of late cylinders have been found which are undoubtedly of pure Egyptian origin, of materials worked by Egyptians, covered with Egyptian figures and inscrip tions, and bearing the names of Egyptian kings anterior by many centuries to the Persian invasion of Egypt. One in the Imperial Library at Paris bears the titles and name of Shafra, a monarch of the fourth dynasty ; an agate cylinder in the British Museum is of the time of Amenem Ha II. of the twelfth dynasty. Sir G. Wil kinson mentions one in the Alnwick Museum bearing the name of Osirtasen I., b.c 2020, thus proving them to have been of the earliest date in Egypt, and the origin, rather than derived from, the cylinders of Assyria. These monuments appear, therefore, to be of Egyptian origin, and they may have passed to other countries, like the scarabaei, through the Phoenicians, to whom also some cylinders are attributed. The Egyptian cylinders bear the figures of gods, with their names in hieroglyphics, and are also found inscribed with ovals containing royal names. Assyrian and Persian cylinders present subjects derived from the religious myths of the Assyrians and Persians, sometimes accompanied by inscriptions in cuneiform characters. 290 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. FAUNS SACRIFICING A GOAT. Sard. ETRUSCAN GLYPTIC ART. Numerous as are Etruscan gems, none of them are cameos, or with figures cut in relief ; all are intagli, and all are cut into the form of the scarabaeus, or beetle. Nothing seems to indicate a closer analogy between Etruria and Egypt than the multitude of these curious gems found in this part of Italy. The use of them was, doubtless, derived from the banks of the Nile. They appear to have served the same purpose as in Egypt, to have been worn as charms, or amulets, generally in lings.* The Etruscan scarabaei have a marked difference from the Egyptian in material, form, and decoration. The Etruscan are of cornelian, sardonyx, and agate, rarely of chalcedony. The Egyptian are truthful representa tions of the insect; the Etruscan are exaggerated resemblances, especiaUy in the back, which is set up to an extravagant height. The flat, or under part of the stone, which is always the side engraved, in the Egyptian bears hieroglyphics, or representations of deities ; in the Etruscan, though sometimes with imitations of Egyptian subjects, it has generally figures or groups taken from "* The greater number of these scarabau have been found on a slope called Campo degli Orefici, at Chiusi. They are found in greater abundance there than in any other Etruscan site. ETRUSCAN GLYPTIC ART. 291 the Greek mythology, of which the deeds of Hercules, or of the heroes of the Theban and Trojan wars, were favourite subjects. More rare are figures of the gods, and of the chimserae and other symbols of the Etruscan creed. The frequent representations from the Greek mythology prove them to have no very early date. From the heroic or palaestric subjects on these scarabaei it is thought that they were symbols of valour and manly energy, and were worn only by the male sex (Dennis, vol. i. p. 73). Etruscan intagli may be recognised by the following distinctive marks: — 1. The form of the scarabaeus, which is the form usually adopted. 2. The milled border, formed of small strokes set close together : the granulated border, resembling a string of beads ; and the guilloche, resembling a loosely-twisted cable. Etruscan scarabaei are all perforated in their length, and were usually worn set in rings, or introduced as ornaments or amulets, entwined with beads, in necklaces. A peculiarity must be remarked in the development of the glyptic art among the Etruscans, the absence of a transitional style between the extremely rude designs of the earlier style, almost entirely executed by the drill, and the engravings of the utmost finish in low relief, as Mr. King remarks: " While the first class offers cari catures of men and animals, the favourite subjects being figures throwing the discus, fawns with amphorae, cows with sucking calves, or the latter alone, the second gives us subjects from the Greek mythology, especially scenes from Homer and the tra gedians, among which the stories of Philoctetes and Bellerophon occur with remarkable frequency," thus leading to the natural in ference that the rude are of Etruscan manufacture, and the fine of Greek. The inscriptions on Etruscan stones are always the names of the persons represented on the stones, and there are few exceptions to this general rule. It is certainly deserving of remark that the works of Etruscan glyptic art for the most part represent Greek subjects, derived from the religious system, the heroic history of the Greeks, and from events which preceded or followed the war of Troy. We may, therefore, make the following classification of stones of Etruscan workmanship by distinguishing them as, Etruscan stones : Etruscan subjects. Etruscan stones : Greek subjects. Those of the first class are less numerous than the others. Among the most remarkable we may mention — 1. An agate of the Florentine Gallery, on which are represented two men standing, bearded, a veil covers their heads and descends over their shoulders. On the robe of one is a hippocampus, on that of the other a triton ; they bear on their right shoulders a rod, to which are suspended six u 2 202 HANDS 0 OK OF ARC HE OLOGY- shields. They have been recognised as two Salii, or priests of Mars, or probably their servants. On the upper part is an inscrip tion in Etruscan letters, which reads from right to left, ALLIUS, in the lower part ALCE. 2. A scarabaeus of cornelian, in the King of Prussia's collection, a man standing, his head covered with a cap, having a rod byr his side, holds in his left hand a sack or kind of vase, from which he seems to draw lots ; behind him is inscribed NATIS. Winkelman would consider this to represent Nautes, the companion of iEneas. 3. A warrior, half man, half dolphin ; a helmet on his head, a shield in one hand, a spear in the other, with the inscription MIL ALAS ..A. By some it is supposed to represent one of the Tyrrhenians, who were changed into dolphins by Bacchus at Naxos. In the opinion of Lanzi it represents Glaucus. 4. The beautiful stone in the Bibliotheque at Paris, representing a man seated on a stool before a three-legged table, on which are three small round objects, which he seems to move with his right hand, while he holds in his left a tablet covered with two columns of signs, which are letters of the Etruscan alphabet. Signor Orioli, of Bologna, recognises in the inscription, which he reads ABCAE, the word "abacus'' with an Etruscan termination. He would consider it as representing a man making calculations by the means of an abacus. Subjects from the mythical and heroical periods of Greece are more frequently met with. The Greek subjects most known among Etruscan engraved stones relate to Hercules, his name in Etruscan characters from right to left, being HRKLE ; to Perseus, PERSE ; to Tydeus, TVTE ; to Theseus, THESE ; to Peleus, PELE ; to Ulysses, VTVSSE ; to Achilles, AXELE, AXILE ; to Ajax, A1VAS. Other stones bear unknown names. The most beautiful among Etruscan works, which Winkelman considers one of the most ancient speci- ETRUSCAN GLYPTIC ART. 293 mens of the glyptic art, is the celebrated cornelian formerly in the Stosch collection, now at Berlin, which represents a council held by tydeus. scarab.sus. Sard. Paris. five of the Greek heroes who besieged Thebes ; three without arms and seated ; two, armed at all points, are standing ; the names of the heroes, written by their side, leaves no doubt on the subject of this magnificent intaglo. They are Amphiaiaus, AMPHTIARE ; Poly- 294 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. nices, PHVLNICES ; Tydeus, TVTE ; Adrastus, ATRESTHE; and Parthenopaeus, PAETHANAPAE. Some Roman names are also found on stones attributed to the Etruscans by their style and workmanship. A cornelian published by Caylus, bears the letters VIBIASF, written from right to left round the figure of a dying warrior. Lanzi reads it thus : VIBIA SEXTI FILTA, and con siders that the dying warrior represents the father of Vibia, and that the daughter wore the gem as a seal. A careful examina tion of its workmanship can alone decide if it really belongs to Etruscan art, and if the inscription is of the same period. The forms of early letters have been so frequently forged that one cannot be too much on their guard against such fraudulent practices. BELLEROPHON TRAINING pegasus. From a Gem. GREEK GLYPTIC ART. Pliny remarks that rings used for signets were unknown to the Greeks at the period of the Trojan war, as Homer nowhere makes mention of them. Plutarch gives an opposite opinion, as, accord ing to him, Polygnotus painted Ulysses with a ring ; but the opinion of Polygnotus does not decide the question with regard to a fact anterior by seven centuries to the period of that painter, and as we GREEK GLYPTIC ART. 295 do not intend to enter here on the origin of the glyptic art among the Greeks, who might have received a knowledge of that art before the siege of Troy, from the Phoenicians, or from colonies coming from Egypt where that art was practised from the earliest periods, we shall only say that the most ancient Greek engraved stone mentioned in history is that in the celebrated ring of Polycrates, the work of Theodorus of Samos. According to Herodotus it was an emerald, the device engraved on it being a lyre. Pliny says, it was a sardonyx ; and that in his time there existed one in the Temple of Concord, the gift of Augustus, affirmed to be this of Polycrate". Some consider the most ancient engraved stone in ex istence of Greek workmanship to be the Sard in the Berlin Cabinet, in which is represented the death of the Spartan hero, Othryades, which took place in the sixth century b.c The inscription en graved on the shield is in Greek characters, traced from right to left. The design is hard and flat, the attitude forced, and without grace. It is in the old Greek style. The Diana the huntress, of Heius, is supposed to be the most ancient gem known bearing the artist's name. Its stiff archaic style evinces an early period of the art. Glyptics followed among the Greeks the progress and decline of art. The Greek school has been divided into three periods : — From the time of Theodorus of Samos (b.c. 560), to that of Alex ander the Great ; from Alexander to Augustus ; and from Augustus to the fall of the Empire. The number of Greek engraved stones is very numerous, and some are justly celebrated for their excellence in style and finish. Their period may be deduced from their style and execution. The characteristics of Greek gems are grace and vigour; the figure is drawn with remarkable precision, the attitude is elegant, and the auxiliaries are finely composed ; the emblems and attributes exhibit an accuracy which implies an extraordinary degree. of historical and mythological information in the artists who engraved them. Greek engraved stones are in general of an oval form, and the stone itself is of little thickness. The work is in the height or breadth, according to the space the subject requires. Sometimes the surface of the intaglio is slightly convex. In the early periods of gem engraving, the design is invariably so arranged'as to fill up the entire field of the surface. Extreme simplicity of design, and that repose which is the essential feature in all Greek art, are the distinguishing characteris tics of gem engraving of the finest period. The dull polish in the interior of the intaglio, which does not reflect like the brilliant polish of the moderns, is also an essential characteristic of Greek workman ship. As we have already remarked, a name engraved on a Greek stone ought to be generally considered as that of the artist who executed 296 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. it, as may be observed on the stones of the beautiful period of the art in Greece, and on stones executed by Greek artists among the Romans. This name is more usually in the genitive than in the nominative case ; at least it is rare that the same artist should sometimes put his name in the first case, and sometimes in the second. That which he adopted for his finest work, he almost always retained in all his other works. There is but one example of the name of a Greek artist written in Latin letters; that of Diphilus. All the productions of Greek engraving were not perfect works of art ; indeed we possess several of very inferior workmanship. An artist could excel only in one especial style; one was most successful in the drapery ; another in the representation of the nude ; one excelled in the art of giving expression and strength, another in giving gracefulness to his figures. The great artists alone reached that perfection which combined them all. Sometimes they engraved their figures very deeply, and sometimes in Yery low relief. Dios corides excelled in giving a very slight relief to his figures; this difficulty overcome is one of the greatest merits of this engraver. In general the Greeks applied themselves more to intaglio than to cameo engraving. They were unacquainted with perspective, the place of which, however, they supplied, in some measure, by the greater or less depth they gave to the different parts. The engravers avoided multiplying their figures, or crowding them in a small space. The Greek artists were remarkable for their skill in representing animals ; they preferred also representing their figures nude, and, indeed, most of the masterpieces of art produced in Greece are figures without drapery ; while those executed at Rome are generally draped : with the exception, however, of those of Dioscorides who followed the taste of his own nation in this respect, for nearly all his figures are nude. The works of the great engra vers of Greece are all stamped with a peculiar national character, which is better felt than described. Mythological and heroical sub jects were adopted by Greek artists, in preference to those of con temporaneous history. We must remark here that the artists of later times, frequently imitated the forms of the primitive style, and also the so-called Etruscan border, especially in representing deities ; the severity of these forms, according to Demetrius Pha- lerus, giving more grandeur and gravity to these representations. If the stone imitating the ancient style bears an inscription, it will be a means of ascertaining the date by the form of the letters ; and if this inscription is the name of the engraver, the known period of the latter will be a sufficient proof that the work is only an imita tion of the ancient style. ROMAN GLYPTIC ART. 297 rudiarius. Engraved Gem. ROMAN GLYPTIC ART. The knowledge of the glyptic art must have been derived by the Romans, in the first place, from the Etruscans, and afterwards from the Greeks. There was no Roman school properly so called, and it seems that, at all periods of that ruling people, its martial pro pensities made it consider the culture of the arts as a profession worthy only of slaves, freedmen, or of strangers whom it had sub dued. But when it became acquainted with the beautiful works of Greece and Asia, a taste for them was developed, and they were eagerly sought for. Greek engravers were attracted to Rome, where they usually represented subjects of Greek history, in which the Romans began to take an interest ; and when they treated in their works any scene of Roman history theyr usually added to the purely historical com position some allegorical figures, which evinced the genius of the artist in that kind of invention, and which raised his work above a simple imitation of nature. But, though rjroduced in Rome, these works of Greek engravers do not the less belong to the Greek school, which continued to the fall of the Western Empire, keeping pace with the vicissitudes and the decline of art. Some Roman artists devoted themselves also to the glyptic art, 298 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. and we have already mentioned the most celebrated names ; the taste which was very generally evinced for engraved stones among the highest persons of the empire, the collections formed by some rich citizens, the general use of signets in rings, excited the emula tion of the Roman artists, who succeeded in producing some very beautiful works. It may be supposed, however, that the works of Greek artists met more favour in the opinion of amateurs, as Roman artists affected to give a Greek character to their productions by engraving their names in Greek letters. Some authors think that, from the time of Marcus Aurelius, the best works are due to Roman artists. As the Greeks evinced a predilection for the nude, th'e Romans exhibited a decided taste for draped figures. The stones engraved in Rome exhibit in general proofs of this preference ; and Dios corides, otherwise so devoted to the taste of his own nation, engraved a draped Mercury. This requirement of Roman taste was very unfavourable to the development of the beauty of the art, and engraved stones executed at Rome evince this influence. The figures seldom trespass against the rules of design, but they are deficient in elegance; they seldom bespeak either genius or elevation of mind in the artist. The ideal, which is the soul of Greek composition, is never perceived in that of the Romans ; and the art sensibly declined into a servile imita tion. The taste for engraved stones was introduced into Rome with that for other monuments of art ; it maintained itself till the time of Septimius Severus, when it began gradually to decline. We may trace the gradual decline of the art in the various engraved por traits of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, Gordian, Maximian, Philip, Probus, and Constantine II. Engraved stones bearing inscriptions are more common among Roman works than among those of the Greeks. Roman inscriptions are of five kinds : — 1. The name of artist. 2. The name of the person represented. 3. The name of the owner of the stone. This is more usually the case. 4. The name of the person who made a present of it. 5. Good wishes, affectionate expressions which accompany the gift, as " multisannis " (vivas understood), " ave," " amor meus," and acclamations relative to the Circensian games. The Etruscan milled border is sometimes found on Roman intagli of very late times, but maybe readily distinguished by its carelessness and irre gularity^. MITHRAIC AND GNOSTIC ENGRAVED STONES. 299 MITHRAIC AND GNOSTIC ENGRAVED STONES. Before noticing the Gnostic gems which were so extensively used in the latest stage of the decline of the art, we must mention an earlier class of intagli, which are connected with the worship of Mithras. According to Mr. King, from their good execution many of these intagli date from the early Empire. They are evidences of the prevalence of those Oriental doctrines which were widely diffused through the Roman world during the Middle Empire. Mithras was the Persian type of the sun. He is usually repre sented as a young man plunging his sword into the throat of a bull, while a dog licks up the blood which falls. The bull is the earth, which Mithras, or the sun, is fertilizing with heat, and penetrating with his influence in the sign of Taurus. The dog denotes that all things are nourished by the sun's influence upon the earth. The bull's tail terminates in ears of corn, to denote fecundity. On the engraved gems this central figure is frequently surrounded with a number of allegorical figures. Numerous intagli of the time of Hadrian representing the head of Serapis, with the legend, EI2 ©EOS SEPA1HS (There is but one god Serapis), are also frequently to be met with, as the worship of the god Serapis was greatly in vogue in that age. We come now to the period when the glyptic art, following the necessary stages of the development of art, reached its latest stage of decline, and was at the lowest ebb. We would speak here of a particular class of engraved stones, bearing the name of Abraxas, or Basilidan stones. This name has been given to those on which are represented, in a very rude and inferior style of workmanship, Egyptian deities and others, combined with symbols derived from the religious ideas of the Indians and Persians, and accompanied by inscriptions in Greek, Coptic, Hebrew, or Latin, and by cabalistic signs mixed together. These stones were usually worn as amulets or talismans. The engraving of these gems is generally of very rude workmanship, and the stones used are of a very inferior kind. They are frequently engraved on both sides. Sometimes also a more ancient stone, and of superior work, has received an inscrip tion which has made of it a sacred amulet. Those two periods must be, therefore, carefully distinguished on the same stone. According to Mr. King the earliest are doubtless those which offer purely Egyptian types ; a very frequent one being a serpent, erect, and with a lion's head surrounded by seven rays, and usually accom- 300 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. panied by the inscription, XNOY4-IS or XNOYMIS- This is Kneph, the good genius, or Agatho daemon, the creative spirit and the type of the sun, of the Egyptians, one of the characteristics of whom was the serpent, probably the uraeus or basilisk, the sign of power. Ac cording to Plutarch and Diodoius the name of the Egyptian Zeus signified spirit (irecv/Aa), which of course can only apply to Kneph. Champollion derives it from the Egyptian root nf (Coptic nef) to breathe. The word Chnubis differs from Kneph only in the acci dental admission of the inherent vowel v instead of e, and of 6 in stead of p, as spelled in the Gnostic monuments of the Basilidans, it would sound like Chnumis (Bunsen). A common inscription around this figure, or on the back of the stone, is the Hebrew- KNEPH OR CUXUBIS. Greek CEMEC EIAAM, the eternal sun, and also another legend, ANAOANABPA, "Thou art our father."* Another frequent type is Seth, the Egyptian Typhon or evil deity, the ass-headed god of the Semitic tribes, \ which gave rise to the calumny against the Christians that they worshipped the head of an ass. J As * Whence the famous talisman or charm "Abracadabra " has been derived. t Mr. King considers this to represent Anubis, the jackal-headed god. A single glance at the gem will be enough to convince any one that it is an ass-headed god. X The grafito found in a room of the Palatine Hill, evidently a irpoo-Kw-niia, or act of worship, by some Gnostic Christian, represents the crucified Seth, the father of Judaras and Palestinus, the ass god of the Semitic tribes, for, as Mr. Sliarpe observes, the creator of the world, the author of evil, in the Gnostic creed, was looked upon by the Gnostics as the god of the Jews, and the author of the Mosaic law. Valcutinus, a native of Phnrbasthum, who had studied in Alexandria, carried his Gnostic opinions to Italy, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, where the mystic superstitions of this sect were eagerly embraced. This MITHRAIC AND GNOSTIC ENGRAVED STONES. 301 Mr. Sharp remarks, Basilides, the founder of the Egyptian sect of Christian Gnostics, being puzzled, as so many inquirers have been, with the origin of evil, and with the difficulty of believing that the Giver of all Good was himself the author of sin, he made a second god of the Devil, or the personification of evil, consequently we find the same Typhon, or god of evil, also figured as Nubi, the lord of the world, who is represented under the form of a griffin. On some of the coins of Hadrian we see also exhibited the Gnostic spirit of that age, in the representation of the antagonism of good and evil, as figured in the opposition of the serpent of good (Horhat, the Agatho daemon), and the serpent of evil (Apophis). The figure which is most frequently found on these stones is that which has given its name to this entire class. The god Abraxas, or, as it reads on the gems, ABPAHAH, the letters of which, taken numerically, according to the Greek alphabet, give, when summed up, the number 365 (A 1, B 2, P 100, A 1, 2 200, A 1, 3 60), being the number of days in the sun's annual course. He is supposed to be the sun god, or the supreme deity, whose physical representative the sun is. He is figured with the head of a cock, sacred to the sun, with a human body, clad in a cuirass, terminating in serpents instead of legs. By the side of the god, besides the word Abraxas, is also engraved the name Iao, which would seem, as well as the names Adonai, Sabaoth, frequently engraved on these gems, to be other titles of the sun god. Abraxas, the supreme deity or good spirit, and Seth, or the god of evil, are the representatives of the two antago nistic principles in nature, according to the Gnostic doctrines. In the Gnostic creed, the author of evil was regarded as the creator of the world, and was considered as the being with whom men have chiefly to do, either in this world or in the next. According to the Gnostic view, matter was essentially evil, consequently the supreme deity, or author of good, could not be its author. grafito may, therefore, be of that period. These proskunemata are frequently found in Egypt. They usually were votive sentences, and were inscribed on walls by the worshipper to indicate his respects for the deity and to solicit his protection. 302 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. CUPID AND BUTTERFLY. Gem. RINGS. Signet-rings may be considered as the earliest kind of useful orna ment known to the ancients. Their use dates from the earliest periods. Originally rings bore the signet or seal of the owner, but in later times they were worn more as ornaments than articles of use ; and to such a pitch was passion for ornament carried by the ancients, that it is recorded of some that they loaded their hands with rings. The earliest mention of signet-rings is in the Bible, when Tamar receives a signet-ring from Judah as a token of recognition ; and when Pharaoh " took off the ring from his hand and put it upon Joseph's hand," thereby investing him with delegated authority. The most ancient known ring is supposed to be that in the posses sion of Dr. Abbot, of Cairo. It is thus described by him : " This remarkable piece of antiquity is in the highest state of preservation, and was found at Ghizeh, in a tomb near the excavation of Colonel Vyse's, called Campbell's tomb. It is of fine gold, and weighs nearly three sovereigns. The style of the hieroglyphics is in perfect accordance with those in the tombs about the Great Pyramid, and the hieroglyphics within the oval make the name of that Pha raoh (Cheops, Shofo) of whom the pyramid was the tomb." Another RINGS. 303 ring of great historical importance is the bronze one which bears the name of Amunoph III. engraved on the oval face of the ring. It was probably worn by some official in the king's household. It is now in the collection of Lord Londesborough. Sir G. Wilkinson mentions an Egyptian ring, remarkable for its size : it contained twenty pounds' worth of gold. It consisted of a massive ring, half an inch in its largest diameter, bearing an oblong plinth, on which devices were engraved, an inch long. One one face was the name of King Horus, of the eighteenth dynasty, b.c. 1337; on the other, a lion, with the legend, " Lord of strength," referring to the monarch ; on one side, a scorpion, and, on the other, a crocodile. The favourite form for signets set in the ring among the Egyptians was the scarabaeus. It was perforated in its length, and was so set as to revolve in the ring. Engraved on the under surface of the scarabaeus was the name of the owner, the name of the monarch in whose reign he lived, and sometimes the emblems of certain deities. Some Egyptian rings were occasionally in the form of a shell, a knot, a snake, or some fancy device. They were mostly of gold. Silver rings, however, are occasionally met with ; two in the possession of Sir G. Wilkinson, found in a temple at Thebes, are engraved with hieroglyphics containing the name of the royal city. Sir G. Wil kinson states that bronze was seldom used for rings, though fre quently for signets. Some have been discovered of brass and iron, the latter of a Roman period ; but ivory and blue porcelain were the materials of which those worn by the lower class were usually made. From the example of the crossed hands of the figure of a woman on a mummy case in the British Museum, Egyptian ladies seem to have indulged extensively in their passion for loading their fingers with lings. According to Sir G. Wilkinson, they wore many rings ; sometimes two or three on the same finger. The left was considered the hand peculiarly privileged to bear those or naments, and it is remarkable that its third finger was decorated 304 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. with a greater number than any other, and was considered by them, as by us, par excellence, the ring finger. They even wore a ring on the thumb. Among the Greeks, judging from the silence of Homer, signets were not in use in the early periods. It is supposed the fashion of wearing them was introduced from Asia. In the age of Alexander, the perfection of workmanship attained to by the gem-engravers of that age contributed greatly to the taste for wearing signet-rings. Alexander permitted none but the celebrated artist Pyrgoteles to engrave his head on a signet-ring. After conquering Darius, he is reported to have sealed his first acts with that monarch's ring. On his death-bed, Alexander drew off his signet-ring, and delivered it in silence to Perdiccas, thus declaring him his successor. The most celebrated ring of antiquity was that of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos. According to Pliny, the stone in this ring was a sardonyx, and was said to be still shown in Rome in his day. According to Herodotus, the stone was an emerald, the engraving on it (which represented a lyre) was by Theodorus, of Samos. Like the Egyptian ladies, the Grecian ladies displayed upon their fingers a profusion of rings, of which some were set with signets, others with jewels remarkable for their colour and brilliance. Seal rings were styled by the Greeks crqbpayio'v;, and rings without precious stones were termed a\Jrnd>oi. The general form of the stone used by the Etruscans in their rings was the scarabaeus, supposed to have been imitated from the Egyptian signets of that form. The Etruscan scarabaeus was usually so set that it. revolved round its centre, and thus exposed alternately either surface to view. From the number of heroic subjects found on them, it is supposed that they were symbols of RINGS. 305 valour and manly energy, and were worn only by the male sex Some very rare Etruscan rings are found made of verjr thin pure gold, filled up in the centre with some composition. One of this kind is in the possession of the author, the bezel of the ring being a piece of amber. The fashion of wearing rings among the Romans dates from an early period, as the gemmed fingers of the statues of the two imme diate successors of Romulus, Numa and Servius Tullius, cited by Pliny, sufficiently attest. The use of signet-rings was evidently derived from their neighbours, the Etruscans, who were famous for the beauty of their signet-rings and their jewellery. The Sabines, too, as we learn from Livy, were distinguished, even from the infancy of Rome, for the size and beauty of their rings. In the period of republican simplicity in Rome, an iron ring was usually worn, and was considered to be the right of freemen. The right of wearing a gold ring became for several centuries the exclusive privi lege of senators, magistrates, and equites. As luxury increased, and a more general taste for these ornaments prevailed, each person adopted a separate subject to be engraved on his signet-ring. On that of Pompey was engraved three trophies. Julius Caesar took Venus Victrix as his tutelar deity. Augustus at first sealed with a sphinx, afterwards with a head of Alexander the Great, and at last with his own portrait, in which he was imitated by some of his successors. Maecenas adopted a frog. Nero wore a ring given him by his infamous favourite, Sporus, with the rape of Proserpine for subject. Galba adopted a dog for the family seal. Under Claudius it became the fashion to engrave the device upon the gold of the ring itself, now made solid ; the portrait of the emperor was en graved on it, and was only worn by courtiers : but other subjects are found engraved on solid gold rings of an earlier date than the age of Claudius. One in the possession of Mr. M. Taylor bears an exquisite engraving of Ceres, evidently of Greek workmanship. These signet-rings were usually employed for sealing the legal acts of public, and much of the business of private life. They were also used to seal up such parts of the house as contained stores or valuable things, in order to secure them from thieves. Wine jars were usually, sealed with them. Sometimes, but very rarely, the ring was adorned with two gems. The Emperor Valerian mentions one of these under the name of " annulus bigemmeus." The wood cut presents a specimen of this kind of ring, the larger gem repre senting a figure of Mars' ; the smaller, a dove on a myrtle branch. Beside it are placed two examples of the emblematic devices and inscriptions adopted for rings when used as memorial gifts. The x 306 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. first is inscribed, " You have a love pledge ;" the second, " Proteus [to] Ugia," between conjoined hands — a type of concord. To some rings a key has been attached, and is supposed to have been worn by housekeepers. The passion for rings and other ornaments reached a high pitch among the Romans. We here quote Pliny's words on rings, and on the extravagance the passion for them led to in his day : — " It was the custom at first to wear rings on a single finger only — the one, namely, that is next to the little finger ; and thus we see the case in the statues of Numa and Servius Tullius. In later times, it became the practice to put rings on the finger next to the thumb, even in the case of the statues of the gods ; and more recently, again, it has been the fashion to wear them upon the little finger as well. Among the peoples of Gallia and Britannia, the middle finger, it is said, is used for this purpose. At the present day, however, among us, this is the only finger that is excepted, all others being loaded with rings ; smaller rings even being separately adapted for the smaller joints of the fingers. Some there are who heap several rings on the little finger alone ; while others, again, wear but one ring on this finger, the ring that sets a seal on the signet- ring itself; this last being carefully shut up as an object of rarity, too precious to be worn in common use, and only to be taken from the cabinet [dactyliotheca] as from a sanctuary. And thus is the wearing of a single ring upon the little finger no more than an ostentatious advertisement that the owner has property of a more precious nature under seal at home ! Some, too, make a parade of RINGS. 307 the weight of their rings, while to others it is quite a labour to wear more than one at a time ; some, in their solicitude for the safety of their gems, make the hoop of gold tinsel, and fill it with a lighter material than gold, thinking thereby to diminish the risk of a fall. Others, again, are in the habit of inclosing poisons beneath the stones of their rings, and so wear them as instruments of death. And then, besides, how many of the crimes that are stimulated by- cupidity are committed through the instrumentality of rings ! How happy the times — how truly innocent — in which no seal was put to anything ! At the present day, on the contrary, our very food even and our drink have to be preserved from theft through the agency of the ring ; and so far is it from being sufficient to have the very keys sealed, that the signet-ring is often taken from off the owner's fingers while he is overpowered with sleep, or lying on his death bed." As an instance of one of those rings worn by some who " made a parade of the weight of their rings," we may mention the ring figured in Montfaucon. It is a thumb ring of unusual magni tude, and of costly material. It bears the bust in high relief of the Empress Plotina, the consort of Trajan : she is represented with the Imperial diadem. It is supposed to have decorated the hand of some member of the Imperial family. Mr. King mentions one now x 2 308 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. in the Fould collection, the weight of which, though intended for the little finger, was three ounces. It was set with a large Oriental onyx, not engraved. The wealthy expended enormous sums on their rings : the ring of the Empress Faustina cost £40,000, and of Domitia £60,000. The subjects engraved on rings were in endless variety ; among those which are more frequently found are the Olympic divinities. Jupiter, Mercury, Bacchus, Apollo, Mars, are the more frequently chosen for subjects. The Cupids and Neptunes, Plutos and Vul- cans are less frequent. Harpocrates, with his finger on his lip, was fashionable at Rome in Pliny's day. Of the goddesses, in bust or in whole length, there are more Minervas than Dianas ; more Dianas than Junos ; of Venus the effigies are numerous. Heroes were also frequently chosen. Achilles dragging Hector roimd the walls of Troy, the return of Ulysses, the parting of Hector and Andromache, .ZEneas escaping from Troy, Tydeus, are favourite subjects. The sages, poets, orators, statesmen, of Greece and Italy, furnished a large supply of heads as subjects for signets. Of ancient sages the most popular was Epicurus. According to Cicero, the image of Epicurus was not only represented at Rome in paintings, but also engraved on drinking cups and rings. Animals of all kinds also occur on rings — lions, horses, dogs, sphinxes. Among birds the eagle was a favourite seal at Rome. Silver rings are by no means rare. They are either solid with devices cut on them, or set with intagli. From the rudeness of the workmanship, and their small size, they are supposed to belong to the Lower Empire. Bronze rings are numerous, as they were frequently worn at Rome, but the en graving on the stones set in the rings is generally rude. Paste intagli are also found in bronze setting. These rings were some times gilt. Small rings of bronze were worn by the Roman sol diers. Several of these rings are frequently found at Rome, and in the Roman colonies, with the number of the legion to which the soldier belonged engraved on it. Lead rings, set with intagli, are sometimes to be met with, but they are exceedingly rare. Though iron rings were in frequent use, few have come down to us, iron being so extremely liable to corrode. Rings entirely carved out of crystal, agate, or chalcedony, with subjects engraved on them, occur only in the period of the Lower Empire. The other materials used for this purpose were ivory, bone, amber, jet, glass, and porcelain. STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 309 auctumnus. From a gem. STONES USED FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. Transparent. Adamas — Diamond. The ancients were ignorant of the art of cutting this gem. They set the diamonds in their rough state, preferring those which nature had cut for them in an octohedral form. In the Herz collection was a diamond of this form, of about one carat, set open in a massy gold ring of indubitable antiquity. The Waterton collection fur nishes a yet finer example of the diamond in its original setting. It is supposed to date from the Lower Empire. The four diamonds in the clasp which belonged to the dress of Charlemagne, and which was preserved at St. Denis, were of this description. According to Pliny, six different varieties of diamond were known in his time, of these the largest came from India. From its extreme hardness it was known to the ancients by the word " adamas." Fragments of diamonds were made use of by ancient engravers for engraving and finishing their work. For, according to Pliny, " when, by good fortune, this stone does happen to be broken, it divides into frag- 310 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. ments so minute as to be almost imperceptible. These particles are held in great request by engravers, who enclose them in iron, and are enabled thereby, with the greatest facility, to cut the very hardest substances known." The art of cutting and polishing this precious stone was only discovered in 1496, by Louis de Berquem. Jacobo da Trezzo appears to have been the first who engraved on diamond. Ambrose Cardossa is also mentioned as having, in 1500, engraved the portrait of a father of the church on a diamond, and sold it for 22,800 crowns to Pope Julius II. Natter and Costanzi have likewise engraved on diamonds. Smaragdus — Emerald. It is evident that the true emerald was known to the ancients, both from the description of Pliny, and as several engraved emeralds have been found. It was long supposed that the true emerald only came from Peru. According to Herodotus the signet of Polycrates was an emerald. Pliny also mentions an engraved emerald, with an Amymone, which the musician Ismenias was anxious to purchase at the highest price. It is thus described by Pliny : " There is no stone, the colour of which is more delightful to the eye ; for whereas the sight fixes itself with avidity upon green grass, and the foliage of trees, we have all the more pleasure in looking upon the smarag dus (emerald), there being no green in existence of a more intense colour than this. It has always a softened and graduated brilliancy ; and transmitting the light with facility, they allow the vision to penetrate its interior." Pliny adds, further, that it was universally agreed upon among mankind to respect these stones, and to forbid their surface to be engraved. Hence engraved emeralds are found to be the rarest of the rare. Of the varieties known to the ancients the Scythian smaragdus was considered the finest (by some supposed to be the Oriental emerald or green sapphire). It was more free from flaws, which almost invariably are found in the other varieties. Next in esteem to this were the Bactrian and Egyptian. The in ferior varieties of emerald mentioned by Pliny are regarded as prases or jaspers. The Romans derived their principal supply of emeralds from the mines in the vicinity of Coptos, in Egypt. In the opinion of some this was probably the only locality of the genuine stone that was known to the ancients. Extensive traces of the working of these mines have been found by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, at Mount Zebara, near the Red Sea. In the possession of the author is a small emerald, with a lotus flower engraved on it. It is considered to be a specimen of a genuine emerald from STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 311 the mines near Coptos. Pliny remarks when the surface of the smaiagdus is flat, it reflects the image of objects in the same manner as a mirror. It is told of the emperor Nero that he viewed the combats of the gladiators upon a smaragdus. By holding the flat surface of the emerald, in possession of the author, close to the eye, distant objects can be distinctly seen re flected on it. It thus confirms Pliny's statement, as the distinct reflection of distant objects in the flat surface of the emerald must have been of great importance to a near-sighted person, as Nero was. * Mr. King enumerates the following antique intagli in the posses sion of L. Fould, of Paris, as true emeralds, some of considerable size and beauty of colour, and the work of which, as far as his judgment goes, bears every mark of authenticity. A bull butting with his head, of the Roman period ; the busts of Hadrian and Sabina, facing each other; a lion's head, full face, crowned with the persea. This last gem, in his opinion, was a miracle of the glyptic art, while the stone was of the finest colour, purity and lustre, and in itself of considerable value as a first-rate emerald. Hyacinthos — Sapphire. The hyacinthus of the ancients is now generally considered to be the sapphire of the present day. It is pure crystallised alumina. The most valuable sapphire is a deep indigo blue (the male sapphire of the lapidaries). The pale blue sapphires are some times called female or water sapphires. It is inferior in hard ness only to the diamond, and consequently has been seldom engraved on. Mr. King mentions a magnificent head of Jupiter, inscribed nY, supposed to be the signature of Pyrgoteles himself, but more probably the owner's name, engraved on a pale sapphire. But the most celebrated engraved sapphire is the signet of Constantius II., in the Rinuccini collection in Florence. It re presents the emperor spearing a wild boar near Caesarea, in Cappo- docia. Lychnis — Ruby. The ruby is identically the same stone as the sapphire, differing only in colour. Its colour varies from the richest red (known as the * The highly-polished flat surface of any stone will reflect in a similar way, but the power of reflection on a polished flat surface of a gem was known to the ancients only through' the emerald, as it is the only stone cut in that form, all other stones being usually of a convex shape. 312 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. pigeon's blood tint) to the lightest rose tint. The stones called spinel and balas rubies belong to another class of stones. They consist principally of alumina combined with magnesia, and are rather less hard than the true ruby. Jewellers give the name spinel to those stones which have a colour approaching to scarlet, they call those of a delicate rose colour, the balas ruby. With the class of carbunculi (a term applied by the ancients to all red or fiery- coloured stones), Pliny associates the lychnis (so called from its lustre being heightened by the light of the lamp). It was of two kinds ; the Indian was the best, the Ionian was the next best. This latter sort was of two varieties ; one with a crimson (purpura), the other with a scarlet (cocco) colour. Pliny also speaks of the lychnis as sometimes called a more languid or paler (remission) carbuncle. This, and the divisions into which he groups it, would seem to indicate that here we have the true ruby in the Indian lychnis, as distinct from the spinels (the spinels and balas ruby), which we exactly recognize in the Ionian lychnis.* Engravings on this precious stone are exceedingly rare. Mr. King mentions an intaglio on a pale (balas) ruby, which has been pronounced antique by the best judges in Paris, it represents the full face of a Bacchante crowned with ivy, on it is the name EAAHN, in very minute characters. In spinel, a most spirited Gorgon's Head in the Rhodes Gems. Topazos — Chrysolite. Under the name of topazos, Pliny evidently speaks of the stone known to us as chrysolite, while, on the other hand, the chrysolites of the ancients is the present topaz. The topazos (chrysolite) came from the Red Sea, and was a bright greenish yellow ; according to Pliny, it was the largest of all the precious stones, and is the only' one among those of high value that yields to the action of the file, the rest being polished by the aid of stone of Naxos. It admits, too, of being worn by use. The chry- sopteron of Pliny is supposed to be the Oriental chrysolite. Chrysolitos —Oriental Topaz. The chrysolitos (Oriental topaz) was, according to Pliny, a trans parent stone, with a refulgence like that of gold. The most highly esteemed came from India. No genuine ancient intagli on this srone have been met with. " Edinburgh Eeview," No. 253, p. 255. STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 313 Topazos Peasoides — Peridot. The topazos prasoides of Pliny is supposed to be our peridot, which is of an olive-green colour ; it is so soft that it will scarcely scratch glass. It comes from India. Some Greek intagli occur in this stone, but are exceedingly rare. It seems not to have been used for engraving by the Romans in consequence of its softness. Lynctjrium -Hyacinth or Jacinth. The lyncurium of the ancients was probably the jacinth of the present day. Pliny describes its colour as being like that of some kind of amber, of a fiery hue, and adds that it admits of being engraved. At the present day, it is termed zircon (it being a silicate of zirconia) or jargoon. It resembles amber in colour and electricity;, and is remarkable for excessive hardness. Mr. King mentions two kinds ; one a dark orange, extremely agreeable in tint (the male), and another a pale yellow of extraordinary lustre (the female). These have been frequently used by the ancients for intagli in the earliest times, and by the Romans for camei also. For the latter purpose the darker kind was preferred. The " mormorio " mentioned by Pliny, as being a stone adapted for engraving in relief (ad ectypos sculpturas aptantur), is supposed by Mr. King to be the deep-coloured jacinth, of the richest orange brown. Amethystos — Amethyst. Of all transparent stones, the amethyst was the most frequently used for engraving, numberless examples of Roman intagli in this stone, of all dates and in every style, have been found. Egyptian and Etruscan scarabaei of this stone are not uncommon. Pliny thus describes its several varieties : " In the first rank belongs the amethystos of India, having in perfection the very richest shades of purple, and it is to attain this colour that the dyers in purple direct all their endeavours ; this stone is also found in the part of Arabia that adjoins Syria, and is known as Petra ; as also in Lesser Armenia, Egyqet, and Galatia ; the very worst of all and the least valued, being those of Thasos and Cyprus. Another variety approaches more nearly the hyacinthus (sapphire) in colour : the people of India call this tint ' socon,' and the stone itself ' socon- dian.' Another was in colour like that of wine, and a last variety, but little valued, bordering very closely upon that of crystal, the purple gradually passing off into white. A fine amethyst should 314 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. always have, when viewed sideways (in suspectu) and held up to the light, a certain purple effulgence, like that of the carbunculus, slightly inclining to a tint of rose. To these stones the names of ' paederos ' and ' Venus' eyelid ' (Veneris gena, a^poSinjs (3\c, to intoxicate, on account of its being a sup posed preservative against inebriety. The common amethyst is but a variety of rock crystal, coloured violet. The paler variety was generally adopted by ancient engravers. The Oriental amethyst is a ruby or sapphire of a dark rich violet colour ; it may be distinguished from the ordinary amethyst by its superior brilliancy, as well as by its hardness. It is a gem of rare occurrence. Some intagli of this stone are said to be in the Vatican. Beryllus — Beryl, or Aquamarine. Pliny thus mentions beryls : " Beryls, it is thought, are of the same nature as the emerald, or at least closely analogous. India produces them, and they are rarely to be found elsewhere. The most esteemed beryls are those which in colour resemble the pure green of the sea." The beryl, or modern aquamarine, is essentially the same sub stance (silicate of alumina, with glucina) as the emerald (as Pliny correctly surmised), differing only in the colouring matter, which in the emerald is oxide of chrome, and in the beryl oxide of iron. The beryl was seldom engraved on, and consequently genuine antique iutagli on beryl are rarely to be met with. The most re markable example of an intaglio in this stone is the bust of Julia, the daughter of Titus, by Evodus. It is of extraordinary size, being 2£ by 24- inches. The Praun collection affords another example of an intaglio in beryl, it represents Taras on the dolphin. Chrysoberyllus — Yellow Beryl. Pliny describes as next in value to the beryl, the Chrysoberyllus, STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 315 a stone of a somewhat paler colour, but approaching a golden tint. From his associating this stone with the beryl, it is evidently only a yellowish beryl. It is supposed by some to be the modern chryso- beryl (called by jewellers the Oriental chrysolite), a much harder and more brilliant gem of a greenish yellow. Carbunculus — Garnet. The term Carbunculus being indiscriminately applied by the ancients to aU red and fiery-coloured stones, comprises the several varieties of the garnet as well as of the Ruby. The Greek synonymous word is anthrax. There are several kinds of Garnet, differing from each other in their colour and transparency ,aand even in their constituents, yet having the same crystalline forms and nearly the same hardness. The precious garnet is a silicate of aluminium, magnesium, and iron. This gem varies greatly in colour. It is sometimes of a deep blood red, and frequently "of the colour of Burgundy wine, more or less diluted according to its goodness." The name garnet is supposed to be derived from granaticus, a pome granate (from the red colour of the seeds and juice). The Pyrope, or Bohemian garnet, is of a deep blood red. The Almandine of a crimson red inclining to violet. It is found in India, Ceylon, Brazil. The Siriam is of a carmine tint with an admixture of blue. It is so called because it comes from Siriam, the old capital of Pegu. The garnet in which yellow predominates, or as Mr. King distinguishes it " of a vinous yellow," combining the orange of the jacinth and the wine colour of the garnet, is styled by the Italians guarnaccino. The hyacinthine garnet and essonite (cinna mon stone) are characterised by different tones of orange and yellow, mingled with the reds of the other varieties. The finest of these is that with a hyacinthine hue, often called by the jewellers " hyacinthe la belle." The carbuncle is a name given to the garnet in jewellery, when cut " en cabochon," or into a very convex form on the upper surface. Pliny thus describes the several varieties of the carbunculus or garnet known in his day : " There are various kinds of carbunculus, the Indian and the Garamantic, which last has been also called the Carchedonian. To these are added the ^Ethiopian and the Ala- bandic stones, the latter of which are found at Orthosia in Caria, but are cut and polished at Alabanda. The most highly esteemed, however, is the amethyst-coloured stone, the fire at the extremity of which closely approaches the violet tint of amethystos." This is undoubtedly the Almandine garnet. 316 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Garnets seem to have been little employed by the Greeks for engraving upon, but were largely in favour with the Romans of the Empire. Some excellent intagli occur in the Almandine garnet, but no certain Greek or early Graeco-Roman work is recorded on the blood-red garnet. Fine Roman intagli frequently, and sometimes imperial portraits, are to be met with on the guarnaccino. Crystallus — Rock Crystal. Rock Crystal (pure silica) was never used for intagli by the Greeks, or in the Roman period. It was exclusively employed for vases and cups. Intagli on finger rings of a solid piece of crystal, are of the time of the Lower Empire. In Italy, during the Renais sance period, some important intagli on crystal have been executed. Valerio Vicentino was famous for this style of work. In the Cinque Cento collection in the museum at Naples, is a magnificent casket of silver gilt, with engraved plaques of crystal, representing mytho logical subjects, and various events in the history of Alexander the Great, in complimentary allusion to the achievements of Alessandro Farnese, to whom it belonged. It bears the name of Joannes de Bernardi. A casket of rock crystal, on which are engraved the events of the Passion, by Valerio Vicentino, is in the cabinet of gems in the Florentine Gallery. It was a present from Pope Clement VII. to Francis I., on the marriage of his niece Catherine de Medici. Crystal has been often used both in ancient and modern times for the purposes of fraud. In Pliny's time the art was well known how to stain crystal so as to pass for emerald or any other transparent precious stone. At the present day by placing a piece of coloured glass under crystal cut to the proper form, it is made to pass for a real gem, so as to deceive the best judges. This kind of stone has been termed " doublet " by jewellers. Semi-Transparent. Opalus— Opal. Pliny thus describes the opal: " Of all precious stones it is the opal that presents the greatest difficulties of description, it displaying at once the piercing fire of carbunculus, the purple brilliancy of amethyst, and the sea-green of smaragdus, the whole blended together, and refulgent with a brightness that is quite incredible. This stone, in consequence of its extraordinary beauty, has been STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 317 called ' paederos ' (lovely youth)." India, Pliny says, is the sole parent of this precious stone, but he adds afterwards, that some inferior stones are found in Egypt, Arabia, and, of a very inferior quality, in Pontus. At the present day the finest opals come from Hungary. Few antique intagli are found on opals, and those of a rude description, the opal used being of an inferior kind. The noble opal was too highly esteemed by the ancients as a precious stone, to find its way into the hands of the engraver. Asteria — Star Sapphire. According to Pliny, " Asteria is a gem which holds its rank on account of a certain peculiarity in its nature, it having a light enclosed within, in the pupil of an eye as it were. This light, which has all the appearance of moving within the stone, it trans mits according to the angle of inclination at which it is held ; now in one direction and now in another. When held facing the sun, it emits white rays like those of a star, and to this, in fact, it owes its name. The stones of India are very difficult to engrave, those of Carmania being preferred." The asteriated sapphire is still called by this name. Prasius — Plasma. Plasma, or as called by the Italians, plasma di smeraldo, and prasma, are corruptions of prase, or prasius. It is a chalcedony of a leek-green colour, with a waxy lustre. By Pliny it is considered the commonest among the numerous kinds of green stones. It was extensively used for intagli among the Romans at a later period, the subjects engraved being mythological figures of a late epoch of Rome. The stone now known as " prase " is a dull but hard green impure translucent quartz. Heliotropium. Heliotropium, Pliny says, is found in ^Ethiopia, Africa, and Cyprus. It is of a leek-green colour, streaked with blood-red veins. It is a prase, or semi-transparent green quartz, interspersed with small patches of opaque, bright red jasper. Chrysoprasius — Yellow-green Jade. The chrysoprasius is mentioned by Pliny as being similar to the colouring matter of the leek, but varying in tint between topazos 318 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. (chrysolite) and gold. Pliny says this stone is found of so large a size as to admit of drinking vessels even being made of it, and is cut into cylinders very frequently. This was most likely the yellowish-green jade so often used in India as the material for the well-known elegant, cups and vases that are among the most beauti ful of the products of the artisans of that country.* The modern chrysoprase is a chalcedony of a light apple-green colour. The green colour is given by a trace of oxide of nickel. It has been frequently confounded with plasma, but is distinguished from it by its brightness of tint, and its hardness. It is doubtful if any intagli are to be met with on the true chrysoprase, as it has been hitherto found only in Silesia. Accord ing to Mr. King a stone much resembling it is found sometimes set in old Egyptian jewellery. Jaspis — Chalcedony. In the opinion of Mr. King the jaspis of Pliny answers to our chalcedony. It is a species of quartz of a bluish milky colour. When tinged with yellow it is named the opaline. The kind with a pale bluish tint is termed sapphirine. It was extensively used by the ancients in all ages for intagli. There are many masterpieces of ancient glyptic art in chalcedony extant, for instance, the celebrated Dionysiac bull by Hyllus. The ohalcedonius of Pliny was an inferior kind of emerald, so called from being found in the copper mines near Chalcedon, which, however, were exhausted in Pliny's time. Sarda — Sard, or Oriental Cornelian. The sard is a red chalcedony. It varies in colour from deep cherry, and even blood red, to reddish white, and passes on one side into dark brown, and on the other into yellow of several degrees of intensity. It has obtained various, names, according to the tints it exhibits. A general term for the superior variety of this stone with the ancients appears to have been sarda. According to Pliny, " it is a common stone, and was first found at Sardis ; but the most esteemed kind is that of the vicinity of Babylon. In India there are three varieties of this stone : the red sarda ; the one known as 'pionia,' from its thickness ; and a third one, beneath which they place a ground of silver tinsel. The Indian stones are transparent, those of Arabia being more opaque. Among the ancients there was no precious * " Edinburgh Review," No. 253, p. 258. STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 319 stone in more common use than this. Other stones, which are like honey in colour, are generally disapproved of, and still more so when they have the complexion of earthenware." The sard is the stone which was commonly employed by the greatest artists of anti quity, and even by inferior artists, to a late period of the Roman Empire, and, indeed, its moderate hardness, combined with the ex quisite delicacy of its texture, which makes it susceptible of the finest polish, which it retains longer than any other gem, will ever secure it a distinguished rank among the stones most desirable to the engraver of gems. Sard Achates — Cornelian. The common cornelian is a dull red variety of the sard. Egyptian and Etruscan scarabaei of an early period are to be met with in this stone. It is the sard achates of Pliny. The white cornelian of lapidaries is the leucachates of Pliny. Onyx — Nicolo — Sardonyx. When chalcedony occurs with opaque stripes or layers of black and white, dark red and white, in strong contrast to each other, it is termed onyx. It was so called from ovuf, a finger-nail. Pliny mentions several kinds of onyx, which seem to include the several varieties of striped chalcedony. The name onyx, or onychites, has been also applied by the ancients to Oriental alabaster. When an onyx occurs with two layers, the upper of a bluish colour and the lower black, an intaglio is frequently made by cutting through the upper layer until the lower black zone appears. This style of intaglio is termed nicolo, a corruption of the word oniculus, which is derived from onyx. It was peculiar to Roman art after the time of Nero. According to Mr. King, " the sardonyx is defined by Pliny as ' candor in Sarda,' that is to say, a white opaque layer superimposed upon a red transparent stratum of the true red sard," for as Pliny says, as the name itself indicates $ap$iov, sard, ow£, finger-nail, it was like the flesh beneath the human finger-nail. Such, he adds, is the sardonyx of India. Three strata or coloured zones are generally considered essential to the idea of a sardonyx. Pliny relates that " in his time these stones were not held by the people of India in any high esteem, although they were found there of so large a size as to admit of the hilts of swords being made of 320 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. them. It is well known, too, that in that country they are exposed to view by the mountain streams, and that in our part of the world they were formerly valued from the fact that they are nearly the only ones among engraved precious stones that do not bring away the wax when an impression is made. The consequence is, that our example has at last taught the public of India to set a value upon them, and the lower classes there now pierce them even, to wear as ornaments for the neck ; the great proof, in fact, at the present day, of a sardonyx being of Indian origin." Pliny also mentions that the first Roman who wore a sardonyx, according to Demostratus, was the elder Africanus, since whose time this stone has been held in very high esteem in Rome. Both onyx and sardonyx, and other striped chalcedonic sub stances, have been employed by ancient and modern artists for exe cuting those gems in relief, called camei ; and it is wonderful to see with what dexterity they have frequently availed themselves of the different colours of the alternating zones to express the different parts of a figure, such as the hair, the garments. Some of the most celebrated productions of the glyptic art among the ancients have been executed in these stones, among which we may mention the apotheosis of Augustus, of two brown and two white layers ; the apotheosis of Germanicus, of four zones ; the head of Augustus, of three layers ; the Jupiter iEgiochus, of white and black stones. The most valuable stones are from India. Some of the pieces of sardonyx used by the ancient engravers for their most important works were of enormous dimensions. At the present day onyxes and sardonyxes are imported from Ger many, but their colours are produced artificially by boiling the stone, a kind of flint, for several days in honey and water, and then soaking it in sulphuric acid to bring out the black and white, and in nitric to give the red and white layers. They are, however, considered of little value. Achates —Agate. Agate is a variegated siliceous stone ; the colours in clouds, spots, or bands ; the banded consisting of parallel or concentric layers, and either in straight, circular, or zigzag forms. The name is applied to many combinations of chalcedony, quartz, cornelian, amethyst, and even flint and jasper. Mr. King remarks that the agate and onyx are the same substance, only differing in the arrangement of the layers, which in agate are wavy and often concentric, whilst in onyx they are placed parallel to each other. STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 321 Pliny thus mentions it : " Achates was a stone formerly in high esteem, but now held in none. It was first found in Sicily, near a river of that name (now the Drillo, in the Val di Noto) but has since been discovered in numerous other localities. In size it exceeds any other stones of this class, and the varieties of it are numerous, the name varying accordingly, thus, for example, we have iaspachates (jasper agate), cerachates (the modern orange agate probably), smaragdachates (emerald-coloured agate), haemachates (agate sprinkled with spots of red jasper), leucachates (white cornelian), dendrachates (marked with shrubs as it were, moss agate). The stones too that are found in India present the appear ance in them of rivers (the river agate), woods (the moss agate), beasts of burden, and forms even, like ivy, and the trappings of horses. Agate was generally used by the ancients for cups and dishes. The term " Achates " among the ancients was of wide application, as it included not only several varieties of chalcedony, but also those now called jaspers. Several Etruscan scarabaei, and some Greek intagli of an early period, are of agate, cut across the layers or bands. This has been termed tricoloured, or banded agate. In modern times agates are coloured by artificial processes, such as boiling them in honey, and subsequently treating them with sulphuric acid. This artificial treatment in an agate may thus be considered as a proof of its modern origin. Murrhina — Fluor Spar. The only stone which answers with any probability to Pliny's description of the " murrhina," used for cups and vessels, which were so highly prized by the ancient Romans, is the piece of fluor spar (murra) found in Rome, and employed by the Jesuits for the front of the altar of the Chiesu del Gesu (see page 281). The " Murrhina in Parthis pocula coctafocis " of Propertius, is, as Mr. King justly supposes, a mode of expression which is nothing more than one of his favourite poetical conceits for conveying the same idea as Pliny, when he says " Some consider it to be a liquid substance solidified by subterranean heat." Some take this literally, that it was " baked in ovens," as at the present day, in the neighbourhood of Broach, nodules of onyx are baked in earthen pots. This treatment is, however, only applied to small stones, and could never have been applied to the large pieces of " murrhina " of which the cups and vases were made, and which were dedicated by Pompey in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 322 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Molochites — Nephrite. Nephrite, or Jade, is a semi-opaque stone, which varies in colour from a milky white to a dark olive-green. It is sometimes found beautifully transparent. It is remarkable for its extreme hardness. The name is from i/£pos (kidney), for it was used in the middle ages as an amulet against diseases of the kidney. Vases and figures of this material are to be met with in collections, and it has been worked into images and ornaments in China and New Zealand. In the opinion of some this stone never found its way to Rome. In the possession of the author is a piece of dark green jade found on the Palatine Hill. It is known to Roman antiquaries by the name of "Verde di Tar- quinia." It may be the molochites of Pliny, which he describes as not transparent, being of a deeper green, and more opaque than smaragdus (emerald) ; it is highly esteemed for making seals. Opaque. Jasper. Jasper is a siliceous stone, of a variety of colours — red, yellow, brown, green, sometimes blue or black. It is nearly or quite opaque, and presents little beauty until polished. The dark green jasper is often seen in the form of Egyptian scarabaei. Yellow jasper has been sometimes found with Egyptian engravings. Red jasper takes a very fine polish, and has been most generally used by the ancients. Of this there are two kinds, one of a vermilion colour, the other of a very rich crimson ; the latter is by far the rarest. Marsyas flayed by Apollo, symbolical combinations, chimaera, and other subjects, have been frequently represented on it. One of the finest examples of ancient intagli, the head of Minerva, after Phidias, by Aspasius, has been engraved on this stone. Red jasper came into use long after Pliny's time, consequently he has left no particular description, though it seems to be intended by his vermilion-coloured Achates. Some intagli have been also found in black jasper. Besides these, we now and then find striped, and even party-coloured jaspers with intagli, which sometimes appear so confused that the subject of the engraving can scarcely be dis tinguished on the stone. The "jaspis" of the ancients was properly a green transparent chalcedony, evidently a kind of plasma. Pliny distinguishes several varieties of jasper, from his description, being doubtless various coloured semi-transparent chalcedonies. The modern jasper is an opaque stone, answering more to the " achates" STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 323 of the ancients. Pliny thus enumerates the several varieties of jasper : " Many countries produce this stone ; that of India is like smaragdus (emerald) in colour, that of Cyprus is hard, and of a full sea-green ; and that of Persia is sky-blue, whence its name ' aerizusa.' Similar to this last is the Caspian iaspis. On the banks of the river Thermodon, the iaspis is of an azure colour ; in Phrygia, it is purple, and in Cappadooia of an azure purple, sombre and not refulgent. Amisos sends us an iaspis like that of India in colour, and Chalcedon, a stone of turbid hue. The best kind is that which has a shade of purple, the next best being the rose-coloured, and the next with the green colour of the smaragdus, to each of which the Greeks have given names, according to their respective tints. A fourth kind, which is called by them " boria," resembles in colour the sky of a morning in autumn. There is an iaspis also which resembles sarda in appearance, and another with a violet hue. To this class also belongs the stone called " sphragis," from the circumstance that it is best of all for making signets. According to Mr. King, the iaspis " stained with red spots," mentioned by Pliny, is not the heliotrope, but a white chalcedony full of red spots. Prasius — Heliotrope, or Bloodstone. The variety of " prasius " mentioned by Pliny, as disfigured with spots like blood, is our heliotrope or bloodstone. It is a deep green chalcedony or jasper with red spots. Antique intagli in this stone are rarely to be met with. Bloodstone is at present much used for seal stones. Sapphieus — Lapis Lazuli. Lapis Lazuli is the Sapphirus of the ancients. It is thus de scribed by Pliny : " Sapphirus is refulgent with spots like gold (particles of iron pyrites). It is of an azure colour, though some times, but rarely, it is purple. The best kind comes from Media. In no case is the stone diaphanous ; in addition to which it is not suited for engraving when intersected with hard particles of crys talline nature (probably quartz)." Inferior intagli of a Roman period are frequently to be met with in lapis lazuli. Smaragdus Medicus — Malachite. Malachite (green carbonate of copper) was sometimes, but very rarely, used by the ancients for camei. The Pulsky collection, affords an example of a cameo in malachite, representing the bust Y 2 324 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. of a Bacchante. It is generally understood to answer to the sma ragdus medicus of Pliny. Sandaeesos — Avanturine. The sandaresos of Pliny, which he describes as " having all the appearance of fire placed behind a transparent substance, it burning with star-like scintillations within, that resemble drops of gold, and are always to be seen in the body of the stone and never upon the surface," is doubtless the stone termed avanturine, a brownish semi- transparent quartz, full of specks of yellow mica. The common avanturine is a Venetian glass imitation. The name is usually derived from its discovery by accident " per avantura.' This name is more probably, however, of older origin. In the Targum of the pseudo Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, referred by Mr. Deutsch to the middle of the seventh century, a stone, translated jasper in our version, is called the margniath apanturin, or panther gem. The step from apanturin to avanturine is a short one.* A green variety is found in India, which corresponds with the green sandaresos which Pliny describes as a native of India, and of an apple green, but which was considered of no value. Callais — Turquoise. The callais of Pliny is supposed to answer to the turquoise of the present day. He thus describes it: "Callais is like sapphiros (lapis lazuli) in colour, only that it is paler and more closely resembles the tint of the water near the sea shore in appearance." The Oriental or mineral turquoise comes from Persia and Arabia, and is composed of phosphate of alumina, coloured by a compound of copper. It is met with in Persia in narrow cracks in aluminous ironstone, and in veins in siliceous rocks. Stones of great size and beauty, some being not less than four and five inches in circumference, have been lately brought from Arabia Petraea. They were found in lofty precipitous mountains of iron sandstone. The occidental, or bone turquoise, is said to be composed of fossil bones or teeth coloured with oxyde of copper. Intagli and camei in turquoise are of very doubtful antiquity. The green variety of turquoise, on which the Romans set the highest value, was the callaina of Pliny. Tanos — Amazon Stone. Pliny includes tanos among the smaragdi. It came from Persia * " Edinburgh Review," No. 253. STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 325 and was of an unsightly green and a soiled colour within. Mr. King, with every probability, considers this ston6 to bear certain analogies to the amazon stone, a very compact felspar of an emerald green colour, but opaque and with nacrous reflections, extremely hard, and taking a high polish. The cylinder or signet of Senna cherib, discovered by Mr. Layard, is of amazon stone. Hematites — Hematite. Haematite is a red iron stone. According to Pliny it is found in Ethiopia. It has been also called bloodstone, and has often been used for scarabaei and intagli by the Egyptians.- Magnes — Magnetite. Magnetite is a magnetic iron ore, commonly termed " loadstone." It has a dark iron-grey colour and metallic lustre. "It varies in colour, according to Pliny; that of Magnesia, bordering on Macedonia, being of reddish black ; that of Bceotia being more red than black. The kind found in Troas is black. The most inferior, however, of all," he says, " is that of Magnesia, in Asia. It has been frequently made use of by ancient engravers, especially by those of Egypt and Persia." Babylonian cylinders are frequently found of this material. Rude intagli, with Gnostic subjects, used as amulets, have been largely manufactured in this stone. Obsidianum — Obsidian, Obsidian is a volcanic glass of a blackish greenish colour, con-r sisting of lava suddenly cooled. It is opaque, or slightly trans lucent on the edges of fragments. It is thus noticed by Pliny : " This stone is of a very dark colour, and sometimes transparent ; but it is dull to the sight, and reflects, when attached as a mirror to a wall, the shadow of the object, rather than the image. Many persons use it for jewellery, and I myself have seen solid statues in this material of the late Emperor Augustus, of very considerable thickness." Intagli of this material are very rare. Basaltes — Basalt. Basalt is an igneous rock, usually of a dark green or brownish black colour, and of a very fine grain. Intagli and scarabaei of a very late period among the Egyptians are only to be met with of this material. There are also some Gnostic amulets of this stone. 326 HANDS OOK OF ARCHE OLOGY. It was frequently employed for statues by the Egyptians, and by the Romans of the age of Adrian. It is the " basanites " of Pliny. PORPHYEITES POEPHYEY. Porphyry is a stone of a beautiful red colour, thickly disseminated with white crystals of feldspar. It receives a fine polish, and has been chiefly used for columns, vases, and bas-reliefs. A few intagli of an early imperial date occur in this material. It was also em ployed by Italian artists at the Revival. Ophites — Seepestine. The serpentine met with in Italy, which is caUed serpentino an- tico, is of a dark dull green colour, with long whitish spots. It was caUed by the ancients marmor, " ophites," or memphites, and was obtained, as its name imports, from the neighbourhood of Memphis. Geanite. Granite is a primitive rock, whose constituent parts are feldspar, quartz, and mica. The red or Egyptian variety (the red feldspar predominating) was principally used by the ancients. The variety of granite called syenite is composed of feldspar, quartz, and horn blende. Though deriving its name from Syene, in Egypt, but little of it is met with in that place, the rock there being chiefly granite. The syenite of antiquity, used for statues, was really granite. The Egyptians were the only people who engraved small objects on serpentine and granite. Scarabaei, bearing hieroglyphics, of these materials frequently occur. Imitations. The art of imitating gems or precious stones was well known to the ancients. The Egyptians were undoubtedly in possession of this art, as several valuable examples sufficiently prove. Pliny tells us that the Greeks and Romans were equally skilful in imitating emeralds and other transparent stones, by colouring crystals ; they also manufactured onyx and sardonyx by cementing red and dark- coloured chalcedony to a white layer. Camei have been also imitated by fusing together coloured layers of glass, which when cooling was made to receive the impression of the relieved figure it was intended to imitate. In the possession of the author is a paste head of Omphale, imitating a cameo of sardonyx, so exquisitely STONES FOR ENGRAVING KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. 327 done as to almost deceive an experienced judge. Pastes, or imi tations of engraved gems in intaglio, are to be seen in many col lections. Ancient objects of this kind are much prized, their value being independent of the material, for we have become acquainted by the means of these imitations with several admirable works, the originals of which have not come down to us. Countless modern imitations of these are also to be frequently met with. Impeessions. The finest order of gems being seldom within the means of private purchasers, the prevailing taste for engraved gems, and the impossibility for amateurs and artists to visit every cabinet and coUection, has led to the necessity of making collections of impres sions of engraved gems, in plaster, sulphur, and other materials. Excepting the nature of the stone itself, these impressions are a complete image of the gem, and serve, as well as the original, for the researches of the historian, the artist, and the archaeologist. The art of making these impressions and imitations, places all that con stitutes the true value of the original within the most moderate expenditure. These impressions have been multiplied, and sys tematic collections have been formed most useful for the study of engraved gems. Piokler made a large collection of impressions of the most beautiful stones, but did not publish the catalogue, which he intended to compile. Lippert made a very extensive collection of impressions, and the learned catalogue which he drew up is most useful for their study ; but the best imitations of the antique are the pastes executed by Tassie. The engraving and tint of the gem are copied with extraordinary fidelity. Tassie's collection, perhaps the most complete in Europe, amounts to about 1 5,000, and com prises fac-similes of all the most celebrated gems. Rasp6 published a catalogue of them. Collections of these impressions would be of the greatest advantage and utility, if their selection was made with some care, if particular attention was paid not to mix modern works with ancient works, and also if the nature of the material, the form and dimensions of the stone, and the cabinet in which it was to be found, were carefully indicated. Collections of impressions in sulphur and in scagliola are frequent in Italy. Those of Paoletti, and particu larly those of Cades at Rome, are remarkable for their careful finish. Ancient impressions of intagli in fine clay (yij crrjp.avrpls the seal ing earth of the Greeks), are frequently found, sometimes with the impress of a monogram on the reverse. They are supposed to be tesserae, or tokens given by the owner of the impressed seal. 328 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. PAL^OGKAPHY, OE INSCRIPTIONS. I. Aim and Utility of its Study. The study of ancient inscriptions is termed palaeography. These inscriptions are isolated, or traced on some monument of architecture, sculpture, &c, or on vases or paintings. We shall here treat alone of inscriptions, properly so called, giving the text of laws, decrees, public accounts, dedications, votive and laudatory inscriptions, historical narratives and documents, epitaphs, &c. The Greeks generally gave to inscriptions the name of epigraph, or epigram, emypaH<£I2MA, and when it is in favour of a citizen who has rendered some important service, the usual reward being a crown decreed by the city, the crown is repre sented over the decree, and the name of the citizen is inscribed within it. The most important monumental inscriptions which present Greek records, illustrating and establishing the chronology of Greek history is the Parian chronicle, now preserved among the Arundelian marbles at Oxford. It was so called from the supposi tion of its having been made in the island of Paros, B.C. 263. In its perfect state it was a square tablet, of coarse marble, five inches thick; and when Selden first inspected it it measured three feet seven inches, by two feet seven inches. On this stone were engraved some of the principal events in the history of ancient Greece, forming a compendium of chronology during a series of 1318 years, which commenced with the reign of Cecrops, the first king of Athens, B.C. 1582, and ended with the archonship of Diog- netus. It was deciphered and published by the learned Selden in 1628. They make no mention of Olympiads, and reckon backwards from the time then present by years.* * The first era, or computation, of time, from an epocli made use of among the Greeks, was that of the Olympiads. The reckoning was made to commence from the games at which Corcebus was the victor, being the first at which the name of the victor was recorded. The Olympiad of Coroebus, accordingly, is considered in chronology as the first Olympiad. Its date is placed 108 years after the restoration of the games by Iphitus, and is calculated to correspond with the year b.c 776. Timseus, of Sicily, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (b.c 283- 295) was the first who attempted to establish an era, by comparing and correcting the dates of the Olympiads, the Spartan kings, the archons of Athens, and the 352 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. The date on an inscription when derived from a local era, is some times found at the beginning. Of these dates there are a great many varieties. The most easily to be distinguished date is that taken from the years of the reign of a king. It is expressed in Greek letters or in ciphers ; in the first case theyr present no difficulty, but in the latter, the variations which existed among the Greeks in the mode of noting numbers, may prove embarrassing. It was only at a late period that the twenty-four letters of the alphabet were adopted as signs for numbers, according to their order in the alphabet. This numerical alphabet being the most usual, we must here state that the signs which were in use before this application of letters to the expression of numbers, were signs taken in general from the initial letters of the words expressive of these numbers. In the following list the usual number precedes its equivalent in Greek. 1 — I ; 2 — II and A; 3— III; 4— IIII ; 5~n ; 6— Sand R; 7— EBAM; 8— mil; 9— mill; 10— A or y; 11— Al, A; 12— All, B; 13— AIII or TPISA; 14— AIIII, or E; 15— An or EK-j ; 20— AA or Ay ; 25— ZC or AVLTj_30— AyA or yyy ; 40— AAAA or_TESSAPA; 50 — AAAAAor |A|; 100— H.P. ; 200— CKN; 500— |H| ; 1000— X; 5000 — |X|; 10,000— M. When the numbers are expressed by letters of the alphabet, the letter L, which precedes them, indicates that they are used for this purpose, when the word ETOYS or ETON is not found on the inscription; this L, of a Roman form derived from the ancient Greek alphabet, is the initial letter of the word Awa/San-os, genitive of Avtca/Jas, which means year. These words and these number of dates are in the genitive in Greek, as they are in the ablative in Latin, on account of a preposition being understood. Particular attention should be paid, in the interpretation of Greek inscriptions, to distinguish the numerous titles of magistrates of every order, of public officers of different ranks, the names of gods and of nations, those of towns, and the tribes of a city ; the pre scribed formulas for different kinds of monuments ; the text of decrees, letters, &c, which are given or cited in analogous texts; the names of monuments, such as stelae, tablets, cippi, &c. ; the in dication of places, or parts belonging to those places, where they ought to be set up or deposited, such as a temple or vestibule, a court or peristyle, public square, &c. ; those at whose cost it was set priestesses of Juno. This Olympiad era was chiefly used by historians, and i3 scarcely ever found on inscriptions. The Olympiad era met with on inscriptions is another, or a new Olympiad, which came into use under the Roman emperors. It began in 01. 227.3 (a.d. 131), in which year Hadrian dedicated the Olympieion at Athens; and accordingly we find 01. 227.3 spoken of as the first Olympiad, 01. 228.3 (a.d. 135) as the second Olympiad (Bockh, Corp. Inscr.V THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 353 up, the entire city or a curia, the public treasure, or a private fund, the names and surnames of public or private individuals ; preroga tives or favours granted, such as the right of asylum, of hospitality, of citizenship; the punishments pronounced against those who should destroy or mutilate the monument ; the conditions of treaties and alliances ; the indications of weights, moneys, and measures. An act of piety or of adoration to a divinity, and in a particular temple devoted to that purpose, either by a legal privilege, or through the effect of the general opinion of devotees, is termed a IIPOSKYNHMA. Private individuals performed this act of devotion either for themselves or in the name of their parents, and of their friends at the same time, and they included their own names in the commemorative inscription which they had engraved or written on some part of the temple ; kings appointed for these religious duties certain functionaries, who received this especial mission, and who never neglected to introduce in the inscription that they had fulfilled this mission in the name of the king men tioned in the first lines. It appears also that the same king gave the same mission several times during his reign, and that the general use of this religious homage was peculiar to Egypt during the Greek and Roman period. In the temple of Isis at Philae many of these Trpoo-KwqpjaTa are to be seen. A great number occur also in the temples of Nubia, in honour of Isis 'and Serapis, and of the other gods worshipped in';; the same building. Sir Gardner Wilkinson gives the following as a complete formula of one of these pros- kunemata : " The adoration of Caius Capitolinus, son of Flavius Julius, of the fifth troop of Theban horse, to the goddess Isis, with ten thousand names. And I have been mindful of (or have made an adoration for) all those who love me, and my consort, and children, and all my household, and for him who reads this. In the year 12 of the Emperor Tiberius Caesar, the 15 of Paiini." Votive or dedicatory inscriptions always contain the names of the gods or kings to whom a monument is dedicated, and the names of the town, corporation, of the tribes, functionaries, or private indivi duals who erected the monument; public works executed at the expense of the tribes or of private individuals, bear also inscriptions commemorative of their munificence, and the very portion of the building, built or repaired through their generosity, is expressly designated in the text of the inscription, the ancients allowing this competition of individual zeal for public utility. Funereal monuments usually bear an inscription which gives the names and titles of the deceased, his country, his age, the names of his father and of his mother, his titles and his services, his 2 a 354 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. distinguished qualities, and his virtues. Frequently a funereal inscription contains only the names of the deceased, that of his country, and acclamations and votive formulae generally termi nate it. A few examples will better explain these rules : — XPHSTOS nPOTOY ©ESSAAOS AAPEISAIOS nEAASriOTHS ETON-IH. HPOS XPHSTE XAIPE. The first word is the name of the deceased Chrestus ; the second word is the name of his father Protos, the word vtos being understood, as is generally the case in Greek inscriptions. The three words which follow are the designa tion of the country of Chrestus, a Thessalian, and born in the town of Larissa, which was styled Pelasgian to distinguish it from other towns of the same name. The words ETON IH, mean of eighteen years; the age of the deceased. The rest is an acclamation : " Hero Chrestus ! farewell /" These words XAIPE, EYtfYXEI, ©APSEI, which express similar good wishes, frequently terminate, alone, funereal inscriptions. Other inscriptions read : IAfiN KAAAinnOY AIHIiNEYS ;— AAKIMAKH KAAAIMAXOY ANArYPASIOY. The first two words of each of these inscriptions are proper names. 1. Philo, the son of Callipus. 2. Alcimache, daughter of Callima- chus, and the words AIEONEYS and ANArYPASIOY, are the names of two of the 174 demi or townships of Attica. The towns, boroughs, and villages of Attica, and the divisions of Athens, which formed each a community inscribed in one of the thirteen tribes (tfrvXaC) of Athens, were so called. The community or town of the iExoni was part of the Cecropian tribe, and Anagyrus of the Erectheid tribe. These names of places should be carefully noted in an inscription, in order to prevent any mistake, and to give an accurate and complete interpretation of the words. The following should be also carefully noted. 1. The honorary titles of kings ; they serve sometimes to distinguish those who have borne the same name. 2. The names of places and titles; they are frequently written in an abbreviated form, and with the first letters alone. Punctuation is never observable in Greek inscriptions on marble, the words themselves are seldom or ever separated, and it is the sense and grammatical construction alone which determine the arrangement of the words which form the sentence. On some in scriptions there have been observed, principally upon funereal monuments of a late date, separate signs, mingled with the words, such as a leaf, a triangle, a straight or bent line, but these signs have rarely any meaning ; sometimes they are symbols connected with the subject of the inscription. The abbreviations or sigla, which abound in all Greek inscrip tions, are the source of many difficulties : celebrated scholars have THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 355 occupied themselves in collecting and interpreting them, and the learned Corsini has wi'itten on this subject a folio volume (Notae Graecorum), published in Florence in 1708. The study of Greek palaeography has, however, furnished several additions to that work ; the following list contains the most usual abbreviations which are found in Greek inscriptions, and which is necessarily very short in his compendious treatise : SIGLA; OR, ABBREVIATIONS IN GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. A. irpuTOS, first; cwro (preposition); AvTOKpdrwp, emperor. ArA. T. ayaOyrvxy, to good fortune. AAEA$. dSeA<£os, a brother. ANE®. aviOrjKe, placed, dedicated. AIIEA., AHEAEY0EP. dmX* pos, freedman. APIS, apio-roc, the best. APX. apya)v, archon. AYT. avroKparuip, emperor. B. Sevrepos, the second ; fiovXy, council. BASIA. /3ao-iXens, king. B. A. BovXvjs Soy pan, by a decree of the council. BIS- Ricmpov, sepulchre, tomb. BO. /ita/Ads, base, altar. TONE, yoveus, father, ancestor. TPA. ypaevs, scribe, writer. PYM. yvpviKos, gymnastic, public games. A. E. Sr;/^apxtK'?5 efouo-ias, of the tribuneship of the people (title of the Roman emperors). AESH. Seo-TroTijs, master, lord. AHMOS. %«xr»?, publicly. A. M. Diis Manibus; A. M. S. Diis Manibus Sacrum (Latin funeral formulas). A. T. Sit r&), to Jupiter. EBA. tB8op.os, seventh. EA. EI. elBZv, of the Ides. EZH. e&o-ev, he Jived. E. ®. ewoia Oeotv, the protection of the gods. EAEY. eXev&epos, free. EN., EN®. iv6a.Se, here ; or ev $eu>, in God. ET. irS>v, years, age. ETE., ETEA. ereXevrrjo-ev, he died. EXTO. lxiapy]araTo, was received. ZH., SHSAN. fijo-ag f^o-cum, hav ing lived (age). HZHS. i&}o-ev, he lived. HM. y)pepa, day; HMEPH. f/pe- pas cWco, eight days. ®E. deals, to tho gods. ©. E 0eois eTrtxwpiois, to the gods of the country. ®. H. deous r)piaa-w, to the gods heroes. ©: K., ®. KA., ®. KAT., ®. KY., ®S., KA. 6eoi, of God, God, to God. ®Y., 0YTPI. Qvyarqp, dvyarpi, daughter, to the daughter. IMP. ip.irepa.Twp, emperor. IP. upcus, priest. ISI. to-t8t, to Isis. K. Kai, and. KA. KoAevScoj/, of the calends. KAI. Kaltrap, Caesar. K. B. KeXevcrpari BovXrjs, by the order of the council. 2 a2 356 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. K. ®. Karax&ovLOLS Oeois, to the infernal gods. KI. Kelrai, he lies. KOS., KOS. kovo-ovX, consul. K. n. KeXevo-pari 7roAeo>s, by the order of the city. KPAT. Kpdrio-TO'i, excellent. KS. KvpLos, lord, master. K. "3?. KeXevapari cpparpias, by the permission of the tribe. K. X. kolvoIs xP?7/Aao-i,v, at the public expense. AAM. Xap.TrpoTa.TO'i, most splendid. AEr, Aeyiwi/os, of the legion. Al®. /WJos, stone, inscription, stele. M., MH. pfjvas, month. M. pvrjpeiov, monument, tomb. MA. pd.TT]p, mother. MAI. paiw, of the calends of May. MAP. papTLwv, of the calends of March. ME. prjvaw, of the months. MH., MP. prirnp, mother. M. X. pvrjprjs xaPtv> ^n memory. N., NO. vwvw, of the nones. NEPTE. eveprepos, dead. SYSTAPX. HuoTapx°s, superin tendent of the gymnasia. OIKAT. ol KaroiKoi, the inhabitants. OKTB. oKTwfipLwv, of the calends of October. nAPAKATI. irapaKaTaTeOelrai, has been deposited, entrusted. nAP®. TrapOtKO's, Parthian. nAA. TrXdrvs, breadth. noS. Tvoa-eiSow, Athenian month. n. n. Trarrjp 7rarpt8os, father of his countiy. nP. irpeaRvrepos, priest. nPESB. Trpeo-j3evrqs, ambassador, delegate. PO. pu>paA.o favour, gift, or for evena. XEIP. yEipoupyos, workman, sur geon. \I>. B., ^rjcpio-paTt fiovXrjs, by a decree of the Senate. O. mpat, hours (in the indication of the age of deceased). O. oKTo/Jptas, calends of October. In this short list we have not included proper names, the titles of magistrates of different kinds, and the names of places. For these we must refer the reader to the more complete lists published by- critical scholars. THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 357 Examples of Greek Inscriptions, The Sigean Inscription. 0WUI f/^oAfKo.-^/n-oH minora0 lAfDlo^B WHl\>|:noTATZlr]4X The Sigean marble is one of the most celebrated palaeographicai monuments in existence. It is written in the most ancient Greek characters, and in the Boustrophedon manner. The purport of the inscription, which in sense is twice repeated, on the upper and lower part of the stone, is to record the presentation of three vessels for the use of the Prytaneum, or Town Hall of the Sigeans. The upper and lower inscriptions, in common letters, read thus : (pavoSiKO (pavoStKO eipi to H epi. TOppOK eppoKpaTos to -rrpoKO pareos to vecrio Kayo Kparepa TtpoKowq KO.TTUJTOTOV Kai Hefyl cto' Kprjrrjp ov es Trpvraveiov K aSe /cat vttok SoKa pvepa Styew pyrrr/piov k turn" eav 8e tl Tra&x at rjOpov ev Se. noTEiSaias S'apou pepos, ol[8e (pvyovres TEIYOS TTl&TOTa.TOV eA7n.8' Wevro \J3lov ai/Spas pep 7roA,ts r)8e irodei /cat b\rjpos 'EpEY^EcoS, irpoorOe HorEtSatag ot Oavov ep 7rp[opaxois -TratSss AOrjvaiutV i/n>Yas S'avTtppojVa Sevres r)[Xk]a£avT aperrjv /cat 7rai-[piS'] Eu/cX[£to-av.] * This most interesting inscription not only commemorates an historical event which is minutely described by Thucydides, but is also curious in a palaeographicai point of view. It only con tains one form of the letter e, viz., * which serves both for the short and long e. The letter H is used as a mark of aspiration, and no double letters are employed ; H, for instance, is represented by x« and if/ in i/ajyas by prjS Bovo-EtpEtos A?p-o ttoAei- 12. tov irapoiKOvat. Tats irvpapio-i /cat rots ev avra> 13. Karayeivopevoio~i TorroypappaTevo'i /cat /era 14. poypapparevai. ipr] XiOtvnv rrapa ap 16. tot Appaxet e/c tov eVKexapiarpevov aya6- 17. cov njv 7rpos avrov evepyecnav 18. e£ (DV £7rtcr 19. AtyvirTov /caAo/cat 20. £ei yap ras iao6eov eavrov yaptras eve arijAEt 21. tfopevas tois lepovs ypappao~iv attuyt pvrjpo- 22. vevaOat ttovti Ttapayevopevos yap f/paw. 23. Ets Toy vopov /cat TrpoffKVvrjaas tov tjXiov 24. Appaxip erroiTT-nv /cat crwrrjpa tttj te tcov Trvpa- 25. p-iSwv peyaOeLOTrjTi. /cat VTrepovaia TepcpOeis 26. Oerjaapevos re TrXeiorrj'; if/appov Sta to pyjuos 27. tou ypappara 7rpa>Tos. Translation of the Inscription to T. Claudius Balbillus. To Good Fortune. Since Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, Autocrat, the good deity of the world, in addition to all the favours he has shown to Egypt, has demonstrated his care for the country most manifestly, by sending to us Tiberius Claudius Balbillus as governor; and through his favours and acts of kindness abounding in all good things, Egypt seeing the gifts of the Nile yearly increasing, now more (than ever) enjoys the proper rising of the deity (i.e., the river). It has been determined by the inhabitants of the village of Busiris, in the nome of Letopolis, who live near the Pyramids, and the local clerks or collectors, and the village collectors in it, to vote and dedicate a stele of stone (15) (20) Preserves ? his godlike favours on a stele living in sacred characters to be remembered for ever, for having come to our nome, and having adored the Sun Armachis inspector and saviour, and with the magnitude of the Pyramids and their surpassingness delighted, &c. THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 363 On a Gateway at Niceoe. AYTOKPATOPIKAISAPIMAYPKAAYAIOEYSEBEI EYTYXEISEBAHMAPXIKHSESOYSIASTOAEYTEPON AN0YnATOnATPinATPIAOSKAITHIEPASYNKAHTO KAITOAHMOTONPOMAIONHAAMnPOTATHKAIMEriSTHKATAPISTHNEIKAEEONnOAlSTOTEIXOSEmTOYAAMnPYnATIKOYOYEAAEIOYMAKPEINOYnPESBEYTOYKAIANTISPATHrOYTOYSEBKAISAPIOYANTONINOYTOY AAMnPAOriSTOY Translation. " The very splendid, and large, and good city of the Nicaeans [erects] this wall for the autocrat Caesar Marcus Aurelius Claudius, the pious, the fortunate, august, of Tribunitial authority, second time Proconsul, father of his country, and for the Sacred Senate, and the people of the Romans, in the time of the illustrious Consular Velleuis Macrinus, Legate and Lieutenant of the august Caesar Antoninus, the splendid orator." — a.d. 269. Etruscan.' Etruscan palaeography includes, 1, the inscriptions of the Etrus cans properly so called, inhabiting the territory termed Etruria proper, which was bounded by the Magra and the Tiber ; 2, those of the Sabines, Volsci, and Samnites (Lower Etruria), nations who dwelt to the east of the Tiber ; 3, those of the northern Etruscans (Etruria Circumpadana), who occupied the banks of the Po. The monuments which have come down to us of these nations are not very numerous ; their alphabets and formulae bear such marked analogy as not to require those minute distinctions, which would be rather difficult to establish. The Etruscan people, or Rasena as they call themselves, present a striking contrast to the other peoples of Italy. Their manners and customs also point to the conclusion that this nation was originally quite distinct from the Graeco-Italian stock. The Etruscan nation was the most powerful of all the Italian peoples ; its written monu ments are most known, and are those on which learned scholars have most occupied themselves. From their researches a great variety of opinion has arisen, not only with regard to the origin of the Etrus can alphabet, to the period of its invetotion, or its introduction into 304 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Italy, but also with regard to the date which may be assigned to the most ancient inscribed monuments of that nation. The remains of the Etruscan tongue which have reached us, numerous as they are, and presenting so many data to aid in deciphering it, occupy a position of isolation so complete, that not only has no one hitherto succeeded in its interpretation, but no one has been able even to determine precisely its proper place in the classification of languages.* There is an historical tradition that Demaratus of Corinth intro duced the Greek alphabet into Etruria. Dr. Mommsen, however, remarks on the origin of the Etruscan alphabet, that it cannot have been brought to Etruria from Corey ra or Corinth, or even from the Sicilian Dorians ; the most probable hypothesis is that it was derived from the old Attic alphabet, which appears to have dropped the koppa earlier than other in Greece ; and further, that there is a probability it was spread over Etruria from Caere, the most ancient emporium of civilization in that country. In the opinion of Dr. Mommsen, the Greek alphabet which reached Etruria is essentially different from that communicated to the Latins. While the former is so primitive, that for that very reason its special origin can no longer be ascertained, the latter exhibits exactly the signs and forms which were used by the Chalcidic and Doric colonies of Italy and Sicily. Hence he infers that two different Greek alphabets reached Italy, one with a double sign for s (sigma s, and san sh), and a single sign for k, and with the earlier form of the r (P) coming to Etruria ; the second with a single sign for s, and a double for k (kappa k, and koppa q), and the more recent form of the r (R) coming to Latium. Others suppose that the Etruscan characters came directly from Phoenicia into Etruria. Mr. Daniel Sharpe, who had many oppor tunities of deriving important information in the recent discoveries in Lycia, declares that " it may be proved, from a comparison of alphabets, that the Etruscans derived their characters from Asia Minor, and not from Greece." Mr. Dennis also remarks the striking "resemblance of the Etruscan alphabet to the Ijycian, and still more so that which it bears to the Phrygian. Our object is not here to engage in those important questions ; we intend only giving a few observations on that portion of' Etruscan palaeography on which critical scholars have arrived at some certainty. The subject of the greater number of these inscriptions present ing many uncertainties, the order in which we treat of them shall be made dependent on their greater or less extent : funereal inscrip- *¦ Mommsen. THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 365 tions are the only inscriptions the nature of which can be recognised with any certainty. We shall first give a few remarks on the reading of the Etruscan inscriptions. 1. The inscriptions are always read from right to left. 2. The vowels are frequently suppressed, and the consonants are the only letters invariably expressed. This mode of suppressing the vowels presents a close Oriental analog}-, and their absence is generally considered a proof of the high antiquity of an Etruscan inscription. They must therefore be supplied, and this is no easy matter in the words of a language which is lost : it is therefore only by analogy, and by finding in another inscription the same word with the vcwels which are wanting, that we can hope to supply these vowels with any certainty^. 3. The words of an inscription are sometimes separated by a point or two, or by an irregular per pendicular line, but frequently by no sign at all. 4. An Etruscan inscription, especially if it is funereal, is frequently bilingual, that is to say, in Etruscan above, and in Latin below, or sometimes the reverse ; as these contain only names written according to the two alphabets, they have been of great assistance in restoring the Etrus can alphabet. 5. If the inscription is on a plaque of bronze or of lead, it is frequently traced on both sides of the plaque. Some inscriptions, though in the Etruscan character, are, however, pure Roman. The large Etruscan inscriptions are few, and the most celebrated are — those found at Gubbio, the ancient Iguvium, in 1444, known under the name of the Eugubian Tables; — the large quadrangular cippus, three feet and a half high, presenting forty-five lines, dis covered in 1822, near Perugia. The Eugubian tables are seven in number, and were found among the ruins of the ancient theatre near Gubbio. They are now pre served in that city. The tables are of bronze, covered with inscrip tions, four in Umbrian, two in Latin, and one in Etruscan letters. The inscriptions, facsimiles of which were first published by Dempster, have exercised the critical ingenuity of several scholars. Buonarotti considers them as articles of treaties between the states of Umbria ; Bousquet, Gori, thought that they were forms of prayer among the Pelasgi, after the decline of their power; Maffei and Passeri that they were statutes or donations to the temple of Jupiter. In the opinion of Lanzi the inscriptions related solely to the sacrificial rites of the various towns of Umbria, and are the fragments of what the ancients named pontificales et rituales libri, an opinion in which most subsequent antiquaries have been disposed to 366 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. There was a particular order of priests, named fratres aiherii or atheriates, who were bound to perform the ceremonies prescribed by this ritual. These priests belonged to a tribe named Ikuvina, which afterwards formed an alliance with Rome. Some of these priests are mentioned in the inscriptions, as well as many towns of that part of Italy, and also several families known by historical records. Some names of local deities are also found in them. Then follow the formulae of prayers which were to precede the sacrifices, the designation of the animals and fruits to be offered in the sacri fices, the indication of the parts of the victims consecrated to the gods, directions with regard to the dressing of the meats ; lastly, the rites which were to follow the sacrifice. In order to give an idea of Lanzi's method of interpretation, we shall cite here a single passage, and we have chosen one of those in which the celebrated interpreter had to supply a lesser number of letters and words ; they are the lines 28, 29, 30 of the first and second table, according to Dempster. The reader must recollect that these lines here given from left to right are in the original Etruscan characters traced from right to left. Lanzi's Latin version is placed beneath each word in order to show the corresponding words in both languages : TXA : MERSUVA : UVIIKUM : GABETU ecora prjpla (femora) oviuni habeto a, PHPATRUSTE : ATIIERIE : AHTISPER fratribus Atheriatibus pro EIIKVASATIS TUTATES IIUVINA vadatis tota jovina TREPHITER : IIUVINA SAIKRE. tribu pro jovina sacrum. It will be observed here that the principal analogies of the Etrus can words are with the Latin, and that in this passage Lanzi had recourse to but one Greek word, but he is rarely so moderate in deriving assistance from that .language. Lepsius' opinion on the Latin inscription we shall notice farther on. The inscription of Perugia occupies two sides of the cippus, and the letters are coloured red. M. Vermiglioli conjectures that it relates to agrarian matters, to rural laws, and to the limitation of lands. This learned scholar has undertaken a conjectural inter pretation, according to the principles laid down and practised by Lanzi. He has analyzed the inscription word by word, and has recognised some names of persons and of places, as proved by some THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 367 funereal inscriptions, and has sought to interpret others by analogous words in Greek or Latin.* Opposite opinions on the interpretation of the Etruscan language and inscriptions are held by some of the most celebrated German writers. "Disgusted (we here quote Bunsen's words) with the un scrupulous and rambling method of Lanzi and his followers, who had ransacked the Greek dictionary and drawn largely upon their own imaginations and the credulity of their readers, in order to make the Etruscan language, what its alphabet evidently is, an archaic form of the Hellenic, Niebuhr maintained that the Etruscan was a purely barbarous language ; that it was wholly distinct from the other more or less Latinizing tongues of Italy proper, of the Apennines, and even of the Alps ; that the ruling nations of Etruria came from the north ; and that the roots of the language must be looked for in Raetia." This verdict of Niebuhr is however shaken by the researches of Dr. Freund, who, after travelling through the country (Tyrol, or the Grisons) supposed to be the original home of the Rasenas or Etruscans, and after having studied the language of the district, lays down as the result of his researches that the statement of Pliny is more probable, that the Raeti are the descendants of the Etruscans, who were expelled by the Gauls, and migrated thither under the command of their chief Raetius, the open Alpine side valleys on the north of the wide plains of Upper Italy offering themselves as places of refuge to the con quered and dispossessed Etruscans. There is also a remarkable tradition in the Grisons of the immigration of the Etruscans into the country. * Sir William Betham has founded a fanciful theory on these two inscriptions, that, from the identity of the Etruscan with the Celtic (as he proves), the Etruscans were Celts, and that both were Phoenicians. The inscriptions, according to him, relate in Etrusco-Phcenician, or Ibemo-Celtic, the night voyage of the Phoenicians or Etruscans to Came, in Ireland (Carnsore Point, county Wicklow). The follow ing affords an example of his comparison of texts : Etruscan. Irish. Literal. PUNE PUNE Phoenician CAR NE CAB NA to Carne S PE TUB IE IS BE TUB IE it is night voyage in from AT I I ER I E AT I I EK I E also in knowledge great in it A BI E CA TE ABI E CA TA the being away how it is NA EA C LU M. NA BA AC LTJ AM. the going by water on the ocean. Free translation : 0 Phoenicians, this communicates the excellent knowledge in what manner the waters of the ocean were passed over in the night voyage to Carne. 368 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Bunsen adopts Niebuhr's view of the Rastian origin of the Etrus cans, and advances the theory that the Etruscan bears strong marks of a mixed language, from the circumstance of such grammatical forms as have been ascertained being evidently analogous to what we know of Indo-Germanic flexions, whereas the greater part of the words which occur in the inscriptions prove most heterogeneous. On the other hand, the Tyrrhenie glosses in Hesychius, and the in scription found about 1836 at Agylla, contain words much more akin to the Greco-Latin stock. A mixed language of this kind would be the natural consequence of a non-Italic tribe having taken possession of Tyrrhenia or the Mediterranean part of Central Italy, subdued the Italic indigenous population, and finally adopted their language, as the Norman conquerors did that of the Saxon, or the Arabs that of Persia. The intrinsic nature of the language, as we find it on the monuments, leads also to the conclusion that the Greek words were a foreign element, received but not understood. Making every allowance for a different system of vocalization, such changes as Pultuke for Polynikes,* Akhmiem for Agamemnon, are unmistakably barbarous, and betray an absolute ignorance of the elements of which the Greek name is composed. In the opinion of Muller, the Etruscans were a race which, judging from the evidence of the language, was originally very foreign to the Grecian, but nevertheless had adopted more of the Hellenic civilization and art than any other race not of the Greek family, in these early times. The principal reason, according to him, is probably furnished by the colony of the Pelasgo-Tyrrhe- nians, which was driven from Southern Lydia, and established itself chiefly around Caere (Agylla) and Tarquinii. The latter city maintained for a while the dignity of a leading member among the confederate cities of Etruria, and always remained the chief point from which Greek civilization radiated over the rest of the country. It is not compatible with the object of this short treatise to notice more fully the different views of these authors. We now return to our subject. Votive inscriptions and others, which are found on vases, seals, pedestals, small statues, utensils, are in general very short. Small statues seldom bear inscriptions, the attributes and symbols which they present being enough to characterise them. Small figures of animals, pigs, wolves and even chimaera?, bear a short inscription, which is usually the name of a divinity to which the figure was * Here Bunsen is incorrect. Pultuke is the Etruscan form of " Pollux," not of Polynikes. THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 369 dedicated, or the name of the person who made an offering of it, and this inscription is almost always written on a part of the body of the figure. Inscriptions of this latter kind are formulae frequently found repeated on monuments. The most usual are the following : MI : CANA has given me (on the most ancient monuments) ; TECE, for the Greek iOr/Ke, has placed, has dedicated ; TURUCE, TURCE, has given, has dedicated, the most common formula ; PHLERES, gift, consecration. SUTHI, SUTHIL from Sran/pta, for the safety of or for. Some names of divinities have been also recognised in these inscriptions, the names of which will be found in the portion on the mythology of sculpture. Other inscriptions, not funereal, are connected with the domestic customs of the Etruscans : they wrote on the principal door of their house ARSE VERSE, which was an invocation against fire, these two words meaning, according to Sextus, averte ignem. In the fields, cippi bore these words : MARE HURIE, to Mars Terminalis. On altars, candelebra, &c, we find engraved the nomen and prenomen of the person who offered them to the gods with or without the formula MI CANA. The names of magistrates, families, places, religious colleges, have been recog nised in the votive inscriptions. The inscription on the statue of bronze of the orator in the Florentine Gallery, informs us that it was erected in honour of Aulus Metellus, son of Velius, by a lady of the family of Vesius. Etruscan funereal inscriptions are the most numerous. They are found, inscribed or engraved, on isolated stones, on cinerary urns, on bas reliefs painted or sculptured, on small columns, on bricks or plaques of metal, on tombs, sepulchral chambers, or buried in the ground. Sometimes the letters engraved on stone have been after wards coloured red. The inscriptions on urns bearing bas reliefs have rarely any connection with the subject of the sculpture ; for the same sculptured figures are repeated on several urns, each of which bears a different inscription. It is simply relative to the deceased, of whom it contains the nomen and prenomen ; a cognomen is sometimes, but very rarely, found. The name of the father is given, and that of the mother after that of the father, following a custom evidently derived from the East, as it was not practised by the Greeks and Romans. The singular custom of tracing descent by the maternal line was peculiar to the Lycians. This custom was retained even under Roman domination, for some sarcophagi bear similar epitaphs in Latin, with natus affixed to tho mother's name in the genitive or ablative. To the woman's name was added the name of her husband or of the family to which she was allied. A funereal inscription was sometimes terminated by the indication 2 B 370 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. of the age of the deceased, but of this there are few examples. Etruscan funereal inscriptions are remarkable for their extreme simplicity as well as for their briefness. Proper names in the inscriptions are usually in the nominative case, sometimes in the genitive, and then they are preceded by the monosyllable MI, I am, as MI LARTHIAS, sum Larthiae, I am (the tomb) of Larthia. If the inscription presents only the name of the deceased without his prenomen, this is an indication that the monument is of great antiquity, if the form of the letters confirm it, or that it is of a person of very little importance. Proper names and family names are numerous, and the greater number have passed to the Romans. They are sometimes abridged, but have the usual terminations, E for the name of men, A for those of women ; S, at the end of a name, is the genitive termination. The termination AL was employed as a designation of descent, frequently of descent from the mother : as CAINAL, which on a bilingual inscription of Chinsi is translated by CAINNIA N ATUS. The termination sa, in the name of women, was used to indicate the clan into which they have married — LECNESA denotes the spouse of a Licinius ; CLAN, with the inflection clansi, means son, SEC. daughter. Proper names are formed after the general Italian system. The frequent gentile termination ENAS or ENA, recurs in the termination ENUS, which is of frequent occurrence in Italian clan names. Thus the Etruscan names Vivenna and Spurinna cor respond closely to the Roman Vibius or Vibienus, and Spurius. The age of the deceased is sometimes indicated in funereal inscrip tions, and the numeral signs are preceded by the words RIL, AVIL, AVILS, AIVIL, which Lanzi considers as analogous to the Latin cevum, from which is derived oevitas in the ancient Latin, and subsequently cetas. Some translate these two words RIL AVIL viscit annos. Some words, which seem to have no con nection with the names of the deceased, are frequently found repeated on several inscriptions, such as LEINE, TULAR, or THILAR. The first is considered to be a kind of acclamation or wish, analogous to the Latin word lenis and leniter, and cor responding with the common Latin formula, SIT TIBI TERRA LEVIS. The other two words are supposed to be applied to the urn, or whatever enclosed the ashes of the deceased, the olla or ollarium of the Romans. Another word, ECASUTHINESL, the recurrence of which on tombs shows it to be a formula, has given rise to much conjecture. Professor Migliarini connects it with analogous Latin formulae ecce situs, or hie situs est. We now give a few of tho most celebrated Etruscan funereal THE PALEOGRAPHY OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 371 inscriptions, as examples. The reader must remember that the original Etruscan inscriptions read from right to left. In the tomb of the Tarquinii, Cervetri. AVLE : TARCHNAS : LARTHAL : CLAN aulus tarquinii larthia nata filius In the tomb of the Volumnii, Perugia. PVP : VELIMNA : AV : CAPHATIAL PUBL1US VOLUMNIVS AULUS CAPHATIA NATUS With the corresponding Latin inscription. P. VOLVMNIUS. A. F. VIOLENS CAFATIA. NATUS THEPHRI : VELIMNAS : TARCHIS . CLAN TIBERIUS VOLUMNIjE TARQUINII FILIUS AVLE : VELIMNAS : THEPHRISA : NVPHRVNAL : CLAN AULUS VOLUMNIiE TI1JERII CONJUX NUFRUNA NATA FILIUS LARTH : VELIMNAS : AVLES LARS VOLUMNI/E AVIJ (filius) ARNTH : VELIMNAS : AVLES ARUNS VOLUMNIjE AULI (filius) Bilingual sepidchral inscription on a slab in the Museo Paolozzi, CMusi. Etruscan. VL. ALPHNI. NWI CAINAL Latin. C. ALFIVS. A. F. CAINNIA. NATVS. In the deposito delle Monache, Chiusi. ARNTH : CAVLE . VIPINA ARUNS C2EL1US VIPENNA In the deposito del Granduca, Chiusi. AV : PVRSNA : PERIS : PVMPVAL AULUS PORSENNA PERI FILIUS POMPEIA NATUS PEPNA : RVIPHE : ARTHAL : AFILS : XVIII PERPENNA RVFJVS ARUNTIA NATVS ANNIS XVIII 2 B 2 372 HANDBOOK OF ARCHEOLOGY. Roman. The most ancient Roman inscriptions date from the first centuries of Rome, but they are very rare. The following conclusions may be deduced from their examination : 1. That the first Latin alphabet was composed of sixteen letters alone, like that of the Greeks, and that of the Etruscans ; 2. That the forms of the letters of these three alphabets were, it may be said, almost identical. Demaratus of Corinth is said to have brought the Greek letters to Tarquinii, and to have taught the Etruscans alphabetical writing ; and his son Tarquinius Priscus is supposed to have introduced these letters into Rome, about 500 B.C. Pliny and Tacitus confirm this tradition that the Latin letters were derived from the Greek. Dr. Mommsen is of opinion that the derivation of the Latin alphabet from that of the Cumaean and Sicilian Greeks is quite evident, as it exhibits exactly the signs and forms which were used by the Chalcidic and Doric colonies of Italy and Sicily ; and, he adds, it is even very probable that the Latins did not receive the alphabet once for all, as was the case in Etruria, but in consequence of their lively intercourse with Sicily kept pace for a considerable period with the alphabet in use there, and followed its variations. The most striking improvement upon the Greek system effected in the Roman alphabet was the complete elimination of all composite characters, thereby forming a most strictly literal alphabet. Thus, the sound of PH, represented by the Greeks