•YAEJE-'VMVIEISSinnr- • mMBAKy •

DIVINITY SCHOOL
TROWBRIDGE LIBRARY

GEEAT MOSK. OF THE OMEIYADES, DAMASCUS. From a Photograph:

FIVE YEAES IN DAMASCUS:

INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT

HISTORY, TOPOGRAPHY, AID ANTIQUITIES
OF THAT CITY;

TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN PALMYRA, LEBANON,
AND THE HAURAN.

By EEV. J. L. PORTER, A.M., F.R.S.L.
IN TWO VOLUMES.— Vol. I.
Witty Saps anb llhxstatiimta.

LONDON:
JOHN MUEEAY, ALBEMAELE STEEET.
1855.

LONDON: PRINTED BY IV. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS.

PREP ACE.

The following work is not a book of travels, penned
during a " summer's ramble " or a " winter's residence."
It is the result of researches extending over a period of
more than five years. Though I have wandered through
most of Palestine, I have here confined my attention to
a few provinces hitherto but little known; my object
being not so much to amuse as to instruct. My pro
fessional duties not only obliged me to study the language
and customs of the people of the land, but to traverse
their country, and visit their towns and villages. I have
thus had opportunities of minutely examining the topo
graphy and antiquities, and of acquiring information
regarding ancient sites, such as are enjoyed by few
travellers. My tastes also led me to improve every
opportunity I possessed, and to study the ancient geo
graphy and history of Palestine combined with the best
works of modern travel.
The district to which my researches have here been con
fined is among the most interesting in Syria. Damascus
has been a city from the time when Abraham left his home
" between the rivers," to journey westward to the " Land
a 2

iv PREFACE.
of Promise." It is thus a connecting link between the
patriarchal age and modern days; and its beauty and
richness have been proverbial for full four thousand years.
A romantic interest will be attached to Palmyra, the
desert home of Zenobia, while history exists; and
Lebanon and Hermon will not cease to be remembered
with liveliest feelings so long as the Word of God con
tinues to bless the world. Bashan, too, has been iir^
mortalized by the song of the Psalmist ; and now it
possesses additional interest, as containing the only exist
ing specimens of the ordinary dwellings of remote anti
quity, and of the architecture of a race of giants that has
been extinct for three thousand years.
Though a part of this district has already been traversed
by others, yet a large portion of it is new ground ; and
none of it has hitherto been examined with that minute
ness which its importance demands. Burckhardt possessed
all the qualifications necessary for a successful explorer —
a knowledge of the language, powers of accurate observa
tion, and an enthusiastic love for discovery; but unfor
tunately he did not live to publish his own notes. Many
parts of his work are thus meagre and obscure ; and in
not a few places there are inaccuracies which he would
doubtless have corrected on subsequent revision. Ritter,
in the last edition of his ' Palastina und Syrien,' has, with
his accustomed research, collected all the information given
by travellers and other writers ; but a perusal of that
learned work will best show to the reader how much new

PREFACE.
light I have been enabled to throw on the historical
geography of this portion of Syria.
'The plan I have followed has been, accurately to
describe the features of the country through which I
travelled, and the state of the towns and villages I visited,
and then to add such historical notices as ancient autho
rities furnish. The latter I have, with a very few excep
tions, taken from the originals. I have attempted to
define, and, I believe, with a -near approach to accuracy,
the boundaries of the ancient kingdom of Bashan, and the
position and extent of the provinces into which it was
subsequently divided. I have described the scenery and
character of the "Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus,"
from their sources amid the heights of Antilebanon and
Hermon to where they empty their waters into hitherto
unknown lakes on the borders of the Great Desert.
While wandering through Bible lands my chief object
has been to illustrate Bible truths ; and the result of ex
tensive travel, and no little research, has been to impress
upon my mind the fact that the more we extend our
labours in Palestine, whether as antiquarians, geographers,
or politicians, the more strongly are we convinced of the
literal fulfilment of prophecy, and of the minute accuracy
of the topographical and statistical sketches contained in
the Word of God.
The map attached to this work has been constructed
by myself, almost wholly from my own observations and
surveys. My sextant and compass were my constant
a 3

vi PREFACE.
companions on every excursion, and were used wherever
opportunity offered and circumstances required. The
great changes effected by my labours on this part of the
map of Syria will be obvious to every student of geo
graphy ; and their accuracy can be tested by future tra
vellers. The Jordan and its lakes were laid down from
the map of Lieut. Lynch; and the western slopes of
Lebanon were constructed from the best authorities. All
the rest is my own. Its merits — if any it has — are mine ;
and for its defects I alone am responsible.
The plans and woodcuts are all original, and have, with
two exceptions, been engraved from my own drawings.
I cannot conclude without recording my obligations to
my kind friend and companion during many a day's travel,
the Rev. Smylie Robson, who not only gave me important
assistance in my labours, but carefully perused the manu
script when ready for the press. To the Rev. James
Barnett I am also much indebted for the use of his notes,
and of the numerous inscriptions he copied during our
journey in the Hauran. To another esteemed friend and
fellow-traveller, James Graham, Esq., I owe thanks fok
the photographs of the Great Mosk and East Gate of
Damascus, and for many acts of personal kindness.
St. Helier, Jersey,
September 21st, 1855.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

CHAPTEE I.

INTRODUCTION.  BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS.
First sight of Syria — Bay of Beyrout — Scenery — Hotel de Belle Vue 
Start for Damascus — Mode of travel — Mountain road — Scenery and
geology of Lebanon — Syrian horses — Bhamduu — Route to summit of
mountain — Watershed — Rock sculpture — Castle and ancient tombs 
The Litany — The Buka'a — Ruined temple — Site and history of Chalcis
— Night quarters — Wady Harlr — Watershed of Antilibanus — Wady
el-Kum — Banditti — Ridges of Antilibanus — Plain of Sahi-a — Approach
to Damascus  ' Page 1-23

CHAPTEE II.
DAMASCUS. — TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES.
Mode of treating these topics — Scarcity of information — Ibn As&ker's history
— Antiquity of Damascus — Its situation — Its plain — The Abana and
Pharpar — System of irrigation — Splendid view — The streets —
Costumes — Mosks — Khans — Private houses — The Harlm — The house
of 'Aly Aga and his tragic fate  p. 24-38
Ancient Walls : Misrepresentations of travellers — The East Gate — Bas-
reliefs — Spot where Paul was let down in a basket — St. George the
Porter — Scene of Paul's conversion — Tomb of Mohammed's Muezzin —
Muslem tombs — Roman gate — Mosk of Senan Pasha — The West Gate
— The " Street called Straight " — Cemeteries — Greek bazaar — The
castle — Gigantic plane-tree — Gates — Khaled's head-quarters — House
of Naaman  38-55
Walk THROUGH the City •- Churches and convents — House of Ananias —
Greek church — Russian schools — Bazaars and trades — Great Khan —
Nfir ed-Dln —Slave-market  55-61
Great Mosk : Triumphal arch — Head of John the Baptist — Ancient gate
and inscription — Age of the building — Its history and splendour —
Tombs of Saladin and Melek ed-Dhaher _ Mosk of Sultan Seltm 61-77

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

CHAPTEE III.
HISTORY OF DAMASCUS.
1st Period : First notice in Bible — When founded, and by whom — Tradition
of Abraham — David takes city — Ben-Hadad and his royal line — Rezon
— Samaria besieged — Kingdom of Damascus — Elijah — ¦ Naaman —
Elisha — Hazael — City taken by Jeroboam — By Tiglath-pileser. 2nd
Period : Fulfilment of prophecy — Fall of Assyrian Empire — The city
captured by Pharaoh-Necho, and by Nebuchadnezzar — Alexander the
Great. 3rd Period : Damascus under the Ptolemies — Growing influence
of Rome — Fall of Egyptian rule in Syria — Division of empire of the
Seleucida? — Damascus again a royal city — Aretas — - Fall of the Seleu-
cidas — The city taken by the Romans — Pompey. ith Period : Damas
cus under the Romans — Cleopatra — Antioch — Strabo's account of the
city — Nicolaus the historian — Aretas and Herod — Spread of Christianity
— Paul's conversion — Apollodorus the architect — The city taken by Sapor
— Odenathus and Zenobia — Damascus a Metropolitan city — Captured
by Persians — Besieged and taken by Mohammedans. 5th Period: Under
the Arabs — Muslem dynasties — The Crusaders — Saladin — The Mam-
lukes — Origin and history of the Turks — Conquests of Timor — Awful
massacre — Sultan Sellm conquers Syria — Turkish policy — Ibrahim
Pasha — Richard Wood, Esq  Page 78-148

CHAPTEE IV.
JOURNEY TO PALMYRA.
Bedawy Sheikh — Dromedaries and their saddles — Gardens — The mirage
— Mountain pass — Kuteifeh — Evening entertainment — Frank sorcery
— Early rising — Jerfld — Sheikh Fires and Arab cavaliers — Border
warfare — Salt marsh — The desert — The Bedawy in the desert — En
campment of Bedawin — Patriarchal customs — A feast — Evening party
in a tent — Night adventure — Excitement of desert travel — A chace 
Bedawy Harims — Enemies — Preparations for battle — Singular moun-
¦ tain — Encounter with robbers —, Arab hospitality — Cold march —
Robbers — The spoils of a caravan — Illustrations of Scripture — Bedawy
women — Apprehended dangers — Geological features — First view of
Tadmor — A " charge " — Attack and capture of our party — Our prison
— Alarming conversation — A comic scene — Ride to Palmyra — Descrip
tion of the ruins — Historical sketch — Return — Route of Jacob — Ku-
ryetein identified with Hazar-enan  . p. 149-254

CONTENTS OF VOL. I. ix
CHAPTEE V.
THE VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. — THE ANCIENT ABANA.
The Barada — The Salahiyeh hills — Dummar — Fine valley — Ancient
aqueduct — Great fountain of Fijeh — Wady Barada — Sflk, the ancient
Abila — Roman Road and aqueducts — Inscriptions — Discoveries of
II. de Saulcy — History of Abila — Sublime pass — Roman bridges —
— Plain of Zebditny — Fountain of the Barada — Physical geography of
district — The " Rivers of Damascus " identified . . Page 255-278
CHAPTEE VI.
MOUNT HERMON, AND THE SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN.
Bludan — Ancient " High Place" — Mountains of Antilibanus — Inaccuracy
of maps — Banditti — Fearful tale — Rasheiya and its prince — Ascent
of Hermon — Interesting ruins on summit — The sources of the Pharpar
— Descent to Hasbeiya — ¦ Source of the Nahr Hasb&ny — Tell el-Kitdy,
Dan, and the fountains of the Jordan — B&nias, Ccesarea Philippi —
Great castle of Banias — The Lake Phiala, and Roman Road — Extent of
Jebel esh-Sheikh and Jebel el-Heish — Arab robbers — Beit Jenn and the
second source of the Pharpar — M. de Saulcy's discoveries (?) — Descrip
tion of the Pharpar — Approach to Damascus from the west . p. 279-322

CHAPTEE VII.
HELBON.
Tradition of Abraham — Grand defile of M'araba — Menin and its excavated
temples — The vale and vineyards of Helbon — Sublime pass of ' Ain es-
Saheb — The site of Helbon identified — Greek inscriptions — Ride over
Anti-Lebanon  p. 323-336

x CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
CHAPTEE VIII.
EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS.
Roman road — Beautiful view of the Ghiitah — Convent of Saidnaya —
Miraculous image of the Virgin — Ancient tombs and ruins — Saidnaya
the ancient Danaba — Ravine and sepulchral caves of Jubb 'Adin —
M'alfila — Wild pass and excavated tombs — Topography of the eastern
slopes of Antilibanus — The Syriac language spoken — Yabrud, the
ancient Jabruda, and its ruins — Night march to Kuteifeh — Dangers
of travel — Fine temple at Maksura — Ruined town discovered — Pro
bably the ancient Telsece  Page 337-372
CHAPTEE LX.
THE PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS.
Druze war — Fine scenery of the plain — " Harran of the Columns" —
Mouth of the Abana — The character and extent of the South and Bast
lakes — A battle-field — Singular ruins — Adventure in the marshes —
Tell es-Salahlyeh, an Assyrian mound — The lake Hljaneh and mouth
ofthe Pharpar — The Safa'  p. 373-395

LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. VOL. 1.

Mosk of the Omeiyades  Frontispiece
Northern Side Arch, East Gate, Damascus  page 24
View of Damascus from the North-east  to face -p. 26
Front Elevation of East Gate, Damascus  38
Plan of Great Mosk, Damascus  to face p. 61
Remains of Triumphal Arch  62
Hollow-headed Arrow  126
Plan of Palmyra  to face p. 220
Aqueduct  223
Interior of Tomb  232
Plan of Site of the ancient Abila  to face p. 263
'Ain Saiheb — the Entrance to Helbon  to face p. 323
Kurdish Shepherd  337
Tell es-Salahiyeh  to face p. 373
Singular Bas-relief  384
Plan of Damascus  at the end.

FIVE YEAES IN DAMASCUS,

ETC. ETC.

CHAPTEE I.
INTRODUCTION.— BETROUT TO DAMASCUS.
First sight of Syria — Bay of Beyrout — Scenery — Hotel de Belle Vue
— Start for Damascus — Mode of travel — Mountain road — Scenery
and geology of Lebanon — Syrian horses — Bhamdun — Route to
summit of mountain — Watershed — Rock sculpture ¦ — Castle and
ancient tombs — The Litany — The Buka'a — Ruined temple — Site
and history of Chalcis — Night quarters — Wady Harlr — Watershed
of Antilibanus — Wady el-Kurn — Banditti — Ridges of Antilibanus
— Plain of Sahra — Approach to Damascus.
In this age of locomotion the romance of travel is gone,
and a library of Eesearches, Narratives, and Memorials
makes the wanderer familiar with every object of interest,
and with all its associations, classic or sacred, ere his eye
rests upon it. Still the first sight of the Syrian shores,
and of the mountains of Israel, is not soon forgotten.
There is a magic power in the living reality which neither
poet's pen nor painter's pencil can ever appropriate. The
descriptions of others, however graphic, and even the
sketch of the artist, however faithful, only place before
the mind's eye an ideal scene, which we can contemplate,
it is true, with unmingled pleasure, and even with satis
faction ; but when the eye wanders over plain and moun
tain, or the foot touches " holy ground," the superiority
VOL. I. B

2 INTRODUCTION. Chap. 1.
of the real over the ideal is at once felt and acknowledged.
Such, at least, has been my experience. Often had I
pictured the beauty of Syria's landscapes and the grandeur
of its ruins, and often had I thought of the holy associa
tions that would crowd upon the mind as the eye rested
on spots celebrated in history or sanctified by Holy
Writ ; but a single glance at the magnificent panorama of
Lebanon gave rise to emotions I never before had expe
rienced, and occasioned more real pleasure than the
perusal of a host of volumes.
I was still asleep, when, on the morning of December
12th, 1849, our little steamer cast anchor in the bay of
Beyrout. The stopping of the engines and the hoarse
sound of the running cable speedily roused me. I hast
ened on deck to gaze on that " goodly mountain," and
leisurely to enjoy the first view of these hallowed shores ;
but the bustling scene in the midst of which I emerged,
and the babel of tongues that fell upon my ear, completely
took me by surprise, and engaged my attention for the
time. Numbers of little boats, with fantastically dressed
occupants, already danced upon the swelling waves round
our vessel ; and scores of eager porters shouted their deep
gutturals in the ears of impatient travellers, as if an excess
of sound would render their unknown tongue intelligible.
Hotel proprietors and servants, in bad French and worse
English, set forth the superiority of their respective esta
blishments. Experience had taught me how to get rid of
the annoyance of a multitude, by committing myself into
the custody of one. I therefore expressed my determina
tion to take up my abode at the " Hotel de Belle Vue"
of Antonio Tremetsi. No sooner had I pronounced the

Chap. I.. BETROUT TO DAMASCUS. 3
name than a little man, not unlike a retired sailor, bustled
through the crowd, and, taking off his broad straw, said,
with a profound bow, " Your humble servant, sir." It
was Antonio himself, all smiles and politeness. We were
soon transferred to his boat, and I had now time to con
template at leisure the magnificent scenery before me.
On the south was the fine headland of Ras Beyrout,
whose gardens and mulberry groves touched the black
rocks against which the long waves broke into showers of
diamond spray. Before us lay the town itself, washed
by the waters and embowered in richest verdure. The
wooded heights behind were thickly studded with pictur
esque villas, beside which, over a mass of underwood, rose
here and there a solitary palm or stately cypress. Farther
to the left the bay of St. George sweeps round for several
miles in a graceful curve, until the white sand of its
smooth beach is abruptly shut in by the lofty projecting
cliff that forms the southern bank of the Dog river.
Northward the eye followed the shore-line, with its spa
cious bays and bold promontories, until lost in the distance.
Behind all, from north to south, far as the eye could see,
stretched the noble ridge of Lebanon, its sides deeply
furrowed by many a wild ravine, and its whole summit
now white with snow. Scores of villages could be seen
clinging to the terraced slopes, or perched on the rugged
ridges ; while convents, still more numerous, crowned
every peak and precipice. Often since that time have I
gazed on the same scene, and always with increased admir
ation. The "glory of Lebanon," though faded, is still
worthy of its ancient fame.
We were soon established in the humble chambers of
B 2

4 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
the "H6tel de Belle Vue," where we remained for three
weeks. The house was then poor, and badly constructed
for a winter residence ; but if an occasional shower found
its way to us through porous walls and leaky roof, or a
sudden squall burst open the frail shutters of our unglazed
windows, some amends were made by the balmy air we
breathed and the splendid prospect we enjoyed during the
long hours of sunshine ; and the uniform kindness and
profuse excuses of our good-natured little host made com
plaint impossible. During our stay we had ample oppor
tunity of examining the few remains still existing of the
ancient Beritus. An excursion to the wild ravine and
interesting monuments of Nahr el-Kelb,1 and some long
rides in the gardens and pine-forest, afforded a pleasing
variety. We had landed on the Syrian shores total
strangers, alike unknowing and unknown ; but we speedily
found friends whose cheerful society and kind hospitality
almost made us forget that home and country were far
away. And after two months' wandering amid the bust
ling and exciting scenes of the great cities of Europe, we
were prepared to enjoy to the full the charms of the quiet
family circle.
As Beyrout did not form the field of my intended
labour, I was anxious to complete my journey, and pass
the mountains to Damascus. I engaged as dragoman and
instructor in the Arabic language Nikola Ameuny, who
was highly recommended to me by my friend Mr. Smith.
The opportune arrival of Dr. Paulding, of the Damascus
Mission, made us resolve to accompany him on his return
1 The Nahr el-Kelb (Dog River) is the Lycus flurnen of the ancients.
It will be fully described in the sequel.

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 5
to that city, that we might enjoy the pleasure of his
society and the benefit of his experience on the road.
All arrangements having been completed, we agreed to
start on Thursday, the 3rd of January, 1850, and at noon
we were all in the saddle. It was a new and interesting
sight to us to observe our little caravan winding through
the narrow cactus-lined lanes, and then emerging into the
broad sandy avenues of the pine-forest. The strange
garb of our native attendants and muleteers, the gay
trappings of our baggage animals, adorned with innumer
able little shells and bits of red, white, and green cloth,
and the odd-looking tasseled bridles of our own steeds,
formed a fantastic picture. From the pine-forest we
descended to a lower part of the plain or promontory,
where, amid dense groves of mulberries, rise up a number
of tall and graceful palms. Farther to the south is
an extensive tract covered with fine olive-trees. The
heat here is intense during the summer months, as the
sandy downs to the westward strongly reflect the sun's
rays, while they almost completely check the fresh sea-
breezes. In an hour we reached the foot of the mountains, and
at once commenced the ascent of a bleak and rugged
slope. The soft limestone rock projected on every
side in rounded masses, and large boulders with smaller
fragments almost covered the scanty soil. The scenery
gradually becomes more picturesque and grand as a higher
elevation is gained. The caravan-road, which, however,
is little better than a goat-path, runs up along the summit
of a great ridge, having on the south the deep Wady
Shahrur, beautifully terraced, and clothed with the mui-

6 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
berry and the vine; and on the north Wady Hummana,
through which descends the river of Beyrout, in a swift
and turbid course, to the plain. Some parts of the latter
are wild in the extreme, dark frowning cliffs enclosing
the torrent in a ravine so narrow that it seems like a great
fissure in the mountain side. In an hour and a quarter
from the plain we reached a large khan or caravanserai,
with a well-built reservoir in front. Here commences the
bed of red sandstone that extends from the Metn in a
broad belt away southward along the slope of the moum-
tains. This sandstone is soft and friable, and the disin
tegrated particles in many places cover the compact stone
to a depth of several inches. It is strongly impregnated ~
with iron, alum, and lime. It is evidently a formation of
a much later period than the cretacious accumulations
along the base of Lebanon ; and these again are later than
the limestone which constitutes the great mass of the
ridge. This change in the geological features gives
variety to the scenery, and greatly enhances its beauty.
The regular and graceful hills, which are characteristic of
the sandstone strata, are widely diffused over the district
of the Metn, and, in almost every spot where the husband
man cannot pursue his labours, are covered with forests of
pine. These contrast well with the bold cliffs of the
white limestone, here and there clothed in the bright
green of the ilex. Noble prospects now open up before
the eye as every new peak is surmounted. The junction
of the wild glens of Hummana and Salima beneath the
ruin-crowned heights of Deir-el-Kulah, on the north,
forms a glorious picture ; while on every side villages
appear clinging to the precipitous banks of wooded ravines,

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 7
or scattered among the gardens of some peak or piece of
table- land.2
A short distance above the khan the road . ascends an
almost perpendicular cliff by an erratic zigzag route. On
first examination one almost despairs of his horse being
able to scale the steep, or to find footing along the shelv
ing rocks ; but the Syrian horses are accustomed to such
paths, so that it seems but play for them to spring up the
rugged and irregular stairs, or clamber along the narrow
and slippery path, which the winter torrent has well-nigh
carried away. It is somewhat startling to the inexpe
rienced traveller, too, when he clings to the saddle as his
steed assumes a vertical attitude, or passes along the pre
cipice brink, where a single false step would hurl him
hundreds of feet below. But experience teaches him to
place confidence in his careful and wiry Arab, and tp ride,
without thought of fear, along paths where an English
foxhunter would deem it madness to risk his neck.
Another hour and a half we clambered up a stony ridge,
covered here and there with vineyards and fig-orchards,
and then reached Khan Hussein; and twenty minutes
after we arrived at the brow of a deep ravine, high up on
the opposite bank of which stood the village of Bhamdiin.
Here we had arranged to spend the night in the summer-
house of Mr. Smith. The direct road leads from this
point across the glen, but it is fearfully steep, and for a
lady even dangerous. We consequently followed the
2 The best account yet given of the geology of Lebanon is that by
Dr. Anderson in Lynch's ' Official Report of the United States Expe
dition.' It is much to be regretted that his time did not allow him to
notice the whole mountain range. His remarks on the southern section
are very valuable.

8 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
Damascus road, on its northern side, half an houf farther,
when we turned to the right, and, sweeping round the
head of the ravine and along its southern bank, we reached
Bhamdun in half an hour. It was now quite dark, and
we had considerable difficulty in finding our habitation.
The house, when found, was cheerless enough, until a fire
was kindled, our travelling beds prepared, and dinner
served. The villagers soon pressed in to see and welcome
us. Many of them have been for years under the instruct
tions of Mr. Smith and his associates, and are now
consistent members of the Protestant Church that has
been here formed in connexion with the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Schools have also
been established, and these, with the other departments of
the Mission work, have greatly increased in extent and
efficiency since the period of my visit.3
January Ath. — We were up long before the dawn, and
I had time to glance at the surrounding country ere the
servants were ready for departure. Bhamdun is situated
on the southern brow of a wild ravine, which commencing,
as has been stated, half an hour higher up, runs down in a
direction south-west for about three miles, when it sweeps
round to the southward, increasing in depth and grandeur
till it joins the Wady el-Kady, near the spot where it is
crossed by the Deir el-Kamr and Beyrout road. The
view from the village is very extensive; but the bare
white ridges on the west and north almost cover the noble

a It is scarcely necessary to inform the reader that the Rev. (now Dr.)
Eli Smith was the associate of Dr. Robinson during his researches in
Palestine. He is also author of ' Researches in Armenia;' and is well
known as a profound Arabic scholar.

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. . 9
scenery of the Metn, and render the mountain prospect
bleak and uninteresting. Beyrout and its promontory are
visible, and beyond lies the vast expanse of the Mediter
ranean. So clear is the atmosphere and so commanding
the position, that I have distinctly seen the island of
Cyprus with the naked eye, and have observed more than
once the noble summit of Olympus towering high above
the neighbouring hills. Around Bhamdun are extensive
beds of fossil shells, composed chiefly of the Ostraga,
Chenopus, and Nerinea. The latter are found strewn in
innumerable quantities over the surface of flat slabs; and,
the shells being very small, they present a singular and
beautiful appearance. The elevation of the village, as
shown by the aneroid, is 3338 feet.
We mounted our horses at seven o'clock, and in half an
hour reached the Damascus road near the Khan Euweisat.
The northern part of Wady Hummana now opened up to
our view. It resembles a vast basin ; the bottom is finely
cultivated in terraces, and the sides steep, and, in some
places, precipices of naked rock. On the east, high above
the neighbouring mountains, rises the snow-capped sum
mit of Jebel Kuneiyiseh. The road now leads over
swelling ground, bare and destitute of features ; and after
passing a rocky ridge, descends to Khan Modeirej, situated
in a rugged dell. This we reached at 8-45. Above the
khan the road is among the worst in Lebanon. A steep
slope is thickly covered with huge fragments of sharp
limestone rocks, amid which the poor animals can scarcely
find a level spot to plant their feet, and often sink down
helpless beneath their burdens. When this is surmounted,
a narrow shelving path is before them, leading along the
B 3

10 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
side of a fearful precipice overhanging the great valley.
In forty minutes we gained the highest point, having an
elevation of 5600 feet. The view toward the west is now
very grand, the eye following the windings ofthe wild glen
of Hummana till it rests on the bright waters of the great
sea far below. Half an hour more over bleak and unin
teresting ground brought us to the water-shed where two
wadys commence on opposite sides of a narrow ridge.
One flows westward, cutting through the mountains con
siderably to the south of the road ; while the other runs
south-east direct to the Bukaa. The ordinary road leads
down the left bank of the latter, by Khan Murad and
Mekseh, to the plain ; but we took a path on the right
bank, in order to visit a piece of sculpture described as
lying on this route.
The eastern slopes of Libanus, from the Damascus road
southwards, are altogether different in character and
aspect from the western. The descent is uniform and
abrupt from the summits to the plain. Few spots are
capable of cultivation, and the scenery is destitute of that
boldness and grandeur everywhere seen amid the ravines
and peaks on the west. About half-way down the moun
tain side we found the object we were in search of — the
figure of a lion rudely sculptured on a rock. After a
rapid descent we reached the village of Kubb Ellas, on
the border of the plain, at 11 -5, one hour and a half below
the water-shed. Adjoining the village, on the summit of
a little conical hill, stand the ruins of an old castle, said to
have been erected by one of the Druze princes of Libanus •
and in the side of a lofty cliff, a little to the south, are a
few excavated tombs, showing that this is the site of some

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 11
ancient town or village. A fine stream flows through it,
watering gardens and fields below. We restec^ and spread
our lunch on its green banks, beside a little grove of
poplars. At one o'clock we again resumed our journey. The
position of Mejdel, where we intended to spend the night,
being now distinctly seen behind a little range of hills on
the opposite side of the plain, we resolved, if possible, to
take a straight course toward it. The caravan-road passes
the village of Mekseh half an hour to the north, and runs
thence toward 'Anjar ; should we succeed, therefore, in
our attempt to cross the plain directly, we would consider
ably shorten our day's march. We were soon stopped,
however, in our course by canals and marshes ; and it was
only after a kind of steeple-chace over drains and ditches
that we regained the great road, beside the bridge that
crosses the first branch of the Litany, where we arrived
at 2-30. Here is a fine stream, from thirty to forty feet
wide, and so deep that it cannot easily be forded, flowing
lazily through the centre of a plain of surpassing richness
and beauty. The highest sources of this branch are in
the neighbourhood of Ba'albek ; and its principal tributary
is the Nahr Yahfufeh, which descends from Antilibanus.
On the left bank is a large khan, and a few minutes from
it is the village of Merj. The elevation of the Buka'a at
this spot I found to be 2573 feet. After an easy ride of
thirty-five minutes more, through fields of great fertility,
which only require proper cultivation to make them yield
abundant crops, we reached the bridge over the second
great branch of the Litany. The sources of this large
stream are the fountains of 'Anjar and Shemsln, at the

12 INTRODUCTION. CsAP- L
base of Antilibanus, about fifty minutes distant. The
waters unite near a little tell, a quarter of an hour above
the bridge/and meander across the plain till they join the
western branch a short distance below Merj. To gain this
bridge we had kept considerably to the northward, but on
crossing it we turned to the right, and in twenty-five
minutes reached the end of the line of little hills behind
which Mejdel lies. The Damascus road follows a straight
course to the entrance of Wady Harlr, distant forty-five
minutes. We skirted the end of the hills and turned to
the right along their eastern base. Leaving the rest of
the caravan in charge of- Nikola, Dr. Paulding and I now
set off at a gallop that we might have time to visit an
interesting ruin on the summit of a hill above the village.
In attempting to scale the steep slope my girths gave way,
and it was only by embracing my old charger I was saved
from a summerset over his tail. Notwithstanding the acci
dent, we soon reached the summit, and were agreeably
surprised to find ourselves beneath the crumbling walls of
a venerable temple. For the chaste simplicity and massive
grandeur of its architecture, combined with the exquisite
beauty of its situation, this ruin is not surpassed in Syria.
The temple, whose ruins now cover the summit of the
hill and are strewn over the vineyards that clothe its sides,
is evidently of an early period — considerably older than
those of Ba'albek and Palmyra, and indeed than most
others now found in this country. Its extreme length
may have been about eighty feet, and the breadth in pro
portion ; but this is only an estimate. The foundations of
the cell are composed of huge blocks of limestone ; one I
measured being twenty-four feet long and six high. These

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 13
project considerably beyond the face of the walls, but are
contracted at the top by means of a bevelled moulding.
The same peculiarity is found in all very ancient struc
tures of a similar kind. The interior was ornamented
with fluted semi-columns of the Ionic order, supporting a
fine cornice. Between the columns were niches for
statues. A portico of massive columns stood in front,
with antce behind. These columns are now completely
prostrate ; but the huge fragments are scattered around,
half covered with luxuriant vines. One portion of a shaft
I measured was twenty -four feet long and four feet six
inches in diameter. The door leading from the portico to
the cell was lofty and spacious ; the jambs were massive
monoliths, richly moulded. The view from the ruins is
magnificent, embracing the whole plain of the Buka'a with
the noble mountain- chains on each side — northward far as
the eye can see, and southward till the hills close and form
the sublime gorge of the Litany. ' The plain resembles a
vast lake, so smooth and flat is its surface ; and the strange
little artificial mounds which here and there appear might
pass for islands. Often have I sat beneath the shade of
this old temple, alone and in the company of friends, ad
miring the glorious panorama, and gazing alternately on
verdant plain and rugged mountain-side — now viewing
the snow-capped summit of Hermon proudly raising its
head high above the Antilibanus range, and now turning
to look at its rivals Sunnln and Akkar.*
But how came here this splendid monument of the
genius and taste of a bygone age ? Was it built to stand
* This is the general name of the lofty mountain range north of the
cedars.

14 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
in solitude, or was it intended to adorn the environs of
some proud city, and to serve as a monument of the
wealth and piety of its inhabitants ? Neither on the hill
itself nor along its base are there any traces of ancient
structures; but if we turn our eyes to the north-east,
toward the spot where, some three miles distant, the great
fountain of 'Anjar bursts from beneath the mountain-side
and diffuses freshness and verdure all around, we can
observe numbers of blackened heaps and shapeless masses
of stone strewn over the smooth plain. An examination
of this place may tend to solve the mystery.
On the 19th of May 1854 I visited the fountain of
'Anjar and the ruins near it with two friends.5 I had
previously known that these ruins marked the site of the
ancient city of Chalcis, and had read the able article of
Dr. Eobinson in the 'Bibliotheca Sacra,' on the identifica
tion of its position. This Chalcis is to be distinguished
from other cities of the same name. Josephus mentions
it as situated under Mount Libanus ;6 and Strabo leaves it
without a doubt that it was near the Antilibanus, and
south of Heliopolis.7 That the city stood here will not
be doubted by any one who will examine authorities and
visit the spot. We observed at the fountain the remains
of a large reservoir intended to raise the water above its
natural level ; and also traces of an aqueduct running
along the high ground toward the ruins. The city itself
is completely prostrate : the foundations of the walls alone

5 Robert Ross, of Bladensburg, Esq., and Edwin Freshfield, Esq.
6 Ant. xiv. 7, 4, and Bel. Jud. i. 9, 2. Pliny says the territory of
Chalcis is the most fertile in Syria (v. 23).
7 Lib. xvi.

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 15
can be traced, enclosing a rectangular space about a mile
in circumference. In the interior are a few mounds
covered with soil, from which some hewn stones and
pieces of broken columns may be seen here and there
projecting. These are the only remnants of palaces and
temples. The site was well chosen, and admirably fitted
for the capital of a province. In front is a plain of vast
extent and great fertility, while close at hand is an abun
dant supply of purest water.
Of the origin of the city nothing is now known, and
there are no ruins remaining that would tend to mark the
age of its erection. There are no evidences of very re
mote antiquity. Ptolemy, the son of Mennseus, is men
tioned by Strabo as ruler of an extensive district of which
Chalcis was the capital. It appears to have included
Heliopolis and Iturasa, with the mountain region lying
between ; but the proper territory of Chalcis was the rich
plain of Marsyas, embracing the southern part of the
Buka'a, and probably Wady et-Teim and the Merj 'Ayun.B
After Syria was conquered by the Eomans Ptolemy con
tinued to hold his possessions. He was succeeded by his
son Lysanias, who transferred the seat of government to
Abila, now Suk-Wady-Barada ;9 and upon his murder by
order of Mark Antony the provinces passed for a time
into the hand of Zenodorus the celebrated robber.1 The
territory of Chalcis was now separated from the other dis
tricts with which it had been united under the sway of
Ptolemy, but it does not distinctly appear who were its
governors between the death of Zenodorus, B.C. 20, and
8 Strab. xvi. 9 Joseph. Ant. xiv. 13, 3.
1 Id. xv. 4, 1, and 10, 1. Strab. xvi.

16

INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.

the time when it was given by the Emperor Claudius to
Herod, son of Aristobulus and grandson of Herod the
Great, a.d. 41.2 It may probably have formed part of
the tetrarchy of Lysanias, who is mentioned in Luke iii. 1.
On the death of Herod Chalcis was bestowed upon Herod
Agrippa IL, who held it for four years until he was ad
vanced to a more important province, when it reverted to
Aristobulus, Herod's son.3 This is the last notice we find
of it as a separate principality. It was afterwards consti
tuted a part of the Eoman province, and received the
name of Flavia. It would appear that ere many years it
fell into ruin, or at least dwindled away into an insignifi
cant village, as there is no mention made of it in any of
the Ecclesiastical Notices. Mohammedan writers never
speak of it ; and the only reference made to the site is by
Abulfeda, who says that near the village of Mejdel 'Anjar
are great ruins. He probably alludes to the temple.4
This temple doubtless owes its origin to some of the
princes of the ancient city of Chalcis. It was a common
practice with the members of the Herodian family to erect
temples or found cities in honour of those emperors who
conferred important favours upon them. Perhaps Herod
Agrippa II. , whose taste for architecture is well known,
constructed this temple as a monument of his gratitude to
Claudius for bestowing on him the little principality in
which it was situated. Notwithstanding the most care
ful examination I was unable to find a single inscription
near the ruins, and I have never seen any historical notice
that would tend to throw light upon the origin of this
3 Joseph. Bel. Jud. ii. 12, 1. " Id. vii. 7 l.
4 Tabula Syriaca, ed. Reisk, p. 20.

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 17
temple. The little hill on the summit of which it stands
forms part of a low broken ridge that runs along the base
of Antilibanus, but is nowhere joined with it. Farther
southward it forms the western boundary of Wady et-
Teim, and extending in breadth toward Lebanon shuts in
the Buka'a on the south. The elevation of this ridge no
where exceeds 400 feet above the plain.
We will now resume our narrative.
On descending to the village we found that our party
had taken possession of a house consisting of a single
apartment with a stable opening into it. Both were now
pretty well filled. Horses, donkeys, and baggage-mules
were crowded into the latter in such numbers that they
kept up a constant squabbling, and more than once during
the night did the weaker animals seek shelter in our terri
tory : we had no accommodation for them, however, for
twenty-one human beings, with thousands of still less
welcome animals, were here huddled together. Some of
us were no little surprised, and even shocked, when we
first observed, from the nature of the arrangements made,
that the whole family, men, women, and children, were
to be our companions for the night. And feelings of in
dignation began to arise when our servants and muleteers
wrapped themselves in their capotes, and one after another
dropped asleep at our side. Other incidents occurred
which did not tend much to reconcile us to these things,
but they will not bear recital. For a lady, it must be
confessed, this was rather a rough introduction to Syrian
life; we said nothing, however, and, only pushing our
travelling beds as far as possible out of reach of strange
feet, composed ourselves to rest.

1 8 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
January 5th. — To get up this morning did not require
any great effort. We were glad when the first dawn
appeared, for it was the signal for departure ; and we at
once rode off amid the howling of a multitude of savage
dogs, that seemed prepared to resist our farther progress.
It was not till Nikola had discharged a pistol into the
midst of them that we were relieved from their fierce
attacks. In twenty minutes we had crossed the little
plain and joined the Damascus road at the entrance of
Wady Harir. Dark threatening clouds now covered the
mountain-tops, and the thunder rolled ominously in the
distance, so that we had gloomy forebodings about the
weather. The dread of rain, for which we were badly
prepared, made us urge on our horses, and the muleteers
were soon left far behind. The valley we had entered
has a general direction of about south-east, winding grace
fully between lofty hills. The scenery, though not bold
or grand, is picturesque : the sides, rising with a uniform
slope, are clothed to the summit with the dwarf oak and
hawthorn, and the little side glens up which we got an
occasional peep are also verdant with evergreen foliage;
These thickets form an admirable cover for lurking bandits
and robbers, and are- generally well occupied when the
country is in a disturbed state. For us there was at that
time nothing to fear, but ere many months had passed
none could venture through the glen without a strong
guard. Since that period it has been the scene of many
murders, and on one occasion in the autumn of 1852 a
large body of regular troops were driven back from it by
the fire of a few rebel Druzes.
In an hour we reached the water-shed of Antilibanus,'

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 19
which is here far to the west of the central chain, and has
an elevation of not more than 1000 feet above theBukaa,
or about 3600 feet above the sea. The' whole of this
western range is covered with forests of the dwarf oak,
and affords excellent pasturage during the winter and
spring months : in summer it is burned up by the sun's rays.
It has no springs of any value, and consequently there are
no villages and but few cultivated fields. Its greatest
elevation may be about 4000 feet.
We now descended for ten minutes by an easy slope
through a pleasant little vale to the plain called Sahl Ju-
deideh, which extends a considerable distance to the right
and left, being altogether about an hour in length. It is
half an hour in breadth, and has on its eastern side a high
range of rugged mountains separating it from the plain of
Zebdany. The loftiest summits of this range are nearly
6000 feet high. They, as well as the mountains to the
west, are wholly composed of compact limestone, nearly
similar in character to that of Lebanon. In the northern
part of the plain of Judeideh are a few fields of grain, but
the rest is entirely neglected, though the soil is good and
water not wanting. Turning due south, we rode across
the plain diagonally to the entrance of the wild ravine
called Wady el-Kurn—" The Valley ofthe Horn." This
sublime pass is an hour in length, and completely bisects
the lofty mountain-range above alluded to. Throughout
its whole length are cliffs of naked rocks, in some places
several hundred feet high and almost perpendicular. Its
sides are broken into innumerable chasms and fissures,
while the jagged rocks assume strange fantastic forms far
overhead. Tangled brushwood and dwarf oak, here and

20 INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.
there clinging to the precipices and filling the crevices,
give greater wildness and grandeur to the picture. The
frequent windings also present a continued variety of new
views. In the bottom of the ravine is the bed of a winter
torrent, whose course, as well as the narrow path beside
it, is often obstructed by the huge masses of rock that
have fallen from the crags above.
This pass is the favourite haunt of numerous bands of
robbers, who take advantage of temporary commotions and
the withdrawal of troops in time of war, to plunder pas
sengers and caravans. The system is carried on with such
a degree of openness and daring that the bandits are gene
rally well known, but the authorities are either too weak
or too indolent to punish them. They often compromise
matters by appointing some local hereditary chief guardian
of the road, to whom they give an allowance for the main
tenance of a sufficient number of guards. When payments
are made irregularly, and arrears allowed to accumulate,
as often happens, the mode of obtaining redress is some
what singular, and quite characteristic of the country. By
the secret instructions of the chief, a postman is shot or a
rich caravan plundered, and this is well known to be a
notification that arrears must be paid up.5
A quarter of an hour after leaving Wady el-Kurn we
reached the foot of a low hill, along the base of which the
winter stream flows to the left, having been joined by
another descending from a wide cultivated valley on the
right. The united streams run north-east between swell-
5 The Druzes have for a long period been almost the only robbers
who infest the wild passes of Anti-Lebanon; and these roads can only
be considered safe when one of their sheikhs is the recognised guardian

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 21
ing hills for about an hour, and then fall into the Barada
at a ruined Eoman bridge, in the foot of the plain of Zeb-
dany. These streams drain the whole region around Sahl
Judeideh and the neighbouring mountains, and yet they
only flow during a few months in the year, while the rains
are falling or the snow is melting. Our road now led over
a bleak hill, covered in some places with corn-fields, and,
descending diagonally into a narrow vale, brought us in
half an hour to 'Ain Meithelun, a fine spring beside the
ruins of a large khan. We were now at the base of the
central chain of Antilibanus, which rose up barren and
rocky before us ; or perhaps it may be considered that the
central chain divides into two branches about six miles
south-west of this place, which then, running parallel some
twenty miles toward the north-east, enclose between them
a long irregular valley, in the centre of which is the
beautiful plain of Zebdany. Both these ranges are inter
sected by wild ravines, through which flow winter torrents
eastward to the Barada. The eastern range is considerably
loftier than the western, especially north of the Wady
Barada. At the fountain we entered a pass that leads through
-the heart of the mountain, and makes a way for the little
stream to flow eastward. In three-quarters of an hour the
pass opened into a fine vale, with corn-fields and vineyards
along its sides. Turning more southward, we skirted the
mountain-side along its right bank, and in fifteen minutes
were opposite the little village of Demas, which is situated
on a bleak hill to the left. After sweeping through nar
row valleys between barren conical hills for three quarters
of an hour, we emerged on the great plain called es-Sahra.

22

INTRODUCTION. Chap. I.

Nothing could be imagined more dreary or sterile than the
view that now presented itself before us. Not a village,
not a tree, not a particle of verdure appeared to relieve
the monotonous desolation. In front stretched the vast
plain itself, of a greyish ashen hue, strewn with fragments
of flint and limestone. Beyond it rose a line of white
hills, destitute of features as of vegetation. The only
object that attracted attention by its grandeur or beauty
in this immense panorama was Hermon, which towered to
the sky, far away on the south-west, a magnificent cone,
covered to its base with spotless snow. Some of us were
weary with the long ride, and impatient at its monotony ;
and the sight of this dreary waste did not tend to soothe
our feelings. The leaden sky, too, shrouded the landscape
in gloom, while the threatening clouds and the heavy rain
drops that already began to fall compelled us to spur on
our jaded horses. The plain was crossed in an hour and
a quarter, and we entered among a broad range of chalk
hills, which rose on each side in conical peaks, sometimes
of naked rock, but generally covered with loose white
gravel. Another hour and a quarter was taken up in wind
ing through the narrow defiles of these hills, and we then
reached the summit of a ridge where Damascus, with its
magnificent plain and forest gardens, burst at once upon
our view. The scene in itself was almost inconceivably
lovely, but now it was no little enhanced by contrast with
the wilderness we had left behind. From other points
the city and its environs may be seen to greater advan
tage ; but though I have visited them all, at every season,
yet the first impression remains upon my mind still. I
would not recommend any traveller to approach the city

Chap. I. BEYROUT TO DAMASCUS. 23
by this route; there is another equally short, and far
more agreeable. It leads for an hour along the verdant
banks of the Barada, then crosses the river by the bridge
at Dummar, and surmounts the last ridge on the left bank.
A ruined wely stands near the road, on the brow of a lofty
precipice overhanging the river's bed ; from beneath this
ruin the finest view is obtained. Damascus, with its swell
ing domes and glittering minarets, is at your feet ; the
Barada, bursting from the wild gorge, meanders gracefully
through gardens and meadows till lost in the great city ;
while canals branch out on every side, and carry vegeta
tion and beauty far and wide over the plain.
The rain was now falling heavily, and, stopping but a
few minutes to gaze upon the magnificent scenery, we
spurred our horses down the steep slope. The village of
Mezzeh, situated at the base of the hills, was soon passed,
and we entered the shady lanes that wind among the
orchards. In fifty minutes we were within the walls of
the old city of Damascus.

24

DAMASCUS.

Chap. II.

Northern Side Arch, East Gate, Damascus.

CHAPTEE II.

DAMASCUS.— TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES.

Mode of treating theBe topics — Scarcity of information — Ibn Asaker's
history — Antiquity of Damascus — Its situation — Its plain — The
Abana and Pharpar — System of irrigation — Splendid view — The
streets — Costumes — Mosks — Khans — Private houses — The Harim
— The house of 'Aly Aga and his tragic fate.
Ancient Walls : Misrepresentations of travellers — The East Gate —
Bas-reliefs — Spot where Paul was let down in a basket — St. George
the Porter — Scene of Paul's conversion — Tomb of Mohammed's:
Muezzin — Muslem tombs — Roman gate — Mosk of Senan Pasha
— The West Gate — The " Street called Straight " — Cemeteries — \
Greek bazaar — The castle — Gigantic plane-tree — Gates — Khaled's
head-quarters — House of Naaman.
Walk through the City : Churches and convents — Houbb of Ananias

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 25
— Greek church — Russian sohools — Bazaars and trades — Great
khan — Nur ed-Din — Slave-market.
Great Mosk: Triumphal arch — Head of John the Baptist — Ancient
gate and inscription — Age of the building — Its history and splen
dour—Tombs of Saladin and Melek ed-Dhaher — Mosk of Sultan
Selim.
It is not my intention to present to the reader a journal
of any walks or excursions about the ancient city of Da
mascus, but to record, in a condensed form, the results of
observations and researches extending over a period of
nearly five years. In this way repetition will be avoided,
and a more systematic account given of the topography
and antiquities, the history and the statistics of the city
and its immediate environs. No full or satisfactory view
of these topics has hitherto appeared in our language, nor,
so far as I know, in any of the languages of Europe. The
descriptions given by travellers have generally been
meagre, and always vague, while not a few of them have
been the creations of poetic imaginations. The remarks
of the Chevalier d'Arvieux, contained in the second
volume of his ' Me'moires,' are the most accurate I have
met with, and, having been written nearly two centuries
ago (A.D. 1660), they are valuable as containing a descrip
tion of the city at that period, and of some buildings now
destroyed. From travellers therefore I have received but
little assistance. Arabic writers have given fuller details,
and from some of their works in manuscript I have ob
tained much important and interesting information. In
the first volume of Ibn 'Asaker's great History is a minute
description of the city at the time it was taken by the
Muslems. VOL. I. C

26 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
No Scripture site is more surely identified than that of
the ancient Damascus ; and few possess a greater interest
for the theologian, the historian, or the antiquary. It is
unquestionably one of the oldest cities in the world, and is
in many respects one of the most remarkable. It has out
lived generations of cities, and has been a witness of the
stirring events of full four thousand years. It has in suc
cession formed an important part of the most powerful
empires of the world. The monarchs of Nineveh, Babylon,
Persia, Greece, and Eome, have conquered it ; and it has
prospered under every dynasty, and outlived them all. It
was for a time the capital of the vast dominions of the
Khalifs ; and now the Osmanlis, its present rulers, are fast
declining, and ere long it may be forced to acknowledge
other masters. Damascus thus remains a connecting link
between the most remote antiquity and modern times.
No city in Syria, none perhaps' in Western Asia, pos
sesses such advantages in respect to situation as Damascus.
At the eastern base of Antilibanus lies a plain having an
elevation of about 2200 feet above the sea. The lowest
ridge of the mountain-chain, a barren line of chalky hills,
runs from the foot of Hermon in a direction north-east by
east, forming the north-western boundary of the plain.
On its south side are two low ridges of hills called Jebel
el-Aswad and Jebel Mania, and in a narrow vale between!
them flows the river 'Awaj, the ancient Pharpar. Far
away to the east may be seen a little group of conical hills,
ealled the Telhll. If a line be drawn through these, north
and south, till it meet the other sides, forming with them
a triangle, the plain of Damascus will be circumscribed.

VIEW OP DAMASCUS PBOM THE NOKTH-EAST : HERMON IN THE DISTANCE.

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 27
That portion of it, however, which alone is inhabited and
in part cultivated, is bounded on the east by the three
lakes into which the "rivers of Damascus" empty them
selves. In form it is a rectangular triangle, its base on
the south side being about twenty-eight miles long; its
perpendicular on the east seventeen ; and its hypotenuse,
along the foot of Antilibanus, thirty-three. Its area is
thus about two hundred and thirty-six square geographical
miles. The fine stream of the Barada, the ancient Abana,1
descending from the heights of Antilibanus, breaks through
the lowest chain of these mountains by a wild ravine, and,
entering the plain, flows due east across it, at the distance
of eight miles north of its southern boundary. On the
banks of the river, one mile from the mouth of the ravine,
commence the buildings of Damascus. The great body of
the city is on the southern bank, but there is also a large
suburb on the northern. Without the Barada the city
could not exist, and the plain would be a parched desert ;
but now aqueducts intersect every quarter, and fountains
sparkle in almost every dwelling, while innumerable canals
extend their ramifications over the vast plain, clothing it
with verdure and beauty. Five of these canals are led off
from the river, at different elevations, before it enters the
plain. They are carried along the precipitous banks of
the ravine, being in some places tunnelled in the solid
rock. The two on the northern side water Salahiyeh, a
large village lying along the foot of the hills, about a mile

1 In the ' Journal of Sacred Literature ' for the months of July and
October, 1853, I have endeavoured to prove the identity of the " Abana
and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus," with the Barada and 'Awaj. A full
topographical and statistical account of them will there be found.
c 2

28 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
from the city, and then irrigate the higher portions of the
plain to the distance of nearly twenty miles. Ofthe three
on the southern side, one is led to the populous village of
Daraya, five miles distant; and the other two are em
ployed in supplying the city, its suburbs, and gardens.
The laws for the proper regulation of the water are most
minute ; and the system of canals, ducts, and pipes, intri
cate almost beyond the power of comprehension. It is
greatly to be regretted that many of the aqueducts in the
more remote parts of the plain are now ruinous, and the
fields around consequently a parched desert. When we
consider the great extent of land formerly under cultiva
tion, the labour it must have taken to excavate the canals
and construct the extensive terraces, and the amount of
engineering skill requisite for the arrangement of the
whole system, we cannot but estimate very highly the
industry, enterprise, and talent of the ancient Damascenes.
The view that presents itself to the eye of the traveller
as he surmounts the last ridge of Antilibanus, after passing
the bleak and barren slopes beyond, is rich and grand
almost surpassing conception. From the side of the little
wely2 above referred to the best prospect is obtained.
The elevation is about 500 feet above the city, which is a
mile and a half distant. The peculiar forms of Eastern
architecture produce a pleasing effect at this distance.
Graceful minarets and swelling domes, surmounted by
gilded crescents, rise up in every direction from the con-
* Wely is the name given to those buildings so often met with in this
country, erected over some Muslem saint's tomb, or some spot hallowed
by tradition. That here spoken of is called Wely es-Seiyar. On the
summit of the hill, on its north side, the loftiest peak of this range, is
another, called Wely Nasar. The latter is 1500 feet above the city.

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 29
fused mass of terraced roofs, while in some places their
glittering tops just appear above the deep green foliage,
like diamonds in the midst of emeralds. In the centre of
all stands the noble pile of the great mosk, and near it
may be seen the massive towers and battlemented walls of
the old castle. Away on the south the eye follows the
long narrow suburb of the Medan, at the extremity of
which is the " Grate of God," where the great pilgrim
caravan, on each returning year, takes leave of the city.
The buildings of Damascus are almost all of snowy white
ness, and this contrasts well with the surrounding foliage.
The gardens and orchards, which have been so long and
so justly celebrated, encompass the city, and extend on
both sides of the Barada some miles eastward. They
cover an area at least twenty-five miles in circuit, and
make the environs an earthly paradise. The varied tints
of the foliage, and of the blossoms and fruit in their season,
greatly enhance the beauty of the picture. The sombre
hue of the olive and the deep green of the walnut are
finely relieved by the lighter shade of the apricot, the
silvery sheen of the poplar, and the purple tint of the
pomegranate; while lofty cone-like cypresses appear at
intervals, and a few palm-trees here and there raise up
their graceful heads. The variously coloured foliage thus
surrounding the bright city, and the smooth plain beyond,
now bounded by naked hills, and now mingling with the
sky on the far-distant horizon, and the wavy atmosphere
that makes forest, plain, and mountain tremble, give a
softness and an aerial beauty to the whole scene that
captivates the mind of the beholder.
The moment the traveller leaves the environs and

30 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
enters the gate of Damascus the illusion is gone. To
those accustomed to the capitals of Europe, with their
broad streets, spacious squares, and splendid buildings,
this city must appear filthy, irregular, and even half
ruinous. The streets are narrow and tortuous ; the houses
on each side like piles of mud, stone, and timber, heaped
together without order. A plain portal, or a gaudy foun
tain, or a mosk rich in the minute details of Saracenic
architecture, is the only thing that gives any variety. On
approaching the centre of the city, however, the stranger's
eye is soon attracted by the gay bazaars, and by the pic
turesque groups that, in their gorgeous costumes, crowd'
them, or lounge in the open cafes. Every Eastern nation
and tribe has there its representative ; and the whole re
sembles a bal costumd more than a scene of every-day life.
There is the Damascus merchant, with flowing robe and
capacious embroidered turban, sitting with calm dignity in
the midst of his goods. Beside him is a Turkish Effendi
decked in a caricature of Frank costume, badly made and
worse put on. Here is a mountain prince sweeping along,;
in crimson jacket covered with gold embroidery ; the open
sleeves hang gracefully behind, hussar fashion, while under
neath is seen the delicate hues of the rich silk vest. A
long train of secretaries, pipe-bearers, servants, and guards
follow him. Yonder is a Bedawy, spare in form and of
dark visage ; his piercing eye glances stealthily on all who
meet him, and his step and bearing are constrained ; he is
dressed in a simple woollen abeih* with broad stripes of
8 The Abeih, or Mashlak as it is sometimes called, is a square-shape!
cloak generally made of goats' hair or fine wool; but sometimes ofthe
richest silk, interwoven with gold and silver, and embroidered on the

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 31
white and brown ; and a rope of camel's-hair binds on his
head the gay kefiyeh.i Away beyond him stands a Druze
sheikh, arrayed in a gorgeous silk robe interwoven with
threads of gold, and a carefully-folded turban of spotless
white ; his left hand grasps the silver hilt of his heavy
scimitar, while fierce determination and undaunted courage
are reflected from his proud features. Here too is a
Kurdish shepherd, with shaggy sheepskin cap and stiff
felt capote ; and behind him marches a stately Persian,
whose lofty conical head-dress, long tight robe, and flowing
beard, almost make you believe that one of the monuments
of Nineveh has started into life again. By the door of
that cafi is a group of villanous-looking Albanians, with
their voluminous kilts and faggots of weapons stuck in
their belts. The strange figures that are seen mingling
with the throng, enveloped from head to foot in white
sheets, are women.
And the bazaars themselves are scarcely less attractive
than the people that fill them. A long row of open stalls,
only a few feet deep, extends along each side, and here,
ranged on rude shelves, are temptingly displayed the
merchant's stores. Silks, and embroidered scarfs, and
golden wrought tissues of the city itself; carpets and
curiously inlaid ornaments and caskets from Persia ;
shawls from Hind and Cashmere ; weapons of every form
and character, richly ornamented with gold and gems —
shoulders. It is universally worn by the Bedawin, and very generally
by the inhabitants of villages bordering on the desert. Many of the
desert tribes have a peculiar pattern.
4 The Kefiyeh is a handkerchief of silk and cotton interwoven, and
of the most brilliant colours. It is doubled and thrown over the head,
so that the long points fall down on each side of the face.

32 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
such is the varied picture on which the eye rests as one
wanders amid the gay labyrinth of bazaars. To the Frank
stranger everything seems new and odd ; and yet he him
self is the only object of wonder to the hundreds that
surround him. The principal bazaars are always clean ;
and the sloping wooden roofs, though not very picturesque,
serve to keep them cool in summer and dry in winter.
The streets are cleaner and better kept than those of most
Turkish cities.
Many of the mosks are fine specimens of Saracenic
architecture, but they are all dirty, and almost all out of
repair; and they thus appear badly to the eye of the
stranger, especially so as he can, under the most favourable
circumstances, only get a peep into their courts through a
window or half-open door. But a different impression is
left upon the mind when the attention is directed to the
details of these buildings. One cannot but admire the
chaste patterns of the marble mosaics on the walls, the
curious interlacing of the stones over doors and windows,,
and the fine proportions and delicate fretwork of the
tapering minarets. But it is in the magnificence of its
gateways that the Saracenic architecture excels all other
styles. The beautiful symmetry of the arch, the deep
mouldings of the sides, and the rich sculpture of the top,
far surpass in effect the noblest specimens of the Gothic
in our English cathedrals. The interior courts, too, are
fitted up with great elegance, and even splendour. They
are covered with tesselated pavement : the large fountains
are of marble, often inlaid with mother-of-pearl and
porphyry ; and the lower part of the walls are either cased
with marble wrought in chaste patterns, or with tiles

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 33
finely glazed and ornamented with figures in brilliant
colours. Where there are portiooes, the columns are
mostly ancient, of granite, porphyry, marble, or limestone ;
and in some cases their capitals are bronze.
Many of the khans, or caravanserais, are spaoious and
substantial buildings ; but, with the exception of the gate
ways, they are scarcely worthy of notice in an archi
tectural point of view. The domed roofs are supported
by massive square columns of masonry, and in the centre
is always a large fountain with an abundant supply of
water. Along the sides below, and behind a gallery above,
are numerous little gloomy chambers, where the chief
merchants of the city deposit their goods. These men
may be daily seen squatting on wooden platforms beside
the doors of their magazines, smoking their nargilies,5 or
going through the lengthened process of sale to some
grave-looking customers. A cafegee, or coffee-maker, is
continually on the move, with his dirty copper pot and
tiny cups, to supply the people with their favourite
beverage. The pipe-bearers are ever washing and baking
the tobacco, to replenish the bowls of nargilies ; and, to
vary the scene a little, the sherbet-seller occasionally
makes his appearance with a huge bottle strung round his
neck, and brass cups jingling in his hand.
But the chief glory of Damascus is in the splendour of
5 The Nargily is so constructed that the smoke before it is inhaled
passes through water. The bowl is of brass or silver, attached to a
handsome glass bottle, having a long elastic tube. These are some
times of great beauty, and cost as muoh as 20Q0 piasters. There is
another kind composed of a cocoa-nut shell, with two tubes fastened
into it in the form of a V. On the top of one is the bowl, and of the
other the mouthpiece. 3

34 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
its private houses. No contrast could be greater than
that between the exterior and the interior. The irregular
mud walls, and rickety-looking projecting upper chambers,
give but poor promise of splendour within. The entrance
is by a mean doorway into a narrow and winding passage,
or sometimes a plain stable-yard. Passing this, the outer
court is gained. Here is a variegated pavement of black
and white stones, intermixed with pieces of marble, taste
fully designed. A fountain sparkles in the midst, shaded
by evergreens and flowering shrubs ; and at one side is an
open alcove, called a lewan, with a light and beautifully
ornamented arch supporting the exterior wall. The floor
is of marble of different colours, and a raised dais, covered
with soft cushions of silk, surrounds the three sides. The
chambers and halls in this court are all occupied by the
master and his men-servants : here, he receives his visitors,
and to this alone are strangers ever admitted. Another
winding passage opens from this to the inner or chief
court, called the harim, whose door is kept by eunuchs.
It is when this court is gained that the splendour of the
mansion first bursts upon the view.
That the reader may have some real object before him,
I will endeavour to introduce him to a harim which I
have myself often visited, and have been enabled to examine
in detail. The house is that referred to by Mr. Addison
in his account of this city.6 It was built by 'Aly Aga, who
held the high office of Secretary to the Treasury under
the government of Ibrahim Pasha. He was, as Mr.
Addison has stated, a man of enlightened views and great
e Addison's 'Palmyra and Damascus,' vol. ii.

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 35
liberality for a Muslem. A melancholy interest is now
attached to his house and history on account of his tragic
end. He had long enjoyed the friendship and confidence
of Ibrahim ; but when the European powers had resolved
to restore Syria to the Sultan, he was suspected of holding
a treasonable correspondence with the Turkish Govern
ment. His haughty master could ill brook the treachery
of friends when he was chafed by defeat in the field.
Little time was taken to examine into the truth of the
accusation, but, almost immediately on the discovery of
some papers that seemed to imply his guilt, orders were
given that Aly should be beheaded ; and among the last
acts of the Egyptian viceroy in this city was to carry the
sentence into execution.
The house is now the property of his daughter, who has
inherited enough of her father's spirit to set light value on
the absurd laws that make Muslem ladies little better than
prisoners. To her kindness, and that of her husband
Othman Effendi, I am indebted for many opportunities of
examining one of the finest mansions in Damascus, while
enjoying their hospitality. I will now proceed to introduce
my reader.
The interior court, or harim, is a quadrangle from fifty
to sixty yards square, with a tesselated pavement of
marble ; a large marble fountain stands in the centre, and
several smaller ones of great beauty sparkle around, and
give a delicious coolness to the air, even amid the heat of
summer. Orange, lemon, and citron trees, diffuse their
fragrant odours ; while gigantic flowering shrubs and rare
exotics are disposed in tasteful groups, and climbing
plants are trained on trellis-work overhead, affording

86 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
grateful shade and pleasing variety. All the great re
ception-rooms and chambers open on this court; the
former are upon the first floor, and the latter above,
having in front a narrow corridor closed in with glass.
On the southern side is the lewan, or open alcove, similar
in design to those found in the exterior courts, but loftier,
and far more gorgeously decorated. The grand salon is a
noble room. It is divided into two compartments by a
beautiful arch richly ornamented with gilt fretwork. The
floor of the first compartment is of the rarest marbles of
every hue, arranged with admirable precision and pleasing
variety in mathematical designs. In the centre is a fountain
inlaid with mother-of-pearl and rare stones. The walls to
the height of twenty feet are covered with mosaic in
panels, in the centre of each of which is a slab of polished
granite, porphyry, or finely-veined marble, with the ex
ception of those in the upper tier, which are inscribed
with sentences from the Koran, written in letters of gold.
Several niches relieve the plainness of the walls ; in their
angles are slender columns of white marble with gilt
capitals, and the arches above are richly sculptured in the
Saracenic style. The upper part of the walls is painted in
the Italian style. The ceiling is about thirty feet high,
and delicately painted. The central ornaments and cornices
are elaborately carved and gilt, and inlaid with innumerable
little mirrors. The other and principal part of the room
is raised about two feet. The walls and ceiling are
similar in design to those described, except that the former
are in part covered with a wainscoting, carved, gilt, and
ornamented with mirrors. Around the three sides run
.the divans, covered with the richest purple satin, en>

Chap. II. TOPOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITIES. 37
broidered with gold, in ohaste designs of flowers and
scrolls, and having a deep gold fringe descending to the
floor. Though none of the workmanship might bear
minute examination, and some of those accustomed to the
chaste and subdued style of decoration in Western Europe
might pronounce this gaudy and even vulgar, yet all will
admit that the general effect is exceedingly striking. It
resembles, in fact, some scene in fairyland ; and one feels,
on beholding it, that the glowing descriptions in the
' Arabian Nights' were not mere pictures of the fancy.
But it is only when the " bright-eyed houris" of this sunny
clime assemble in such a salon, decked out in their gay
and picturesque costumes, and blazing with gold and
diamonds, and when numerous lamps of every form and
colour pour a rich and variegated flood of light all round,
to be reflected from polished mirrors, and countless gems,
and flashing eyes, that we can fully comprehend the
splendour of oriental life, and the perfect adaptation of the
gorgeous decorations of the mansions to the brilliant
costumes of those that inhabit them.
There are many other apartments in the court, less
spacious it is true than the grand salon, but no less
beautifully finished. The style of decoration in this
mansion may be called the modern Damascene, the paint
ing of the walls and ceiling being a recent innovation. In
the more ancient houses the ceilings and wainscoted walls
are covered with the richest arabesques, encompassing
little panels of deep blue and delicate azure, on which are
inscribed, in elegantly interlaced Arabic characters, whole
verses and chapters of their law. Vast sums of money
are thus expended, the ornamenting of one chamber often

38

DAMASCUS.

Chap. II.

costing upwards of 2000Z. sterling. A few of the more
wealthy Jewish families have also large and splendid
residences, but they cannot be compared with those of the(
Muslems. The Hebrew writing, too, which they uni
versally put upon the walls, is stiff and formal looking,
and is infinitely inferior, in an ornamental point of view,
to the graceful curves and easy flow of the Arabic.7

..I- .POSTER. de(.
•|.,,.T„.,t-

» T"* »

Sfo tfo

Front Elevation of East Gate, Damascus.

ANCIENT WALLS OF THE CITY.
I will now conduct my reader round the ancient city
walls, noticing, as we pass along, the several objects of
7 The origin of this rather remarkable mode of decoration is evidently
to be found in God's command to the Israelites concerning the Law:
" And thou shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy
gates" (Deut. vi. 9). The letter of this command is now universally
obeyed by Christians, Jews, and Muslems in this land. I have some
doubts however, that they all rest satisfied with such obedience, and
overlook the spirit.

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 39
interest in their immediate neighbourhood. It is worthy
of remark in this place that travellers have generally re
presented Damascus as almost wholly destitute of ancient
remains. Of the accuracy of their statements we shall soon
be able to form a correct opinion ; and it will then be seen
that there are in reality very few ancient sites in Syria
where so many vestiges of ancient splendour still exist.
Travellers have but a few days, often but a few hours, at
their disposal for the examination of a large city : they
have no guide-book, or accomplished valet-de-place, to
direct them ; and, content to derive their information from
their predecessors, they take a run through the bazaars,
glance at the spacious khans, and on their way back have
their wonder excited, or their ardent piety deepened, by
a view of the house of Ananias, of the spot where Paul
was let down from the wall in a basket, and of the scene
of his miraculous conversion ! It is not strange, therefore,
that real antiquities should be overlooked when no pains
are taken to search for them. The ruins do not stand
out here in bold relief from a desert plain as they do in
Palmyra ; nor do they lift their proud heads in solitary
grandeur far above the crumbling ruins around them, as
in Baalbek, Busrah, or Jerash; they are here encom
passed by modern mansions, and almost lost in the laby
rinth of bustling bazaars. The richly-wrought capital is
often overshadowed by the Saracenic cupola, while its
shaft is concealed behind piles of costly silks in the stalls
below. The polished granite is covered with whitewash
in the streets, and columns of marble, porphyry, and verd-
antique, are shut up from infidel gaze in the shrines of the
faithful.

40 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
We will begin our walk at the East Crate {Bab Shurky).
Here are the remains of a splendid Eoman portal, con
sisting of a central and two side arches — the former being
20 feet 6 inches wide by 38 feet high, and the latter half
these dimensions, with 17 feet of solid wall intervening. J
The accompanying elevation and sketches will convey a
better idea of its original form and present state than any
detailed description. The central archway is broken at
the top ; it and the southern side arch were walled up
before the time of Ibn 'Asaker, and still remain in the
same state in which he saw them 700 years ago. The
side arches are both perfect, and are beautiful specimens of
Eoman architecture. For the annexed view of the northern
side arch, opening into the " street called Straight," I am
indebted to my friend James Graham, Esq., who at my
request kindly took the photograph.8 Immediately without
this side gate a large tower was erected in the early ages
of Mohammedan rule, to defend the entrance, and flank
the line of wall on each side. The doorway of this tower
is on the south side, and thus at right angles to the gate.
The appearance of the whole structure is now exceedingly
picturesque, though somewhat dilapidated. The crumbling
Saracenic battlements, surmounted by the tapering minaret,
contrast well with the simplicity and massive grandeur of
the Eoman architecture.
Without the gate is a huge mound of rubbish, which
for centuries has formed the deposit for the refuse of new
buildings, and the dibris of old ruins, within this quarter
of the city. Eecent excavations have shown that at one
8 See sketch at head of chapter.

CfiAP. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 41
time this was the site of furnaces for the manufacture of
those finely glazed and richly coloured tiles and figured
vessels for which Damascus was once celebrated. An
extensive view of the city and surrounding plain is
obtained from the summit of the mound.
About eighty paces from the gate, at the south-eastern
angle of the wall, are the remains of a very ancient tower,
with bevelled stones, evidently of Eoman origin. Until
the time of Ibrahim Pasha's dominion in Syria it was
almost perfect, but was then destroyed, and the materials
used in the erection of barracks. It was remarkable as
having the royal ensigns of France and England — the
fleur-de-lis and two lions — sculptured in relief over the
entrance doorway. One of the lions may be seen on a
slab in the modern wall close by. I have not found
any statement in history that would tend to throw light
on this rather singular piece of sculpture. The crusaders
never had possession of the city ; and the Muslem inha
bitants would not sanction, much less erect, such figures.
The tower was still perfect when the Chevalier d'Arvieux
visited Damascus ; and he notices these ornaments, adding
that a large slab of marble, with an inscription in Arabic,
was placed between the figures. Unfortunately he did
not copy the inscription.9
* ' Memoires du Cheval. d'Arvieux,' torn. ii. p. 445. In the old work
entitled ' Les Observations de plusieurs Singularitez et Cboses memor-
ables trouvees en Grece, Asie, etc., par Pierre Belon du Mans,' Paris,
1553, p. 150, is the following sentence, whioh renders the history of
this tower still more interesting and remarkable : — " Du coste de levant
il y a une tour quarree, au haut de laquelle y a une inscription en ca-
racteres Arabiques, qu'on diet y avoir este* mise depuis qu'elle fut reprinse
des mains des Chrestiens : car un peu plus bas l'on voit deux liz entaillez
sur marbre, qui sont les armes de France ou Florence. Au coste" des-

42

DAMASCUS. Chap. II.

The wall here turns to the south-west, and runs in
nearly a straight line for about 380 yards to a gateway
now walled up, and said to be the spot where the Apostle
Paul descended in a basket when escaping from the fury
of the Jews. The identical window from which he was
let down was shown until a few years ago ! A single
glance at the masonry of the gate and tower adjoining is
sufficient to show that they are wholly of Saracenic origin,
and that not even the foundations here date back to the
Eoman period, as they manifestly do at most other places.
Ibn 'Asaker l informs us that this gate was called Bab
Kisan, from a celebrated ruler, who erected it in the time
of the Khalif Moawyeh, in the first century of the Hijrah.
The Muslem chief, however, must have built it on an
ancient site, for the same authority states that this was
one of the original gateways, and was dedicated to Saturn,
a statue of which god once surmounted it. It was walled
up before the time of the historian, and so it has ever
since remained.
About forty yards in front of the gate is a small cupola
of wood, covering a tomb, said to be that of St. George
the Porter, who aided the apostle in his flight, and became
a martyr to his benevolence ! His memory and his sepul;
chre are still venerated ; and the body of every Christian

quelles est un lion, qui a faict penser a plusieurs que ce fussent les
armoires de France et Florence." Can it be that at the time the
crusaders besieged the city they captured this strong tower, and re
tained it for a time in their hands ? This seems to me the only way ia
which this singular piece of sculpture, with the Arabic inscription, can
be accounted for. Belon travelled about the middle of the 16th
century. 1 History of Damascus, MS., vol. i.

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 43
who dies in the city, before it is consigned to its final
resting-place, is brought to this spot, and prayers offered
up for the soul of the departed.
Half a mile to the eastward are the Christian cemeteries,
beside which the Damascus priesthood have, for their
own convenience and advantage, within the last century,
located the scene of Paul's conversion. In the days of
the Crusaders, as we learn from De Vitry,2 the spot where
the miracle was enacted was believed to be near the vil
lage of Kaukaba, between two little hills, about six miles
west of the city, on the great road to Jerusalem ; and the
tradition remained undisturbed for more than five centu
ries, for this is the place that was shown to D'Arvieux.3
This spot being too far distant for pilgrims to walk, or
holy fathers to conduct them, and, besides, the whole
western part of the city being inhabited by bigoted Mus
lems, it has been deemed advisable of late to transfer the
scene to the eastward. Sceptics may smile at the absurdity
of placing it on the east side of the city, while the great
road to Jerusalem runs westward; but the faithful can
reply, as some have done with regard to the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre, that the very unlikelihood of its
situation forms a convincing argument in favour of its
genuineness !
Continuing along the wall 250 yards farther, we observe,
a short distance on the left, a white-domed tomb, and near
it a lofty minaret, standing all solitary in the corner of a
field. This is the tomb of Bilal el-Sabashy, Mohammed's

2 Jac. de Vitr. Hist. Jerus., in ' Gesta Dei per Francos,' p. 1073.
3 Me'moires, torn. ii. p. 457.

44

DAMASCUS. Chap. II.

muezzin; and this minaret had attached to it a mosk,
which was erected in honour of him.
For nearly 400 yards farther we skirt the old wall,
turning gradually westward, and then west by north, till
we reach a great suburb. Here, on the right of the road,
is a heap of rubbish, which almost hides the walls from
view, but on surmounting it we can see their battlemented
towers stretching away to the north-west, closely lined
with modern houses. From the east gate to this place
the walls present one uniform appearance. Two or three
layers of large hewn stones form the foundations, and
upon these are reared up masses of masonry of every age,
from the earliest Saraoenic down to the most modern
Turkish. Towers, some round and others square, occur
at intervals of about forty yards, but they are now almost
all ruinous, with the exception of a few between Bab
Shurky and Bab Kisan. A portion of a tower of superior
workmanship stands nearly opposite the tomb and minaret
above referred to, and from an inscription on one of its
stones it appears that it was built by order of the Sultan
Nur ed-Din A.H. 564. This is good monumental evidence
of the truth of Arab historians, who state that Nur ed-Din
rebuilt the walls of Damascus. This prince succeeded his
father in the government of Aleppo and its dependencies
A.H. 544 (a.d. 1149), and captured Damascus five years
afterwards.4 The suburb we now enter is of great extent, stretching
westward more than a mile, and southward over two. It
4 A sketch of the history of Nur ed-Din is given by D'Herbelot in
his ' Bibliotheque Orientale,' s. v. ' Noureddin.'

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 45
is divided, like the city, into quarters or sections, the
largest of which is called the Medan.6 A wide and com
paratively straight street runs down the centre of this
suburb, and at its extremity is the Bawdbet Ullah, or
" Gate of God," by which the great pilgrim caravan leaves
and enters the city in state every year.
Passing through a dilapidated gateway, we enter a broad
street lined with ragged-looking houses, and generally well
stocked with camels and wild Bedawin. A few hundred
paces brings us to the great burying-ground called Mak-
berat Bab es-Saghir, " the Cemetery of the Little Gate,"
occupying a large open space on the left. Here lie the
remains of some of the greatest warriors and statesmen
whose names are recorded in Mohammedan history, and
their tombs are held in veneration to the present day.
Here sleeps in peace the warlike Moawyeh, the successful
opponent of 'Aly, the prophet's son-in-law, and the distin
guished founder of the dynasty of the Omeiyades. Here
too are the tombs of three of Mohammed's wives, and
of Fatimeh, his granddaughter, the unfortunate child of
'Aly. And here lies Ihn 'Asaker, the great historian, to
whose writings we are so largely indebted for our know-
lege of the ancient topography and history of the city.8
Opposite to this cemetery, in the midst of a narrow and
dark lane, is the ancient gate called Bab es-Saghir, a fine
Eoman archway, opening in a wall of great strength and
solidity. Within the gate, about ten paces, is another,

5 Medan means " race-course."
6 ' History of the Celebrated Tombs and Mausoleums in and around
Damascus' — an Arabic MS., written about 100 years ago, in my pos
session.

46 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
in the second or interior wall; but, though it seems an
cient, it is difficult to determine at what time it was con
structed. The city was at one time wholly encompassed
by a double wall, and, in those places where the suburbs
are joined to it, remains of both walls are well preserved.
On the whole eastern side, however, the exterior one has
been removed, and the moat that encompassed it drained
and partially filled up.
Bab es-Saghir is now generally called Bab esh-Shaghvir,
from the name of the quarter into which it leads. The
city is here densely populated, and the streets narrow and
tortuous in the extreme. The people are notorious for
their turbulence and fierce fanaticism ; and even yet it is
scarcely safe for a Frank to pass through it unattended.
Eeturning from the gate to the main street, we force
our way through crowds of pale citizens, and swarthy :
peasants with huge turbans and gaily embroidered coats.
The houses on either side are wretched, and seem in the
last stage of decay; while over those on the right are
occasionally seen the crumbling battlements of the old '
wall. Presently, however, we emerge on a more inviting
thoroughfare. Here is a spacious bazaar covered with a
finely arched roof, and beyond it rise the swelling dome
and tapering minaret of one of the most beautiful mosks
in the city. It is the Jdmi'a es-Sunaniyeh, so called from
its founder, Senan Pasha, who was civil governor of
Damascus a.h. 990, and left behind him this splen
did monument, with the bazaars around, as evidences
of his taste and liberality.7 The minaret is conspicuous
7 A sketch of the life of Senan Pasha is given in the biographical
work of Mohibby— a fine Arabic MS. in my possession. From this wort

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 47
throughout the city, not only for the gracefulness of its
proportions, but for the brilliancy of its colour, being
completely covered with highly glazed green tiles. The
interior of the mosk and court are tastefully ornamented
with marble columns, inlaid fountains, and tesselated
pavement. Immediately adjoining this mosk is the ancient west
gate of the city, called Bab el-Jabyah, from a village of
that name which once stood without it. We learn from
Ibn 'Asaker that this gate originally resembled Bab
Shurky, but that the central and northern portals had
been walled up before his time, and only the southern left
open.8 From the close proximity of the houses I have
"been unable to ascertain how much of the primitive struc
ture still exists ; but, according to the testimony of some
intelligent natives, no change has been made upon it since
the time of the historian. The upper part of the present
gateway is modern, and an inscription on the large stone
laid across it shows that it was repaired by Nur ed-Din.
A few yards within it is another gateway, also in part
modern, leading through the inner wall.
In the Eoman age, and up to the period of the con
quest, a noble street extended in a straight line from Bab
el-Jabyah to Bab Shurky, thus completely intersecting
the city. It was divided by Corinthian colonnades into
three avenues, of which the central was for foot-passen
gers, and of the others one was used for chariots and
horsemen proceeding eastward, and the second for those
it appears that he also erected the great caravanserais at Kuteifeh on
the Aleppo road, S'as'a, and the Khan et-Tujjar near Mount Tabor.
6 History of Damascus, vol. i.

48 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
going in the opposite direction.9 I have been enabled to
trace the remains of the colonnades at various places over
nearly one-third of the length of this street. Wherever
excavations are made in the line, fragments of columns
are found in situ, at the depth, in some places, of ten feet
and more below the present surface, so great has been the
accumulation of rubbish during the course of ages. This
street was thus a counterpart to those still seen in Pal
myra and Jerash ; but unfortunately the devastations of
war and conquest, and the vandalism of Arab and Turkish
rulers, have left only a few remnants of its former gran
deur. There can scarcely be a doubt that this is the
" street called Straight " referred to in the history of
the Apostle Paul.1 Its extreme length is about an
English mile, and its breadth must have exceeded
100 feet.
From Bab el-Jabyah the wall runs north-by-west for
400 yards to Bab el-Hadid. It is closely lined with
modern houses, but from the upper rooms of one of them,
to which I obtained access, I could see that it is here in
nearly the same state as on the eastern side of the city.
Parallel to it on the outside is a good street, containing
some fine mosks and celebrated tombs. Here stands the
Mausoleum of Abu Obeidah, the celebrated general who'
commanded the Muslems at the taking of Damascus, and
who was the means of saving the city and its inhabitants
from destruction.2 Near this place also is the cemetery of
p History of Damascus, vol. i.
1 Acts ix. 11.
s Ockley's ' History of the Saracens,' pp. 137-8, Bohn's edition,
' History of Celebrated Tombs,' &c, MS.

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 49
the Sufiyites,3 among whom are numbered some of the
most celebrated names in Mohammedan literature.
Opposite Bab el-Hadid ("The Iron Gate") is the
Seraiya or palace, now a barrack, but still containing the
official residence of the SerasMer, or commander-in-chief
in Syria. It is a spacious quadrangle surrounded with
plain buildings. In a line with it, extending westward,
are three other large barracks, erected by Ibrahim Pasha.
At Bab el-Hadid the wall is double, and there are,
consequently, two gates. The foundations and sides of
both seem ancient, and in the outer one may be seen
some finely bevelled stones ; but Ibn 'Asaker states that
this gate was first opened under the rule of the Turks.4
It is therefore probable that it was erected by Nur ed-
Din. Through this gate we enter a long straight bazaar called
Suk el-Arwam, " The Market of the Greeks." It is one
of the most interesting bazaars in the city, and well worthy
of a visit from every traveller, for, in addition to the

3 History of Celebrated Tombs of Damascus, MS. This name is said
by some to be derived from the word s&f, " wool," because the members
i of this sect first used woollen garments exclusively. Others with more
i probability conjecture that it is from the Greek Sophos. The Sufiyites
are a kind of Derwishes, who devote themselves to contemplation and
S the study of the abstract mysteries of religion. They are the chief
„ devotional writers among the Muslems. — See D'Herbelot, ' Bibliotheque
* Orientale,' s. v. ' Son.'
i * The Turks must not be confounded with the Osmanlis, who are
generally called by that name in the present day; by the Turks,
Ibn 'Asaker and Arab historians generally mean those wild and war
like tribes which issued from the plains of Tartary and shores of the
Caspian Sea, and overran Syria, Persia, and India. The four dynasties
of the Atabeks were all Turks. Nur ed-Din was the second prince of
j ithe Atabekian dynasty of Irak. — D'Herbelot, s. v. 'Atrak;' and 'Tarikh
el-Jenaby,' MS. in my possession.
VOL. I. D

50 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
variety of picturesque costumes continually displayed in
it, the stalls will be found filled with antique armour,
Damascus swords and daggers, old porcelain of quaint
form and brilliant colours, weapons of every species, richly
inlaid with silver, gold, and precious stones, gorgeous
robes embroidered with gold, Persian carpets and shawls
of Cashmere and Hind. Venerable merchants sit with all
the calm dignity of hereditary princes in the midst of their
wares, and are prepared to cheat and lie with saint-like
meekness, especially when a Frank is observed approach™.
ing. Five times the value of each article is often de
manded, and, if the traveller succeed in obtaining it for
one-half of the first demand, the owner will give it up witt
a reluctant and resigned air, swearing that he is a loser by
the bargain.
Beside this bazaar may be seen the lofty walls of the
castle, rising high above the modern houses. This is a
large and massive quadrangular building, situated at the
north-western angle of the city. It is about 280 yards;
long by 200 broad, and has on each side three heavy
square towers, and at each end two, besides the four at the
angles. The whole is encompassed by a deep moat, which
can be filled from the river. The exterior walls are in
good repair, and present a rather formidable aspect, from
their great height and massive flanking towers. It is
not easy to determine their date, nor to say whether the
Eomans, the Byzantines, or the Saracens contributed most
to them. The foundations are certainly not later than the ;
Eoman age, and it is probable that most of the stones of
which the superstructure is now composed were hewn
previous to the Mohammedan conquest. The masonry is

Chap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 51
in general what is called rustic; at the north-eastern
angle, however, it is different, being composed of stones
of various sizes intermixed with fragments of columns.
Here formerly stood the principal tower or keep, and
against it were directed the whole forces of Timur after
he had captured the city. It was long and ably defended
by its heroic governor, but, being at last undermined,
it fell to the ground, and the garrison was forced to
surrender. Though the exterior seems so formidable, the interior
presents nothing to the eye but heaps of rubbish, covering
the quadrangle, within ragged-looking walls. The castle
is in fact a mere shell. A few large vaults beneath the
exterior ramparts are still kept in repair, and here is now
the city magazine : here also are some remnants of the
ancient armoury, containing arrows and a few other wea
pons. So late as the time of the Chevalier d'Arvieux
> the interior was occupied with buildings of great beauty,
encompassing a spacious court. At the farther end of
.this court was the great council-chamber, whose walls
and ceiling were covered with the richest arabesque, and
linscribed with sentences from the Koran written in letters
:,of gold.5 These buildings have been all destroyed since
lis time, and the Janissaries who inhabited them were
nurdered or banished, because, from the strength of their
position, they were sometimes led to defy the Turkish
luthorities. In following the line of the city walls, we had reached
he south-western angle of the castle ; we must now pass
5 Memoires, torn. ii. pp. 449-50.
D 2

52

DAMASCUS. Chap. II.

round to the north-eastern angle, where the wall again
commences. Two roads lead to this point, either of which
the traveller may follow. The one is within the city,
along the Suk el-Arwam, and past the eastern and prin
cipal gate of the castle, where the best view is obtained of
that building. The other is without the walls, leading by
the gate of the palace, and the western portal of the castle,
to the saddlers' bazaar. On leaving this bazaar a gigantic
plane-tree, nearly 40 feet in circumference, may be seen
on the side of the pathway. We now follow an open
street, in a direction nearly east, for some 300 yards, and
then turn suddenly to the right into the shoe-bazaar.
Here is a large eafS deserving of a visit, as it has plat
forms and terraces overhanging the river, which command
a good view of the northern wall of the castle and the
north-eastern angle where the city wall joins it.
A few yards from the door of the cafS, and about fifty
from the castle, is the gate called Bab el-Faraj, said to
have been first opened by Nur ed-Din. A triple wall de
fended the city on this side, and the three gates, one
within the other, are still perfect ; but houses and bazaars
are so closely huddled together, that it is impossible io
ascertain whether all the walls now exist : the outer one, ,
which follows the right bank of the river, is still in tole- |
rable preservation.
Proceeding eastward from hence along a narrow street,
lined with good houses, we reach Bab el-Faradis, " the
Garden Gate." This is a fine Eoman archway, leading
through a wall of great thickness, and built of massive
blocks of hewn stone. It is one of the ancient gates of j
the city, and was dedicated to the moon. About twenty

Ghap. II. ANCIENT WALLS. 53
yards in front of it is another gate, called Bab el-Amdra,
in the outer wall : this is of Saracenic workmanship, and
has a fragment of a heavy column across the top, instead
of the more usual arch. About ten yards within Bab el-
Faradis is a plain but beautiful gateway, different in form
from all the others, being rectangular, and having a deep
moulding round the top and sides. This is probably the
gate referred to by Ibn 'Asaker, as also called Bab el-
Faradis.6 The street Bein es-Surein1 extends from this place to
Bab es-Salam. In passing along it we have the outer
wall a short distance on our left, close to the side of the
Barada. The private houses are built so near it that it
cannot be seen except by entering them. The inner walls
are on the right, but are, I believe, almost completely de
stroyed. The river washes the foundations of the outer
wall from the castle to Bab es-Salam, and beyond it, on
its left bank, is an extensive suburb, extending up a gentle
slope for nearly half a mile. At this gate, however, the
houses abruptly terminate, and the ancient walls still form
the boundaries of the city on the whole eastern side.
Bab es-Salam, " the gate of peace," is a Saracenic struc
ture, erected probably in the days of Nur ed-Din, It
received its modern name from the fact that, when the
city was invested by the Saracens, no attack was made at
; this place in consequence of the strength of the walls and
the depth of the river. From hence to Bab Titma the
> canal el-Akrabany runs close to the walls, and the river
: meanders through delightful gardens and fragrant orchards
6 History of Damascus, vol. i.
i r That is, " Between the two walls."

54 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
a short distance beyond. During the spring and autumn
months these gardens form the most delicious retreats
around the city. In the evenings groups of the citizens
here squat along the banks of the gently flowing river,
and, as they lazily inhale the smoke of their perfumed
nargilies, and silently gaze on the transparent waters,
realise the acme of Eastern felicity. Music and dancing-
girls sometimes enliven the scene; but the thorough
Oriental is too listless and apathetic to derive much plea
sure from these.
Bab Tuma, " Thomas' Gate," is a fine specimen of
Saracenic architecture, and is in excellent preservation.
Over it is an inscription with the name of the Sultan
Kilawun, and the date A.H. 634. According to Ibn
'Asaker, it received its name from a celebrated Christian
leader called Thomas, who fought bravely in the defence
of the city against the Saracens. A short distance from
it, on the outside, once stood a large and splendid church
dedicated to Saint Thomas, which was afterwards seized by
the Muslems and became a mosk : there are no vestiges
of it now remaining. The road leading from this gate
crosses the Barada by a good bridge at the distance of
about thirty yards, and then runs in a north-eastern direc
tion across the plain, forming the great caravan route to
Aleppo and Palmyra.
From Bab Tuma the wall continues eastward in a zig
zag course for some 300 yards, and then turns south
ward. At the angle is a well-built tower, on which is a
beautiful Arabic inscription to the following effect;—
" In the name of the most merciful and gracious God. j
Erected in the days of our lord the Sultan el-Melek es-

Chap. II. WALK THROUGH THE CITY. 55
Saleh Nejm ed-Dunya w'ed-Din, in the year 646." 8 In
front of this tower is a large Muslem cemetery, and be
side it a collection of tombs clustered together in a white-
domed building. Here lie the remains of the Sheikh
Arslan, a celebrated writer and poet of the time of Nur
ed-Din ; 9 while close by is a fragment of a building with
a Cufic inscription, which marks the spot where Khaled,
called " the Sword of God," established his head-quarters
when the Saracens invested the city.1 Some distance to
the south as we approach the east gate, a large, irregular,
and deserted-looking structure may be seen on the left.
It is now, and has for a long period been, used as a leper-
hospital, and is said to stand on the site of the house of
Naaman the Syrian. Whether the tradition be well
founded I will not undertake to say, but there can be no
doubt that there are in several parts of the building evi
dences of high antiquity. WALK THROUGH THE CITY.
We have now encompassed the ancient walls, and are
therefore ready for a ramble in the interior. To save time
we will enter by Bab Shurky. What a contrast do the
beautiful proportions and fine masonry of the old Eoman
portal present to the raggedness and disorder of the street
* Melek es-Saleh was the grandson of Melek el-'Adel, brother of the
renowned Saladin. He succeeded his father, Melek el-Kamel, as ruler
of Egypt and its dependencies, a.h. 635, and died twelve years
afterward. With him terminated the dynasty of the Eyubites, or
family of Saladin, in Egypt. — See D'Herbelot, ' Bibliotheque Orientale,'
s. v. ' Saladin.'
9 History of the Celebrated Tombs of Damascus, &c, MS.
1 Khaled encamped on the east of the city, and Abu Obeidah on the
west. — Ockley's Hist, of Saracens.

56

DAMASCUS. Chap. II.

within! The houses are mean, low, and half-ruinous,
and the narrow pathway almost blocked up by the groups
of old packhorses picketed round the open doors. Dogs,"
too, those pests of eastern cities, are everywhere prowling
about, snarling over a bone, or devouring some abomina
tion recently thrown from one of the houses. After pro
ceeding a few paces from the gate, a neat doorway may be
seen on the left opening into a fine court. This is the
Armenian convent. Farther along on the same side, but
at some distance from the street, and shut out from view
by the intervening shops, are the Syrian church and con
vent, and the Greek Catholic church, with the residence
of the patriarch adjoining. These are large and expen
sive buildings, sufficiently decked with marble pavements
and gaudy paintings and silver lamps, but they display
neither architectural skill in their design nor good taste
in their decorations.
About 200 yards to the right of this street, up a nar
row lane, is the so-called house of Ananias. It is a cave,
like almost all the traditional shrines in this land, and
has of late years been fitted up as a chapel by the Terra
Santa monks. Here are shown the little window through
which the angel entered, and the precise spot where
Ananias stood whilst receiving the heavenly message!
Beside the cave are the ruins of the ancient " Church of
the Cross," mentioned by Ibn 'Asaker. Like many others
in the city, it was seized by the Muslems and long used
as a mosk before it fell into ruin.
Continuing along the Straight street for some 500 yards
more, we have on our right the Greek church of St.
Mary, a modern building erected on an ancient site. It

Chap. II. WALK THROUGH THE CITY. 57
was here the two great Muslem leaders, Khaled and Abu
'Obeidah, met, when they had obtained access to the city,
the former by treachery and the latter by treaty ; and
here, after a stormy scene, during which the lives of the
citizens trembled in the balance, pacific counsels prevailed,
and the captured city was equally divided between Muslem
and Christian, The residence of the Greek patriarch of
Antioch adjoins the church, attached to which also are
schools supported by funds contributed by the Eussian
Government. The street along which we have hitherto walked is,
like a few of the other principal thoroughfares, called
es-Sultdny, a word that has the same meaning as " Queen's
highway" in England. Travellers generally call it the
" Straight street," and, as it runs very nearly in the line
of the ancient via recta, I am not inclined to quarrel with
the name, though it is unknown to the natives. It ex
tends from the east to the west gate. About the centre
of this street is a fine . Eoman arch, whose sides have been
long since buried beneath masses of rubbish, the debris of
fallen grandeur. From hence westward the street is
covered by a sloping roof of timber, and its sides lined
with little stalls. We now stand on < the border of the
business part of the city, in which are long lines of
bazaars teeming with the riches of the East, and spacious
khans filled with the substantial fabrics of Western Eu
rope. The whole north-western section of the city, from
this point to Bab el-Jabyah on the west, and to Bab el-
Faradis on the north, is thus occupied, only intermixed
here and there with noble mosks and princely mansions
of the Damascus nobility. Almost every branch of in-
D 3

58 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
dustry has its own circumscribed place in the bazaars or
khans, and we have thus the spice-bazaar, the tobacco-
bazaar, the shoe-bazaar, the silversmiths' bazaar, and a
host of others. It is interesting to wander through the
different markets, and observe the various departments of
trade and manufacture in full operation. Here are long
rows of bearded merchants sitting in the midst of piles of
silks and cotton goods, stately and motionless as the statues
of the ancient deities in their temple shrines. A few
steps farther and the scene is changed : hundreds of busy
hands are engaged in stitching and ornamenting the neat,
soft yellow slipper, or the curious gondola-shaped red
overshoes. Let us now pass through this diminutive old
gateway, and we enter a vast covered area, whose shat
tered roof, dimly seen through clouds of smoke, is sup
ported here by massive pier and there by stately column,
The din of hammer and anvil is almost deafening, and
swarthy figures are seen through the gloom sitting on
dirty hobs and round miniature furnaces. Heaps of the
precious metals, and ornaments of various forms and chaste
designs, are by their side, while diamonds, emeralds, and
rubies glitter in their hands. Passing through this busy
scene, we enter another bazaar, no less noisy. Here are
scores of carpenters engaged in the manufacture of the
ornamental clogs worn universally by the Damascus ladies.
Observe how they work, all squatting. One is planing a
board, holding it with his toe ! Others are carving pieces
of wood, or inlaying them with silver and mother-of-
pearl ; and while the hands ply the mallet and chisel, the
toes do duty as a vice !
Eeturning to the Eoman arch in the Sultdny, we will

Chap. II. WALK THROUGH THE CITY. 59
continue our walk. Following the street for forty or fifty
paces, through files of tinsmiths and fruit-box manufac
turers, we turn to the right and enter a fine bazaar called
the Bizuriyeh, or " Seed-market." Spices, preserved
fruits, and tempting confections are tastefully arranged in
the open stalls on each side, reminding one that the glow
ing descriptions of the 'Arabian Nights' are not all
imaginary. On reaching the middle of the bazaar we
suddenly find ourselves in front of a noble gateway, which,
as a specimen of pure Moorish architecture, is scarcely
surpassed in the world. Its deeply-recessed sides are
closely set with slender columns of chaste design and
elaborate workmanship, while the arch over head is orna
mented with those finely-carved stalactites and pendants
that give such richness and aerial beauty to Saracenic
gateways. Eound the whole is a broad border of fretwork,
with stones of different colours curiously interlaced : this
is the entrance to the great khan Assad Pasha. The in
terior, though spacious and massive, falls far short of the
expectations excited by the glowing description of Lamar-
tine. The splendid dome, which recalled to the poet's
mind that of St. Peter, resolves itself, when viewed by the
ordinary observer, into nine rather diminutive cupolas ;
and the granite columns which his fancy pictured as sup
porting it are but square blocks of masonry, composed of
alternate layers of white limestone and black basalt.2 And
this, we may remark, is a fair specimen of the accuracy of
Lamartine's ' Pensees en Syrie.'
On reaching the end of this bazaar we have on our right
2 OJIuvres Completes de M. A. de Lamartine, Paris, 1850, torn. vi.
p. 67.

60

DAMASCUS. Chap. II.

one of the largest and most magnificent houses in Da
mascus, belonging to the family of the man who built the
khan just mentioned. It has seven courts, and salons
almost without number, gorgeously ornamented with
marble fountains, . and tesselated pavement, and walls and
ceilings covered with mosaic and arabesque. Turning to
the left up a narrow street, we soon reach the great
school established by Nur ed-Din, a prince as highly cele
brated for his justice as his warlike achievements. This
building is among the finest in the city, but is unfortu
nately so closely surrounded by mud-walls and modern
houses as to be nearly invisible from without. The tomb
of its illustrious founder is oja the west side of it, in the
cloth-bazaar. A short distance from the school, to the
west, is a fragment of an ancient building, in which, on an
inverted stone, is a Greek inscription, but a portion of it
is now covered by a modern wall.3
We here enter the mercers' bazaar, and pursue our
course northward, as fast as we can press through the
crowds of men and strings of laden mules and camels that
continually throng it. Leaving the custom-house behind
on the left, and the slave-market on the right, we reach
at last, after many a crush and jostle, a wide bazaar
branching to the right and left. Here we terminate our
walk, and pause for a time to examine the most interesting,
3 The following is the portion of the inscription now visible. As it
is inverted, it can with difficulty be deciphered : —
6nlTwNn»IANTmNIANON 
IfOTAMIHlNTOrAMMAAIIOTOy 
THCAMAEHAATOYOCOAOY 
OOTftiNTOKYPlOY 
A I O 

Enffiish- Consulate [

1 Mi hi 'nb A-AfhtonZrah/
¦L. . es-$ahal>efu
3.

5. -torch, FOlarw
0. Aft iff in ft drrMrua
7. Jlmir/ir/ J&sa/
Jl yjadtrw/ cV-Gkurbixvh',

Sladriset | ^ j JMadriset est-
d-Omflirfyeh-B _| 6 I Shfinrisatxyeb.

i «g'g" ¦¦¦»*#
oRuliln-t rl-lail jib Touie of Itthuinn SsiUbnt e.i-S:i;iliB
O S * » .;;;. ;
c o u a. t B
Bab Jionrn

Tun J t oT
S^John.

— tTarrn^

=^

b d
• fl
¦ fl

I

PLAN of Hie
JAMI'A EL AMWY",
GREAT MOSK,
_ ® a asa a § ig i i „

Drawn iy J.X.Tarte5l855.
Scale.

./"<«<?. 7l5Bea;Z*A,.

Chap. II. GREAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 61
remains of antiquity in the city, and one of the finest
buildings in Syria.
THE GREAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES.
A glance at the accompanying plan4 will enable the
reader to perceive the point to which I have conducted
him ; and by occasionally consulting it he will be able to
follow me while I attempt to describe this splendid
edifice. At the top of the steps which lead down to the book
bazaar are four massive columns in a line, at each end of
which is a square pier of masonry with a semi-column on
the inner side. The shafts alone are visible from the
street, as the capitals rise above the domed roof; but on
ascending to the top of a neighbouring house, permission
to do which can be easily obtained by the payment of a
small fee, the capitals and superstructure can be closely
examined. These columns supported a triumphal arch of
uncommon richness and beauty : a portion of it, with the
frieze and cornice, still remains. The accompanying
sketch will convey some idea of its present state and
former grandeur. The length of the structure is over
80 feet, and the extreme height could not have been less
than 70. From this splendid arch a double colonnade

* For the greater part of the measurements from which this plan has
been constructed I am indebted to M. Anton Bulad. He obtained
them from a Christian who was employed by the authorities a few years
ago to repair the interior of the mosk. This man was not satisfied with
the general dimensions, but he measured every pillar and every cham
ber in the whole fabric.

62

DAMASCUS.

Chap. II.

Hil

gpit§^j||
Remains of Triumphal Arch.
leads to the western gate ofthe great building — a distance
of sixty yards. Most of these columns still remain, but
many are covered by the modern walls.
The great building itself is a quadrangle 163 yards '
long by 108 wide, surrounded by a lofty wall of fine
masonry. On the northern side of the quadrangle is an
open court, with cloisters round the three sides, supported
in front by arches resting on pillars of limestone, marble,
and granite. Many of these columns have, within the
last century, been enclosed in piers of masonry. On the
south side of the court is the mosk or harem, whose
interior dimensions are 431 feet by 125. Its whole side-
wall toward the court is supported on columns, most of
them being now enclosed in piers. Two rows of columns,
22 feet high, extend the whole length of the building, and

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 63
support the triple roof. These divide the interior into
nave and aisles of equal dimensions. Across the middle
is a transept supported on eight massive piers of solid
masonry, each 12 feet square; and a splendid dome,
nearly 50 feet in diameter and above 120 in height,
stands in the centre. The court is well paved with lime
stone, interspersed with squares of marble of various
colours. Nearly the whole of the interior of the mosk has
a tesselated pavement of marble, now covered with Persian
and Turkey carpets. The wall of the transept, and the
piers that support it, are coated with the finest marble in
beautiful patterns ; while on portions of the wall above,
and on the interior of the dome, may be seen fragments
of fine mosaic representing palm-trees and palaces. The
Minbar or "pulpit" stands between the two southern
piers that support the dome, and is covered with a canopy
of green velvet richly embroidered. Between the third
and fourth columns to the east of these piers is a building
of great beauty. Its walls are of wood, elaborately carved,
inlaid, and gilt, with pilasters at intervals ; on the top is
a cupola of exquisite symmetry, covered with a substance
resembling tin-foil of a delicate green colour, and sur
mounted by a golden crescent. Underneath it is a cave
in which is placed the head of John the Baptist ! Ibn
'Asaker relates of Khaled, the great general, that after
the capture of the city he visited this cathedral, and
insisted on obtaining admission to the sacred cave. Hav
ing descended, he found a very small chamber with an
altar on which was laid a golden casket, with an inscrip
tion in Greek to the following effect : " This casket
contains the head of John the Baptist, son of Zachariah."

64 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
He restored the relic to its place, and gave orders for the
cave to be carefully shut up again.6
Opposite this shrine, on the other side of the nave, is a
neat pulpit, elevated on four slender columns, and. covered
with a canopy. From this spot the Muezzin on each
Friday calls the faithful to prayer. Along the south side
of the mosk are the Mihrdbs, or prayer-niches ; each sect
of the orthodox Muslems having one for their own use.
Leaving the mosk by the southern door, called Bab ez-
Ziddeh," we observe two colonnades running southward
parallel to each other. Following the line of these
through the silk-thread bazaar, we enter the silversmiths'
bazaar, to the roof of which we ascend by a rather difficult
staircase, and from it obtain one of the finest views of the
southern side of the mosk. Here we see a long range of
round-arched windows, which, together with the character
of the masonry, seem to indicate that the whole of this
wall was erected before the Mohammedan era. At the
south-western angle is a section of masonry with pilasters,
of a still earlier date; and on proceeding to the great
windows in the end of the transept we can trace with
ease and accuracy the limits of another ancient fragment; •
This latter is of high antiquity, and formed part of a once
splendid edifice. It was left in its present position in
order, to preserve a spacious doorway whose sides and top
are richly ornamented with sculptured scroll-work and
leaves, somewhat similar in design and execution to those
s History of Damascus, vol. i., MS.
6 This name was given to it because it was not one of the original
doors of the building, but was added after the Muslems obtained com
plete possession. The word signifies " the added gate."

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 65
in the great temple at Baalbek. On each side of this
door is a smaller one of similar workmanship. The cir
cular top of that on the east can just be seen above the
roof of the bazaar ; but by looking down a little opening
to a chamber on the west, its fellow may be perceived
entire. This magnificent portal is not in the centre of
the building, and could not have been intended for a
structure similar in design or extent with that now exist
ing. Over the door is a cross, with the following inscrip
tion in good characters ; but both were evidently added
at a period subsequent to the date of its erection, and
inscribed on a place never intended to receive them : —
+ HBACIAIACOYXEBACIAIAnANTaiNTa>NAIft>Nft>NKAIHAECnOTIA- COYENnACHrENEAi KAI
TENEAi
This is the Septuagint rendering of Psalm cxlv. 13 ;
with the addition of the X€ to make it the more plainly
applicable to Christ. It therefore reads thus : " Thy
kingdom, 0 Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and Thy
dominion endureth throughout all generations." What
an inscription to be found in such a place ! Strange that
the glory of Christ, and the perpetuity of His kingdom,
should thus have remained inscribed on a building over
which the Crescent has towered for full twelve hundred
years, and within whose hallowed precincts the feet of
Christ's people dare not tread ! Is it intended to humble
the Christian now ; or is it intended to inspire him with
new hope? Happy, indeed, would it be for this city,
happy for this unfortunate land, did the people all acknow
ledge this glorious truth ! While descending on one
occasion, during the present year (1855), from this place,

66 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
a Muslem Effendy asked me whether I had seen the
inscription, and if I could interpret it to him. I replied
in the affirmative, and gave him a literal translation, at
which he seemed greatly astonished.
Before the eastern gate, called Bab Jeirun, is a rather
curious portico. It is shut in by a solid wall at the sides
and angles ; but in front has six columns supporting semi
circular arches ; the central arch being nearly double the
span of the others. The columns, like those of the
interior, are Corinthian ; but while the latter are in
general well-proportioned and finely executed, those are
of a debased style. The mosk has three minarets. The
Mddinet el-Arus, "Minaret ofthe bride," stands near the
centre of the northern side of the court. It is the most
ancient of all, having been erected by the Khalif Walld.7
The Mddinet Isa, "Minaret of Jesus," stands at the
south-eastern angle, and has an elevation of near 250 feet.
There is^ a tradition given by Ibn 'Asaker that Christ,
when He comes to judge the world, will first descend on
this minaret ; and then, entering the mosk, will gather
before him Muslems, Christians, and Jews. All being
assembled, the names of believers will be read from the
great book of God, when both Christians and Jews will
learn to their dismay that Muslems alone have their names
inscribed in the " Book of Life." The Mddinet el-Qhur-
biyeh, " Western minaret," is built in the Saracenic style,
and is of exquisite beauty. A more ancient one that
7 This is perhaps one of the most ancient minarets in the world; for
according to Arab historians the Khalif Walld was the first who erected
such structures, and we know that he commenced the repair of this
mosk very soon after his accession to power.

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 67
occupied its site was burned A.H. 803, and the accident
was attributed to the malice of the Christians, who were
in consequence obliged to contribute the necessary funds
for the erection of the present one.
Such is the present state of the Mosk of the Omeiyades,
and of the ancient buildings around it. The accompany
ing engraving, from a photograph by James Graham, Esq.,
conveys a good idea of the building as it now appears
overtopping the neighbouring houses. {See frontispiece.)
The style and workmanship of three distinct eras are
distinguishable in several parts of this mosk and the
adjoining ruins. We have first the massive columns and
noble superstructure of the triumphal arch, the portion of
the wall at the south-western angle, and the splendid
doorway on the southern side, as types of Grecian or
Eoman architecture. And we have next the exterior
walls with their semicircular-arched windows, and the
Greek inscription, as evidences of Christian art. And
then we have lastly the dome, the minarets, the tesselated
pavement, the marble fountains, and the gilded crescent
towering high over all, as emblems of Muslem taste and
rule. And both history and tradition concur in their
testimony to the correctness of this conclusion. The
Christian and Mohammedan inhabitants will universally
tell you that this structure was once a heathen temple,
and that it became in process of time a Christian church,
and lastly a mosk. Arab writers of eminence, and of
almost every age from the conquest to the present cen
tury, have furnished ample details concerning its history,
antiquities, and transmutations; and they seem to take
especial delight in giving glowing descriptions of its

68 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
splendour alike under heathen, Christian, and Muslem
sway. Of all those who have written on this subject, or on the
city generally, none have ever equalled in minuteness or
accuracy the celebrated Ibn 'Asaker. The first volume
of his great work contains a full description of the city
and its various public buildings; and from his ample
details I have been enabled to trace many an interesting
relic of former grandeur, and to discover the ruins of some
noble fabrics hitherto hidden and unknown. The accom
panying plan will give the reader an idea of the design,
extent, and magnitude of both the ancient temple and
modern mosk. Ibn 'Asaker's description corresponds
exactly with it ; and indeed it was from a perusal of his
work I was led to explore the exterior colonnades and
triumphal arches. All the columns and walls shaded
black in the plan are ancient, and I have myself seen
them ; many ofthe other columns stillexist, but, being in
houses, or enclosed in modern walls, I have not been able
to obtain access to them.
This historian informs us that on the eastern and
western sides of the temple were two magnificent arches,
supported on massive columns, and still existing in his
day. These were connected by double colonnades with
the great doors or gates of the temple area, Bab Jeirvm,
and Bab el-Berid. The arch on the west, in front of the
latter gate, I have already described ; and that upon the
east is represented as having been much more splendid'
These terminated the avenues leading to the principal
entrances of the great temple of Damascus. In the
MS. called 'Fudayel esh-Sham,' written by 'Aly IU,

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 69
Mohammed el-Mdleky about A.H. 435, it is stated that
this mosk was formerly a heathen temple erected by the
Greeks, who worshipped the seven stars, and prayed
toward the north. On its western side stands a great
building supported on massive columns; and on the
eastern side is a similar one connected with the palace of
the princes of Damascus. Another celebrated writer, of a
later age, says, " On the east side of the great temple
stood a palace called Jeirun, erected upon columns, as
some affirm, by one of the genii under the command of
Solomon ; but according to others by Ad the son of Uz,
the son of Aram, the son of Shem. Ad had two sons,
Jeirun and Berld, and for these he erected the two castles
which still bear their names. He also was the first who
enlarged Damascus and set up its seven gates." 8 In the
history of Ibn Kethir ' we read that " The great Eoman
pediment that stood in front of Bab Jeirun was removed
by order of Shekar, the vizier of Melek el-'Aadel,
A.H. 601, and the stones employed in paving the (court
of the) great mosk."
At the distance of 120 yards from Bab Jeirun, on the
side of the street, may be seen a massive column upwards
8 Gen. x. 21. D'Herbelot, 'Bib. Orient.' s. v. 'Ad.' We here see
how the Arab historians agree with the account given in the Holy Scrip
tures. And it is remarkable also to observe the coincidence between
their views, as here given, and the statement of Josephus, who says that
Uz the son of Aram founded Damascus (Ant. i. 6, 4). Can it be that
the Arab historians were acquainted with his writings ? or had they both
access to some common authority ? The Arab author above referred to
is Fakher ed-Din, and the title of his work is ' 'Ayun et-Touwarikh.'
The author died a.h. 864.
9 The title of this work .is ' El Badayat Ven-Nahayat/ and the full
name of the author 'Amad ed-Din Ab' el-Feda Ismail ibn 'Amer. He
was a native of Damascus, where he died a.h. 774.

70 DAMASCUS. Chap. II,
of five feet in diameter. This fragment I had observed
shortly after my arrival in the city ; but it was not till
after reading Ibn 'Asaker that the idea occurred to me
that this might be one of the pillars of the great Eoman
arch. On inquiry I learned that another of similar dimen
sions stood in the house on the opposite side ofthe street;
and some time afterwards I saw another standing perfect,
a few yards farther east. Their position answers in every
respect to the position assigned to the triumphal arch.
This splendid monument appears to have consisted of
twelve noble columns in two rows supporting the arched
entablature. A colonnade of large pillars can still be traced for more
than 100 yards to the northward of this eastern arch. It
then turns westward at a right angle, and continues in a
straight line until opposite the western arch, where it
again turns southward. From thirty to forty of these still
remain in situ, though some of them are mere fragments!!
Whether this vast quadrangle included some royal palace
or public building, or whether the columns were intended
to mark the boundaries of the great temple area, it is now
impossible to determine. It is highly probable, however,
that there stood here a noble fabric similar in design to
the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, with its spacious
court and magnificent colonnades ; and were the modern
houses cleared away, the eye would perhaps rest on ruins
as vast and as imposing as those which excite the admira
tion of the traveller in the city of the desert.
Ibn 'Asaker states that the principal entrance to the
temple itself was on the south side, by a triple gateway,
and that in front of it was a large area surrounded by a

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 71
double row of pillars. The author of the ' Fudayel esh-
Sham' thus writes: — "The worshippers entered this
temple by a door on the south side, constructed of large
sculptured stones, and having a smaller door on each side
of it." This splendid portal, as we have already seen, still
exists almost perfect, and portions of the colonnades exist
also. Nearly twenty of the columns may be seen in the
shoe-bazaar opposite Bab ez-Ziadeh, and the whole are
given in outline on the plan, as it appears they once stood.
None of these remains of former grandeur are probably
of an earlier date than the time of the Eoman dominion in
this city, and certainly none are antecedent to the era of
the Seleucidae ; but still it is highly probable that the site
is one which, from the earliest ages, has been occupied by
the great shrine of the Damascenes. The Greeks and
Eomans always reverenced the sacred buildings of con
quered nations; and with an easy liberality they either
adopted their gods or decided that they were merely
foreign names for their own deities. Baal thus, became
Helios or Jupiter, and Ashtoreth was resolved into Juno
or Venus, as fancy or favour dictated ; and so from the
same analogy may we infer, with some degree of plausi
bility, that Eimmon, the Syrians' god, would be appro
priated by Greek and Eoman, and the site of his temple,
in which Naaman was forced to worship with his royal
master, be had in reverence.
But however this may be, there can be no doubt that
on this spot once stood a heathen temple of great extent
and beauty, which was afterwards appropriated by the
Christians, and converted into a church. Some forty
years ago, when the mosk was undergoing repairs, Chris-

72 DAMASCUS. Chap. H.
tian workmen were employed in it, and one of them found
a Greek inscription on a large stone at Bab Jeirun. He
immediately copied it, and had it translated, but after
wards lost the original, and the stone itself was defaced.
M. Ant6n Bulad, having heard of this circumstance at a
subsequent period, applied for a copy of the Arabic trans
lation, which is to the following effect : — " This Church
of the Blessed John the Baptist was restored by Arcadius,
the son of King Theodosius." ' Arcadius reigned from
a.d. 395 to 408, thus commencing his reign about seventy
years after Christianity was established by Constantine.
He therefore may have been the first who constructed the
building for Christian worship, or perhaps he only refitted
it in a style of greater splendour. It continued to be the
cathedral church of the diocese of Damascus for about three
hundred years.
It remained in the hands of the Christians until the
conquest of the city by the Saracens, when, in terms of
the treaty drawn up by Abu Obeidah, and sanctioned by
Khaled, it was equally divided between the Christians and
Muslems — the former worshipping in the western,' the
latter in the eastern end. Von Kremer, in his recent
1 The reign of the Emperor Theodosius is one of the most important
periods of the Later Empire. He adopted the most rigorous measures
for the total extirpation of the heathen worship in every part of his
dominions. In a.d. 381 he prohibited sacrifices, and forbade the inqui
sition into futurity. Most of the heathen temples were in his days
either destroyed or changed into ohurches; and there can be no doubt
that in that period perished some of the noblest structures of antiquity.
It is very probable that the great temple in Damascus was then pillaged
and partly ruined, and that his son Arcadius restored it to something.
like its former grandeur, and dedicated it to the service of the true God,
For the history of Theodosius, see Gibbon's * Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire,' and Tillemont's ' Histoire des Empereurs,' vol. v.'

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 73
work on the Topography of Damascus,2 states that it was
in this church that Khaled and Abu Obeidah met on the
capture of the city ; and that it was divided because the
former had entered from the eastern side by the sword,
and the latter from the western by treaty. This, how
ever, is contrary to the statement of Ibn 'Asaker, and of
Arab historians in general. Almost immediately on the
accession of Walid, the sixth Khalif of the Omeiyades,
A.H. 86, he demanded of the Christians that they should
sell their half of the building. They refused, and
showed him that, by the words ofthe original treaty, their
rights were guaranteed to them. After consultations with
his ministers, he again summoned the Christian chiefs,
and ordered them to produce their contract. They did so,
and he showed them that they held many churches to
which they had no title, and among others the great
Church of St. Thomas, outside Bab Tuma ; the Church of
the Virgin, in which the treaty had been signed; the
Church of the Cross, near the eastern gate ; and all those
in the plain without the city. " Yield up your portion
of the Cathedral of St. John," demanded the Khalif, " or
I will drive you from every one of these churches, and
burn them to the ground." Reluctantly they were forced
to comply, and the Khalif entering the church with his
troops, commanded them to remove or destroy every
vestige of Christian worship. Standing on the great altar,
1 ' Topographie von Damascus, Im auftrage der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften, herausgegeben von A. von Kremer. Wien,
1854.' Only the first part of this work is as yet published (Jan. 1855).
It contains some interesting information on this city. M. von Kremer
spent some months here.
i VOL. I. E

74 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
Walid himself directed the work of despoliation. Seeing
his position, one of his followers, more superstitious or
more timid than the rest, thus addressed him: — " Prince
of the faithful, I tremble for your safety, lest the power
of that famous image beside which you stand be exerted
against you." " Fear not for me," replied the proud
Muslem monarch, " for the first spot on which I shall
plant my battle-axe will be the head of this image."
Thus saying, he lifted his weapon and dashed the idol to
the ground. The Christians raised a cry of horror at the
sacrilege, but their voices were drowned in the shout of
the Muslems, " Ullah Hu Akbar." 3
Having thus obtained possession of the whole building,
Walid spared neither expense nor labour in its decoration,
and is said to have expended upon it a sum of upwards of
five millions of dinars ! Twelve hundred choice artisans
were brought from Constantinople, marble and porphyry
were imported from Alexandria, and columns valuable for
their rarity or beauty were conveyed at great expense
from other cities of Syria. In this warlike monarch's days
Damascus was the great reservoir for the plunder of
nations, and much of it was devoted to the ornamenting
of this mosk, as if the consecration of the booty would
atone for the sin of robbery. Columns of granite, por
phyry, and verd-antique were set up in the court and
sanctuary. The floor was of tesselated pavement of rarest
marbles, and the lower part of the walls similarly adorned.

8 Ibn 'Asaker, vol. i. This historian universally quotes from contem
porary authors, or else derives his information from authenticated
tradition.

Chap. II. GEEAT MOSK OF THE OMEIYADES. 75
The upper walls and interior of the dome were covered
with mosaic, in which were figured the sacred cities of
Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, in the midst of groves of
palm and orange trees. The numerous prayer-niches were
set with diamonds and other precious stones of great size
and price, while around their sculptured arches overhead
were wreaths of vine-branches wrought in gold. The
whole roof was of wood, carved and inlaid with gold ; and
from it depended six hundred lamps of pure gold, sup
ported by chains of the same metal.4
Such was this splendid edifice, as described by histo
rians of eminence who were eye-witnesses of its magnifi
cence. Some little allowance must of course be made for
the poetical imagination of the Arabs, but still there can
be no doubt that their accounts are in the main correct.
Indeed many remains of this splendour may still be seen
by such as are so fortunate as to obtain admission to the
mosk. The tesselated pavement is almost entire, the
columns of granite and porphyry occupy their places, and
fragments of the mosaic of the walls are visible in the
transept, but the gold and precious stones have been long
since removed. The lamps were taken down by the
Khalif 'Amer ibn 'Abd el-' Aziz, and wisely deposited in
the royal treasury, and lamps of brass substituted for
them.5 On the capture of the city by Timur, that ruthless
destroyer left here as elsewhere fearful marks of his power,

* Ibn 'Asaker, ut sup. — Fudayel es-Sham, MS.
6 Fudayel esh-Sham, MS. The description given by the author of this
work may be ranked as next in interest and minuteness to that of Ibn
'Asaker.
E 2

76 DAMASCUS. Chap. II.
and the building has never since regained its former
grandeur.6 The only other buildings deserving of particular notice
are as follows : — The tomb of the great Saladin, whose
body was first buried within the castle walls, but was
afterwards removed to the place, near the great mosk,
which it now occupies. A fine mausoleum has been
erected over his grave, but it is impossible to obtain access
to it. A short distance from it, on opposite sides of the
street, are the mausoleums of Melek ed-Dhaher Bibars
and his son. These are fine specimens of Saracenic archi
tecture. The interior of the former may generally be seen
through the windows that open to the street. The floor
is of marble, the walls are covered with mosaic, and the
ceiling adorned with fine arabesque. Numerous gaudy
banners and curious weapons hang round the apartment,
and give a strange wild look to the whole. The building
was erected, as we learn from a beautiful inscription over
the doorway, by Melek es-Said, the son of Melek ed-
Dhaher, a.h. 676. The mosk, school, and mausoleum
on the opposite side, were erected by the same ruler in
honour of himself! The mosk and hospital of Sultan
Selim is a splendid structure, and beautifully situated
on the banks of the river west of the city. In the
interior are some fine columns of red and grey granite,
and one or two of porphyry. From the rising ground
6 See the History of Timur by Ibn Arabsha, or ' Ahmed Arabsiad,
Vit. Timuri,' ed. Manger, vol. ii. p. 1, seq. Also, ' Histoire de Timur-
Bec, par Cherefidin,' trad, par M. de la Croix, torn. iii. pp. 320-47.

Chap. II. SCENEEY. 77
beside this mosk may be obtained one ofthe most enchant
ing views around Damascus. Before you is a little vale
covered with the richest verdure, through which the
silvery stream of the ancient Abana meanders on its way
to the old city. The graceful slopes on each side are
densely covered with foliage of every tint, from the deep
green of the walnut to the golden hue of the pomegranate.
In the background rise the mountains, naked, white, and
rugged, while in the centre ofthe range yawns the wild
gorge through which the river rushes to the plain.

78

DAMASCUS. Chap. Ill,

CHAPTEE III.
HISTORY OF DAMASCUS.
1st Period: First notice in Bible — When founded, and by whom —
Tradition of Abraham — David takes city — Ben-Hadad and his
royal line — Eezon — Samaria besieged — Kingdom of Damascus —
Elijah — Naaman — Elisha — Hazael — City taken by Jeroboam —
By Tiglath-pileser. 2nd Period: Fulfiment of prophecy — Fall of
Assyrian empire — -The city captured by Pharaoh-Necho, and by
Nebuchadnezzar. — Alexander the Great. 3rd Period: Damascus
under the Ptolemies — Growing influence of Rome — Fall of Egyp
tian rule in Syria — Division of empire of the Seleucidae — Da
mascus again a royal city. — ¦ Aretas — Fall of the Seleucidse — The
city taken by the Romans — Pompey. ith Period : Damascus under
the Romans — Cleopatra — Antioch — Strabo's account of the city—
Nicolaus the historian — Aretas and Herod — Spread of Christianity
— Paul's conversion — Apollodorus the architect — The city taken
by Sapor — Odenathus and Zenobia — Damascus a metropolitan city
— Captured by Persians — Besieged and taken by Mohammedans.
5th Period: Under the Arabs — Muslem dynasties — The Crusaders
— Saladin — The Mamlukes — Origin and history of the Turks —
— Conquests of Timur — Awful massacre — Sultan Selim conquers
Syria — Turkish policy — Ibrahim Pasha — Eichard Wood, Esq.
The history of Damascus, if written with that fulness
which its importance demands, would fill a volume. This
is a task I do not attempt. A brief sketch of the leading
events of which it was the theatre is all I aim at. Such
as have wandered with me among the interesting remains
of former grandeur with which this city abounds may
wish perhaps to know something more of the men who
erected them. To these I dedicate the following pages.
The first notice of this city in the Bible is in Gen. xiv.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 79
15, where we read that Abraham, having overcome the
kings who had pillaged Sodom and carried Lot away
captive, " pursued them unto Hobah, which is on the left
hand of Damascus." This city must, even in that early
age, have been a place of considerable importance, since it
was thus selected to mark the position of another ; and we
also infer from this circumstance that it continued to
prosper until the time of Moses, as otherwise he would
not have referred to it at all. Abraham's steward was
Eliezer of Damascus,1 and some have hence concluded that
he was its founder ; but just as well might we say that
Hagar was the founder of the kingdom of Egypt, because
she was called an Egyptian.2
The description given above of its situation will leave
but little doubt upon the mind of any student of ancient
history that this spot would be among the first selected
for settled habitation in eastern Syria. In the tenth
chapter of Genesis there is a brief history of the planting
of the various nations of the world by the posterity of
Noah, and we observe there that the descendants of
Canaan peopled the country which was afterwards called
by the name of their progenitor. It would appear, how
ever, that these colonies settled mostly toward the south
and west, occupying the whole region between the Medi
terranean and the Jordan.3 North of this section, their
appropriated territory was confined to a narrow strip be
tween Lebanon and the Great Sea ; and, with the single
exception of Hamath, they do not appear to have had. a
settlement eastward of that mountain-range.
The countries peopled by the descendants of Shem are
1 Gen. xv. 2. 2 Gen. xvi. 3. * Gen. x. 15-19.

80 DAMASCUS. Chap, III,
not so clearly defined as those possessed by their brethren.
We read, however, that Aram was a son of Shem ;4 and it
is well known that the most common name of the province
or kingdom of which Damascus was the capital was Aram,
The region called by this name was of great extent ; but
the several sections of it were known by distinguishing
appellations, asAramDamesk," Aram Naharayim* Padan
Aram,7 and many others.8 Gesenius suggests that this
name was derived, not from Aram the son of Shem, but
from Aram the son of Kemuel, and grandson of Nahor."
This, however, is by no means probable ; for in Gen. xxv. .
20, Bethuel, the uncle of this Aram, is called Bethuel the
Aramean of Padan Aram ; and it is not very likely that
the uncle would be described as dwelling in a country
which took its name from his nephew. Indeed it is evi
dent that in Abraham's time the name was applied to a
very large district, for not only is it frequently mentioned
in the book of Genesis, but, in the very first place where
it occurs as the name of a country, another descriptive
word is added to make it more definite. When Abraham
commanded his servant to bring a wife for his son Isaac,
we read that " The servant of Abraham arose and went to
Mesopotamia ;" or, as it is in the Hebrew, to " Aram of
the two rivers." The natural conclusion from this is, that
Aram was of great extent, including not only Mesopo
tamia, but other countries westward ; and that it was
therefore much too large a territory to have received its
name from Aram, the grandson of Nahor.
We have no reason to question, but every reason to be-
4 Gen. x. 22. » 2 Sam. viii. 5. » Gen. xxiv. 10.
1 Gen. xxv. 20. s 2 Sam. x. 6 and 8, &c.
0 Gesenius, Hebrew Lexicon, s. v. DIN.

CHAr. III. HISTORY. 81
lieve, the plain statement of Josephus, that Aram the son
of Shem was progenitor of the Aramites, whom the Greeks
call Syrians.1 Aram and Damascus are almost everywhere
closely connected in the Word of God. "Aram of Da
mascus" was the distinguishing title of Northern Syria.
Isaiah says, " The head of Syria, or Aram, is Damascus ;"
and wherever this word is used alone in Scripture, it is
generally intended to designate the territory of Damascus.2
These facts tend to verify the statement of Josephus, that
Uz, the son of Aram, was the founder of this city.3
When Aram and his descendants took possession of
north-eastern Syria, Damascus would unquestionably be
one of the first positions chosen for permanent habita
tion. The wide- spreading plain, luxuriant vegetation, and
abundant waters, would not fail to attract attention in the
East. Wandering tribes in search of a country and a
home were drawn together by the richness and the beauty
of the spot, and in those early days founded a city which
has survived the lapse of full four thousand years, and
even yet retains all the freshness and vigour of youth. As
it is one ofthe oldest, it is thus one of the most remarkable
cities in the world.
Josephus makes a statement regarding this city which
he took from the work of the celebrated historian Nicolaus
of Damascus, and which deserves to be recorded here
because it appears to be corroborated by local traditions of
our own times. It is as follows: — "Abram reigned at
Damascus, being a foreigner, who came with an army out
1 Ant. i. 6, 4.
2 See 1 Kings x. 29; xi. 25; xv. 18; Isa. vii.; Amos i. 5. In all of
which passages "Syria" is "Aram" in the original.
3 Ant. ut sup.
E 3

82 DAMASCUS. Chap. in.
of the land above Babylon, called the land of the Chaldeans.
But after a long time he got up and removed from that
country also with his people, and went into the land then
called the land of Canaan, but now the land of Judea, and
this when his posterity were become a multitude ; as to
which posterity of his we relate their history in another
work. Now the name of Abraham is even still famous in
the country of Damascus ; and there is shown a village
named from him ' The Habitation of Abraham.'"4 It
is remarkable that in the village of Burzeh, one hour
north of the city, there is a sacred wely called by the
name of the patriarch (Masjed Ibrahim), and held in
high veneration by the Muslems. Pilgrimages are made
to it at a certain season every year, and miracles are said
to be there performed by the derwishes and religious
sheikhs. The tradition attached to this place is of no
recent date, for Ibn 'Asaker, who wrote previous to
A.H. 571, gives a long account of it, and says it was
here that Abraham worshipped God when he turned back
from the pursuit of the kings who had plundered Sodom
and had carried away Lot. The historian, according to his
usual practice, . traces back the tradition through a long
line of celebrated names to the time of the Prophet.5
The territory of Damascus was not included in the land
divided by lot among the tribes of Israel.6 The province
4 Ant. i. 7, 2. The words here given are taken from Nicolaus'
' General History.' Nicolaus was almost a contemporary of Josephus.
He was a friend of King Herod the Great, and of the Roman Emperor
Augustus. He died about the commencement of the Christian era.
s Ibn 'Asaker's ' History of Damascus,' vol. i., MS. There is also a
brief notice of this place in the ' History of the Celebrated Tombs of
Damascus,' a small MS. work in my possession, to which reference has
already been made. The author gives the names of several writers who
mention the tradition.
6 Josh, xx.; Joseph. Ant. v. 1, 22.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 83
of Naphtali bordered upon it, and so also did that of the
half tribe of Manasseh beyond the Jordan ; but neither of
these included it, in whole or in part. And even the
country promised by God to the Israelities in the Book of
Numbers, ch. xxxiv., does not embrace Damascus. This
" Land of Promise " extends as far north as Hamath.
Lebanon, the valley of Ccelesyria, and the great plain of
Hums, are taken in ; but Damascus, with its territory, is
left out.7
The next mention of Damascus in the sacred volume is
in the history of King David. This monarch marched to
chastise the King of Zobah for some depredations made on
his territories near the Euphrates, and, having subdued
him, he* found a new adversary in the Arameans of
Damascus, who came to succour Hadadezer their ally,
under their King Hadad8 (B.C. 1040). These also were
overthrown by the monarch of Israel, who, to prevent a
recurrence of the same act, placed garrisons in their
kingdom. Damascus must at that period have been a
powerful monarchy, or its king would not have ventured
to make war on the victorious David. Josephus, on the
authority of Nicolaus of Damascus, represents Hadad as.
a man of great power, governing an extensive kingdom.
His posterity, he adds, reigned in Damascus for ten gene
rations ; and each of his successors adopted his name." The
words of Scripture corroborate these statements, for in the
reign of Asa, ninety years after David's time, one of the

7 More full particulars will be given on the subject when I attempt
to define the north-eastern boundaries of the " Promised Land."
8 2 Sam. viii. 3-6; Joseph. Ant. vii. 5, 2.
9 Ant. vii. 5, 2, Nicolaus says, " They succeeded one another in his
kingdom, and in his name ... as did the Ptolemies in Egypt."

84 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
most powerful monarchs of Damascus was called Ben-
Hadad, that is, the "son of Hadad ;" and the words of the
passage in 1 Kings xv. 18, do not in reality militate against
this view. Benhadad might be the son of Tabrimon, the
son of Hezion, and yet of the seed royal. On his accession
to the throne he would assume the distinctive royal title
of Benhadad or Hadad, just as each successive ruler of
Egypt took the name of Ptolemy.
In the days of the first Hadad, Eezon, a refugee from
the court of Hadadezer, settled in Damascus with a band of
followers, and there attained to great power. It would
appear as if Hadad had been dethroned by him for a time,
as he is said to have reigned in Damascus ; but the mean
ing of the passage may perhaps simply be, that'this man
became a famous general, and that on account of his
military skill he acquired great influence at court and in
the direction of public affairs. Or, if we are to take the
history as given by Josephus, Eezon was only a powerful
chief of banditti, or sheikh of an Arab tribe, who was per
mitted by the King of Damascus to live in his dominions^
and to plunder his enemies.1

1 Joseph. Ant. viii. 7, 6. There is considerable obscurity about this
passage, and about the connexion of this man with Hadad the Edomite.
If we suppose that Rezon really became King of Damascus, as seems to
be implied in 1 Kings xi. 25, this is directly opposed to the clear state
ment of Josephus that Hadad and his posterity were the rulers there.
Dr. Kitto (Pictorial Bible, 1 Kings xi. 14) shifts this difficulty by saying
that it is Hadad, and not Rezon, who is referred to as reigning in
Damascus ; and his criticism is probably correct. Still this is equally
opposed to the words of Josephus; for this Hadad was an Edomite, and
different from the King of Damascus of whom the historian affirms that
after his (Hadad's) death his posterity reigned in Damascus for ten
generations. It also appears from Josephus that the portion of Syria
over which Hadad the Edomite ruled was at Zobah (Ant. viii. 7, 6).
It appears to me that the solution of the whole matter is simply this:

Chap. III. HISTORY. 85
Scripture history is now silent as to the affairs of
Damascus for a period of fifty years. During this time
the royal line of Hadad occupied the throne, and esta
blished the kingdom in strength. According to the
quotation of Josephus from the historian Nicolaus, above
referred to, three kings of this family reigned during the
interval between David and Asa, The latter monarch,
being threatened by the King of Israel, sent presents to
Benhadad — the fourth in descent from Hadad — and be
sought his assistance against his foe. The latter imme
diately marched against the King of Israel, and pillaged
first the border cities of Dan, Jjon, and Abel, and then
laid waste the whole provine of Naphtali.2 From this
period Damascus assumed an important place among the
kingdoms of Western Asia, and exercised great influence
on the affairs of Israel and Judah. The jealousies and
rivalries of these two monarchies generally prevented them
from uniting against a common foe, and afforded besides
a favourable opportunity for a powerful neighbour to
tyrannize over both. The royal house of Hadad were not
slow to take every advantage of these circumstances.
About thirty years after the preceding event another
Benhadad, either a son or descendant of the former, col
lected his forces, and, summoning his allies around his
standard, marched into the land of Israel, and marshalled
Rezon and Hadad the Edomite became chiefs of warlike tribes who lived
within the dominions of the King of Damascus, and yielded to him a
kind of allegiance. They were always willing to fight his battles, when
they could at the same time revenge their own wrongs. The very same
policy is pursued in this country in the present day. Powerful Arab
tribes, who own a light allegiance to the Turkish government, are often
employed to keep open enemies in check; and this they are ready to do
if they can thereby revenge their own wrongs or secure rich booty.
s 2 Kings xv. 19, 20; Joseph. Ant. viii. 12, 4.

86 . DAMASCUS. Chap. Ill,
his vast army around the walls of Samaria. His haughty
message to Ahab the king bears ample testimony to the
power he was conscious of possessing ; while the humble
answer of Ahab but too plainly acknowledged the
superiority of his foe. But God fought for Israel, and by
the instrumentality of a little band of warriors destroyed
the proud armies of Aram. A second time did Benhadad
try his fortune in the field, but with still worse results :
his army was almost annihilated, and he himself taken
prisoner. The King of Israel, however, having still a
slavish fear of his fallen enemy, contrary to the command
of the Lord, released him. This act proved fatal to Ahab,
for three years afterwards he was slain in battle by the
Syrians on the hills of Gilead.
The kingdom of Damascus was now of considerable
extent. Besides its own proper territory, which embraced
the whole eastern slopes of Antilibanus from Hermon to
the plain of Emesa,3 it included the greater part of Bashan,
and even some of Gilead, with the great valley of Ccele
syria. In addition to these, it appears that the Aramean
kings of Maachah and Mesopotamia were either tributaries
or close allies. Damascus, in fact, was at this time rapidly
approaching its highest pitch of power, and the royal
house of Benhadad its greatest renown. But at this very
time Benhadad was doomed to death. He had taken ad
vantage of the intestine troubles of Israel to plunder and
lay waste their territory ; and he had also despised their
God. The prophet Elijah was commissioned to go from
the desert of Sinai to the confines of Damascus and to
anoint Hazael king instead of Benhadad. It does not
3 Compare Num. xxxiv. 9, 11, with Ezek. xlvii. 16, 17, and xlviii.1;
and Joseph. Ant. v. 1, 22.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 87
appear from the sacred record how or where he performed
this act.
During the reign of Benhadad Naaman was his greatest
general, and had contrived by his valour and skill to
advance the power of the kingdom.4 But Naaman was a
leper. During the predatory incursions of his soldiers into
the territory of Israel they had taken captive a little
Jewish maid, who became an attendant or slave to Naaman's
wife. Seeing her master's sufferings, she on one occasion
expressed a wish that he were with the prophet of Israel,
who she said would speedily cure his fearful malady.
These words having been reported to Naaman, he obtained
letters from his sovereign and proceeded to Samaria to
Joram the king. Elisha, having heard the story, sent for
liim, and told him to wash seven times in Jordan, and his
leprosy would depart. It was then Naaman uttered the
well-known words, " Are not Abana and Pharpar, rivers
of Damascus, better than all the waters of Israel ? May I
not wash in them and be clean ?" At the earnest entreaties
of his servants, however, he obeyed the prophet, and was
cleansed.5 The Damascenes do not appear to have long entertained
feelings of gratitude toward the Israelites for the cure of
their general, for only a few years after this event they
invaded their country; and when, through the instru
mentality of Elisha, their strategic attempts to destroy
the armies of Israel were rendered abortive, they sought
the prophet's life. But the hand of God was interposed on
behalf of his servant, and the band sent to capture him
4 2 Kings v. 1.
5 2 Kings v. The tradition regarding the house of Naaman has been
alluded to under the Antiquities.

88 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
was led into the heart of Samaria. " And the King of
Israel said unto Elisha when he saw them, My father,
shall I smite them? shall I smite them? And he
answered, Thou shalt not smite them. Wouldst thou
smite those whom thou hast taken with thy sword and
with thy bow ? Set bread before them, that they may eat
and drink, and go to their master."6 This signal display,
at once of miraculous power and unusual favour, awed
and propitiated for a season the powerful monarch of
Damascus. But the kindness was not long remembered;
and the hosts of Benhadad soon again overran Israel and
besieged Samaria. God once more delivered his people by
a miracle ; for some strange sounds in the silence of the
night created a sudden panic in the Syrian camp, and the
whole army fled precipitately, leaving behind them vast
stores of provisions and great wealth.7
A few years after this event Damascus was honoured
by a visit from Elisha. Benhadad was then sick, and his
sufferings not only made him overlook his old enmity to
the prophet of God, but urged him to consult him as to
his prospects of recovery. The man who was despatched
on this errand was that Hazael whom God had commanded
Elijah to anoint king over Damascus. He was at once
recognised, and his guilty designs detected. The prophet
foresaw and related to him the fearful acts of cruelty he
would perpetrate on the people of Israel, and the desola
tions he would occasion in their land. The reply of
Hazael was characteristic of his deep cunning — " Is thy
servant a dog that he should do this thing ?" Hazael re
turned at once to Damascus and that very night murdered
his royal master.8 Thus terminated the dynasty of Hadad,
8 2 Kings vi. 22. i Id. ch. vii. « Id. oh. viii.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 89
after a rule of more than 160 years (from about B.C. 1050
to 890). The princes of this line were warlike, energetic,
and successful ; and by them Damascus was placed at the
head of the kingdoms of Western Asia.
Hazael proved a powerful monarch and an able general.
The territories east of the Jordan that his predecessors
had won by the sword he retained ; and all the attempts
made to recover them, by the united strength of the
kings of Israel and Judah, were ineffectual.8 His vic
torious armies carried desolation into the land of Israel,
while it was rent and torn by intestine feuds. For thirty
years did Hazael lay upon them an iron yoke, having
almost annihilated their armies, and stripped them of every
means of defence.1 The armies of Damascus were vic
torious to the borders of Egypt. Gath was subdued, and
Jerusalem was only saved by yielding up all its treasures
to the conqueror.2 After a prosperous but bloody and
cruel reign of more than forty years Hazael died, leaving
the kingdom to his son Benhadad, who probably, on his
accession to the throne, assumed the ancient royal name
(b.c. 840).
During the reign of this monarch Damascus did not
retain its former ascendency. The cities that had been
taken from the feeble hands of the Israelitish kings were
recaptured by Jehoash, whose warlike son, Jeroboam,
followed up his successes, and in the end captured this city
itself.3 After the death of Jeroboam, Damascus recovered
its freedom, having taken advantage of the troubled state
of Israel during an interregnum of eleven years, and the
9 2 Kings viii. 28 and 29. ' Id. xiii. 3-7.
a Id. xii. 17. " Id. xiv. 28.

90 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
subsequent brief reigns of weak monarchs. Instead of
being a tributary and subject province, Damascus now be
came a powerful ally to Israel, and recaptured the pro
vinces that belonged to Judah on the east of the Jordan,
with other portions of the ancient kingdoms of Gilead and
Bashan. Eezin, the last King of Damascus, entered into
an alliance with Pekah, King of Israel (about B.C. 750) ; and
these two monarchs waged a long war against Jotham and
his successor Ahaz, Kings of Judah.4 The latter, being
unable to withstand their armies in the field, was obhged
to shut himself up within the walls of his capital8
(B.c. 740).
But before this period the princes of Assyria had begun
to encroach upon Western Asia. Pul had already plundered
a portion of Northern Palestine ; and Tiglath-Pileser had
carried many of the people away captive. The King of
Judah in his difficulties sought aid from the latter monarch,
who was not slow to give it. He marched at once across
the broad plains of Eastern Syria, laid waste the country,
and captured the ancient city of Damascus. Its monarch
fell by the sword of the conqueror ; and its people were led
captive to the banks of the Kir.6
This was the first great revolution in the affairs of
Damascus, and the termination of the first epoch of its
history. The high position it had held as the capital of a
powerful monarch, during a period of more than three
hundred years, was now lost, and for long centuries was
not regained. The striking prophecy of Isaiah was thus
fulfilled : — " Damascus was taken away from being a city ;"
4 2 Kings xv. 37. s i<j. xvi, 5,
8 Id. ch. xvi. Joseph. Ant. ix. 12, 13. (

Chap. III. HISTORY. 91
or, as he explains the passage in another verse, " The
kingdom was taken away from Damascus." 7 Then, too,
were fulfilled the words of Amos : " I will send a fire into
the house of Hazael, which shall devour the palaces of
Benhadad. I will break also the bar of Damascus, and cut
off the inhabitants from the plain of Aven, and him that
holdeth the sceptre from the house of Eden; and the
people of Syria shall go into captivity unto Kir, saith the
Lord."8 When the inhabitants of Damascus were taken captive,
colonies from Assyria were planted in their room. The
city now became a mere dependency of a more powerful
empire, and for upwards of a thousand years cannot be
said to have a separate history. It remained a province of
Assyria until near the fall of that kingdom, which occurred
in the year B.C. 606, when Nineveh was captured by the
combined Median and Babylonian powers. During the
struggles of the monarchs of the East, Pharaoh-Necho,
King of Egypt, conquered Syria and Damascus.9 A few
years afterwards, however, Nebuchadnezzar invaded the
country, recaptured the provinces, and penetrated to
Egypt itself, stripping the Egyptian monarch of all the
fruits of his great victories. Damascus, with the other
parts of Western Asia, then fell under the Babylonian
administration (about B.C. 604).1
The Assyrian colonies in Western Asia and Damascus

' Isa. xvii. 1 and 3. B Amos i. 4 and 5.
9 Joseph. Ant. x. 5. An interesting memorial of this monarch's inva
sion of Syria still exists in a sculptured tablet at the mouth of the Nahr
el-Kelb, near Beyrout.
1 Jer. xlvi. 1 and 2.

92 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
seem to have been but little affected by the almost in
cessant wars that deluged the plains of Mesopotamia with
blood. They were satisfied to be allowed to pass in peace
under whatever government could assert its superiority.
Damascus was thus Assyrian under the monarchs of
Nineveh, and, after an interlude of Egyptian rule, became
Babylonian under the Babylonian administration; and
when the great Cyrus overran with his victorious armies
the countries of Syria and Palestine (about B.C. 540), it
submissively yielded obedience and tribute to Persia.
During the next two centuries, amid the mighty con
flicts of some of the most powerful monarchs that ever
appeared on the earth, it is not to be wondered at if
the little principality of Damascus is scarcely noticed on
the page of history. When historians had such glorious
themes as the profound wisdom and far-reaching policy of
Cyrus, and the vast military operations of Darius, and the
extensive conquests of Xerxes, it is not to be expected that
they should have wasted their powers on minute and com
paratively insignificant details. During this period, how
ever, Damascus maintained its rank as one of the chief
cities of Western Asia. It appears from Josephus that it
was the seat of a Satrap under the Persian monarchs ;2 and
when Darius, the last King of Persia, made his great effort
to repress the rising power, and bar the progress, of
Alexander of Macedon, it was in this city he deposited
his family and his treasures. The fate of Damascus, with
that of the whole of Western Asia, was decided by the
battle of Issus, in which the army of Darius was almost
2 Ant. xi. 2, 2.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 93
annihilated by the Macedonian king. Immediately after
that battle Alexander despatched Parmenion with a division
of his army to capture this city and secure the treasures of
his conquered foe.3 Owing to the treachery of its governor,
this was speedily accomplished ; and the aged Parmenion
was richly rewarded by the great booty that fell to his
own share, and to that of the Thessalians whom he com
manded.4 This was the second great revolution in the affairs of
Damascus, and may be regarded as the termination of the
second era of its history. The Persian dominion was over
thrown by one stroke, and the city passed under the sway
of another and a different race. The change of dynasty
does not seem to have much affected the state of the city.
It was a powerful provincial capital under the Persian,
the Babylonian, and the Assyrian monarchs; and now
under Grecian rule its position was not altered. Syria
and Palestine were assigned by the victor to the general
Laomedon, and Damascus became the seat of his govern
ment. This appointment was continued after Alexander's
death, when his vast possessions were portioned out by
Perdiccas.* A few years afterwards (b. c. 320), however,
the ambition of Ptolemy not being satisfied with the
ancient kingdom of Egypt, he seized Palestine and Syria,
after defeating Laomedon in a pitched battle. But he too
was compelled to yield to the superior force of Antigonus,
governor of Phrygia; and thus Damascus again passed
into new hands (b. c. 314).5
3 Plutarch, Life of Alexander.
4 Id., Life of Alexander, and Life of Arrian.
6 Id., Life of Demetrius.

94 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
A series of wars now followed which are almost without
a parallel in the history of the world. The brave warriors
who had been trained up in the armies of the great Alex
ander were left without a head. All were aeeomphshed
generals, filled with the fiery ambition and fierce courage
of their master, and each in consequence endeavoured to
imitate his master's victorious career. There was none
among them to claim by acknowledged superiority of
genius, and to hold by commanding power, the supreme
sway. Thus arose those rivalries and fearful struggles
that for more than twenty years deluged Asia with blood.
The decisive battle of Ipsus closed the career of Antigonus,
and destroyed the power of his warlike son (b.c. 301) f
while it established the throne of Seleucus, who had as
sumed the title of king ten years previously. A new
allotment of the empire was now made, and Damascus
was assigned to Ptolemy, while Seleucus held the neigh
bouring provinces of northern Syria.7
Damascus was, up to this period, the most important
city of Syria; and it alone, by singular good fortune,
almost entirely escaped the ravages of war. Now, how
ever, the new and. final division of the empire of Alexan
der changed the face of Western Asia. Syria was divided
between the dynasties of the Ptolemies and the Seleucidsej
and the territory of Damascus with Palestine became
border land between these rival houses, and was made the
theatre of many a bloody battle. Seleucus, desirous of
exercising his influence both in the east and west, resolved
to establish the seat of his government in northern Syria,
" Plutarch, Life of Demetrius.
7 Rollin's Ancient History, xvii. 1.

'i i ti

Chap. III. HISTORY. 95
and for this object founded Antioch on the banks of the
Orontes. The splendour and wealth of this city speedily
eclipsed the more ancient Damascus, and it was not till
near a thousand years later that the latter regained its
former superiority.
Damascus and Ccelesyria remained subject to the Egyp
tian kings for a period of fifty-two years ; after which a
bloody war arose between Ptolemy Philadelphus and
Antiochus Theos. Terms of peace were afterwards
agreed upon, and the daughter of Ptolemy was given in
marriage to Theos with the half of the revenues of
Palestine and Damascus for a dowry (B.C. 249). This
state of things lasted only two years, when the city, with
nearly the whole of Syria, was seized by Ptolemy Euer-
getes, son of Philadelphus, in revenge for the repudiation
and subsequent murder of his sister; but the marriage
contract formed the ground of a claim preferred by the
Seleucidae to Damascus and southern Syria in after
times.8 In the year B.C. 223 Antiochus the Great ascended
the throne of the Seleucidae, and two years afterwards
made war. on Ptolemy Philopater, to acquire southern
Syria. After a series of conflicts, in some of which he
was successful, he was defeated in a pitched battle fought
on the coast of Palestine near Gaza, and thereupon made
peace with the king of Egypt ; renouncing all claim to
these provinces (b.c. 217). On the death of Ptolemy
Philopater war was again commenced, and in the year
B.C. 202 Antiochus succeeded in occupying Ccelesyria
8 Prideaux's Connection, ii. pp. 74-76.

96 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
and Damascus. The king of Egypt being a mere child,
his advisers were unable to withstand the aggressions of
Antiochus, and they consequently appealed to Eome,
whose growing influence now began to be felt in the East
A Eoman guardian was appointed to the prince, and
attempts were made to regain the provinces of Syria, but
in vain. Scopas, the leader of the Egyptian forces, was
defeated near Paneas, and the remains of his shattered
army were obliged to withdraw from Syria. Egypt
never again recovered its former possessions in this
country. Judaea, stung to rebellion by the cruelty and
extortions of its foreign rulers, at last rose in arms, and
under the command of the warlike Judas gained and held
a kind of independence. Damascus and Ccelesyria re
mained subject to the house of the Seleucidae, at least
nominally ; but petty rulers now began to exercise and to
claim supreme authority within the bounds of their own
little states.
From this time till the whole country fell under the
dominion of Eome the history of Syria is one continued
recital of family quarrels, bloody feuds, and devastating
wars. Damascus retained its importance notwithstanding
the number of new cities that rose up at the command of
the first kings of the family of Seleucus ; and when the
kingdom was rent by the intrigues of Ptolemy Physcon
and the energy of the usurper Zebina, Damascus became
one of the seats of government (B.C. 126). And again,
in the year B.C. 112, when Antiochus Grypus agreed to
divide the kingdom with his brother Cyzicenus, the latter
selected this city as his residence. Henceforth Damascus
and Antioch were the seats of rival factions and aspirants

Chap. III. HISTORY. 97
after complete sovereignty. The territory of the former
city embraced the whole of Coelesyria and Phoenicia, with
a large section of the country east of the Jordan.
After the deposition and death of Antiochus Cyzicenus
(b.c. 95) the throne of Damascus was, in succession,
occupied by Antiochus Eusebes, son of the latter (92-1),
Demetrius Euchares (91-85), 9 and Antiochus Dionysius.1
The last-mentioned, in the year B.c. 84, engaged in a
war with Aretas king of Arabia, and fell on the field of
battle in the hour of victory. The Damascenes, long
troubled by the feuds and bloody quarrels of unnatural
brethren, elected as their king him whom they had just
conquered.2 Aretas, however, wisely kept the seat of his
government in his own stronghold amid the rocks of
Edom ; and it appears that he only kept a feeble garrison
in his newly acquired territory, for Alexandra, the war
like queen of the Jews, sent an army to defend it against
the attack of Ptolemy Mennaeus prince of Chalcis.'4
Chalcis was one of those new states that had sprung up to
independence in the midst of a troubled kingdom. Its
site and history have already been noticed.
About the same time that Aretas got the government
of Damascus, Tigranus king of Armenia was called to fill
the throne of the Seleucidae at Antioch by a people stung
to madness by the dissensions and cruelty of their here
ditary princes. This kingdom he held in peace until,
through Mithridates his father-in-law, he became involved
in a war with Eome, and was compelled to leave Syria
that he might defend his native land (B.C. 69). This
9 Joseph. Ant. xiii. 13, 4. ' Id. xiii. 15, 1.
2 Id. xiii. 15, 1 and 2. 3 Id. xiii. 16, 3.
VOL. I. F

98 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
opportunity was embraced by Antiochus Asiaticus, the
son of Eusebes, for preferring his own claims and assuming
the sovereignty of Syria. Through his influence with the
Eoman general Lucullus he retained his power until the
arrival of Pompey in Syria (b.c. 65), when he, was de
posed. With him terminated the dynasty of the Seleu
cidae, after a rule of 247 years.
Lucullus, the patron of the last of the Seleucidae, having
been recalled to Eome, and Pompey appointed in his
place to prosecute the war against Mithridates, the latter,
on his arrival at the seat of war, immediately despatched
two of his lieutenants to take possession of Syria.4 He
afterwards detached the celebrated general Scaurug to
seize Damascus, but on his arrival he found that the others
who preceded him had already taken it. After a tour of
inspection through the neighbouring country he returned
to the city, where he was soon, joined by Pompey himself
(B.C. 64). Pompey remained here for a time regulating
the affairs of the newly-conquered kingdom and receiving
the homage of the various petty princes.5 Syria was now
constituted a Eoman province and placed under the com
mand of Scaurus, and Damascus became the seat of go
vernment.6 This is the termination of the third great era in the
history of Damascus. The supremacy of the Greeks was
now at an end, after having existed for 268 years (B.C.
333 to B.C. 65), and the warlike Bomans assumed the
sway. Fortune still favoured this ancient city, and the
4 Joseph. Ant. xiv. 2, 3. Appian, Mithrid.
5 Joseph, ut sup.
• 6 Id. xiv. 4, 5; and Bel. Jud. i. 6, 3 and 4.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 99
change of dynasty did not check the steady flow of its
prosperity. Scaurus continued at Damascus as governor of Syria
till B.C. 59, when he was succeeded by L. Marcius
Philippus,7 and he again was supplanted in two months
by Lentulus Marcellinus. The latter during his brief
term of office was principally occupied in subduing the
neighbouring Arab hordes, and especially Aretas, who
from his rocky fastnesses at Petra frequently invaded the
Eoman province.8
Damascus seems to have been generally the seat of the
Roman governors of Syria from the conquest till the death
of Julius Caesar (B.C. 44). For many years after the
conquest Syria was the theatre of bloody and devas
tating wars. The feuds of petty princes, the rivalries of
Roman procurators, and the hostilities of the Triumviri,
kept this unhappy country in a state of constant commo
tion. The histories of the period are all filled with these
sad tales; but the condition and history of this city are
seldom alluded to. A portion of its ancient territory
appears to have been seized by Ptolemy Mennaeus prince
of Chalcis.9 He was succeeded by his son Lysanias, who
held his patrimony! until he was murdered by Mark
Antony through the artifices of the notorious Cleopatra ;
and the kingdom of Chalcis, with Ccelesyria and Da
mascus, was then conferred upon the voluptuous queen
(b.c. 36).1 She enjoyed the fruits of her cruelty but a
brief period, for Antony soon afterwards, being conquered
by Caesar, perished miserably by his own hand, and Oleo-
7 Appian, Syr. 51. 8 Id. 9 Strab. Geog. xvi. p. 518.
1 Joseph. Ant. xv. 4, 2.
F 2

100 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
patra, to avoid the disgrace of decking a conqueror's bar
barous triumph, followed his example. Thus terminated
ingloriously the royal line of the Ptolemies, and the last
remnant ofthe great empire conquered by Alexander was
absorbed in the dominions of Rome (B.C. 30).
After the conquest of Syria by Augustus, Mesalla Cor-
vinus was appointed prefect, and henceforth the seat of
government was fixed at Antioch, the splendid capital of
the Seleucidae. Damascus was then the residence of a
deputy, and the neighbouring districts of Chalcis and
Abilene on the west, with Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, and
Batanaea on the south, after having been farmed for a
time by Zenodorus, were given to Herod the Great by
Augustus, and were bequeathed by Herod to his son
Philip (a.d. 4).2 Damascus was thus almost entirely
surrounded by petty states under the sway of native
princes. Of the importance and splendour of the city at
this period we have a glowing account from the pen of a
contemporary author, who seems to have visited it. The
geographer Strabo thus describes it : — " And then follows
the region of Damascus so greatly celebrated. And Da
mascus itself is a city well worthy of high admiration,
being one of the most magnificent in these climes."3 At
this time also lived Nicolaus of Damascus, the celebrated
historian and philosopher. He was a scion of a family
distinguished alike by wealth and high literary fame.
His education was received in his native city, which cir
cumstance of itself is sufficient to prove that Damascus
was not behind as a seat of learning. He early gained the
2 Joseph. Ant. xv. 10, 3, and xvii. 8, 1; and Bel. Jud. i. 20.
e Strab. Geog. xvi.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 101
friendship of Herod, and was introduced by him to Au
gustus at Eome. With the emperor he soon became a
favourite, and on several occasions was the means of pro
pitiating him and securing his goodwill to Herod when
grave accusations had been preferred against that prince.4
After Herod's death his services to Archelaus were almost
as great as those he had rendered to his father.5 The
writings of Nicolaus were very numerous ; poetry, philo
sophy, and history appear to have been treated with
equal eloquence and research. Of his numerous works
only a few fragments now remain. Josephus frequently
.quotes from his ' General History/
While Judaea was the theatre of almost incessant wars,
arising from the jealousies of the Herodian family and the
private quarrels of Jewish parties, Damasous, under the
immediate government of Eome, enjoyed comparative
tranquillity. On the death of the tetrarch Philip his ter
ritory was annexed to the Eoman provinoe," which then
bordered on the dominions of Herod east of the Jordan,
and on the kingdom of Aretas toward the Arabian desert.
Herod was Aretas' son-in-law, but through his guilty
passion for his brother Philip's wife he had, in the days of
John the Baptist, divorced the daughter of Aretas. This
act was the occasion of a war in which Herod was worsted
by the Arabian king. Tiberius the emperor, hearing of
the defeat of his friend, sent orders to Vitellius, then
governor of Syria, to march at once against Aretas and to
send him to Eome either alive or dead. The Eoman pre
fect made preparations to obey the orders of his royal
4 Joseph. Ant. xvi. 10, 8 and 9. 5 Id. xvii. 9, 6.
3 Joseph. Ant. xviii. 4, 6.

102 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
master, but, when about to set out, news reached him of
the emperor's death.7 Aretas was prepared to defend his
kingdom and his life, and, finding that the Eoman general
had suddenly left the southern part of his province with a
portion of his troops, he became himself the aggressor.
From Herod he had little to fear ; and marching across
the plain of Gaulonitis and Ituraea, he reached and captured
the city of Damascus. Tiberius died in the spring of
A.D. 37, and soon after his death the hitherto unfor
tunate Agrippa was released from prison and presented
by the new emperor Caligula with the provinces formerly
held by Philip, with the addition of the Abila of Lysanias.
It was two years subsequent to this, however, before he
proceeded to take charge of his kingdom;8 and in the
mean time Aretas remained in possession of Damascus.
It was during this time that the Christian religion
began to be proclaimed in this city ; and that Paul, while
on his way to persecute the Church, was miraculously
converted to the faith in Jesus. The above sketch of the
political history will tend to illustrate the statements made
in the New Testament in reference to this very remark
able incident in the history of the apostle and the events
that followed it. Paul, after the visit of Ananias and
the recovery of his sight, commenced to preach the gospel
in the Jewish synagogues.9 But he soon left the city and
went into Arabia, most probably that he might enter at
once on his great work of converting the heathen. There
can be little doubt that the burning zeal and fearless
preaching of the apostle would soon attract the attention
i Joseph. Ant. xviii. 5, 1-3. " Id. xviii. 6, 10-11. » Acts ix. 19, 20.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 103
and excite the enmity of the people of that land. After
a considerable stay he left Arabia and returned to Damas
cus.1 This eity was now held by the army of the Arabian
king, and consequently as soon as the apostle began openly
to preach there the governor under Aretas attempted to
apprehend him.a The great anxiety thus manifested by
the Arabian governor for Paul's capture cannot, I think,
be sufficiently explained or accounted for by the hostility
of the Jews merely. They may have supplied informa
tion and stimulated to greater vigilance, but I cannot
believe that the friendship existing between the Arabian
monarch and his officers and the Jewish people was either
so cordial or so intimate as to cause the former to set
watches on the city gate to apprehend a so-called apostate
from the Jewish faith. May not the apostle's zeal in
preaching the gospel in Arabia and in exposing the im
moralities and foolish superstitions of its inhabitants have
drawn attention to him as a man of dangerous character ?3
1 Gal. i. 16, 17. That the above is a legitimate deduction from this
passage no critic will deny. The Apostle's words are very clear : —
" When it pleased God .... to reveal his Son unto me, that I might
preach his name among the heathen ; immkdiately I conferred not with
flesh and blood, neither went up to Jerusalem, but 1 went into Arabia" . . .
For what object ? Surely the object is here indicated with sufficient
clearness. It was to preach Christ's name among the heathen.
2 2 Cor. xi. 31.
8 Neander seems to have been the first who cleared up the obscure
historical point about Aretas holding Damascus in the time of Paul,
The reader may see some excellent remarks on this subjeet in Neander's
' Planting and Training of the Christian Church,' iii. 2. Mr. Howson,
in his excellent ' Life of St. Paul,' says that there are "grave objections
to this view of the occupation of Damascus by Aretas. Such a liberty,
taken by a petty chieftain with the Roman power, would have been an
aet of great audacity; and it is difficult to believe that Vitellius would
have closed the campaign if such a city was in the hands of an enemy."
This seems very plausible; but if we view it in the light of history, we

104 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
During the troublous times from the appointment of
Herod Agrippa till the destructiou of Jerusalem the name
of Damascus is scarcely found on the page of history.
Situated beyond the confines of Palestine and on the bor
ders of the desert, it was neither in the theatre of war nor
in the line of communication between Judasa and Syria.
It thus escaped the calamities which laid in ruins many of
the cities of Palestine, and on this account afforded an
asylum to Christian refugees from that land. From the
earliest years of the apostolic labours there were some
devoted Christians in this city, and a large and flourishing
church was soon established.
see that in reality there is little depth in it. There can be no question
that Aretas made war upon and defeated Herod, and that Herod was the
known friend of Tiberius. And there can be no question that, when the
governor of Syria was ordered to march against the Arabian king, the
latter did not submit to Rome, but practically defied the emperor; and
farther we know from Josephus that Vitellius, the governor, withdrew
his troops, on the news of the emperor's death, before the object of the
campaign was gained. If Aretas was strong enough to defeat the king
of Judaea and friend of Tiberius, and bold enough to defy the emperor
himself, need we wonder that he should embrace a favourable oppor
tunity of seizing a rich border city ? Or ought we to consider it as too
daring an act, when he saw the empire suddenly deprived of its head
and thrown into confusion; and when he saw the army of the deputy
in Syria removed far from his own territory, and Damascus thus left
unguarded ? Mr. Howson adds, " It is more likely that Caligula, who
in many ways contradicted the policy of his predecessor, who banished
Herod Antipas and patronised Herod Agrippa, assigned the city of Da
mascus as a free gift to Aretas." But this reasoning has no weight
whatever. Caligula patronised Herod Agrippa, not because he wished
to contradict the policy of his predecessor, but simply because he had
been one of his greatest friends. Had Caligula desired to bestow Da
mascus upon any one, it is probable he would have added it to the
kingdom of his friend Agrippa; and it is not likely that the emperor
would have made such an arrangement as would give to an independent
prince, who had but lately defied the Roman power, a city wholly
separated from his own territory by a large section of Agrippa's new
kingdom.— See ' Life and Epistles of St. Paul,' vol. i.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 105
While Agrippa ruled over Galilee and the provinces
east of the Jordan, Damascus continued to enjoy security
and peace, but on his death (a.d. 101) this city and the
surrounding country were exposed to the incursions of
the Arabians or Idumaeans. Some years afterwards Cor
nelius Palma, governor of Syria under the Emperor
Trajan, chastised the Idumaeans, conquered the whole of
the ancient kingdom of Bashan, and constituted it a
Roman province, with Bostra as capital
From this period the various cities and towns of Syria
began to recruit under the security of Rome and in conse
quence of the blessings of peace. The Roman governors
and procurators showed alike their wealth and their taste
in the noble buildings they erected and the substantial
roads they constructed in every part of the land. The
spacious theatres and marble columns of Bostra, the beau
tiful palaces and sculptured hippodromes of Kenath, the
noble colonnades of Gerasa and Palmyra, and the gorgeous
temples of Ba'albek, bear ample testimony in the present
day to the prosperity and splendour of this land under
Roman rule. Nor was Damascus inferior to any of these
in the richness of its architecture and in the extent and
beauty of its public buildings. It may be that some of
those remains of former grandeur, which, as we have seen,
are now almost wholly buried by vast masses of modern
buildings, owe their beauty to the genius and taste of
Apollodorus the Damascene, the most celebrated architect
of his age. It was this man who was selected by Trajan
to construct the great bridge across the lower Danube, the
4 Dion Cassius.
F 3

106 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
ruins of which may still be seen, and it was he also who
designed and reared up that splendid column which yet
remains at Rome, — one of the most interesting and im
portant monuments of the classic ages.5 The peaceful
reign of Antoninus Pius (a.d. 138-61) was one of the
most fruitful periods of temples, and monuments, and
architectural decorations throughout the whole of Syria,
and his name may still be seen on some shattered tablet
amid the mouldering ruins of almost every city in the
land. Damascus remained in undisputed possession of the
Romans till A.D. 260, when the Emperor Valerian
was conquered in battle, and taken prisoner by Sapor
king of Persia. Syria was soon after invaded by the
conqueror, and Damascus, with other cities, fell into his
hands. He did not long enjoy, however, his new posses
sions, for Odenathus, a citizen of Palmyra, and husband of
the celebrated but unfortunate Zenobia, not only stayed
his progress westward, but drove him back with disgrace
beyond the Euphrates. Odenathus now assumed, with the
consent of the Senate, the government of the East (A.D.
264). He was succeeded by Zenobia, who proclaimed
herself, in the face of Eoman authority, queen of the East.
The accession of Aurelian changed the face of affairs. A
short campaign was sufficient to overthrow the armies of
Zenobia, capture her beautiful desert home, and restore
the provinces of western Asia to the Eoman sceptre.
When Constantine ascended the throne of the Cassars
two great changes were effeoted in the empire. The seat
s Dion Cassius.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 107
of government was removed to Constantinople, and Chris
tianity was made the established religion. The numbers
of the Christian communities in the various provinces of
the empire were before this time very great, and Damascus
contained a large church. It had been at an early period
a resort and sanctuary for the sect of the Ebionites, and
for refugees from other less favoured cities of this land.8
When the first General Council assembled at Nice, A.D.
325, Magnus, the Metropolitan of Damascus, was present
with seven of his suffragans. The episcopal cities there
represented were as follows : — Heliopolis (Baalbek), Emesa
(Hums), Jabruda (Yabrud), Danaba (Saidnaya), Alalis,
Khomokara (Karah), and Seleucia (M'alula?) ;7 and it is
probable that all the bishops were not present, In a
somewhat later age there were fifteen dioceses reckoned
under Damascus.8 The extent, wealth, and influence of
the Christian Church in this city may in some measure be
estimated by the splendour of their cathedral, which, as
we have seen, was dedicated in the fourth century.
But the Eoman empire was now growing old. The
• Euseb. Hist. Ec. ix. 5.
1 These names are taken from an Arabic MS. of the 17th century
in my possession. The work is entitled ' A History of the Seven General
Holy Councils.' It was written in Greek by Macarius, Patriarch of
Antioch, — a name well known to Arabic scholars. The work is valuable,
as containing the modern as well as the ancient names of many sees, and
thus enabling us to identify some important sites.
8 S. Pauli, Geograp. Sac. pp. 294-5. The names given here are as
follows : —

1. Damascus.

6. Palmyra.

11, Euarius.

2. Laodicea Scabiosa.

7. Arlana.

12. Comoara.

3. Heliopolis.

8. Emesa.

13. Abyda.

4. Abyla.

9. Danaba.

14. Corada.

5. Jabruda.

10. Alalis.

15. Sarracene.

108 DAMASCUS. Chap. Ill,
freshness and vigour of youth were gone. The hardy
veterans who carried their victorious arms into almost
every province of Europe and Asia, and who spread the
fame of their valour over the inhabited globe, were now
degenerated, and they wasted what remnants of energy
they retained in bloody feuds and party quarrels. The
stern dignity of the Eoman citizen, the- noble simplicity
of the proud senator, and even the manly activity of the
first emperors, were now no longer seen. The people,
giving themselves up to ease and pleasure, trusted their
liberty and their lives to mercenary bands ; and the rulers,
imitating the gorgeous display of Eastern monarchs, and
revelling amid degrading vices, the necessary companions
of indolence and luxury, lost the spirit that animated
their ancestors, and the proud name their courage had
"won. That religion, too, which by its establishment as a
great national institute ought to have infused the germ of
new life into the declining empire, was itself growing
feeble. The purity of Gospel doctrines was fast giving
way to unintelligible dogmas, mixed up with silly fables;
and the simplicity of Apostolic worship was superseded by
a host of rites and ceremonies borrowed from the extrava
gances of the Heathen priesthood.
The warlike line of the Sassanidae took advantage of
this decline of power and of energy, and harassed the
eastern frontiers of the empire. Mesopotamia and Persia
Were relinquished in the vain hope of securing a perma
nent peace. But Chosroes IL, remembering the glory
and power of his ancestors, crossed the Euphrates, and in
a short campaign conquered Antioch ; and, after allowing
his soldiers a season of repose amid the delicious bowers of

Chap. III. HISTORY. 109
Damascus, he continued his march throughout the land,
and subdued the whole of Syria " (A.D. 611-614).
A new power was at this time rising up in an obscure
corner of Arabia, destined, in the hand of an all-wise
Providence, to overthrow a degenerate empire and chas
tise an erring Church. Before the world had time to
inquire from whence they came, hosts of fierce and savage
warriors swept like a whirlwind over the plains of Arabia,
Syria, Egypt, and Persia.
The armies of Islam appeared before the walls of Da
mascus only thirteen years after Mohammed's flight from
his native city. In this short period the Prophet had
promulgated a new faith, established a powerful sect, and
infused into them a fiery zeal without a parallel in the
annals of the world. In this short period the prowess of
his arms had been acknowledged by the wild hordes that
roam the desert, and fearfully experienced by the more
enlightened inhabitants of bordering cities : Busrah, the
key to the rich province of the Hauran, had fallen, and
Palmyra too had been captured and plundered. The lux
urious inhabitants of Damascus offered but a feeble resist
ance to the impetuous Saracens, and most of them were,
after a short time, eager to surrender. Never was this
ancient city in greater danger of being utterly destroyed.
Khaled, the fierce chief of the Muslems, stung to madness
by the loss of some of his dearest companions, swore that
he would put every inhabitant to the sword and raze the
city to the ground. A traitor priest came to him while
meditating on revenge, and basely offered to betray the
¦ Eut. Annates.

110 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
city. The offer was eagerly embraced, and a little band
of Arabs was led by a private way within the walls.
These, on entering, raised their wild cry, " TJllah Akbar"
and threw open the east gate. Khaled with his followers
rushed in, and the streets were soon deluged with the
people's blood. All seemed lost! and the inhabitants,
knowing full well that fearful cry, resigned themselves to
death. But the ancient fortune of Damascus did not
desert it now. At the very moment when Khaled was
eagerly listening to the words of a traitor, the more gentle
Abu Obeidah was arranging a treaty of surrender with a
deputation of the principal citizens. As Khaled entered
the east gate, the west was thrown open to Abu Obeidah
and his followers. The two parties met near the centre
of the city, opposite the church of St. Mary. After a
stormy scene between the leaders, Khaled yielded, and
Damascus was saved. By that treaty it was agreed that
such of the Christians as chose to depart should be per
mitted to take with them as much of their arms and valu
ables as each could cany. The others might live in peace
on paying the capitation tax, — which was in fact their
redemption money. Seven churches were secured to
them, and likewise the half of the cathedral of St. John
the Baptist.
The wealth of the city was then enormous, and the
amount of booty eventually obtained by its captors was
very great. It is stated in the history ascribed to el-Wa-
kidy l that the Emperor Heraclius lived in this city, but
1 It is now well known to Arabic scholars that the work ascribed to
el-\VakIdy, and which has been translated by Ockley, is not genuine.
It must be regarded as an historical novel, rather than a true history. It

Chap. III. HISTORY. Ill
this statement is not corroborated by Greek historians.
The same work also contains a pleasing narrative of the
siege, and of the operations subsequent to the capture.
But by far the most minute account of these whole affairs
is given by Ton 'Asaker in his great work. According to
him the city was then adorned with most sumptuous
buildings, and the palaces of the nobles were as remark
able for their vast extent as for their splendid decorations.
Churches of great beauty were scattered over the various
parts of the city, while the cathedral of St. John the
Baptist is represented as being one of the wonders of the
world ; 2 and modern research bears ample testimony, as
we have seen, to the truth of these glowing descriptions.
c This was the fourth great epoch in the history of
Damascus. After having been held by the Roman and
Byzantine emperors for a period of 700 years it passed
into the hands of a new dynasty and a new race, under
whom it was destined to enjoy for a brief period even
more than its ancient power.
Twenty-seven years after the capture of the city by the
Saracens, Moawyah, the first khalif of the dynasty of the
Omeiyades, made it the seat of his government (a.h. 41 ;
A.D. 661), and the capital of the Mohammedan empire.'
Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia were now subject
to the sway of the successbr of the " Apostle of God ;"
and the bounds of his dominions were soon extended far
beyond these countries. The armies of the khalifs of this
warlike house soon spread along the northern shores of the
It was written during the age of the Crusades. Wakidy did write a
history of the conquest of Syria; but the book is not now known to
exist. 8 The History of Damascus, by Ibn 'Asaker, MS.

112 DAMASCUS. Chap. Ill,
great African continent, and did not stop their impetuous
progress till restrained by the waves of the Atlantic. The
continent of Europe now lay invitingly before them.
Their soldiers had been driven back from the walls of
Constantinople, and forced to recross the Bosphorus ; but
they were admitted into Spain by the traitor act of one of
her own proud sons (a.h. 93).3 That kingdom was soon
conquered, and even the great ridge of the Pyrenees pre
sented no barrier sufficient to check the swift and deso
lating progress of the Arabs. They scaled these snow-clad
mountains, and saw at their feet the glorious picture of
the rich plains of Languedoc. But there they were des
tined to receive a blow that for ever stopped their progress
northward. In the East their conquests were no less
brilliant : their armies crossed the Indus and entered Hin
dustan ; and they also spread themselves over the moun
tains and through the fine vales of Bokhara. Thus did
our ancient city become the capital of an empire reaching
from the shores of the Atlantic on the west, to the lofty
Himalayas and the steppes of Tartary on the far east. It
ruled over some of the fairest and most fertile regions of
the old world. All Europe trembled at its power, and the
effeminate descendants of the old Romans felt that the
throne of the Caesars was tottering to its fall.
The Omeiyades adorned the city with many palaces and
mosks of great extent and magnificence ; but the greatest
of their works, and that on whose splendour Arab histo
rians most delight to dwell, was the Jdmi'a el-Amwy,
formerly the cathedral of St. John the Baptist, which was
8 Elmacin. Histor. Sar. ch. xiii.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 113
refitted and decorated at vast expense by Walid, and still
bears the name of his royal house.4 Unfortunately, while
the khalifs reared up their own structures and adorned
their palaces and temples, they took their materials from
buildings of a purer taste. Eoman colonnades and stately
porticoes were thus destroyed, and a few fragments only
left to mark the spot where once they stood.
But the genius of Islam was never fitted for upholding
national prosperity in ages of peace. The reckless profli
gacy and licentiousness which it sanctions and encourages
must ever be productive of both moral and physical dege
neracy, when the human passions have no other channel
through which to flow till they are exhausted. While the
Arab soldiers and their leaders had to endure the hard
ships of exhausting campaigns, and when the fiery pas
sions peculiar to their race found ample outlet in the
excitement of the battle-field and the horrors of the sack
of fallen cities, the early martial spirit and energy were
retained. But when wars raged only on the outskirts of
the vast empire, those who dwelt peacefully in the metro
polis soon exhibited the degenerating influences of the
luxuries, and delicacies, and vices of this oity; and the
men who were still stimulated by active duties, and who
still remembered the simplicity and valour of the early
khalifs, learned to scorn the effeminate monarchs that
* This mosk is still called J&mCa el-Amwy, or Jam! a Beni Omeiyah, that
is, " The mosk of the Omeiyades." One of the ancestors of this great
family was called ^^, which word literally means a " little slave-
girl." Tabary, the historian, says the name of Moawyah, the first of
4
this dynasty, was jj^ _, «_,,-, j >sr*' ¦ — " Sakhr ibn Harb ibn
Omeiyah."

114 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
lounged listlessly in the seraglio halls of Damascus. In
A.H. 132 (A.D. 750) the sceptre was wrested from
the feeble grasp of Mirwan, the last of the Omeiyades,
and the fresher zeal of the children of Abbas revived for a
time the old spirit.
Damascus was now abandoned by royalty, and Baghdad
arose and became the seat of the khalifs for 500 years.
Our city, however, did not lose much of its importance
by its fall. The surpassing richness of the province of
which it was the acknowledged capital, and its sacredness
as the starting-place of the holiest pilgrim caravan, made
it not only one of the wealthiest but one of the most
venerated cities in the Muslem empire.
The new dynasty of the Abassides ere long forgot the
spirit of their faith, and, laying aside the scimitar and the
lance, put on the royal robes, and gave themselves up to
indolence and folly. They were soon unable to rule their
disjointed empire, and an infusion of fresh blood became
necessary to sustain the power of Islam. From the war
like pastoral hordes that roamed in former ages over the
steppes of Tartary a tribe came forth and embraced the
faith of Mohammed (a.d. 1050). The Seljukians,5 for so
5 Arab historians agree that the Seljukian princes derived their origin
from a royal family of the Turks who dwelt in the country beyond the
Oxus. The name is derived from one of their ancestors called Seljik,
who was son of Dekak, prime minister of the prince of a race of Tartars
who inhabited the country along the shores of the Caspian. Seljuk
incurred the displeasure of his sovereign, and was forced to fly. He
carried with him a considerable amount of property, and some of his
tribe attached themselves to his fortune. He settled in the territory
of Samarkand, and attained great power. He had four sons, the eldest
of whom died before his father, leaving two children, Toghrul Beg and
Jafer Beg; and these became leaders of the nation. Having conquered
the Gaznavide monarch, they obtained possession of the province of

Chap. III. HISTORY. 115
the tribe was called, hastened to the aid of the amiable but
feeble Khalif Ka'im. The power of their arms rescued
him from his enemies, and constituted their chief, the
celebrated Toghrul Beg, guardian of the khalifs.6 The
successors of this prince, Alp- Arslan and Melek-Shah,
wrested from the feeble grasp of the Byzantine monarchs
the fairest portions of their Asiatic dominions. In A.D.
969 the dynasty of the Fatimites had extended their
conquests over Syria, and they retained possession of
Damascus for about 100 years; but at this period Atsis,
one of the generals of Melek-Shah, drove out the African
khalifs, and occupied their possessions in this land. Da
mascus was only captured after a long siege, and when
its chivalrous inhabitants were decimated by famine and
pestilence (a.d. 1075). In the following year, however,
Atsis was defeated by the Egyptians in an attempt to
obtain possession of that country, and driven back to
Damascus. Melek-Shah, incensed at the defeat, ordered
his brother, Taj ed-Douleh, to march upon Syria and dis
place Atsis. He at once obeyed the command, marched
upon this city, and put his predecessor to death (A.D.
1079).7 Some twenty years of warfare now ensued,
during which the various branches of the Seljuks con-
Khorassan, and founded that great empire which by degrees spread over
most of Asia. — See D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, s. v. ' Selgiuki.'
In the 'Tarikh el-Jenaby' (History of Jenaby), MS., there is a valuable
and interesting account of the various dynasties of the Seljuks. This
MS. in fact would be well worth the labour of translation. A copy of it
is in my possession.
" The name conferred on Toghrul Beg by the Khalif was \t^\ jmV\
" Prince of Princes."
7 Elmacin. Sar. Hist. iii. 8.

116 DAMASCUS. Chap. Ill,
tended for the posssession of Syria. The local governors,
who had first received their provinces as fiefs from the
crown, were in these circumstances induced to assert their
independence. The cruelty and extortion practised by
these fierce barbarians on the numerous pilgrims that
yearly visited the Holy Places, were the means of bring
ing other combatants into the theatre of Syrian warfare.
The sad tales of hardships and oppression spread by the
returning pilgrims over all the nations of Europe roused
the spirit of chivalry and fanaticism, and tens of thousands
embarked on a crusade, to deliver the sepulchre of the
Lord from the hands of the infidels. During the first
crusade no attempt was made upon Damascus ; it remained
quietly in the possession of its Turkish rulers ; but An
tioch, Tripoli, Beyrout, and Jerusalem fell in succession
before the forces of the Christian warriors. The Muslems
mourned their losses and the Khalif shed tears ; but they
could only mourn and weep. The Seljuk princes too had
followed the universal law of Mohammedan dynasties, and
had gone the round of valour, greatness, discord, licen
tiousness, degeneracy, and decay. Again, however, fresh
blood was infused into the falling empire : the Turkish
slaves of the Seljuks and Khalifs undertook to defend the
faith. Askansor, and Zenki his son, were the first leaders
under the name of Atabeks,6 and the latter made himself
master of northern Syria, and tried his arms successfully
¦against the Franks. Zenki was succeeded by his son Nur

8 The word Atabek literally means " Father of a Prince." The title
was no doubt given to these warlike slaves on account of the services ¦
they rendered their masters.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 117
ed-Din in the government of Aleppo and its dependen
cies 9 (a.h. 544 ; a.d. 1149).
About the same period Louis VII., King of France,
reached Antioch with fresh troops to complete the con
quest of the Holy Land. After marching into Palestine,
it was resolved in a general council held at Acre that the
united forces should attack Damascus. The southern and
eastern side of the city were then defended by walls and
battlements of great height and strength, but the defences
on the northern side, along which the river ran, were
more open to attack ; and amid the gardens and orchards
that line the stream at this spot, extending up the gentle
slope to the foot of the mountain-range, the army of the
crusaders took their position.1 The siege was at first
prosecuted with great vigour ; and the Christian knights
displayed miracles of valour, but little unity of action.
Contentions sprang up, and, while they wasted their time
in petty quarrels, Nur ed-Din and his brother the Prince
of Mosul had arrived to relieve the garrison, and the
crusaders made a disgraceful retreat.
A few years afterwards Nur ed-Din himself captured
the city, and proved one of its greatest benefactors. He
repaired the ancient walls and partly rebuilt the great
citadel ; and he established a court of justice, which was
celebrated throughout the Mohammedan empire for its strict
and impartial integrity.2 The valour and prowess of this
prince soon extended his influence beyond the bounds of

9 See D'Herbelot, Bib. Orient, s. v. 'Atabek,' and 'Nur ed-Din.'
1 Gul. Tyr. Hist, in ' Gesta Dei per Francos/ pp. 910-12.
2 D'Herbelot, Bib. Orient, s. v. 'Noureddin.' Tarikh el-Jenaby,
MS., in my possession.

118 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
Syria, and the Fatimite khalif of Egypt requested his aid
against the crusaders who were then invading that land.
He was not slow to afford relief, and sent a general with
some choice troops. This general soon became one of the
most celebrated characters of the age; and there is no
eastern monarch whose name is so familiar in our day
throughout Europe as that of the illustrious Saladin.3 He
was by birth a Kurd, but, prompted by poverty and am
bition, he left his native mountains in company of his
uncle, and entered the service of the ruler of Damascus.
On being sent to Egypt he soon relieved the khalif of all
anxiety in regard to the crusaders ; but he himself became
a far more formidable object of solicitude. He eventually.
dethroned the last of the Fatimite dynasty, and proclaimed
in his stead the reigning monarch of the Abassides ; but
he remained the virtual ruler of Egypt.
On the death of Nur ed-Din (A.H. 569) Saladin, after a
vain attempt to establish the late monarch's son, Melek es-
Saleh, a boy of eleven years, on the vacant throne, assumed
the reins of government, and became King of Syria. Da
mascus was now again the capital of a large and powerful
monarchy ; and its ruler proved the most formidable
enemy ever encountered by the crusaders (A.H. 570, A.D.
1174). In A.H. 583 Saladin fought a pitched battle with
3 The real name of this prince was Y-ttsef ibn-Aiyvb (Joseph the Son
of Job) j and the dynasty he established was called the dynasty of the
Aiyubites. The name jjj^ -Xa — Seldh ed-Din, " the safety of re
ligion," might almost be rendered by the title given to our own sove
reigns on the coins of the realm, " Fidei Defensor." The best history
of this prince is that written by his secretary. It is entitled 'Vita et
Res GestEe Sultani Saladmi auctore Bohadino :' Lug. Bat. 1732 : in Arabic
and Latin.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 119
the Franks near Tiberias, and gained a signal victory,
taking prisoner the King of Jerusalem, with some of the
noblest of his followers and allies. The captive monarch
was treated with kindness and courtesy-estrange virtues
in those days of savage warfare." This victory was almost
fatal to the power of the crusaders in Syria : Acre, Sidon,
Beyrout, and Jerusalem itself, soon yielded to the arms of
Saladin; and it was only when Eichard Coeur-de-Lion
arrived in Palestine that Saladin was checked in his
career of victory. He was then forced to surrender Acre,
Jaffa, Caasarea, and other places on the coast to the cru
saders, but he retained Jerusalem till the time of his
death.5 Saladin died in Damascus in A.H. 589. He was at
first buried in the castle, but some years afterwards
his body was removed from that building to the tomb it
now occupies near the north-western angle of the court of
the Jami'a el-Amwy. The tidings of his death were re
ceived with unaffected sorrow throughout the whole of his
dominions. In Damascus, where his subjects had the
fairest opportunities of witnessing his justice and clemency,
the people mourned as for a father and benefactor ; and
to this day his name is venerated by every Muslem.8
Saladin left a family of seventeen sons and one daughter.
His three eldest sons inherited his vast possessions. To
the first of these, Melek el-Afdal, he bequeathed Damascus
and Ccelesyria; El- Aziz Othman, the second, was made
4 Bohaeddin, Vit. Sal., pp. 07-71. Wilken, Geschichte der Kreutz,
iii. 2, pp. 276-89.
5 Wilken, ut sup. 290-312.
6 Bohaeddin, Vit. Sal. pp. 275-8. Tarikh Ibn Athir, MS. Abulfeda,
Annal.Mus. in Bohaeddin. D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient, a. v. 'Saladin.'

120 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
King of Egypt ; and the third, Melek edh-Dhaher, got
Aleppo and Northern Syria as his portion. Melek el-
'Adel Seif ed-Din, the brother of Saladin, was appointed
governor of the stronghold of Kerek. This prince rebelled
against Melek el-Afdal, and, by the aid of the Sultan of
Egypt, stripped him of all his possessions, and forced him
to take refuge in the castle of Sulkhad, on the eastern
border of Hauran. The conqueror or usurper held the
kingdom till the time of his death in A.H. 615, and
bequeathed it to his son Melek el-Muaddam.7 From
this period till A.H. 658, Damascus remained in the
hands of the house of Saladin, but the history of ita
rulers is devoid of interest, and cannot be particularly
noticed in a brief sketch like the present. Melek el-
Muaddam died A.H. 624, and was succeeded by his son
Melek en-Nasar. About twenty-five years after this
time Melek en-Nasar Selaheddin, grandson of Melek edh-
Dhaher, and great-grandson of Saladin, took possession of
Damascus.8 But during this stormy period two other dynasties were
rising to power. The white slaves brought from the
mountains of Georgia and from the shores of the Caspian,
by the luxurious and effeminate khalifs of Egypt, soon
learned to despise and then to defy the sway of their
degenerate lords. After having been for some time the
real, though not the nominal rulers of Egypt, they raised
Az ed-Din Ibek, a Turcoman, to the throne (A.H. 648).
At the same time a powerful tribe from that land so
7 Excerpta Abulfeda, in Bohaeddin, Vita Saladin. D'Herbelot, Bib.
Orient, s. v. ' Saladin.'
6 Biblioth. Orient, ut sup.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 121
fruitful in warlike people, the steppes of Tartary, issued
forth and swept like a torrent over Persia, Mesopotamia,
and Syria. Baghdad was captured, el-Mustasem, the last
of its khalifs, slain (a.h. 656 ; A.D. 1258), and more than a
million of his subjects butchered, by the savage Solagou.
Damascus and Aleppo were left in ashes ; but the career
of the tyrant was checked by the Mamlukes 9 of Egypt,
who, under their skilful and impetuous leader Bibars,
drove him back again beyond the Euphrates.' Holagou
returned the following year and recaptured this city. On
his death, in a.h. 663, his great empire was divided
among his numerous sons. Bibars, the ruler of Egypt,
who was also called Melek edh-Dhaher, entered Syria in
A.H. 659, and brought the whole country under the sway
of the Egyptian sceptre. This prince had murdered his
predecessor, and, after the custom of those times, had re
ceived the crown as a reward for his conduct. He ruled
over Egypt and Syria till his death in A.H. 675 (A.D. 1276.)2
The weakness caused by the divisions and dismember
ments of Holagou's kingdom afforded an opportunity for
the rise of another dynasty out of the same prolific stock
of shepherd warriors — a dynasty which has risen to fame
8 This word signifies "a slave captured in war." These were distin
guished from those slaves of the Negro race who for ages have been
used as servants.
1 History of Egypt, by Jelal ed-Din es-Siiity, MS. p. 153. Tarikh
el-Jenaby, MS., in my possession.
! The monarchs of this dynasty were distinguished by the name of
Baherites, by the fact that they were trained to the use of arms in the
village of Raudah on the sea-shore — Baherites signifying "people ofthe
sea." They were Turkish slaves or Mamlukes. They reigned over
Egypt and Syria from a. h. 648 to 784, when they were expelled by the
Circassian Mamlukes, who remained masters of Syria till they were
overthrown by Timur. D'Herbelot, Bib. Or. s. v. ' Baharites.'
VOL. I. a

122 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
and power throughout the world ; which for a time upheld
and advanced the declining faith of Islam ; and which even
now in its wane is shaking the nations of Europe to their
centre. To trace the origin and record the progress of a
great people is not the design of this work ; but to illus
trate the history of an ancient city is the object I aim
at. For more than three centuries Damascus has been
under the rule of the Ottomans or Othmans ; it may not,
therefore, be considered out of place here to give a brief
sketch of the rise of this dynasty.
The Ottomans and Turks are frequently confounded,
but they require to be carefully distinguished in order to
the proper understanding of history. The name Turk,
according to the best Arab authors, was applied generally
to all the tribes inhabiting the vast tract of country lying
beyond the river Oxus, to the borders of China. The
nation was divided into twenty-four great tribes, of which
the Moguls, the Tartars, and the Turcomans were the
chief. These warlike tribes became first known to the
Arabs when Mutassem, the eighth khalif of the line ofthe
Abassidae, bought a large number of their young men,
trained them up in the exercise of arms, and finally, con
stituted them his body-guard. Independent in spirit,
skilful in arms, of undaunted courage, and adepts in in
trigue, they speedily attained to the highest offices in the
state ; and, ere twenty years had passed, became the virtual
rulers of the Khalifite. The Seljuks were a branch of the
same race; and the Tartars who, under Holagou, the
grandson of Jengis Khan, captured Baghdad, and abolished
the Khalifite, were likewise a tribe of Turks.3 The
8 D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient, s. v. ' Atrak.' Tarikh el-Jenaby, MS.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 123
ravages and cruelties committed by these warlike and
savage tribes rendered them objects of horror and detesta
tion to the inhabitants of every land they entered. Even
to the present day the Arab, if he can safely indulge in
the expression of his feelings, will invoke curses on the
nation that has ruined and enslaved his country. It is a
common saying that, if a Turk or Tartar should ever
become master of the whole circle of the sciences, his
natural barbarity would still remain inalienably attached
to him. And there is some truth in this statement.
Craftiness, courage, and ferocity are the undoubted cha
racteristics of the race.
During the rule of Jengis Khan, Suliman Shah, a
noble Mogul, fled from his native land to escape the
wrath of this great monarch, and wandered for a time
with his flocks and herds and followers through Mesopo
tamia and Asia Minor. He had three sons, who, on his
death, inherited his property. The two elder returned to
Persia; but the youngest, Ortoghrul, with some 400 de
pendents, went to Ala ed-Din, the ruler of Natolia, and
demanded a place in which to reside. He received a
tract of country among the Armenian mountains, and
there remained until his death in A.H. 687. Othman, his
son, was, after his father's death, declared prince of the
Turkish colony. Finding his territories too small for his
rapidly-increasing tribe, he advanced westward, seized
many provinces of Asia Minor, and assumed the name of
Sultan in A.H. 699. He was the first Sultan of the Oth-
mans or Ottomans, and the dynasty he established still
exists in the person of 'Abd el-Mejid, the present Sultan.4
4 A good history of the Ottomans is given in the Tarikh el-Jenaby.
The author brings it down to within a few years of the close of the tenth
G 2

124 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
The town of Brusa in Anatolia was the place first
selected for the seat of the Ottoman Sultans ; and from
thence they led their armies, not only through the western
provinces of Asia Minor, but into Macedonia, and even to
the borders of Hungary. But the victorious arms of the
Ottomans were checked for a season by one of their own
nation. Tamerlane, or Timur, was descended from the
same royal line of the Moguls as the celebrated Jengis
Khan. He was born in A.H. 736. He first seized
the vast empire of the Moguls beyond the Oxus, and
then, having conquered Persia, Mesopotamia, and the
greater part of Asia Minor, he turned to Syria. Aleppo,
Hamah, Hums, and Ba'albek fell in quick succession
before him ; and his victorious soldiers then encamped in
the beautiful plain of the Ghutah, before the walls of
Damascus. His camp was first pitched on the western
side of the city, extending from the banks of the Barada
to the village of Katana. From the side of the Kubbet
es-Seiyar, on the summit of the Jebel Kasyun, Timur
examined the position of the city and the features of the
vast plain around it ; and there was not perhaps in his
wide dominions a scene of such exquisite beauty as then
lay before him. The Mamluke prince, distrusting the
strength of his arms, resolved to destroy the tyrant con
queror by assassination. He despatched a trusty mes
senger in the garb of a derwish, with two assistants, to
accomplish his base design with poisoned daggers. They
obtained an audience, and were permitted to approach to
century of the Hijrah. The best history of these nations hitherto pub
lished is that of De Guignes, ' Histoire des Huns.' Gibbon has written
a graphic sketch of the Ottomans in his ' Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire,' ch. lxiv.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 125
the very side of the unconscious Timur ; but fear or a
better principle restrained their hands. Once and again
were they allowed to enter, until at last their mingled
hesitation and importunity excited suspicions, and they
were seized. The chief was slain with the dagger in
tended for the king, and his body burned to ashes in the
presence of his two associates, who were then fearfully
mutilated and despatched to carry back the news of their
success to their royal master.
Timur proposed conditions to the Damascenes : that he
should be acknowledged as sovereign, and the money
coined in his name. The trembling citizens, who had
heard the thrilling tales of Aleppo, Hums, and Ba'albek,
threw themselves on his mercy. A few days afterwards,
however, whilst he was in the act of removing his army
to a better position on the east side of the city, Faraj, the
Mamluke Sultan, adopted the fatal resolution to attack him
with the whole of his forces, thinking to take him by sur
prise. But Timur was too experienced a general, and his
veteran soldiers were too well accustomed to the chances
of war, to be thus conquered. Making a hurried barrier
of the camp furniture and equipage to check the first fury
of the assailants, they formed their lines behind it, and
then, sweeping round, charged the entangled foe on both
flanks. They were unable to stand the shock, and fled in
disorder back to the city, leaving thousands dead on the
battle-field (a.h. 803). Faraj fled from the city in the
night, with a portion of his army, and the inhabitants
surrendered, merely begging for their lives. This was
granted on condition that every man should pay the price
set upon his head. Six of the city gates were shut up,

126 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
and at the seventh, Bab el-Faradis, sat the conqueror to
collect the redemption money from each individual as he
passed by at the command of the soldiers.
The citadel, a building of great strength and extent,
was still in the hands of the resident governor, and he
refused to surrender. It is described in glowing terms by
Sherif ed-Din 'Aly, the Persian historian of Timur. He
represents it as one of the most celebrated fortresses in the
world. The walls were of large blocks of hewn stone,
built with great regularity, and were of astonishing height
and thickness. Around them ran a deep and wide moat,
filled with water from the river. There was besides a
large garrison, supplied with all the munitions of war.
Huge stones and gigantic arrows were discharged on the
assailants by engines placed upon the battlements. A
species of arrow, having a hollow head of hard black pot
tery filled with the Greek fire, was likewise much used,
and did great damage both to the persons and property of
the besiegers.5 After almost incredible labour, and im
mense sacrifice of life, the besiegers succeeded in filling up
a portion of the moat and undermining the walls of the
keep — a massive and lofty square tower, on the north
eastern angle. It fell at last with a fearful crash, burying
beneath its ruins hundreds of its brave defenders, and not
a few of its persevering assailants. It was vain to attempt
to hold out longer, and so the gallant governor threw open
5 I have seen some of these singular weapons. They are of the
annexed form: the shaft was fixed in the mouth of the little ves
sel. Being brittle, they would break on
falling, and thus scatter the fire around.
They were the prototypes of the modern
bombs.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 127
the gates and delivered the keys to the conqueror. Such
a noble defence might well have excited the admiration of
any soldier or patriot ; but Timur was a remorseless tyrant,
incapable alike of appreciating and acknowledging patriot
ism. The governor was murdered in cold blood, and his
gallant band of veterans, with their wives, children, and
aged parents, met a worse fate, being sold into slavery.
Immense treasures were found in the castle, and at once
seized; but with that strange inconsistency which is a
peculiar characteristic of Mohammedanism, while private
property was taken, some valuable stores laid aside for the
use of the Haj pilgrimage and the people of Mecca were
left untouched. Timur, whose hands were yet reeking
with the blood of his murdered victims, and his ears ring
ing with the cry of orphan children and widowed mothers
whom his soldiers were driving to slavery, reproached the
Damascenes for their want of piety in neglecting to erect
monuments over the graves of two of the Prophet's wives !
And now he expended a portion of the treasures he had
accumulated by pillage and murder in rearing marble
mausoleums in honour of these venerated matrons.
But the fearful conclusion of the tragedy was yet to
come. The wretched inhabitants who had escaped the
first onset of the Tartars, and who had afterwards re
deemed their lives with gold, retired to their homes again,
as they believed, in peace. Timur, filled with holy zeal,
pondered what new evidence of his piety he could ex
hibit, and his mind, ever fertile in such expedients, soon
devised a plan whereby his faith would be manifested and
his revenge satiated. Summoning his generals round him,
he addressed them in the following words : — " I am in-

128 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
formed," he said, " that, in the wars of the Khalifs of the
house of Omeiyah with the descendants of Mohammed,
and especially with 'Aly, the rightful son and heir of the
Prophet, and in which they perpetrated every act of
cruelty they could invent, — that in these wars the Syrians
aided them in their sacrilegious and bloody deeds. This,
to me, is strange beyond conception ; for how any nation
could pretend to receive the doctrine of a prophet, and to
have been raised by the light of his revelation from the
abyss of error and infidelity, and yet become the enemy
of his kindred and family to such a degree as to unite
with his bitterest foes in exercising toward them every
species of injustice, I cannot comprehend ! Yet I enter
tain no doubt this day that these traditions are true;
for had they been false, and had the people of this land
been innocent, a judgment so fearful as that now in
flicted upon them would never have emanated from the
tribunal of Divine justice!" After these extraordinary
words he was silent. He uttered no command, he ex
pressed no wish. But his chiefs could interpret the will
of their lord, and the consequences of his speech are thus
recorded by his biographer and admirer. " On the first
of the month Shaban (a.h. 803) the excited soldiers
rushed upon the devoted and helpless city, and com
menced a scene of wanton outrage and slaughter such as
it is impossible to imagine. Houses were stripped of
every valuable, and their inmates exposed to every out
rage which cruelty could devise or lust suggest. Neither
age nor sex was spared, but those that escaped the sword,
or survived the atrocious indignities of a ruffian soldiery,
were dragged from their homes and sold into slavery.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 129
Such vast masses of treasures and valuables were collected
by the army that they could not, with all their available
baggage-animals, carry them away. The carnage lasted
for ten days, and then it was consummated by the burn
ing of the city. Timur," adds his historian, "whose
piety was without a parallel (!), used every effort to save
the mosk of the Omeiyades, but in vain, for the roof
caught the flames, and the eastern minaret fell to the
ground."6 Never had this ancient city, during the long ages
through which it stood, and the many dynasties and
nations to which it had been forced to submit, so fearfully
experienced the horrors of conquest as now. Its vast
wealth was dissipated in a day ; its stores of antique gems
and gorgeous fabrics were seized by those who had neither
the taste to appreciate nor the knowledge to discern their
real value ; its spacious palaces, with their marble halls,
and inlaid fountains, and walls and ceilings of arabesque,
and divans of richest silk embroidered with gold and
sparkling with jewels, were all pillaged and left in ashes ;
its great libraries, filled with the literature patronised by
the later khalifs, and cultivated by native savans — stored,
too, with the carefully-preserved writings of the fathers of
the Eastern Church — were almost wholly destroyed. Tra
dition records that of the large Christian population only

6 This account of the siege and capture of Damascus is taken from
the work of his Persian historian Sherif ed-Din 'Aly el-Yezdy, Histoire
de Timur Bee par Cherefeddin Ali, trad, par M. De la Croix, vol. iii.
pp. 320-47. There is a shorter account given in the ' Life of Timur,'
by Ibn Arabshah — Ahmed Arabsiad, Vit. Timuri, ed. Mauger, vol. ii.
p. 1, seq. See also D'Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient, s. v. ' Timour,' where
an excellent epitome will be found.
G 3

130 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
one family escaped the desolation of the Tartars. Their
descendants still exist, and I have heard from their lips
the fearful tales of the sufferings of their ancestors, which
have been carefully transmitted from sire to son. From
the spot where I pen these lines I can look out on the
towering minarets and noble dome of the mosk of the
Omeiyades, and the frowning battlements of the ancient
castle beneath the walls of which so many Tartars fell ;
and I can see away beyond them the naked slope along
the mountain-side where Timur marshalled his hosts, that
the trembling citizens might have a full view of their
vast numbers and proud bearing. I can see the little
wely, too, on the summit of yon hill from beneath which
the monarch gained his first view of the city and plain ;
and turning northward I can mark the locality of the old
gate where his deputies sat to receive the redemption-
money. There is something strangely thrilling in thus
contemplating the scene of such a fearful tragedy, even
after the lapse of more than four centuries ; and the feel
ing is deepened by hearing the sad story from the lips of
one whose ancestors were among the victims.
After devastating Syria with fire and sword, Timur
returned to his native land. On his arrival, prompted by
caprice, perhaps by some better principle, he gave orders
for the release of all the captives, of every age and sex,
that had been taken in Syria. His command was strictly
obeyed, and the motley crowd that had belonged to this
city were brought back in safety to the plain of the Ghiitah.
It must have been a heart-rending sight to behold these
destitute and houseless people assembling round the black
ened walls and smouldering ruins of this ancient city,

Chap. III. HISTORY. 131
and mourning in their misery and helplessness over the
wreck of fortune, the desolation of country, and the
murder of kindred and friends.7
The city of Damascus, like the fabled phoenix, soon
rose again from its ashes, and not long after the death of
Timur fell once more into the hands of the Mamluke
sovereigns of Egypt. Faraj, who had deserted it in the
hour of danger, returned when the storm had passed over ;
but in A.H. 815 he was murdered within its walls and his
body thrown on a dunghill.8 The Mamlukes of the
Borgite9 dynasty ruled over Syria for more than a century
after this period, during which Damascus enjoyed com
parative peace.
The Ottoman empire had in the mean time not only
recovered from the desolating wars of Timur, but had
attained to great power in Asia Minor and eastern Eu*
rope. Constantinople had fallen before the impetuous
attack of Mohammed IL, A.H. 857, A.Q. 1453. The last
of the Byzantine monarchs fell in the van of his soldiers,
in front of the breach made by Turkish cannon, and the
Muslems, ere they entered his capital, had to pass over
his lifeless body. The spirit of the ancient Caesars appears
to have been infused into the last of their line. The
throne of the descendants of Othman was now established
on the ruins of the Eoman Empire. Sixty-five years
afterwards Sultan Selim invaded Syria, and, having con
quered Cansou, the last of the Mamluke sovereigns in a
pitched battle near Aleppo, he seized his kingdom, and
7 Cherifedin, ut sup.
8 Bibliotheque Orientale, s. v. ' Faraje.'
9 The Borgites were Mamlukes of Circassian origin. They reigned
from A. H. 648 till 923.

132 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
Syria thenceforth became a Turkish province. Sultan
Selim at this time remained upwards of three months in
Damascus. From hence he went to Egypt, and after
regulating the affairs of that kingdom he continued his
route to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. On his
return to Damascus he conferred the government on the
head of one of the principal families in the city, the Emir
Jan Berdy, a.h. 923, A.D. 1519.1
The line of policy adopted by the house of Othman for
the government of Syria, from the period it fell under
their sway, has been in every way worthy of their cha
racter as crafty and unscrupulous tyrants. Native chiefs
were appointed to act as local governors, or provincial
Pashas, and to them was given unlimited power. So long
as the revenues were punctually paid into the imperial
treasury, no attention was ever given to the state of the
people or the mode of government. When a pashalik
became vacant, the tails were transferred to the highest
bidder. The imperial firman once issued, the central
government took no pains to enforce its observance, and
the candidate was left to fight his own way to possession.
If rivals opposed him, as was almost universally the case
in the more distant provinces, his final success depended
on the strength of his arms ; and if conquered in battle
and driven from his territory, a liberal bribe forwarded
to Stamboul was always productive of a fresh firman in
favour of the conqueror. The Turkish authorities were
delighted to see these bloody contentions, for the country
was thus weakened, and consequently less able to resist
1 Tarikh el-Jenaby, MS. In this work there is an excellent sketch
of the conquests of Sultan Selim.

Chap. III. HISTORY. 133
their tyranny. Syria was ruled, and is still ruled, not by
power but by intrigue. When a party or faction became
dangerous from its numbers and its strength, the enmity
of others was excited by the imperial emissaries, and re
bellion was effectually checked by party rivalries and
quarrels. The Turks were at first too much engrossed by their
efforts to extend their conquests, and to plant the Crescent,
the emblem of their faith, on the Christian temples of
Europe, to devote time or attention to the internal
economy of their conquered provinces. Perhaps it might
also be said that the Turkish mind is incapable of com
prehending the great principles of political economy, and
that the Turkish faith is, from its very nature, destruc
tive of that private and social virtue, and of those moral
qualities, on which national prosperity must be grounded.
The destructive policy that was at first adopted, from
whatever source it sprung, became absolutely essential to
the maintaining of Turkish rule in after days. The energy
and influence of the nation began rapidly to decline the
very moment it was forced to renounce offensive warfare,
and the dominion of Syria was henceforth maintained by
the crafty policy of pitting against each other the rival
sects and clans. A carefully- compiled and well- written
history of Turkish rule in Syria would tend greatly to
enlighten the eyes of European statesmen and citizens ;
and it would also unfold such a continued series of
tyranny, extortion, and crime as is almost unparalleled in
the annals of the world.
The Pashas of Damascus ruled over the greater part of
Palestine, and the whole country east of the Jordan j

134- DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
they had also a nominal authority over the warlike tribes
of Lebanon. A single instance is sufficient to illustrate
the way in which they executed the trust confided to
them by the Sultan. Mohammed Pasha had nominated
a local chief to the government of the southern division of
Lebanon ; a more powerful rival met him while on his
way to take charge of his district, routed his guards, and
cut off his head ! Having accomplished his purpose, he
wrote to inform the Pasha of what had occurred. " It is
of no consequence," was the reply ; " give me a hundred
purses, and name what governor you please !"
The only incident worthy of record in this sketch, sub
sequent to the occupation of this city by the Ottomans, is
its capture by Ibrahim Pasha, the celebrated general and
son of Mohammed 'Aly, and this conquest is chiefly re
markable for the effects it produced. Damascus, the Holy
City, was, under Ibrahim's rule, opened for the first time
to the representatives of foreign powers. The British
consul entered it in full costume, protected by Egyptian
soldiers and a band of Janissaries. The fanatical citizens
indulged their wrath and muttered their curses in private,
but made no open demonstration of their hatred. The
presence of European consuls, and especially the great
ability, tact, and energy of her Majesty's representative,
Eichard Wood, Esq., have since that period effected a
complete revolution in the conduct and feelings of a large
majority of the population. The better informed honour
and respect the sterling integrity of the British consul ;
while venal officials, as well as the turbulent mob, have
been taught by experience to fear him. I feel confident
that his removal would now be regarded by a large

Chap. III. HISTORY. 135
majority of the inhabitants, not only of the city but of
the pashalik, as one of the greatest calamities that could
befall them. The influence he exerts personally, and the
power so judiciously placed in his hands by his govern
ment, and sanctioned by the Porte, acts in many cases as
an effectual check to the oppression and extortions of
Turkish governors. The peasants, too, throughout the
pashalik, find in him a kind friend and a never-failing
protector against the injustice and grinding cruelty of
their hereditary chiefs. The present tranquillity of Syria
is in a great measure owing to the exertions and influence
of Mr. Wood. But for him the Druzes who defied the
government troops, and worsted them in many skirmishes
in 1852, would now raise the standard of rebellion ; but
for him the turbulent and bloodthirsty Metawely of Ba'al-
bek would fill their district with rapine and murder. I
have more than once had opportunity of witnessing Mr.
Wood's praiseworthy exertions on behalf of the peace and
security of this land. During last summer six hundred
Christians of Zahleh armed and marched to revenge an
outrage committed on one of their number by a Ba'albek
emir. News of the transaction was immediately conveyed
to Mr. Wood, then residing in Bludan. He mounted
his horse on the moment and galloped to the advancing
band. After a long and noisy scene, in which he mingled
threats with promises, he succeeded in constraining them
to return to their homes, while he undertook to settle the
dispute amicably. Had an encounter taken place at that
time, the whole of Lebanon and Central Syria would have
been involved in civil war.
Such is a sketch of the history of Damascus. There is

136 DAMASCUS. Chap. HI.
now no city in the world that can lay claim to such high
antiquity, and there are few that can vie with it in the
importance and interest of the events enacted within its
walls. Twice has it been the capital of great empires,
and at one time its dominion reached from the shores of
the Atlantic to the banks of the Indus. It has been in
succession conquered and possessed by the greatest mo
narchs that ever appeared on the theatre of the world,
and it has formed part of the most powerful empires whose
names are found on the page of history. Six different
and distinct sections of the human family have already
ruled over it, and its eventful history we have thus divided
into six periods. During the first period of about 1450
years Damascus was independent; after that time the
Babylonian and Persian monarchs held it for a second
period of 417 years. It was then subdued by Alexander,
and remained under Grecian rule a third period of 268
years. The Eomans now seized it, and it was absorbed
in their vast empire during a fourth term of 699 years.
The Saracens possessed it 441 years, after which it fell
into the hands of the Tartar or Turkish tribes, who still
retain it; but their power is rapidly declining. The
throne established by Othman is even now tottering to its
fall, and the sixth period of Damascus' history is fast
drawing to a close.
The most remarkable fact connected with the history of
this city is, that it has not only existed but flourished
under every change of dynasty and under every form of
government: it may well be called the perennial city.
Its station among the capitals of the world has been won
derfully uniform. The presence of royalty does not

Chap. III. STATISTICS. 137
appear to have greatly advanced its internal welfare, nor
does their removal seem to have induced decay or even
decline. It has never rivalled, in the vastness of its ex
tent nor in the gorgeousness of its structures, a Nineveh,
a Babylon, or a Eome ; but neither has it resembled them
in the greatness of its fall nor in the desolation of its ruins.
It has existed and prospered alike under Persian despotism,
Grecian anarchy, and Eoman patronage ; and it exists and
prospers still, despite Turkish oppression and misrule. It
is like an oasis amid the desolation of ancient Syria, for
it has survived many generations of cities that have in
succession risen up around it ; and while they lie in ruins,
it possesses all the freshness and vigour of youth.
STATISTICS OF DAMASCUS.
The extent of that portion of the city within the circuit
of the ancient walls has already been alluded to. It is of
an irregular oval form, and about three miles in circum
ference. It is densely populated throughout, with the
exception of a few gardens on the south side. On the
northern side of the city proper there is, as we have seen,
an extensive suburb containing some fine houses, princi
pally inhabited by Turkish officials and foreigners in the
service of Government ; but by far the largest suburb lies
on the west and south of the city, stretching out into the
plain for about two miles. The city, as a whole, is very
irregular in form, having projections and indentations on
all sides. Its length, from north to south, is about three
miles, and its greatest breadth a mile and a half. At the

138 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
distance of about half a mile, on the north-west, is the
large village or suburb of Salahiyeh, finely situated along
the slope of the hill, and enjoying a commanding view
over the vast plain. It is more than a mile in length,
but is narrow, and not so closely packed with houses as
Damascus. The population of Damascus it is impossible to determine
with accuracy. The Government takes a census, it is
true, for the purpose of ascertaining the number of taxable
males; but the venality and carelessness of the officers
employed, together with the inviolability of the harim
and the privacy of Eastern life, render it far from exact
or full. There was a census taken a short time previous
to the awful visitation of the cholera in 1848 ; and it was
afterwards found, on comparing the returns of the census
with those of that fearful scourge, that more people had
died in many houses than were returned altogether on
the census-lists. The following summary has been drawn
up from the last Government census, and may be con
sidered as close an approximate to the truth as can now
be obtained. The table, however, only enables us to esti
mate the true population ; for, from the causes above
alluded to, and the knowledge that the taxes are levied
in proportion to the numbers returned, as few names as
possible are placed upon the lists. It has been considered
by those most competent to form a correct estimate that
only two-thirds of the. Muslem population have been re
turned, and that consequently fifty per cent, must be
added to them. The Jews are perhaps about twenty-five
per cent, below the truth ; but the number of the Chris-

Chap. III.

STATISTICS.

139

tians given below is correct, as I have obtained it from
other and trustworthy sources.2 The whole population of
Damascus I consider to be about 150,000.

Population op Damascus.

Sects.

Numbers.

Muslems 
Druzes 
Christians of Greek Church .
Greek Catholic .
Syrian 
Syrian Catholic
Maronite ....
Armenian and Chaldean
Armenian Catholic
Latin 
Protestant ....

Strangers, soldiers, slaves, and proteges .
Jews  Total 

74,464 500

14,00515,000 4,630

108,599

The Muslems of Damascus may be described generally
as feeble, licentious, and fanatical. The religion they pro
fess, if indeed Islam deserves that name, places no re
straint upon their passions ; and experience proves, at least
so far as regards this city, that polygamy has not the effect
of restraining from worse conduct. I have read with sur
prise an extract from Urquhart's ' Spirit of the East,'
quoted by Lane3 with approbation, and introduced with
the remark "that the writer has deeply studied Muslem
institutions and their effects." It is as follows : — " On
the subject of polygamy a European has all the advantage
8 For these numbers I am principally indebted to M. Bulad, who had
access to the Government registers.
2 Lane's 'Thousand and One Nights,' vol. i. pp. 233-4.

140 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
in discussion with a Turkish woman, because her feelings
are decidedly on the side of her antagonists ; but then she
has a tremendous power of reply, in the comparison of the
practical effects of the two systems, and in the widely-
spread rumours of the heartlessness and the profligacy of
Europe. All the convictions of our habits and laws stand
in hostile array against the country where the principle of
polygamy is admitted into the laws of the state ; but yet,
while we reproach Islamism with polygamy, Islamism may
reproach us with practical polygamy, which, unsanctioned
by law and reproved by custom, adds degradation of the
mind to dissoluteness of morals." What ! and would Mr.
Urquhart venture to affirm that the worst vices of the
most degraded in Christian England would bear compari
son with the abominations that are almost universally
practised in Muslem cities ? Virtue, as a moral principle,
is unknown to either sex in this land ; and the disgusting
obscenities of the harim, as well as the unnatural vices of
the other sex, could not have escaped the notice of Mr.
Urquhart, had he indeed studied the habits of the people
of this country, or the effects of Muslem institutions. The
filthiness of the common conversation among all classes, of
all ages and of both sexes, is sufficient of itself to show the
deep depravity in which this unhappy land is engulfed.
For the profligacy of European cities I offer not one word
of excuse or apology. It is a disgrace to Christianity;
but with all this, there is sufficient sense of shame still
found, even in the most profligate, to make them blush at
the thought of their guilt ; and there is enough of high-
toned morality in the vast majority of the people to make
them shun the society ofthe dissolute, and mourn over

Chap. III. STATISTICS. 141
their fall. Here vice has spread over the nation like a
flood, corrupting every dwelling, making wanton every
thought and look, and polluting the very language which
is the medium of social intercourse.
Muslems spend their time between indolence and in
dulgence, wandering with solemn step from the harim to
the bath, and from the bath to the mosk. They are em
phatically a praying people, and so are they a washing
people ; and there is just as much religion in their ablu
tions as there is in their devotions. Prayer with them is
a simple performance. They pray as they eat, or as they
sleep, or as they perform their toilet. These are all
matters of course, parts of the daily routine, performed
with the same care and with the same solemnity. The
Muslem merchant will lie and cheat, and swear and pray,
and lie and cheat, and swear again ; and these are all like
different scenes in the same drama, quite in their places.
The feelings are not in the least shocked by thus mixing
up things sacred and profane ; and the simple reason is,
there is no sacredness in their prayers. A Muslem emir
or pasha will issue his orders for oppression and savage
cruelty, and even murder ; and when the Muezzin call is
heard, will calmly spread his carpet, stroke his beard, and
engage in the exercise of prayer with a serenity, and we
may add with a solemnity, of countenance that is alto
gether wonderful ; and when the performance is at an end
he is ready to despatch the same routine of business over
again. It is said that there are in the city over 300 mosks, and
many of them are of great extent and beauty, and richly
endowed besides. There is also a large number of schools,

142 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
or colleges, as some poetical travellers would designate
them. These are in general large buildings which have
been founded by the piety or pride of some great man, and
allowed to fall to decay and ruin by his successors. If
occupied at all, it is at most by a few scores of urchins
squatting on the dirty ground, and see-sawing over a few
leaves ofthe Koran, while they shout its verses in unison,
led by a grey-bearded sheikh who sits knitting in the
corner. Small libraries of manuscripts are attached to the
more important of these schools ; and here some rare and
valuable works may often be found, though they are
guarded with such extreme care that it is difficult to
obtain access to them. Few of the Muslems advance be
yond the first rudiments of education, yet there are some
in the city who are pretty well acquainted with their own
literature, and possess a considerable knowledge of the
state of science in Europe. Among the latter, the first
place must be given to Mahmud Effendi, and Sheikh
Abd Ullah el Haleby. These gentlemen are both deeply
versed in the mysteries of their own language; and the
former, in addition to his learning, is a man of refined
manners and great liberality. Private libraries of any
extent or value are extremely rare, but almost every old
family has a number of manuscripts that are left as heir
looms to successive generations. A military school has
lately been established in the city, but it is exclusively
intended for those who purpose entering the Turkish
army. The pupils receive instruction in drawing and
engineering from European masters.
The Christians of Damascus are enterprising and in
dustrious, and a considerable proportion of the trade of the

Chap. III. STATISTICS. 143
city is in their hands. They are rapidly increasing in
number, wealth, and influence, and have almost entirely
thrown aside that cringing and fawning demeanour which
was the result of long ages of oppression. They now feel
secure both in amassing and displaying their wealth ; but
the protection they enjoy and the security they feel are
solely owing to the presence and influence ofthe European
consuls. The English consul, Mr. Wood, has contributed
more than all others to release both Christians and Jews
from the indignities to which in former times they were
subjected by their Muslem lords; and when, in conse
quence of the aggressions of Eussia, the old fanatical spirit
was lately roused, and Christians were met in every part
of the city with curses and abuse, it was mainly through
Mr. Wood's energetic remonstrances and bold measures
that the Muslems were forced to suppress their fiery
hatred and bigotry. Knowing these facts, it was with
much surprise I read the following sentence in M.
de Saulcy's recent work on this country : — " Until a re
cent period, Christians were obliged to alight whilst cross
ing the gate of Damascus, but such was no longer the case
in 1851 ; and my excellent friend, M. de Segur-Duperron,
consul of France in this city, had proudly vindicated the
honour of the French name : consequently nobody seemed
to mind us, and we were allowed to enter the city with
all our arms." 4 Does M. de Saulcy really mean to say
that it was in consequence of M. de Segur-Duperron' s
proud vindication of the honour of the French name that
Christians were no longer obliged to dismount when cross-
4 Journey round the Dead Sea and in Bible Lands, in 1850-51. By
F. de Saulcy. London, 1854. Vol. ii. p. 520.

144 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
ing the gate of Damascus ? Very probably he does ; and
yet Addison, in 1835, rode through the city, just fifteen
years before ever M. de Segur was even heard of in Da
mascus ! And scores of travellers, French and English,
have since that time followed his example with impunity,
and have told the world so. But M. de Saulcy appears to
have come to this country in happy ignorance of every
thing that had been done or seen by his predecessors. He
was determined to astonish the world by his discoveries,
and by the originality of his remarks, and he has undoubt
edly succeeded. We shall see more of him in the sequel.
It seems, however, that M. de Saulcy does not stand alone
in his ignorance. A writer in a deservedly popular Maga
zine states plainly what the French savant had left ambi
guous : — " Until a very recent date," says this profound
reviewer, " all Christians were obliged to alight and cross
the gate of Damascus on foot, but this humiliating regula
tion no longer exists, having been abolished since 1850 by
the energetic interference of M. de Segur-Duperron, the
French consul ! " s
The Christians, as may be seen from the table given
above, are divided into nine different sects. The Catholics
are those who have seceded from the ancient Oriental
churches, and have acknowledged the supremacy of Eome.
They still retain their own forms of prayer, their own fasts
and feasts, and their married clergy — strange concessions
to be granted by the Papacy ! Two patriarchs reside perma
nently in this city — the Greek, and the Greek Catholic.
There are ten churches and nine convents. There are also
6 Dublin University Mag. for Sept. 1853, p. 382.

Chap. III. STATISTICS. 145
several schools, attended by large numbers of boys, but
they are all elementary : the best is that of the Greek
patriarch, which is supported by Eussian money. There
is another large school conducted under the superintend
ence of the Lazaristes, but the French language seems to
be almost the only thing taught in it. Their convent also
contains a school for girls : I cannot tell however what are
the instructions given in it, as strangers are not permitted
to visit it. The French s< Sisters of Charity" have within
the last few months set up an establishment in this city,
in which there is a dispensary and a large female school.
Li none of these schools, however, is any attempt made to
give instruction in arithmetic, geography, history, or in
deed in any of the branches of an ordinary education,
beyond reading, writing, and the elements of grammar.
The education of the people is consequently miserably de
fective, and it is unfortunate that there is little desire
manifested for improvement.
In the year 1853 the Protestant missionaries established
a school of a higher class in this city, in which they pro
pose to have the pupils instructed by competent masters in
the various branches of a liberal education ; and in order
to encourage talented and deserving boys and young men
to continue their studies and complete a curriculum,
they have founded twenty bursaries to be awarded to such
as excel in diligence and attention. They have also con
nected with this school an elementary school for boys, in
which, in addition to reading, writing, and Arabic gram
mar, instructions are given in geography, arithmetic, and
the EngUsh language. The first public examination of these
schools was held on the 28th and 29th days of December
VOL. I. ' H

146 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
last, when upwards of fifty pupils were present ; and these,
by their ready answers to the questions proposed, and
general intelligence, gave universal satisfaction to the
visitors and missionaries.
The Protestant mission was established in Damascus in
1843. In that year the Eev. John Wilson, D.D., of the
Church of Scotland, and the Eev. William Graham, of the
Presbyterian Church of Ireland, visited this city, and re
solved that it should be the seat of the united mission to
the Jews, previously projected by their Churches ;6 and a
few months afterwards Mr. Graham and the Eev. Mr.
Allen took up their residence here, and commenced their
labours. In 1844 the Eev. Smylie Eobson, of the Presby
terian Church of Ireland, joined the mission; and in the
same year the Church of Scotland withdrew its mission
aries, the Eev. James Barnett and Dr. J. G. Paulding, of
the Associate Eeformed Church of the United States, came
to the city, and united with Messrs. Graham and Eobson;
and since that time the mission has been vigorously and
successfully prosecuted, notwithstanding many difficulties
and some severe trials. Though the mission was originally
and properly to the Jews, yet no opportunity has ever
been neglected of instructing the native Christians. Pubhc
worship is conducted in Arabic twice each Lord's-day, and
in English once. In addition to the schools above referred
to, a female school has been lately established, and there
are at present about forty pupils in attendance, a large
majority of whom are Jewesses. The mission staff is at
present as follows : — Eev. Smylie Eobson ; Dr. J. Gr.
• Ample details of Dr. Wilson's and Mr. Graham's visit to Damascus
will be found in the ' Lands of the Bible,' vol. ii. pp. 325-69.

Chap. III. STATISTICS. 147
Paulding, physician; Eev. J. L. Porter; Eev. J. A. Fra-
zier ; Eev. Gulien Lansing ; and Miss Dales, superintendent
of the female school.
The Jews of Damascus are not numerous, but they are
very influential on account of the vast wealth of some of
the great families. These have been for many years the
bankers of the successive pashas and great merchants.
Until the interference of European powers in the internal
administration of affairs in Syria, the changes of fortune
and circumstances through which some of these families
passed were truly wonderful, and had more of the cha
racter of an Eastern romance than of stern and fearful
reality. At one time the Jew would be the actual ruler
of Syria, and then in a few weeks he would be stripped of
fortune, and perhaps cruelly mutilated, or even murdered.
The scene is now changed. Safe under the protection of
European consuls, the Jew can buy and sell and make
gain.7 The Jews and Christians inhabit distinct quarters
in the city.
Damascus is a purely mercantile city, carrying on an
extensive trade with the wandering tribes of Bedawin
who pasture their flocks on the vast plains of Arabia. It
is also a great entrepot for the rich wares of Persia and
Lidia, which are brought here by caravans from Baghdad.
The annual Haj pilgrimage is also a source of great profit
to the city, for this is the place of rendezvous, and is
thence called " The Gate of Mecca." The holy caravan
reaches the city about the middle of the month Eamadan ;
i Some interesting details about the Jewish families of this city, and
their religion, schools, &c, may be found in the work already referred
to, ' The Lands of the Bible,' vol. ii.
H 2

148 DAMASCUS. Chap. III.
and from this time till its departure, on the 15th of the
following month, the streets and bazaars are crowded by
thousands, eager alike to buy and sell. Every pilgrim
endeavours to make his journey profitable by traffic, and
this is not considered in any way to interfere with the
sanctity of his character or the fervour of his devotions,
It is a peculiar feature of Islam that traffic and religion,
cheating and praying, lying and devotion, can be blended
together without the least discord. The Persian hajy brings
his gorgeous carpets, fine embroidery, rich shawls, inlaid
-caskets, and precious stones, to barter for Damascus silks
and cotton fabrics. Damascus also exports a considerable
quantity of silks and dried fruits to Egypt, Constantinople,
and other parts of Turkey,

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 149

CHAPTEE IV.

JOURNEY TO PALMYRA.

Bedawy Sheikh — Dromedaries and their saddles — Gardens — The
mirage — Mountain pass — Kuteifeh — Evening entertainment —
Frank sorcery — Early rising — Jerud — Sheikh Fares and Arab
cavaliers — Border warfare — Salt marsh — The desert — The Bedawy
in the desert — Encampment of Bedawin — Patriarchal customs —
A feast — Evening party in a tent — Night adventure — Excitement
of desert travel — A chace — Bedawy Harims — Enemies — Prepara
tions for battle — Singular mountain — Encounter with robbers —
Arab hospitality — Cold march — Robbers — The spoils of a cara
van — Illustrations of Scripture — Bedawy women — Apprehended
dangers — Geological features — First view of Tadmor — A " charge"
— Attack and capture of our party — Our prison — Alarming con
versation — A comic scene — Ride to Palmyra — Description of the
ruins — Historical sketch — Return — Route of Jacob — Kuryetein
identified with Hazar-enan.
Having concluded a bargain with a sheikh of the great
Bedawy tribe of the 'Anezy to conduct us to the ruins of
"Tadmor in the wilderness," we were prepared to start
on the morning of March 31st, 1851.1 As there are no
hotels on this route, and the habitations of the Arabs are
somewhat wide apart, and not always to be found when
the hungry traveller might want them, we deemed it
necessaiy to lay in a good stock of provisions. Knowing,
too, by experience, that we would probably be exposed
to sudden and great changes of temperature, we had piled
up a goodly heap of coats, cloaks, and lehafs,8 destined for
1 My companion during this journey was the Rev. Smylie Robson;
and to him I am indebted for an accurately kept itinerary of our route,
both going and returning.
8 A lehafis literally a coverlet; but the name is usually given to a
very thick species stuffed with cotton, not unlike the German feder-bettt

] 50 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
all kinds of service, whether by night or day. A leathern
water-bottle lay beside our stores, and several other
articles were grouped around, the use of which a stranger
might have had difficulty in ascertaining. Hour after
hour passed as we wandered up and down the court, or
sat upon the fountain's brink ; but our chief did not
appear. Our patience was exhausted, and, casting aside
our travelling costume, we threw ourselves on a divan,
despairing of starting till another day. The clear voice
of the Muezzin from the minaret of the great mosk an
nounced the hour of noon ; and soon after 'Amer, our
sheikh, entered the court. He was a man of middle
stature, and seemingly of middle age. His frame was
spare but wiry. There was no evidence of strength, but
there was evidence of capability to endure great fatigue.
His eye was quick, with more of shrewdness than fierce
ness in its glance. The whole expression of his coun
tenance was mild and soft, and in this respect different
from that of the generality of his race. A deep scar
furrowed his cheek, and a sabre-cut had divided his left
hand to the centre, rendering useless two of the fingers.
On his right arm above the wrist was the deep black scar
of a bullet, and two of the fingers of the right hand were
broken. His dress externally was similar to that worn by
all Arabs, consisting of the striped abeih and gay kefiyeh,
bound with its simple rope of camels' hair. Underneath,
however, he wore a silk robe of the brightest colours.
After hasty salutations we asked the cause of his delay,
and whether his animals were now ready. He assumed
at once an admirable look of surprise, and said, with all
apparent sincerity, " Did you not tell me you would not
go till to-morrow ?" There was no use in quarrelling with

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 151
him, and we were the more resigned as the dark clouds, ,
gathering on the summit of Hermon, and the distant
murmur of the thunder, gave warning of approaching
rain. Having fixed the time of departure at sunrise the
following morning, we separated for the day.
April 1st. — Scarcely had the first rays of the morning
sun tinged with gold the minaret tops and distant moun
tain summits, when the deep growl of our dromedaries
was heard at the door, and 'Amer with his attendant was
ushered into the court. To strap on our stores, and
arrange our saddles, was a work of some time. The
dromedary's saddle is rather curious and primitive in con
struction. It consists of two horns, one in front and the
other behind, from a foot to a foot and a half in length,
attached to sticks fitted to sit astride the animal's hump,
on a cushion of straw, and the whole apparatus is fastened
on in the usual way by girths. This was no inviting
seat as I first saw it ; but when coats and lehafs were
arranged across it, it was both easy and comfortable.
All being ready, we sent the animals to the East Gate,
not wishing to endanger our limbs in riding along narrow
streets, or our heads in passing under low archways. I
had often heard that the first mounting of a dromedary
formed a kind of era in a man's life, and I confess that,
when I saw mine with open mouth, growling savagely,
and struggling to free itself from the grasp of the driver,
I felt a little trepidation. No sooner had I leaped into
the saddle than the brute, giving a sharp lurch backwards,
and a heavy one forward, and then another backwards,
gained its feet and ran a few yards at a smart trot ; it then
wheeled about, and suddenly, by a similar but reversed
series of lurches, was again upon the ground. A second

152 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
time it went through this pantomime, and was preparing
for a third, when its driver seized and pinioned it by
placing his foot upon its knee. 'Amer and Mr. Eobson
were in motion, and at some distance, when he let it free,
but I was not long in reaching them. Though I had no
difficulty in keeping my seat through this scene, thanks
to the horns of my saddle, yet it was with no little
anxiety I looked forward to a ride of nearly two hundred
miles on such an animal. The pace was dreadful when it
trotted; and then the sittings-down and risings-up and
sudden jerks had almost dislocated my spine. In walking,
however, when I became a little accustomed to the rock
ing motion, I found the pace easy, and even pleasant.
Turning to the left from the East Gate, we skirted the
ancient city-wall, passing the reputed house of Naaman
the leper, and then crossed the Barada and one of its
canals by a double bridge. In a few minutes more we
entered the caravan-road that leads to Aleppo and the
north. The day was calm and hot for the season, and we
were consequently able to realise the sweets of deep shade.
The forest>gardens that encompass the old city of Damas
cus are the finest I have ever roamed through ; and now,
clothed in the delicious freshness of a spring morning,
they were seen to the greatest advantage. It is not
because the meandering paths are kept with taste and care,
or laid down with mathematical precision, that one admires
these gardens ; and neither is it because the banks of the
rivers are trimmed with all the precision of rug-work, or
that rustic seats and rose- wreathed bowers are found in
every spot where indolence or luxury would wish for
them. There is more of nature and less of art here than
in the wilderness pleasure-grounds of the Far West.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 153
There are miles of shade along the brink of the lazy
stream, whose course is where it has cut its own way
through a rich soil, or where a way has been hewn out or
built up for it by the industrious of former ages. The
noble trees around stretch out their giant arms, or shoot
up their stately heads, unrestrained by human care; while
the luxuriant vine and purple-tinted pomegranate form a
thick underwood. Hours may be spent galloping along
those lanes that seem to have no end, and over which the
fragrant walnut spreads its branches, affording a shade
that bids defiance to even an eastern sun. On each side
extend broad meadows whose verdure the thick groves of
plum, apricot, and apple trees do not injure. Here the
air is cool and fresh amid the hottest days of summer ; and
were it not that in the coolest breezes is wafted the poison
of the burning fever, this might well be regarded as an
earthly paradise.
We passed, on the left of our route, the large and popu
lous villages of Harista and Duma, and at the end of three
hours emerged from the gardens and orchards. We felt
the loss of the agreeable shade and cool air, but we did
not regret them, owing to the extent and beauty of the
prospect that now opened up to us. On our left rose
abruptly the steep and naked declivities of Anti-Lebanon,
deeply furrowed by the beds of winter torrents, and here
and there laid open by yawning- ravines. In front was
the lofty hill called Jebel Tiniyeh, cone-shaped, like
Tabor, but completely destitute of verdure ; while far
away to the east and south stretched the vast plain— east
ward reaching to the horizon, but on the south bounded
by the blue mountains of Bashan. At four hours we had
H 3

154 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
the village of Adhr'a about half an hour distant to the
north-east ; at this point we turned nearly due north, and
began to ascend diagonally the lower slopes of the moun
tain range. The view over the plain now became almost
inconceivably lovely. Its beauty was enhanced, and in a
great measure created, by a cause, the magic operation of
which can only be fully understood by the eastern
traveller. Lakes of great extent, whose shores were
fringed with gigantic reeds and graceful poplars, seemed
almost to cover the plain. Numerous islands studded
their surface, clothed with verdant groves whose foliage
quivered in the gentle breeze that rippled the surface of
the water. Villages, too, occupied peninsulas, or were
perched upon islands, and encompassed by their luxuriant
gardens and orchards. It was altogether a picture such
as I had never before gazed upon; but there was no
reality in it— it was the mirage.
After half-an-hour's ascent the road became steep and
rugged. We had reached the proper base of the range,
and a difficult pass lay before us. My dromedary now
became refractory. It was inclined to go every way but
the right one. It would suddenly scamper off across the
face of the hill at right angles to the path, endangering
my neck and its own among the huge blocks of loose rock;
and when I attempted to check it, down it squatted on
the spot. After a series of encounters with it, its owner
came behind it with his hooked stick, and then it dashed
on at a terrible pace after its fellows. Already I felt so
much fatigue that I began to entertain gloomy forebodings
of the future ; and I vowed that, if once safe through this
journey, it would be the last dromedary I would ever

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 155
mount. By good management and the aid of the Ageily,
who, besides the sheikh 'Amer, was our only companion,
I persuaded the unruly animal to climb the hills, and
sweep through the deep ravines, till we reached a ruined
khan near the top of the pass. Here a few broken
columns, lying within foundations of hewn stones, mark
the site of some ancient building. It is now called Khan
et-Tiniyeh. At this place a broad plain opened up before us, running
along the base of the hills on which we stood toward the
north-east far as the eye could see. Beyond it was a
parallel ridge of bleak but picturesque mountains. De
scending the hill diagonally by an easy path, in a direction
a little east of north, we reached the plain, and soon after
rode into the large village of Kuteifeh, where we dis
mounted for our lunch.
We were objects of no little curiosity to some groups of
men and boys who collected round our camels. My com
panion had retained his Frank costume, which in the eyes
of the Arabs did not seem very picturesque on a drome
dary's back ; and there were evidently some jokes passing
through the crowd of loungers at his expense. My own
habiliments suited very well so long as I remained in situ ;
but when I dismounted, and the small dimensions of my
nether garments became visible, laughter broke forth
(afresh. Notwithstanding my fatigue, which has always,
it must be admitted, a considerable influence upon the
temper, I felt more inclined to enjoy than resent such
indignities ; and I entertained some doubts whether, had
I appeared in like costume in any of the villages of Old
England, a similar reception would not have awaited me.
After half-an-hour's halt we remounted and rode off

156 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
eastward along the well-cultivated plain. Hitherto we
had followed the ordinary caravan-road to Aleppo and the
north ; but at Kuteifeh we left it. It strikes across the
plain north-by-west, passes the mountain range by a wild
ravine, and entering another plain continues northward to
Nebk and Hums. In thirty-five minutes we reached the
large village of Mu'addamiyeh. It was our original inten
tion to proceed to Jeriid the first day, but our drome
daries had behaved so badly and travelled so slowly, that
we found this imppssible ; we consequently determined to
spend the night here. We proceeded at once to the
house of the sheikh, and were welcomed by his son, he
himself being absent. We were ushered with all our
baggage into the reception-room, which was soon well
filled with the chief men of the village, who had collected
to see the strangers and drink coffee. A black slave was
kept busy the whole evening roasting the coffee-beans,
and pounding them in a quaintly-carved wooden mortar
with a curiously-formed wooden pestle. The latter
business he executed with such skill and grace that the
village fathers evidently envied him; as he managed, by
skilfully wielding the pestle, to beat time in a lively man
ner. His performance was listened to with manifest
satisfaction and pleasure ; and the feelings were no doubt
enhanced by the anticipated results. The Arabs are such
connoisseurs in coffee, that they must have it fresh roasted
and pounded for each time it is served. They would
never think of preparing sufficient at one time for the
evening's drinking. Again and again, therefore, were
we treated to this musical festival, for each round of
visitors partook of the sheikh's hospitality.
It was a strange and picturesque assemblage that

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 157
gathered round us in that old chamber; and a wilder-
looking scene could not be well imagined than that which
met our view when the crackling branches on the hearth
threw out a flame sufficient to light up their features and
reveal the bright colours of their gay costumes. The
white turbans, embroidered coats, dark faces, long beards,
and flashing eyes appeared to advantage in the dim and
fitful light. But the lively and strange conversation had
still more interest for me than countenance or costume.
Almost the whole topic of discussion was the Frank
visitors and their country. Some of those present, who
assumed a kind of authority because they had seen half-a-
dozen Ingleze in their lives, astonished the others by
wondrous stories of their prowess and knowledge. The
expulsion of the great Ibrahim Pasha by their fleets was
well remembered, and the taking of Sydon and bombard
ment of Acre were spoken of as manifesting a greater than
human power. As a crowning proof of unparalleled
wisdom, one man made the following remark : " As God
is great," said he, " these English can go where they
please by day or night, by land or sea ; for they have an
instrument that shows them the way to any place."
" Wallah ! and is it so ? " said the son of the sheikh,
turning to us with a look of intense curiosity.
An appeal was at once made to us in verification of the
statement. I produced a small pocket compass, and,
placing it near the light, let them see how it always
pointed the same way. It was turned, and turned again,
but still it pointed to the Kibleh? After all had tried in
a The Eibleh is the temple at Mecca towards which the Muslems all
turn when they pray. In consequence of its direction, it is also the
usual term for the South in Syria.

158 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
vain to direct it to any other point, I took my knife, and
placed the point of the steel near the compass, when the
needle at once turned towards my hand. I moved it
round, but still the needle followed. " There is no God
but God ! "4 cried our young host. " The Franks have the
power of Janns ! " exclaimed an old man by his side.
The night wore on, and we spread our beds to sleep.
Others around us followed our example, and strangers
gradually withdrew : it was long, however, ere sleep
came. The closeness of the room, the denseness of the
smoke from the brush on the hearth, which the negro ever
and anon heaped on the embers, and the myriads of fleas
that soon attacked us, drove sleep from our eyelids. I
rose and walked out into the cool fresh air, and on my
return found the negro asleep, the room deserted, save by
seven or eight snorers, and the fire dead upon the hearth ;
so, throwing myself on my bed, I slept till the hoarse
voice of 'Amer called us.
April 2nd. — The air was damp and cold this morning
as we mounted our dromedaries at the gate of the village
at 6-25. Early as it was, the people were all astir. The
Arabs are an early-rising race ; and at first thought one
would imagine that in this they have one good property
at least ; but the truth is, there is little virtue in their
early hours. Their beds are such that nothing but stern
necessity would drive any man to them. They never
4 All sects and classes in this country are continually in the habit of
using the name of God in their ordinary conversation. Swearing is
universal; almost every sentence is accompanied by an oath of some
kind or other. In this respect there is a striking similarity in their
ordinary salutations and conversation to what we find recorded in the
Scriptures. See examples of this use of the name of God in ordinary
conversation, Ruth i. 17, 1 Sam. iii. 17, 2 Sam. iii. 9, 1 Kings ii. 23.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 159
undress. To loosen the girdle a little, pull the volumi
nous turban or light camels'-hair rope more firmly down
upon the brows, and wrap the rough goats'-hair cloak
round the body, constitute their whole toilet arrange
ments before retiring to rest. Add to this the incessant
attacks from myriads of fleas and sundry other animals,
and it will be admitted that there is little self-denial in
rising with the first dawn of morning.
A thick white mist now lay upon the surface of the
plain, and shut in our view to the compass of a few yards.
A short time after leaving the village we observed,
running parallel to our path, a line of little circular
mounds with well-like openings in the centre; these
marked the course of one of those subterranean aqueducts
so frequently met with in the plain of Damascus. Their
object is to collect water from the numerous little springs
beneath the surface of the soil, and to convey it to some
distant spot for the irrigation of fields or the supply of
villages. The frequent openings are for the purpose of
affording facility in cleaning them. The aqueduct we
now observed supplies the village of Jerud with an
abundance of pure water. There is another and much
longer one, on the other side of the plain, near the base of
the hills on the north-west ; it conveys a large stream to
the vicinity of the small village of ' Atny.
At 8*15 we entered the gates of Jerud, and, passing
through its straight and clean streets, which present an
agreeable contrast to those of most other villages in this
land, we dismounted at the house of Sheikh Fares, the
Aga or governor of the district. The court-yard was filled
with a motley crowd of Arabs and villanous-looking irregu'-

160 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
lars, all armed to the teeth; while finely-formed horses
were picketed around, and sheafs of long tufted spears
stood in the corners. The whole scene was picturesque,
but wild ; and the piercing gaze and fierce countenances
of the Arabs were somewhat calculated to call up feelings
of doubt and dread in the minds of those about to trespass
on their territories. But at the same time the proud step,
graceful flowing robe, and gay colours of the kef iyehs
could not fail to elicit admiration. It is only within the
bounds of his own undisputed domain that the Bedawy:
can be seen to advantage. In a city he is like a caged
bird. His countenance is uneasy and restless, his gait
constrained, and his whole mien betrays anxiety. When
not engaged in business, he generally squats in some quiet
corner of a khan or street, peering from beneath the
ample folds of his kef iyeh at the busy crowd around him;'
But he is a different being when he breathes the desert
air ; his eye dilates, his spare wiry frame becomes erect
and commanding, and his step is firm and free.
Sheikh Fares of Jerud 5 is governor of a large district
of country on the confines of the desert, from the borders
of the Hauran to Hasya. His principal duty is to keep.
the Arabs in check, and prevent them from ravaging the
villages and fields. He maintains a force of about a hun
dred and fifty horsemen always ready for immediate ser-
5 During the present summer (1854) this very active and energetic
chief was slain in a skirmish with the Bedawin. The latter, taking
advantage of the removal of the regular troops to the seat of war, have
been more daring and successful than usual in their forays. Hums and
Hamah were in a state of siege for some months, and almost all the
border towns and villages have felt the power of these marauders.
Sheikh Fares had exerted himself greatly to check their incursions; and
at last fell a victim to his praiseworthy zeal.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 161
vice; while upon emergencies he can raise some four
hundred well-equipped cavaliers. The Arab tribes that
frequent this part of the desert are generally on friendly
terms with him, but it is only because they find it is for
their interest to be so. He can command most of their
great summer watering-places, and, by running a day's
journey into the desert, can sweep away thousands of their
sheep and camels to repay the villagers or government for
losses sustained, while they have little chance of sufficient
reprisals. These statements explain the bustling and
varied scene in his court-yard.
'Amer had expected to find some of his tribe in Jerud,
but was disappointed. Having ascertained the position
of their encampment, we resumed our march after an hour
and three-quarters' delay. Passing out at a gate- opposite
that by which we had entered, we struck across the fields,
and, coming to a little fountain, filled our water-skin.
After resuming our course we soon got entangled in soft
heavy ground, on the borders of an extensive salt marsh.
Our dromedaries, finding themselves sinking deeper and
deeper at every step, became quite unmanageable. With
much difficulty we got them into a hard path, and a few
minutes after were on the stony desert soil skirting the
western side of a salt lake that stretched away on our
right like a sheet of snow. This salt marsh is from three
to four miles in circumference. A small portion of it is
perfectly white, while the soil of the remainder is spongy
and thickly coated with a whitish saline incrustation.
The inhabitants' of Jerud and some of the other villages
collect the salt, and carry it to Damascus ; but it is bitter,
and not so good in quality as that brought from Palmyra.

162 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
The plain at this point is about six miles wide, and almost
perfectly flat. It is entirely uncultivated eastward of the
gardens and fields of Jerud, chiefly owing to the want of
water. In the direction of 'Atny, one hour distant north
by east, there are some patches of cultivation, water being
conveyed to it by the subterranean aqueduct above re
ferred to. The mountain chain on the north-west is lofty,
precipitous, and wholly destitute of verdure ; that on the
south-east side is considerably lower, but, like the other,
bleak and barren. A break occurs in the latter ridge
nearly opposite Jerud, through which a small river called
Nahr el-Mukubrit flows to the village of Maksura, in the
plain of Damascus. The perennial source of this stream
is at the village of Euhaibeh, one hour east of Mu'ad-
damiyeh. After an hour's ride we passed between a group of
little mounds, covered with dwarf thorn-bushes, which
some villagers were engaged in cutting and binding
together in large bundles for firewood. A few minutes
after passing them we observed away on the plain to the
left a single dromedary coming toward us with great
;speed. He was ridden by a peasant from 'Atny, who had
been away looking after some goats. This was the last
villager we met or saw for some days. At the end of two
hours we had on our left the commencement of a
mountain chain, which, running north-east by east, di
vides the plain. It continues, with a slight inclination to
the east, to near the village of Kuryetein, and from
thence takes an eastern course in an unbroken line to the
great plain at Palmyra. The regular route to that city is
along the valley, on the northern side of these mountains,

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 163
through Kuryetein ; we, however, took the route on the
southern side of the range in a narrower and less regular
valley. The aspect of the country far as the eye could
see was now dreary and desolate in the extreme : a few
weeds and tufts of herbage occurred at intervals on the
plain, but the whole intervening space was covered with
fragments of flint and limestone. Not a tree, not a shrub,
and not a living creature was within the range of vision.
The barren soil beneath, white and glistening, the mo
notonous undulations of the plain and naked slopes of the
mountains all around, and the deep, unclouded blue of
the great vault overhead, from which the brilliant sun
shone fiercely down, pouring a flood of light upon the
whole — such was the unvaried panorama that presented
itself to us as we marched along.
With silent footfall, and sweeping step, and ship-like
motion, our dromedaries sped onward. There was no
path to follow, and no barrier reared by nature or human
hand to retard or turn them aside. Their course was
direct and regular as if guided by a compass. Often did
I scan the country around in the vain endeavour to descry
some solitary wanderer, or even some animal, on this
dreary waste. None could be seen. About the hour of
afternoon prayers 'Amer, who had for some time ridden in
silence with Mohammed the Ageily behind him, pulled
off his heavy boots and Arab cloak, and thrust them into
his capacious saddle-bags. Thus disencumbered he leaped
lightly from the dromedary, and ran at a quick pace to an
eminence a little on the right. He now looked a new
man; the transformation was truly wonderful. In the
city he appeared like one over whose head near sixty

164 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
summers had passed, leaving their impress on form and
face. But now, in the desert, his form was erect, and his
step elastic, and his eye bright, as a youth of twenty.
His picturesque costume, too, added to the juvenile ap
pearance. His brilliant silk robe of alternate stripes of
red and white descended in graceful folds to the middle of
his leg : it was confined at the waist by a girdle of red
morocco leather, round the whole front of which were
little brass tubes for cartridges. The sleeves of the robe
were wide and open to the elbow, and from beneath them
hung down those of his shirt, long and pennon-like, so
that as he walked the points swept the ground. His silk
kefiyeh was of the most brilliant colours, and had a fringe
of plaited cord more than a foot in depth. His finely-
formed feet and limbs were naked. Such was 'Amer as he
now lightly and joyfully trod the desert soil ; and such is
the ordinary undress of the Bedawy sheikhs : those, how
ever, who are of the ruling family in a tribe wear over
this a short cloak of scarlet cloth, faoed and trimmed with
black. When 'Amer reached the rising ground he looked care
fully all over the plain and along the bordering hills, but,
apparently unsatisfied, he proceeded to another eminence.
My curiosity being roused by these movements, I began
to exercise my vision too, and soon detected far away on
the left, scattered on the mountain-sides, what appeared
to be vast flocks, while farther away still I thought I could
dimly discern the black tents of their masters. I at once
pointed them out to the Ageily, who was now mounted
on the sheikh's camel, but he made no reply, and seemed
to think I was mistaken. 'Amer soon after came up,

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 165
and remarked to his attendant that he could not see them.
I at once conjectured he was in search of some Arab en
campment, and probably that of his own tribe. After
satisfying myself on this point I directed his attention to
the flocks in the distance; he could not see them, but
Mohammed admitted I was correct ; so, with a well-turned
compliment on the sharpness of my vision, he mounted
and rode straight to the encampment.
At four o'clock we were in the midst of great herds of
camels, scattered over plain and mountain for many miles
on every side, and soon after, overtopping an eminence,
we saw before us black tents almost innumerable. We
met an Arab wandering among the flocks ; but he passed
close to us without a salutation, and almost without $,
look at us. Some time after another passed near us, to
whom 'Amer addressed a single question, receiving a brief
answer. I gave him the usual salutation of strangers in
the desert (el-'awdfy6) ; he started as if surprised, gave
me a, quick, fierce look, but deigned no reply. This
seemed no very pleasant introduction to Arab life. It
took me quite by surprise ; it was so far different from
the polite salutations of the peasantry, and from my an
ticipations of the boasted hospitality of the Bedawin. J.
began to have some gloomy forebodings that all might not
be right. I did not then know what I afterwards learned,
that this is Arab etiquette— in fact, the very essence of
politeness. When strange Arabs approach an encampment
¦' .JlaJl is the plural of £jlff> with the article prefixed. It signifies
" safety or peace from God." There are many other forms of salutation,
of which the most common is "Salamu aleikum" (Peace be with you);
but no Christian can use this form of salutation in speaking to a
Muslem.

166 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
in the desert, they wrap their cloaks carefully around
them, and almost completely conceal their faces in the
ample folds of their kefiyehs. No word of salutation is
addressed to them, and no question asked on either side.
They guide their animals in silence to any tent they
choose to select, being careful, however, not to pass close
to any other, as it would be considered an insult not to
claim the hospitality of the first ; they dismount without
a word at the tent door, and from that moment become
the guests and proUgis of its owner. The reasons and
wisdom of this rather singular custom become at once
apparent from a consideration of the peculiarities of Arab
life. Blood feuds are of frequent occurrence among desert
tribes, and there are few families but are somewhere in
volved in them. When a stranger approaches an encamp
ment, therefore, he knows not but that he may meet an
enemy, and he consequently conceals his features till he
reaches a place of safety. The duties of hospitality, too,
are held so sacred, that no tribe or individual will salute
or question an unknown stranger who claims it, lest they
should discover in him one with whom they may have a
blood feud. Once the stranger is within the precincts of
a tent, his host is not only bound to supply his wants, but
to defend him with his life.7
We dismounted at the door of a spacious tent in the
centre of the encampment. No sooner had our sheikh
touched the ground than he was affectionately embraced
7 The best account of the peculiar manners and customs of the
Bedawln are to be found in the writings of Burckhardt; especially his
' Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys,' and in his 'Travels in Arabia.'
There is also much interesting information on this subject in the
'Memoires du Chevalier d'Arvieux,' 6 vols., Paris, 1735.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 167
by his son, a fine boy of about fifteen. This scene at once
brought to my mind some incidents recorded in Scripture,
and seemed, in fact, to realize the interesting narratives of
patriarchal times. The youth placed his hands on his
father's neck, and kissed each cheek, and then they leaned
their heads for a few seconds, while embracing, on each
other's shoulders. Precisely similar was the scene at the
meeting of Jacob and Esau nearly four thousand years
ago. " And Esau ran to meet him, and embraced him,
and fell on his neck, and kissed him." We were soon
surrounded by a little group of wild-looking Arabs, who
manifested intense curiosity at our every movement. Our
luggage was placed within the tent, and comfortable seats
prepared by the hands of 'Amer himself, who now cor
dially welcomed us to his desert home. The whole scene
and circumstances were to us intensely interesting. The
numerous tents grouped together on the parched desert
soil, the wide-spreading flocks and herds browsing peace
fully on every side, and the picturesque and primitive
costumes of those who tended or wandered forth among
them, pictured vividly before our minds the days when
Abraham dwelt in tents, and when Jacob led his family
and flocks across this same desert to the land of promise.
The tents are unquestionably the same as those used in
the most remote ages, for nothing could be imagined more
simple than their construction. An oblong piece of black
goats'-hair cloth is fastened to the ground by ropes and
stakes, at each end and along one side ; several poles,
some seven or eight feet long, placed upon their ends,
keep it at the proper elevation, and leave one side entirely
open — such is the whole fabric. The Bedawin never

168 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
call it a tent ; its invariable name with them is home of
hair. 'Amer having borrowed my knife went to a neighbour
ing tent, occupied by his harim and younger children, to
make ready, as we afterwards found, the feast for his
guests. A lamb was speedily brought by a young man
from the flock, and slain at the tent-door, and the still
quivering limbs were handed over to his wife to be got
ready.8 Meanwhile a semicircle of fierce-looking Arabs
squatted in front of us as we sat in the tent-door : their
whole mien and appearance were far from pleasing ; their
dark complexions, hollow cheeks, flashing eyes, tattered
habiliments, and greasy black hair hanging in long plaits
down upon breast and shoulders, made up a tout ensemble
more picturesque than agreeable. No word was addressed
to us, as they thought we did not understand their lan
guage, and for a time we did not undeceive them that we
might enjoy their remarks. There was no lack of signs
and gestures, and by these they endeavoured to frighten
us for their own sport — one, pointing to a spear that stood
beside the tent, made a quick thrust expressive of running
through one of us : another raised a huge club with an
iron-spiked head, while he examined and felt its knobs all
over with his hand, all the time throwing very significant
glances at us ; several others, stretching out their necks,
drew their fingers across them with looks that could not
be mistaken. We laughed at their acting, and showed *
8 Most of the manners and customs of the modern Bedawin are ana
logous to those of patriarchal times; and there is none who will travel
among these children of the desert but must see and feel with what
faithfulness the sacred penmen represented the minutise of oriental life.
See Gen. xviii. 6-8.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 169
them that we enjoyed the pantomime excessively. We
got so familiar by signs that our entertainers began to try
words, shouting at the pitch of their voices to make it
more intelligible. One youth, the most ferocious-looking
among the group, demanded if we were Christians ; we
replied, Yes, of course : he then said that his religion
would count it commendable to kill us. Mr. Eobson at
once told him that, according to the words of the Prophet,
he was wrong, for in the Koran Muslems were enjoined
merely to take the head-money from Christians, and spare
their lives. They seemed astonished that infidels should
know anything of their law or sacred book, but were more
astonished still that we could understand and speak their
language. The sun went down behind the western hills, and the
deep shadows of evening threw a stern grandeur over the
landscape. Long lines of sheep and camels streaked the
plain and mountain slopes, converging to the encamp
ment. The wind blew cold and biting as the daylight
waned, and we could observe that the flocks crowded
close together round the tents of their masters, as if
to engender and communicate necessary warmth. A
strange Bedawy, with an idiotic cast of features, now
came from the neighbouring tent, carrying in his hand an
instrument like a broken pickaxe, Passing through the
circle of spectators, he advanced towards where we sat,
and, when within a yard of us, raised his weapon and
sunk it deep into the soil at our very knees. The whole
thing was done with such deliberation and quickness,
that we both started back as if the blow had been aimed
at our head. The Arabs around laughed heartily at our
VOL. I. I

170 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
fright, but the operator took not the slightest notice, and
laboured away as if frantic, till he had excavated a con
siderable hole. Another Arab now came up, and threw
in a few of the dry prickly shrubs that grow so plentifully
in the desert ; and then, applying match and tinder, soon
had them in a blaze. A third threw in a cloakful of
dry camels' dung over the burning mass. The skirt of
his under garment supplied the place of bellows, and
fanned the heap into a brisk leaping flame. Thus they
kindled the desert fire, and the half-naked Arabs gathered
round it, spreading out their thin bony hands to catch the
genial warmth, and then rubbing them with evident satis
faction. Ever and anon one of the circle would add fresh
fuel, while others stirred up the smouldering embers with
their hooked sticks or massive clubs. The night wind
too, sweeping round the tent, made the flame leap and
play like a thing of life, and sometimes sent showers of
sparks and hot ashes into the beards of the little circle,
occasioning a momentary confusion, followed by a hearty
laugh. At a signal from the other tent great bustle and ac
tivity was manifested by the group before us. AU rose
up, and elderly men, approaching from various quarters,
saluted us respectfully. 'Amer, his son, and Mohammed
appeared among them, and were soon followed by three
Arabs, bearing between them a monstrous dish, nearly
four feet in diameter, on which was a huge pile of rice,
with the members of a sheep scattered round the sides,
and a large crater-like cavity in the summit, filled with
melted butter. This was placed as near us as the fire
would permit, and resembled, when on the ground, a vol-

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 171
cano in miniature. We were invited to approach and
commence the banquet ; and several elders of the tribe,
with Mohammed, after much pressing, were persuaded to
sit down with us. Our host sat at a respectful distance ;
his son and two or three smaller children close beside
him. It is Arab etiquette for the host to be served last
of all.
The mode in which we ate (I say we, for we followed
the Arabs in this respect) was as primitive as the banquet
itself. Each sunk his fingers into the pile of rice, made
up a portion of it into a ball, dipped it in the butter, and
then swallowed it. A venerable sheikh who sat beside
me, seizing one of the choicest pieces of the sheep, tore off
a handful of the flesh, and presented it to me with the
usual word of invitation and compliment, " tefuddel."'
Fully sensible of the honour done me, I thanked him and
ate the savoury morsel. Each one round now seemed
desirous of emulating him in politeness, and we were
deluged with these tit-bits till nature could hold out no
longer, and we were reluctantly compelled to withdraw.
Under other circumstances it might have been quite as
agreeable to have used our own hands in the process of
carving, especially as it was impossible to ascertain how
many weeks had passed since those of our entertainers
had enjoyed the luxury of a wash ; but those who are in
the desert, if they would not be laughed at and despised,
must follow desert customs.
¦ This word will be familiar to all who have ever visited the East.
With the exception of " bakhshish," there is not perhaps another more
universally known. It is of wide application, and is used to invite a
visitor to enter a house or room, to take a seat, to partake of refresh
ments, &c. &c. It has no synonym in the English language.
I 2

172 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
When we had withdrawn with those who had joined
us, another relay sat down ; and these were followed by
another, until the mountain became a valley of dry bones.
It was only when all had eaten and were satisfied that
'Amer and his son approached and gathered up the frag
ments. Poor fellows ! their fare was but scanty.
As the evening advanced the circle of our visitors
enlarged. The fitful blaze but half revealed the wild
figures that squatted round, and dimly showed the beau
tifully formed heads and soft eyes of two or three mares
that gazed familiarly on the assembly, and the faint out
line of the huge camels picketed in the background.
We were entertained with wild tales of Arab life and
warfare, of bold forays and fierce reprisals, and of the
wondrous speed and endurance of matchless and priceless
mares, whose unbroken genealogies and untold perfections
the whole tribe were proud of. We were eagerly ques
tioned too about our own far distant land — how many
days' journey it was distant? — if there were horses, and
camels, and tents, and Bedawin there? Many a mut
tered wullah passed round the circle as we explained to
them our mode of travel by both land and sea. At last
our host and chief, with a kindness and consideration that
we scarcely expected from the hardy desert child, advised
us to spread our beds and sleep. Weary and shaken with
a long ride and uncomfortable seats we were glad to
follow his advice, and stretch our limbs on the hard
ground. Wrapping round us our heavy cloaks, we were
soon enjoying pleasant slumbers.
I had slept long and soundly, when a rustling near my
head, and a sharp snuffing at my face, roused me to con-

.Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 173
sciousness and to my elbow. Stretching out my hand, it
came in contact with some hairy animal quite close to me.
In the firm belief that a jackal or other beast of prey had
invaded our tent, I seized my stick, which I had taken
the precaution to place beside me, and dealt the intruder
several heavy blows. My adversary, however, kept his
ground, and on a closer examination I found I had been
thrashing a water-skin. The morning showed that some
prowling animal had been endeavouring, fortunately in
vain, to carry off the bag containing our supply of bread.
April 3rd. — A bed on the hard, stony, desert soil
tends to promote early rising ; and for once at least I was
thankful for it. The whole encampment, extending far
away on every side, as viewed in the grey morning light,
was one vast forest of camels, with a dense underwood of
sheep and goats. Presently they began to waver, and the
whole was soon in motion. The smaller animals assembled
in groups, obedient to the call of their masters, and
then followed them far away into the distance. Thus
disappeared flock after flock, each knowing and following
its own shepherd. Occasionally the vast masses mingled,
and for a few moments united ; but this caused no con
fusion, for " a stranger will they not follow : they know
not the voice of a stranger." The Arab maids, in their
graceful flowing robes, each a model for a statuary, now
went forth from their tents to milk the sheep and camels,
and returned again with the foam-crowned pails upon
their heads. It was a purely pastoral and truly patri
archal scene, and well repaid us for an early start.
An attempt at trade in camels between 'Amer and
Mohammed detained us some time ; and had it not been

174 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
for mingled threats and entreaties on our part, would
probably have kept us all day. Our sheikh's dromedary
had now to be coaxed from its associates, with which it
had wandered over the plain, and it was 7*15 ere we were
prepared to mount. Leaping into the saddle, I bade adieu
to our friends, and followed our little party to the tent of
the chief sheikh of the tribe, with whom 'Amer had some
business to transact ere he left. A slave was sent to
invite us to enter and drink coffee ; but as the sheikh
did not come himself, we declined. I here observed an
agent of Abbas Pasha, who had come to purchase horses
for the Egyptian government. In a few minutes we
were again in motion along the undulating plain, in
the same direction we had followed in approaching the
camp on the preceding day. Lofty barren mountain-
chains still shut in the view on each side : those on the
right rising apparently to a broad table -land. Some dis
tance in front the ranges converged, so as to leave only a
narrow gorge between. Toward this we bent our course,
in a direction nearly due east.
In an hour and a half we descended into a plain resem
bling a vast amphitheatre. A narrow wady leads from it
through the mountains on the right. Before us, on the
left, rose two isolated conical hills, called 'Aid and
'Ab$eh — "The male and female slava" Northward of
these, at the distance of about two hours, lies the village
of Kuryetein, but the intervening mountains hid it from
our ,view. The whole landscape was now desolate and
deserted : the flinty plain and cold grey mountain-slopes
did not present to the eye a single interesting feature ; it
was all light too, there was no shade to vary the scene or

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 175
the colour, for the sun had mounted high in the heavens,
and the hills sloped easily to their rounded summits.
We felt indeed that we were fairly launched on an unin
habited and inhospitable desert ; and we felt too that our
little party could offer but a feeble resistance to the fierce
bands that frequently scour it in search of plunder.
Often did our eyes sweep the panorama, and carefully did
we examine every heap of stones or projecting rock, lest
they might conceal the lurking bandits or swift troopers.
The excitement thus kept up served to relieve the mono
tony of the prospect, and to counteract the sleep-inducing
pace of our dromedaries.
I had been examining for some moments the singular
forms of the conical peaks 'Abd and 'Abdeh, when my
attention was suddenly attracted by a black line just
emerging from behind the northern base of the latter. I
at once directed 'Amer's attention to it, but he could not
see it. The dark body, however, gradually and swiftly
increased in length, and seemed to expand. Our chief
eagerly inquired whether the body was composed of foot
or horsemen, but the distance was so great that I could
only guess from the quick motion that they were mounted.
Mohammed was now called, and, leaping lightly to 'Amer's
side, he pronounced them to be a party of cavaliers.
With a quick movement our little caravan was conducted
behind a rising ground to escape observation ; but i * was
too late — the eagle eye of the Arab had already detected
us. A horseman was seen to separate from the caravan.
At first he appeared like a bird skimming over the sur
face of the ground; and the rapid pace at which he
swept down the gentle slope would have led one to sup-

176 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
pose that it must be some winged animal approaching.
The outline of the steed soon became visible, and then the
form of the rider crouched close to his back ; then the
tufted spear projecting far in front : and ere we had sur
mounted the rising ground the tattered Arab reined up
his noble steed within fifty yards of us. We had viewed
this scene with lively interest. Never before had I seen
the Arab horse on his native desert ; and however exciting
were the present circumstances, and however calculated
to awaken suspicions of coming danger, perhaps of plun
der, yet admiration was the only feeling we entertained
for the moment. And when the stranger drew up, and
his mare stood patient and gentle, without symptom of
weariness or quickness of breathing, but with expanded
nostril and proud eye, I could see at once why the Arab
loves his horse; The horse is everything to him. Money
he cannot use to advantage, and his simple wants are
easily supplied. His few sheep or camels gather their
food from a parched soil which no other lord claims. A
genial clime makes rich clothing — such a costly toy to
the denizens of the city and to civilized nations — of little
use to him. A tattered garment will serve him for
years, and the simple furniture of his tent is generally
hereditary. What, therefore, would be money to him ?
But his noble horse will carry him swiftly over the
parched desert, to the side of the devoted caravan or
solitary wanderer ; and when danger threatens, he will as
swiftly convey him beyond its reach.
'Amer gave a brief reply to a question of the stranger,
whereupon the saldm was mutually given ; and the Arab
was in a few minutes more at the head of his moving tribe.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 177
At 10-50 we were sweeping along the plain at the
southern base of 'Abd. Here we met a portion of the
tribe, with the sheikh at their head. He was arrayed in
his scarlet cloak, and splendidly mounted on a beautiful
white mare. Friendly greetings were interchanged, and
the tobacco-pouch of Mohammed considerably lightened ;
we then went on our journey in peace. Large droves of
sheep and camels, intermixed with a number of young
colts, covered the whole plain around us ; while the women
and children appeared here and there, perched on the top
of huge camels, and surrounded with piles of cooking
vessels. In a long march they often prepare the food on
the camels' backs, and serve it out to their husbands,
brothers, or sons. The harims of the principal sheikhs
presented a singular and picturesque appearance. Two
long poles, ornamented with tassels innumerable and varie
gated drapery, are laid across the back of some favourite
dromedary, which is .itself adorned with shells, tassels, and
fringes. A small palanquin, with curtains of scarlet cloth
gaily embroidered, is placed in the centre, and in this sit
the wives and children. At a distance these machines
look like gigantic birds with outstretched wings floating
over the surface of the ground. The females did not by
any means manifest the same coyness as the village belles,
but looked eagerly at us with uncovered faces, and some
of them even welcomed us to their native desert.
We soon after entered a fine glen, whose sloping sides
were carpeted with the wild anemone, the iris, and several
other smaller flowers, while the summits were crowned,
far overhead, with frowning cliffs of naked rock. After a
gentle ascent and quick descent, this glen led us, in about
I 3

178 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
half an hour, into a deep wady, running at nearly right
angles to our route. We observed as we entered it a
single dromedary coming down the opposite side, accom
panied by a man on foot. As soon as 'Amer learned that
there was at least one man mounted, he prepared for
action. A pair of old pistols, hitherto shut up in his
saddle-bags, were hastily drawn out, fresh primed, and
thrust into his belt. A huge club, his only other weapon,
was handed to Mohammed. Thus equipped we cautiously
approached our suspected foes. As we drew near we per
ceived that there were three, all well armed for Bedawin.
The man mounted in front had a long matchlock, the
match of which he lit at some distance ; his companion
carried a short spear, and the footman a formidable club.
Our chief, seeing the odds thus against him, eagerly asked
whether we carried pistols, and, on being answered in the
affirmative, proceeded with renewed confidence. I con
fess, however, that I felt rather doubtful about the pro
priety of risking an engagement. 'Amer's old pistols I
knew could not be depended on, and, even should they
chance to go off, would be just as likely to shoot himself
as his opponent, for they had been loaded for more than
three months. Mr. Eobson and I had only one pistol
between us ; this, however, was double-barrelled, and I
felt confident that it would not miss fire, which was more
than the Bedawy could say of his gun. On we went now
in full expectation of a fight. There was a short parley
at a distance of some fifty yards, during which our foes
examined us, calculating their chances of success in an
attempt to plunder us. We took good care to exhibit our
whole armament, and a sight of this apparently led them

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 179
to conclude that it might just be as safe to let us pass ; and
thus we separated without uttering a word.
Arabs in the desert are never afraid of large companies
or moving tribes, except they are foes with whom they
have a blood-feud ; but they always fear stragglers. These
generally leave their tribe for the sake of plunder, and as
they conceal their faces it is impossible to identify them,
and there is therefore no hope of restitution or retaliation.
When a robber of this kind is killed in the act of robbing
another, his own people disown him, and there is no blood-
feud in consequence of his death. It is against such as
these that travellers must be on their guard in the desert.
A mere exhibition of fire-arms will generally serve to
frighten them ; for they well know that they are outlaws,
and may be shot with impunity. Against a large party,
however, it is worse than useless to make any show of
resistance ; these are the acknowledged guards of their
tribe, and they consider it their just right to plunder all
that enter their territory without permission. The best
policy is to yield to them with a good grace, and under
ordinaiy circumstances they will generally be satisfied
with a liberal bakhshish.
From the valley we ascended by a long uniform slope
to a high table-land, which stretches away in gentle undu
lations to the south. Unlike the arid flinty plains, it was
covered with long thin grass and some few prickly shrubs ;
while blue and red iris, convolvolus of various colours,
and a small yellow flower whose name I did not know,
were thickly sprinkled over it. In front, a little to the
left, rose a lofty conical peak that at once attracted our
attention. The top seemed capped with a deep shadow

180 r .JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
and the sides were also speckled with similar shadows,
Closer examination showed that this singular appearance
was produced by differently coloured strata of rock. The
whole surrounding country, both plains and mountains,
was composed of white limestone, mixed with beds and
nodules of flint ; but this peak was of sandstone, of lighter
and darker hues, from a dull red, almost black, to a faint
pink colour. This was probably caused by the presence
of oxide of iron, in larger and smaller quantities, in the
several strata. This mountain must form a conspicuous
landmark from a great distance on the south, as it over
tops most of the others around it; and the beauty and
brilliancy of its colours naturally attract attention. It is
called by the Arabs Jebel el-Kehdleh. We passed it at
three o'clock.
When parallel with this mountain we came suddenly to
the brow of a long and steep slope, forming the head of a
fine valley that stretched away eastward, far as the eye
could see. Lofty mountain-ranges, with bold and rugged
features, shut it in on each side ; and on the distant hori
zon these terminated in high conical peaks, between which
the vale seemed to open upon the great desert plain. The
dry bed of a winter-torrent meandered through it, and
from our commanding position we could trace it as it
wound along like a thread of silver until lost in the far
distance. The rounded pebbles of white limestone that
glistened along its path contrasted well with the verdure
of its banks, now carpeted with grass and rank weeds
after the winter's rain ; and one could almost fancy that
his eye followed the tortuous course of some gently-flowing
river.

Chap. TV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 181
When we reached the valley our patient animals seemed
suddenly to feel the pangs of hunger, or perhaps they
were lured by the tempting food around them ; for their
course became erratic, and they stretched their long slen
der necks from side to side, cropping the juicy weed or
tuft of grass. The increasing roll of their walk, and the
sharp jerk of their trot, were bad enough for our weary
bones ; but when we began to be treated to these inter
ludes of plucking up in passing the luxuriant herbage, the
motion became almost too much for endurance. I was
indeed beginning to feel angry enough to beat my drome
dary into better behaviour and more steady conduct when
other matters came in for a share of my attention. In
examining the country around, Mohammed's eagle eye
detected the heads of two men peeping over a white
mound in the distance, and at once pronounced them
robbers — rather prematurely as I thought, for I could only
perceive two dark spots, which might have been stones
for all I could telL The wily 'Amer determined at any
rate not to run into a trap, but, if robbers they were, to
ascertain their strength and draw them from their am
bush. Tapping his dromedary on the neck, he turned it
aside from the centre of the valley towards the mountains
on the left, and proceeded at a quick pace. We had not
gone far when the heads disappeared, and presently two
men were seen on the other side of the mound, running
across to intercept us. There was now no doubt as to
their character and intentions; there were but the two,
however, and, unless armed with long guns, we cared
little for them. They came up at a rapid pace as we
resumed our former route— their cloaks were carefully

182 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA Chap. IV.
folded round their bodies, and their kefiyehs so drawn
over the face as to leave nothing exposed but their eyes.
No weapon could be seen save the knobs of their clubs
just appearing over their right shoulders. 'Amer dis
mounted, the heavy club in his hand, and told us to be
on our guard. When within some fifty yards, the strangers
asked who we were. 'Amer replied that we were Arabs
on our way to Tadmor. They then attempted to approach
close to him, but he drew out one of his old pistols to
show them that he knew their intentions, and as an in
telligible hint that they must keep a safe distance. This
had the desired effect, and as they retreated one of them
loosed the folds of his cloak, thus revealing the hilt of a
sword and the handle of a pistol.
We now passed over undulating ground, intersected by
deep ravines, and having little conical chalk hills at short
intervals. Mohammed was sent out in front to act as
advance guard, and give notice of any danger that might
threaten ; and we were strictly enjoined not to sing, or
even talk except in whispers. On we swept in utter
silence — the cushioned feet of the dromedaries descending
noiselessly on the light soil, and the grass tufts and weeds
being cropped as usual. Our eyes scanned anxiously
every nook and corner of the landscape, in the expectation
of detecting some lurking bandit, and then turned again
in half-disappointment to gaze on the lovely little flowers
that carpeted our path, and that seemed in truth to be
" born to blush unseen, and waste their sweetness on the
desert air." The scenery around was grand, but it was
the grandeur of desolation ; and it was unvarying too, and
therefore monotonous. A joyful shout from the Ageily,

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 183
whom we could see standing on the summit of a mound
a quarter of a mile in front, roused us from sober re
flection, and made us quicken our pace. We had soon
swept round the base of the little tell, and then saw away
in the distance a clump of Arab tents, occupying a verdant
nook at the entrance of a wild ravine. The sun was
already fast sinking to the western horizon, and the hills
on our left, enveloped in deep shadow, assumed a wild
and gloomy aspect. We had begun to anticipate the plea
sure of spending a night in the open air, without water,
and without a shelter from the cold blast. It may be
imagined then how the sight of these few tents cheered
us, and with what pleasure we urged our weary animals
toward them.
As we approached the little encampment we wrapped
our cloaks around us, and concealed our features in the
ample folds of our kefiyehs. We advanced directly to
the largest tent, which stood a short distance from the
others, and dismounting in silence spread our carpets and
cloaks in the tent-door and took our places. Not a word
was addressed to us, and a little circle of four or five
elders, who squatted a few yards off, scarcely looked at us
with ordinary curiosity as we made our simple arrange
ments, and claimed, uninvited, their hospitality. 'Amer
and Mohammed advanced to the circle of Arabs, who rose
to receive them, and gave them the ordinary salutation.
They all now approached to where we sat and bade us
welcome. A circle was formed as usual, but there was
little conversation. There were but a few tents, and their
occupants seemed poor. Their flocks were not numerous,
and I saw only one horse. They had probably separated,

184 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
from some larger tribe on account of family feuds. The
other end of the tent, which was appropriated by the
women, presented a very different aspect from the quiet
and silence of our department. All was bustle and hurry
there. Two women sat down to grind at the mill, while
a third shook a skin of milk that was suspended to the
top of the tent, to prepare butter for the evening's repast ;
and several others arranged the fires and brought forth the
largest cooking vessels. The result of their labours was
soon apparent, for ere the brief twilight had passed a large
dish of burghuV was set before us, with a profusion of
melted butter. The people were too poor to afford a lamb
or even a kid, and they presented the best they had.
Hungry as we were, we could scarcely taste this rude fare;
we tried however to swallow a few mouthfuls, and the
increasing darkness favoured our attempts at politeness.
April 4:th. — We were up with the dawn, and in the
saddle ten minutes after. We had no toilets to attend to,
and the Arabs never eat breakfast. We found, however,
that, early as we got up, some of the ladies were before us,
as we could perceive several of them in the grey light of
the morning setting out with their donkeys and water-
skins to bring water from a neighbouring well. This
well, we were informed, is called Basireh, and is situated
half an hour distant up the glen. There is another well
of living water on the opposite side of the valley, an hour
and a quarter distant, called 'Ada.
The morning was bitterly cold as we rode up a gentle
' Burghul is wheat coarsely ground or broken, with the bran in it,
Boiled in 'water, and dressed with butter or sour milk, it is the staple
food of the Arabs.

j J I.

Chap. TV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. lB'5
slope from the encampment, and, though we made use of
all our heavy coats and covered up our feet with the
lehafs, we could scarce keep out the cutting blasts that
swept over the mountains. The cry of robbers soon drew
away our attention from the cold. Three men were
observed attempting to intercept us as we crossed a large
swell in the plain. To escape or avoid them was impos
sible, and so we prepared to meet and resist them. They
came upon us as the others had done, but one of them
carried a long matchlock. 'Amer gave the club to the
Ageily, and told us to prepare for an attack. They were
soon near us, but our variant chief was on the ground to
meet them. With a pistol in each hand he confronted
the advancing marauders. Seeing they still approached
him, I threw off my cloak and drew a pistol : Mohammed
too flourished his club. When they saw us determined to
resist, one of them dropped behind his companions and
squatted on the ground, and the others only followed us a
few paces farther. The whole scene was a pantomime —
not a word was spoken on either side : each party care
fully scanned the opposite, and calculated the probabilities
of an encounter. The others seemed to think the chances
of success were in our favour, and we were heartily glad
it was so, for I verily believe that, sooner than have sub
mitted to be stripped, with the almost certain prospect of
perishing of cold afterwards, we would have disabled one
or more of the bandits. It is an inconvenient habit these
Arab robbers have of stripping their victims of every stitch
of clothing, however rich may have been their baggage
and however full their purse. During my short experi
ence in Syria I have known more than one instance in

186 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
which even ladies have shared the fate of their lords in
this respect
At nine o'clock we were in the midst of vast herds and
a large encampment. Our chief met a friend who invited
us to go to his tent and eat dates. The offer was too
tempting to be refused, though it led us some distance
out of our route. We were ere long comfortably seated
in a capacious tent, with a monster dish before us filled
with delicious dates, and having in the centre a large cake
of snowy butter. Such a mixture I had never before seen
or heard of, but it is a common one with the Bedawin,
and we found it excellent. Before leaving Damascus we
had heard that the Baghdad caravan had been plundered,
and now here were we seated, partaking of the spoil, the
invited guests of the robbers. The affair looked bad
enough in theory, but then we had ridden nearly four
hours without breakfast, and our entertainers thought
moreover that they had a perfect right to the contents of
the caravan. It was scarcely a suitable time for us to
enter on a discussion of abstruse questions in moral phi
losophy. Trespassers are often severely punished in Eng
land, and why may not the Bedawin borrow a leaf from
the English code ? The laws of the desert, it is true, are
somewhat severe, and their execution summary. All
goods found within the borders of a tribe are confiscated.
But these laws are of great antiquity and universally
known ; all therefore who despise them must just bear the
consequences when caught. There is another fact which
tends to palliate this so-called crime. Every Arab tribe
will, for a very small percentage, guarantee the safety of
a caravan through its own territory. It is only when one

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 187
tribe gets the monopoly of conveyance, and refuses to
others their just rights, that caravans are attacked and
plundered. After a rest of forty minutes we again resumed our
journey, and the black tents and wide-spreading flocks of
our friends were in due time left far behind and shut out
from view by the undulations of the plain. Our course
was still in the great valley, and the scenery around pre
sented the same general features. Towards noon a voice
hailed us from the opposite side of a deep ravine, along
which for a time we had travelled. I knew not what
questions were asked, but never before had I seen so wild
and savage-looking a specimen of humanity. His whole
wardrobe was composed of the tattered remnant of a blue
shirt, that covered about the fourth part of his body ; his
head was bare, but nature had covered it with a thick
crop of hair, that flowed in long straggling elf-locks over
breast and shoulders ; his voice was shrill and piercing,
even for an Arab ; and his questions were asked with the
abruptness peculiar to his race, and in a tone that seemed
accustomed to command. A short boar-spear was his only
weapon, and on this he leaned as he shrieked his queries
across the wild gorge that separated us.
Mohammed, who was still acting as avant-guard, had
been for some time out of sight, and 'Amer manifested
considerable anxiety about him on being told that several
men were in sight in the direction from which our late
friend had come. "Ya Mohammed! Ya Mohammed!"
he shouted, and his voice resounded across the plain ; but
no Mohammed responded or appeared. We rode on

188 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA Chap. IV.
between low mounds of naked reddish earth, exercising
both eyes and lungs. At last on surmounting an erninenoe
we observed, in the far distance, black tents and moving
flocks covering nearly the whole valley, while little groups
of cavaliers dashed about among them in mimic warfare.
And there at our feet was Mohammed calmly gazing on
the exciting scene.
We were now marching close to the base of the north
ern line of mountains, and had the greater part of the
valley, here some four or five miles wide, on our righto
We could see that about four hours more would usher us
into the great plain that began to open up on the east.
The character and features of the country hitherto were
far different from my early impressions of the road to
" Tadmor in the Wilderness." Fancy had pictured a
boundless plain covered with the white shifting sands,
without a blade of grass or even a green weed to break
the eternal monotony. I had pictured too a solitary palm-
tree shading a little fountain and standing all alone in the
midst of the vast expanse. But here were noble mountain**
ranges, and wild ravines, and long winding vales; and
the whole covered, scantily it is true, with tufts of grass,
and prickly shrubs, and little flowers of brightest hue to
sweeten and enliven the scene. There was no sand, and
there were no palm-trees to mark the places where living
waters spring. In no way did it satisfy my ideas of a
desert, save in this — that there were no settled inhabitants
and no traces of them. '
At 1*45, as we were passing a large tent in the outskirts
of an encampment, a friendly voice suddenly cried, " Ya

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 189
'Amer ! Ya 'Amer ! Hauwel ! Hauwel ! " 2 and in a mo
ment more our chief was in the arms of an aged Arab,
who embraced and kissed him most lovingly. Another
and another came up and went through the same cere
mony. It was quite impossible to resist the importunities
of these hospitable men. We must dismount — sheep
must be slain — princely banquets must be prepared in
honour of the arrival of 'Amer and the illustrious strangers.
Our dromedaries were seized and pulled to the ground,
and we were all but dragged from their backs and trans
ported per force into the interior of the tent. Long and
loud did we remonstrate. We had expected to reach
Palmyra in the evening, and this besides was no pleasant
place for us to spend the afternoon. It was in vain, how-
. ever, and so, when we could do nothing else, we quietly
, sat down on our carpets to await the will of our masters.
We were scarcely seated when we observed a young
man bind on his sandals3 and set off at speed across the
plain. In half an hour he returned bearing a lamb on his
shoulders. The poor animal was soon stretched upon the
ground, bleeding and in the agonies of death. Stripped
of its skin with Arab despatch, the yet quivering body was
handed over to the tenants of the harim.
The whole of this scene, however inconvenient under
present circumstances, was regarded by both Mr. Eobson
8 " 0 'Amer ! 0 'Amer ! stop, stop !" We afterwards learned that
i this was a portion of 'Amer's own tribe that had lately separated from
the main body, to pasture their flocks in this fine vale.
8 The Bedawin never wear shoes. When their tents are pitched on
, gravelly soil, they wear a piece of undressed leather the size and shape
of the sole, fastening it on by thongs bound over the foot and round
; the ankle.— See Acts xii. 8. The " shoe-latchet " of Gen. xiv. 23, was a
sandal-thong.

190 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
and myself with deep interest. It seemed as if we had
been carried back more than three thousand years in the
world's history, and by some mysterious providence per
mitted to mingle with the people of patriarchal times.
The salutations we heard around us, and those addressed
to ourselves, were such as had been familiar to us from
childhood in the simple stories of Abraham and the angels
in the plains of Mamre,4 and of Jacob and Laban at
Padan-Aram.5 Here was the aged sheikh sitting in his
tent-door watching for chance wayfarers — here was the
generous hospitality that would constrain us to remain
until we had partaken of refreshments — here too were the
wide-spreading flocks from which the lamb was brougk,
and the almost inconceivable expedition with whieh it
was killed and dressed and served up with butter arid
milk.6 The solemn interview between Abraham and the
angels in the plain of Mamre was now pictured on our
minds in far more brilliant colours than it had ever been
before. The whole of that graphic narrative was strik
ingly illustrated by what had just occurred to ourselves.
"Abraham sat in the tent-door in the heat of the day;
and he lift up his eyes and looked, and, lo, three men
stood by him ; and when he saw them he ran to meet

* Gen. xviii. 2 and 3. ' Gen. xxix.
6 The Arab butter is made in the usual way by churning the milk,
The process of churning is somewhat singular. A skin of milk is tied
up to a tent-pole, and shaken by a woman until the butter separates.
When fresh, the butter is tolerable; but when it has stood some time,
the taste, and even the smell of the skin, come out pretty Btrong,
Milk is of two kinds — fresh, called halib ; and curdled, called lebrn. The
latter is a common kind of refreshment. It is evidently the HKDn
hemah, which Abraham gave the angels, and whieh Jael gave to Sisera
(Judg. v. 25).

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 191
them from the tent-door, . . . and said, My lord, if now I
have found favour in thy sight, pass not away, I pray
thee, from thy servant ; . . . And I will fetch a morsel of
bread, and comfort ye your hearts; after that ye shall
pass on. . . . And Abraham ran into the herd, and fetched
a calf tender and good, and gave it unto a young man ;
and he hasted to dress it. And he took butter, and milk,
and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before
them."7 Wishing to wander among the tents and take a look at
the private Ufe and social habits of the Bedawin, I set out
alone. I had not proceeded far however when I was
attacked by a number of fierce dogs. Standing on the
summit of a heap of stones I managed to keep them at a
distance for a time ; but every moment increased the
number of my assailants, and I know not what might
have been the result had not two women come to my
rescue. I thanked my fair allies in the best manner I
could, and they in return invited me to their tents, which
were close by. I did not quite understand Arab etiquette
on this point, and consequently declined. I well knew
that, if their lords at all resembled the Muslems of the
cities, they would not wish to have their haTims visited in
their absence. The invitations given me were very press
ing, and the promises held forth such as no Arab could
withstand — dates, leben, butter, milk, and honey, were
all mentioned among the dainties to which they would
treat me. But I would not be persuaded, and simply
1 requested one of my kind friends to escort me back to my
; tent. 1 Gen. xviii. 1-8.

192 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
I have often heard it said that the Arab women are
generally plain in features. I cannot by any means agree
with this statement. I have now seen many of them in
different places, and belonging to different tribes, and in
general I have found their features regular, and even
handsome. Their bodies are finely proportioned, and their
carriage and walk easy and graceful. All of them have
that rich, black, lustrous eye that is only seen in perfec
tion in the East. The forehead is open and high, and the
eyebrows beautifully arched. The mouth is well formed,
with proudly curved lines ; but this feature is universally
disfigured by the custom of staining the under lip dark
blue. The braided hair is almost quite covered by a black
veil that hangs gracefully over the shoulders, the corner
of which is frequently brought forward to cover the lower
part of the face. The whole dress consists of a long, loose,
blue robe of coarse calico. It is drawn closely round the
throat, has wide hanging sleeves, and sweeps the ground
like a train when they walk. A profusion of bracelets of
gold or silver adorn the arms, and large rings and drops
hang from the ears; but only a few of them wear the
nose-jewel. This simple costume is admirably adapted to
display the symmetry of their form and gracefulness of
their movements : it causes no restraint or stiffness, but,
allowing full play to nature, leaves all the beautiful pro-*
portions of the body to be fully developed. The gay
votaries of fashion in the more polished nations of the
West might imitate, to some extent, and with great ad-.
vantage, the simple attire of these daughters of the desert.
It is true beauty only lasts here while the bloom of
youth is on the cheek and health gives elasticity and fui-

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 193
ness to the frame. The noble and stately matron, to
whose countenance the lines of time give even more true
beauty, and to whose form the staidness of advancing age
adds fresh dignity, is not found in the desert. The aged
Arab women are hideously ugly, and there is a malignity
in the glance of their piercing eyes, and in the general
expression of their sharp features and withered faces, that
reminds one of Macbeth's witches. Still this does not
arise from the character of the costume ; there are other
and far more lamentable causes to which it must be attri
buted. It is the light of the intellect beaming through
the countenance that makes beauty perennial in civilized
lands. It is the mind, enlarged by education, refined by
social intercourse, and sanctified by religion, that makes
the matrons of England so truly graceful. When the
roses fade upon the cheeks and the fresh fulness leaves
the form, a beauty of a higher and nobler kind takes their
place. Intelligence beams from the eyes, and animates
each feature ; benignity and love are enshrined in every
smile; while the magic influence of conversation, which
serves to display all the resources of a cultivated mind and
all the deep feelings of a regenerated soul, gives the whole
person a charm above that of earth. The light of religion
;• does not shine upon the daughters of Ishmael. Christi
anity has not raised the powers of their minds to nobler
or holier objects than the tending of their flocks and the
care of their tents ; and neither has it touched the heart
to unbind the deep and tender emotions seated there.
The beauty of the Arab girl is but that of the spring
flower, which withers under the summer's sun, and dies
when the cold blast of autumn blows upon it.
VOL. I. K

194 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
We had the sumptuous evening repast, and the bright
camp-fire, and the picturesque circle that gathered round
it, and the spirited tales of " hair-breadth 'scapes, and
moving incidents," and successful forays; but all these
could not withdraw our thoughts from Tadmor. We
could not forget that that " wonder of the desert" was still
before us, and only a few hours distant. We spoke of it
in our own tongue, heedless of the inquiring faces around
us, and wondered whether it would disappoint our bright
anticipations. To prepare for an early start, we wrapped
ourselves up in our abeihs, and tried to sleep. The wind
blew loud, and currents, bitterly cold, came sweeping over
our faces ; and the old tent swayed and flapped, and sleep,
though courted, refused to come. I turned on my hard
couch, as a last resource, but this made matters worse. A
little group had gathered round the declining fire, crouch
ing close to the warm embers. 'Amer was there, and
anxiety, as I imagined, pictured in his countenance. He
talked earnestly, and in low tones, with those who sat near
him — mostly old men. I could occasionally gather a few
words, and these did not tend to induce that repose of mind
conducive to sleep. To-morrow's journey was the subject
of conversation : some difficulty was in the way — some
danger seemed to threaten. The mountains were named,
and the plain too was spoken of; but in what connexion I
could not comprehend. My attention was roused, and I
tried, but in vain, to catch the varying tones, and to
follow the hasty words. Imagination, also, came into play,
and fancy pictured all kinds of dangers and adventures.
A gloomy impression was left upon my mind, and I had
not vigour enough, weary as I was, to overcome it.

Phap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 195
April 5th. — A gentle touch on the shoulder made me
start from sleep. It was yet dark, and I was in that half-
conscious state in which one often finds himself when
suddenly roused from heavy slumber. I knew not where
I was,, or why disturbed, and no object was visible to
rouse me to a sense of my whereabouts. The deep growl
of a dromedary, and the voice of 'Amer calling us to
mount, soon brought me from the land of dreams. A cold
and cutting blast blew strongly in my face as I left the
tent, and sent me back for my heavy coat ; over this, when
seated on my impatient animal, I threw the ample folds of
an abeih, and, thus protected against the intense cold, I
joined my companions. The first gray streak was stretched
along the eastern horizon as we bad adieu to our hospitable
entertainers. It was 5-20 when we left the tent, and our path lay
near the base of the northern mountains, to which we
gradually approached. Some of the ravines that furrow
the sides of these hills are deep and wild, and we found
difficulty in crossing them even in the plain. At 6 "25 we
suddenly turned to the left up a narrow, deep, and rocky
defile, that appeared to divide the mountain-chain to its
centre. The mysterious conversation of the previous night
now recurred to me, and, glancing down the valley to the
right, I saw several small encampments in the distance. I
inquired if we were not going down the valley to the
desert beyond, and if that were not the easiest and best
route. 'Amer replied that this was shorter ; but the Ageily
added that there were robbers on the other. I at once
said that, if those were they in the distant tents, they had
detected and were pursuing us, as some horsemen were
K 2

196 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
now coming up from them at a fast pace. 'Amer showed
neither fear nor anxiety at this intelligence ; but whether
his confidence arose from the nature of the defile we had
now entered, or from the close proximity of his friends, or
from a knowledge of the Arabs themselves, I cannot tell.
In a few minutes more we were climbing up a steep and
difficult zigzag path. Lofty broken cliffs with jagged
summits towered far overhead on each side, and straggling
prickly shrubs, shooting out from chinks andcrevices, added
wildness to the scene. The way was extremely difficult for
camels, and more than once did I fear that the unwieldy
animals would have toppled over when scaling a steep
slope, or passing along a shelving ridge. I did not feel at
ease when I considered the whole matter ; I knew sufficient
of the general features of the country to feel assured that
an easier, if not a shorter, way to Tadmor would have
been found round the eastern end of the mountain-chain;
and if so, it was no small thing that would send our sober
chief over such a pass as this. The strange consultations'
of the previous night, too, still kept my mind uneasy.
The talk about the "mountains" and the "plain" now
seemed half explained, and I looked forward with some
anxiety to the conclusion of our journey.
When we reached the top of the pass and the narrow
summit of the ridge, a view of vast extent and consider'
able beauty opened up before us. At our feet was abroad
plain, perfectly flat, extending away to the west far as the
eye could see. Beyond it, on the north, rose a bold and
lofty chain of white mountains, whose rugged sides were
furrowed by wild ravines, and partially covered with oak
forests. On the east, at the distance of several hours, the

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 197
two parallel chains, that on the north, and the one on
whose ridge we now stood, turned at nearly right angles to
their course, and converged so as to leave but a narrow pass
into the desert beyond.
" Where is Tadmor ?" we eagerly inquired, as we gazed
on this vast panorama.
"Yonder," said our guide; and he pointed with his
hooked stick to the vista in the eastern hills.
We strained our eyes toward the spot, but it was in vain.
The crumbhng ruins of the city of Zenobia were still
either obscured by the distance or covered by the inter
vening hills.
As we descended the mountains, 'Amer asked me, with
apparent anxiety, if I saw any tents, or flocks, or Arabs in
the plain. I examined it all, but could see none. On the
far side, immediately below an oak forest, were a number
of black spots resembling tents; but Mohammed pro
nounced them trees, and perhaps he was correct.
"Yonder hills," said 'Amer, pointing to the opposite
range, distant about twelve miles — " yonder hills are called
Jebel el-AHad? Among them live a fierce and warlike
race of people, whom we are not able to subdue. They
have guns and horses; they live in stone houses and
villages, and they never wander free like us."
" Are they cultivators of the soil, or do they merely feed
flocks like the Bedawin?" I asked.
8 Jebel el-Aiiad signifies the "white mountains." This range runs
unbroken from Kuryetein along the northern side of a great valley to
Tadmor. It may be regarded as a continuation of one of the side ridges
of Anti-Lebanon, which, I above observed, forms the north-weBtern
boundary of the plain of Jerud. The Jebel el-Abiad are mentioned in
Burckhardt's Travels in Syr., App. No. VI.

198 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
" They are all shepherds, and never plant or sow," was
his reply.
This was new information to me, and I greatly doubted,
and still doubt, its accuracy. There are undoubtedly a
few straggling villages in the desert between northern
Syria and the Euphrates ; and if we are to derive our in->
formation from Berghaus' map, we might conclude that
there are few districts in Western Asia more densely in
habited. I had never heard before in this country that
there was any district in that region so thickly peopled as
'Amer represented. He could not have meant the Jacobites
of Sudud, and the two or three little villages near it, for
these are far to the westward, and in the plain. I do not
think, however, that 'Amer would tell a deliberate false
hood ; there was nothing to provoke it. It is highly pro
bable that this district, like the Safa, is naturally strong
and difficult of access, and that some Arab tribe has, from
time immemorial, held possession of it, and there pastured
their flocks and herds, secure against the depredations' of
the wild desert hordes. There may be also half-ruined
towns and villages similar to those in the Lejah,9 among
which the people find shelter for their families and flocks.1
At seven o'clock we reached the plain, and at once set
out steadily toward the break in the mountains to the
east. The ground was here barren and gravelly, and the

9 Both the Lejah and the Safa will be described in the sequel.
1 During a recent visit to the country around the town of Hums,
of which an account will be given in its proper place, I was informed
that the mountain region in the direction of Jebel el-Abiad is thickly
studded with ruined towns and villages of considerable antiquity. The
houses were described as built of stone,, like those in the Hauran; and
many of them are said still to remain entire.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 199
surface slightly undulating. In the ravines and vales
among the hills on the right were considerable expanses of
brushwood, intermixed with some few dwarf oaks ; and in
many places there appeared to be excellent pasturage. I
could perceive no vestiges of former cultivation on any part
of the plain or mountains ; no green spot that marked the
presence of stream or fountain ; and no mouldering ruin or
solitary cairn to show that man had ever dwelt here. All
was dreary, desolate, and blasted, as if a curse hung over
the land. The geological features of this whole region are
wonderfully uniform, the mountain ridges being wholly
composed of calcareous limestone of a soft texture, and the
plains covered with fragments of this rock, intermixed with
pieces of flint. The sun's rays, when they beat directly
on the gravelly soil, soon destroy all vegetation, and con
sequently during the summer and autumn it is bare and
white almost as the naked rock. There is thus a want of
colour in the landscape ; and as during the day there is no
light and shade to bring out the bolder features of the
mountains, and no clouds to vary the eternal blue of the
bright firmament above, or to throw a temporary gloom
over sections of the panorama below, the whole scene looks
bare and monotonous.
The day was now bright and sultry, and the heated air
danced and quivered on the surface of the ground, like
ripples on a lake. Every little shrub and rock appeared
as if in motion. Away in the distance the mirage exerted
its magic influence, and converted the parched soil into
vast expanses of water, fringed with long grass and waving
reeds.2 While contemplating this strange and interesting
2 The name of the mirage in Arabic is serdb t^K^,, which corresponds

200 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
phenomenon, I perceived something moving as if through
the water toward us ; I could see, or at least I thought
so, the splash occasioned by every footstep. Nearer and
nearer it came, till, on reaching the shore-line, its form
became more defined, and I apprised 'Amer of the ap
proach of a swift dromedary. Great anxiety was again
pictured in his features as he asked from whence it came,
and whether it was alone. The old pistols were now once
more in requisition, and the club was given over to
Mohammed, while we were told to prepare for war.
The dromedary drew near, and a cold saldm was inter
changed between 'Amer and the rider. Our chief evidently
knew the stranger, and I heard him inquire as he passed
where his tribe was. He pointed with his short spear
northward across the plain, and said they were yonder at
the foot of the mountains. 'Amer now turned his drome
dary in that direction, and proceeded thus till the stranger
was out of sight, when he again struck to the right in
nearly an opposite course, taking advantage of a shallow
wady to escape all possibility of observation. We could
not of course fully understand these manoeuvres, and our
leader was not communicative. We suspected, however,
that there was danger to be anticipated from the northward
At ten o'clock we reached low white chalk hills, which
extend from the base of the mountains some distance into
the plain. The best and most direct route for us was
manifestly to the left of these, but 'Amer struck in among
them, and proceeded in a winding course through the
to the Hebrew 21B>. This illustrates Isa. xxxv. 7, where we may read
"the mirage shall become a lake." A more remarkable manifestation
of the Divine blessing bestowed on a land could not be conceived than
the changing of such a plain as this into a lake.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 201
valleys. This made it still more evident to us that he
dreaded the tribe of which he had heard as being en
camped to the northward ; and we now saw that his object
was to get to Tadmor by skirting the base of the mountains
to the right, and probably crossing them into the plain
eastward. As we passed along the side of one of the little
hills I saw, away in the opening to the east, what appeared
to be a castle crowning one of the brows of the northern
mountain-ridge, and below it I could distinguish several
lofty buildings on elevated positions. 'Amer stretched out
his hand toward these buildings, and, looking round at us,
said, " There is Tadmor." Eagerly did we fix our eyes on
the longed-for spot, and try to distinguish the form and
character of the ruins. Doubts and fears were in a moment
dispelled from our minds. The buildings could not be
more than an hour distant, and already in pleasant antici
pation we were in the midst of those colonnades and
porticoes, and proud memorials of the wealth and power of
bygone ages. Columns, and friezes, and tottering walls,
and sculptured stones, half buried in the desert sands,
were before the mind's eye. We rejoiced to picture the
nature of the first impressions the ruins would make upon
us, and we talked of the diligence with which every
moment would be employed in the examination of minute
details. In a few minutes more we were sweeping round the
base of the last of the chalk hills, when a shrill cry from
the rocky mountain far overhead caused us all to start.
" What means that shout ?" said 'Amer to Mohammed.
" I know not," he replied, " but I suppose it is some
shepherd calling to his fellows in the plain,"
K 3

202 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
As we passed the tell the tuft of a spear was observed, as
if floating in the air, on the opposite side, and a moment
after an Arab drew up his fiery steed some twenty yards
from us. He addressed a hasty question to 'Amer, which
I did not hear. We all at once stopped, in the full con
sciousness that something serious was impending. Another
horseman now galloped up, and, after speaking a few words
to the former, rode off at speed across the plain. His com
panion, without' uttering a word, turned and walked away
slowly after him, and we calmly and silently followed him.
" What is this?" said I to my companion; " where are
we going now ?"
" I fear," he said, " that we are no longer our own
masters, and that we are just going wherever that cavalier
may lead us."
We demanded of 'Amer the meaning of this scene, but
he seemed either not to hear or not to heed the question,
and he looked absent and dejected. Presently, however,
the Ageily came close to Mr. Robson, and said, in a low
voice, " They are robbers, and will plunder you ; but give me
your purse, and it will be safe."
This was no agreeable information, but still we thought
Will two rob us ? Can we not defy them, and hasten to
Tadmor, which is now not far distant ? 'Amer, however,
made no display of his old pistols, and conveyed to us no
word of command or encouragement. He had evidently
no thought of resistance, whatever was the character or
number of our enemies.
It was a time of intense anxiety to us all. The horse
man had disappeared in the distance, but his companion

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 203
hovered near ua Ten minutes had scarcely passed when
a cloud of dust was seen away across the plain, as if raised
and borne along by the whirlwind's blast. Swiftly and
steadily it approached, and our eyes were riveted upon
it, while we held our breath in suspense. At last it
seemed suddenly to break, when there appeared to our
dismay some thirty horsemen, armed with spears and
matchlocks, bearing down upon us with the swiftness of
eagles. They were a wild and savage-looking group as ever
it was my lot to behold. They had all thrown aside their
abeihs, and retained no covering but the loose open shirt,
which now streamed in tatters behind them, leaving their
brawny legs and arms quite naked. Most of them, too, had
cast off the kefiyeh, and their long plaited hair mingled
behind with the streamers of their scanty garments. They
looked more like demons than men as they clung to the
bare backs of their fiery steeds, and brandished their rude
weapons. 'Amer had, in the mean time, fallen behind, and dis
mounted from bis dromedary, and my unruly animal
wandered to the front, and appeared intent to meet the
foe. The honour of the van was thus, unintentionally,
and certainly unsought, assigned to me — or, rather, assumed
by my Quixotic dromedary. Mr. Eobson was close behind
me, but there was no time for communication or consulta
tion. Mohammed, I observed, had caught the stirrup of
the Arab who had remained with us. In the rear of the
advancing troop was a robust man, dressed in a silk robe
and scarlet cloak. His bright-coloured kefiyeh was bound
closely round his head, and his face, I soon saw, was dis
torted by passion or excitement. The other horsemen

204 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
separated to the right and left as they came up, and he
spurred on through the passage thus opened. He rode,
as I imagined, directly towards me, brandishing a spear of
formidable length, and I felt that if I remained quiet I
had a fair chance of being run through. With a quick
motion, therefore, I cast aside my abeih. I scarcely know
whether it was my intention to defend my life or jump
off my camel ; but, fortunately, neither of these acts was
for the moment called for. The sight of my Frank cos
tume seemed to act as a kind of charm, for the sheikh
turned aside on seeing them. I found, when the imme
diate danger was over, that my right hand grasped firmly
the only serviceable weapon among us.
Poor 'Amer now felt the full force of the charge, but
he stood calmly in the midst of the excited group. The
sheikh approached him at speed. The spear was raised,
and shook from end to point with that peculiar quiver
which those who have ever witnessed an Arab charge
must know full well. I held my breath, and felt as if
paralyzed. "They will murder him," I cried. "Let us
try and save or help him, then," said my companion. But
what could we do, without arms, and among so many? It
would have been folly to have brought their wrath upon
us by any show of resistance. As the sheikh was about
to strike, a loud la ! la ! (no ! no !) resounded from the
whole party, and 'Amer, watching his opportunity, dex
terously turned the point aside, and the next instant
dragged his adversary from his horse. Now commenced
a terrible struggle. None of those around, for a time,
took any part. The sheikh had far the advantage in
strength and youthful vigour, but 'Amer was more than

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 205
his equal in skill. They fortunately had no deadly wea
pons in their hands or on their persons, but they used
their light hooked sticks with considerable effect. After
a few minutes' fighting, the others interfered, and drew
away the sheikh, still raging like a lion.
The melee was now over, and we were marched off pri
soners. Several Arabs came up to us, and by signs and
words showed us we had nothing to fear, that they were
our slaves, and that they would guard us with their lives.
We now thought indeed that, for the present at least,
there was little danger of any attack being made upon our
persons, whatever might become of the little property we
had with us. We assumed an air of perfect indifference,
and did not utter a word except when directly questioned.
My poor animal, which exhibited such valour in the
beginning of the battle, now seemed determined not to be
led captive. Every attempt made to urge it onward only
caused it to squat on the ground. It would go every
where except in the way our captors wished to take it.
The sheikh himself, seeing the difficulty, came up and
seized the halter, but it was of no use. 'Amer at last
led his dromedary in front, and then, seeing its leader, it
followed him without more trouble. This procedure,
however, was the cause of another scene that might have
ended fatally. Seeing 'Amer before him, the sheikh's
wrath again rose, and, making a sudden bound, he seized
a spear from the hand of one of his followers, and rushed
upon his foe. Quick as thought, however, an Arab dashed
his horse between him and his intended victim, and, with
great dexterity, wrested the spear from his grasp. He
was thus baffled, but not stopped in his career, and poor

206 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
'Amer soon felt the weight of the little stick wielded by
a vigorous arm. Again and again were these attacks
repeated, until at last 'Amer was led away under an
escort. After half-an-hour's slow march across the plain we
found ourselves in the midst of vast flocks, laden camels,
and gay harims perched on the backs of swift dromedaries.
The sheikh now struck his spear into the ground, and we
all squatted round it : our carpets were soon brought, and
our saddle-bags placed at our sides to serve as cushions.
Ere long a number of camels, laden with the sheikh's vast
tent, furniture, and harim, came up, and the women and
domestics soon completed the construction and furnishing
of their desert home, The women's department was
defined by a rude screen pendent over a huge heap of
sacks, containing rice, wheat, dates, and other necessaries ;
while around them lay the capacious caldrons and dishes
for the preparation and serving-up of the desert banquets.
A little fire was kindled beside us as we sat down, and
already was the coffee prepared for presentation. From a
neat case porcelain cups were carefully brought forth, and
the sheikh himself presented to us the beverage, which we
gladly received as an emblem and a pledge of peace.
After this neoessary preliminary, the council of war com
menced its deliberations. Mohammed the ageily was first
taken aside and examined. On his return he told us
that our host was the great and powerful. Mohammed, chief
of the warlike tribe El-Misrab ; that all Tadmor and the
desert around was his property ; and, farther, that 'Amer
was a dog for attempting to intrude on his domains, or to
conduct Frank emirs to that city. Our reply was simple :

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 207
we wished to trespass on no man's territory, and had only
come because our sheikh had engaged to take us to Tadmor.
If he could not do so we must return, and he would con
sequently lose his promised reward.
We were then asked from whence we came ; and when
we replied From Damascus, considerable doubt seemed to
be entertained on the subject. Several questions were put
to us in reference to the people and the localities in the
city, apparently as mere matters of course, but in reality
to test the accuracy of our statements. We were also
asked about the terms of our agreement with 'Amer, and
many other particulars. It was evident, from these ques
tions and the insinuations thrown out, that the sheikh was
labouring under some mistake, but what it was we did not
yet know.
After a lengthened examination and consultation the
sheikh declared that 'Amer would not be permitted to
take us to Tadmor, but that they themselves would con
duct us, and send us back to Kuryetein. We inquired on
what terms ; whereupon a sum was named far exceeding
what we would give, and we consequently refused to
agree to them. " What, then, will you do ? " demanded
one of those present. " Return to Damascus," was our
calm reply. A grim smile passed over the countenances
of the assembled elders ; and, though we sat with features
as unmoved as any Turk, we could not but feel that it
was much easier saying so than doing it. The face of the
sheikh relaxed for a moment into a smile, as he turned
eastward, and, pointing to the ruins that crowned the
mountains and clung to the sides of the valley, said, " But
there is Tadmor, and, wullah, it is beautiful ! "

208 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
There, in truth, were the lonely tombs of the City of
the Desert, closely clustered on peak and mountain-side ;
and there was the old castle, grim as a crusader baron,
towering proudly over them all. We felt the full force of
the chiefs remark. The toil, discomfort, and danger, too,
of the desert had been cheerfully encountered to gain a
view of these classic ruins, and now, when almost at their
side, to be forced to return without gratifying our curi
osity, was indeed hard to bear. But we had already
formed our resolution, and were determined to abide
by it.
" Your words are true, Sheikh ! " was our reply ; " but
here we have not a tenth of the sum you demand."
" You can send to Damascus for money, and a few days
will bring it."
" Who will supply the messenger ? " we inquired.
" I will," he answered.
We met this proposition, like the others, with a decided
negative, and told the sheikh that it would not be well
either for his credit or for the comfort of our friends to
send word to Damascus that we were prisoners in the
tents of the Misrab, and wanted our ransom; and we
added, " Your revenue from travellers would then cease
for ever."
" You are not prisoners," they all cried ; " Istughfer
Ullah!s you are free to go where and when you like,
only not to Tadmor."
The tent was now ready, and our effects were laid ia
the place of honour, beside the pile of stores. We at once
8 "Ask pardon of God."

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 209
accepted the invitation to enter, for the burning sun above
and the heated soil below had already almost scorched us ;
the hardy sons of the desert, however, remained in their
places round the spear of their chief. We had been alone
for about an hour, when the man who had escorted 'Amer
away from the presence of the sheikh entered. We asked
for our leader, but he only replied to our query by clasping
both hands round each ankle in succession. Some minutes
after another came in, who went through a little panto
mime, which was intended to convey to us the pleasing
intelligence that he had just cut off 'Amer's head. He
grasped his sword, drew the blade quickly across his
throat, and then clapped his hands in a peculiar way, to
show that the work was finished. The Arabs are fre
quently in the habit of communicating intelligence even
to each other in this way : signs they consider more im
pressive than words.
We knew not well what to make of this. If true, our
own position was undoubtedly very critical; if merely
intended to frighten us into submission, it was a warning
to be firm. The Ageily entered while we were discussing
these unexpected and startling tidings. Never did I see
a man so much changed in so short a time. His face was
not only pale, but ghastly, and his lips were dry and
parched, as if with thirst and suffering. He came to
where we sat, and deliberately seated himself on our car
pets : this 'Amer, his master, had never presumed to do,
though often invited ; and, simple though the act seemed,
it showed us more than any other how much our circum
stances were changed.
The afternoon was considerably advanced when the

210 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
sheikh and his party entered. We invited him to a seat
beside us, but he politely refused, and took the lowest
place. Coffee was again prepared, and presented, as
before, by Mohammed himself. While drinking it, his
youngest brother came forward, mounted on a splendid
chesnut mare. A beautiful white falcon perched upon his
wrist, and a dead hare lay across the front of the saddle.
Hunting with the falcon is a favourite amusement of the
Bedawin. The birds are generally trained to act in con
cert with a dog in pursuit of the gazelle, and dart at the
animal's head when in full flight, thus retarding its pro
gress till the hound comes up and seizes the game. Hares
and partridges they pursue alone.
After coffee negotiations were again opened. Mr.
Eobson was asked how long it was till sunset ; and the
sheikh politely requested to see my pistol. They thus
showed us at once that they had received a full inventory
of our effects. The first proposition made was substan
tially the same as the former ; but now only one-half the
sum was demanded. We again and finally refused to send
to Damascus, but offered to accept of his escort to Pal
myra, and back as far as Jerud, where we would make
arrangement for paying a fair remuneration. This was,
of course, refused, for they well knew 'Amer's tribe was
encamped near that village.
The deliberations now began to assume a new character.
Each elder in succession seemed eager to try his own
powers of persuasion, and would beckon one or other of
us out ofthe tent, as if to give us friendly advice, but we
uniformly listened with patience and refused with firm
ness. At last, after long silence, Mohammed's brother

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 211
rose, and signed to us to follow him. When at some little
distance he squatted, and we followed his example. He
then spoke of his brother's great power, hinted at our
defenceless state, and at the impossibility of returning,
even if permitted, as they would give us no camels ; and,
when he considered that the desired impression had been
made upon our minds, he proposed that we should go to
the sheikh, kiss his hand, present to him the pistol he had
seen, and whatever amount of money we had with us,
and he would undertake to persuade his brother to make
arrangements for our return to Damascus, after visiting
the ruins of Palmyra !
This we regarded as a kind of ultimatum, and so we
resolved in reply to give him ours. After telling our kind
friend that we were fully aware of his brother's power in
the desert, and our own weakness, we informed him that
we were just as fully aware that he often obtained large
sums from English travellers for conducting them to
Tadmor ; and though he might now take our money and
our lives too, yet this would be but a poor compensation
for the total and final loss of his annual gains from the
Franks ; and we then concluded to this effect : — " First,"
we said, " we will not kiss the sheikh's hand ; second, we
will not give him the pistol ; but, third, if he permit us to
go on our way in peace, we will give him] all the money
we have with us ; and if he do not, we will return to
Damascus, or stay here, just as you please."
The sun went down behind the far distant hills of
Lebanon, and the last red tinge soon disappeared from the
mountain-tops around, and the shades of evening quickly
deepened in the broad valley. Mohammed and two or

212 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
three of the older men went out before the tent-door, and,
spreading their cloaks upon the ground, they, with all due
solemnity, went through the forms of ablution, the dry
dust of the desert supplying the place of water; and,
turning their faces in the direction of the sacred Kaba,
they mumbled over some words of prayer. Such is the
spirit of Islam ! It is never deemed necessary to the effi
cacy of prayer to have the mind composed or the thoughte
turned heavenward. Prayer is not in the least out of
place in the midst of a manifest attempt at fraud and
open robbery ; nay, the Arab will imbrue his hands in a
brother's blood, and, while the crimson stain is yet fresh,
he will lift them up in adoration of the God of peace and
love ! What a mockery is this ! And yet I have some
times heard the followers of the Prophet set forth in this
respect as patterns to Christian men. They will pray at
all times and in all places, and are never ashamed thus
openly to profess their piety. True ! they are not ashamed
of praying publicly, or, rather, ostentatiously ; and neither
are Christians ashamed to eat or to wash their hands in
public ; and there is just as much devotion in the one act
as in the other.
The evening feast was served to us first, and then to
the others. An act of delicate attention was now shown
us by the sheikh, which, under the circumstances, we did
not expect, and which is a good example of that genuine
spirit of hospitality for which the Bedawin have always
been celebrated. Observing that we had eaten little of
the rice and none of the butter, he left the tent for a few
minutes, and ere long a large plate of excellent pillau was
set before us, with a basin of fresh camel's milk.'

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 213
The evening passed away pleasantly, and our captivity
was forgotten as we listened to the exciting tale, and
heard for the first time the music of the Bedawin. The
sheikh produced a kind of rude guitar with only one
string, and played it with a bow, as an accompaniment to
his song. The music of the Arabs seems very common
place and monotonous to those accustomed to the soul-
stirring strains of Western Europe. It is a slow and
gloomy chant, not unlike the wail of the Irish keen,
deprived of its sweetness. It was, however, a pleasing
interlude, and the grim warriors who squatted in a circle
round the blazing fire evidently enjoyed it. As I sat in
silence while the music gave forth its mournful strains, I
had time and opportunity to examine the countenance
and expression of each one of the assembled elders and
visitors in succession. There is a great sameness in the
Bedawy face — the sharp prominent features, the com
pressed thin lips, the scowling brows, and fierce, restless
eyes, are the uniform characteristics of the race. There
were but two exceptions to this in our circle, and one of
them was Mohammed himself, a portly figure, with a
broad and somewhat florid face. His eye was steady, and
he gazed with a fixed, resolute look, altogether unlike the
quick glances of the others. His mouth was large and
sensual, with full but well-formed lips. The tout ensemble
denoted the man of fiery passions and undaunted courage.
The other was a perfect counterpart to the chief, a
young man of not more than twenty summers. His fea
tures were regular and even beautiful, and had all that
softness of expression which is in general only found in
the female face. He directed toward me, as I gazed at

214 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV,
him, a look of strange, dove-like sweetness, while a corre
sponding smile played round his finely-formed mouth.
He was a kind of dandy, too, in his way. A thin mous
tache of glossy black curved gracefully on his lip, and the
long tresses of his raven hair hung down in careful plaits
on each side of his face. A robe of flame-coloured silk
surmounted by a white abeih formed his dress. I looked
long at this strange figure, and wondered whether one
whose whole expression manifested an unwonted gentle
ness of heart could find congenial employment amid the
stormy scenes of Arab life. He observed my fixed glance,
and perhaps read the thoughts passing through my mind.
However this may be, he soon came, and, sitting down
close by our carpet, said that if we required anything he
would bring it to us.
The night was far advanced when we spread our beds
and wrapped our Arab cloaks around us, and lay down to
sleep, and it was long ere slumber sealed my eyelids. The
chiefs and older men soon withdrew, and only some half-
dozen of the youngest and fiercest remained with the
Ageily round the fire. The character of the conversation
they kept up was not calculated to act as a soporific. Our
attendant was undergoing a cross-examination respecting
ourselves. All that was said I could not hear, and even
all that I heard I could not understand, for. my knowledge
of the language was as yet only partial, and the accent of
the Bedawln is very different from that of the citizens.
Still I could gather something of their meaning, and a
brief extract from what I heard will enable the reader to
imagine what were my feelings as I lay on the hard ground
beneath that old tent.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 215
" Do the Khouwajdt live in Damascus?" asked one of
the most ferocious-looking in the little circle.
" Yes," replied the Ageily, " and they have houses like
sareiyas. I was in them, and saw their families and
1 A 31
harims. " Saw their harims ! Impossible !"
" Wullah el-Azim, but it is true, for the Frank women
walk about with their faces uncovered like men, and they
like to be looked at too."
" Do they know many great folk or consuls in the city,
or did any one know they were coming to Tadmor ? "
" Ay, the whole city followed them to the gate, and
all the world knew they were coming here," said the
politic Ageily.
" Suppose they never returned, what would be the con
sequence?" and the fitful light, as it rose and fell, half
revealed, as I imagined, glances of savage malignity ; but
I could not catch Mohammed's half- whispered reply.
" Where did you rest last night ?" one of the Arabs
again demanded.
" With the tribe beyond the hills."
"H the Khouwajdt should be plundered or killed,
would not that tribe or 'Amer himself be considered re
sponsible?" " No," replied our wily attendant, " for a hundred saw
us this morning as we left, and numbers met us on the
way." I knew not why such questions were put, and I could
not think even the fiercest among this tribe would venture
to offer personal violence ; and yet why should such hints
be thrown out ? They could not but perceive that the

216 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
poor Ageily had little influence with us. He, however,
evidently tried to make the best use he could of his power
of speech, and showed about as much cunning and as little
veracity as is usual with Arabs. On being afterwards
asked how much money we had with us, he told the truth
for once. The sum was not large (300 piastres), but it
seemed a treasure to the poor Arab, who never sees money
except when Providence sends a rich caravan in his way.
He said emphatically we should never leave the camp
with this sum on our persons, and I felt pretty confident
that he spoke the truth.
After this drama there was a comic scene enacted ere
sleep came. When all had withdrawn except the few
who lay in Indian style radiating with their feet to the
fire, one of the number, doubtless annoyed by a species of
close companions too common in this land, suddenly
jumped to his feet, and raked the smouldering embers till
they emitted a tall flame. The wind blew strongly, and
the blaze danced and flickered in the blast. Choosing the
windward side, he drew close to the fire, and commenced
the process of shaking his tormentors into the burning
mass before him. While thus engaged, a gust of wind
swept round the other side of the tent, and in a second
he was completely enveloped in the leaping flame. Utter
ing a cry of pain, he bounded backwards and disappeared
in the darkness.
April Gth. — As the morning dawned, the bustle in the
tent and the call of the shepherds without roused us from
sleep. It was the Sabbath morn, but there is no Sabbath
in the desert. I wandered away across the plain to some
distance, and there remained for a time undisturbed. On

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 217
returning, the Ageily drew us aside and earnestly advised
us to yield to the demand of the sheikh ; but we felt
little inclined to listen to his advice, as we knew well he
wished to secure his own safety at our expense. We
answered him somewhat sternly that we would abide by
our resolution, and that we were prepared to bear all the
consequences. " But," added he, " if you are even permitted to leave
the camp, they will send a few horsemen and rob you
when beyond their territory."
" They may as well rob us on the road as in the tent,"
was our only reply.
" Then you will not see Tadmor."
" We care not," we replied, and entering the tent again
we saluted the chief and elders, who rose to receive us,
and took our places. A cloud passed over the face of
Mohammed as our attendant related to him the result of
the last interview. Coffee was prepared, however, and
dates with butter were served for breakfast. We were
then informed that we must return to Damascus, and that
the sheikh would furnish an escort as far as Kuryetein,
but from thence we would be obliged to find our own way.
We received the intelligence with perfect composure, and
expressed our acquiescence by a simple nod.
As we were talking over the new aspect of affairs, and
the probability of being stripped on the way to Kuryetein,
or more probably after leaving that village, 'Amer walked
into the tent and quietly took his seat in the circle, with-
! out saluting any one save the sheikh's brother, who rose
and embraced him. Had a spirit from the " vasty deep "
| made its appearance we could scarcely have been more
VOL. I. L

218 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
surprised : we were now confident that, go where we
might, there was no danger of personal violence. An
explanation ensued which amply accounted for the late
attack and the rage of the sheikh. Some consul at Bey
rout, it appeared, had sent a messenger to inform the
tribe that two travellers wished to visit Palmyra, and
would require an escort from them at the village of Kur
yetein. Miguel, the chief's second brother, had already
gone there with horses and guards; and when we ap
peared, the universal opinion was that we were the two
travellers referred to, and that 'Amer had thus attempted
to deprive them of their expected gain.
Still, notwithstanding this, Mohammed insisted we must
return to Damascus if we did not agree to his terms : we
of course refused, and our dromedaries 'were brought to
the door of the tent. Our cloaks, coats, and saddle-bags;
were soon arranged, and we mounted. Just as I was
moving off, the sheikh came to me and whispered,
"Yonder is Tadmor; give me that pistol and I will take
you there myself." I refused, and followed 'Amer. We
were soon sweeping away westward among the black tents,
and spreading flocks, and little groups of beautiful Arab
horses, our backs to the tempting ruins. I turned round
to take a last look at them, and 'Amer, seeing regret and
disappointment pictured in my face, came -up and said,
" Don't give them the pistol ; don't give them anything.
I will myself bring you back some other time." This was
but little comfort, for we felt that, if once safe within the
city walls, we would not soon again commit ourselves to
the tender mercies of the Bedawin.
A shout was now heard behind us, and a messenger

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 219
came up at speed to say that the sheikh wanted to speak
with us. We expected only a repetition of his demand,
and made up our minds for a final refusal. We turned
our dromedaries and awaited his approach. " Dismount,"
said he, as he came up, in the abrupt manner of an Arab
chief; "we must part friends, and you must tell Khou-
wdjah Manna4 that every Englishman is as safe in the
desert of Tadmor as within the walls of Damascus. Put
down the three hundred piastres." We were on the ground
in a moment, and, squatting in a little circle, Mr. Eobson
drew out his purse and emptied it into the sheikh's cloak.
He counted the money, and, finding about forty piastres
over, handed them back ; putting the rest in his pocket,
he jumped to his feet and said, " Now for Tadmor."
We were accompanied by about thirty of the tribe,
headed by Mohammed himself on a splendid mare, and
among the rest I observed my dandy friend of the pre
vious evening, the graceful Mitbah. He came up and
said he was going to guide me all over the ruins. In two
hours more we passed through the splendid but dilapi
dated gateway that opens into the court of the Temple of
the Sun, and found ourselves among the modern hovels
that half conceal the ruins of that once noble structure.
During Monday the 7th, and the forenoon of Tuesday,
, we employed every moment in the examination of this
- interesting site. The whole space we divided into sec-
i tions, and one after another we entered upon and explored
- in detail. We thus lost no time, and got a satisfactory,
s if a hasty, view of the whole. I will now endeavour to
£ 4 Mr. Hanna Misk, the active dragoman of the British consul.
L 2

220 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
give such a sketch of the general features and distribution
of the ruins, and such a description of the most beautiful
and important among them, as will enable my readers to
form some good idea of what still exists of the city of
Zenobia. The accompanying plan is chiefly taken from
the great work of Wood and Dawkins, and in reference to
it I may quote their words : " Nothing less entire than
at least a column standing with its capital is marked.
Almost the whole ground within the walls is covered with
heaps of marble (limestone); but to have distinguished
such imperfect ruins would have introduced confusion to
no purpose." 5 The plates in this splendid book convey
the best idea of the former magnificence and architectural
grandeur of this great city. They are faithful representa
tions of the originals ; and though the traveller who is
acquainted with the work may at first feel somewhat
disappointed on seeing the ruins, yet a more close exa
mination will convince him that there has been no
exaggeration. Palmyra is situated at the foot of a range of lofty lime
stone hills, naked and white as if covered with eternal
snow. The ridge runs from about S.W. to N.E., and is,
as has been said above, a continuation of that which
bounds the plain of Damascus. Opposite the city is a
wide opening leading into the great valley which extends
westward to Kuryetein, a distance of about 50 miles.
Eastward and southward is a vast desert plain reaching to
the horizon. The traveller from the west generally ap
proaches the ruins through the break in the mountains,
6 The Ruins of Palmyra, p. 41.

^twmmBM

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA, 221
and the first object that attracts his attention is the old
Saracenic castle that crowns an isolated peak some dis
tance on the left. On each side of the road he observes
numbers of strange tower-like tombs — some nearly per
fect and others confused heaps of ruins — built in the valley
and along the slopes above. After passing most of these
he surmounts an easy swell, and the whole panorama of
the ruins opens up at once before him. They stretch
from the base of the mountains across the valley on the
left till they are terminated by the lofty walls of the mag
nificent Temple of the Sun directly in front. He is struck
with astonishment at their vast extent, and no less so at
their utter desolation. They are white as snow-wreaths,
and not a tree, or shrub, or blade of grass, or solitary
weed is seen among them! Heaps of massive stones,
noble porticos, and long and beautiful colonnades, are in
termixed with the shattered ruins of temples, and tri
umphal arches, and proud monuments erected in honour
of the mighty dead. There is no sign of life — all is bare
and desolate as a deserted cemetery.
The most remarkable feature of the whole is the vast
pile of the Temple of the Sun. The lofty wall that en
closed the court is still in many places nearly perfect, and
forms a strong defence to the modern village which is
wholly built within it. These wretched hovels are com
pletely hid from view, so that when seen from a little
distance there is not a trace of human habitation. To the
right of this, and quite beyond the ruins, are the few
gardens now cultivated by the villagers, and in these a
number of palm-trees still grow and flourish, as if to prove
that, though fallen, this is Palmyra still.

222 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap, IV.
It was, no doubt, the existence of a large fountain of
water — that first requisite in a thirsty land — which, at a
very early period, attracted man to this dreary spot, ahd
led to the founding of a city. At the foot of the moun
tains on the right, after you pass through the opening, is
the principal source. From a cave-like aperture, which
has probably been carried some distance under the hill,
issues a stream of considerable size. It is strongly im
pregnated with sulphur, and slightly warm as it flows
forth; but after running a few hundred yards the sul
phureous taste is scarcely perceptible. This fountain is
considerably below the level of the city, and the water
could never have been conducted, except by artificial
means, within the walls of Justinian ; neither is the sup
ply sufficient for the wants of a large population. Beside
this fountain I copied, from a large altar-shaped stone, an
inscription to the following effect : —
TO THE MOST SUBLIME, POWERFUL, AND PROPITIOUS JOVE, B0LANO8
the Son of Zeno, etc., at his own cost erected (tins altar ?) m
THE YEAR 474, AND MONTH BeRETAIOS.
This inscription is only of value as containing a date,
equivalent to A.D. 162, and the name of Dios or Jupiter—
thus showing that the people had adopted the god of the
Greeks. In the work of Wood and Dawkins it is said of
this fountain, " We learned from an inscription close by
it, upon an altar dedicated to Jupiter, that it was called
Ephca, and that the care of it was committed to persons
who held that office by election." *
There are two aqueducts which formerly brought an
" Ruins of Palmyra, p. 40.

Chap. IV.

JOURNEY TO PALMYRA.

223

abundant supply of water to the city from distant sources.
One of these is now ruinous, but can be traced through
the opening in the mountain-chain into the great valley
on the west, across which it comes, in a south-easterly
direction, apparently from some source at or among the
Jebel el-Abiad, where, I was credibly informed, there are
some good springs. This aqueduct is a splendid work ;
it is eight feet in height by four in breadth, and wholly
constructed of finely-hewn stones, as shown in the cut.
At certain regular intervals there are openings from above,
with steps leading down into it, for the purpose of keeping
it clean. There is a pretty general opinion among the
Arabs that this aqueduct brings the water from the
Barada ; but it is about equally well grounded with the
tradition that represents the sources of the fountains at
Tyre as at Baghdad. There is strong evidence to show
that it was constructed prior to the Eoman conquest of the
city, and indeed probably
at a very early period; for
there are traces of Palmyrene
inscriptions upon some of the
stones, but none whatever of
any other language, and we
know that the Greek language
began to be generally used on
inscriptions about the com
mencement of our era.7
The source of the second aqueduct is not known, nor
was I able to see any traces of its course beyond the circuit

7 See Ruins of Palmyra, p. 40, and plate xxvii.

224 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA Chap. IV.
of the walls. It conveys a copious supply of water slightly
impregnated with sulphur. The stream f from it is first
seen among the ruins at some distance on the north side
ofthe great temple, and flows from thence into a few little
gardens. Near the centre of the city I was conducted by
our guide to -a, small reservoir about ten feet below the
surface, in which I found excellent sweet water ; but I
could not ascertain from whence it came. The guide
informed us that it was brought from a great distance
underground, and that a Jan 8 had constructed the chan
nel in which it flows, at the command of the mighty
Solomon !
Before we left Damascus 'Amer had told us that, a short
time previous, a camel, in passing along the plain near
the city, had suddenly sunk into the earth and disap
peared. Its owner, who was a little in advance, on turn
ing round could see nothing of his animal, and thought
some evil spirit had wafted it away. He looked across the
plain in every direction but in vain. At last, turning
back, he found it standing on a heap of rubbish in a
8 Muslem doctors and learned men have written many volumes on
the nature and origin of created intelligences. They generally admit
that these are of three kinds: Angels, created of light; Jdn, or Genii,
created of fire ; and Men, created of earth. The Jdn are of several
species; they appear to men under several forms, as dogs, cats, ser
pents, &c; and can vanish at pleasure. They are believed to have the
power of carrying away human beings and animals. I have seen some
Muslems who profess to have held conversations with the Jan. Many
connect a belief in the transmigration of souls with that of the Jan,
and think the spirits of the faithful thus often revisit this world after
death. Some of the Jan, too, are Muslems! and therefore it is not
permitted to Mil any of those animals whose form they are wont to
assume, without first giving them due admonition to depart. Tor a
full account of the Jan, see Lane's • Thousand and One Nights,' vol. i.
Introduction, note 21.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 225
large and beautiful sepulcliral cave. To this interesting
spot we requested our kind friend Mitbah to conduct us ;
and we were also accompanied by the licensed Palmyra
guide, with a long train of followers and idle Bedawin.
It is a short distance south of the fountain, and in the
midst of an extensive necropolis. There are several tower-
tombs around it, and large numbers of gentle elevations in
the surface of the plain, each of which, no doubt, marks
the position of a sepulchral cave below, similar to that
into which the unfortunate camel had fallen. Near the
spot we observed on the ground folding-doors of white
limestone, and a fragment of a statue, much defaced, but
well executed. The tomb itself was in the form of a
Greek cross, hewn in the soft rock, and arched overhead.
There were three tiers of receptacles for bodies in each
compartment, but I saw no inscription or mark on the
walls or door that would tend to indicate the age of the
structure. Several fine statues and other ornaments had,
we were told, been taken out of it when it was first dis
covered ; but we could not learn what had been done with
them. Those sepulchres that remain still unopened might
afford a rich harvest to the antiquary, and possibly bring
to light some interesting historic memorial. None of the
Arabs seem to suspect their existence ; if they did they
would soon be pillaged.
In a large and very ancient mausoleum near this spot
are ' two mutilated statues, with wide flowing robes, and
close jackets curiously and elaborately laced and plaited
over the chest. The general outlines of the figures and
ample folds of the robes display much boldness and freedom,
L 3

226 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
while the ornaments and minute details of the bodices
are executed with great taste and skill. In another tomb,
of about the same era, are several short inscriptions in the
Palmyrene character, beside the recesses for the bodies.
They probably only record the names and titles of the
persons there deposited, with perhaps a date. In the
tombs in this cemetery I did not observe any Greek in
scriptions ; and from this, as well as from the character of
the structures, I think it is more ancient than that in the
valley, to which reference will be made hereafter.
In going from hence to the ruins we bathed in the
fountain, and found it exceedingly refreshing. We were
informed by Mitbah that the Arabs prefer the waters of
this fountain to all others, as it keeps longer good in their
skins, and they can consequently carry it to a greater dis
tance. We now crossed the valley, and, ascending the steep
bank on the northern side, found ourselves suddenly in a
wilderness of ruins. It was not without some difficulty
we made our way over the confused heaps of massive
stones and fallen columns. Of the multitude of sculptured
stones that are crowded together in this section of the city,
it is impossible to form a correct conception. It is not
here as in other places of Syria, and in other lands, where
the debris of ancient buildings has been employed in the
erection of more modern edifices — where temples have
been changed into churches, and churches again remodelled
for the service of Islam; in this place each stone, and
column, and fragment of richly-wrought cornice, lies
where it fell from the building it adorned ; and the finger

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 227
of time has in general dealt so gently, that each noble
structure might almost be reared up again of its old ma
terials. We at last made our way to the north-western angle of
the walls, which terminate some distance up the side of the
hill, and here, on the gentle slope, commanding the whole
panorama of the desert eastward, stood a peripteral temple.
The door was surrounded by a broad border of vine-
branches in festoons, intermingled with grapes, exquisitely
sculptured in high relief. A Corinthian column, with a
monolithic shaft, is the only one left standing in the front
rqw of the portico. The plan of the building can still be
traced ; and the delicately wrought acanthi of the capitals,
and rich tracery and scroll-work of the frieze, bear testi
mony to its former grandeur.9 Below it is a smaller
temple, with several fragments of fluted columns still
standing in their positions ; and a little distance to the
south-east is a magnificent mausoleum, the portico of
which is nearly perfect. It consists of six columns, each
a monolith, and finely proportioned. This building is
nearly square, and the interior is arranged on three sides,
with deep recesses for the reception of bodies. Between
the recesses are semi- columns, supporting a rich cornice of
garlands, sculptured in high relief. The ornamental work
9 In the work of Wood and Dawkins ample details will be found of
this building. It was of great extent and singular form, having a por
tico in front of four columns, and at each side a portico consisting of
twenty columns in five rows. A plan of the building may be seen in
plate xliv., and the details of the architecture in the four following
plates. Upon a broken architrave is a Latin inscription, copied by
Wood and Dawkins. It contains the names of Diocletian, and the CEesars
Constantius and Maximianus; it must consequently have been erected
subsequently to a.d. 292.

228 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
of the whole building is designed and executed with great
skill and exquisite taste. Just in front of the portico the
great colonnade terminated toward the north-west.1 A
few yards beyond the latter is a small temple or mausoleum,
with a portico, only two columns of which now stand in
situ, and they are much defaced by the action of the sun.
In the interior is a large sarcophagus, profusely and beau
tifully ornamented with bas-reliefs representing grotesque
figures of satyrs, and garlands of flowers.
Such is a specimen of the splendid buildings that
adorned a corner of this proud city. Even now, prostrate
as they are, and shattered by the hand of the ruthless
destroyer, and defaced by the winter storms and summer
suns of long centuries, they are beautiful. Modern
architects may criticise details and talk of a debased style;
but let these temples and sepulchral monuments be re
stored to their pristine state, and compared with those
Grecian churches and palaces and halls with which these
critical geniuses have adorned the cities of England ; it
will then be seen whether the modern or the Pahnyrene
style is the more debased. The ancients, it would appear,
sought for effect and beauty more in the proportions and
grouping of the whole than in a servile copying and
measuring of minutiae age after age. Like the great
masters of painting, they did not intend their works to be
examined by a microscope, but to produce their grandest
effect from such points of view as spectators would be
naturally led to take up. It is, I believe, a neglect of
this principle that has Spoiled the greatest and most costly
1 Plans and drawings of this sepulchre are given in Wood aad
Dawkins, plates xxxvi.-xlii.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 229
building of modern times — the palace of Westminster.
To see its beauty it requires the beholder to embark on
the Thames in a fishing-boat, and paddle through the
muddy waters in front with a powerful opera-glass in
hand. View it from a distance and all the grandeur is
gone. The " thousand and one " puppet knights, and
microscopic heraldic emblems, and miniature niches, all
vanish ; and so far as the general public is concerned, and
so far too as the adorning of the great metropolis is con
cerned, there might as well be a plain wall.
Around this section the city walls are still, in part,
standing; and the gates, too, are distinguishable, though
now choked up with fallen stones and rubbish. The line
of the wall, as may be seen from the plan, is first north
for a short distance, then it turns eastward, and continues
in a zigzag course for more than a mile, after which it
sweeps round to the west again, and finally joins the
south-eastern angle of the Temple of the Sun.
Crossing the wall, we passed through another large
cemetery, with a few tower-like tombs, now in ruins,
standing here and there all solitary in the midst of the
undulating plain. There are here scores of subterranean
sepulchres, whose positions are marked by the swell of the
vaulted roofs ; and most of them, perhaps, have never yet
been opened. Eich is the harvest here treasured up for
some future antiquary ! Leaving these behind, we ascended
the steep hill- side to the old castle, so finely situated on
the summit. It is surrounded by a deep moat, hewn in
the solid rock. A narrow bridge once led across it to
the great gateway, but it is now fallen, and we found
some difficulty in scaling the scarped rock. At last, how-

230 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
ever, we succeeded, and obtained admission to the interior
through a breach in the wall. Here are long corridors,
spacious vaulted halls, and deep reservoirs, with almost
innumerable small chambers and cells among them. The
whole is in a good state of preservation, and might be
defended by a few resolute men against a host of Arabs.
The situation is so commanding, the access to it so difficult,
and the moat so deep, that no Bedawin would attempt
its capture if only a few field-pieces were well mounted
and manned by the garrison. It might thus be made a
station of vast importance for controlling the wandering
Arab tribes. The building is evidently of comparatively
recent date, but I have no data for determining the time
of its erection. I could not observe any inscriptions ; and
had it been a work of the early Saracens, they would
doubtless have left upon it some record. There is a tradi
tion that some prince of the Druzes constructed it as a
retreat in seasons of danger ; and this story was told to the
Aleppo merchants who were the first Europeans that
visited these ruins in modern times (a.d. 1691). Portions
of the city walls, as Mr. Wood remarks,2 seem to be of
the same date as the castle. It is probable that these
defences were constructed by the Osmanlis, under their
Sultan Selim, when they first conquered this country,
A.D. 1519.
The castle stands on the summit of one of the highest
hills in the range, and commands a view which, for ex
tent, barrenness, and utter desolation, is almost unpa
ralleled in the world. On the one side is the vast expanse
* Ruins of Palmyra, p. 39.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 231
ofthe desert stretching away to the horizon, level as the
ocean, and without a tree or shrub to vary the monotony.
On the other side are the bleak mountain-chains shutting
in the long plain which opens up like a vista to the west
ward, revealing the pale blue summits of the far-distant
Lebanon, with their crests of snow ; while at your feet lie
the ruins of the great city, like the bleached bones of an
army of giants that had fallen and wasted upon the parched
plain. From hence we descended into the valley to examine
those strange-looking mausoleums which are among the
most remarkable monuments of Palmyra. One especially
attracted our attention, being both externally and inter
nally in a good state of preservation. A brief description
of it may not be without interest, and will serve to convey
to the reader an idea of the general plan and decorations
of them all. A handsome doorway with a small pediment
admits to a hall or chamber 27 feet long by 10 wide, and
about 20 high. Along each side are four fluted Co
rinthian pilasters with tiers of recesses between them for
the reception of the dead. Opposite the door is a shallow
apse with a semi-column on each side supporting a plain
cornice. Within this are busts in mezzo-rilievo with
Palmyrene inscriptions. Above the apse is another,
similar in character, but smaller. It is in great part filled
up with a projecting slab like the side of a sarcophagus,
upon which are four busts with inscriptions. On the left
of the entrance is a staircase leading to the upper stories,
and over it are five busts, two in one row and three in
another. On each side of the door is a pilaster, and over

232

JOURNEY TO PALMYRA.

Chap. IV.

it a large bust. The ceiling is of slabs of stone beautifully
panelled and painted — the divisions being coloured brown
and the panels blue with a white star-like flower in relievo
in the centre. The middle part of the ceiling is broken
away, but at the distance of two panels from the side and
three from the end are large squares, each divided into
four, and in each of these four is a bust in relievo on a

Interior of Tomb.

blue ground. The ornaments are well designed and taste
fully executed, and the effect of the whole is rich and
even gorgeous. The colours are still clear as when the
painter completed his work, and the delicate acanthi of
the capitals and leaves of the flowers have been but little
affected by the lapse of ages ; but the fierce fanaticism of

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 233
a barbarous race has mutilated and almost destroyed the
busts.3 The building has five stories, all constructed on the
same plan; but the others are neither so lofty nor so
highly ornamented as that described. On a tablet over
the door is an inscription in Palmyrene and Greek, to
which reference will be made hereafter.
On our return to the village we passed the fragments of
a noble column, which a few years ago was one of the
chief ornaments of the city. A French antiquary, how
ever, of a peculiarly inquiring disposition, wishing to have
a glance at the interior, made a hole in its side, and,
putting in a quantity of gunpowder, razed it to the founda
tion! He afterwards marched off in triumph with the
iron clamp that held the shaft in its place.
Our next walk was to the fine monumental column on
the north side of the great temple, marked 28 on the
8 This splendid sepulchre attracted the attention of Wood and Daw
kins, and they have given a plan of it with drawings. These, however,
I have observed with surprise, differ from my description. For example,
in plate lvii. there are five busts in the upper apse or recess opposite the
door, and over these is a recumbent figure in alto-rilievo : and on the
ceiling in plate lv. they give only two busts. On seeing this I at first
thought that they must have represented some other tomb, for I could
not have made such mistakes, as my description was written not from
memory or from short notes, but fully, while I was sitting in the chamber
itself, and my friend Mitbah sleeping across the door to keep out a
crowd of Arabs. On comparing the details, however, and especially the
inscriptions, some of which I also copied, I find that the same sepulchre
is referred to. One of these inscriptions I here insert as a specimen of
the Palmyrene characters. I also annex a rough sketch of the interior:
nK^DnKni-nn^n'pa

234 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
plan. Our object here was to verify an inscription, on the
reading of which a delicate theory in biblical criticism has
been grounded by some commentators. It was thought
that, in this inscription, the hero to whom the monument
was erected was represented as the son of two different
individuals — one of whom was his adopted and the other
his real father. This was first observed and the reasoning
naturally deducible from it applied by Harmer to reconcile
the genealogies of our Lord given in Matthew and Luke;
and it may also be seen, as copied from him, in the com
mentary of Dr. Adam Clarke, under Luke, ch. iii. The
whole theory, however, is grounded on a mistake in copy
ing the inscription, which is correctly as follows : —
HBOYLHKAIOAHMOCAAIAAM€INAIPAN0Y
TOYMOKIMOYTOYAIPANOYTOYMA00AKAIAIPANHNTONnAT€PAAYTOY€YC€B€ICiyU
<MAOriATPlAACKAinANTITPOnU>///// ICIMWCAPCCANTACTHnATPIAIKAl
TOICnATPIOIceeOICTeiMHCXAPIN
€TOYCNYMHNOC?ANAIKOY4
" The senate and people to Alilamus, the son of Ura
nus, the son of Mokimus, the son of Mattha ; and iEranus
his father, — noblemen and patriots, in every place equally
gaining the esteem of their country and their country's
gods — the tribute of esteem. In the year 450 (A.D. 138),
and month Xandicos (April)."
* See Inscription No. III. in Wood and Dawkins' 'Ruins of Palmyra,'
and Le Brun's 'Voyage au Levant, en Egypte, Syrie, &c.' pp. 347-8.

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. . 235
In the copies of this inscription formerly given to the
pubhc the latter part of the first line is thus written —

AAIAAM€INAnANOY-

" Alilamus the son of Panus ;" and hence the supposed
difficulty referred to above — Panus being called his
father, while in the third line his father's name is written
JEranus. This beautiful monument is nearly sixty feet
high, and was erected only eight years after Palmyra had
submitted to the power of Eome.
We went from this place to view the splendid ruins of
the great colonnade, and, winding among the confused
heaps that now mark the sites of once sumptuous build
ings, we soon reached it. There were here originally
four rows of columns — or at least such was the design, as
may be seen from the plan of the arch at the eastern end —
thus forming a central and two side avenues, which ex
tended through the city, a distance of about 4000 feet.
Each pillar had, on its inner side, a bracket for a statue.
One can well imagine what a noble vista would meet the
eye of the Palmyrene as he walked along this splendid
arcade — the brilliant rays of an eastern sun lighting up
the temples and palaces on each side, and breaking through
between the lofty columns that lined the pathway, and
the sculptured forms of the greatest and best of his coun
trymen standing above him, as if pointing the way to
glory and to fame.
When this colonnade was perfect it contained more
than one thousand five hundred columns, and of these
above one hundred and fifty still occupy their places.
The height of the order, including base and capital, is

236 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
fifty-seven feet. The proportions of the pillars are good,
though the details are not executed with the same taste
as those of the great temple. It is rather remarkable that
in almost every city of any importance in Syria we find
traces of these splendid colonnades ; in Antioch, Apamea,
Damascus, and Gerasa, their remains may still be seen.
But of all the ruins of Palmyra none can be compared
with those of the great Temple of the Sun, whether we
consider their vast extent or their exquisite beauty. The
court in which this noble structure stands is a perfect
square, 740 feet on each side. The external wall consists
of a projecting base, and over it a range of pilasters sup
porting a plain frieze and cornice — the extreme height
being 70 feet. A considerable part of it still remains per
fect. On the western side was a portico of ten columns
surmounted by an entablature, now completely destroyed.
A flight of stairs extending the whole length of the por
tico (138 feet) led up to the grand entrance. The great
door was 32 feet 6 inches high by 15 feet 9 inches wide,
and richly ornamented with sculptured wreaths of leaves
and flowers. Notwithstanding its great size, each of the
side architraves is a monolith. The side-doors are half of
the above dimensions similarly ornamented, and the re
maining intervals between the columns were filled up with
tabernacles and niches for statues.
Beautiful and commanding as must have been the
appearance of the exterior, it was wholly eclipsed by the
scene that burst upon the beholder's eyes as he crossed
the threshold. A double colonnade encircled the whole
interior with the exception of the western side, where
there was but one range ; and each pillar had its bracket

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 237
and its statue. The back wall of the spacious cloisters
thus formed had niches with shell and fan-shaped tops.
Near the centre of this court stands the temple itself on
a raised platform, towering high above the surrounding
buildings. In form it was unique. A single row of
fluted Corinthian columns, 64 feet high, with bronze
capitals, encompassed the shrine and supported an un
broken cornice fully ornamented in bold relief with fes
toons of fruit and flowers, held up at intervals by angels.
A doorway is curiously placed between two columns on
the west side, and fronting this is the door of the cell,
33 feet high by 15 feet wide. The ornaments upon the
latter resemble those on the door of the small temple at
Baalbek; and like that also the soffit has a sculptured
eagle with extended wings upon a starred ground. The
walls have pilasters opposite the columns, and windows
between them, while at each end, in addition to the
pilasters, are two Ionic semi-columns. The interior has-
been much defaced, and the entire roof is gone. At each
end is a small apse or chamber with a ceiling of a single
stone, panelled and richly ornamented with sculpture.
That on the north side is remarkable as having the signs
of the zodiac in mezzo-relievo round the circumference of
a circle, within which appear to have been figures of the
principal deities. The whole is now nearly obliterated by
the persevering fanaticism of the Muslems : it is still
possible, however, to trace the outlines of several of the
figures.6 Such was the plan and such were the dimensions of
5 Detailed drawings are given of these by Wood and Dawkins,
' Ruins of Palmyra,' plate xix.

238 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
this magnificent building; and, as a whole, I scarcely ,
think it is surpassed by any in the world. The temple of
Minerva at Athens and a few of its fellows — the chef-
d'oeuvres of ancient Greece — are, undoubtedly, more beau
tiful in their stern simplicity and in the brilliancy of their
marble columns ; Ba'albek, not less chaste in its sculpture,
is more gigantic in its proportions ; but the cloistered
court at Palmyra, with its long lines of statues and the
temple itself towering high over all, formed a picture
unique and unequalled by any of these.
Travellers have generally represented the buildings of
Palmyra as constructed entirely of marble, but the fact is,
there is not a single marble column or stone among the
whole ruins. White limestone of a fine texture from the
neighbouring mountains has been universally employed,
and the only other species found is Sienite granite, a few
shafts of which may still be seen near the long colonnade.
One of these, a single block, measures thirty feet in length
and three in diameter. How it was conveyed to this spot
is a mystery. To transport it from the Upper Nile to
the coast of Syria was a work of no ordinary difficulty,
but to convey it thence over mountains and across deserts
for near two hundred miles shows an engineering skill
almost equalling that of our own day.
After satisfying our curiosity with a careful though
hasty survey of these wonderful ruins we followed our
guide down among the gardens, where we found many
traces of former structures. The gardens are surrounded
with lofty mud walls, and have doors of stone taken from
the crypts and tombs of other days. The poor villagers
thus endeavour to keep their few dates and pomegranates

Chap. IV. JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. 239
from the all-devouring Arabs ; but they are not always
successful. I endeavoured afterwards to trace and esti
mate the extent of the ancient city walls. Those now
seen, and already referred to, are of the period of Justi
nian, who we know fortified Palmyra. They are only
about three miles in circumference, but there is sufficient
evidence to show that the ancient city extended far
beyond them, and probably occupied a space nearly ten
miles in circumference. The great temple area was in
Saracenic times converted into a fortification, like so many
other noble buildings in this land. The windows of the
exterior wall were built up, the grand portico was razed
to the ground, and a heavy tower erected in its place to
defend the gate. A deep moat was also cut along the
western wall. These defences, though ruinous, are still
sufficient to check any sudden attack of the Bedawin, and
the inhabitants, so long as they remain behind their walls,
enjoy comparative security.
The population may have amounted to some seventy or
eighty families when we were there, but it is continually
fluctuating, and since that time I have heard that nearly
one half of its people deserted it on account of some pri
vate quarrel. The miserable mud huts were clustered
round the bases of noble columns, and beautiful fragments
of sculptured cornices and capitals lay in the little court
yards. The women and children crowded round us to get
a good look at the Frangi, and some few brought coins
and antique gems for sale ; the money we had brought
with us, however, was now in the purse of sheikh Mo
hammed, and we were reluctantly forced to decline
making purchases, except a few coins. These people live

240 JOURNEY TO PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
chiefly by trading between the Bedawin and the inhabit
ants of Damascus ; they also carry large quantities of salt
to the latter city, which they collect on the desert plain
south of the ruins. The principal sheikh Jarullah we
saw only once, but his younger brother Fares was almost
constantly with us during our stay. We were much
pleased with his kindness and attention, and almost as
much annoyed with his insatiable curiosity. Everything
he saw with us he admired, and everything he admired
he asked for. Our saddle-bags, our beds, our coats, and
our very pockets, we had to turn out that they might be
inspected, and their structure or contents wondered at.
A fine English knife of mine with a spring-blade he asked
and begged for repeatedly, but we invariably refused to
give him any of our property. At last, thinking he had
something that would tempt me to part with it, he ran
out, and soon came back with an old mutilated head sculp
tured in marble carefully wrapped up in his cloak. It
had neither nose, nor ears, nor almost any other feature ;
and this he offered in exchange for the knife. It was of
no avail however — even such a rare antique would not
tempt me to part with an old friend that had served me
in many a land.6
6 Descriptions of the ruins of Palmyra may be found in the following
works. Le Brun, ' Voyage au Levant,' 1 vol. fol., Paris, 1714, where
there are some important notes on the inscriptions copied by the English
merchants from Aleppo, who were the first to visit the place in modern
times. This description is a translation of a letter sent by Mr. W. Halifax,
one of these merchants, to Mr. Bernard in England, and published in the
Philosophical Transactions for Oct. 1695. To the original I have not
had access in this city, but I presume the translation by Le Brun is
correct. The 'Ruins of Palmyra,' by Wood and Dawkins, London, 1753,
1 vol. fol. This splendid work consists almost wholly of plans and

Chap. IV. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. 241

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA.
It may not be considered out of place here, or uninte
resting to the general reader, to give a brief sketch of the
history of this ancient city, among whose ruins we have
just been wandering. My only object is to throw such
hght upon the origin and authors of the splendid buildings,
the remains of which now excite our astonishment and
admiration, as may enable the reader to peruse the fore
going description with more pleasure and profit.
The earliest notice of this city on record is that in
1 Kings ix. 18, where it is stated that Solomon built
" Tadmor in the wilderness." There can be little doubt
that the ruins which we have just described occupy the
site, as they bear the name, of the city founded by the
great King of Israel. Solomon was a commercial monarch.
His ships navigated the seas, and his traders traversed
the deserts, that the luxuries and wealth of foreign lands
might be conveyed to his little kingdom. A secure
route for the caravans that imported the treasures of India,
Persia, and Mesopotamia was of the first importance.
Tadmor is about half way between the banks of the
Euphrates and the borders of Syria. Copious fountains
drawings of the ruins, which are executed with great care and fidelity.
The letterpress is scarcely sufficient to explain the plates; and it seems
Btrange that men who had the taste to appreciate the splendour of these
noble ruins, and the learning to investigate their origin and detail their
history, should not have given to the world a full account of them.
Addison, in his ' Palmyra and Damascus,' has given an account of the
ruins, with a historical sketch; and a notice may also be seen in the
little volume of Irby and Mangles.
VOL I. M

242 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
there supply the first requisite for a desert station; and,
influenced no doubt by these weighty considerations,
Solomon made choice of this spot for the erection of a
commercial depot and resting-place.
Its importance would naturally vary with the fluctua
tions of commerce; and we have no evidence that it
attained to power or fame till a far later period. For
nearly a thousand years history is silent about Tadmor;
and Pliny appears to be the first among historians who
makes reference to it. It was then a city of considerable
importance, and, from the peculiarity of its position, as
this author remarks, "being situated in the midst' of an
almost impassable desert, and on the confines of two
powerful and hostile kingdoms," it had hitherto retained
its independence. That its citizens were not only opu
lent, but skilled in architecture as early as the commence
ment of the Christian era, is evidenced by those beautiful
tombs to which we have already alluded. On one of them
is a Greek inscription to the following effect : " This
enduring monument was erected by Gichos, the son of
Mokimos, the son of  , the son of Mattha, for him
self, his children, and his descendants, in the year 314
(a.d. 2), and month Xandikos (April)." This is the
most ancient Greek inscription hitherto discovered at
Palmyra, but there are others in the Palmyrene character
unquestionably much earlier.
The city retained its freedom until about A.D. 130,
when it submitted to the Emperor Adrian, and came
under the protection of Eome. His predecessor, Trajan,
had subdued the Parthians, and captured Babylon and
Ctesiphon, and the little republic was thus encompassed

Chap. IV. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. 243
by the victorious legions of the " Eternal City." Adrian
was a munificent patron of Palmyra, for not only did he
give it his own name, but he raised it to the rank of a
Eoman colony, and adorned it with many of those colon
nades and temples which are so grand even in their ruin.
It appears, however, that the citizens themselves were not
greatly behind the Eomans in refinement and love for the
arts. That magnificent mausoleum which we described
above was erected previous to the time of Adrian, as may
be seen from the inscription still existing over the entrance-
door, from which we learn that " The monument was
erected by Elabelus Manaeus Sochaeis Malchos, the son
of Aballathos, the son of Mannaeus, the son of Elabelus, for
himself and his sons, in the year 414 (a.d. 102) and
month Xandicos."
The precise date of the great colonnade cannot be easily
determined, but it is highly probable that it and the other
buildings immediately adjoining were the results of a mag
nificent plan for the adorning of the city by the Emperor
who gave it his own name. There is evidence from the
inscriptions upon it that it was constructed before A.D.
238, as this date is found underneath one of the brackets)
on which a statue had been erected to an illustrious
citizen by the senate and people. Neither this date nor
any of those found under these pedestals can be regarded
as fixing the age of the colonnade itself, any more than
the dates on the monuments in St. Paul's or Westminster
Abbey can be adduced as proofs of the precise period in
which those buildings were erected. This colonnade in
fact appears to have been the appointed receptacle for
monuments raised by a grateful nation in honour of its
M 2

244 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
statesmen and warriors, or erected by private citizens as a
tribute of respect to friends and relatives. The brackets
of the colonnades around the court of the great temple
seem also to have been devoted to a like object, and there
is one inscription there, with the date 490, or A.D. 178,
which proves that this noble structure could not have
been erected long subsequent to the time of Adrian, who
died in A.D. 138.
From this period the influence and wealth of Palmyra
rapidly increased. Though nominally subject to Eome,
it had a government of its own, and was ruled by its own
laws. The public affairs were directed by a senate
chosen by the suffrages of the people ; and most of its public
monuments were erected, as the inscriptions state, by the
senate and people — H T5ov\vi xxi o Sn/xoy. As a colony,
too, it was highly favoured, having been elevated to the
rank of capital, one of the inscriptions designating it as
MyiTgojtoXiuvsiar. For nearly a century and a half did this
prosperity continue ; and it was at last only checked by
the pride that it had generated. The pride of its rulers, ;
which for a brief period raised it to a pitch of power it
had never before aspired to, became the cause of its speedy
fall and subsequent ruin.
The unfortunate Valerian, who a second time carried
the Eoman arms into the heart of Persia, to check the
rising power of Sapor, was defeated and captured by his
foe. His unworthy son suffered him to pine away in
bondage, exposed to the most brutal treatment; but
Odenathus, one of the citizens of Palmyra, revenged the
wrongs of the fallen Emperor, and vindicated the majesty1
of the Eoman state. Sapor being triumphant, policy con-

Chap. IV. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. 245
Strained Odenathus to propitiate his friendship by rich
presents when suing for the life and liberty of the captive ;
but when these were indignantly refused, and the bearers
of them insulted, he himself marched against the haughty
Persian, took the whole province of Mesopotamia, and
even defied him beneath the walls of Ctesiphon (A.D. 260).
The services thus rendered to Eome were so great that
Odenathus was gifted with the purple, and associated in
the sovereignty with Gallienus (A.D. 264). He enjoyed
his high dignity but a brief period, being murdered by
his nephew, at a banquet in the city of Emesa, only three
years afterwards. His reign was short but brilliant. Not
only was Sapor conquered, and Valerian revenged, but
Syrian rebels, and the northern barbarous hordes that now
began their incursions into the territories of Eome, felt
alike the force of his arms.
He bequeathed the kingdom of the East to a worthy
successor — Zenobia, his widow ; and the names of Zeno
bia and Palmyra will always be associated while history
remains. The virtue, the wisdom, and the heroic spirit
: of that extraordinary woman were never equalled in the
i annals of antiquity. She was at first nominally the
regent during the minority of her son Vaballatus ; but
i unfortunately, ambition urged her to lay claim to supreme
t authority, and adopt the high-sounding title of " Queen of
sthe East." By conquest she soon added Egypt to her
([possessions in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor, and
^during a period of five years governed her kingdom with
^wisdom. In A.D. 270 the warlike Aurelian ascended the
^throne of the Csesars, and, after subduing his enemies in
athe West, he turned his arms against the fated Zenobia,

246 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
Her armies were defeated in a pitched battle near
Antioch, and, having retreated to Emesa and there rallied,
they were again routed by the Emperor, and driven back
upon their desert home. Aurelian pursued them across
the parched plains, and invested Palmyra, which capitu
lated after a long and bloody resistance. Zenobia
attempted to escape, but was captured on the banks of
the Euphrates, and brought into the presence of the stern
Emperor. When being led off captive, a woman's fears
prevailed, for she heard the rough soldiers clamouring for
her death. In a moment of weakness her best friends
were betrayed, and they, including the philosopher
Longinus, were put to an ignominious death. She was
afterwards led to Eome, and there, loaded with jewels, and
fettered with shackles of gold, she was led by a golden
chain along the Via Sacra, in front of the chariot of the
triumphant Aurelian, while all Eome crowded to the spot
to see the Arabian Queen. She was worthy of a better
fate. If common humanity did not prevent the Eoman
citizens from exulting over an honourable but fallen foe,
surely the memory of her husband's victories, and of his
services rendered to the state, might have saved her from
the indignity of appearing before a mob in chains.7
Aurelian captured Palmyra in A.D. 272, and left in it
a small garrison of Eoman soldiers ; but soon after his
departure the people rose and massacred them to a man.
On receiving this intelligence the Emperor returned, took
7 The principal sources for the history of Zenobia are the ' Triginfe
Tyran.' of Treb. Pollio, and Vo||fiscus' 'Biography of Aurelian.' In I'
' Annales ' of Joan. Zonaras there are also some important facts 1 ~~
to light.

Chap. IV. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. 247
the city, pillaged it, and put the inhabitants to the sword.
The city was soon afterwards repaired by the orders of
the conqueror, and the great Temple of the Sun redeco
rated ; yet it never recovered its former opulence, and no
public monument has been found of a date subsequent to
this period, though several were erected only a few years
previously.8 A Latin inscription, already referred to, of the reigns
of Diocletian, Maximinian, and Constantius (A.D. 292-305),
shows that at this period the walls of the city were re
built — probably they had lain in a ruinous state from the
time of Aurelian.9 But the period of Palmyra's grandeur
was now past, and we have scarcely a notice in history of
its decline and fall. In the ' Notitias Ecclesiasticae' we
find it mentioned as the seat of a bishop in the province
of which Damascus was metropolis.1 When the followers
of Mohammed swept across Syria and Arabia with their
conquering armies, Tadmor fell an easy prey ; yet still in
the wars that occurred between the Omeiyades and Abas-
sides it is spoken of as a large town, and strongly fortified.
From a very remote age a large colony of Jews lived in
this city, and towards the close of the twelfth century
Benjamin of Tudela states there were still 4000 of his
brethren dwelling there. A century and a half after this
time Abulfeda speaks of it as a mere village ; and in the
present day it consists of a few miserable huts that seem
8 See the Greek inscriptions in Wood's 'Ruins of Palmyra,' and
Le Bran's 'Voyage au Levant,' ut sup.
0 Ruins of Palmyra, p. 31.
1 See A Sancto Paulo Geographia Sacra, p. 294, and Notitia Antiquae,
p. 50.

248 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF PALMYRA. Chap. IV.
to cling to the ruins of the Temple of the Sun. Its
people, oppressed on the one hand by the wandermg
Bedawin, and on the other by the Turkish government,
are poor and servile ; yet still their robust frames, com
manding stature, and ruddy complexion bear testimony to
the salubrity of the air, and to the genial effect of its
medicinal springs. It is now a great halting-place for the
Baghdad and Damascus caravans.

Tuesday, 8th April. — Sheikh Mohammed and his tram
remained in Tadmor during the whole of our visit, and
only left this morning a short time before us, on receiving
a promise that we would breakfast with him in his tent
on our way back. Bidding adieu to Sheikh Fares, who
accompanied us to the gate of the village, we mounted
our dromedaries, and turned their heads westward. The
ruins were soon passed, and the Valley of Tombs left
behind, and in two hours we dismounted at the tent-door
of the Arab chief.
Our first business here was to draw up a contract
between 'Amer and Mohammed, that they would thence
forth unite in conveying travellers to Tadmor, each
retaining one-half of the gain. This document, duly
signed and sealed, was committed to my care to be given
with all due form to Mr. Misk, Breakfast was then
served, consisting of delicious dates spread over a large
copper tray, with a little pyramid of snowy butter in the
centre. With the help of our own bread, we made a
hearty meal, and at noon resumed our journey.

Chap. IV. RETURN TO DAMASCUS. 249
For the sake of variety 'Amer proposed to take us
back to Damascus by the ordinary route, to which we
readily agreed. Our road thus led up the great plain, and
nothing could be imagined more dreary than the prospect
around us : a delicate flower, or a few tufts of grass, or a
stunted weed, occasionally sprang up tlirough the flinty
soil, but the hills on each side were bare and white, and
the plain so completely deserted, that for seven long hours
we rode on without seeing a single living creature. The
sun went down, and the western horizon was deeply
tinted with that rich golden hue which is only seen in the
East. We had begun to fear the necessity of a night
march, or a bivouac under the canopy of heaven, exposed
to the piercing winds of the desert, when the eagle eye of
the ageily descried the form of a solitary camel standing
motionless upon the horizon. He uttered a cry of joy,
and we swept onward with increased energy. The last
streak of the brief twilight had already disappeared, and
the bright stars in the dark vault over-head shone with a
brilliancy that is unknown in the cloudy West. Having
surmounted an easy swell in the plain, we suddenly saw
before us, in a shallow wady, the lights of a little encamp
ment. We wrapped our cloaks around us, and rode on in
silence till we reached a tent-door, where we dismounted,
and, entering, became the guests and proteges of its
master. No water was offered to us, and none had been
in the encampment for two days ; but bowls of camels'-
milk were presented to each, and the evening meal soon
made its appearance.
We found, on inquiry, that this was but a section of a
large tribe of the Sab'a,. other portions of which were
M 3

250 RETURN TO DAMASCUS. Chap. IV.
spread over the plain and neighbouring mountains. They
received us with genuine Bedawy hospitality, supplymg
our wants with the best of what they possessed, and not
troubling us with either excuse or apology.
Wednesday, 9th. — Our hard and humble couch did not
prevent refreshing sleep, and at five o'clock this morning
we were again in the saddle. The little encampment was
soon out of sight, and the broad plain before us, desolate
and dreary as ever. Ere long a tower-like building ap
peared on the horizon, and attracted our attention. We
reached it at seven o'clock, and found to our surprise a
square tower with a cross figured upon several parts of it.
Beside it are some ruins, with the remains of a richly
ornamented doorway, similar to some of those in Palmyra.
A few hundred yards to the north-east is a circular en
closure surrounded by an earthen dyke about ten feet high.
A ruined aqueduct can be traced from it across the plain,
toward the mountain-range on the south This was evi
dently intended as a resting-place for caravans. It is about
half-way between Kuryetein and Tadmor.
The snowy tops of Lebanon were now distinctly visible
in front, and. the plain tlirough which we travelled became
undulating, with little valleys like water-courses inter
secting it ; the herbage, too, assumed a fresher look, and
flowers and weeds were more frequent. The mountain-
range on the south is of an almost uniform elevation
throughout, but that on the north decreases in altitude
towards the west.
Dreary and desolate as this great valley seems, it is not
without its associations, historic and sacred ; and the whole
route we were now following is one that has been noted

Chap. IV. RETURN TO DAMASCUS. 251
for long centuries. Along it Abraham travelled when
journeying to the land of promise, in obedience to the
command of his God ; and Jacob followed in his footsteps
with his wives and children, flocks and herds, men and
maid servants. His route would necessarily be regulated
by the fountains at which he could obtain the necessary
supplies of water. The time occupied by the journey
(ten days) proves that he could not have passed round by
Northern Syria, but must have taken the shortest course
to Mount Gilead, where Laban came up with him. For
these reasons it is clear he must have passed the copious
springs of Palmyra and Kuryetein, and thence pursued his
journey through the fertile territory of Damascus. The
distance from the banks of the Euphrates at Harran could
not be accomplished in less than ten days by one encum
bered as he was, and it would not require a longer time
where despatch was used. Laban, however, on his swift
dromedaries, could easily perform the same journey in
seven days. A truer or more vivid picture of patriarchal
life could not be witnessed than the march of an Arab
tribe across this dreary region. But in later years, when
Palmyra was in its glory, this valley was the great channel
through which the wealth of India and of Eastern Asia
flowed to Syria, Greece, and Western Europe. Palmyra
is now in ruins, and the channel of commerce is well-nigh
dry; but the time may yet come when the withering
blight of Islam shall be removed from this unhappy
empire, and when the desert highway shall be again one
of the channels of communication between Eastern Asia
and Europe.

252 RETURN TO DAMASCUS'. Chap. IV
We reached Kuryetein at three o'clock, and took up
our quarters at the house of the sheikh. Here we found
Miguel, the brother of Sheikh Mohammed, with a few of
his followers, awaiting the arrival of the travellers from
Beyrout ; and here too we found a strong party of 'Amer's
tribe keeping watch upon the others. We soon learned
that intelligence of our capture had been speedily con
veyed to 'Amer's tribe, with some vague rumours of his
own death. This party had therefore been sent to inter
cept Miguel, and, if they found the reports of 'Amer's
death true, to take blood revenge. Such is desert law,
and it serves admirably to restrain the fierce passions of
the Bedawin, and to prevent bloodshed. A blood-feud,
when it once arises between tribes, is almost interminable.-
The fearful sentence of " blood for blood " hangs over the
head of every individual; and whenever opportunity
occurs, be it sooner or later — after a lapse of a few hours,
or after the lapse of many years — the sentence is executed.
The greatest care is consequently taken, whatever forays-
and reprisals may be made, to avoid bloodshed,
Kuryetein is situated in the plain, but a spur from the
southern hills runs out towards it, at the extremity of
which are copious fountains of pure water. These are the
only fountains in the whole of this vast region, and they
must consequently have given an importance to the locality
from the earliest ages. Considerable ruins, consisting of
broken columns and large hewn stones, are found among
the houses and in the walls of the modern village. Mr.
Wood observed here fragments of two Greek inscriptions,
but he does not say whether they contained any name or

Chap. IV. RETURN TO DAMASCUS. 253
date.2 I shall afterwards have occasion to refer to this
place when giving my views as to the line of the northern
boundary of the land of Israel. I will only remark here,
that, from its position and its copious fountains, I have been
led to suppose that it may possibly be the site of Hazar-
enan, " The village of fountains," on the border of Da
mascus northward.3
The abundant waters are used in the irrigation of the
fields and gardens round the village ; and the inhabitants,
being warlike and courageous, and moreover within reach
of the military station of Hasya, are able to defend their
crops against the Bedawin. There is a little community
of Christians here, belonging to the Syrian or Jacobite
Church. Thursday, 10th. — We left Kuryetein at 5-30 this morn
ing, and continued our journey along the great valley,
which here turns to the south of west. Before we had
proceeded more than a few miles we heard some shots
across the plain on our right, and our chief manifested con
siderable anxiety. He informed us that this was one of the
most dangerous parts of the whole region, being a much-
frequented border-land, where predatory bands of Bedawin
are almost constantly on the watch for stray wayfarers.
He urged us to be on our guard against robbers ; but we
had little means of defending ourselves in case of attack,
2 Ruins of Palmyra, p. oi.
8 Ezek. xlvii. 17, andxlvii. 1; Num. xxxiv. 9-10. May not Kuryetein
be the modern representative of the ancient episcopal city called by the
several names Corada, Caradea, Carotea, or Earotea, and whose bishop
was styled in the acts of the Council of Chalcedon k«j o3«/«v Etritrxotm; ?
See S. Pauli, Geog. Sac. p. 295, and Not. Ant. p. 62.

254 RETURN TO DAMASCUS. Chap. IV.
and we felt that, unless the number of our assailants was
very small, we must become an easy prey.
In five hours we passed a large ruined caravanserai on
the side of the road. The range of mountains, on the
south side of which we had travelled in going to Palmyra,
was new close on our left, rising up bleak and barren from
the desolate plain. The opposite range, distant apparently
about five miles, is considerably loftier, but its features are
the same. At 3*40 we reached the village 'Atny, having
passed several small khans now lying in ruins, and in
another hour we entered the gate of Jerud. Next morning
we set out at an early hour, and reached Damascus a little
after noon, glad to have escaped the dangers of the desert,
and to enjoy again the comforts of civilised life.

Chap. V. VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. 255

CHAPTEE V.
THE VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. — THE
ANCIENT ABANA.
The Barada — The Salahiyeh hills — Dummar — Fine valley — Ancient
aqueduct — Greatfountain of Fijeh — Wady Barada— Siik, the ancient
Abila — Roman road and aqueducts — Inscriptions — Discoveries of
M. de Saulcy — History of Abila — Sublime pass — Roman bridges
— Plain of Zebdany — Fountain of the Barada — Physical geography
of district — The "Rivers of Damascus" identified.
I HAVE already stated that the surpassing beauty and rich
ness of the vast plain of Damascus, and the very existence
of the city itself, depend entirely on the waters of the
Barada. The reader may therefore wish to accompany me
as I ascend the wild and picturesque ravine through which
this noble river descends from its source in the distant
mountams. Along this route I have often ridden, alone
and in the company of friends and strangers, by day amid
unclouded splendour, and by night when the pale moon
threw her silvery rays on crag and peak, and yet I have
never wearied of the scene. I cannot promise my reader
that he will not feel weary of my attempt to describe
scenes familiar to me as the home of my youth ; but I could
safely assure him that, if I had him here on some balmy
morning in spring, mounted on a spirited Arab, his atten
tion would not flag till we had reached the end of our
proposed journey.
In half an hour from the city we cross the great canal

256 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
Taura, and, passing through a section of the large village
of Salahiyeh, emerge from the verdant gardens and dense
orchards of Damascus. The road now skirts the mountain
side, which rises up on the right, bleak, white, and pre
cipitous, while close on the left it is washed by a sea of
verdure. Ascending diagonally some fifteen minutes
more, we reach the spot beside a little wely, on the brow
of the deep wild glen, from which is obtained the justly-
celebrated view of Damascus and its magnificent plain ;
but another view lies before us no less remarkable, if less
famed — a view which for savage grandeur and naked de
solation has scarcely a parallel. The bare hills, white as
snow, shoot up into conical summits, smooth as if scarped
by the hand of man ; beyond this is the Sahra, like a sea
of molten iron ; and farther still in the distance rises ab
ruptly the great central ridge of Antilibanus, furrowed by
torrents and rent to its very foundations by yawning
ravines. Descending from this spot over naked slopes of white
cretaceous limestone, filled with nodules of flint and huge
ammonites, we reach in half an hour the little village of
Dummar, pleasantly situated on the green banks of the
Barada. The Yezid, the highest of the numerous canals
led off from this river, washes some of the houses. The
ordinary road to Ba'albek here crosses the river, and, wind1-
ing for a time along its banks, strikes over the dreary
plain until it descends into the valley again near Suk.
We shall take another and more interesting course that
will lead us past the great fountain of Fijeh.
Leaving the village behind, we skirt the bare white
hills, and follow a narrow and slippery path along the side

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 257
of the valley. The scenery below us is now exquisitely
beautiful. The vale is of considerable breadth, and ver
dant meadows and blooming orchards of walnut and apricot
trees spread out on each side, while a fringe of lofty pop
lars marks the serpentine course of the stream ; and the
whole is shut in by groups of graceful conical hills, whose
snowy whiteness sets off the deep green of the foliage.
Soon, however, we leave this little paradise, and, after forty
minutes' winding through desolate wadys, emerge upon
the great plain of the Sahra. It is at this place less barren
than where we formerly crossed it on the Beyrout road,
and here and there may be seen little patches of culti
vation. A dreary ride of three miles now brings us to the
head of a fine valley, down which our road winds to the
left, among groves of fig-trees and terraced vineyards. On
the right is the precipitous mountain rising over us some
three thousand feet ; on the left is a long slope surmounted
by a wall of naked rock ; while in front is the deep valley
through which the Barada rushes, concealed by the dense
foliage and overshadowed by lofty cliffs. On reaching the
end of this valley, which is called Wady Bessima, we sud
denly find ourselves beside a little village of the same
name, built on the very brink of the foaming torrent, and
surrounded by some of the wildest and most romantic
scenery I have ever seen in this land. After sweeping
through the narrow strip of gardens above the village, the
river enters a gorge so narrow that no space is left even
for a goat-path along the bank. Here, tunnelled through
the side of the perpendicular cliff, is an ancient aqueduct
which once brought water from the great fountain of Fijeh>

258 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
and its dry bed now forms the only path of communica
tion between this village and that of Ashrafiyeh, twenty
minutes farther down.
Strange and wonderful are the tales that are told of this
aqueduct. Tradition ascribes its construction to some
daughter of a king who reigned in Palmyra, and who thus
conducted the waters of Fijeh to her native city. A
writer in the American ' Bibliotheca Sacra ' has referred
to this tradition, and has annexed to it the statement that
the aqueduct has been traced for nine hours across the
plain towards Palmyra, and that it is again seen near that
city ! This is a striking and romantic tale, but there are
a few points that require proof ere we can release it from
the realms of fancy. It will first be necessary to establish
some connection between the aqueduct at Bessima and that
on the plain of Damascus, and this we believe has never
yet been done. Between the spot where the one ends, or
at least beyond which it cannot be traced, and the place
where that on the plain begins, is a distance of some six
teen miles. It will further be necessary to prove that
these canals are of the same character. The aqueduct
in the plain is, like numerous others in the same district,
subterranean, constructed not merely for conveying but for
collecting water. I have traced this aqueduct across the
plain to its termination — not at Tadmor, however, but at
the ruins of a considerable town on the borders of the
desert east of Damascus. The tradition above referred to
is, I presume, about equally well founded with one I heard
at the fountains of Solomon, near Tyre. Standing some
years ago on the brink of one of these wonderful struc-

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 259
tures, I asked a venerable Arab beside me, " From whence
do these waters come, 0 my father !" " From Baghdad,
0 my lord !" was the grave reply. " And who brought
them here ? " I again inquired. " Alexander, by the help
of a Jdn," responded the profound antiquary !
For about two miles above Bessima the river with diffi
culty forces its way between lofty rocky banks, now
rushing headlong against some projecting cliff on the one
side, and, when driven back, turning fiercely towards the
opposite. The winding of the glen affords continued
variety of scene, and successive pictures of wild grandeur,
as we ride along the shelving path, which is in some
places hewn in the side of the cliff almost over the bed of
the torrent. A lofty mountain-chain, in fact, is here cut
through ; it seems to have been rent by some wondrous
convulsion of nature to its very foundations. The once
regular strata have been tossed into countless forms. The
banks tower aloft, almost perpendicularly, more than a
thousand feet, while on the north side the mountain
summits rise abruptly near two thousand more. No
description could convey a just impression of this sublime
pass. And the industry of man has added much to the
beauty and picturesqueness of nature. Wherever a tree
can take root, or a little terrace can be constructed for the
vine, the space is occupied ; and the foliage of the fragrant
walnut in many places shades the rocky path, while its
spreading branches touch the vine that clings to the pre
cipice beyond it.
Passing through this valley we reach, a mile and a half
above Bessima, the little village of Fijeh, and a few yards

260 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
beyond it . the great fountain of the same name. This
fountain is some seventy yards from the bed of the Barada,
on the left bank, and bursts forth from a cavern underneath
an old temple at the foot of a naked cliff. The mouth of
the cave was formerly confined, by strong masonwork, to
an opening about a yard square ; but this is now ruinous.
From this opening, and from pores in the earth, and
fissures in the rock on each side, the water gushes out
with great force and a noise like thunder, and forms, a few
yards below, a torrent thirty feet wide and three feet deep,
with a current so rapid, that, though on level ground,
none would venture to ford it. Beside the fountain are the
massive ruins of another small temple. These temples
were perhaps dedicated to the guardian nymph or genius.
Here I recommend the wayfarer to rest, and spread
his carpet on the huge stones on the summit of the ruin,
and contemplate the grandeur of nature in the leaping and
boiling torrent at his feet, and in the jagged cliffs far over
head that shut in the little valley. Shaded by the walnut
and tapering poplar, he can defy even an eastern sun,
while the spray from the bounding waters diffuses a
delicious coolness amid the fiercest summer heats. No
officious guide will intrude upon his privacy, and no
sturdy bandit will demand a bakhshish. Some village
girl in her picturesque costume may pause for a moment
to look at the stranger, or to offer him a blushing apricot
from the little basket she carries so gracefully upon her
head ; but from other visitors the traveller feels secure.
Fijeh is one of the two great sources of the river Barada,
and contributes about two-thirds of the water that spreads

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 261
verdure and beauty around the ancient city of Damascus,
Many have thought that this is one of the rivers of which
Naaman spoke ; but Fijeh is a fountain, and not a river.
It is very correctly described by the celebrated geographer
and historian Abulfeda. Of late years it has been fre
quently visited, and more frequently described, by tra
vellers, but in none of their works have I seen an account
so clear, definite, and simple, as that of the Arab his
torian.1 Leaving the fountain, we follow a difficult and even
dangerous road along fhe shelving side of the mountain,
high above the stream. The valley now expands, and the
belt of gardens and orchards along the banks becomes con
siderably broader : while the hills, being less precipitous,
are cultivated in terraced patches among the rocks. In
half an hour from ' Ain Fijeh we reach the little village of
Deir Mukurrin, and in twenty minutes more Kefr ez-
Zeit. The wady now turns north-west, and runs in a
zigzag course to Suk, distant fifty minutes, its sides sloping
more gently, and affording a light soil for cultivation. On
the left bank of the stream are two small villages, Kefr and
Berheleiya ; and on the right are two more, Deir Kanun
and Huseiniyeh. I may here observe that the notes of
Burckhardt, and of the many who have transcribed from
him, on this part, are very incorrect, and have created con
siderable confusion in attempts to fix the precise site of the
ancient Abila. There is no village here called Suk, except
that above referred to, and which will be described pre-
1 Abulfed. Tab. Syr. p. 15.

262 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
sently ; and the only villages in this section of the wady
are those already named. Burckhardt, who afterwards
became such a close and accurate observer, seems to have
penned the notes of the first part of this journey from
memory. He says, for example, that he crossed the
Barada several times between the bridge at Dummar and
Judeideh (which he writes Eldjdide !). This is altogether
a mistake — he did cross a small tributary of the Barada;
but the great and only road runs on the right bank of that
river from the bridge at Dummar to that at Suk.3
The situation of Suk is very picturesque, and the
scenery around it of surpassing grandeur. It stands upon
a piece of level ground on the right bank of the river,
embowered in the dense foliage of its gardens and orchards.
Beside it rises the lofty mountain called Neby Habil, whose
sides are mostly sheer precipices of naked rock. A short
distance above the village the wady makes a sharp turn to
the west, thus completely shutting in the view ; and here,
rising abruptly before you from the very bed of the stream,
towers in stern grandeur the great central ridge of Antili
banus. In the recess formed by the bend of the river in
the mountain-side may be seen the dark entrances to
numerous sepulchral caves hewn in the calcareous rock —
some high up in the face of the cliff, and only accessible by
long flights of steps; others lower down, and easy of
access. By following the main road, which skirts the
base of Neby Habil for a few hundred yards farther up, to
the point where the valley turns, we obtain the best view
8 Travels in Syria, pp. 1, 2.

BlflM

-.**«£'

¦i

v

'/a <A

n
J;

1 Geographical Mile.

T>1 I

Kb

SECTION OF WADY BARADA, SHOWING THE SITE OF ABILA.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 263
of these interesting tombs ; and near them we now also
observe deep excavations in the projecting cliffs for the
passage of a road and aqueduct. The accompanying plan
will give a better idea of the general features of the scenery
and disposition of the ancient remains than any description
of mine.
It has now been well known for more than thirty years
to every student of sacred geography that this is the site
ofthe ancient Abila of Lysanias, the capital ofthe tetrarchy
of Abilene. The old itineraries fix the position of that
city with sufficient accuracy to identify it. It was on the
great road between Heliopolis and Damascus, thirty-two
miles from the former city, and eighteen from the latter.3
But still more clear and decisive evidence was brought to
light when Mr. Banks, nearly forty years ago, discovered
two Latin inscriptions, containing the name of the city,
on the side of the excavated roadway above mentioned.4
Though many travellers have visited the place, yet none
have as yet given such a description of the remains of
antiquity and the precise position of the ruins as their im
portance demands. On several occasions I have had ample
opportunity of examining them, and will now give a
summary of the results of my investigations.

2 Reland. Palest, pp. 314 and 393.
4 Correct copies of these inscriptions may be seen in the ' Journal of
Sacred Literature' for July, 1853; where there is also a full description
of the existing ruins, accompanied with a sketch of the history of Abila.
A full and satisfactory commentary on these inscriptions was given by
John Hogg, Esq., F.R.S., in a paper read before the Royal Geographical
Society, 25th June, 1849, a copy of which the author kindly forwarded
to me at Damascus during the past year, 1854.

264 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
The ancient name Abila still clings to this spot On
the summit of the lofty hill Neby Habil, above referred to,
is a gigantic tomb called Kabr Habil — The Tomb of
Abel. 5 Beside it is a small building in ruins, the character
of the workmanship of which, as seen in the massive
foundations and finely-hewn stones and moulded cornices
scattered around, shows that it must be ascribed to the
Roman age. It was fourteen yards long by seventeen wide ;
and in front, towards the east, there was a portico, the
columns of which have fallen and rolled down the mountain
side to the river far below. The position of the ruin,
situated on the summit of a lofty and almost inaccessible
hill, and the fact that the door is towards the east, are suffir
cient to prove that it was originally a temple, and not
a place intended for Christian worship, as Pococke has
represented it. I searched in vain for any trace of an
inscription. From this place I descended the hill on the north side
to the modern bridge, which now spans the stream. Here
on the right bank are remains of two aqueducts tunnelled
in the rock, which appear to have been intended for con^
veying water to that portion of the city that stood on this
side of the stream. One of them is still in good repair,
and used for irrigating the gardens and fields above the
5 Y^fc-®^ is doubtless only a corruption of \\, which corresponds
to the Hebrew 73N, and signifies a "moist or grassy place.'' One
can see at a glance how appropriate is such a name to this spot, where
the rich verdure, occasioned by the abundant waters, presents such a
contrast to the bleak and parched slopes around. A local tradition,
often mentioned by travellers, makes this the place where Abel fell by
the hand of Cain, and where his mortal remains now rest.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 265
modem village. Crossing the bridge to the left bank, I
climbed up for some minutes among huge masses of rock,
which the wear of centuries has separated from the frown
ing cliffs above, and then reached the ancient road here
hewn in the solid rock. Its breadth is 12 feet, and the
total length of the cutting 450. The wall of rock on the
left is in places from twenty to thirty feet high ; but on
the right, next the river, there are large open spaces
occasioned by the inequalities of the precipice. The road
terminates at the edge of an overhanging cliff, and was
formerly carried along on arches or colonnades. On the
north wall of the excavations are two Latin inscriptions,
each occurring in two different places. The larger and
more important inscription records that the " Emperor
Caesar M. Aur. Antoninus Aug. Armeniacus, and the
Emperor Caesar L. Aurel. Verus Aug. Armeniacus, re
stored the road broken away by the force of the river ; the
mountain being cut through by the agency of Julius Verus,
legate of the province of Syria, at the expense of the
inhabitants of Abilene." The date of this inscription must
be about A.D. 164.6 Pococke also saw and copied a
fragment of a Greek inscription, in which the name of
" Lysanias Tetrarch of Abilene" is found.7
Immediately below this road, and running parallel to it,
is an aqueduct, also hewn in the solid rock. Where it is
tunnelled, it is about two and a lialf feet wide and four high ;
but in some places it is open above, and the cutting is not
less than twelve feet deep. Through this I passed to the
8 See 'The City of Abila,' by John Hogg, Esq., F.R.S.
i Id.
VOL. I. N

266 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA Chap, V.
precipice at the termination of the road. Here stood in
Maundrell's day some heavy columns,8 the fragments of
which may still be seen on the bank of the river below.
These were probably intended to support the roadway, as
there is no space for even a small building. Beside the
columns I observed the folding doors of one of the tombs,
formed of stone, like some of those I had seen at Palmyra,
Upon them was a short Greek inscription, merely recording
the name of the founder. In passing along the shelving
bank from the aqueduct I noticed a narrow road on the
left, partly hewn in the solid rock, winding up a wild
gorge in the mountain-side by a series of steps. I followed
its course, and hi a few minutes reached extensive quarries
on the summit of the cliff. Returning by the same path,
I followed the line of the great road and aqueduct below
the tombs, and observed distinct traces of them for about a
quarter of a mile farther down, now supported by strong
masonry, and now tunnelled or hewn in the rock. Where
these terminated the ruins of the ancient city began to
appear. Fragments of columns, massive foundations, and
heaps of hewn stones, are scattered along the river-side,
half buried in the soil. Just opposite Suk I discovered the
foundations of a fine portico, with the steps in front, and
the bases of some of the columns still in their places ; but
I searched in vain for any trace of bridge or viaduct over
the deep bed of the stream. M. de Saulcy discovered a
" fine remnant of a bridge, evidently of Greek or Eoman
construction ;" but M. de Saulcy was an inventive genius.'
8 Maundrell's Travels, p. 134.
0 Journey round the Dead Sea and in the Bible Lands, vol. ii. p. 537.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 267
On the summit of a little tell, somewhat farther down,
are the ruins of a small village, comparatively modern, but
constructed out of the materials of more ancient and im
posing buildings. The ruins extend altogether for more
than a mile along this left bank ; and some distance below
them, near the little village of Kefr, are the prostrate
remains of a temple. The principal part of Abila appears
to have stood on this side of the river.
We forded the stream with much difficulty below Suk,
and proceeded to examine the right bank and the village
itself for remains of antiquity. Here, also, are broken
eolumns, some of them of massive proportions, and frag
ments of sculptured cornices. On a stone in the wall of
the mill, which stands on the very brink of the river, one
of my companions discovered a Greek inscription, which
we at once proceeded to copy. It is unfortunately very
defective, but it appears to have been originally intended
for a family tomb or mausoleum. The date still remains
clear; it is in the year 512 (A.D. 200), and month Dcesius
(May). On another stone, found by M. de Segur, the
French consul at Damascus, is likewise a Greek inscription
of the Christian age, containing the name of a bishop,
John, and the date 875 (a.d. 563).1
. It was with considerable surprise that I lately read the
narrative of M. de Saulcy's visit to this place, in which he
pompously claims all the honour of having discovered these
ruins and inscriptions, and of having identified the site of
the ancient Abila ! As the work of this French savant
1 All these inscriptions may be found in the article above referred to
in the 'Journal of Sacred Literature' for July, 1853.
N 2

268 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
has attained to considerable popularity, and has attracted
much notice both in France and England, I may be allowed
to call the reader's attention to a few facts connected with
his pretended discoveries at this place. It is to be observed
that, from the moment he enters the village of Silk, he
professes total ignorance of all previous researches, and of
everything that had been written about this interesting
spot before his time. It was only when he saw an old
mill, constructed, as he supposes, from the ruins of an
ancient temple, that he became convinced of the fact that
he was on the site of an ancient city ! After a little
farther examination, he adds, "Ancient remains are
visible everywhere in and around the village, and it
would be evidently most interesting, were it possible, to
find some inscription from which we might learn the name
of the city formerly existing here. On my return to
France I resolve to make some researches concerning this
locality, and have good hopes that I may succeed in deter
mining the name. (! !) I little thought at the moment
that the very next morning the problem would be solved."2
Thus writes the member of the French Institute, for
the sake of heightening the dramatic effect, and exciting
the attention and admiration of his readers, whom he sup
poses as profoundly ignorant as he himself professes to be.
Next morning he sallies forth, notwithstanding the " un
satisfactory aspect of the heavens," and, urged on by anti
quarian zeal, he is almost tempted to " risk life and limb,"
by crossing the river on a ladder, in search of the hoped-
2 Journey round the Dead Sea and in Bible Lands, vol. ii. pp. 535-7.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 269
for mscriptions. Discretion was deemed the better part
of valour, however, and, leaving the more venturous abbe
to pursue his researches alone, he returned to the village
"rather ashamed of himself." In due time the abbe
comes back enraptured with the discovery of the ruins of
an " immense city," a " vast necropolis," and "splendid
inscriptions among the rooks." The enthusiasm of M. de
Saulcy is now excited to the highest pitch, and he is
"quite ready to attempt the dangerous passage of the
ladder;" but, fortunately for the cause of science, there
was no occasion to hazard such a valuable life. A bridge
was found farther up, orossing which, he scaled the moun
tain-side, and there saw before him the inscriptions he had
longed for. After briefly commenting upon them he
concludes as follows :— " The problem of the unknown
name of the ancient city happened thus to be immediately
and perfectly resolved. The city was Abila  The
reader may thus observe that chance greatly favoured me,
by thus supplying in my need a precious document con
cerning the name and history of the city through the ter
ritory of which we were passing." !
It is indeed difficult to understand how one so well
versed in ancient itineraries, and so deeply learned in the
geography of this land, should have been so long ignorant
of a fact which every schoolboy can learn from his dic
tionary of geography ! It is strange that he, a member of
the French Institute — of which honourable distinction he
so often reminds his readers — should have known nothing
of inscriptions the purport of whieh was communicated to
the world in 1820 in one of the best-known periodicals of
Europe, the 'Quarterly Review;' which were published

270 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
at large, with a memoir by Letronne, in the ' Journal des
Savans' for March, 1827, and again, in the following
year, in the great work of Orellius ; and which have since
that period been referred to and commented on by scores
of travellers and literary men ! All this, however, we emld
perhaps believe ; and, had no other circumstance come to
my knowledge, I might have Tested content with giving
M. de Saulcy full credit for his ignorance, and should pro
bably have regarded him as a zealous but unfortunate anti
quary, whose discoveries were made some forty years too
late. The public will no doubt be astonished to learn
that I now accuse the learned "Member" not merely nf
ignorance, but of an act of literary dishonesty unworthy
of a scholar. M. Anton Bulad, of this city, has informed
me that before M, de Saulcy left Damascus, on his way to
Ba'albek, he had given him copies of the inscriptions he
professes to have discovered, and had directed his attention
to the village of Sfik-wady-Barada, as the site of the
ancient Abila !
Such is a specimen of the learning and researches of a
man whom a recent reviewer represents as " having con
tributed to our geographical and historical knowledge a
series of discoveries equal in importance and extent to any
which human intelligence and perseverance have accom
plished since Columbus passed the Atlantic Ocean, and
added a new and boundless field for the exercise of human
energy."! !s
Having already published a critique on some alleged
difficulties connected with the history of Abila, and the
s Dublin University Magazine for Sept. 1853, p. 382.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 271
mention of Abilene as a tetrarchy in the Gospel of Luke,4
I will here only give, in a few sentences, the leading
events of its history.
About sixty years before the Christian era, Ptolemy,
the son of Mennaaus, was king of Chalcis, whose territory
embraced the whole southern ridge of Antilibanus.5 Upon
his death, Lysanias, his son, succeeded to the throne, and
removed the seat of government to Abila, which, for that
reason, and to distinguish it from other cities of the same
name in Syria, was called the " Abila of Lysanias ; " 6 and
the whole kingdom over which he ruled was called, in
accordance with the common practice of the period, " The
house of Lysanias." 7 Lysanias was murdered through the
artifices of Cleopatra, who drew for a time the revenues of
the kingdom of Chalcis. After her death Abilene was
farmed by Zenodorus the robber,8 The latter, wishing to
augment his limited revenues, allied himself to the banditti
who then inhabited the strong defiles of Trachonitis, and
this territory, which is now called by Josephus " The
house of Zenodorus," was, in consequence, wrested from
him by Cassar, and given to Herod the Great (b.c 20).9
Herod, in his will, as Josephus informs us,1 bequeathed
the provinces of Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, and Paneas to his
son Philip ; but Ithe historian makes no mention of Abilene,
nor does he say to whom it was given, though he expressly
states that only a certain portion of the " House of Zeno-
* Journal of Sacred Literature for July, 1853.
5 Joseph. Ant. xiii. 6, 3; xiv. 3, 2; 7, 4; 12, 1.
0 "Abila cognomine Lysanii," Ptol. Geog. v. 15.
1 to» ««« mu Awrtmw. Joseph. Ant. xv. 10, 1.
8 Strab. Geog. xvi. p. 520. 9 Joseph. Ant, xv. 10, 1.
1 Id. xvii. 8, 1.

272 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
dorus " was subject to Philip.2 Two things are especially
deserving of notice in this latter statement, when viewed
in connexion with what I have said above : — First, what
Josephus formerly called the " House of Lysanias;" from
its then late ruler, he now calls the " House of Zeno
dorus," from its last governor ; and, second, a certain part
being spoken of as given to Philip, we naturally conclude
that the remaining part, which we know to be the pro
vince of Abilene, passed into the hands of some other
person, and that person, Luke informs us, was Lysanias ;
and hence we conclude that, when Josephus says, at a sub
sequent period,3 that the province of Abilene had been the
tetrarchy of Lysanias, he must refer, not to the first
Lysanias, who was king of Chalcis, but to the second,
who, according to Luke, was tetrarch of Abilene. Thus
the narratives of Luke and of Josephus, when carefully
considered, are found to agree in the minutest point. No
farther mention is made of Abilene by the ancient histo
rians than that it was subsequently given by the Emperor
Caligula to Agrippa, the grandson of Herod,4 and, finally,
by Claudius to Herod Agrippa, the last of the Herodian
family.5 Abila was the seat of a bishopric during the early cen
turies of the Christian era, and was represented at the
Council of Chalcedon, A.D. 451. The latest notice I have
found of its ecclesiastical rulers is that on the inscription
already referred to, which is dated A.D. 563.
8 Id. xvii. 11, 4.
3 This was in a.d. 44, when the Emperor Claudius bestowed these
provinces upon Agrippa.— Joseph. Ant. xx. 7, 1.
i Joseph, xviii. 6, 10. s Id. xx. 7, 1,

Chap.V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 273.
In A.D. 634 Abila was captured and plundered by the
Saracens. The circumstances under which this capture
was made are worthy of record here, as tending to explain
the origin and meaning of its modern name. There lived
at that time, in a convent here, a priest widely celebrated
for sanctity and learning. An annual fair, having some
thing of the character of a pilgrimage, was held at his
residence at Easter. This was the great mart for the lux
uries of Northern Syria, and Christians from far and near
regularly assembled to honour the saint, obtain his bless
ing, and get gain. The pious followers of the Prophet
had just completed the plunder of Damascus, and were
looking round the neighbouring cities for a fair opportunity
of extending the faith and obtaining additional booty, when
they were informed of this great fair. Not a moment was
lost : the Christian merchants were surprised by the war
like Muslem soldiers, and stripped of everything. Since
that period the name of the place has been Suk Wady
Barada, " The Fair of Wady Barada."
Above the ruins of this ancient city the valley becomes
narrower, and the scenery wilder. Naked precipices rise
up on each side, and closely confine the foaming torrent
which dashes onward, struggling with fallen rocks and
projecting cliffs. The road, after crossing the bridge, fol
lows the left bank, where a way has been cut for it, in
some places along the smooth shelving bank, and in others
through the soft chalky rock. In half an hour we pass, by
this sublime glen, through the great central ridge of Anti
libanus, and emerge on the beautiful plain of Zebdany.
On the left as we leave the defile there is a fine waterfall,
and a few yards above it are the remains of two Roman
N 3

274 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V
bridges, one of which spanned the Barada, and the other
conveyed an ancient aqueduct across the bed of a winter
stream that comes down from Wady el-Kurn, and joins
the river at this point.
The plain of Zebdany, which we now enter, is not more
than half a mile wide at its southern extremity, as a line
of low, naked hills projects into it from the south-west.
Down this section the Barada flows in an easy current,
winding among verdant meadows, as if reluctant to com
mence its fierce struggle with the rocks and crags below.
Four miles above the pass its channel sweeps round to the
west, where the plain opens up to a breadth of nearly
three miles, and, following the course of the river, we soon
find ourselves on the banks of a miniature lake, some 300
yards long by 50 wide. This is the source of the Barada.
The head of this little lake is close to a line of lofty and
rugged mountains, whieh shuts in the plain of Zebdany on
the west ; but the whole of the water issues from the plain
underneath the lake, and there is not even a winter-stream
flowing into it from the heights above.
The total length of this fine plain is eight miles from
north-east to south-west. It resembles a vast amphitheatre
shut in by lofty mountains whose rugged and barren sides
contrast well with its smooth surface and rich verdure. To
determine the elevation of this plain above the sea, and
the average fall of the river from its source to Damascus,
I have made repeated measurements with the aneroid, and
sometimes under peculiarly favourable circumstances, when
•the instrument could scarcely have been at all affected by
a change in the state of the atmosphere, having ridden
from the plain of Zebdany to the plain of Damascus in

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 275
less than four hours, under a cloudless sky. The result
of these measurements may not be uninteresting to the
general reader, or without value in a geographical point
of view.
The mountain-range on the east of the plain is the main
or central ridge of Antilibanus, and has an average elevatioa
of about 6000 feet ; but one of its peaks, eight miles north
east of the fountain of the Barada, attains an altitude of
7000 feet, and is, with the exception of Hermon, the
loftiest mountain in the whole range of Antilibanus. The
opposite range on the west of the plain, which travellers
and cartographers have hitherto universally represented
as the central chain, is considerably lower, and rapidly
decreases in altitude a few miles farther north. The plain
itself is 3343 feet above the sea. The Barada falls only
70 feet from the fountain to the ruined Boman bridges,
where it enters the first defile.6 Between this point and
the modern bridge above Suk it falls 251 feet; between
the bridges and the village of Judeideh, on the plain of
Sahra, two hours above Dummar, the fall is 563 feet ; and
between Judeideh and Damascus 265 feet. The whole
fall, therefore, from the fountain to the city is 1149 feet;
and, estimating the distance at 23 Boman miles, this gives
an average fall of nearly 50 feet to the mile.
The nature of the strata of the limestone rock at the
wild glen near Suk is well worthy the attention of the
geologist. There is here a vast bed of fossil organic re-
8 It will be observed that the elevation assigned to this plain by
Russegger agrees very nearly with the results of my measurements.
According to his calculation, the ruined Roman bridges are 3346 feet
above the sea, being only a difference of 73 feet from my estimate, —
a, i. p. 757.

276 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
mains, not less than a mile in length, and in some places
exceeding 100 feet in thickness. Trunks of trees, branches
of every size and form, and even the delicate tracery of
leaves figured upon the calcareous rock, may be seen scat
tered about through the valley, and piled up in the over
hanging cliffs.
I have elsewhere endeavoured to identify the " Rivers
of Damascus," which were preferred by the proud Syrian
to all the waters of Israel ;7 but it may not be considered
out of place here to state a few of the arguments which
appear to favour the conclusion that this is the ancient
Abana. There are at present just two rivers of any note
or importance in this whole district, the Barada and the
Awaj ; and the careful observer cannot resist the conclu
sion that these are the rivers referred to by Naaman.8
They are both within the boundaries of the territory of
Damascus, and it is to be remembered that Naaman speaks
of rivers and not fountains. This fact, I believe, is fatal
to the supposition that the fountain of Fijeh is one of the
rivers of Damascus.
The only point of difficulty is to decide which is the
Abana and which the Pharpar. It would doubtless seem
natural that the more important stream, and that with
which a citizen of Damascus would be most familiar,
should be first mentione d A Damascene of the present
day would never put the Awaj before the Barada in
speaking to a stranger. The latter is much the larger
river, and some branch of it meets him in every quarter
of the city, and the murmur of fountains supplied by it
i Journal of Sacred Literature for July, 1853.
8 2 Kings v, 12.

Chap. V. THE ANCIENT ABANA. 277
falls upon his ear in almost every dwelling. It alone
flows through the city, the other river being at the dis
tance of several miles. But besides, the name Abana is
sometimes written Amana, and there is a mountain of the
same name spoken of in Cant. iv. 8, which critics suppose
takes its name from the river whose source is in it.9 If
this be admitted, then we argue that Amana and Hermon
are mentioned as distinct mountains, and that, conse
quently, the source of the Abana cannot be in the latter ;
but the source of the Awaj is in the Hermon, and the
Barada rises in a mountain-range nearly a day's journey
northward. Hence the Awaj cannot be the Abana, and
the Barada and Abana must be identical. These argu
ments do not amount to absolute proof, but they render it
highly probable that the noble stream which we have now
followed to its source is the first of those rivers exultingly
referred to by Naaman in comparison with the waters of
Israel. In the north-eastern corner of the plain of Zebdany, at
the foot of the mountain, is a small fountain of pure
water, called 'Ain el-Funduk, " The fountain of the Cara
vanserai," which sends forth a little stream to join the
Barada. Towards the close of the summer, however, its
waters are almost wholly exhausted in the irrigation of
the intervening fields and gardens. There is another and
much larger fountain at 'Ain Hauwar, a village about
three miles to the north-east. Its waters flow through a
narrow but fertile valley to the village of Zebdany, at the
entrance of the plains ; but here they are conveyed in a
¦ Poli, Synopsis Crit. Sac. Cant. iv. 8. Gesenius, Heb. Lexicon,
s. v. WDK.

278 VALLEY AND FOUNTAIN OF THE BARADA. Chap. V.
thousarid little channels over orchards and fields. It is
these fountains, with numerous others of less note in
the declivity of the mountains, that render the plain of
Zebdany one of the most beautiful and fertile spots in
Syria.

Chap. VI. MOUNT HERMON. 279

CHAPTER VI.
MOUNT HERMON, AND THE SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND
JORDAN.
Bludan — Ancient "High Place" — Mountains of Antilibanus — Inac
curacy of maps — Banditti — Fearful tale — Rasheiya and its prince
— Ascent of Hermon — Interesting ruins on summit — The sources
of the Pharpar — Descent to Hasbeiya — Source of the Nahr Has-
Mny — Tell el-Kady, Dan, and the fountains of the Jordan — Banias,
Cmsarea, Philippi — Great castle of Banias — The Lake Phiala, and
Roman Road — Extent of Jebel esh-Sheikh and Jebel el-Heish —
Arab robbers — Beit Jenn and the second source of the Pharpai 
M. de Saulcy's discoveries (?) — Description ol the Pharpar — Ap
proach to Damascus from the west.
The village oi Bludan, from which I propose to set out
on my next excursion to scale the summit of snow-capped
Hermon, and explore the sources of the sacred streams
that spring from its rugged sides, has been my summer
residence for four years. Many of the pages I now pre
sent to the public have been penned amid the refreshing
shade of its delicious gardens, while enjoying a short re
laxation from more important labours.
Bludan is situated on the mountain-side, more than a
thousand feet above the plains of Zebdany, on the decli
vity of the loftiest peak of Antilibanus. Around and
above it fountains gush forth, whose waters, being carefully
distributed over the easy slopes, render the soil wonder
fully productive. Extensive orchards of walnut, apricot,
almond, and apple-trees please the eye, and enrich the
industrious inhabitants with the abundance of their fruit.

280 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
Graceful poplars line the rivulets, and extensive vineyards
spread along the hill-sides and cluster in the glens. The
view from the village is wide and beautiful, embracing a
large portion of the southern section of Antilibanus, with
the range of Libanus from Sunnin and Kuneiyiseh to the
lofty peak at the cedars. As you stand on some terraced
roof looking down those vine-clad slopes, Zebdany, em
bowered in its forest of gardens and orchards, lies at your
feet, and its lovely plain of waving corn and verdant
meadows stretches away beyond. Mountain-ranges, lofty,
steep, and rugged, shut it in on either side, while away
in the background the hoary head of Hermon towers aloft
over a confused mass of black and bare mountain-tops.
When seen as I have often seen it, on a calm summer
eve, the last red rays of the declining sun reflected from
the snow of Hermon, and tinging with golden Hght every
peak and precipice around, it is surpassingly lovely.1
On the morning of August 30th, 1852, 1 left Bludan,
accompanied by the Rev. Mr. Frazier, and Mr. Peck, an
American traveller, whose lively sketches of the East have
appeared in the columns of the ' New York Observer,' and
have been since read with pleasure and interest on the spot
where they were first written.3 We descended the moun-
1 Bludan has been selected, on account of the excellence of its water
and the salubrity of its air, as the summer quarters of the Damascus
Mission. Mr, "Wood, her majesty's consul, also spends the summer
months in this village, and others of the European residents occasion
ally join our little circle. The village contains about 500 inhabitants,
two-thirds of whom are Christians of the Greek Church, and the rest
Muslems. The elevation is, according to barometrical measurement,
4524 feet above the sea. During the hottest days of summer the ther
mometer seldom rises above 80° Fahr., and the nights are almost
always cool and pleasant.
8 A detailed account of this excursion was communicated to Dr.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 281
tain-side diagonally by a steep and somewhat difficult
path, now winding round the bosom of a deep glen, and
now skirting some projecting cliff, at one time encom
passed by masses of richest foliage, and at another clam
bering over the scarped rock. Five minutes below the
village are the ruins of a large convent, with some columns
and arches still standing ; and fifteen minutes farther the
narrow path winds among the shattered fragments of a
small village, whose remote antiquity is proved by the
sepulchres and sarcophagi that are seen in the rocks
around. On the left, above the ruins, amid a grove of
ancient oaks, is erected a rude altar, where the villagers
are wont to go and break earthen jars in honour of some
saint or demon, whom they call Um esh-Shukakif, " The
Mother of Fragments !" Around the altar are founda
tions of large stones, apparently of remote antiquity. May
not this be the site of one of those " high places" where
the ancient Syrians assembled to pay a strange homage to
their voluptuous gods ? And may not the singular and
destructive rites by which the people now seek to pro
pitiate the tutelary saint or deity be some lingering rem
nant of the worship of their remote ancestors ?
We reached the plain in half an hour, and a pleasant
ride of an hour and twenty minutes more brought us to
the banks of the little lake from which the river Barada
flows forth. From hence we travelled S.W. along the
broken ground at the base of the rugged line of hills, and
in an hour reached the village of Batruny. Continuing
in the same direction till within a short distance of the
Edward Robinson of New York, and inserted by him in the ' Bibliotheca
Sacra' for January, 1854. A sketch of it by Mr. Peck also appeared in
the 'New York Observer.'

282 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
eastern entrance of Wady el-Kurn, we turned suddenly to
the right, and, clambering up the steep mountain-side,
gained the summit in another hour. Here we had a com
manding view of wild Alpine scenery, with the great
plain of Damascus in the distance. The mountain-range,
on the top of which we now stood, extends unbroken from
Wady el-Kurn to where it is intersected by the deep gorge
of the river Yahfufeh, forming the western boundary of
the plains of Zebdany and Surghaya. Its greatest eleva
tion is nearly 6000 feet, but it decreases considerably
toward each end, and especially the northern. From
Zebdany to Wady el-Kurn the sides rise abruptly in
broken precipices with yawning ravines, and along the
top is a ridge of jagged rocks, the favourite retreat of the
partridge and wild boar.
I have seen no map— I believe none has hitherto been
published— on which the Antilibanus range is delineated
with any approach to accuracy. Berghaus places the
loftiest range on the western side of the plain of Zebdany,
and continues it N. by E. in an unbroken line ; but the
fact is, that one hour north of Wady Yahfufeh there are
no mountains whatever in this line. A glance at the map
accompanying this work will show the true direction and
structure of these mountain-chains.
Descending towards the west by a path running parallel
to the wild glen on our left, we reached the little plain of
Judeideh close to its southern extremity, and crossing the
Beyrout road turned south-west up a rugged valley, along
whose sides the dwarf oak and prickly shrubs spring up
among rocks and cliffs. Ascending gradually for an hour
and a half, we emerged on a plateau, wild and rugged in

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 283
the extreme. On our left ran a range of hills resembling
some Cyclopean wall rent and shattered to its foundations,
and, sweeping round to the right in the distance before us,
it joined a line of wooded heights and completely shut in
the view. In front, perched upon the jagged summit of
this range, stood the village of Yiintah.
In a little over half an hour, having crossed the plateau
and ascended the rugged slope, we reached this strangely-
situated village. It was not without some apprehension
we approached it. Its inhabitants, Druzes, we knew to
be covetous and bloodthirsty, and its sheikhs little better
than bandit chiefs. Only two weeks previous to our visit
six of these sheikhs, with a few of their retainers, went in
-the night to Siik-Wady-Barada, entered a house, tore an
unoffending young man from the arms of his wife, and
almost hewed him to pieces in her presence, and then
coolly rode away with large booty in money and jewels.
Mr. Wood, the British consul, was in an adjoining room
when the bloody deed was committed. Hearing the wail
ing of women, he ran out and found the young man dead,
with a frightful gash across his face, which gevered his
tongue, his head almost separated from his body, and
numerous other wounds in various places. The murderers
afterwards, with characteristic Arab politeness, apologised
to the consul for having committed the deed while he was
in the village ! The government, at the urgent demand
•of Mr. Wood, sent fifty horsemen to apprehend the mur
derers, but they assembled their retainers in their rocky
fastness- and drove them back. In attempts afterwards
made the Pasha was not more successful, and for months
Sheikh Daud of Yiintah became the dread and the pest of

284 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
this whole region. At length, however, through the
exertions of our consul, Sheikh Daud was seized by the
Druze chief Sheikh Said Jimblat, and sent in chains to
Beyrout. It was then found that the wife of the mur
dered man had been the chief instigator of the crime, and
had subsequently, in male attire, followed the fortunes of
the murderer of her husband !
As Sheikh Daud was still at large when we visited the
village, we knew not what kind of reception we might
meet with ; yet we did not choose to go out of our way
to avoid him. Our apprehensions were not lessened by a
nearer view of the village itself, and of such of its people
as we met on approaching it. It occupies a strong posi
tion on the summit of a rocky ridge, and might be de
fended by a few resolute men against a large force. The
inhabitants were like their country, wild and savage-
looking, and were all armed with long guns and knives.
We observed a number, as we ascended the slopes, peering
at us from behind precipices and from the house-tops
above. None, however, either saluted us or interfered
with us ; and we rode on, well pleased to have escaped both
insult and attention from a gang of murderers and rebels.
Descending the hill on the south, we came, in fifteen
minutes, to an elevated undulating plain, with huge
masses of jagged rocks cropping up here and there
through the fertile soil. Turning to the south-west, we
continued our course along it, passing a large circular
reservoir, with a few stone sarcophagi lying beside it, now
serving as drinking-troughs. We soon afterwards entered
1 a rocky district, our path winding among huge white lime
stone boulders. Low mountain-ranges, scantily covered

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 285
with oak forests, shut in this plain on either side, and
gave a picturesque appearance to the wild scenery.
At three miles and a half from Yuntah we reached the
brow of a steep declivity, where a scene of beauty and
grandeur suddenly opened up to our view, for which we
were altogether unprepared. At our feet lay a fertile
plain, regular as an amphitheatre, in whose centre rose a
graceful little hill, its sides clad with rich vineyards, and
its summit crowned with the village of Kefr Kuk. On its
right runs a range of wooded hills, rent by numerous
ravines; beyond it are the green slopes on which stand
Easheiya and 'Aiha ; while on the left it is shut in by lofty
mountains, over whose summits towers the snow-capped
Hermon. We descended the slope and crossed the plain to Kefr
Kuk, where we found some remains of ancient Tuins,
round a large reservoir of stagnant water. From an
upright stone, now forming the side of a gateway, I copied
a Greek inscription, which merely informs us that the
edifice, of whatever kind it was, to which this stone be
longed, was constructed by a certain Benabos in the year
360 (a.d. 48) ?
After a short delay we resumed our journey across the
fine plain, which, in its form and the richness of its soil,
greatly resembles that of Zebdany ; I found also on looking
at the aneroid that it has exactly the same elevation. In
3 The inscription I here insert, for the gratification of the anti
quarian : — ,
E T O Y C Z T
BGNABOCGX
XwMOVYElSA MENOCEnoHCEN

286 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
the village of 'Aiha, which we now saw on the decHvity
of the mountain to the left, are ancient remains of some
importance, but I did not visit them. We rode up the
vine-clad slope to Basheiya, which we reached about.
4 o'clock, and pitched our tent beneath the shade of a
giant walnut, in the valley on the south side of the village.
We were soon visited by two interesting boys, grandsons
of the Emir Effendi, a scion of the princely house of
Shehab, and now governor of the district of Basheiya.
Having expressed a desire to obtain a good view of the
surrounding country, they invited us to the palace, from
the roof of which there is a commanding prospect. We
gladly accepted their invitation, and at once set out, clam
bering up the steep hill through terraced vineyards. On
reaching the palace it was deemed necessary we should
first pay our respects to the old Emir, and we were con
sequently ushered into a room where we found him seated
at an open window, gazing on the magnificent alpine
scenery around. He rose as we entered and invited us
to a seat by his side, and, after the customary rather
lengthened salutations, ordered pipes and coffee. Learn
ing that it was our intention to ascend Jebel esh-Sheikh,
he told us of ruins on its summit of which we had never
heard before. He also assured us, in answer to our ques
tions, that there are large numbers of bears on the moun
tain, which at the present season commit great ravages ob
the vineyards along its base. We inquired about leopards,
and he said they were still found, but were not numerous.
We were as much struck by the intelligence of the aged
prince as by his gentle manners, dignified mien, and
venerable aspect, set off by a flowing beard white as the

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 287
snow on the head of Hermon. After taking formal leave,
and politely declining his pressing invitation to make the
palace our home, we were accompanied by two of his sons
to the summit of an ancient tower connected with the
palace, called Burj er-Bash; from this tower, they said,
the village takes its name. The whole country was now
spread out before us like a map ; and as the young emirs
kindly told us the names of the several villages in sight,
we noted them down, and took their bearings. Hosts of
servants and retainers had assembled in the courtyard ere
we descended, to look at the strangers, and bright eyes
were seen flashing through the jalousies of the harim. As
we wound our way through crowds of armed retainers, and
prancing horses richly caparisoned, we could not but think
that, were the costume slightly changed, the palace of
Rasheiya would pass for an English baronial hall of five
hundred years ago.
August 31. — Having procured a strong and active
guide, we prepared to set out for the summit of the
mountain. Some time was required to fasten on our
water-jars, pack our little stock of provisions, including a
basket of delicious grapes, a bakhshish from a friendly
natur,* and arrange the necessary baggage. All being at
last ready, we mounted at 6 "25. After riding a few
minutes down the valley, we turned to the left with our
faces to the mountain-top, now beautifully pencilled on the
background of a deep blue sky. Following the windings
of a little vale for forty minutes, amid vineyards and
groves of fig-trees, we reached a large pond of clear water
at the entrance of a miniature plain. Our path led
* The watch of a vineyard or other fruit-orchard.

288 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
through it, and was almost overshadowed by the dense
foliage and clustering vines. In twenty minutes more we
arrived at the mouth of a wild ravine. The ascent now
began in good earnest. The whole way from hence to the
summit was difficult and laborious. There is no regular
path, but our stalwart guide led the way, now following
the bed of a winter torrent, now scrambling over a shelving
bank, and now zigzagging up the steep slope. The sur
face of the mountain is here covered in almost every part
with loose fragments of white limestone, resembling the
sea-beach, but different in this respect, that, instead of
being rounded, they are sharp and angular. As we ad
vanced, the stones put in motion by the leaders of the
party touched others below them, and, these giving their
impetus to others, the ripple spread as it advanced till tbe
whole hill-side seemed flowing like a torrent, with a
strange rustling noise, to the depths below. Those in the
rear were sometimes even endangered by a larger block
being set in motion. At 9 ¦ 20 we reached a natural cave,
having lost half an hour in waiting for stragglers, and in
gazing with admiration on the country far below, as each
valley and plain opened up to view. At this place, turn
ing south-west, we skirted the mountain-side for twenty
minutes, having the summit on our left, and then dis
mounted at a small fountain.
There being no water higher up, we determined to halt
here till evening, and then proceed to the top and make
arrangements for the night. Wishing, however, to see
and explore as far as practicable the southern range, I
mounted my horse, and, taking the guide, wandered away
along the mountain-side. I soon found that the ravines

j j

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 289
that ran at right angles to my route could not easily be
passed on horseback ; so, leaving my horse with the guide
to await my return, I set out alone. After crossing several
deep valleys and intervening ridges, I came at last to a
point where I saw, far below on the right, Wady et-Teim
and Merj Ayun, with the broad plain of the Huleh below
them. On my left were the elevated plains of Jedur and
Jaulan, and before me the lofty mountain-ridge running
from Hermon nearly due south. The whole of this chain,
which is much lower than Hermon, as seen by the eye
and carefully examined by a telescope, presented the same
general aspect as the mountain on which I stood — white
and naked calcareous rocks, with intervening slopes of
loose stones. The only signs of vegetable life are the
small plants near the summit ; and these, so far. as I could
see, consisted of but two varieties — a dark velvety plant
which, springing from a single stalk, rises to the height of
about six inches, and spreads over the ground like a cir
cular cushion; the other, that everlasting drab-coloured
prickly shrub one meets with in every part of the Syrian
desert, and which appears as sapless as the stones and
shingle among which it springs up.
I examined with some care the geological features of
Hermon, as I had been informed that Lieut. Lynch had
seen traces of granite and other primitive rock on his
journey from Hasbeiya to Damascus. This does not appear
in his published work or in the ' Official Beport,' but I
understood that he had made such a statement in the first
sketches of the expedition given in the newspapers. In
his work he says, " As we descended, the limestone rock
disappeared, giving place to sandstone and trap ; and,
VOL. L 0

290 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
lower down, serpentine occasionally, cropped out." He
must here refer to the spurs which run; out eastward from
Hermon, and not to the mountain itself. I, have passed
round about three-fourths of its base, and have marked
well the height to which the trap ascends ; and this, is
pretty uniform. The whole mountain is limestone, similar
in texture to that along the ridge of Libanus. The only
fossils I perceived were corals near the summit. I enter
tain some doubts about the discovery of the serpentinei
and I am inclined to think that he may have confounded
it with the hard black or greenish trap that abounds along
the eastern base.
Leaving the spot I had gained on the top of the ridgej
I turned my face toward the summit of the; mountain
northward. An hour's smart climbing brought me to a
peak, separated from a- still loftier one tothe north by. a
valley some two hundred feet deep, on the sides qf which
were banks of snow. Between these two peaks;we after
wards pitched our tents and spent the- night. I now
descended a ravine, to the spot where I had left: my horse,
and returned' to the fountain.
At 4*30 I mounted again, and at 5*30 stood on, the
summit of Hermon. I shall not soon forget the feelings
that filled my breast as I gazed; on the magnificent; pano
rama spread out before me. I i could scarce realize. tbe
thought that my feet stood on that sacred' mountain: of
which inspired penmen had written ; and that the Land
of Israel, Cod's gift to Abraham's seed; was before mf
And yet it was so ! Looking westward, that expanse, of
water, now gleaming like burnished gold beneath the rays
of the sinking sun, is the " Great Sea," the border of the

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 291
" Promised Land." On that low promontory jutting out
behind those mountains stands Tyre, the ancient queen
ofthe sea ; and those mountains are called Lebanon. That
blue ridge far away to the south is Carmel, and the broad'
plain of Esdraelon stretches along its base, with Jezreel1
and Shunem, Endor and Tabor, Nain and Nazareth, on its
borders. Here on the south, deeply depressed, are the
still waters of the sea of Galilee, and the narrow valley
running away beyond marks the course of the Jordan.
The picturesque hills on the left bank of the Jordan are
the hills of Gilead ; and the elevated plateau on this side
of them, extending far eastward," is the " Land of Bashan."
On: the north are the lofty parallel ridges of Libanus and
Antilibanus, rising peak over peak far as the eye can see,
and enclosing between them the rich valley of Ccelesyria.
At the eastern base of Antilibanus is a broad plain covered
with verdure ; and the eye can just detect a bright speck
in the centre of it — that is Damascus, the oldest city in
the world.
What a multitude of wondrous events does memory
crowd together in this narrow space ! Through these
mountains and plains roamed the patriarchs with their
flocks and herds. This country was witness to the
prowess of Samson, the valour of David, and the wisdom
of Solomon. Here God's ancient people were cheered by
revelations of eternal truth from on high ; and they were
awed and solemnized by wondrous manifestations of Di
vine power and love. The feet of the Son of God and
• Saviour of the World trod these cities and villages, while
i their inhabitants beheld his miracles, his sufferings, and
: the heavenly purity of his life. Here too was consum-
o 2

292 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
mated the glorious work of man's redemption, when Jesus
died and rose again, having vanquished death and Satan,
and brought life and immortality to light. Of incidents
venerable for their high antiquity, of events celebrated for
their display of valour and patriotism, and of acts hallowed
by the loftiest manifestations of Divine power and love,
this land was thus the scene.
The arrival of my companions roused me from a pleas
ing reverie, and, having issued the necessary orders for
the arrangement of the tent, we proceeded to examine the
several summits of the mountain. These are three. The
loftiest is on the northern side, commanding a panoramic
view of the whole Buka'a, with the great mountain-ranges
of Libanus and Antilibanus. The next is only some
two or three hundred yards south of the former, and over
looks the sources of the Awaj and the eastern plain,
The difference in altitude between these two cannot be
more than twenty feet. The third peak is about a quarter
of a mile west of the latter, and is that which I had before
ascended from the south. It is about a hundred feet
lower than the others. On the north-west and south-east
the declivity is steep and rapid from these peaks, while on
the north-east and south the sides slope more gently, but
yet uniformly, for upwards of 2000 feet, to lofty ridges
which run out in those directions. I now took out my
aneroid to complete the series of altitudes I had taken in
various parts of the Antilibanus range, at this the highest
and most important point. Great, however, was my dis
appointment when I found the needle so entangled with
the thermometer that it could not retrograde sufficiently
to mark the altitude. It stood fixed at a point indicating

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 293
an elevation of about 8500 feet. I resolved, in descend
ing, to mark the point where it should begin to act again,
and then estimate the remainder ; but in this, too, I was
disappointed, for, as I was scrambling at night down a
cliff, I fell, and so damaged the instrument that I could
not rely upon it.
On the second of the summits above referred to we dis
covered some very curious and interesting ruins. In
passing over a rocky projection on our way to it from the
first peak, our guide pointed out the entrance to a large
artificial cavern; beside it lay a fragment of a column
and a number of hewn stones. As we ascended the peak,
however, we found more extensive and interesting remains.
Round a rock which rises to a height of some fifteen feet
are the foundations of a circular wall of stone, apparently
of great antiquity. This ring is about sixty yards in
diameter ; and in the centre of it and of the rock is a rude
excavation eight feet deep, open above. Within this
enclosure, on the very brow of the mountain, on the south
side, are large heaps of hewn stones, some of them bevelled,
and others with a plain moulding round the edges.
Among the stones we were enabled to trace the founda
tions of a small temple, but we could see no columns or
inscriptions. A friend who afterwards visited it informed
me that he had discovered on one of the stones a fragment
of a Greek inscription. The style of the building was
simple and severe. I thought I could recognise two dis
tinct eras in these ruins. The stones of the temple were
apparently of a later date than those of the ring. But
who were the founders of structures so strangely situated,
difficult of access, far from human habitation, and, for the

294 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
.greater part of each year, deeply imbedded in impenetrable
snow ? What was the object for which they were erected,
and what is their probable date ? Some light may be
thrown on this subject by a consideration of other cir
cumstances. On three lofty peaks of Antilibanus I also
found ruins of great antiquity ; but none of them had the
circular ring, which seems to be the simplest, and probably
most primitive, form of sacred architecture. The Dru-
idical rings of the British islands are well known, and one
of these which I have sometimes visited on the top of
Mount Greenan, near Londonderry, Ireland, is somewhat
similar in structure to that on Hermon, and commands,
like it, an extensive view eastward. We know from
ancient history, and especially from the Bible, that in the
early ages the summits of mountains were almost univer
sally selected for the performance of sacred rites and the
worship of the gods. Especially does this seem to have
been the case in Syria ; and the Israelites, upon entering
the land, were expressly enjoined " utterly to destroy all
the places wherein the nations which ye shall possess served
their gods, upon the high mountains, and upon the hills ;"
and at a later period they were threatened with judgments
because " they set them up images and groves in every high
hill, and under every green tree ; and there they burnt
incense in all the high places, as did the heathen whom
the Lord carried away before them."5 When such were
the feelings and practices of ancient devotees, the lofty
peak of Hermon would soon be selected for the erection of
an altar and the burning of a sacred fire. The glorious
view there obtained ofthe sun's course, from his rising in
5 Deut. xii. 2, 3, and 2 Kings xvii. 10, 11.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 295
the eastern desert to his setting in the Great Sea, would
designate it as a fit locality for his worship. This spot I
consider, therefore, as one of the most interesting, as well
as one of the :most ancient sanctuaries in this land. Nor
are we destitute of direct evidence in favour of this view.
In two passages of Scripture the name Baal-Hermon is
applied to this mountain.6 The only reason which can be
Assigned for this is that Baal was there worshipped, and
that a sanctuary of his was there erected. Hieronimusj
Lathe ' Onomasticon,' makes the following statement, which
¦leaves the matter without a shadow of doubt : " Diciturque
esse in vertice ejus (so. jErmon) insigne templum, quod ab
Ethnicis cultui habetur e regione Paneadis et Libani." 7 It
can scarcely be called in question that the temple here
referred to is that whose ruins we have described. Its
situation, on the -eummit^-m vertice— is sufficiently ex
plicit. As we stood amid these ruins, in the very spot, in the
centre of that ring, where of yore the sacred fire burned,
and looked westward over mountain and hill, and far away
beyond, along that line of burnished gold which gleamed
and sparkled on the surface of the water, to the bright
orb whose departing splendour illumined sea and sky, we
could scarcely wonder that men, unenlightened by inspir
ation, should have adored such an objeet. The setting
sun presented strange and beautiful phenomena from this
point of view. A stratum of purple-coloured haze ran
round the whole horizon, which was clearly defined as the
circle round a ship in the midst of the ocean. As the sun
6 Judg. iii. 3, and 1 Chron. v. 23.
7 Onomasticon Urbium et Loc. Sac. Scrip., ed. Bonfr., p. 10.

296 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
m
dipped into this he seemed at once to be converted into a
series of rings, arranged in the form of a double cone ; in
a little time the upper cone disappeared, and the under
one remained like a huge top balanced on the horizon;
and this afterwards gradually became flatter, and spread
out, until at last it suddenly disappeared. And while we
gazed at this picture in the west, that behind us on the
east was not less striking or beautiful. The shadow of
the mountain fell on the plain like a great pyramid — larger
and larger it grew, until its apex touched the horizon.
And it did not stop here ; it raised its summit aloft, dis
tinctly figured on the sky as it had been on the earth,
and at last, as the sun touched the water, it stood before
us as a vast aerial pyramid, with its broad base on the
earth and its top in the heavens.
When it became dark we set fire to the dry prickly
shrubs that almost cover the mountain-top, and in a short
time the whole summit was one sheet of flame. This was
the signal to our friends in Bludan of our safe arrival. As
we left our splendid Baal-fire to go to our tent, the moon
rose, and we were thus permitted to witness another mag
nificent scene as each peak and precipice was in succession
tinged with her silvery light.
September 1st. — The first dawn of the morning revealed
us shivering on the loftiest peak of Hermon. The ther
mometer, which stood at 52° at sunset in the tent, was
41° when we rose ; and on the summit the cold was still
more intense, for a sharp biting wind was blowing there.
My principal object now was to examine and sketch
the great outlines of the Antilibanus range, which lay
before me like an embossed mass, and to mark the upper

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 297
sources of the river Awaj on the eastern slopes of Hermon.
Ample details of my observations having already appeared
in the pages of the ' Bibliotheca Sacra,' 8 1 will not weary
my reader with any recapitulation here; but will only
point out a few of the principal features.
A sentence or two in the 'Narrative of the United
States Expedition' had formerly struck me as inaccurate,
and now I determined to test them. They are as follows :
" From the summit (of Hermon) the country below, which
had seemed so mountainous to the upward view, appeared
an immense rolling plain. Far to the north-west, at the
verge of the seeming plain, were the red sands, a dazzling
line of gold separating the luxuriant green of the plain
from the hght azure of the far-stretching sea. Upon that
line of sand, like clustering dots upon a chart, were the
cities of Tyre, Sidon, and Beirut. . . . Another plain
stretched from the opposite side, south to the Hauran and
to the east, until it was lost in the great desert." State
ments like these may be pardoned, on the plea of poetical
licence, in such works as the ' Crescent and the Cross ;'
but in a professedly scientific work, undertaken for the
advancement of knowledge, they are altogether inexcus
able. The " seeming plain" is a pure fiction, as the ridge
of Lebanon on the north-west is at least 6000 feet high.
The red sands, that "dazzling line of gold" which
separated the luxuriant green (!) of the plain from the
light azure of the sea, existed only in the imagination of
the writer. The naked white summits of Lebanon com
pletely shut in the view on the north-west ; and if Lieut.
Lynch saw Beyrout, he must have possessed a power of
8 Bibliotheca Sacra for Jan. 1854, pp. 51, seq.
0 3

298 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
clairvoyance that enabled him to look through some
twenty miles of mountain. Southward and eastward
there is a plain, but it is bounded in some places and
intersected in others by several ridges of hills. On the
east may be seen the blue outline of the Tellul or Jebel
'Agar ; on the south-east the parallel ranges of Jebel el-
Aswad and Jebel Mania run across the plain ; while on
the south, Jebel Hauran shuts in the view.
On the north-west and north the view is bounded by
the lofty ridge of Libanus, along whose base lies the great
plain of the Bukaa. On the south of the latter is a line
of low hills, which, projecting to the north-east for some
ten miles to the village of Mejdel 'Anjar, separates the
lower section of the plain from a narrow valley that may
be regarded as a continuation of Wady et-Teim. On the
east side of this valley is the chain of Antilibanus, con
sisting of several distinct ridges. The most westerly ridge
runs from Basheiya toward Ytintah, a little south of which
it branches : the left branch forming the boundary of the
Bukaa, and the right joining the Zebdfiny range at Wady
el-Kurn. On the eastern side of this range is the broken
valley along which our route lay from Yiintah to Bash
eiya ; and on the right of the latter is the central and
main ridge. The latter is irregular and of great breadth
near the base of Hermon, extending from 'Aiha eastward
to the desert plain of Sahra. Its course is north-east, by
Demas and Suk-wady-Barada, towards the lofty peak at
Bludan. I afterwards proceeded to the middle peak, on which
stand the ruins described above, as from it alone the south
eastern slopes of the mountain are visible.

Chap. VI. SOURGES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 299
A lofty spur runs out from Hermon eastward toward
Damascus, and on its southern side is a deep ravine, called
by my guide Wady Barbar. Near its extremity, where
it opens into the plain, is the village Kiilat Jendal, with
some ruins. South of this village is a lofty peak, the
termination of another spur that projects from the moun
tain ; and south of this again is a valley, wider, deeper,
and longer than the former, which seems to open Hermon
to its centre. From the spot on which I stood there is an
unbroken descent of full six thousand feet to the bosom
of this valley, and there, beneath the brow of the giant
mountain, are a number of small fountains whose waters
unite beside the village of 'Amy, half an hour below,
forming a large stream, which, flowing past Bimehi
Khirbeh, and Bkasemi enters the plain and winds across
it to Sasa. This is the north and principal branch of the
river 'Awaj, the ancient Pharpar. Its general course
from 'Amy to the plain is due east, and from thence to
Sasa south-by-east.
The exact elevation of Hermon has never yet been
ascertained, and it has been estimated, according to the
fancy of travellers and savans, from 8000 to 15,000 feet.
K the appearance of the snow upon the summit be taken
as any guide, I would say that Jebel Sunnin and Jebel
esh-Sheikh must be nearly of the same height. I have
been able to observe them both, week after week, for the
greater part of four summers, in connexion with the peak
at the Cedars, as the three are visible from Bludan ; and,
judging from the gradual melting of the snow, the last
mountain is evidently the loftiest, and Jebel esh-Sheikh
ranks second. This mode of calculation is no doiibt liable

300 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
to error, from the different positions of the mountains and
the direction from which they are viewed ; but for these
I have made allowance. As seen from Bludan, the snow
disappears from Sunnin towards the close of summer ; but
from Hermon and the mountain at the Cedars very rarely.
In 1853 no snow could be seen on any of these mountains.
This, however, was regarded by all who knew anything of
them as a very remarkable occurrence.9
My companions being now ready to start, I mounted
and rode off with them at 9-45. We descended the
western declivity by a steep and dangerous path, and in
an hour and a quarter reached a small fountain called Ain
el-Lauz. From thence, in thirty -five minutes more, we
arrived at a deep wady, which runs from Basheiya along
the base of Hermon. Crossing it, we ascended a range of
low but very picturesque hills, and, having reached the
summit, we had before us a beautiful valley shut in by
wooded heights on each side, and running down in front
to Wady et-Teim. The little village of Shait, with some
ancient ruins, lies in its bosom, embowered in the rich
foliage of giant walnuts. As we passed through the
gardens below the village, the grapes hung in festoons
9 Russegger gives the following elevations ; but on what data he
estimates the height ofthe two peaks of Hermon I do not know: —
Paris feet.
Highest summit of Jebel esh-Sheikh  9500
Highest point (Kuppe) of Ajlun  6000
Highest point of the Jaulan  5000
Plateau of the Hauran, in the centre  2500
Valley of Hasbeiya (Wady et-Teim ?)  1800
The top of Jebel esh-Sheikh visible from Tiberias (?) . 8500
The highest point of Jebel ed-Druse  6000
—See Ritter, 'Palestina und Syrien/ ii. 160-1.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 301
from the branches of the trees that overshadowed our
path, and the fences on each side were almost covered
with the tempting fruit. In another hour we passed
through Kufeir, and fifty minutes afterwards entered
Mimis, both of these being situated in rich valleys similar
in character and scenery to that of Sh'ait. An hour more
found us beside the palace of the Emirs of Hasbeiya.
This village, with its beautiful gardens and terraced
vine and olive yards, has been often visited and described,
and I will not add a word to the full details that may
elsewhere be found.1
September 2nd. — We left Hasbeiya at 8"5, and descended
the ravine to Wady et-Teim in order to see the sources
of the most important tributary to the Upper Jordan.
This fine fountain is in the midst of a large pool a short
distance to the right of the mouth of the ravine. A
stream flows from it down the wady, southward ; and our
route led us for a time along its right bank. The valley
is here rich and picturesque. The sides slope gently up
wards from the dense foliage that almost conceals the
turbid river, and are carefully cultivated. In an hour
and a half from Hasbeiya we passed Suk el-Khan, a large
deserted caravanserai where a weekly fair is held, which
is largely attended by the population of the neighbouring
villages. Fifteen minutes afterwards we crossed the river
by a substantial bridge of a single arch and ascended the
slope on the left bank. On gaining an eminence we

1 One of the fullest accounts of Hasbeiya and its population is given
in Wilson'B ' Lands of the Bible,' vol. ii. pp. 181-9. See also particular
notices of the Nahr Hasbany and its fountain in the 'Bibliotheca Sacra,'
Feb. 1846.

302 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
observed the small villages of Kufeir Hamam and Kufeir
Shubeh ; and some distance south, on the side of a well-
wooded hill, Easheiyat el-FukMr. Descending hence
into a picturesque vale, in which is the bed of a winter
torrent fringed with oleander and overshadowed by the
sparse foliage of a grove of ancient olives, we passed at
10-15 the small village of Khfireibeh* We soon after
crossed another valley still more beautiful than the pre
ceding, and on its northern bank, some twenty minutes
on our right, we saw Marieh. The road now ascended to
and traversed an elevated plateau, thinly covered with the
oak and some other trees, and having a rich soil and
luxuriant vegetation. The sun's fays poured down upon
us like a torrent of liquid fire, while swarms of large flies
collected around us and stung our horses almost to mad
ness. I was glad to gallop away in front and take refuge
for a few minutes under the shade of a spreading oak
until the baggage came up. But the broad plain of the
Huleh soon opened up before us, with the lake in the
distance and the heights of Hunin on the west. Hunin
itself was visible with its crumbling ramparts ; and below
it on the north we could see the white threshing-floors of
Ibel — the ancient Abel-Beth-Maachdh.
At 12*20 we entered the Huleh, and forty minutes
afterwards were sitting beneath a noble oak-tree beside
the fountains of the ancient Dan-^-now Tell el-Kady. We
spent some two hours wandering among the luxuriant
herbage, rank weeds, and dense coppice that almost con
ceal this interesting site. An Arab encampment was
spread around the gushing fountains, and hundreds of
sheep, oxen, and camels were scattered over the rich plain.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 303
The tell itself is cup-shaped; hollow in the centre, and
encompassed by a circular rim, such as might be formed
by the crumbling ruins of a massive wall. It is in part
artificial and in part natural. It appears to have been at
one time the crater of a volcano, and when selected as the
site of a city the natural rim was scarped, and probably a
wall built along its summit. In several places I saw what
appeared to be the foundations of a wall. On the north
and north-west sides of the tell are heaps of stones scat
tered over the plain, which appear to have been at one
time used in buildings. The whole place is now so over
grown with rank vegetation that it is difficult to ascertain
what traces may remain of the ancient city.
Within the circular rim is a fine fountain shaded by
some noble oak and terebinth trees. The stream from it
flows out on the south side, turning several mills in its
course. But on the west side of the tell is the great
fountain, bursting forth apparently from underneath it.
The abundant waters form a large pond, from which they
flow southward a rapid river. This is the principal source
ofthe Jordan.
This whole region has, within the last few years, been
carefully examined by different scientific men and geogra
phers of eminence ; and the results of their investigations
Bitter has, with his usual industry and accuracy, collected
in his ' Erdkunde.'2 The latest researches have been
those of De Saulcy, Lieut. Van de Velde, and Dr. Kobin-
son. The remarks and theories ofthe former are of little
value, but I doubt not M. Van de Velde will delineate
the geographical features with equal accuracy and artistic
8 Palestina und Syrien, ii. 177, seq.

304 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
skill, and Dr. Eobinson will display his well-known deep
sagacity and profound learning in the elucidation of its
topographical and political history. These topics do not
fall properly within my province, and even if they did I
would leave them in abler hands.
There is one great city, however, which occupies a
conspicuous place in the early history of the Israelites,
whose site has hitherto escaped the notice of travellers
and geographers. I refer to Hazor, the capital city of
Jabin, one of the most powerful of the Canaanitish kinga3
A comparison of the various references made to it in the
Bible and Josephus4 shows that it must have stood in or
very near the plain of the Huleh. In May 1850 I made
a journey down the ridge of Libanus to the Merj 'Ayun,
and southward to Tiberias. My route lay along the west
side of the Huleh ; and there I observed a low line of
hills extending from the rising ground at the foot of the
Merj 'Ayun for some two or three miles into the plain.
At the southern extremity of these hills there are foun
tains, and here I observed some huts, with, apparently,
heaps of loose stones on the slope above them. I inquired
the name of the place from some Arabs whom I met, and
was told it was Hasur. The huts were distant, so far as
I can remember, about a mile east of our road. I noted
the name at the time, but did not think of its importance,
and it was not till nearly three years afterwards that, on
examining my old notes, I observed the name, and it
immediately struck me that this might be the site of the
long-lost Hazor. I have since directed the attention of
several individuals to the place, but am not aware that it
3 Josh. xi. 1, 10-13. * Joseph. Ant. v. 5, 1.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 305
has as yet been explored. M. de Saulcy professes to have
discovered Hazor, and, so far as I can understand his topo
graphy, he places it at or near the spot I have indicated
above. His description of the ruins, however, leaves one
in considerable doubt whether they are ruins at all.5
From Tell el-Kady an hour's ride across the plain, and
up the easy slopes of the eastern hills through fine forests
of oak, brought us to B&nias, the Ccesarea Philippi of the
New Testament. Our steps were first directed to the
celebrated fountain where once stood the temple built by
Herod.6 We afterwards wandered for hours among the
extensive ruins of this ancient city, where hewn stones
and massive foundations and fragments of granite columns
testify alike to its former strength and grandeur. The
place, unlike most of those in Palestine,, is not less remark
able for the natural beauty of its situation than for its
classic and sacred associations. Here are towering moun
tain, and wooded vale, and battlemented height, and
gushing fountain, and crumbling ruins, and wide-spread
ing plain, all finely blended in one glorious picture. But
as I stood and gazed I could not but feel that a far deeper
and holier interest is attached to this spot than the attrac
tions of natural scenery or historic and classic associations
can ever confer. Its soil was trodden by the feet of the
Son of God. Beneath the shadow of that frowning pre
cipice, and along the banks of that clear stream, our Lord
5 Journey round Dead Sea, &c, ii. pp. 470, seq. This place is well
worthy of the attention of future travellers. There are several circum
stances which lead me to believe that the city of Hazor must have stood
m the plain ; and the site here suggested would I believe agree in every
point with the statements of the ancient writers.
8 Joseph. Ant. xv. 10, 3.

306 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
and his disciples often wandered ; within those crumbling
walls the lips of the Saviour unfolded Gospel Truth to
men whose dust now mingles with its kindred earth ; and,
perhaps, on some one of those mountain-peaks above,
Peter, James, and John obtained a glimpse of heaven's
glory in the Transfiguration.
As we sat in our tent previous to retiring to rest an
^.rmed retainer of the sheikh was announced on business.
Being introduced, he said the country was in a state of
rebellion, the Arabs were close to the village, and robbers
of all kinds infested the neighbourhood : his master, there
fore, would not be answerable for the safety of our persons
or our property unless we engaged a regular watch for
the night. I replied at once that our persons we were
prepared and able to protect, and that, as our property was
within the village, and as the -sheikh, according to his own
admission, had power to protect it by placing guards, I
would hold him responsible for anything that might be
stolen ; but I would neither employ nor pay a guard.
We got no reply, and nothing was stolen.
September 3rd. — We rose by daybreak, and, having
engaged a guide to conduct us to Beit Jenn, we mounted
our horses at 4*50. Our first point was the castle ; and
So, leaving our muleteers and servants to follow by the
ordinary road, we struck up the hill, and after an hour's
hard climbing were within its walls. Its great strength,
vast extent, beautiful masonry, and splendid situation, far
surpassed my expectations. The antiquary here sees
much to wonder at, and the lover of nature much to
admire. The stones of the exterior walls are almost all
bevelled, and in many cases the central part is hewn

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 307
smooth after the Jewish or Phoenician style ; especially is
this the case in the semicircular flanking towers. The
castle completely covers the summit of the steep hill, and
is in form oblong, swelling out considerably at both the
east and west ends. At each end is a keep or citadel,
capable of separate defence ; that on the east being much
the strongest. In several parts of the building we found
huge tanks or reservoirs, which even at this season con
tained a good supply of water. The peculiarity of the
position, and the admirable arrangement of the defences,
must have rendered it impregnable before the invention
-of gunpowder. This castle must evidently be of remote
antiquity ; but I have not been able to find any notice of
it in history before the time of the crusades;7 and I
sought in vain for ancient inscriptions among its ruins.8
We left this interesting ruin at T'.IS, and followed the
path along the summit of the bridge that connects the castle
with the mountains on the east. We now ascended the
hill through groves of oaks, having on each side of us wild
and picturesque ravines, and in an hour and a half reached
the summit. A large and well-cultivated valley was here
spread out before us, encompassed by wooded heights. It
is called Merj el-Yafury, from a wely of the same name
near its southern extremity; its length is about three
miles, and its breadth one and a half. Along its southern
1 See Wilken, Ueschich. der Kreutz, vii. 328 ; Abulfed. Tab. Syr,, ed.
Koehler, p. 96.
» As Banias and its castle were visited by Dr. Robinson during his
recent journey in this land, I do not here think it necessary to say
anything of their history or antiquities. Notices of them may be found
in Burckhardt, ' Travels in Syria,' pp. 40, seq.; De Saulcy, 'Journey
round Dead Sea,' &c, vol. ii. pp. 487-96; Wilson's 'Lands of the Bible,'
vol. ii. pp. 174-81; and Ritter, 'Palastina und Syrien,' vol. ii. 195-207.

308 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
extremity, near the singular little lake called Birket er-
Bam, the ancient Phiala, runs the Boman road, extending
from Banias across the mountain-range to Kuneiterah, and
thence by Sasa to Damascus. Traces of it may still be
seen in many places.
Descending into the valley, we skirted the mountain-
range on its north-western side, and then ascending sur
mounted the rising ground on the north at 9'25. From
this spot we saw the village of Mejdel esh-Shems, about
fifteen minutes on our left. We had here a fine view of
the mountain scenery, and remained a few minutes to ex
amine its features. The lofty ridge which extends south
ward from the great peak of Hermon terminates at this
place by an abrupt descent of some 4000 feet. A deep
valley, that runs from Mejdel to the Huleh, on the north
side of the castle and town of Banias, sweeps round the
southern base of this declivity, and cuts it off from the
lower and broader ridge to the south. The latter ridge is
picturesque, but wants the grand features of Hermon. It
slopes gently up from the eastern plains, and has a more
rapid descent to the deep basin of the Huleh. It is almost
completely covered with forests of oak. The rock east of
Banias is in general basalt mingled with sandstone impreg
nated with iron, and the heights around Mejdel and to
wards the eastern plain are wholly basalt, but the lofty
ridge of Hermon northward is altogether limestone.
We now crossed a valley, down which flows to the
eastern plain a winter stream from the fountain at Mejdel
and the mountains above, and, ascending a rugged hill
side, reached 'Ain et-Tin at 9-45. The whole country
here is wild and desolate, but a rich soil is always found

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 309
between the boulders and projecting cliffs of basalt, which
would amply repay careful cultivation. The country was
said to be unsafe owing to the hostile attitude assumed by
the Druzes in opposition to the proposed conscription.
Both at Hasbeiya and Banias attempts had been made to
dissuade us from taking this route ; and our guide, though
well known in the district, seemed much alarmed. All the
people we met were armed, and we observed that the hus
bandman carried his gun slung across his shoulders while
engaged in the ordinary labours of the field. The appear
ance of the people was far from prepossessing or pleasing ;
and never hitherto, not even in the deserts of Palmyra,
when enjoying the comforts of a Bedawy prison, had I seen
such savage-looking men. We were, however, a strong
party and well armed ; and we knew that Arabs would be
chary of attacking Franks under such circumstances. Our
numbers and strength were still further augmented by two
armed cavaliers whom we found awaiting our arrival at
Ain et-Tin. They had joined our party at Banias, but
pursued their route thus far while we were engaged in
examining the castle. Not deeming it safe, however, to
go farther without us, they stopped at the fountain till we
came up.
We now ascended the ridge, and, having traversed a
rocky plateau on its summit, descended into a little fertile
plain called Merj el-Hather, from a village of the same
name on its eastern side. The plain is encompassed by low
wooded heights, except on the west, from which rises ab
ruptly the great ridge of Jebel esh-Sheikh. The forests
of oak which clothe the mountain-sides are fast falling
beneath the axe of the charcoal manufacturer.

310 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
I made particular inquiries in several' places about the
names given to the great mountain-chain we were now
traversing; and the result was, that, while each little sec
tion or district is distinguished by an appellation of its
own, taken from some village or fountain, yet the great'
chain has two general names — Jebel esh-Sheikh, and Jebel
elrHeish. The former is applied to that section which ex
tends from a line joining KS.tS.na and' Basheiya on the
north, to one joining Banias and Kuneiterah on the south,
which would thus run along the Eoman road. The section
south of the Roman road is called' by the latter name. I
stated above that from the summit of Hermon a lofty ridge
runs southward, and terminates abruptly at Mejdel; at
Hather a spur strikes1 out from it, at first eastward, but'
afterwards turning south : it forms the western boundary of
the Merj el-Yafury.
We now struck through the fields direetly across the
plain, leaving the ordinary road on our right. We had
commenced the gentle ascent on the north-east; when a
wild-looking Druze, black as Erebus, darted out from'.
among the oak'trees, and hastily demanded of our guide
whether the muleteers in the rear belonged to us. He
answered hesitatingly, and tried to evade the question;
but I declared at once that they did. He then said that,
if they had not been in our -employment; they never would
have left the plain alive. On demanding the cause of
such strange words, he said that I was at liberty to walk'
over his fields and eat his maize, but that if another did it
the earth would drink his blood. I replied we were
strangers, and did not know the road ; and that, if we had
injured anything, or our muleteers had taken anything, we

Chap. VI. SOURCES. OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 311
would pay for it. He said, "You are Englishmen, and I
am your slave ; my fields are yours, and you have a right
to all." And in a moment he was out of sight, again. It
iB no unusual thing in this land for muleteers and others
who are in the employment of travellers to commit depre-.
dations on the fields and orchards of the villages they may,-
pass through, knowing they are safe under the protection
of their masters.
We soon reached a rooky plateau covered with large?
boulders of basalt, among which sprung up the ilex and,
prickly shrubs ; and this, the guide informed us, was the
most dangerous part of the. road, where travellers were
often plundered and stripped by wandering parties of Arabs..
On this very spot, some two years ago, a party of English
men, with a lady in company, were attacked and robbed,.
amd, according to the usual Arab custom, stripped of every,
article of dress, and thus left to pursue their journey to,
Damascus as they best could. No such romantic adventure.
awaited us, and we went on our. way in peace.
On this plateau a road branches to the left, leading to;
'Amy and the summit of Hermon. At 11-30 we reached;
the brow of a,wide and deep valley, and, having descended:
its southern bank by a winding path, we turned to the:
right.into a wild ravine, through, which winds the bed ofi
a winter torrent. Followingiits course eastward for twenty
minutes, we came at twelve o'clock to a place, where it
falls into another ravine ; and here, at the point of junc
tion, stands the little village of Beit Jenn. A fine stream
comes down the wady, and flows through the centre of
the village : its source, I was informed, is one hour west,
a few points north, at the foot of Jebel esh-Sheikh; and it

312 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
is separated from the fountain at Amy by a lofty and
rugged ridge. This is the second great source of the river
Awaj, the ancient Pharpar.
The sides of this wady are lofty precipices of naked
rock, white and broken ; and these contrast well with the
rich foliage of the poplars, walnuts, and apricots that
line the banks of the torrent. Above the houses of the
village the cliffs are honeycombed with excavated
tombs ; but with the exception of a few hewn stones in
the walls of the little gardens, I saw no other traces of
antiquity. Leaving Beit Jenn at 1*10, we followed the course of
the stream down the ravine, which resembles a great
fissure in the mountain-side. In fifteen minutes we
reached Ain Beit Jenn, a large fountain boiling up on the
right bank of the wady. Its waters about equal those that
descend from the village, with which they immediately
mingle. In fifteen minutes more we emerged upon the
plain. From hence the river runs in a deep channel to
Sasa, distant eight miles east-by-south, and there it joins
the stream from 'Amy. I dismounted at the mouth of the
ravine, that I might take such bearings as would fix its
position with accuracy upon the map, and that I might
examine more minutely the features of this section of the
plain. At this season it looked bleak and blasted, and only
in the narrow bed through which the river flows was there
any appearance of verdure. Irby and Mangles, and like
wise Mr. Thomson, traversed the district early in the year,
ere the summer's sun had yet dried up the winter's rains ;
and hence they describe it as well watered by the nume
rous tributaries that fajl into the river Beit Jenn. Had

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 313
they returned a few months later, they would have found
the soil parched and all the tributaries dried up.
My companions were now far in front, and so I mounted
my horse and galloped after them, along a good road close
to the foot of the mountain. At 2-30 I reached the side
of a little fertile plain, covered with fields of waving corn,
intermixed with patches of green meadow. It extended
up among the hills on the left in a triangular form, and on
the right ran down to the banks of the river Amy. A
quarter of an hour afterwards I saw on my left the village
of Hmy, built on the western slope of a tell that rises up
near the head of the plain. In ten minutes more I had
passed this plain ; and I observed, a few yards on the left
ofthe road, a canal conducted round the brow of a low spur
that here shoots out from the mountains. It brings the
water from the river 'Amy, and this accounts for the ver
dure and fertility of the fields I had just crossed. Fol
lowing the same course, I reached the large Druze village
of Kefr Hauwar at 3*25,
We had thus travelled in the same route which Burckhardt
pursued forty-two years before, from Mejdel esh-Shems
to this village. One of his statements, however, requires
correction. He says " that at three hours and a half from
the point where the Wady Beit el-Djanne (Beit Jenn)
terminates in the plain, is the village Kefrhauar." 9 I rode
from the one to the other in less than an hour and a half,
and the real distance is six geographical miles. He also
says that Sasa lay one hour and a half to the right of Kefr
Hauwar, which would make it less than half the distance
8 Travels in Syria, p. 46.
VOL. I, P

314 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
of Wady Beit Jenn. The truth is, however, that the dis
tance between these two villages is four and a half miles.
M. de Saulcy also followed the same road on his journey
from B&nias to Damascus, March 6th and 7th, 1851 ; and
at this village made one of his most wonderful discoveries !
His description of the important ruins he here found is so
graphic, and the arguments by which he identifies (?) the
site so characteristic of the work and of the man, that I
shall trouble the reader with a few extracts, with com
ments. Upon Zimmermann's map he had seen the name
of ' Nimrod's Tomb ' connected with Kefr Hauwar ; and
he enjoys, in anticipation, the discovery of some venerable
relic of that mighty hunter ! Great, however, was his dis
appointment when a peasant pointed out to him Kabr
Nimrud (Nimrod's Tomb), consisting of two stones thrown
at random in the middle of a field ! But, as he says him
self, for this bitter archaeological disappointment the pre
siding genius of antiquarians owed him some compensation,
which was soon bestowed. On entering the village his
attention is attracted by the fragment of an ancient build
ing, and on approaching it he can scarcely suppress his
enthusiasm when he finds that he has unexpectedly dis
covered .... a pedestal four feet high, with the base of a
column, two feet six inches in diameter, resting upon it !
And his companion, the abbe, is no less successful in bis
explorations, for he discovers a few words of a defective
Greek inscription on some loose stone. Buins such as
these must have been intended for ornamenting some great
and noted city! Thus, very naturally, reasons the French
savant ; and he at once determines to identify it. A long
array of names and distances, taken from the ' Itinerary' of

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 315
Antonine and the * Perftinger Tables,' is now paraded before
the reader's eye ; and no less than four pages are filled
with arguments proving that all previous attempts to
identify the great Roman highways in this region are
quite wrong. M. de Saulcy in a moment makes an en
tirely new arrangement. The whole face of the country
is changed, and the distances in the Tables are increased
or diminished ad libitum to suit his plan. In Antonine's
' Itinerary,' Aere is the first station from Damascus, and
Neve the second : this learned writer consequently an
nounces his opinion that Kefr Hauwar must take the place
of Aere. It is true Aere is represented as from thirty-two
to thirty-four miles from Damascus, while Kefr Hauwar is
confessedly a little over twenty (the true distance is nine
teen), and it is difficult to arrange any sites for Neve and
Capitolias; yet still a single stroke of his magic pen is
sufficient to set aside such trifles as these, and he thus
sums up his arguments : — " If the reader will reflect on
the importance of a locality containing such a temple
as that the remains of which are still standing in Kafr-
Haouer (!), and especially on the evident analogy between
the names of Aere and Haouer (! !), I hope he will agree
with me as to the propriety of identifying Aere with Kafr-
Haouer." '
If M. de Saulcy had condescended to lay aside for a few
minutes the ponderous tomes of his Ancient Itineraries and
Tables, and to take up Bitter's ' Palastina und Syrien,' he
would have seen at a glance that the site of Aere had been
unquestionably identified by an inscription years ago ;2 and

1 Journey, &c, vol. ii. pp. 504-12. 2 Palast. und Syr., ii. 814.
p 2

316 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
a little inquiry and examination might have shown him
that its distance from Damascus corresponds exactly with
the numbers in the Itineraries.3 A little observation also
might have convinced M. de Saulcy that no Boman road
had ever run along the route he had followed ; and a little
reading of modern travels would have shown him that
traces of the ancient road still exist in many places between
Banias and Kuneiterah, and between the latter place and
Damascus. Having thus satisfactorily disposed of Kefr Hauwar
and the Itinerary of Antonine, he turns next to the
PeiAinger Tables, and, finding a place called Ad Am-
montem, between Banias and Damascus, twenty-eight
miles from each, he proceeds to identify it. The arguments
he makes use of for this purpose are probably the most
extraordinary specimens of reasoning in the whole compass
of literature. I will here give the substance of them as
literary curiosities.
About a thousand yards from Kefr Hauwar, on a rising
ground, is situated the small village Beitimah (Beitima).
Along the foot of the declivity flows a river which is
named, in Zimmermann's map, Moiedeb-Herane ; and this
river is spanned by an ancient bridge. Such are M. de
Saulcy's premises. And now for his syllogisms.
' ' In earlier days," writes the utilitarian savant, " bridges
were constructed merely to afford a passage to public
roads; consequently, over the bridge situated between
Kafr-Haouar and Beitimah an ancient public (or high)
road formerly passed." This then quite agrees with the
3 The line of this Roman road will be described in the sequel, when
speaking of the kingdom of Bashan.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 317
ancient road in the Penitinger Tables! But, again, the
name Ad Ammontem is equivalent to Ad-Montem, and
ad-montem signifies " on a height." Now Beitimah is on
a height, and therefore this ancient place exactly suits the
Roman station under consideration ! And, lastly, to con
clude the demonstration, there is the river, the Moiedeb-
Eerane ; and the eagle eye of the learned antiquarian at
once detects the " skeleton" of the Latin word Ammontem
in this strange-looking name — Moiedeb, Ammontem. There
can be no doubt as to their identity ! The proof is now
complete and conclusive, and he has no hesitation in
identifying Ad Ammontem with Beitimah ! 4
i , The analysis of the singular name of this river, Moiedeb-
Eerane, might well puzzle any lexicographer ; I believe,
however, that I have found a key to it. The name of this
river is Nahr 'Amy (" the river 'Amy"), so called from
the village near its source. But the general name known
among the peasantry is Moiet 'Amy ("the water of
'Amy") ; and M. de Saulcy well remarks that " nothing,
unfortunately, is more common than examples of names
having been mutilated by travellers who were not familiar
with the sounds of the Arab tongue." Some traveller,
who was about as deeply learned in Arabic as M. de
Saulcy himself, has heard this name, and, on committing
it to writing at the time, or possibly in transcribing it
afterwards, metamorphosed it into Moiedeb-Herane.
The more I read of M de Saulcy's work, the more am
I inclined to think that its author is a clever literary wag
~-& kind of geographical Miguel Cervantes, in fact — whose
' Journey round the Dead Sea, &c, vol. ii. pp. 512-13.

318 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VI.
sole object has been to turn into ridicule the vast erudition
and profound research that some have thought proper to
expend in attempts to defend and maintain silly theories,
absurd traditions, and insignificant minutiae, connected
with the topography of this land.
Leaving my companions to enjoy the cool shade in the
gardens of Kefr Hauwar, where the tent was already
pitched, I wandered away to the summit of a little tell, on
which stands the tower mentioned by Burckhardt. It is
nothing, however, but a small modern house, and may
probably have been intended originally for a Druze place
of worship. The view from it is very extensive, and I
took several important bearings and observations. Toward
the Hauran the country is one uniform plain, slightly
undulating, with isolated conical hills rising at intervals.
Some of these are cup-shaped, and evidently craters of
extinct volcanoes. The Nahr Amy runs in a deep
channel on the north-east side of Kefr Hauwar, distant
nearly half a mile ; and from hence it follows a winding
course to Sasa, passing only one village on its way : the
name of this village I did not learn, but it is probably Beit
Sabir. It is strange that Burckhardt does not mention
this river, though he passed it between Kefr Hauwar and
Beitima. 5 From this point I was able to take in at one glance
the whole section of the plain through which the 'Awaj
winds from the moment its two branches leave the mountain
defiles till they unite their waters at S'as'a, and from thence
till the river passes at Kesweh, between the parallel ridges
of Jebel el-Aswad and Jebel Mania. Though it cannot
5 Travels in Syria, p. 64.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 319
for a moment be compared with the magnificent plain
watered by its sister the Barada, yet it contains not less
than sixty square miles of cultivated land, whose fertility
is solely owing to the river, and it supports a population of
nearly 10,000 souls. I formerly entertained the opinion
that the Awaj was but a small and insignificant stream,
but now I see that it is unquestionably the second river of
Damascus. I have since examined the Awaj at many
points of its long course, from its fountains on the side of
Hermon to the lake in the distant plain; and I have
besides visited and examined all the other streams and
fountains in this region ; and I now feel persuaded that, if
Naaman meant two rivers, and not two fountains, when he
uttered the well-known words, "Are not Abana and
Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, better than all the waters of
Israel?" the Barada and 'Awaj must be these two.
The province in which the fountains of the 'Awaj are
situated is called Aklim el-Belldn — the "district of
BelUtn." It comprises the whole eastern slopes of Jebel
esh-Sheikh, and a section of the plain at its base extending
nearly to Sasa. It contains twelve villages, with a mixed
population of Muslems, Druzes, and Christians. Originally
it formed part of the territory of the ancient Maacathites.6
Under the Romans it appears first to have constituted part
of the kingdom of Chalcis, but was afterwards annexed to
the tetrarchy of Abilene, of which Lysanias was governor.7
The whole valley of the river from Aklim el-BeMn to
the lake is called Wady el-'Ajam? S'as'a, the first village
6 1 Chron. xix. 6.
7 Joseph. Ant. xv. 10, 1 and 3; also compare id. xix. 5, 1, with Luke
iii. 1.
B The meaning of this word is " The vale of the Persians."

320 MOUNT HERMON, AND THE Chap. VL
in this district, was formerly a large fortified caravanserai —
one of a regular series erected at intervals on the great
caravan-road from Damascus to Egypt. It was built by
Senan Pasha about A.H. 990,9 but is now in a great measure
ruinous and deserted. The Awaj runs from Sasa for
about six miles in a north-easterly direction, having on its
right bank an undulating plain thickly strewn with large
boulders and broken fragments of basalt ; and on its left
a level tract, where the limestone takes the place of the
volcanic rock. The features of the whole district are for
bidding and monotonous. The river afterwards turns
nearly due east, and runs in a tortuous and very deep
channel to the village of Kesweh, some five miles lower
down. On the north bank the low range of Jebel el-Aswad
here commences, leaving a fertile plain about a quarter of
a mile wide along the side of the river.1
September Ath. — We left Kefr Hauwar at 4*30, crossed
the river Amy twelve minutes afterwards, and rode up
the north bank to the half-ruined village of Beitima.
We now passed over an undulating plain, having the
base of Jebel esh-Sheikh about an hour on our left. At
540 we crossed a deep wady with a very small stream
which flows down from the wild ravine at Kul'at Jendal.
At seven o'clock we entered the large village of KatSna.
Westward of this place the plain runs far up into the
mountains, between the northern spur of Jebel esh-
Sheikh and the low hills that bound the'Sahra on the
9 Tarikh el-Mohibby, MS., s. v. ' Senan Pasha.'
1 These notices of the river are made from observations taken at a
subsequent period. The lower section of the 'Awaj, with the lake into
which its surplus waters flow, will be considered in a subsequent part
of this work.

Chap. VI. SOURCES OF THE PHARPAR AND JORDAN. 321
' south-west. Around Katana are fine gardens and fertile
fields, abundantly watered by a stream whose source is a
quarter of an hour to the west. On the map attached to
Burckhardt's Travels in Syria a river is laid down, having
its source high up in Hermon, and flowing past Kati&na to
,the lake eastward of Damascus ; and all subsequent carto
graphers have copied it, some with additions and alterations,
to increase the effect. This river is purely imaginary.
The stream from Katana is completely exhausted before it
runs three miles from its fountain.
We left Katana at 7*15, and followed the ordinary road
to Damascus. Here is a desert plain, which only requires
water to make it a paradise. At nine o'clock we passed
the large village of Muaddamiyeh, five minutes on our
right, and soon after entered among extensive vineyards.
A large canal from the 'Awaj is conducted along the plain
to this place, and, turning down half a mile to the east, it
meets another from the Barada, and thus the Abana and
Pharpar mingle their waters near the ancient city of
Damascus. No contrast could be greater than that be
tween the section of the plain which is irrigated and that
not irrigated — the former, rich and fertile, covered with
luxuriant vines, now bending under the weight of the
clustering bunches, and farther to the right clothed with
dense groves of olives and mulberries, encircling the great
village of Daraya ; the latter a bare desert, burned up
by a scorching sun, without a particle of verdure to relieve
the eye. On the left of the road, at the distance of about
half a mile, is the base of the low range of hills called
Kalabat el-Mezzeh, whose sides slope gently upwards, white
as snow, and naked as a rock. P 3

322 MOUNT HERMON. Chap. VI.
In half an hour more we were within the gardens of
Damascus, pursuing our journey amid the most delicious
groves, sheltered from the sun's rays by the dense foliage
of the fragrant walnut, and having our ears regaled with
the murmuring of waters and the voice of birds.
At 10 "2 5 we passed through the village of Kefr Susah,
and at 10f45 entered the gate of the city. The whole of
this day's journey was accomplished at a fast pace ; and
careful estimates, subsequently made when constructing
the map, showed that we had ridden altogether nearly
twenty geographical miles, allowing for the winding of the
road — namely, seven from Kefr Hauwar to Katana, and
nearly thirteen from thence to Damascus. Burckhardt's
account of the distances of this section of his route must
consequently be inaccurate. From Kefr Hauwar to Katana
he makes four hours and a half, while from the latter
village to the city he makes only four hours.2
8 Travels in Syria, pp. 46-7.

¦-."';: \-\[ ' 7?"^ >' \

Chap. VII. HELBON. 323

CHAPTEE VII.

HELBON.

Tradition of Abraham — Grand defile of M'araba — Menin and its exca
vated temples -— The vale and vineyards of Helbon — Sublime pass
of 'Ain es-Saheb — The site of Helbon identified — Greek inscriptions
— Ride over Anti-Lebanon.
HAVING remained in Damascus for two days, we set out
for Bludan on the morning of Tuesday, the 7th of Sep
tember, intending to visit on our way the excavated
temples of Menin and the site of the ancient Helbon. As
these interesting places have never hitherto been described
by any writer, I will give a brief sketch of the result of
our researches.
We left the city by Bab Tuma, and, after winding for
thirty-five minutes among the gardens, emerged on an
open and naked plain, and reached Burzeh in twenty,
minutes more. This village I previously referred to as
celebrated on account of the sanctuary of Abraham which it
contains, where the patriarch is said to have offered thanks
to Grod on turning back from the pursuit of the kings who
had pillaged Sodom and carried away Lot.1 Burzeh is
finely situated at the entrance of a wild ravine which
completely intersects Jebel Kasyftn, the lowest ridge of
Antilibanus, opening a passage for the united streams
1 Gen. ch. xiv. See above, in History of Damascus.

324 HELBON. Chap. VII.
from the valleys of Helbon and Menin to flow into the
plain of Damascus. It is encompassed by luxuriant gar
dens, and extensive vineyards spread along the base of the
mountains towards Salahiyeh. The little building cover
ing the sanctuary presents nothing worthy of notice. In
the precipitous rock behind it is said to be a deep fissure
or cave, but this is carefully concealed.
Passing to the left of the village, we rode up the glen.
At first the sides have an easy slope, though rugged and
broken, but they soon assume a wilder and grander aspect,
the grey limestone rocks being piled up in huge masses,
like a Cyclopean ruin, and leaving, in some places, a tor
tuous bed, only a few feet wide, through which rushes the
foaming torrent. In the narrowest parts the road is in
the rocky channel of the river, and it is not without some
danger that one makes the passage, especially in the early
spring. In a little over half an hour we emerged in an
open country, with swelling white hills, intersected by
fertile and well-wooded valleys. Following the course of
the river, among orchards and groves of the fragrant
walnut, we reached the village of M'araba in ten minutes.
It is built on the declivity of a ridge of flint that here
intersects the cretaceous limestone strata. The houses
have a picturesque appearance as they are seen perched on
the side of the rock over the dense foliage of the valley
beneath. Below this village the valleys of Helbon and
Menin unite, the former coming down from the north
west, dividing the several ridges in its course, the latter
falling into it from the north, — not so wild or so grand,
but more picturesque.
We struck up the latter valley, following the windings

Chap. VII. HELBON. 325
of the stream for the sake of the refreshing shade, and
leaving the ordinary road a little distance on the right.
Our ride here was delightful : a gentle breeze blew among
the trees, cooled by the waters that leaped and foamed in
their rocky bed at our feet. The rays of the sun beat
fiercely upon the white and parched hills around, but
here, beneath the spreading branches of the walnut and the
tapering poplars, we could defy them. In forty minutes
from M'araba we reached the village of Tell, situated, as
the name implies, on the summit of a gentle eminence,
and evidently occupying a site of remote antiquity. Large
stones and some fragments of columns may be seen in the
modern houses and court-yards, while the rocks around
are honeycombed with excavated tombs.
Passing on, we still followed the left bank of the valley,
which now increases in depth and beauty. After some
time we crossed the stream by a rude bridge, and ascended
high up the slope on the right bank. The scenery is here
very striking. The valley runs in a tortuous course, like
a river of verdure, while its banks rise up, naked, smooth,
and almost white as snow, and are here and there sur
mounted, far overhead, by frowning cliffs, like old baronial
castles in ruins. After some ten minutes more we again
descended to the bed of the river, and soon found ourselves
in a gloomy defile, with lofty precipices of rock on each
side, and the narrow path which has been hewn out for
the road wet with the spray and foam of the mad river.
This pass led us into a valley or basin, like a vast amphi
theatre, with vine-clad glens radiating from it on all sides,
and lofty ridges of naked rock dividing them. In the
centre of the basin is a low hill, on which stands the vii-

326 HELBON. Chap. VII.
lage of Menin. We rode through it, and dismounted at
the fountain on the other side. It bursts forth at the foot
of a lofty precipice, and the stream from it sweeps round
the southern side of the tell, fringed by lofty poplars, and
its banks lined with luxuriant orchards. In the cliff over
head are numerous dark openings to excavated sepulchral
caves ; but in the brow of a cliff on the north side of the
village are the most important and interesting remains of
antiquity. As we ascended the steep slope from the vale,
our attention was first arrested by massive hewn stones
lying on each side of our path: one of these measured
twelve feet in length, and had a plain moulding along one
side, as if intended for the upright of a door. On gaining
the top we found its fellow standing erect, and soon saw
that it had been hewn out of the cliff, to which the lower
part of it was still attached. Behind this, but facing the
west, is a small temple 24 feet long, 17 wide,, and about
22 high, with a vaulted roof wholly excavated in the solid
rock. At the eastern end is a rude recess about four feet
deep, and extending nearly the breadth of the chamber.
The doorway is now much broken, but the remains of a
small portico are still there, with the columns, steps, and
balustrades all hewn out of the rock. On the north side
of this is another excavated chamber, somewhat smaller,
but having the same general features. The doorway is
nearly perfect, and has a border two feet wide, richly
ornamented with sculptured wreaths and flowers, and over
it a cornice of still greater beauty. It shows both taste
and skill in the design and execution.
In front of these chambers, at the distance of about fifty
feet, stood a fine building facing the south. The founda-

Chap. VII. HELBON. 327
tions alone now remain entire : these were in part hewn
out of the rock, and the walls thus formed are chiselled to
represent masonwork. In front was a portico of four
columns three feet five inches in diameter. A noble stair
case, with balustrades, all hewn out of the solid rock, led
to this structure. Numerous buildings seem to have stood
upon the sides of this hill, but they are now mere masses
of confused and shapeless ruins. Ascending to the summit
of the cliff overhead, I found some foundations, and a large
excavated cistern coated internally with fine cement.
The object for which these expensive and lasting monu
ments were constructed cannot now be conclusively esta
blished, unless some inscription should be hereafter dis
covered among the ruins. They do not in any respect
resemble the tombs that are found so plentifully scattered
over this land and among these mountains. They are
larger and loftier, and want the recesses for the reception
of bodies which are universally found in sepulchral caves.
In all probability they were a group of temples dedicated
to the tutelary deities of the town that stood below.
Leaving Menin, we turned westward, and rode through
extensive vineyards and fig-orchards, which cover the
whole vales and swelling hills between this place and
Wady Helbon. Some distance on our right rose one of
the ridges of Antilibanus, naked and precipitous. In fifty
minutes' smart walking we reached the valley of Helbon,
whieh is here called Wady Dereij, from a small village of
that name situated on its right bank. The scenery of the
valley at the place we entered it is wild and grand. A
large basin is formed by the surrounding hills, and is shut
in on all sides by steep slopes and towering precipices.

328 HELBON. Chap. VII.
The bottom is filled with the most luxuriant vineyards,
mixed with the pomegranate ; and to the terraced sides
the fig-trees cling. On descending we found, close on
our right, a wall of naked rock several hundred feet high,
and in its centre a huge fissure only a few feet wide, di
viding it to its foundations. Through it rushes a fine
stream, and a narrow roadway has been hewn in the side
of the cliff above it. This is the entrance to the upper
wady of Helbon. Near the summit of the cliff, on the
right side ofthe pass, are two sarcophagi with small niches,
having fragments of statues over them, all hewn in the
rock. On the side of one of these, to which I ascended
with some difficulty at a later period, is a Greek inscrip
tion, simple and chaste as epitaphs ought to be, but afford
ing no clue to the age of the monument or the station of
its occupant.2
About a hundred yards farther west is another similar
monument ; and some distance beyond it is a fine Doric
facade, consisting of two semi-columns supporting a plain
pediment, with a bust in the centre. Between the columns
is a shallow recess, with a sarcophagus. These are all hewn
out in the side of the cliff, and were originally accessible
by long flights of stairs.
The stream, after winding through the basin, enters a
wild gorge, in which it flows across the plain of Sahra.
This singular ravine varies from twenty to forty yards in
width, and the rocky precipices that shut it in have an
elevation of from fifty to a hundred feet. It is filled with
trees, poplars and walnuts, wherever space can be found
2 The inscription is as follows: — AYCIMAXOY AaPOYMNHMEION 
" The memorial of Lysimachus the son of Adrus."

Chap. VII, HELBON. 329
to plant them, and during the summer months, when the
water is low, it affords a pleasant and cool path, which I
have often followed on my way from Bludan to the city.
This section of the Sahra is the property of Helbon. It
is more undulating than that farther to the west, and the
little valleys are all filled with luxuriant fig-orchards,
whose fruit is the most delicate I have tasted in Syria.
Along the slopes on the north are fine vineyards extend
ing for miles.
Following the excavated road through the wild pass,
we entered the upper valley of Helbon. The pass is
only a few yards in length, and on reaching the inner side
we find a sublime gorge with overhanging cliffs, and a
little fountain of purest water bubbling up at their base.
An aqueduct has been hewn out for it along the side of
the precipice, and a bridge in the very centre of the pass
carries it to the other side, where it drives a mill, and
then flows off to water the vineyards and orchards below,
The fountain is called 'Ain es-Saheb. A short distance
above it the glen expands, and is filled with vineyards,
and verdant with the foliage of the fig and pomegranate :
the steep sides are terraced wherever the industrious peaT
sants can find a footing.
Winding along the left bank for half an hour, we skirt
a projecting ridge, and a picture of wild grandeur and
picturesque beauty opens up before us, for which even the
fine scenery below has not prepared us. At our feet is
a little vale filled with dense masses of the richest foliage ;
the mountain-sides rise up from it, here and there ter
raced for the vine, but in general steep, naked, and uni
form, as if scarped by the hand of man ; while near two

330 HELBON. Chap. VII.
thousand feet above are frowning cliffs of bare white rock,
shattered by convulsions of nature, and wrought into
yawning caverns and fantastic designs by the action of
the elements during long centuries : and there, in a little
recess, are the white minaret and terraced roofs of the
ancient Helbon, just appearing over the tops of the fruit-
trees that encompass it. As we approach along the tor
tuous lanes, under the shade of the spreading fig-trees
and tall poplars, we observe heaps of massive hewn stones
piled up in the terraces and garden-walls around, mingled
with broken shafts and fragments of richly-moulded friezes
and sculptured cornices. On entering the village a small
modern portico erected over the fountain attracts our
attention. It is supported by beautiful spiral columns
with Corinthian capitals. Beneath it is a massive stone,
now serving as a water-trough, on the side of which is a
fragment of a Greek inscription in very large and well-
formed characters. During a former visit, in company of
Messrs. Eobson and Barnett of Damascus, I succeeded in
copying it, after much opposition on the part of the vil
lagers, who refused to permit us to remove the accumula
tions of rubbish beside the stone. It is as follows : —
€niBACIA€OCM€rAAOYMAPKO
The remaining part was probably on another stone, and
the whole appears to have been placed over some doorway
or portico.
In the gardens beside the village are the foundations of
a large structure, the ruins of which are strewn around
on every side. Two fragments of inscriptions are found
on broken stones near it, and many others exist in several

Chap. VII. HELBON. 331
parts ofthe village. All of them, however, are either so
short, or have been so much mutilated, that no valuable
information can now be obtained from them. Many of
the houses of the village are constructed of old materials,
while heaps of hewn stones are piled up in the gardens
and orchards below, affording unquestionable evidence that
here stood in former ages a town of some extent and con
siderable architectural beauty.
The name at once suggests that passage in Ezekiel
Where the prophet, describing the glory and luxuries of
Tyre, and of the nations and cities that traded in her rich
marts, says, " Damascus was thy merchant in the multi
tude of the wares of thy making, for the multitude of all
riches ; in the wine of Helbon and white wool." The
force of the description consists in this, that in the mar
kets of Tyre every kingdom and city found ample demand
for its own staple produce of manufactures. Damascus
has been long famed for its rich brocades, chaste ornaments
of precious metal, and finely-tempered arms. It was thus
the merchant of Tyre in the multitude of wares and of all
riches. But Damascus has for ages been the great depot
for the wool of the vast flocks that roam over the Arabian
plains, and consequently this city traded in wool in the
marts of Tyre. The wine of Helbon was another staple
commodity supplied by the Damascenes. Is it not natural
to suppose that it also was produced in the neighbourhood
of the city ? In some of the versions, such as the Syriac
and Vulgate, the word Helbon is translated as descriptive
ofthe quality of the wine, " fat" or '¦' rich ;" but in the Sep-
tuagint, and by modern critics almost without exception,
it is regarded as a proper name. The Greek is Xs\fiav.

332 HELBON. Chap. VII.
It has been generally thought hitherto that the modern
city of Aleppo, called Haleb by the Arabs, is the place
referred to by the Prophet. Ptolemy mentions a Chaly-
bon, XaXu/3a/v, among the cities of Syria;3 and Strabo
says the kings of Persia, from their love of luxuries,
drank oivov ex St/giar tov XaXv^miov, " Chalybonian wine
of Syria." * But if we even should admit that the modern
Haleb is the Chalybon of Strabo and Ptolemy, there are
strong reasons against our identifying it with the Helbon
of Scripture. The words, it will be observed, are not the
same ; but the great objection lies in the relative situation
of the two places. Why should not the people of Chaly
bon themselves carry their own wine to Tyre ? Tyre, in
those days, was much more easy of access to Aleppo than
Damascus ; and if strange merchants had engaged in the
conveyance of the wine of Chalybon, we should expect
them to be some maritime people, such as those of Sidon
or Arvad.
These things render the identification of Helbon and
Aleppo highly improbable ; and there is, besides, no evi
dence that the grapes of Aleppo are such as would make
wine of a fine quality. Here, however, in the territory of
Damascus, is a site, manifestly of high antiquity, whose
name is still identical with that mentioned by Ezekiel.
The Arabic .-J^ corresponds precisely to the Hebrew
Jin^n; and the territory of Helbon is celebrated in the
present day for producing the finest grapes in the country.
The inhabitants are now exclusively Muslems, and con
sequently the manufacture of wine is not carried on by
them, but the grapes of the district are held in the greatest
3 Ptol. Geog. v. 16. * Strab. Geog. xv. p. 505.

Chap. VII. HELBON. 333
esteem by the vintners of Damascus. At the convents of
Mklula, farther to the north-east, along the same slopes,
some of the most delicious wine in Syria is still made,
and I have been informed that the grapes are generally
brought from the vale of Helbon. In the whole of this
wild and beautiful valley, and throughout the wide dis
trict subject to the modern village, the vine is now the
staple produce, and there is ample evidence that it was
at one time far more extensively cultivated. With such
evidences in its favour I have little hesitation in stating
that we have here the Helbon of Ezekiel, whose wine was,
some twenty-five centuries ago, conveyed by the mer
chants of Damascus to the marts of Tyre : and if this be
admitted, it affords an additional proof of how scrupulously
exact and how admirably consistent the sacred writers were
in all their statements, even the most minute. It is highly
probable that, if some time and labour were expended in
a close examination of the existing ruins, and perhaps also
in the uncovering of some that may have been buried
beneath the surface, inscriptions would be found giving the
ancient name, and affording some clue to its history.5
5 The following fragments of inscriptions I also copied from stones
at this place: — 1. AYCfACMAMBO VM, I O Y
This is weU inscribed in large characters on a stone in the large ruin
above referred to. The next appears to contain the same name. It ia
now on the side-post of a gate : —
2.#C MAMBOrAI£®HKEN
The next is also on a gateway, and much defaced. It is written on two
faces ofthe large stone: —
i/ 1 « n ? i a i n n cym 1 \m
OY HOCEKT
UNCI AC
N AN £©)

334 HELBON. Chap. VII.
Leaving this interesting spot, which I have since visited
more than thirty times, we continued our course up the
wild and beautiful glen, winding along the banks of silvery
streams, beneath the cool shade of spreading walnuts and
apricot-trees. In half an hour we reached the upper
fountain, which gushes out from a cleft at the foot of a
cliff that rises overhead, almost a sheer precipice, nearly
two thousand feet. The savage grandeur of the scenery
around this little fountain is beyond description. A turn
in the valley shuts out all view of the verdure below, and
the naked mountain-sides rise up bare and steep to the
toppling cliffs, and the cliffs themselves seem to touch the
clouds, while the valley is filled with shattered fragments
of rock, as if nature had been engaged in some fearful
work of destruction.
The road from hence becomes dreary and monotonous ;
only a few solitary walnuts appear at intervals, as if they
had wandered from their places ; even the vineyards soon
disappear from the naked slopes, and all is barren and de
solate, save where the sparse foliage of the sumak fills up
little nooks and corners among the rocks. Yet even here
are interesting remains of the taste and the wealth of
Syria's inhabitants in long-past ages. Over the summit of
a projecting rounded peak on the mountain-side are scat
tered the ruins of a fine temple. The style of the building
was massive, simple, and severe, somewhat resembling that
at Mejdel 'Anjar, near the ruins df Chalcis.
An easy ride of two hours from the upper fountain over
barren mountains brought us to the deep wady Hureiry,
or Nejas, as this section of it is called. It runs to the
south-west, revealing, as through a vista, the snow-capped

Chap. VII. HELBON. 335
peak of Hermon. In thirty-five minutes more we stand
on the brow of the great central ridge of Antilibanus,
commanding a view which for extent and beauty is scarcely
surpassed by any in this region. The vine-clad slopes of
Bludan are at our feet, extending to the luxuriant orchards
and verdant plain of Zebdany ; beyond them is a range
of dark, frowning mountains, over which are seen graceful
wooded hills, with deep vales winding down to the great
plain of the Bukaa ; while beyond all, the noble chain of
Libanus, with its wavy summit, is spread out before us,
from the lofty snow-crowned peaks of Akkar to the abrupt
descent into the wild ravine of the Litany ; and on the
left the view is shut in by Hermon. Often have I gazed
on this glorious panorama, at all hours, from the earliest
dawn till the last streak of twilight had disappeared from
the western horizon, and always with fresh admiration.
Half an hour more down the steep declivity brought us
to Bludan.
On a previous occasion I had taken another and much
longer route from the valley of Helbon to this place. After
passing the upper fountain we turned to the left, and,
crossing the ridge that separates this valley from that of
the Barada, descended to the little village of Ifry, about
an hour up the mountain-side from the great fountain of
Fijeh. Here, in the midst of wild and barren mountains,
we found remains of antiquity which show that in the
palmy days of Syria no spot, however remote, was unoc
cupied. The following fragment of an inscription we
there copied, but, owing to the want of light in the old
mosk in which it is found, combined with the wear of
centuries, it is not without inaccuracies. It is here in-

336 HELBON. Chap. VII.
serted as containing a date (?) and the ancient name of
the place.

///////niCOYZK POTOMlAC€niTHNA<3XHNAYIOY
<OYA4>|€IAPWN6
From hence we traversed the mountains to the village
of Hureiry, situated in the lower part of the Wady Hu-
reiry, and about one hour distant from Suk. In it are
ruins of considerable extent, and a long Greek inscription.
may be seen on a stone over the fountain, but it is now
so much defaced as to be illegible. From this place I
crossed the main ridge of Antilibanus diagonally to
Bludan in two hours, passing on my way a singular build
ing of remote antiquity, perched on one of the loftiest sum
mits. This I take to be the site of an ancient high place,
6 I am not quite satisfied whether this number Z K, 27, be intended
for the year or the day of the month. The last word ought evidently to
be A0isi«jm — of the people of Apheiros. In this we can see the name Ifry.

Chap. VIII. EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS. 337

Kurdish Shepherd.
CHAPTEE VIII.
EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS.
Roman road — Beautiful view of the Ghutah — Convent of Saidnaya —
Miraculous image of the Virgin — Ancient tombs and ruins — Said
naya the ancient Danaba — Ravine and sepulchral caves of Jubb
'Adin — M' alula — • Wild pass and excavated tombs — Topography
of the eastern slopes of Antilibanus — The Syriac language spoken
— Yabrud, the ancient Jabruda, and its ruins — Night march to
Kuteifeh — Dangers, of travel. — Fine temple at Maksura — ¦ Ruined
town discovered — Probably the ancient Telseai.
On the 19th of October, 1852, I set out in company
with the Bev. S. Bobson and the Bev. J. Barnett to visit
the ancient villages of Saidnaya, M'alula, and Yabrud;
As the country through which we proposed to travel is
little known, we determined to examine its topography
and antiquities as closely as time would permit. Having
only three days to spare for the survey of a wide district,
we dispensed with tents and equipage, taking light lehdfs
VOL. 1. Q

338 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
to serve the place of both beds and coverlets ; we were
thus enabled to traverse with speed and ease the wide
plateaus and mountain-ranges, and to diverge from the
more frequented roads whenever inclination might prompt
us, or any object of interest attract our attention.
Leaving the city by Bab Tuma, we followed the same
route as on a previous tour to Burzeh, which we reached
at 7-10 a.m. ; and, passing through the lower part ofthe
village, we crossed the stream that comes down the wild
ravine from Helbon. A few minutes after we commenced
to ascend diagonally the range of hills that here bounds
the plain, by an ancient road deeply excavated in the
chalky rock. The ascent soon became steep, difficult, and
even dangerous. The old road zigzags up the ledges of
naked rock in a regular series of staircases ; but these are
now so much worn and polished by the traffic and travel
of long centuries, that it was with difficulty our horses
could keep their feet. Here and there, too, huge masses
of limestone had become detached from the cliffs above,
and, rolling down, entirely blocked up the narrow way.
This road must unquestionably be of Boman origin, and is
one of those useful monuments with which that enterpris
ing people filled every land that became subject to their
sway. All the cities and all the more important villages
in this country were at one time connected by well-con
structed roads. Over the broad plains, along the shelving
mountain-sides, and through the wildest glens, traces of
them may still be seen ; thus proving that no work, how
ever great, and no obstacle, however imposing, could
check the industry or baffle the engineering skill of this
wonderful people. What a contrast do the present rulers

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 339*
of Syria present to the ancient Eomans ! There is no
spirit of enterprise or of patriotism in the Turkish nation.
Everything seems to be on the "road to ruin." The
large caravanserais along the great lines of traffic, that
were built at vast expense, and furnished with many
requisites for the safety and even comfort of travellers, are
now, without a single exception, fast falling to ruin ; even
the very mosks, which the piety of their forefathers reared
up and adorned, are neglected, and no attempt is ever
made to repair them. As to roads, I need say nothing
about them ; there is not a public road in Syria.
At 7*50 we reached the top of the pass, where we
turned round to gaze on the magnificent plain. The
richest part of the Ghutah was now spread out before us,
and exhibited in the best light for revealing the matchless
beauty of the picture. A thousand little streams, meander
ing through luxuriant orchards, verdant meadows, and
wide-spreading plain, reflected the bright beams of the
morning sun ; and the city itself lay in the midst like a
string of pearls carelessly thrown on a mantle of green
velvet. On the west/ too, was another picture scarcely
less pleasing. The valley of Menin, filled with dense
Mage, runs across the white plain, encompassing the
village of Tell, and shooting out numerous branches
among' the snow-white hills on each side.
As we rode down the easy slope into the plain of
Sahra, a little troop of gazelles crossed our path : putting
spurs to my horse, I dashed into the midst of them ; but
the ground being very rocky, I was soon obliged to give
up the chace.
We now passed diagonally across the eastern section of
Q 2

340 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
the Sahra, whose surface is here undulating, and to some
considerable extent cultivated. On the right it becomes
still more uneven, and spurs from the ranges on each side
project far into the plain, and even in places interlace. In
a little over an hour we reached the foot of the lofty hills
that bound it on the north, and in twenty minutes more
had gained the summit by a winding path. From this
spot we had a commanding view of nearly the whole
Sahra, and I was able to take some important observations.
In descending from this place we passed round the head
of a fine vale filled with vineyards, extending down on
the left to the picturesque basin in which Menin is situ
ated; and then, crossing a little ridge, we entered the
fertile plain of Saidnaya. This plain is perfectly level,
and its soil is almost equal to that of the Ghutah. There
is no water for irrigation; but as it has a considerable
elevation, more rain falls upon it during winter, and the
heat of summer is not so excessive. On our right we now
saw the little Christian village of Ma'arra, nearly half an
hour distant on the south side of the plain, with the bare
summit of Jebel Tiniyeh rising up beyond it. On our
left, on the mountain- side, was Telfita. We passed the
plain diagonally, our course from Burzeh to this spot
having been nearly due north ; and, on surmounting a
spur from the mountains on the left, we suddenly came in
sight of the convent and village of Saidnaya — the former
occupying the summit of a precipitous ledge of rock in the
midst of a wide and rugged valley ; and the houses of the
latter scattered along its base and clinging to its sides. On
the spot where we stood is a cubical structure of massive
hewn stones, like the pedestal of a great column or colossal

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 341
statue. The journey from Damascus to the convent-gate
occupied four hours and twelve minutes.
The position and aspect of this building more nearly
resemble those of a feudal castle of the middle ages than a
peaceful retreat of piety and virtue. The lofty massive
walls stand on the summit of a scarped rock ; and the only
mode of access is by a winding staircase hewn out in its
side, which leads to a narrow door plated with iron and
studded with large nails. This opens upon a narrow
passage or hall, from which corridors branch off to each
side. Passing this hall, we advanced though an open arch
way to the little area in front of the church, a large build
ing, but not of great antiquity. In front is a portico of
four short columns supporting arches instead of a pediment.
The door is small and perfectly plain ; over it are three
figures wretchedly painted, the central one of which is
supposed to represent the Virgin, and has upon it
ihe blasphemous title aMJjJl,.1 On her right hand is
Michael the Archangel, and on her left Gabriel. The
interior is divided into nave and aisles by ranges of short
columns which support the roof. The whole of the walls,
pillars, and wooden altar-screen are adorned, or rather
"disfigured, by paintings ; most of which would about
equal in point of merit and execution the first attempts of
an ill-conditioned schoolboy with a charred stick upon a
white wall ; while a few are so disgustingly obscene that
one feels relieved that the artist has been unable to portray
with any good degree of distinctness the creations of his
prurient fancy. 1 " The Mother of God."

342 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
Our attention was especially invited to one picture,
which seemed to be regarded as a masterpiece by the
attendant priest and the worthy abbess. It is a universal
favourite with all the residents and visitors, and is there
fore placed in full view beside the entrance-door. So close
and frequent have been the examinations of this rare work
of art, that it is now much injured by contact with rough
fingers, and it has been deemed prudent, in order to pre
serve a design of such originality and power, to obtain a
duplicate and hang it above it. This painting represents
the Day of Judgment. Christ is seated upon a throne,
with the twelve apostles, six on each side. Below, on the
right, is the doorway to heaven, with Peter standing
beside it grasping the massive keys ; opposite this door,
on the left, is pictured some horrible but indescribable
creature, which has not the likeness of anything, at least
on earth, whose capacious mouth forms the entrance to
hell. Between these is a great balance with an angel on
one side and Satan on the other. Considerable caution,
however, appears to have been thought necessary in deal
ing with the latter personage under any circumstances, as
two angels are holding him down by long iron hooks.
The place and modes of punishment are likewise graphic
ally delineated. In one place are seen numerous little
devils, fearful in form and terrible in countenance, mounted
on the backs of spirits (!) and belabouring them with heavy
sticks ; while in another place is a long range of women
exposed to the attacks of huge serpents, which gnaw such
members as were most guilty. More minute details I
cannot give ; they are too disgusting to be even thought
of; and yet, be it remembered, this is a holy sanctuary, in

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 343
which the purest females of the Greek church shut them
selves up lest they shoidd be contaminated by contact
with a sinful world. I have visited most of the principal
picture galleries in Europe, and I have seen many paint
ings that did not manifest a very pure taste or a very
high standard of moral feeling ; but it has never been my
lot to see such disgusting obscenity as that exhibited on
the convent-walls of Saidnaya.
But the great attraction of the convent of Saidnaya is
the "Lady Chapel," where the wonderful and wonder
working image-picture of the blessed Virgin is enshrined
as tutelary goddess. Having expressed a desire to pay it
a visit, we were, after some ceremony, and after being
obliged to take off hats and boots, admitted to the holy
sanctuary. It is beautifully and richly ornamented — the
floor being of tesselated pavement of marble, and the lower
parts of the wall of the same material inlaid with mother-
of-pearL Higher up are rows of chased silver lamps and
pictures of saints innumerable. On the eastern side of the
chamber is a silver door, some eighteen inches square,
opening into a little recess, where the portrait of the
Virgin, painted by Luke the Evangelist, is now preserved
b a silver casket ! It is, of course, death to touch it, or
even to look at it. The attendant priest assured us that
one-half of the portrait is stone and the other half flesh,
and that the miracles wrought by it are without number !
Saidnaya is consequently the holiest shrine of the Virgin
connected with the Greek church in Syria. It is not
merely regarded with deepest veneration by the poor and
illiterate, but the whole clergy, from the patriarch to the
humblest priest, with the whole laity, unite in paying

344 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
homage to this strange and holy image. The sick and
afflicted flock to it from every part of the surrounding
country ; and many are the cures chronicled each return
ing summer. The salubrity of the mountain air, and the
bracing exercise on the mountain-side, often revive the
enervated Damascene who retires to this convent from the
heat and filth of the city ; and his recovery is piously
ascribed to the miraculous intervention of this picture.
And such is a fair specimen of the religion, the morality,
and the superstitions of the Greek Church in this land.
None but a people sunk almost to the lowest depths of
moral degradation would tolerate the disgraceful pictures
that cover the walls of this convent; and none but a
people who had either forgotten or discarded the process
of reflection and of reason would credit for a moment the
absurd and contradictory tales and legends related of the
goddess that is there worshipped. With such manifesta
tions before our eyes, it is vain to plead, in this Church's
favour, the purity of primitive worship and the orthodoxy
of primitive creeds. It is in vain to bring forward mouldy
decretals and worm-eaten homilies and canons, and insist
that from these we must judge the Greek Church. The
Greek Church must be judged, like all others, by compar
ing her present rites and forms of worship, and the
•morality that is now practically inculcated within her pale,
with the infallible standard of God's Word. It may be
that, like a long-neglected garden, we can still discern
some lovely flower drooping beneath the shade of the rank
weeds and luxuriant brambles ; and we can still trace
some straight path untrodden and grass-grown now ; but
every semblance of order has long since disappeared, and

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 345
the wild desolation of nature has overspread it. The
Greek Church in Syria is a fit emblem of Syria itself.
The shattered remains of its former glory may still in
places be seen ; and the theological antiquary may per
haps be able to trace, amidst heaps of rubbish, the form
and proportions of some once noble structure. He will
often be retarded in his labours by the wretched fabrics of
modern days, which crowd around and almost conceal the
ruins of the ancient building, like the mud hovels of the
Arab round the beautiful columns of the Temple of the
Sun in Palmyra. And even when every effort has been
used, and all his patience, and industry, and antiquarian
lore exhausted, none but the practised eye will be able to
follow his details.
In the convent of Saidnaya are forty nuns and an
abbess; the latter receives her appointment from the
patriarch, and is subject directly to his authority. She
cannot be distinguished in dress or appearance from the
others, and seems as illiterate and ignorant as any of them.
The dress of the nuns is a long robe of coarse blue calico,
with wide sherwdl of the same material ; on the head is a
large black veil, which can be so arranged, at the pleasure
of the wearer, as to envelop the whole person. It is
similar in all respects, except in colour, to the veils worn
by the village women.
This convent is of high antiquity, and local tradition
ascribes its erection to the emperor Justinian. When
visited by Sir John Maundeville, in the beginning of the
fourteenth century, it presented the same appearance as
it does at the present day, and was then famous as now
for the wonder-working image of the Virgin it con-
Q 3

346 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
tained.2 Maundrell went to it from Damascus during his
celebrated journey in the year 1697. He repeats the tra
dition that it was founded by Justinian, and relates the
strange legend, still in current circulation, about the in
carnate picture of the Virgin.3 He, like Maundeville,
bears testimony to the excellence of the wine made here ;
and it ought to be remembered that this is in the district
of the ancient Helbon, to which I have already referred.
In an Arabic manuscript in my possession, entitled ' A
History of the Seven Holy General Councils,' written near
the beginning of the seventeenth century, by Macarius,
who was first bishop of Aleppo and afterwards patriarch
of Antioch, are given the names of the ancient episcopal
cities; and attached to most of them are their modern
appellations, which a careful investigator could then, no
doubt, easily obtain from the old documents in the various
convents and churches. In this book I have found the
name of Saidnaya recorded as one of the episcopal cities
under Damascus, its ancient name being Danaba. The
first mention of this place is found in Ptolemy,4 who ranks
it under the cities in the territory of Palmyra. The name
also occurs in the ' Notitise Ecclesiasticae ' as the seat of a
bishop, subject to the metropolitan of Damascus.5 No
thing more, however, is known of its history.
In and around the village and convent are many evi
dences of the place having been inhabited by men of
wealth and taste from a very early age. In the rugged
2 Travels of Sir J. Maundeville, London, 1727, p. 149. This writer
remarks that Saidnaya was in his days famous for its vines.
3 Maundrell's Journey, Oxford, 1707, pp. 130-33.
* Ptol. Geog. v., 15.
4 See S. Paulo, Geog. Sac. p. 295, and note; also Not. Ant. p. 62.

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 347
cliffs along the mountain-side above it are numerous
sepulchral caves hewn in the solid rock, some of which
are spacious and a few tastefully ornamented. From one
on the east side of the rock on which the convent stands
Maundrell copied three short Greek epitaphs from the
ends of sarcophagi. One of these contains the date 510,
corresponding to A.D. 198. There still stands in the
village, a few yards below the convent, a square tower of
fine masonry, which cannot be of a much later date than
the tomb where Maundrell found the inscriptions. It
stands on a platform composed of three tiers of massive
hewn stones arranged so as to form steps all round. It
is a perfect square, twenty-nine and a half feet on each
side, and twenty-six feet high. The interior is vaulted,
the arches springing from massive square piers at the
angles, in one of which is a narrow winding staircase lead
ing to the top. The door is on the south, and is orna
mented with a plain moulding round the sides and a pedi
ment : a deep moulding also runs round the top of the
building. The ruins of several other simple but massive
structures are strewn along the mountain-side and in the
valley below.
From the terraced roof of the convent we had a com
manding view of the mountain-ranges and wide plains
eastward. The plain of Saidnaya is a little over two
miles wide and about eight in length ; the ridge that
bounds it on the south-east runs in an unbroken line from
the village of Menin to the parallel of Jebel Tiniyeh. It
attains its greatest altitude nearly opposite the convent,
and gradually decreases as it advances eastward. The
plain of Saidnaya being elevated some hundreds of feet

348 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
above the Sahra, this range looks low from this side when
compared with its appearance as seen from the south.
The slopes on this side are gentle, and, to a great extent,
cultivated; but those opposite are steep and completely
barren, and are surmounted by a lofty wall of naked rock.
Our attention was here drawn to a ruin on the summit of
Jebel Tiniyeh, which, a priest informed us, had been a
convent, but which I suppose to be one of those high
places erected by the ancient Syrians. Above the village
and convent rises a lofty and rugged mountain to a height
of about 5000 feet. It is called Jebel Mar Shurabin,
" The Mountain of St. Cherubim," from a ruined convent
on the summit. On the sides of this hill are numerous
little chapels, now almost all in ruins, dedicated to the
most celebrated saints of the Greek Church. A list of
them is given by Maundrell, which I had neither time
nor inclination to verify. These, I presume, are the con
vents with which Berghaus has so profusely adorned this
portion of his fine map of Syria. It is scarcely necessary
to say that not one of them occupies its true position ; and
indeed the whole of this region is, in this and all the other
maps I have ever seen, a mere fancy sketch. .
We left the convent at 140, having thus spent about
two hours in our investigations and surveys. On a subse
quent occasion I had still longer time and better oppor
tunity for examining every object of interest and noting
the features of the surrounding country, and I have here
inserted the results ofthe whole. Biding down the steep
slope, we soon reached the side of the plain, and then turn
ing our horses eastward skirted the base of the mountain
among luxuriant vineyards and fig-orchards. The moun-

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 349
tain on our left soon began to decrease in altitude, and at
four miles from the village it was only a broad swell: from
this point the plain, consequently, greatly increases in
breadth, extending to the base of another precipitous
mountain-ridge nearly two miles to the north-west. It
does not however retain its fertility, but is stony and
barren. At 2-50 we had the little village of Akaubar a short
distance on our right ; and three-quarters of an hour after
wards, having despaired of finding either shade or water,
we dismounted, and, sitting down on the parched soil,
proceeded to satisfy the cravings of hunger. Ten hours
of constant and vigorous exercise had considerably whetted
our appetites, and we did ample justice to the viands our
servants had brought from the city, notwithstanding the
absence of chairs and tables, and exposure to the scorching
rays of an eastern sun.
Opposite the place where we now squatted a little group
of conical hills rises up in the centre of the plain, and on
the brow of one of them stands a white cupola which is
seen from afar, called Wely Habes. The village of Ta-
wany was only about twenty-five minutes distant, but, as
it stands bleak and desolate-looking on the parched plain,
without a tree, or green shrub, or patch of verdure to
relieve the painful whiteness, it presented no attraction to
lead us away from our path or bring us into contact with
swarms of bloodthirsty fleas.
We mounted again at 4#10, and proceeded in a course
that led us nearer to the mountain-range on our left. We
here met vast droves of sheep led by wild-looking shep
herds from the distant mountains of Kurdistan. The

350 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
costume of these men is very singular. A conical felt cap
like that of the Persians is their uniform head-dress, and
a square-shaped coat of the same material almost com
pletely envelops them, the opening in front merely serv
ing to display the ends of a pair of formidable pistols and
the hilt of a heavy scimitar. Two little patches are
roughly stitched to the coat, into which is inserted a large
club, their universal weapon in minor quarrels.6 . Their
sheep and goats are small and shaggy, some of the latter
having spiral horns of enormous length. Neither the
shepherds nor their flocks can easily be distinguished at
any considerable distance from the dull white plains over
which they roam, on their way from their far distant
homes to the market at Damascus.
In an hour we turned up a wild gorge that here opens
the mountain-chain to its centre. A small stream forces
its way tlirough it, and a road was in former days hewn
out along the side of the perpendicular cliff, but now it is
almost completely blocked up by the huge masses of rock
that in the course of ages have tumbled down from the
toppling precipices overhead. At the best the ravine
never averaged more than from fifteen to twenty feet in
width, but at present it is in places so narrow that loaded
mules cannot go through it ; while the walls of rock on
each side rise up to the height of several hundred feet.
After winding for ten minutes through this sublime pass
we came to a basin-like cavity in which is situated a
small village, the towering cliffs overhanging it on the
south side being literally honeycombed with sepulchral
caves. My companions thought we had reached M'alula,
6 See sketch at head of chapter.

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 351
and inquired the way to the convent of St. George, but
we were no little astonished to find that both Malula and
its convent were still a good hour distant, and that the
name of the village we had thus by chance entered was
Jubb Adin. We would fain have lingered among these
curious tombs to observe their structure and search for
some inscription that might record the name of the place
or the date of these singular monuments; but the sun had
already sunk from view behind the lofty summits of Anti
libanus, and, having wandered from the regular path, we
did not wish to be benighted amid the wild glens through
which we had yet to wend our weary way.
We turned nearly due east, and ascending the steep
side of the basin soon reached the summit, from which we
could look down into another, similar in character to the
preceding, but larger. Through this a road passes from
Damascus to Yabrud, which, during the summer months,
is the route taken by the Tartar post to Aleppo and Con
stantinople, in consequence of the Arabs infesting the
ordinary caravan-road. Having crossed this ravine, we
came to the brow of another, still larger and wilder than
the former. The lofty ridge of rock on the right is here
severed in two places, leaving a narrow ridge between
the deep gashes. On the summit of this ridge stands the
little convent of St. George, and along the base of the
cliff on its southern side clusters the village of M'alula.
The brief twilight was fast waning as we knocked at
the gate ofthe convent : it was soon thrown open, how
ever, and we met with a hearty reception from the worthy
old superior, with whom we had been previously ac
quainted. Some of his friends from the city were with

352 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
him on a visit, and among others the agent of the patri
arch Maximus, a shrewd and clever monk. The superior
is a Damascene of good family, and though he has taken
the vow of perpetual poverty he is possessed of a consider
able amount of property in the city. It is said that the
patriarch keeps him here to prevent his relatives exercis-.
ing such an influence over him as might lead him to
alienate his fortune from the church. After pipes and
coffee had been served, and nearly an hour passed in
interesting conversation, our servant came to inform us
that an apartment had been prepared for our exclusive
use, and that dinner was laid. Our worthy host begged
us to lay aside ceremony, and, rising, ushered us to
our chamber, where all had been got ready with true
Eastern despatch. He now urgently pressed us to permit
him to send us a bottle of the wine for which his convent
has been long celebrated, and which our servants had
assured him we would not drink; but we politely de
clined, greatly to his astonishment.
October 20th. — I have already stated that the ledge of
rock on which the convent of St. George stands is sepa
rated from the chain, of which it appears to have at one
time formed a part, by two deep chasms like huge fissures,
one on each side. It is much lower than the adjoining
peaks, and retreats considerably from their line, thus leav
ing in front toward the south a large open space, now
filled up with the houses and gardens of the village. The
convent is built on a platform of rock near the brow of the
ledge from which there is a sheer precipice of some 200
feet to the houses below. Beyond the ravines the cliffs
rise to more than four times that altitude, sloping upwards

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 353
at an angle of about thirty-five degrees from the wide
basin on the north, but presenting bold and rugged per
pendicular faces to the south. The ravine on the east
side is the grandest and altogether the most remarkable.
Descending from the convent during a subsequent visit, I
entered it near a little fountain that gushes out from the
base of the mountain behind. At first the walls of rock
on each side are low, but they gradually increase until
they attain an altitude of some 200 feet or more. The
chasm is often not more than three feet wide, and seldom
exceeds seven. The sides are jagged and irregular, but
the one is an exact impression of the other, thus showing
that in former times the cliffs were united, but by some
fearful shock were rent to their foundations and a path
opened up. Near the centre of the pass a huge mass of
rock has become detached from the upper part and has
fallen to within a few feet of the bottom, where it became
wedged between the opposite walls and still remains,
threatening to crush every successive wanderer that passes
beneath it. While winding through the dark defile I
could scarce refrain from a shudder when I looked up
ward at the gradually narrowing opening overhead with
its projecting angles and toppling summits. Toward the
southern extremity the chasm expands, but enormous
blocks of rock have tumbled down, and almost fill up the
cavity. On emerging, a scene of rare grandeur and beauty
suddenly opens up in front. Close on the left is the con
vent of St. Thecla perched on the side of the rock and
almost wholly constructed in a spacious cave or fissure.
On the right is the village, its terraced houses clinging to
the steep declivity, while beyond it rises a towering cliff,

354 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
whose sides, as well as those of the cliffs and precipices all
round, are thickly dotted with the dark openings to sepul
chral caves. In the centre is a sweet vale clothed with
the rich foliage of the walnut and mulberry, among which
broken columns and crumbling ruins may here and there
be seen, now half concealed by the little terraces and
garden walls.
After a hasty walk round the hill on which the convent
is built we proceeded to examine the spacious sepulchral
caves which completely fill its sides. So close are these
tombs to each other, that in later ages doors of communi
cation were opened between them, and large dwellings
thus formed. In one of them we found a wine-press in
full operation, and in the same establishment was also a
dibs manufactory. Dibs is the name of a rich syrup made
by boiling the juice of the grape. We did not succeed in
discovering any inscription among the tombs or ruins. We
now resolved to scale the lofty cliff on the east, that we
might from thence gain a good view of this section of
Antilibanus. The summit did not appear more than seven
or eight minutes' distant, yet it was not till after more
than half an hour's hard climbing up the naked and slip
pery rock that we reached it. Our toil was well repaid,
however, by the splendid view we were able to command,
and by the distinct conception we were able to form of the
general features of the several mountain-ranges. We had
now reached the loftiest of those gigantic terraces which
form the eastern slopes of Antilibanus, and the upper ter
race we found to be the broadest of all. From the spot on
which we stood on its eastern brow to the foot of the
mountains on the north-west, we estimated at about two

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 355
hours; but I afterwards found from careful observations
that the true distance is nearly nine miles. The great
range here alluded to is the central chain of Antilibanus,
which runs along the eastern side of the plain of Zebdany,
and continues in an unbroken line (north-east by compass)
till it sinks down into the plain of Hums. The plateau at
its base resembles a plain as seen from a distance; and it
is comparatively level, though here and there intersected
by deep valleys and watercourses, with low lines of swelling
hills between them. The soil is light and stony, but not
barren. The rains and snows of winter constitute its only
supplies of moisture, and it is consequently parched by the
summer's sun. Some portions of it are cultivated by the
inhabitants of the two villages that are situated in it, arid
the numerous others along its borders.
We now stood upon the second mountain-chain, which
forms the supporting wall of this upper terrace. The sum
mits of this ridge are but little elevated above the level of
the terrace itself. This correspondence in elevation does
not appear at first sight, as immediately behind the brow
ofthe ridge the action ofthe water forcing its way through
the yawning chasms into the plain below has, in the course
of long ages, worn out a series of basin-like cavities ; and
in traversing these the traveller seems to be at one time
passing through the deep defiles, and at another clambering
over the intervening ridges, of a lofty mountain-chain. It
is only when a commanding position is gained, and the eye
can take in the whole panorama, that the general features
are perceived, and the peculiarity of their construction
becomes apparent. The several ridges which constitute
these eastern slopes then seem like the crests of so many

356 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
broad waves, graceful in form and gentle in slope as seen
to the leeward, but bold and frowning as we meet them
surmounted by their toppling cliffs.
This second ridge commences at the upper fountain of
Helbon, passes behind Saidnaya, and then continues its
course to Jubb 'Adin, M'alula, and Yabrud. At the latter
place it branches, the principal branch turning to the
northward and joining the main chain.
The third general ridge begins at Menin, and runs from
thence, as before stated, to a point in the parallel of Jebel
Tiniyeh, where it sinks down into the plain of Kuteifeh.
Here, however, it is connected by broken ground and low
hills with another mountain-chain, which commences some
distance to the north-west, and has been already referred
to as extending eastward along the side of the great plain
or valley to Kuryetein and Palmyra. This ridge forms the
supporting wall of the second terrace, in which is the plain
of Saidnaya.
The fourth general ridge is the Salahiyeh range, which
divides the Sahra from the plain of Damascus. It com
mences at the foot of Hermon, near Kat&na, and runs
thence along the plain of Damascus to Jebel Tiniyeh,
where it separates into two branches, enclosing a little vale
through which I afterwards passed in going from Kuteifeh
to Maksura. The branches are both intersected by the
river Mukubrit, and beyond it they extend eastward in
serrated lines along the border of the desert to Palmyra.
The several ridges are not parallel : they open out like
a fan, having the noble peak of Hermon for their centre*
I have been particular in describing the features of this
great mountain-range of Antilibanus, because it has hitherto

Chap.. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 357
been a terra incognita to cartographers. A glance at the
map accompanying this work will be sufficient to show
what a transformation the face of the country has under
gone even since Berghaus's map was published ; and no
later author, so far as I know, has attempted any improve
ments. There are but few places here sufficiently inte
resting to invite the attention of the antiquarian or the
ordinary traveller, and the district has consequently been
avoided by the one and overlooked by the other. Many
travellers journey yearly to Palmyra, and yet no good
description has hitherto been given to the public of the
great route between Damascus and that interesting city.
It is hoped therefore that the present sketches may serve
to fill up a blank in the geography of this land.7
Having completed our observations, we descended by
the same way we came up, and found a sumptuous break
fast spread for us in the old convent. Our morning's walk
had prepared us for doing ample justice to it.
M'alula is manifestly a site of remote antiquity, but I
have been unable to discover any clue to its ancient name
or history. I made such search for inscriptions as my time
admitted of, but in vain. I have examined the ancient
geographical works and Itineraries with no better success ;
and even in the ' Notitiae Ecclesiastics ' I have discovered
no name whose analogy might lead to identification. A
7 Ritter has collected within the compass of a few pages the substance
of all the information we possess of the eastern slopes of Antilibanus ;
and a perusal of that section of his great work will satisfy the reader
that his remark is just when he thus writes : " Aber auch diese Angaben
lassen noch Vieles zu wiinschen in dieser bis heute Terra incognita geblie-
benen Landschaft am Ostabhange des Anti-Libanon die auch schon
Berghaus auf seiner Kartenzeichnung mit Recht als sehr zweifelhaft
dargestellt hatte." — Palastina und Syrien, iv. 250-68.

358 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
tradition of the monks is that it was formerly called Lao-
dicea, but its position does not accord with that of any of
the cities of that name mentioned by ancient writers. It
is somewhat remarkable that the inhabitants of Malula still
use the Syriac language, though they are also acquainted
with Arabic. A few rites peculiar to the ancient Jacobites
are likewise observed here in marriage ceremonies by both
Mohammedans and Christians, though the latter now be
long to the Greek and Greek Catholic Churches. The
only other places where the Syriac is spoken in Syria are
the two neighbouring villages of Ain et-Tineh and Biikh'a.
The former is a little over a mile and a half south of M'a-
lula, and the latter about three miles north-east.
We bade adieu to our worthy host and mounted our
horses at ten o'clock. Our route lay up the north side of
the basin to the great plateau, which we reached in half
an hour. In another half-hour we passed the small village
of Bukh'a, lying in a little bleak valley on our right. Thjs
valley crosses the road, and cuts deeply into the plateau
for miles on the left. Near its extremity I saw on a
rising ground, during a subsequent visit, the village of
Asal el-Werd, about five miles distant. A few minutes
afterwards we reached the brow of a considerable declivity,
leading down into a lower and more fertile part of the
plateau ; and from thence, away in front of us, through
a break in the ridge, we saw the white houses and bloom
ing gardens and orchards of Yabrud. Our route lay along
the base of the Malulu range, which, owing to the lower
level of this section of the plateau, seems to have a con
siderable elevation. An hour and a half smart riding
brought us to the little village of Eas el-' Ain, situated at

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 350
the entrance of the sublime gorge which here intersects
the ridge, opening up a way to Yabrud. Ampng the
modern hovels we observed some few broken shafts and
large hewn stones, which were probably once used in en
closing the fine fountain that here springs up. Turning to
the right, and winding for a few minutes among luxuriant
vineyards, we entered the ravine, whose sides are naked
rooky precipices, pierced, like those of Jubb Adin and
Malula, with numerous sepulchral caves. Five minutes
from Bas el-' Ain we reached another large and beautiful
fountain gushing out from the foot of the cliff on our left.
In the verdant meadow along the banks of the stream that
flows from it we picketed our horses, while we ourselves
sat down in the cool shade beside the crystal waters to
enjoy a few minutes' repose and eat our noonday meal.
A friendly natur brought us some fine-looking bunches of
grapes, but we found them still sour and unpalatable, not
withstanding their tempting appearance. We were told
that it would take another month to ripen them, as both
air and soil are cold.
We left this beautiful spot at 1*25, and continued our
course through the ravine, which is not narrow or barren
hke those in this range we had previously visited, but of
considerable width, and densely filled with the luxuriant
Mage of the orchards that line the banks ofthe stream.
As we advanced, the view in front became more interest
ing and picturesque. The conical summit of a snow-white
hill appeared over the trees, while a little to the left the
terraced roofs of Yabrud could be seen through every
opening. We entered this fine and populous village at
1-48.

360 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
As we passed along the streets I observed on every side
remains of ancient buildings of considerable extent and
beauty. Among these was a square tower, almost similar
in form and character to that at Saidnaya. But the prin
cipal object of interest is the church, a large building of
high antiquity, whose walls are constructed of massive
stones, well hewn and jointed, the layers near the foundar
tion having in some places the peculiar Phoenician bevel.
It is probable that the building was first constructed for a
temple, and afterwards, when Christianity became the re
ligion of the empire, it was dedicated to the service of the
true God ; and it appears that ever since it has remained
in the hands of the Christians, so that it may thus be one
of the most ancient ecclesiastical structures in this part of
Syria. The name Yabrud at once suggests the Jabruda of
Ptolemy, mentioned in connection with Laodicea ad Li-
banum.8 It became an episcopal city at a very early
period, as its bishop, Genadius, was present at the Council
of Nice, and it was subsequently represented at the Council
of Chalcedon.9 Nothing more is known of it, but that it
remains to the present day the seat of a bishop. Its situ
ation is pleasant and salubrious. The opening in the
mountains to the west affords a passage for the fresh and
healthful breezes which blow during the hottest days of
summer, while the broad undulating plain to the east
leaves the site free and cheerful. Though the sun's rays
beat with great power on the white gravelly soil and
chalky mountains, yet the temperature in the shade is
Ptolem. Geog. v. 15. » S. Paulo, Geog. Sac. p. 294.

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 361
generally very low. As we rode through the streets we
were objects of curiosity to crowds of men, women, and boys,
who came flocking round us. There was no insolence or
antipathy manifested by any of them : on the contrary, all
seemed anxious we should remain there for the night. The
inhabitants are robust and healthy, and there is a freshness
and elasticity in their looks and movements which are the
sure indications of pure air and perfect freedom from the
dread influence of miasma. It would appear, in fact, as
if the only disease known among them were ophthalmia,
which is no doubt occasioned by the dazzling whiteness of
the chalk hills and flinty plains around.
We left Yabrud at 2-10, and after half an hour's easy
ride up a gentle slope reached the summit of a low ridge
which strikes out from the hills on the right, and runs
diagonally across the plain to Nebk. From this point we
looked down into a fine fertile vale which only requires
water to make it a paradise, and on the slopes beyond it
saw the little village of Kustiil. In half an hour more we
had passed the plain, and were standing in the shade of
the large khan in the centre of this village. Beside us was
the great caravan-road from Damascus to Aleppo, and we
could trace it along the level plain till it wound in among
the white tells that almost concealed Nebk from our view.
A few hundred yards below us, on the side of the road, is
a large pond of pure water supplied by a subterranean
aqueduct coming in from the west. It is similar in struc
ture to those already referred to in the plain of Jerud, and
is about a mile in length.
The name Kustiil suggests the Latin Oastellum ; and it
is hio-hly probable that a Boman castle once occupied this
VOL. I. E

362 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
site, serving to protect the caravans, and to afford shelter
and food perhaps to passing travellers on this great road.
This place is mentioned by Abulfeda as giving the name
to a division or section of the country.1
At 3*15 we again mounted and set out at a quick pace
along the great caravan-road, which here rims in a direc
tion south-west toward Hermon, whose snow-crowned
summit soon came in sight. This is a bleak and dreary
district. There are no trees, there is no verdure, there is
nothing to attract the eye or excite the attention. The
blasted gravelly soil covers the undulating plain on every
side, and the mountains rise up beyond, naked and deso
late ; while over all is the unvarying blue sky, and the
scorching sun pouring down a torrent of fierce rays on the
luckless traveller. We spurred on our horses, passing in
quick succession the little cisterns which in former days
were constructed to supply the wants ofthe thirsty voyager,
but are now, like everything else in this land, in a state of
ruin. The road, however, has defied both time and the
Turks ; and notwithstanding the wear of the one and the
neglect of the otlier, is still proverbially good — that is,
good for a Syrian road. The plain is level and the soil
firm, and it is consequently impossible that it could be
bad. About an hour after leaving Kustiil we saw the little
village of Kaldun high up on the mountains on our left,
and in an hour and three-quarters more we entered a
narrow defile, which completely intersects the mountain-
chain. The winter stream from Malula, after a course of
a little over three miles across the plain, by 'Ain et-Tineh,
1 Tab. Syr. p. 27.

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 363
here enters the mountains and forces its way through a
wild ravine to the plain of Kuteifeh. The road winds
along its bank ; and in one place, where the bed is narrow,
a broad way has been hewn in the solid rock along the side
of the cliff above. At the entrance of the pass is a large
ruined khan.
The sun had set, and the brief twilight was fast waning ;
but the moon shone brightly, and the rugged rocks and
toppling cliffs far overhead assumed a thousand fantastic
shapes, as the silvery light fell upon projecting portions,
and enveloped the intervals in deepest gloom. It seemed
as if the wild glen had suddenly become tenanted by all
the Jans and Efrits of the Muslem world. The hoarse call
of the partridge and the plaintive cry of the jackal occa
sionally broke in upon the dead silence of nature. This
defile is not always safe, even by day, and at night none
but large caravans would venture to pass it. We had
been warned at Yabrud of our danger in setting out at so
late an hour, but we felt here, as we had often done under
similar circumstances, that the very dreariness of the place
was our greatest source of security. In forty minutes we
emerged on the open plain, and thirty-five minutes after
wards entered the village of Kuteifeh. It was not without
some difficulty we got accommodation for ourselves and
our horses ; but we at last succeeded in finding a large
court- yard and an empty room. Our servants soon pre
pared dinner, and in the mean time we entered into con
versation with our host — an old man, with a long silvery
beard and voluminous turban. After a hearty meal we
spread out our lehdfs, and were soon asleep.
October 21st.— We were up again ere the first dawn
R 2

364 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
of morning had tinged the eastern hills, and had com
menced negotiations for a guide to Maksura. When we
first introduced the subject, many a fear was expressed for
our safety, and many a doubt suggested whether the Arabs
would permit us to pass, at least so comfortably clad as we
now were. We were assured a strong guard of villagers
would be absolutely necessary; but after much talking
we persuaded the son of our host to accompany us alone,
at moderate wages. Before starting, however, I wished to.
obtain some bearings, and clambered up to the roof of the
house ; but on my object being known, I was invited by
our new guide to the top of the minaret of the mosk.
Considerably surprised at such an invitation from a Muslem,
I readily accompanied him; and we met the Muezzin
descending, after having summoned the faithful to morning
prayer. The sun had not risen, and the features of the
extensive panorama had not yet become distinctly de
veloped, so that I had a few minutes to examine the great
khan to which this mosk belongs. It is a large quad
rangular building of excellent masonry, containing several
spacious courts, with numerous apartments for the mer
chants and their wares, and ample accommodation for their
horses. It was erected by the :celebrated Senan Pasha
A.H, 988 ; but since his time it has been totally neglected,
and is now fast falling to ruin.
From the spot on which I now stood I had a fine view
of the great plain I had formerly traversed on my way to
Tadmor. The gardens of Jerud and Atny were visible ;
more to the east, and much nearer, was Muaddamiyeh, and
a little to the right, beyond it, the guide pointed out the
gardens of Buhaibeh, at the entrance of a broad valley in

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS.

365

the low mountain-range. Westward I looked over the
plains of Kuteifeh and Saidnaya to the rugged summit of
Jebel Shurabin, and on the south-west Tiniyeh reared up
its rounded head, bare and barren, while a little to the
right of it was the abrupt termination of the Menin
range. At 7"20 we mounted our horses and rode off across the
plain due south. On reaching the foot of the hills we
struck up a shallow winding valley, and at 8"3 gained the
summit of the first ridge. Here I first observed the division
in this range of hills referred to above. Turning to the
left, we followed a narrow path down a barren wady to the
side of a little dreary plain. Large flocks of sheep and
goats were scattered over the white hills : one is astonished
that they can pick up sufficient herbage on these blasted
slopes to supply the wants of nature. The shepherds,
hale and strong young men, were all armed with long
muskets and pistols ; and our guide assured us that forays
are often made among them by the Bedawin of the great
desert. After skirting the southern side of the little plain,
we came at nine o'clock to the base of a line of lofty barren
hills running at right angles to our path, and we here
turned to the right down a wild glen in a direction nearly
due south. A few minutes afterwards we passed a small
brackish fountain, of which our guide drank greedily,
though to us the water tasted nauseous and bitter. The
scenery increased in grandeur as we advanced. The rocks
on each side of the ravine rose up in broken and jagged
masses, and the smooth summits of the mountains were
intermixed with towering cliffs.
About half an hour below the fountain, on surmounting

366 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
a rugged eminence, the plain of Damascus suddenly opened
up before us, extending westward to the base of Hermon,
confined on the south-west by the low ranges of Jebel el-
Aswad and Jebel Mania, but towards the south stretching
out again to the Jebel Hauran ; while on the east it is shut
in by the graceful group of the Tellul. As viewed from
this point, it appears as if almost completely surrounded
by mountains. Our guide appeared to feel considerable
anxiety as we approached the plain ; he seized his musket
with a firmer grasp, examined the lock, and " girded up
his raiment," as if preparing for action. Many an exciting
tale, too, did he relate of the encounters of his people with
the Bedawin, of his own " hair-breadth 'scapes," and of
the danger he now encountered in acting as our guide.
As we rode along, therefore, we kept a sharp look-out for
wandering bandits. We ourselves knew that we had
reached the borders of civilization, if we had not already
passed them, and that, if any roving party of Bedawin
should appear, we ran a fair chance of being plundered.
As we surmounted the last ridge, we looked anxiously
over the broad expanse of plain now lying before us, but
we sought in vain for the black tent, or the wide-spreading
flocks, or the roving cavaliers. The ploughman was there
with his oxen, and the village shepherd with his few
goats, and the peasant with his hoe, all peacefully labouring.
Our guide was pleased, and we felt disappointed — perhaps
agreeably. Maksura was now before us, and the road
straight ; we consequently paid off our guide, who returned
in peace, while we cantered forward to the village. The
plain is here fertile and perfectly level. On our left, as
we advanced in a direction about south-east, the hills on

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 367
the left receded towards an opening in their line opposite
Maksura, Through this opening a small stream, called
Nahr el-Mukubrit, descends from Euhaibeh to the plain.
At 10-20 we reached the banks of the stream and the gate
of Maksura.
Our attention had for some time been attracted by a
large and heavy building rising high above the flat roofs of
the houses, and which, from its situation, on the top of a
gentle eminence, forms a conspicuous object. On entering
the gate we proceeded to it at once through the narrow
and tortuous streets, and, on reaching it, were no little sur
prised at the size, beauty, and completeness of the structure.
It is a Corinthian temple, perhaps unique in design. At
each end is a handsome pediment supported on semi-
columns, in the centre of which is a spacious arched door
way ornamented with pilasters and deep mouldings. The
cornice and frieze of the pediment are carried round the
whole building and supported by pilasters. The exterior
doors admit to small vestibules, and these open by arched
doorways into the cell, which is nearly square ; its walls
are ornamented with pilasters supporting a richly-wrought
cornice. The roof has fallen, but the walls are nearly
perfect, and are fine specimens of Boman masonry.
It will be seen that there was a clear passage tlirough
this temple from east to west, all the doors being exactly in
a line. On the eastern front, near the north-eastern angle,
is a Greek inscription in large characters inscribed on the
smooth wall, without tablet or any other mark ; so that one
is almost inclined to suspect that it was put on at a later
date. The inscription is as follows : —

368 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
YI16PCWTHPIACTWNKYPIWN HMWNAYTOKPATOPWIMKAIC
APWNMAPKWNIOYAIUN /////////////////////A<PI6PW 0HKAICYNETeAGC0HNAOCAEIXA AACeniTWNnEPIA////APKONAYPHAI ONAN£ONrAWPOYKAirA////PONOA(?)CIM0)eOYBOY///////AeYTOYEIPOTAMIU)N EKTWNTOY
0EOYETOYC ZN* YI1EPBEPE
TAIOY Fe
The temple was thus erected in the year of the Seleu
cidae 557, which corresponds with A.D. 246, during the
reign of the two Philips. The word Qikmirm has been
designedly erased by his successors, no doubt to mark their
abhorrence of the foul arts by which he had accomplished
the ruin of his much-loved predecessor.1 This date is of
some importance, as tending to establish the fact that it
1 Mr. Hogg, in his notes on ' Greek Inscriptions from Syria and the
Hauran,' read before the Royal Society of Literature, suggests another
cause for the erasure of the name of Philip in this inscription. He thus
writes : " It has been a subject of great controversy whether or not the
elder Philip had embraced Christianity. The affirmative would seem to
be the fact from Jerome and Eusebius. And if the letters i-4"  A/J
have originally been cut where Mr. Porter marks an erasure on purpose,
this circumstance would appear in some degree confirmatory of it; for
the temple, at first dedicated to Jupiter, might possibly have been
afterwards converted into a Christian church, when Philip himself became
a Christian." I scarcely think however that, even though Philip had
become a Christian, he would have ventured during his short reign to
change a temple of Jupiter into a church. Mr. Hogg's suggestion as to
the erased letters is no doubt correct. They are as follows : —
^AiSTSTdlV U-^lGTU 'hit ------ -

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS.

369

was the era of the Seleucidce, and not that of Alexander,
which was in former times almost universally used in Syria.
Philip was a native of Syria, and erected there some
important monuments, the ruins of which, as we shall
hereafter see, still exist.
During the year 1854 I sent a copy of this inscription,
with some others, from the Hauran, to John Hogg, Esq.,
Hon. Sec. to the Eoyal Society ; and in reply he informed
me that it had been copied so long ago as 1821 by the
Count di Vidua, and published both by him, and after
wards by Bockh in the * Corpus Grsec. Inscrip.,' vol. iii.
p. 238. Mr. Hogg suggests that the name of the place is
Aichala, Ai^aXst. The name of the village is at present
written Dumair in the government registers; but it is
better known to the Arabs as Maksura.
Ascending to the top of the temple by a staircase in the
south-eastern angle, I obtained a fine view over the vast
plain from the Tellul to Hermon. My attention was
directed by several of the villagers, who sat by my side, to
three large castle-like buildings several hours distant south-
by-east, and I was informed that they are of great strength
and beauty, containing some white sculptured stones of
great value. They called them the Diura, or " convents."
They are situated on the desert plain between the lakes and
the Tellul.
When we were about to mount our horses and return to
Damascus, the sheikh, seeing the interest we appeared to
take in the examination of this fine ruin, informed us that
half an hour east of the village the remains of a great city
lie upon the plain ; and though we had a long journey still
before us, we resolved to visit them. Accompanied by the
e 3

370 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS, Chap. VIII.
sheikh on his fine mare, and several of his people on foot,
we set out at a rapid pace. After leaving the village we
noticed along the sides of the road several sarcophagi, and
many sepulchral caves excavated in the chalky rock of the
plain. We also passed three subterranean aqueducts,
which still bring down copious streams from the mountains
on the left. The third aqueduct has a strongly-built
reservoir, and immediately below this, about two miles
distant from Maksura, commence the ruins of the town.
Heaps of hewn stones lie strewn over the plain, mixed
with broken shafts and moulded cornices. On the eastern
side of them are the foundations of a large and strong
fortress, nearly square, and about three hundred yards in
the side. There were two gates, one on the north and the
other on the south, flanked by heavy towers of excellent
masonry. At the angles there are likewise massive towers.
In the interior of this fortress some large and beautiful
buildings once stood, but the whole is now so completely
ruined, that we could form no conception of their character.
I galloped from ruin to ruin during my short stay, in the
hope of discovering some inscription, but in vain. I have
little doubt, however, but that a careful survey would be
attanded with better success. We were informed that in
the mountain- side, a short distance beyond the ruins, is a
divan, or " theatre," and another copious fountain of water.
We had no time left to visit them, and were reluctantly
compelled to turn away from these singular ruins.
There can be no doubt that this town is of Boman
origin, and there is no evidence that it has been inhabited
since the time of the Saracenic conquest. It was a strong
border city, intended to keep the Arabs in check, and

Chap. VIII. AND PLAIN OF DAMASCUS. 371
probably those other large buildings away to the south
ward constituted part of a line of fortresses erected along
the borders of the desert. I have not been able to discover
any reference to this place in any author, Greek, Latin,
or Arab. In the Antonine Tables there is a route given
as follows : — Geroda M. P.
Telsew „ 16
Damasco „ 24
Aere „ 32 &c.
Now Geroda might possibly be identified with the mo
dern Jerud, a large and flourishing village on the great
caravan-route to Palmyra. From Jerud to Maksura is
about sixteen Boman miles, if we allow for the curves in
passing through the valley of the Mukubrit, and from
hence to Damascus is twenty-four miles. I merely suggest
this correspondence in distances, and in the names Geroda
and Jerud, to call the attention of others to the subject,
who may have more time and better opportunities than I
have for the prosecution of such investigations.
We now galloped back to Maksura along the banks of
an ancient canal, which formerly conveyed a supply of
water to the town, whose ruins we had left behind. The
sheikh pressed us to remain with him during the night, and,
on our refusing, said we would not surely leave the village
without partaking of his hospitality, and thus honouring
him in some way. This we could not well refuse after
the kindness he had already shown us ; we consequently
remained for a short time and partook of a hearty lunch.
Mounting our horses at 3 • 10, we started for Damascus.
On leaving the village we met a small party of Arabs on
their beautiful mares ; they were the chiefs of a tribe of

372 EASTERN SLOPES OF ANTILIBANUS. Chap. VIII.
the Anezy now encamped beside the lakes, and had come
here to negotiate for wheat and barley. As we rode
through the gardens we observed large hewn stones scat
tered about, as if the buildings of the villages had at one
time extended thus far. Crossing the dry bed of the
canal, we struck across the level plain in a straight course
for Damascus, whose forest gardens we saw in the distance.
The plain has a fertile soil, but is here altogether uncul
tivated, and the rank vegetation by which it is covered in
spring is principally devoured by the vast flocks of the
Bedawin. In two hours and a half we reached the fine
village of 'Adhra, whose fields and gardens are abundantly
watered by the great canal Taura, one of the streams from
the Barada. Here we passed through a large encampment
of Arabs. The sun had already gone down, and darkness
soon set in ; but we had a good road and a bright moon.
It was past 9 o'clock when we knocked at Bab Tuma, and
later still ere we reached our own houses ; there, however,
the fatigues of the journey were soon forgotten amid the
comforts of home.

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 373

CHAPTEE IX.
THE PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS.
Druze war — Fine scenery of the plain — " Harran of the Columns " —
Mouth of the Abana — The character and extent of the South and
East lakes — A battle-field — Singular ruins — Adventure in the
marshes — Tell es-Salahiyeh, an Assyrian mound — The lake Hijaneh
and mouth of the Pharpar — The Safa.
DURING the summer of 1852 the Druzes of the Hauran
had refused to contribute their number of conscripts to the
regular army; and the seraskier, or commander-in-chief
in Syria, was ordered to march against them with all his
available forces. During our previous journey his army
was in the field ; but having been worsted in several severe
skirmishes, he withdrew his troops ere the winter set in,
leaving only strong outposts to guard the plain of Damascus
against any forays of the rebels. While the hostilities
continued, travelling in the eastern and southern divisions
of the plain was not safe ; now, however, the campaign
having terminated, an excursion might be made with com
parative safety. The lakes I had never as yet visited, and
the lower parts of the Barada and 'Awaj remained still
unexplored. I had often projected an excursion into this
terra incognita, but more important labours had hitherto
prevented me from carrying out my plans. A short in
terval of leisure now occurring, and opportunity offering,
I got up a strong party, secured an intelligent guide, and
made all necessary arrangements for an excursion.

374 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
November 11th. — Our party assembled this morning at
an early hour. It consisted, in addition to Messrs. Eobson
and Barnett, who were my companions on the last journey,
of the Bev. G. Lansing, and M. Anton Bulad, the learned
Greek monk, whose name has been before referred to in
this work. We had also two servants and a guide, all
well mounted. We left the East Gate at 7 • 57. The air
was fresh and frosty, and the wind blew keenly in our
faces as we rode along the banks of the Akrabany, one of
the canals from the Barada. Ere long the rising sun dis
solved the hoar-frost that covered the grass and foliage,
and lighted up the distant hills so that they appeared like
gigantic gilded domes rising over the forests of the plain.
A cloud rested on the summit of Hermon, and the deep
sound of thunder was heard in the distance ; we therefore
feared some approaching change. As the day advanced,
however, every cloud disappeared, and every hill and
mountain round the whole horizon stood forth in bold
relief from the clear blue sky. It was a glorious day !
But why speak of the weather in the East ? Amid the
clouds and gloom of Old England, and the mists of Scot
land, and the showers of the Emerald Isle, the weather may
form a topic of conversation ; and a glorious November
day would there indeed be a rara avis. But in Syria,
where for six long months the deep azure of the heavens
is scarcely ever shaded by a passing cloud, why speak here
of a glorious day? However, it was glorious, even for
Syria. The atmosphere was transparent as crystal; a
passing shower had dispelled the quivering haze that
looms over the plain during the summer heats ; and the
magic influence of the mirage did not convert the parched

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 375
soil into placid lakes with " verdant isles among ;" Nature,
in fact, appeared as it existed.
We followed the ordinary eastern road for some dis
tance, and then, turning to the right, passed between the
villages of Meliha and Balat, skirting the side of the
latter, in which we observed some fragments of columns
and large sarcophagi. A ride of eighteen minutes more
among orchards and fruitful fields brought us to Zibdin ;
and at 8'50 we reached 'Ain Halush, a large fountain
sending forth a fine stream, and watering, as I afterwards
learned, five large villages with their territories. It is by
far the most copious fountain in the whole plain. Our
road now lay along the left bank of the stream for ten
minutes, when we crossed it by a substantial bridge of one
arch, and seven minutes afterwards entered Noleh. Here
I stopped for a time to make observations, and ascertain
the names of the several villages in sight. The people we
found sullen, and unwilling to give any information what
ever. The orchards and forest-gardens of Damascus extend to
this place, and we had hitherto ridden beneath the shade
of the walnut, the apricot, or the olive; but there was
now before us an open plain, perfectly level, extending far
away to the east and south. The villages that thickly
stud its surface have each its little grove of fruit-trees and
tapering poplars, but the intervals are without a tree or
shrub. After passing Noleh we still found the plain well
cultivated for some distance ; but then large patches of
waste land began to appear, and they became more fre
quent and extensive as we advanced. On our left, at the
distance of two miles and a half, was the river Barada

376 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
meandering across the flat expanse in a course nearly due
east. Numerous villages stand along its banks, and the
plain near it has a richer and fresher aspect at this season,
owing to the abundant supply of water for irrigation,
which is led off by ancient canals. After a fast ride of
three hours forty-three minutes from the city, we entered
the large village of Harran el-'Awamid — the whole dis
tance being fourteen geographical miles.
Harran el-Awamid, " Harran of the Columns," receives
this appellation from three noble Ionic columns which
stand in the centre of the village. There is now no build
ing connected with them, nor are the traces of any visible.
They stand upon pedestals six feet high, and the total
height to the top of the capital is about forty feet ; the
shafts measure eleven feet six inches in circumference.
The stone is a black basalt, very hard but porous. In the
streets and lanes of the village I observed large numbers
of broken shafts and hewn stones, showing that some im
portant structures once stood in this place.
From the terraced roofs of the houses that cluster round
the pillars I got an extensive and clear view of this section
of the plain ; and here, again, my attention was called to the
three ruined buildings called the Diura, which I had first
seen on my visit to Maksura. One of them especially
seemed large and lofty, and the villagers spoke in glowing
terms of their extent, and the beauty of some of the white
stones on the walls. All, however, refused to accompany us
when we proposed a visit to them, and assured us that a
hundred horsemen dare not attempt the journey. We
heard this with sorrow ; but we still hoped for more cheer
ing intelligence in some other villages. A short distance

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 377
east of Harran we distinctly saw extensive marshes filled
with forests of gigantic reeds, intermixed with considerable
spaces of clear water. Their border runs southward, as I
afterwards ascertained, about five miles; and then, sweeping
round to the eastward for some five more, turns toward
the north. This is a portion of the Bahret el-Kibliyeh, or
" South Lake."
We left Harran at 11-40, and rode straight toward the
village of 'Ataibeh, in a direction nearly north-east, the
border of the marshes being close on our right the whole
way. In twenty-five minutes we forded the principal
channel of the Barada, a little above the spot where it
flows into a large expanse of clear water in the midst of
the marsh. The river was here some thirty feet wide, by
about four in depth in the centre ; but the current was
sluggish. Two points of some importance were now esta
blished; namely, first, that the Barada continues to flow
during the whole summer into the lake. The present
season had been unusually dry, no rain having fallen since
April, except a slight shower, which could not affect the
river, and there having been little snow during the previous
winter ; and yet, notwithstanding these unfavourable cir
cumstances, here was still a deep and wide stream. Second,
we now also had ocular demonstration that the waters in
the lake do not dry up during the summer. There is not,
it is true, a large expanse of clear water, and the lofty reeds
conceal a great part of what does exist ; yet still there is
some clear water, and there are marshes of vast extent.
In half an hour more we forded the second branch of the
Barada, not much inferior in size to the first, and, like it,
flowing into a section of clear water, which almost en-

378 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
compasses the large village of 'Ataibeh. After a short stay
in this village we remounted, and proceeded eastward to
examine the extent and boundaries of the lakes. Our
course now lay nearly south-east along the border of the
South Lake, which has here the same features we observed
opposite Harran. In half an hour we reached a deep and
wide eanal, which almost seems as if it had been the work
of man, though it is, in reality, only a natural wady.
Through this in winter and spring the surplus waters of
the South Lake flow northward into another. We rode on
at a smart pace for another quarter of an hour over un
dulating and elevated ground, and then ascended a little
tell covered with graves, called Tell Maktel Musa — the
" Tell where Moses was slain" — the section of the lake to
the south of it being also called Bahret Maktel Musa.
We could hear of no tradition attached to the spot ; but
the situation corresponds to the place called Merj Rdhet
by Abulfeda, where, he says, a battle was fought (a.h. 64)
between the Yemeniyeh and Kaisiyeh, in which Merwan,
the chief of the former party, gained a signal victory. The
field of battle he describes as in the Ghutah of Damascus,
toward the east. The position, the ancient tombs, and the
name of this little mound, all tend to suggest that this may
be the spot referred to by the historian.1 This was one
of the fiercest battles that took place between the rival
factions of the Muslems in the early days of Islam.
Merwan was the khalif elect of the house of Omeiyah, and
the Yemeniyeh, with Hassan at their head, embraced his
cause ; while Abdullah, his rival, was powerfully aided by
1 Tab. Syr. pp. 16-17.

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 379
the famous Dehak, the son of Kais, whose party was called
the Kaisiyeh. This battle sealed the fate of Abdullah, for
Dehak himself, and eighty of the nobles of Syria, were
slain ; and Merwan was established on the throne of the
khalifs.2 From this mound I was able to define with considerable
accuracy the form and extent of the South Lake. From
numerous observations made at this and other places along
its borders I found that its extreme length is about six
miles and a half, its breadth five and a half, and its total
circumference nearly twenty miles. Tall reeds grow in
every part of it, and serve very clearly to define its boun
daries even from a distance. The ground on its northern
and north-eastern sides has an average elevation above the
level of the water of nearly thirty feet, but it undulates,
and in some places rises to double that height. The whole
of this ground, with the plain on the east side, is sparsely
covered with the tamarisk, which grows to the height of
from six to eight feet, branching out so as often to cover a
space ten or twelve feet in diameter.
We now turned northward and rode across the rolling
plain among groves of tamarisk to survey the other lake,
called Bahret esh-SMrkiyeh, the " East Lake." In ten
minutes we passed over another little tell covered with
Arab graves. The sons of the desert rest here in solitude
after a life of wandering, the daring marauder and the
brave warrior side by side in the silent tomb. We rode
over their graves in peace, for death had paralysed the
strong arm and removed from earth the fierce spirit. In
2 Ockley's History ofthe Saracens, pp. 434-36.

380 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
fifteen minutes more we were standing on a rising ground
on the side of the East Lake, now presenting a vast ex
panse of waving canes, with little clear spots of water here
and there. From careful observations I afterwards esti
mated the extent of this lake as follows : — total length
eight miles and a half, extreme breadth about four miles,
and circumference twenty miles. Its borders are less
clearly defined than those of the other, owing to the
marshes extending for some distance along the banks of
the streams that fall into it. The distance between these
two lakes averages more than a mile, and the elevation of
the ground is such that they can never unite except by
means of the wady above referred to.
From this point I had a pretty clear view of the Diura
through a small telescope. They are large and apparently
strong buildings, now half ruinous, standing in the midst
of the great plain beyond the lakes. The distance of the
nearest, that on the north, I estimated at about two hours
(the guide said four) ; the southern one is six or seven
miles distant from the northern, and the central one lies
eastward near the base of the little group of hills called
the Tellul. The distance of Diikweh, the highest conical
peak of the Tellul, I afterwards estimated, from several
bearings taken at different points, to be about sixteen miles
from 'Ataibeh. Neither in the plain nor hills beyond the
lake could I see any other ruins either ancient or modern,
and there are no settled inhabitants in the whole region.
'Ataibeh and Harran are border villages, and between the
latter and Maksura the country is waste on both sides of
the East Lake. Abulfeda, in speaking of the lake of Da
mascus, says it is on the east side of the Ghutah, a little

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 381
to the north, and " there are there thickets of canes, and
likewise places of defence against the enemy, which are
celebrated." '3 The Diura are probably the fortresses or
strongholds to which the historian alludes, and which in
former ages formed part of a regular line of defences
against the incursions of the restless Bedawin.
After a careful examination of the whole district around
us, we rode along the side of the marshes for some dis
tance in a north-western direction, and then turned into
them by a winding path through the thicket of reeds. In
about fifteen minutes we reached a low mound called Tell
el-Khanzir, the " Hill of the Swine," at the side of which
is some very deep water. Leaving my horse at this spot,
I followed the guide we had brought from the village in
among the dense reeds, tlirough which we had difficulty
in forcing our way. They are here from twelve to fifteen
feet high, and some of them over twenty. I was anxious
to see the wild swine, but, though we found places where
they had been recently wallowing, and could even hear
them as they forced their way through the thicket in the
distance, I was not so fortunate as to get sight of any. As
we crouched down in a favourable spot waiting for their
approach, and listening to their hoarse growl, the guide
told me in whispers that during the previous year he had
missed the path and lost his way near this spot, and was
three days and three nights among the marshes ere he
could get out. I can well believe it, for nothing save the
blue sky can be seen from within, and, if once the track
is lost, the wanderer at once gets entangled among the
3 Tab. Syr. pp. 156, 7.

380 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX
fifteen minutes more we were standing on a rising ground
on the side of the East Lake, now presenting a vast ex
panse of waving canes, with little clear spots of water here
and there. From careful observations I afterwards esti
mated the extent of this lake as follows : — total length
eight miles and a half, extreme breadth about four miles,
and circumference twenty miles. Its borders are less
clearly defined than those of the other, owing to the
marshes extending for some distance along the banks of
the streams that fall into it. The distance between these
two lakes averages more than a mile, and the elevation of
the ground is .such that they can never unite except by
means of the wady above referred to.
From this point I had a pretty clear view of the Diura
through a small telescope. They are large and apparently
strong buildings, now half ruinous, standing in the midst
of the great plain beyond the lakes. The distance of the
nearest, that on the north, I estimated at about two hours
(the guide said four) ; the southern one is six or seven
miles distant from the northern, and the central one lies
eastward near the base of the little group of hills called
the Tellul. The distance of Diikweh, the highest conical
peak of the Tellul, I afterwards estimated, from several
bearings taken at different points, to be about sixteen miles
from 'Ataibeh. Neither in the plain nor hills beyond the
lake could I see any other ruins either ancient or modern,
and there are no settled inhabitants in the whole region.
'Ataibeh and Harran are border villages, and between the
latter and Maksura the country is waste on both sides of
the East Lake. Abulfeda, in speaking of the lake of Da
mascus, says it is on the east side of the Ghutah, a little

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 381
to the north, and " there are there thickets of canes, and
likewise places of defence against the enemy, which are
celebrated." z The Diura are probably the fortresses or
strongholds to which the historian alludes, and which in
former ages formed part of a regular line of defences
against the incursions of the restless Bedawin.
After a careful examination of the whole district around
us, we rode along the side of the marshes for some dis
tance in a north-western direction, and then turned into
them by a winding path through the thicket of reeds. In
about fifteen minutes we reached a low mound called Tell
el-Khanzir, the " Hill of the Swine," at the side of which
is some very deep water. Leaving my horse at this spot,
I followed the guide we had brought from the village in
among the dense reeds, through which we had difficulty
in forcing our way. They are here from twelve to fifteen
feet high, and some of them over twenty. I was anxious
to see the wild swine, but, though we found places where
they had been recently wallowing, and could even hear
them as they forced their way through the thicket in the
distance, I was not so fortunate as to get sight of any. As
we crouched down in a favourable spot waiting for their
approach, and listening to their hoarse growl, the guide
told me in whispers that during the previous year he had
missed the path and lost his way near this spot, and was
three days and three nights among the marshes ere he
could get out. I can well believe it, for nothing save the
blue sky can be seen from within, and, if once the track
is lost, the wanderer at once gets entangled among the
3 Tab. Syr. pp. 156, 7.

382 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
marshes; and, even should he know something of the
right direction, he is compelled to turn and wind about to
avoid the deep pools and impassable morasses. On hear
ing this, I at once proposed to return to my companions,
as I had no wish for an adventure in such a locality, even
with the prospect of enjoying the society of a few wild
boars. We got back in safety, and, mounting our horses,
set out for 'Ataibeh, which we reached as the sun was
going down behind the lofty Hermon.
We had now solved the mystery of the lakes into which
the waters of the ancient Abana flow, and had made
observations which will henceforth effect a complete trans
formation in the maps of this region. Instead of one lake,
which has hitherto been so neatly delineated by cartogra
phers, with rivers concentrating to it from all quarters of
the neighbouring mountain-ranges, there are, in reality,
two lakes of considerable extent, and the Barada, forming
a kind of delta with its branches, pours into them the only
supply of water they receive from the mountains. The
East Lake receives its chief supplies from the South Lake,
through the narrow wady above referred to ; but there is
likewise a small branch of the Barada that crosses the
plain above 'Ataibeh, and flows directly into it ; and the
surplus waters of the great canal Taura, augmented by
the fountain of Kuseir, flow down past 'Adhra and enter
it from the north-west. During the winter it also re
ceives on the north the small stream Nahr el-Mukubrit,
whose source is at Buhaibeh on the plain of Jerud.
The Barada flows in a winding course due eastward
across the beautiful plain. Its banks are closely lined with
groves of fruit-trees and long ranges of poplars as far as

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 383
the Tell es-Salahiyeh, about eight and a half miles from
the city. The scenery along it is everywhere rich, and
in some places exceedingly picturesque. The long branches
of the willow and the giant arms of the walnut often meet
across the gently-flowing river, which is thus shrouded in
gloom, and forcibly reminds one of those quiet nooks so
often met with on the trout-streams of Old England. The
Tell es-Salahiyeh is one of the most interesting remnants
of antiquity in the whole plain. It is an artificial mound
of an oval form, about 300 yards in diameter and about
100 feet in height. The whole surface is covered with
loose earth, composed mainly of brickdust and fragments
of broken pottery. On the southern side, next the bank
of the river, a portion of the mound has been cut away,
and here may be seen the regular layers of sun-burnt
brick of which the whole appears to have been con
structed. From the present form of the mound it seems
that there was originally a large platform built, from
twenty to thirty feet high, and then in the centre of this
stood a lofty conical structure, which during the course of
long centuries has gradually crumbled down to its present
form. On the western side of the mound, beside the
little village, I found, on my first visit to this place, a
limestone slab, about five feet long by three wide, contain
ing a bas-relief representing an Assyrian priest. The
workmanship is rude and the stone has been defaced ; but
still it was sufficiently plain to show the costume and atti
tude of the figure. I sketched it at the time, intending
on some future occasion either to obtain a cast or the
stone itself; but, unfortunately, it has since disappeared,
and I have been unable to discover what has been done

384 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
with it. I here insert my sketch of this singular monu
ment, and also of the mound itself.4

Our servants, who had remained behind in the village,
had in the mean time arranged our quarters for the night
in the house of the sheikh, and here we found a sump
tuous dinner laid out. M. Bulad produced an ample store
of Damascus delicacies, with a bottle of excellent wine.
The vigorous exercise of the day had prepared us for
doing justice to even less inviting dainties than those now
before us. A number of the villagers had gathered in, and
were squatting in close order round the walls, watching
our every movement and wondering at the facility with
which we introduced the little spears (forks) into our
mouths, and thinking, no doubt, what fools the Frangis
* See a sketch of Tell es-Salahtyeh facing page 373.

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 385
are to endanger their faces with such weapons, while they
have fingers, and might use them like other men. The
whole of our proceedings were manifestly a mystery to all
the spectators, and many a nudge did they give each other
as some new feat was performed with the knife and fork ;
but their wonder found no expression save in an occa
sionally muttered wullah !
While thus occupied in these necessary duties, we at the
same time opened negotiations about our proposed journey
to the Diura. Our Damascus guide, we soon found, was
strongly opposed to our proceeding farther east. If fear of
danger was the reason, he ought undoubtedly to have been
the last to decline, for in the variety and number of his
weapons he resembled a portable armoury. We tried our
own powers of persuasion, holding forth strong induce
ments, in the shape of a liberal bakhshish, to any five men
who would accompany us. It was all in vain. Druzes,
Arabs, robbers of all kinds and sects, were now, they said,
prowling along the borders of the desert, awaiting a favour
able opportunity to plunder and run. Our friend the monk
was as eager as any of us, but the people were obstinate,
and utterly refused to go. In fact it is well known that
these border villages which have the lakes and marshes as
a defence against incursions of the Bedawin are almost
constantly at war with them, and they are consequently
afraid to venture beyond the bounds of their own terri
tories. We were thus compelled to give up our intention
of visiting these distant ruins for the present, and to con
fine our investigations to the lakes.
During the course of the evening we were informed that
a party of regular cavalry had arrived in the village, and
VOL. I. s

386 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS." Chap. IX.
were attempting by force to get possession of the court
yard where our horses were picketed, and, in fact, of the
whole house we now occupied. We sent one of our ser
vants with a peremptory order for the soldiers to go else
where, and to inform them that Englishmen had for the
time hired the house, and would prevent the Pasha himself
from entering it. A word from us was of more weight
with the unruly soldiers than all the remonstrances and
efforts of the poor villagers, and we were left in undis
turbed possession. Our host was delighted at this deliver
ance, and assured us that our presence had saved him from
imposition, and perhaps from personal abuse. So it is in
this unhappy land, where there is no justice and no equity.
Franks are now hailed as protectors wherever they go, and
are cordially welcomed to almost every house, because it is
known they have some sense of justice, and intend to pay
for what they get ; but government officials are shunned
and feared as if they had the plague. In fact, Turkish
officers, from the pashas to the lowest grade of police, are
looked on as so many robbers. The people would much
rather remain idle than work for the government; for
when they are compelled to labour, their animals are al
ways abused, and they themselves beaten if they com
plain; and they either get no pay at all, or receive a
miserable pittance, about one-fourth of what they could
gain elsewhere.
November lQth. — We returned this morning to the vil
lage of Harran, which we reached at 8'35, and continued
our journey to Kefrein, fifteen minutes farther. Here we
turned a little to the left towards Judeideh. I left my
companions to follow the direct road, and, putting spurs to

Ghap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 387
my horse, followed as closely as possible the indented border
of the marshes, so as to note particularly the amount of
water still found here, and the extent of the lake. I found
water at every point, but generally concealed beneath the
rank grass and forests of reeds. The numbers of wild-fowl
were almost beyond conception. They rose up in clouds
before me as I advanced, and, sweeping round for a few
minutes, settled down again at a little distance. Geese,
ducks, storks, herons, and water-fowl of endless variety,
appeared on every side. At 9-30 we reached Judeideh,
or Judeidet el-Khas, as it is called, to distinguish it from
other villages of the same name. Here we stopped a few
minutes to take bearings, and fix accurately not merely
the position of the village, but the southern border of the
South Lake, which sweeps round from this place first south-
by-east and then east.
As we left the village our road led us up a gentle swell
in the plain, which extends eastward as far as we could
see. It is considerably higher than the village, and thus
prevents the extension of the lake and marshes southward.
The soil on this swell is exceedingly rich, though now in
a great measure uncultivated. The tamarisk grows upon
it luxuriantly, and likewise large quantities of the plant
called Kily, J3, or Ashndn, ^U^l, by the Arabs— the
Salsosa fruticosa— whose ashes are largely used in the
manufacture of soap. The roek here, and in the whole
southern section of the plain, is basalt, and occasionally
crops up over the soil in broken masses or in small conical
mounds, some of which are cup-shaped. The basalt forma
tion extends over the whole province of the Hauran, and
eastward into the desert as far as we could see. s 2

388 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
In 53 minutes we reached Hijaneh, which lies south-
by-west from the last village. Beside it is a large rocky
mound covered with ancient ruins. To the summit of
this we immediately proceeded, taking with us an intelli
gent native to tell us the names of the several places in
view. This tell commands an extensive prospect over the
whole surrounding country. On the north and north-east
is seen the Ghutah, with its evergreen forests, and the
Merj, teeming with villages ; then the flat surface of the
lakes covered with waving forests of canes, and the undu
lating ground beyond rising up with a gentle slope to the
foot of the Tellul range. It is somewhat singular that the
three border villages, Maksura, 'Ataibeh, and Hijaneh, are
in a line : and eastward of this line there is no settled in
habitant. The range of hills so often referred to, called
Tellul, is about fifteen miles in length, and runs nearly
north and south, the conical peak Dukweh being near the
centre, and distant from Hijaneh eighteen miles. Both on
the north and south of these hills the plain extends to the
horizon. From the southern extremity of the Tellul to the
Jebel Hauran there is an unbounded plain : only one soli
tary blue peak, rising up in the far distance (S. 62° E.),
breaks the uniformity; and this peak, our intelligent guide
informed me, is in the centre of the Safa. On the south ,
a rolling plain extends to the base of the Jebel Hauran, on
the northern extremity of which a lofty tell was clearly
seen; and on visiting that region some months afterwards,
I recognised it as Tell Ma&z, near the ruins of Bathanyeh, .
the ancient Batanaea. The villages of Hit and Hiyat were
pointed out near it, and appeared like black specks on the
mountain-side. On the south-west lay the Lejah, some

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS.

389

ten miles distant; and in the midst of it rose a conical
peak, which I afterwards identified as Tell Amara. More
to the west the view is shut in by the heights of Mania.
The villages of Adiliyeh and Hurjilleh are visible between
this range and Jebel el-Aswad.
The Lake Hijaneh {Bahret Hijaneh} lies on the south
and south-east of Tell Hijaneh. It is upwards of five
miles long, by about four and a half in breadth. It was
entirely dry at the time of our visit ; but the forests of
waving reeds and the dark colour of the soil distinctly
marked the boundaries of the water during the winter and
spring seasons. One of my companions had before visited
this spot in the month of June, and found then a large
expanse of water. We were informed that it very rarely
dries up completely, but remains a marsh during the entire
summer and autumn. The river 'Awaj enters this lake at
its north-western angle, about twenty minutes below where
we stood. I could clearly trace its winding course over
the undulating plain, from the spot where it passes out
from between the ranges of Mania and Aswad. Its bed
was quite dry nearly to that point. A winter torrent
called the Liwa, whose source is in the Jebel Hauran, also
falls into this lake at its southern extremity ; but it only
flows while the snow is melting in the mountains, or heavy
rain falling. This torrent will be afterwards more fully
described. About half an hour south of Tell Hijaneh is a little
mound covered with ancient ruins, called Kasrein, " the
two Castles ;" and beyond the lake is another much larger
mound, also crowned with ruins, which are said to re
semble the Diura. It is called Mastabeh. There are like-
s 3

390 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
wise some scattered ruins on a rising gf ound in the centre
of the lake. We did not visit any of them — the more dis
tant ones through fear of the Arabs, whose flocks we saw
far away on the plain, and those near us we did not con
sider sufficiently important. I still hope, on some future
occasion, to explore this unknown region, and to go as far
as the Tellul, from which a wide prospect might no doubt
be obtained toward the east. The whole of this vast tract
is now without a settled inhabitant. The desert tribes
roam freely over it. In the autumn it is parched and
barren, but in spring there is excellent pasturage.
I had now completed my survey of the eastern part of
the plain of Damascus, and of the whole border-land from
Palmyra to the northern boundary of the ancient kingdom
of Bashan. From observations made during my several
excursions, that section of the map accompanying this
work which embraces this region, has been exclusively
constructed. Whatever opinion may be formed as to the
importance of my researches, there can be no question that
the geographical information I now present to the public
is new. In Burckhardt's ' Travels in Syria ' there are a
few brief notes on the topography of this region, but they
are both vague and incorrect. It is there stated that at
the end of the Ghutah or Merj of Damascus begins the
Jebel Hauran, the northern part of which is called the
Safd;6 and, I presume, from this information Berghaus has
delineated the Safa upon his map, but this is altogether
incorrect. From the termination of the plain of Damascus
to the commencement of the Jebel Hauran extends a fine
5 Travels in Syria, Appendix, No. VI.

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 391
level plain about twenty miles in length. I have carefully
examined it both from the tell at Hijaneh and from the
northern spurs of Jebel Hauran, and I have also travelled
along it ; and I can therefore confidently affirm that the
Safa is not located there. The guide whom we employed
at Hijaneh informed us that he had on several occasions
accompanied the Arabs to the Safa ; and on being asked
where it was situated, he pointed to the blue peak away
on the horizon, and said that that peak was in the midst of
it. This peak is a journey of a day and a half from
Hijaneh, and at least twelve hours north-east of Jebel
Hauran. He stated besides that the Safa is like the Lejah,
only more difficult of access. There are no hills around it,
but a wall of jagged rocks, the passes through which are
only known to those who inhabit it. There are no springs
in it, and the small quantity of rain that falls during the
winter is not sufficient to provide a store for summer use.
In the plain, a short distance from its eastern border, are
fountains much frequented by the Arabs. There are some
small tribes of Arabs, who constantly inhabit this wild
region, pasturing their flocks among its defiles, and culti
vating a few patches of soil. All these particulars were
confirmed by subsequent inquiries made during my visit
to the Hauran. During last summer, too, I had an op
portunity of conversing with the great Bedawy sheikh,
Mohammed ed-Dhuhy, whose powerful tribes roam through
these regions. He had come to consult Dr. Paulding about
a severe wound which had deprived him of the use of his
right arm. After some talk about other districts, I in
quired about the Safa. " Ya Beg!" he exclaimed.
" Wullah ! It is an accursed place, and its people are an

392 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
accursed people. They steal and plunder, and there is
little hope of reprisals, for they live among rocks that no
Bedawy can penetrate. Three years ago, Ya Beg ! I went
with my people to revenge many acts of aggression and
bloodshed, but they would not come out to the plain ; and
when we attempted to go in to them, they shot us and
speared us among the defiles, where we were helpless.
My two brothers and my uncle were killed at my side,
and eighty of my people shared their fate. I, too, did not
escape : a spear pierced my shoulder, and a gun-shot broke
my arm ; and now look at this ! " And he held up his
right hand, withered and powerless. The doctor informed
me that this was one of the most remarkable cases he had
ever known. Very soon after receiving the wound the
arm became quite insensible to pain, and dried up until
nothing appeared to remain but skin and bone. In this
way it continued for a year, when suddenly severe shooting
pains began to affect it, and, strange to say, the blood com
menced to circulate, and the flesh to fill up gradually but
slowly from the shoulder downward. Two years had now
passed, and the process of revivification was still going on,
having got as far as the back of the hand. The doctor
informed the delighted sheikh that his hand would soon be
restored again ; and he gave him a stimulating lotion, after
trying some galvanic shocks, to assist nature in its singular
work. Beturning to the village of Hijaneh we took a hasty
lunch in the house of our guide, and, mounting our horses,
set out for the city. Our road led for some time westward,
bringing us close to the bed of the 'Awaj, and then turned
to the north-west, running parallel to it. The plain is

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 393
here very rich, and in some places cultivated. On our
left, along the wady, were thick groves of the tamarisk.
In an hour and twenty-five minutes we reached the large
village of Ghuzlaniyeh, watered by a canal from the 'Awaj,
which, being spread over the surrounding fields and
gardens, rendered them fresh and verdant even at this
season. In half an hour more we reached Karahta, where
I observed some ancient remains. Skirting the side of a
low tell, we now turned to the left, and, having crossed a
fertile and well-cultivated plain, we ascended the lofty Tell
Abu Yazid, or, as it is generally called by the peasants,
Abu Zid. From hence we had a fine view of this section
of the plain, and of the valley of the 'Awaj east of Jebel
el-Aswad. Below us, half an hour distant, near the bank
of the river, is the little village of Nejha, standing like a
ruined fortress on the summit of a rocky mound. Verdant
meadows stretch along each side of the stream for some
distance below it, and there presented a gay and animated
appearance. A few battalions of regular soldiers, and
some troops of irregular cavalry, were here encamped to
check the incursions of the rebel Druzes. Little parties
were seen scattered round the white tents engaged in the
exciting exercise of the jerid, and displaying by their
sudden and graceful evolutions, not less the matchless
speed, docility, and training of the noble animals they
rode, than their own dexterity in managing them. But
the steady discipline of the regular soldiers, and the skilful
evolutions of the Kurdish light horse, were not always
sufficient to resist the impetuous attacks and fierce deter
mination of the warlike Druzes. Once and again were
villages plundered, and to the very gates of the city the

394 PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. Chap. IX.
daring rebels sometimes penetrated. Often have I heard
the booming of the cannon and the dropping fire of the
musketry during the stillness of the night, when every
other sound was hushed ; and there was something solemn
in the thought that each deep sound was perhaps the
death-knell of a human being. This is past now, and the
Turkish armies are engaged in more honourable warfare.
Still, except a new line of policy is adopted in the govern
ment of Syria, fresh rebellions may be with confidence
anticipated. On the summit of this tell is a wely, sacred to the
memory of Abu Yazid el-Bistany, which now forms a
place of pilgrimage for many people of the surrounding
country. The whole summit appears to have been at one
time fortified ; a deep moat encompasses it, within which
are large quantities of hewn stones.
Leaving the tell, we struck across the fields in a straight
course toward the city, fording in our way several deep and
wide canals. These canals are singular in their structure,
and, as they constitute part of a regular system, by which
the whole outskirts of the plain of Damascus were once
thoroughly irrigated, it may not be out of place here to
describe their construction. The waters of the Barada, it
has already been seen, are led off in numerous canals and
ducts, and spread over the surface of the soil in the fields
and gardens. And here, where this process of irrigation is
going on, other canals have been tunnelled underneath the
surface, to collect the superfluous water that percolates
through the soil, or boils up from numerous little fountains
and springs below. A stream is thus collected, and led off
to a lower level, and then employed like the other canals.

Chap. IX. PLAIN AND LAKES OF DAMASCUS. 395
In former days these extended over the whole plain to the
lakes, thus irrigating the fields and gardens in every
section of it. Some of these subterranean aqueducts are
now in admirable preservation, and contain large streams.
The amount of labour and capital that was thus expended
on the cultivation of the plain of Damascus is incalculable,
and the modern inhabitants are living on the industry of
their ancestors.
In one hour and twenty-five minutes we reached
'Akraba, and in three-quarters of an hour more entered
the East Gate of Damascus.

END OF VOL. I.

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