ffl&mtl •Y^Ln«¥]Mir^EissinrY" DIVINITY SCHOOL TROWBRIDGE LIBRARY THE REFORMATION. BY GEOEGE P. FISHER, D. D. PROFESSOR OF ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN TALB COLLEGE. NEW YORK: SCEIBNER, ARMSTRONG, AND CO. 1873. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by Screbner, Armstrong, and Company, In the OflEce of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. RIVERSIDE, CAMBRIDGE: STEREOTYPED AND PRINTED BT H. 0- HOUGHTON AND COMPANY. TO THEODORE DWIGHT WOOLSET, A FRIEND AND EXAMPLE OF ALL GOOD LEARNING, THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED, . AS A TOKEN OF RESPECT AND AFFECTION, BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. This work has grown out of a course of lectures which were given at the Lowell Institute in Boston early in the spring of 1871. I may be permitted to say that when I engaged to prepare these lectures, the subject was not new to me ; and that the interval since they were de livered has been devoted to studies in the same field, the "' results of which are incorporated in this volume. It has appeared to me practicable to present to intelligent and educated readers, within the compass of a volume like the present, the means of acquainting themselves with the origin and nature, the principal facts and characters of the Reformation ; while, at the same time, through notes and references, the historical student should be guided to fur ther researches on the various topics which are brought under his notice. There are two features in the plan of the present work to which it may not be improper to call attention. With the religious and theological side of the history of the period, I have endeavored to interweave and to set in their true relation the political, secular or more general elements, which had so powerful an influence in determining the course of events. The attempt has also been made to elucidate briefly, but sufficiently, points VI PREFACE. pertaining to the history of theological doctrine, an under standing of which is peculiarly essential in the study of this period of history. The authorities on which I have chiefly depended, are indicated in the marginal references. The highest place belongs to the writings, and especially the correspondence of the Reformers themselves. The letters of Luther, Me lancthon, Zwingle, Calvin; the correspondence of the English with the Helvetic Reformers during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth ; the correspon dence of Reformers in the French-speaking lands, in the collection of M. Herminjard, afford the most vivid as well as correct impression of the transactions in which their authors bore a leading part. Works like the " Correspon dence of Philip IL," which M. Gachard — among his other valuable contributions — has published from the archives of SimaUcas, have cast much new light on another side of the history of this era. Of the more recent historians, there are two of whom I am bound to make special mention in this place. The first is Ranke, whose admirable series of works on the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have been constantly in my hands. The mingling of general views with apposite and characteristic facts, lends to the historical1 productions of this truly illustrious writer a. peculiar charm. The other historian is Gieseler, who pos sessed in an eminent degree the genius for accuracy, which Gibbon ascribed to Tillemont, and whose investi gations, though extensive and profound upon every period of Church History, are nowhere more instructive than upon the period of the Reformation. It must be a matter of sincere regret to all scholars that Neander did not live PREFACE. vii to carryforward his great work, the counterpart of Giese ler, into this period. His posthumous History of Doctrine is quite brief in its treatment of the Protestant movement, but is not wanting in striking suggestions. < Perhaps I should add to this short catalogue, the *' Histoire de France " of Henri Martin, which appears to me to be the most satisfactory of the comprehensive works on the' history of that country. There is one explanation further which I am anxious to make respecting the design of this book. It is intended in no sense as a polemical work. It has not entered into my thoughts to inculcate the creed of Protestantism, or to propagate any type of Christian doctrine ; much less to kindle animosity against the Church of Rome. Very serious as the points of difference are which separate the body of Protestants from the body of Roman Catholics, the points on which they agree outweigh in importance the points on which they differ. Whoever supposes that the Reformers were exempt from grave faults and infirmities, must either be ignorant of their history, or have studied it under the influence of a partisan bias. Impartiality, however, is not indifference ; and a frigid and carping spirit, that chills the natural outflow of a just admiration, may, equally with the spirit of hero-worship, hinder one from arriving at the real truth, as well as the best lessons of history. Should this volume be used in the class-room, it may be suggested to teachers that frequent reference should be made to the Chronological Table in the appendix, where contemporaneous events in the different countries are grouped together. Dates are pretty thickly strewn V1U PREFACE. through the text, but are given more fully in the Table of Contents. In the List of Works, which follows the Chronological Table, I have briefly characterized some of the books to which the more advanced student would nat urally resorf. New Haven, Jan. 15, 1873. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION : THE GENERAL CHARACTER OP THE REFORMA TION. PAOH. Four principal events of modern history 1 Long historical preparation of these events .... 1 Agency of individuals not to be undervalued .... 2 Theories in respect to the Reformation 2 An astrological hypothesis 2 Theory that it was a quarrel of monastic orders ... 8 That it was an academical dispute 4 That it was a new phase of the old conflict of Popes and Emperors 4 That it was an insurrection against authority : (advanced by Gui- zot) 4 That it was a transitional step towards Rationalism . . .6 The Reformation primarily a religious event .... 8 Judaizing character of mediseval Christianity : constant reaction of the spiritual element 8 Protestantism positive as well as negative .... 9 It has an objective factor 9 It practically asserted the right of private judgment . . 10 It was a part of the general progress of society . . . .10 General characteristics of the entire period . . . .10 Two-fold aspect of the Reformation — religious, and political or secular 11 Chronological limits of the era 12 CHAPTER n. THE RISE OF THE PAPAL HIERARCHY AND ITS DECLINE THROUGH THE CENTRALIZATION OF NATIONS. Protestantism rejected priestly authority 13 The relation of sacerdotal authority to Papal supremacy . 14 X CONTENTS. The new Dispensation spiritual, in contrast with the old . . 14 Absence of a mediatorial priesthood I4 Officers of the primitive Church • • 1° Functions of a priesthood gradually associated with the ministry 16 Growth of a hierarchy . . ¦¦. 16 Irenseus and Tertullian make the Church the door of access to Christ (circa 200) . . . • . • • • 17 Causes of the precedence of the See of Rome . . .17 Acknowledged in the East, because Rome is the capital ; claimed in the West on account of Peter . . . . • -20 Accession of Constantine (311) ; Church not merged in the State, and why 20 .Power of the Emperors over the Church 21 Decline of the Empire increases the authority of the Roman bishop . .21 , Leo, the Great (440-461) 21 The Papacy exalted, yet endangered, by the fall of the Western Empire (476) 21 , Spread of Arianism and Mohammedanism . . . . .22 Fortunate alliance of the Papacy with the Franks (750) . 22 Rescue of the Papacy by Pepin and Charlemagne . . .23 iSignificance of the coronation of Charlemagne (800) . . 23 Effect of the fall of his Empire on the Papacy . . . .23 The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (circa 850) 24 Enforced by Nicholas I. (858-867) 25 Anarchy in Italy : the period of pornocracy : intervention of Henry IH. (1046) 25 Hildebrand (1073-1085) and his reforming plan: theory of the Papacy and the Empire : their inevitable conflict . . 26 Advantages of the Papacy in this conflict . . .¦ .27 Victory of the Popes ; Henry IV. ;. the Worms Concordat (1122) ; Alexander III. (1177) . . . . . . . .28 Culmination of Papal power ; Innocent HI. (1198-1216) . 29 His theory of the Papal office 29 Rise of the spirit of nationalism ; its various manifestations . 31 Benefits of the Papacy in the Middle Ages ; approach of another era 32 National languages and literatures .33 Antirhierarchical spirit of the vernacular writers . . .35 The same spirit- in the Legists 36 Reaction. against the Papacy; Boniface VHI. (1294-1303) . . 36 Conflict of Boniface with Philip the Fair . . . .37 CONTENTS. xi Declining prestige of the Papacy; the Babylonian captivity (1309-1377) 38 Character of the Papacy at Avignon ; Petrarch's testimony . 39 Opposition from Germany and England . : 39 The Monarchists against the Papists 40 Attacks upon Papal usurpations by writers ; Marsilius of Padua and William of Occam 41 The Gallican or constitutional theory ; the Reforming Councils (1409-1443) ......... 43 Increasing sway of national and secular, in the room of ecclesias tical feelings, in the fifteenth century 44 Consolidation of monarchies; England, France, Spain . . 44 Secular and worldly character of the Popes . . . .44 Sixtus IV. (1471-84) ; Innocent VTH. (1484-92) ; Alexander VI. (1492-1503); Julius H. (1503-13) 45 Character of Leo X. (1513-21) ; judgment of Sarpi, fallavicini, Muratori, Guicciardini . . . . . . . .46 The importance of the Popes, chiefly political . . .48 The concessions to them from Princes more apparent than real . 48 An illustration in the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction (1516) 48 Domination of secular and political interests, seen in the contests : of Charles V. and Francis I .49 The development of nationalism and the secularizing of the Pa pacy, at the beginning of the sixteenth century . . .50 CHAPTER HI. SPECIAL CAUSES AND OMENS OP AN ECCLESIASTICAL REVOLU TION PRIOR TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Mediseval Christianity characterized bylegalism ... 52 Forms of reaction against it : dissent from dogmas ; attacks on the usurpations and abuses of the clergy ; opposition to the excessive esteem of ceremonies and austerities Consequences of a possible increase of intelligence . Two classes of forerunners of the Reformation . Anti-sacerdotal sects ...... The Catharists (Albigenses) The Waldenses; their origin (1170) The Franciscan Spirituals ; the Fratricelli . The Beguines and Beghards What is indicated by the rise of these sects 5353 53545556 57 5758 XO. CONTENTS. The conservative or Gallican Reformers 59 Radical Reformers ; John Wickliffe (1324-1384) and his opin ions 59 How he was protected ........ 59 The Lollards 60 John Huss (1373-1415) ; his predecessors; Matthias of Janow 61 The character and principles of Huss 62 Huss and Wickliffe on the authority of prelates and magistrates 62 John Wessel (1420-89) ; Luther's opinion of him . . .63 Savonarola (1452-98) 64 The Mystics ; character of Mysticism 65 Mysticism among the Schoolmen ; Bernard, Bonaventura . 65 John Tauler (1290-1361); the "German Theology" . . .66 The "Imitation of Christ" . . 67 The Revival of Learning; begins in Italy, Dante (1265-1321) ; Petrarch (1304-74); Boccaccio (1313-75) . . . .67 Spread of the literary spirit ; consequences to the Church . 68 Benefits and faults of Scholasticism ; causes of its downfall . 69 It had lost its vitality ; effect of Nominalism ., . . .70 Renewed study of the Fathers and of the Scriptures . . .71 Sceptical spirit of Humanism in Italy; influence of the classic school on the Church of Italy 72 Semi-pagan tone of politics and ethics ; Macchiavelli (1469-1527) 73 Religious tone of Humanism in Germany ; Reuchlin (1455-1522) 74 His victory over the Monks . . . . . . . .75 Humanism and the Universities ; Wittenberg (1502) . . 76 Humanism in England ; Colet, Erasmus, More . . . .76 The " Eutopia " ; its liberal ideas on Religion .... 76 Erasmus (1467-1536) the leader of Humanism . . • .77 His fame and acquirements ....... 78 His " Praise of Folly " 79 His chastisement of ecclesiastical follies and abuses . . 81 His editions of the Fathers and of the New Testament . .81 Diffusion of his writings 82 What may be inferred from their character and popularity . . 82 Recapitulation ; symptoms of the rise of a new order of things . 83 CONTENTS. xiii CHAPTER IV. LUTHER AND THE GERMAN REFORMATION TO THE DIET OF AUGSBURG, 1530. Protestantism congenial to the German mind . . . .88 Luther the hero of the Reformation .... .87 878889 89'89 ! 919i-9296 95 96 979798 His birth (1483) and parentage Studies at Erfurt (1501-5) ; enters a convent (1505) Made a Professor at Wittenberg (1508) . . . , His literary and theological attainments .... His religious experience ....... Sees that justification is by faith Origin of indulgences ; the Scholastic doctrine . Luther opposes the sale of indulgences by Tetzel (1516) . Luther posts his ninety-five Theses (1517) ; their contents . Their effect in Germany Attacks and replies ; he meets Cajetan at Augsburg (1518) Accedes to the truce offered by Miltitz (1519) . The Leipsic Disputation (1519); Philip Melancthon . Melancthon's character ; Luther's geniality and humor He asserts that the primacy of the Pope is jurehumano . .99 Effect of the Leipsic Disputation upon his studies and opinions 99 He appeals to the laity ; Address to the Nobles (1520) '. . 100 Writes " the Babylonian Captivity of the Church" (1520) . 100 Writes on the "Freedom of a Christian Man" (1520) . . 101 Is excommunicated ; burns the Papal bull (1520) . . . 101 Commotion produced in Germany ; he finds political, religious, and literary allies 102 Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523) 1Q2 Political condition of Germany ; weakness of the central govern ment .......... 103 Abortive efforts under Maximilian (1493-1519) to organize the Empire 104 Discontent and disorder ; complaints by the knights, the cities, the peasantry . . 104 The election of Charles V. (1519) : consequent alarm in Eu rope . ... . . . . . . ¦ 105 Rivalship of Charles V. and Francis I. (1515-1547); its grounds, the strength of the rivals respectively . . . 106 Character of Charles V. : his conduct in the affair of the Refor mation 107 XIV CONTENTS. Luther summoned to the Diet of Worms (1521) ; his journey 108 Appears before the Diet ; refuses to recant .... 110 Placed under the ban of the Empire Ill Alliance of the Emperor with Leo X. ; the terms of it . .111 Luther at the Wartburg (1521-23) 112 His occupations; labors on the translation of the New Testa ment 112 Radical movement of Carlstadt : Luther returns to Wittenberg (1522) . 113 He restores order ; his vast labors 114 The Council of Regency declines to suppress Lutheranism . 1 14 The character of Pope Adrian VI. (1522-23) and Pope Clement VII. (1523-34) . 115 The Diet at Nuremberg (1524) ; remands the subject of the Worms decree to the several princes . . . . 115 Union of Catholic princes and bishops ; division of the Nation . 115 Protestant League of Torgau (1526) 116 Battle of Pavia (15 25 J ; confederacy against Charles . . .116 The Diet of Spires (1526) refuses to enforce the Worms Edict 116 Sack of Rome and triumph of the Emperor (1527) . . . 117 Repressive action of the Diet of Spires (1529) ; the Protest . 117 Opposition of Luther to armed resistance 118 The Diet of Augsburg (1530) ; situation and spirit of Charles 118 The Augsburg Confession and Apology 119 Decree adverse to the Protestants 119 The courage and fidelity of the Elector John . . . .120 Luthes at Coburg (1530) ; his correspondence . . . 120 His marriage with Catharine von Bora (1525) .... 123 His motives ; effect of his example . . . . .123 His controversy with King Henry VEH. (1522) .... 124 The intemperance of Luther's langauge, how explained . . 125 His apologetic letter to Henry VHI. (1525) .... 126 The position of Erasmus in relation to the Lutheran move ment 127 His gradual estrangement from Luther and his cause . .129 Merits of the controversy . . . . . . .131 Inability of Humanism to effect a Reform 132 The peasants' war (1525) ; how far owing to Protestantism . 133 Luther supports the princes 134 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER V. THE GERMAN REFORMATION TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG : ZWINGLE AND THE SWISS (GERMAN) REFORMATION. The character of the Swiss ; they serve as mercenaries in the armies of France and of the Pope 136 Birth of Zwingle (1484) ; his native character ; his education . 137 At Glarus (1506-16) he opposes the system of pensions and of hired service under the French 138 At Einsiedeln (1516-18) preaches salvation by the grace of Christ alone 139 Adopts the principle of the exclusive authority of the Bible . 139 Preaches against indulgences ; is established at Zurich (1519) . 139 His qualities as a man and a preacher . . . . .140 Public disputation (1523) ; the council of the city sustains him 141 His doctrines ; a second disputation 141 Zurich becomes a separate Protestant Church (1524) . . 141 Zwingle's " Commentary on True and False Religion " (1525) 142 His view respecting the salvation of the heathen . . . 142 The Reformation in Basel (1529) ; Berne (1528) ; St. Gall (1528) ; Schaffhausen (1529) 143 The ecclesiastical revolution is also a political one . . . 143 Contrast of Luther and Zwingle ; their religious experience . 144 Comparative conservatism of Luther 144 Mingling of patriotism and religion in Zwingle . . .145 Luther led the resistance to the Church of Rome . . .146 The Eucharistic controversy between the Lutherans and the Swiss ..... 147 History of the doctrine of the Eucharist .... 147 Three opinions ; Luther, Zwingle, Calvin ... .. . . 148 Ground of Luther's vehemence against the Zwinglian doctrine 149 The Conference at Marburg (1529) 152 The result ; subsequent revival of the controversy (1543) . 153 Catastrophe of the Swiss Reformation ; war between the Cath olic and Protestant Cantons . . . . . .154 Death of Zwingle ,(1531) 155, The Treaty of Peace ; Protestantism checked .... 156 Formation .of the League of Smalcald (1531) 156 The Emperor disabled for ten years (1532-42) from carrying out the Augsburg Decree 156 Catholic League (1538) . 157 XVI CONTENTS. Conferences of the opposing parties (1537-41) ; Contarini . . 157 The League of Smalcald, how weakened .... 158 Maurice of Saxony joins the Emperor (1546) .... 159 Last days of Luther . . . . . . • • 159 The relations of Luther and Melancthon to each other . .160 Melancthon's funeral address on Luther (1546) . . . 162 Luther's power and influence ; remarks of Dollinger . . .163 The Smalcaldic war (1546-47) ; defeat of the Protestants at Muhl- berg (1547) 164 The Augsburg Interim (1548) ; Charles's plan of pacification . 164 He is disappointed ; action of the Council of Trent . . 164 Union of Paul HI. and Francis I. against him (1547) . .165 Resistance to the Augsburg Interim in North Germany ; the Leipsic Interim (1548) 165 Better prospects of Protestantism 156 Maurice turns against Charles ; drives him out of Innspruck (1552) 167 Treaty of Passau (1552) . . . . . 167 Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; the jus reformandi : the Ecclesiasti cal Reservation 168 Abdication of Charles (1556) 168 CHAPTER VI. THE REFORMATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOMS, IN THE SLAVONIC NATIONS, AND IN HUNGARY. Spread of the Reformation ; agency of Germans ; influence of Wittenberg .... .... 170 The Scandinavian kingdoms; the Union of Calmar (1397) . 170 Christian II. of Denmark (1513-23) favors Protestantism, then draws back 170 He is deposed and succeeded by Frederic I. (1523-33) . . 171 Spread of Lutheranism in Denmark in his reign . . . 1 73 Under Christian HI. the Reformation is legalized . . . 1 73 Constitution of the Danish Protestant Church 1 73 Democratic movements in Lubeck and other cities, in connection with the Reformation 1 75 Establishment of Protestantism in Norway (1537) . . .175 Olaf and Laurence Petersen preach Protestantism in Sweden (1519) 176 Gustavus Vasa (1523-60) favors it 176 CONTENTS. Xvii It is adopted at the Diet of Westeras (1527) . . . .177 What was done with ecclesiastical property .... 17T Failure of subsequent efforts to restore Catholicism . . 177 Effect of the execution of Huss in Bohemia (1415) . . .177 Hussite movement was both religious and national . . 1'78 The demand of the cup for the laity ; history of the practice of witholding it 1:78 The Prague University declares for the Utraquists . . 17$ Division of the Utraquists ; the Taborites 179 Ziska (1360-1424) their leader 180 The Articles of Prague, the platform of the Utraquists (1421) . 180 Three Crusades fail to subdue them ..... 181 They are heard at the Council of Basel (1433) .... 181 The Compactata -182 Conflict of Calixtines and Taborites ...... 182 'I he rise of the Brethren in Unity (circa 1450) . . . 182 Favorable reception of Lutheranism by the Hussites . . . 183 The Utraquists refuse to join Ferdinand in the Smalcaldic war 183 Subsequent persecution of Bohemian Protestants . . . 185 Religious condition of Poland at the time of the Reformation . 185 How Protestantism was introduced 185 The spread of the new doctrine in Polish Prussia and in Livonia (1524) . 185 Sigismund II. (1548-72) favorable to it 186 Religious dissension among Protestants : spread of Unitarianism 186 John a Lasco (1499-1560) 187 Union of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Brethren, in the Synod of Sendomir (1570) 187 Equality of rights granted to all the Churches .... 188 The Reformation introduced into Hungary . . . .188 Effect of the civil war (1526) upon its progress .... 189 Strife between the Calvinists and Lutherans . . 190 CHAPTER VH. JOHN CALVIN AND THE GENEVAN REFORMATION. Calvin belongs to the second generation of Reformers . . 192 His birth (1509), family, and education . . . . .192 Studies at Paris ; studies law at Orleans and Bourges . . 193 His mental power and habits of study -1)92 Publishes Seneca's treatise on " Clemency " (153.2) ; his motive 194 b xviii CONTENTS. His conversion (1532) I95 His reserve and love of retirement 196 Obliged to fly from Paris (1533) ; at Angouleme ; at Beam ; ' returns to Paris • 196 Obliged again to fly, on account of placards against the mass (1535) 196 His first theological work ; the " Psychopannychia " (1534) . 197 At Basel (1535) ; studies Hebrew ; writes the "Institutes " . 197 His motive in composing this work 197 His characteristics as a writer and a man 198 His adoption of the Bible as the sole standard of doctrine . 199 His conception of the Church and reverence for it 200 His doctrine of predestination ...... 200 Is attached to the doctrine on practical grounds . . . 201 His opinion compared with that of Augustine . . . 202 His ability as a commentator 202 Not an extremist in respect to forms and rites . . . 203 The acerbity of his temper 204 His piety tinged with the Old Testament spirit . . . 205 His homage to law and sense of the exaltation of God . . 205 Less broad in his sympathies than Luther .... 206 His greatness of mind and of character ..... 206 Visits the court of the Duchess of Ferrara (1536) . . . 207 Stops at Geneva on his return (1536) ... . . . 207 Geneva subject to Savoy ; achieves its independence (1533) . 208 Protestant influences from Berne 208 Expulsion of the Bishop from Geneva and establishment of Prot estantism (1535) ¦ 209 Farel (1489-1565) ; his history and character; his preaching at Geneva 209 Discontent there with the new ecclesiastical system . . 210 State of morals 210 Farel moves Calvin to remain and assist him (1536) . . 211 Strict regulations of Church discipline 212 Opposition to them 212 The preachers refuse to administer the Sacrament . . .213 They are banished by the citizens (1538) .... 213 Calvin resides at Strasburg ; attends the German religious Con- ' ferences (1539-1541) 213 His opinion of Luther ; his relations to Melancthon . . 214 His marriage 215 Is recalled to Geneva (1541), and why 216 CONTENTS. xix His letter to Sadolet 216 His reluctance to return 217 The Genevan civil and ecclesiastical system . . . .217 The Little Council ; the Consistory 218 Vigilant supervision of the people by preachers and elders .219 The Venerable Company 219 Calvin takes part in framing the civil laws . . . .219 How the preachers were chosen 219 Disaffection arises ; the Libertines 220 Combination of different classes of Calvin's opponents . . .221 Severity of the Genevan laws 221 Religious intolerance ; its history 222 Practiced in the Middle Ages 223 The Reformers did not advocate toleration . . . .224 Conflicts of Calvin and efforts to intimidate him . . . 225 Bolsec banished (1551) for assailing the doctrine of predestina tion 225 Expulsion of Castellio (1544) 226 Michael Servetus ; his history and character .... 226 His book on the "Errors of the Trinity" (1531) . . .227 His second book — the " Restoration of Christianity " . . 228 Tried for heresy before a Roman Catholic Court at Vienne . 228 Proof furnished from Geneva 228 He escapes and comes, to Geneva (1553) 229 Is arrested and tried 229 Is convicted and burned at the stake 230 Agency of Calvin in the transaction ; verdict of Guizot . 231 The execution of Servetus generally approved . . . .232 Further efforts of the Libertines; their final overthrow (1555) 233 Calvin's multiplied labors and vast influence . . . 234 His last years ; the variety of his employments ; his infirmities of body 235 His last illness (156*4) ; his interview with the Council . . 236 His interview with the preachers 237 Estimate of his character 238 Calvinism lays emphasis on the sovereignty of God . , . 239 Why favorable to civil liberty 239 It does not surrender the government of the Church to the civil authority 239 Its church organization is republican 240 It dwarfs earthly sovereignty by exalting the divine . . . 240 Compared with Romanism in its view of the civil authority . 241 XX CONTENTS. CHAPTER VHI. THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE. The Sorbonne and Parliament oppose doctrinal innovations . 242 Effect of the repeal of the Pragmatic Sanction (1516) . 242 Reform emanates from Humanism 242 Francis I. (1515-47) ; the patron of learning and art . . 243 Lefevre (1450-1536), the Father of the Reformation ; his studies and writings . . . ¦ • • ... . 243 His mystical turn ; his pupil, Briconnet .... 244 Hostility of the Sorbonne and of Parliament to Lefevre and his school 244 Heresy suppressed in Meaux (1525) 245 Margaret, Queen of Navarre (1492-1549) ; her sympathy with the Mystical School 245 Her writings ; she favors the Protestants without joining them 246 Francis I. opposes the Sorbonne ; supports his sister . . .247 Changes his course ; engages in persecution .... 248 Doubtful position of France respecting the Reformation . . 248 Rome, Renaissance, the Reformation ; the three rivals . . 249 Why Calvinism was disliked ....... 250 Spirit of Loyola and the Catholic Reaction .... 250 Rabelais (1483-1553) 250 Vacillation of Francis I. and its consequences . . . 251 He persecutes the Protestants (1534) ; courts the alliance of the Lutheran princes ........ 252 Spread of Protestantism in France in his reign . . . 253 Influence of Geneva and of Calvin ...... 253 Henry II. (1547-59) ; his hostility to the Reformation . . 254 Its progress . . . . . . . . . 254 The Calvinists hold a general Synod (1559) .... 255 Persecution after the treaty of Cateau-CamUresis ; death of Henry II. (1559) 255 Heroism of the sufferers 256 How the Huguenots became a political party .... 256 Catharine de Medici ; her relations to Henry and his mistress ; aiid her character 257 Francis U. (1559-60) is controlled by the Guises ; their history and character 257 Discontent of the Bourbons and Chatillons .... 258 Connection of the great nobles with the Calvinists . . . 259 CONTENTS. XXI Calvin preaches to them submission ; their patience . . . 260 The conspiracy of Amboise .(1560) 2{f0 Its consequences ; the Edict of Romorantin (1560) . . . 261 Coligny supports the petition of the Protestants for liberty of worship 262 The States General called together at Orleans (1560) . . 262 Arrest of Conde ; Navarre placed under surveillance . . 262 Plot for the extirpation of Protestantism ..... 262 Frustrated by the death of Francis H. (1560) . . .263 Catharine de Medici ; her virtual guardianship of Charles IX. (1560-74), and regency 263 Influence of L'Hospital 263 Strength of the Protestants 264 Guise, Montmprenci, and St. Andre' form the Triumvirate . 264 The Colloquy at Poissy (1561); Beza . . '. . .265 The Edict of St. Germain (1562) grants a measure of tolera tion 266 The Massacre of Vassy (1562) begins the civil wars . . .267 The Huguenots fought in self-defense 268 Siege of Rouen; battle of Dreux (1562); assassination of Guise (1563) 269 The Edict of Amboise (1563) ; the character of it . . 269 The Huguenots take up arms ; Peace of Longjumeau (1568) . 270 Conference at Bayonne (1565) 270 Renewal of the war under Spanish influence ; battles of Jarnac and Moncontour (1569) 271 Treaty of St. Germain (1570) ; reasons that influenced the Court to make peace ; fortified towns placed in the hands of the Huguenots . . 272 Political crisis in Europe ; will France make war on Spain ? . 2,72 Proposal that Henry of Navarre shall marry Margaret of Val ois 273 Coligny comes to Court ; his character 273 The origin of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) . • . 273 Had it been planned earlier ? 275 Joy at Madrid and at Rome 277 Effect of the massacre on the surviving Huguenots . . . 277 The party of the Politiq.ues or Liberal Catholics is formed . 27-7 Organization of the League 278 Position of Henry III. (1.574^89) 278 Excommunication of Navarre and Conde by Sixtus V. (1585) . 2.79 War of the "Three. Henries" (1586) 279 XXII CONTENTS. Assassination of the Guises by order of Henry LH. (1588) . 279 He joins the army of Henry of Navarre .... 279 Henry DJ. is assassinated (1589) 280 Henry IV. ; his war with the League ; the battle of Ivry (1590) 280 His contest with Alexander of Parma (1592) . . . 280 Abjuration of Henry IV. ; its motives (1593) ; its effect . . 281 Character of this act ........ 282 Other misfortunes of the Huguenots 283 The administration of Henry IV. ; the Edict of Nantes (1598) 283 The Huguenots become an isolated and defensive party . . 284 CHAPTER IX. THE REFORMATION J I THE NETHERLANDS. Prosperity and intelligence of the w-^pitj of the Netherlands . 285 Relation of the Netherlands to the German Empire . . . 286 Influences favorable tc Protestantism ..... 286 Persecuting edicts of Charles V. (1521 seq.) . . . .287 Martyrdoms at Brussels (1523) ; Luther's hymn . . . 287 Continued persecution by Charles V. ; number of martyrs . 288 Abdication of Charles V. (1555) 289 Fanatical and despotic character of Philip H. (1555-98) . . 289 His unpopularity in the Netherlands 290 The great nobles ; Orange, Egmont 290 Margaret of Parma is made Regent (1559) ; her character . 291 Granvelle ; his character 292 Conduct of the government is placed in his hands . . . 292 Philip keeps in the Netherlands Spanish regiments . . .292 He creates new bishoprics 292 Design of these measures 292 •Character of the nobles ; William of Orange . . . 293 Philip renews the persecuting Edicts 294 The Inquisition and its cruelties 294 Orange and Egmont complain of Granvelle to the King . . 295 How far Granvelle was responsible ..... 295 He leaves the country (1564) 296 Speech of William of Orange against the policy of the govern ment 296 Egmont goes to Spain to enlighten the King . . . .297 He is duped by the assurances of Philip . . . .297 Effect of the continued cruelties 297 CONTENTS. XXU1 The " Compromise " (1566) 297 The Regent allows Protestant preaching outside of the cities 298 Philip promises to mitigate his policy ; the proof of his per fidy 298 Iconoclasm (1566) 299 The Regent makes a truce with the Confederacy of Nobles . 300 Orange leaves the country . • 300 Vengeance of Philip ; mission of the Duke of Alva (1567) . 301 He arrests Egmont and Horn ; the " Council of Blood " . 302 Alva defeats Louis of Nassau ; Egmont and Horn are beheaded (1568) 303 Alva's plan of taxation (1569) 303 The spirit of resistance is awakened . . . . . .304 The " Sea-beggars ; " they capture Briel (1572) . . .304 Holland and Zealand adopt a free constitution ; Orange made Stadtholder (1572) 304 Alva detested by the people ; he is recalled (1573) . . 305 Requesens succeeds him (1573) 305 Growth of a Protestant state under Orange . . . 305 Flanders and Brabant invoke his help ; the Pacification of Ghent (1576) 306 Don Johrreucceeds Requesens (1576) "06 Division between the Southern and Northern Provinces . . 306 Alexander of Parma succeeds Don John (1578) . . . 306 The Utrecht Union formed in the North (1579) . . .307 Outlawry of William of Orange (1580) ; his " Apology" . 307 His character . 308 His assassination (1584) 309 The Catholic Provinces submit to Parma 309 Philip's intention to remove him ; death of Parma (1592) . 310 Rise of the Dutch Republic ; disasters of Philip and of Spain . 311 The Anabaptists 311 Prevalence of Calvinism 311 The Calvinists do not adopt the principle of toleration . . 312 Difference between Protestants and Catholics in respect to in tolerance 313 William of Orange advocates religious liberty . . • 313 Controversy on the relation of the Church to the civil au thority 314 Germs of the Arminian controversy 315 XXIV CONTENTS. 316316316317317318318319 320 320320321321 CHAPTER X. THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. Lollards numerous at the beginning of tbe sixteenth century Influence of the Revival of learning .... Cardinal Wolsey a friend of learning Tyndale (d. 1536) and Frith (d. 1533) . The peculiarity of the English Reformation No prominent leaders as on the Continent Henry VIII. seeks a divorce from Clement VII. (1527) Henry reduces the power of the Pope and the clergy in Eng land Revives the statute of "prsemunire" (1531) Addressed by the clergy as Head of the English Church Is divorced and marries Anne Boleyn (1532) The act of Supremacy (1534) Abolishing of the monasteries (153G) A Catholic and a Protestant party in the Council and in the Church 321 Cranmer leads the Protestant party ; his character . . . 322 Thomas Cromwell ; Gardiner 322 The English Bible issued by the King's authority . . . 323 The Ten Articles (1536) ....... 323 The Rebellion of 1536 323 The Catholic party in the ascendency; the Six Articles (1539) 324 The Fall of Cromwell (1540) 324 Antagonism of the two parties after Henry's death (1547) . 325 Protestantism prevails under Edward VI 325 Cranmer reinforced by theologians from the Continent . . 326 The Book of Common Prayer (1548, 1552) ; the Articles of Re ligion (1552) 326 The progress too rapid for the popular feeling .... 326 Fall of the Protector Somerset (1551) . . . . 326 Revival of the ecclesiastical statutes ...... 327 Reactionary movement under Mary (1553-58) . . . 327 Restoration of the Catholic system ; her marriage with Philip II. (1554) 327 Martyrdom of Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer (1555-56) . 328 The character of Cranmer , . , 328 Unpopularity of Mary and its causes 329 Extreme demands of Pope Paul IV 329 CONTENTS. XXV Accession of Elizabeth (1558) ; her conservative Protestant ism 331 Revision of the Articles (1563) 331 Act of Supremacy and Acts of Uniformity (1559) ; Court of High Commission (1583) 331 Treatment of the Catholics 331 Distinction between the Anglican Church and the Protestant Churches on the Continent 332 Little controversy on Episcopacy in the first age of the Refor mation 332 Fraternal relation of the English and the Continental Churches 332 Cranmer asserts the parity of the clergy .... 333 Testimony of Lord Bacon ; position of Hooker (1553-1600) . 334 Agreement of the Anglican and Continental Churches on pre destination 335 The Augustinian and Calvinistic doctrine compared . . . 337 Influence of Calvin and of his writings in England , . 338 Anglican divines not rigid predestinarians .... 338 Anglican doctrine Calvinistic on the Eucharist . . . 340 This doctrine expressed in the Artioles ..... 341 The Puritan objections to the vestments .... 342 Views of Jewel and other Elizabethan bishops .... 348 The Queen's opposition to changes in the ritual . . . 344 Her enforcement of uniformity .' 345 Cartwright an advocate of Presbyterianism (1572) . . 345 The bearing of his principles on the Queen's Supremacy . .346 Rise of the Independents ; their principles .... 347 Hooker on Church government and on the relation of Church and State 347 Merits of the controversy of the Anglicans and Puritans . 349 Lord Bacon's review of it 349 No iconoclasm in England ....... 350 Connection of the Scottish Reformation with Elizabeth . .351 Character of the Scottish nobility ; of the commons . . 352 The clergy ignorant and vicious ; their wealth .... 352 Treatment of Protestantism under the Regent Mary (1554-60) 353 Return of Knox from the Continent (1559) .... 353 The education of Knox ; begins to preach ; a captive in France (1547) 354 He resides at Geneva (1556-59) ; his "Monstrous Regimen of Women " 355 The Covenant of the Lords of the Congregation (1557) . . 355 XXVI CONTENTS. The preaching of Knox ; iconoclasm ..... 355 Elizabeth sends troops to aid the lords (1560) .... 356 Death of the Queen-Regent (1560) ; legal establishment of Prot estantism (1560) 356 The ecclesiastical property, how used . . . '• .357 Return of Mary, Queen of Sijots, from France (1561); her character 357 She does not resist Protestantism ; grounds of her policy . . 358 Knox's opposition to the mass in her Chapel (1561) . . 359 Conference of Knox and the Queen 360 Their debate on the " regimen of women " . . . . 361 On the right of subjects to resist their sovereign . . . 362 Knox's opinion of Mary 363 He preaches against the dancing at Holyrood ; another confer ence with Mary 364 The people suppress the mass in the western districts (1563) . 364 Knox defends their conduct in a conversation with the Queen . 364 Knox arraigned for convening her lieges . . . . 366 He describes his examination before her and the Privy Council . 367 Knox's public prayer for the Queen and the realm . . 367 He considers toleration of Catholic worship a sin . . 368 Mary's marriage with Darnley (1565) 369 It displeases Elizabeth ; Mary's hopes centre in Spain and the "Guises 369 Murder of Rizzio by Darnley and the jealous nobles (1566) . 370 Mary's repugnance to Darnley and attachment to Bothwell . 372 Circumstances preceding the murder of Darnley . . .372 Abduction of the Queen by Bothwell (1567) . . . . 374 He is divorced from his- wife and marries Mary (1567) . . 375 She surrenders to the lords at Carberry Hill (1567) . . . 375 The problem of the " casket letters " 376 Mary abdicates in favor of her son; makes Murray regent (1567) 378 Constitution of the Kirk ; the Second Book of Discipline (1577-81) 378 Full establishment of the Presbyterian system (1592) . . 380 Mary escapes from Lochleven (1568) ; is defeated at Langside (1568) ; a prisoner in England ...... 380 Hostility of the Catholic Reaction to Elizabeth . . . 381 She sends help to the Netherlands (1585) 382 Execution of Mary (1587) . ' 382 Defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) 382 CONTENTS. XXVll Protestantism in Ireland 383 Effect of the Catholic Reaction on the Irish .... 384 Lord Bacon on the way to treat Ireland .... 384 CHAPTER XI. THE REFORMATION IN ITALY AND SPAIN J THE COUNTER-REF ORMATION IN THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. Resistance to Protestantism organized in Italy and Spain . . 385 Political condition of Italy in its bearing on Protestantism . 385 The corruption of the Church understood by Italians . . 386 Arnold of Brescia (d. 1155) 386 Dante (1265-1321) attacks the temporal power, but not the Cath olic dogmas . . . ¦ 387 His ideal of the restored Empire 388 How Boccaccio (1313-75) treats the Church and the clergy . 388 The spirit of the Renaissance ; Laurentius Valla (d. 1465) . 389 The service of Humanism and its limits ; the academies . . 390 Diffusion of Lutheran writings in Italy 390 Protestantism in Italy a thing of degrees 391 The Oratory of Divine Loye ; Contarini .... 392 The reformed opinions in Ferrara; the Duchess Renec (1527) . 392 Protestantism in other cities 393 In Naples ; Juan Valdez (circa 1530) 394 Ochino and Peter Martyr 394 Paleario's treatise on the " Benefits of Christ " .... 396 The Sacramentarian dispute 895 Paul IH. (1534-49) favors the Catholic reforming party (1537) 395 Contarini at Ratisbon (1541) 396 Caraffa leads the rigidly orthodox party of reform . . .396 New orders ; the Theatins (1524) 397 Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) founds the order of the Jesuits (1540) 398 His book of "Spiritual Exercises" 399 The constitution of the Jesuit order 400 The Council of Trent (1545-1563) 400 Its definitions are anti-Protestant 401 Its practical work in the way of reform 402 The Council serves to consolidate the Catholic Church . . 402 The Inquisition ; its history ; the Spanish Inquisition . . 403 The Inquisition in Italy (1543), how organized .... 404 Flight of Ochino (1542), Peter Martyr (1542), Vergerio (1548) 404 XXVUl CONTENTS. Persecution of Protestants 405 Suppression of Books ; the Index Prohibitorius (1557) . 405 The Index Expurgatorius 406 Persecution of Evangelical Catholics 406 Extirpation of Protestantism in Italy 406 Introduction of Protestantism into Spain .... 406 Converts to Protestantism at Seville and Valladolid . . . 407 Reception of the doctrine of Justification by Faith . . 408 Autos da fe (1559-60) 408 Success of the Inquisition ....... 409 Persecution of the Evangelical Catholics ; Carranza (1558-1576) 409 Attitude of the Popes in respect to the Catholic Reaction ; Paul IV. (1555-59) ; Pius IV. (1559-65) ; Pius V. (1566-72) . 411 Sixtus V., excommunicates Henry IV. (1585), and supports the League . . . . . . . . . .412 Change in the intellectual spirit of Italy ; Tasso (1544-95) ; the new schools of painting 412 Carlo Borromeo's private virtues and Christian work (1538-84) 413 The Jesuits as educators 413 They extend their influence in Europe ..... 414 Countries recovered to the Church of Rome .... 414 Causes of the check of Protestantism ; Macaulay's discussion . 415 The crystallizing of parties . . . . . . . 415 Political arrangements . . . . . . . .416 The removal of abuses in the Church of Rome . . .417 Protestants waste their strength in contests with one another . 417 The better organization of the Roman Catholics . . .417 They use the varieties of talents and character . . . .413 More rooted attachment in Southern Europe to the Church of Rome 418 Discord arises in the Roman Catholic Party ; its effect . .419 CHAPTER XH. THE STRUGGLE OF PROTESTANTISM IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Reverses experienced by the Catholic Reaction . . . 42J Principal topics to be considered 421 Failure of Charles V. to subjugate the Protestants . . 42-2 Effect of the Peace of Augsburg (1555) ; Philip II. not sup ported by Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. ... 422 Their successors under the sway of the Jesuits and the Catholic Reaction 42.