.MISSIONS LIBRARY < » mi >t| m i |n itm n >» inn > tn 1 1 « n « i Jf YALE UNIVEI^ . . The Expansion of Christianity in the Twentieth Century A READING COURSE CONDUCTED BY Ernest De Witt Burton AND Alonzo Ketcham Parker Professors in the University, of Chicago THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO 1913 1\ INTRODUCTION The present moment is a particularly opportune one at which to undertake a general survey of the modern expansive movement of Christianity. The Mis sionary Conference held in Edinburgh in June, 1 910, not only brought together a large number of Christian men most deeply interested in the promotion of Christianity throughout the world, and, by the reports carefully prepared be forehand, summarized as had never be fore been done the facts respecting the progress of Christianity and the opinions and convictions of those who are actively engaged in missionary work, but gave a definite impulse to the missionary move ment itself. A Continuation Committee was appointed to carry forward during the next ten years the work begun by the Conference. The appointment of this committee and of the subcommittees on the various phases of missionary effort will go far toward perpetuating the influence of the assembly in Edin burgh. The steps that have been taken, even within the short period since the holding of the conference, in co-operative organization of forces working in given countries are of great significance. While the tasks that still remain, some of them not yet begun, are immeasurable as compared with what has been done, yet never since the first century has the Christian church so definitely faced the g problem of the christianizing of the ¦ 5 world, nor have the forces of the church ¦ « been so well organized for the achieve- is ment of that end. ^ Within the limits of the time which 4 can reasonably be given to a reading course of the kind here proposed it is impossible to take even a cursory survey - of the entire field of modern missionary enterprise. Still less can the history of modern missions be covered. This course must, therefore, be limited to the study of the four great regions within which Christian missions are now being vigorously carried forward, but in the case of two of these something of the history of missionary work will be included. The four regions selected are (1) China, (2) Japan including Korea, (3) India, and (4) the lands in which Islam is dominant, including the Turkish Empire and Africa,. The end sought will be to give the reader a fairly vivid and accurate im pression of the work already achieved in these countries, of the tasks immedi ately impending, and of the forces avail able for these tasks. Such a survey should enable him to form a definite judgment on these questions: Are Christian missions to non-Christian lands justified? Have they thus far achieved results commensurate with the cost ? Is it permitted to hope that they may be ultimately successful ? Are young men and women warranted in devoting their lives to this work, and is it reason able for the church to contribute of its wealth for the prosecution of missions ? Such a study as is here undertaken should properly begin with a considera tion of the political, economic, social, educational, moral, and religious con dition of the countries under considera tion. This should be followed by the story of the introduction of Christianity into these lands and of the progress made since such introduction. To these might AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE then be added a survey of present-day conditions, an outlook upon the tasks and problems to be faced in the immedi ate future, and a survey of the forces available to accomplish these tasks. The limitations of the course, however, make impossible so full a study. A few books have been selected for each country, with a view to giving an intelligent account of the present situation in the lands under consideration, together with as much of the preliminary history as it is possible to include. Each of these books will be passed in review to assist the reader more effectively to gain the information that they contain. Additional books will be suggested for those who have time to carry this study farther and topics and questions for further study will be supplied. Books Required for The Course World's Missionary Conference Reports, 1910 (referred to below as the "Edin burgh Conference Reports"). New York: Revell. $5.00. The China Mission Year Book, 191 2. New York: Missionary Education Move ment. $1 . 50. Blakeslee (ed.). China and the Far East. Clark University Lectures, 1910. New York: Crowell. $2.00. Ross. The Changing Chinese. New York: Century Co. $2.40. Christian Movement in Japan, 191 2. New York: Missionary Education Move ment. $1.00. Cary. History of Christianity in Japan, Vol. II. New York: Revell. $2.50. Mission Handbook for India, 191 2. New York: Missionary Education Move ment. $1.50. Jones. India's Problem, Krishna or Christ. New York: Revell. $1.50. Richter. History of Missions in India. New York: Revell. $2.50. Lucas. The Empire of Christ. New York: Macmillan. $0.80. Barton. Day Break in Turkey. The Pil grim Press. $0. so-$i . 50. Stewart. Dawn in the Dark Continent. New York: Revell. $1.50. Gairdner. The Reproach of Islam. Lon don: C.M.S. 25. Barton. Human Progress through Missions. New York: Revell. $0.50 net. Literature Recommended for the Entire Course Dennis, Beach and Fahs. World Atlas of Christian Missions. New York: Revell. $4 . 00. The International Review of Missions. New York: Missionary Education Move ment. $2 . 00 a year. General Survey First among the required books of this reading course we place Vol. .1 of the Edinburgh Conference Reports in order to furnish a background of general information for the books deal ing with particular fields which are to fol low. It is in every way important that before China or India is entered a survey should be taken of missionary conditions and opportunities in the entire non-Christian world. It appears to not a few close observers of the world- evangelization endeavor that present-day conditions furnish a peculiarly urgent situation, and an irresistible mandate. The reader must judge as he continues his studies whether the facts warrant this conclusion. It is not rash to promise that the Report itself will be found illuminating reading. These nine little red books containing the proceedings and con clusions of the Edinburgh Conference will be approached by many, it is not unlikely, with reluctance. One would CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY like to be better informed, of course, regarding the most significant and serious of all twentieth-century enter prises. But is it really necessary to wade through these dull reports in order to reach the interesting matter ? Suspi cions such as these, not altogether with out justification in past experience, will be quickly dispelled. Not only has the material contained in these volumes the great value always attaching to first-hand information regarding a weighty undertaking, but it has been so skilfully sifted and collated and the indispensable introductions and summaries are prepared with so much care that each report possesses the effectiveness and charm of literary work manship. One need not be a mission ary enthusiast to find the Edinburgh Reports good reading. Some practical suggestions may here be offered as to the most effective method of attack upon report No. i, "Carrying the Gospel to All the Non-Christian World." Give attention first to the contents. Plainly, Part I, "The Op portunity and Urgency of Carrying the Gospel to All the Non-Christian World," comes first in its demand upon the reader. To the framers of this report the recognition, at the outset, of this "opportunity and urgency" is the premiss upon which the argument of the entire book hangs. Part III, "Factors in Carrying the Gospel to All the Non-Christian World," an enumeration of the instrumentalities upon which the church depends in its endeavor to meet the demand the non- Christian world makes upon it, should be read next. Give particular atten tion to the section in Part III, entitled, "The Superhuman Factor," weighing well the reply it offers to the tendency so common today to attribute the suc cess of missions entirely to such agencies as the school, the dispensary, the shop. The missionary enterprise cannot afford to purchase popularity and patronage at the cost of minimizing the super human factors. Prepared by these introductory studies we should be ready for Part II, "Survey of the Non-Christian World." You will make your survey under the guidance of experts. This accumula tion of material illustrating the condi tions which the missionary enterprise encounters the world over has been made through a very extensive corre spondence with the wisest and the best-informed men and women any where to be found in the missionary service. Read the "Survey" with the World Atlas of Christian Missions be fore you. Locate every country, prov ince, and city explicitly mentioned. An acquaintance with the geographical setting will often go far to elucidate a missionary problem. Be at the pains especially to study with the map the unoccupied and the overoccupied fields. Inquire of the map whether the mis sionary board of which you are a sup porter is making a sagacious distribution of its forces. But there is much information of great interest to be found in this atlas beside that contained in the maps. The great Directory of Missionary Societies, unequaled for its complete ness and correctness, gives a clear con spectus of the missionary activities of the home base; which, taken together with the extraordinarily full statistical AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE tables, enables the student to ascertain so far as figures can tell the story, just what has been accomplished, what par ticular endeavors are now being made, under what direction and with what re sources, in any given missionary field of the world. For edification and inspira tion few books are of greater value than this atlas. Part IV (of Vol. I of the Edin burgh Conference Reports), "Findings of the Commission," is a unique missionary document. For the first time in the his tory of missions, a series of recommenda tions has been put forth addressed to the entire missionary constituency of Prot estant Christianity regarding the par ticular tasks to be undertaken in the future and the particular policies to be pursued. This manifesto is so well supported by facts, it ignores so com pletely all denominational prejudices, it is so candid and so far-seeing, that it must carry great weight. We have long known in our hearts that it is not true that Like a mighty army Moves the Church of God. Rather is it moving upon the non- Christian world in detached regiments, each with its own banner and each following the counsel of its own wisdom or caprice. Certainly this confused and wasteful period of independent and even rival endeavors must be drawing to a close. Part I. China Books Required Edinburgh Conference Reports, passim, espe cially Vol. Ill, "Education." China Mission Year Book, 1912. Ross. The Changing Chinese. Blakeslee. China and the Far East. Books Recommended for Supplementary Reading and Reference Williams. Middle Kingdom. 2 vols. New York: Scribner. $9.00. Long the standard encyclopedic book on China from the missionary standpoint, and still quite indispensable. Dr. Williams was a missionary in China. Denby. China and Her People. Page. $3.00. A readable book giving the impressions which China made upon an intelligent American. Mr. Denby was United States Minister to China from 1885 to 1898. Broomhall. The Chinese Empire. Lon don: Morgan. $2.50. An encyclopedic work by one of the mis sionaries of the China Inland Mission, issued in 1908. Headland. Court Life in China. New York: Revell. $1.50. Dr. Headland, a missionary in Peking, knew the late empress dowager. His wife, as interpreter of Mrs. Conger to the empress dowager, and physician to many of the court ladies, gained intimate knowl edge of the situation in Peking in the last years of the Manchus. Gilmour. Among the Mongols. New York: Revell. $1.25. An extremely interesting book, ranking with the missionary classics; an informing and inspiring record of a unique experience. Changh Chih Tung. China's Only Hope. New York: Revell. $0.75. The author was from 1900 to his death in 1910 one of the most influential men in China, being in her last years one of the two councilors of the empress dowager who died in 1008. This book, issued in Chinese about 1896, in English in 1900, is theCWes°t. t0 ad°Pt the Iear°inS of Report of Shanghai Conference, 1907 The transactions of this famous conference otter a first-hand statement not to be found elsewhere of missionary opinion on vital questions. Ital CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Gibson. Mission Problems and Mission Methods in South China. New York: Revell. $i . 50. Dr. Gibson is one of the most successful and most thoughtful missionaries in China, and his book gives the reader insight into the tasks and problems of a modern mis sionary. Soothill. A Typical Mission in China. New York: Revell. $1.50. An attractive and trustworthy account of the everyday life of a missionary, with abundant and interesting details. Guiness. The Story of the China Inland Mission. New York: Revell. $1.00. Written by the daughter of Hudson Taylor, and presenting in an interesting fashion his point of view. Lewis. The Educational Conquest of the Far East. New York: Revell. $1.25. Deals with government and missionary education in Japan and China. Written in 1902, it gives a good idea of the old education in China and of the beginnings of the new. King. The Educational System of China. Washington : Government Printing Office. A brief but scholarly exposition of the new system of education introduced in 1901- 1905. Written in 1911, it brings the story down to the revolution. Burton. The Education of Women in China. New York: Revell. $1.25. After a brief account of the kind of educa tion which Chinese women received before the western invasion, Miss Burton sketches the growth of the new education, both mis sionary and native, from the first school in 1842 to 1910. Thompson. Life of Griffith John, Story of 30 Years in China. London: Religious Tract Society. $s. 6d. Valuable for the picture it offers of mission ary conditions in China in the last half of the nineteenth century. Lovett. James Gilmour of Mongolia. New York: ReveU. $1.75. Speer. Memorial of Horace Tracy Pitkin. New York: Revell. $1.00. Taylor. Pastor Hsi, Confucian Scholar and Christian. China Inland Mission. $1.50. Wing Yung. My Life in China and America. New York: Holt. $2.50. A very important contribution to the history of New China, especially valuable for its account of the Chinese Educational Mission to the United States. Burton. Notable Women in Modem China. New York: Revell. $1.25. Contains the life-story of six Christian Chinese women, several of them physicians educated in America, but all illustrating both the essential quality of Chinese womanhood and the effect of Christian education. The General Situation The China Mission Year Book for 1 9 1 2 represents a comparatively new sort of missionary literature. A Japa nese yearbook has reached its tenth issue and the first volume of an Indian yearbook is ready. These volumes wit ness most impressively to the deepening conviction of the men on the field that they are not merely foreign representa tives of denominational interests at home but servants of one Master, en gaged in a common task. Information on nearly every question an intelligent man is likely to ask regarding missions in China may be found somewhere within the covers of this book. The first four chapters have to do with recent political reconstructions and revo lutions. It is not at all clear that the order in which these chapters stand is the order in which they may most profitably be read. It does not greatly matter. In whatever order they are taken there will be repetition. Nor is this a fault. The subject demands the protracted study which reads and reads again. It has become a commonplace to speak of the epoch-making signifi cance of recent events in the Middle Kingdom. One does not explain a situa- AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE tion, however, by labeling it "epochal." It must always be possible to get at least a little way into an understanding of the causes and the meaning of the epoch, and in that search articles such as these of the Year Book are far more trustworthy guides than the picturesque and impressionist narratives of popular journalism. For a fresh impression of the religious situation in China, one should re-read the Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. I, pp. 81-89; and, to gain a notion of the extent of the Protestant Christian community, statistical tables in the Missionary Atlas, and p. 370 of the China Year Book should be consulted. Evangelization Modern missionary work has been forced in large part by its success to take on diversified forms. Besides the preacher is the physician, the teacher, the translator, the writer, and even the printer, publisher, and builder. This fact has given rise to serious questioning whether evangelistic work is being unduly neglected by the foreign mis sionary, or whether, on the other hand, it may not be the wisest policy as rapidly as possible to give over to the native Christian church the work of preaching the gospel to non-Christians, the foreign missionary confining his effort to over sight, education, and inspiration. The Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. I, dis cusses on pp. 298-316 the "Various Mis sionary Methods," and on pp. 318-43 the " Church in the Mission Field as an Evangelizing Agency"; and chap, ii of the China Mission Year Book has a symposium upon the matter. It is suggested that these be read in the order named, and that at the end the reader endeavor in view of the various opinions expressed to decide, if not precisely what the missionaries in China ought to do today, yet what is the goal toward which they ought to be working in this matter. Education The importance of education as an element of missionary work is more clearly and generally recognized today than ever before. Almost every Ameri can and European missionary society has at one time or another passed through a period of skepticism respect ing the value or legitimacy of education as a part of missionary work, and suf fered a reaction in favor of limiting its work to evangelism pure and simple. No society has experienced such an anti-educational movement without sub sequently finding reason deeply to regret it, and most of the societies that have been founded on a narrow platform of evangelization have been forced later to include educational work. In China the situation in respect to educational work conducted by mis sionary societies is so intimately con nected with the education conducted by the government that the former cannot be treated intelligently without some knowledge of the latter. The Chinese people have from time immemorial believed in education and reverenced educated men. There is no caste in China, and wealth has not carried with it the prestige which it confers in some western countries. Standing in the community and politi cal position have both depended mainly on education. Until 1905 eligibility to the highest offices was conditioned on CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY passing a series of examinations. Suc cess in the preliminary examination ad mitted the candidate to the examination for the first degree. In 1900 there were first-degree halls in about 250 cities, most of these being the chief city of a district. The examination for the second degree, open only to recipi ents of the first degree, was held in the eighteen provincial capitals. The examination for the third degree was held once in three years, in Peking. In Peking also once in three years an examination was held for the title of Han Lin, only those who held the third degree being eligible. For all these examinations the number of candidates was large, the number who succeeded small, and not a few spent their whole lives in the effort to reach the highest degree and the high official position to which it made one eligible. But there was no system of public or state schools. Preparation for the examinations was made under private tuition or in small private schools. The examination halls were a striking feature of the various capitals, but there were no academies, colleges, or uni versities. This was the situation when the Protestant missionary societies, about the middle of the last century, began, of course in a very small way, their educational work in China, and such continued to be the situation until the beginning of the present century. It was her defeat by Japan in 1895 that first gave China serious doubt as to the adequacy of her civilization in general and her education in particu lar. To have been conquered by a nation so much smaller raised the question what that other nation had acquired to make her so powerful. The answer was Western education, and the young emperor at once began to ask how China also could obtain it. The Boxer movement of 1900 was a temporary reaction, an attempt to repel the steady aggression of the West ern powers, not by acquiring their weapons, but by expelling them and exterminating all their works. When it failed, the empress dowager took up the policy for the adoption of which she had previously forced the young emperor into retirement, and reissued in effect his edicts, approving the movement in favor of Western ideas and education. As early as September, 1901, she issued a decree commanding the establishment of schools of various grades throughout the empire, in which, along with the Chinese classics, principles of govern ment and foreign science were to be taught. Various other decrees followed, culminating in those of September 2 and 3, 1905, definitely abolishing the old-style examinations and establishing a curriculum modeled mainly on that of Japan and composed chiefly of subjects of the Western learning. The decade from 1901 to 1911 was a period of great activity. In every province, schools of all grades were established from the most elementary to those which aspired to be universities but were in most cases little more than high schools. According to the third annual report of the minister of educa tion, published in 191 1, and covering the year 1910, there were in China 52,650 schools of different types, with a student body numbering 1,625,534 students, or about 1 in 250 of the total 10 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE population; the total amount expended was something over 24,000,000 taels, or about $16,000,000. The revolution of 191 1 was, of course, a serious blow to government education, since it cut off in large part its finan cial support. But the new republican government promptly organized a de partment of education, and appro priated for schools about two-thirds of the amount provided for that pur pose in the annual budget of the old government. To what extent the schools have actually been reopened, it is diffi cult to say definitely, but much progress has undoubtedly been made.1 The radical change in China's educa tional policy which has taken place since- 1895, and especially the friendly attitude of the new government to Christianity, have opened to the Chris tian educational forces working in China a great door of opportunity and responsi bility. Under the pressure thus created, rapid progress has been made in the direction of co-operation and co-ordina tion. Previous to 1900, there was very little union educational work, each board for the most part conducting its own schools. The destruction of mission property by the Boxers in 1900 furnished some opportunities for consolidation and the great demand for education and the correspondingly great opportunity for educational work have furnished a much greater spur to the union move ment. From the point of view of Christian education, the empire of China falls into the following great divisions: (1) South China, with Canton as the principal and Swatow a secondary center; (2) the Fukien Province, with Foochow as the principal and Amoy a secondary center; (3) East China, with Shanghai and Nan king as the centers; (4) Central China, with Hankow- Wuchang as the principal center and Changsha secondary; (5) North China, with Peking and Tientsin as the most important points; (6) West China, with Chengtu as the capital, and Chung King an important center; (7) Northwest China, including the prov inces of Shansi and Shensi; (8) the province of Shantung, lying between North and East China, with important educational work at Weihsien and Tsin- anfu; and (9) Manchuria, with Mukden as its capital. Each of these districts has its Chris tian educational work. In most of them there is a Christian college which is already, or is in the way of becoming, the unifying center of the educational work; nearly all of them have a Christian educational association representing va- various boards and denominations, and in nearly all decided progress has been made in the last five years in the co ordination of educational effort. West China is the first region that definitely co-ordinated all of its Christian education. The Christian Educational Union of West China, organized in 1905, has oversight of all elementary and sec ondary education in the three provinces that constitute West China. The West China Union University in Chengtu unites practically all denominations and boards in the work of higher education (see Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. VIII, Appendix G). > See address delivered by P. W. Kuo at the Clark University Conference, November, and published in the Chinese Student's Monthly, for December 10, 1912. 1912, CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY n In South China there is the Canton Christian College, and a South China educational association, and progress is making toward co-ordination of all lower schools with the college. The Chinese dean of this school, Mr. Chung, is also the director of government education for the province. In the province of Fukien, there are two colleges at Foo- chow for boys and one for girls, and two for boys at Amoy; but the project of a single Christian uni versity for the province is under con sideration. East China has colleges at Shanghai, Nanking, Soochow, and Hang- chow; but Nanking, with the University of Nanking under a board of trustees elected by four denominational mission boards, and with affiliated medical and theological schools, is rapidly becoming the co-ordinating center for the educa tional work of all the non-Episcopal boards; while St. John's University at Shanghai, often spoken of as the best college in China, represents the Episco pal church of America. In Central China, Boone University at Wuchang is conducted by the American Episco palians, Griffith John College in Hankow by the London Missionary Society, and Yale College in China at Changsha by the Yale University Mission. In North China there is the Peking University at Peking, the North China Union Col lege at Tungchow, the Anglo-Chinese College at Tientsin, and the North China Woman's College in Peking; but steps have already been taken toward the uniting of the first two of these, and there is already in Peking the Union Medical College, in which both British and American societies are working together. In the province of Shantung, the Shantung Union University with its college, and normal, theological and medical schools, is supported by the Presbyterians of the United States (North) and the English Baptists, with the co-operation of other boards working in that province. In Shansi, the Oberlin Memorial Association con ducts an academy at Taikuhsien, with ten affiliated schools. The educational work in Manchuria is chiefly conducted by the English and Scotch Presby terians, the latter having a college at Mukden.1 Throughout the whole field there is a tendency, manifest especially in the more advanced provinces, toward the de velopment in each great division of the republic of a unified system of Christian education, which shall include the schools of all the mission boards and of all kinds and grades. According to the World Atlas of Mis sions, published in 191 1, the total number of pupils in Christian schools in China, presumably in 19 10, was 79,953. The reader will do well to consult these statistics somewhat in detail. This is about one-twentieth of the number in the government schools in this same year. Since that date the number in government schools has probably de creased and that in Christian schools increased. But it is evident that there is no prospect that the Christian schools will rival the national schools in numbers. The aim must rather be to provide for China schools which, like the de nominational schools in America, shall 1 Cf. China Mission Year Book, 1912, chap, xviii, which is, however, already out of date on some points. 12 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE supplement the work of public schools and state institutions, filling a place otherwise unoccupied and doing a kind of work which the government schools cannot do as well, if at all. What is that place and work ? With this question chap, iii in the Edin burgh Conference Reports, volume on "Education," deals. The reader is ad vised to preface the reading of this chapter on China with chap, xi, setting forth the conclusions of the commission on the general subject of missionary education. Special attention is called to the section on the "Aim of Missionary Education," a topic on which, it will be noticed, the members of the commission were not wholly of one mind, and to the section on the importance of making the missionary aim predominant. After this, chap, iii should be read, and the portions of chaps, vii, viii, and ix that pertain to China. The discussion of the report on pp. 425-37 will also be of interest. Those who wish to go into the subject more fully will do well to obtain and read Lewis, The Educational Conquest of the Far East, which gives an excellent account of matters up to 1902; the "Report of the Commission on Educa tion" in the Report of the Shanghai Mis sionary Conference, 1907; King, The Educational System of China as Recently Reconstructed (U.S. Bureau of Educa tion Bulletin, 462, 1911); and Miss Burton's volume on The Education of Women in China. A vigorous criticism of government schools from a Chinese point of view is found in the China Mission Year Book for 1911, pp. 104-n. Literature and Intellectual Life Closely akin to the education of the schools as a factor in the extension of the influence of Christianity are the production, publication, and circulation of literature. Under this head fall not only the translation and publication of the Bible and of books of a distinctly religious character, but of many other books which either presuppose the prin ciples of' Christianity or are useful in the Christian schools. A good idea of the importance of such work may be gained from the Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. II, chap, vii, and Vol. Ill, chap. x. A general, though inadequate, knowledge of the work actually going on in China can be got from the China Mission Year Book for 191 2, chaps, xxi, xvi, and xix. Medical Work Medical missions, including hospitals and medical schools, occupy a very different place in China from that which they fill in Japan or even India. In Japan, the government itself makes large provision in both directions, and in India much is done by the British administration. In China, on the other hand, until recently, governmental and other native agencies have done very little in medical work. In 1909 there were but four government medical schools in the empire (two of these for the army and navy), and a very limited number of hospitals, if, indeed, there were any. On the other hand, the ex treme ignorance of the native practi tioner and the habitual neglect of the sick and unfortunate have led Christian missionaries to the establishment of numerous hospitals and medical schools. As a consequence (see the Atlas of Christian Missions, tables of medical work), it appears that while Japan (exclusive of Korea) had in i910 jDU(. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 13 10 Christian hospitals and 4 medical schools, and India 170 hospitals and 26 medical schools, China with a much smaller Christian population than that of India had 207 hospitals (the Year Book for 1912, p. 370, reports 235) and 55 medical schools. The subject is unfortunately very inadequately treated both in the Edin burgh Conference Reports and in the Year Book. But see the latter, pp. 260 ff., noting that the statistics on p. 262 cover less than half the whole number of hospitals. The sketches of the lives of the women physicians in Miss Burton's Notable Women of Modern China will give a more vivid impression of the need and value of medical work than statistics. Interdenominational and Undenominational Movements Among the many other topics dis cussed in the Year Book two deserve particular notice, namely, chaps, xiii and xvii, treating of independent and self-supporting Chinese churches and of the progress of the movement toward union and federation. These are both vital questions to Christian China. The missionaries are taking serious account of that fact. They desire nothing so much as to make themselves superfluous in China. The home boards are asking what their duty may be. Certainly we are all agreed at home and abroad that the enlightenment and guidance of the Holy Spirit are not con fined to English-speaking people. On this question, of so great immediate concern, Vol. VIII of the Edinburgh Reports should be consulted, and in particular pp. 191-97 and Appendices C and H. Among union movements mention should be made of the Young Men's Christian Association. This organiza tion has had most able leaders and has not only done a great service directly through its work for the Chinese, but has on the one hand exemplified, and so promoted, a broader conception of the scope of Christian missions, and on the other acted as a powerful unifying force among the missionary forces by securing the co-operation of all and demonstrat ing that sectarianism is not a necessary element of success. Chap, xxiv of the China Year Book gives some impression of the work. The report of the previous year gives fuller details of the evangel istic work of the association. The Young Women's Christian Asso ciation, which first entered China in 1903, is aiming to do a work for the higher class of women. Its work has not yet extended beyond a few of the larger cities. Roman Catholic Missions Inquiry is often made as to the present condition of Roman Catholic missions in China. The information is not easily obtained. It is the more gratifying to find that the Year Book publishes from authoritative sources quite complete statistics. It will prob ably surprise most of us that the Roman Catholic Christians (exclusive of Cate chumens) number eight times as many as the baptized Protestant Christians, and four times as many as the whole Protestant community. Summary To aid the student to gain a large view of the whole situation, and to com bine in some measure the data acquired 14 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE from other books, two books of a general character are included in the required reading. Professor Ross's book The Changing Chinese is chosen for use in this course because it gives a vivid record of the impression which China made upon an intelligent observer, who before he visited the country had no prejudice in favor of Christian missions and rela tively little interest in them. Though Ross is a trained sociologist, he has occasionally fallen into the fault of generalizing on too narrow a basis, and of accepting without verification the inaccurate testimony of well-meaning witnesses. In the absence of statistics it is difficult to say how many women in China can read, but it is probable that the statement that only one in a thou sand can do so is far below the facts. That one man in ten can read is probably not far from true if the statement refers to those who can read books. But doubtless a much larger number can read a few characters which they use in their business. Perhaps also Mr. Ross has exaggerated the somberness of life among the Chinese, being de ceived by the difference between their amusements and ours. But the book is nevertheless well worth reading and gives in the main a correct impression of China as it was in 1910. Espe cially interesting and mainly correct, we believe, is its analysis of social con ditions, its diagnosis of the causes of those conditions, both favorable and unfavorable, and its judgment as to the forces that must be depended upon to improve them. The readers of China and the Far East must make allowance for the fact that three momentous years in the history of the Orient have passed since these addresses were delivered. No intelligent person is altogether ignorant of the changes that have recently taken place in China, in Korea, in Japan. But it does not appear that the sub stantial value of the book has lessened in the lapse of time. The expert testimonies it offers on vital questions are still of great interest, and with small abatement as authoritative as ever. The reader will discover further to his gratification that every contributor to this discussion speaks for himself, indifferent to either the contradiction or agreement of his associates. The Clark University Lectures are not built upon a common thesis or body of doctrine. Some illustrations may be offered. An officer of the United States army in writing of "The Chinese Army," chap, x, rejoices that public opinion in China today honors the military profession which once it despised, and maintains that the Chinese army "is perhaps the greatest factor in the introduction of western thought and civilization." With this judgment it may be presumed that the Occident in general sympathizes. But Mr. Merrill of the Imperial Chinese Customs Service and long resident in China is of quite another opinion. "Let not China," he says, "be in a hurry to create a great army and navy; let her rather be the first in subscribing unreservedly to an international pact for compulsory arbitration; and thus shall she preserve her traditional character as a peace- loving nation." Mr. Merrill's article, "The Chinese Student in America," is CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IS one of the weightiest and most signifi cant in the volume. Comparison may profitably be made also between chaps, ii and iii. In chap. ii, " A Sketch of the Relations between China and the Western World," Mr. Holcomb is at pains to justify China's ancient policy of strict seclusion. His argument is summed up in the italicized passage, p. 28. In chap, iii-, "A Sketch of the Relations between the United States and China," Professor Williams, dealing with what is in effect the same topic, shows much less sympathy with China. He remarks upon the " vanity " of " the autocrat cooped up in his palace at Peking"; and holds that it was China's refusal to learn which made inevitable "a degree of compulsion from abroad." It should be noted, however, that Pro fessor Williams condemns "the attitude of hauteur and disdain toward the Chinese" so commonly adopted by Christian peoples. There is plain talk too in these lectures on both sides of the much- mooted question of imperialism. In Professor Blakeslee's Introduction we hear of "race-children," of "nation school-teachers," and of the unique school established by the United States from which the " race-child " may expect one day to graduate. In the same vein Mr. Millard, chap, iv, takes for granted, somewhat overconfidently per haps, the prevalence of "the American conception of the paternal relation of western to oriental nations"; and even issues a warning that our eastern policy will not be respected "until the world is convinced that failure to meet our reasonable wishes carries a probability of war." On the other hand, Professor Williams, pp. 53, etc., is not at all disposed to assume "the white man's burden." "It is a dangerous thing when any nation undertakes the work of a schoolmaster." "No nation in the past has emerged very creditably from the self-appointed task of instructing another." While China and the Far East is not distinctively a missionary book, its attitude toward missions will be found in general kindly and appreciative. Three papers, "The Opium Problem," "The New Learning of China," and "Conditions Favorable or Otherwise in China's Development," deal with matters with which the missionary today is necessarily concerned. Three papers besides are concerned directly with the missionary enterprise. Harlan Beach's History of Christian Missions in China deserves special notice for its recognition, not often so ungrudgingly made, of the benefits conferred upon China by three centuries of Roman missions. There will be dissent no doubt from his criticism (p. 259) of the respective methods of Protestant and Roman missionaries. But the criticism is not lightly offered. Professor Moore's The Progress of Religious Education in China considers a theme which more than any other presented in this volume claims just now the attention of all serious supporters of the missionary enterprise. It should be read and re-read before the book is laid aside. If the government schools have abandoned, for the present at least, the ancient Confucian discipline, surrendering to the Christian schools the monopoly of religious and moral instruction, the missionary opportunity and responsi- i6 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE bility in China today have an unmeasur- able significance and urgency. Biographies To bring oneself into the heart of mis sionary work and into sympathetic touch with it, nothing is more useful than biographies. We commend to the reader those which are mentioned in the list of recommended books. Questions for Review and Discussion i. What elements of the situation In China commend the country to you as one in which western Chris tians ought to be interested? Does the situation make a special appeal to Americans? If so, why? 2. Are Christian missions in China justified? If so, by what considera tions ? 3. What should be the aim of Christian missions in China? Do you agree with the majority or with the minority of the Edinburgh Commission on Education in their definition of the purpose of missionary education? Would you give the same definition of the purpose of missionary work in gen eral as of education ? 4. What forms of missionary work are called for in China? What is the order of their present importance? 5. What are the most important centers of educational work in China and what type of educational work is most important today ? 6. Is the tendency to union and co-operation a desirable one? If so, how far ought it to be carried (a) in education; (b) in medical work; (c) in the organization of the Christian church in China ? Part II. Japan Boohs Required Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. I, chapter on "Japan," and Vol. Ill, chapter on "Japan." Christian Movement in Japan. 1913. Cary. History of Protestant Christianity in Japan, Vol. II. Boohs Recommended for Supplementary Reading and Reference Clement. Handbook of Modern Japan. McClurg. $1.40. Well described by its title. Knox. Japanese Life in Town and Country. New York: Putnam. $1.20. A work by the late Professor George W. Knox, who, after sixteen years as a mission ary to Japan and a like period as lecturer and professor in the Union Theological Seminary in New York, died last year in Korea, while on a lecturing tour in oriental countries. The book, written some years ago, is both interesting and instructive. Mackenzie. The Unveiled East. New York: Dutton. $3 . 50. Mackenzie is an Englishman who wrote in 1907 before Korea had been annexed to Japan. His story needs to be suppler mented by a record of the more recent events. His chapters on missionary work are instructive. Weale, B. L. Putnam. The Coming Struggle in Eastern Asia. New York: Macmillan. $3 . 50. The author, who' writes under the pseudo nym B. L. Putnam Weale, is an English man who was in Peking through the siege of 1900 and has been much in the East since. The present volume is the fourth extended work which he put out between 1903 and 1907 on the Russo-Chino- v^anfS1 sltuation- In them he gradually shitted from a pro-Japanese to an anti- Japanese position. Chaps, iii and iv should be read by any who are interested in the question whether Japan is likely from a financial point of view to desire soon to go to war. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 17 Gulick. Evolution of the Japanese, Social and Psychic. New York: Revell. $2.00. A collection of addresses brought into unity by the common aim of a sympathetic interpretation of the characteristics of the modern Japanese. The discussions take a wide range. Very informing and readable. Nitobe. The Japanese Nation. New York: Putnam. $1 . 50 net. The most recent of the books in this list. Professor Inazo Nitobe is a Christian man who holds a high place in the governmental educational system. His book, intended mainly to convince Americans of the sin cerity and honorable intentions of his nation, is full of information generally interesting. Those who read Mackenzie and Weale should also read Nitobe. Nitobe. Bushido, The Soul of Japan. New York : Putnam . $1.25. A most interesting book in which the gifted author first sets forth the moral ideals of the Old Samurai sympathetically from the point of a Japanese, and then points out its inadequacy. Clement. Christianity in Modern Japan. Am. Baptist Pub. Society. $1 . 00. This is a general survey of Christian Missions, Roman Catholic, Greek, and Protestant, since 1853. Griffis. The Mikado' s Empire. New York: Harper. $4 . 00. Does for Japan what The Middle Kingdom does for China. An indispensable book, if not always easy reading. Griffis. Verbeck of Japan. New York: Revell. $1 . 50. A standard biography in missionary litera ture, the picture of a unique man in unique environment. Davis. Joseph Hardy Neesima — A Maker of New Japan. New York : Revell. A brief, readable account of a great man. No student of Japan should neglect this important book. Griffis. Korea, The Hermit Nation. Underwood. The Call of Korea. Jones, J. H. Korea, The Land, the People, the Customs. Mrs. Underwood. Fifteen Years among the Topknots. The' four books last named, all but the first by missionaries in Korea, may well supplement the views of that country given in Weale and Mackenzie. The General Situation In turning from China to Japan one encounters many contrasts. Instead of a population estimated at 400,000,000 in China, Japan proper has about 50,- 000,000 and including Korea and For mosa 65,000,000. Instead of a country which with present facilities of travel it requires six weeks to cross, one is in a land of well-built and well-operated railroads with which one can traverse the country, from one end to the other, in forty-eight hours. Instead of a country which, just emerging from a political revolution and only a little more than a decade removed from an even more significant revolution of thought and ideals, is in the process of remaking its political organization, its finance, its education, and its social institutions, one finds in Japan a strong and well- organized government occupying an assured place among the governments of the world, a thorough and complete system of schools, a people conscious of their own strength and confident of their own destiny. Yet much of all this is very recent. Only a little over fifty years ago Japan was more tightly closed against the outside world than China was in 1895. And less than fifty years ago (in 1868) the emperor, who died in 191 2, recovered the imperial power which for centuries his ancestors and predecessors on the throne had held only in name, while the real power was in the hands of the Shoguns. Japan, with a history reaching back to pre-Christian times, is in spirit one of the most youthful nations in the world. Limited in territory, separated from the continent of Asia as Great Britain is from that of Europe, Japan has often AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE and appropriately been compared with England . How m atters will stand when China has been fifty years a member of the great world-wide family of nations is difficult to predict, but today Japan is the most vigorous force among the peoples of the Eastern hemisphere — the little giant of the East, the Great Britain of the Orient. No student of world-history, no lover of his race, can ignore Japan. Her own future is of vast importance; her influence on the future of other nations may be of greater significance. The Christian Movement in Japan, 1912, will be of great service in gaining a knowledge of the present condition of affairs, though the volume was issued too late to make mention of the death of the emperor Mutsuhito or the return of Prince Katsura to power (cf. p. 6), or, of course, his subsequent resignation, none of which events, how ever, suffices seriously to disturb the stability of Japan's government. First of course, let the general survey both of foreign and of domestic affairs be read. It is good to find that the renewal of the Anglo- Japanese Alliance appears to Christian opinion in Japan a step forward in the world-wide peace movement. Attention should be given in this connection to chap, iii, "Recent Developments of the Peace Movement in Japan," from which it appears that the peace sentiment in Japan is really much stronger than our newspapers are always willing to admit. The short statement covering the budget on p. 9 suggests both the heavy burden which Japan still carries as the sequel of her wars of 1895 and 1905, and the prudence with which her finances are handled. One of the most significant events of recent history from the point of view of the progress of Christianity is that referred to on pp. 11-17. The various other matters discussed on pp. 17-43 will all illustrate how closely Japan is in touch with western nations and shares their problems. Those who desire to inform them selves more fully respecting present- day conditions in Japan are referred to the works of Clement (Handbook), Knox, Nitobe (Japanese Nation), Weale, named above in the list of books rec ommended. It would be well also to read the Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. I, pp, 50-80. Korea (or Chosen as its new name is) and Formosa, though so recently acquired, and so separated geographi cally and racially as not usually to be thought of as parts of Japan, are politically integral elements of the Japanese empire. Formosa belonged to China till 1895, when it fell to Japan as the result of the war of that year. Nearly seven-eighths of the popula tion are Chinese. Japan's acquisition of Korea was the outcome of a series of events which, beginning in 1904 with a protocol between the two countries, culminated in the proclamation of 1910 incorporating Korea in Japan under the name of Chosen. Korea, already bi lingual, is now becoming tri-lingual. Religion The constitution of Japan guarantees religious liberty. There is, therefore, strictly speaking, no state religion. Yet Shintoism is in a sense the national religion. It is indigenous to Japan and its origin is lost in antiquity. It fs a CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY J9 combination of ancestor-worship and nature-worship. Its supreme deity is the sun-goddess from whom the emperor is held to be descended. It has numer ous beautiful temples throughout Japan, in which there are shrines and priests, but no idols, no altar, and no sacrifice. It has no sacred books. It teaches no dogma and little or no ethics. Accord ing to Viscount Suematsu, the essential notion of its ethics is cleanliness of con science and its ideals of conduct are honesty and straightforwardness. Ac cording to Professor B. H. Chamberlain, the sum of its theory of human duty is "follow your natural impulses and obey the Mikado's decrees." By some, Shin- toism is regarded rather as a cult of Japanese patriotism than as a religion in the proper sense. At the head quarters of Shinto in the province of Ise it was recently declared that Shinto- ism is "an association to perpetuate the memory of Japan's single line of emperors and to foster the principles of Japanese patriotism." It is not impossible that in the course of time under the influence of modern ideas the worship of deities may disappear and that of deified human beings become rather an act of respect than of worship in the strictly religious sense. In that case Shintoism might survive as the cult of patriotism only. As yet it seems necessary to reckon it among religions. Buddhism was introduced into Japan from China by way of Korea in the sixth century a.d. But while in Korea it has almost ceased to exist and in China it is decadent, in Japan it still flourishes in full vigor. Combined for a time with Shintoismi it has been formally separated since the Buddhist priests were expelled from Shinto temples at the time of the Restoration in 1868. But the two re ligions are atill combined in the sense that many of the common people are as much Shintoists as Buddhists, and vice versa. Of late years, under the stimu lus of Christianity, Buddhism has taken on new vigor. Having adopted from Christianity its missionary methods and to some extent its ideas, it is now con tending with Christianity for the leader ship of Japanese religious thought and life. Buddhism has today in Japan not only its temples, idols, sacred books, and imposing ritual, but its schools of theology, its preachers, and its propa ganda. Like Hinduism in India it combats Christianity while endeavoring to absorb and assimilate what it regards as the essential features of Christianity. It is said to be a common contention of the Buddhist priests that Buddhism is the religion of wisdom, Christianity that of love, and there is no reason why the two should not be combined. The combination would, however, from their point of view be Buddhism and not Christianity. Buddhism has largely vanished from India, China, and Korea. It is still strong in Ceylon, Burma, Thibet. But Japan is today its chief stronghold. Japanese Buddhism is di vided into six principal sects, themselves divided into sub-sects numbering 36 in all. Its weakness is its low morality, its extreme individualism, and the ab sence of any strong motive to noble action. The Confucian moral philosophy was introduced into Japan toward the close of the sixteenth century, and from the seventeenth century on study of the 20 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE Chinese classics formed an important part of the education of the Samurai and in this way exerted an important influence on the moral ideas of the Japanese. The Bushido, the code of morals of the Samurai, which made loyalty and unlimited devotion to the emperor cardinal virtues, was itself largely influenced by Confucianism. Yet Confucianism as such has never held the place of importance in Japan that it has had in China. See further, Nitobe, Bushido, and chap, vii in The Japanese Nation. When the Protestant missionaries entered Korea about thirty years ago they found a people almost without religion except ancestor-worship and a superstitious fear of demons. Buddhism had been powerful in past days : indeed Japanese Buddhism came from Korea; and the few educated Koreans were familiar with the Chinese classics. But Buddhism had lost its power and Con fucianism had little influence even over the upper classes. Today practically the only religion of the country worthy to be called a religion at all is Chris tianity. It is a notable fact that while in 1909 Protestant Christianity had been at work in Korea only about half as long as in Japan and a quarter as long as in China, there were in Korea, in pro portion to the population, five times as many members of Protestant Christian churches as in Japan and more than ten times as many as in China. If one compares adherents instead of communi cants, the contrast is even more strik ing, there being, relatively to popula tion, nine times as many in Korea as in Japan and fifteen times as many as in China. This disparity of numbers is probably fully as great now as in 1909. On the situation in Korea today, see Christian Movement in Japan, 1912, chap. xxii. On the trial of Christians for conspiring to kill the Governor- General, see Literary Digest for January 25, 1913. P- i8gi- History of Missions in Japan The three hundred and fifty pages of Dr. Cary's History of Protestant Chris tianity in Japan make a rather formid able demand upon the reader. But, upon trial, the book is easily manageable. Its arrangement is simple, its style clear, its material interesting and authentic' Dr. Cary went to Japan in 1879 and has been himself a part of much that he narrates. The table of contents with appended dates offers an outline of the history which can easily be mastered and held in mind. The reader will find a serviceable index and map. Four plainly marked characteristics of Protestant Christianity in Japan may be traced through the course of this history: (a) the early acceptance of Christianity by Japanese of the higher class; (b) the dissatisfaction of Japanese Christians from the beginning with occidental denominationalism; (c) the anti-theological or anti-dogmatic spirit of the Japanese churches, as shown in the frequent revision or rejection out right of the accepted doctrinal state ments of Western Christianity; (d) the importance attached to the institutional aspect of religion as shown by the pro posals seriously made from time to time that Christianity with various modifications should be adopted as the official religion of the state. Dr. Cary, in his preface, disclaims all CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 21 desire to philosophize and bids "him who reads draw his own lessons from the story." Certain "lessons" lie very near the surface. It is easy in read ing missionary reports to make too much of statistics of "accessions" and "conversions" as an indication of the conquests made by the Christian propa ganda. Twenty years ago there were predictions here at home of the speedy arrival of a "Japanese Constantine." Seventeen years more — why just seven teen years is not plain — and Japan would have become a Christian nation. Further, the ancient assumption, only recently subjected to a serious scrutiny, that occidental Christianity must be duplicated on the foreign field should receive from this narrative its death blow. And lastly, the story of missions, both in China and in Japan, reminds us of the immense opportunities for the largest Christian service that this enter prise offers. We are still talking of mis sions as though they were merely a matter of the evangelization of heathen communities, and the faithful carrying- out of board policies and programs, for getting that this endeavor has won its victories in the past because in the Providence of God there have never been wanting to it men of rich intel lectual and spiritual gifts, magnanimous, sagacious, courageous, willing with all their hearts to drudge when drudgery is required, but competent also to meet extraordinary emergencies and to direct the large affairs of the kingdom of God. Evangelization and Christian Union As respects the present condition of the Japanese Christian community, the problems that are agitating it and the progress that it is making, The Chris tian Movement in Japan for 191 2 must be our chief source of information. So far as bare figures are concerned, the tables folded in at the end tell the story, and compared with the tables in the volume for the past year show that the members of Christian churches increased within the year from 78,875 (including about 15,000 baptized children and probationers) to 83,638 (including about 17,000 baptized children and proba tioners). The Roman Catholic Chris tians number 66,689 and the Greek Catholics 32,246. Distribution of Christian Forces, which should be read with the map at hand, shows that the unevangelized area of Japan is still very large. Questions of overlapping, of the duplication of effort, of the delimitation of territory, have been considered in view of the growth of the kingdom of God, and not of denomi national aggrandizement. Paragraphs 5 on p. 232 and 5 on p. 237 should be studied in view of what has already been said of movements toward church fed eration and unity. In connection with this chapter we may turn to Appendix I, "The Eleventh General Meeting of the Conference of Federated Missions in Japan," to learn what progress the Japanese churches are making toward the organization of the Christian church of Japan. It may seem to the reader, however, a fair question whether or ganic church union is really desirable. And are the Japanese churches in fact anticipating it? Appendix III, "Chronology of the Christian Move ment," is a convenient table which may well be employed in a rapid review of Cary's History. 22 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE Very important in the "Survey of Domestic Affairs" is the assurance (p. 15) that Christianity will hereafter receive official recognition. This does not mean, of course, that Christianity, as was once confidently predicted, has become the official religion of Japan. It is, however, one of the religions of Japan. It is no longer a foreign re ligion, to be merely tolerated. It has its own rights and privileges. If this is not the complete fulfilment of Dr. Cary's forecast on the last page of his History, that "ere many more decades pass away there will be a Christian Japan," it is a close approximation to it. There is still a Buddhist Japan. There is also a Christian Japan. Remembering that Korea is now an integral part of Japan, we may revert to China and the Far East and Mr. Hall's chapter on "Religious Conditions in Korea," which tells the story unparal leled in the history of missions, the establishment, namely, within a quarter of a century in the "country without a religion" of a self-supporting and self- propagating native church. Inciden tally, Mr. Hall raises "the burning question" of modern missions. There is a gratifying exhibition of comity and of co-operation among the several denominations at work in Korea. But can we not do better ? Shall there be one day, and soon, the undivided church of Christ of Korea? On the whole situation see the very instructive Missionary Survey of 191 2, by J. H. Oldham in The International Review of Missions for January, 1913. Education In no respect is the contrast between China and Japan more striking than in respect to the educational situation. In the fifty years since Japan opened her doors to Western influence she has developed a remarkably strong and complete educational system. This sys tem begins with the kindergarten and extends through elementary, middle, and high schools, to the university. It includes technical and professional schools of various classes and grades. The Imperial University of Tokyo has 4,600 students and ranks with European and American universities. The other three imperial universities are smaller. Besides the public and governmental schools there are many private institu tions, notable among them the Waseda University with 8,000 students, the Keiojugiki with 3,000 students, and the Woman's University with over 1,000 students — all these in Tokyo. Ele mentary education is compulsory and it is claimed that over 95 per cent of the children of school age actually attend school each year. The figures for Japan would be still higher if the pupils had their way. Large numbers who are completing one period of education and wish to go on to a higher grade are prevented from doing so by the limits of the capacity of the school. In the United States about 1 in 5 of the popula tion is in school; in Japan about 1 in 8; in China about 1 in 240. In China 1 in about 6,000 is in a Christian school; in Japan about 1 in 3,000. In other words, the total school attendance in Japan is thirty times that in China in pro portion to population; but the attend ance at Christian schools in Japan, only twice that in China. For a brief but informing descrip tion of the governmental system of CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 23 education see A. Pieters in Christian Movement in Japan, for 1900; for a fuller discussion see Kikuchi, Japanese Education; also article on "Japan" in The Encyclopedia of Education, edited by Paul Monroe, and chap, viii of Nitobe, Japanese Nation. The situation in respect to Christian education is extremely interesting, and one may perhaps justly say critical. The law of compulsory education, the strength of the government schools and their rapid development in recent years, together with the fact of insufficient support for Christian schools has brought it about that the more elementary Christian schools are actually diminish ing in number and size, and while the higher schools are growing, they are relatively behind. Especially notewor thy is the lack of facilities for schools for higher education in which leaders of the Christian community might be trained under Christian influences. This fact is the more significant because by reason of the crowded condition of all government institutions it is almost impossible for a boy who begins his education in Christian schools to make the transfer to government schools for his higher education. Some intelligent observers believe that only by an early and noteworthy development of Chris tian schools in Japan can a loss of influence and an eventual decrease in numbers on the part of the Christian community be averted. Chap, iv of the Christian Movement in Japan on "Christian Education" is perhaps for our purposes the most important section of the book. Cary's History will have already awakened interest in what is said (pp. 57~S9) of the Doshisha. The frank confession of serious defects in theological educa tion, the failure of the Christian colleges to meet the demands made upon them, the relation of the middle schools to the government system, these are all topics of the first importance to those who are expecting the Christianizing of Japan. After this we may well read the Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. Ill, chap, iv, and pp. 307, 308, 385-90, and then return to the Christian Move ment in Japan for comparison of statis tics. Notice that the figures in the Christian Movement, chap, iv, include Roman Catholic schools: compare the tables at the end of the volume. Con sider, as you read, what would be neces sary in order to meet the situation ade quately. Would a Christian university solve the problem ? When the Christian missionaries entered Korea they found almost as little education as religion. Very few schools remained, and these ex tremely inefficient. Availing themselves of an excellent alphabet which had lain unused for five hundred years, while the few who read at all used the far more difficult Chinese ideographs, the missionaries soon began the production of literature and the establishment of schools. Soon after Japan established her protectorate over the country, she began also to develop schools, but until annexation in 1910, moved rather slowly in the matter. In 1909 about 60 schools were directly supported by the govern ment, some of which were well organized and equipped, and a limited number of private schools were aided by the government. On the other hand, there were at this time nearly 1,600 missionary 24 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE schools, some of them well organized and conducted, but the large majority of them elementary country schools. Since annexation, the Japanese govern ment has undertaken the development of popular education, and Christian schools have diminished in number, though they have probably improved in quality. Exact figures are not at hand for either missionary or government schools. But see Christian Movement in Japan, 1912, p. 373. Literature One of the most deeply felt needs of the Christian community in Japan is a literature. The Bible of course has been translated, and has recently undergone revision. See Biblical World, Novem ber, 191 2. Much has also been done in the way of producing hymns and other distinctly religious literature. But in a country of as high a degree of general intelligence and education as Japan, especially in a country so completely exposed to the materialistic and anti- Christian influence exerted by much of the literature produced in Christian lands and imported into Japan, it is of the highest importance that there should also be a good body of general literature permeated with Christian ideas. In the language of one of the most eminent members of the Japanese Christian community, himself a writer of international reputation, what is most needed is literature that is not avowedly religious, but is written by men who take the ethical point of view, unaffectedly expressing it in whatever they write. Such literature may be history, biography, essays, or fiction. It is the more surprising, therefore, that until very recently there has been in Japan no general organization for the publication of Christian literature, and cause of congratulation that a permanent committee has now been organized. See Christian Movement in Japan, 1910, pp. 263 ff. (cf. also pp. 225 ff.); 1911, pp. 122-31; I9i2,p. 128. In January, 1913, the name of the committee was changed to "The Christian Literature Society of Japan," and it is to be hoped that the new organization may be even more effective than the Christian Literature Society in China, which has done a work of very broad scope, though mainly by translation. For the Christian Move ment in Japan, 191 2, chaps, v-vii, makes it evident that Japan is no longer de pendent upon translations of Western Christian books. Her religious litera ture is increasingly indigenous, written by Japanese scholars for their country men. There could be no more con vincing evidence that Christianity has really taken root in Japan. The need of Korea (Chosen) is quite different from that of Japan. The Christian community is much less advanced intellectually, and the non- Christian community is as yet much less affected by Western ideas than is the case in Japan. Some idea of what is doing and a fair notion of what is needed can be gathered from Christian Movement in Japan, 191 2, pp. 371, 374. Suggestion* for Review 1. Compare China and Japan in respect to (a) extent of territory, (b) number of population, (c) essential race qualities, (d) race traditions, especially from the point of view of democracy and aristocracy, (e) moral character CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 25 (/) strength and stability of government, (g) education, (h) probable future influ ence on the world and on human history. 2. Compare the Protestant Christian communities of China and Japan in respect to (a) absolute number, (b) num ber in relation to population, (c) influ ence on the nation. 3. Compare the Roman Catholic communities in the two countries and note their size relative to the Protestant communities. 4. Compare Christian education in China and Japan in extent and strength. Why is Christian education so weak in Japan compared with education main tained by the government and by voluntary effort of non-Christians? What is the outlook for Christian educa tion in Japan ? Ought it to be strength ened ? If so, how ? Does the situation in Japan throw any light on the present opportunity in China ? 5. Ought the foreign missionaries in Japan to withdraw and leave Japanese Christianity to work out its own destiny ? If so, why? If not, why not? 6. Sum up the situation in Korea, in respect to (a) character of the people, (6) their future as a whole and politically, (c) standing of the Christian community, (d) the greatest needs, (e) the duty of Japanese Christianity in relation to Korea, (/) the lines along which western missionaries should work in Korea. Part III. India and Ceylon Books Required Year Book of Missions in India for 1912 (Vol. I). Jones. India's Problem: Krishna or Christ. Revell. $1 . 50. Richter. History of Missions in India. Revell. $2 . 50. Books Recommended for Supplementary Reading Jones. India: Its Life and Thought. New York: Macmillan. $2.50. Topics relating to India are discussed with skill and first-hand knowledge. The closing chapter, on "The Progress of Christianity in India," is hopeful and optimistic. An unusually attractive book. Fraser, Andrew. Among Indian Rajahs and Ryots. Lippincott. $4.00. The author was a "civil servant" in India for twenty-five years. Writes in entire sympathy with Christian work and with a store of fresh information regarding political and social conditions. Oman. Brahmins, Theists, and Muslims of India. Jacobs. $3 . 50. Popular studies of curious and unfamiliar aspects of religious life in India. Attitude toward Christian teaching unsympathetic. Slater. Higher Hinduism in Relation to Christianity. Revell. $1 . 50. Written by a L. M. S. missionary to set forth " the true genius of Hinduism and its fundamental distinction from Christianity." A scholarly book and likely to be accepted as standard. Frazer, R. W. A Literary History of India. Unwin. 125. 6d. A scholarly work on this important aspect of India's history. Cowan. The Education of Women of India. Revell. $1.25. A survey of what is being done today for the education of women by the Indians themselves, the government, and the mis sionaries, with a brief historical introduction. 26 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE Eddy. India Awakening. Missionary Edu cation Movement. $o. 50; paper, $0.35. A trustworthy discussion in a popular style of important topics relative to Indian missions. Adapted to class study. Smith. Life of Henry Martyn. Revell. $i-S°- Smith. Life of William Carey. Revell. Smith. Life of Alexander Duff. Revell. Judson, Edw. Life of Adoniram Judson. Am. Bapt. Pub. Soc. $2.00. The General Situation The term India as officially used by the British government denotes the territory ruled by the Viceroy of India. It thus includes the great Indian penin sula from the Himalaya Mountains on the north to Cape Comorin on the south, and Burma from the Bay of Bengal on the south and west to Assam and Tibet on the north and west, and the Chinese frontier and Siam on the east. The island of Ceylon, on the other hand, is not under the Viceroy, but has its own governor and is administered under the Colonial Office. Geographically and from the point of view of Christian missions, however, Ceylon is as closely related to the Indian peninsula as is Burma, and the present portion of our study, while dealing chiefly with India proper, will follow the example of the Year Book of Missions in India, and include both Burma and Ceylon. Between the peoples inhabiting this great territory and those of China and Japan there are certain marked con trasts. The Chinese are practically of one race and language; the same is true of the Japanese if we exclude the Koreans. In Burma there are six or eight races each with its own language, and in India proper a far larger number. According to recent authorities the languages of India and Burma (not including Ceylon) number 147. Japan has a strong and wholly independent government; China, having just freed herself from the rule of the Manchu, has set up an independent and purely Chinese republic. In India there are numerous native states (694 in all), but their population is less than one-fourth of the total population of the Indian Empire, and they are only somewhat less directly, not less really, subject to the rule of England than are the other three- fourths of the people who live in the provinces and presidencies administered by British governors and lieutenant- governors. In education India is far behind Japan, and though under the fostering care of the British government it has developed a more perfectly organ ized system of modem education than exists in China, the hereditary apprecia tion of education and desire for it is far less in India than in China, and illiteracy is even now greater. In China the three great non-Christian systems of ethics and religion blend together, and in Japan Shintoism and Buddhism are not in sharp antagonism. In India, on the other hand, Hinduism, Mohammedan ism, Buddhism, and Par-seeism are almost as sharply distinguished from one another as each of them is from Chris tianity. But more striking and im portant is the difference in the attitude toward religion as such. Confucianism, which has dominated the thought of China for twenty-five centuries, is rather a system of ethics than of religion. In response to an official inquiry, 3,000 students in the University of Tokyo reported themselves as agnostics, 1,500 CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 27 as atheists, 60 as Christians, 50 as Buddhists, and 8 as Shintoists. Among the more than three Hundred and fifteen million people of India, only 50 avowed themselves as agnostics in the census of 191 1 and 17 as atheists. This differ ence is, moreover, more than superficial. To the people of India religion is an essential element of life. Akin to the sharpness of distinction between religions and carrying the division still farther, is the great fact of caste which divides the two hundred and seventeen mil lion Hindus into multitudinous, sharply separated communities. Of these various influential elements of the situation in India, the presence of the British ruler makes for unity and solidarity; the diversity of races, lan guages, and religions makes for division and insularity. But the existence of the divisive forces demands the con tinuance of the British rule and makes for its perpetuation. The fifty million people of Japan are bound together by unity of race and nationality and an intense national patriotism. The four hundred million Chinese are of one race and speak one language, and though national feeling is not as strong as in Japan, it is becoming stronger every day and is unopposed by any barriers of race, language, or religion. But the people of India are not a race and India is not a nation. Nor does it seem possible that it should become so for generations to come. And because there is no ade quate basis for national unity, there is no probability of foreign rule being dis placed by a native and independent empire or republic. Coming into India in the seventeenth century in the person of the East India Company purely for purposes of trade, displacing the com pany and establishing a . government under the crown and parliament in 1858, England has in the last hundred years become more and more aware of the enormous moral responsibility under which she has placed herself, and has, with constantly increasing conscien tiousness and success, addressed herself to the almost limitless task of promoting the welfare of the people of India through a righteous and stable govern ment. In this government the Indians themselves are by England's desire and intent receiving a constantly increasing share, but the day when England can withdraw from India is probably still far in the future. These facts must be kept in mind as we read: the diversity of races, lan guages, and religions, and the existence of caste; the deep religiousness of practically all of the people, especially of the inhabitants of India proper; the relatively low rate of literacy, the pres ence of the firm controlling hand of England in all matters political, and in no small measure in education also. It will be well to begin our reading with chap, i of Jones, India's Problem, and to follow this with chap, i of Year Book of Missions in India, of which Dr. Jones is also the chief editor. The former volume was written ten years ago, and its general statistics are those of the census of 1891. The Year Book, on the other hand, is able to make use in part of the statistics of 191 1 and in part of the Quadrennial Report on Education of 1907. This fact should be borne in mind in comparing figures. It should also be remembered that in India's Problem Dr. Jones is speaking of India 28 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE proper, not including either Burma or Ceylon, while both of these come within the scope of the Year Book. In reading PP- Si—S3 of India's Problem, and p. 3 of the Year Book dealing with the political situation, it is to be remembered that in the decade which separates these two books there was a strong development of the national spirit, expressing itself, especially from about 1906 to 1909, in bitter opposition to the British govern ment and in some instances even in attempted assassination of British officials, and constraining the govern ment to strong repressive measures. The attempt to assassinate the present Viceroy in December, 191 2, was, of course, subsequent to the publication of the Year Book, but according to recent reports from India seems to have called forth strong expressions of disapproval from influential Indians and rather to have strengthened than weakened the hold of the government upon the people. The discussion of religion and education in these introductory chapters is pre liminary. These subjects will be taken up more fully a little later. Religion The strong hold of religion upon the Indian people referred to above gives especial importance to this phase of our study. "India is," as Dr. Jones re marks, "the mother of religions." An exhaustive study of the religions of India, especially of Hinduism with its manifold phases and voluminous sacred literature, is of course beyond the scope of this course.1 But the instructive chapters of Dr. Jones (India's Problem, chaps, ii, iii, and iv, 1), supplemented by those of Mr. Larsen on Hinduism, Mr. Saunders on Buddhism, and Mr. Wherry on Mohammedanism (Year Book, chap. ii), are adequate to give one a general idea of the complex religious situation which confronts the Christian mission aries in India and Ceylon. The Year Book is especially valuable as showing how matters stand at the present day, and in particular what modifications of Hinduism and what counter-movements have resulted from the presence and influence of Christianity. History In India's Problem, chap, vi, Dr. Jones gives a brief but very instructive sketch of the history of Christianity in India from the second century to the ending of the nineteenth. It will be well to begin with this chapter, in prepa ration for the fuller treatment of the subject in Richter's volume. Dr. Richter's History is one of the indispensable books to the student of missions. Nowhere else will he find in the compass of a single volume a com prehensive survey of the history of Christianity in India, Roman Catholic and Protestant, from the earliest traces of its existence, long before the arrival of the Portuguese, down to the opening of the nineteenth century. A sense of proportion and of values enables Dr. Richter to present this vast subject clearly and without confusion. A glance at the simple and logical "Contents" is reassuring. One need not fear under 'Those who wish to undertake a fuller study of the subject will find needed help in Jones, India: Its Life and Thought; Hopkins, The Religions of India; Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism. The sacred books of Hinduism are contained in translations in the well-known series of Sacred Books of the East. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 29 this guidance to lose his way and wander in a tangled thicket of unco-ordinated details. To the German authorship must be attributed certain inaccuracies and omissions in dealing with early English and American movements. And to this source also we are indebted for somewhat fuller accounts than Eng lish writers give of Ziegenbalg and the early Danish missions of South India and of the unique work of the Basle Missionary Society. The serious reader cannot do better than to take Dr. Richter's word for it that the entire book will repay careful reading. The Introduction is really an introduction. One may skip it, of course, and climb over the wall by a short route into the territory he proposes to explore. But it is far better to take the prescribed path through this inviting gateway. The information offered re garding "Land, People, Religion" is not altogether new, but it is up to date and attractively presented. Section 3, "Religion and Caste," should be particu larly helpful to those who are asking for a definition that can be firmly grasped of that vague, elusive term "Hinduism." The story of the ancient Syrian church of South India and of the early Jesuit missions contained in chap, i ought to be more familiar to Protestants than it is. Dr. Richter's account of the promis ing Protestant evangelistic endeavor, which began two hundred years ago with the German Pietists and faded out as the eighteenth century closed, is rich in suggestion to students of missionary methods and policies. In chap, iii the reader is furnished with information which popular mission books entirely neglect or give only in hints and frag ments in the story of the opposition of the East India Company to the entrance into India of missionaries, its amazing "Patronage of Heathenism," and the Parliamentary struggle for the charter of 1813. Apart from a knowledge of these facts it is hardly possible to do justice to the high courage and un daunted faith of the leaders of the modern missionary enterprise. The reading of this almost forgotten chapter of history should silence the platform talk and the cheap applause which accompanies it of a church which was merely "playing at missions" until the twentieth century came in. Another fruitful field of inquiry is mapped out in the account of "The Advent of the Great Missionary Societies." Dr. Richter's account of this most significant religious awakening is necessarily very brief. It is a theme which has not yet received adequate treatment. The ma terial is now accessible and there is the making of a much-needed book in it. The last half of the History is occupied, not with missionary annals, but with discussions of "problems" and "movements," much more important than any accumulation of facts and statistics. The short chapter entitled "The Leaven at Work" deserves par ticular attention. It deals with matters which do not commonly receive atten tion in missionary reports and discus sions. The reader must judge for him self whether or not they deserve to be taken into account in any attempt to forecast the future of Christianity in India. On that particular matter Dr. Richter is reticent. With the Union Movement he is plainly in sympathy. It is a question, however, whether he 3° AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE discovers in it the significance and the promise which to not a few men of experience in the field it plainly contains. The comparative neglect of Burma by Richter, and the fact that the cen tennial anniversary of the beginning of Christian missions in that portion of the Indian empire almost coincides with the publication of these studies justify a paragraph on Burma. Missions in Burma have been from the beginning under the direction chiefly of the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. They fall broadly into two classes : missions to the Burmese proper, who are Buddhists, and missions to the hill tribes so called, represented most numerously by the Karens, with their numerous divisions and subdivisions, who are found not alone in the hills, but everywhere throughout Burma. The Karens, whose only religion is a vague animism, have accepted Chris tianity readily and in large numbers, and their churches are now largely self- supporting, contributing also consider able sums to the extension of the gospel. Converts from Buddhism have not up to this time been many, but with the spread of higher education, there is plainly shown a lessening of the once bitter opposition and a willingness to listen without prejudice to missionary teaching. The early policy of the American Bap tists favored evangelism quite exclu sively, but the claims of Christian education in its higher forms are today universally recognized. There is a wellr equipped Baptist college at Rangoon, a high school for boys at Mandalay, and Burman and Karen theological semi naries at Insein, a suburb of Rangoon. A study of the map shows that the mis sion stations are pushing steadily north ward among the Shans, a people related to the Chinese in blood and language, to connect at no distant day with the missions of Western China. Adoniram Judson, the founder of Burman missions, landed at Rangoon in June, 1813, and the Baptists of America will celebrate this significant centenary by a series of meetings, centering at Rangoon, in December, 1913. Christian men and women of every name should read or re-read the life of Adoniram Judson, one of the noblest and most heroic figures of missionary history. The standard life of Dr. Judson, written by President Wayland of Brown University, and pub lished in 1853, is out of print. But a later biography, written by Dr. Edward Judson, a skilfully arranged and charm ing narrative, can easily be obtained. Evangelization The vast extent of territory included in India, Burma, and Ceylon, the great variety of races and languages, the division of the people by religion and caste necessitating the employment of widely different methods of reaching different classes of the people, all com bine to make the problem of the evan gelization of these regions a most com plicated one. The reader having before him the general body of facta furnished by the reading suggested under "Gen eral Situation" and a map, is advised to begin this study of the subject of evangelization by reading the very in structive chapters in the Edinburgh Conference Reports, I, 135-67. From this he will naturally turn to the Year CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 3i Book, and will do well to begin with chap, vi, pp. 166-82, postponing for the present the special consideration of edu cational, industrial, and medical work, but remembering that the figures given in this chapter include missionaries of all classes. Chap, vi may be followed by the reading of chap, xxviii, to gain a more definite knowledge of the source and distribution of the forces summa rized in chap, vi, and this in turn by a glance through the Directory of Protes tant Missionary Societies, pp. 533-620. Chap, iv is not easy reading, nor can anyone be expected to remember its figures in detail, yet it ought to be read to give an impression of the extent to which India is an "unoccupied" field, it being remembered, however, that only a little over 40 per cent of the Chris tians in India are Protestants. The reading of chap, v may be reserved for a little later time, but meantime it will be well to fix in mind that about 13 per cent of the whole population of India and Ceylon is avowedly Chris tian; Protestantism having a little over one-half of 1 per cent, Roman Catholi cism a little over five-eighths of 1 per cent, and the Syrian Christians making up one- tenth of 1 per cent; that Prot estant Christians have increased in the last decade at the rate of a little over 40 per cent, the other two bodies each about 25 per cent. The increase in the population at large has meantime been about 7 per cent. To evangelize and educate the millions of India there are 5,200 Protestant foreign missionaries including men and women, or about one to each 60,000 of the people, and 38,458 native Christian workers, or one to each 8,200 of the population. With these general facts in mind» the reader will be prepared to consider the methods of evangelization which are found necessary and effective in India. To a much greater extent than in China and Japan, the people of India act in masses. Individual conscious ness is relatively weak, community consciousness very strong. Individual conversions of course occur, but of the obstacles in the way of such conversions we in this country can but faintly con ceive, and the great majority of converts have come in groups or communities. Some experienced missionaries maintain that no large success of the Christian movement in India can be expected until, communities and castes having been gradually permeated with Chris tian thought, mass movements shall occur among the upper classes, as has already been the case among the lower classes. How far are these men right, and what are and ought to be the lines of missionary effort and success in India ? Is the answer for Hindus differ ent from that for Mohammedans? Is it different in India proper from that which should be given for Burma, and still different for Ceylon? With these questions in mind the reader should turn to the Year Book, and read chaps, ix, x, xix, xx, xxi. Closely connected with this question is that of the attitude of the missionary body toward the non-Christian religions and their institutions, especially caste. A great change has undoubtedly taken place from the day when all non- Christian religions were thought of as the works of the devil, to that in which some are ready to maintain that "I am come not to destroy but to fulfil" 32 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE holds in respect to Hinduism as it did of Judaism. Of the whole subject of the message of Christianity to Hindus, the points of contact between the two religions, and the attitude of the missionary toward Hinduism, there is an informing dis cussion in Edinburgh Conference Reports, IV, chap. vi. Of the nature and extent of the change of feeling that has already taken place among missionaries and of the degree of difference of opinion that still persists one may gain a clear im pression by referring again to the chapter on "The Religions of India" in India's Problem, comparing the attitude of that chapter toward caste with that of the article of Rev. Bernard Lucas in the Year Book, pp. 89 ff., and by again com paring the latter with the views pre sented by Professor Hogg and Rev. J. J. Jucas in chap. iii. Such differences of opinion, if not in themselves desirable, are at any rate evidence of the fact, abundantly otherwise attested, that the missionaries are quite as much as any other body of Christian ministers open-minded and ready to conform their conceptions of religious truth to the evidence of facts from what ever source derived. On the question whether such open-mindedness dimin ishes or increases the zeal of the mis sionary, see p. 173. But the most impressive discussion of the missionary attitude toward Hindu ism is that found in the volume by Bernard Lucas, entitled The Empire of Christ. Mr. Lucas is a representative of the London Missionary Society, and writes out of a personal experience of the great problem here presented, namely, how to adjust the missionary enter prise to the modern mental outlook. The book assumes as a matter beyond controversy that if the old appeal is to retain effectiveness it must be restated. The reader will notice at once the fre quent employment in this weighty little book of the term "modern." It is a study of the modern missionary enter prise in the light of modern thought. It also asks by what argument this enter prise shall address the modern man. It treats of "The Modern Problem" and "The Modern Standpoint." The book is entitled therefore to a candid hearing from that considerable class of Chris tian men who rightly or wrongly enter tain a suspicion that the average mission ary is lagging behind this century, and endeavoring, in the foreign field, to re produce conditions and furnish creeds which the church at home is outgrowing or repudiating outright. But with whatever prepossessions the reader approaches this book, he cannot but acknowledge its attractive ness and charm. It is not necessary to indicate significant passages that should receive particular attention; it is all significant. There are no superfluous pages. In one respect at least some, even of those who sympathize with Mr. Lucas' general position, are obliged to dissent. The student should weigh well the proposed treatment of caste (pp. 110-26). It is a novel and a bold position. Equally at variance with the common conviction and practice is Mr. Lucas' protest against the publication of "reports" and "statistics." But does he not perhaps merely give open expression to the lurking misgiving of not a few devoted supporters of mis sions ? CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 33 The Indian Churoh In any country in which Christian missions achieve success, that very suc cess must eventually raise the question of the autonomy of the native church. At first the missionary works alone and upon the native non-Christian com munity from outside. When converts are gathered and a Christian church arises it is at first dependent on the mis sionary for guidance and leadership. As it is developed and educated its members naturally desire a share, and that an increasing share, in the direction of its affairs. When the missionary effort is finally successful the missionary withdraws; his highest joy is to find himself no longer needed. India has certainly not reached this last stage, but is as clearly in the third. Both missionaries and Indian Christians have of late years given much thought to the question how much responsibility the Indian church is prepared to assume. What Dr. Jones thought in 1902 appears in chap, x of India's Problem, and this should be read first, to be followed by chaps, viii, xxii, and xxiii of the Year Book. It is a noteworthy fact that the English church has recently ordained an Indian bishop, Rev. V. S. Azariah. Education The presence of the British govern ment in the countries which we are now considering, and the part which it has taken and is taking in the work of edu cation have constantly to be borne in mind in considering the situation in respect to missionary education. It must be remembered, moreover, that the British government, long ago com mitting itself on the. one hand to the policy of non-interference with the reli gions of the country, decided on the other hand to co-operate with and encourage the efforts of any and all elements of the community in the direction of edu cation, without reference to the religious character of the schools. The govern ment has indeed felt obliged itself to establish schools and colleges, which maintain an entirely neutral, not to say negative, attitude toward religion, and certain directors of education have at times sought to develop these schools in preference to those founded by reli gious bodies. But the avowed policy of the government has been to contribute to the support of schools established by voluntary agencies, whether Hindu, Mohammedan, Parsee, or Christian, supplementing these only as necessary by schools directly supported by the government. As all grants to voluntary schools are conditioned on the main tenance of certain standards in respect to buildings, equipment, teachers, cur riculum, and examinations, and as the missionary bodies, in common with the native Indian agencies of various kinds, have in general felt constrained to accept the aid proffered by the government, the result has been that nearly all of the mission schools in India are in a sense government schools at the same time that they are missionary schools. This is manifestly a very different situ ation from that which exists in China or Japan, The Edinburgh Conference Report, III, chap, ii, will well repay careful read ing. Special attention may be given to the statistics at the beginning of the chapter, to the discussion of the pur pose and results of missionary education 34 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE and to the Judgments and Recom mendations at the end of the chapter. The reader who has at hand the Atlas of Christian Missions will find fuller statistics in the tables, p. 106. From this general survey the reader will do well to turn to the Year Book, chap, i, § 4 (pp. 37-48), and chap. xi. Here will be found later statistics than those referred to above and a discussion of the subject from the point of view of the several types and grades of edu cation. Chaps, xii and xiii present some of the problems with which the mission ary educator has to struggle, chap. xiii dealing specially with the very important but relatively new and very difficult question of industrial education. It is an indication of the broadening of our conception of the scope of Christian missions that societies which a genera tion or two ago were closing up their ordinary schools on the ground that education was beyond the scope of mis sions are now considering how they can enlarge their educational work to include industrial training, and how they can contribute to the industrial and economic development of the Christian commu nity. This is but one of many evi dences that the mission enterprise today is inspired and controlled not by any narrow spirit of proselytism, nor by loyalty to any specific command, but by the spirit of Jesus expressed in the words "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." Those who wish to pursue the subject of education in India farther will find help in the Blue Books of the British government, especially in the Quin quennial Reports of the Director of Education, published under the title Progress of Education in India. Refer ence may also be had to W. I. Chamber lain's Education in India, Macmillan, 75 cents, to Miss Cowan's volume, The Education of Women in India, and to an article by Mr. Burton in the American Journal of Theology for April, 1910, "The Status of Christian Education in India, " and the comments on it in the issue for July, 19 10. Christian Literature The use of the printing press as an adjunct of missionary work is well established in India. A general survey of the literature is given in the Edin burgh Conference Reports, III, 350-55, and much more detailed information in the Year Book, chaps, xiv-xvi. Medical and Philanthropic Work As previously mentioned, these phases of missionary work received inadequate treatment in the Edinburgh Conference Reports. The Year Book, chap, xvii, contains a summary statement of the medical work in India. It is much to be regretted that it is impossible to refer the reader to any adequate report of this very important depart ment of missionary activity. The reader may gain some help from the Atlas of Christian Missions; Edwards, The Work of the Medical Missionary (St. Vol. Mov., 20 cents); Wanless, The Medical Mis sion (St. Vol. Mov., 10 cents); and Lowe, Medical Missiotis (Revell, $1.50). See also the article by Dr. Wanless, "The Place and Policy of Medical Missions in India, " in the International Review of Missions for April, 1913. In an instructive article by J. M, Baker in the Baptist Missionary Review (1911), pp. 4"ff., it is stated that of CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 35 fifty missionaries in India who answered the question whether missionary work should be purely evangelistic or include medical, educational, and industrial work, all but one wished to give it the broader scope. A clear majority gave the preference to medical over edu cational work, especially because it makes a stronger appeal to the caste people. Co-operation and Comity Partly because Christian missions have existed longer in India than in other countries, less progress has been made in the breaking-down of denominational lines than in some other countries. In formation concerning what has been done in these directions is scattered through various volumes of the Edin burgh Conference Reports, but is found especially in Vol. VIII, pp. 38,39,111-14. Further information is found in the Year Book, chaps vii and xxiv. It is a noteworthy fact that union in edu cation has begun in the field of theology; see pp. 292, 293. The Young Men's Christian Asso ciation has done a most important work in India, especially in connection with the students of non-missionary schools and colleges; and the Young Women's Christian Association has made greater progress in India than in any other eastern country. Chap, xxi of the Year Book gives a brief account, but an inadequate impression of the work of these societies. In the autumn of 191 2 Mr. John R. Mott, chairman of the Continuation Committee appointed by the Edinburgh Conference, held a series of conferences in various parts of India, followed by a general conference in Calcutta. As a result of this series of conferences, per manent provincial councils for the various parts of India and a national council for India, embracing all Prot estant denominations, were organized, and a definite program for the further progress of Christian missions in India was laid down. In all these conferences the Indian Christians took part with the missionaries. Non-Protestant Christianity Perhaps most American Christians commonly think of Christian missions in India as of recent origin, dating per haps from the days of William Carey. Probably very few have any knowledge of the existence of an Indian Chris tian community which has had a con tinuous history from the second century to the present day. What has been learned from Jones's India's Problem, chap, vi, and from Richter's History, may now be profitably supplemented by chap, v of the Year Book, which deals not only with these very ancient churches but with the extensive work of the Roman Catholic church. Biographies Attention is here called to three biographies of men who have made their mark upon the history of Christian India. They are selected out of a rich and abundant biographical literature on the ground that Martyn, Carey, and Duff had to do with the great enter prise at its beginning and when it was still looked upon as an experiment, and are inseparably associated with it. Without them, it would not have been what it is. 36 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE The reading of Henry Martyn's memoir, a book once familiar to evan gelical households, has sent many a man into the missionary service, and though his fame has suffered eclipse of late through the rapidly waning sympathy with his introspective, not to say morbid, piety, his influence must still be taken into account in a study of the beginning of the missionary movement. In his life, too, will be found a very interesting picture of the Evangelical party of the Church of England at the close of the eighteenth century, from which the great Church Missionary Society sprang. Dr. George Smith's Life of Henry Martyn is a detailed and complete narrative of the man and his time. One wishes, indeed, that it were briefer, and a judicious reader will find excuse now and then for skipping a few pages. Dr. Smith's well-known Life of William Carey, the standard and final book on its subject, is a history as well of the rise of modern missions, and at the risk of encountering sometimes tedious minuteness and particularity, the mis sionary student should give it a careful reading. A third biography, also by the indefatigable Dr. Smith, to whom we are all debtors, is the Life of Alexander Duff, with whose singularly fruitful career the history of Christian education in India begins. It is profitable, if not quite easy, reading. The question with which it deals is not so nearly settled as Dr. Smith supposed when he wrote this book. Discussions to which the attention of the reader is called elsewhere indicate a deepening dissatisfaction with the conclusions of Duff and Macauley, and the fact that their educational policies are now scrutinized afresh and seriously questioned should increase the interest of this notable biography. Suggestions for Review r. Compare India with China and Japan respectively as concerns (a) extent of territory, (b) number of popu lation, (c) racial unity and racial char acteristics, (d) languages, (e) religions, (J) political independence and capacity for self-government, (g) national edu cational system, (h) probable place in the world in the near future. 2. Compare the Protestant Christian community of India with those of China and Japan respectively, as concerns (a) absolute number, (b) number in relation to population, (c) size relatively to the period in which missionaries have been working. 3. Compare Christian education in India with that of China and Japan respectively, in respect to (a) relation to government education, (b) adequacy and adaptedness to meet the needs of the situation. 4. Does the history of missions justify the limitation of missionary work to evangelism pure and simple? If not, which of the following additional methods of work seem to you legi timate, viz.: educational, medical, in dustrial? And of those which you regard as legitimate which seems to you most important? 5. How is the relative importance of different forms of missionary work affected by the difference in local con ditions? Compare in relative impor tance the three forms of work, medical, educational, and industrial, in the three countries India, China, and Japan. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 37 6. Throughout the East in China, Japan, and India, there is much less individualism, much more race and community feeling, than in the West. What is the bearing of this fact on the spread of Christianity, and in which country is it of most significance? 7. What is and what ought to be the attitude of the missionary to caste among the Hindus ? 8. What part have mass-movements played in the spread of Christianity among the lower classes in India, and what part are they likely to play in respect to the conversion of the higher classes ? 9. What proportion of the missionary work done in India is carried on by the English-speaking nations? How much by Americans and Canadians? (See Atlas of Missions.) 10. In respect to which of the three great countries already studied have American Christians the greatest oppor tunity and responsibility ? Part IV. Turkey Books Required Barton. Daybreak in Turkey. Pilgrim Press, 1908. $1.50. Gairdner, The Reproach of Islam. Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vols. I and III. Books Recommended Zwemer. Islam, A Challenge to Faith. Student Volunteer Movement, 1907. $0.50. A compact study of the origin, spread, and character of Islam and of missions to the Mohammedans. Cromer. Modern Egypt. Macmillan, 1908. 2 vols. $6 . 00. A very able work dealing with the history of Egypt from 1876 to r()07, written by the Earl of Cromer, consul-general of Great Britain in Egypt, 1886-1907. Buxton. Turkey in Revolution. Unwin, 1909. $2.50. Ramsay. Impressions of Turkey. Putnam. $i.75- Richter. A History of Protestant Missions in the Near East. Revell. $2 . 50. A volume that does the same work for the countries of the Levant that the author's volume on India does for that country. Arpee. The Armenian Awakening. Uni versity of Chicago Press. $1.25. Hamlin. My Life and Times. Revell. $1.50. Washburn. Fifty Years in Constantinople. Houghton Mifflin Co. $3 . 00. Jessup. Fifty-three Years in Syria. Revell. $5-°°- For further comments on these volumes', see Edinburgh Conference Reports, VI, 486 ff. Mohammedanism in Turkey and Elsewhere Within the bounds of what we know today as Turkey, the three great mono theistic religions, Judaism and the two daughters of Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism, had their birth. Each of these religions has spread by emigration or by conquest far beyond the land of its origin, and has far more adherents elsewhere than in Tur key. The Jews of Turkey are relatively insignificant in number and influence. They occupy a place of far greater importance in Europe and the United States than in the land of their former 38 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE power and glory. Christianity is repre sented by the Jacobites, Maronites, Greek Catholics, Gregorians (Arme nians), Roman Catholics, and Protestant ' Christians. But ignorance, poverty, and oppression have greatly reduced the influence of all the older Christian communities, and one no longer looks to Turkey to find Christianity at its best. There are probably as many Moham medans in China as in Turkey, five times as many in India, and more than one and one-half times as many in Africa. But Mecca and Medina are still the sacred cities of Mohammedanism, visited by thousands of pilgrims every year, and the Turkish sultan is still recognized as the head of all Mohammedanism. Tur key is today, as it has been for centuries, pre-eminently the land of the Moham medan.1 This, therefore, is the proper point at which to make some general study of the Mohammedan religion, of which little has been said in connection with China and India. For this purpose we have selected Gairdner, The Reproach of Islam. It will serve as an introduc tion to the study of the religious condi tion both of the Turkish Empire and of Africa. It was issued as a mission- study textbook, but is of much higher grade than many books so classed. It should be read consecutively two or three times at least, and a repeated reading will not be irksome. Readers will find (a) that it is written in a very attractive style: dulness is never in itself a recommendation, though useful and even indispensable books are some times dull; (b) that it is easily manage able: it is lucid, its material is well arranged, it is furnished with maps and indexes, bibliography, and helpful ques tions; (c) that its range is wide: Mr. Gairdner has gone all round his subject; if he does not solve every perplexing question, he at least dodges none; (d) that it is thoroughly religious: one feels that its author has more than an academic or scientific concern in the history and prospects of Islam. After Gairdner the reader may well take up the Edinburgh Conference Re ports, Vol. IV, chap, v, and if he wishes to pursue his study still farther may turn to Zwemer. The General Situation in Turkey The last five years have been troub lous times in Turkey. The revolution of July, 1908, came as an utter surprise to the outside world, and even to all the residents of Turkey outside a very limited circle. Dr. Barton's Daybreak in Turkey, published at the end of 1908, betrays outside of its last chapter, which was written after the revolution, no ex pectation or suspicion of the important change that was preparing even at the beginning of the year. Compelled to the step by the Young Turks, operating through the Committee of Ottoman Union and Progress, Abdul Hamid II, July 24, 1908, revived the constitution of 1876, which had been suspended since 1877, accompanying it by various proclamations and orders which made subsequent retraction prac tically impossible. This act was greeted with the greatest joy by the Turkish people. Newspapers expressing the long- 1 According to the Statesman's Year Book for 191 1, the Mohammedans of Asiatic Turkey number 10,087,800, the Gregorians 1,112,000, other Christians 1,751,000. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 39 suppressed aspirations of the people sprang quickly into existence; Moslems and Greeks saluted one another as brethren; "Liberty, Justice, Equality, and Fraternity" became the accepted motto of the new era, and the world looked on in amazement at a revolution accomplished with almost less of blood shed than an ordinary street riot might have caused. But the Young Turks, who had forced the hand of the Sultan and who remained the unofficial but not unrecog nized power behind the throne, have found themselves confronted by diffi culties of which they could scarcely have guessed beforehand. Bulgaria, for some years practically but not nominally independent, took occasion to declare her independence October 5, 1908. As the sequel to an unsuccessful attempt to regain the power he had lost, Abdul Hamid II was forced, in April, 1909, to abdicate, and was succeeded by his brother whom he had kept in prison for many years to prevent his creat ing trouble. The new sultan took the title of Mohammed V. Trouble began among the Albanians in 1909, and more serious disturbances occurred in 1910 and 1 91 1. In the latter year also Italy forced Turkey into a war on the question of Italy's right to Tripoli, which, after great loss of life and property on both sides but especially to Turkey, was ended by the Treaty of Lausanne, October 18, 1912. But war followed quickly upon war. Ten days before the Treaty of Lausanne, Montenegro declared war against Turkey; on the 17th Turkey declared war on Bulgaria and Servia, and on the 18th, the day of the Treaty of Lausanne, Greece declared war against Turkey. The ultimate issue of the Balkan war thus inaugurated is not even yet determined, but it seems certain to mean for Turkey the loss of the major portion of her European pos- , sessions. Yet all these disasters, seeming and real, may be, and it is hoped will prove to be, the means of bringing in a new era of prosperity and advancement for Turkey. Relieved of a portion of the burden of ruling alien peoples, with a clearer perception than before of what constitute the elements of strength in a nation, with fresh reason to develop education and to grant liberty of thought, Turkey may now enter upon a period of enlightenment and progress surpassing that of any previous period. That the Balkan states will be the ultimate gainers by the readjustment of political relations which will result from the war, there is little room to doubt. We cannot do better than to begin our whole study of the situation by a reading of Barton, Daybreak in Turkey, chapter by chapter, not omitting the extracts from other authors which pre cede the several chapters. This volume, usefully supplementing Gairdner in re spect to the Moslem religion, gives in brief space a vivid and accurate impres sion of conditions as they were previous to the revolution in 1908, and requires little modification to describe conditions today except by the addition of the political facts briefly stated above. Five years is but a short period in the history of a nation and Turkey has been so fully occupied since 1908 with rebellions and wars as to be unable to make marked internal progress. China's new era 40 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE dates from 1895 Dut by 1900 she had only got far enough to throw herself with desperate energy into the Boxer movement. There was a different story to tell in 1905 and still another one in 1 91 2. What we shall see in Turkey in the next decade no one can foresee. But we may seize the opportunity to inform ourselves as to how things were before the dawn of the new era in 1908, and to this study Dr. Barton's volume forms an admirable introduction. For the story of the revolution one may consult Buxton, Turkey in Revolu tion, or Ramsay, Impressions of Turkey. For the story of the abdication of Abdul Hamid, the Albanian uprising, the Turco-Italian war, and the Balkan war, one must look to the annual cyclo pedias and the magazines and news papers. History of Modern Evangelizing Movements The history of Christianity in Turkey goes back to the beginning of Chris tianity itself. Jesus was the first preach er of the Christian religion in Turkey. The story of its development in the land of the Syrians, Arabs, and Turks covers nineteen centuries. One who would study it with measurable fulness may do so in Stanley, History of the Eastern Church, or in Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches. But we are concerned in our present study with the modern era, marked by the reflex influence of Western Protestant Christianity upon Turkey. This move ment dates from 1820 when the mis sionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions ar rived in the country. Roman Catholics had obtained a foothold in Turkey in the days of the Crusades, and were suffi ciently strong to resist the incoming of the Protestants in the second quarter of the last century. Today the chief non- indigenous Christian forces operating in Turkey are French Roman Catholi cism and American (Congregational and Presbyterian) Protestantism. Richter's History of Protestant Missions in the Near East tells the story of the work done by the latter. This is not set down as a required book in this course, but is commended to all whose time permits the reading of it. The spirit in which the American movement was begun is well expressed in the instructions of the board given to Pliny Fiske and Levi Parsons, recorded by Barton, p. 119. It is noticeable that the Jews are mentioned first of all among those to whom they are to carry the message, followed by the pagans, Mohammedans, and Chris tians. The results achieved have not been in this order. Converts from Judaism have been very few; those from paganism practically none; the work among Mohammedans, while very important, has issued as yet in few avowed converts. The most important definitely visible results have been achieved in the old Christian commu nities, in which unfortunately Chris tianity had become, for many of their members, a form and a name with little life or power, and in the new Protestant community, unintentionally created. The attitude of the board at home and of the missionaries on the field toward these historic Christian churches is worthy of careful note. It is clearly stated by Dr. Barton in chaps, xv and xvi. Nowhere has this policy been CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 4i tried on a larger scale; nowhere can its wisdom be more effectively tested. To gain a notion of the situation in respect to Mohammedanism, the reader will do well to read the Edinburgh Con ference Reports, I, 168-90, which, though covering much more than the Turkish Empire, will afford an impression of the task and challenge which the Moham medanism of Turkey presents to the Christian world.1 Why has Mohamme danism been so slow to yield to Chris tian influence? Is the restoration of the indigenous Christianity to life and power an essential prerequisite to an effective influence on Mohammedanism ? Must a long period of permeation of Mohammedanism by Christian ideas precede any marked break in its solid lines? Is such a break near at hand? Are we to look for the reformation of Mohammedanism or the conversion of the Mohammedans, or both? See Barton, chap, xi; Richter, pp. 76-88. Education The Turkish government had before the revolution of 1908 laid out on paper a complete system of education. But it was largely on paper, and of those schools that existed many were extremely in efficient. There were undoubtedly some able, honest, and intelligent men en gaged in education and holding posi tions of responsibility in educational work, but they were few in number and their efforts were largely thwarted by the prevalent corruption. There are one or more law schools, two medical schools, one at Constantinople and one in Damascus, various training schools for the civil and military service, a nominal university in Constantinople, but in fact no schools (other than those maintained by missionary bodies) of the rank of an American college. Immediately after the revolution of 1908 efforts were made to establish new and better schools. But the attention and resources of the government have been so absorbed by political and military affairs that it is to be feared little progress has been made. The Roman Catholic church has been for years carrying on educational work in Turkey. Their most notable institution is the University of St. Joseph at Beirut, conducted by the French Jesuits. It has four schools — those of philosophy, medicine, theology, and oriental studies — an extensive li brary, a printing and publishing depart ment, a faculty including some very scholarly men, and about eight hundred students. It was formerly subsidized by the French government for political reasons, but this subsidy was "discon tinued some years ago. The Roman Catholics conduct schools of lower grade in various parts of the empire, but exact statistics are very difficult to obtain. By far the most important educa tional work, however, in the Turkish Empire is that which is conducted by the American missions, this term being used to include boards of missionary colleges as well as missionary boards in the larger sense. Notable not only 1 The rather studious ignoring of the work done by the American Board among the Greek Catholics and the Gregorian Christians is due to the definition of missions which the Edinburgh Conference felt constrained to adopt, limiting it to work for non-Christians and excluding efforts of one Christian body to modify the type of religious life in another Christian community. 42 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE among the educational institutions of Turkey, but worthy to rank among those of the world, are Robert College and the American College for Girls, at Constantinople, and the Syrian Protes tant College in Beirut. Among others less conspicuous and with smaller num bers of students, but of great impor tance, are the International College at Smyrna, the colleges of the American Board at Aintab, Harput, and Marash, and numerous other schools of a more elementary character. Robert College was established in 1863 by Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, and was incorporated by the state of New York in 1864. It has between four and five hundred students, of whom about 150 are in college classes. Its property, which in 1908 amounted to $875,000, was greatly increased in 1910 by the legacy of one and a half million dollars from Mr. J. S. Kennedy of New York. The American College for Girls is just removing from its location on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus to the European side, where it has been enabled by recent large gifts to purchase a beauti ful property overlooking the Bosphorus and to begin the erection of buildings suitable to the site. It aims to do for the women of Turkey a service similar to that which is rendered in this country by such institutions as Wellesley and Bryn Mawr. Its students come from various parts of the empire and include representatives of all the religions of the empire. The Syrian Protestant College was incorporated in 1863, and opened in 1866, only three years later than Rob ert College. Like the two previously mentioned colleges, it occupies a beauti ful site, surpassed perhaps by that of only one or two other educational insti tutions in the world. It has seven de partments — a preparatory course of five years, a collegiate course, a school of com merce, a school of medicine, a school of pharmacy, a nurses' training school, and a school of biblical archaeology. Its faculty numbers approximately seventy, its students between eight and nine hundred. Its school of medicine is unquestionably the best medical school in the Levant and has in its faculty men of international reputation. Space forbids our describing the educational work conducted by the Congregational and Presbyterian boards. Information concerning them can be obtained by writing to the Congrega tional Board in Boston and the Presby terian Board in New York. The limi tations of space forbid also the attempt to enumerate the schools conducted by other mission boards. These are, though important in themselves, much less extensive and influential than those of the two American societies. Philanthropy and Literature The development in these lines has been less conspicuous in Turkey than in some other missionary lands. Hos pitals have been established both by the Roman Catholics and by the Ameri can Presbyterians and Congregational- ists; mention should also be made of the hospital maintained in Jerusalem by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Jews. But the most notable medical enterprises are the medical school of the St. Joseph Uni versity and that of the Syrian Protestant College, both in Beirut and mentioned CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 43 above. The American Presbyterians carry on an industrial work at Sidon, and there are also various industrial schools in Palestine. Robert College is using a portion of the Kennedy legacy to establish an engineering department, a notable step in missionary education. The Presbyterians have long maintained publishing houses at Beirut and Smyrna of which Dr. Barton gives an account in chap, xviii of his book. But much remains to be done alike in medical work, . philanthropy, industry, and literature. Questions for Review and Discussion Summarize the present conditions in Turkey under the following heads: i . What are the racial elements of the population of the Turkish Empire ? 2. Characterize the present political situation in Turkey. 3. Summarize the religious situation in Turkey, including the past history of the religions which originated in what is now the Turkish Empire, and the present situation in respect to religion. 4. What agencies are carrying on educational work in Turkey? Charac terize each as to the extent and character of its work. 5. Do you approve the attitude which American missionaries in Turkey have usually taken toward (a) the old Christian churches of this country, and (b) Mohammedanism ? If not, define the policy which it seems to you they should have followed. 6. Is the educational policy pursued by such institutions as Robert College at Constantinople, the International College at Smyrna, and the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut justified on principle and by its results ? Part V. Africa Books Required Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vols. I and III. Stewart. Dawn in the Dark Continent. Books Recommended for Supplementary Reading and Reference Milligan. The Fetish Folk of Africa. Revell. $1 . 50. Milligan. The Jungle Folk of Africa. Revell. $1 . 50. Johnston. George Grenfell and the Congo. London: Baptist Missionary Society. 30s. Blaikie. Personal Life of Livingstone. Revell. $1 . 50. Berry. Bishop Hannington. Revell. $1.00. The General Situation Africa is no longer for the missionary pre-eminently a land of peril and of mystery. Today railroads and steamers are carrying the trader and the teacher into the heart of the Dark Continent, and the telegraph and the telephone have established easy and rapid com munication between its remotest settle ments and the coast. The Sudan is giving up its secrets and the Sahara is losing its terrors. The African savage, quite "uncontaminated" by civilization, is hardly to be found by the most diligent search of the student of anthropology; and the " missionary-and-the-cannibal joke," the persistent repetition of which 44 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE has long disgraced our Christian civiliza tion, is at last disappearing even from its stronghold in the comic weeklies. The life of a missionary in Africa is still no doubt marked by peculiar limitations and privations, more serious than those encountered in China and Japan, and there is still much arduous pioneering to be done, but however formidable the difficulties yet to be encountered, the task of Christianizing Africa has ceased to be regarded merely as a doubtful experiment. It appears, nevertheless, that the rapid advance into Africa of Western civilization, and the position of the continent among European powers are creating new problems, more serious than those which the earliest Christian teachers encountered. They are quite unlike the questions to be answered in China and in Japan, but in no respect are they less important or less importu nate. Is the magnitude of the questions peculiar to Africa adequately appreciated by missionary students in general ? The reading of the books to which your attention is here called should present them clearly to your mind. That these questions are as yet by no means answered renders their patient considera tion the more important. No better beginning in the study of Africa as a mission field can be made than in the perusal of the report of Commission I of the Edinburgh Con ference, I, 203-45. Its careful resume of what has been done, and what waits to be done in the evangelization of Africa is intelligible only with the aid of the atlas. In the study of no other mission field is the atlas so indispensable. Make yourself entirely familiar at the outset with present-day political divi sions and political control of Africa. After reading Vol. I, pp. 203-11, follow carefully with the atlas the discussion (pp. 2 1 1-24) of the seven great political divisions of the continent. Then call up in your mind the many widely differing aspects of the missionary en deavor set forth in these pages. To name only a few: the future of the Coptic church; the duty of the mis sionary in view of the action of the English government in prohibiting all aggressive evangelistic work among the Mohammedan people under its care; the vast Sahara with its millions of nomads not yet reached by a single missionary; Liberia and its peculiar claim upon the sympathies of the people of the United States; the future of the Congo States, decimated by the oppres sion of the servants of King Leopold and devastated afresh today by the sleeping sickness; the inevitable racial antagonisms, particularly in South Africa, which the spread of a Christian civilization even appears to intensify; the rapid growth in South and Central Africa of that astonishing independent church movement among the natives, known by many names, but described in general as "Ethiopianism." Certainly the responsibility of the missionary in Africa cannot be summed up, as an earlier generation assumed, in the single task of preaching the simple gospel to the untutored savage. History Stewart's Dawn in the Dark Continent does not deal exclusively, it is true, with the history of missions in Africa. Its second chapter might be cited under the CHRISTIANITY LN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 45 head of the religions of Africa and read as supplementary to Gairdner and Zwemer. Moreover, there is, of course, some duplication in Stewart of matters already touched upon in the Edinburgh Conference Reports. Yet, on the whole, it would be better to read Stewart con tinuously, so far at least as through the first nine chapters. This will give the reader an instructive and interesting survey of the efforts which up to the time of the writing of this book had been made for the spread of Christianity in Africa. And unless he is already excep tionally well informed concerning this portion of the world he will almost cer tainly be greatly surprised at the extent and effect of what has already been achieved. Chaps, x and xiv deal with general questions pertaining to missions rather than to Africa in particular, but in chap, xv Stewart returns to discuss the question of the future of Africa and the African. This last the reader should not omit even if he finds it expedient to pass over chaps, x-xiv. Education The missionary has always been a teacher as well as an evangelist, notwith standing, sometimes, the disapproval of the home constituency which has thought it desirable, and practicable also, to postpone the establishment of schools until an extensive evangeliza tion has been accomplished. As a matter of fact, this has never been done even in Africa, where if anywhere the needs of the Christian community might be met, it would seem, for another generation at least by the establishment of a system of primary schools. The question of Christian education is a complex one. The reading of Edinburgh Conference Reports, Vol. Ill, chap, v, will put the matter beyond all doubt. Evangelization cannot be separated from Christian education. What in particular shall the schools undertake to do? What class of pupils shall be invited to them ? Can missionary boards properly assume responsibility for the establish ment of industrial schools and trade schools ? Can they afford to neglect them? What training should be given to the native evangelist? Should the schools employ the English language exclusively as the medium of instruc tion? Or can the vernacular of Africa be so enriched and purified as to meet the needs of Christian communities? We can save souls perhaps in the sense in which the pioneers of the missionary enterprise used that phrase, while ignor ing these and a score of similar questions. But we must meet them without flinch ing if we propose to establish in Africa a Christian civilization. Egypt, though geographically a part of Africa, is much more allied to Turkey, from the point of view of civilization, than it is to the other parts of Africa. This holds especially with reference to that which it has inherited from the past, while in respect to the reflex influence of Western civilization and ideas Egypt is rather to be compared with India than with the other parts of Africa or with Turkey. The educa tional agencies at work in Egypt are (i) what we may call the old Egyptian schools, including the elementary ver nacular schools and the El Azhar University; (2) schools maintained by the Egyptian government under the 46 AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF SACRED LITERATURE predominant influences if not practical control of the British consul-general; (3) schools maintained by the provin cial councils; (4) schools voluntarily supported by native religious bodies, Moslem and Coptic; and (5) Western missionary schools, of which those of the United Presbyterian Board of North America are strongly predominant. The present adviser to the minister of education is an Englishman, formerly a Christian missionary, and the system of schools which is being developed under his advice is marked by character istic British thoroughness and efficiency. The British government has indeed con ceived it to be its duty in no way to make the schools an instrument of opposition to Islam, or, perhaps one should rather say, to give to Mohammedanism a pre dominant influence in them. Whether we approve or disapprove this policy, it will in the end undoubtedly tend greatly to modify Mohammedanism itself. For fuller information about these schools consult the annual reports of the British consul-general to the houses of Parlia ment. See also Sailer, "Problems of Education in Egypt," International Review of Missions, July, 191 2. The schools of the American United Presbyterian church, established at first, of course, purely as an adjunct to evan gelistic work, have been, especially of late years, developed with great vigor and with a constant effort to raise their educational standard. Their pupils have been drawn predominantly from the membership of the old Coptic church, but Mohammedan pupils have of late years somewhat increased in numbers. While in Turkey the American mis sionaries have been almost of one mind in following, especially in respect to the ancient churches of that land, a policy of permeation rather than of "separa tism" (not to use the somewhat offensive term "proselyting"), in Egypt, on the other hand, the missionaries have more commonly held that the religious life of those whom they lead to more intel ligent conceptions of Christianity can be effectively nurtured and developed only by the organization of them into separate churches. At present there is some difference of opinion among them as to the relative advantages of the proselyting and the permeating policy. The most notable missionary school in Egypt is, on the whole, the College at Assiut, with which is associated the Pressley Memorial Institute for Girls, but there are also important schools in Cairo and Alexandria, and elementary schools in various smaller places. The Assiut College has a faculty of some twenty-five teachers, and approximately nine hundred pupils. The total number of pupils in the schools of this board is about sixteen thousand, those in schools managed by the government some thirty thousand; in schools inspected by the government, 200,000. Christian schools other than those above named are chiefly those main- tained by the Church Missionary Society i of England and those of the Roman] Catholic church. There is much reason to anticipate that under the combined] influence especially of the schools main tained by the government and those of the Protestant missionary societies great changes will occur in the next few years in the type of thought and in the character of the life of the people of Egypt. CHRISTIANITY IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 47 Philanthropy and Literature The question of industrial training, the ^ establishment of hospitals and medical schools, and the creation of literature takes on a somewhat different aspect in connection with Africa, espe cially its less civilized portions, from that which it presents when one is con sidering India with its British govern ment and Japan with its own advanced if moderate civilization. Each of these problems presents, moreover, its peculiar difficulties. Nothing more than the most general survey is possible in connec tion with our present course of reading. The Edinburgh Conference Report, Vol. Ill, chap, viii, deals briefly with the question of industrial training, and chap, viii, pp. 347-50, touches with like brevity upon the question of lit erature. Stewart deals here and there with all three phases of the subject — ¦ hospitals, industrial work, and literature. Questions for Review and Discussion 1. What are the great outstanding differences between Africa as a mission field and India, China, and Japan ? 2. What forms of missionary work appeal to you as most important to be carried on in Africa ? 3. What are some of the greatest names associated with the modern missionary movement in Africa ? 4. From the point of view of Chris tian missions, what differentiates Egypt from the rest of the continent of Africa ? Conclusion Those who have followed this course through have gained a general knowl edge of the position which Christianity occupies today in the great non-Christian nations of the world. They cannot have failed to be impressed with the magnitude of the task on which a few resolute souls a century ago induced the Christian church to embark, and which has gradually enlisted an increas ing number of Christian men and women, until today practically every Protestant denomination in Europe and America is taking an active part in it, sending out men and women and pouring in money, and no phase of the work of the church arouses greater enthusiasm or calls forth greater devotion. Yet perhaps some of us have lost sight of the great sweep of the movement in attention to details, or on the other hand have failed to appreciate its full significance just for lack of knowledge of those details which make a deeper impression than any general statements. That we may gather up some of the more notable results of this great move ment there has been included among the reading required, and as a conclusion of the whole course, Dr. Barton's little volume, Human Progress through Mis sions. If at the outset we can in some measure picture to ourselves the world as it was in 1790, and compare it with the picture which this volume will present to us when read against the background of the studies of the indi vidual countries which we have been making, it will help us to gain a more adequate impression of the real signifi cance of the modern missionary move ment. 48 AME. 4 .te uue LATURE i. What are the great non-Christian religious and ethical systems of the world today? In what countries are the adherents of each of these great systems to be found and what is the approximate number of their followers ? 2. What fact respecting its origin differentiates Mohammedanism from the rest of these religious and ethical sys tems ? 3. Which of them in your judgment ranks highest and which forms the best basis on which to build Christianity or constitutes the best preparation for it? 4. Which of all the peoples we have studied is likely to have the largest Topics for General Peview influence on the future history of the world? Is any one of them likely to be so uninfluential that from the point of view of the future of this world it can be left out of our missionary program ? 5. What is your definition of the purpose of Christian missions ? 6. What is your conception of the proper scope of missionary education? 7. If evangelism, edification of the Christian community, permeation of the non-Christian community with Christian ideas, and the promotion of the general welfare are all of them included within the scope of Christian missions, how are they related one to another ? 3 9002 05340 1130