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DIVINITY SCHOOL
TROWBRIDGE LIBRARY

OUTLINES OF BIBLE KNOWLEDGE.

OUTLINES

OF

BIBLE KNOWLEDGE

EDITED BY

THE MOST REV. S. G. MESSMER, D. D., D. C. L.,

ARCHBISHOP OF MILWAUKEE

WITH 70 ILLUSTRATIONS AND FOUR MAPS

B. HERDER '^
PUBLISHER TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE
LONDON, W. C. 1910 ST. LOUIS, MO.
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU.

Imprimatur.
Friburgi Brisgoviae, die 4 Aprilis 1910. 4: Thomas, Archiepps.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Printed by B. IhERDER, Freiburg im Breisgau.

PREFACE.
THESE "Outlines of Bible Knowledge" are substantially based
upon Dr. Andrew Bi-iill's "Bibelkunde" *. The German
original, now in its fifteenth edition, is enjoying an ever growing
popularity, showing that the book answers a real demand. Its
purpose is to convey to the reader, in plain language and within
narrow compass, such an amount of elementary information regard
ing the nature, history and contents of the Bible as it becomes
every intelligent Catholic to possess. Discarding, on the one
hand, the many and important questions freely controverted among
Catholic theologians, and, on the other, the thousand objec
tions against the biblical Books raised by an unchristian so-called
"Higher Criticism", the author confines himself to a simple state
ment of the positive teaching of the Church, and of the common
ly accepted opinions of Catholic writers. Justly so. Biblical
controversy is not a wholesome food for the faithful people at
large; it will rather weaken than strengthen Christian faith when
.the reader has not the learning and scientific acumen required to
pass a rational judgment upon the controverted questions. Where
it was not possible to avoid such matters entirely, the editor has
tried to indicate in short and precise form the main points and
principles which must guide the ordinary reader. But Catholics
who desire a fuller knowledge of our holy books and some insight
into the great biblical questions of the day, must have recourse
to the excellent Introductions to Holy Scripture by such Catholic
writers as Revs. Dr. Breen , Dr. Gigot , and the older work of
Archbishop Dixon. For supplementary reading on general questions
about the Bible and Bible reading, we heartily recommend the

* Briill, Dr. A., Bibelkunde far hbhere Lehranstalten, insbesondere Lehrer- und
Lehrerinnenseminare, sowie zum Selbstunterricht. 13. — 15. Aufl. Herausgeg. von
Prof. J. Briill. Freiburg i. B. 19 10.
It is to be remarked that the quotations in the present work are made after
the Douay Bible.

YI PREFACE.
popular works of the Rev. Dr. Heuser, Chapters of Bible Study;
Rev. F. E. Gigot, Biblical Lectures; Rev. W. Humphrey S. J., The
Holy Scriptures; Mgr. J. S. Vaughan, The Holy Bible, its Use
and Abuse ; Dr. W. Barry, The Tradition of Scripture.
It is no presumption to say that our educated Catholic laity is,
unfortunately, too little acquainted with the safely stored treasures
of Catholic tradition and learning regarding the Holy Scriptures.
We fear also that too little time is given to biblical study and
questions in many of our Catholic colleges and high schools.
When the divine character and the historical authority, the genuine
ness and credibility of our holy books are more than ever attack
ed, even in popular literature, with the most insidious arguments
of a pretended science and criticism, it behoves the educated
Catholic to know something of the unanswerable proofs by which
the Catholic Church, the divinely appointed custodian and inter
preter of God's written Word, defends her claims to and her belief
in the Sacred Scriptures. Nor should he forego the enhanced
pleasure and profit in reading the sacred Books which he will
assuredly derive from a better knowledge of their historical, geo
graphical , political and domestic surroundings. The wider the
budding rose unfolds its fragrant leaves, the more abundantly will
it drink of the refreshing morning dew. So will the Christian soul
open itself, by study and prayer, to receive in fuller measure the
waters of eternal life, flowing, as from a rich fountain-head, from
the words of the living God.
In view of the fact that our "Outlines" are the only book of their
kind in English Catholic literature, the much larger "Dixon" being
too extensive for popular use, it seemed advisable to adapt the
book for the general reader by enlarging the original in such a
manner that it might become a comparatively complete, though
still elementary, manual of the Bible. Hence, in Part I., chapter I.,
several articles have been added, others re- written, by the editor,
who has also greatly enlarged the articles on Biblical Poetry and
the Prophetic Office in chapter II. The purpose of this manual
does not call for anything more than the most elementary outlines
of Biblical Geography in Part XL, yet a great many explanatory,
though short, phrases have been inserted all through this part.
In Part III. much has been added to chapter I., while the chapters
on the political and domestic antiquities are entirely the editor's

PREFACE. VII
work. In a small manual like the present, it is clearly impossible
to treat Biblical Archaeology in an exhaustive manner. The Bible
mentions much of the antiquities of pagan nations; but these
matters can be looked up in books on classical archaeology. We
had to confine ourselves to "The People of the Bible", and even
within these limits could only touch upon the main subjects of
Hebrew archaeology. Dixon's "Introduction" and Professor Bissel's
excellent "BibUcal Antiquities" (a Protestant work) have greatly
helped the editor. For detailed particulars in regard to persons,
places and customs, the reader may consult one of the many "Bible
Dictionaries". The many beautiful illustrations and maps will
make this English edition not only more attractive for the pupils in
class, but also more instructive and useful for the general reader.
Another improvement upon the German original will be found,
we trust, in the formal division and external arrangement of the
contents, adopted by the editor. Fuller attention has also been
given to the Messianic types and figures of the Old Testament. The
frequent references, by chapter and verse, to the text of the Bible,
far more numerous here than in the original, will serve as ready keys
to a quicker and fuller understanding ofthe text ofthe "Outlines".
They will prove especially serviceable to the teacher who may
use this manual in his class. In this connection we recommend
as a valuable help in Bible Study the so-called "Concordances of
the Bible". These are either word (verbal) or subject (topical)
concordances, both being arranged in alphabetical order. The first
indicates where, in what book, chapter and verse, a certain word
is found in the Bible; the second tells the different places where
a certain subject is spoken of We have no verbal concordance
for the Catholic English Bible; the best and most useful topical
concordance in English for Catholic readers is "The Divine Armoury
of Holy Scripture" by Rev. Kenel-m Vaughan. Rev. L. A. Lambert's
"Handbook of Scripture Reference" is also very serviceable.
The name of the great Pope, as well as the importance of the
subject, are sufficient justification for adding to these "Outlines",
as a fitting crown, the grand and beautiful Encyclical of Leo XIII.
on "The Study of the Holy Scriptures". While it is addressed
especially to the teacher and student of Catholic theology, Catholic
laymen will also greatly profit by reading it with careful attention
and by taking to heart its wholesome advice, that in order to draw

vni PREFACE.
spiritual blessing from the reading of the Holy Scriptures, we must
"bring to this divine reading not only docility and attention, but
also piety and an innocent life".
The Study of the Bible pointed out upon broad and comprehen
sive lines in the Encyclical of Leo XIII. has received a new and
mighty impetus by the no less important Apostolic Letter of
Pius X. issued on March 27*'', 1906, in which he lays down, by
his apostolic authority, detailed practical directions for the Bible
Study in all Catholic clerical seminaries. The great object to
be attained is to imbue the young ecclesiastics with a thorough
knowledge of the nature, doctrine and contents of the Sacred
Scriptures, to make them intelligent and forcible preachers of the
Divine Word, and to fit them for the proper defence of the Bible
against its enemies. For this purpose the Pope orders that Biblical
Study must cover the whole theological course, during which the
essential biblical branches. Introduction, Hermeneutics, and Exegesis
or Interpretation must be given the first place without neglecting
biblical archaeology, geography, philology, chronology, and even
the history of biblical exegesis. The great leading principle that
must regulate and control this vast course of Bible Study, is thus
stated by Pius X. : "The professor of Sacred Scripture will be
most careful never to swerve in the least from the doctrine and
tradition of the Church. He will, of course, make use of the real
additions to our knowledge which modern research supplies; but
he will avoid the rash commentaries of innovators. . . . Finally, he
will be guided in his plan of teaching by those rules, full of
prudence, contained in the Encyclical Providentissimus."
These two pontifical documents, published one at the close of
the XIX. century, the other at the very beginning ofthe XX.
century, prove again how great and constant is that "watchful care
of the Church" for the Sacred Books, spoken of by Leo XIII.
(See page 262 ff.)
May this little book help, in its modest way, many a Catholic
reader of the Holy Bible to derive from those divinely inspired
pages ever more abundant truth and grace!
Easter igio.
t Sebastian G. Messmer.

CONTENTS.

Page
Preface . . . . . v
Part i.
BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
chapter I. GENERAL TOPICS.
I. Definition and Character . . i
2. Division ... 5
3. Inspiration . 8
4. Canonicity . . ,11
5. Authenticity and Credibility . ...... 14
6. The Original Text . . . . .18
7. Important Ancient Versions . ... 23
8. Early Modern Versions . 25
9. The Principal Manuscripts . . 27
10. The First Printed Bibles . . 3°
II. Interpretation of the Bible 3^
12. Bible Reading . . 38
CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT.
A. The Historical Books.
I. The Pentateuch . . ... . 4°
2. Josue. The Judges. Ruth . . • S'
3. The Kings and the Chronicles . . S3
4. Esdras and Nehemias . . 61
5. Tobias. Judith. Esther ... 63
6. The Machabees .... -67

B. The Didactic Books.

I. Biblical Poetry
2. Job
3. The Psalms .
4. Proverbs. Ecclesiastes
5. The Canticle of Canticles

70 777983
84

6. Wisdom. Ecclesiasticus . . 86

CONTENTS.

C. The Prophetic Books.

2. The Patriarchs and their Sons

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE.

Page

I. The Prophetical Office . . . . 88
2. The Greater Prophets . . .91
3. The Minor Prophets . ... .99
CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT.
A. The Historical Books.
I. The Four Gospels.
I. Jesus Christ . ... . 103
2. The Evangelists . 109
3. Authenticity and Credibility . .116
II. The Acts of the Apostles . . .118
B. The Didactic Books.
I. The Epistles of St. Paul . . 121
2. The Seven Catholic Epistles . . . ... 133
C. The Prophetic Book of the Apocalypse 136
Part ii.
BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
chapter I. THE FIRST HABITATIONS OF MAN.
I. The Primitive Races ... ..... 138

143

I. Physical Geography .... . .149
2. Political Geography . . . . . 157
CHAPTER III. OTHER BIBLICAL COUNTRIES.
I. Neighbourhood of Palestine . . . . 170
2. The First Apostolic Missions ... . .174
Part hi.
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.
CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES.
A. Holy Places.
I. The Tabernacle ... 176
2. The Temple . ig^
3. The Synagogues 191
B. Holy Functions.
I. The Circumcision. Proselytes ...... 192

2. Pious Observances

194

CONTENTS. XI
Page
3. Offerings . ... . 196
4. Sacrifices ... . . 198
5. Legal Purifications and Abstinences . ... 201
C. Holy Persons.
I. Priests and Levites . . ...... 204
2. Scribes and Sects . 208
3. The Sanhedrim .... . 209
D. Holy Times.
I . The Calendar .... . 211
2. The Sabbath . . 213
3. The Principal Feasts . . . 214
CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES.
I. The Government . . .219
2. The Administrarion of Justice . . . . 222
3. The Public Revenues .... 226
4. The Army ......... . . 227
CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES.
I. The Family . ... 230
2. Domestic Habits . 233
3. Agriculture . . . 243
4. Science and Art 246
5. Trade and Commerce . . 250
Biblical Chronology:
I. The Old Testament 254
II. The New Testament 254
Chronological Table 256
Synchronistic Table . . 256
APPENDIX.
Encyclical of Leo XIII. on the Study of Holy Scripture . 257
Index ...  283

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. 1. Tobias
¦^. King Sargon
3. From the Gospel of St. Mark, xvi. 7, 8
4. Israelites forced to labour in Egypt
5. Chaldean Record of the Flood
6. Hamurabi before the Sun-god .
7. God Baal .
8. Nebi-Samuel (Tomb of Samuel)
g. Apis .
TO. Tiglath-Pilasar III. cf Assyria
II. Sennacherib receives the delegates
of the surrendering town of Lachis .
12. Stele of king Asarhaddon from
Sendschirli
13. Monument of king Cyrus at Murghab
14. Sanur (Bethulia)
15. Tetradrachm of Alexander the Great
16. Jeremias' grotto near Jerusalem
17. Procession of idols
18. Ruins of Darius' Palace at Persepolis
19. Grotto of the Nativity in the Church
at Bethlehem
20. P'ountain of the Virgin at Nazareth
21. Quarantania {place of temptation of
Christ) near Jericho .
22. Jerusalem, seen from Mount Scopus
23, Cross-inscription
24. Island of Patmos
25. Antioch
26. St. Peter and St. Paul
27. Place of ancient Ephesus
28. Birs-i-Nimrud (the Tower of Babel)
29. Sargon's Palace at Khorsabad
30, Ur in Chaldea (now Mughair)
31. Head of Hethite
32. Hebron (Arbe)
33. Map of Sinai
34. Mount St. Catherine with St. Cathe
rine's Monastery in the foreground
35. MouDt Nebo
36. Sea of Genesareth with ruins of Ti
berias

Page.

Fig

Page

14

37-

Dagon

159

IS

38.

Joppe (Jaffa) from the sea

164

29

39-

Jerusalem at the time of its Destruc

41

tion 70 A. D. . .

167

48

40.

Jerusalem from Damascus-gate with

49
view of Tyropceon
168
52
41.
Tyre . .
170
54
42.
Athens with Acropolis
J75
55
43-
The Tabernacle in the desert .
176
56
44-
Plan of the Tabernacle
177
45.
The Ark of the Covenant
178
57
46.
The Altar of Incense
179
47-
The Table of the Shewbreads
179
58
48.
The Seven-armed Candlestick .
179
61
49-
The Altar of Holocaust
180
65
50.
The Brazen Laver
181
67
51.
Plan of Solomon's Temple
184
93
52.
Plan of the Herodian Temple .
186
95
53.
The Herodian Temple {Bird's-eye
97
view)
187
54.
Plate with inscription ofthe Herodian
104
Temple
189
105
55.
Relievo of the Arch of Titus at Rome
with the holy vessels of the Temple
190
106
56.
Priest
206
107
57-
High Priest
207
108
58.
Breast-plate (Rational) of the High
114
Priest
207
119
59-
Drachm (of Athens)
226
120
60.
House at Hauran (Syria)
234
123
61.
Hand-mill
236
140
62.
Olive
239
J42
63.
Date-tree .
240
143
64.
Ploughing in Palestine
244
144
65.
Egyptian women i\ith harp, flute,
145
psaltery, tambourine
=47
147
66.
Assyrian Relievo from Kujunchik:
Playing on harps and flutes
248
1 148
67
. Cymbals
249
153
68
. Systrum
249
69
. Hebrew Silver shekel
252
155
7°
. Roman Denarius
252
Map of the Missionary Journeys of St. Paul (p. 124).
Map of Egypt and Chanaan . |
Map of Palestine. Bird's eye view . . i at the end.
Map of Palestine at the time of Christ
Part I.
BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Chapter I.
GENERAL TOPICS.
I. DEFIXITIOX AND CHARACTER.
I . Holy Scripture, or the Bible, is the collection of books written
under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost and acknowledged by
the Church as being the word of God. It is the written source and
document of God's supernatural revelation. The other source is
the tradition of the Apostles, which authenticates, completes, and
expounds the written word, and is received by the Church with
the same piety and veneration as the first (Council of Trent).
"Scripture'', from the Latin Scriptura, means a writing; hence
in English the term "Holy Writ" for the Bible. Sacred "Volume"
or Roll comes from the Latin Volumen, that is, a written docu
ment rolled up in the manner used by ancient nations. The term
"Bible" is derived from the Greek Bib los, which means a book.
2. The Bible is eminently "The Book" or "The Book of Books",
in virtue of its divine character, its venerable age, its incomparable
diffusion, its powerful influence in creating and promoting the true
civilization of nations, and, finally, its absolutely unique place in
the world's literature.
a) The Bible alone, among the books of all times and places,
was written under divine inspiration, and thereby possesses divine
character and authority.
Leo XIII, in his beautiful Encyclical on the "Study of the Sacred
Scriptures", says: "There are well-known documents ofthe gravest
character coming down to us from the earliest times, which pro-
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. I

BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

claim that God . . . composed the canonical Scriptures. These are
divine oracles and utterances, a letter written by our heavenly
Father and transmitted by the sacred writers to the human race
on its pilgrimage afar from its fatherland. If then such and so
great is the excellence and dignity of the Scriptures that God
Himself has composed them, and that they treat of God's deepest
mysteries, counsels and works", it follows, he concludes, that
biblical science "must be the most excellent, and in the highest
degree profitable." The description ofthe Bible as "God's letter to
man" is familiar to the earliest Fathers of the Church.
The Bible is in this regard a book perfectly unique. It is not
a human, but a truly divine book, divine in its origin, being in
spired by God, and divine in its contents, being the first written
source of divine revelation. Hence its authority both in the Old
and the New Testaments. As under the Jewish dispensation the
Law of Moses had its place in the Ark of the Covenant, in the
Holy of Holies, so now, in the Catholic Church, the Holy Scrip
tures accompany the Holy Eucharist side by side; the Sacrifice
of the Mass, the central act of our liturgy, is performed almost
exclusively in the words of Holy Writ, and from the earhest
times its solemnity has been enhanced by the public reading and
expounding of the Sacred Text. The Church looks upon the Holy
Eucharist as the heavenly food, and upon Holy Scripture as the
heavenly light for wayfaring mankind. Thomas a Kempis, in his
"Imitation of Christ", the most widely read book after the Bible,
beautifully expresses this idea in the following words: "In this
life I find there are two things especially necessary for me, without
which this miserable life would be insupportable. Whilst I am kept
in the prison of this body, I acknowledge myself to need two
things, viz., food and light. Thou hast, therefore, given to me,
weak as I am, Thy sacred Body for the nourishment of my soul
and body, and Thou hast set Thy word as a lamp to my feet
(Ps. cxviii. 105). Without these two I could not well live; for the
word of God is the light of my soul, and Thy sacrament is the
bread of life. These also may be called the two tables set on
the one side and on the other in the storehouse of the Holy
Church. One is the table of the holy altar, having the holy
bread, that is, the precious Body of Christ; the other is that of
the divine law, containing Thy holy doctrine, teaching the right

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. I. DEFINITION AND CHARACTER. 5
faith, and firmly leading even within the veil, where is the Holy
of Holies" (book iv, chapter xi).
This noble and inspiring view of the Sacred Scriptures as the
word of God has ever been the only one accepted by the faithful
adherents of the Catholic Church, and it will ever remain thus.
But how different outside the Church, where the divine character
of the Bible is openly denied in quickly widening circles! The
"Higher Criticism" of our day not only deprives the Bible of all
claims to higher recognition than that given to any ordinary book,
but, contrary to all historic tradition, and based alone on pretended
internal evidence, it calls our sacred book an inextricable tissue
of myth and fable, of lies and deceit.
b) The Bible is not the oldest book in the world. Long before
the first books of Holy Scripture were written, the civilized nations
of antiquity, such as the Assyrians and Babylonians, and especially
the Egyptians, were already possessed of a rich literature. Our
museums contain even now Egyptian papyri written at least one
thousand years before Moses. No writing, however, no document
on stone or clay, no hieroglyphic or cuneiform inscription takes
us back to the primitive history of mankind, as told on the first
pages of the Bible. The sacred writer drew his information pri
marily from divine revelation, but an unbroken tradition and ancient
documents were also at his disposal. The Bible, therefore, will al
ways remain the only written document of the earliest history of
the world and of the races of men.
c) No book in the whole world has ever spread abroad like the
Bible. The circulation of all other ancient books on religion, ante
cedent to the Bible, was confined to single nations, or even to
single classes, in the same way as national folklore. When an
antique composition became, as did the songs of Homer, the common
property of many civilized peoples, the knowledge of it still remained
a privilege of the cultured few. The Bible alone, though originally
the property of the small Jewish nation, has overstepped all bounds
of nationality and class and become the property of civilized nations,
the handbook of the whole people. The Old Testament was trans
lated into Greek, the language of the learned world, in the last
centuries before Christ; and the New Testament into Latin, the
language of the vast Roman Empire, in the first century of the
Christian Era. During the Middle Ages, translations were produced

A PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
in nearly all the languages of Europe, and in our days the Sacred
Book is published all over the globe in nearly all known idioms,
over three hundred in number, and is thus become part and parcel
of the literature of the civilized world.
d) The enormous diffusion of the Bible carried with it a cor
responding influence on the rehgion, morality, and civilization of
mankind. Its pages furnished art and literature with ideals far
beyond any conceptions in paganism. Domestic and social relations
were shown in their true nature, and received from its teachings
a guarantee and support which the combined wisdom of pagan
philosophers and statesmen and all the powers of pagan rulers
could not give.
The revelation contained in the Old Testament preserved the
chosen Jewish people in ancient times from barbarism as well as
from over-culture, and thus secured for it, surrounded as it was
by idolatry and moral depravity, tyranny and slavery, a position
perfectly unique as to religious and social institutions. The Greek
translation of the then existing Scriptures, made shortly before the
advent of Christianity, acquainted the better classes of men in the
decaying Greco-Roman world with the Old Testament revelation
and prepared them for the acceptance of the Gospel. In the Middle
Ages, the Latin Vulgate, i. e. St. Jerome's translation of the Bible
in the vernacular, or vulgar tongue of his day, exercised great in
fluence on the languages and civilization of Europe. The early
literature of most European nations starts with translations of the
Holy Scriptures, and borrows from them its grandest subjects.
Caedmon, "from whose lips flowed the first great English song,
sang of the creation of the world, of the origin of man, and of
all the history of Israel; of the incarnation, passion, and resurrec
tion of Christ, of the terror of future judgment, the horror of hell-
pangs and the joy of heaven" {Green, Hist, of the Engl. People,
chapter I). The Venerable Bede's last work was a rendering of
St. John's Gospel into Saxon.
e) The Bible in its entirety, comprising the Old and the New
Testament, contains the story of a single nation, old but small,
from the preparatory stages of its existence until its final ruin and
dispersion among the other nations of the world. Although com
posed during the long span of nearly two thousand years, all its
component parts being written by different men at different times

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 2. DIVISION.

5

and in different languages, it follows but one single purpose, namely,
to point to the great central event of the world's history — the
redemption of man by Jesus, the Son of God. Yet, what a wonder
ful book telling the wonderful story! There is no other book like
it in all the world. Balmes in his "European Civilization" p. 56
gives this beautiful description : "Here is a book which comprises,
within a hmited compass, the period of four thousand years, and
advances further towards the most distant future, by embracing
the origin and destiny of man and the universe — a book which,
with the continued history of a chosen people, intermingles, in its
narrations and prophecies, the revolution of mighty empires — a
book which, side by side with the magnificent pictures of the
power and splendour of Eastern monarchs, describes, in simple
colours, the plain domestic manners, the candour and innocence of
a young nation — ¦ a book in which historians relate, sages proclaim
their maxims of wisdom, apostles preach, and doctors instruct —
a book in which prophets, under the influence of the Divine Spirit,
thunder against the errors and corruptions of the people, and an
nounce the vengeance of the God of Sinai, or pour forth in
consolable lamentations on the captivity of their brethren, and the
desolation and solitude of their country; where they relate, in
wonderful and sublime language, the magnificent spectacles which
are presented to their eyes; where, in moments of ecstasy, they
see pass before them the events of society and the catastrophes
of nature, although veiled in mysterious figures and visions of
obscurity — a book, or rather a collection of books, where are
to be found all sorts of styles and all varieties of narrative, epic
majesty, pastoral simplicity, lyric fire, serious instruction, grave
historical narrative, and lively and dramatic action — a collection of
books, in fine, written at various times and in various languages,
in various countries, and under the most peculiar and extraordinary
circumstances." ^. DIVISION.
I. The most general and most commonly known division ofthe
Bible is that into the Old and the New Testament. One can easily
understand how, by a figure of speech, the collection of the sacred
books written under the old dispensation would simply be called
"The Old Testament", and those referring to the new Christian
order, "The New Testament".

g PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
The old economy of the divine redemption, that is, the dealings
and special Providence of God with the Jewish people in the days
of preparation and hope for the coming Messias, is often called
in Holy Writ "the covenant or testament" of God with man (Gen.
XV. i8; Deut. xxxi. i6; Jer. xxxi. 31 ff). The volume wherein
"Moses wrote the words of the Lord" is called "the book of the
covenant"; and the blood which he sprinkled over the people is
"the blood of the covenant" (Ex. xxiv. 7 8); the tabernacle
wherein Jehovah dwells is "the tabernacle of the covenant" (Num.
xiv. 10). In opposition to this "Old Testament" (2 Cor. iii. 14),
the new order of redemption established by Christ, the Word made
flesh, is called "The New Testament" (Heb. ix. 15; xii. 24),
promised by Jeremias (xxxi. 31; Heb. viii. 8); and the blood of
Christ is "the blood of the New Testament" (Mt. xxvi. 28).
According to apostolic tradition and the decisions of the Church,
the Bible, as now numbered in the Latin Vulgate, contains seventy-
two books, of which forty-five belong to the Old Testament, and
twenty-seven to the New Testament.
2. As regards the further division of the sacred books, the
Jews still retain the division of the Old Testament mentioned in
the prologue of Ecclesiasticus and in Lk. xxiv. 44, namely, the
Law (the five books of Moses), the Prophets (the older: Josue,
Judges, Samuel, and Kings; the younger: Isaias, Jeremias, Ezechiel,
and the twelve minor ones), finally, the Other Writers, later
called the "holy writings" or Hagiographa (including Daniel, Ruth,
Chronicles, Esdras, and Nehemias).
The New Testament in the earlier days of the Church was
divided into the Gospels and the Apostles , a division common
among the Apostolic Fathers and the writers of the second century.
3. In the Tridentine Canon and in the Vulgate the books, with
few exceptions, are arranged with regard to their principal con
tents into three classes : historical, didactic (doctrinal), and pro
phetic writings. In each class the books are placed according to
their chronology usually accepted at that time (which is not always
correct). However, this classification is not to be taken in an
absolutely exclusive sense, e. g. as implying that the historic books
contain neither doctrine nor prophecy. The terms are simply used
to express the more prominent features and the principal objects
of the books. A careful reader will easily notice that all the

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 2. DIVISION. 7
historical books, especially the Pentateuch and the Gospels, convey
heavenly doctrines; but they do it by embodying them in the
historical record. On the other hand, the prophetical books contain
no small amount of history. Again , the didactic books of the
Old Testament (Job, the Psalms , the three books of Solomon,
Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus) partake of a prophetic and Messianic
character by reason of their references to the Eternal and Personal
Wisdom of the Godhead. The fragmentary and obscure indications
given in these books on the nature and work of this Eternal
Wisdom "Who was to dwell with man'', are made clear in the
New Testament, especially by St. John i. i — 14, and St. Paul,
Heb. i. Yet the term "prophetical" may well be reserved for
that other class, as best expressing their peculiar origin, nature,
and aim; while "didactic" more exactly sets forth the character of
the books whose very object is to teach simple and plain doctrine.
In regard to these so-called didactic books, it may be observed
at once that they are also called sapiential , as they teach man
that wisdom (Latin sapientia) which comes from above, so that
"the ways of them that are upon earth may be corrected, and
men may learn the things that please Thee" (God). (Wisd. ix. 18.)
This heavenly wisdom is the knowledge of the true way of human
life taught by God, and the steadfast walking upon the way thus
pointed out to man.
As the main contents of these books are the principles of true
morality, they have also been called the Moral books of the Old
Testament. Moreover, as in these didactic books the forms of
expression as well as the treatment of the subjects make us ac
quainted with the sublimest forms of Hebrew poetry, they are
also called the Poetical books of the Old Testament. Still, the
same attribute might not improperly be applied to more than one
of the prophetical books, the prevailing character of which, how
ever, is that of the oratorical kind.
The didactic books of the New Testament, the Epistles, deserve
the attributes of sapiential and moral books as fully as those of
the Old Testament. Yet it is not customary to designate them
thus. They differ very markedly from those of the Old Testament
in that their external form is severely prosaic, not poetical.
As may be seen from the following chapters, the Old Testa
ment contains twenty-one historical, seven didactic, and seventeen

g PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
prophetic books (counting the Lamentations of Jeremias as one
with his prophecies). In the New Testament five books are historical,
twenty-one didactic, and one prophetic.
4. A large number of books referring to the Old Testament
and written during that dispensation are entirely lost; some of
them were undoubtedly inspired. They are mentioned in Num.
xxi. 14; Jos. x. 13; 2 Kings i. 18; 3 Kings iv. 32; xi. 41; xiv.
19, 31; I Par. xxix. 29; 2 Par. ix. 29; xii. 15; xx. 34; xxvi 22;
xxxiii. 19; xxxv. 27; i Mach. xvi. 24; 2 Mach. ii. i, 24. In the
New Testament St. Paul mentions an epistle written to the Corin
thians (i Cor. V. 9) and one to the Laodiceans (Col. iv. 16), which
are lost. 3. INSPIRATION.
The Bible, being divinely inspired, has God for its author and
claims absolute infallibility. Yet, "in the Holy Scriptures God
speaks through man in a human manner" (St. Augustine).
I. All the books of the Bible were written under the constant
and efficacious influence of the Holy Ghost — not merely under
assistance preventing error — so that the entire books, as to con
tents and form, are the written word of God, and God is their
real author. The Council of the Vatican clearly defines regarding
this divine inspiration of the sacred books of the Bible: "These
the Church holds both sacred and canonical, not because, having
been carefully composed by mere human industry, they were
afterwards approved by her authority, nor merely because they
contain revelation with no admixture of error, but because, having
been written by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, they have God
for their author, and have been delivered as such to the Church
herself" (Const. I, chapter II). "All the books which the Church
receives as sacred and canonical, were written wholly and entirely
with all their parts at the dictation of the Holy Ghost." —
Leo XIII. The inspired writers, perhaps not always conscious of
the fact, always wrote under the direct and special motion and
guidance of the Holy Ghost, whose will it was that their writings
should be a source of divine revelation to mankind. "By super
natural power He so moved and impelled them to write — He
being present with them — that all the things He ordered, and
those things only, they first rightly conceived, then willed faith-

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 3. INSPIRATION. Q
fully to write down, and finally expressed in adequate words and
with infallible truth. Otherwise, it could not be said that He was
the author of the whole of the Sacred Scriptures." — Leo XIII.
2. The apostolic tradition keeps the word of God alive in its
sense and contents; Scripture keeps it alive, moreover, in essentials
both of meaning and expression. Being in the proper sense the
word of God, the Bible is originally free from all error, not only
in regard to religious doctrine , but in all its statements and
historical records.
Inspiration implies infallible truth; hence Leo XIII (1. c.) says:
"It is absolutely wrong, however, and it is forbidden either to
narrow inspiration to certain parts only of Holy Scripture, or to
admit that the sacred writer has erred. The system of those who,
in order to rid themselves of these difficulties, do not hesitate to
concede that divine inspiration regards matters of faith and morals
and nothing beyond them, because (as they wrongly think) in a
question of truth or falsehood of a passage we should consider
not so much what God has said, as rather the reason and pur
pose which He had in mind in saying it, cannot be tolerated. . . .
Far from being possible that any error can co-exist with inspiration,
inspiration not only is essentially incompatible with error, but it
excludes error as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossible
that God Himself, the supreme Truth , can utter what is not
true. . . . Hence, we cannot say that, because the Holy Ghost
employed men as His instruments, it was these inspired instruments
who, perchance, have fallen into error, and not the primary
Author. ... It follows that those men who maintain that an error
is possible in any genuine passage of the sacred writings, either
pervert the Catholic notion of inspiration, or make God Himself to
be the Author of error." This evidently removes the possibility
of any contradictory statements of the Bible with positively as
certained truth within or without the Bible.
3. Inspiration, however, does not necessarily mean that every
particle of the Bible, whether in regard to the contents or to the
literary form and expression, is due immediately to the Holy Ghost,
as if verbally and individually dictated by Him. Inspiration does
not rob the sacred writer of his style and language or of his
mental individuality. It simply leads him so to express himself
that what he writes will convey the meaning intended by God.

JO PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE,
Hence it also allows the sacred authors to express themselves on
subjects of natural and profane science according to the knowledge
and popular views of their time. Such statements must, therefore,
be read and understood in the sense in which they were written.
Leo XIII (1. c.) says: "They (the sacred writers) did not seek
to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt
with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which
were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances
are in daily use at this day even by the most eminent men of
science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what
comes under the senses : and somewhat in the same way the sacred
writers . went by what sensibly appeared, or put down what
God, speaking to men, signified in the way men could understand
and were accustomed to. .
4. Inspiration does not necessarily imply divine revelation, that
is, the supernatural manifestation of things either known or un
known. Hence it does not exclude in the sacred writer human
industry, study, research, the use of documents and witnesses, and
any other human aids which may help him to know, gather, sift,
and order the things that God leads him to write.
The mere fact that the sacred writer introduces the sayings and
doings of other persons into his story, does not endow them with
any divine authority or approval. The writer is only responsible
for the truth of the story told by himself
It must also be observed that the biblical narrative of facts and
events or the report of sayings and speeches is often but re
latively complete; it does not tell the whole story or give the
whole utterance; it may look to only one feature or bearing or
result of the event, and leave all the rest out of sight. From
this may arise apparent contradictions between different bibhcal
statements, where there is, in reality, perfect harmony and
agreement. S. The foregoing remarks about the inspiration and infaUibility
of the Bible refer only to the original text of the inspired writings.
What has been said in no way precludes the possibility of errors
and mistakes in the transcribed text through the fault of copyists,
especially in matters of names, dates, and numbers. But the fact
of such faulty transcription must not be too easily admitted, but
only where the proof is clear (Leo XIII).

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 4. CANONICITY. I J[
The larger the number of transcripts, the greater the variety of
languages, and the further removed the time from the original
delivery, so much greater is the danger that errors of many sorts
will creep into the copies of the sacred volume. Unless there be
a divinely- assisted guardian of the written word of God, there is
no assurance against a very substantial corruption of the Bible.
4. CANONICITY.
I. No book, even if it contain revealed doctrine without error,
can ever be raised by the Church to the dignity of Holy Scrip
ture; that dignity belongs exclusively to books divinely inspired
and handed down as such by the Apostles. For, like the apo
stolic traditions, so has the Bible been entrusted to the Church
by the Apostles as a source of divine revelation. But, as it be
longs to the mission of the Church, assisted by the Holy Ghost,
to keep intact the treasure of divine revelation, it is her privilege
to decide upon the basis of apostolic tradition, which books do
or do not belong to Holy Scripture, and where the genuine text
is to be found. She has always claimed this right and exercised
it, especially at the Council of Trent (1545 — 1565). There she
definitively decreed that all the books of the Old and the New
Testaments, with all their parts, . as read in the Catholic Church
and contained in the old Latin Vulgate, are to be held as sacred
and canonical; that is, as inspired by the Holy Ghost and be
longing to the Canon, i. e. the definite and authoritative collection of
sacred books. This Tridentine decree was meant directly and on
purpose to refer also to those books and parts of books of the
Bible, which are usually called deuterocanonical, and which the
Protestant Reformers refused as Apocrypha, that is, supposititious
books wrongly introduced into the collection (canon) of inspired
writings. The Council of the Vatican has re-enforced the Triden
tine decree.
2. When speaking of Apocrypha in connection with the Bible,
the term is applied, even in the early Christian times, to such
writings which, although of a purely human origin and character,
claimed to be, or were by some actually considered to be divinely
inspired and therefore sacred books. Their number is exceedingly
great. Most of them are either anonymous or pseudonymous.
Some were written for the purpose of Christian edification, though

12

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

neither with discretion nor with prudence; others, for the sake of
propagating false and heretical doctrines; others, again, to satisfy
foolish curiosity and a craving for legendary stories concerning
prominent biblical persons. According to the reputed authors and
the contents of these books, we distinguish between the Apocrypha
of the Old Testament and those of the New Testament, a) The
most famous Apocrypha of the Old Testament are the third and
fourth books of Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses, which are
often given as an appendix to the Latin Vulgate. In Greek bibles
we also find sometimes added the 151. Psalm of David; then,
eighteen Psalms of Solomon, and the third and fourth books of
the Machabees. b) The Apocrypha of the New Testament are
usually in imitation of the genuine sacred books called Gospels,
Acts, Epistles, and Apocalypses. There are known at least some
fifty Gospels and some eighteen Acts of diverse Apostles. Famous
among these writings are the Letter of our Lord to King Abgar,
the Teaching of the twelve Apostles, St. Paul's Epistle to the
Laodiceans, the Epistles of St. Barnabas, of St. Clement of Rome,
and the "Shepherd" of Hermas.
To the student of the Bible many of the Apocrypha may be
very useful by giving him information about customs and habits
of life, as well as various religious views and opinions, of their
time ; but especially by showing the far higher and nobler character
of the inspired books.
3. According to the most approved opinion, based on Jewish
and Christian tradition, the first collection of the books universally
recognized as sacred or inspired among the Jews of Palestine after
their return from the Babylonian captivity, was made by Esdras.
All the books contained in this first canon (Protocanon) are written
in the Hebrew language, with the exception of a few passages of
Daniel, Esdras, and Jeremias, written in Aramaic (Chaldean). But
the Jews living in Egypt during the three centuries before Christ
had partly forgotten the Hebrew language, and spoke mostly the
so-called Alexandrine dialect of the Greek language which was at
that time the common language of lower Egypt. They had another
collection, a second canon (Deuterocanon) of the sacred books
comprising the Alexandrine translation (Septuagint) of all the books
contained in the first or Hebrew canon, as well as of the books
of Baruch, Tobias, Judith, Ecclesiasticus (Jesus Sirach), I. Macha-

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 4. CANONICITY. 1 3
bees, and some fragments of Daniel and Esther; moreover, the
original Greek text of Wisdom and II. Machabees.
While the books contained in the Jewish (or first) Canon (hence
called "protocanonical") were at all times universally received in
the Christian Church as sacred and canonical, some doubts arose at
different times and in different parts of the Church concerning the
books which were found only in the Alexandrine (or second) Canon,
although the prevailing tradition, even in the schismatic Eastern
Church, never denied their inspired character. This was reserved
for the "Reformers" of the sixteenth century, as a loud protest
against the authority of the Church. Since that time, the term
"Deuterocanonical" is also used by Catholics to indicate some of
the inspired books, the divine authority of which has not been
always and everywhere above doubt within the Church. In this
sense it is also applied to some writings in the New Testament.
The Tridentine decree declares the deuterocanonical books of the
Bible to possess the same divine authority with the protocanonical
books, being equally inspired by the Holy Ghost.
4. In regard to the deuterocanonical books of the Old Testa
ment, this decision of the Church is based upon a) the authority
of the Apostles, who used the Greek translation and consequently
also the Greek Canon, b) The earliest tradition of the Church:
the earliest Fathers treat the deuterocanonical books as Holy
Scripture, and the oldest Bible translation contains them, c) The
unbroken tradition from apostolic times, from which only the
critical doubts of some ecclesiastical writers towards the end of
the third century suggest any deviation, d) The universal tra
dition of the whole Church, since all the Eastern Churches, in
cluding the schismatic branches, receive the deuterocanonical books
in their Canon, e) The authority of the Synagogue itself, because
the Egyptian Jews did not settle their Canon of the Septuagint
without consulting the authorities in Jerusalem. It was only in
later times that pharisaical exclusiveness refused to acknowledge
the books not written in Hebrew. The famous Jewish historian,
Flavius Josephus, a younger contemporary of the Apostles, as well
as the older famous philosopher, Philo of Alexandria, use the
deuterocanonical books as sacred writings. It was only the battle
against Christianity which finally brought on the unanimous re
jection of those books by the Jews of Palestine, as may be seen

14

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

from the Jerusalem Gamara in the Talmud, written about three
hundred years after Christ, f) Christian antiquity testifies in favour
of the deuterocanonical books by the many pictures in the Christian
Catacombs, representing subjects taken from them, e. g., Daniel
in the lion's den, the three young men in the fiery furnace, Tobias
(Fig. i) and Susanna.
5. Concerning the Canon of the New Testament, we remark:
a) The Canonicity of only a few books was called in doubt in
the early centuries. These doubts arose as to the Epistle to the
Hebrews, the Epistle of St. James, the Second of St. Peter, the
Second and Third of St. John, that of St. Jude, and the Apo
calypse, b) After the first general Council, held
at Nicffia (A. D. 325), these sporadic doubts
disappeared almost entirely, only some hesi
tation remaining as to the Apocalypse, c) From
the end of the fourth century (Councils of
Rome 374, of Hippo 393, and of Carthage
397), the Canon of the Old and New Testaments
Fig. I Tobias. 'was firmly established in the form in which
Picture in the Catacombs the Council of Florcnce, and later the Council
of Trent, have fixed it for all times. Yet, it
must be admitted that now and then scientific doubts regarding
the canonical character of some books were raised by Christian
writers until the later Middle Ages.
Later on, the Protestant "Reformers", in the interest of their
new doctrines, have revived also the old doubts concerning the
Canon of the New Testament. Thus Luther rejected the Epistle
of St. James, for the sole reason that it contradicted his doctrine
regarding justification by faith alone.
5. AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY.
Positive certainty regarding the inspiration and canonicity of the
biblical books can only be obtained by an act of faith in sub
mission to the infallible teaching of the Church, founded upon
apostolical tradition. But their authenticity or genuineness and
their historical credibility can be demonstrated scientifically; and
it may be safely affirmed that no ancient book whatever is so
well authenticated as the Bible.

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 5. AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY. I C

I. The authenticity and credibility of the Old Testament books
rest upon the following proofs:
a) The Jews have always watched with careful anxiety, extend
ing even to the number of letters, over the purity and pre
servation of their sacred writings. But among the books universally
received as sacred by the Jews, are the most voluminous and the
most important books of the Old Testament; e. g., the five books
of Moses and all the prophetic books, the small book of Baruch
being the only exception.
b) The Old Testament Scriptures are in no way a national self-
glorification of the Jewish people. They faithfully report its defects
and show no mercy to its aberrations. The Jews to this day keep
the prophetic books of the Old Testa
ment, although they are a witness against
themselves. The Old Testament story,
while setting forth the glorious mission
of the chosen people of God and His
extraordinary providence in its behalf,
makes no secret of its changeable cha
racter, its unfaithfulness to God, its
worldly spirit and cruel vindictiveness.
The Jews have then no reason for retaining
their bible except the firm conviction of
its authenticity and truthfulness.
c) The history of the Old Testament
is interwoven with the history of nearly
all the great nations of antiquity. Yet
the sacred narrative has never been proved to be in contradiction
with any well-ascertained fact of history. On the contrary, modern
researches in ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian lore have
led to astounding confirmations of many points in the inspired
books. For instance: no historian of antiquity had mentioned an
Assyrian king Sargon; Isaias (xx. i) alone knew of him. Now,
recent excavations in Niniveh have brought to light not only
numerous inscriptions referring to him, but also his portrait (Fig. 2).
2. The authenticity and credibility of the New Testament books
are founded on the following proofs:
a) With even greater care than the Synagogue has the Church
watched over the integral preservation of the sacred writings;

Fig. ^. King Sargon.
Relief from Khorsabad

1 6 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
witness her attitude towards the apocryphal gospels and writings
erroneously attributed to the Apostles, many of which were rejected
and condemned, not because they were unsound in matters of
faith, but simply because their apostolic origin could not be proved.
Tertullian (f A. D. 240) testifies that only those books would be
recognized which had been written by the Apostles or by apostolic
men commissioned by them.
b) The New Testament writers did not write arbitrarily or at
random. Their object was to give a true and faithful presentation
of the fundamental facts connected with our salvation. Thus
St. Luke states his purpose at the beginning of his Gospel: "It
seemed good to me, having diligently attained to all things from
the beginning, to write to thee in order . . . that thou mayest
know the verity of those words in which thou hast been in
structed" (i. 3, 4). Moreover, these sacred writers were mostly
persons who had actually witnessed what they related, and could
not be deceived. Nor could they intend to deceive their readers,
because the events described were of public and recent occurrence.
Nothing but their veracity can account for the readiness with which
their Jewish and Gentile contemporaries believed in them.
c) The Apostles themselves took great care that their writings
should be distinguishable from spurious fabrications. St. Paul, for
instance, repeatedly points to his signature as a mark of the
genuineness of his epistles. When doubts arose, the judgment of
the particular church to which the letter had been directly ad
dressed by its author, was always sought, and its decision ac
cepted as final, as we are told by St. Irenaeus (A. D. 190) and
Tertullian. 3. Notwithstanding this splendid authentication of Holy Scrip
ture, unbelievers treat the wonderful events it relates as fabrica
tions, or at best as pious legends. But neither view can be justi
fied. Premeditated deception is rarely practised, except for some
supposed advantage to its author. Yet many of the bearers of
revelation. Prophets and Apostles, who were also the authors of
Holy Scripture, suffered martyrdom for the cause they represented.
In legends which are but poetical fictions without a purpose, times
and places are never so clearly and definitely fixed as in the
biblical reports of even the remotest events. Myths are usually
mixed up with political and national affairs for the purpose of

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 5. AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY. 1 7
glorifying the nation; an assertion which cannot be made of the
Bible story, certainly not that of the New Testament.
4. The science and art of judging properly of the genuineness
(authenticity), integrity, and credibility of the sacred books is
called Biblical Criticism,. It comprises two parts, textual C, whose
main object is the internal form or the text of the Bible; and
historical C, which concerns itself with the external conditions or
the history of the sacred volume. The history of CathoHc Biblical
Science during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
shows evidently that Catholic scholars were not ignorant of the
canons of a right criticism, and knew well how to use the means
of critical inquiry then placed at their hands for the defence of
the sacred books. But, since the time when the Protestant prin
ciple of private judgment had, by the law of inherent necessity,
developed into Rationalism and pure Naturalism, these infidel forces
have made the most strenuous assaults, not only upon the divine
character, but also upon the authenticity and credibility of the
biblical books. For this purpose every field of human science had
to furnish its quota towards "a critical examination" of the Bible.
Speaking of a modern phase of this misdirected criticism, Leo XIII.
says: "There has arisen, to the great detriment of religion, an
inapt method dignified by the name of 'Higher Criticism', which
pretends to judge of the origin, integrity, and authority of each
book from internal indications alone. It is clear, on the other
hand, that in historical questions, such as the origin and the
handing down of writings, the witness of history is of primary
importance, and that historical investigation should be made with
utmost care; and that in this matter internal evidence is seldom
of great value except as confirmation. To look upon it in any
other light will be to open the door to many evil consequences, . . .
and this vaunted 'Higher Criticism' will resolve itself into the re
flection of the bias and prejudice of the critics."
The radical faults of modern Higher Criticism as applied to the
Bible are a) the excessive, if not exclusive, use and application of
internal or intrinsic criteria, a method exposed to the greatest
danger of mere prejudice and subjectivism; b) too exclusive a
taxation of the document with an unjustifiable neglect of the author
and his credibility; c) the under-valuation of tradition as a means
of historical evidence ; d) very often an open partiality against the
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 2

J 3 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Christian rehgion, which sometimes amounts to a positive denial of
everything supernatural in the Bible ; hence mystery is said to be
poetic imagery; miracle, a fable; religion, a myth; history, a legend
or pious allegory. A critic who denies historic Christianity and
its teachings, must logically use every weapon of criticism to
destroy the historic character and credibihty of the Bible.
6. THE ORIGINAL TEXT.
I . The three Languages in which the sacred books were origin
ally written are the Hebrew, the Chaldean, and the Greek.
a) The Hebrew Text. Nearly all the books of the Old Testa
ment were written in this language. Hebrew (from ebher — the
country beyond, a name given to Abraham, Gen. xiv. 13, and
his family, who came from beyond the Euphrates ; or from Heber,
a descendant of Sem and ancestor of Abraham, Gen. xi. 14) was
the vernacular of the Israelites until after their return from Babylon,
when Chaldean became the language of the people, while Hebrew
remained henceforth the official or liturgical language of the
Synagogue. The Hebrew characters (letters) as now found in the oldest
manuscripts are called "square letters or square writing", on
account of their peculiar form, which is altogether different from
the original old Semitic form of the alphabet in which the Bible
was written, and which was of a rounded or cursive form called
the Phoenician. The new or square form dates only from the
time of the return from the Babylonian captivity. It is a matter
of conjecture to assign the exact time when the sacred books
were first copied in square characters; many believe it was done
under Esdras.
It is the uniform Jewish tradition, accepted by the Fathers and
by many of the foremost Catholic commentators, that Esdras col
lected the scattered sacred books, corrected what had been cor
rupted in the text, put the books and their different parts in
proper order, and thus produced the first regular collection of
the inspired books then existing. After Esdras, it became the
duty of the Scribes or Enumerators (because they counted the
words and syllables) to preserve the correct text. After the
destruction of Jerusalem, the great rabbinical schools of Babylon

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 6. ORIGINAL TEXT.

19

and Tiberias kept up the study of the sacred books, and gathered
up the various readings of the text and the traditions among the
Jewish people regarding the interpretation and application of the
Mosaic law. Finally, in the third and fourth centuries after Christ,
all these traditions, disquisitions and corrections were gathered in
writing, and thus resulted the great literary work called the Tal
mud (study). It consists of two parts: the Mishna, containing the
Mosaic law with the old Jewish traditions, and with particular
rules on the sacred text, its transcription and pronunciation ; and
the Gemara, containing the learned discussions, interpretations and
explanations of the rabbis in reference to the Mishna. The
critical work of the Talmudists was taken up in the vi. and vii.
centuries by the so-called Masorets, the learned rabbis, who col
lected from the Talmud and other Jewish scholars all the critical,
grammatical and exegetical observations referring to the Jewish
Bible. This remarkable critical apparatus is called the Masorah
(Tradition). Formerly the Hebrews used to write in continuous lines and
only the consonants, as they had no vowel signs. As the main
object of the Masorets was to establish the Hebrew text in the
form that would most faithfully represent the original, and to fix
the text and the correct pronunciation for ever after, they used
written vowels, tonic accents and signs of punctuation, and drew
up detailed rules in regard to transcribing the text. This Masoretic
text is the only Hebrew text extant. It is to be regretted that
notwithstanding the immense labour spent, it cannot always be con
sidered critically correct; yet it is undoubtedly of very great value.
Catholic scholars still maintain with Bellarmin that "its errors are
not such as to destroy the integrity of the Sacred Scriptures in
regard to faith and morals."
b) The Chaldean Text. In this language were written portions
of the book of Daniel (ii.— vii.); of i Esdras (iv. — vi. ; vii. 12 — 28);
a verse in Jeremias (x. 11); probably also Daniel (xiii. xiv.); Esther
(x.— xvi.) ; all of Tobias and Judith, and the Gospel of St. Matthew.
The Chaldean (so called because it came from Chaldea) of the Bible
is more properly called the Aramaic, which, together with the
Hebrew and the Assyrio-Babylonian (preserved in the cuneiform
writings) constituted the great North-Semitic family of tongues,
while Arabic, to which the Ethiopic is allied, became the language

20 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
of the Southern Semites. Aramaic spread from the East all over
the West to the Mediterranean Sea and became an international
language, which, from the time of the exile, displaced even the
Hebrew. The Jews in Babylon learned to speak Aramaic as easily
as Hebrew. In fact, when they returned from Babylon, Aramaic
had become their vernacular. This may explain the fact that so
many portions of the later biblical books are written in this lan
guage, and that in some places the writer turns from one language
to the other.
There were two great dialects of the Aramaic — the Eastern
(Syriac) and the Western (to which belongs the Samaritan). The
latter is the language of the Bible and was spoken in Palestine
at the time of Christ, although it is called Hebrew in John
xix. 20; Acts xxii. 2. It is also the language of the famous
Targums. c) The Greek Text. The Greek language of the Bible in the
book of Wisdom, the 2 Machabees and the New Testament, ex
cepting the Gospel of St. Matthew, is quite different from the old
classical Greek. It is more like the Hellenic dialect spoken through
out the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great (hence
sometimes called the Macedonian-Alexandrian dialect). At the
same time it retains a great many characteristics of the Semitic
language. In the manuscripts two different characters or forms of letters
occur. The older manuscripts are written in uncial letters (majus
cules), a sort of capital letters without connecting lines or ligatures,
so that each letter stands alone and separate from the preceding
and the following ones. In the ninth century copyists began to
use minuscules, that is small letters of cursive form connected with
one another.
The old Greek manuscripts are written in continuous lines with
out separating words and phrases and without using any punctua
tion marks. It is only in the seventh century that we meet with
such a sign; viz., a point placed either at the top, or bottom, or
in the middle of the line. More signs came into use during the
tenth century.
Finally, in the older Greek manuscripts with uncial letters a
great many abbreviations are found, usually indicated by a short
line or dash over the respective letters (Fig. 3, page 29).

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 6. ORIGINAL TEXT. 2 I
2. As regards the Division of the biblical text, since the third
century, the Hebrew Bible was divided into longer and shorter
sections. These sections in the Pentateuch were called Paraschas;
in the other sacred books, Haptharas. They were arranged for
the public readings in the Synagogue, where at least one Parascha
was to be read every Sabbath. In the poetical books, the rhythmic
members were indicated by separate lines, thus producing regular
verses. The present division was introduced into the Hebrew Bibles
in the fifteenth century.
As regards the Greek books, already St. Clement of Alexandria
and Justin Martyr speak of Pericopes of the New Testament used
for liturgical readings. Early mention is made in the fifth century
of a division of the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the
Epistles, into fifty-seven sections for the fifty-seven Sundays and
Feasts. Since the seventh or eighth century we meet a division
of the Gospels into Titles or Breves, of which Matthew has sixty-
eight, Mark forty-nine, Luke eighty-three, John eighteen. The
distribution of Bible passages into our present Epistles and Gospels for
Sundays and Feastdays is said to be the work of St. Jerome, under
taken at the request of Pope St. Damasus. It certainly has been
in use at Rome from time immemorial. In the fifth century Deacon ¦
Euthalius of Alexandria, in copying the New Testament, began to
write as many words in one line (stichos) as were to be continuously
read. This method was called stichometry, i. e. writing in lines
according to the sense of the text. However, this method was
soon abandoned; but the ends of these hues (verses) were now
marked by points. It was the beginning of regular punctuation.
The present division of the whole Bible into chapters seems
to owe its origin to Cardinal Langton of Canterbury (f 1228).
Cardinal Hugh of St. Carus (f 1263), who made the first verbal
concordance of the Bible, for easier reference imagined each chapter
again divided into seven parts, indicated (in his concordance, not
in the Bible) by the corresponding letters a, b, c, d, e, f, g. This
division is still retained in the Missal and Breviary. But the present
numbering of verses in the Bible is due to Robert Etienne (Ste-
phanus), the famous Parisian printer, who first introduced them in
his Greek-Latin edition of the New Testament, 1551.
It must be observed that very often the present division into
chapter and verses does not correspond with the internal context

22 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
or the meaning of the text, and is then anything but a help to
the easier and better understanding of Holy Writ.
3. The Text of the Bible as now preserved in the numerous
manuscripts and printed copies, whether of the original tongue or
of versions, shows, indeed, a great variety and difference of single
words and whole sentences. These differences are called "Variant
Readings" (variantes lectiones). Considering the history of the
original sacred books, of the numerous transcriptions made from
them, of all the manuscript translations, etc., it would be a sheer
miracle were these differences any less. The large number of these
Variant Readings can be easily explained without having recourse
to the charge of clearly intended fraud or falsification. They are,
undoubtedly, due to mistakes of the ear and eye of the numerous
scribes who, in the course of centuries, copied the sacred text
(as in omissions, transpositions, confusion of similar sounds in dicta
tion, wrong separation of words written together, false solution of
abbreviations, mistaking letters of similar form), or to changes made
in good faith (changes in spelling or grammar, substituting a clearer
term or phrase for the less obvious one, change and addition of
parallel places and citations, insertion of mere marginal notes into
¦ the text). With all this in view, it seems rather wonderful that,
notwithstanding their great number, they affect merely the external
form, but do not touch the substance, nor in the least alter the
moral and dogmatic doctrine. Richard Bentley, the eminent English
Bible critic, rightly observes that not one of these varying readings,
in whatever way it be handled, can be made to change even the
most unimportant point of faith or morals. The number of these
verbal variations in the Hebrew manuscripts, which are all based
on the Masorah, is comparatively very small; but it is very large
in the Greek manuscripts, especially of the New Testament, and
in the Latin Vulgate editions. In recent times Biblical scholars
have collected these varying readings for the sake of textual criticism.
Foremost among these were two Catholic priests, John Bernard
de Rossi (f 1831) for the Hebrew text, and Charles Vercellone
(t 1869) forthe Vulgate. Through an order of the Biblical Com
mission, dated April 30"" 1907, Pope Pius X. has requested the
Primate-Abbot of the Benedictine Order to make a new collection
of the "Variant Readings" of the Latin Vulgate.

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 7. IMPORTANT ANCIENT VERSIONS. 23
7. IMPORTANT ANCIENT VERSIONS.
Of all the translations of Holy Scripture the two most important
are the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate. There are also
a few others which are of great help in establishing the genuine
text of the Bible or of its parts.
I. The oldest Greek translation of the Old Testament was
undertaken in the third century B. C. for the benefit of the
numerous Jews who, since the time of Alexander the Great, lived
in Egypt. It was made in Alexandria, and the greater part of it
completed in the years 250 — 200 B. C. Under Ptolemy Lagi and
his son Philadelphus (about B. C. 286), the five books of Moses
were translated into Greek, as the legend has it, by seventy or
seventy-two learned Jews, whence the name of Septuagint, that is,
the version of the Seventy (LXX). When, in the course of a cen
tury, the other books of the Hebrew Bible had also been trans
lated into Greek, the name Septuagint was given to the whole
work. The Septuagint contains all the books of the Catholic
Canon of the Old Testament, and had the approbation of the
Apostles, inasmuch as it was used by them and is frequently
quoted in their writings. The translation of the Old Testament
into the Hellenic dialect, then the international language of the
civilized world, greatly helped the spread of revealed truths among
the heathens. The numerous Jewish proselytes and the first
Christians from among the Gentiles had obtained their first know
ledge of the Bible through the Septuagint, a circumstance which
led the Apostles to use it in preference to the Hebrew original.
The Egyptian Jews instituted a feast to commemorate the trans
lation of the Books of Moses into Greek, whereas at a later period
the Scribes and Pharisees in Jerusalem made the anniversary of its
completion a day of fasting, since to their narrow apprehensions
that day seemed as calamitous to Israel as that on which the
golden calf had been set up. The Septuagint was always held
in high esteem in the Church; indeed, some Fathers thought the
version was inspired. From it derive the Itala, the Coptic, Ethiopic,
Armenian, Gothic, Slavic, Arabic, and later Syrian versions.
2. The Latin Vulgate is almost exclusively the work of St. Jerome,
who undertook it at the request of Pope Damasus (366 — 384).
With the exception of the Psalter and a few deutero-canonical
books, which are from St. Jerome's revision of the Itala, the books

24

PART 1. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

were translated by him directly from the Hebrew and the Greek
texts. The Vulgate became by degrees, and especially from the
time of Gregory the Great (590—604), the only Latin version of
the Bible used in the Western Church; hence its name Vulgata,
(common or popular). The Council of Trent has declared its
authenticity both as to its books and their contents. From this
declaration it is certain that the Vulgate correctly reproduces the
essential contents of Holy Scripture and contains nothing contrary
to its true sense. But it was not the intention of the Council to
pronounce the Vulgate free from all errors and superior to the
original text. During the twelve hundred years of its existence,
the Vulgate, at the time of the Council of Trent, had attained
wide diffusion, being read in hundreds of various manuscript copies.
But, unfortunately, the text of St. Jerome's translation had thereby
become greatly disfigured and falsified. Hence the Council decided
that a new edition with the genuine text of St. Jerome should be
published and henceforth used as the official text of the Bible.
The work of revision was begun by Sixtus V. and finished under
Clement VIII. in 1592.
3. By the name of ftala is meant an old Latin version of the
Bible, made in Italy and known in the fourth century as the most
popular and the older and more venerable among the many then
extant Latin versions. It was made from the Greek and dates
back to the second, if not to the first century.
4. An interesting version of the Mosaic books is the Samaritan
version, made a short time before Christ. It must be well distin
guished from the highly important so-called Samaritan edition of
the Hebrew Pentateuch, which is at least seven hundred years
older, and gives the Hebrew text in Samaritan letters.
5. Oi Chaldean translations there are still seven extant, each of
which gives only the one or the other book of the Old Testament.
Inasmuch as these are not simply literal versions, but rather para
phrases, they are called Targums, i. e. explanations. The Tar
gums of the Jewish proselyte Onkelos (containing only the Penta
teuch) and of Hillel's disciple Jonathan (containing most of the
historic books and of the prophets) belong to the first Christian
century, and are highly valuable for textual criticism.
6. The most famous Syrian version is the so-called Peschito,
i. e. plain or simple version. The Old Testament was translated

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 8. EARLY MODERN VERSIONS. 25
from the Hebrew by several Jewish writers probably in the first
Christian century, while the New Testament version was made in
the second century by a Christian. The Syrian translation of the
deutero-canonical books of the Old and the New Testaments were
added to the Peschito manuscripts sometime before the fourth
century. A Syriac version of the Gospels, discovered in 1892, is
even older than the Peschito. There are two other Syriac versions
of the Old Testament, both made from the Septuagint, one in the
sixth century by order of Philoxene, bishop of Mabug ; the other,
in the seventh century. Both were used by the Monophysites.
7. Of the Coptic version made for the Christians in Egypt during
the second century after Christ, we have only fragments. But the
Armenian version, made in the fifth century for the Christians of
Armenia, comprises the books of both the Old and the New
Testaments; printed in Amsterdam, 1666. An .^^/^w/zc (Abyssinian)
version was made in the fourth century, probably by St. Frumentius,
the apostle of ^Ethiopia. Parts of it were printed in Rome as
early as 1 5 13; the whole New Testament in 1548.
8. The Gothic version was made in the fourth century by the
Arian bishop Ulfilas (f 383) from the Greek text then in use in
Constantinople. Although it contained both Testaments, we possess
at present only a few Old Testament fragments and a large portion
of the Gospels and of St. Paul's Epistles. These Gospels are
preserved in the famous "Silver MS.", written (with silver ink on
purple parchment), in Italy in the fourth or fifth century, and now
kept in the university library of Upsala in Sweden. It is the
oldest known manuscript of this description. The text was first
printed in 1665 at Dortrecht.
9. The Slavic version, made in the ninth century by SS. Cyril
and Methode, the apostles of the Slavic nations, presents an old
dialect in use among the Slavonians and Bulgarians of that time.
It is still retained in the old Slavic liturgy. The Slavic Psalter
was first printed at Cracow in 148 1, the Gospels in 15 12, the
whole Bible in 1581. 8. EARLY MODERN VERSIONS.
I. We have no Anglo-Saxon translation of the Bible, not even
parts of it, anterior to the eighth century. To Venerable Bede
(t 735) ^^ attributed the translation of the whole Bible; to King

26 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Alfred (ix. century) a version of the Psalms, and Abbot ^Ifric
(x. century) is said to have translated most of the historical books
of the Old Testament. Yet no complete translation is known to
exist; so far only fragments have been found and published.
A Northumbrian version of the Gospels is believed to date as far
back as the eighth century. During the evolution of the English
language from .Saxon and French, the monk Richard Rolle of
Hampole translated the Psalms (1349). A complete translation,
falsely ascribed to Wycliffe, was published in 1500; bishop Usher
assigns it to the year 1290; others attribute it to the priest John
Trevisa, who lived about 1357. Wycliffe's translation followed in
1380. With the violent separation of England from the Church,
the country was flooded with Protestant versions (Tyndale's 1531,
Coverdale's Great Bible 1539, Wittingham's Geneva Bible 1560,
Parker's Bishops' Bible 1568, later King James's Bible, 1611).
As an antidote, a Catholic translation was brought out in the
English College of Douay (France), under the direction of Wilham,
later Cardinal, Allen. Stapleton, Martin, and Bristow were the
actual translators; Thomas Worthington added the notes. The
New Testament was published flrst in 1582 at Rheims, whence
its designation "the Rhemish Version''; the complete version ap
peared at Douay in 1609 under the title: "The Holie Bible faith
fully translated into English out of the authentical Latin, 2 voll."
The Douay Bible has gone through numerous editions. The best
known revision, with excellent annotations, is by Dr. Challoner,
Catholic bishop of London, first published in 1750 and since then
universally used by English-speaking Catholics. A new critical
edition was published later in the United States by Archbishop
Kenrick of Baltimore.
2. German translations of several smaller portions of the Bible,
partly of the Old and partly of the New Testament, are frequently
met with from the eighth to the twelfth century. More numerous
as well as more comprehensive versions were made in the follow
ing centuries. The whole Bible was translated into German fully
a hundred years before Luther.
3. Manuscripts of French translations go back as far as the
eleventh century; at the end of the thirteenth century the whole
Bible was translated. Manuscripts of Spanish (Castilian) versions
do not reach beyond the fifteenth century. Polish translations are

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 9. PRINCIPAL MANUSCRIPTS. 27
known to have existed already in the thirteenth century, while a
Bohemian version of the Gospel of St. John belongs to the tenth
century. Many Italian translations of the whole Bible as well as
of separate parts reach to the fourteenth century. Hungarian
versions were made by Benedictine monks as early as the thir
teenth century. The Vienna Codex of the Old Testament in
Hungarian belongs to the fourteenth century. Another translation
of the whole Bible was made by the monk Bathyani (1456).
Danish and Scandinavian versions existed already in the thirteenth
century. The same must be said of Hollandish (Dutch) and Flemish
versions. An Irish version of 1347 is attributed to an archbishop
of Armagh.
In this connection it is well to remember that nearly all these
so-called modern versions were made for the private use of the
faithful, while the translations in ancient languages were reserved
for the official and hturgical use of the Church. The fact is an
evident proof that the Catholic Church did not deprive the people
of the Bible. All the sacred books that are of special advantage
for the unlearned people had been translated into the vernacular
languages long before Protestantism was born. By their transcrip
tions and translations the monks and nuns were the chief pre
servers and propagators of the Bible, so that, at the end of the
Middle Ages, as the above sketch clearly shows, all Christian
nations possessed the Bible, either entire or in part, in their own
language; and this notwithstanding the facts, that not many of the
people were able to read or to write, that Latin was the language
of the schools and the educated classes during the Middle Ages,
and that a manuscript Bible represented a whole fortune.
9. THE PRINCIPAL MANUSCRIPTS.
As is the case with most of the writings of antiquity, the Auto
graphs or originals written by the hands of the inspired writers
have not come down to us. The originals themselves, like the
very earliest copies made from them, did not survive the many and
cruel persecutions against Jews and Christians and the great social
and poHtical upheaval of ancient and mediaeval Christendom. The
ancient Church historian, Eusebius, narrates that emperor Dio
cletian published an edict A. D. 303, commanding the Christians
to hand over (tradere) to the pagan prefects their sacred books

28 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
SO that they might be burnt. Christians who, to save themselves,
comphed with the edict, were called traitors (traditores) and con
sidered like apostates.
Thus it happens that at present we possess only transcript copies
or Apographs of the biblical text. These are commonly called
Biblical Manuscripts (handwritings), which term is principally
applied to those giving the original text, though it is also used
for the older manuscript translations.
While it is generally admitted that the material used for the
original sacred books was papyrus, there is at present only one
manuscript Apograph known of this material. The older manuscripts
consist usually of parchment or neatly prepared calf-skin (vellum) ;
the younger ones (since the year looo) of a sort of paper, later
of linen paper. The size varies from the folio to the small octavo.
Usually a page has two or three columns of text. The letters or
characters are uncial letters in the older, minuscule letters in the
later manuscripts. In some manuscripts, the Biblical text is written
over or across an earlier writing which has been more or less
erased or rubbed out. These are called Palimpsests or rescript
(re-written) manuscripts.
Although most of the earlier transcripts give us only parts or
fragments of the Bible, very few comprising all the books of either
Testament, yet, from a critical comparison and study of them all
combined, we can establish the Bible text whole and entire with
sufficient assurance of its genuineness and integrity.
I. The number of Hebrew manuscripts is quite remarkable, at
least fifteen hundred are known ; some were found even among the
Jews in China and on the coast of Malabar. What is considered the
oldest Hebrew manuscript, dating from the tenth century, was
found in 1839 in the Crimea. It contains only the later prophets.
No other Hebrew manuscript goes further back. The Hebrew text
which they all present, more or less faithfully, is the so-called
Masoretic recension. The manuscripts destined for public use are
in the form of rolls (Megiloth), and are beautifully written.
2. Of Greek manuscripts we also possess a great number. About
two thousand refer to the New Testament text. The oldest manu
scripts of the Old Testament as well as of the New Testament
date back to the fourth century, towards the end of the great
Christian persecutions. There are over three hundred manuscripts

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL TOPICS. 9. PRINCIPAL MANUSCRIPTS.

29

TO N o^- ec oe K A.^ujc6 •
M M H M e J ON^ € i ycG '^Tf^r
A Y T"*. C TP o1m O C K a. » CK
CT-KCi c KTA J OYA.e hji}oy
A. G w e J n o M e <i>o a oy w

of the Septuagint text. The following are the most important;
they are all written in so-called uncial letters and have the form
of books, not of rolls.
a) The Sinaitic Manuscript (Codex S) discovered in 1859 in the
Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai by Constantine Tischen
dorf. It belongs to the fourth century and is now in St. Peters
burg. Originally, it came from Constantinople, as Tischendorf
surmises, and be
longed to the num
ber ofthe fifty pre
cious Bible manu
scripts made by
order of Constan
tine the Great for
the churches of his
imperial city. It
contains the great
est part of the Old
Testament and the
whole New Testa
ment. A facsimile
edition was publish
ed in St. Peters
burg in 1862.
b) The Vatican
Manuscript (Codex
B), in the Vatican
Library in Rome
(Fig- 3)- It bears
signs of great anti
quity, dates back,
at any rate, to the
fourth century, and comprises the whole Septuagint and the New
Testament with few exceptions. A beautiful photo-lithographic
facsimile edition in six large volumes was published in 1868 ff at
the expense of Pius IX.
c) The Alexandrine Manuscript (Codex A), found in a mona
stery on Mount Athos, belongs, probably, to the fifth century.
It contains the entire Septuagint and the New Testament with

jr. -,

'•i^^r

}<Ofs« ¦*«'

Fig. 3.

From the Gospel of St. Mark, xvi. 7 8.
Vatican Manuscript (Codex B).

30

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

some gaps. It is in the British Museum in London, which
published a photo-lithographic edition of it in 1882.
d) The Parisian Manuscript (Codex Ephraem C), from the fifth
century, contains the greater half of the New Testament and some
fragments of the Old Testament. In the twelfth century some
writings of St. Ephraem were written across the Bibhcal text on
these parchment leaves. This palimpsest codex is in the National
Library at Paris.
e) The Beza or Cambridge Manuscript (Codex D) contains the
Gospels and Acts of the Apostles in Greek and Latin. It dates
from the sixth century and was donated by the famous Calvinist
scholar Beza to the University of Cambridge.
3. Little need be said of the Latin Manuscripts, as they only
represent the text of Latin translations. Of the oldest Latin version
(Itala) mere fragments are preserved in some Greek manuscripts
and pahmpsests. These go no further back than the sixth century.
The famous Vulgate of St. Jerome, either entire or in parts, is
extant in several famous manuscripts belonging to the fifth and
sixth century and preserved in the libraries of Fulda in Germany,
Florence and Bobbio in Italy.
10. THE FIRST PRINTED BIBLES.
Let it be remembered that the Bibles here mentioned, except
some Hebrew Bibles, are all Catholic editions. Luther's German
translation was begun in 1522 and finished in 1534; Gutenberg
of Mayence did not use movable types before the year 1450.
With these two facts before us, even a superficial glance at the
following data will prove how utterly ridiculous is the old Prote
stant fable that Luther was the first to "find the Bible and free
it from the chains placed about it by the Church". The fact is,
that, while the Bible manuscripts, in the original as well as in the
vernacular tongue, had already been made fairly accessible to the
rich and the educated, the invention of the printing press rapidly
multiplied the Book of Books and brought it nearer to all classes,
till men and women became zealous readers of the Bible. During
the eighty years between Gutenberg's invention and the beginning
of the Protestant Reformation at least five hundred editions of the
Bible were printed in Europe.

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. IO. FIRST PRINTED BIBLES. 3I
I. Hebrew. The first printed book of the Hebrew Bible was
the Psalms, Bologna 1477; then came the Pentateuch, ib. 1482;
then the Prophets in i486; later the so-called Hagiographa at
Naples in 1487. Finally, in 1488, the first complete Hebrew Bible
was printed at Lancino, in folio size, with vowel points and ac
cents. Two other complete editions : the one printed at Brescia in
1494, from which Luther made his German translation; the other
printed 1514 — 1517, published, in the Complutensian Polyglot, 1521.
2. Greek. The first printed parts of the Greek Bible are the
Psalms (Psalter), Milan 148 1, and some fragments from the Gospels
of SS. Luke and John, Venice 1504. The New Testament was
first printed in the Complutensian Polyglot, Alcala 1 5 14, and later
by Erasmus in Basle 15 16 (the version used by Luther). The
Old Testament also was first printed by Ximenes in 1517, and in
the following year by the famous printer Aldine (Manutius) at
Venice. 3. The Syrian and Chaldean versions were first printed in the
Polyglot of Cardinal Ximenes, the Samaritan version also in
Walton's London Polyglot, 1657. Regarding the Armenian,
Ethiopic, Gothic and Slavic versions see page 25.
4. Latin. The very first book ever printed is the Latin Vulgate
published in Mayence in 1450. Within the next fifty years at
least a hundred new editions were printed. Probably no printed
book of that time had a wider circulation.
5. Modern. The first Germa^t Bible was printed in 1466, pro
bably in Strassburg. Until 1520 over twenty editions followed
in High German, four in Low German, besides some ninety editions
of the Gospels and Epistles for Sundays, fourteen Psalters, etc.
The entire Bible in Italian, translated by the Camaldulese monk
Nicholas de Malermi, was printed in Venice in 147 1. Nine other
editions followed till 1500, and twelve more were published with
episcopal approbation during the following century. In French
the Psalter was printed in 1474; the New Testament at Lyons in
1478; the whole Bible at Paris in 1487, this being the version
made by J. de Rely, confessor of King Charles VIII. Bibles in the
Holland (Low German or Dutch) language were published in
Cologne and afterwards in Liibeck in 1494. But the first printed
Holland Bible is that of Delft, 1477. A Spanish translation of
the Bible, ascribed to the Carthusian monk Boniface Ferrero, was

32

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

printed in Valencia in 1478. The Bohemian New Testament was
first printed in Pilsen in 1475 ; the whole Bible, in 1488, at Prague.
A Polish Psalter was printed in Cracow, in 15 14; the books of
Solomon, ib. 1522; and the whole Bible, ib. 1561. Of the earliest
printed English Bibles no definite dates are given; but it is
generally assumed that the Gospels and Epistles were printed at
the close of the fifteenth century, and the whole Bible at the
beginning of the sixteenth century.
6. Polyglot ("many-tongued") Bibles. By this term are meant
printed editions of the Holy Scriptures containing various versions
together with the original text. The first and the most famous
Polyglot Bible is the one printed at Alcala in Spain (Latin name
Complutum; hence called "The Complutensian") by Cardinal
Ximenes from 15 14 to 1517, in six large folio volumes. It con
tains, besides a Hebrew and Chaldean Lexicon, the Hebrew text,
the Septuagint, the Chaldean Targum of Onkelos, the Latin Vul
gate as well as separate Latin translations of the first three texts.
From 1569 to 1571 King Philip II. of Spain had another Polyglot
printed at Antwerp, which also contains the New Testament in
Syriac. A new edition with the addition of the Samaritan (Hebrew)
Pentateuch, the Syrian Old Testament, and the Arabic Bible, was
pubhshed by Le Jay in Paris in 1645 (10 voll. large folio). But
all these editions are far surpassed by the so-called London Poly
glot of Brian Walton, published in 1657, which contains not only
all of the Paris edition, but also the Samaritan version, the Targum
of Jerusalem, the ^Ethiopic version of the Psalms, Canticle of
Canticles, and the New Testament, and finally, the Persian version
of the Pentateuch and the Gospels.
II. INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE.
I . The Principle, a) The great and universal principle of Bible
interpretation is laid down by St. Peter in his Second Epistle where
he says that "no prophecy of Scripture is made by private inter
pretation. For prophecy came not by the will of man at any
time; but the holy men of God spoke, inspired by the Holy Ghost"
(i. 20, 21). Sacred Scripture, being the work of the Holy Ghost,
can be rightly interpreted by Him alone and under His guidance.
Hence the authoritative exposition of the Bible is the prerogative

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. II. INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE,

33

of the Church, instituted by Christ for the purpose of announcing
and explaining without error the revealed truths of God. This
the Church is to do in virtue of the continued assistance of the Holy
Ghost, the Spirit of Truth promised to her. St. Paul, i Cor, ii. 7 ff;
2 Tim. iii. 16 lays down the same principle.
The Council of Trent, "in order to curb rebellious spirits"
(Vat. Council), issued a decree concerning the interpretation of
Scripture which was renewed by the Vatican Council in the follow
ing terms: "We, renewing the said decree, declare this to be
its meaning : that in matters of faith and morals, pertaining to the
building up of Christian Doctrine, that is to be held up as the
true sense of Sacred Scripture which Holy Mother Church hath
held and doth hold, to whom it belongeth to judge of the true
sense and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures, and therefore that
it is permitted to no one to interpret the said Sacred Scripture
against this sense or, likewise, against the unanimous consent of
the Fathers" (Const. I., chapter 2).
Private interpretation therefore, that is the reading, study, and ex
position of the Bible by private persons, must be entirely subject
to the guidance of the Church, if it is to be "profitable to teach,
to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice, that the man of God
may be perfect, furnished to every good work" (2 Tim. iii. 16, 17),
b) The necessity of divine guidance to the right and full under
standing of the Bible appears from the singular character of the
Holy Book. First of all, it contains "many things which are
beyond the power and scope of the reason of man; that is to say,
divine mysteries, and all that is related to them." Mysteries of
the Divinity, of the Divine Providence in the natural and super
natural order, with whole nations as well as with single individuals,
miracles and prophecies, diabolical powers and preternatural agen
cies meet us on every page. There are passages with "a fulness
and a hidden depth of meaning which the letter hardly expresses
and which the laws of interpretation hardly warrant. ... It must be
recognized that the sacred writings are rapt in a certain religious
obscurity, and that no one can enter into their interior without a
guide". (Leo XIII.) Secondly, even from a natural point of view,
the Bible presents almost insuperable difficulties to a proper under
standing, unless the mind be enlightened by a higher intelligence.
For it is a wonderful book. (See above, page 4 f.)
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 3

34 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE. ,
c) The necessity of a visible, personal and infallible authority
to interpret the Bible for man is most clearly shown by the ex
perience of all Christendom. Compare the uniform, harmonious
and always consistent interpretation within the Catholic Church
with the innumerable and ever increasing controversies and disputes
on the most important teachings and records of the Bible among
Protestants. The countless sects from early Christian times to
the present day owe their existence to the private and unauthorized
interpretation of the Bible. "No more certain, no more palpable
fact was ever written on the face of history than that the Scrip
tures , when left to be interpreted by different individuals ac
cording to their own personal judgment and shallow reasoning,
lead not to unity, but to disunity; not to order and harmony of
religious faith, but to disorder, chaos and spiritual ruin" (Mgr.
Vaughan). Protestantism, which began by rejecting the authority
of the Church to interpret the Bible, is now threatened in its very
bosom by the revolt against the divine authority of the Bible itself
2. Guiding Rules, a) The Catholic interpreter and reader of the
Bible must be guided by the following rules indicated iu the En
cyclical of Leo XIII. : i . No sense or meaning may be attributed
to any part or passage of the Bible which would be contrary to
the solemn or ordinary teaching of the Church; hence, the "Ana
logy of Faith" must be held as the supreme law and as the safest
guide to be followed. 2. Where the Church has defined the
meaning of a certain passage in Holy Writ, it must be accepted
as the true meaning intended by the Holy Ghost. 3. Whenever
all the Fathers interpret in one and the same manner any text of
the Bible, as pertaining to the doctrine of faith and morals, they
must be faithfully followed. On account of their capacity as
doctors, their knowledge of revealed doctrine and their acquaintance
with many things which are useful in understanding the sacred
books, the expositor must follow their footsteps with all reverence
and use their labours with intelligent appreciation even when they
speak or write unofficially, that is as private teachers. 4. The
authority of other Catholic writers is not as great as that of the
Fathers ; yet their works hold an honourable place and are serviceable
in many ways, and the opinion commonly accepted by them is
a safe guide. 5. This cannot be said of non-Catholic writers, who,
rejecting the teaching of the Church and being without the true

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. II. INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE.

"35

Faith, only gnaw the bark of the Sacred Scripture and never attain
its pith. Pius X. condemned the assertion that "non-Catholic ex
egetes have expressed the true sense of the Scriptures more faith
fully than Cathohc exegetes" (Syllabus, prop. 19). 6. If the results
of biblical criticism or exegesis, whether they be derived from
internal or from external evidence, are inconsistent with the teaching
of the Church, it argues a positive defect or mistake in the critical
investigation, whether that be due to the critic himself or to in
sufficient data.
b) It is ridiculous to object that by these rules the Catholic
scholar is deprived of the liberty needed for scientific research and
that, therefore, a true "Science of the Bible" is impossible in the
Catholic Church. The objection overlooks two things: I. that
nothing is more useful and valuable for the investigation of truth,
the object of all science, than the previous possession of truth,
which is a hght saving the inquirer from the pitfalls of error and
leading him on to greater splendours of truth hitherto hidden from
him; 2. that the knowledge of the true meaning of a biblical
passage does not prevent the inquirer from scientifically investigating
"the reasons from text and context, why and in what way such
sense is true and genuine." Hence it is evident that the rules of
biblical interpretation laid down by the Catholic Church do not
in the slightest degree release the Catholic interpreter from the
duty of using every legitimate means of scientific research applicable
to the books and the contents of the Bible. Keeping in view the
divine origin of the books, their religious aim and purpose, the
supernatural elements in their contents, he will not leave out of
sight the human element and the natural surroundings of the same
books, the personality of the writers, the time, place and occasion
of writing, the language and its peculiarities, the ideas, customs
and manners of the persons or peoples mentioned, proximate or
remote witnesses, tradition and its interpretations, and a hundred
similar things.
c) Finally, the splendid history of Catholic Biblical Science in
all its many branches, from the early ages to the present day, as
Leo XIII. shows in his Encyclical, is the best answer to the above
objection. Hence, he truly says: "By admirable laws and regula
tions she (the Church) has always shown herself solicitous that 'the
celestial treasure of the Sacred Book so bountifully bestowed upon
3*

36 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
man by the Holy Spirit, should not He neglected' (Council of Trent) —
It is owing to the wisdom and exertions of the Church that there
has always been continued from century to century that cultivation
of Holy Scripture which has been so remarkable and has borne
such ample fruit." For the very purpose of giving a new "impulse
to the noble science of Holy Scripture, and to impart to Scripture
study a direction suitable to the needs of the present day", Leo XIII.
issued his beautiful Encyclical and established at Rome, in 1902,
the already famous "Commission for the Promotion of Bibhcal
Studies". 3. Biblical Senses. That sense alone must be considered the
true sense of the Bible which its author, the Holy Ghost, wihed
to express and to convey to the reader by the inspired text. Now,
according to the Fathers and theologians of the Church, the Holy
Spirit meant to express his mind not only by the written word
itself, but sometimes also by the thing itself signified by the word
or phrase. In the first case, we have the literal sense (the meaning
of the letter) ; in the second case, we have the real (the signi
ficance of the thing, fact or event), spiritual (the spirit living in
the body of the letter), or mystical (hidden under the surface of
the letter, hence often obscure, not only mysterious in itself, but
often referring to mysteries or mysterious things) sense of the Bible.
a) The literal sense is either the proper or the figurative (meta
phorical) sense. As forms of the figurative sense in the Bible may
be mentioned the Allegory (f. i. Mt. v. 13; Lk. iii. 9, and the
whole Canticle of Canticles) ; and the Parable, which is a fictitious
story told for the purpose of pointing out a moral lesson (f i.
Lk. viii. 5 ff). There is no word, phrase or sentence, but it has a
literal meaning; sometimes it has, moreover, a spiritual or mystical
meaning. b) The mystical meaning generally partakes of the nature of
prophecy, usually Messianic, referring to Christ and His three
fold office of teacher, priest, and king; His bloody sacrifice on
the Cross, His Eucharistic oblation. His resurrection, glorious and
triumphant; to His kingdom, the Church, its members, its Sacra
ments, its trials and triumphs; and finally, to His second coming,
and His triumphal reign in the New Jerusalem.
The thing expressed by the letter and pointing, by some striking
similarity, to the future thing is called the figure, image, shadow,

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. II. INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE.

37

type (Rom. v. 14; i Cor. x. 6) of the thing pointed to, which,
in turn, is called the antitype (i Pet. iii. 21). Thus Isaac on the
wooden pile (Gen. xxii. 2, 9) is a type of Christ on the Cross, Christ
being the antitype of Isaac. This mystical sense is, therefore, also
called the typical sense. It occurs most frequently in the Old
Testament, especially since the time of the Mosaic dispensation,
which, as St. Paul explains, was a figure and foreshadowing of
the New Covenant. From this, however, it does not follow that
every particular thing pertaining to the Old Testament was a type
of something corresponding in the New Testament. The New
Testament also is not without passages with a mystical meaning,
referring to the glorified kingdom of Christ in heaven. It is not
always easy to determine what passage in the Bible contains a
typical meaning, as it depended entirely upon God's will to choose
some person, place, function, or other thing to be a figure or a
living prophecy pointing by its striking similitude to Christ, His
office, and His Church. This must be learned from the clear
statements of the Bible itself, especially in the New Testament,
from the teaching of the Church, the tradition of the Fathers,
and the common opinion of Catholic interpreters. It is important
to distinguish certain symbolic actions commanded to some of
the prophets from types properly so-called (f. i. Ez. xii. 2 ff, 11 ff;
Osee i. 2). The scientific interpretation of bibhcal types is called
Biblical Typology.
c) The accommodative sense is not a biblical sense at all. It
is the sense or meaning attributed to a phrase or expression of
the Bible, which was not intended by the Holy Spirit, but which
is given to the phrase by man, applying, adapting, accommodating
that Scripture text to something to which it does not really
refer at all, but which it fits and suits well. Catholic Liturgy
is full of such accommodations of biblical texts to the Saints of
God, to the Church herself, and especially to the Blessed Virgin
Mary. On the other hand, the Church positively forbids the ab
use of the sacred text by accommodations which would imply
levity, scurrility, irreverence, or even blasphemy. (Council of Trent,
sess. iv.)
The science and art of bibhcal interpretation and of investigating
the true sense of the Scripture is called Biblical Hermeneutics.

38 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
12. BIBLE READING.
I. The Church disapproves ofthe promiscuous and indiscriminate
reading of the Bible in the vernacular tongue. She has therefore
repeatedly issued, according to the conditions of times and the
needs of the faithful, more or less strict ordinances and regula
tions on this subject, lest the word of God should become a
stumbling-block to the ignorant and ill-disposed. There is no
divine precept commanding every faithful Christian to read the
Bible; neither is there any ecclesiastical law forbidding him ab
solutely to read the Bible in his own tongue. Every Catholic is
allowed to do this, provided that he is able and willing to do it
with profit to his soul; and, moreover, that the vernacular trans
lation be a) made from the Vulgate by a Catholic author; b) furnish
ed with the necessary explanatory notes culled from Catholic
sources; and c) approved by ecclesiastical authority (Imprimatur).
This rule of the Roman Index has been repeated for American
Catholics by several provincial and plenary councils, which, follow
ing the I. Provincial Council of Baltimore, 1829, forbade them
to read Protestant versions and the Bibles circulated by the Pro
testant Bible Societies. These Societies and their Bible propaganda
had been already condemned by Leo XII., Pius VIIL, Gregory XVL,
and Pius IX. The learned Dr. Ryder observes that "the principle
of the Bible Societies, viz. a wholly undirected reading by every
one of the entire Bible, is utterly repudiated by the Fathers; and
the Popes who condemn these societies only follow strictly in the
hues of the early Church, with an additional justification in their
experience of the biblical aberrations of Protestantism. The Society's
Bibles are 'poisonous pastures' (Leo XIIL), although all but a fraction
is the word of God; because they represent the principle of heresy
in their rejection of the Church's canon and interpretation, not to
speak of particular errors; and the poison thus contained is cer
tainly none the less dangerous because conveyed in what is sub
stantially the Bread of Life. ... I fully admit that Bible reading
has been the great source of practical piety among English sec
tarians ; but none the less its exclusive first-hand use has been the
source of every Protestant aberration from Calvinism down to
'Eternal Hope'. The only security for the whole Bible being taught,
is its embodiment in an infaUible ecclesiastical tradition and its

CHAPTER I. GENERAL TOPICS. 12. BIBLE READING.

39

dispensation according to a living 'rule of faith' which shall re
gulate the focus of its many distances and resolve its discords"
(Cath. Controversy).
Whether we consider the origin of the Bible or its peculiar
character, its language and its contents, it is evident that the Bible
was never meant by God to be in its entirety "the book of the
people" or the "Christian manual of the masses". In its greater
part it is a difficult, obscure and mysterious book, from the general
reading of which he alone may derive profit for his Christian
knowledge and conduct, who is already well instructed in the
Christian religion and approaches the book with the right disposi
tion of mind and heart, and with the helps, natural and super
natural, needed for its proper understanding. In fact, the Bible
is not a book for simple reading, but rather for serious study and
Christian meditation.
2. The foregoing remarks explain the pohcy of the Catholic
Church consistently followed through all her centuries in regard
to Bible reading by the laity. While she has never encouraged
the promiscuous reading of all and every part of the Holy Scrip
tures, she has acquainted her children with all the contents of the
sacred volume and urged them to read those parts which are
especially suited to the faithful at large. Hence the fact, standing
out so prominently in the history of the Bible, that the most
widely circulated portions, whether in manuscript or print, are the
New Testament, usually whole and entire; then from the Old
Testament, the Psalms and the so-called sapiential and historic
books. Hence the numerous biblical compends for the people,
Bible stories, verses and pictures, and so on.- When, with the art
of printing, the knowledge of reading and writing became more
general, when systematic education in common schools spread
knowledge more widely among the people, the faithful became
better conditioned to take up the whole sacred volume under the
proper safeguards established by the Church, and to select from
it for their private reading and pious meditation the portions most
profitable to Catholic faith and morals. In this sense the Popes
and councils of modern times recommended the reading of the
Bible as the Fathers of old had done. Thus the III. Plenary
Council of Baltimore, 1884, says in its pastoral letter: "It can
hardly be necessary for us to remind you, beloved brethren, that

40 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
the most highly valued treasure of every family hbrary, and the
most frequently and lovingly made use of, should be the Holy
Scriptures." Then, having quoted Bl. Thomas a Kempis, Pius VI. ,
and St. Paul on the utility of the Bible for the comfort and
direction of our hfe, the Council expresses the hope "that no
family can be found amongst us without a correct version of the
Holy Scriptures. Among other versions we recommend the Douay,
which is venerable as used by our forefathers for three centuries,
and which comes down to us sanctioned by innumerable authori
zations." Pope Leo XIII. has granted an indulgence of three hundred
days to those who spend a quarter of an hour daily in the pious
exercise of reading the Bible; he has also approved and en
couraged the Society of St. Jerome, whose object is to spread the
New Testament in the vernacular language among the people. Our
Holy Father Pius X. has repeatedly sent his hearty commendation
and blessing to Catholic writers who have recently published
new editions of the Bible for popular use. The statement that
the Catholic Church forbids her children to read the holy books,
is one of the great historic lies of Protestantism. But the Cathohc
reader of the Bible will always be mindful of the admonition of
Pope Leo XIIL, "to approach the Holy Writings with reverence
and piety; for it is impossible to attain to the profitable under
standing thereof, unless the arrogance of 'earthly' science be laid
aside, and there be excited in the heart a holy desire for that
wisdom which is 'from above'". Only if such is the disposition
of the soul, when reading the Bible, "the heart will grow warm
and will strive with ardent longing to advance in virtue and in
divine love." Chapter II.
THE OLD TESTAMENT.
A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
I. THE PENTATEUCH.
I. Historical Sketch. When, after the flood, idolatry and im
morality again threatened to become general among mankind,
about B. C. 2000, God elected Abraham to be the father of a
chosen people, from whom salvation was to come forth. He led

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

41

him out of the land of his fathers and the idolatrous surroundings
of Mesopotamia and Chaldea into the land of Chanaan, destined
to be the home of the three great patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob. During a universal famine, Jacob, also called Israel, i. e.
wrestler with God, went with his family of seventy souls to Egypt,
where his son Joseph, sold into slavery by his own brothers, had
risen to the dignity of vezir or viceroy. The Israelites were well
received by the shepherd-kings (the Hyksos) who ruled over Egypt;
the fertile country of Gessen or Gosen was granted to them as
pasture for their cattle and sheep. They soon attained a high
prosperity. But their fortunes changed when a new dynasty of
native Egyptians came into power. The Egyptians looked upon
the prosperous aliens with increasing jealousy, and oppressed them
with exceeding violence. Their condition became one of cruel

Fig. 4. Israelites forced to labour in Egypt. From old Egyptian monuments.
slavery, so that they were compelled to make, under harsh
Egyptian taskmasters, the bricks for the new cities of Phithom and
Ramesses (Fig, 4). The oppressors even made a law that all
new-born male children of the Hebrews should be killed. But
one of these escaped death in a remarkable manner, was adopted
by Pharaoh's daughter (Thermutis), and instructed at the king's
court in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. This man, Moses, was
sent by God to free his people from the bondage of Egypt and
to lead them into the promised land (B. C. 1500). During the four
hundred and thirty years of their sojourn in Egypt, the Israelites
had become a numerous nation. Moses led them out of Egypt,
600000 men able to bear arms, with a proportional number of
women and children, a total of about two millions and a half.
Their wanderings in the desert of Arabia Petrasa lasted forty years.

42 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
There God gave His people, on Mount Sinai, and through the
ministry of Moses, the Law which is the foundation of the reve
lations of the Old Testament.
II. Literary Sketch. The Law of Moses, together with the
history of the preparation and institution of the Old Covenant, is
contained in the Five Books of Moses, which relate the history of
revelation from the beginning of the world to the occupation of
Palestine by the Israelites. The Law of the Covenant is their
main feature, hence the name Thorah , i. e. the Law, given to
them by the Jews. The first book tells of the historic preparation
of the Law; the Law itself is set forth in the second, third, and
fourth books; the fifth is a recapitulation of the same. The five
books form one whole and are known by the Greek name Penta
teuch, i. e. the five-part book. The separate books receive their
names from their special contents.
I. The first book of Moses is called Genesis, i. e. the origin.
In its first part (ch. I — ii) is told the beginning of all things:
the creation of the world and of man, the fall, the flood, the
common origin of mankind and its dispersion after the building
of the tower of Babel; in the second (ch. 12 — 50) the story of
the events leading up to the Old Covenant : the call of Abraham,
the history of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, until the death of Jacob
and Joseph in Egypt. According to the popular computation, this
book covers a period of 2369 years, beginning with Adam.
2. The second book of Moses, Exodus, i. e. the going out or
emigration, first tells of the oppression of the children of Israel in
Egypt when a new king arose who knew not Joseph and his ser
vices to the country (ch. i). Next comes the history of Moses
and his leaving Egypt with his people (ch. 2 — 12), the journey to
Mount Sinai (ch. 13 — 18), the wanderings of the first year in the
desert, the giving of the Commandments on Mount Sinai and of
the other laws, the building and consecration of the Tabernacle
(ch. 19 — 40). The story of this book stretches over some
145 years.
3. The third book of Moses, Leviticus, or the book of the
Levites and Priests, does not continue the history, but concerns
itself almost exclusively with legal institutions: the sacrifices and
the manner of celebrating them (ch. i — 7), the consecration of

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

43

Aaron and his sons (ch. 8), and the first solemn sacrifice (ch. 9).
Then come laws relating to purifications (ch. ii — 15), crimes and
trespasses (ch. 17 — 20), and ordinances concerning priests, oblations
and feasts (ch. 21—27). The deaths of the sons of Aaron, Nadab
and Abiu (ch. 10), and the stoning of the blasphemer (ch. 24)
are told as examples of the severe punishment dealt out to
law-breakers. 4. The fourth book of Moses, Numeri or Numbers, commences
with a census of the people and the order of the tribes and Le
vites in their camp (ch. i — 4), then reports different kinds of
sacrifices and the celebration of the Pasch in the second year after
leaving Egypt (ch. 5 — 9), the departure from Mount Sinai (ch. 10),
the appointing of the seventy Ancients (ch. 11), the wanderings
through the desert of Pharan to the southern borders of Chanaan,
the sending of the twelve spies from Cades (ch. 11 — 13). Then
follow new ceremonial laws, the rebellion of Core and his ad
herents (ch. 15 — 19). The history of the next thirty-seven years
spent in the desert is passed over in silence, no important event
connected with revelation having occurred within that period. The
following chapters deal with the events of the last year in the
desert: the death of Mary and her brother Aaron (ch. 20), the
conquest of the land east of the Jordan, the prophecy of Balaam
(ch. 22 — 24) , a new enumeration (ch. 26) , the appointment of
Josue with new ordinances (ch. 27 — 30); finally, the distribution
of the Promised Land among the tribes and the Levites (ch. 32 — 36).
The book contains the history of about thirty-nine years.
5. The fifth book of Moses, Deuteronomy or Second Law, con
tains the last speeches of Moses to his people. The principal
laws are repeated and the Israelites are exhorted to be faithful to
them. With impressive eloquence the great chief reminds his
people of the wonderful way in which God has led them, urges
them to keep the Law, and threatens transgressors with dreadful
punishments (ch. I — 4). By its short and clear repetition of the
Mosaic Law (ch. 5 — 26), the book is a kind of reHgious handbook
for the Jewish laity. After repeated admonitions to observe the
Law, the book closes with the last canticle and the blessing of
Moses (ch. 32 — 33). A short note on the death of Moses has
been appended, probably by his successor, Josue. There we read
(xxxiv. 10—12): "And there arose no more in Israel a prophet

44

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, in all the
signs and wonders, which he sent by him, to do in the land of
Egypt to Pharao, and to all his servants and to the whole land,
and all the mighty hand, and great miracles which Moses did
before all Israel." The closing chapters of Deuteronomy contain
some of the grandest pieces of poetry, f. i. the curse to be pro
claimed from Mount Garizim and Mtount Hebal (xxvii. 1 1 ff) ; the
blessings and curses pronounced upon Israel for obedience or dis
obedience to the Lord (ch. 28); but, especially, the magnificent
Canticle of Moses (ch. 32) and his last blessing (ch. 33).
Moses died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, in view
of the Promised Land, on Mount Nebo over against Jericho. Before
his death he wrote the words of the Law in a book and delivered
it to the people to be read every seven years, on the feast of
tabernacles (Deut. xxxi. 9 ff).
III. Authenticity. That the Pentateuch is the genuine work of
Moses, may be proved by the following considerations:
I. The Jewish nation, in the times before and after Christ, never
had any doubt as to the Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch, which
has been the Magna Charta, the religious and political con
stitution of that people. It is incredible that in their belief the
Jews should have been mistaken. Even the Samaritans, the most
bitter enemies of the Jews, never wavered in the same belief
Pagan writers before Christ attest this Jewish tradition.
2. Christ and the Apostles have expressly confirmed the authen
ticity of the Pentateuch by most frequently appeahng to the dif
ferent books as "the Law of Moses" or simply "Moses", This
appeal is of such a nature that it cannot be treated as a mere
form of "accommodation" to the general belief of the Jews; it
positively confirms that belief, which Christ and the Apostles could
not have done if the belief had been false.
3. The Christian tradition within and without the Cathohc Church
has uniformly designated Moses as the author of the Pentateuch.
It was only as late as the seventeenth century that Hobbes,
Spinoza, and others began to deny the Mosaic origin of those books.
4. The Pentateuch itself in many places bears direct witness
for Moses as its author (see Ex. xvh. 14; xxiv. 4; xxxiv. 27;
Num. xxxiii. 2; Deut. xxviii. 58, 61; xxxi. 9). Unless the book

CHAPTER 11. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

45

be proved false, its testimony must be admitted. Even without
this explicit testimony, we should infer that no man was better
qualified and more entitled to be the historian of the Law than
Moses, the divinely appointed and highly cultured leader and
legislator of the chosen people. A writer living long after the
days of Moses could not have been so familiar with the political,
geographical and social conditions of ancient Egypt as the author
of the Pentateuch, a famiharity fully corroborated and illustrated
by the modern discoveries made in Egypt. His memories of
Egypt and the Sinaitic peninsula seem entirely fresh and new,
even as regards the minutest details, so as to surprise modern
explorers of that country. Many characteristics of the Pentateuch,
as well as the relation of its contents to other books of the Old
Testament, make it appear as certain that it was written before
the occupation of Chanaan by the Israelites.
5. During the last two centuries the Mosaic origin of the
Pentateuch has been most furiously attacked by rationalist writers.
Attempts have been made to date the composition of the Penta
teuch from the seventh or even the fifth century before Christ,
on the plea that before that time the Jews had no public written
records. Considering that the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyp
tians possessed a rich literature as far back as the third, or, at
latest, the beginning of the second millennium before Christ, it
would appear extraordinary that the Jews, who had so many
relations with these cultured nations, should have put their Law
in writing only a thousand or more years after receiving it.
Another assertion is that the Pentateuch has been written by
different writers long after Moses. Although there are nearly as
many different presentations of this assertion as there are writers,
yet we may distinguish in that confused mass three prominent
theories: a) The documentary theory, which sees in the Penta
teuch nothing but a later compilation of earlier, longer or shorter,
legal and historical documents; b) the fragmentary theory, which
makes of the book a mere conglomeration of genealogical, legal,
ceremonial, and historical fragments; c) the supplementary theory,
which, assuming one great and main document as the basis or sub
stance of the Pentateuch, claims that it has been brought to its
present form by many supplementary additions made by different
editors during subsequent centuries.

aQ part I, BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
In answer to all the objections of rationalists that eminent
biblical scholar. Dr. Kaulen, remarks that "neither historical nor
geographical nor archseological nor legal nor philological difficulties
can invalidate the reasons which place the origin of the Pentateuch
in the time of the journey through the desert. Nor is there any
reason to deny its Mosaic origin on the plea, that much of its
contents does not agree with the personal traits and character of
Moses". As regards in particular the above mentioned theories,
destroying the unity of the Pentateuch as a whole, it may be said
that none of the differences pointed out in the use of the name
of God (Elohim, Jahve), in statements of religious ideas and senti
ments, in phraseology and style, none of the so-called repetitions
and contradictions, nor yet the marked distinction of the legal and
religious portions (called by rationalists: "The Priestly Code", that
is, all of Leviticus, eleven chapters in Exodus, and twenty-five
in Numeri) from the purely historical reports, force the unprejudiced
critic to the admission of different writers and different periods in
the main composition of the book. See the decision of the Roman
Biblical Commission, June 27., 1906.
6. In maintaining that the Pentateuch is substantially the work
of Moses, we need not deny that in composing the book he may
have readily inserted older writings and oral traditions, having been
led by divine inspiration to do so; or that in its present form it
contains additions of one or more inspired post-Mosaic writers.
Again, it does not necessarily militate against the original Mosaic
authorship to say that the Pentateuch, as contained in the Vulgate,
presents to us a final revised edition of the book, made by Esdras
guided by divine inspiration. Furthermore , it belongs to con
scientious criticism to point out what may be spurious additions
to, or mere corruptions of the original text.
IV. Credibility and Authority. That the Pentateuch is not only
authentic, but also authoritative, that is that its contents are true
and deserve to be believed, appears from the following:
I. Not to mention the uninterrupted Jewish and Christian as
surance of the historic truth of the Mosaic narrative, it is enough
to understand the significance of the fact, that the whole hfe of the
Jewish nation, religious and political, social and domestic, rests
upon the Mosaic Law and history as upon its only foundation.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

47

With the Pentateuch as a fiction or myth, the whole Jewish history
becomes an inexplicable puzzle; more than that, the whole series
of the Jewish bibhcal literature and the whole history of the nation
as handed down in its books, becomes one great, systematic false
hood. This argument is strengthened by the reflection that the
Law of Moses imposed the greatest restrictions upon the whole
people in regard to its internal affairs as well as its intercourse
with foreign nations. An impostor could not have thus succeeded.
Finally, the Israelites that had come from Egypt and those who
entered the Promised Land, were perfectly able to know the truth
or, in the other supposition, the falsehood of the story told in the
books beginning with Exodus. Yet they handed it down to their
children as the sacred book of the nation.
2. The historical authority of Genesis is guaranteed by the person
of Moses, the character of the narrative, and the Jewish tradition
among the nearer descendants of the sons of Noe. Written docu
ments as well as the long-lived famihes of the Patriarchs, handed
the history of the primitive race down from age to age, even to
the sons of Jacob. According to the genealogies in the book of
Genesis, Adam, Seth and Henoch died only during the time of
Lamech, Noe's father; the other Patriarchs still lived at the time
of Noe. Abraham was already sixty years old when Noe died.
Sem, Noe's son, still lived one hundred and ten years after Isaac,
and fifty years after Jacob was born ; Heber, the great-grandson of
Sem, also lived still 239 years after Abraham, 139 years after Isaac,
and 79 years after Jacob was born.
3. The traditions ofthe most ancient nations contain memories
of the primitive days, of Paradise, the Fall, and the great Flood
(Fig. 5, page 48). It is remarkable that the older those traditions are,
so much the more do they agree with the Mosaic account. Such a
universal consent of the tradition of mankind must necessarily rest
upon historic truth.
4, Since the end of the eighteenth century an infidel and ratio
nalistic science has raised most formidable objections against the
books of Moses. But a) not a single fact has been scientifically
established that cannot be made to harmonize with them. On the
contrary, the positive and certain conclusions in the domain of
natural, linguistic and historical sciences have invariably led to the
confirmation of the Mosaic account of the earhest history of the

48

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

earth and its inhabitants. It is remarkable what new hght and
assurance the Mosaic story has derived from the modern learned
disquisitions in Assyriology and Egyptiology. The solution of the
difficulties raised depends in most cases upon a proper inter
pretation of the narrative or the correct reading of the text, b) In
answer to the recent rationalistic plea of "Bible and Babel", making
of the Mosaic record a clumsy compilation of Babylonian and
Assyrian mythology, it may be said: i) Whatever be the ap
parent similarity of these pagan traditions to the Jewish religion,
there is an essential and radical difference between them: one is
polytheism, the other pure monotheism ; one admits the deification

Fig. 5. Chaldean Record of the Flood.
of man, the other teaches man's absolute dependence on God;
one has a most imperfect code of morality with no sanction against
sin, the other holds in the Ten Commandments the fundamental
laws of man's highest religious and moral perfection. 2) From the
very nature of the case, it is most improbable that the human
race, as it appears in history, would turn from polytheism to mono
theism, and from a lower to a higher standard of morality, if left
to itself and without a strong influence from above. Under such
a condition it would most probably sink by degrees from mono
theism to polytheism and from a high morality to moral corrup
tion. Such, in fact, is the history of the pagan nations of antiquity.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. I. THE PENTATEUCH.

49

How, then, explain the fact that among all these nations with
whom the Jews were in continual contact, the Jews alone believed
in one God infinitely great and holy; that they alone had the
clear conception of the creation of all things by God; that they
alone understood the true relations of God with man and of man
with his fellow-men ; that they alone based upon these relations the
laws and rules of true worship and correct morality — all of which
is recorded in the books of Moses ? 3) The newly discovered Code
or Law-Book (a collection of 282 paragraphs in cuneiform script)
of the Babylonian king Hammurabi, B. C. 2200 (Fig. 6), shows a
very radical difference from the
Mosaic Code. The first is essen
tially civil, with no reference
nor any allusion whatever to re
ligion; the latter is essentially
religious in contents and pur
pose. Whatever occasional si
milarity there may be between
the two codes, such a parallelism
is merely accidental and can
be fully explained by admitting
that in these matters both go
back to a primitive Semitic tra
dition. 4) The objection from
Assyrian and Babylonian genea
logies is easily explained by
the fact that all ancient nations
kept genealogical records of
their ancestors and kings. There
was a special purpose of Divine Providence in preserving the genea
logies of the patriarchs and later of the twelve tribes of Israel, the
chosen people of God, which was to remain separate from the pagan
nations and out of which was to come the Saviour of the world
(see I Esdras h. 59 ff). 5) From all this we rightly infer that if
there exists any written record of the primitive tradition of the
human race, a tradition based on divine revelation and preserved
by Divine Providence, that record is in the Mosaic narrative; that
if any traditions similar to this one were among the ancient nations
of Assyria, Babylonia and Egypt, peoples older than the Jews,
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 4

Fig. 6. Hammurabi before the Sun.god.
Paris, Louvre.

so

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

but younger than the first patriarchs, they were only corruptions
of the primitive tradition. The Mosaic record is, in fact, nothing
else than the tradition of mankind from pre-Hebrew and pre-
Babylonian ages (Kaulen),
V. Prophecies. The Five Books of Moses, especially the first,
contain important prophecies concerning the Messias. i) The first
promise of the Redeemer, the Proto-Evangelium (First Gospel), is
contained in the curse ofthe serpent: "I will put enmities between
thee and the woman, and thy seed and her seed : she shall crush
thy head, and thou shalt lie in wait for her heel" (Gen. iii. 15).
2) Noe, in the blessing given to his sons and their descendants,
announces that salvation shall come through Sem: "Blessed be
the Lord God of Sem, be Chanaan his servant. May God enlarge
Japheth, and may he dwell in the tents of Sem, and Chanaan be
his servant"! (Gen. ix. 26, 27.) 3) Three times the Lord promises
to Abraham that his seed will be a great nation, and that in it
all the nations ofthe earth shall be blessed (Gen. xii. I — 3; xv. 5;
xxii. 17, 18). According to St. Paul (Gal. ih. 14 ff), this promise
was fulfilled in Christ. 4) Jacob, on his death-bed, thus speaks
of the coming Redeemer: "The sceptre shall not be taken away
from Juda, nor a ruler from his thigh, till He come that is to be
sent, and He shall be the expectation of nations" (Gen. xlix. 10).
5) Balaam prophesies: 'T shall see him, but not now;
I shall behold him, but not near ;
A star shall rise out of Jacob,
And a sceptre shall spring up from Israel."
(Num. xxiv. 17.)
6) Moses, before his death, promises another great prophet to his
people: "The Lord thy God will raise up to thee a prophet of
thy nation and of thy brethren, like unto me: him thou shalt hear!"
(Deut. xviii. 15, 18). This promise refers chiefly, if not immediately
and exclusively, to our Lord Jesus Christ.
VI. Messianic Types. Some of the most remarkable types men
tioned in the Pentateuch are : the Paradise (Lk. xxiii. 43 ; 2 Cor.
xii. 4; Apoc. u. 7); Adam and Eve (Mt. xix. 4, 5; Eph. v. 31 f);
Noe and the Ark (i Petr. iii. 20 f); Abraham (Rom. iv. 11, 12,
16, 17); Melchisedech (Hebr. vu. 3ff); Sarah and Hagar (Gal. iv. 21);
Isaac (Hebr, xi. 19); Jacob, Joseph, the circumcision (Rom. ii. 29;

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 2. JOSUE. THE JUDGES. RUTH. CI
Phil. hi. 3; Col. ii. ii ff); Moses, Aaron, the people of Israel
(Mt. ii. 15); the Red Sea and the rock in the desert (i Cor. x.
I ff); the Manna (John vi. 48 f; Apoc. ii. 17): the brazen serpent
(John iii. 14); the vow of the Nazarite (Mt. ii. 23; Hebr. vn. 26);
Israel's blessings and punishments (i Cor. x. 6, 11); the Paschal
Lamb (John xix. 36; i Cor. v. 7); the tabernacle, priesthood and
sacrifices of the Old Testament (Hebr. viii ff); its festivals (Col.
ii. l6f); the sacrifice of the red cow (Hebr. xiii. 11 f).
2. JOSUE. THE JUDGES. RUTH.
I. Historical Sketch, i. After the death of Moses, about 1450 B. C,
Josue, the son of Nun, was made by divine appointment the
leader of the Israehtes. He commanded their armies for about
twenty-five years (1450 — 1425). He crossed the Jordan, took Jericho,
and achieved in seven years the conquest of the promised land,
which, with the High Priest Eleazar, and according to directions
given by Moses, he distributed by lot among the tribes. He slew
the allied kings of South Chanaan commanded by Adonisedek,
king of Jerusalem, when "the sun and moon stood still until the
people revenged themselves of their enemies" Qos. x. 13). The
northern kings under Jabin of Asor were defeated near the lake
of Merom, After the conquest and division of the country, Josue
retired to the town of Thamnatsare, which had fallen to him by
lot. But before his death he gathered once more the whole people
at Sichem and solemnly renewed their covenant with God. Josue
died aged one hundred and ten, and was buried at Thamnatsare in
the mountains of Ephraim. Soon after him Eleazar also died and
was succeeded by his son Phineas, the third High Priest.
2; After the death of Josue the people of Israel remained for
about three hundred years (1425 — 1095) without regular rulers.
The High Priests of this period, whose duty it was to rule the
people under God and with the assistance of the council of the
Ancients, appear to have been generally men of weak character.
During this sad period, "when there was no king in Israel, but
every one did that which seemed right to himself" (Judges xvu. 6),
the people frequently fell away from God into the idolatrous and
immoral worship of the Babylonian and Phcenician divinities, Baal
(Fig. 7, p. 52) and Astarte, practised by the Chanaanites still remaining

52

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

Fig. 7. God Baal.
Babylonian Relievo.

in the country. The invariable punishment of
such idolatry was that God abandoned the ido-
lators to the oppression of their enemies. As
soon, however, as they repented, God raised
among them valiant men and leaders called
Judges, who delivered them from their heathen
neighbours and renewed the ancient covenant.
Of such Judges, who often exercised their in
fluence simultaneously in various parts of the
country, we know sixteen, including in the
number the heroine and prophetess Debora
and the tyrant Abimelech : i. Othoniel; 2. Aod;
3. Samgar; 4. Barak; 5- Debora; 6. Gedeon;
7. Abimelech; 8. Thola; 9. Jair; 10. Jephte;
II. Abesan; 12. Ahialon; 13. Abdon; 14. Sam
son; 15. Heli; 16. Samuel.
Barak, encouraged and aided by Debora, slew the army of Jabin,
king of Chanaan, commanded by Sisara. Gedeon overcame the
Madianites, who had been devastating the south country during
seven years. His son Abimelech set himself up as king in Sichem,
but his rule soon came to an end. Jephte drove the Ammonites
out of the land beyond the Jordan, which they had oppressed for
eighteen years. His victory deprived him of his only daughter,
whom in consequence of a rash vow he had to offer to the Lord.
Samson is famous for his exploits against the Philistines. The
whole period of the Judges covers about three hundred years.
II. Literary Sketch, i. The Book of ^^.r^^ in its first part (ch. i — 12)
relates the history of the miraculous crossing of the Jordan, the
taking of Jericho, and the subsequent conquest of the lands to the
east of the Jordan; its second part (ch. 13 — 22) is mainly con
cerned with the geographical partition of the country by Josue and
Eleazar, the appointing of towns for the Levites and of towns of
refuge, the return of the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-
tribe of Manasses to the land east of the Jordan, given to them
by Moses. The last two chapters, 23 and 24, give an account
of the last meeting of the people under Josue and of the death
of Josue and Eleazar. The book of Josue was written for the
greater part by Josue himself (Josue xxiv. 26), but another, probably
Phineas, made some additions to it.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3. THE KINGS AND THE CHRONICLES. 52
2. The Book of Judges commences with a survey of the period
after the death of Josue, in which the Israelites abandoned the
God of their fathers and worshipped strange gods (ch. I and 2).
The main part of the book is a collection of memoirs on the
achievements of the Judges, especially of Barak and Debora (ch. 4
and 5), Gedeon and Abimelech (ch. 6 — 9), Jephte (ch. 11 and 12),
and Samson (ch. 13 — 16); chapters 17 — 21 form an appendix
dealing with two events that occurred shortly after the death of
Josue : the erection of an idol in Dan, and a crime committed by
the inhabitants of Gabaa in the tribe of Benjamin, which was
avenged by the almost total destruction of this small tribe.
Attention must be called to the famous song of Debora (Judges
V. 2 — 31), one ofthe most beautiful and oldest examples of Hebrew
poetry. Another interesting piece is the fable (not parable) told
by Joatham (Judges ix. 7 — 20), the only instance in the Bible of
this kind of literary form. The book of Judges is evidently to
remind the Jews of the Lord's warning that He will bless the
people if it obeys His law; but He will curse and punish it, if it
transgresses His commandments (Deut. xxvii f). According to many
Fathers and theologians, Josue (Hebr. iv. 8), Jephte and Samson
are types of Christ; Gedeon's fleece and the dew are a type of
Mary and the Holy Chfld (Ps. Ixxi. 6; Is. xiv. 8).
In accordance with the Jewish tradition, Samuel is believed by
most Catholic writers to have compiled the book of Judges from
previously written memoirs or chronicles. It was certainly written
before the time of King David.
3. The Book of Ruth devotes its four chapters to one ofthe most
touching narratives in the Old Testament. It records how the Moa-
bitess Ruth became the wife of Booz, of the tribe of Benjamin, and
thus the ancestress of David and Christ. It makes us acquainted
with the God-fearing ancestors of David and shows us in the Moa-
bitess Ruth a remarkable type of the future vocation of the Gentiles
to the hope of Israel. The concluding words are : "Booz begot Obed ;
Obed begot Isai; Isai begot David" (Ruth iv. 22). The author of
the book of Ruth is unknown, though many ascribe it to Samuel.
3. THE KINGS AND THE CHRONICLES.
I. Historical Sketch. Samuel, the disciple of Heli the High
Priest, was the last Judge in Israel (Fig. 8, p. 54). He delivered his

54

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE,

people from the cruel oppression of the Philistines, who, for a
short time, had possession of the Ark of the Covenant. He
anointed Saul, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, as the
first king in Israel (B. C. 1095). In the next following period
the Old Covenant attained its greatest perfection, thanks to the
simultaneous development of the royal rule and prophetical func
tions, side by side with the priesthood instituted by Moses.
From 1095 to 975 B. C, Saul, David, and Solomon ruled as
kings, each during forty years. The wars of David and Solomon

Fig. 8. Nebi-Samuel (Tomb of Samuel).
completed the conquest of the country and rendered its possession
secure. The sovereign power became hereditary in the family of
David, to whom God had promised, through the Messias, an
everlasting kingdom. David overthrew the Jebusites, who still held
the fortress on Mount Sion, transferred the Ark of the Covenant
to Jerusalem, and made that city the capital of his kingdom, now
extending from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from
Libanon to the Arabian gulf. Solomon, his son and successor,
built the Temple on Mount Moria. The magnificence of the edi-

CHAPTER II, THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3. THE KINGS AND THE CHRONICLES. CC
fices he raised, and the widespread fame of his wisdom, gave to
the kingdom an external splendour never equalled before or after.
After Solomon's death ten of the tribes separated themselves
fromRoboam, as Ahias, the prophet of Silo, had prophesied (3 Kings
xi. 29 ff). Juda alone, with the insignificant tribe of Benjamin,
remained faithful to the hereditary ruler. Jeroboam, a commander
of the army, who had fled the country under Solomon, was, at
Sichem, proclaimed king by the other ten tribes. Thus, since 975
B. C. , the country was divided into the northern kingdom of
Israel, also called Ephraim, after the most
powerful of the tribes, with, later on, Samaria
as its capital; and the southern kingdom of
Juda, with Jerusalem as its capital.
I . In the Kingdo-m of Israel idolatry be
came universal, wherefore many pious Israe
lites, Ancients, Priests, and Levites, returned
to Juda and Jerusalem. Jeroboam, the first
king, in order to alienate the people from Jeru- ^'s- ?¦ -^p'^-
salem and the Temple, erected golden calves
(the Egyptian ox Apis [Fig. 9]) at Dan and Bethel, the northern
and southern points of his kingdom, and invited his subjects to
worship them. About 900 B. C, the godless king Achab, who
had married the Phoenician princess Jezabel, forced upon the
people the worship of the Sun-god Baal, or Bel, and the impure
worship of the lunar goddess Astarte (Venus). The fiery zeal of
the prophet Ehas alone prevented all Israel from bowing their
knee to Baal. Elias had to flee from the vengeance of Jezabel,
but a whirlwind having taken him up into heaven, his spirit de
scended upon Eliseus. Eliseus caused Jehu (884 — 856) to be anointed
king of Israel, and by Jehu the race of Achab and Jezabel was
wiped out in Israel.
The Kingdom of Israel had nineteen kings, belonging to nine
different families : of these, seven were entirely destroyed by those
who succeeded them. Several kings reigned but a few months or
even a few days'. Twice there was a long interreign (from 783 — 772
and from 738 — 730), during which great confusion prevailed. Only
one single king of Israel showed zeal for the Law, viz., Jehu, and
even he tolerated the worship of the golden calves, although he
abolished that of Baal,

56

P.4RT I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

Israel suffered much from its neighbour Syria, and when the
strife with Syria came to an end, it fell entirely under the power
of the Assyrians. The usurper Phul, i. e. Tiglath-Pilasar IIL, king
of Assyria (745 — 727 [Fig. 10]), and since 731 also king of Baby
lonia, threatened the Kingdom of Israel, then ruled by Menahem,
and he only withdrew on the promise of a yearly tribute of one
thousand talents. But soon after the same Assyrian king was
invited by Achaz, king of Juda, to assist him against the now
allied Israelites and Syrians. Tiglath-Pilasar again entered the land,
conquered Damascus (733 — 732), and led into captivity many in-

Fig. IO. Tiglath-Pilasar 111. of Assyria. Relievo from Nimrud.

habitants of Northern Galilee and of the country east of the River
Jordan. The final downfall of the Kingdom of Israel was effected
by king Salmanassar IV and his successor Sargon IL, 722 B. C,
after a siege of three years, during which Salmanassar died; the
capital, Samaria, was taken, and the usurper, Sargon, led the
greater part of the people with Osee (730—722), the last of
their kings, captives to Assyria. The captives were distributed
over the most distant parts of the great Assyrian empire, and
colonists were sent from Assyria to re-people Samaria. The fusion
of these colonists with the Israehtes left in the country produced
the half-heathenish population of the Samaritans.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3. THE KINGS AND THE CHRONICLES. 57
2. The Kingdom of Juda outlasted that of Israel by nearly a
century and a half It had twenty kings, all of the house of
David, with the exception of Athalia, the impious daughter of
Achab and Jezabel ; but only a minority of them were religiously
inclined. The worst of these rulers was the bloodthirsty tyrant,
AthaHa (883 — 878); she destroyed the whole family of her consort,
Joram, king of Juda, with the sole exception of his nephew, Joas,
saved by Jojada, the High Priest, and did her best to give the

' -"f5t»'

Fig. II. Sennacherib receives the delegates of the surrendering town of Lachis.
Relievo from Kujunchik. London, British Museum. (After Layard.)
upper land of Juda to the worship of Baal. But Jojada, who here
played the role of Elias, caused Joas, hidden in the Temple from
his earliest infancy, to be proclaimed king when he was but six
years old. Athalia was apprehended in the court of the Temple
and stoned to death ; the worship of Baal was abolished, and the
covenant with God solemnly renewed.
At the time of the conquest of Israel, the pious king Ezechias
ruled in Jerusalem (727 — 699). Like his neighbour, he was assailed
by Sargon and his successor Sennacherib (Fig. 1 1), but the army

5^

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE,

of Sennacherib, 185000 strong, under the command of Rabsakas,
was stricken by the angel of the Lord with the plague under the
walls of Jerusalem (701 B. C). The successor of Ezechias, Ma
nasses (698 — 642), and part of his people were temporarily led
into captivity to Babylon by the Assyrian Asarhaddon (Fig. 12),
who had succeeded Senna
cherib. Manasses was followed
by his idolatrous son Ammon
(642 — 639), and after Ammon
followed the good Josias (639
to 610), who, conjointly with the
prophet Jeremias , abolished
idolatry and enforced the strict
observance ofthe Law of Moses.
Josias was succeeded by Joachaz,
610; Joakim, 610 — 599; Jecho-
nias (Joachin), 599; snd Sede-
cias, 599 — 588. These are the
last four kings of Juda before
the Babylonian Captivity.
In the year 606 B. C, Nabu-
chodonosor , or Nebukadne-
zar, king of Babylon (whose
father, Nabopalassar, destroyed
Niniveh in the same year and
put an end to the empire of
the Assyrians) , led his army ¦
up to the walls of Jerusalem,
after having previously defeated
Necho, king of Egypt, at Cir-
cesium. A tribute was imposed
on king Joakim, the precious
vases ofthe Temple were stolen,
and many distinguished Jews,
among them the youthful Dani
el, were sent to Babylon as captives. The tribute having been
refused, Nabuchodonosor returned to Jerusalem (599 B. C), which
surrendered to him after a siege of three months. Jechonias, with
the best men of the people, and the prophet Ezechiel, were led

Fig. 12. Stele of king Asarhaddon from
Sendschirli. Berlin, Museum.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3. THE KINGS AND THE CHRONICLES. 59
into captivity. Eleven years later (588 B. C), a new revolt of
king Sedecias against Babylon brought about the downfall of the
Kingdom of Juda. Nabuchodonosor came with all his army against
Jerusalem, and captured the city. Sedecias was taken prisoner and
brought to the king of Babylon, who slew the sons of Sedecias
before his face, put out his eyes, bound him with chains, and
brought him to Babylon. The holy city was razed to the ground,
and all the people, except some poor dressers of vines and hus
bandmen, were carried away. The Jew Godohas was made the
governor over those that remained in the land.
II. Literary Sketch. The history of the people of Israel, from
Heh and Samuel until the Babylonian Captivity, is contained in
the Four Books of Kings and the Two Books of Paralipomenon
(called in the Hebrew "the Chronicles").
I. The first two Books of Kings are called by the Hebrews
(and by Protestants) "the Books of Samuel", because Samuel and
his disciple David play the most conspicuous part in them, and
they are mostly written from notices and memoirs made by Samuel.
The first book contains the history of Heli and Samuel, the
establishment of the kingdom, and the history of Saul and David
up to the death of Saul and Jonathan. The second book tells the
history of the, reign of King David, to whom is promised the
throne of Israel in continuity through his successors and an eternal
kingdom in the Messiah, born of the house of David (vii. 13 ff).
The first two Books of Kings make detailed mention of the intro
duction of two new elements in the Jewish theocracy, namely,
the public prophetic office and the kingdom. The reign of David,
the king according to the heart of God, is made to appear as
the very' foundation of Israel's greatness. These books were written
after Samuel, after the division of the kingdom under Roboam,
but probably under the same king. The author is unknown. In
2 Kings i. 18 ff is found the beautiful song of David on the death
of Saul and Jonathan, a specimen of fine elegiac poetry.
2. The third and fourth Books of Kings (in Hebrew and Prote
stant Bibles the first and second) tell the history of Israel from
the accession of Solomon to the Babylonian Captivity. They de
scribe at length the building of the Temple, and fully report the
extraordinary and wonderful doings of the prophets Elias and

6o PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Eliseus. The last verses of the fourth book tell us that Jechonias,
the last king of Juda but one, was delivered from the prison where
he had been thirty-seven years, by Evilmerodach, king of Babylon,
in the year that he began to reign, 562 B. C. These two books
can easily be divided into three parts: the first (b. Ill, ch. i — 11)
tells of the reign of Solomon; the second (b. Ill, ch. 12 to b. IV,
ch. 17) tells the contemporary story of the two kingdoms; the
third (b. IV, ch. 18 — 25) tells of the last fortunes of the king
dom of Juda. The writer tells not the pohtical, but the religious
history of the people; hence the prominent part given to the
prophets. These books were written in about the middle of the Babylonian
Captivity. Internal and external reasons point to the prophet
Jeremias as the author.
3. The Two Books of Paralipomenon ("things left out") or the
Chronicles, are a kind of supplement to the Books of Kings, re
cording many things passed over in those books. The first begins
with genealogies of old and famous families from Adam down to
the times after the Captivity. History proper begins in chapter
tenth, with the last unfortunate war of Saul against the Philistines,
and ends with the history of David. The second book contains
the history of Solomon and his successors in the Kingdom of Juda
down to the Captivity, no account being given of the Kingdom
of Israel. The last verse records the permission given by Cyrus
to the captive Jews, to go up to Jerusalem and bufld a house to
the Lord. The Chronicles tell some events much more in detail
than the Books of Kings; others, only in short summaries. They
often differ from the Books of Kings, but the divergence does not
affect any essential part. It chiefly exists in names and numbers,
and may be attributed to mistakes by copyists. In all probability
these books were written by Esdras, the scribe, who evidently
gathered much of his information from public documents. The
books were certainly written under the Persian dominion and be
fore the Macedonian period. The writer's object is evidently to
show that Israel was great and happy as long as the people wor
shipped the true God and obeyed His Law.
It may be remarked that originally the Books of Samuel and
of the Kings and of the Chronicles were not divided into two
books, but formed each only one book.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 4. ESDRAS AND NEHEMIAS.

61

Kings David and Solomon and their kingdom are types of
Christ, the Messiah, and His spiritual kingdom. Jerusalem is a
type of the Church and of Heaven. The words of the prophet
Nathan (i Chron. xvh. lO ff) contain one of the grandest Messianic
prophecies. The same must be said of the beautiful Canticle of
Anna (i Kings h. I ff), which is sometimes called the Magnificat
of the Old Testament. Ehas and Eliseus are types of Christ
(Lk. iv. 2 1 fi) ; the small cloud (3 Kings xviii. 44) is a type of the
Blessed Virgin Mary.

4. ESDRAS AND NEHEMIAS.
I. Historical Sketch. For the space of seventy years, the Jews
remained captives in Babylon (606 — 536). The prophet Jeremias
had foretold that, after
seventy years, God would
remember His people in
Babylon and bring it back
to its own land: exactly
seventy years after the
battle of Circesium and
the first transportation of
Jews to Babylon, Cyrus
(Fig. 13), now also ruler
of the Medes and the
Persians, released God's
people from their capti
vity, with licence to return
and build the Temple in
Jerusalem. He restored the
holy vessels, which Nabu
chodonosor had taken
away, and gave leave to
cohect money for the con
struction of the Temple.
The Jews still remained
under a Persian governor, whose functions, however, were restricted
to the ingathering of taxes; the administration proper was com
mitted to the High Priest.

Fig. 13. Monument of king Cyrus at Murghab.

62 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Soon a great number of the exiles, chiefly Priests, Ancients and
Levites, returned to Jerusalem, although a still greater number,
mostly of the better classes, preferred to remain in their new
homes in the Persian empire. Zorobabel (a grandson of king
Jechonias) and the High Priest Josue brought back to Jerusalem
about 50000 Jews, mostly of the tribe of Juda and Benjamin.
They rebuilt the Altar of Holocausts on its ancient site and restored
the daily sacriflce. The following year they laid the foundation
stone ofthe new Temple, but the construction, owing to the hostile
interference of the Samaritans, did not proceed until the second
year of Darius I. Hystaspes. Thanks to the zeal of the two pro
phets Aggseus and Zacharias, the work was then again taken
in hand, and completed in the sixth year of Darius Hystaspes,
B. C. 514.
In the seventh year of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king of Persia
(B. C, 458), two thousand more Jewish men returned to Jeru
salem under the leadership of the celebrated priest and doctor
Esdras (i Esdras viii. I ff), who, with the King's permission, began
to rebuild the walls of the city. But the Samaritans again interfered
by all means in their power, and impeded the progress of the
work. In B. C. 445 , the Jew Nehemias , cup-bearer to king
Artaxerxes Longimanus, arrived in Jerusalem with extensive powers
granted by the King, and in the short space of fifty-two days,
amidst continuous fighting against the Samaritans, rebuilt the walls
of the city. Esdras and Nehemias worked with wonderful zeal and
success for the religious and civil regeneration of their country.
At the Feast of Tabernacles of the seventh year, Esdras, during
the eight days, read the Law to the assembled people. Then
followed a fortnight of public penance, during which the Levites,
in the name of the people, publicly confessed God's benefits and
the people's ingratitude, and the covenant with the Lord was
renewed. After twelve years of great activity, Nehemias returned to the
Persian court, but later came back to Jerusalem to put an end to
the abuses that had arisen after the death of Esdras, such as the
desecration of the Temple and of the Sabbath, and marriages with
heathens. The priest Manasses, of the family of the High Priests,
was cast out from the priesthood for refusing to dismiss his
heathen wife, the daughter of Sanballat, the Persian governor of

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. 5. TOBIAS. JUDITH. ESTHER. g^
Samaria. Sanballat then instituted, for the benefit of his son-in-
law, a separate high-priestly dignity at Sichem, and thence dates
^the complete separation of the Samaritans from the Jews. Later
me Samaritans built a temple for themselves on Mount Garizim,
Sichem, which remained in existence from B. C. 330 — 130.
II. Literary Sketch. The liberation of the Jews from the Baby
lonian Captivity, and the doings of Esdras and Nehemias, are set
forth in the Books of Esdras and Nehemias, which hardly refer to
the profane and political events of the time, but are exclusively
concerned with the restoration of the religious commonwealth of
the Jews. Nor do they give a continuous systematic history, but
rather a collection of fragmentary notices.
I . The First Book of Esdras continues the history of the Chro
nicles. After recalling the permission to return to Jerusalem,
granted by Cyrus to the Jews, it tells of the home-coming under
Zorobabel and Josue, and of their efforts to rebuild the Temple
(ch. I — 6). Chapters 7 — 10 deal with the second home-coming
under Esdras, and with the work of Esdras in Jerusalem.
2. The Second Book of Esdras, or ^e Book of Nehemias, con
tains the memoirs of Nehemias. It relates the arrival of Nehemias
in Jerusalem, the construction of the walls, and the measures
taken in common by Esdras and Nehemias for the good of the
people. The last chapter contains an account of the second visit
of Nehemias to Jerusalem and of the zeal he then and there
displayed. In these books are several documents in the Chaldean
language. The Books of Esdras and Nehemias, as regards their principal
contents, are a compilation of memoirs written by Esdras and
Nehemias themselves ; as a whole, they are probably the work of
Esdras, made at the time of king Alexander the Great.
5. TOBIAS. JUDITH. ESTHER.
The Books of Tobias, Judith, and Esther treat of particular
persons and events, Tobias and Judith belong to the time of the
Assyrian domination ; Esther is of the Persian period. The strictly
historical character of these books is generally admitted, notwith
standing the objections raised by rationalists. The character of
the narratives, the uniform Jewish and Christian tradition, do not

64 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
allow us to consider these books as mere allegories or moral
fictions; but they treat, evidently, of historical persons and events.
I. The Book of Tobias tells the story of a pious Israelite of
the tribe of Nephtali, and of his son, both named Tobias.
Tobias, when still young, was transported with his family to
Assyria, as a captive (B. C. 722). He lived in Niniveh, the capital
town, and was highly thought of by the King (Sargon). His
position enabled him to visit his fellow-captives in various parts of
the country, and to assist them with his money and his influence.
On the occasion of one of these visits, Tobias lent ten talents
of silver to his fellow-tribesman, Gabelus at Rages, in Media. Soon,
however, Tobias lost the favour of the King, who revenged himself
on the captive Jews for the disaster which happened to the army
of Sennacherib under the walls of Jerusalem (B. C. 701). Tobias,
who, against the will of the King, buried the bodies of his
brethren abandoned on the high roads, had his fortune confiscated
and -was compelled to flee the country. Sennacherib having died
shortly afterwards, Tobias returned to Niniveh and regained possession
of his fortune, but lost his eyesight and fell once more into poverty.
When he thought death near, he sent his son, with an unknown
companion, who later on revealed himself as the Archangel Raphael,
to Gabelus, in Media, in order to recover the ten talents. During
this journey the Angel brought about the marriage of the younger
Tobias with Sara, the pious daughter of his kinsman Raguel of
Ecbatana; he also indicated a remedy, by means of which, at his
return, the blindness of his father was removed. Tobias lived
forty-two years after these events, and died, at the age of one
hundred and two years, in Niniveh, the impending downfall of which
he predicted shortly before his death. His son emigrated with his
family to his kinsfolks, in Media, where he died at the age of
ninety-nine years. ^,
This book, written in the Chaldean language, by an unknown
writer during the Assyrian or the Babylonian Captivity from memoirs
of Tobias and his son, sets forth the ideal of a saintly family life.
2. The Book of Judith narrates an extraordinary event which
is to remind the Jews that the Lord God will always protect them
as long as they serve Him faithfully.
The Assyrian king Nabuchodonosor (i. e. Assurbanipal, 668—626),
the last great king of Assyria, sent his general Holofernes with a

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

65

great army west and south to confirm the allegiance of doubtful pro
vinces and to subdue dangerous neighbours. Judsea was threatened.
Holofernes pitched his camp in the plain of Jezrael under the walls
of the frontier fortress Bethulia, the key of the country (Fig. 14).
The water supply having been cut off, the besieged were on the
point of surrendering, when Judith, a God-fearing widow, strong
in her confidence in God, undertook to save the city by an act
of great daring. She entered the camp of the Assyrians, was kindly
received by Holofernes, and, during the night, when Holofernes

Fig. 14. Sanur (Bethulia).

lay on his bed fast asleep and exceedingly drunk, she cut off
his head with his own sword. The death of the general caused
a panic in the besieging army, which was put to flight next
morning by a sally of the garrison of Bethulia.
This event happened during the captivity of Manasses, king of
Juda, the High Priest at the time being Eliakim, or Jojakim.
Bethulia is the modern Beth-Ilva near Mount Gilboe, where the
village of Judeide still perpetuates the name of Judith. The book
was probably written in Chaldean by a Palestinean Jew during the
earher days of the Babylonian exile, possibly by Jojakim himself.
Messmer. Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 5

QQ PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
The Canticle of Judith (xvi. 2 — 21) is a grand poetical song of
triumph and thanksgiving. Judith may be looked upon as a type
of the Virgin Mary, to whom the Angel Gabriel addressed the
words spoken by Ozias to Judith (xiii. 23), and to whom the
Church applies the words by which the High Priest and the people
greeted Judith (xv. 10).
The book presents great historical difficulties, so that some
Catholic writers felt compelled to admit of its being a religious
allegory; but modern discoveries and closer investigation of dif
ferent texts allow us fully to maintain its historic truth.
3. The Book of Esther records how Esther, after the rejection
ofVasthi, was made the Queen of Xerxes I. (485 — 465) and used
her influence with the King to save the Jews in Persia from the
destruction threatened them by Aman, an ambitious courtier, who
hated Mardochai. Queen Vasthi was deposed B. C. 483, before
the ill-fated expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, 480 — 479
B. C. ; Esther was made queen in her place after the war, B. C.
478 — 477. To commemorate the preservation of the Jews through
Esther and Mardochai, the Jewish Feast of Phurim was instituted,
a proof of the historic character of the book. Esther, the adopted
daughter of the Jew Mardochai, employed at the royal court of
Susa, was one of the numerous Jews who remained in Persia after
the Babylonian Captivity. From xvi. 16, 18, 21 some infer that
Artaxerxes (correctly: Xerxes) was converted by Esther to the
belief in the one true God.
The historic character of the Book of Esther must be maintained.
The historic difficulties, internal and external, are being rapidly
explained away, the more that Assyrian discoveries furnish a better
knowledge of the conditions and events of the Persian empire.
There are two editions, of the Book of Esther : the short and
abbreviated one, as preserved in the Hebrew; this compend of
the original was probably made after Christ, and forms the first
part (ch. i. to x. 3) in the Vulgate; the second part (x. 4 to xvi)
contains fragments taken from the Greek translation. The complete
original work, probably written by Mardochai shortly after the
events told, is preserved in the Septuagint and Vulgate versions.
The appendix (ix. 23 — 32) regarding the Feast of Phurim may have
been written by Esdras. Like Judith, Esther also is a type of
the Blessed Virgin Mary.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT, A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. Q'J
6. THE MACHABEES.
I. Literary Sketch, i . The Biblical Period. Palestine remained
under Persian domination until Alexander the Great (Fig. 15) put
an end to the Persian power. Alexander, after taking the strongholds
of Tyre and Gaza (B. C. 332), marched peaceably into Jerusalem.
He appointed Andromachus Governor of Syria and Palestine, and,
after the assassination of Andromachus, Memnon. After the death
of Alexander the Great, the Jews were at one time ruled by the
Egyptians; at another, by the Syrians, until Antiochus the Great,
king of Syria, finally annexed Palestine to his kingdom (B. C. 203).
Antiochus treated the Jews with kindness, but his elder son,
Seleucus Philopater, ordered the treasure of the Temple to be
plundered by his treasurer Heliodorus, and his younger son, Anti
ochus IV. Epiphanes, subjected the Jews to unheard-of cruelties,
in order to force upon them Greek religion and Greek morals.
In B. C. 169, he captured
Jerusalem. The town and the
Temple were plundered, the
city-walls were pulled down;
the Temple was deserted and
dedicated to Jupiter Olym-
pius; the holy Scriptures were '^'«- ^^- Tetradrachm of Ale^nder the Great.
burnt, and no effort was spared to impose upon the Jews the
rehgion of the Greeks. The venerable Eleazar and the seven
brothers, with their mother, were cruelly put to death during this
persecution. The tyranny of Antiochus found strenuous opponents
in the mountains of Juda, at the small town of Modin, in the
person of Mathathias, a priest of the Hasmonean family, and his
five sons: Judas, Jonathan, Simon, John, and Eleazar. The bravest
of them was Judas, surnamed Makkab, i. e. the hammer, after
whom the whole family was called the Machabees. After the death
of his father, he drove the Syrians out of Jerusalem (B. C. 165)
and restored the Temple and its worship. The Feast of the De
dication of the Temple was instituted to commemorate this event.
Antiochus Epiphanes died suddenly (B. C. 163), before he could
avenge himself on the Jews. Judas Machabee fell in a battle against
the Syrians, B. C. 160, Jonathan took up the command, and
after him, Simon (143— 135), who prevailed upon king Demetrius

68 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
to restore full political independence to the Jews. His grateful
people made the dignity of ruler and" High Priest hereditary in
his family.
2. The Post-Biblical Period. John Hyrcanus (B. C. 135 — 106), the
son and successor of Simon, in 130 B. C, destroyed the Samaritan
temple on Mount Garizim, vanquished the Edomites (Idumeans to
the South of Palestine) and forced them to adopt the rite of
circumcision. His son, the cruel Aristobulus I., assumed the royal
dignity and title, but died after a reign of only one year (106 — 105).
His younger brother, Jannaeus, a valiant but cruel warrior, succeed
ed him (105 — 78). His widow, the pious princess Alexandra,
reigned for eight years (78 — 66). After her death, her two sons
Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II. engaged in a fratricidal war,
which brought to a miserable end the glorious rule of the Machabees.
The two fighting brothers submitted their cause for arbitration to
the Roman general, Pompey, at that time engaged in an expedition
against the Parthians. Pompey decided in favour of Hyrcanus, and
as Aristobulus was arming in self-defence, the Romans took Jeru
salem by force (B. C. 63). Many Jews were taken to Rome as
prisoners of war, where they were enfranchised and lived together
in a separate quarter. Julius Csesar, after his victory over Pompey,
confirmed Hyrcanus in the functions of High Priest, but he annexed
Palestine to Idumaea and appointed the Edomite prince Antipater
governor of the new province (B. C. 46). On the death of Anti
pater, the Roman Senate conferred the title of "King of the Jews"
on his son Herod I., surnamed the Great (B. C. 37). During the
first nine years of his reign, all the survivors of the Machabean
family were murdered, even his own wife Mariamne, the grand
daughter of Hyrcanus. The sceptre had passed from Juda.
Herod the Great died after a long and cruel reign, in the year
753 U. C. (Roman reckoning), three months after the birth of
Christ. Then the emperor Augustus divided Palestine among the
sons of Herod : Archelaus, the eldest, whom his father had appointed
his successor, received the provinces of Judsea, Samaria, and Idumaea;
Herod IL Antipas Galilee and the south of Petrasa (east of the
Jordan); Philip II. the north of the country to the east of the
Jordan, Ituraea and the country of Trachonitis. Another son,
Philip I., the lawful husband of Herodias, lived in Rome the life
of a private gentleman. Archelaus ruled with the same cruelty

CHAPTER JI. THE OLD TESTAMENT. A, THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. gg
as his father,' and was exiled to Vienne in Gaul A. D. 6. His
province was incorporated in the Roman province of Syria and
administered by special governors residing at Csesarea. The first of
these governors was Coponius, the fifth Pontius Pilate (A. D, 26 — 36),
Herod Antipas, who beheaded John the Baptist and mocked the
Saviour, was exiled with the ill-famed Herodias to Lyons in Gaul.
His province, with that of Philip, who had died without issue
(A. D. 37), was granted to a nephew of Herod the Great, Herod
Agrippa I, who, by favour of the emperor Claudius, also acquired
the country formerly under Archelaus, and ruled as king of all
Palestine from A, D. 41 — 44. About the year 41 he beheaded
the Apostle James the Great, and, to please the Jews, caused
Peter to be apprehended. Shortly afterwards he died suddenly
at Csesarea whilst receiving, after the manner of the Roman em
perors, divine honours from a Phcenician embassy and the populace
of Csesarea. The whole of Palestine was now joined to Syria,
and again administered by Roman governors. Herod Agrippa II. ,
son of Agrippa I., obtained, however, and retained until after the
destruction of Jerusalem, the title of king of the north-eastern parts
of the country, and the custody of the Temple. It is to him that
Paul gave an account of his life, conversion and calling at Csesarea
(Acts xxvi). The fourth Roman governor after the death of
Agrippa I. was Felix, before whom St. Paul appeared in bonds
at Cassarea. He was married to Drusilla, sister of Agrippa II.
His successor was Festus, who sent Paul to Rome to be judged
(A. D. 60). Then came Albinus, and lastly Gessius Florus. A
crushing tribute imposed by Florus A. D. 64 caused the war of
extermination by Vespasian and Titus upon the Jews, which re
sulted in the total destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in the
year 70 of the Christian era,
II. Literary Sketch, i , The first book of the Machabees records
the wars of the Jews for religious and political liberty against the
kings of Syria (the Seleucides), under the priest Mathathias and
his sons Judas, Jonathan, and Simon. It ends with the informa
tion that John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, was made High Priest
after his father. This book was written in Hebrew by a Palestinian
Jew possibly before the death of John Hyrcanus (B. C. 106), and
is probably based upon memoirs written by members of the
Machabean family.

70 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
2. The second book of the Machabees is not a continuation of
the first, but deals with the fortunes of the Jews under Seleucus
Philopater, Antiochus Epiphanes, and Judas Machabee in the years
B. C. 176 — 161. It does not come down as far as the first, but
gives more details of the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes,
the martyrdom of Eleazar and the seven brothers with their mother,
and events connected with the Temple. It begins with two letters
(i. I — 9; i. 10 to ii. 19) from the Jews in Palestine to their brethren
in Egypt, relating to the Feast of the Dedication of the Temple
(which is here called Feast of Tabernacles, because of the similarity
of the celebration). The date of the second of these letters (I. 10)
corresponds to the year 123 B. C. The book is of great im
portance in regard to Christian eschatology. It clearly teaches the
future resurrection and retribution (vi. 26; vii. 9, 14 ff), prayers for
the dead (xii. 43 ff), and intercession ofthe just dead for the living
(xv. 14). This book was originally written in Greek by a Jew
hving in Jerusalem. Its date may be set between the years 1 59 — 123 ;
others place it near the year lOO B. C. The author gives us, as
he says (ii. 24), a short abstract of what Jason of Cyrene had
written in the five volumes (now lost) concerning Judas and his
brethren. Jason must have finished his work before the year i6l
B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.
I. BIBLICAL POETRY.
I. Hebrew Poetry is remarkable for the loftiness of its subject-
matter and the simplicity of its form. It knows not the carefully
measured lines of classical verse nor the more modern rhymes; it
is hmited to the simple rhythm of thoughts. The Hebrew verse
is based upon accent, not on quantity, and consists in simple
iambics and trochees. Rhymes are but seldom met with.
2. The most striking pecuharity of Hebrew poetry is the Par
allelism of its verses, i. e. a certain symmetry of thought and
expression between the members of a sentence or even of a longer
passage. In fact, as rhyme and syllabic measure are extremely
rare in Hebrew poetry, this parallelism consists principally in the
rhythm, that is, the equal and harmonious movement of thought
advancing upon the staging of similarly arranged lines and phrases.
Hence it is found where two or more members of a sentence are

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

71

of nearly equal length and so arranged that thought corresponds
to thought, and phrase to phrase (Cornely).
While verses or periods of two members are the most common
in the Bible, verses of three and four members are also frequent;
in a few instances we find even such of six members. Evidently this
parallelism offers an excellent means of most beautiful and highly
artistical expression and form. Let the corresponding members
(thoughts, phrases) be expressed by the letters a, b, c, etc., a sen
tence of four members may then be arranged in the following
ways : aabb, abab, abba, baab. With five members we may have :
aabbc, abcbb, abcab, abcba, abbac, and so on. Examples of the
most variformed parallelisms can easily be found in the Psalms
and the Prophets, particularly in the Lamentations of Jeremias and
in the Book of Job.
There are three chief varieties of parallelism, accordingly as the
parallel members of the passage carry on the main idea or subject
by simple repetition (synonymous parallelism) or by contrast (anti
thetic parallelism) or by amplification (synthetic parallelism) :
a) The synonymous parallelism, which occurs very often, consists
in expressing the same idea in different words in the several parts
of the verse, e. g.
May he send thee help from the sanctuary,
And defend thee out of Sion. (Ps. xix. 3.)
For I know that my Redeemer liveth,
And in the last day I shall rise out of the earth.
And I shall be clothed again with my skin,
And in my flesh I shall see my God.
Whom I myself shall see,
And my eyes shall behold,
And no other. (Job xix. 25 ff.)
The Lord is my light and my salvation ;
Whom shall I fear?
The Lord is the protector of my life ;
Of whom shall I be afraid? (Ps. xxvi. i, 2.)
Compare also Ps. xxxiii. 14; xh. 3; Prov. xxiii. 15, 16; Judith
xvi. 2; Wisd. i. 4; Ecclus. iv. i; Is. xxiu. 16; Mich. iv. i ff.
b) The antithetic parallelism consists in opposing contrary thoughts
to one another in the parallel members of the verse. This form
is especially fit to express moral truth by opposing the beauty

72 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
and reward of virtue to sin, its deformity and punishment. It is
most frequently found in the Proverbs of Solomon, e. g.
Justice exalteth a nation :
But sin maketh nations miserable, (Prov. xiv. 34.)
A deceitful balance is an abomination before the Lord :
And a just weight is his will.
Where pride is, there shall be reproach :
But where humility is, there also is wisdom.
The simplicity of the just shall guide them:
And the deceitfulness of the wicked shall destroy them.
(Prov. xi. I ff.)
Wine and music rejoice the heart :
But the love of wisdom is above them both.
The flute and the psaltery make a sweet melody ;
But a pleasant tongue is above them both.
The eye desireth favour and beauty:
But more than these green sown fields. . . .
Gold and silver make the feet stand sure :
But wise counsel is above them both.
Riches and strength lift up the heart :
But above these is the fear of the Lord. (Ecclus. xl. 20 fif.;
He hath put down the mighty from their seat,
And hath exalted the humble.
He hath filled the hungry with good things,
And the rich he hath sent away empty. (Lk. i. 52 ff.)
Cf. Ps. xxxvi. 28 f ; Prov. xv. i ff; xxvin. 3 ff; Bar. in. 27 ff.
c) The synthetic or progressive parallelism develops, amplifies,
completes, illustrates or proves, in the different members, the one
leading thought, e. g.
The Assyrian came out of the mountains from the North
In the multitude of his strength :
His multitude stopped up the torrents,
And their horses covered the valleys.
He bragged that he would set my borders on fire,
And kill my young men with the sword,
To make my infants a prey,
And my virgins captives.
But the Almighty Lord hath struck him.
And hath delivered him into the hands of a woman.
And hath slain him. . . .
For she put off the garments of her widowhood,
And put on her garments of joy,
To give joy to the children of Israel.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B, THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. V^
She anointed her face with ointment,
And bound up her locks with a crown,
She took a new robe to deceive him.
Her sandals ravished his eyes.
Her beauty made his soul her captive,
With a sword she cut off his head. (Judith xvi. 5 ff.)
Weep for the dead, for his light hath failed :
Weep for the fool, for his understanding faileth.
Weep but a little for the dead, for he is at rest. . . .
The wicked life of a wicked fool is worse than death.
The mourning for the dead is seven days :
But for a fool and an ungodly man all the days of their life.
(Ecclus. xxii. 10 ff.)
The law of the Lord is unspotted,
Converting souls :
The testimony of the Lord is faithful,
Giving wisdom to little ones.
The justices of the Lord are right,
Rejoicing hearts:
The commandment of the Lord is lightful,
Enlightening the eyes.
The fear of the Lord is holy,
Enduring for ever and ever :
The judgments of the Lord are true,
Justified in themselves. (Ps, xviii. 8 ff.)
Cf also Amos vi. i ff; vin. 8 ff; Is. Ix. i ff; Ps. ci. 4 ff, 24 ff;
Job xxviii. 12 — 20.
It must be observed, however, that the three kinds of parallelism,
or any two of them, are very often combined by the poet in the
same sentence or passage. This adds to the beauty and variety
of poetical expression, e. g.
Thy hand destroyed the Gentiles,
And thou plantedst them :
Thou didst afflict the people
And cast them out.
For they got not possession of the land by their own sword,
Neither did their own arm save them.
But by thy right hand and thy arm, and the light of thy countenance :
Because thou wast pleased with them.

Through thee we will push down our enemies with the horn ;
Through thy name we will despise them that rise up against us.

74 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
For I will not trust in my bow :
Neither shall my sword save me.
But thou hast saved us from them that afflict us ;
And hast put them to shame that hate us.
In God shall we glory all the day long :
In thy name we will give praise for ever. (Ps. xliii. 3 fif.)
Behold the Lord shall lay waste the earth,
And shall strip it.
And shall afflict the face thereof,
And scatter abroad the inhabitants thereof.
And it shall be as with the people, so with the priest :
As with the servant, so with his master ;
As with the handmaid, so with her mistress ;
As with the buyer, so with the seller:
As with the lender, so with the borrower:
As with him that calleth for his money, so with him that oweth.
With desolation shall the earth be laid waste,
And it shall be utterly spoiled :
For the Lord hath spoken this word.
The earth mourned and faded away,
The height of the people of the earth is weakened.
The earth is infected by the inhabitants thereof;
Because they have transgressed the laws,
They have changed the ordinance.
They have broken the everlasting covenant. . .
The vintage hath mourned,
The vine hath languished away,
All the merry-hearted have sighed.
The mirth of the timbrels hath ceased,
The voice of them that rejoice is ended,
The melody of the harp is silent.
They shall not drink wine with a song :
The drink shall be bitter to them that drink it.
(Is. xxiv. I ff.)
Cf also Wisd. v. 15 — 21; Amos vi. i ff; Job xx. 4 ff, xxxix.
29 ff; Ps. xxxvi. 35 ff; Ivii. 4 ff.
This poetic parallelism furnishes a basis for different structures
of verse and strophe in Hebrew poetry. Accordingly, as two,
three or more parallel phrases are joined toge1;her , either by
logical connection or by grammatical arrangement, to give ex
pression to some thought or sentiment, they form a verse or a
strophe of shorter or longer space, of simple or complex construc
tion, with or without a line of prologue and epilogue. Thus the

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

75

manifold rhythm of syllabic accentuation and mensuration in mo
dern poetry is here supplanted by the everchanging rhythm of
thought set forth in symmetric grammatical forms and groups.
This kind of poetic expression will easily lend itself for the most
diverse forms and modes of musical production by different choirs,
especially in the form of strophe and antisti'ophe, anthem, interlude
and response. The following Psalm u. may serve as an example:
I. Strophe (by David):
I. Why have the Gentiles raged.
And the people devised vain things?
2. The Kings of the earth stood up,
And the princes met together
Against the Lord and his Christ :
3. Let us break their bonds asunder.
And let us cast away their yoke from us.
II. (Anti-)Strophe (by David):
4. He that dwelleth in heaven shall laugh at them.
And the Lord shall deride them.
5. Then shall he speak to them in his anger,
And trouble them in his rage.
Intercalary Verse (by the Messias):
6. But I am appointed by him over Sion, his holy mountain,
Preaching his commandment.
III. Strophe (by the Messias):
7. The Lord hath said to me:
Thou art my Son,
This day have I begotten thee.
8. Ask of me:
And I will give thee the Gentiles for thy inheritance,
And the utmost parts of the earth for thy possession.
9. Thou shalt rule them with a rod of iron,
And shalt break them to pieces like a potter's vessel.
IV. (Anti-)Strophe (by David):
10. And now, O ye Kings, understand:
Receive instruction, you that judge the earth.
1 1 . Serve ye the Lord with fear :
And rejoice unto him with trembling.

nQ PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
12. Embrace discipline:
Lest at any time the Lord be angry,
And you perish from the just way.
13. When his wrath shall be kindled in a short time,
Blessed are they that trust in him.
See also Psalms 41 and 42, being really one Psalm of eighteen
verses, where every six verses form one strophe, each strophe
ending with the same refrain (Ps. xii. 6, 12; Ps. xhi. 6). Amos,
chapters i. and ii. are written in strophic verse, the refrain (i. 4,
7, 10, 12, 14; ii. 2, 5) being placed either at the end or in the
middle of a strophe. The speeches in the Book of Job are all
strophic structures.
The examples given above may furnish the reader with a pretty
clear idea of the poetical parallelism of the Bible. It must be
remembered, however, that a literal translation, while it exactly
follows the symmetry (parallelism) of thought, can never accurately
reproduce the symmetry of the grammatical phrase presented in
the original text.
3. Of the different kinds of poetry, the lyric (song) and didactic
are principally represented in the Bible. The Psalms and the
Canticles belong to the first class. Job, although essentially di
dactic, partakes of the nature of an epos, while the Canticle of
Canticles may be described as a dramatic allegory with many
lyrical parts. The poetry of the Prophets is mostly lyric; in some
visions it is epic. The Lamentations of Jeremias are by many
classed as elegiac poetry.
As regards the form of poetical speech, the use of tropes and
figures is most general; metaphors, metonymies, synechdoches
abound ; the number of comparisons (similitudes) and figures taken
from nature and the social or domestic habits of the people is
simply astonishing. It is said that no fewer than two hundred and
fifty botanical names occur in the Old Testament poetry. A few
poems have the form of alphabetic acrostics, e. g. Ps. cxviii.,
Prov. xxxi., and the Lamentations.
4. Hebrew poetry reached its highest perfection in the times
of David and Solomon, the period of greatest splendour in Old
Testament history. David is one of the greatest lyric poets of
all times, while Solomon is the father and master of proverbial
and didactic poetry.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

71

5. Outside of the didactic and prophetical books, the following
poetic creations in the Bible may be mentioned. The oldest bit
of poetry in the Bible is Lamech's song of the sword (Gen. iv. 23).
Other notable poems are: The triumphal song of Moses after
crossing the Red Sea (Ex. xv. i ff) ; the last song and the blessing
of Moses (Deut. xxxu. xxxiii); Debora's canticle of thanksgiving
after the victory over Sisara (Judges v. I ff) ; the canticle of Anna,
mother of Samuel (i Kings ii. i ff); David's touching lamentation
over the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2 Kings i. 19 — 27); his
enthusiastic hymn of thanks after his victory over all his enemies
(i Kings xxii), and his leave-taking (2 Kings xxiii. i — 7); Judith's
triumphal song (Judith xvi. I ft). All these compositions have in
their simplicity a sublime beauty and charm. The triumphal song
of Moses is among the sublimest literary productions of any time
or nation.
The Old Testament contains one parable, viz. Nathan's parable
of the rich and the poor man (2 Kings xii. i ff); also one fable
in prose: the fable of the trees which wanted a king (Judges ix.
8 ff; cf. 4 Kings xiv. 9), and a poetical enigma or riddle, viz.
the famous riddle of Samson (Judges xiv. 14): "Out of the eater
came meat, and out of the strong came sweetness."
Note, The Gospels are exceedingly rich in parables, the parable being the
usual mode of teaching adopted by Christ who, in this respect, might also have
said of Himself: "Behold, a greater than Solomon here." The poetical composi
tions of the New Testament are but three : the hymn of the Blessed Virgin Mary
(Magnificat , Lk. i. 46 ff), which is like 'an echo of the canticle of Anna, the
mother of Samuel (i Kings ii) ; the canticle of Zacharias (^Benedictus , Lk. i. 68 ff),
and the canticle of Simeon (Lk. ii. 29 ff)-
2. JOB.
I . The Book of Job is a kind of Theodic^a, deahng with the
question how the sufferings of man, especially of the just, can be
reconciled with the justice of God. The answer given is: that
man cannot know; it is a mystery of God's all-wise Providence.
The book has three parts: the prologue (introduction), the dia
logue (discussion), and the epilogue (conclusion). The dialogue,
the principal part of the work, is one of the choicest flowers of
Hebrew poetry; the prologue and the epilogue are in prose.
a) The Prologue (ch. i and 2) gives the historical foundation
of the book: Job, simple, upright. God-fearing, had, by the wish

78

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE,

of Satan, his faith in God tried by many misfortunes. But,
throughout them all, and though he was successively deprived of
his vast herds of cattle and sheep, of his servants, and lastly of
his children, the patience of Job and his confidence in God never
faltered. "The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away", he
said; "as it hath pleased the Lord, so is it done; blessed be the
name of the Lord" (i. 2i). Then Satan, by the permission of
God, struck Job with a very grievous ulcer, probably the Egyptian
leprosy, or perhaps elephantiasis, from the sole of his foot even to
the top of his head; but his patience remained inexhaustible. Even
his wife rose against him. Three of Job's friends, Arabian chiefs
from Idumea (Tob. ii. 15), came to visit and to console him.
b) The Dialogue consists in an animated discussion between Job
and his friends Eliphaz, Baldad, and Sophar (ch. 4 — 14, 15 — 21,
22 — 31), the four speeches ofEliu, and lastly God's answer. His
friends looked upon the sufferings of Job as being punishments
of secret sins, whilst Job constantly affirmed his innocence. The
violence of his sorrows, and the awkward language of his inter
locutors caused him sometimes to pass beyond the bounds of
moderation in his replies to them, but never to reHnquish his at
titude of humble submission to God's will. On occasions, however,
Job rises to enthusiastic outbursts on the greatness, wisdom, and
goodness of God, upon which his hope rests. In ch. 32 — 37
Eliu, a young man who has not spoken so far, but only listened,
enters the debate, and adroitly reminds Job and his friends that
God is always just, even when he chastises men who are not
conscious of any grievous fault. He also hints at the intercession
of the good angels in behalf of man: "If there shall be an angel
speaking for him, one among thousands, to declare man's upright
ness, he shall have mercy on him, and shall say: 'Deliver him,
that he may not go down to corruption: I have found wherein I
may be merciful to him' " (xxxih. 23 f). Eliu's speech gives a calmer
turn to the discussion, and brings it nearer to a satisfactory issue.
Towards the end, ch. 38—41, God appears in a whirlwind, and
in a majestic discourse confirms the speech of Eliu, pointing out
to Job His infinite power and His inscrutable wisdom, by which
He allows trials to come upon the just and the sinner alike.
c) The Epilogue, chapter 42, gives the result of the discussion.
Job, justified by God Himself, unhesitatingly submits to the divine

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B, THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

79

decrees. He had stood his trial successfully, and God gave him
thrice as much as he had possessed before. And Job lived after
these things one hundred and forty years, and he saw his children
and his children's children unto the fourth generation.
2. Job, whom Sacred Scripture often holds up as an example
of patience, did not belong to the chosen people; nevertheless,
he was a worshipper of the true God and offered sacrifice for the
sins of his children. Several indications in the book would place
him in the days of the Patriarchs. Perhaps he belonged to some
lateral branch of the family of Abraham. He was rich and inde
pendent, probably a nomad chief, in the land of Hus, i. e., ac
cording to tradition, the country of Trachonitis, the modern
Hauran, north-east of the Jordan, where his position was similar to
that of Abraham in Palestine.
The Book of Job contains facts and fiction. While the sub
stance of the narrative is undoubtedly historical, some of its de
tails, as well as the form of the speeches and the discussions, are
the creation of the poet-author. It is comparatively easy to in
dicate in general the historical parts; but very difficult to point
out all the historical details. Again, although the whole book is
inspired by God, Catholic commentators find the greatest difficulty
in determining the passages and assertions which may claim a
divine authority. In its present form, the book is not anterior to
the time of Solomon. Some attribute it to Jeremias; others, to
Asaph (i Par. xxv. i ff). Possibly Solomon himself converted
some older history of Job into the present poetical masterpiece.
The strophic arrangement of the poem is said by critics to be a
real work of art. This book, written in brilliant language, and
especially rich in magnificent descriptions of nature, is among the
most perfect productions in the world's literature. It has justly
been called "The Lamentation of Suffering Mankind". The Fathers
have always considered Job to be a prominent type of the suf
fering Saviour (James v. 1 1).
3. THE PSALMS.
The Book of Psalms is a collection of one hundred and fifty
religious songs, composed for the greater part by David, or during
his reign, whence they are called the Psalms of David. The

80 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
Hebrew titles ascribe seventy- three Psalms to David. Psalm 89 is a
prayer of Moses, and, therefore, the oldest Psalm in the collection.
Psalms 71 and 126 are Solomon's. Others are attributed to the
Levites Asaph , Heman , and Ethan , the chief musicians under
David; others again, to the levitical family of Core. Forty-eight
Psalms have no title in Hebrew; among these are the several
(according to the Greek and Latin translations, fourteen) which
were composed, probably, by David. The most recent Psalms
belong to the times of Esdras and Nehemias, after which prophet
and psalmist lost their inspired voices.
I . The Psalter, in regard to its origin, may be divided into five
books, each closing with the same doxology. The first embraces
Ps. I — 40; the second, Ps. 41 — 71; the third, Ps. 72 — 88; the
fourth, Ps. 89 — 105; the fifth, Ps. 106 — 150. The first book con
tains almost exclusively Davidic Psalms; the second, besides many
Davidic Psalms, also one by Asaph (50), and seven by the sons
of Core (42 — 49). These collections were made by David for use
at the liturgical functions in the Tabernacle on Mount Sion.
The third collection, containing most of the Psalms of Asaph,
was probably made by the "men of Ezechias^ King of Juda"
(Prov. xxv. i) and combined with the former collections. The
Psalms of the fourth book are of a more general character, breath
ing peace and happiness ; hence the collection is placed in the
time from Ezechias to the exile. The last part of it, speaking of
the Babylonian exile and the return of the captives, was evidently
gathered after these events. The fact that these collections (books)
were repeatedly adapted to the public liturgy in the Temple, by
the addition of new Psalms and the omission of others, explains
why the order of the Psalms does not correspond with their
chronology. The last redaction of the collected Psalter, giving it
its present form, was probably made by Esdras (2 Mach. ii. 13).
2. According to their subjects, the Psalms may be divided into
the following five classes:
a) Psalms of prayer. These are the most numerous (e. g.: 3, 5,
8, 18, 45 ff, 63, 73, 102 ff, 145 ff). They are subdivided into
Psalms of praise, thanksgiving, impetration, and penitence. The
penitential Psalms, according to ancient ecclesiastical usage, are
the following seven: 6, 31, 37, 50 (Miserere), loi, 129 (De pro-
fundis), 142.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. gl
b) The didactic Psalms are poetical instructions on God and
His attributes, and on the relations of man to God, e. g. Pss. i,
36, 48, 72, 118, etc.
c) The Messianic Psalms contain prophecies regarding the
Messias and His Kingdom. Psalm 2 speaks of the victory of the
Messias as King; Psalms 21 and 68, of the sufferings of the
Redeemer; Psalm 15, of the Resurrection of Christ; Psalm 109,
of the Kingdom and Priesthood of Christ; Psalm 71, of the King
dom of the Messias ; and Psalm 44, like the Canticle of Canticles,
of Christ as the glorious bridegroom of His Church. The following
Messianic prophecies deserve special attention; Ps, ii, 7, 8: "The
Lord said to me : Thou art my son ; this day have I begotten
thee. Ask of me, and I will give thee the Gentiles for thy in
heritance, and the utmost parts of the earth for thy possession' ' ;
Ps. xxi. 18, 19: "They have dug my hands and my feet; they
have numbered all my bones. And they have looked and stared
upon me; they parted my garments amongst them; and upon my
vesture they cast lots"; Ps. Ixviii. 22: "They gave me gall for
my food, and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink'';
Ps. Ixxi. 10: "The kings of Tharsis and the islands shall offer
presents; the kings ofthe Arabians and of Saba shall bring gifts";
Ps. cix I, 4: "The Lord said to my Lord: Sit thou at my right
hand, until I make thy enemies thy footstool", and: "The Lord
hath sworn and He will not repent: Thou art a priest for ever
according to the order of Melchisedech."
d) The historical (national) Psalms sing of the remarkable
events in the history of the chosen people, especially of God's
wonderful Providence over them during their wanderings in the
desert, e. g. Psalms "jj, 78, 104, 105, etc.
e) The festal Psalms, as their name implies, were composed to
be sung either on some special religious and public occasion, or
on the various festival days celebrated by the Jewish people,
e. g. Pss. 14, 23. Prominent among the latter are Pss. 112 — 117,
called the great Hallel, which all begin with Alleluia, and were
sung at the three great annual feasts, especially at the eating of
the Paschal Lamb and the solemn procession on the Feast of
Tabernacles. Likewise, the fifteen gradual Psalms (Pss. 119 — 133),
which, on the last-named feast, were sung by the singers of the
Temple on the fifteen steps (gradus) leading up to the court of
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 6

82 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
the priests, and were used by the Israelites in their pilgrimages
to the sanctuary.
f) There are still a few Psalms which are sometimes, though
without sufficient reason, spoken of as a class; viz. the so-caUed
maledictory (imprecatory) Psalms, in which the Psalmist (mostly
David) hurls the curse of God against his enemies, e. g. Pss. 34,
51. 53i 57i 67, 108, 136. Infidels use this as an argument against
the divine inspiration of the Psalms. The early Fathers of the
Church have already made answer by saying that in these places
the Psalmist speaks not as a private person, but as the messenger
of God announcing His wrath to the sinners (the enemies of David
being also the enemies of the theocratic law), in order that they
may be converted and that the just may not be misled by the
evil example. The Fathers also remark that "under the form of
the curse hes hidden the prophecy of the sinner's punishment";
lastly, these curses may be taken as the outcome of a fervent
zeal wishing for the vindication of divine justice.
3. The Psalms, ever since the translation of the Ark of the
Covenant to Mount Sion, occupied a prominent part in the Jewish
liturgy, and the grand songs of Sion, with their musical accom
paniment, became famous even in the West. From the days of
the Apostles, they held in the liturgy of the Christian Church the
same distinguished place as they did formerly in the solemnities
of the Temple. They form an essential part of the daily priesfly
prayer (the Breviary) ; they are also extensively used in the parts
of the Mass, the Introit, Gradual, Offertory, and Communion,
according to the pecuhar character of the feast or holy season;
they are, moreover, very appropriate for private devotions (Eph.
v. 19; Col. ih. 16), for "they are the language of inspiration, they
contain almost every possible petition and the expression of every
feeling — from the loftiest joy to the deepest sorrow — which can
enter into our solemn intercourse with heaven. ... In whatever
temper our minds may be, there will be some one at least of
those sacred melodies which will harmonize with it, accord its jars,
soothe its fretfulness, calm its anxieties, cheer its gloom, console its
sorrows . . . and compose the whole soul to that just standard of
Christian peace which soars not in pride, and sinks not in de
spondency" (Card. Wiseman).

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. a. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 83
4. PROVERBS. ECCLESIASTES.
These poetical books are attributed to the wise king, Solomon,
who "also spoke three thousand parables : and his poems were a
thousand and five" (3 Kings iv. 32). Of his many songs we have,
besides the Canticle of Canticles, the two Psalms 71 and 126; of
his "parables" (proverbs) several hundreds are preserved in the
Book of Proverbs.
I. The Book of Proverbs in its introductory part (ch. i — 9)
proclaims the praises of true wisdom, the beginning of which is
the fear of God (i. f), which is more precious than all riches
(iu. 15) and ought to be sought after, especially by the young.
At the end of these utterances the personal wisdom of God, or
the Eternal Word of God, is spoken of as possessed by the Lord
in the beginning of His ways, before He made anything from the
beginning, before the earth was made, and when the depths were
not as yet (viii. 22 ff). Solomon puts the Proverbs into the mouth
of this Eternal Wisdom and says: "Now, ye children, hear me:
Blessed are they that keep my ways" (vin. 32).
The main part of the book (ch. 10 — 29) contains about five
hundred Solomonic proverbs, the last of which (ch. 25 — 29) were
not collected before the time of Ezechias, king of Juda. They are
mostly short and pointed sentences teaching wisdom and virtue.
Here are some of the most beautiful :
"A mild answer breaketh wrath: but a harsh word stirreth up
fury" (xv. i).
"The patient man is better than the valiant: and he that ruleth
his spirit, than he that taketh cities. Lots are cast into the lap,
but they are. disposed of by the Lord" (xvi. 32, 33).
"The horse is prepared for the day of battle : but the Lord
giveth safety" (xxi. 31).
"To speak a word in due time, is like apples of gold on a bed
of silver" (xxv. il).
"A stone is heavy and sand is weighty; but the anger of the
fool is heavier than them both" (xxvii. 3).
An appendix (ch. 30 and 31) contains the counsels of a certain
Agur, the son of Jakeh, and the instructions of the mother of an
unknown king Lamuel. Both names, Agur and Lamuel, may be
fictitious. In ch. 3 1 is a didactic poem in praise of a good house-

84 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
wife; in Hebrew it is ordered alphabetically and may fitly be
called the "Wife's Golden Alphabet". The last verse but one
(xxxi. 30) is: "Favour is deceitful, and beauty is vain: the woman
that feareth the Lord, she shall be praised."
2. The Book Ecclesiastes, in Hebrew "The Preacher", is re
garded by most commentators as a confession of the converted
Solomon repenting of his former errors. He is the preacher.
In the first part (ch. I — 6) he shows the folly of attaching
one's self to earthly things, because they are "vain" and cannot
bring true happiness. He begins with . the well-known sentence :
"Vanity of vanities, and all is vanity" (i. 2), and shows from his
own striking experience that all the good things of the world
cannot give true satisfaction to man, for "the eye is not filled
with seeing, neither is the ear filled with hearing" (i. 8). In
chapter 2 the author gives a lengthy account of his wealth and
greatness. From a searching survey of the instability of things
earthly, he concludes that they may be enjoyed whilst at hand,
but only with moderation.
In the second part (ch. 7 — 12) he gives advice, supported by
reasons drawn from the nature of things, how to be content with
the things given by Divine Providence. In the last chapter
(ch. 12) he exhorts the youth to "remember the Creator before
the time of affliction comes, and the years draw nigh of which
thou shalt say: They please me not"; "before the sun, and the
hght, and the stars be darkened"; "before the silver cord be
broken, and the golden flllet shrink back, and the pitcher be
crushed at the fountain, and the wheel be broken upon the cistern,
and the dust return into its earth, from whence it was, and the
spirit return to God, who gave it" (xii. i, 2, 6, 7). Thus the
author, in closing his epflogue (xii. 8 — 14), arrives at the con
clusion: "Fear God and keep his commandments; for this is all
man: and all things that are done, God will bring into judgment
for every error, whether it be good or evil."
Whether the present form of Ecclesiastes is the work of Solomon
or of a later editor, is controverted among biblical scholars.
5. THE CANTICLE OF CANTICLES.
The Canticle of Canticles (in literal Hebrew "The Song of
Songs") of Solomon fllustrates, through the imagery of the love

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B, THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 8?
of the royal bridegroom Solomon for his lovely bride, the
shepherdess Sulamith, the spiritual union between God and His
chosen people resulting from His exceedingly great and conde
scending love. This applies in the literal, metaphorical sense to
Jehova and the people of Israel, but in a far higher and typical,
therefore perfect, sense to Christ and His Church. The figure of
speech representing that spiritual union by the image of connubial
love is famihar to the Old and New Testament. Inasmuch as
there is a true spiritual union, whose very essence is love, between
God and every soul sanctified by the Holy Spirit, ecclesiastical
writers often explain the Canticle of Canticles also in this sense.
But still more, and in a truly eminent degree, is it applied to
the Blessed Virgin Mary, not only because she is "full of grace",
but also because in her was accomplished the marriage of the
Eternal Word with human nature. Hence the Blessed Virgin
appears in the liturgy of the Church as "the Bride of the Canticle
of Canticles".
Theodore of Mopsuestia had advanced the opinion that the
Song of Solomon contained nothing more than what its literal
meaning implies, viz. the poetical presentation of natural love;
the Fifth General Council (held at Constantinople, A. D. 553),
however, condemned this opinion. Another view, looking upon
the song as based upon some event in Solomon's life, to which a
typical meaning is attached, squares neither with the divine
character of the book nor with the common sense of the universal
Church, which considers the song to be an allegory, in which the
inspired author sets up an ideal human love as a mirror, wherein
the reader is to behold a supernatural mystery. Even the Jewish
tradition maintains the allegoric character of the Canticle. The
idea which it expresses is set forth in Psalm 44 (sometimes called
"the key to the Canticle") and in many other places.
The arrangement of the Canticle of Canticles is dramatic. It
is made up of dialogues between bride and bridegroom, intro
duced and interrupted by a chorus of virgins. The scene is laid
in a magnificent apartment of the royal palace at Jerusalem. To
understand the Canticle in the sense of the Church , it must
be read with a pure heart and a mature mind. St. Jerome in
forms us that no Jew was allowed to read it until he was thirty
years of age.

86 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
6. WISDOM, ECCLESIASTICUS.
I . The Book of Wisdom was written in Greek by a Jew living
in Egypt under the Ptolemies, probably under Ptolemy Philopater
(B. C. 222 — 205). The object of the author, who writes in the
person and the very spirit of Solomon, the great teacher of wis
dom, is to confirm the Egyptian Jews in the love of true wisdom
and true faith amidst their frivolous and unbelieving contemporaries.
In the first part (ch. i — 9), after a fervent exhortation to seek
wisdom and virtue, the writer points to the different lot of the
just and the unjust after death. The materialistic and infidel
opinions of his contemporaries, so much akin to those of the
modern world, and centreing in the two principles "let us enjoy
the good things that are present" and "might is right" (ii. 6, 11),
are beautifully set forth and strongly condemned in this second
chapter. In the second part (ch. 10 — 19) he deals with the wonderful
government of the chosen people by the Divine Wisdom and Pro
vidence. In chapters 13 — 15 we have a digression on the absurdity
of idolatry, which begins thus: "All men are vain, in whom there
is not the knowledge of God : and who by these good things that
are seen, could not understand Him that is, neither by attending
to the works have acknowledged who was the workman."
The Book of Wisdom is known by this name, not only because it
exhorts to the striving after heavenly wisdom, but chiefly because,
more expressly than any other book, it speaks of the personal
Wisdom of God (ch. 7 and 8). There we read: "He is the bright
ness of eternal light, and the unspotted mirror of God's majesty,
and the image of His goodness" (vn. 26). Almost the same words
are used in the Epistle to the Hebrews to describe the Son of God,
"who is the brightness of God's glory and the figure of his sub
stance" (Heb. i. 3). Many of the Fathers see in chapter u. 12 ff
a prophecy referring to Christ, the Son of God, and His per
secution and death by the Jews.
The inspiration of the Book of Wisdom has been furiously
attacked by modern writers notwithstanding the clear and strong
testimony of the early Church. Their charges of Platonism (eternal
matter, pre-existence of souls, divine emanation, inherent sinfulness
of the human body) and of historical errors are entirely due to
a false interpretation of the sacred text.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 87
2, The Book of Ecclesiasticus, i. e. Church-book, also called
"Jesus Sirach", was much used in early Christian times for public
reading in church and for the instruction of catechumens in the
precepts of morality; hence its name. In the Greek and the
Syrian versions it is called "the Wisdom of Sirach"; in Hebrew,
simply "Parables". It is a collection of moral precepts, in the
form of proverbs and short discourses; but it is more connected
and systematic than the Proverbs of Solomon. Here are some
examples :
"Son, when thou comest to the service of God, stand in justice
and in fear, and prepare thy soul for temptation" (ii. i).
"The father's blessing establisheth the house of the children,
but the mother's curse rooteth up the foundation" (iii. ii).
"The heart of the fools is in their mouth; and the mouth of
the wise men is in their heart" (xxi. 29).
"A tale out of time is like music in mourning" (xxii. 6).
"Let not the naming of God be usual in thy mouth, and meddle
not with the names of Saints" (xxiii. 10).
The Eternal Wisdom says of itself: "I came out of the mouth
of the Most High, the firstborn before all creatures: I made that
in the heavens there should rise light that never faileth, and as a
cloud I covered all the earth : . . and have stood in all the earth
and in every people. . . Then the Creator of all things com
manded and said to me: Let thy dwelling be in Jacob, and thy
inheritance in Israel, and take root in my elect" (xxiv. S ff).
After a short introduction (ch. i), in which the author ad
monishes the reader to acquire wisdom, he proceeds to show in
the first part (ch. 2 — 43) how this wisdom must shape human
conduct and lead to the practice of the different virtues. This
part closes with a most beautiful digression on Divine Wisdom
as the source of all wisdom. The second part (ch. 44 — 50)
illustrates the foregoing moral lessons by the light of the virtues
and the examples of the Patriarchs and the High Priest Simon.
The epilogue (ch. 51) consists of a prayer and a few admonitions
to be wise.
The. Book of Ecclesiasticus was written in Hebrew between
190 — 180 B. C. by Jesus the son of Sirach, who lived in Jerusalem.
His grandson, who lived in Egypt, translated the book into Greek,
about 130 B. C, when the Septuagint version of the Old Testa-

88 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
ment had already been completed. A great portion of the original
Hebrew text, which has been lost for centuries, was found a few
years ago ; but it shows that the Greek is a very free translation.
C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.
I. THE PROPHETICAL OFFICE.
I. The Prophets of the Old Testament were extraordinary am
bassadors of God, whose inspired preaching, wonderful works, and
prophecies concerning the promised Redeemer, kept alive the faith
of the people and their leaders and led them on to their sublime
vocation. The prophets were a necessary element in the Jewish theocracy.
With the formation of a royal monarchy in place of a pure theo
cracy, a great danger arose for the people to fall away from God
and from the Law. It was necessary that the prophets should
stand by the side of the High priests and the kings as upholders
of the revealed truths, as counsellors and preachers of penance,
to keep the chosen people on the path leading to the fulfilment
of the divine promises. The prophets received their communi
cations from God in various manners: either by mere internal
illumination, or by words and visions presented to their natural
perception or experienced in a state of ecstacy. They, in turn,
brought the divine message to others, either in symbolic deeds
and actions, or in direct speech and address, or by written report.
Usually the Lord Himself directed the prophet which manner
to choose. As a rule, they published the divine revelation in
oratorical and poetical form. The Lamentations of Jeremias are
purely poetical. Other remarkable poetical effusions of the pro
phets are : the prayer of king Ezechias on recovering from his
illness (Is. xxxviii. lO ff); the prayer of Azarias and the canticle
of the children in the burning furnace (Daniel iu); the prayer of
Jonas in the belly of the great fish (Jonas ii); and the beautiful
song of the prophet Habacuc (iii).
Many of the prophets gathered around themselves a considerable
number of disciples in the Schools of prophets founded by Samuel.
The learners were instructed in the Law and trained to a holy
life, so as to be fit for the reception of God's extraordinary gift
and mission. They lived in community and wore a distinct garb.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS. 89
The schools were established in the towns where the more famous
prophets lived , e. g. in Rama , Bethel , Galgala , and Jericho,
Liturgical singing and music were likewise taught.
2. In the post-Mosaic period, we distinguish two orders of pro
phets : the Older prophets, whose ministry consisted mostly in oral
teaching and working miracles; and the Younger prophets, who
were commanded by the Lord to write down their speeches and
prophecies. The activity of the former was reformatory , aiming
at the moral improvement of their contemporaries; the activity of
the latter ^2lS preparatory, intended mainly to strengthen the hopes
in the promised Messias, and thus prepare the nation for the
coming Redeemer. The connecting link between the older and
the younger prophets is Jonas, who lived about 800 B. C.
a) Leaving out Moses, who was more than a prophet , and
David, whose Messianic Psalms are splendid prophecies, and those
whose names are unknown, although mention is made of them in
different places (Judges vi. 8; i Kings ii. 27; 3 Kings xx. 13),
at the head of the older prophets stands Samuel, who anointed
Saul and David successively as kings of Juda. Others are : under
David: Gad (i Kings xxii. 5); Nathan (2 Kings vii. 2), the coun
sellor of David and the teacher of Solomon; towards the end of
Solomon's reign: the blind prophet Ahias (3 Kings xi. 29) at
Silo, who foretold the partition of the kingdom; the prophets
Semeias and Addo under Roboam (2 Chron. xu. 15); also the
prophets Jehu (3 Kings xvi. i), Micheas (3 Kings xxii. 8), Eliezer
(2 Chron. xx. 37), Hanani (2 Chron. xvi. 7), and Zacharias, the son
of the High Priest Joiada (2 Chron. xxiv. 20). But the greatest among
these ancient prophets were Elias of Thesbe (3 Kings xvii. i ff)
and his disciple, Eliseus (3 Kings xix. 16 ff), who, during the period
of the deepest degradation under Achab and Jezabel, stood up as
fearless witnesses to the faith and as defenders of the Law.
b) The Younger (later) prophets are usually divided into two
classes according to the importance and extent of their writings ;
viz. the Four greater prophets (joining Baruch to Jeremias) and
the Twelve minor prophets. It is well, however, to keep in mind
the beautiful remark of St. Jerome, who says of these so-called
minor prophets that they "tefl us of such grand and wonderful
things that one does nof know which to admire, the shortness of
their speech, or the greatness of their thought".

90

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

All the Four greater prophets belong to the kingdom of Juda.
Isaias and Jeremias lived and prophesied before the Babylonian
Captivity; Isaias, in the eighth century before Christ; Jeremias,
until after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and
his disciple Baruch, in the beginning of the Captivity. Ezechiel
exercised his ministry among the captives of Babylon during the
last years before and the first years after the destruction of
Jerusalem; Daniel during the whole time of the Captivity.
Of the Minor prophets Osee, Amos, and Jonas lived in the
kingdom of Israel during the first half of the eighth century be
fore Christ. In the second half, Joel, Abdias, and Micheas ex
ercised their ministry simultaneously with the prophet Isaias in the
kingdom of Juda; after them came Nahum and Habacuc under
Manasses, king of Juda (699 — 642). Towards the end of the
kingdom of Juda , Sophonias carried on his work at the same
time as Jeremias. Aggeus, Zacharias , and Malachias flourished
after the Babylonian Captivity; the first two whilst the Temple
was being rebuilt, the latter in the days of Esdras and Nehemias.
The writings of these younger prophets are chiefly remarkable
for their prophecies on the coming Messias, of whom they give
exact and precise descriptions. They foretell His birth of a virgin,
the time and place of His nativity. His works and His sufferings.
His resurrection and glorification; the foundation of the Church
and her destinies unto the end of the world.
Specially prominent by oratorical brilliancy are Joel , Micheas,
and Habacuc ; but even they are surpassed by Isaias.
3 . Three female prophets are mentioned in the Scriptures : Mary,
the sister of Moses (Ex. xv. 20) ; the heroic Debora (Judges iv. 4),
and Holda (4 Kings xxu. 14), the wife of Sellum, who, being con
sulted by Josias, the young king of Juda (639 — 610), announced
the impending ruin of Jerusalem through the Babylonians, and in
general stood by this pious king in his endeavours for the good
of the people.
4. The authenticity ofthe prophetic books ofthe Old Testament
is beyond all doubt. With the exception of Baruch, they all
belong to the first canon and are received by the Jews. Long
before the coming of Christ, Greek translations had spread the
knowledge of them over the civilized world. Recent interpolations
or corruptions are, therefore, impossible. Moreover, the Messianic

CHAPTER H. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.

91

prophecies contained in them are too precise to admit of their
being applied to any other but Jesus Christ, who Himself made
use of them to authenticate His Divine mission: "Search the Scrip
tures, for you think in them to have hfe everlasting ; and the same
are they that give testimony of Me" (John v. 39).
2. THE GREATER PROPHETS.
I. Isaias, son of a certain, otherwise unknown, Amos, com
menced his prophetic ministry in the year 757 B. C, the last
year of the reign of king Ozias, and was still living under king
Ezechias (727-^699), whose friend and counsellor he was. His
ministry, therefore, extended over a period of from fifty to sixty
years. According to an old tradition, this prophet suffered martyr
dom under king Manasses (699—642) by being sawn in two.
The Book of Isaias, which is one of the greatest literary pro
ductions in existence, consists of two main parts, preceded by an
introduction. In this introduction (ch. i — 5) the prophet com
plains in severe language of the sins of Juda and Jerusalem, and
rebukes the people for their ingratitude towards God. In the first
part (ch. 6 — 35) he describes his vocation to the prophet's office,
and announces to the kingdom of Juda, that the Babylonians will
inflict upon it the same punishment which the Assyrians inflicted
upon the kingdom of Israel. Chapters 36 — ^39 contain the historical
narrative, the invasion of Juda by the Assyrian Sennacherib (see
Fig. II, page 57), connecting the first part with the second. In
the second part (ch. 40 — 66), the prophet raises once more the
hopes of the people by pointing out their deliverer Koresh (Cyrus ;
see Fig. 13, page 61), and, in the distant future, the "Servant of
the Lord", i. e. the Redeemer, who will bufld up to himself a
new Israel out of all the nations of the earth. He addresses Jeru
salem in these words: "Arise, be enhghtened, O Jerusalem: for thy
light is come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee 1 For
behold darkness shall cover the earth, and a mist the people;
but the Lord shall arise upon thee, and His glory shall be seen
upon thee. And the Gentiles shall walk in thy light, and kings
in the brightness of thy rising" (Ix. i — 3).
The Book of Isaias, the most voluminous of the prophetic books,
contains many prophecies relating to the Messias. The best known,
besides the one just mentioned, are the following:

q2 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
"Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and his name
shall be called Emmanuel", i. e. God with us (vu. 14).
"A child is born to us, and a son is given to us, and the
government is upon his shoulder: and his name shall be called
Wonderful, Counsellor, God the Mighty, the Father of the world
to come, the Prince of peace" (ix. 6).
"There shall come forth a rod out of the root of Jesse, and a
flower shall rise up out of his root. And the spirit of the Lord
shall rest upon him: the spirit of wisdom and of understanding,
the spirit of counsel and of fortitude, the spirit of knowledge
and of godliness. And he shall be filled with the spirit of the
fear of the Lord" (xi. i — 3).
Of the precursor of the Messias, Isaias says: "The voice of one
crying in the desert : Prepare ye the way of the Lord , make
straight in the wilderness the paths of our God" (xl. 3).
He thus expresses the longing after the Saviour: "Drop down
dew, ye heavens, from above, and let the clouds rain the just:
let the earth be opened and bud forth a Saviour" (xiv. 8).
Chapter 53 contains a vivid picture of the Passion of Our Lord,-
The prophet calls Him "the most abject of men, a man of sor
rows, without beauty or comeliness, who was offered because it
was His own will, and who was led as a sheep to the slaughter
and opened not His mouth." By reason of the clearness and
distinctness of his prophecies, Isaias is called the Evangelist of
the Old Testament.
2. Jeremias, the son of Helcias, of the priests who were in
Anathoth, near Jerusalem, commenced his prophetic ministry at
an early age, in the thirteenth year of the reign of the pious king
Josias (628 B. C). His was the arduous duty of announcing to the
kingdom of Juda its fast approaching doom by the hands of the
Babylonians. When the threatened punishment had actuafly com
menced, the prophet exhorted the people to accept without mur
muring the just judgment of God. This caused him to be regarded
as a friend of the Chaldeans, and he was cast into prison by
Joakim, the last but two of the kings of Juda. Being no longer
able to preach himself, he dictated his previous prophecies to his
faithful disciple Baruch, the son of Nerias, and caused them to
be read in the Temple in the hearing of all the people. And
when Joakim tore up the book and burnt the pieces, the im-

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.

93

prisoned prophet dictated it again to Baruch, with several additions.
Even under Sedecias, the last king of Juda, Jeremias remained in
prison, although the king was disposed in his favour. But the
great ones of the people hated him. They once threw him into
a muddy cistern, in which he would have perished had it not
been for the timely help of the king's chamberlain, Abdemelech.
Only the capture and destruction of Jerusalem (B. C. 588) put an
end to the imprisonment of this most afflicted of prophets. For
some time he remained in Jerusalem, on whose ruins he sang his

Fig. 16. Jeremias' grotto near Jerusalem. {Phot. Bonfils.)
distressful Lamentations (Fig. 16). After the murder of Godolias,
the governor, Jeremias and Baruch were forced to flee to Egypt
with the rest of the Jews who had been left in Judaea. In Egypt,
also, he was persecuted, and, according to an ancient tradition,
was stoned to death at Taphnis (Tanis) by his own countrymen.
After the death of his master, Baruch betook himself to the cap
tives in Babylon, whence he sent the book which bears his name
to the brethren, who had again gathered in Jerusalem (B. C. 583).
a) The Prophecies of Jeremias, collected and written down by
Baruch, are wanting in chronological order, a sign of the exciting

94

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

times in which they were uttered. They may be divided into two
parts. In the first part (ch. i — 45) are found the exhortations of
Jeremias to the Jewish people and predictions of impending divine
punishments, but also the end of the captivity after seventy years :
"For thus saith the Lord: When the seventy years shall begin
to be accomplished in Babylon, I will visit you: and I will perform
my good word in your favour to bring you again to this place"
(xxix. 10). The second part (ch. 46 — 51) contains prophecies
concerning the destinies of other nations, especially of the Baby
lonians. An historical notice ofthe destruction of Jerusalem (ch. 52)
terminates the whole book.
Here are some of the Messianic prophecies of Jeremias :
"Behold the days come, saith the Lord, and I will raise to David
a just branch : like a king he shall reign, and shall be wise : and shall
execute judgment and justice in the earth. In those days shall
Juda be saved, and Israel shall dwell confidently: and this is the
name that they shall call him: The Lord, our just one" (xxiii.
5, 6). "The Lord hath created a new thing upon the earth: a
woman shall compass a man" (xxxi. 22).
b) The Lamentations of Jeremias, one of the most precious jewels
of Hebrew poetry, are five elegies on the downfall of the Holy
City. Their form is strictly regular. With the exception of the
last, they are in the original Hebrew alphabetical acrostics, in which
every stanza begins with a new letter. The third has this further
peculiarity that all the three lines in the stanza have the same
letter at the commencement. The theme of the whole is expressed
in the first verse: "How doth the city sit solitary that was full of
people ! The mistress of the Gentiles is become as a widow : the
princess of provinces made a tributary!" The end is a prayer of
the prophet for his wretched people, beginning with the words:
"Remember, O Lord, what is come upon us: consider and behold
our reproach. Our inheritance is turned to aliens, our houses to
strangers. We are become orphans without a father: our mothers
are as widows."
In the liturgy of Holy Week the Lamentations are put into the
mouth of the suffering Saviour; their remembrance for all time is
thereby secured.
c) Baruch acquaints us with the situation of the captive Jews
in Babylon. Its lines breathe the grief of the exiles, but also a

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.

95

spirit of repentance, ready to acknowledge their sins as the cause
of their calamities. The small book contains a remarkable historical
introduction, then his letter to the Jews in Jerusalem (ch. i, 2),
and his exhortations to the exiles in Babylon (ch. 3, 4, 5). There
is a prayer for deliverance from the captivity, a hymn in praise
of the Divine Wisdom, and a compendium of the prophecies con
cerning the end of the exile. The personal Divine Wisdom is
referred to in these terms: "Afterwards he was seen upon earth
and conversed with men" (in. 38). The last chapter (vi) is "a copy
of the epistle that Jeremias sent to them that were to be led away
captives into Babylon" as a preservative against idolatry: "You
shall see in Babylon gods of gold and of silver, and of stone
and of wood borne upon shoulders, causing fear to the Gentiles

Fig. 17. Procession of idols. Assyrian Relievo. London, British Museum. (After Layard.

(Fig. 17). Beware, therefore, that you imitate not the doings of
others, and be afraid, and the fear of them should seize upon you.
But, when you see the multitude behind and before, adoring them,
say you in your hearts: Thou oughtest to be adored, O Lord"
(vi. 3—5)-
3. Ezechiel, the son of Buzi, a priest in Jerusalem, was led
captive to Babylon, B. C. 599, with king Jechonias and the
greater part of the people. He lived there by the River Chobar.
In the fifth year of his captivity, the seventh before the destruction
of Jerusalem, he was called to the prophetical office and laboured
among his fellow-captives, as Jeremias did among those who were
left in Jerusalem. His ministry lasted at least until B. C. 572.
He died in Babylon.

96 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
The Book of Ezechiel opens with an introduction and comprises
three parts. The introduction (ch. i) relates to the vocation of
the prophet. The first part (ch. 2 — 24) contains the discourses
pronounced before the destruction of Jerusalem, in which the Jews
are rebuked for their impenitence and warned of the inevitable
ruin of their city. The second part (ch. 25 — 32) records pro
phecies relating to seven foreign nations in the neighbourhood.
The third part (ch. 33 — 48) contains the prophecies made after the
downfall of Jerusalem. In these the prophet endeavours to console
the dejected people by predicting their deliverance from captivity
and their future redemption.
Ezechiel describes the Messias, like a second David, in these
words: "I will set up one shepherd over them, and he shall feed
them, and he shall be their shepherd" (xxxiv. 23). The redemp
tion and deliverance of the Jews and of all mankind is foreseen
by the prophet in a vision of the resurrection of dry bones in the
midst of a vast plain (ch. 37). Chapters 40 — 48 describe the new
Temple and its magnificence.
The Book of Ezechiel is rich in brilliant imagery, and mysterious
visions. The vision seen by him when he was called by God
(ch. i) deserves special notice. The prophet sees God on a
movable throne, "the chariot of God", drawn by four living crea
tures — a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle — towards the four
points of the compass. Upon this vision are based the symbols
used in later times to represent the four Evangelists.
4. Daniel, a youth of noble extraction, of the tribe of Juda,
was brought to Babylon in B. C. 606, with the flower of the
Jewish nation. With three other noble youths, Ananias, Misael,
Azarias, he was educated as page at the court of Nabuchodonosor,
received the Babylonian name Baltassar, and held high offices
under Nabuchodonosor ' and his son Evilmerodach. After the
death of the latter, Daniel seems to have hved in retirement, until
he was sent for by king Baltassar to interpret the writing on the wall,
which announced the downfall of king and kingdom in the same
night. Darius, the Median, after the conquest of Babylon by the
Medes and Persians, made Daniel governor of a third part of the
kingdom (Fig. 18). But the nobles of the kingdom sought his ruin;
and the violation of a rehgio-political decree brought the prophet
for the first time into the lions' den, for worshipping the true God.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.

97

Cyrus, like his predecessor, granted Daniel his favour, but
was nevertheless compelled to deliver him up to the rebelhous
populace for having exposed the frauds of the priests of Bel and
killed a dragon worshipped in Babylon. The prophet was thrown
into the lions' den for the second time. He was fed by the
prophet Habacuc, and again miraculously saved. Tradition says
that he died at an advanced age in Persia, where his sepulchre
near the ancient capital Susa (the modern Shuster or Shushan) is
held in great honour even to the present day. Daniel found himself
at Babylon in the same
position as Joseph in Egypt.
Both were called by God
not merely to comfort the
people in their affliction,
but also to make known
the true God to the Gen
tiles, Divine Providence
brought the chosen people
into close contact with all
the cultured nations of an
tiquity, in order to prepare
these for the reception of
the Gospel (cf. Tob. xiii. 4).
The Book of Daniel re
cords Daniel's own life
(ch. I — 6) and his visions
or prophecies (ch. 7 — 12),
among which the prediction
of the end of four great empires, and the precise time of the
Redeemer are especially remarkable. The prophecy of the down
fall of the pagan world-empires, the Assyrio-Babylonian, the Medo-
Persian, the Greek-Macedonian, and the Roman, was first uttered
in the interpretation of Nabuchodonosor's dream or vision of the
great statue, the head of which was of fine gold, but the breast
and arms of silver, the belly and thighs of brass, the legs of iron,
and the feet part of iron and part of clay; then a stone was cut
out of the mountain without hands, and it struck the statue and
broke it to pieces (ch. 2). The stone is Christ and His Kingdom.
Later on Daniel had another vision of the four empires under the
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 7

Fig. 1 8. Ruins of Darius' Palate at Persepolis.

98 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
image of four beasts that came out of the sea and were judged
by God, the "Ancient of days" (ch. 7). His chief prophecy is
that of the seventy weeks of years (ch. 9) to pass till the coming
of Christ. Daniel connects it with the prophecy of Jeremias predict
ing the end of the captivity after seventy years. Entering into
detail, the prophet announces that, in consequence of the order
(of Artaxerxes to Esdras) to rebuild the city of Jerusalem, the
walls of the Holy City shall be set up by Esdras and Nehemias,
under great stress (i. e. constant fighting) against the Samaritans;
that from this time to the coming of Christ seven weeks of years
(i. e. 49 years) and again sixty-two weeks of years (i. e. 434 years)
shall elapse. After this period, Christ shall be slain and the co
venant confirmed with many; and in half of the seventieth week
the victim and the sacrifice shall fail, Christ's death putting an
end to the sacrifices of the Old Testament. Therewith begins the
abomination of desolation in the holy places, which Christ quotes
from Daniel in his own prophecy concerning the destruction of
Jerusalem (Dan. ix. 27 ; cf Mt. xxiv. 1 5). To understand this
prophecy well, it is necessary to bear in mind that the week of
years, or Sabbath-year, was in current use in the Jewish com
putation of time. With B. C. 454 a new Sabbath-year commenced,
and this is the starting point of the prophecy. The year A. D. 29
likewise commenced a new period of seven years. Between B. C. 454
and A. D. 29, the seven and the sixty-two weeks or four hundred
and eighty-three years elapsed, and Easter of A. D. 33 was the
half of the seventieth week of years.
The last chapters of Daniel contain the history of Susanna
(ch. 1 3) , the destruction of Bel and the kflling of the dragon (ch. 14).
These chapters, as also the prayer of Azarias and the canticle of
the three youths in the fiery furnace (in. 26 — 90), now exist only
in the Greek translation.
Although rationalistic critics have raised all kinds of objections
against the Book of Daniel, they have not been able to upset the
traditional behef which ascribes the book to Daniel himself as its
author, who wrote it during the captivity of the Jews in Babylon.
Nor is there any good reason why Daniel should not be con
sidered the author of the so-called deutero-canonical or Greek parts
of the book, translated from the Chaldean.

CHAPTER II. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS.

3. THE MINOR PROPHETS.

99

I. Osee, son ofBeeri, took up the prophetic office as early as
the reign of Jeroboam II. , king of Israel (824 — 783). He an
nounced the ruin of the kingdom, but promised at the same time
dehverance from captivity and perfect redemption in the fulness
of time. Thus he says (iii. 4f): "The children of Israel shall
sit many days without king, and without prince, and without
sacrifice, and without altar. . . And after this, the children of
Israel shall return, and seek the Lord their God, and David their
king; and they shall fear the Lord, and His goodness in the last
days." In chapter xi. i, it is said: "Because Israel was a chfld,
and I loved him: and I called my son out of Egypt", a text which
in the first instance refers to the Jewish people, but was also ful
filled in Christ (Mt. ii. 15). Chapter xih. 14: "I will deliver them
out of the hand of death, I will redeem them from death: O death,
I will be thy death; O hell, I will be thy bite!" a text which is
fulfilled by the Resurrection of Christ and will be fulfilled by our
own resurrection through Christ (cf i Cor. xv. 54 f).
The book written by Osee shows that God is just in punishing
the people (ch. 4 — ^9), but even when punishing he is merciful
(ch. 10 — 14). While the general subject is easily understood, the
sense of the single chapters is somewhat obscure.
2. Joel, the son of Phatuel, lived about B. C. 770, in the king
dom of Juda, the devastation of which by a plague of locusts,
and the invasion of the Assyrians, he describes in ch. i — 2. He
preaches penance (ch. 2) and announces the reign of the Messias
with all its blessings (ch. 3). St. Peter, in his first sermon on
the day of Pentecost, quoted from Joel : "I will pour out my spirit
on all flesh: and your sons and daughters shall prophesy: your
old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions"
(ii. 28, cf Acts ii. 17). In the last chapter, the enemies of Israel
are threatened with the just judgment of God. The language and
style of the little book written by Joel is classical and often subhme.
3. Amos, a herdsman from Thecua in Juda, prophesied at Bethel
in the kingdom of Israel, when Jeroboam II. was king (824 — 783);
but he also addressed his exhortations to the kingdom of Juda.
The book foretells, by way of introduction, the punishment of the
surrounding nations (ch. i , 2) ; it then records the sermon to
7'

XOO PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
the people of Israel (ch. 3 — 6), and afterwards five symboHc
visions (ch. 7 — 9). In chapter ix. 1 1 f , we have the words used
by St. James the Less at the Council of the Apostles in Jerusalem,
to prove the right of the Gentiles to enter the Church: "In that
day I will raise up the Tabernacle of David that is fallen : and I
will close up the breaches of the walls thereof and repair what
was fallen: and I will rebmld it as in the days of old, that they
may possess the remnant of Edom, and all nations, because my
name is invoked upon them: saith the Lord that does these things"
(cf Acts XV. 16 ff). The Book of Amos, written by himself, is
remarkable for its force and beauty. The prophet is said to have
died a martyr.
4. Abdias laboured at the same time and place as Joel (B. C. 770).
His short prophecy — it consists of a single chapter — announces
the destruction of Edom for the pride of its people and the wrongs
they did to Jacob; and the salvation of Israel. In verse 17 he
says: "And in Mount Sion shall be salvation, and it shall be holy,
and the house of Jacob shall possess those that possessed them."
This prophecy of Abdias was literally fulfilled when the Machabee
John Hyrcanus converted Idumsea into a Jewish province.
5. Jonas, the son of Amathi, laboured shortly after Elias and
Eliseus in the kingdom of Israel. In his book he describes his
mission to the luxurious city of Niniveh and the result of his
preaching there. Jonas is a prominent type of our Lord, who said
of himself: "As Jonas was in the whale's belly for three days and
three nights, . ." (Mt. xu. 40). But for this typical character the
Book of Jonas would be simply historical; now it is also prophetical.
Regarding the miracle told in chapter 2, St. Augustine very
appropriately says: "Either we may not believe any miracle at
all, or we must admit that there is no reason for denying the
miracle of Jonas."
6. Micheas , the Morasthite, lived in the kingdom of Juda, in
the time of Isaias, before the destruction of Samaria, B. C. 722.
He prophesied the downfall of both kingdoms, but also the resto
ration of the kingdom of David and its glory in Messianic times :
"It shall come to pass in the last days, that the mountain of the
house of the Lord shaU be prepared in the top of mountains,
and high above the hflls: and people shall flow to it" (iv. i).
The most notable prediction is in chapter v. 2: "And thou.

CHAPTER II.. THE OLD TESTAMENT. C. THE PROPHETIC BOOKS. IQI
Bethlehem Ephrata, art a little one among the thousands of Juda :
out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be the ruler in
Israel: and his going forth is from the beginning, from the days
of eternity."
In style and treatment the book is very much like that of
Isaias, and it ranks high in the classical literature of the Hebrews.
7. Nahum, i. e. the Comforter, lived and prophesied in Juda,
after the destruction of the kingdom of Israel. His bold and
powerful discourses are directed against the Assyrians, who threaten
Juda; and he foretells the downfall of Niniveh. "Woe to thee, O city
of blood, all full of hes and violence: rapine shall not depart
from thee" (ih. i). Nahum lived at the time when Assurbanipal
destroyed the great city of Thebes in Egypt (B. C. 662), during
the reign of king Manasses.
8. Habacuc , like Nahum, lived under king Manasses of Juda
(699 — 642); others place him in the first years of king Joachim,
B. C. 610 ff. He predicts, in an animated dialogue with God,
the destruction of Juda, and threatens Babylon with impending
punishments (ch. i, 2). Trusting that God wfll not forsake His
people, the prophet celebrates in a glorious hymn (ch. 3) the
divine power and grandeur: "He stood and measured the earth.
He beheld and melted the nations: and the ancient mountains
were crushed to pieces. The hills of the world were bowed down
by the journeys of His eternity" (iii. 6). It seems doubtful
whether this prophet Habacuc is identical with the one mentioned
in Daniel xiv. 32.
9. Sophonias, the son of Chusi, and a descendant of king Ezechias,
is another of the prophets who ministered to the kingdom of Juda
before the Captivity. He supported the God-fearing king Josias
of Juda (639 — 610) in his endeavours to extirpate idolatry; his
whole book is directed against the idolatry and immorality of
his contemporaries. He predicts divine punishments, but at the
same time affirms with emphasis that God will not forget His
people: "I will leave in the midst of thee a poor and needy
people: and they shall hope in the name of the Lord" (ih. 12).
10. Aggeus lived after the Babylonian Captivity. He worked
with the prophet Zacharias among the returned exiles, and ex
hibited great zeal in pushing the rebuilding of the Temple. He
prophesied about 520 B. C. that the second Temple, although in-

I02 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
ferior in beauty to the first, should be glorified above it through
the advent of the Messias : "Yet one little while, and I shall move
the heaven and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land. And
I wfll move all nations: and the Desired of all nations shall come:
and I wfll fill this house with glory: saith the Lord of hosts"
(h. 7, 8). His prophecies are addressed to Zorobabel and Josue,
the High Priest.
II. Zacharias, of a sacerdotal family, prophesied, like Aggeus,
among the Jews who first returned from Babylon (i Esdras v. i;
vi. 14). This book records, after a short exhortation to penance,
eight visions (ch. I — 6) relating to the completion of the Temple
and the glory awaiting the new Israel. Chapters 7 and 8 con
tain warnings against uncharitableness , and against the rising
Pharisaism. Chapters 9 — 14 foretell the victory of the kingdom
of God over its enemies in the time of the Messias. This
latter part contains several important Messianic prophecies. For
instance , chapter ix. 9 describes the triumphant entry of Jesus
into Jerusalem: "Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Sion, shout for
joy, O daughter of Jerusalem: Behold thy King wfll come to thee,
the Just and Saviour: he is poor, and riding upon an ass, and
upon a colt the foal of an ass." Concerning the treason of Judas,
the prophet says: "If it be good in your eyes, bring hither my
wages: and if not, be quiet. And they weighed for my wages
thirty pieces of silver. And the Lord said to me: Cast it to the
statuary, a goodly price, that I was priced at by them. And I
took the thirty pieces of sflver, and I cast them into the house
of the Lord to the statuary" (xi. 12, 13). And of the Passion
of Our Lord he says: "And they shall look upon me, whom
they have pierced" (xu. 10, cf. John xix. 37); and: "What are
these wounds in the midst of thy hands?" (xhi. 6.)
Among other characteristics Zacharias has this in common with
Isaias, that he gives most precise and touching details regarding
the Passion of Our Lord.
12. Malachias, the last of the prophets before John the Baptist,
prophesied after the completion of the Temple under Esdras and
Nehemias. Nothing is known of his person or family. He re
proaches the Jews with their ingratitude and the priests for not
offering pure sacrifices; he inveighs against marriages with ido-
lators, and divorces. He concludes these reproaches with the

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

103

promise of the Messias and his precursor. The most frequently
quoted of his prophecies refers to the sacrifice of the New Law:
"I have no pleasure in you, saith the Lord of hosts: and I wih
not receive a gift out of your hands. For from the rising of the
sun even to the going down, my name shall be great among the
Gentiles, and in every place there is sacrifice, and there is offered
to my name a clean oblation: for my name is great among the
Gentfles, saith the Lord of hosts" (i. 10, 11). The following is
a prophecy fulfilled in John the Baptist: "Behold I send my angel,
and he shall prepare the way before my face" (iii. i); and: "Behold
I will send you Elias the prophet, before the coming of the great
and dreadful day of the Lord" (iv. 5; cf. Mt. xi. 14).
Chapter III.
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS,
I. THE FOUR GOSPELS.
I. JESUS CHRIST.
The life of Christ comprises three periods: i. His youth and
hidden life; 2. His pubhc life; 3. His Passion and Glorification.
The youth of Jesus covers the first twelve years of His life ; the
hidden life extends to the end of His thirtieth year. The public
hfe of Jesus, according to the best authorities, lasted three years
and a few months. Hence the whole hfe of Christ comprises a
little more than thirty-three years.
I . According to the received chronology of the Dionysian Era,
Jesus was born on December twenty-fourth to twenty-fifth in the
year 752 after the founding of Rome (U. C. = Urbis conditae),
at Bethlehem in the tribe of Juda (Fig. 19, page 104), whither
Joseph and Mary had gone to be enrolled in the census decreed
by Ccesar Augustus. The correctness of this Dionysian Era (so-called
after its author Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, f 556) is
much disputed. Writers commonly accept the statement made
by Josephus Flavius that king Herod the Great died in the spring
of the year 750 U. C. At the time when Herod ordered the
massacre of the children at Bethlehem, Christ was about two years

I04

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

old. According to all this. His birth must be assigned to the
year 749 U. C, that is three years, at least, before the Christian
Era, as we call our present chronology.
On the eighth day after His birth the Infant was circumcised,
and on the fortieth presented in the Temple. When the Magi,
after adoring the Child, had returned to their country, Joseph,
warned by God, fled into Egypt with the Mother and the Infant,
and remained there untfl after the death of Herod. He did not,
however, return to Bethlehem for fear of Archelaus, but went back
to his own town of Nazareth. At the age of twelve years, the
Child Jesus went up to Jerusalem with His parents to observe
the Feast of
Easter. There,
in the Temple,
He attracted
the attention
of the Doctors
of the Law.
For the next
eighteen years
He lived with
His parents at
Nazareth and
was subject to
them (Fig. 20).
2. Jesus com
menced His
public activity
at the age of thirty, in the autumn or winter of the year 29/30,
soon after the appearance in pubhc of His forerunner, John the
Baptist, who hfted his voice in the desert in the fifteenth year
of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, A. D. 28 — 29. Having
been baptized by John, Jesus withdrew into the desert of Jericho,
where He fasted forty days and forty nights (Fig. 21, page 106).
He then came back to the Jordan, received for the second time
the testimony of John, called His first disciples Andrew and John,
Peter, Philip and Nathanael, and with them went to the marriage-
feast at Cana, where He wrought His first miracle. After a short
stay in Capharnaum, Jesus went to Jerusalem for the Feast of

iH||fHHR3|B^. vH^^^^^H

WMM

PH

¦^IM^Ml^M

^^tt^
_^^^H^H
ii^if^^^^i^^^i
^^H
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W^^mm
Fig. 19. Grotto of the Nativity in the Church at Bethlehem.
CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

105

Easter (A. D. 30), and cleansed the Temple of the pedlars and
the money-changers ; had the nocturnal interview with Nicodemus,
and did not return into Galilee untfl towards autumn, four months
before the harvest, after John had been cast into prison. He went
through Samaria, when, at Jacob's well, near Sichem, He met the
Samaritan woman; and then came back to Cana, where He healed the
son of a certain ruler (royal official) of Capharnaum. From Cana,
Jesus went to Capharnaum on Lake Genesareth and made that town
His head-quarters. The selection of the twelve Apostles and the

Fig. 20. Fountain of the Virgin at Nazareth. {Phot. Bonfils.)

Sermon on the Mount marked the beginning of His work in Galilee,
which comprised the greater part of His public life, and was only
interrupted by a short visit to Jerusalem at Easter (A. D. 3 1). On this
occasion He cured the infirm man who, for eight and thirty years, had
been languishing at the pool of Bethesda. Jesus did not go to Jeru
salem the next Easter (A. D. 32), the third during His pubhc life, for
fear of the Jews, but, after feeding the five thousand. He continued
His journeyings to the north of the Lake Genesareth as far as Tyre
and Sidon. He returned to Jerusalem in October for the Feast of

io6

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

Tabernacles, after having received Peter's confession of faith at
C^sarea Phihppi and shown Himself transfigured to the chief
Apostles. He remained at Jerusalem for the Feast of the Dedica
tion of the Temple in December, and continued his manifestations
in the city and neighbourhood and in Perjea until the fourth
Feast of Easter (A. D. 33), during which He was crucified. On
the Feast of Tabernacles the Jews threatened to stone Him in
the court of
the Temple ;
between the
Feasts of Ta
bernacles and
Dedication of
the Temple,
He healed the
man born
bhnd; on the
Feast of De
dication He
proclaimed
Himself the
Light of the
world and was
again threaten
ed with ston
ing. He then
retired into
Peraea, where
Herod Antipas
ruled, and
stayed there
until the resur
rection of Lazarus at the beginning of A. D. 33. After this. He
remained hidden at Ephrem, a solitary place near Bethel. On the
approach of Easter, Jesus once more went across Samaria to the
frontier of Galilee. At Ginaea (Djanin) He cured the ten lepers, and
immediately returned through Persea. He crossed the Jordan near
Jericho, cured the blind man, Bartimeus, was the guest of Zacheus
and arrived six days before Easter, on a Friday night, at Bethania.

Fig. 21. Quarantania (place of temptation of Christ) near Jericho.

Fig. 22. Jerusalem, seen from Mount Scopus. (Phot, Bonfils.)

I08 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
There, on the following day, Simon the Leper received Him, and
Mary, the sister of Lazarus, anointed Him as for His sepulture.
3. On the Sunday before His Passion, Jesus went with His dis
ciples from Bethania to Jerusalem, entered the city and Temple
in triumph, and in the evening returned to Bethania. He came to
Jerusalem (Fig. 22, page 107) on each ofthe following days and taught
in the Temple, where the Pharisees and Sadducees asked Him
captious questions on the lawfulness of the tribute to Caesar and
on the resurrection of the dead. On Monday, Jesus cursed the
barren fig-tree, and for the second time cleared the Temple. On
the evening of Thursday, He ate the Pasch with His disciples,
instituted the Holy Eucharist, and, having given thanks, adjourned
to the Garden of Gethsemani to await in prayer the arrival of His
captors. On Friday, the fifteenth day of the first month, Nisan,
Jesus died on the
/ r/ -<*--/ ,-"--_- :..^-.. Early on the
following Sunday,
pious women,
who had gone
to embalm the
Fig. 23. Cross-inscription. Fragment in the midst at S. Croce
. „ . „ body ofthe Lord,
in Lrerusalemme, Kome. -' '
found the se
pulchre empty, and received from an angel the glad tidings: "He
is risen!" On that same day, Jesus appeared to Mary Magdalen
near the sepulchre, then to the other women on the way to Jeru
salem; later in the afternoon, to the disciples going to Emmaus;
in the evening, in a room in Jerusalem, to the assembled Aposties,
to whom He gave the power to forgive sins. Before this. He had
appeared to Peter alone. On the foUowing Sunday, Jesus again ap
peared to the Apostles assembled in the same room, and showed
His wounds to Thomas. Afterwards He appeared to them on
the Sea of Tiberias, where He gave to Peter the supreme power
in the Church, and on the Mount of Beatitudes in Galilee, where
He solemnly commissioned the Aposties to go and teach all na
tions. Lastly, Jesus, on the fortieth day after His Resurrection,
appeared to His Aposties and disciples on Mount Olivet, and in
their presence, ascended into Heaven.

CHAPTER in. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

2. THE EVANGELISTS.

109

A. In general, i. Gospel (from the Anglo-Saxon God-spell,
i. e. good tidings), the same as the Greek Euangelion, the Latin
Evangelium, and the English Evangely or Evangil, means the
good news of man's redemption by God (see Is. xl. 9, and Eph.
i. 13). This redemption is accomplished by Jesus Christ, God made
man, full of grace and truth. The life and work of the Redeemer,
His holy doctrine and the mysteries of His grace, are the great
objects recorded in the Gospels.
The four narratives agree in all essentials and constitute one
Gospel in fourfold form, or, in the words of St. Augustine, "four
books of one Gospel". They supplement each other by certain
particulars or more minute details according to the plan and pur
pose of each narrative. It should, however, be borne in mind that
the main portion of the Gospel narrative does not consist in facts
and events, but in the words and sayings of Jesus Christ. These
form in Matthew 3/4, in Mark 1/2, in Luke 2/3, and in John 5/6
of the contents.
The four Gospels are written by two Apostles, Matthew and
John, and by two disciples of the Apostles, Mark and Luke. The
earliest Gospel is that of Matthew; the last, that of John; the
shortest, that of Mark. Matthew has twenty-eight ; Mark, sixteen ;
Luke, twenty- four; and John, twenty-one chapters. Matthew and
Luke alone record the Nativity and Youth of Our Lord, and give
His genealogy; the other two begin with John the Baptist and the
public life of Jesus. They all end with the history of the Passion
and Resurrection. St. Mark and St. Luke, however, add a very
brief account of the Ascension.
The first three Gospels record the principal facts ofthe public
hfe of Jesus, especially His sayings and doings in Gahlee; Matthew
writes upon a logical plan, following the internal connection of
doctrines and miracles, Mark and Luke historically, following the
external or chronological connection. John, in order to complete
the records of His predecessors, reports with special care the
beginning and the end of the pubhc hfe, the journeys to Jerusalem,
the conversations with the Doctors of the Law and the Pharisees,
and the sayings and doings of Jesus in Judaea. On account of
rising heresies, he lays more stress on the divine nature and eternal

IIO PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
existence of Christ; hence the name of "Spiritual Gospel" was
given to his Gospel from the earliest times. The oldest Fathers
of the Church have already observed that St. John proclaims the
divinity of Christ, while the other Evangelists acquaint us more
fully with His humanity.
Matthew, in his Gospel, lays stress on the prophetic, Mark on
the royal, Luke on the sacerdotal, and John on the divine cha
racter of Jesus. Hence the four symbols employed since the earliest
times in Christian art to represent the four Evangelists : a man for
Matthew, a lion for Mark, an ox (the sacrificial victim) for Luke,
an eagle for John; these symbols are taken from the visions of
Ezechiel (i. 5 fi) and St. John (Apoc. iv. 6 ff). The order in which
the Gospels are placed in the Bible is chronological.
2. The first three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are fre
quently called the Synoptical (Greek: syn = together, opsis =
view) Gospels, because of the very noticeable similarity which makes
them appear, when placed side by side and brought under one
view, as one narrative. Not only are the same events and speeches
recorded in each, but very often the order in which these are
placed, and the manner in which they are told, is nearly the same.
An idea of this peculiar feature may be obtained from the foUowing
scheme, given by Cornely (Introductio III 173): The three Gospels
contain 2901 verses: Matthew, 1072; Mark, Cyj; Luke, 11 52; of
these 330 — 370 are common to all three; 170 — 180, to Matthew
and Mark; 230 — 240, to Matthew and Luke; 50, to Mark and Luke;
exclusively in Matthew, 330; in Mark, 68; in Luke, 541. While
Mark is nearly wholly embodied in Matthew and Luke, and has
only about 1/10 pecuhar to himself, John has only i/jg iii common
with the synoptics. As regards the similarity of expression, Ve '"
Matthew, i/e i" Mark, and 1/10 in Luke is identical. This obtains
particularly in recording the sermons of Christ.
Notwithstanding all this, it must be confessed that there is suf
ficient diversity in the contents as well as in the form of these
three narratives to give each its own peculiar character and its
special aim, and thus to secure their respective individuality and
independence. In order to explain the close simflarity of these Synoptic Gospels,
some, especially rationalists, have invented the theory of a primi
tive written Gospel, now entirely lost, and of which there is

CHAPTER IH. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. Ill
absolutely no historic record, from which the Synoptics simply
copied what suited each best. Others maintained that the Syn
optics copied from each other ; in what order we know not. Cathohc
scholars reject these theories. With them the Synoptic Gospels
are simply the faithful, written reproduction or record of the oral
teaching of the Apostles. This offers the most natural explanation
of the similarity as well as of the differences and the so-called
contradictions of these Gospels. At the same time, it accords best
with the history of the Apostolic times, the tradition of the Church,
and the divine character of the books.
B. In particular, i. St Matthew, also called Levi, son of Al-
pheus, was, before his call to the Apostleship, a sub-collector of
• taxes for the Romans on Lake Tiberias. He wrote his Gospel
about A. D. 41/42, chiefly for the Palestinean Jews converted to
Christianity; hence he wrote in Aramaic (Chaldean), the language
of the country. His Gospel shows that Jesus is the Messias pro
mised in the Old Testament; prophecies fulfilled are constantly
referred to in words such as these: "This was done that it might
be fulfilled what the Lord spoke . " or, "As it is written. . ."
More than seventy quotations from the Old Testament are given
in Matthew, His purpose explains why he did not follow the
chronological order.
Matthew begins with the genealogy of Jesus from Abraham,
emphasizes his supernatural birth, relates the adoration of the Magi
and the flight into Egypt, the preaching of John the Baptist, the
baptism and temptations of Jesus up to the commencement of His
public Hfe (ch. i — 4). In the following chapters, the Evangelist groups
the subject-matter according to a certain system. In the Sermon
on the Mount (ch. 5 — 7) he gives a general survey of Christ's
doctrine ; in ch. 8 and 9 he shows His divine mission, conflrmed
by miracles; in ch. 9 — 13, he proves that Christ is the founder
of the Messianic Kingdom; in ch. 14 — 20, he narrates in chrono
logical order the formation of the College of Apostles; in ch. 21
to 23, he records the struggles of Jesus with the Pharisees; and,
finally, in ch. 24 — 28, His death and Resurrection.
The original Chaldean text of, this Gospel is lost ; but the Greek
translation, made before the end of the Apostolic era, has always
been received in the Church as authentic. The original text, badly
corrupted, was in use among the Ebionites and the Nazarene

112 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
sects until they and their Hebrew Gospel disappeared in the fifth
century. St. Matthew is said to have suffered martyrdom in Ar
menia (Ethiopia).
2. St. Mark, also called Johannes Marcus, by joining his Jewish
and Roman names, was a native of Jerusalem, where the house
of his mother Mary was used as a meeting-place by the Apostles
and disciples of the Lord. He was baptized and instructed by
the Apostle St. Peter, whose constant companion he remained, and
with whom he came to Rome A. D. 41 — 42, where, at the request
of the faithful, he wrote his Gospel (42 — 44). It may be con
sidered as a record of the substance of the preaching of St. Peter
concerning Our Lord, and certainly had Peter's approbation. Its
purpose is to show that Christ is the Son of God ; yet St. Mark
follows no particular line of argument, but simply records the facts
in their historical order. His Gospel contains but few facts not
recorded by the other Evangelists, especially by Matthew; but,
although the shortest of the Gospels, it is remarkable for its minute
details and picturesque narratives. The frequent recurrence of
Latin words, e. g. centurion, legion, quadrant (a coin), betrays its
Roman origin. If St. Mark, as some believe, translated the Chal
dean Gospel of St. Matthew into Greek, either for the Roman or
for the Alexandrian Church, the striking similarity of his Gospel
to that of St. Matthew is easily explained. St. Mark is often men
tioned in the Acts as the companion of St. Paul and Barnabas,
his cousin. St. Paul speaks of him in his Epistles as being with
him in Rome (during his first captivity) and later as being on a
missionary journey in Asia. In the year 54 he most probably went
to Alexandria in Egypt, where, some years later, he left Anianus
as his successor in the bishopric. According to tradition he returned
thither from Rome after the death of St. Peter, and suffered martyr
dom under the Emperor Trajan.
3. St. Luke came from Antioch and was a physician by pro
fession. A heathen by birth, he became, after his conversion, the
special companion of St. Paul. He accompanied this Apostle on
his second missionary journey from Troas to Philippi in Macedonia,
and, on the third, returned with him from Greece to Asia Minor,
He remained with Paul during his two years' captivity in Caesarea,
and was also with him during his Roman captivity. In Rome,
during the first imprisonment of Paul (A. D. 61—63), Luke com-

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

113

posed his Gospel, his primary object being to convince his readers,
mostly converts from paganism, more thoroughly of the truths of
Christianity, and to confirm them in the faith by an exact narrative
of the life of Jesus as told by eye- and ear-witnesses.
The Gospel according to Luke contains the hfe and teaching
of Jesus as preached by the Apostle St. Paul ; hence, such facts
are purposely mentioned which fllustrate, in the spirit of the Apostle
of the Gentiles, the universality of salvation for Jew and Gentile.
Thus St. Luke dwells, with preference, on the work of Jesus among
the Samaritans and on His love for sinners and publicans — Zacheus,
Mary Magdalen, the penitent thief He alone tells the beautiful
parables of the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the unjust
steward. Dives and Lazarus, the Pharisee and the Publican. This
pronounced tendency, viz. to announce universal salvation, appears
even in the genealogy of Christ, which is brought down from
Adam, the father of all mankind (hi. 23 — 38), and not, as in
St. Matthew, frOm Abraham, the Father of the chosen people.
We also owe to St. Luke the story of the birth of John the
Baptist , important details about the chfldhood of Our Lord,
which the Evangelist seems to have learned from the Mother of
Jesus herself (cf. u. 19, ^1), and the beautiful account of the
two disciples going to Emmaus on the day of the Resurrection
(xxiv, 13 ff).
The Gospel of St. Luke is addressed (dedicated) to a prominent
convert, named Theophilus, who probably lived in Rome and had
formerly been a pagan, though this cannot be determined with
any certainty either from the Gospel or from the Acts, which are
also addressed to him. That the book is written principally, though
not exclusively, for Christians converted from paganism, is evident
from its character and from its close harmony, in thought as well
as expression, with the teaching of St. Paul; hence it is often
called the Gospel of St. Paul, just as that of St. Mark is called
the Gospel of St. Peter. The writings of St. Luke are remarkable
for the purity of the Greek diction and the literal y composition.
Of his last years and death nothing is known; but the Church
venerates him as a holy martyr.
4. Sl John, a) John, the brother of James the Great and the
son of Zebedee and Salome (a relative of the Mother of Jesus),
was born at Bethsaida on Lake Genesareth, and in his youth
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 8

114

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

followed with his father and brother the occupation of a fisherman.
He was at first a disciple of the Baptist and, together with Andrew,
was also the first to follow Jesus. Among the Apostles he enjoyed
the privilege of an intimate personal friendship with Our Lord,
being known as "the disciple whom Jesus loved" He, his brother
James, and Peter were the most trusted and confidential friends
of their Master. After the death of Jesus, John cared for the
Mother of God and remained with her in Jerusalem until she died.
At first he laboured with Peter in Judaea and Samaria. Later he
lived at Ephesus, from which place he governed the churches in

...'-
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fl
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fm
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r ^*^^^
1
^§
Fig. 24. Island of Patmos. {Phot. Bonfils.)
Asia Minor. Under the Emperor Domitian, John was brought to
Rome, thrown into seething oil, and, escaping unhurt, was sent
(A. D. 95) into exile to the barren island of Patmos (Fig. 24),
between Cos and Samos, where he received the revelations re
corded in the Apocalypse. After the death of Domitian (A. D. 96),
John returned to Ephesus, where he died at the age of fully one
hundred years.
b) St. John wrote his Gospel at Ephesus shortly after his return,
partly with a view to complete the Gospels of his predecessors,
but principally in order to establish on a firm foundation the
CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

lis

Divinity of Christ, even then impugned by Cerinth and other heretics.
To this end he commences his Gospel by writing on the eternity
of the Word, which in the beginning was with God and was Itself
God, but was made flesh in time. In the further course of his
narrative he dwells on facts and discourses of Our Lord which
afford undoubted proofs of His Divinity; but, strange to say, he
records only six miracles: the miracle at the marriage- feast in
Cana, the healing of the son of the ruler at Capharnaum, the cure
of the man sick for thirty-eight years, the feeding of the five
thousand, the heahng of the man born blind, and the resurrection
of Lazarus. Only one of these miracles, the feeding of the five
thousand, is to be found in the Synoptics ; John connects with it
the famous promise of the bread from Heaven (ch. 6). Towards
the end of his Gospel he simply remarks : "Many other signs also
did Jesus in the sight of His disciples, which are not written in
this book. But these are written that you may believe that Jesus
is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing, you may have
life in His Name" (xx. 30, 31).
c) The Gospel of St. John, on account of its clear and positive
testimony for the Divinity of Christ, has been, from ancient times to
this day, the special object of infidel attacks. The main objections
urged are : i) That this Gospel is in evident conflict with the other
three Gospels. But Catholic and Protestant writers have shown
that St. John, far from correcting, is rather supplementing the pre
vious Gospels. Moreover, he arranges his narrative in such a
manner as will best suit his purpose, and thus merely presents
another view of the same facts. As regards the difference in the
discourses of Our Lord recorded by St. John and those in the
other Gospels, it is to be observed that St. John, in selecting these
discourses, always has in view the false doctrines of Cerinth and
the Gnostics; for this reason he gives especially the discussions
of Christ with the learned Scribes and Pharisees, while the other
Gospels give Our Lord's sermons to the common people. It must
also be observed that the Gospels do not give us a stenographic
or verbatim report of every sermon of Christ; the inspired "writer
reports from these sermons what the Holy Spirit deems most ser
viceable for the purpose in view. If there were such a substantial
opposition between St. John and the Synoptics, the early Christians
and the Fathers of the Church would have remarked it. Not only

Il5 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
are they silent, but Tatian's Gospel Harmony, l6o A. D., showing
the unity and harmony of the several Gospels by the systematic
arrangement of the detafls of Christ's life, takes for its very basis
the Gospel of St. John. 2) That the Gospel borrows the idea and
doctrine concerning the personal and eternal Word of God (the
Logos) from the heathen Greek philosophy. This is a mere as
sumption. The idea is embodied in many passages in the Old
Testament, and the doctrine of St. John is entirely different from
that of the Hellenic philosophers.
3. AUTHENTICITY AND CREDIBILITY.
The holy Gospels constitute, after Christ Himself, whose life
and teaching they set forth, the central point of supernatural re
velation. For this reason, they have been from the beginning the
object of the attacks of unbelievers, although their authenticity
was never doubted among the early Christians, and although their
sublime simplicity carries the conviction of genuineness to the mind
of every unbiassed reader. Objections against their authenticity and
authority have been raised from two different points of view.
I . The first is that Jesus and His disciples were wilful deceivers.
Thus argued the Pharisees and Scribes immediately after the Re
surrection, as we learn from the Gospels. The same line of ar
gument was taken in early times by the heathen philosophers
Celsus and Porphyrius, and by Julian the Apostate; and, in more
recent times, by deists and rationalists. The hypothesis of wilful
fraud is, however, thoroughly unhistorical and unphilosophical.
For how could such a colossal fraud be perpetrated on the world,
as it were, in broad daylight, without being detected.'' How could
Christ and His Apostles and so many others, who knew the true
facts, have suffered death in support of a deception, without ever
betraying the secret? This, and much more to the same effect,
the supporters of the hypothesis of wflful fraud are unable to
explain satisfactorily.
2. The champions of the myth hypothesis, especially Strauss,
and, with some variations, Renan, fare no better. Finding the
hypothesis of wflful deceit untenable, they explain the Gospel
narratives as the product of self-evolving myths or legends grouped
around the striking personahty of Jesus of Nazareth. In their eyes

CHAPTER ni. THE NEW TESTAMENT. A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. HJ
the Gospels are nothing but "a Christian mythology", just as we
speak of pagan mythologies. But they forget that the Gospel
does not belong to pre-historic times; that it appeared in the
world perfect and complete, and that from the first moment it
has developed without interruption a most wonderful moral power
alike over barbarous and civflized nations.
3. Unbelievers, being unable to give a satisfactory explanation
of the Gospel history, have thus been driven to their last stand,
which is to deny the possibility of miracles and to assert that no
amount of so-called external or historic proofs can render the
miracles of the Gospels credible. Hence they conclude that not
only the Gospels, but the whole Bible history, belong to the
domain of fancy and pure fiction. This point of view its sup
porters like to call the historical. It is, however, obviously
««historical. Granted that, in deahng with natural events, we
require more external proofs in proportion to their apparent im
probability; yet this rule cannot be applied to events which, by
their very essence and purpose, are elevated above the natural
order. In presence of such events, we cannot appeal to common
experience. Here the question is entirely as to the credibility of
the witnesses. And it may be positively asserted that the enemies
of the Gospel are unable to defeat the many proofs of the miracles,
and especially of the Resurrection of Christ.
Some modern critics adopt a compromise : they admit the historical
credibility of the Gospel narrative in the main; but they deny the
miraculous character of the respective events, charging the Evan
gelist with having mistaken the true nature of the facts in question.
However, the charge cannot be proved. The very surroundings and
public features of the miracles tell of -their supernatural character;
a mistake is impossible. Hence, Strauss' famous alternative still re
mains : If the Gospels are true history , the miracles of Christ are
real; but if miracles are impossible, the Gospels are not history.
4. All the hypotheses in question are refuted by the whole
tenor of the Gospels, especially the first three. If their hfe of
Jesus were only legendary or mythical, or merely a poetical con
ception, the points of agreement would not be so many nor the
differences so few. Such is our experience in legendary lore.
Only one conclusion is, therefore, possible: the hfe and work of
Jesus recorded in the Gospels are historical facts. (Kaulen.)

Il8 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
II. THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
I. Historical Sketch. After the Ascension of Our Lord, the
disciples, by His command, remained in Jerusalem to await the
promised coming of the Holy Ghost. They were persevering with
one mind, together with the pious women and Mary, the Mother
of Jesus, and His brethren, numbering about one hundred and
twenty persons. In those days, upon the proposal of St. Peter,
Matthias was chosen by lot to succeed Judas Iscariot, the traitor,
in the ministry and apostleship. On the day of Pentecost, ten
days after the Ascension, the Holy Ghost came down upon the
Apostles, in the form of tongues of fire. Peter commenced the
apostolic preaching by addressing the Jews assembled in the
Temple, and three thousand were baptized. These were the first
born of the Church. "They were persevering in the doctrines of
the Apostles, and in the communication of the breaking of bread,
and in prayers" (Acts h. 42).
Some of the preaching of the Apostles attracted the attention of
the Great Council. Peter and John were brought before the princes
and the ancients and "charged not to speak at all nor to teach
in the name of Jesus" (iv. 18). But the Apostles, obeying God
rather than men, continued to teach, and with great power wit
nessed to the Resurrection of Christ. Many signs and miracles
were wrought by them among the people. And the multitude of
men and women who believed in Our Lord was still more increased.
And the Council again laid hands upon the Apostles and put
them into the common prison. They were scourged, and the order
not to preach in the name of Jesus was renewed. But "every day
they ceased not, in the Temple and from house to house, to teach
and preach Christ Jesus" (v. 42).
The number of believers increased so rapidly (ch. 6), that the
Apostles had to ordain seven deacons to assist in the care of the
poor and in preaching. The hatred of the Jews grew with the
number of the faithful. In A. D. 37 a severe persecution was
raised against the young Church, the deacon Stephen was stoned
to death, and the Christians, with the exception of the Aposties,
dispersed over Judaea and Samaria. The zealous deacon Philip
preached in Samaria and along the coast of the Mediterranean
from Azot to Caesarea. Peter and John, by the imposition of

CHAPTER HI. THE NEW TESTAMENT, A. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.

119

their hands, conferred the Holy Ghost on the Samaritan neophytes.
Then Peter visited the dispersed Christians, and at Cassarea re
ceived the first pagans into the Church, in the person of the cen
turion Cornelius and his family. Violent hands were also laid
upon the Apostles. To please the Jews, Herod Agrippa killed
James, the brother of John (A. D. 41), and cast Peter ihto prison.
An angel, however, dehvered Peter from his chains, and he went
to Antioch and later to Rome. About this time the first Christian
community among the Gentiles had been established at Antioch,

Fig 25 Antioch (Phot Bonfils )
in Syria (Fig. 25). Here preached Barnabas, and Paul, who, in
A.D. 45, was miraculously converted, and, by special revelation from
the Holy Ghost, added to the Apostolic College. A great obstacle,
however, still barred the entrance of the Gentiles into the Church,
Among the converts from Judaism the opinion prevailed that the
pagans ought not to be admitted into the Church untfl they had
been circumcised and had submitted to the Jewish Law. Serious
disputes on this question having arisen at Antioch, St. Paul and
St. Barnabas appealed to the Aposties at Jerusalem. The Apostolic
Councfl of Jerusalem (A. D. 51), presided over by St. Peter,
decreed, upon the motion of James the Less, that converts from

I20

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

paganism should not be compelled to submit to circumcision, but
only to abstain from certain things especially objectionable to the
Jews. Thus the obstacle was removed, and a clear road to the
Gentiles opened for St. Paul. He now passed through Asia Minor
into Macedonia and Greece, and preached the Gospel in the pagan
capitals, in Ephesus, Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth. Towards
the end of his glorious course, he came to Rome, where he ended
his life by martyrdom. That St. Peter and St. Paul worked and died
together in Rome is the continuous Christian tradition since the
first century (Fig. 26), attested by St. Clement of Rome (A. D. 92),
Ignatius of Antioch (iio), Dionysius of Corinth (170), Irenaeus of
Gaul (190), Tertullian (240), and Cyprian of Africa (250). Both
died during the persecution by Nero, and, according to tradition,
on the same day, the twenty-ninth of June, A. D. Qj ; St. Peter
dying on the cross, St. Paul, being a Roman citizen, dying by the
sword. It is remarkable that of the eleven Apostles named in
chapter i. 13, only three are mentioned thereafter in the Acts;
namely, Peter, John and James the Great.
II. Literary Sketch. The history of the establishment and pro
pagation of the Church by the Apostles is told in the Acts of
the Apostles, written by St. Luke towards the end of St. Paul's
first Roman captivity, A. D. 61 — 63. They are a continuation of
the third Gospel, and, like this, are addressed to Theophilus. The
book has two parts. After a short introduction, relating to the
Ascension of Our Lord and the election of St. Matthias (ch. i),
the first part (ch. 2 — 12) deals with the spread of the Church
among the Jews until the behead
ing of James and the flight of Peter
(A. D. 41). Here Peter, the chief
of the Apostles, is the central figure
of the narrative. The second part
(ch. 13 — 28) begins with the con
secration of Paul and Barnabas at
Antioch, A. D. 45, and deals with
the spread of the Church among
the Gentiles, giving a full account
of the missionary journeys of Paul.
Fig. 26. St. Peter and St. Paul. ^^ concludcs with the Apostlc's first
Bronze medallion. Rome, Vatican (3, century). Captlvlty in RomC, whlch, by that

CHAPTER III, THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 121
time, had already lasted two years. Chapter 15 contains the
history of the Council of the Apostles and its famous decree, be
ginning with the words: "It has seemed good to the Holy Ghost
and to us", etc.
The Acts of the Apostles show, in connection with the labours
of Peter and Paul, the wonderful spread of the Gospel from the
Jews to the Gentiles, from Jerusalem to Rome, the capital of the
world, which, through the death of the two Princes of the Apostles,
became the capital and the centre of the Catholic Church. Some
Protestant theologians object to the record of Luke representing
the Church as built upon Peter and Paul as upon one common
foundation, because, according to the Epistle of the Galatians, the
two Apostles held quite opposite views regarding the admission
of the Gentiles into the Church. It is true that Paul (Gal. ii.
1 1 ff) blamed Peter for withdrawing from the tables of the Gen
tiles upon the arrival of some over-orthodox Jewish Christians
at Antioch. But it is equally true, as recorded in the same
chapter (ii, 7 — 9), that the two Apostles were in perfect agreement
on the principle decided at the Council of Jerusalem. The blame,
therefore, attaches merely to Peter's too great regard for Jewish
prejudices, Paul was fully justified in opposing this action of the
Prince of the Apostles and in preaching freedom from the old
ceremonial laws and their servile observance. Many Jewish con
verts were dissatisfied with the decision of the Council of Jeru
salem, and caused trouble for a long time afterwards; but they
had no right to claim the authority of the Apostles Peter and
James the Less, bishop of Jerusalem.
B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.
I. THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL.
I. The Life of the Apostle. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles,
named Saul before his call, was born at Tarsus in Cilicia, a town
famous for Greek learning. From his Jewish parents he inherited
the right of Roman citizenship. He was educated in Jerusalem
by Gamahel, a celebrated doctor of the Law, but at the same
time he learned the trade of tent-making, by which he earned a
livelihood even when preaching as an Apostle, Like Gamaliel,
Saul belonged to the sect of the Pharisees, but he lacked entirely

122 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
the calm judgment shown by his master in the deliberations of
the Great Council, concerning the Apostles. As a young man he
took part in the stoning of St. Stephen, keeping watch over the
vestments of those engaged in the cruel act. He very early
placed himself at the head of the persecutors, devastated the
Church of Jerusalem, and obtained from the Council power to
persecute the Christian fugitives also in other towns. On his way
to Damascus, not far from the gates of the city, he was miracu
lously converted by an apparition of Christ. A disciple named
Ananias baptized him, and he retired for a time into the solitude
near Mount Sinai in Arabia. On his return to Damascus the Jews
persecuted him and forced him to flee. Three years after his con
version, A. D. 40, he came back to Jerusalem to see the Apostie
St. Peter. Being again expelled he went by way of Caesarea
through Syria and Cilicia to Tarsus, his native town, and preached
there until Barnabas brought him to Antioch, where the Gospel
had been so wefl received by the Gentfles.
After his consecration (Acts xiu. 2, 3) Paul, having paid a second
visit to Jerusalem, started with Barnabas from Antioch on his First
missionary journey , A. D. 45 — 48. (Acts xiu — xv; see Map!)
They travelled over Cyprus to the southern provinces of Asia
Minor: Pamphylia, Pisidia, and Lycaonia. They preached in the
synagogues of Salamis, Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, and
Derbe, meeting with strong opposition from the Jews, but con
verting many heathens to the faith. On their return to Antioch,
the two Apostles found the Church there disturbed by the question
as to the reception of the Gentiles. They brought the disputed
point before the Aposties in Jerusalem, and having made known
at Antioch the decision of the Apostolic Council, Paul, accompanied
by his disciple, Silas, undertook his Second missionary journey,
A. D. 51 — 54 (Acts XV. 40 to xviii. 22). He travelled by land
through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia, as far as Troas. From
here, by an order received in a vision, he set out for Europe ac
companied by Luke. He visited Macedonia and Greece as far as
Corinth, where he remained about two years. On this journey, Paul
founded the churches of Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens,
and Corinth. The return journey was made by sea from Connth,
by way of Ephesus to Caesarea; from Caesarea Paul went to
Jerusalem for the Feast of Easter or Pentecost (A. D. 54). After

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 123
a short visit to Antioch, he started on his Third missionary
journey, A. D. 54—58 (Acts xviii. 23 to xxhi. 35). He visited the
churches in Phrygia and Galatia and then remained two years and
three months in Ephesus (Fig. 27). Once more he came to Mace
donia and Greece, returned from Corinth by way of Philippi and
Troas, took a touching leave of the elders of the churches in
Asia Minor, and arrived in Jerusalem for the Feast of Pentecost
A. D. 58. The Jews laid violent hands upon the hated Apostle,
but the commander of the Roman garrison dehvered him from

Place of ancient Ephesus.

their fury and sent him as a prisoner to the residence of the
Roman governor at Caesarea (Acts xxi ff).
Paul was a prisoner at Caesarea during the two years A. D.
58 — 60. Having appealed to the Emperor, he was conveyed, in
the spring of A. D. 61, to Rome, where he arrived after a long
and dangerous journey. Here he spent two years (61 — 63) in
captivity, living, however, in his own lodgings under constant
surveillance of a military guard (Acts xxvii. xxviii).
Ultimately acquitted and set free, he undertook, according to
the oldest records, a Fourth missionary expedition (A. D. 64 — 66),
to carry out his former plan of penetrating from Rome into Spain,

124

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

where many proselytes lived in the maritime towns (cf. Rom. xv.
24, 28). From Spain the now aged Apostle went by direct sea-
route to Asia Minor to visit the churches he had established there.
He appointed Timothy bishop of Ephesus, proceeded to Mace
donia, and thence to Crete, where he left Titus as bishop. He
again returned to Ephesus, intending to spend the winter at Nico-
polis in Epirus; but he was apprehended during the Neronian
persecution and sent to Rome, where, together with Peter, he
suffered martyrdom in the year 6"] .
II. His Epistles in general. The first two of the fourteen
Epistles of Paul were written to the Thessalonians during the
Apostle's first stay at Corinth on his second missionary journey,
A. D. S3 — 54. Whilst on his third journey, he wrote at Ephesus
the Epistle to the Galatians, and the first to the Corinthians;
whilst in Macedonia on his way to Corinth, he wrote the second
Epistle to the Corinthians, and towards the end of his second
sojourn in Corinth, in the beginning of A. D. 58, the Epistle to
the Romans. During his first Roman captivity , he wrote the
Epistles to the Philippians, to the Colossians, to Philemon, and to
the Ephesians; during the interval between the first and second
Roman captivity, the Epistle to the Hebrews, the first to Timothy
and the one to Titus; during the second captivity in Rome, the
second Epistle to Timothy, towards the end of A. D. 66.
The Vulgate places the Pauline Epistles in the following order:
First, those addressed to entire communities, and among these,
the longest take the precedence; then, the Epistles to individual
persons; lastly, the Epistle to the Hebrews, which is addressed to
no one in particular. The Epistles of St. Paul are mostly written
for special occasions, but every one of them reflects the great
mind of the Apostle and gives a deep insight into the sublime
mysteries of the faith. They are of such power that St. Jerome,
when reading them, thought he heard thunder rather than words.
The Epistles to the Romans, the Galatians and the Hebrews
are primarily dogmatic; they set forth the Apostle's fundamental
doctrine, viz. the justifying power of faith as opposed to the Law
of the Old Testament, the circumcision and the Jewish sacrifices.
The Episties are all written more or less on the same plan;
they contain a dogmatic and a moral section with introduction and
conclusion. This plan is most apparent in the Episties to the

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

125

Romans, the Ephesians, and the Colossians; least, among the
longer Epistles, in that to the Hebrews. On account of their
obscurity, resulting partly from their literary diction, but still more
from their doctrinal depth, the Epistles of St. Paul have exerted
a strange attraction upon heretics in their opposition to the teach
ings of the Church. The words of St. Peter ought to be a loud
warning to the reader of the Pauhne Epistles, "in which are cer*
tain things hard to be understood, which the unlearned and un
stable wrest, as they do also the other Scriptures, to their own
destruction" (2 Peter iu. 16). The Apostle usually dictated his
letters to one of his disciples (Rom. xvi. 22). He wrote, with his
own hand, only the customary salutation at the end as a proof
of genuineness (l Cor. xvi. 21; Col. iv. 18; 2 Thess. ih. 17). The
Epistle to the Galatians, however, seems to have been written
entirely, or at least in part, by his own hand (Gal. vi. 11 f), and
likewise the short letter to Phflemon (verse 19). With the ex
ception of the Epistle to the Hebrews, St. Paul's four longest and
most important letters are : the Epistle to the Romans, the two
to the Corinthians, and that to the Galatians. As regards their
genuineness, they have generally been accepted as authentic even
by radical critics. In these four Epistles the whole substance of
the Gospel is given, and the main facts of the Redemption as well
as the principal doctrines of Christianity, in particular the Divinity
of Christ and his Resurrection from the dead, are clearly set forth.
III. His Epistles in particular, i. The Epistle to the Romans,
which, from the earliest times, stands at the head of the Pauline
Epistles, is both the longest and most profound of them all.
Christianity early found its way to Rome, the capital of the world,
perhaps through Jews from Rome who had heard the sermon of
St. Peter at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost. At the beginning
of A. D. 42, Peter himself came to Rome and preached. He met,
however, with such opposition from the Jews that the Emperor
Claudius, in order to put an end to the continuous tumult con
cerning Christ, banished the Jews from the city. This had the
effect of separating the Church from the Synagogue at an early
date, a circumstance which greatly facilitated the conversion of
the Pagans. The Church at Rome rapidly became the first Church
of the world, so that Paul writes already: "Your faith is spoken of
in the whole world" (i. 8). Long before this the Apostle had desired

126 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
to visit the famous Church, in order to make it the centre of his
work in the West as soon as his labours in the East should be
over. Being still unable to carry out his intention, he, in the
meanwhile, recommended himself to the Christians in Rome by
this Epistle, to share in their prayers and good works.
' After the customary heading, the introduction (i. i — 17) mentions
the reason for writing and the subject of the letter, viz. justi
fication through faith. In fhe first, the theoretical part (ch. i — 11),
the necessity of faith for both Jews and Gentiles is most thorough
ly illustrated. He tells the Gentiles that, not without their own
grievous fault , they have ignored God and neglected the law
written in their hearts '"because that which is known of God is
manifested in them, for God has manifested it unto them. For
the invisible things of Him, from the creation of the world, are
clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made; His
eternal power also, and Divinity: so that they are inexcusable"
(i. 19, 20). To the Jews he shows that, notwithstanding their
previous privileges, they cannot be justified by circumcision and
the Law, but only through faith in Christ: "for we account a
man to be justified by faith, without the works ofthe Law" (hi. 28).
Further on the Apostle shows that through original sin all men are
children of wrath, which sin is only removed by faith and Baptism,
and exhorts his readers to a new life in Christ. Then, after ex
pressing his deep concern for the hardened Jews and his hope of
their final conversion, he passes on to the second, and practical
part (ch. 12 — 16), in which he continues in detail his exhortations
to a Christian life. He recommends especially the practice of
mutual charity, obedience to lawful superiors, tenderness for the
weak in faith. As to the obedience due to superiors, he says:
"Let every soul be subject to higher powers: for there is no
power but from God : and those that are, are ordained of God"
(xiu. i). The conclusion (ch. 15 and 16) contains pious exhortations,
personal remarks and greetings.
2. The Two Epistles to the Corinthians were written because
great abuses had arisen, after the departure of St. Paul, in the
church at Corinth, founded by the Apostle on his second mis
sionary journey.
a) The First Epistle to the Corinthians reproves them for their
contentions about their teachers, and points out that faith is not

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

127

wisdom of man, but the gift of God. He excludes a man guilty
of incest from the communion of the faithful, and exhorts all to
do away with the leaven of paganism. Further on he blames
them for going to law before unbelievers. A question in regard
to marriage he decides by saying, that the married state is good
and holy, but the virginal state is more perfect. He blames the
abuses and the scandals in the celebration of the Eucharist: "As
often as you shall eat this bread and drink the chalice, you shall
show the death of the Lord until He come. Therefore, whosoever
shall eat this bread, or drink the chalice of the Lord unworthily,
shall be guflty of the Body and the Blood of the Lord" (xi.
26, 27). Christian charity is warmly recommended and described
in glowing terms : "Charity is patient, is kind ; charity envieth not,
dealeth not perversely; is not puffed up; is not ambitious; seeketh
not her own; is not provoked to anger; thinketh no evil; rejoiceth
not in iniquity, but rejoiceth with the truth; beareth all things,
believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things" (xiu.
4 — 7)- III conclusion, the Apostle gives the Corinthians beautiful
instructions on the resurrection of the flesh, which had been the
object of controversies: "So, also, is the resurrection of the dead;
it is sown in corruption, it shall rise in incorruption ; it is sown in
dishonour, it shall rise in glory; it is sown in weakness, it shall
rise in power; it is sown a natural body, it shall rise a spiritual
body" (xv. 42 — 44). In chapter 16, a collection is ordered to
be taken up for the brethren in Jerusalem.
b) The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is directed against
certain insinuations spread by the enemies of the Apostle con
cerning his honesty of purpose. In this Epistle, the magnanimity
and charity of his apostolic heart stand out prominently. He
thus calls on the Corinthians : "Our mouth is open to you, O ye
Corinthians, our heart is enlarged . 1 I speak as to my chfldren;
be you also enlarged" (vi. 11, 13). His charity lends wings to
the Apostle's rhetoric, so that this Epistle becomes notable by its
sublime diction. This is especially the case when he addresses
his adversaries : "They are Hebrews, so am I, They are Israelites,
so am I. They are descendants of Abraham, so am I. They are
the ministers of Christ (I speak as one less wise), I am more : in
many more labours, in prisons more frequently, in stripes above
measure, in death often. Of the Jews five times did I receive

128 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
forty stripes, save one. Thrice was I beaten with rods, once I
was stoned; thrice I suffered shipwreck, a night and a day I was
in the depth of the sea" (xi. 22 — 25). The excommunicated man,
having repented, is again received into the Church; a collection
for the poor Christians in Jerusalem is urgently recommended, and
the Apostle's speedy arrival in Corinth is promised. In conclusion,
he gives this admonition : "For the rest, brethren, rejoice, be per
fect, take exhortation, be of one mind, have peace, and the God
of peace and of love shall be with you" (xiii. 11).
3. The Epistle to the Galatians, being of a more dogmatical
character, comes after the two Epistles to the Corinthians, which
deal chiefly with practical questions of discipline. It is addressed
to the churches of Galatia in Asia Minor, and contains earnest
warnings against Jewish seducers, who sought to undermine the
authority of Paul and preached the necessity of adhering to the
rite of circumcision and to the Law of Moses, Against these, the
Apostle first establishes his divine vocation and his communion
with the other Apostles, especially with Peter, John, and James
the Less, the pillars of the Church (chapters i und 2). He then
shows in detail that "in Christ neither circumcision availeth any
thing, nor uncircumcision, but faith that worketh by charity" (v. 6).
Finally, he exhorts the Galatians to stand fast against temptation
and to lead holy lives according to their faith (ch. 5 and 6):
"In doing good let us not fafl; for in due time we shall reap,
not failing. Therefore, whilst we have time, let us work good to
all men, but especially to those who are of the household ofthe
faith" (vi. 9, 10).
4. The Epistle to the Ephesians is an encyclical letter to the
churches in Asia Minor, but primarily addressed to the church at
Ephesus, the most prominent of them all. Like the Epistie to
the Romans, it is divided into two parts: the one theoretical or
dogmatic; the other practical or moral. In t'he first part (ch. i — 3),
the Apostle describes the great blessings we have received through
Christ. He thus addresses the converted Gentiles: "Now, there
fore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but you are
fellow-citizens with the Saints, and the domestics of God, built
upon the foundation of the Apostles and the Prophets, Jesus Christ
Himself being the chief corner-stone" (u. 19, 20). In the second
part (ch. 4—6), the Apostie exhorts the Christians to live worthy

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. TIIE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 1 29
of their vocation: "I, therefore, a prisoner in the Lord, beseech
you that you walk worthy of the vocation in which you are called,
with all humflity and mildness, with patience, supporting one
another in charity, careful to keep the unity of the Spirit in the
bond of peace" (iv. i — 3). The concluding chapters contain special
admonitions to husbands and wives, to parents and children, to
masters and servants. The Epistle to the Ephesians is noted for
a profound conception of the Church (i. 22 f; ii. 19 ff; iii. 10;
V. 24 ff) and of the Sacrament of Matrimony. Of the latter the
Apostle says in chapter v. 32: "This is a great Sacrament; but I
speak in Christ and in the Church."
5. The Epistle to the Philippians is addressed to the Christians
of Phihppi, the first European town in which the Apostle preached.
It was written with the primary object of thanking the Philippians,
who had more than once helped him, for a new act of kindness.
The Apostle, at the same time, seizes the opportunity of informing
his beloved Phflippians of his situation, and of exhorting them
to persevere in the practice of charity, unity and humility, and
to beware of false teachers. This Epistle, which has been called
the "most letter-like" among all of the Apostle's letters, is quite
remarkable by its uncommon tenderness. Paul here speaks like
the tenderest of fathers: "My dearly beloved brethren and most
desired, my joy and my crown, so stand fast in the Lord, my
dearly beloved" (iv. i). The final salutation is: "All the Saints
salute you; especially they who are of Caesar's household" (iv. 22).
The praetorians who guarded the Apostle had already introduced
the Christian rehgion into the imperial camp.
6. The Epistle to the Colossians, written by Paul to the faithful
in Colossa before he was personally acquainted with them, bears
great resemblance to the Epistle to the Ephesians ; it is also divided
into a theoretical and a practical part. In the first (ch. i and 2),
the Apostle endeavours to confirm the Colossians in that funda
mental truth of Christianity, the divinity of Christ, which, even then,
was attacked by incipient heresies: "In Christ dwelleth all the
fulness of the Godhead corporeally" (u. 9). In the second part
(ch. 3 and 4) he exhorts to a new hfe in Christ: "Therefore, if
you be risen with Christ, seek the things that are above, where
Christ is sitting at the right hand of God. Mind the things that
are above, not the things that are on earth. For you are dead, and
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 9

I30

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

your hfe is hid with Christ in God" (iii. i — 3). Like the Epistie
to the Ephesians, this letter also contains special instructions on
the duties of husbands and wives, children and servants (ch. 3).
7. The Two Epistles to the Thessalonians, chronologically the
first two letters of St. Paul , are addressed to the Christians of
Thessalonica (Saloniki), a sea-port and mercantile city on the .^gean
Sea, and the capital of Macedonia. The unbelieving Jews raised
such a commotion against Paul when on his second mission tour
that he was obliged to quit the city in haste. The Episties were
intended to complete the oral instruction of the Apostle and to
prevent misunderstandings.
a) The First Epistle to the Thessalonians contains the Apostle's
thanks for the kind reception accorded to himself and to his
disciple Timothy sent by him to strengthen and comfort them in
their sufferings; then follow admonitions to lead a holy life and
to remain steadfast in their faith. Paul points out the consoUng
truths of the resurrection of the dead and the second coming of
Christ, but forbears from fixing the time: "But of the times and
moments, brethren, you need not that we should write to you;
for yourselves know perfectly that the day of the Lord shall so
come as a thief in the night" (v. i, 2).
b) The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is mainly directed
against the opinion that the day of the Lord is nigh, an opinion
spread in Thessalonica through an epistle falsely attributed to Paul.
The Apostle remarks that the great apostasy and the man of sin,
i. e. the Antichrist, must come first, and exhorts the Christians
to remain steadfast in the faith and lead a calm and tranqufllife:
"Therefore, brethren, stand fast; and hold the traditions which
you have learned, whether by word or by our Epistle" (ii 14).
8. The Two Epistles to Timothy and The Epistle to Titus are
called pastoral letters , because in them Paul instructs his two
disciples Timothy, bishop of Ephesus, and Titus, bishop of Crete,
in the duties of their pastoral office.
a) The object of the First Epistle to Timothy is clearly stated
by the Apostle (iii. 14, 15): "These things I write to thee, hoping
that I shall come to thee shortly. But if I tarry long, that thou
mayest know how thou oughtest to behave thyself in the house
of God, which is the Church of the living God, the pfllar and
ground of truth." Paul exhorts Timothy above all to adhere to

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS. 13I
the faith handed down. He concludes: "O Timothy, keep that
which is committed to thy trust, avoiding the profane novelties of
words, and oppositions of knowledge falsely so-called" (vi. 20).
b) The Second Epistle to Timothy was written towards the end
of the Apostle's life. He draws a sad picture of his second cap
tivity in Rome, and awaits his death: "For I am even now ready
to be sacrificed; and the time of my dissolution is at hand. I have
fought a good fight; I have finished my course; I have kept the
faith. As to the rest, there is laid up for me a crown of justice,
which the Lord, the just Judge, will render to me in that day;
and not only to me, but to them also that love His coming"
(iv. 6 — 8). The forsaken Apostle then implores Timothy to make
haste to come to him quickly (iv. 8), to "come before winter"
(iv. 21). This last Epistle of St. Paul is a touching valedictory
letter to his most faithful disciple (cf Phfl. h. 19 ff); it is, as it
were, his last will and testament, by which the master bequeaths
to the disciple the "deposit of faith" : "Keep the good thing com
mitted to thy trust by the Holy Ghost, who dwelleth in us" (i. 14).
c) The Epistle to Titus likewise contains directions for the proper
exercise ofthe pastoral office. "For this cause I left thee in Crete,
that thou shouldst set in order the things that are wanting, and
shouldst ordain priests in every city, as I also appointed thee" (i. 5).
The position of Titus in Crete was a difficult one, as appears
from i. 12, 13: "One of them, a prophet of their own, said: The
Cretians are always liars, evil beasts, slothful bellies. This testi
mony is true ; wherefore, rebuke them sharply, that they may be
sound in the faith."
9. The short Epistle to Philemon was sent, together with the
Epistle to the Colossians, to Phflemon, a noble citizen of Colossa.
In this letter, Paul intercedes with Philemon in favour of one of
the latter's slaves, named Onesimus, who robbed his master and
fled to Rome, and there was converted by the Apostle. Paul sees
in the event a special providence of God : "For perhaps he, there
fore, departed for a season from thee, that thou mightest receive
him again for ever : not now as a servant, but, instead of a servant,
a most dear brother." The Apostle calls himself an old man like
Philemon, and expresses the hope of a speedy deliverance from
prison: "But, withal, prepare me also a lodging. For I hope that
through your prayers I shall be given unto you."

132 PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.
This Epistle already lays down the principles followed by the
Church in labouring for the abolition of slavery, the fundamental
evil of pagan antiquity, and in bringing about the moral and civil
equality of all men.
10. The Epistle to the Hebrews is one of the most important
and beautiful of Paul's letters. With great depth of thought, it
establishes the superiority of the worship of the New Dispensation
over the cult of the Old, the type and shadow of the former. It
is addressed to the converts from Judaism in Palestine, especially
those in Jerusalem , to warn them against the great danger of
relapsing into Judaism, a danger which became imminent after the
death of James the Less, through the intrigues of a certain The-
butis. The Apostle writes : "It is impossible for those who were
once illuminated, have tasted also the heavenly gift, and were
made partakers of the Holy Ghost, have moreover tasted the good
word of God, and the powers of the world to come, and are
fallen away : to be renewed again to penance, crucifying again to
themselves the Son of God, and making Him a mockery" (vi. 4 — 6).
He points out the example of the just of the Old Covenant who
suffered so much for the sake of faith (xi. 38). In view of the
worship in the Temple, Paul urges that Christ, the Eternal High Priest
according to the order of Melchisedech, through His blood entered
once into the holies of heaven and obtained eternal redemption
(ix. II f) ; he exhorts the Christians to remain faithful amidst temp
tation: "Wherefore Jesus also, that He might sanctify the people by
His own blood, suffered without the gate. Let us go forth, therefore,
to Him without the camp, bearing His reproach. For we have not
here a lasting city, but we seek one that is to come" (xiii. 12 — 14).
The Epistle can easily be divided into two parts. In the first
part (ch. I— 10), which is dogmatical, St. Paul proves the dignity
and excellence of the New Testament over the Old. This he does
by a triple comparison of the two Testaments in regard to their
authors (ch. i and 2), their mediators (ih. — iv. 13), and their High
Priests (iv. 14 to x. 8). The second part (ch. 11— 13) consists of
exhortations to persevere in holy faith and brotherly peace. Some
think that the words in xiii. 7 refer to the two Apostles SS. James,
who suffered martyrdom in Jerusalem.
According to the opinion most commonly accepted among
Cathohc scholars, St. Paul caused this Epistle to be written by one

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

133

of his disciples, most probably St. Clement of Rome, whfle he was
yet himself a prisoner at Rome in the year 63 or 64. This opinion
guards the Pauline authorship of the Epistle, written in pure and
elegant Greek, while it explains its very marked difference from
his other Epistles. Nothing prevents us from believing that the
last verses (xiu. 22 fi} were written by Paul himself.
2. THE SEVEN CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
These seven Epistles have been known from the earliest times
as the Catholic, and also as the Canonical Epistles. The former
is the earlier designation employed by Greek and Latin writers
to indicate that these Epistles had been addressed to several
churches at once and thus bore the character of encyclical or
circular letters. By Latin writers, the term Catholic was early used
as meaning: accepted by the churches. It thus became, when
applied to the Sacred Books, synonymous with the term Canonic
al, i. e. in the canon of the Church. These Epistles contain
chiefly moral admonitions, and are particularly adapted for spiritual
reading, especially that of St. James, the two of St. Peter, and the
first of St. John,
I. The Epistle of St. James the Apostle is the work of James
the Less, called the brother, i. e. cousin, of the Lord, who was
bishop of the metropoHtan see of Jerusalem until his martyrdom
A. D. 62. His dignity and his personal character gave him great
authority and influence over the converts from Judaism, over whom
he exercised a certain primacy. His Epistle is, therefore, a sort
of encyclical addressed to "the twelve tribes which are scattered
abroad", i. e. to the Jewish converts outside of Palestine. James
the Less was called the "Just" by his countrymen on account of
his severe mode of living and his strict adherence to the Law;
accordingly his theme is: "Even as the body without spirit is dead,
so also faith without works is dead" (h. 26). He exhorts to
patience, aye, to joy in tribulations, and to steadfastness in temp
tation; he cautions earnestly against contempt for the poor, in
veighs against an unbridled tongue, and recommends prayer: "Is
any of you sad .? Let him pray. Is he cheerful in mind ? Let him
sing. Is any man sick among you >. Let him bring in the priests
of the Church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with

134

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith shall save
the sick man : and the Lord shall raise him up ; and if he be in
sins, they shall be forgiven him" (v. 13 — 15).
2. The Two Epistles of St. Peter were written towards the end
of the Apostle's life, from "Babylon", that is, Rome, where Mark
was with Peter (i Peter v. 13). Rome, the representative of pa
ganism in its death-struggle against the young Christian Church,
is here symbolized by Babylon, the centre of ancient heathendom
and the great enemy of old Israel. They are addressed in the
first place to the Christians in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, the
Rpman province Asia, and Bithynia, where St. Peter had formerly
exercised his apostolate. The object of the Epistles was to streng
then the faithful in the many dangers that threatened them from
heathen persecutions and seductions.
a) In the First Epistle of St. Peter the Apostle begins (ch. i
and 2) by recalling the great dignity of the Christians, who were
bought, not with perishable gold and silver, but with the blood
of Christ. Then follow exhortations to a Christian life in keeping
with this dignity, without guile or deceit, in innocence like new
born infants: "Dearly beloved, I beseech you as strangers and
pilgrims, to refrain yourselves from carnal desires which war against
the soul, having your conversation good among the Gentiles: that
whereas they speak against you as evildoers, they may, by the
good works, which they shall behold in you, glorify God in the
day of visitation" (ii. 11, 12). There is a special admonition to
obey the civfl authorities, and to be patient and steadfast under
persecution (ch. 3 and 4). In conclusion (ch. 5) priests and people
are exhorted to be faithful to their respective duties. This "first
papal encyclical", as we may truly call this Epistle, is, according
to Erasmus of Rotterdami, "truly worthy of the Prince of the
Apostles, full of majesty and dignity, poor in words, but rich in
thoughts." b) The Second Epistle of St. Peter warns even more earnestly
than the first against heathen immorality and seduction. At the
end of his life he emphasizes his exhortations, so that after his
death thej' may not be forgotten: "I think it meet, as long as I
am in this tabernacle, to stir you up by putting you in remem
brance, being assured that the laying away of this my tabernacle
is at hand, according as our Lord Jesus Christ also hath signified

CHAPTER HI. THE NEW TESTAMENT. B. THE DIDACTIC BOOKS.

I3S

to me. And I will endeavour, that you frequently have after my de
cease, whereby you may keep a memory of these things" (i. 13 — 15).
Further the Apostle writes: "For we have not, by following arti
ficial fables, made known to you the power and presence of our
Lord Jesus Christ ; but we were eye-witnesses of His greatness. F"or
He received from God the Father honour and glory, this voice
coming down to Him from the excellent glory: This is my beloved
Son, in Whom I am well pleased ; hear ye Him. And this voice
we heard brought down from heaven, when we were with Him
in the holy mount" (i. 16 — 18).
3. The Three Epistles of St. John the Apostle differ greatly in
character, the first being an encyclical letter, the other two being
each addressed to an individual person.
a) The First Epistle of St. John is a companion to his Gospel,
•n which he further confirms the faithful in their belief in the
divinity of Christ, and urges the practice of Christian charity. This
beautiful Epistle, like the Gospel, begins with the words: "That
which was from the beginning, which we have heard, which we
have seen with our eyes, which we have looked upon, and our hands
have handled of the word of life: for the life was manifested,
and we have seen and do bear witness, and declare unto you the
hfe eternal, which was with the Father and has appeared among
us: that which we have seen and heard we declare unto you,
that you also may have fellowship with us" (i. i — 3). Again the
Apostle says: "In this we have known the charity of God, because
He has laid down His life for us, and we ought to lay down our
lives for the brethren" (iii. 16). This Epistle of St. John, written
entirely in the spirit of his Gospel, is truly the Gospel of Christian
charity. This Gospel and this Epistle are the most precious jewels
in the New Testament Scriptures.
b) The Second Epistle of St. John is addressed to "the Lady
Elect" (either a prominent Christian woman, or some church
in Asia Minor) and her children, and likewise deals with the
fundamental truths of Christianity, warning against false doctrines
and seduction. "Many seducers are gone out into the world
who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh; this is a
seducer and an antichrist. Look to yourselves, that you lose not
the things which you have wrought, but that you may receive a
fufl reward."

136

PART I. BIBLICAL HISTORY AND LITERATURE.

c) The Third Epistle of St. John is addressed to a certain
Gaius (Caius), evidently some distinguished member of some church
in Asia Minor, famous for his hospitality to the preachers of the
Gospel and to travelling Christians. John thus praises him : "Dearly
beloved, thou dost faithfully whatever thou dost for the brethren,
and that for strangers, who have given testimony to thy charity
in the sight of the Church: whom thou shalt do well to bring
forward on their way in a manner worthy of God. Because for
His name they went out, taking nothing of the Gentiles."
Both the Second and the Third Epistle conclude with a promise
of an early visit. They thus confirm to a certain extent the ancient
tradition that the "Presbyter" (the Ancient), as the writer calls
himself in the beginning of each letter, held a position of authority
at Ephesus and from thence superintended the churches of Asia
Minor with their bishops and priests.
4. The Epistle of St. Jude (Judas Thaddeus) has no particular
address. It warns in general but strong language against seducers
to pagan immorality, after the manner, and sometimes in the words,
of the Second Epistle of St. Peter. The seducers are thus described:
"Woe unto them, for they have gone in the way of Cain, and after
the error of Balaam they have for reward poured out themselves,
and have perished in the contradiction of Core. These are spots
in their banquets, feasting together without fear, feeding themselves;
clouds without water, which are carried about by winds; trees of
the autumn, unfruitful, twice dead, plucked up by the roots; raging
waves of the sea, foaming out their own confusion; wandering
stars, to whom the storm of darkness is reserved for ever."
C. THE PROPHETIC BOOK OF THE APOCALYPSE.
The Apocalypse or Revelation of St. John contains visions seen
by the Apostle during his banishment in the island of Patmos. The
book has an introduction and three parts. In the introduction
(ch. I — 3) are contained instructions and admonitions which St. John
was commanded to write to the bishops of the seven principal
churches in Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thya-
tira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. The main part of the
Apocalypse (ch. 4—22) deals with the destinies of the Church until
her final consummation: the first part (ch. 4 — 11) describes the

CHAPTER III. THE NEW TESTAMENT. C. THE APOCALYPSE.

137

sufferings of the Church in general; the second (ch. 12 — 20) her
final struggle against the Antichrist; and the third (ch. 21 and 22)
her triumph and final glorification.
Setting aside the doubts raised by St. Denis, patriarch of Alex
andria, and adopted by some Palestinian and Antiochian writers,
" it can safely be stated that up to the Protestant Reformation the
Church of the East and the West has uniformly and constantly
upheld the divine character and authenticity of the Apocalypse.
At the same time it has always been recognized as the most
difficult and obscure of all bibhcal books, the right understanding
of whose hidden mysteries must be obtained rather by prayer and
meditation than by mere scientific ingenuity.
The book was addressed by St. John to the seven churches of
Asia Minor, to exhort and comfort them in the persecutions and
grave dangers that threatened them. To the pious Christian of to
day it is still a source of heavenly consolation, when he witnesses
the trials of God's holy Church. It is certainly by a providential
design of the Author of the Bible that the sacred book last written
describes the end of His work for man upon earth, of which the
first book records the very beginning. While the first book tells
of the final loss of the earthly Paradise through the fault of the
first Adam, the last book of the Bible opens up the joyful view
and hope of the heavenly Paradise by the merits of the Second
Adam, the Lamb of God.

Part II,
BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Chapter I.
THE FIRST HABITATIONS OF MAN.
I. THE primitive RACES.
I. Eden and Paradise. The cradle of mankind stood in Asia,
probably in the highlands of Armenia, between the Black and the
Caspian Seas. There apparently was the Paradise, that wonderful
pleasure-ground, or park, planted by God for man before his fafl
into sin. According to the Hebrew text of Gen. u. 8ff, the Lord
God planted a garden "eastward in Eden", which may be inter
preted the "Land of delight" or the "High land". The site of Eden
and the Paradise is further determined : "A river went out of the
place of pleasure to water Paradise, which from thence is divided
into four heads'' (Gen. ii. lo). The four new streams which arose
thence were : the Phison, "which compasseth all the land of Hevilath
where gold groweth" ; the Gehon, "that compasseth afl the land
of Ethiopia" (Cush); the Tigris; and the Euphrates. The Phison
and Gehon cannot now be traced with full certainty; but the
other two, the Tigris to the East, and the Euphrates to the West,
which have their sources within a short distance from each other,
on the plateau of Armenia, point clearly to Armenia as the original
dwelling place of man. Hence the Phison and the Gehon must
be sought in the same neighbourhood ; they are probably identical
with the Koor (Cyrus) and Araxes (Aras), which both have their
sources on the Armenian plateau, and flow eastward to the Caspian
Sea. Paradise, therefore, occupied the place of modern Armenia,
a country situated in the centre of the ancient world, and to this
day unrivalled in the beauty and fertility of its deep valleys.

CHAPTER I. FIRST HABITATIONS OP MAN. I. PRIMITIVE RACES.

139

The land of Cush or Ethiopia (Gen. h. 13) is the modern Ader-
beidshan in the north-eastern part of Armenia, the original habita
tion of the Cushitic Ethiopians, the descendants of Chus, the eldest
son of Cham (Gen. x. 6), who thence spread in a wide semi-circle
as far as Africa. The gold-producing country Hevflath is most
probably Colchis, the gold-land of antiquity.
2. Nod and Henoch. When our first parents had been driven
from Paradise, they remained in the land of Eden. Only after
the murder of his brother did Cain flee eastward into the land of
Nod (i. e. exile). There he built the first city, which he called
Henoch, after his eldest son (Gen. iv. 16, 17). This "city" was
probably nothing but an earth-fortification, behind which the fugitive
fratricide intrenched himself. The Sethites, the descendants of Seth
(Gen. V. 6 ff), lived in the land of Eden until the Flood,
3. Ararat, as the Scripture calls it, and what we now call
Armenia, was again the first habitation of man after the Deluge.
According to Gen. viii. 4, the ark, after the Flood, rested upon
the mountains of Armenia (Ararat). Ararat is , in particular,
the Armenian highland, a plateau overlooking the plain of the
Araxes, and takes its name from one of the Armenian mountains,
which rises from a vast plain about twelve mfles south of the
Araxes, and has at its base a circumference of a five days' journey.
It is surmounted by two peaks, the Great and the Little Ararat,
The Great Ararat, one of the highest and most majestic mountains
on earth, rises 16,964 feet above the level of the sea, and 14,275
feet above the plain. It is covered with perpetual ice and snow
for about 3250 feet from its summit. Connected with it by a
narrow crest is the Little Ararat, which rises 13,093 feet above the
sea and in summer loses all its snow. The mass of Mount Ararat
is a gigantic accumulation of peaks and rocks, increasing in wild
ruggedness towards the summit. It is of volcanic origin, but its
outer configuration seems due to the action of an immense mass
of water slowly receding round about it. By its geographical situa
tion, Ararat was well-fitted to become the distributing centre of
the new race. The sons of Sennacherib, having killed their father,
fled to the land of Ararat (Is. xxxvu. 38; in 4 Kings xix. 37
called Armenia).
4. The Plain of Sennaar. From the high table-land of Armenia
the descendants of Noe's sons, Seiii, Cham, and Japhet, advanced

140

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

towards the fertile plain lying to the south-west, between the
rivers Euphrates arid Tigris (Gen. x). This plain receives from the
peculiar course of the two rivers the shape of an hour-glass, and
is divided into two unequal parts. The greater or northern portion
is Mesopotamia, "the land between two rivers"; the smaller or
southern portion, together with the plain extending down to the
Persian Gulf, along the right bank of the Euphrates after its con
fluence with the Tigris , forms the land of Sinear, or Sennaar
(Shinar), called later Chaldea or Babylonia. According to Gen. x. 10,
Cham's grandson, the Cushite Nimrod, there founded the first great
empire, with the cities of Babylon, Arach, Achad, and Chalanne in

Fig. 28. Birs-i-Nimrud (the Tower of Babel). (After Oppert.)
the land of Sennaar, And out of that land came forth Assur, Sem's
second son, and father of the Assyrians, who built Niniveh and
its suburbs, Chale, and Resen between Niniveh and Chale. On the
site of the ancient Babel, or Babylon, stands the modern town of
Hillah, on the western bank of the lower Euphrates, sixty miles
south of Bagdad, amongst a vast field of ruins. The modern im
posing ruins of Birs-i-Nimrud mark the site of the tower of Babel
(Fig. 28). The original Babel is the modern Borsippa, about six
miles south-east of Hillah ; Arach is the present Warka, south of
Hillah ; the site of Achad and Chalanne are .still uncertain. These
four cities formed later on the ancient great metropolis of Babylon,

:A A

CHAPTER I. FIRST HABITATIONS OF MAN. I. PRIMITIVE RACES.

141

to which, in the seventh century B. C, Nabuchodonosor added
the new town on the left bank of the Euphrates. Here stood
the proud palace of king Nabuchodonosor; in the old town, on
the foundations of the Tower of Babel, stood the Temple of Bel.
The town was a perfect square with an area of about two hundred
square miles. Colossal walls with two hundred and fifty towers and
a hundred brazen gates made it an apparently impregnable fortress.
The interior of the town was adorned with magnificent parks, of
which the most famous were the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis,
near the royal palace. Cyrus conquered Babylon B. C. 538, Of its
ancient glory only ruins remain, as had been foretold by Is, xiii,
19 ff; xiv. 22 ff; xxi. i ff and Jer. li. 37.
The most ancient city of Assyria is probably Assur, now the
heap of ruins called Kalah-Shergat , on the right bank of the Tigris,
between the Great and the Little Zab rivers. In the course of
time Ninua or Niniveh, with its extensive suburbs, was built on
the left bank of the Tigris. It is the modern Kuyundjik, to the
north of the confluence of the Great Zab with the Tigris, opposite
Mosul. Later was founded the city of Chale, the present Nimrud,
south of Niniveh. Between the two was Resen, which must be
sought, no doubt, on the. site of the modern Karatnleh. These
extensive cities, in close juxtaposition, covered the neck of land
between the Zab and the Tigris to such a degree that they received
the collective name of "The Great City", being called Niniveh after
its principal and most ancient section. Towards the end of the
eighth century B. C. the town of King Sargon , the present
Khorsabad (F'lg. 29, page 142), to the north, and stifl later the pre
sent Mosul, on the right bank of the Tigris, were added to Niniveh.
Recent excavations show that Niniveh consisted of four great
wafled cities and a multitude of smaller towns and strongholds,
the whole being surrounded with a wall sixty miles in length. The
walls were about one hundred feet in height, and of such thickness
that three chariots could be driven side by side on the top. Fifteen
hundred towers, twice as high as the walls themselves, added to
their strength and beauty. In the days of the prophet Jonas,
Niniveh was "an exceeding great city of three days' journey",
i. e., probably, in circumference. Its population must have been
about seven hundred thousand, the number of children being given
as one hundred and twenty thousand. Its position on both banks of

142

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the Tigris made it the commercial centre of eastern and western
Asia. In B. C. 606 this world-renowned city was destroyed after
a three years' siege by the Babylonian king Nabopolassar and the
Median Cyaxares I.
5. Dispersion of Mankind. The plain of Sennaar was soon
found too narrow for the fast increasing crowd of races. Before
separating they resolved to leave a monument of their original
unity and power by erecting an immense tower in the capital city
of Nimrod (Gen. xi). The site of the tower is still marked by
the modern ruins of Birs-i-Nimrud (the tower of Nimrod), south-east
of Babylon. But God, by means of a confusion of tongues, cut
short their proud enterprise, whence the city received the name

''^i?^"^

Fig. 29. Sargon's Palace at Khorsabad (reconstructed).
of Babel, i. e. confusion. After the separation, the Japhetites
settled in the north-western part of Asia and over all Europe; the
Chamites spread into the hot countries of the south ; whereas the
Semites remained in western and central Asia, the place of honour
in the ancient world. Abraham, the father of the chosen people,
was a Semite and a native of Ur in Chaldea (now Mughair;
Fig. 30), forty-five miles south-east of Babylon. He came with
his father Thare to Haran, the modern Karreh, in the north-west
of Mesopotamia, nine miles south of Edessa (Gen. xi. 31). From
Haran God called him away from his kindred to the land of pro
mise, which his descendants were to possess after four hundred
years of servitude in Egypt (Gen. xh. i ff). The ruined city of

CHAPTER I. FIRST HABITATIONS OF MAN. 2. THE PATRIARCHS. X43

Ur in Chaldea (now Mughair). (Phot. Dr. Koldewcy.)

Mughair, on the western bank of the lower Euphrates, lies about
half-way between Babylon and the Persian Gulf
Ur was the oldest capital of Babylonia ; its chief had gradually
become the sole ruler of the land in 2500 B. C, and in the
year 2000 the seat of the monarchy was transferred to Babylon.
The circumstance of Thare's leaving Ur to settle in Haran may
possibly be due to these political changes. The great roadway of
commerce from Babylonia to the Mediterranean Sea passed through
Mesopotamia, where Haran, being the terminus of the roads to
Armenia, became a commercial centre.

2. THE PATRIARCHS AND THEIR SONS.
I. Chanaan is the name of the land to which God cafled
Abraham, and which He promised to his seed (Gen. xii. 7). It is a
mountainous country on the south-western border of the desert of
the Euphrates (Syrian desert) towards the Mediterranean Sea. The
Chanaanites (descendants of Chanaan, fourth son of Cham, Gen. x. 6)
occupied this territory, but it was scantily cultivated and inhabited.
There were only a few isolated towns. The inhabitants were
peaceable herdsmen, who wandered through the land from end to
end. Among them two tribes were prominent in the days of the
Patriarchs: the Hethites (the descendants of Heth, the son of
Chanaan, Gen. x. 15; xxiu; Fig. 31, page 144) in the south round
about Hebron ; and the Hevites (descendants of Hevi, another son

144

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of Chanaan; Gen. x. 17; xxxiv. 2; Jos. xi. 3), in the centre of the
country near Sichem. Abraham, following the divine call, crossed
the Jordan and advanced into the land of Chanaan as far as Sichem
where he first pitched his tent under the oaks of Moreh. From
Moreh he turned to the south-east, and lived between Bethel (Luza)
and Hai, twelve miles north of Jerusalem (Salem). He then pene
trated further south, and, during a famine, spent some time in
Egypt, after which he came back to his home between Bethel
and Hai (Gen. xiu. 3). Here he parted company with his nephew
Lot, the pasture not being sufficient for the flocks of both. Lot
selected for his flocks the valley of Siddim, south of the Dead
Sea; Abraham established himself in the valley of Mambre near
Hebron. From Mambre he wandered through the south of the
country as far as the desert, lived in
Gerara, in the adjacent country of the
Phflistines (Gen. xx.), at a place called
Bersabee (Gen. xxi. 31 33). Isaac at first
lived in Bersabee, in the extreme south;
after the death of his father, however,
he removed to the valley of Mambre.
Jacob fled from Bersabee into Meso
potamia, and served twenty years under
his uncle Laban, in Haran. Esau, in the
Fig 31. Head of Hethite. meanwhile, went into the mountains of
(After Frohnmeyer & Benzinger.) Seir (Gen. xxxii. 3), south of the Dead
Sea. On his return from Mesopotamia, Jacob entered the Promised
Land at Mahanaim; and at Phanuel on the Jordan he wrestled with
the Angel. After crossing the Jordan, he first came to Sichem, then
by way of Bethel and Bethlehem (Ephrata) to the valley of Mambre,
near Hebron, where, after the death of Isaac, he took up his abode.
The most ancient town of the Holy Land is Hebron, now called
Arbe (Fig. 32, page 145). According to Num. xhi. 23, Hebron was
built seven years before Tanis (Zoan) in Egypt. It is the chief
town in the history of the Patriarchs. Here dwelt the three great
Patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and their bodies were laid
to rest three miles north of Hebron, in a double cave in the field
of Ephron, over against Mambre. From Hebron the brothers of
Joseph drove their flocks to the, pastures of Dothain, beyond Sichem;
and from Hebron Jacob descended with his sons into Egypt.

Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge.

146 PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Hebron was, for a time, named Arbe, after the father of Enac
(Jos. XV. 13); but Josue named it Hebron (Jos. xiv. 13 — 15). In like
manner Jebus (Judges xix. 10), the capital of the Jebusites, named
after the third son of Chanaan (Gen. x. 16), had its name changed
first to Salem (Gen. xiv. 18), then to Jerusalem (Jos. x. i). Luza
was called by Jacob Bethel, i. e. house of God (Gen. xxviii. 19;
Jos. xvi. 2).
2. The Land of Gessen. The events in the life of Joseph re
sulted in bringing the Patriarch Jacob and his family into Egypt,
where Israel was destined to grow into a numerous people. The
reign of the Hyksos, the foreign kings, was drawing to a close
when the Israehtes entered the land. Being shepherds, they were
given the land of Gessen (Gen. xlvh. i, 4, 6), where they super
intended the royal herds. The land of Gessen is the eastern border
of the cultivated part of Lower Egypt ; the extreme arms of the
Nile, the Tanitic and the Pelusian, form its boundary on the west
and north ; the desert of Arabia Petraea limits it on the east. The
southern boundary is formed by a line drawn between the point
where the Nile splits into several arms, and Suez. Gessen corre
sponds to the modern province esh-Sharkijeh; it was the crown
land of the Hyksos, whose capital, Zoan or Tanis, stood on the
Tanitic branch of the Nfle. After the expulsion of the Hyksos,
Ramses II. built on the same site the new capital Ramesses and
the fortress Phithom, in the construction of which the oppressed
Israelites were forced to labour as slaves (Ex. i. 1 1). Both towns
adjoined the canal leading from the Nile to the Red Sea. The
Hyksos, or Shepherd-kiTigs, were nomads, who had invaded Egypt
from Arabia, Chanaan, and Syria, and put an end to the old
Egyptian domination of Memphis. Their manner of hfe was that
of the Israelites, who, perhaps, only came to Egypt under the
last of their kings, Apophis or Apepi. After the expulsion of the
Hyksos by the dynasties of the Middle Kingdom of Thebes, the
Israehtes, formerly favoured, were oppressed as strangers. Ancient
Egypt was divided into No7nes or districts; the twentieth Nome
was the land of Gessen.
3. Pharan and Sinai, a) Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt^
across the western arm of the Red Sea, into the desert of Pharan,
the modern et-Tih, which occupies the greatest part of Arabia
Petrasa. The desert of Pharan (Gen. xxi. 21; Num. x. 12;

CHAPTER I. FIRST HABITATIONS OF MAN. 2. THE PATRIARCHS.

147

3 Kings xi. i8) is a table-land about two hundred miles in length
and width, stretching from the Sinaitic Peninsula in the south
to the borders of Chanaan in the north. On the west it was
bordered by the Gulf and Isthmus of Suez; on the east a deep
valley, called Arabah (i. e. desert), separated it from the mountain
range of Seir and the Edomites (Gen. xiv. 6). This desert was
noted for its great barrenness and its want of water. Moses calls
it the "terrible and vast wilderness" (Deut. i. 19). This vast desert
of Pharan was again sub-divided into the deserts of Etham or
Sur (Ex. XV. 22) and
Sin (Ex. xvi. i) in the
west along the Gulf of
Suez; Zin (Num. xx. i)
in the north-east along
the borders of Chanaan.
The Sinaitic Peninsula
is situated between the
two northern extensions
of the Red Sea ; the
Gulf of Suez on the west,
and the Gulf of Akaba
on the east. In its centre
rises, forming almost a
complete circle nearly
seventy miles in dia
meter, the mountain
range of Sinai or Horeb
(Fig- 33). The Arabs cafl
these mountains Djebel-
et-Tur. In the north, the plateau of er-Raha separates it from the
desert of Pharan, and the two valleys of el-Ledja and esh-Shueib
divide it into three principal ridges: the north-eastern, called Mount
of the Monastery ; the south-western, called Mount St. Catherine
(Fig. 34, page 148; so named from the legendary translation to
its summit, by angels, of the body of St. Catherine, which now
reposes in the monastery of St. Catherine in the valley esh-Shueib) ;
and the central peak which is Sinai proper. The northern peak
of Sinai is properly called Horeb (at the foot of which God first
appeared to Moses in the burning bush; Ex. iii. i ff); the southern

1:100000

'W'agncri.Bebes.Leipzig,
I laiom..

Fig, 33, Map of Sinai.
A = Convent ofthe 40 Martyrs. H = Mt. Homr, K = Con
vent of St, Catherine. M = Mt. Moses. W. R, = Wady
er-Raha, W, S, = Wady Sadad, W, Sch. = Wady Scheik,

148

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

peak is the Mountain of Moses, also called the Mountain of God.
The wide plain of es-Sebayeh stretches out from the base of Sinai
to the sea; the mountain rising almost vertically to the majestic
height of about two thousand feet above the plain, and seven
thousand five hundred above the sea. Here the Law was pro
claimed to the people (Ex. xix.).
b) The Journey of the Israelites. Moses led the people of
Israel from Ramesses and Phithom (Socoth) first in a north-eastetiy
direction to Etham on the border of Arabia Petraea; then, by
special command of God, he turned southward to the Gulf of
Suez. There the Israelites encamped near Phihahiroth (Ex. xiv. 2),

Fig. 34. Mount St. Catherine with St, Catherine's Monastery in the foreground.

a place almost facing the town of Suez. The gulf formerly ex
tended as far as, and even beyond, the Bitter Lakes north of
Suez. After the miraculous passage through the Red Sea, the
wanderers first entered the desert of Etham, then the desert of
Sur, where they encamped near Mara and Elim (Ex. xv. 23, 27);
a month after leaving Egypt, they were in the desert of Siii,
between Elim and Mount Sinai. They halted in Daphka and
Alus (Num. xxxiii. 12, 13), and lastiy, in the plain of Raphidim
(Ex. xvii. I ; Num. xxxiii. 14), north of Horeb, where they were
attacked by the Amalecites. Three months after their going out
they came to the desert around Sinai, and stayed there until the

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

149

following year. They moved on to Haseroth (Num. xi. 34), on
the western side of the Gulf of Akaba, around which dwelt the
Madianites, and through the valley of the desert west of the
mountains of Edom, as far as Cades Barnea in the desert of Zin
on the south-eastern border of Chanaan, a place already famous
by the battle of many tribes (Gen. xiv. 7) and the well of Agar
(Gen. xvi. 14). Cades remained the centre of the sojourn of Israel
in the desert during the following thirty-eight years. From here
the "spies" were sent out by Moses (Num. xiu. 27), and here Mary,
the sister of Moses, died (Num. xx. i). The Edomites refusing
them leave to pass through the valley of the desert to the Red
Sea, they turned the mountains of Edom at Asiongaber (the modern
Alia or Akaba) in the south (Num. xxxiii. 35 ; Deut. u. 8). On
their way, Aaron died upon Mount Hor on the borders of the land
of Edom (Num. xx, 22 ff). Advancing along the eastern border
of Edom, they came through the land of Moab to the river: Ar non,
the border of the Promised Land (Num. xxi. 13 ff).
Chapter II.
PALESTINE.
I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. Names and Location. The land which God had promised
to Abraham and his descendants, and where in the fulness of
time the divine promises were to be fulfifled (hence the Land of
Promise), 'is the small, hilly country of Palestine, formerly called
Chanaan. Both names had originally a more limited signification,
Chanaan, i, e. the low-country, as distinguished from Gilead, the
high table-land east of the Jordan, was the name of the land in
the north-west along the shore of the Mediterranean. Later the
whole country west of the Jordan, including Phoenicia, in which
the Chanaanites settled, received the same name. Palestine or
Philistia, likewise, designated originally the low country in the
south-west on the sea-shore, inhabited by the powerful Philistines ;
the Romans extended the name to the whole country.
Palestine is the Holy Land, because it is the country chosen
by God for His people and His holy Temple, where the Messias

150

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

was to bring redemption to man. It is also called the Land of
Jehova, because it was His special property, upon which the Jews
vi'ere only tenants. It is called the Land of Israel, or of Jiida,
or of the Hebrews, from the names of its inhabitants.
By the river Jordan, Palestine is divided into two distinct sec
tions. The western section extends from the Lebanon in the
north to the Arabian Desert in the south ; the eastern section
extends from Mt. Hermon in the north to the river Arnon in the
south. At the time of Christ, this eastern section, formerly known
as Gilead, was called Percea. The length of Palestine from north to
south is about one hundred and eighty miles, and its width from
west to east, ninety miles in the southern, and forty mfles in the
northern portion, the total area being about twelve thousand square
miles, very nearly the same as the State of Maryland in the United
States or the Kingdom of Belgium in Europe.
Palestine generally has a mild climate, though it varies greatly
according to the different altitudes. With the end of October
comes the early rain (so-called because it is at the beginning of
the Jewish civil year), when the field is to be cultivated and the
seed of winter fruit to be sown. The cold and stormy season,
winter, comes with December. The later rainy season (the "latter
shower". Job xxix. 23) sets in at the end of March, when the
summer fruit is planted. With the harvest of the winter grain in
May begins the summer and a rainless season, which is tempered
by the rich dew falling during the nights. The importance of the
"early and the latter rain" is beautifully described in Joel ii. 238".
Palestine abounds in the produce of both the southern and the
temperate zones. Palm-trees, cotton, sugar-cane, grain, meadows,
vineyards, balsam, myrrh, orange and lemon trees, terebinths,
cypress, oak, fruit-trees of every description, olive-groves, are
plentiful in this fertile land. Yet the fertility of the Promised
Land, so highly praised in the Old Testament, is now not what
it used to be; climatic influences, bad government, and the in
dolence of the inhabitants are responsible for the decreased pro
ductiveness. The natural boundaries of the Holy Land are the Mediterranean
Sea on the west, and the Lebanon range on the north, which divides
it from Phoenicia and Syria; vast deserts separate it on the east
from Syria and Babylonia, and on the south from Egypt. Being

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

151

a self-supporting country, in which Israel was able to lead a se
cluded life, situated almost in the centre of the ancient world, on
the Mediterranean Sea and near the great commercial routes,
Palestine was eminently fitted to become the cradle of Christianity.
Tyre and Damascus, Petra and Alexandria, the four great com
mercial centres of antiquity, were its four corner-pillars; Phoenicia,
Babylon, and Egypt, the homes of ancient civilization, encompassed
it. The road from Damascus to Egypt passed through the entire
length, from the plain of Esdrelon via Ramleh (Arimathea) and
Gaza; the road from Damascus into Arabia, which joined the north
with the south and formed a chief part of the connection between
Asia and Africa, ran east of the Jordan, whilst another important
highway, from Tyre to Niniveh, ran along its northern boundary.
2. Mountains, Plains, Valleys, Deserts, and Forests, a) Mount
Lebanon, famous in antiquity and even to this day for its lofty
cedar trees, is divided by the deep valley of Ccelosyria, through
which the river Leontes winds its way southward to the Mediter
ranean, into two parallel ranges, the western or Lebanon proper,
and the eastern or Anti-Lebanon. The south-western peak of the
Anti-Lebanon is Mount Hermon, reaching a height of 9200 feet
above the Mediterranean, and being covered with snow all the
year. It was the great landmark on the northern border of the
Holy Land (Deut. hi. 8; Jos. xu. i). From the Anti -Lebanon
southward, on both sides of the river Jordan, mountain ranges run
down the whole length of Palestine ; the sides facing the river are
steep and rocky; the western slopes towards the Mediterranean
run out into plains of varying breadth. There are breaks across
both the mountain ranges and the supplementary smaller ranges.
The greatest of these is the plain of Esdrelon or Jezrael in the
north. The mountain ranges north of Esdrelon and west of the
Jordan are called the mountains of Nephthali ; those on the south,
as far as the Dead Sea, are the mountains of Ephraim ; and those
to the west of the Dead Sea and in the southern portion of the
country, the mountains of Juda. The range east of the Jordan,
a table-land averaging about 1950 feet in height, is known as
Galaad, and its northern parts as Basan or Hauran. The moun
tains south of the Dead Sea, to the east, are the mountains of
Moab or Phasga, whose southern prolongation forms the moun
tains of Seir.

152

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The following single mountains deserve to be noted :
In the mountain range of Nephthali (Galilee): Mount Thabor,
where Christ was transfigured (Mt. xvh.), 1843 feet high, in the
north of the plain of Esdrelon, famous in olden days (Jos. xix. 22;
Judges iv. 6; vih. 18; Jer. xlvi. 18). The Mount of the Beatitudes
(1080 feet), also called the Mount of Christ and ofthe Apostles, is a
double-crested hill, four miles west of Tiberias. The Little Hermon,
three miles south of Thabor. Mount Carmel, a beautiful promon
tory in the extreme west of the plain of Esdrelon, made famous
by the Prophet Elias; its highest peak rises to about 1600 feet.
In the mountains of Ephraim (Samaria): Mount Gelboe (2100
feet), which is itself a mountain range in the south-east of Esdrelon,
stretching towards the Jordan, where Saul was slain (i Kings xxxi).
Mounts Hebal (2700 feet) and Garizim (2600 feet) form the centre
of the range and its two highest peaks; these two mountains are
famous by the blessings and curses uttered there by the tribes of
Israel (Deut, xxvh. 12 ff; Jos. vih. 33). Later on, about 400 B. C,
the Samaritans built their temple on Mount Garizim; on Mount
Samaria (1020 feet) the town of Samaria was built.
In the mountains of Juda Qudaea) : Mount Olivet, the scene of
the agony and the ascension of Christ, with its three peaks, the
northern, 2500 feet, the southern, 2100 feet, and the middle one,
2400 feet, is about a mile east of Jerusalem. Mount Quarantania
(1500 feet), or the mount of the forty days' fast, in the desert
between Jerusalem and Jericho.
East of the Jordan: Mount Nebo (2500 feet), on which Moses
died, is the northern point of the mountains of Moab, opposite
Jericho (Fig. 35). Mount Hor (4000 feet), on which Aaron died,
raises its two peaks in the centre of the mountains of Edom,
near ancient Petra.
b) Among the plains of Palestine, Esdrelon (also called Jezrael),
which extends from Mount Carmel to the Jordan, is the most
famous, as the theatre of important historical events and the com
mercial link between Egypt and Damascus. Along the sea-shore
there are the plains Sephela in the south as far as Joppe; fertile
Saron from Joppe to Mount Carmel; Acca, from Mount Carmel to
the Tyrian Ladder. The deep valley through which the Jordan
flows is called the Valley of the Jordan. The plain of Genesar
or Genesareth lies north-west, and that of Hittin south-west of the

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

153

Lake of Genesareth ; the plain of Jericho extends from Jericho to
the Dead Sea; the plain of Moab lies east of the Jordan, opposite
to Jericho.
c) In the immediate neighbourhood of Jerusalem are the valley
of Josaphat or Cedron and that of Gehon or Ennom. The former
is famous because of the prophecy (Joel iu. 12) giving rise to the
belief that the Last Judgment will take place there. It is about
one mfle long and very narrow; the brook Cedron runs through
it. The latter lies on the south side of Jerusalem. In this valley

Fig. 35. Mount Nebo.
was placed the idol of Moloch, upon which children were burnt
in sacrifice (4 Kings xxiii. 10). It became a place of horror and
abomination to the Jews (Jer. vh. 31 ff), and was used by Christ
as a type of the place of eternal fire and torment (Gehenna)
(Mt. V. 22; X. 28).
Mention is also made in the Bible of the Valley of Grapes
(Num. xiu. 24, 25), north of Hebron; the Valley of Terebinths
(Mambre, Gen. xih. 18), north-west of Jerusalem; the Salt Valley
(2 Kings vih. 13; 4 Kings xiv. 7), south of the Dead Sea.

154 PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
d) Desert, in the language of the Bible, does not always indicate
barren land, but often wide, uncultivated tracts used only for
pasture. The largest and most famous desert is the Desert of
Juda, about forty-two miles long and twelve miles wide. It
stretches along the western shore of the Dead Sea, and borders
on the eastern rocky slopes and cliffs of the mountain range of
Juda. Its more remarkable parts are the Desert of St. John, six
miles west of Jerusalem (Lk. i. 8o; Mt. hi. i), and the Z'^j^;-^ of
Quarantania, where Christ fasted for forty days; the Desert of
Engaddi , often mentioned in the Old Testament (Jos. xv. 62;
I Kings xxiv. i ff); Ziph (i Kings xxiu. 14); Maon (i Kings
xxiii. 25); Thecue (2 Par. xi. 6), and the southernmost of all,
Bersabee (i Par. iv. 28). Between Jerusalem and Jericho hes the
barren desert of Jericho; between Jericho and Bethel, the de
sert of Bethaven, where the boys mocking Eliseus were torn by
bears (4 Kings ii. 23); beyond the east coast of the Sea of
Genesareth, the desert of Bethsaida , where Christ fed the five
thousand (Lk. ix. 10).
e) As to Forests, special mention is made of the forest of
cedars on Mount Lebanon, often referred to in Holy Writ; the
forest of oaks in the mountains of Basan (Zach. xi. 2) ; the forest
of Ephraim (Jos. xvii. 15; 2 Kings xviii. 6, 8); the extensive forest
of Haret, where David hid (i Kings xxu. 5); lastly, the thickets
on the banks of the Jordan, called the 'iPride of the Jordan"
(Zach. xi. 3).
3. Lakes, Rivers, and Creeks, a) Palestine has three inland
seas: Merom, Genesareth , and the Dead Sea. The small and
shallow lake of Merom is situated in the north of Gahlee. In
spring, fed by the melting snow of Mount Hermon, it sometimes
becomes twelve mfles long and four miles wide; but in summer
it is more like a swamp about six miles long. On its shores
gathered the northern chiefs in battle against Josue (Jos. xi. 5 ff).
The Sea of Genesareth (Lk. v. i), or of Galilee (Mt. iv. 18), or
of Tiberias (John vi. i), is about twelve miles long and from
four to seven wide (Fig. 36). Its depth is from eighty to a hundred
and sixty feet; its surface is six hundred and eighty-two feet below
the level of the Mediterranean. It is oval in shape, and surrounded
with picturesque and, in parts, very fertile mountains ; the eastern
shore is steep ; the western was at one time thickly studded with

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

155

cities and villages, among which Capharnaum, Corozain, Magdala,
Bethsaida, and Tiberias are the best known. Jewish writers dwell
with enthusiasm on the excellencies of this lake, the transparency
of its waters, its great abundance of fish, the fertility of its shores,
and the sublime scenery of its surroundings. In the Old Testament,
this water is called the Sea of Cenereth (Num. xxxiv. 1 1 ; Jos. xu. 3),
probably from the city of the same name (Jos. xix. 35). Much
of our Lord's public hfe was spent on the shores of this lake.
The Dead Sea, or Salt Sea, or Asphalt Sea, in the south of
the country, is about forty-five mfles long and of an average width

Fig. 36. Sea of Genesareth with ruins of Tiberias in the foreground.
of about ten mfles. The promontory El Lissom in the east, on
which stood the small town of Segor, originally called Bala (Gen.
xiv. 2, 8), divides it into two unequal parts, the northern being
nearly two-thirds of the whole. The greatest depth of the northern
basin is 13 10 feet, its mean depth being about nine hundred feet;
its surface is 13 16 feet below the level of the Mediterranean, so
that its bottom is over 2600 feet below sea-level, the deepest spot
on earth not covered by sea-water. The southern third is nowhere
deeper than twelve feet. It is rightiy called the Dead Sea. Nothing
grows on its shores, and nothing lives in its water, which

156

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

contains twenty-five per cent of salt, and is of a greater specific
weight than the human body. In this region lay the paradise-like
valley of Siddim (i. e. the "woodland vale". Gen. xiv. 3, 8, 10),
with the luxurious towns of Sodom and Gomorrha, from which
Lot fled to the neighbouring town of Segor (Gen. xix. 22, 23).
This lake is usually called the "Salt Sea" (Gen. xiv. 3; Deut.
hi. 17); the "Sea ofthe D&sert, or Wilderness" (Jos. ih. 16; Deut.
iv. 49); the "East Sea" (Joel h. 20; Zach. xiv. 8), the Mediterranean
being to the West.
b) The principal river of Palestine, the Jordan, i, e, the de
scender, flows from north to south, down a deep valley in the
centre of the country, which it divides into two unequal parts,
the greater lying west. It rises from three sources, fed by the
snows of Mount Hermon, whose waters unite a short distance above
Lake Merom. Ten mfles below Lake Merom, the Jordan enters
the Sea of Genesareth, after passing the so-called bridge of Jacob's
daughters, the main crossing to Damascus. From the Sea of
Genesareth the river flows through a long low plain, called by
the modern Arabs Ghor , i. e. sunken plain. After a rapid and
tortuous course of two hundred mfles — in a straight line only
sixty-five — it falls into the Dead Sea. The river-bed lies very
low, between mountains rising from eight hundred to two thousand
feet; its descent or fall from Lake Genesareth to the Dead Sea
is over 600 feet, amounting sometimes to forty feet a mile. It
runs over twenty-seven dangerous rapids. In spring the river over
flows its banks (Jos. iii. 15). Its width varies greatly, being from
one hundred to five hundred feet wide. There seem to have been
two principal fords across the river: one to the north, a httle
above the mouth of the Jaboc probably referred to in Gen.
xxxii. 10; Judges vh, 24; xii. 6); the other, south, over against
Jericho, where St. John baptized (Jos. iv. 10, 11; 2 Kings x. 17;
xvii. 22 ; Mt. hi. 5). Near its mouth the Jordan is from 60 to
100 feet wide, according to the season; its depth in spring is
about 10 feet.
The rivers Ilieromax (Jarmuk) and Jaboc flow into the Jordan
between the two seas, both from the east. On the south bank
of the Jaboc, Jacob was met by his brother Esau (Gen. xxxh. 22).
It is famous as the border-line between the Israelites and the Am
monites (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. h. 37). The r\v ex Arnon empties itself

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

157

into the Dead Sea from the east; it separates the country of
Gflead from Moab and Arabia (Num. xxi. 13, 24; Deut. ii. 24, 36;
Judges xi. 13, 18, 22). The river Kison waters the plain of Esdrelon
and empties into the Mediterranean. It witnessed the defeat of
Sisara (Judges iv.) and the prophets of Baal (3 Kings xvhi. 40).
c) Palestine is watered by many smaller streams, mostly winter
brooks, which greatly contribute to its fertility. The following
deserve to be mentioned: the brook or Torrent of Egypt, on the
frontier between Egypt and Palestine, mentioned as the border
river of the Promised Land (Num. xxxiv. 3 ff ; Jos. xv. 4) ; the
brooks of Besor (i Kings xxx. 9, 10, 21) SindSorec (Judges xvi. 4),
in the plain of Sephela; the brook of Cana (Jos. xix. 28) in the
plain of Saron; the brook of Belus, which, like the others mention
ed, flows into the Mediterranean; the brook of Capharnaum dis
charges its waters into the Lake of Genesareth near Capharnaum ;
the brook of Carith (3 Kings xvii. 3) empties into the Jordan
near Jericho; the torrent of Cedron (John xviii. i) runs between
Jerusalem and Mount Olivet down into the Dead Sea.
2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I. The first inhabitants of Palestine whom Abraham found in
the land, when he came from Ur in Chaldaea, were the Chanaanites
and the Pheresites (Gen. xiii. 7). The different tribes of Chanaanites
who possessed the land are described in Gen. x. 1 5 ff. But, it
is difficult to say who were the Pherezites so often mentioned in
Holy Writ (Gen. xv. 20; Jos. iii. 10; i Esd. ix. i); they certainly
were descendants of Chanaan. Of the nations to be delivered to
Abraham's seed (Gen. xv. i8ff), seven were to be completely de
stroyed (Deut. vii. i). Of the surviving tribes, many were allowed
by God, in the course of time, to oppress the Israelites, untfl they
were finally made tributary to Solomon (3 Kings ix. 20, 21). Mention
is also made of the Avites or Avim living on the southern sea-
coast, driven out from there by the Caphtorim (wrongly called
Cappadocians, Deut. h. 23, where the Avites are also wrongly
called Hevites); the Enacim, giants living in the hflls of Hebron
(Num. xih. 34; Jos. xi. 21, 22); the Zomzommim, also a giant race
(Deut. ii. 20, 21), together with the tribes overpowered by the
Elamites (i Esd. iv. 9). The Hethites were a very powerful nation;
their capital was Hebron, and they fought with the other tribes

158

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

against the invading Israelites (Jos. ix. i ; xi. 3). David's unlucky
body-guard, Urias, was a Hethite (2 Kings xxiii. 39). Still more
powerful were the Amorr kites, the descendants of Amorrh, fourth
son of Chanaan (Gen. x. 16). They first dwelt west of the Jordan;
but when the Israelites entered the Promised Land , they had
already driven the Moabites and Ammonites from their settlement
east of the Jordan and founded two kingdoms in that region.
The southern kingdom, Galaad, lay between the rivers Arnon and
Jaboc; Hesebon was its capital and Sehon its king (Num. xxi. 21 ff).
The northern kingdom, Basan, extended from Jaboc to Mount
Hermon; Edrei was its capital and Og its king (Deut. iii. 8 ff).
The Chanaanites west of the Jordan were spht up into numerous
petty kingdoms ; single towns, like Gabaon (Jos. ix. 3 ; x. 2), had
republican institutions; this want of unity facilitated the conquest
of the land by Josue.
2. The neighbouring tribes, with whom the Israelites had frequent
conflicts, were the Moabites and the Ammonites in the south-east,
and the Edomites and Phflistines in the south-west of Palestine; the
Amalekites and the Madianites across the Arabian border.
a) The brother-tribes descended from Moab and Ammon, the
sons of Lot (Gen. xix, 37, 38), at first lived east of the Jordan
and the Dead Sea, between the rivers Arnon and Jaboc, but were
pushed further south and east beyond these rivers by the Amorrhites.
Several times they attempted to reconquer their ancient land from
the judges and kings of Israel, but they only succeeded after the
downfall of the conquering nation. The Ammonites were defeated
by the judge Jephte, by king Saul, and most severely by David,
who, after a siege of several years, took their capital Rabbath
Ammon (2 Kings xii. 26 ff). The Ammonites and Moabites leagued
with Holofernes against Bethulia (Judith v. vi. vh). They were
severely punished by Judas, the Machabee (i Mach. v). The judge
Aod fought against the Moabites (Judges hi. 12 ff); Saul, David,
and their successors were almost constantly at war with them.
David had imposed a tribute on them (2 Kings viii. 2) ; later, they
rebelled, but in vain (4 Kings iii. 5). These two nations were always
allied in the frequent wars by which they harassed the Israelites.
The Lord had forbidden His people to destroy the chfldren of
Ammon and Moab (Deut. ii. 19), although they were idolaters
worshipping Moloch.

CHAPTER 11. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

159

b) The Edomites , or Idumceans, were descendants of Esau, Jacob's
brother, who was called Edom (Gen. xxv. 30; xxxvi. i ff, where
all the Edomite tribes are enumerated). The land Edom was formerly
called Mount Seir, or the Land of Seir, after Seir, the father of
the Horrites (Gen. xxxvi. 20, 21, 30), its original inhabitants, who
were driven out by the children of Esau (Deut. ii. 12). It was
later called Idumaea. In the centre of their country, which extended
from the south of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Akaba, stood the
rocky stronghold Sela, or Petra (the rock), their capital (2 Paralip.
xxv. 12; 4 Kings xiv. 7), near Mount Hor. Equal to Sela in im
portance was the city of Bosra, in the north of Edom (Is. xxxiv.
5, 6; Jer. xlix. 13); Elath and Asiongaber were its sea-ports. David
subjugated them and placed his garrisons in the land, but during
the reign of Joram, king of Juda, they regained their liberty and
had a king of their own (4 Kings viii. 20).
About 500 B. C, driven from their moun
tains by the trading Nabateans, they settled
along the southern boundary of Chanaan.
The Machabee, John Hyrcanus, subjugated
them and forced them to accept circum
cision. In the end, however, through Anti
pater and his son Herod, they obtained do- Fig, 37, Dagon, 'Relieve.
minion over the Jews. ^^"'' ^°"""-
c) The Philistines, descended from Cham (Gen. x. 6, 14), had
immigrated from Egypt, and, in the times of the Patriarchs, were
settled in the south-west corner of Chanaan, called after them
Philistia Qos. xhi. 2). Immigrants from the land east ofthe Nile delta,
the Capthorim (Gen. x. 14; Jos. xih. 3 and Amos ix. 7 ; Jer. xlvh. 4),
increased their numbers. Their capital town was Gerara, near Ber
sabee, where Abraham first met the Phflistine king Abimelech (Gen.
XX. xxi) ; later, it was Gaza, the strongest of their five towns in the
plain of Sephela, namely, Gaza, Azot, Ascalon, GetJi, and Accaron.
Josue could not conquer Gaza, Geth, and Azotus (Jos. xi. 22). In
these towns were the shrines of the national divinities, of Beelzebub,
the fly-god, or dung-god, and of Dagon, the fish-god (Fig. 37).
The relations between the Philistines and the Patriarchs began in
a friendly manner; but in the course of time the Philistines be
came the hereditary enemies of the Israelites. Since the days of
the Judges (Judges ih. 3), they were engaged in constant wars against

l60 PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Israel, even until the time ofthe Machabees (i Mach. iu. 24). The
judges Samgar (Judges iii. 31) and Samson (Judges xiii ff) defeated
the Philistines, but it was at their hands that Saul suffered his last
and mortal defeat near the mountains of Gelboe (i Kings xxxi). They
were subdued by king David (i Par. xvih. i), but regained their
power under king Achaz (2 Par. xxviii. 18). In Gaza Samson
broke the pillars of Dagon's tent; in Azotus the Ark of the Covenant,
carried oft' in Heh's time by the Philistines, was put up in the
temple of Dagon. In the temple of Beelzebub, at Accaron, there
was an oracle which king Ochozias of Israel consulted (4 Kings
i. 2 ff). In later days, Beelzebub was considered the prince of the
devils (Mt. xii. 24).
d) The Amalecites were a nomadic people of ancient origin.
They lived south of the Dead Sea, but pushed their raiding ex
peditions far into Arabia Petraea. They were the first to attack
the Israelites, when these entered the desert (Ex. xvh. 8 ff), and
later on they joined the Chanaanites in opposing their entrance
into the Promised Land (Num. xiv. 43). Under the Judges, a number
of Amalecites had settled in Mid-Palestine in the mountains of
Ephraim. They allied themselves with the Ammonites and Madia
nites against the Israelites, but were defeated by Gedeon (Judges
ih. 13 ; vi. 3; vii. 12). Heavy defeats were inflicted on them by Saul
(i Kings XV. 3 ff) and David (i Kings xxvh. 8, 9; xxx. 18 ff), and
their last remnants were probably conquered in the days of king
Ezechias by the tribe of Simeon, which occupied their country.
e) The Madianites , descended from Madian , son of Cetura
(Gen. xxv. 2), dwelt originally to the east of the Gulf of Akaba.
In the days of Moses, however, some nomad tribes of Madianites
also occupied the western country of Sinai towards Horeb, whither
he fled from Egypt and where he married the daughter of Jethro,
the prince and king (Ex. in. i). The Cenites (Cinites) were a branch
of the Madianites, to which belonged Jethro and Hobab, the
father-in-law and brother-in-law of Moses (Judges i. 16 ; iv. 11). Later,
the Madianites allied themselves with the Moabites against Israel
in war (Num. xxii) and in evil seduction (Num. xxv), for which a
terrible vengeance was inflicted upon them (Num. xxxi). Having
become strong again, they greatly harassed the Israelites under
the Judges, until completely routed by Gedeon (Judges vi. vii), after
which they disappear from history.

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. l5i
3. The Tw^elve Tribes of Israel, having taken possession of the
land of Chanaan, divided it amongst themselves in thirteen different
districts. The tribe of Levi, being destined to the exclusive ser
vice of the sanctuary, received no territorial allotment; in their
place the two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasses, had territories
assigned to them (Jos. xiv. 3, 4). The land east of the Jordan was
given to the tribes of Ruben and Gad and to the half-tribe of
Manasses; the other nine and a half tribes had their shares west
of the Jordan. The whole division is described in minute detail
in Jos. xhi — xxi.
Ruben occupied the south of the country beyond the Jordan,
east of the Dead Sea, extending from the river Arnon in the south
to the city of Hesebon, somewhat beyond the north shore of
the Salt Sea.
Gad received the northern half of Ammon, called the land of
Galaad, in the eastern plain of the Jordan north of Ruben, as far
as the river Jaboc.
Juda received a large territory, stretching from the Dead Sea
to the Mediterranean, and from the Torrent of Egypt in the north
border of Arabia to a line drawn from the north end of the Dead
Sea to the "Great Sea" passing by the city of Accaron (Jos. xv. 45 ff),
a strip of land about forty-five by fifty miles.
Simeon, because of Jacob's curse (Gen. xlix. 7), got its allotment
"in the midst of the possessions of the children of Juda" (Jos.
xix. 2, 9), running along the south-west line. When that space
became too narrow, part of the tribe crossed the line and settled
in the land of the Amalecites (i Par. iv. 42, 43).
Dan lay on the coast of the Mediterranean, north of Simeon
and west of Juda, its northern border looking towards Joppe (Jos.
xix. 46). It was the smallest portion.
Benjamin lay opposite Gad, stretching from the Jordan westward
over about half the distance to the sea, having Dan for its western
neighbour (Jos. xvhi. 1 1 ff) and Ephraim on the north.
Ephraim extended from the sea to the Jordan (Jos. xvi. 6, 7),
between Benjamin and Dan on the south, and Manasses and Issachar
on the north.
One-half of Manasses settled on the eastern shore of the Jordan
and dwelt in the land north of the Jaboc as far as Mount Hermon,
the land of Basan (Jos. xiii. 29 ff).
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 1 1

1 62 PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
West Manasses settled on the Mediterranean, north of the torrent
of Ephraim, with Issachar on the east (Jos. xvii).
Issachar occupied the central portion of the plain of Jezrael or
Esdrelon as far as the Jordan, with Aser on the west, Zabulon on
the north, and Manasses on the south (Jos. xix. 17).
Aser lay along the Mediterranean from Mount Carmel as far
north as the "Great Sidon" Qos. xix. 24 ff).
Zabulon had for its limits to the south the torrent of Cison, to
the east the Sea of Galilee, to the west Aser, and to the north
the tribe of Nephtali (Jos. xix. 10).
Nephtali ran from the Jordan westward to the tribe of Aser
along the northern boundary of Palestine (Jos. xix. 32).
The greatest portion of the Promised Land fell to Manasses,
this being the most numerous tribe (Jos. xvii. 14 ff); next in ex
tent was the lot of Juda and of Ephraim ; the smallest, that of
Simeon. The most northern landmark was the city of Dan, in
the tribe of Nephtali, situated at the foot of Mount Hermon, near
the sources of the Jordan. The city farthest south was Bersabee
in the tribe of Simeon.
The tribe of Levi was to receive, according to the Lord's com^
mand (Num. xxxv. i ff), forty-eight cities for the Levites to dwell
in, with their suburbs for the cattle and beasts, the suburbs to
reach a thousand paces (about one mile) on every side from the
wall of the city. Of these cities six were to be designated as
cities of refuge. The distribution of the cities among the Levitical
families is detailed in Jos. xxi. In later times , Jericho , near
Jerusalem, became an important habitation of priests and Levites.
The cities of refuge, in which murderers found safety and security
untfl their case had been judged , are enumerated in Jos. xx.
Three of these were east of the Jordan: Bosor, in the tribe of
Ruben ; Ramoth , in Gad ; and Golan , in eastern Manasses ; the
other three were on the west ofthe river: the priest-town of Hebron
in Juda; Sichem, in Ephraim; and Cedes, in Nephtali.
4- Israel under the Kings. The united people of Israel reached
its highest glory and prosperity under David and Solomon. David
subjugated the neighbouring nations on the east and south, con
quering even Damascus and the surrounding regions; Solomon
extended his dominion from Thaphsa, i. e. Tapsacus, west of the

CHAPTER ir. PALESTINE. 2, POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

163

Euphrates, unto Gazan (3 Kings iv. 24), and built ships at Asion
gaber on the Red Sea. David ruled seven years and a half in
Hebron; then Jerusalem became the capital of the kingdom (2 Kings
V. 5). Under king Roboam ten tribes separated and formed the
Kingdom of Israel with Jeroboam as their king. Only Juda and
Benjamin remained loyal to Roboam, and thus formed the Kingdom
of Juda (3 Kings xii. 16 ff). Palestine became thus divided into a
northern and a southern kingdom. Jeroboam resided first in Sichem,
then in Phanuel across the Jordan (3 Kings xii. 25), and finally in
Thersa in the tribe of Ephraim, till king Amri built Samaria (3 Kings
xvi. 23, 24), which remained henceforth the capital of Israel. Here
Achab built the temple of Baal (3 Kings xvi. 32), which was
later destroyed by Jehu (4 Kings x. 26, 27).
During the captivity in Assyria and Babylon, the Jews lived
chiefly in the capitals, Niniveh and Babylon, and in their neighbour
hood. The Assyrian kings, however, sent some of the captive
Jews to the remotest parts of the empire: Ecbatana, the summer
capital of Media, and the town of Rages (Tob. ih. 7) harboured
great numbers of exiles (l Esdr. vi. 2; Judith i. i). After the
return from the Babylonian captivity, the Jews settled in and near
Jerusalem, and gradually peopled the country, which was henceforth
known as Judcea. But they and the other inhabitants of Palestine
passed through the most varied political fortunes, and the Bible
furnishes no clear indications of the pohtical division of the land
untfl it came under the Roman yoke.
5. Palestine under the Roman dominion. After the death of
king Herod the Great, 37 B. C, who governed all Judaea and
Idumaea, the kingdom was divided into four tetrarchates (Lk. iii. i).
This division did not interfere with another, frequently mentioned
in the Gospels; namely, at the time of Christ and the Apostles,
Palestine was commonly divided into four provinces, Jud(£a, Sa
maria, Galilee, and PercBa, to which must be added Idumaea.
This division originated with the Machabees and was maintained
by the Romans after the conquest. Afl these provinces were under
the jurisdiction of the Roman governor residing at Caesarea.
a) Judcea was the greatest of the provinces west of the Jordan.
It comprised the whole south of the country west of the Dead
Sea, taking in the territories of the tribes of Simeon, Dan, Juda,
and Benjamin, Its northern line started from the Jordan not far

164

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

below the mouth of the river Jaboc, passed by Bethel, Lydda,
and Ono (not far from Joppe, 2 Esdr. vi. 2), and thence up
along the shore of the Mediterranean to near Mount Carmel. Judaea
was inhabited by the old stock of the Jewish population. Besides
Jerusalem, the capital, it numbered among its cities: Hebron, the
oldest city south of Jerusalem (half way down to Bersabee) ; Beth
lehem (six miles south of Jerusalem) ; Emmaus (eight mfles north
of Jerusalem) ; Jericho (nineteen miles east of Jerusalem) ; Ari
mathea (north-west of Jerusalem), probably the old Ramathan, or

. 38. Joppe (Jaffa) from the sea. (Phot. Bonfils.)

Rama; Bethel (very famous in Old Testament history); Joppe
(Jaffa, Fig. 38), the sea -port of Jerusalem and the place of
St. Peter's vision (Acts xi. 5 ff); Ccesarea of Palestine, built by
Herod the Great on the Mediterranean, residence of the Roman
governors, and, after the destruction of Jerusalem, capital of the
country (to be distinguished from Caesarea Philippi in the north
of Persa). Here Peter baptized Cornelius, and Paul pleaded
before Felix and Festus, the Roman governors. Gaza, the famous
Philistine city, three mfles from the sea, in the tribe of Juda, was
the very outpost in war and commerce between Egypt, Judaea,
and Syria.

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. igc
b) Samaria, the central and smallest of the western provinces,
comprised the lands of Ephraim, Western Manasses, and Issachar,
as far as the plain of Esdrelon, with the exception of the strip
along the sea belonging to Judaea. Its northern line passed near
Mount Thabor and the city of Cana. The inhabitants were a mixed
race, sprung from the amalgamation of Assyrian colonists with the
original Jewish settlers (4 Kings xvh. 24 ff). The capital was
Samaria, captured by Salmanassar after a three years' siege (4 Kings
xviii. 10), rebuilt by Herod the Great and by him named Sebaste
(Greek for Latin "Augusta", in honour of the Emperor Augustus).
Other notable towns were : Sichem, now Nabulus, or Naplus, i. e.
New-town, between Mounts Hebal on the north and Garizim on the
south , where descendants of the ancient Samaritans stfll exist.
In Sichem the first altar to God in the Holy Land was buflt by
Abraham (Gen. xii. 7), and it was considered a sacred place by
Jew and Samaritan alike. Near it is Jacob's Well, where Christ
met the Samaritan woman. The two mountains, Hebal and Garizim,
were famous sanctuaries ; the first, because of the altar and stones
of the Law erected there by Josue (Jos. viii. 30 ff) ; the second,
because of the curse pronounced from its height by the Levites
(Deut. xxvh. 15 ff}. Garizim, in particular, became the sanctuary
of the Samaritans, when Sanaballat (2 Esdr. xih. 28) built a
temple there, where his son-in-law, Manasses, a priest cast out by
the Jews, established a schismatic priesthood and worship (John
iv. 20). Silo (twelve mfles south of Sichem, and eighteen miles
north of Jerusalem) was the first resting-place of the Ark of the
Covenant (Jos. xvih. i), where it remained for over three hundred
years. Near Dothain, i. e. the double fountain, in the plain of
Jezrael, Joseph was cast into the cistern (Gen. xxxvii. 17). Bethulia,
in the mountains of Gelboe, nine miles north of Sichem, is
famous as the city of Judith.
c) Galilee, the region north of Jezrael (Esdrelon), comprised the
tribes ofNephtah, Aser, Zabulon, and part of Issachar ; it was the
region most favoured by nature. The gem of the whole territory
lay along the western shore of Lake Genesareth. Here stood the
well-known towns of Corozain, Bethsaida (the home of SS. Peter,
Andrew, and Phihp ; it must be well distinguished from Bethsaida
on the north-east shore, where Christ fed the five thousand), Caphar
naum (our Lord's "own city", Mt. ix. i, where He usually dwelt

1 66 PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.
during His public life), Magdala or Magedan, the home of Mary,
the sinner (Lk. vii. 37 ff; vhi. 2), and Tiberias, built by the tetrarch
Herod Antipas, for his residence, and named after the Emperor
Tiberius. The population of Gahlee was predominantly Jewish;
in Upper Galilee, however, heathen Syrians and Phoenicians were
numerous. In central Galilee lies Cana; in lower Galilee, Naza
reth; and in the north of Esdrelon, Nairn ¦a.nA. Endor, where Saul
consulted the witch (i Kings xxvhi. 7 ff). The Gahlean dialect
had a peculiar tinge, especially in the pronunciation of the gutturals
(Mt. xxvi. 73).
d) Pera;a, or the province east of the Jordan, comprises in the
north (the old Basan or Hauran) the provinces of Gaulanitis,
Iturcea , Trachonitis, Auranitis , and BatancEa with its capital
Caesarea Philippi (modern Baneas) , built by the tetrarch Philip
near Mount Hermon. In the extreme north, by the Anti-Lebanon,
lay the province of Abilene, of which Lysanias was tetrarch when
John the Baptist began his pubhc ministry. South of the Hieromax
River Qarmuk) lay Gadara and Gerasa, towns belonging to the
Decapolis or region of the ten towns. John baptized in the plain
of the Jordan at Bethania and Ennon near Salim Qohn hi. 23); he
was imprisoned and beheaded at Machcerus , a fortress in the
extreme south of Peraea.
Peraea extended from the sources of the Jordan on Mount Her
mon to the River Arnon, opposite Hebron. The remotest locality
in eastern Peraea is called in the Bible Salecha or Selcha (Deut.
ih. 10), the modern Salkat.
The Decapolis was a union or federation of ten cities, under
immediate Roman suzerainty; they were free cities with special
rights, inhabited mostly by Greeks. Their names are: Damascus,
Philadelphia, Raphana, Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, Gerasa,
Kanatha, and Scythopolis. All, except Scythopolis, west of the
Jordan, were situated in Peraea; hence it was called the district
of the ten cities, although these were not a continuous territory.
e) Jerusalem (i. e. house of peace; Fig. 39) was the chief city
of Palestine, and was in succession called Salem (Gen. xiv. 18),
Jebus (Judges xix. 10; i Par. xi. 4), Jerusalem, and to-day also
el-Kuds (the Holy).
It lies on a south-easterly spar of the mountain ridge of Juda;
it is about thirty-five miles from the Mediterranean, twenty from

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

167

the Jordan, twenty from Hebron, and thirty-six from the city of
Samaria. It is truly a mountain city, as its buildings, in the course
of time, covered four hills : Sion, Moria, Acra, and Bezetha, pro
tected by a triple wall. It has four principal gates : the gate of

Fig. 39-

Damascus on the north ; the gate of St. Stephen on the east ; the
gate of Sion or of David on the south; and the gate of Beth
lehem or of Jaffa on the west side. The oldest part of Jerusalem, old
Jebus, once the stronghold of the Jebusites, stands on Mount Sion

i68

P.iRT II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in the south-west. David conquered it and buflt the first wall for
its protection (2 Kings v. 7 ff). North-east of Mount Sion lies the
hfll Moria, upon which Solomon built the Temple (2 Par. hi. i),
adjoined on the north-west by Mount Acra, which was fortified by
the kings Ezechias and Manasses, and surrounded by a second
wall. On Mount Acra, close to Mount Moria and connected with
the Temple, stood the fortress Antonia, called Baris under the
Machabees, and rebuilt by Herod the Great. Antonia was the resi-

Fig. 40. Jerusalem from Damascus-gate with view of Tyropceon (Phot. Druchel.)

dence of the Roman governors when in Jerusalem. It was garrison
ed by Roman soldiers. The part of it used for purposes of ad
ministration was called the Prcetoriitm, or Court-house; in front
of it lay a hall or terrace, paved with stone and open towards
the Temple, cs.\\ed Lithostrotos or Gabbatha (tribunal, court-house);
there the sentence of death was pronounced on Jesus. North-east
of Jerusalem lies Mount Bezetha, or the New Town, which, together
with Mount Golgotha, was added to the city after the death of
Christ by Herod Agrippa I, and surrounded by a third wall. On
the north-west Acra is joined by Mount Calvary to the ridges of

CHAPTER II. PALESTINE. 2. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

169

Juda. On the other three sides deep valleys surround the town:
the vafley of Gehon, Hinnom or Ennom on the south-west, the
valley of Josaphat and the valley of Cedron on the north-east ; all
these valleys meet at the fountain of Rogel, south of Jerusalem.
The interior of the towm is likewise cut into by a deep valley, the
Tyropaon, or "cheese-makers' valley", which separates the upper
town on Mount Sion from the lower town on Moria and Acra (Fig. 40).
It runs out by the south gate, near which were situated the tower
and the pool of Siloe. East of the town , at the foot of the
Temple hfll, was the Sheep-gate, now St. Stephen's gate, and not far
from it, in the interior of the town and in front of the Temple, was
the pool of Bethesda. To the east of Jerusalem lies Mount Olivet,
or the Mount of Olives. At the foot of Mount Olivet, beyond
the Cedron, lies the garden of Gethsemane; on its eastern slope,
about two and a quarter miles from Jerusalem, lay Bethania, the
home of Lazarus ; and between Jerusalem and Bethania, Bethphage
(the house of the unripe fig). Bethania and Bethphage were so
close to one another that they might be considered as one place
(Lk. xix. 29); hence the names are soiiietimes indiscriminately
applied to both places (Mt. xxi. i ; Mk. xi. i). When Jesus started
out from Bethania for His triumphal entry into Jerusalem, the ass
and colt were probably brought over from Bethphage (Lk. xix. 30).
The southern slope of Olivet is the Mount of Offence.
After Jerusalem had become the political and religious centre
of the Jewish people, it also became the central object of all
hostile attacks on Israel. Already under Roboam, Sesac, king of^
Egypt, conquered the town and pillaged the Temple (2 Par. xii).
Under Joram, the Philistines and Arabs broke in upon it; under
Ezechias, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, threatened it; and lastly,
under Sedecias, Nabuchodonosor, king of Babylon, conquered and
destroyed town and Temple, B. C. 588. After the captivity, Jeru
salem, rebuilt under great difficulties, had to suffer much from the
Syrians. Antiochus Epiphanes and his general Apollonius plundered
the town and the Temple. Later on Antiochus Eupator led an army
against it. Its greatest misfortune, however, befell Jerusalem in the
year 70 of the Christian era, when it was taken and destroyed
by Titus. Emperor Hadrian (A- D. 136) built upon its ruins a
colony named yElia Capitohna.

170

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Chapter III.
OTHER BIBLICAL COUNTRIES.
I. NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PALESTINE.
I. Phoenicia is the narrow (about twelve or sixteen mfles wide)
plain west of Mount Lebanon, extending for about one hundred
and thirty miles along the sea. Its inhabitants were descendants of
Chanaan. This fertile strip of land had been assigned by Moses

Fig. 41. Tyre. (Phot. Bonfils.)

to the tribe of Aser, who, however, were unable to conquer it,
and were themselves made to feel the oppressive power of Sidon,
since 1600 B. C. the capital of Phoenicia. Sidon was, in course
of time, eclipsed and supplanted (since 1200 B. C.) by the fast-
growing and flourishing Tyre (Fig. 41), with whose king, Hiram,
both David and Solomon entertained friendly relations. Sarephta,
where the prophet Elias dwelt with a poor widow (3 Kings xvii.
9 ff), is a town lying inland about midway between Tyre and
Sidon. For many centuries the Phoenicians had the monopoly of

CHAPTER HI. OTHER BIBLICAL COUNTRIES. I. NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PALESTINE.

171

the commerce of the sea, and planted famous colonies on the
shores of the Mediterranean, among them Hippo and Carthage
in Africa.
2. Syria, situated between the Lebanon and the Tigris, bordered
on the south by the Arabian desert and on the north by Asia
Minor, is, like Mesopotamia, named in the Old Testament Aram,
because it was originally inhabited by the descendants of Aram, the
fifth son of Sem (Gen. x. 22, 23). The oldest capital of Syria was
Soba or Hoba (Gen. xiv. 15; i Kings xiv. 47; 2 Kings viii. 12),
later Damascus, on the eastern slope of the Anti-Lebanon and on
the river Abana. David conquered Damascus (2 Kings vih. 5, 6),
which, however, was lost again under Solomon (3 Kings xi. 23).
Since then the northern kingdom of Israel had much to suffer from
the kings of Damascus, until this city itself was annexed to the
Assyrian empire and passed successively into the power of the
Chaldeans, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The capital of the
Greco-Syrian kingdom since 300 B. C, and of the later Roman
province Syria since B. C. 63, was Antioch on the Orontes, about
twelve miles inland from the Mediterranean. At Damascus, which
is traversed from east to west by a straight high-road, Paul was
converted (Acts ix). At Antioch the disciples of Jesus were first
called Christians; and the first Christian community among the
heathens was founded there (Acts xi. 26).
3. Mesopotamia, the land between the higher courses of the
Tigris and Euphrates, the modern Sintjar, belonged to the Assyrio-
Babylonian empire, later to Persia, lastly to Syria. It figures pro
minently in the early history of the chosen people. In the north
west of Mesopotamia, at Haran (i. e. Karrae), about eight miles
south of Edessa, the father of Abraham lived with his family, after
leaving his home of Ur in Chaldea (Gen. xi. 31). From Haran
Abraham wandered into the Promised Land ; from Haran Elieser
brought over Rebecca; and to Haran Jacob fled from Esau.
4. Assyria, strictly speaking, is the land east of the upper Tigris,
the modern Kurdistan, while Babylonia proper, or Chaldea, is the
land of the lower Euphrates, as far as the Persian Gulf But the
ancient kingdoms of Assyria and Babylonia were much greater,
extending, as they did, over the whole of western Asia. The two
kingdoms, from the earliest times, formed but one empire, the
centre of which was sometimes in Niniveh, sometimes in Babylon.

172

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Since the middle of the eighth century B. C, the Israelites came
frequently into contact with their powerful neighbours, and finally
were by them deprived of their political independence and liberty. -
The first king of Assyria and Babylonia mentioned in the history
of Israel (4 Kings xv. 19; xvi. 7 ff) is the usurper Phul, who in
Assyria adopted the famous name of Tiglath-Pilasar III., 745 — 727
(see Fig. 10, page 56), but in Babylonia, which he conquered two
years before his death, ruled under his own name. The Assyrian
kings who, after Phul, played a role in Jewish history, are: Sal
manassar IV., 727 — 722 (4 Kings xvh. 3 ff); Sargon II. , 722—707
(Is. XX. i); Sennacherib, 707—681 (see Fig. 11, page 57; 4 Kings
xvih. 13; xix. 36); 2ir\d Asarhaddon, 681 — 669 (see Fig. 12, page 58;
4 Kings xix. 37). The next king was Assurbanipal, or Sardanapal
(669 — 626), under whose son and successor, Assur kini, Nabopolassar
made himself independent and, in alliance with Cyaxares I. of
Media, conquered Niniveh, B. C. 606.
The kings of the new Babylonian empire are : its founder, Nabo
polassar (625 — 606); his son, Nabuchodonosor (606 — 561, 4 Kings
xxiv. i; Dan. iv); Evilmerodach, son ofthe former (561 — 559),
who, after two years' reign, was murdered by Neriglissor (559 — 555).
The next nine months Belabariscun (called by the Greeks La-
borosoarchod) ruled, and in the same year Naboned (555 — 538)
ascended the throne. Naboned was defeated and captured by
Cyrus in the battle of Rutum, and his son and co-regent, Baltassar,
was assassinated when the Persians stormed and took Babylon
(Dan. V. 30). Naboned died eight days after the conquest of his
capital. Cyrus made Darius, the Mede, king of Babylon; Darius
ruled but two years (538 — ^536).
5. Arabia, in Scripture usually called the East, is an extensive
region in the south-west of Asia, between the Isthmus of Suez, the
Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Persian Gulf, but extending
far into the north in barren deserts, meeting those of Syria and
Mesopotamia. It was anciently divided into three parts: Arabia
Petrcea, named after its capital, Petra, in the mountains of Edom
(the desert in which the Jews wandered about for forty years);
Arabia Deserta, the Arabian desert east of the mountain ridges
of Seir; Arabia Felix, Happy Arabia, or Yemen, the country
between the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, with Saba for a capital.
From Saba a queen came to hear the wisdom of Solomion (3 Kings

CHAPTER III. OTHER BIBLICAL COUNTRIES. I. NEIGHBOURHOOD OF PALESTINE. J J-}
X. l). According to the common opinion the Magi, or Wise Men
from the East, who came to worship the newly-born Saviour, also
hafled from Arabia Felix, a country rich in gold, frankincense,
and other precious spices,
6. Egypt, the oldest civilized country in the world, is the land
with which the chosen people had the most frequent and intimate
relations, untfl its political downfall, Menes, about B. C. 4000,
laid there the foundation of his power. From Menes to the con
quest of Egypt by the Persians, B. C. 525, thirty-one dynasties
succeeded each other. Under the fourteenth dynasty, the Hyksos,
or Shepherds, invaded the country, and their two dynasties ruled
for about four hundred years. Towards the end of their rule, the
Israelites came to Egypt. The seventeenth dynasty was again
Egyptian; it seems to have tolerated the Israelites, but the kings
of the nineteenth dynasty cruelly oppressed the aliens. The Exodus
of Israel from Egypt took place during this dynasty. But, even
after the Exodus, the Israelites remained in constant touch with
Egypt, their south-westerly neighbour, until both Palestine and Egypt
came under Persian dominion, and, in B. C. 332, fell to Alexander
the Great. After his death, Egypt and Palestine were ruled by
the Ptolemies. In this period numerous Jews emigrated to Egypt,
especially to Alexandria. Their holy scriptures were translated
into Greek, many synagogues were buflt, and finally, about 150 B. C,
a temple was erected at Leontopolis.
The Ethiopians, descending from Armenia, their original home,
into Africa, settled chiefly south of Egypt, and founded on the
Upper Nfle the powerful state of Meroe, whose rulers acquired a
passing dominion over Egypt and entered into relations with
Palestine. In the time of the Apostles, Queen Candace ruled at
Meroe in Ethiopia ; her chancellor, having come to Jerusalem as
a proselyte, was baptized on his way home by the deacon Philip
(Acts viii. 26 ff).
The Ancient Kingdom of Egypt extends over the first eleven
dynasties, the Middle Kingdom or First Thebaic Empire over
dynasties twelve to sixteen, and the New Kingdom or Second
Thebaic Empire over the remaining fifteen, seventeen to thirty-one.
The country attained its greatest splendour in the period of the
kings of Thebes, especially under Tutmosis III. Under these kings,
the city of Thebes was the magnificent and flourishing capital.

174

PART II. BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY.

2. THE FIRST APOSTOLIC MISSIONS.

The theatre of biblical events, which, until the coming of Christ,
had been chiefly in Palestine, was»by the preaching of the Aposties
extended to the ends of the then known world. Paul, the Apostie
of the Gentiles, in his missionary expeditions, carried the Gospel
from Syria over Cyprus into Asia Minor, and thence to Europe,
to Macedonia and Greece, and finally to Rome, the capital of the
world, which Peter had already made the centre of the Church.
I. The Peninsula of Asia Minor, between the Mediterranean
and the Black Sea, was divided into fifteen regions or provinces,
namely: Cilicia, capital Tarsus, the birth-place of the Apostle Paul;
Pamphylia, with the towns of Attalia and Perge; Pisidia, capital
Antioch; Lycia, capital Patara on the Mediterranean; Carta, capital
Halicarnassus ; Lydia, chief towns Philadelphia, Sardis, Thyatira;
Ionia, chief towns Miletus, Ephesus, and Smyrna; Mysia, chief
towns Pergamus and Troas; Bithynia, capitals Nicomedia and
Niccea; Paphlagonia, capital Sinope ; Pontus, capital Trebizond;
Cappadocia , capital Ccesarea ; Lycaoitia , chief towns Iconium,
Derbe, and Lystra ; Galatia, capital Ancyra ; Phrygia, chief towns
Hierapolis, Colossa, Laodicea.
In the Old Testament Asia Minor is simply called Asia; the
New Testament uses Asia for the Roman province of that name,
comprising the four western regions: Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and
Phrygia. Galatia in the New Testament designates a district oc
cupied by Celtic immigrants from Gaul; the Roman province Galatia
embraced also parts of Lycaonia and Pisidia.
2. Macedonia, since B. C. 142 a Roman province, was divided
into four districts. Paul, on his second journey, came to Troas
over Samothracia into Macedonia. He landed at Neapolis, and
preached first in the Roman settlement Philippi on the river
Strymon, the most important city of southern Macedonia. From
Phflippi he went over Amphipolis and Apollonia to Thessalonica
(Saloniki) on the Thermaic bay; thence to Berea, thirty miles
south-west of Thessalonica.
3. From Macedonia Paul proceeded to Greece and preached
first at Athens, the capital of Attica (Fig. 42). He then went to
Corinth, the capital of Achaia, situated on the Peloponnesian
Isthmu?, between the ^Egean and the Ionian seas. This wealthy

CHAPTER III. OTHER BIBLICAL COUNTRIES. 2. THE FIRST APOSTOLIC MISSIONS. 175
commercial town had two harbours: Lechaeon on the west and
Cenchrea on the east. Here the Apostle, after a sojourn of eighteen
months at Corinth during his second missionary journey, took ship
for Palestine. In Cenchrea (Cenchre) the deaconess Phoebe, who
carried Paul's Epistle to the Romans, ministered to the community
(Rom. xvi. i).
4. Among the Islands of the Mediterranean the foflowing must
be mentioned: Cyprus, with the towns of Paphos and Salamis,
between Syria and Asia Minor; Rhodes, south of Caria, whither
Paul came on his return from his third missionary expedition;

Fig. 42. Athens with Acropolis.
Crete, in the extreme south of the Archipelagus, of which Titus
was the first bishop; Malta, south of Sicily, where Paul was
shipwrecked on his journey to Rome.
Holy Scripture records only the missionary activity of the
Aposties Peter and Paul, James the Great, James the Less, and
John. According to tradition Andrew preached in Asia Minor
and Greece (Patras); Thomas in Parthia, Persia, and India; Bar
tholomew in Arabia, Persia, and Armenia; Philip in Scythia and
Phrygia; Judas Thaddeus in Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia, and
Phoenicia. With the exception of John, all the Apostles died as
martyrs. Nothing certain is known of the preaching of the Apostles
Simon and Matthias, but the latter is said to be buried at Treves.

Part III.
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.
Chapter I.
SACRED ANTIQUITIES.
A. HOLY PLACES.
I. THE TABERNACLE.
The Patriarchs offered sacrifices in divers places, but especially
on heights and in locahties sanctified by memorable events or
by the presence of God Himself. Thus Abraham erected an
altar in the lovely valley of Sichem, where God appeared to him;

Fig. 43. The Tabernacle in the desert.

later between Bethel and Hai (Gen. xu. 6 ff), and in the valley
of Mambre near Hebron (Gen. xih. 18). Isaac buflt an altar at Ber
sabee (Gen. xxvi. 23—25); Jacob erected one at Salem (Gen.
xxxhi. 18 — 20) and another near Bethel (Gen. xxxv. 7). In order to

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACES.

177

prevent idolatry , God commanded through Moses that there
should be but one place of sacrifice for the whole people of Israel.
This place was, during the period of the people's wanderings, the
holy Tent or Tabernacle (Fig. 43 and 44) made by Beseleel and
Ooliab (Ex. xxxi. I ff) after a model shown by God to Moses on
Mount Sinai (Ex. xxv. 9 ff). The Israelites wfllingly contributed
their gold apd silver to the construction. The Tabernacle fully
described in Ex. xxvi. , was a structure of setim-wood , over
laid or covered with gold plates, thirty cubits long, ten cubits
wide, and ten cubits high. It consisted of forty-eight planks or
boards, each one and a half cubit wide, ten cubits high, and

HH

V

OC

V
SB
A
+
0 c
e
1
H
V
0 c
Oc
[1 I'll
C
V
Fig. 44. Plan of the Tabernacle.
H H = the Holy of Holies : A = the Ark of the Covenant with the two cherubim ; V V ^ the Veil
separating the Holiest from the Holy; cccc = four Columns supporting the Veil; e =^
Entrance.
H = the Holy, with : I = the Altar of Incense ; C = the Seven-armed Candlestick ; S B ^ the Table
of the Shewbreads ; v v ^ the Veil supported by five Columns ; e e = Entrance.
probably one half cubit thick, overlaid with gold and resting on
silver sockets. They were mortised to one another and held
together by five bars overlaid with gold running along each side
through golden rings fastened into the planks. There were only
three walls, as the east side was used as the entrance to the
Tabernacle, It was closed by a rich Curtain, or Vefl, supported
on five wooden pillars with capitals of gold and resting on brass
(copper) sockets. By this simple construction the Tent could easily
be set up and taken apart. On the inside the Tabernacle was
covered with curtains of fine twisted linen (byssus), white and
violet, and purple, and scariet twice dyed, diversified with em
broidery. Over the top of the Tabernacle were first laid cur
tains (carpets) of goat-hair, then others of ram-skins dyed red,
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 12
178

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY.

and lastly violet-coloured skins. The Tabernacle was separated on
all sides from the camp by a screen or fencing of tent-cloth,
forming an open court around the Tent. A precious many-coloured
and embroidered veil hung up on four gilt pillars, to be renewed
yearly , divided the Tabernacle into the Holy of Holies or the
Most Holy, and the Holy.
The Holy of Holies had the form of a cube of ten cubits. In
it stood the Ark of the Covenant (Fig. 45), made of acacia-wood
(Ex. xxv. 10 ff) and covered with gold. It was a chest, or box,
two and a half cubits in length and one and one half cubit in
height and breadth, which contained the Tables of" the Law, and in
the beginning also the budding rod of Aaron (Num. xvh. 10) and
the golden urn with manna (Ex. xvi. 32 ff; Heb. ix. 4). The latter
two were no longer
there in Solomon's
time (3 Kings viii.
9). Over the Ark,
like a cover , was
the Kapporeth, Pro
pitiatory or Mercy
Seat, made of the
finest gold ; over
it, on the two ex
tremities, were two
cherubim in chased
gold , looking to
wards one another and spreading their wings over the propitiatory,
where God, in Moses' time continually, and later on occasionally,
manifested Himself in a bright cloud, called the Shechinah, i. e.
dwelling or presence of God. This propitiatory, never to be se
parated from the Ark, was really the great sanctuary of the Is
raelites. Here the Lord watched over His people; here He was
to be appeased and propitiated ; here the High Priest could consult
Him and receive His answers ; hence it was called the Oracle (Ex.
xxv. 18, 20; Num. vu. 89). Near the Ark lay the Book ofthe
Law (Deut. xxxi. 26). It is doubtful whether the golden Censer
brought into the Holy of Hohes on the day of atonement (Lev.
xvi. 12) was to be left there all the year or not. No one was
allowed, under pain of death, to enter the Holy of Holies, except

Fig, 45. The Ark of tbe Covenant.

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACES.

179

Fig 46. The Altar of Incense,

the High Priest, and even he but once a year (Ex. xxx. 10; Lev.
xvi. 34). Around the Ark ran a gold rim, or crown; at the corners
were four gold rings, or hoops, through which the gilt carrying bars
were run, which were to be left there even
while the Ark rested in the Holy of Holies.
In the Holy, where only the priests were
allowed to enter, there stood in the centre,
before the veil of the Holy of Holies, the
Altar of Incense (Ex. xxx. i ff; see Fig. 46),
also called the Altar of gold (Ex. xl. 5, 24),
on which the priests burnt sweet-smelling
perfumes every morning and evening.
Nothing but incense prepared of four dif
ferent spices (Ex. xxx. 34) was allowed to
be offered on this altar. To the right of the Altar of Incense stood
the Table of the Shewbreads (Ex. xxv. 23 ff; Fig. 47), on which
twelve loaves of unleavened bread, with frankincense placed upon
them, two piles of six loaves each, were placed before the Lord (Lev.
xxiv. 5 — 7); hence they were also called the Breads of Proposition
and the Breads of the Face, being always before the face of the
Lord, and were renewed every Sabbath-day, the old ones to be
eaten by the priests in the Tabernacle. This table was of wood
overlaid with gold; it had a solid gold rim, or crown, and gold
rings through which the gilt wooden bars were put for carrying the
table. On or near this table were also dishes, and bowls, censers
and cups of the purest
gold, wherein the libations
were to be offered (Ex.
xxxvh. 16). To the left
of the Altar of Incense
stood the golden Candle
stick, with the shaft and
six branches , three on
each side and lamps upon
them burning day and
night (Fig. 48). The whole Candlestick, with the cups and bowls
and hlies on it, was of purest gold, and weighed one talent. Even
the snuffers to trim the lamps, and the dishes for the snuffings,
were of pure gold.

0-^'JiJsS¥-'

Fig. 47. The Table of
the Shewbreads.

Fig. 48. The Seven. armed
Candlestick,

i8o

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY.

The Court of the Tabernacle, described in Ex. xxvii. 9 ff, was
one hundred by fifty cubits, surrounded by a screen of fine twisted
linen five cubits in height. The canvas hung on sixty columns of
wood overlaid with sflver and with silver capitals resting on brass
or copper bases five cubits apart. They were connected by poles
made of silver and resting in silver hooks or rings. On the east
side was the entrance to the court, being twenty cubits wide,
covered by a veil embroidered in the four colours and hanging
from the four middle pillars. The court offered room for fully
four thousand people. Within it, near the entrance, stood the
Altar of Holocaust (Fig. 49), three cubits high, five in length and

Fig. 49. The Altar of Holocaust.

five in breadth. It was a wooden chest covered with copper, open
at the top and bottom, and filled up with earth and stones, over
which hung on chains a brass grating, on which the victims
were burned. There were four rings at the four ends to put in
bars to carry it; these were overlaid with brass (Ex. xxxvih. I — 7).
Between the Altar and the veil there was a Brazen Basin, or Laver
(Fig. 50), for the priests (Ex. xxx. 18 ff). The ash-pans, fire
pans, tongs and fleshhooks were all of brass.
The Tabernacle, completed in less than six months, was erected
and solemnly consecrated on the first anniversary of the Exodus.
God manifested His glory in a cloud, which, as a pfllar of cloud
or fire, remained over the holy Tent all the time of the Israelites'

CHAPTER I, SACRED ANTIQUITIES, A. HOLY PI..\CES, igj
wandering in the desert. As long as the cloud hung over the
Tabernacle, the people remained in the place; if the cloud moved
away, the people would break up camp and follow the cloud
till it rested again (Ex. xl. 34, 35), After the conquest of the
Promised Land, the Tabernacle and the Ark were at first in
Galgala and Bethel, then at Silo in the tribe of Ephraim (Jos,
xvih. i) until four hundred and fifty years later it was captured
and taken away by the Philistines in the days of the High Priest
Heli (i Kings iv. 11). While the Tabernacle remained in Sho,
the Ark was brought by the Philistines to different places of their
country (i Kings v. vi) until it was returned to Gabaa in Cariathi-
arim, where Eleazar kept guard over it (i Kings vu. i), and where
it remained for some twenty years; finally David transferred the
Ark to Mount Sion and erected there a new Tabernacle (2 Kings vi).
Under Samuel , the old
Tabernacle was in Maspha,
Rama and Galgala, in which
places the prophet used to
sacrifice ; under Saul it was in
Nob, in the tribe of Benjamin,
where David partook of the
shewbread; under Solomon
it was in Gabaon, also in the ^'e- 5°- '^^^ ^'^^^^ ^'^''"-
tribe of Benjamin, whence it was brought into the new Temple
and kept in the lateral and upper appartments of the new edifice.
The Tabernacle with its sacred furniture and functions, and later
the Temple built on the same plan, has a rich typical and sym
bolical meaning. The Court with the Altar of burnt- offering and
the Laver represents the Old Testament with its bloody sacrifices
and manifold purifications, types or symbols of the unbloody
sacrifice of the New Testament and the spiritual purifications by
Baptism and Penance. The Holy of Holies, with its thick veil,
through which, on the great day of Atonement, the High Priest
had to pass with the sacrificial blood, typifies Heaven with the
throne of God surrounded by the Angels, closed by sin, but to
be re-opened by the blood of Christ, the High Priest of the New
Covenant. Hence, when Jesus consummated His sacrifice on
the Cross, the veil of the Temple was rent. (Cf. Heb. ix, x.)
The Holy thus signifies the Christian Church, with the candelabra

1 82 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.
of the full (seven branches) and pure (olive oil) light of divine
revelation, Christ Himself being the light fllumining every man;
the unbloody sacrifice and sacramental food of the Eucharistic
Bread, the frankincense of the prayers and good works of the
faithful ever ascending to the throne of God.
The spiritual significance of the Tabernacle and its contents as
applied to the Jewish people, is cleat enough. The Holy of Holies
where God dwells is a continual reminder that God is the King
of the people, and the Israelites are His own people. He is their
teacher (the oracle) and their merciful Father (propitiatory). The
Tables of the Law in the Ark are a continual witness of His
covenant with the people and their duties to Him ; the rod of
Aaron is a witness that the Mosaic priests are the chosen messengers
of God to His people, whfle the manna reminds them that God
is their liberator from servitude and misery. In the Holy, the
Altar of Incense represents the continual prayer of the people
ascending as a sweet perfume to God (Ps. cxl. 2; Apoc. v. 8;
Ps. cxviii. 108); the golden Candlestick reminds the people that the
Lord is their light and His Law their lantern, while the Shew
breads show forth the grateful acknowledgment of the Twelve
Tribes of Israel, that the Lord God is their sustenance and strength.
The Altar of the Holocaust reminded them that as the daily victim
was to be entirely offered to God, so the Jews belonged entirely
to God and had to bring to Him their daily sacrifice of repentance
for sins committed and of thanksgiving for blessings received.
The washing in the water of the Laver symbolized the purifying
and cleansing of the heart required in order that the sacrifice of
the Jews might be acceptable to God.
In view of the fact that the Lord Himself prescribed the
details of the Tabernacle, "in measure, and number, and weight"
(Wisdom xi. 21), many biblical writers speak of the symbohsm of
sacred numbers. The main geometrical and arithmetical proportions
of the Tabernacle centre in the radical numbers three and four
and their compounds. Three is the perfect number and refers to
God; He is past, present, and future; beginning, middle, and end;
being, inteflect, and love. He is thrice holy ; three times His name
is pronounced in the priest's blessing to the people (Num. vi. 23);
three times daily the prophet prays to the Lord ; the Twelve
Tribes camp around the Tabernacle by three on each side

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACES. 1 83
(Num. ii). F'our is the symbol of the material world, of man and
his earthly habitation, of God's kingdom on earth. Thus the things
made for the Lord, the Tabernacle and its Court, the Ark, the
two Altars, the Table of the Loaves are quadrangular; four are
the colours (purple, violet, scarlet, white) and materials (gold, silver,
brass, wood) used; four coverings of the Tent; four ingredients of
the frankincense and the oil of unction (Ex. xxx. 23 ff). Seven
(3 + 4) symbolizes the union of God with man through His co
venant, and of man with God in rehgion. Hence the seventh day,
the seventh year, the forty-ninth (7 X 7) year was holy; seven
lamps burn before the Lord; seven times the sacrificial blood is
sprinkled towards the Holy of Holies, etc. Twelve (3 X 4) is the
number of the chosen people of God, represented by the twelve
Loaves of proposition. The same number twelve and its com
pounds are applied to the heavenly Jerusalem and its inhabitants
(Apoc. vh. 5; xxi. 12):
In regard to the liturgical colours of the Old Testament, violet
or dark blue referred to Heaven, God's dwelling-place; purple,
the dark red of the royal robe, to the majesty and power of God ;
scarlet or carmine red, to the blood, the seat of life (Deut. xii. 23),
which each one owes to God; the white of byssus or linen, to
the sanctity of God and the purity of the soul.
According to St. Thomas, the Tabernacle was a symbol or image
of the Kingdom of God in Israel (the Jewish Church), but also a
type or image of the future Kingdom of God in the Christian
Church, and, like the Church, a type of the Kingdom of God in
the glorified Church in Heaven. According to the learned Hane-
berg, the Jewish Tabernacle in its several divisions and their func
tions may be taken as an image or symbol of the different stages
of the spiritual or religious hfe of the soul : the Outer Court with
the Altar of Holocaust representing the state of purification from
sin; the Holy signifying the state of iflumination and sanctification ;
the Holy of Holies indicating the state of perfection, or higher
union with God. 2. THE TEMPLE.
I. The Temple of Solomon (Fig. 51, page 184). After preparations
on an immense scale had been made by David for the erection of
a Temple (i Par. xxh. xxix), king Solomon, in the fourth year of

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150
200
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Fig. sr. Plan of Solomon's Temple. (From P. O. Wolff O. S. B.)
CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACES. jgC
his reign, the four hundred and eightieth year after the Egyptian
bondage, and lOii before Christ, commenced the budding of the
first Temple on Mount Moria, where Abraham had built an altar,
upon which he was to offer Isaac (Gen. xxii. 2), and where David
had also buflt an altar and brought sacrifice (2 Kings xxiv. 25).
In seven (3 Kings vi. 38) years the work was accomplished, and
for seven days the people celebrated the consecration of the
magnificent edifice. The glory of the Lord filled the Temple, and
fire from heaven consumed the burnt offerings (2 Par. v ff). The
Bible gives a double report of the erection and the dedication of
Solomon's Temple : 3 Kings v ff, and 2 Par. a ff.
The Temple, built on the plan of the Tabernacle, but in double
dimensions, according to the pattern shown by God to David
(l Par. xxviii. 19), was surrounded by two great uncovered courts:
an interior court for the priests, an outer court for the people.
The outer court was enclosed within a high wall having four great
gates. On the inside of this wall stood the dwelling-houses of
the servants of the Temple, and store-houses. In the inner court,
which rose above the outer, there stood the great Altar of
burnt-offering, twenty cubits square and ten high; the Brazen Sea,
a huge basin, five cubits high and eleven in diameter upon twelve
brazen oxen, three on each side. To the left and to the right
of the Brazen Sea were five smaller movable lavers, or basins set
on wheel-carts, four cubits square and three high, for washing the
flesh of the victims. A covered porch (porticus), not unlike a
tower, before which stood two hollow pillars of brass four cubits
in diameter and ten cubits high, named Jachin and Booz (firmness
and strength) led by stone stairs from the inner court into the
Temple proper. This was sixty cubits long, twenty cubits wide,
and thirty cubits high; it was built of stone blocks prepared
in the quarries underneath the city. The inside of the walls was
covered with cedar-wood, and the whole covered by a wooden
flat roof The floor was made of cypress-wood. Both the walls
and the roof were overlaid with gold. A partition of cedar-wood
Explanation of the Plan on the preceding page 184.
ABCD = Surface of Mount Moria. E = Holy of Holies. HH = Inner Court for priests.
L = Holy. P =:: Portico. 1 = Outer Court for people. F ^ Altar of Holocausts. G = Brazen
Laver. TT = Donrs. KK = Chambers and Storerooms, abed = Wall with colonnade.
NN = Court of Gentiles. 00 ^ Palace Court, y = Citadel, x = Solomon's Throne {?).
SW := the double and triple Gates of Hulda. gfrh ^ Gates.

I. I'emple.
2. Fortress Antonia.
3. Nicanor (Corinthian
or Precious) Clate.
4. Solomon's Porch.
5. Golden Gate.
6. Pinnacle of the
Temple.
7. Royal Porch.
8. Hulda Gates {double
and triple Gates).
g. Subterranean passage.
10. Gates to the Suburb.
II. Bridge to Upper City.
12. Valley Tyropceon.
13. Valley ofthe Cedron.
14. Stone fence with in
scriptions.
15. Stone steps.
16. Western Porch.
17. Northern Perch.
A = Court of the Gen
tiles,
E = Women's Court.
C = Priests' Court.
a The chamber for lepers,
b for wood,
c for the Nazarites,
d for wine and oil.
e e The 9 outer doors ;
f the 15 steps to the
Inner Court.
g Chamber Gazith.
h The 12 Steps to the
Temple, and the 2 Co
lumns Booz and Ja-

P.VRT UI. BIBLICAL .\RCH.«OLOGY.

and a richly-gilded door of olive-wood four cubits wide, overhung
by a vefl of most precious materials, divided the Temple into
the Holy of Holies and the Holy. The Holy was forty cubits
long. Tbe Holy of Holies measured twenty cubits in length,
breadth and height; over it was a superstructure, ten cubits high,
in which the contents of the old Tabernacle were preserved. In
the Holy stood the golden Altar of incense, placed in the middle
over against the vefl ; on each side of it stood five tables of Shew
breads and five golden seven-armed candlesticks, although the twelve
loaves were put only on one table, and only one candlestick was
kept burning at a time. In the Holy of Hohes there were, besides
the Ark of the Covenant, two great Cherubim, ten cubits high,
of olive-wood , richly gilded ; their wings were extended over
the Ark, and their faces turned towards the vefl. On three sides
the Temple was surrounded with three-storied structures, eighteen
cubits high, serving as store-rooms for the vestments of the priests
and the utensils of the Temple. Solomon's Temple was destroyed
in 588 B. C. by Nabuchodonosor, who carried all its treasures and
furniture to Babylon. It had lasted four hundred and sixteen years.
2. The Temple of Zorobabel. The second Temple was built
after the Babylonian Captivity on the plan of the first, but was
greatly inferior to it in its internal arrangements and external
magnificence (i Esdras iu. — vi). The Ark of the Covenant was miss
ing in the Holy of Holies, although at the destruction of Jerusalem
by the Babylonians it had been saved and hidden in a cave of
Mount Nebo by the prophet Jeremias (2 Mach. ii. 4ff'). With the
Ark the Shechinah (the glory-cloud) had disappeared. On the place
formerly occupied by the Ark there lay a stone, on which the
High Priest placed his censer on the great day of Atonement. The
Holy contained the Altar of Incense, a table of Shewbreads, and
a seven-branched Candlestick ; the inner court contained the Altar
of burnt-offering and a Laver. The sacred vessels had also been
restored by Cyrus (i Esdras i. 7 ff"). The two courts were enclosed
with walls and pfllared halls. Profaned and desecrated by Anti
ochus Epiphanes (i Mach. i. 23 fif), this Temple was again cleansed
and purified and repaired by Judas Machabeus (i Mach. iv. 38 ff).
Under the Machabees the outer court also was strongly fortified.
But, in the storming of Jerusalem by king Herod the Great, in
34 B. C, many porticoes of the Temple were destroyed.

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACKS.

189

3. Reconstruction ofthe Temple by Herod the Great (Fig. 52/53,
pages 186 and 187). In the eighteenth year of his reign, 16 B. C,
Herod the Great, who had a passion for building and splendour, in
order to gain favour with the Jews, commenced alterations of the
Temple which practically amounted to reconstruction. The Temple
proper was finished in the course of eighteen months by priests and
Levites instructed for the purpose; the courts took eight years to
bufld, and the out-buildings and external decorations were stifl in
hand A. D. 64, when the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans
was already threatening. In the year 26, or according to the receiv
ed Christian reckoning, A. D. 30, the work on the Temple had
been going on for forty-six years (John ii. 20). Herod enlarged the
Temple square by adding a third great court of five hundred cubits
square, the Court of the Gentiles, from which a flight of stairs in
the north-west led up to the fortress Antonia. From these steps
Paul addressed the people, when the Centurion of the Temple guard
had delivered him from the hands of the mob (Acts xxi. 40).
Herod also connected the fortress Antonia with the east gate of
the Temple by a subterranean passage. The Court of the Gentiles,
which served as a market-place, was enclosed within high walls
and colonnades, and had several gates: in the east, the Golden
Gate; in the south, the Hulda Gates; in the west, the Gate to the
Suburb. The southern hall had three naves, and was called the
Royal Portico. The eastern colonnade contained the synagogue
of the Temple, and was named the Portico of Solomon, because
buflt on the foundations of Solomon's Temple. Here the Child
Jesus was found among the Doctors;
here Jesus taught and wrought miracles ;
here the Apostles and the first Christians
stifl attended the official worship.
The Court of the Gentiles was separated
from the other courts by a stone wall
three cubits high, with apertures facing
the gates. Near these open passages
stood pillars with inscriptions in Latin
and Greek (Fig. 54), threatening with
death the uncircumcised stranger who would enter within the par
tition wall and enclosure around the sanctuary. The Romans per
mitted the Jews to execute this punishment even on Roman citizens

mm^^mi^^^

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i0HE/WTnlAiTtO£E2SSEINQAN? -

Fig 54. Plate with inscription
of the Herodian Temple.
Constantinople Museum.

igo

PART III, BIBLICAI. ARCHAEOLOGY.

guflty of this transgression. This punishment the Jews were going
to inflict on St. Paul because he had, as they thought, brought
Gentiles into the Temple (Acts xxi. 28 fif). Beyond this stone
wall, stairs of fourteen steps led up from three sides to a rampart
ten cubits broad, and to the wall, forty cubits high, which enclos
ed the two courts and the Temple. This wall had nine gates,
four to the north, four to the south, and one to the east, the
Corinthian Gate or the Beautiful Gate, with doors made of pre
cious Corinthian bronze. The Beautiful Gate, near which Peter
healed the lame man, led by five steps to the Court of the Is
raelites. This court was divided into two parts: the lower for
women, the higher for men. It was surrounded inwards on three
sides by a gallery running over columns, from which the women,
on great festivals, could assist at the sacred functions. Below the

Fig. 55. Relievo of the Arch of Titus at Rome with the holy vessels of the Temple.
galleries were fixed thirteen ofifertory boxes, whence the court of
the women was also called the Gazophylazium, i. e. treasury. Here
Jesus praised the offering of the poor widow, and here the Jews
threatened to stone Him.
From the Court of the Women fifteen steps of semicircular stairs
led up through the magnificent Nicanor gate to the Priests' Court,
which surrounded the Temple on all sides and contained the Altar
of burnt-offering. Under the interior colonnade were places for
the singers and musicians of the Temple, for the twenty-four elders,
and for those who took part in the sacrifices. The remaining
room, somewhat higher, was exclusively reserved to the priests.
From the Priests' Court twelve stairs led, through a porch surrounded

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. A. HOLY PLACES. igi
by a huge superstructure, into the Temple-house. This was built
of huge square blocks of white marble, had a low roof with gables,
richly gilt, and rose one hundred and twenty cubits above the Temple
square. Like Solomon's Temple, it had the three-storied out-bufld-
ings on three of its sides. The interior remained unchanged. The
Holy contained the Altar of Incense, a golden Table of Shew
breads and the Seven-branched Candlestick. The Holy of Holies
was separated from the Holy by a double veil which, at the death
of Jesus, was rent in two from top to bottom (Mt. xxvh. 5 1).
Herod's magnificent Temple was hardly finished, when Christ's
prediction of its destruction was fulfilled ; the Roman legion took
Jerusalem by storm in August A. D. 70, and burnt the Temple
to the ground. The golden Candlestick, the Table of Shewbreads,
the Altar of Incense and the Book of the Law were carried in
triumph through Rome with the captive Jews, as the sculptures
on the triumphal Arch of Titus show to this day (Fig. 55).
3. THE SYNAGOGUES.
The synagogues originated during the Babylonian Captivity,
when, as public meeting-places for prayer and instruction, they
replaced the Temple. They were always built on the plan of
the Temple, and stood mostly on elevated sites, but frequently
also near water-courses, to facilitate the customary ablutions; and
they always pointed in the direction of Jerusalem. In later times
each important Jewish colony had its synagogue (Acts xv. 21);
greater towns, like Jerusalem, had several ones for the several
nationalities of worshippers. In Palestine every town, like Nazareth
and Capharnaum, had its own synagogue. It was presided over
by a ruler, the president of the ancients or elders of the synagogue,
for all of whom special seats were provided (Mt. xxiu. 6). These
rulers and the Council of the synagogue had power to have
oifenders against the law scourged in the synagogue (Mt. x. 17;
Acts xxii. 19; xxvi. 11). Other functionaries were a leader pf the
prayers and a reader, with a servant who handed him the rolls
to be read (Luke iv. 17, 20). On Sabbath days doctors of the law-
used to come to the synagogues to lecture on the law and the
prophets. These buildings were thus of great assistance in the
spreading of Christianity, as Christ Himself (Luke iv. 16) and the
Apostles (Acts xiv. i) made use of them for instructing the people..

192

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH/ECiLOGY.

The most common form of the synagogue was rectangular. The
part of the buflding nearest the door was usually reserved for the
women (a separation based by the rabbis on Zach. xii. 12 fif); then
came the part for the men ; further on, the elevated place or plat
form for the ruler, the elders and clerks and readers. Near the
posterior wall was the ark, or chest, containing the roll or "the
law"; it was usually covered by a vefl, a reminiscence of the Holy
of Hohes. The Jews were accustomed to assemble in the synagogue
on every Sabbath for prayer and reading of the Scriptures. Anyone
present could arise, and, commenting upon the passages read,
address the assembly. Sometimes the ruler of the synagogue would
ask some one present to speak (Acts xiii. 15). The custom ceased
in the second century, when preaching was reserved for the elders
or the rabbis. The books read in the synagogues, besides the law
and the prophets, were the five Megilloth or Rolls, i. e. the Book
of Ruth, the Canticle of Canticles, the Lamentations of Jeremias,
Ecclesiastes, and the Book of Esther. The books used for public
reading were rolls of parchment. In many Jewish towns the
synagogue served at the same time as a court of justice and
often as a school for the chfldren.
B. HOLY FUNCTIONS.
I, THE CIRCUMCISION. PROSELYTES.
I . Circumcision, practised also by some heathen nations as a reli
gious rite, was commanded by God to Abraham (Gen. xvii. 10 fif),
as a sign of the covenant He had made with him and his seed, and
as a pledge on God's part that in Abraham's seed all the nations
of the earth should be blessed, and on the part of Abraham's
posterity that they would be His people by conforming to His
Law. The command was repeated in the Law of Moses (Lev. xii. 3).
It was performed on all male Israehtes eight days after birth, and
at the same time a name was given to the chfld, just as on a
like occasion the name of Abram was changed by God to Abraham
(Gen. xvii. 5). The ceremony of circumcision was performed at
home, by the father, mother or any other person. The instrument
used was a knife of stone, later of glass or iron. All the Jews
who left Egypt were circumcised; but those born during the
•journey were not, and the ceremony had to be performed with

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS. IQ3
all of them before the Lord would lead them into the Promised
Land (Jos. v. 2, 8). Circumcision was the sign of full membership
in the chosen people of God, and carried with it the right of
partaking in the promises of God and the blessings of the Messias,
but also the obhgation of practising the whole law. It was the
great mark by which the people of God were distinguished from
the Gentiles, who were, in consequence, simply designated as the
uncircumcised. The first Christian converts from Judaism clung
tenaciously to the rite, and even tried to force it upon the con
verts from paganism. It needed all the authority of the Apostles
to oppose this false doctrine (Acts xv; xxi. 25; Gal. vi. 12 fif;
Rom. ii. 25 fif; iv. 10 fif).
2. Pagans converted to Judaism were called Proselytes (i Par.
xxh. 2; Ezech. xiv. 7; Mt. xxih. 15; Acts ii. 11). The stranger
desirous of being fully adopted into the Jewish commonwealth
had to embrace the Jewish religion and be circumcised ; only
then was he the same "as he that is born in the land" (Ex. xu.
48, 49). These converts from paganism were, in later times, called
"Proselytes of Justice" or of the Covenant, to distinguish them
from the "Proselytes of the Gate" (so called because allowed
to come to the gate of the inner court of the Temple) who re
nounced paganism and accepted the Jewish belief in God, but did not
receive circumcision. These Proselytes of the Gate were forbidden
to eat of the paschal lamb (Ex. xii. 43, 45), but they were allowed
to go to the Temple and to have sacrifices offered for them. They
were bound to observe the so-called seven laws or commandments
of Noe; namely, to abstain from blasphemy, idolatry, murder,
incest, robbery, rebellion, and the eating of blood or bloody meat.
Such Proselytes were probably the "God-fearing men among the
Gentfles" and "strangers who served God" sometimes mentioned
in the New Testament (John xh. 20; Acts x. 2; xih. 43); also
the eunuch from Egypt (Acts viii. 27 fif) and Lydia (Acts xvi. 14).
Ammonites and Moabites were never to be admitted as Proselytes
of Justice ("to enter into the church of the Lord"); Edomites and
Egyptians only after the third generation (Deut. xxih. 2 — 8).
3. The circumcision of the Child Jesus (Lk. ii. 21) fulfilled the
typical meaning of the Old Testament circumcision, inasmuch as
it marked Him as the promised seed of Abraham, the Saviour, as
the name Jesus attributed to him indicates. Christians are advised
Messmek, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. I3

194

BIBLIC.VL ARCH/EOLOGY.

by St. Paul to be circumcised spiritually. "In whom also you are
circumcised with circumcision not made by hand in despofling of the
body of the flesh, but in the circumcision of Christ" (Col. h. ii).
The Old Testament circumcision was certainly a prophetic image
or type of the Christian Baptism. Although it did not of itself
remit original sin and bring man into spiritual union with God, it
indicated the spiritual sanctification, and externally incorporated
the Jew with God's people. Baptism takes away original sin, confers
sanctifying grace, and incorporates the recipient into the mystical
Body of Christ. As circumcision separated the Jew from the Gen
tile, so Baptism separates the Christian from the non-Christian.
Without circumcision a person could not partake of the other
Jewish sacraments : so Baptism is the first condition of receiving
the other Christian Sacraments. Circumcision left the mark of the
children of Abraham^ in the flesh; Baptism imprints an indehble
character in the soul. The circumcised were bound to the whole
Law; so the baptised are bound to observe the Christian Law.
2. PIOUS OBSERVANCES.
I. Prayer, in its dififerent forms of petition, praise and thanks
giving, is a natural and necessary manifestation of everyone that
believes and hopes in God. Hence we find frequent mention of
private prayers in the earliest books of the Bible; Enos (Gen. iv. 26),
Henoch (Gen. v. 22), Noe and the patriarchs. Job, Moses, Josue,
Samuel, David, and the prophets are all men of prayer. Prayers
were offered in the house and on the field, in the valleys and on
heights, but especially in groves, where an altar was set up and
sacrifice offered. The positions mentioned are: standing with the
head bowed, or kneeling on one or both knees, with hands raised
to heaven and arms extended , or prostrate on the floor, etc.
Although there are only two public prayers mentioned, that on
the day of expiation (Lev. xvi. 21 fif) and that at the ofifering of
first-fruits and tithes (Deut. xxvi. 2 fif, 12 fif), yet there can be
no doubt that with the public singing of Psalms were also joined
public prayers (i Par. xxhi. 30; 2 Par. xxix. 27 fif; Lk. i. 10).
The daily blessing over the people may be considered as a public
prayer (Num. vi. 24 fif). No special time is mentioned for pubhc
prayer. However, there seem to have been regular hours when

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS.

195

the people would go to the Temple to pray, in the morning, at
noon, and in the evening (Ps. hv. 17, 18; Dan. vi. 11; ix. 20 ff;
Acts iii. I, 9; X. 2, 3). According to Jewish tradition, during the
exile, when the daily sacrifice could not be offered, it was supplied
by public prayer in the morning and the evening.
2. Fasts. There was one public fast prescribed by the Mosaic
Law, on the day of expiation (Lev. xvi. 29, 30; xxih. 27 fif). But
national fasts were sometimes ordained by pubhc authority after
defeat by the enemy (Judges xx. 26 ; 3 Kings xxi. 9, 12 ; Baruch i. 5),
or in public expiation of a common ofifence (l Kings vh. 6), or in
case of a plague (Joel i. 14), or to gain God's favour and avert
His wrath (2 Par. xx. 3 ; i Mach. iu. 47 ; Judith iv. 7). Zacharias
mentions four national fasts that were regularly kept in the fourth,
fifth, seventh and tenth month (vh. 3, 5; viii. 19). No fasts were
kept on the Sabbath, on feast-days or the new moons (Judith
viii. 6). Private fasting is frequently mentioned in the two Testa- .
ments. Sometimes it would last even for three and seven days.
Fasting was often made harder by wearing a sackcloth, putting
ashes or earth on the head, opening the dress and abstaining
from washing and anointing. Abstinence from strong drinks and
meat was also practised by the Jews (Jer. xxxv; Dan. i. 8; x. 3;
Mt. hi. 4).
3. Vows as religious acts are often mentioned in Holy Writ.
The first mentioned is Jacob's vow (Gen. xxvhi. 20 fif); others are
those of Jephte (Judges xi. 30), Anna (i Kings i. 11), Absalom
(2 Kings XV. 8), the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv). The Law of Moses
did not command the making of vows (Deut. xxih. 22), but the
fulfilling ofthe vow made (Deut. xxih. 21 ; also Num. xxx. 3; Prov.
XX. 25; Eccl. V. 4). Vows of dependent persons, as children,
wives, slaves, became valid only by the (at least silent) consent of
the father, husband, or master (Num. xxx. 4 fif). A man could vow
to the Lord himself or persons and property belonging to him,
except the first-born either of man or of beast. But everything
thus vowed to God, except animals fit for sacrifice, could be re
deemed at a valuation to be fixed in each case by the priest,
according to the rules laid down in the Law (Lev. xxvii). Persons
not redeemed became by this vow servants of the Temple. This
vow seems to have been usually made by the words spoken over
the object or person vowed : "This is Corban" , that is, a gift to
13*

196

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCI-I.^OLOGY.

God. The Pharisaic casuistry that led to great and sinful abuses
in this matter was severely reprimanded by Christ (Mk. vh. 1 1 ;
Mt. XV. 3 fif).
A very peculiar vow was that of the Nazarites, which is fully
described in Num. vi. It was either for life (perpetual) or for a
limited time, at least thirty days (temporal). Nazarites for life
were Samson (Judges xih. 5, 7), Samuel (i Kings i. 11), and St. John
the Baptist (Lk. i. 1 5 fif). St. Paul was a temporary Nazarite (Acts
xviii. 18; xxi. 23 fif). The Nazarite was forbidden to cut his hair,
to touch a dead body and to drink intoxicants. There must have
been many Nazarites at the time ofthe Machabees (i Mach. ih. 49).
4. Oaths , as an appeal to God as witness to the truth of an
assertion (assertive oath) , and a pledge to the fulfilment of a
promise (promissory oath), were in frequent use long before Moses.
We read ofthe solemn oaths of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 22; xxi. 24),
Eleazar (Gen. xxiv. 2, 3, 9), Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 3 1), Esau (Gen. xxv. 33),
Jacob (Gen. xxxi. 53), Joseph (Gen. xlvh. 31). Swearing falsely, or
by false gods, was severely prohibited in the Law (Ex. xx. 7; xxiii.
13; Lev. xix. 12; Deut. x. 20; Zach. v. 3; viii. 17). The form
varied, e. g., by the Lord God; as the Lord liveth; God judge
between us; the Lord do so and so to me if, etc.; so do God
to me and more also if, etc. ; the Lord liveth and thy soul liveth.
In later times oaths were not only by the name of God, but also
by the works of God, by the Temple, by the Altar, the City, by
one's life or soul, or head, etc. Some of these oaths the Pharisees
declared not binding ; hence the reprimand of our Saviour (Mt. v.
33; xxih. 16 fif). In a judicial oath the formula was usually pro
nounced in form of a question by the judge to which the accused
had simply to answer "Yes" or "No" or "Thou hast said it", or
"Amen" (Mt. xxvi. 63, 64). 3. OFFERINGS.
There were many and divers ofiferings prescribed by the Law
which were not directly destined to serve for the sacrifice, but to
help to support the priests and the sanctuary.
I. According to God's Law made known to Moses, the first-born
male of man or of animal belonged to the Lord and had to be
offered to Him. By this law the Jews were to be reminded of
their deliverance from Egypt, and that the whole people belonged

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS. ig7
to God (Ex. xhi. 2; Num. iii. 13). Every first-born male chfld
had to be redeemed by the payment of five shekels (Ex. xhi. 13;
Num. viii. 17; xviii. 16), to be given to the priests. The first
born of clean animals had to be offered in sacrifice if fit for it;
some parts were burnt, the rest was to be eaten by the priests
and the owner (Deut. xv. 19 fif; Lev. xxvii. 26). If it were not
qualified for the sacrifice, the whole animal went to the priests.
The first-born of unclean animals had to be redeemed by money
(Deut. xiv. 25 f; Lev. xxvii. 27).
2. The first-fruits of the plants and trees mentioned in Deut.
vhi. 8 ; 2 Par. xxxi. 5 , had to be offered to the priests (Ex.
xxih. 19; Deut. xviii. 4; xxvi. 2 fif). Moreover, on the second
day of the Pasch all the people had to bring a sheaf of the first
new barley to the altar; seven weeks later, on the feast of Pentecost,
they had to offer in the house of God two loaves of the first bread
baked of the new flour. Even a part of the wool of the first shearing
of the sheep had to be offered in the Temple (Deut. xvhi. 4).
All these ofiferings were the priests' dues (Deut. xvhi. 3). There was
a singular law regarding the finstlings of fruit-trees (Lev. xix. 23).
3. The tithes to be paid to the Levites consisted of one-tenth
of the products of the soil, of fruit-trees, and of cattle. The
products of the land and tree could be redeemed by paying and
adding to this one-fifth of the same (Lev. xxvh. 27, 31) the money
value of the tithe. Of this first tenth another tenth was offered
to the Lord by the priests (Num. xvih. 26, 28; Lev. xxvii. 30, 32).
The second tithe was taken from the remaining nine-tenths of grain,
ofl and wine, and had to be brought to Jerusalem in kind or its
money value. There it was used as a peace-ofifering and festive
meal, to which the Levites had to be invited (Deut. xiv. 27).
Many writers infer from Tob. I. 7 that there was a third tithe,
to be gathered every third year, as described in Deut. xiv. 28 ;
xxvi. 12 fif. It was the tithe for the poor, and was distributed in
the dififerent cities and towns of the land. Others think this is
only a dififerent use (every third year) of the second tithe.
Tithes were given by Abraham (Gen. xiv. 20) and promised by
Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 22) long before Moses. Christ upbraids the
Pharisees for unjustly extending the law of tithes (Mt. xxih. 23).
4. The annual Temple-tax, based on Ex. xxx. 1 1 fif, and mentioned
in 2 Par. xxiv. 6, was half a silver shekel, which was to be paid

198 PART IIL BIBLICAL ARCH .F.OLOGY'.
also by the Jews living outside of Palestine. In regard to all these
oblations it must be observed that nothing obtained unjustly or in
a sinful manner could be offered to the Lord (Deut. xxih. 18).
4. SACRIFICES.
I. Nature and object. Sacrifice, as an act of divine worship, goes
back in a continuous line to the beginning of the world, as appears
from the sacrifices of Cain and Abel, of Noe and the patriarchs,
of Melchisedech and Job. Many writers believe that this form of
divine worship, where an object belonging to man is substituted
in his own place and by an actual or virtual destruction given up
to God, has been revealed to man by God, particularly the form
of bloody sacrifices. These express more fully the solemn ac
knowledgment of God's dominion over life and death, the idea of
death introduced by sin, and the necessity of reconcihation with
God. The bloody sacrifice in the utter destruction of a hfe of
fered up to God is the most perfect external profession of ad
oration and submission, petition and thanksgiving, expiation and
reconciliation. If even among pagan nations bloody sacrifices held
the highest place in religious worship, it may be attributed to the
same original revelation which, by tradition, found its way among
those peoples. It cannot be denied that in God's wonderful design
all these sacrifices pointed typically to the one bloody sacrifice of
Christ. As the Jewish nation was specially elected by God to be
an exact type and figure of the Christian dispensation, no other
nation upon earth had such a fully and systematically developed
order of sacrifices. God Himself established that order in afl its
details through Moses. The great number and variety of sacrifices
in the Old Testament, together with their uninterrupted continuity,
were thus to keep alive in the people the expectation of the coming
Messias, or Saviour; and at the same time to preserve them from
the many superstitions of the surrounding Gentfles.
2. Division. Among the sacrifices of the Mosaic Law, we dis
tinguish the bloody and the unbloody, together with libations.
The victims of bloody sacrifices were sheep, goats, oxen, cows,
calves, pigeons, turtle-doves, and sparrows. The victim had to
be free from all bodily defects, and was to be neither too young
nor too old. Only male victims could be ofifered as a holocaust.

CHAPTER I. S.ACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS.

199

Hence all animals were examined by the priest before they could
be ofifered.
In afl bloody sacrifices there were the following most significant
acts: the imposition of hands upon the animal by the person
ofifering (to indicate its being substituted for man himself); the
kifling of the animal by the priest ; the sprinkling and outpouring
of the blood upon or around the altar, or towards the vefl of the
Holy of Holies; the burning and the eating of the victim.
With regard to the end and object of bloody sacrifices, they
were divided into three : the burnt- offering, the peace-offering, and
the sin-offering.
a) The burnt-ofifering is also called holocaust, whole-burning,
because all the flesh was consumed by fire after the blood had
been poured out round the altar (Lev. i). The holocaust is the
most perfect form of sacrifice; its principal object is to adore
God and to honour Him as the supreme Lord of creation. A holo
caust might be ofifered separately and by itself, but no other
bloody sacrifice was ofifered without a holocaust; even of the
unbloody sacrifices a small part of the flour or cakes was burnt
on the outer altar.
b) Peace-ofiferings (Lev. ih. i fif; vii. 11 fif 28 ff; xix. 5 fif; xxh. 29 fif)
were either thank-offerings or votive offerings or impetratory
offerings. The blood of the victims was poured out around the
altar as in the holocaust, but only the fat was burnt, the re
maining flesh was eaten at the sacrificial meal: the shoulder and
breast by the ministering priests, the other parts by the per
sons who ofifered the sacrifice, together with their families and
servants. In a sacrifice of thanksgiving, the sacrificial meat had to
be eaten the same day; in the votive and impetratory sacrifice,
the meal must be continued on the second day, but no longer.
This meal was to be taken in the place of the sanctuary; that is,
at least, within the holy city. All those partaking of the sacri
ficial meal were to be legally clean.
c) The sin-offerings were twofold ; one was ofifered to atone for
sins of individuals or of the whole nation, committed by error,
forgetfulness, or indeliberation. This is called the sin-offering in
the stricter sense. The other was ofifered for greater misdeeds,
especially for injuries done to others. This was called the tres
pass-offering. The fat of the victim alone was burnt on the

200 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCPI.EOLOGY.
altar; the remainder was either consumed by the priests in the
inner court as sanctified meat, or, if the sacrifice was ofifered for
a special sin of the community or the priest himself, was burnt
outside the camp or town. In the latter case, the inner (golden)
altar and the veil of the Holy of Holies were sprinkled seven
times with blood. Hence these sacrifices were called the inner
sacrifices; the others, the outer sacrifices. The dififerent sin-sacri
fices may easily be divided into three classes: those appointed
I. For certain feasts; viz. the New Moon, at the Pasch and on Pente
cost (Num. xxviii. 15, 22, 30), New-Year's day and the day ofthe
great expiation (Num. xxix. 5, 11; Lev. xvi. 5); 2. In legal puri
fications from certain physical conditions or states considered as
consequences of the sinfulness of human nature (Lev. v. 3, 5 ff;
xii. 6, 8; xiv. 19; xv. 15; Num. vi. 10 fif); 3. In cases of legal
or moral transgressions (Lev. iv. 14, 25, 28; v. i fif). Trespass-
sacrifices are those mentioned in Lev. v. 15; vi. i fif 17 ff.
Unbloody sacrifices consisted of the ears, grains, or flour of
wheat or barley. There were unleavened cakes, some thick and
others thin, some baked in the oven, others roasted in the pan;
finally, raised bread. They were always mixed with oil and ac
companied with salt and incense, the latter to be burnt. Honey
(symbol of sensuality) and leaven (symbol of corruption) were not
allowed in sacrifices. The libations consisted in wine and oil.
Every holocaust and peace-sacrifice was accompanied by an un
bloody sacrifice and libation as an integral complement. This was
not the case with the sin-sacrifice. To the class of unbloody sacri
fices belong a) the offerings of the sanctuary, viz. the shewbreads,
the daily burning of the incense on the golden altar, the per
petual burning of oil on the golden candlestick; b) the daily
oblation, morning and evening, of flour tempered with ofl and
fried in the pan, to be wholly burnt on the outer ahar by the
High Priest (Lev. vi. 20 fif) ; c) the unbloody sin-ofifering of the
very poor, consisting of about two quarts of flour.
3. Extraordinary sacrifices. There were some sacrifices differing
considerably in matter and ceremony from the regular sacrifices.
Such are the sacrifice a) of the Paschal lamb; b) of the two he-
goats on the day of expiation; c) at the ordination of priests
(Lev. vih.) and Levites (Num. vih.); d) at the purification of lepers;
e) at the trial of jealousy (Num. v. 25 fif); f) at the end of the

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS. 201
nazarate (Num. vi.); g) of the red cow or heifer (Num. xix).
To these may be added the great sacrifices at the dedication of
the people in the desert (Ex. xxiv. 4 fif) and of the Temple
(3 Kings vih. 62 fif).
All these sacrifices of the Old Testament had only a figurative,
typical character in preparation for the One Sacrifice of the New
Testament. Their aim was to awaken in the faithful Israelite
the consciousness of his sins, and the hope and desire for the
Redeemer. By this sorrow and repentance for sin, and the belief
and hope in the coming Messias, the Jew would be justified, not by
any sanctifying power of the sacrifices ofifered. Remission of sin
and sanctification were granted in virtue of the bloody sacrifice of
Christ on the Cross, prefigured by the bloody sacrifices of the
Jews, while their unbloody sacrifices were as many types of the
unbloody sacrifice of the Eucharist.
The blessing of the priest after the second daily sacrifice of
incense was as follows: "May the Lord bless and protect thee;
may He show thee His merciful face. May the Lord turn His
face upon thee and grant thee peace."
5. LEGAL PURIFICATIONS AND ABSTINENCE.
I. Purifications. Certain states or conditions ofthe human body,
whereby sin and its dire influence and consequences appear more
clearly and more forcibly, were in the Mosaic Law considered to
defile man. He became thereby "unclean" before the Lord, and
was deprived of the benefits and privfleges of the covenant. Hence
he had to be purified from this legal uncleanliness before he could
agahi partake of the rights of an Israelite. Those states were
death (the sting of death is sin, Rom. v. 12 fif); leprosy (repre
senting sickness caused by sin and being an image of the spiritual
devastation wrought by sin); some normal and abnormal physio
logical functions (where sinful lust still shows its power over man
(Gen. ih. 7; cf. Rom. vh. 5); and lastiy, chfldbirth (reminder of
God's curse upon Eve, Gen. ifl. 16, and of the sinful progeny of
chfldren of wrath, Eph. ii. 3). The many kinds of legal or cere
monial uncleanness may be traced directly or indirectly (by con
tact or communication) to one of the four causes mentioned. As
there was a difference of degree or intensity in their legal defile-

202 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY.
ments, so it was in regard to length of duration and extent con
cerning place and persons. Hence, also, the dififerent forms of
legal purifications. In some cases, after the cause had ceased,
the uncleanness continued as long as seven days, in the case of
the birth of a girl even fourteen days. In all purifications there
was a washing with water; sometimes it required a strong pre
paration, as lye; sometimes it was accompanied by sprinkling of
blood and by sacrifice. The priests alone were to judge of such
uncleanness, and the required kind of purification.
a) A dead human body defiled for seven days the tent or house
wherein it lay, all open vessels in the house, all persons in the
house, and all who partook of the funeral meal, all clothes and
matter that touched the body (Num. v. 2 fif; ix. 6 fif). Priests and
Nazarites were to be specially careful to avoid this defilement
(Lev. xxi. I fif; Num. vi. 6 7). Persons and things were purified
by being sprinkled with water and the ashes of the red cow on
the third and seventh day, and by washing their bodies and clothes
(Num. xix. 14 fif). The carcass of an animal, clean or unclean,
also defiled man (Lev. xi. 24 — 43; xvii. 15).
b) Leprosy is clearly described in Lev. xiii. Full details of
the pecuhar rite of its purification are given in Lev. xiv. After
the cure, which was verified outside the town or camp by a priest,
the patient was declared clean, by a symbolical action with two
birds and the sprinkling of blood with a sprinkler made of a bunch
of hyssop fastened to a cedar stick by a scarlet thread. He then
went through several ablutions, and after seven days brought his
ofifering to the altar ; namely, a male lamb without blemish as guilt-
ofifering, a ewe-lamb without blemish and a sextary (log) of oil for
the trespass-offering, a ram without blemish for a holocaust, and the
ofifering usual with the holocaust of three tenths of an Epha of ofl
and fine flour mixed. The poor ofifered a dove instead of the holo
caust, but were bound to the full guilt-ofifering. All these ofiferings
were made at the entrance of the women's court at the Beautiful
Gate, and received by the priest on duty. There was also a
leprosy of garments (Lev. xih. 47 fif) and even of houses (Lev.
xiv. 33 fif), and corresponding purifications.
c) The law concerning other defilements (Lev. xv.) and the
subsequent purifications must have exerted a powerful influence
upon the morals of the people.

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. B. HOLY FUNCTIONS. 203
d) The law of childbirth (Lev. xii) deserves special mention, as
it explains some passages concerning the Mother of Christ (Lk.
h. 24). A mother was legally unclean for seven days after the
birth of a boy, and for fourteen days after the birth of a girl.
Moreover, after these days she was still excluded from the sanc
tuary or the Temple for thirty-three days in the first case, and
for sixty-six in the other. After that time mothers were bound
to purify themselves by the ofifering of a turtie-dove or a young
dove as sin-ofifering, and of a yearling lamb as burnt-ofifering. If
the mother was poor, she was allowed to offer two turtie-doves
or two young doves, the one as sin-ofifering, the other as burnt
ofifering. The very poor brought a smaU meat- ofifering. In case
the new-born chfld was a first-born son, the mother, on the day
of her purification, had to offer it to God in the Temple and to
redeem it from the obligation of personal service in the Temple
by an ofifering of five pieces of sflver (Num. xvih. 15 f).
2. Abstinence from certain food. The law referring to this im
portant part of Mosaic observances is found in Lev. xi. and
Deut. xiv. There are two distinct prohibitions: that of unclean
food, and that of food which was either sacred to the Lord or
else an abomination before Him.
a) The distinction between clean and unclean food is based
upon nature, and is known to all but the most uncultured nations.
In the Old Testament, at the time of the Deluge, the distinctiori
between clean and unclean animals is mentioned as known (Gen.
vh. 2). After the Deluge (Gen. ix. 4), God prohibited specially the
eating of flesh with blood. The Mosaic Law went much further.
It declared as unclean among quadrupeds whatsoever had not a
divided hoof or did not chew the cud; among fishes, whatever
had not fins and scales; among birds, twenty-one kinds that mostly
live on prey pr carcasses ; finally, all insects and creeping animals
except four kinds of grasshoppers. The flesh of clean animals
which died naturally or were torn to pieces by wild beasts
became unclean. To the second class of forbidden food belonged
a) blood and also flesh with its blood, because with blood atone
ment and expiation was to be made on the altar (Lev. xvii. 10 fif);
b) those fatty parts of an animal which were taken from the sacrificial
victims and burnt on the altar (Lev. vh. 23, 25); c) food that had
been ofifered to idols or false gods (Ex. xxxiv. 1 5 ; Acts xv. 29) ;

204

PART HI. BIBLICAL ARCII.9S0L0GY.

d) a kid boiled in the milk of his dam, probably as an idolatrous
practice (Ex. xxiii. 19); e) everything of the harvest before the
first-fruits had been ofifered (Lev. xxhi. 14); f) the fruit of the
trees of the first three years, which were unclean, because only the
fourth year's growth could be ofifered as first-fruits to God (Lev.
xix. 23 ff); g) the crop of various seeds sown in a vineyard
belonged to the Lord (Deut. xxh. 9).
It is remarkable that no mention is made of the consequences
of transgressing the law of unclean food. Only the eating of blood
was punished with death (Lev. vii. 27).
These Old Testament laws regarding forbidden food were of
great practical importance, as they constantly reminded the Jews
that, being the chosen people of God, they might not walk in
the ways of the Gentiles. At the time of Christ, rabbinical inter
pretation had made these food-regulations much more stringent
and cumbersome than the Lord had intended ; hence the frequent
disapproval by Christ of this pharisaical severity. A great dispute
arose about the obligation of these laws upon the newly-converted
Christians. It was definitely decided by the Apostles in the Council
of Jerusalem (Acts xv. 29).
C. HOLY PERSONS.
I. PRIESTS AND LEVITES.
I . It is to be observed that the whole Jewish nation is repeatedly
called by God a holy nation and a priestly kingdom (Ex. xix. 6;
Lev. XX. 26; Deut. vii. 6; xiv. 2, 21), because this people was
especially set apart from other nations by God to be His own,
by preserving among its members the knowledge and worship of
the true God, and by bringing the blessings of the Messias to
the other nations. Hence every Israelite was considered to be
sanctified unto the Lord. Hence, also, idolators were not to be
tolerated among them.
In place of the first-born of Israel, God, through Moses, took
for Himself the tribe of Levi as a hereditary priesthood (Num. iii).
It was divided into three classes corresponding to the three sections
of the Tabernacle : the High Priest, who alone was allowed once
a year to enter the Holy of Holies; the Priests, who entered the
Holy ; and the ordinary Levites, who did not go beyond the inner

CHAPTER I. S.A.CRED ANTIQUITIES. C. HOLY PERSONS. 205
court. The priesthood was confined to the families of Aaron and his
sons (Num. iii. lo); Aaron himself being made High Priest, an office
which henceforth followed the right of primogeniture (Num. xx. 28;
Judges XX. 28). Aaron and his sons were solemnly consecrated
priests by Moses (Ex. xxix.; Lev. vih.); afterwards priests were
consecrated simply by investiture with the sacerdotal garments;
the High Priest, by investiture and holy unction. The Levites
were ordained for their service by a dififerent ceremony (Num. viii).
The priests and Levites derived their living from the sacrifices,
ofiferings of first-fruits, and tithes. God confirmed the authority of
the Aaronic priesthood by the punishment of the rebellious Core,
Dathan, and Abiron (Num. xvi) and by the miracle of Aaron's
budding rod (Num. xvii).
2. The ordinary Levites were not allowed to do the strictly
hturgical works; they were merely to serve and assist the priests
and take charge of the things belonging to the Tabernacle (Num.
viii. 15 22 26). The dififerent orders and classes of Levites had
to obey their respective prefects or princes (Num. iii. iv. viii).
They had to serve from their twenty-fifth to their fiftieth year of
age (Num. vih. 24, 25). When on duty, they wore a white hnen
dress. David re-organized the whole body of Levites from the
age of thirty and upwards (i Par. xxih. 3), later from twenty years
old (i Par. xxiii. 27) into four divisions, viz. 24000 for the ministry
of the house of the Lord, 6000 as overseers (genealogists, chroniclers,
or scribes) and judges, 4000 as porters and watchmen, and 4000
as singers and musicians. Those destined for the ministry and
the choir were again divided into twenty-four classes, whose order
for duty was decided by lot (i Par. xxv. xxvi). The Levites were
aided in the more difficult work by the servants or slaves of the
sanctuary; that is, by persons who either consecrated themselves
to the service of the Temple, or were forced into it (Jos. ix. 27;
I Par. ix. 2, 14 fif; i Esdras ii. 43; vih. 20; 2 Esdras ih. 26).
Mention is also made of women serving at the door of the sanc
tuary (Ex. xxxvih. 8; i Kings h. 22).
3. Priests, to be qualified for their office, were to be thirty years
old (later only twenty) and to be free from the irregularities and
corporal defects pointed out in Lev. xxi. 16 fif. During the actual
service they were to abstain from wine and every intoxicating
drink (Lev. x. 9), and from conjugal intercourse. They were not

206

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHA;oLOGY.

Fig. 56. Priest.

allowed to marry a non-Israelite or a
divorced woman (Lev. xxi. 7). The sacred
vestments to be worn by the priests
(Fig. 56) when engaged in the sacred
functions were : i) hnen drawers or
breeches; 2) a linen tunic reaching to
the ankle ; 3) a girdle (later richly em
broidered) ; 4) a mitre or pointed turban
made of linen (Ex. xxviii. 40 ff). They
had to serve bare-footed (based on Ex.
ih. 5). There were two priestly famihes,
descended from Eleazar and Ithamar,
the younger sons of Aaron; the two
elder ones having been struck dead by
the Lord (Lev. x. i fif). David (i Par.
xxiv) divided the priests into twenty-
four courses or classes who performed
the weekly services in turns; particular
functions were assigned by lot, such as
sacrificing on the altar of holocausts, lighting and trimming the
lamps on the golden candlestick ; renewing the shewbreads on the
Sabbath ; ofifering on the altar of incense the daily morning and
evening sacrifice of incense. Of the twenty-four classes of priests
only four returned from the Babylonian Captivity ; these were
again divided into twenty-four classes with the old names. The
first was that of Joarib, to which belonged Mathathias the Has-
monsean (i Mach. h. i); the eighth was that of Abias, to which
belonged Zachary, father of John the Baptist (Lk. i. 5). All liturgical
functions, except praying and chanting, belonged exclusively to
the priests (Num. xviii. 7).
4. The High Priest (Fig. 57) enjoyed a peculiar dignity and in
fiuence over all others. The supreme administration of sacred things
belonged to him ; he was supreme judge of all controversies regard
ing the law. Besides the qualifications demanded of priests, the High
priest had, moreover, to observe still more strictly the rules of
legal sanctity ; he was not allowed to approach a corpse, not even
of his parents; he could not marry a widow, but only a virgin.
Among his exclusive prerogatives were the sacrifice of expiation
in the Holy of Hohes (Lev. xvi) and the consultation of the oracle

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. C. HOLY PERSONS.

207

Fig, 57, High Priest,

of God (Ex. xxvhi. 30; Num. xxvii. 21). Over
the ordinary priestly vestments the High Priest
wore l) a long sleeveless blue or violet cloak
or robe (tunic) the hem of which was orna
mented alternately with golden bells and em
broidered pomegranates (Ex. xxvih. 3 1 ff) ; 2) the
ephod, a scapular worn over the shoulders,
richly embroidered , one part covering the
breast, the other the back. It was of linen
wrought with gold and purple. To each of
the shoulder straps were fastened two precious
onyx stones on which were written the names
of the twelve tribes of Israel (Ex. xxviii. 6 fif) ;
3) a breastplate, the "Rational" (Fig. 58), set
with twelve precious stones bearing the names
of the tribes and containing the mysteries Urim
and Thummim (Light and Right, or doctrine
and truth , or illumination and perfection),
through which God, in important cases, answer
ed inquiries (Ex. xxvhi. 1 5 fif) ; 4) a turban or
head-dress, a mitre with golden front-plate, bearing the inscription
"Holy to the Lord" (Ex. xxvhi. 36 fif; Lev. viii. 9).
The high-priestly office remained in the family of Eleazar down
to Heli, who was of the family of Ithamar. Under Solomon it
went back to the elder line until the time of Antiochus Epiphanes,
under whom the dignity became venal. Under the later Machabees
it was an apple of discord between the Pharisees and the Sadducees.
The Herods and the Roman governors arbitrarily appointed and
dismissed the High Priest. At the time of our Lord's death, Caiphas
was High Priest ; but his father-in-law Annas, as
late High Priest, stfll possessed great authority
in the Sanhedrim, and played a prominent
part in the capture of Jesus. The youngest son
of Annas I., Ananias, or Annas II., walked in
the steps of his father ; it was he who, when
in office, apprehended and beheaded James
the Less, bishop of Jerusalem, and caused the
Apostie Paul, for speaking freely before him, ^.^ ^^ Breast-piate
to be struck on the mouth (Acts xxih. 2). (Rational) of the High Priest.

^

E

1

208 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY'.
5. All public religious duties required by the Mosaic Law were
in charge of the priests and Levites. Proper order required a
clearly defined distribution and division of duties and a great
number of various officers, needed for the control, direction and
supervision of the whole work. Many of these are mentioned in
I Par. ix. XV. xxih fif. Hence the various terms of captains, pre
fects, chiefs, chief priests, magistrates, heads, elders, officers, etc. ;
where it is often difficult to know what is the exact office indicated.
The officer next in rank after the High Priest was "the second
priest" (Jer. hi. 24; Acts iv. i ; v. 24), also called "the Officer of
the Temple". His was the charge over the Temple and its buildings;
the Temple guard and, in fact, the whole Jewish police- force
(Mt. xxvi. 47; xxvh. 65) was under his command. In the absence
of the High Priest, he took control of affairs and presided over
the Great council. 3. SCRIBES AND SECTS.
I. The primary duty of the priests was to offer sacrifice and
serve in the Temple, but they were also the ordinary custodians
of the law and doctrine (Lev. x. 11 ; Deut. xvh. 9 ff), the prophets
being extraordinary heralds of the word of God. When prophecy
became extinct, a body of doctors of the law or scribes was
formed, consisting mainly of priests and Levites, yet independent
of the priesthood. According to tradition, Esdras, the great priest
and scribe, was its founder. The professional work of the doctors
of the law was the study and explanation of the law, although
usually they followed some trade in order to earn a living. Any
man duly qualified, having attained the age of thirty years, was
allowed to stand up as a doctor of the law. The doctors were
called "Rabbi", i. e. master. They received their training in schools
of famous doctors, such as Gamaliel in Jerusalem. When Jesus
first appeared in public, it was thought extraordinary that He taught
without having passed through the schools of the Rabbis. To the
scribes and doctors of the law are due the many commentaries
and interpretations as well as the collections of the ancient tra
ditions which later found their way into the Talmud, the traditional
law-book of the Jews. Jesus often held up to scorn the. teaching
of the scribes as senseless perversion of the law.

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. C. HOLY PERSONS. 209
2. The Scribes or Doctors were divided principally into two
sects: the Pharisees and the Sadducees, which arose naturally
among the Jews when these, since the time of Alexander the Great,
were brought into closer contact with the outside world. The
Pharisees (i. e. separatists) held strictly to the letter of the whole
law, and to all the Rabbinical traditions; they also avoided care
fully all communication with the Gentiles, and were sworn enemies
of all foreign dominations. They were mostly from the ranks
of the ordinary Levites and formed the popular party, esteemed
and respected because of their zeal, very often fanatical, for the
law and national institutions. At the time of Christ, their zeal
was generally but a cloak for pride, selfishness, and hypocrisy
(Mt. V. 20; xxih. 25). The chiefs ofthe Pharisees wore as distinctive
marks blue bands and tassels on their upper garment, and looked
with contempt on the ordinary people.
The Sadducees, who belonged mostly to the rank of the priests
and higher officers, indulged in more liberal views both in doctrine
and in practice, retaining only the sacred books; they rejected
traditions. At the time of Christy this liberalism had led the Sadducees
into positive unbelief of many religious truths, so that they denied
the immortality of the soul, the resurrection, future rewards and
punishments (Acts xxhi. 8). They were the materialists of the time,
and accordingly they treated Jesus and His teaching with scorn
and contempt. The Sadducees did not care much for levitical or
priestly offices ; but they were very ambitious for political positions
and influence. Under the High Priest Annas they succeeded in
obtaining control of the Sanhedrim. But some time before the
destruction of Jerusalem they were excluded from Judaism by the
Pharisees. The Herodians (Mt. xxh. i6; Mk. ih. 6; xh. 13) were not a re
ligious but a political party among the Jews, the adherents of the
reigning family of the Herods. The Sadducees leaned towards
this party, whereas the Pharisees stood up against it, although they
conspired with the Herodians against Christ.
3. THE SANHEDRIM.
After the return of the Jews from Captivity, under Esdras, a
Council or High Court of Justice was established in imitation of
the Councfl of seventy elders instituted by Moses (Num. xi. 16 fif).
MESfMEK, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. I4

2IO PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.5>;0LOGY.
This Council gave decisions on all religious concerns of the Jews,
on true or false prophets, on the contents of the Scripture canon,
and on the interpretation and observance of the Law. It went by
various names: the Great Synagogue , the Supreme Council, the
Synedrium or Sanhedrim ; it acquired its greatest importance durmg
the Machabean period. It was composed of seventy-one members,
priests, elders of houses, and scribes or doctors of the law. The
twenty-four priests of the Council, also called High Priests, were
probably the heads of the ' twenty-four classes of priests. The
scribes of the Council were mostly Pharisees ; occasionally, however,
the Sadducees gained^the upper hand, for instance in the time of
Christ and the Apostles. Originally, the Council was presided over
by the oldest representative of the tribe of Juda and the house
of David; later the High Priest became president. The Council
held its sittings in an out-buflding ofthe Temple, the Gazith; ex
ceptionally also in the house of the High Priest.
Even under the Roman domination, the Council remained the
highest court of justice for deahng with religious concerns. But
its influence gradually waned. Forty years before the destruction
of Jerusalem and shortly before the death of Christ, the right of
pronouncing sentence of death was taken away from it. When,
therefore, Pilate told the Jews to judge Jesus according to their
law, they answered that they had not the power of putting a
man to death (John xvih. 31). The stoning of St. Stephen and
the execution of James the Less must be regarded as unlawful
acts of the mob. After the conquest of Jerusalem, the Supreme
Councfl was transferred by the elder Gamahel to Jamnia, the
modern Yebna, eleven mfles south of Jaffa on the sea, which
was the centre of the Jewish nation and the seat of a famous
school. At the head of the school stood the Nasi, prince of the
school, whom the Romans styled patriarch. About A. D. 180
the seat of the patriarch and of the school was moved to Tiberias,
which, in the third and fourth centuries, was the central place of
Jewish religion and science. Early in the fifth century the dignity.
of the Jewish patriarch came to an end.
Besides the Supreme Council in Jerusalem there were in the
provincial towns smaller Councfls of twenty-three members, and in
localities of more than one hundred and twenty inhabitants Councils
of three members. Their punitory power was restricted to the

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. D. HOLY TIMES. 211
imposition of fines in money or, at most, to the sentence of
flogging. Usually the presidents of synagogues exercised these
judicial functions. D. HOLY TIMES.
I. THE CALENDAR.
When God made the sun, "the greater light to rule the day",
and the moon, "the lesser light to rule the night". He said they
should be "for signs and for seasons and for days and years".
And, ever since, time has been measured by days, and -months,
and years: the first by the course of the earth around its own
axis, the second by the course of the moon, the third by the
course of the earth around the sun, which corresponds approximately
with the twelve rotations of the moon around the earth.
The civil day of twenty- four hours , including "evening and
morning" or darkness and hght (Gen. i. 19), must be distinguished
from the natural day in the stricter sense, meaning only the portion
of the twenty- four hours when it is "light". The civil day was
not counted in the same way by all the ancient nations. Thus
the Babylonians counted from sunrise to sunrise; the Hebrews,
Arabs, Syrians and Greeks from sunset to sunset; the Egyptians
and Romans from midnight to midnight; the Umbrians, the ab
origines of Italy, and the astronomers from noon to noon. Hence
with the Jews the Sabbath and other feast-days began with the eve
or sunset on the preceding day. The night was originally divided
by them into the first and second half; then into three watches,
and, later on, following the Roman custom, into four watches of
three hours each (Mk. xih. 35). The first ended at evening, six to
nine o'clock ("beginning of the watches", Lament, h. 19); the second
at midnight, nine o'clock to midnight ("midnight watch". Judges
vu. 19); the third at the cock's crow (midnight to three o'clock);
and the fourth in the morning ("morning watch", Ex. xiv. 24).
The first and last watches were also designated as "evening'' and
"morning", or "late" and "early". The day as distinguished from
the night was divided into twelve hours, beginning in the morning
at six o'clock, and ending in the evening. Besides the twelve
hours of the day, we sometimes find mention of "the hours of
prayer", the third, ninth, and twelfth, corresponding somewhat to our
nine o'clock a. m., three and six o'clock p. m. (Acts iii. i ; x. 9, 30).
14*

212 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY'.
From Isaias xxxviii. 8 we learn that the Jews used Sun-dials to
measure and to know the exact time of the day. For the night
they used the Clepsydra or water-clock, corresponding to our modern
sand-glass, or hour-glass.
The week among the Jews consisted of seven days, the last
being called the Sabbath, or "The Rest". The original significance
of the Jewish week of seven days is undoubtedly founded upon
"the Week ofthe Creation" spoken of in Gen. chapter i , when the
Lord rested on the seventh day, which He blessed and sanctified
(Gen. h. 2, 3; Ex. xx. 11). The days of the week, except the
Sabbath, had no proper names; they were numbered, the day
after the Sabbath — "the first day of the Sabbath" — being the
first day of the week.
The month in the Jewish calendar is a lunar month of twenty-
nine or thirty days, corresponding to the regular rotation of the
moon (Ps. cih. 19; Ecclus. xliii. 6 fif). Every month begins with the
New Moon, the first day being observed as a hohday; hence the
same Hebrew name for month and moon, "Jahreah''
The year consists of the twelve lunar months, and counts three-
hundred and fifty-four days. To make it correspond with the sun-
year, they added every two or three years a thirteenth, or inter
calary month, cafled Veadar (another or second Adar), because
it was added after the ordinary or first Adar, the last month of
the year.
That the seasons of the ecclesiastical or lunar year should corre
spond with the seasons of the solar year became necessary, by the
divine ordinance connecting the feast of the Passover with the
sacrifice of the first-fruits of the grain harvest in spring, before
which the new grain could not be gathered in (Lev. xxih. lofiQ,
and the feast of Tabernacles with the end of the second harvest,
namely, that of the grapes, olives and figs (Lev. xxih. 39). At first,
these months were simply numbered as i", 2°'^, 3"^, etc. The
first month always began with the New Moon nearest the spring
equinox; but after the Babylonian Captivity the first month was
called Nisan (middle of March to April); the second, Hijjar
(April to May) ; the third, Sivan (May to June) ; the fourth, Thammuz
(June to July); the fifth, Ab (July to August); the sixth, Elul
(August to September) ; the seventh, Tiskri (September to October) ;
the eighth, Markeshvan {Octohex to Y^ovem^aex); the ninth, Casleu

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. D. HOLY TIMES. 2I3
(November to December) ; the tenth, Tebeth (December to January) ;
the eleventh, Shebat (January to February); the twelfth, Adar
(February to March).
The Mosaic year, which is also the ecclesiastical year, began
with Nisan, on the fifteenth of which month the Pasch, or Easter,
was to be celebrated. In later times, it would seem, a civil year was
established, beginning with Tishri, or the New Moon nearest the
autumn equinox. 2. THE SABBATH.
I. Among the seven week-days God selected the last, i. e. the
seventh, as a day of rest from all labour. Then, free from material
occupation, man should raise his mind and heart to God, his
Creator and Sovereign Lord. Hence the day was sanctified and
cafled Sabbath, i. e. rest (Ex. xx. 8 fif; xxxi. 12 fif; Lev. xxiu. 3).
It was also to remind the Israelite that the Lord had brought him
out of the bondage of Egypt into the freedom and rest of the
Promised Land (Deut. v. 15). This Sabbath rest was a type also
of the rest in God and His heavenly kingdom (Heb. iv. 3 fif) to
be for ever enjoyed by His faithful servants.
The main religious ordinances of the Sabbath were : a) Abstention
from work and business. Allowed were the religious services in
the Tabernacle or Temple, circumcision, the care of the sick, the
care of the cattle, defence in war, and a Sabbath-day's journey,
being about one English mile (Acts i. 12). Whatever was needed
for the Sabbath had to be prepared the day before, which was
called the Parasceve, or the preparation. Nothing might be cooked
on the Sabbath before sunset, as no fire was to be kindled all day
(Ex. xxxv. 3). b) The sacrifice, or burnt-ofifering of four lambs,
each one year old, two in the morning and two in the evening,
together with the ofifering of bread and the libations (Num. xxvih.
9, 10). c) The renewal of the loaves of proposition (Lev. xxiv. 8).
The Sabbath was not a day of fast, but of joy and feasting. Its
wflful violation was punished with death by stoning (Ex. xxxi. 14;
Num. xv. 35).
The Sabbath, as a holy completion of a seven days' period,
became the regulating norm of several holy days and seasons for
the Jewish people.
2. The Seventh Month (Sabbath Month) of the year, Tishri,
was sanctified by many great festivals (Num. xxix. iff); its first

214 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY.
day, the New Moon, was a holy day similar to the Sabbath (Lev.
xxiii. 24, 25).
3. The Seventh Year (Sabbath Year) was to be a long Sabbath
to the land, when no work might be done in the field ; whatever
grew of itself was common property for all, even the strangers.
During this year payment of debts could not be demanded (Deut.
XV. I ff). On the feast of Tabernacles in the Sabbath Year the whole
Law was to be read to the people (Deut. xxxi. 10 fif).
4. The forty-ninth year if yC 7 years), itself a Sabbath Year, was
foflowed by the Year of Jubilee (Jobel, i. e. loud, cheering, so-cafled
from the sounding of the trumpets announcing this year). This
fiftieth year also was to be observed as a Sabbath Year, for which
the Lord promised to provide a sufficient harvest in the forty-
eighth year. Detailed divine ordinances regarding this Jubilee Year
are given in Lev. xxv. 9 fif; xxvh. 17 fif. It was also called the
year of remission, because all debts were then remitted, slaves
and captives were set free, and all landed property, with few ex
ceptions, returned to the original owner or his heirs. This Jubflee
Year prevented slavery from becoming permanent among the Jews,
and made impossible both the accumulation of landed property
and helpless poverty. The Lord God was the true owner of the
land (Lev. xxv. 23). The social and political, moral and rehgious
importance of the Jewish Jubilee is quite evident.
3. THE PRINCIPAL FEASTS.
I. The three solemn festivals, on which all Israelites from twelve
years upwards had to come to the sanctuary in Jerusalem, were the
Passover (Pasch, Easter) in spring, Pentecost in summer, and the
Feast of Tabernacles in autumn. They thus correspond admirably
with the three harvest seasons of Palestine; but they also have,
each of them, an historical and a religious significance. They were
solemnized by rest from work, sacrifice in the Temple, and sacri
ficial repasts and feasting. The feasts of the Pasch and of the
Tabernacles had each a septuary or even an octave, whereof the
first and the last days were "most holy and most solemn" and
observed as Sabbath-days, with abstention from all kinds of servUe
work. Detailed rules regarding their celebration are given in
Lev. xxiii and Deut. xvi.

CHAPTER 1. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. D. HOLY TIMES.

215

a) The Feast of the Pasch or Passover (Ex. xh. 13, 23, 27),
also called the, feast of the unleavened bread (Ex. xii. 17; Lev.
xxiu. 6), was kept to celebrate the liberation from Egypt and
the beginning of the first or barley harvest. It began in the
evening of the fourteenth day of Nisan , on which day Israel
had gone out of Egypt (Ex. xii. 18, 42). On that evening the
paschal lambs were killed, and after sunset, when the fifteenth
Nisan had begun, were eaten by each family. The paschal lamb,
without any blemish, was to be roasted whole, no bone of it being
broken; in memory of the journey from Egypt it was eaten with
bitter herbs and in a standing posture as if ready for travel.
The ceremonial of the paschal celebration after the occupation
of the Promised Land is described in Lev. xxih.. Num. xxvhi., and
Deut. vi. It naturally differs in several points from the first celebra
tion in Egypt as told in Ex. xii. After the people had settled
in Palestine, the Pasch could not be held in each one's house,
but only at the central sanctuary in Jerusalem; the blood of the
lamb was not sprinkled on the door-posts of each house, but on
the altar of the burnt sacrifice in the Temple court ; it lasted not
only one day, but seven days, on the second of which the first
sheaves or fruits of the barley harvest had to be ofifered.
The rite of celebration of the Paschal Lamb consisted mainly
in the following: Before the meal, the head of the family filled a
cup with wine, blessed it, and having tasted of it, gave it also to
the rest to drink. Then, after he had washed his hands, a table
was brought in with green and bitter herbs, unleavened bread, a
bowl of vinegar, a sweet pottage or marmalade, meat of the
peace-ofifering, and the roasted Easter lamb. After a short prayer,
the head of the family took the green herbs, dipped them into
the vinegar, and ate of them, together with the other members.
After the reading of the Haggada (the story of the Exodus), the
second cup was filled. Then followed the first part of the so-
called Hallel, the recitation of Psalms 112 and 113, after which
the father of the family blessed the cup , and afl drank of it.
Having again washed his hands, he took two unleavened breads and
bitter herbs, dipped them into the sweet pottage (the Charoseth),
ate of them and gave them to the others. The Charoseth was made
of dates, figs, almonds, and other fruits, and greatly spiced with
cinnamon to give it a reddish colour that would remind the Jews

2l6 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.3!;0L0GY.
of the burnt bricks of Egypt. Now began, after another blessing,
the proper meal or supper, with the Easter lamb, the third cup
of wine, and the second part of the Hallel, Psalms 114 — 117.
After the fourth cup, the great Hallel, Psalm 119 — 136, was
sung. Sometimes a fifth cup ended the repast.
Jesus Christ, at the Last Supper, undoubtedly followed the main
parts of the Paschal repast. Judas probably left at the beginning
of the meal, before eating of the paschal lamb, and certainly before
the celebration of the Eucharist, which took place with the fourth
or fifth, that is the last cup of the supper.
The Pasch, if not the most solemn among the feasts of Israel,
was certainly the most significant in regard to the past, present,
and future. It was not only a meal or repast commemorative of
Israel's escape from Egypt and of its election as God's chosen
people, but also a sacrifice to renew the people's entire dedication
to God, to express its gratitude for the singular blessings received,
and to renew the holy covenant with the Lord. Stfll more im
portant is its typical significance pointing to Christ, the Lamb of
God, immolated on the Cross, taking away the sins of the world,
and giving his Flesh and Blood as a sacred meal in the Eucharist
(i Cor. V. 7). From Mt. xxvi. 17; xxvh. 62; Mk. xiv. 12; xv. 42;
Lk. xxh. 7; xxiu. 54; John xix. 31, it is evident that Christ was
crucified on the Parasceve, that is the day before the Sabbath
(our Friday), and that He celebrated the Last Supper with His
Apostles on the evening of Thursday, the fourteenth of Nisan,
when, after sunset, the fifteenth of Nisan, the Passover, began. The
sixteenth of Nisan was the Sabbath (Saturday), and "on the first day
of the week" (Mt. xxvih. i ; Mk. xvi. 9; Lk. xxiv. i ; John xx. i ;
our Sunday) Christ had risen from the sepulchre. This was the
seventeenth of Nisan, and thus "the third day He rose from
the dead."
b) The Feast of Pentecost (i. e. the fiftieth), called the feast of
the harvest or the first-fruits of wheat, and also the feast of weeks,
was celebrated on the fiftieth day, that is seven weeks, after Easter
or the Passover. It was a thanksgiving for the corn or wheat
harvest and a memorial of the giving of the Law on Mount Sinai,
fifty days after the going out from Egypt (Ex. xix. i; xxxiv. 22;
Lev. xxih. 15 fif; Num. xxvhi. 26 fif; Deut. xvi. 9, 10). Among
the sacrifices of this day were the two loaves of leavened bread

CHAPTER I. SACRED ANTIQUITIES. D. HOLY TIMES. 217
corresponding to the unleavened bread of the Passover ; the one to
indicate the beginning of the harvest; the other, the completed
harvest of all the grains. The feast lasted only one day. The
first great harvest for the Kingdom of Christ and the first dis
tribution of the gifts of the Holy Ghost took place on the day
of Pentecost (Acts ii).
c) The Feast of Tabernacles was celebrated from the fifteenth
to the twenty-second day of Tishri in memory of the forty years'
wanderings in the desert, and in thanksgiving for the finished fruit-
and wine-harvest (Ex. xxih. i6). The religious observances of
the feast are detafled in Lev. xxhi. 34 fif; Num. xxix. 12 fif. For
these seven days the people lived in booths or bowers (Lev. xxiii. 42)
made of the branches of trees, to remind them of their living in
tents during their sojourn in the desert. The feast was kept with
joy and merriment, banquets and music. The last day was the
most solemn. At the morning sacrifice water was brought in
solemn procession from the Pool of Siloe and poured around the
altar of burnt-ofifering. This was in memory of the water flowing
from the rock struck by Moses in Horeb. In later times, the
women's court in the Temple was flluminated in memory of the
cloud of fire going at night before the people in the desert. The
Feast of Tabernacles was the last one in the ecclesiastical calendar
of the Jews.
2. The Great Day of Atonement, the holiest day in the ec
clesiastical year, was usually observed five days before the Feast
of Tabernacles, on the tenth of Tishri. It was not a joyous day,
but a day of universal penitence and sorrowing for sin: "you
shall afflict your souls" (Lev. xvi. 29); a strict fast all day and
a rigid Sabbath rest were obligatory. Its violation was punished
by death. The central act of this great Atonement or Expiation
was the great double sacrifice for sin ofifered by the High Priest
(Lev. xvi. 29 fif; xxiii. 27—32; Num. xxix. 7— n).
The great typical significance of this universal expiation of sin
foreshadowing the sacrifice of our High Priest, Jesus Christ, and
His entermg as our Mediator into the Holy of Holies of Heaven,
is beautifully explained by St. Paul (Heb. ix).
3. The Feast of the New Moon, especially that of the seventh
month (Lev. xxiu. 24 25; Num. xxix. 1—6), was always celebrated
on the first day of the month. As on other festival days, the

21 8 PART HI. BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY.
trumpets had to be sounded "for a remembrance of your God"
(Num. X. lo). Special sacrifices were ordered for these first days
of the months (Num. xxvih. 1 1), which were not days of fast, but
of joy and feasting. The fact of the new appearance of the moon
was not determined by astronomic calculation, but by actual ob
servation. Notice of it was sent all around by messengers and
by fire-signals given from hills and mountains. "From the first
day of the seventh month they (the exiles from Babylon) began
to offer holocausts to the Lord" (i Esdras hi. 6); on the same
day "Esdras the priest brought the Law before the multitude
of men and women" in Jerusalem (2 Esdras viii. 2). From these
facts may have arisen the later and present Jewish custom of
celebrating their New Year's day on the first day of Tishri.
4. Of the feasts which originated after the Babylonian Captivity
the following deserve notice :
a) The Feast of Phurim was instituted in memory of the salva
tion of the Jews from extinction in Persia, obtained through queen
Esther and Mardochai (Esther ix. 21 fif). It was called Phurim, i. e.
the lots, because Aman had fixed the day of extermination by
lots (Esther ih. 7; ix. 24). The Jews kept the feast on the four
teenth and fifteenth of Adar, on which days they had taken ven
geance on their enemies. On the thirteenth of Adar they fasted
in memory of the fast of Esther.
b) The Feast of the Dedication of the Temple was instituted
by Judas Machabeus in memory of the purification of the Temple,
desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes of Syria. The first time it
was celebrated with great solemnity during eight days beginning
with the twenty-fifth of Casleu (i Mach. iv. 59). Later on, when
fllumination of the houses became its chief feature, it was called
the Feast of Lights (2 Mach. x. 5 fif).
c) Minor Feasts mentioned in the Bible are: the thirteenth of
Adar in memory of the victory of Judas Machabeus over Nicanor
(i Mach. vu. 49); the twenty-third of Hijjar, in memory ofthe
victories of Simon Machabeus (i Mach. xih. 51); the twenty-fifth
of Casleu, the feast commemorative of the finding of the sacred
fire by Nehemias (2 Mach. i. 18 fif); the memorial day of Judith's
heroic deed (Judith xvi. 31).
5. Mention may be made also of the Jewish Fast-days; Zach.
viii. 19 mentions four. They were held on the ninth of Thammuz

CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. I. THE GOVERNMENT. 219
because of the taking of Jerusalem by Nabuchodonosor (Jer. hi.
6, 7) ; on the tenth of Ab because of the destruction of the Temple
by Nabuzardan (Jer. hi. 12, 13); on the tenth of Tebeth because of
the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem (Jer. hi. 4); on the third
of Tishri, because of the murder of Godolias (Jer. xii. 2); See
also 4 Kings xxv. Chapter II.
POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES.
I. the government.
I. The Patriarchs. The paternal government, or that govern
ment which was exercised with supreme authority by a father
over his family, wife, children, and domestics, is undoubtedly the
first and most ancient of all forms of government. From it de
veloped the so-called patriarchal government (pater, i. e. father); the
patriarch, being the father of his race or tribe, was its ruler, and
his will was the law for his descendants. The first Hebrew patri
arch was Abraham, specially called by God to be the father of
the chosen people. Jacob ruled over the famihes of his sons tfll
his death. But, when these families grew into the numerous
people of the twelve tribes , the heads of the several families
within a tribe chose a head or prince of the tribe. These princes,
together with the heads of the families, exercised a sort of pater
nal government over the whole people. Num. i. 20 mentions the
tribe of Ruben by their generations, families, houses, and heads
(individuals). From Jos. vii. 14 fif we learn that each tribe was
divided into families (kindreds), each family into households. Each
household was ruled by the father ; each family by its head ; each
tribe by its prince. These princes and heads are often called the
Elders, Ancients, or Officers. Their authority seems to have been
respected even under the Egyptian dominion (Ex. v. 15, 19).
2. The Theocracy (God's Rule). The fundamental principle of
the government estabhshed by God through the ministry of Moses
was this: Jehova Himself is in a special manner not only the
God of the Israelitic people (religion), but also its direct ruler or
king (political government); hence obedience to His laws on the
part of the nation wfll be rewarded with pubhc prosperity, and
disobedience will be punished by dire calamities. By this funda-

220 PART HI. BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY.
mental principle the entire history of the people of the Old Testa
ment must be judged. Moses, Josue, and the Judges were simply
the vice-roys of God; so were the kings, in a degree less pro
nounced. Yet this theocratic government did not set aside all
former institutions. The chiefs of the tribes, the heads of famihes,
and the scribes (genealogists or minor officers) retained their former
functions, with the exception of "judging the people". This office
was by Moses assigned to the seventy Ancients, appointed by
him (Ex. xiv. i), and later to the local courts, mentioned as a
future institution in Deut. xvi. i8 fif; xvh. 8 fif. But the "Ancients"
of the tribes and families continued to act not only as national
representatives, but also as local rulers and magistrates under Josue
and the Judges and later after the return from Babylon. The
power of the Judges did not interfere with the immediate relation
of God, as King, to His people; often they themselves were
directly called by God to rule the people. While each tribe settled
its own internal affairs, the common interests of all the tribes
were discussed in the general meeting of the chiefs and families
convoked by the Judge or the High Priest. Sometimes, in addition
to these, the scribes also, genealogists, registrars, who wrote the
"words of the day" or contemporary history, the minor judges,
priests and the people generally, were called to the general
assembly. 3. The Kingdom. Theocracy did not, by any means, cease
with the coming of royal power, although it was no longer as
immediate, complete, and pronounced as before (cf. Judges vih. 23 ;
I Kings vih. 7). The Kingdom was foretold in Gen. xvh. 16;
xlix. 10; Deut. xvii. 14 fif.
a) The inauguration of the king was performed with various
ceremonies, the principal of which was the anointing with ofl.
This was done by the High Priest; hence, the king is often called
the Anointed of the Lord. After the anointing, the king received
the diadem and sceptre. Then a copy of the Law (either Deutero
nomy or the Pentateuch) was given to him, and the oath of al
legiance taken by the princes of the tribes.
b) The chief functions of the king were to act as chief of the
army and supreme judge and ruler of the people. Although he
had nothing to do with the sacred ministry itself, yet, as vice
gerent of God, he had to see that divine worship was strictly

CHAPTER II. .POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. I. THE GOVERNMENT. 221
attended to by the priesthood, according to the Law. Thus did
the pious kings David, Josaphat, Ezechias, and Josias. The Mosaic
institution of inferior judges continued; but it was the king's duty
to have proper persons appointed to the office. He himself would
receive appeals from inferior courts. In this office he was as
sisted by the High Priest.
c) Among the -ministers of the king we find mention of the
governor or master of the king's house (2 Par. xix. 11). He
was the steward of the palace, having charge of the household,
servants, and things belonging to the palace. An important office
was also that of the royal chancellor (chronicler), who had to
arrange in order and preserve the State papers and to keep a
diary of the king's doings, and a record of all the important
affairs of the kingdom. Then there were the ordinary secre
taries, who. had to write and expedite the royal letters, edicts,
ordinances, etc. The councillors of the king are often mentioned.
The captain of the host or lieutenant-general of the army had
a place near the king; so had the chief of the body-guard.
Eunuchs, who superintended the part of the palace where the
queen and the concubines of the king lived, are often mentioned
as members of the royal court.
4. During the Captivity, as well as after their return, the Jews
retained their princes of houses and heads of famflies, by whom
they were governed subordinately to the royal prefects (Ez. xiv. i ;
XX. I ; I Esdras i. 5; iv. 3, etc.); Zorobabel, Esdras, and Nehemias
were such prefects or governors. After their death the Jews were
governed by their High Priest, in subjection, however, to the
Persian kings, to whom they paid tribute. Still the people for nearly
three hundred years enjoyed great civil freedom (though not in
dependence) and full religious liberty.
After a twenty years' war against the kings of Syria, the Macha
bees succeeded in establishing the political independence of the
Jewish people. For the space of more than one hundred years,
the Machabean rulers were also the High Priests of the people,
till Simon and his sons united in their person the royal and ponti
fical dignity, having been proclaimed kings by the people
(i Mach. xiv). They are known as the Hasmoncean princes (after
Hasmonseus, great-grandfather of Mathathias). But in the year
B. C. 63 Judsea was conquered by Pompey, and its princes were

222 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY.
made tributary to Rome. It was later on governed by Roman Pro
curators, who had great authority, and even held the power of
life and death. Yet, even then, the Jews enjoyed a large measure
of national and religious liberty. They could worship in the
Temple ; they had their High Priests and High Council ; they could
arrest culprits and bring them before their own court and inflict
punishment (except death). It was only with the destruction of Jeru
salem, A. D. 70, that the civil and religious government of the Jewish
people disappeared with its own political existence as a nation.
2. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE.
I. The Courts. The patriarch was the magistrate' and judge of
his tribe. Under the theocratic rule, Jehova was King and supreme
Judge. Judgment was given by the priests and the judges in His
name (Deut. i. 17; Ex. xviii. 15 fif). When in the desert Moses
was unable to hear all the cases brought before him, he appointed
seventy elders, chosen by the people, as inferior judges who should
judge of all minor affairs. But important matters, as wefl as
appeals from the lower courts, were reserved to Moses (Ex. xvih.
13 fif; Num. xi. 16; Deut. i. 13 fif). After the conquest of Chanaan,
each city and town was to have its judges, whose jurisdiction
should extend to the neighbouring viflages. These judges are
distinct from the seventy elders (Jos. viii. 23 ; xxiv. i). From
their decisions an appeal lay to the superior judges and chiefs of
the State, assisted by the High Priest (Deut. xvi. 18 fif; xvh. 8 ff).
To this tribunal serious cases might be referred even in the first
instance. These courts continued with a jurisdiction and staff
more or less modified, according to the dififerent periods, untfl the
fall of Jerusalem under Titus. Even in captivity, the Jews pro
bably had judges of their own to settle minor disputes.
The principal modifications, or rather re-organizations of these
courts took place under David (l Par. xxih. 4; xxvi. 29 ff) and
Josaphat (2 Par. xix. 5 fif). The latter established a high court
in Jerusalem, whose chief justice or presiding officer in rehgious
affairs was the High Priest ; in civil matters, Zabadias, a prince of
the tribe of Juda. Esdras re-established the courts (l Esdras vh. 25).
Another important court was created under the Machabees. It
was called the Great Council or Sanhedrim (a Hebrew corruption
of the Greek Synedrion, a sitting together, meeting).

CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 2. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 22 3
2. The Judicial Proceeding in the earlier times was summary,
none, or very few, formalities being observed. It was the more
necessary that the judge should be fair and impartial; hence the
frequent admonitions to this effect and the prohibition to take
gifts or bribes. Corruption set in under the kings; hence the
frequent complaints by the prophets.
The plaintiff and defendant had both to appear in court, where,
in later times, a notary took down the minutes of the trial. The
case was usually tried by means of sworn witnesses ; at least two
concordant witnesses were required to settle the case, and their
testimony was given in presence of the accused. Documentary
proofs were also admitted, and the parties involved could give
sworn testimony. That sometimes recourse was had to the lot,
appears from Prov. xviii. i8. The sentence was pronounced im
mediately after trial, and executed without delay.
Trials were to take place in the forenoon or early part of the
day. In early times, this was done at the gates of the city, where
the market-place was usually situated ; in Jerusalem, in front of the
Temple; under the Kings, in the court of the palace.
3- The Criminal Code. When the Mosaic Law was introduced,
crime abounded among the surrounding nations. Hence this law
is so particular in pointing out the several crimes which the Jews
should avoid under the most severe penalties. In judging of the
Jewish criminal law, one must keep in view the character of the
Jewish people, the conditions in which it was placed, and the
destiny it had to fulfil.
a) Crimes against God were: idolatry (worship of false gods);
blasphemy (language injurious to God and His attributes); false
prophecy (Deut. xih. 2 fif; xvih. 20 fif); divination, fortune-telling
and sorcery (Lev. xix. 26 fif; xx. 6 fif; Deut. xviii. 9 fif. The
only means sanctioned by God for learning future events were to
consult God either by a true prophet or by the Sacred Lot, the
Urim and Thummim); perjury and Sabbath-breaking (Ex. xxxi. 14;
Num.. XV. 32 fif). All these crimes were to be punished by stoning
to death.
b) Crimes against authority were: first, cursing of parents and
striking them (Ex. xxi. 15 fif; Lev. xx. 9), a crime punishable by
death; secondly, to speak fll or injuriously of or to the prince
of the people, the judges and magistrates (Ex. xxh. 28).

224 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY.
c) Crimes against one's neighbour were the following: murder or
wilful homicide; the murderer was to be punished by death. It
belonged to the "avenger of blood" (Goel), usually the next of
kin, to execute the sentence given by the judge. In order to
save innocent persons suspected of murder from a too hasty re
venge, Moses (Num. xxxv. lo fif; Deut. xix. i fif) provided for six
cities of refuge (taken from the forty-eight levitical cities), three
on each side of the Jordan and conveniently distributed in the
several districts of the country, to any of which the suspected
murderer might flee, and where he would have a safe asylum.
Then a judicial inquiry was instituted. If guilty, he was sentenced
to death; if proved innocent, he was set free; if the suspicion
remained or some form of sinful manslaughter was proved, he had
to remain a prisoner in that city tfll the death of the then reigning
High Priest, when he would be set free. These cities are mentioned
in Jos. XX. If a person was found murdered in a field or on the
highway, and the murderer could not be discovered, a special
mode of procedure was prescribed (Deut. xxi. i fif).
Corporal injuries which stopped short of death had all appro
priate punishments assigned, usually a fine and indemnification
for the injury done as well as for loss of time and expense. In
cases of deliberate and premeditated personal injury, the Law of
Retaliation was enforced (Ex. xxi. 23 fif; Lev. xxiv. IO fif). This,
however, was not left in the hands of private persons; only the
judge could bring it into operation. Moreover, either before or
after the judicial sentence, the guilty and the injured party could
compromise or settle on a sum of money in place of the legal
punishment. This law, so just in itself, was a most efficacious
means of deterring people from injuring their neighbours. The
arguments urged against it by infidels are of no weight.
Slander and calumny (Ex. xxiii. i) as well as false testimony
(Deut. xix. 16) were to be punished.
Man-stealing, that is the seizing or kidnapping of a free-born
Israelite for the purpose of making him a slave or selhng him as
such, was punished by death (Ex. xxi. 16; Deut. xxiv. 7).
d) Crimes against property. Theft was punished by a double
restitution, and, in some cases, even by a higher amount. If
unable to make restitution, the thief could be sold as a slave,
and if necessary to get the needed sum, his wife and children also

CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 2. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 225
(Ex. xxh. 3; 4 Kings iv. i). A thief breaking into a house by
night (burglar) might be kifled; but not in dayhght (Ex. xxii. 2).
Usury was most strictly prohibited, not only in case of the poor
and needy; it embraced all Israelites, rich and poor (Ex. xxu. 25;
Lev. xxv. 35 fif), but not the stranger (Deut. xxih. 19 fif). The
payment of just debts was amply provided for by the most minute
ordinances of the law. Unjust delay in paying, or refusal, entailed
the sale of the debtor's property, or of himself and family into
slavery, later also imprisonment.
e) Crimes of lust and sensuality were most severely punished,
as appears from many places in the Pentateuch. Adultery and
unnatural crimes were punished by death. The seducer of a maiden
was bound to a pecuniary compensation to her father, and to
marry her if the parent consented ; losing, moreover, the privilege
of a future divorce.
4- The penalties of the Mosaic Law were manifold. The capital
punishments were: slaying with the sword (not beheading or de
capitation, which is mentioned only later, under the Roman rule) ;
stoning to death (wherever in the Law of Moses the kind of death
is not expressly stated, stoning is to be understood); burning to
death (Lev. xx. 14; xxi. 9), and hanging (Num. xxv. 4; Deut.
xxi. 23 ; Jos. viii. 29).
Crucifixion was not practised by the older Jews ; it was adopted
from the Romans under the later Hasmonsean princes. Besides
capital punishment there were beating and flogging (Deut. xxh. 18;
xxv. 2 fif); mutilation, by the law of retaliation above mentioned,
and pecuniary fines. Imprisonment as a punishment occurs only in
post-exilian times (i Esdras vn. 26); yet stocks and prison are men
tioned by Jeremias xxix. 26. There were also certain sacrifices
or ofiferings in the Temple which had the nature of a punishment
and were something like a substitution of the religious sacrifice
for the legal penalty. It obtained in very many cases where the
levitical law had been transgressed through error, precipitancy, or in
deliberation. In case of injustice, besides making the ofifering, the
delinquent was obliged to make restitution and to add one-fifth over
and above what was required to repair the injury (Lev. vi. i fif).
A peculiar punishment deserving special mention is the Ban
(Anathema). It was apphcable not only to persons, but also to
things. A person or thing under the ban was understood to be given
Messmek, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. I 5

226 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.5;OLOGY.
over to God, originally in the sense that it was to be destroyed.
At the time of conquest almost everything found in Chanaan was
under the ban of the Lord (Deut. xih. 15 fif; Jos. vi. 17; vh. 11, 13).
The apostasy of an Israelite or of a whole city to idolatry ex
posed them to the same fate. Such a person or city is said to
be "cut off from the midst of the people". Under the Kings,
the law of extirpation and absolute destruction as punishment for
idolatry fell into disuse. After the exile, a modified form of the
ban came into use against any person who by his doings became
an enemy of the theocratic institutions. His property was "devoted
to the Lord", i. e. confiscated for the Temple; he himself was
"cut off from the people", that is from actual communion with
the people of God. This later ban or anathema was called ex
communication. It is mentioned in i Esdras x. 8, and often in the
New Testament (Lk. vi. 22 ; John ix. 22 ; xh. 42 ; xvi. 2). Ac
cording to the Talmud, there were two forms of excommunication
among the Jews, the minor and the greater. The first excluded
a person only from the public rehgious ceremonies for a short
time, usually thirty days; the latter removed a person from all
society with the Jewish people, either for ever or at least for an
indefinite time. 3. THE PUBLIC REVENUES.
I. For the Temple. The Tabernacle in the desert was buflt by
voluntary contributions (Ex. xxv. 2 ; xxxv. 5). Afterwards God
commanded that, upon the occasion of the census of the people,
every male of twenty years and upwards
should pay half a shekel to provide for the
expenses of divine worship and repairs of the
Tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 13). It would appear
*'^- ='¦ that this Temple tax or tribute was de-
Drachma (of Athens). manded in later times whenever necessary
(2 Par. xxiv. 5 fif). After the return from the Captivity, this
Temple tax was one-third of a shekel (2 Esdras x. 32). Later the
Mosaic ordinance was deemed to be a perpetual annual obhgation;
and hence, in the time of Christ, He and the Apostles paid the
two drachmas (or half a shekel ; Fig. 59). From this universal tax
as well as from voluntary private contributions vast treasures were
accumulated in the treasury of the Temple.

CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 3. THE PUBLIC REVENUES. 227
Among the revenues of the Temple, that is provisions for the
divine worship and the support of the Levites and priests, must
be counted the tithes, first-fruits and many of the sacrifices, of
which a great portion, animal and vegetable, went to the priests.
They had also the income from their own cities and the pasture
lands annexed to them. Moreover, they had a certain percentage
of all the spoils of war (Num. xxxi. 27 fif).
2. For the King. It appears from i Kings .xvii. 25, that a
certain fixed tribute was paid by the people towards the support
of the king. The amount is not recorded. From other passages
we gather that among the other sources of revenue must be placed
spontaneous gifts of the people, the king's flocks, royal farms,
vineyards and olive-gardens (i Par. xxvh. 25 fif); then the chief
spoils of war, the tribute of conquered nations; finally, the levies
on foreign merchants trading in the kingdom. However, the taxes
under Solomon grew at such a rate that after his death it led to
the division of the kingdom (3 Kings xh). No mention is made
in the Bible of special revenues for the maintenance of the stand
ing army. These soldiers were probably maintained from the
revenues of the king. The booty and spoils of war were un
doubtedly a source of income not to be despised.
3. Tributes to foreign conquerors were raised by taxation, as
we learn from 4 Kings xv. 20; xxiu. 35. The tribute to the
Persian kings is mentioned in i Esdras iv. 13, 20; vii. 24. Jonathan,
the Machabee, paid to Demetrius three hundred talents to procure
the people freedom from taxation. The taxes to raise these foreign
tributes became especially heavy under the Herodian kings and
the Roman governors. The Roman Emperor sold the revenues of
a province at public auction for a certain time or term. The
highest bidder (or, in case of joint companies, the board of the
stockholders) would entrust the collection of the taxes to tax-
gatherers ox publicans, who again sub-let them to inferior collectors.
All these wanted to make money, which they had to do by fraud
and extortion; hence their evil reputation (Mt. xviii. 17).
4. THE ARMY.
War among the Israelites was mostiy of a religious character.
Moses, Josue, the Judges, Saul, and David fought against the
IS*

228 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY.
idolatrous enemies of the chosen people at God's command. The
great Machabean generals fought their battles in defence of their
land and the religion of their fathers. Many of the wars of the
kings of Juda and Israel were defensive wars against the invasions
of the rulers of Moab, Syria, and Egypt. Offensive warfare between
the kings of Israel and Juda was mostly by God's Providence a
punishment of the wicked lives of the kings and the idolatry of
the people.
I. Organization. It would appear that in the desert the whole
people was organized in regular inferior bodies by tens and fifties
and hundreds and thousands, under properly appointed leaders
both for civil as well as for military affairs (Ex. xvih. 21; Deut.
i. 15; Num. xxxi. 14). By Num. i. 3 fif all men of twenty years
and upwards, fit for war, serve, being numbered by their troops;
then "the chiefs of the army of Israel" by the twelve tribes are
mentioned by name ; the number of all "that were able to go to
war' is given as 603550 men. Certain exemptions from military
service are stated in Deut. xx. 5 fif; xxiv. 5 ; the tribe of Levi
was exempt, having been set apart for the exclusive service of
the Lord. Military enrolments were made from time to time
(Num. xxvi; 2 Kings xxiv), the lists being made and kept by
the registrars (also named chroniclers, notaries, masters). This
organization of a general m.ilitia according to tribes and families
was preserved as long as Israel had its own army. Upon this
same basis Judas Machabeus gathered his small but valiant army
(I Mach. iii. 55).
Something like a standing army of 3000 men was organized
under Saul (i Kings xih. 2). Under David it increased to 24000 men,
who were relieved in equal number every month. He also had a
life- or body-guard, called Cerethites and Phelethites (2 Kings xv. 18;
XX. 23). To the infantry King Solomon added cavalry and war
chariots. No exact information is given of the several divisions of
the army and their officers. Comparing Judges vii. 6 ; i Kings xi. il ;
2 Kings viii. 2 ff", it would seem that the army was usually divided
into three great army corps. A commander-in-chief was set over
the whole army. Mention of a regular military commissariat is
made in Judges xx. 10. The twelve commissaries (governors)
mentioned in 3 Kings iv. 7 had also to furnish the provisions for
the standing army, 3 Kings iv. 27, 28. No mention is made of a

CHAPTER II. POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES. 4. THE ARMY. 229
military stipend or pay until the time of the Machabees. Armouries
for shields and spears are mentioned 3 Kings xiv. 28; 2 Par. xi. 12,
while 3 Kings ix. 19 mentions fortified towns where, according
to the Hebrew text, the provisions were stored (see 2 Par. xi. 11 ;
xvii. 13); also the towns where the war charioteers, and others
where the cavalry were garrisoned.
The Jews had no war-ships. The fleet (3 Kings ix. 26 fif) or
navy (3 Kings xxu. 49) mentioned was merely for commerce.
2. The Military Arms were of two kinds : defensive and offensive.
To the first class belong the small and the large shield (buckler),
the breastplate or armour, the helmet and the military girdle,
which held the soldier's dress and armour together. In i Kings
xvii. 5, 6 are also mentioned the coat of mail and the greaves of
brass. The ofifensive weapons mentioned in the Bible are the sword,
the battle-ax, the spear (long), and the javelin (short), the bow and
arrow, the sling. To these must be added the war-chariots furnished
with cases for weapons, and sometimes armed at the two sides
with scythes or sickles (2 Mach. xiu. 2).
In fortified cities the walls were provided with parapets (breast
works) and towers; often a moat or ditch surrounded them. In
besieging such a city it was either stormed by means of ladders,
or a breach was made by the battering-ram, while from a catapult
or a moving tower or a rampart erected near the wall heavy
stones, arrows, and other deadly missiles were showered upon the
defenders. 3. Prisoners of War were usually treated with great humanity,
unless the Lord or the Law had commanded their destruction.
The rule regarding female captives (Deut. xxi. 10 fif) is charac
terized by its mild and humane spirit.
Spoils of War were at first distributed indiscriminately among
the soldiers. Under king David a certain portion went to the
king; of the remainder one half was allotted to the array, the
other half to the rest of the people; but of both parts a per
centage was required for the priests and the sanctuary (Num. xxxi.
27 fif). Those who stayed with the baggage divided equally with
the soldiers engaged in battle (i Kings xxx. 24 ft).

230 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH/EOLOGY.
Chapter III.
DOMESTIC ANTIQUITICS.
I. the family.
I. Husband and Wife. Monogamy is the original, divinely con
stituted form of marriage (Gen. ii. 22 fif; Mt. xix. 4 fif). The first
infraction of this law is recorded in Gen. iv. 19, where Lamech
is said to have taken two wives. But Noe and his sons were
monogamists (Gen. vii. 13); so were Moses and the Prophets as
far as we know. Prov. xxxi. 10 fif sings the praise of the mono
gamous wife. This principle of monogamy is clearly recognized in
the Mosaic Law by the strictly drawn distinction between the first
wife with her children and the concubines with their offspring.
On the other hand, the many inconveniences and evil consequences
of polygamy were not hidden from the Jews, although God tole
rated, and some of the greatest patriarchs practised it. Polygamy
continued among the Jews down to the time of the exile, but
never sank to the low level of the surrounding pagan nations,
thanks to the provisions of the Law regarding the so-called con
cubines or secondary wives. These concubines were legitimate
wives, but of a lower order, inferior in rank to the real mistress
of the house. Their issue was legitimate, but they themselves had
no authority in the famfly, nor any share in the household
government. There were no solemn rites at the marriage of a
concubine ; if she had been a servant in the famfly before her
marriage, she remained so afterwards, and was subject to her
mistress as before.
The Marriage impediments are sharply defined in the Law (Lev.
xvih. 6 fif; xx. 1 1 fif). Israelites were forbidden to marry women
of heathen nations (Ex. xxxiv. 16; Deut. vh. 3, 4; Josue xxih. 12;
3 Kings xi. 2; i Esdras ix. 12; x; 2 Esdras x. 30; xih. 25 fif).
The Levirate was established by a law, according to which the
brother or the next of kin to the deceased husband was bound to
marry the widow of his brother or kinsman who had died without
issue, and according to which the first-born son of such a marriage
was considered the son of the deceased husband and inherited
his name and property. However, the widow might be formally
refused by her brother-in-law in the presence of the judges (Deut.
xxv. 7 fif; Gen. xxxvih. 3 fif).

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. I. THE FAMILY. 33 1
Betrothal (espousals) was probably surrounded by some formality,
although nothing is recorded about it in the Bible. It was usually
preceded by an agreement, made before witnesses, between the
father and brothers of the bride and the father of the bridegroom,
concerning the dowry or presents to be made to the father and
brothers of the bride. Betrothal was considered more than a mere
promise ; it was regarded as the beginning of the future marriage.
Hence, if the bridegroom refused to marry his spouse, he had to
give her a bill of divorce; if the bride sinned with another man,
it was considered adultery; yet no private intercourse was allowed
between the betrothed.
The Nuptials or marriage ceremony took place some time after
the espousals. The bridegroom, attended by his friends, went in
procession to fetch the bride, and conducted her, attended by her
female friends, to his house or that of his father. Sometimes the
marriage-feast lasted seven days (Judges xiv. I2, 17).
The Marriage-Bond was sacredly guarded by the Mosaic Law.
Adultery was punished by the death of both criminals. A man
suspecting his wife of unfaithfulness might subject her to a most
terrible ordeal, described in Num. v. 1 1 fif.
The law of Divorce is clearly set forth in Deut. xxiv. i fif.
The ground for divorce, "an unseemly thing in her", had probably
to be determined in each case by the proper authority. The di
vorced wife might be taken back at any time, unless she had
meanwhfle married another. Wives could not divorce their hus
bands, although this seems to have been done in later days
(Mk. vi. 17; X. 12). Christ restored to marriage its primitive unity,
and abrogated polygamy as well as divorce (Mt. v. 31 fif; xix. 3 fif;
Mk. X. 2 ff).
2. Children. In view of the blessing promised to the "seed
of the woman" and the seed of Abraham, children were looked
upon in the Old Testament as the greatest blessing from Heaven
and a heritage from the Lord. The birth of a child was the
occasion of hearty congratulations from friends and neighbours.
The birthday, especially of a son, was celebrated as a festival
(Gen. xxi. 6 fif) and observed every year. After the days of her
purification , the mother had to go to the Tabernacle or to the
Temple, and offer a sacrifice (Lev. xu. i fif; Lk. h. 22). On the
eighth day, the chfld, if a boy, was circumcised and received its

232

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

name. If a first-born, he had to be "redeemed", or bought free,
from the Lord, to whom he belonged by right (Ex. xih. 12 ff;
Lev. xxvh. 6). The name was never without a meaning; some
times it was given by divine command, when it was prophetical.
Although nurses are mentioned in sacred history (4 Kings xi. 2;
2 Par. xxh. 11), yet in the early days of the Hebrew common
wealth mothers always nursed their chfldren themselves. The
weaning of a child was observed as a festival. Until the fifth
year, the boys remained in the charge of the women; then they
were transferred to the father's care. Girls always remained under
the care of the women of the home, till given away in marriage.
The chfldren were carefully instructed in the Law of Moses (Deut.
xi. 19). The father had an absolute authority over the chfldren,
who were bound by the law of God to honour their parents. Cursing
or striking them, or incorrigible disobedience, were punished by
death (Ex. xxi. 15 fif; Lev. xx. 9; Deut. xxi. 18 fif). The parents'
blessing brought happiness; their malediction, misfortune. When
the father died, the sons of the principal wife became equal heirs
of his property, the first-born taking a double portion. The sons
of the concubines had no right to inheritance; but their father
might provide for them by will or testament. Daughters did not
inherit, and had to depend on their brothers. Only where there
were no sons, did the inheritance fall to the daughters.
The First-born Son of the father was the most cherished child
of the famfly. He had pre-eminence over the rest of the children;
a double portion of the paternal inheritance; the priesthood, from
which he had to be redeemed; and the special paternal blessing.
3. Servants and Slaves. "Very little is said in the Bible con
cerning servants, that is, persons who freely hired their labour to
another for a fixed wage or compensation. But for slaves and
bondsmen the Law gives the minutest regulations , which are
characterized by a spirit of great benevolence. The Jews were
to remember that they had been servants in Egypt and owed their
liberty to the Lord. The Mosaic Law recognizes two kinds of
slaves: Hebrews and foreigners; but it looks with disapproval
upon involuntary servitude on the part of Hebrews. No Hebrew
slave, man or woman, could be sold to a foreigner; he was to
be looked upon as a "hired servant", a brother of the same race
and 'an inheritor of the same promises. On the expiration of his

CHAPTER IH. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS.

233

term of servitude he was to be dismissed, loaded with gifts. Never
could a Hebrew slave be detained longer than six years. In the
year of jubilee all slaves of Hebrew origin were to be set free.
However, if a slave wished to remain with his master for ever, he
had to make public and formal declaration of this (Ex. xxi. 5 fif).
Slaves were to rest from labour on the Sabbath and on all great
festivals (Ex. xx. 10; Deut. v. 14). A slave who lost an eye or
a tooth by the brutality of his master, thereby became free;
murder of a slave was punished by death. The master was bound
to provide for the marriages of his female slaves. The children
begotten in slavery belonged to the master, who had to care
for them. The slave, his wife and child were like a part of the
whole family.
The ways by which a person might become a slave are the
following: being taken captive in war (Deut. xx. 14; xxi. 10);
being unable to pay one's debts (4 Kings iv. i), or to make the
legal reparation for a theft (Ex. xxii. 3); being kidnapped or ab
ducted into slavery; being sold into slavery, when a freeman sold
himself voluntarily; being born in slavery. The Bible makes no
mention of slave-markets for the public selling of slaves. Flights
seem to have been rare. Fugitive slaves from foreign countries,
who took refuge in Israel, were not to be given up to their heathen
masters (Deut. xxiii. 15). There were dififerent forms of release
from slavery. It is evident that slavery among the Hebrews was
of an essentially dififerent character to that practised among pagans
of ancient or modern times. But the law of the New Covenant
"Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself" (Mt. xxii. 39) has
abolished the law of slavery (i Cor. vh. 20 fif; Eph. vi. 9; Col.
iv. I ; Philem. 15 fiQ. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS.
I. Dwellings. Caves were extensively used as dwelling-places,
against the cold of winter or the heat of summer, and very often
as resorts in .time of war and persecution. Numerous references
to this, historical and poetical, are made by sacred writers, especially
by the prophets. Lot (Gen. xix. 30), the five Amorrhite kings
(Jos. X. 16), the Israelites (Judges vi. 2; i Kings xhi. 6), David
(I Kings xxiv. 3 fiQ, Elias (3 Kings xix. 9, 13), the hundred pro
phets (3 Kings xvih. 4, 13) took refuge in caves.

234

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCH.EOLOGY.

Booths or huts offered a temporary shelter. They were con
structed of strong branches of leafy boughs of trees, fixed in the
ground in parallel rows, the opposite tops being bent over and
tied two by two. Over this framework were thrown smaller branches,
reeds, and also skins of animals. How extensively they were used,
may be seen from Gen. xxxhi. 17; 2 Kings xi. 11. The booth
furnishes many a poetic image to the prophets, f. i. Amos ix. 11;
Job xxvh. 18; Is. xxiv. 20.
Tents were more convenient dwellings. Most likely the tent
consisted at first merely of animal skins, thrown over poles firmly
fastened in the ground. Afterwards woollen or linen cloth was used.

Fig. 60. House at Hauran (Syria). (2°"^ century B. C.)
They were of different sizes and forms, round and rectangular.
Scripture often mentions the tent, but gives few descriptive details.
By means of suspended curtains the tent could be divided into
separate apartments and easily serve for a family dwelling. Se
parate tents for wives and children indicate wealth and rank (Gen.
xxiv. 67; xxxi. 33 fif). Tents are first mentioned in Gen. iv. 20.
For hundreds of years the sanctuary of Israel (Tabernacle) was
simply a tent. St. Paul was a tent-maker (Acts xvih. 3). The
figurative mention of the tent and its various uses is quite common
in the Bible.
When houses, in the sense of a solid and permanent dwefling-
place, were first built, is not mentioned in the Bible. It is quite

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS. 235
improbable that "the city of Enoch", buflt by Cain (Gen. iv. 17),
was anything more than a number of huts or tents surrounded
by an earthen wall for protection. However, the description of the
Ark of Noe (Gen. vi. 14 fif) furnishes an instance of the advanced
art of building solid wooden structures, about 2400 B. C, whfle the
Tower of Babel (Gen. xi. 3) shows how far the art of brick and
stone constructions had developed about 2200 B. C. Modern dis
coveries of the ancient cities in Assyria, Egypt, and Phoenicia
(Fig. 60) clearly prove the existence of houses with several stories
and of large palatial structures among these neighbours of the
Jews. Though originally shepherds and tillers of the soil, the
Israelites learned the art of solid building by the hard labour they
were forced to perform in Egypt (Ex. i. 1 1 fif). Thus they were
able to build themselves houses and cities in Chanaan in addition
to the ones they found already built (Num. xiii. 29). The material
used for building houses was usually stone or burnt brick. Wood
(sycamore, acacia, palm, fir, and cedar) was chiefly used for covering
the walls and for floors and doors. The stones and bricks were
cemented together by means of clay, lime and asphalt (pitch) from
the Dead Sea. Yet walls were also plastered- with cement (Lev.
xiv. 41 fif; Deut. xxvh. 2). Larger houses generally consisted of
four wings enclosing an open square or court. The roofs were
usually flat, surrounded by a parapet to save a person from falling
over the edges. The roof served for all kinds of purposes, to get
fresh air, to enjoy a beautiful view, to satisfy curiosity by observing
what happened on neighbouring roofs or on the streets below,
to indulge in a private chat or exhibit public mourning, etc. To
all these things there are many allusions in the Scriptures.
The door, which was secured by a bolt or a crossbar, opened
into the porch or vestibule, which served as a sort of parlour, and,
on the other side, into the court-yard. From here stairs led to
the upper floor. In the larger houses a portico ran around the
court, with low seats for the members of the family or for guests,
while a balcony ran along the upper story. An awning could be
drawn across the court to exclude the heat of the sun. The remote
wing (in smaller houses, the upper story) was reserved for the women.
Kitchens are mentioned in Ez. xlvi. 23, 24. The windows looked
out into the court; there were but one or two facing the street,
which were generally covered with veils or shutters and locked.

236 PART HI. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.
Cisterns, although not a part of the house, were built near it,
and troughs led the rain-water from the roof into the reservoir.
It was either hewn out of the solid rock or built up with stone.
Water was drawn from it with a bucket. The cistern is also a
favourite subject for poetic allusions in the Bible. To understand
these it is necessary to distinguish it from the natural well and
the spring.
2. The Furniture of the Hebrew dwelling in the early days was
simple and scanty. A hand-mill for grinding corn (Fig. 61), a kneading-
trough, and an oven for preparing food could not be dispensed
with. Besides these there were pots and dishes of earthenware
and bottles made of skin. To these may be added a wooden table,
some stools or benches, and the bed. This consisted most likely
of skins, rugs, and mats, while the pillow was a skin stuffed with
wool or cotton. In the course of time, and with the rich, the furni
ture became costly and various, including vessels of gold and silver,
carpets and couches of rich ma
terials, bedsteads with a canopy
(Judith xih. 8 fif; Amos vi. 4). The
night-lamps were made of earthen
ware or metal, and were fed by
olive oil. In the houses of the
rich there was a movable hearth, upon which a charcoal fire was
kept burning in winter. The fuel of the poor was the raw wood.
3. The Dress. The first dresses, properly speaking, mentioned in-
the Bible, are garments of skin (Gen. iii. 21). The untanned skin
of animals appears to have been the material universally employed
in the early times, until the use of flax, wool and cotton was intro
duced. That flax was extensively grown in Egypt and Palestine
appears from Ex. ix. 31; Is. xix. 9 ; Josue h. 6. The word which
the Latin Vulgate, after the Septuagint, renders "Byssus", is rendered
by "fine linen" in the English version; yet it may simply mean
cotton. It is very difficult to know where linen and where cotton
is meant by the sacred writers. It is certain that from the time
of Moses the material of garments was chiefly flax and wool. But
it was forbidden (Deut. xxh. 11) to mix the two substances in the
same cloth. Furs and skins continued in use and seem to have
been the ordinary dress of the prophets (4 Kings i. 8 ; Heb. xi. 37).
Camel hair and goat hair were also made into garments, called

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS. 237
sackcloth or haircloth, worn in the time of mourning and repent
ance. Sflk ("fine linen") is first mentioned by Ez. xvi. lo, 13.
The colours most in use were white and purple, the first being
mostly used by the poor, the latter, together with scarlet, by the
rich. Purple robes were worn by the kings and high officers.
That the Jews were quite proficient in the art of dyeing, em
broidering, and weaving diverse colours, even before the conquest
of Chanaan, is evident from the rules regarding the curtains in
the Tabernacle and the vestments of the High Priest (Ex. xxvhi. 6 ;
xxxvi. 8, 35).
The dififerent kinds of Jewish dresses mentioned in the Bible
cannot always be clearly distinguished from one another. The
term "coat" in the English version answers to different gar
ments. The principal garments were, first, the tunic (chiton) or
the under-garment worn by both sexes alike; it was a kind of
shirt with sleeves, reaching just below the knees with men, to the
ankles with women. "Naked" in the Bible often means a person
clad in the tunic only, without another garment. Sometimes a
second, but sleeveless tunic (meil) was worn over the first, parti
cularly in cold weather. On a journey, the traveller usually took
a second tunic with him for change of dress (Mt. x. 10). Over the
tunic an outer garment (simlah), multiform in shape, quality and
use, was worn. It was a wide, loose or flowing robe in which
the whole person could be wrapped up, a cloak or mantle, some
thing like the hyke or burnus of the Arab. Trousers or breeches
were worn by the priests alone (Ex. xxvih. 42). When engaged
in any employment or upon a journey, the Hebrews would gird
the tunic around the body. With the rich, and especially with
women of high rank, these girdles were often precious and magni
ficent. Often, also, these girdles would serve dififerent purposes,
as a receptacle for various articles and money, or a belt for the
sword and the dagger. The head-dress most frequently mentioned
is the mitre or tiara, which is a turban wound around the head.
It might be of linen, silk, or mushn, and was worn by men and
women. Jewish women never appeared in public without being
vefled, be it by simply drawing the outer mantle or garment over
their heads, or by wearing a distinct vefl, properly so-called. For
the protection of their feet the Jews, like other Eastern people,
wore sandals, usually translated "shoes" in English. These sandals

238

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

they put off when entering a sacred place or a banquet-hall, and
in times of mourning. A guest was first conducted to a room
where a servant untied his sandals and cleansed his feet from, the
mire and dust of the street. The strings or thongs of the sandals
were sometimes richly and beautifully embroidered (Judith xvi. 1 1 ;
Ez. xvi. lo). Among the Jews men usually carried a staff, which
would serve for support as well as for defence or attack. For
the purpose of ornament it was carved, . and served as a sort of
sceptre or sign of authority for persons of rank or high position.
The ornamental apparel consisted mostly in seals or signets sus
pended from the neck, finger-rings and ear-rings, neck-chains, neck
laces, bracelets, and, with women, also anklets. According to the
condition of the wearer, these ornaments were of precious metal and
stones, or of common materials. The mirrors (Ex. xxxviii. 8) were
made of polished brass. Both men and women carried a handkerchief
on the girdle or on the left arm ; the rich had it finely embroidered.
The apron mentioned Acts xix. 12 was a kind of handkerchief or
napkin wound around the neck, to receive the perspiration of the
neck and face. The purse, the perfume-box or scent-bag, pigment
for painting the face, oil and salves for ointment, are frequently
mentioned in Holy Writ. With the Jews to be bald-headed or
beardless was considered a disgrace. While it is quite probable that
they wore their hair longer than is common with us, yet shaving and
hair-cutting were not unknown. In later times the hair of women
seems often to have been plaited (i Tim. h. 9; I Pet. ih. 3).
4. Food and Meals. Although the nourishment assigned by God
to man before the Flood (Gen. i. 29) consisted of vegetables only,
and flesh-meat is not mentioned until after the Deluge (Gen. ix. 3),
it is not quite certain that the latter was forbidden by God before
that event. Yet, even after the explicit concession, the flesh of
animals was not at all the daily or common food of the Hebrews
in ancient times, — a fact frequently observed among all peoples
in a warm climate.
Vegetable food consisted mostly in grain, fruits, and herbs. Se
veral kinds of grain were used (Ez. iv. 9), especially corn and wheat
among the rich, and barley among the poor. These were some
times eaten fresh from the ear, or they were parched, or slightiy
boiled, or, having been ground into flour, fine or coarse (Gen. xvih. 6),
by the use of the mill frequently mentioned in Holy Writ, they

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS.

239

were baked into bread and cakes. In early times, hand-mflls alone
were used ; mills worked by asses are a later invention (Mt. xviii. 6).
The . working of the mfll was assigned to the lower maid-servants
and slaves, while in the earlier history preparing and baking the
bread belonged to the mother of the family; later on this duty
also devolved upon the servants. The leaven used was dough
which had been allowed to become sour. The loaves were baked
in ovens, of which two kinds are mentioned. The portable oven,
mostly referred to, was a large-sized clay pot or jar, with an
opening at the bottom for the fire. The fixed oven was usually
a stone floor or ground, the hearth to be heated by a fire buflt
upon it. The fire being removed, the
cakes or slices of dough were placed
upon the hot floor and usually covered
with the hot ashes (3 Kings xix. 6 ; Ez.
. iv. 12; Osee vii. 8). Sometimes the oven
was a hole or pit in the ground, the
floor and the sides being lined with stones. ,._-_^
When the pit had become sufficiently hot,
the fire was removed, the loaves put in,
and the oven closed up.
The fruits more frequently mentioned
in the Bible as the food of man are, first,
the olive (Fig. 62). Some of the fruit was
eaten as it came from the tree; but almost the entire crop was brought
to the oil-press (Mich. vi. 15) to procure the olive oil. The grape
vine was always cultivated with the greatest care by the Hebrews.
The vineyards were ordinarfly surrounded by a fence or a hedge.
Towers were also built in them (Is. v. 2 ; Mt. xxi. 33) for the
watchmen who had to ward off the wild beasts and thieves. The
vintage was a time of general rejoicing and pleasure. The grapes
were borne to the wine-press usually placed in the middle of the
vineyard. The new wine was kept in large jars of stone or earthen
ware, sometimes in new skins (Mt. ix. 17). These were laid up
in the wine-cellars, usually built above ground. Grapes were eaten
fresh or dried in the sun (raisins), or pressed into cakes and dried
(i Kings 25, 18).
Of Figs two kinds are mentioned, the genuine fig and the syca
more fig. The latter much resembles the ordinary fig, but is much

240

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

inferior in quality, and eaten only among the poor. Figs are used
partly in their fresh state and partly dried and formed into cakes.
The Pomegranate, much esteemed in Palestine, is about the size of
an orange ; its richly flavoured juice is most refreshiijg. Dates, the
fruit ofthe palm-tree (Fig. 63) usually mentioned in the Bible, were
partly eaten fresh and partly thrown into the press to extract the
date-wine, while the pressed dates were formed into masses and
preserved. Dates freed from the stones were also kneaded into
a kind of paste, to be eaten with bread and cakes. Of Nut-trees
two kinds are mentioned in Gen. xlih. 11, the almond and the much
finer pistachio, allied to the turpentine tree. Of Herbs and other
leguminous vegetables the Bible mentions
particularly beans, lentils, wild lettuce (bitter
herbs, Ex. xii. 8), leek, melons, cucumbers,
onions, and garlic. Among Spices, or condi
ments, we find the mint, anice, dfll, coriander,
mustard, and salt. Lastly, mention might
be made here of the balm, the odoriferous
and medicinal juice of the balsam tree so
often referred to , and of the gum (resin)
gained from the trunk of the terebinth.
Animal food mentioned in the Bible com
prises the flesh as well as the products of
various animals. The flesh-meat commonly
eaten by the Hebrews was beef, mutton and
goat ; also, among wfld game, the deer, the
roe , the antelope and the gazefle. The
Bible is full of allusions to hunting and to the ways and strategems
used by the hunter and fowler, f. i. the bow and arrow, the spear,
the snare and the pit artfully concealed. Domestic fowls (2 Esdras
V. 18) and birds that did not live upon prey and carcass, could be
used as food ; also fishes having fins and scales. Among insects
serving as food were the bruchus, the locust, and other kinds of grass
hoppers (Lev. xi. 21, 22).
Milk of cows, sheep and goats has always been much used by
eastern nations, also by the Hebrews, in different forms. The Bible
mentions milk, sweet and sour or curdled, cream, butter and cheese.
But it is often difficult to know exactly which is meant, as the
biblical terms em.ployed have not always a very definite meaning.

Fig. 63. Date-tree.

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 2. DOMESTIC HABITS. 24 1
Cheese is mentioned in i Kings xvh. i8; Judith x. 5; Job x, 10.
Eggs also formed part of the Hebrew diet (Job xxxix. 14; Is.
x. 14; Lk. xi. 12). Honey was one of the most important and
abundant products of Palestine, so that the Lord called it a land
that floweth with milk and honey (Ex. ih. 8). Far more numerous
than the domestic bee were the swarms of wild bees inhabiting
the woods as well as the caves and cliffs, so that the people might
indeed "suck honey out of the rock" (Deut. xxxh. 13). Honey
was eaten as food ; but it was most extensively used as a sauce
and for seasoning other fooi. Is. vii. 15, 22 may refer to a mixture
of butter and honey still considered a great luxury in the East.
Of Beverages the Bible mentions, besides water and milk, wine
and strong drinks. Wine was known to Noe (Gen. ix. 21); Melchi
sedech (Gen. xiv. 18); Isaac (Gen. xxvh. 25). Although wine
was used at the sacrifice in the Tabernacle (Ex. xxix. 40; Lev.
xxih. 13; Num. xv. 5), it does not seem to have been a common
beverage during the journey through the desert (Deut. xxix. 6);
but after the conquest of the Promised Land wine, fermented and
unfermented, sweet and sour, became a favourite drink. The first-
fruits of the wine had to be ofifered (Deut. xviii. 4). Priests had
to abstain from wine and any intoxicating drink when going to
the Tabernacle (Lev. x. 9), and the Nazarites took the pledge of
abstinence (Num. vi. 3). The numerous warnings against the ex
cess of wine and strong drinks (Prov. xx. i ; xxih. 29 ff; Is. v. 22 ;
xxviii. I fif; Ivi. 12) show that intoxicating drink proved to be a
temptation even to the otherwise sober and frugal people of Israel.
Wine was usually mixed with water, but sometimes with aromatic
spices or fruit juice. New wine (mustum or must. Is. xlix. 26;
Mich. vi. 15 ; Acts ii. 13) was a favourite drink, rather intoxicating.
Of the dififerent uses of vinegar we are informed by Num. vi. 3 ;
Ruth ii. 14; Prov. x. 26; xxv. 20; Ps. Ixvih. 22. The "strong drink"
referred to in Judges xhi. 14; Prov. xxxi. 6; Lk. i. 15 means
principally date-wine, or the fermented juice pressed from the
palm-dates. Concerning Meals and Repasts the Bible furnishes enough in
formation for us to gain a pretty clear idea of Hebrew customs in
this regard. Dinner, corresponding to our lunch, was taken at noon;
supper, the principal meal, was taken in the evening, after the heat
of the day had passed. The repast was preceded by prayer (i Kings
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 10

242

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

ix. 13), a custom probably based on Deut. vih. 10, and confirmed
by the example of our Saviour (Lk. ix. 16) and the Apostles (Acts
xxvii. 35 ; I Tim. iv. 3, 4). The Hebrews never took their meals
without first washing their hands, a custom carried to superstitious
excess by the Pharisees (Mk. vii. i ff). The reason of the custom
may be easfly understood from the fact that the dishes at table
were mostly eaten with the help of the fingers ; table knives, forks
and spoons were unknown. Dipping certain foods into wine, oil,
vinegar, honey and sauce was a common practice. The custom of
reclining at table upon couches or benches was quite general,
although sitting at meals is often mentioned. The ordinary meals
were taken by the whole family, but if it was a festive meal or
banquet to which guests had been invited, the men only were
present; the women and children would eat in another room or
part of the house.
5. Funerals and Burial. Interment was the usual way of dis
posing of the dead (Gen. xv. 15; Deut. xxi. 23). The warm
climate as well as the law of levitical uncleanness demanded a ready
and quick burial. Immediately after death the corpse was washed
(Acts ix. 37), and then, with strong spices and perfumed ointments
(John xix. 39) which were sometimes burnt over the body (2 Par.
xvi. 14), wrapped in funeral clothes or hnen (Mt. xxvh. 59). The
face was bound up with a napkin, hands and feet were wrapped
in winding bands (John xi. 44). Embalming was practised in
Egypt (Gen. 1. 2), but not among the Jews in Palestine. Coffins
were not common; but the body ready for burial was laid on a
bier and carried to the grave. It was followed by the members
of the family, their relatives and friends, and sometimes by many
other people (Lk. vii. 12), who all bewailed the dead person (Mt.
ix. 23 ; Mark v. 38). The rich and noble would even hire others,
especially women, to bemoan the dead by loud cries and waflings
(Jer. ix. 17 fif). The nearest relatives and intimate friends rent
their garments, wore sackcloth and put ashes on their heads. The
time of mourning lasted seven days (Gen. xxxvii. 34; 1. 10; I Kings
xxxi. 13; 2 Kings hi. 31 fif). There was no funeral meal or repast;
but drink and eatables were sometimes brought to the principal
mourner (2 Kings hi. 35; Jer. xvi. 5; Osee ix. 4). The heathen
practice of shaving and wounding oneself for the dead was strictly
forbidden (Lev. xix. 28; Deut. xiv. i; Jer. xvi. 6).

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 3. AGRICULTURE. 243
The interment had to take place outside of the town or village,
away from human habitations, on account of the levitical uncleanness
of the place and its contact. In Jerusalem no corpse was allowed
to remain over the night, which explains Acts v. 6, lo. Kings
and rich people often had their own family sepulchres or vaults,
like Abraham in Hebron and Joseph of Arimathea.
Cremation or burning the corpse was only rarely practised, in
time of war (i Kings xxxi. 12) or pestilence (Amos vi. 10).
To remain unburied or uninterred was considered a great mis
fortune and punishment. To bury the dead, especially the poor,
was a work of great and noble charity (Tob. i. 20; h. 3 fif; xh. 12).
3. AGRICULTURE.
I. Animals. Pastoral life, the raising and care of herds appears
in the Bible as the principal occupation of the Patriarchs. Abel
was a shepherd; Jabel is called the father of herdsmen (Gen. iv. 20).
From Gen. xh. 16; xih. 5 fif; xxxh. 14 fif; xxxih. 10 (where 220 goats,
220 sheep, 30 milch-camels with their colts, 40 kine, 20 bulls,
20 she-asses and colts are called a "little present"); Job xiii. 12;
Num. xxxh. I ; i Kings xxv. 2, we infer that the flocks and herds
were very large, and that in order to find sufficient pasture the
flocks had to be driven to widely extended grazing grounds. This
also explains the many quarrels and fights among the shepherds
of dififerent masters, ^concerning the springs and wells and cisterns
where they had to water their flocks. At the dedication of the
Temple, Solomon ofifered 22,000 oxen and 120,000 sheep (3 Kings
vhi. 63). Sheep were the most numerous and important of domestic
animals. The various uses of sheep were for ofiferings or sacrifice,
for food, meat and milk, skin and wool, clothing, and domestic articles
(trappings, saddles, botties, coverings, etc.). For all these purposes
the goat was no less useful and esteemed. Cows and oxen were used
for ploughing the land (Fig. 64), treading out (threshing) the grain,
drawing carts and waggons, and even to carry burdens. Cows
supplied milk and butter ; their flesh was also used as food, though
not so much as that of oxen. The ass is one of the best known and
most useful animals mentioned in the Bible. Though always found
in a wild state, it was early domesticated, and among the Hebrews
greatly outnumbered the horse and mule. It was the beast of
16*

244

PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

draught, pack, and riding for rich and poor. To drive away the ass
of the fatherless is as cruel as to take away the widow's ox (Job
xxiv. 3). Asses, especially the female, were carefully bred and reared,
and hence they had an appearance and character very dififerent
to that which they bear with us. Mules were not bred by the
Jews (Lev. xix. 19), nor does the Bible mention them before the
time of the kings (2 Kings xvhi. 9; 3 Kings i. 33; i Esdras h. 66-,
2 Esdras vii. 68). They were used as pack animals, but especially
for riding. The camel (dromedary. Is. Ix. 6) so frequently mentioned

Fig. 64. Ploughing in Palestine. (Phot. Bruno Hentschel, Leipzig.)
in the Bible, is the smaller species with only one hump ; it figures
largely among the possessions of the patriarchs and of king David
(i Par. xxvii. 30), but otherwise it occurs mostly in connection
with foreign trading peoples. The horse was not used by the
Hebrews before the time of Solomon, who carried on a great trade
in Egyptian horses (3 Kings x. 28), although they had met with
this animal in Egypt and, soon after the conquest, in Palestine
(Jos. xi. 4, 9; Judges v. 22, 28). It was mostly employed forthe
chariots in war, a custom to which there are innumerable allusions
in Scripture. Stirrups were not used ; the saddle consisted mostly

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 3. AGRICULTURE. 245
of a piece of cloth or a blanket thrown over the back; the hoofs
were not shod, and the horse was led by the bridle and curb.
Swine, although forbidden as food (Lev. xi. 7), were raised for
trade with the pagan neighbours. Many gave way to the temptation
of eating pork (Is. Ixv. 4; Tob. i. 12 ; 2 Mach. vi. 18 fif). Dogs were
despised and harshly treated, notwithstanding their great usefulness
to the shepherd in guarding his flocks and watching about the tents
at night. The epithet of "dog" received its contemptuous meaning
particularly from the masterless, hungry, cowardly, and roaming
dogs of the city, that would even devour the dead bodies lying
in the streets or courtyards (3 Kings xiv. 1 1 ; xxi. 19; 4 Kings
ix. 35 fif).
2. Fields and Products. The Patriarchs and their sons lived
mostly in the way of nomads, wandering about with their flocks;
but after the conquest of Chanaan the Jews became an agricultural
people. The laws of the Pentateuch clearly recognize land as the
principal possession, and its cultivation as the principal business
of the Israelites. It is worthy of notice that agriculture with the
Jews was, so to speak, sanctified by the Mosaic Law. The un
bloody sacrifices, the tithes, the first-fruits, the rights of the poor,
the legal cleanliness of the seed (Lev. xi. 37), the singleness of
the same field (Lev. xix. 19), and similar ordinances continually
reminded the Jew that he was a tenant holding his land from
the Lord.
Agriculture became the basis of the state or civil organization.
Not only was the land parcelled out among the tribes, but each
family of the tribe had its own piece of ground assigned (Jos. xhi fif).
This land the owner could not alienate in perpetuity; if he sold
it or any part of it, he would re-possess it in the year of the
great jubflee. By this wise law the Lord prevented the rich from
becoming the sole proprietors of the land, and the poor from be
coming life tenants. The curse of God was upon the man who
removed his neighbour's landmark (Deut. xxvh. 17). The natural
fertility of the land, supported by regular dew and the vernal and
autumnal rains, was increased by a kind of irrigation and several
modes of fertilizing (burning the stubble and bramble on the field,
sowine the ashes of the burnt chafif left after threshing, manuring
with dung). Every seventh year the land had to lie faflow. On
the occasion of the great jubilee year it had to rest for two sue-

246

PART HI. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

cessive years, the forty-ninth and fiftieth (Lev. xxv. 11). All this
prevented the land from getting exhausted.
Of agricultural implements the Bible mentions the plough with
coulter and share, the mattock, the spade or pickaxe (i Kings
xih. 20, 21), the sickle (Deut. xvi. 9) and the harrow (Is. xxviii. 24;
Osee X. 11). The threshing wain (Is. xxv. 10; xii. 15) consisted
of a frame with two or three rollers set with "teeth" (nails, spikes)
fitted into it ; it was drawn by oxen over the grain on the threshing-
floor, which was usually nothing but an elevated hard spot of
ground. A very common way of threshing was by means of the
hard hoofs of the cattle treading over the grain (Deut. xxv. 4).
Other threshing tools are the saw, the rod, and the stafif (Is.
xxvih. 27). After the threshing followed the winnowing with
shovel and fan (Mt. iii. 12). The principal fruits and products
have been mentioned above, page 238 fif.
4. SCIENCE AND ART.
Of art and science among the Hebrews of the earlier times
little is told in the Bible. But they must have made vast pro
gress under the reign of David and Solomon, as we may judge
from the biblical record. The surpassing knowledge and learning
of Solomon (3 Kings iv. 29 ff) must have exerted a powerful
influence upon the development of art and science among the
people. The high grade of mechanical art and mathematical
science is witnessed by the building of the Temple and the palace,
while the decorations of both buddings, the levitical services, the
chants and hymns, the sacred books themselves testify in the same
manner of the hberal arts, of various physical, natural, and mental
sciences. I. Sciences. Scripture itself furnishes a remarkable proof of
historical science among the Jews, since it presents in chronological
order a well-arranged and clearly digested narrative of events.
Sometimes the description descends to the minutest detail.
Numerous genealogies often supply the defect of exact chrono
logical dates. Historiography belonged almost exclusively to the
priestly class. Like other nations, the Hebrews had their public
or official genealogists to keep the genealogical tables of the
people. Even the prophets, whose mission was to teach, wrote

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 4. SCIENCE AM) ART.

247

not only their prophecies, but also chronicled contemporary events.
What is said below of weights and measures shows that arithmetic
was not unknown. Although the neighbouring nations of Judsea,
the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, were famous for their
science of the heavens, yet there is nothing to show that astro
nomy, as a science, was cultivated among the Hebrews; the re
peated warnings against the sin of astrology may have served as
a check in this regard. While a few single stars and constellations
are mentioned (the Zodiac in 4 Kings xxhi. 5 ; Arcturus, Orion,
Hyades [Pleiades], in Job ix. 9; xxxvhi. 31 ; the same, with Saturn,
in Anaos v. 8, 26; the Serpent in Job xxvi. 13), the other stars
were simply known as the hosts of heaven. The various phases

Fig. 65. Fgyptian women with haip, flute, psaltery, tambourine. Egyptian wall-painting.
(After Champollion.)
of the moon were well known, as they formed the basis of the
Jewish calendar.
Natural History has been at all times carefully cultivated in the
East. That the Jews were well acquainted with it, appears from
the many allusions in Holy Writ, and the frequent illustrations
prawn from it. Solomon treated most learnedly of the whole
animal and vegetable kingdom (3 Kings iv. 33). That the science
of medicine was highly developed appears from the numerous
biblical references to physicians. They are first mentioned in
Gen. 1. 2, where physicians figure among the servants of Joseph
in Egypt. In Ex. xxi. 19, mention is made of "his expenses upon
the physicians", an indication that even then they formed a profession
among the people. No doubt the first Hebrew physicians received
their medical training and skill during their sojourn in Egypt,

248

PART IH. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

a land famous for its medical science (Jer. xlvi. xx). The diseases
mentioned in the Bible may be distinguished as physical (fever,
plague, poisoning, epilepsy, dropsy, leprosy), mental (insanity,
madness, like that of Saul, lycanthropy as in the case of Nabucho
donosor), and demoniacal (brought about by the influence of evil
spirits upon the body of the person so troubled, instances of
which occur frequently in the Gospels).
2. Arts, a) Mechanical art must have been known early among
the Jews, as we may judge from Gen. iv. 21, 22, where Tubalcain
is mentioned as an artificer in every work of brass and iron, and
Jubal, his brother, as the inventor of musical instruments. A splendid
sample of early mechanical art is the Ark of Noe. In Egypt,
renowned for its knowledge of art, the Jews must have learned

Fig. t^. Assyrian Relievo from Kujunchik: Playing on harps and flutes.
London, British Museum. (After Layard.)

many things, of which the construction of the Tabernacle, its furni
ture and sacred vestments, give abundant proof (Ex. xxv fif).
Gold- and sflversmiths are mentioned in Is. xl. 19, and "the Valley
of Artificers" in i Par. iv. 14. In the times of David and Solomon
m.echanical art must have reached a high degree, as the descrip
tions in 3 Kings vi. fif clearly prove. There were workmen in
abundance and "of all trades the most skilful" (i Par. xxh. 15).
The arts of spinning and weaving and embroidery were early known
(Job vh. 6; Ex. xxxv. 25, 35'; 4 Kings xxhi. 7; Prov. xxxi. x8 ff).
Joseph's coat of divers colours (Gen. xxxvh. 3) shows that the art
of dyeing was practised in the time of the Patriarchs. The ram-
skins dyed red, and violet skins (Ex. xxv. 5) used for the Taber
nacle show the tanner's work. Fulling was evidently a trade, as

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 4. SCIENCE AND ART.

249

we find the Fufler's field in 4 Kings xvih. 17; Is. vii. 3. For the
cleansing of the various stufifs they used nitre (natron) and the
herb borith, i. e. potash, the ashes of which furnish a strong lye
(Jer. h. 22 ; Mal. in. 2). The potter's art is often alluded to,
especially by the prophets; even glazing is not unknown (Prov.
xxvi. 23; Ecclus. xxxvih. 32 fif).
b) The liberal arts to be mentioned here are writing, poetry, and
music. Ofthe first two we have spoken above, pages x8, 27 and 70 fif.
Music was a favourite art with the Jews. Among the men worthy
of praise, Ecclus. xliv. 5 numbers "such as by their skill
sought out musical tunes, and pubhshed canticles of the
Scriptures". Music was the pastime of the lonely shep
herd, e. g. David (x Kings xvi. x8), as well as the neces
sary accompaniment of domestic (birthday, nuptials),
civil (harvesting, installation of the king), and religious
(Temple-service) festivals. It was cultivated by men and
women, but in the
Temple it was com
mitted exclusively to
the Levites. Nothing
is said in the Bible
of dififerent kinds of
music ; all we know •
is that the antiphonal don, British
J r* ¦ ¦ 11 Museum.
mode of singing had
a prominent place in sacred music. Two distinct choirs of singers
and musicians were placed on opposite sides of the city for the
sake of alternate singing in the dedication of the walls of Jeru
salem (2 Esdras xh. 31 fif). Among the dififerent musical instru
ments (Fig. 65/66, page 247 and 248) we find stringed instruments
(the harp and the zither or psaltery), wind instruments (the horn
and trumpet, flute and pipe; the organ of the Old Testament is
something like the mythological Pan's pipe), and pulsatile instru
ments (the timbrel or tambourine, the cymbals [Fig. 67^ and the
systrum [Fig. 68]). The dance often mentioned in connection with
singing and the playing of music (Ex. xv. 20; Judges xi. 34;
I Kings xvhi. 6) and usually confined to women, must not be
confounded with our modern dance. It was a simple rhythmic
motion, keeping time with the music.

67, Cymbals,

250 PART III. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.
5. TRADE AND COMMERCE.
X. Trade. Traffic and commerce seem to have been foreign
to the Hebrews before the days of the kings, although the neigh
bouring nations, the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, and the inhabitants
of Arabia Felix (Ismaelites: Gen. xxxvh. 25) were at that period
known as great merchant or commercial peoples. Neither the
nomadic life of the patriarchs, nor the agricultural pursuits of the
Israelites in Gessen and later in Chanaan, could lead them to
commerce. The peculiar position and physical features of Palestine
were also unfavourable to commerce. Besides lacking a sea-coast, it
was bounded on the south by the extensive Arabian desert, and
on the east by the dreaded Dead Sea and the deep Jordan valley
with its high cliffs, and on ' the north by a mountain chain. Un
doubtedly all this was providential, to keep the Jews from too
close a contact with their idolatrous neighbours, and to mature
more fully their Messianic mission. Although the Mosaic Law
allows the Jews to trade, admonishing them to treat the stranger
kindly and to be just "in judgment, in rule, in weight, or in measure"
(Lev. xix. 33 ff), and warning them against usury (Lev. x.xv. 35 ff),
the people are always taught to shun foreign intercourse. Trade
and commerce flourished under the reign of Solomon, yet his
merchant vessels were manned by Hiram's men (3 Kings ix. 27).
For the exported products of the land the ships brought back
gold and silver, probably crude as well as worked, precious stones,
ivory, and even apes and peacocks, horses and chariots (3 Kings
X. 22, 28, 29). The division of the kingdom, with the internal strife
and with external oppression by Syria and Assyria, put an end to
Hebrew commerce. About one hundred years after Solomon King
Josaphat attempted to re-establish it, but his fleet was wrecked on
the rocks near Asiongaber (3 Kings xxh. 49); the unimportant
trade carried on after the return from Babylon was mostly in the
hands of Phoenician pedlars.
2. Means of Communication. The Old Testament mentions
dififerent kinds of roads, from the simple foot-path to the artificial
highway. Is. lix. 7, 8, in Hebrew, mentions the highway, the road,
the track, and the foot-path. No mention occurs of bridges. That
the Jews learned road-building very early may be inferred from
the command given in Deut. xix. 3. Means of communication

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTKJUITIES. 5. TRADE AND COMMERCE. 2s 1
must have been many and easy under the kings. In the time of
Christ several main roads traversed the country, the main points
being Csesarea, the military, and Jerusalem, the religious capital.
From Jerusalem a southern road led by Bethlehem, Hebron, Gaza,
into Arabia; another, west by Lydda to Joppe, crossing the famous
Mediterranean highway, connecting Egypt with Phoenicia and Syria ;
a third, north, by Sichem and through Gahlee, touching the cities
of Naim, Tiberias, Capharnaum, and intersecting the great com
mercial road from Damascus to Csesarea ; a fourth, east by Bethany
and Jericho across the Jordan into Persea.
Among the modes of travelling, riding upon an animal, usually
the ass, and sometimes the camel, was quite common, although
journeying on foot appears to have been the most ordinary mode.
Waggons for the carriage of children and women are first mentioned
by king Pharao, speaking of Joseph's brothers (Gen. xiv. 19).
Covered waggons were used by the Israelites in the desert for the
transport of the Tabernacle (Num. vii. 3 fif). In the time of Samuel,
the cart is used for the transport of the Ark of the Covenant
(x Kings vi. 7 fif). Merchandise was transported by beasts of burden,
camels being used for long journeys. Although the tribes of
Zabulon dwelt for a time on the shores of the Mediterranean, they,
like their brethren, did not take to the sea, and were not a sea
faring people. The ships on Lake Gahlee were evidently small
sailing vessels, most of them ordinary fishing smacks. The only
sea-voyage graphically described is that of St. Paul (Acts xxvii),
whfle descriptions of ships often occur (Is. xxxiii. 2X ; Ez. xxvh. 5 fif).
3. Money, weights and measures. There is a great difiference
of opinion regarding the exact modern valuation of the moneys
and weights mentioned in the Bible. The confusion arises from
the fact that the same name or denomination is given to moneys
and weights, to coins of copper, silver and gold, and that we do
not know the exact relation between the standard denominations.
Yet the fact that David appointed priests to have charge "of every
weight and measure" (x Par. xxih. 29) would indicate that standards
of weights and measures (and probably of money) were kept at
the Temple. The following are simply approximate valuations of
biblical moneys and measures.
It is generally admitted that there was no coin or stamped
money among the Hebrews previous to their return from Captivity.

252

PART IH. BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY.

Fig. 6g. Hebrew Silver shekel.

Simon the Machabean was the first prince of Judsea to coin
Hebrew money (i Mach. xv. 6).
The "money current with the merchant" (in Hebrew), or "com
mon current money" paid by Abraham (Gen. xxhi. x6), consisted
simply in certain pieces of metal, weighed. The weight of these
pieces of metal (gold, sflver, and later on, copper) determined
their value for exchange with other articles, and thus made them
to become money; hence money
was not counted, but weighed
(Gen. xxhi. 16; xhii. 2X ; Is. xlvi.
6; Amos viii. 5). The silver
side or shekel (Fig. 69), which
is always understood by the
"piece of silver", seems to have
been the standard. A gold piece of the same weight was valued
higher, at the rate of about x to 16, or, according to others,
X to X3V2-
The average value in American money may be rated at 63 cents,
for a sflver shekel, and about $ 10,00 for a gold shekel. A talent
had 3000 shekels; hence a silver talent was % 1890, and a gold
talent $30000. According to Ez. xiv. 12, twenty gerahs (obols)
made a shekel, and sixty shekels a mna. ¦ The stater (Mt. xvii.
26), the common coin of the Greeks,
and equal to the shekel , had four
drachmas (see Fig. 59, page 226; Lk.
XV. 8, 9); hence the didrachma, or
double drachma (Mt. xvh. 23), was
half a shekel. The Roman denarius
(Fig. 70), usually translated in the Rhemish (Douay) version by penny,
was equal to about 16 cents and contained xo asses (translated
farthing, Mt. x. 29; Lk. xh. 6) or 40 quadrants (also called farth
ing, Mt. V. 26). A mite (the smallest Jewish coin) being one-fifth
cent or one French centime, is one half quadrant. The solid of
gold (x Esdras ii. 69) and the dram of gold (2 Esdras vii. 70) is the
Persian gold coin Daric, equal to the gold shekel. It is impossible to
assign the value of the latnb or ewe (Gen. xxxih. 19; Job xhi, ix);
many think it was worth four shekels. The shekel was also the
standard weight, being about half an ounce ; a silver talent, there
fore, weighed about one hundred pounds.

Fig. 70, Roman Denarius.

CHAPTER III. DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES. 5. TRADE AND COMMERCE. 253
Of measures of length, the cubit serves as the standard. However,
it seems pretty certain that two sets of cubits are mentioned in
the Bible : the greater, or Hebrew (being the same with the Baby
lonian, Persian, and Egyptian); and the smaller, or Greek, the
difiference being th^ width of about three fingers. The measuring
reed (Ez. xl. 5), in the Hebrew as in the Greek, measures six cubits
= twelve spans = thirty-six palms = one hundred and forty-four
fingers, or about ten feet. The Roman mfle (Mt. v. 41), being
about 4900 feet, had eight furlongs (Lk. xxiv. X3) or stadiums.
The pace (2 Kings vi. 13) is the natural step of about two and
a half feet or a yard. The Roman pace (passus) measured nearly
five feet. The Sabbath-day's journey (Acts i. X2) is about one
mile, whfle the ordinary day's journey (Gen. xxx. 36; Lk. h. 44)
was from twenty to twenty-eight mfles.
The acre is the only square measure given in the Bible (x Kings
xiv. 14). Among the measures of capacity, the bath (translated
"bates" in 3 Kings vh. 26, 38, and "barrels" in Lk. xvi. 6) is the
largest liquid measure. The hin (Num. xv. 4) is the sixth of a
bath, holding about eight gallons. The sextary (Lev. xiv. X2, 24)
is the same as the Hebrew log and equals very nearly a pint. Of
dry measures are mentioned the gomor (Ex. xvi. 16, 36), the tenth
part of an ephi (epha). The "measure" in Gen. xvih. 6; Mt. xih. 33,
is the seah or the third of an ephi. The core (Osee ih. 2) is the
same as the chomer, that is ten ephis or bates. An ephi (Ex. xvi. 36;
Num. XV. 4) is the same measure as the bushel (Deut. xxv. 14, 15 ;
Mt. V. 15), corresponding to our American bushel; when used as
a hquid measure (John h. 6), it equals the bath.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY.
THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Vocation of Abraham about 2000 B. C.
Jacob enters Egypt 192 1 (1900 — 1800).
Birth of Moses about 1500.
Exodus from Egypt 1491 (1461 — 1436).
Josue 1450 — 1425 (1400).
The Judges 1425 — 1095 (1380 — 1050).
King Saul 1095 — 1055 (1050 — loio).
King David 1055 — 1015 (loio — 970).
King Solomon 1015—975 (970—933)-
Building of the First Temple ion — 1004 (968 — 961).
Division of the Kingdom 975 (933).
Assyrian Captivity 722.
Babylonian Captivity 606 — 536.
Second Conquest of Jerusalem 599.
Destruction of Jerusalem 588.
Return of the Jews under Zorobabel 536.
Dedication of the Second Temple 515.
Return of the Jews under Esdras 458.
Nehemias' first visit to Jerusalem 445.
Nehemias' second visit to Jerusalem about 410.
Alexander the Great at Jerusalem 332.
Samaritan Temple built on Mount Garizim about 330 (410),
Judsea under the Ptolemasans 332 — 203.
Judsea under the Seleucidae 203 — 142.
Judas Machabeus conquers Jerusalem 166.
Judaea's Independence 142 — 63.
Destruction of the Samaritan Temple 130.
Roman Domination 63 B. C. to 70 A. D.
King Herod the Great 37—2 B. C. (3 A. D.).
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
King Herod Antipas 2 B. C. (3 A. D.) to 39 A. D.
Birth of Jesus Christ 752 U. C.
John the Baptist's ministry 29 A. D.
Jesus begins His public life 30.
The Resurrection, Easter 33.
Conversion of St. Paul 37.
Death of St. James the Great and imprisonment of
St. Peter 41.

BIBLICAL CHRONOLOGY. — CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
Peter's first arrival at Rome 42.
St. Matthew's Gospel written in Palestine 41 — 42.
St. Mark's Gospel written at Rome 42 — 44.
Consecration of St. Paul 45.
The Apostolic Council at Jerusalem 51.
St. Paul's captivity at Caesarea 58 — 60.
St. Paul's first Roman captivity 61 — 63.
St. Luke writes the Gospel and the Acts at Rome 63 — 65.
St. Paul's Journey to Spain 64 — 66.
Death of St. Peter and St. Paul at Rome 67.
Jerusalem destroyed by Titus 70.
The Apocalypse of St. John 90 — 96.
St. John's Gospel written at Ephesus 96.

255

Chronological Table
of the History and Literature of the Old Testament.
I. Epoch.
Period I. From Abraham to Jacob's entrance into Egypt (2000 — 1921).
Period II. From Jacob to the Exodus (1921 — 1491).
Period III. From the Exodus to the death of Moses (1491 — 1450).
The Pentateuch. II. Epoch.
Period I. The Conquest of Chanaan (1450 — 1425). Josue.
Period II. The Rule of the Judges (1425 — 1095). The Judges. Ruth.
Period III. The United Kingdom (1095 — 975). The golden age of
Biblical Poetry, i and 2 Kings. Job. The Psalms. Pro
verbs. The Canticle of Canticles. Ecclesiastes.
III. Epoch.
Period I. The Kingdoms of Israel (975—722) and of Juda (975— 588).
Isaias and the pre-exilian Minor Prophets.
Period II. The Babylonian Captivity (606—536). Jeremias. Baruch.
Ezechiel. Daniel. 3 and 4 Kings. Tobias. Judith.
This epoch comprises the golden age of Biblical Prophecy.
IV. Epoch.
Period I. From the Restauration to the Syrian Seleucidas (536—200).
I and 2 Chronicles, i and 2 Esdras. Esther. Wisdom.
Aggeus, Zacharias, Malachias.
Period II. The Machabean Revoh (200—140). Ecclesiasticus.
Period III. The Machabean Independence (140—63). / and 2 Ma
chabees.

Synchronistic Table
of the Kings and Prophets of the Kingdoms of Juda and Israel.

JUDA.

ISRAEL.

I . Roboam .

¦ 975—958

I. Jeroboam I.

975—955

Semeias. Addo.

Ahias.

2. Abiam
958—955
3. Asa .
955—914
2. Nadab .
955-952
Hanani. Azarias (2
Par. XV. i).
3. Baasa
952—930
fe/iu 936—888.
4. Ela .
930—928
5. Zambri .
928
6. Amri .
928—916
4. Josaphat .
914 — 889
7. Achab
916—896
Eliezer. Jaliaziel (2
Par. XX. 14).
Micheas, sr. Elias.
8. Ochozias
896—894
5. Joram
889—883
9. Joram
894—884
6. Ochozias
. 883
Eliseus 896 — 840.
7. Athalia .
883—878
10. Jehu .
884—856
8. Joas .
878—838
II. Joachaz
856—840
Zacharias, sr.
9 Amasias .
838 — 810
12. Joas .
Jonas.
840—824
10. Ozias (Azarias) .
. 810—758
13. Jeroboam II. .
824-7S3
J-oel. Abdias.
Amos. Osee 780 — 720.
First Interregnum .
783—772
14. Zacharias
772
15. Sellum .
772
16. Manahem
772—762
17. Phaceia .
762—760
1 1 . Joatham .
758—742
18. Phacee
760-738
Isaias. MicJieas, jr.
12. Achaz
742—727
Second Interregnum
738—730
13. Ezechias
727—699
19. Osee .
730—722
14. Manasses
699 — 642
Assyrian Captivity.
I^ahufn Uabactic
15. Amon . .
642—639
During the Babylonian Exile the Jews
16. Josias
639 — 610
were comforted by the great prophets
Jeremias 628 to ca.
585. Baruch.
Baruch, Ezeciiiel, and Daniel.
Sophonias.
Under Zorobabel and Nehemias, the
17. Joachaz .
. 610
Persian governors in Judasa,
after the
18. Joakim .
610 — 599
return from Babylon, there rose up the
19. Jechonias (Joachin) .
599
last prophets of the Old
Testament,
20. Sedecias
599—588
Aggeus, Zacliarias, and Malacliias.
Babylonian Captivity.
ENCYCLICAL OF LEO XIII.
ON
THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE \

To Our Venerable Brethren,
All Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, and Bishops of
the Catholic World,
in Grace and Communion With the Apostolic See,
POPE LEO XIII.
VENERABLE BRETHREN,
Health and Apostolic Benediction!
The God of all Prcmdence, Who in the adorable designs of His love
at first elevated the human race to the participation of the divine nature,
and afterwards delivered it from universal guilt and ruin, restoring it to
its primitive dignity, has in consequence bestowed upon man a splendid
gift and safeguard — making known to him, by supernatural means, the
hidden mysteries of His divinity , His wisdom and His mercy. For
although in divine revelation there are contained some things which
are not beyond the reach of unassisted reason, and which are made the
objects of such revelation in order "that all may come to know them
with facility, certainty, and safety from error, yet not on this account
can supernatural Revelation be said to be absolutely necessary; it is
only necessary because God has ordained man to a supernatural end"^
This supernatural Revelation, according to the belief of
, _, , ; . , , , . . ~ Revelation
the universal Church, is contained both m unwritten Ira- .„
' r- 1, J •'^ND Bible.
dition, and in written Books, which are therefore called
sacred and canonical because, "being written under the inspiration of
the Holy Ghost, they have God for their author, and as such have been
— .  .  «
' For the sake of the general reader we have added the text of this beautiful
document with appropriate headings and marginal notes. Editor.
^ Cone. Vatic, sess. iii, c. 2 de revel.
Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge. 17

258 LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
delivered to the Church" '. This belief has been perpetually held and
professed by the Church in regard to the Books of both Testaments;
and there are well-known documents of the gravest kind, coming down
to us from the earliest times, which proclaim that God, Who spoke first
by the Prophets, then by His own mouth, and lastly by the Aposdes,
composed also the Canonical Scriptures ^, and that these are His own
oracles and words " — a Letter, written by our Heavenly Father, and
transmitted by the sacred writers to the human race in its pilgrimage
so far from its heavenly country '. If, then, such and so great is the
excellence and the dignity of the Scriptures, that God Himself has com
posed them, and that they treat of God's marvellous mysteries, counsels
and works, it follows that the branch of sacred Theology which is con
cerned with the defence and elucidation of these divine Books must be
excellent and useful in the highest degree.
Now We, who by the help of God, and not without
fruit, have by frequent letters and exhortation endeavoured
to promote other branches of study which seemed capable
of advancing the glory of God and contributing to the salvation of
souls, have for a long time cherished the desire to give an impulse to
the noble science of Holy Scripture, and to impart to Scripture study
a direction suitable to the needs of the present day. The solicitude of
the Apostolic office naturally urges, and even compels us, not only to
desire that this grand source of CathoHc revelation should be made
safely and abundantly accessible to the flock of Jesus Christ, but also
not to suffer any attempt to defile or corrupt it, either on the part of
those who impiously and openly assail the Scriptures, or of those who
are led astray into fallacious and imprudent novelties. We are not
ignorant, indeed, Venerable Brethren, that there are not a few Catholics,
men of talent and learning, who do devote themselves with ardour to
the defence of the sacred writings and to making them better known
and understood. But whilst giving to these the commendation they
deserve, We cannot but earnestly exhort others also, from whose skill
and piety and learning we have a right to expect good results, to give
themselves to the same most praiseworthy work. It ia Our wish and
fervent desire to see an increase in the number of the approved and
persevering labourers in the cause of Holy Scripture ; and more especially

' Cone. Vatic, sess. iii, c. 2 de revel. ^ St. Aug., De civ. Dei xi. 3.
' St. Clem. Rom., i ad Cor. 45 ; St. Polycarpus , Ad Phil. 7 ; St. Jrenceus, Adv.
Hssreses ii. 28, 2.
* St. Clirys., In Gen. Hom. 2, 2 ; St. Aug., In Ps. xxx, Serm. 2, I ;, St. Greg. M.,
Ad Theod. Ep. iv. 31.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

259

that those whom Divine Grace has called to Holy Orders, should, day
by day, as their state demands, display greater diligence and industry
in reading, meditating, and explaining it.
Holy Scripture most profitable to Faith and Morals.
Among the reasons for which the Holy Scripture is so worthy of
commendation — in addition to its own excellence and to the homage
which we owe to God's Word — the chief of all is the innumerable
benefits of which it is the source ; according to the infallible testimony
of the Holy Ghost Himself, Who says : "All Scripture, inspired of God,
is profitable to teach, to reprove, to correct, to instruct in justice, that
the man of God may be perfect, furnished to every good work."'
That such was the purpose of God in giving the Scripture to men is
shown by the example of Christ our Lord and of His Apostles.
For He Himself Who "obtained authority by miracles,
merited belief by authority, and by belief drew to Him- ' '
self the multitude"^, was accustomed, in the exercise of
His divine mission, to appeal to the Scriptures. He uses them at times
to prove that He is sent by God, and is God Himself. From them
He cites instructions for His disciples and confirmation of His doctrine.
He vindicates them from the calumnies of objectors ; He quotes them
against Sadducees and Pharisees, and retorts from them upon Satan
himself when he dares to tempt Him. At the close of His life His
utterances are from Holy Scripture, and it is the Scripture that He ex
pounds to His disciples after His resurrection, unt'il He ascends to the
glory of His Father.
Faithful to His precepts, the Apostles, although He the Apostles.
Himself granted "signs and wonders to be done by their
hands"', nevertheless used with the greatest effect the sacred writings,
in order to persuade the nations everywhere of the wisdom of Christian
ity, to conquer the obstinacy of the Jews, and to suppress the outbreak
of heresy. This is plainly seen in their discourses, especially in those
of St. Peter; these were often littie else than a series of citations from
the Old Testament making in the strongest manner for the new dispen
sation. We find the same thing in the Gospels of St. Matthew and
St. John and in the Catholic Episties; and most remarkably of all in
the words of him who "boasts that he learned the Law at the feet of
Gamahel, in order that, being armed with spiritual weapons, he might
afterwards say with confidence : "The arms of our warfare are not carnal,

' 2 Tim. iii. 16, 17. '^ St. Aug., De util. cred. xiv. 32.
' Acts xiv. 3. 17*

260 LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
but mighty unto God." ' Let all, therefore, especially the novices of
the ecclesiastical army, understand how deeply the sacred Books should
be esteemed, and with what eagerness and reverence they should ap
proach this great arsenal of heavenly arms.
For those whose duty it is to handle Catholic doctrine
before the learned or the unlearned will nowhere find
Doctrine. , ,,,.,,
more ample matter or more abundant exhortation, whether
on the subject of God, the supreme Good and the all-perfect Being, or
of the works which display His glory and His love. Nowhere is there
anything more full or more express on- the subject of the Saviour of
the world than is to be found in the whole range of the Bible. As
St. Jerome says : "To be ignorant of the Scripture is not to know
Christ."^ In its pages His Image stands out, living and breathing;
diffusing everywhere around consolation in trouble, encouragement to
virtue, and attraction to the love of God. And as to the Church, her
institutions, her nature, her office, and her gifts, we find in Holy Scrip
ture so many references and so many ready and convincing arguments,
that, as St. Jerome again most truly says : "A man who is well-grounded
in the testimonies of the Scripture is the bulwark of the Church." ' And
if we come to morality and discipline, an apostolic man finds in the
sacred writings abundant and excellent assistance; most holy precepts,
gentle and strong exhortation, splendid examples of every virtue, and
finally the promise of eternal reward and the threat of eternal punish
ment, uttered in terms of solemn import, in God's name and in God's
own words. And it is this peculiar and singular power of Holy
Catholic Scripture, arising from the inspiration of the Holy Ghost,
which gives authority to the sacred orator, fills him with
apostolic liberty of speech, and communicates force and power to his
eloquence. For those who infuse into their efforts the spirit and strength
of the Word of God, speak "not in word only, but in power also, and
in the Holy Ghost, and in much fulness." * Hence those preachers are
foolish and improvident who, in speaking of religion and proclaiming
the things of God, use no other words but those of human science and
human prudence, trusting to their own reasonings rather than to those of
God. Their discourses may be brilliant and fine, but they must be' feeble
and they must be cold, for they are without the fire ofthe utterance of
God \ and they must fall far short of that mighty power which the

' St. Hie>-on., De stud. Script, ad Paulinum Ep. Iiii.
^ In Isaiam Prol. ' In Isaiam liv. 12.
^ I Thess. i. 5. * Jer. xxiii. 29.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 26 1
speech of God possesses : "for the Word of God is living and effectual,
and more piercing than any two-edged sword; and reaching unto the
division of the soul and the spirit." ' But, indeed, all those who have
a right to speak are agreed that there is in the Holy Scripture an
eloquence that is wonderfully varied and rich, and worthy of great
themes. This St. Augustine thoroughly understood and has abundantly
set forth ^. This also is confirmed by the best preachers of all ages,
who have gratefully acknowledged that they owed their repute chiefly
to the assiduous use of the Bible, and to devout meditation on its pages.
The Holy Fathers well knew all this by practical ex
perience, and they never cease to extol the Sacred Scrip- ' '
' . . . . , , r 1 . THE Fathers.
ture and its fruits. In innumerable passages of their
writings we find them applying to it such phrases as "an inexhaustible
treasury of heavenly doctrine" ', or "an ever-flowing fountain of salva
tion" *, or putting it before us as fertile pastures and beautiful gardens
in which the flock of the Lord is marvellously refreshed and delighted '.
Let us listen to the words of St. Jerome, in his Epistle to Nepotian:
"Often read the divine Scriptures; yea, let holy reading be always in
thy hand ; study that which thou thyself must preach. . . . Let the speech
of the priest be ever seasoned with Scriptural reading." ^ St. Gregory
the Great, than whom no one has more admirably described the pastoral
office, writes in the same sense: "Those", he says, "who are zealous in
the work of preaching must never cease the study of the written Word
of God."' St. Augustine, however, warns us that "vainly does the
preacher utter the Word of God exteriorly unless he listens to it interior
ly" »; and St. Gregory instructs sacred orators "first to find in Holy
Scripture the knowledge of themselves, and then to carry it to others,
lest in reproving others they forget themselves"'. Admonitions such
as these had, indeed, been uttered long before by that Apostolic voice
which had learnt its lesson from Christ Himself, Who "began to do
and to teach". It was not to Timothy alone, but to the whole order
of the clergy, that the command was addressed : "Take heed to thyself
and to doctrine : be earnest in them. For in doing this thou shaU both
save thyself and them that hear thee." '" For the saving and for the

' Heb. iv. 12. ^ De doctr. christ. iv. 6, 7.
' St. Chrys., In Gen. Hom. xxi. 2; Hom. Ix. 3; St. Aug., De disc, christ. ii.
* St. Athan., Ep. fest. xxxix.
5 St. Aug., Serm. xxvi. 24; St. Ambr., In Ps. cxviii, Serm. xix. 2.
* St. Hieron., De vita cleric, ad Nepot.
' St. Greg. M., Regula past. ii. ir (al. 22); Moral, xviii. 26 (al. 14).
* St. Aug., Serm. clxxix. i.
^ St. Greg. M., Regula past. iii. 24 (al. 48). "" 1 Tim. iv. 16.

262 I-EO XIH. ON the STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
perfection of ourselves and of others there is at hand the very best of
help in the Holy Scriptures, as the Book of Psalms, among others, so
constantly insists; but those only will find it who bring to this divine
reading not only docility and attention, but also piety and an innocent
life. For the Sacred Scripture is not like other books. Dictated by
the Holy Ghost, it contains things of the deepest importance, which in
many instances are most difficult and obscure. To understand and ex
plain such things there is always required the "coming" ' of the same
Holy Spirit ; that is to say, His light and His grace ; and these, as the
Royal Psalmist so frequently insists, are to be sought by humble prayer
and guarded by holiness of life.
What the Bible owes to the Catholic Church.
THE Bible It is in this that the watchful care of the Church shines
IN Church. forth conspicuously. By admirable laws and regulations,
she has always shown herself solicitous that "the celestial
treasure of the Sacred Books, so bountifully bestowed upon man by the
Holy Spirit, should not lie neglected" ^. She has prescribed that a con
siderable portion of them shall be read and piously reflected upon by
all her ministers in the daily office of the sacred psalmody. She has
ordered that in cathedral churches, in monasteries, and in other con
vents in which study can conveniently be pursued, they shall be ex
pounded and interpreted by capable men; and she has strictly com
manded that her children shall be fed with the saving words of the
Gospel at least on Sundays and solemn feasts '- Moreover, it is owing
to the wisdom and exertions of the Church that there has always been
continued from century to century that cultivation of Holy Scripture
which has been so remarkable and has borne such ample fruit.
And here, in order to strengthen Our teaching and
The Fathers. Our exhortations, it is well to recall how, from the be
ginning of Christianity, all who have been renowned for
holiness of life and sacred learning, have given their deep and constant
attention to Holy Scripture. If we consider the immediate disciples of
the Aposties, St. Clement of Rome, St. Ignatius of Antioch, St. Poly-
carp — or the apologists, such as St. Justin and St. Irenaeus, we find that
in their letters and their books, whether in defence of the CathoHc Faith
or in its commendation, they draw faith, strength, and unction from the
Word of God. When there arose, in various Sees, Catechetical and
Theological Schools, of which the most celebrated were those of

' St. Hieron., In Mich. i. lo.
Cone. Trid. sess. v, deer, de, reform, c. I., ^ lb.

LEO XIIL ON the STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

263

Alexandria and of Antioch, there was littie taught in those Schools but
what was contained in the reading, the interpretation and the defence
of the divine written Word. From them came forth numbers of Fathers
and writers whose laborious studies and admirable writings have justiy
merited for the three following centuries the appellation of the golden
age of biblical exegesis. In the Eastern Church, the greatest name of
all is Origen— a man remarkable alike for penetration of genius and
for persevering labour; from whose numerous works and his great
Hexapla almost ah have drawn that came after him. Others who have
widened the field of this science may also be named, as especially
eminent; thus, Alexandria could boast of St. Clement and St. Cyril;
Palestine, of Eusebius and the other St. Cyril; Cappadocia, of St. Basil
the Great and the two St. Gregories of Nazianzus and Nyssa; Antioch,
of St. John Chrysostom, in whom the science of Scripture was rivalled
by the splendour of his eloquence. In the Western Church there were
many names as great: Tertulhan, St. Cyprian, St. Hilary, St. Ambrose,
St. Leo the Great, St. Gregory the Great; most famous of all,
St. Augustine and St. Jerome, of whom the former was so marvellously
acute in penetrating the sense of God's Word and so fertile in the use
that he made of it for the promotion of the Catholic truth, and the
latter has received from the Church, by reason of his pre-eminent
knowledge of Scripture and his labours in promoting its use, the name
of the "Great Doctor" V
From this period down to the eleventh century, although jjjg middle
biblical studies did not flourish with the same vigour and Ages.
the same fruitfulness as before, yet they did flourish, and
principally by the instrumentality of the clergy. It was their care and
solicitude that selected the best and most useful things that the ancients
had left, arranged them in order, and published them with additions of
their own — as did S. Isidore of Seville, Venerable Bede, and Alcuin,
among the most prominent ; it was they who illustrated the sacred pages
with "glosses" or short commentaries, as we see in Walafrid Strabo
and St. Anselm of Laon, or expended fresh labour in securing their
integrity, as did St. Peter Damian and Blessed Lanfranc. In the twelfth
century many took up with great success the allegorical exposition of
Scripture. In this kind, St. Bernard is pre-eminent; and his writings,
it may be said, are Scripture all through. With the age of the scho
lastics came fresh and welcome progress in the study of the Bible. That
the scholastics were sohchous about the genuineness of the Latin version
is evident from the Correctoria Biblica, or hsts of emendations, which

See the Collect on his Feast, September so"". Editor.

264 LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
they have left. But they expended their labours and industry chiefly
on interpretation and explanation. To them we owe the accurate and
clear distinction, such as had not been given before, of the various
senses of the sacred words ; the assignment of the value of each "sense"
in theology ; the division of books into parts, and the summaries of
the various parts; the investigation of the objects of the writers; the
demonstration of the connection of sentence with sentence and clause
with clause ; all of which is calculated to throw much light on the more
obscure passage of the sacred volume. The valuable work of the scho
lastics in Holy Scripturj^js seen in their theological treatises and in
their Scripture commentaries; and in this respect the greatest name
among them all is St. Thomas of Aquin.
Modern When our predecessor, Clement V., established chairs
Times. of Oriental literature in the Roman College and in the
principal Universities of Europe, Catholics began to make
more accurate investigation on the original text of the Bible, as well as
on the Latin version. The revival amongst us of Greek learning, and,
much more, the happy invention of the art of printing, gave a strong
impetus to biblical studies. In a brief space of time innumerable editions,
especially of the Vulgate, poured from the press and were diffused
throughout the Catholic world ; so honoured and loved was Holy Scrip
ture during that very period against which the enemies of the Church
direct their calumnies. Nor must we forget how many learned men
there were, chiefly among the rehgious orders, who did excellent work
for the Bible between the Council of Vienne and that of Trent; men
who, by the employment of modern means and appliances and by the
tribute of their own genius and learning, not only added to the rich
stores of ancient times, but prepared the way for the succeeding cen
tury, . the century which followed the Council of Trent, when it almost
seemed that the great age of the Fathers had returned. For it is weU
known, and We recall it with pleasure, that Our predecessors from
Pius IV. to Clement VIII. caused to be prepared the celebrated editions
of the Vulgate and the Septuagint, which, having been published by the
command and authority of Sixtus V. and of the same Clement, are now
in common use. At this time, moreover, were carefully brought out
various other ancient versions of the Bible, and the Polyglots of Ant
werp and of Paris, most important for the investigation of the true
meaning of the text; nor is there any one Book of either Testament
which did not find more than one expositor, nor any grave question
which did not profitably exercise the ability of many inquirers, among
whom there are not a few — more especially of those who made most use
of the Fathers — who have acquired great reputation. From that time

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 26=;
downwards the labour and solicitude of Cathohcs has never been want
ing; for, as time went on, eminent scholars have carried on biblical
study with success, and have defended Holy Scripture against Rationalism
with the same weapons of philology and kindred sciences with which
it had been attacked. The calm and fair consideration of what has
been said will clearly show that the Church has never failed in taking
due measures to bring the Scriptures within reach of her children, and
that she has ever held fast and exercised profitably that guardianship
conferred upon her by Almighty God for the protection and glory of
His Holy Word; so that she has never required, nor does she now
require, any stimulation from without.
How to study Holy Scripture.
We must now, Venerable Brethren, as our purpose demands, impart
to you such counsels as seem best suited for carrying on successfully
the study of biblical science.
But first it must be clearly understood whom we have Tactics of
to oppose and contend against, and what are their tactics the Enemies.
and their arms. In earlier times the contest was chiefly
with those who, relying on private judgment and repudiating the divine
traditions and teaching office of the Church, held the Scriptures to be
the one source of revelation and the final appeal in matters of faith.
Now we have to meet the Rationalists, true children and inheritors of
the older heretics, who, trusting in their turn to their own way of think
ing, have rejected even the scraps and remnants of Christian belief
which had been handed down to them. They deny that there is any
such thing as revelation or inspiration, or Holy Scripture at all; they
see, instead, only the forgeries and the falsehoods of men ; they set
down the Scripture narratives as stupid fables and lying stories; the
prophecies and the oracles of God are to them either predictions made
up after the event or forecasts formed by the light of nature; the
miracles and the wonders of God's power are not what they are said
to be, but the startling effects of natural law, or else mere tricks and
myths; and the Apostolic Gospels and writings are not the work of the
Apostles at all. These detestable errors, whereby they think they destroy
the truth of the divine Books, are obtruded on the world as the per
emptory pronouncements of a certain newly-invented "free science";
a science, however, which is so far from final that they are perpetually
modifying and supplementing it. And there are some of them who,
notwithstanding their impious opinions and utterances about God, and
Christ, the Gospels and the rest of Holy Scripture, would fain be con
sidered both theologians and Christians and men of ,the Gospel, and

266 LEO Xlir. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
who attempt to disguise by such honourable names their rashness and
their pride. To them we must add not a few professors of other sciences
who approve their views and give them assistance, and are urged to
attack the Bible by a similar intolerance of revelation. And it is de
plorable to see these attacks growing every day more numerous and
more severe. It is sometimes men of learning and judgment who are
assailed; but these have little difficulty in defending themselves from
evil consequences. The efforts and the arts of the enemy are chiefly
directed against the more ignorant masses of the people. They diffuse
their deadly poison by means of books, pamphlets, and newspapers;
they spread it by addresses and by conversation ; they are found every
where ; and they are in possession of numerous schools , taken by
violence from the Church, in which, by ridicule and scurrilous jesting,
they pervert the credulous and unformed minds of the young to the
contempt of Holy Scripture. Should not these things, Venerable Brethren,
stir up and set on fire the heart of every Pastor, so that to this "know
ledge falsely so called" ' may be opposed the ancient and true science
which the Church, through the Apostles, has received from Christ, and
that Holy Scripture may find the champions that are needed in so
momentous a battle?
„ Let our first care, then, be to see that in Seminaries
Bible Study IN .
the Seminary ^ Academical institutions the study of Holy Scripture
be placed on such a footing as its own importance and
the circumstances of the time demand. With this view, the first thing
which requires attention is the wise choice of Professors. Teachers of
Sacred Scripture are not to be appointed at hap-hazard out of the
crowd; but they must be men whose character and fitness are proved
by their love of and their long familiarity with the Bible, and by
suitable learning and study.
It is a matter of equal importance to provide in time for a continuous
succession of such teachers; and it will be well, wherever this can be
done, to select young men of good promise who have successfully ac
complished their theological course, and to set them apart exclusively
for Holy Scripture, affording them facilities for full and complete studies.
Professors thus chosen and thus prepared may enter with confidence on
the task that is appointed for them ; and that they may carry out their
work well and profitably, let them take heed to the instructions We
now proceed to give. At the commencement of a course of Holy Scripture
Introduction ^^^ ^^^ Professor strive earnestiy to form the judgment
of the young beginners so as to train them equally to
^ I Tim. vi. 20.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTIIRE.

267

defend the sacred writings and to penetrate their meaning. This is the
object of the treatise which is called "Introduction". Here the student
is taught how to prove the integrity and authority of the Bible, how to
investigate and ascertain its true sense, and how to meet and refute
objections. It is needless to insist on the importance of making these
preliminary studies in an orderly and thorough fashion, with the ac
companiment and assistance of Theology; for the whole subsequent
course must rest on the foundation thus laid and make use of the light
thus acquired.
Next, the teacher will turn his earnest attention to that Biblical
more fruitful division of Scripture science which has to do Exegesis.
with Interpretation; wherein is imparted the method of
using the Word of God for the advantage of rehgion and piety. We
recognise without hesitation that neither the extent of the matter nor
the time at disposal allows each single book of the Bible to be separate
ly gone through. But the teaching should result in a definite and
ascertained method of interpretation — and therefore the Professor should
equally avoid the mistake of giving a mere taste of every book, and
of dwelling at too great length on a part of one book. If most schools
cannot do what is done in the large institutions — that is, take the stu
dents through the whole of one or two books continuously and with a
certain development — yet at least those parts which are selected should
be treated with suitable fulness; in such a way that the students may
learn from the sample that is thus put before them to love and use the
remainder of the Sacred Book during the whole of their lives. The
Professor, following the tradition of antiquity, will make use of the
Vulgate as his text; for the Council of Trent has decreed that "in
public lectures, disputations, preaching and exposition" ', the Vulgate is
the "authentic" version; and this is the existing custom of the Church.
At the same time, the other versions which Christian antiquity has
approved, should not be neglected, more especially the more ancient
Manuscripts. For although the meaning of the Hebrew and the Greek is
substantially rendered by the Vulgate, nevertheless wherever there may
be ambiguity or want of clearness, the "examination of older tongues"^,
to quote St. Augustine, will be useful and advantageous. But in this
matter we need hardly say that the greatest prudence is required, for
the "office of a commentator", as St. Jerome says, "is to set forth not
what he himself would prefer, but what his author says" ^ The question
of "readings" having been, when necessary, carefully discussed, the next

' Sess. iv, deer, de edit, et usu Sacr. Libr.
- De doctr. christ. iii. 4. * Ad Pammachium.

268 LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
thing is to investigate and expound the meaning. And the first counsel
to be given is this : That the more our adversaries contend to the con
trary, so much the more solicitously should we adhere to the received
and approved canons of interpretation. Hence, whilst weighing the
meanings of words, the connection of ideas, the parallelism of passages,
and the like, we should by all means make use of such illustrations as
can be drawn from apposite erudition of an external sort; but this
should be done with caution, so as not to bestow on questions of this
kind more labour and time than are spent on the Sacred Books them
selves, and not to overload the minds of the students with a mass of
information that will be rather a hindrance than a help.
Holy Scripture and Theology; Interpretation.
Need of a The Professor may now safely pass on to the use of
Special guide. Scripture in matters of Theology. On this head it must
be observed that in addition to the usual reasons which
make ancient writings more or less difficult to understand, there are
some which are peculiar to the Bible. For the language of the Bible
is employed to express, under the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, many
things which are beyond the power and scope of the reason of man — that
is to say, divine mysteries and all that is related to them. There is
sometimes in such passages a fulness and a hidden depth of meaning
which the letter hardly expresses and which the laws of interpretation
hardly warrant. Moreover, the literal sense itself frequently admits other
senses, adapted to illustrate dogma or to confirm morality. Wherefore,
it must be recognised that the sacred writings are wrapt in a certain
religious obscurity, and that no one can enter into their interior without
a guide ' ; God so disposing, as the Holy Fathers commonly teach, in
order that men may investigate them with greater ardour and earnest
ness, and that what is attained with difficulty may sink more deeply
into the mind and heart ; and, most of all, that they may understand
that God has delivered the Holy Scriptures to the Church, and that in
reading and making use of His Word, they must follow the Church as
their guide and their teacher. St. Irenseus long since laid down that
where the charismata of God were, there the truth was to be learnt,
and that Holy Scripture was safely interpreted by those who had the
Apostolic succession ^.
His teaching, and that of other Holy Fathers, is taken
The Church, up by the Council of the Vatican, which, in renewing
the decree of Trent, declares its "mind" to be this— that

' St. Hieron., Ad Paulinum de studio Script. Ep. Iiii. 4.
^ Adv. Hsereses iv. 26, 5.

LEO XIII. ON TPIE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

269

"in things of faith and morals, belonging to the building up of Christian
doctrine, that is to be considered the true sense of Holy Scripture which
has been held and is held by our Holy Mother the Church, whose place
it is to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Scriptures;
and therefore that it is permitted to no one to interpret Holy Scripture
against such sense or also against the unanimous agreement of the
Fathers" '. By this most wise decree the Church by no means prevents
or restrains the pursuit of biblical science, but rather protects it from
error, and largely assists its real progress. A wide field is still left open
to the private student, in which his hermeneutical skill may display
itself with signal effect and to the advantage of the Church. On the
one hand, in those passages of Holy Scripture which have not as yet
received a certain and definitive interpretation, such labours may, in
the benignant Providence of God, prepare for and bring to maturity
the judgment of the Church ; on the other, in passages already defined,
the private student may do work equally valuable, either by setting
them forth more clearly to the flock and more skilfully to scholars, or
by defending them more powerfully from hostile attack. Wherefore the
first and dearest object of the Catholic commentator should be to inter
pret those passages which have received an authentic interpretation
either from the sacred writers themselves, under the inspiration of the
Holy Ghost (as in many places of the New Testament), or from the
Church, under the assistance of the same Holy Spirit, whether by her
solemn judgment or her ordinary and universal magisterium ''¦ — to inter
pret these passages in that identical sense, and to prove, by all the
resources of science, that sound hermeneutical laws admit of no other
interpretation. In the other passages, the analogy of faith should be
followed, and Cathohc doctrine, as authoritatively proposed by the
Church, should be held as the supreme law; for, seeing that the same
God is the author both of the Sacred Books and of the doctrine com
mitted to the Church, it is clearly impossible that any teaching can by
legitimate means be extracted from the former, which shall in any
respect be at variance with the latter. Hence it foUows that all inter
pretation is foolish and false which either makes the sacred writers
disagree one with another, or is opposed to the doctrine of the Church.
The Professor of Holy Scripture, therefore, amongst other recommen
dations, must be well acquainted with the whole circle of Theology and
deeply read in the commentaries of the Holy Fathers and Doctors, and
other interpreters of mark ".
' Sess. iii, c 2 . de revel. ; cf. Cone. Trid. sess. iv, decret. de edit, et usu
Sacr. Libr.
- Cone. Vatic, sess. iii, c. 3 de fide. ' Ib. 6, 7-

270

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

t-„„i.-.n.„..„c- This is inculcated by St. Jerome, and still more fre-
quently by St. Augustine, who thus justly complains: "If
there is no branch of teaching, however humble and easy to learn,
which does not require a master, what can be a greater sign of rashness
and pride than to refuse to study the Books of the divine mysteries
by the help of those who have interpreted them?" ' The other Fathers
have said the same, and have confirmed it by their example, for they
"endeavoured to acquire the understanding of the Holy Scriptures not
by their own lights and ideas, but from the writings and authority of
the ancients, who in their turn, as we know, received the rule of inter
pretation in direct line from the Aposties" ^. The Holy Fathers "to
whom, after the Apostles, the Church owes its growth — who have planted,
watered, built, governed, and cherished it — " ^ the Holy Fathers, We
say, are of supreme authority, whenever they all interpret in one and
the same manner any text of the Bible, as pertaining to the doctrine
of faith or morals; for their unanimity clearly evinces that such inter
pretation has come down from the Apostles as a matter of Catholic
faith. The opinion of the Fathers is also of very great weight when
they treat of these matters in their capacity of doctors, unofficially; not
only because they excel in their knowledge of revealed doctrine and in
their acquaintance with many things which are useful in understanding
the apostolic Books, but because they are men of eminent sanctity and
of ardent zeal for the truth, on whom God has bestowed a more ample
measure of His light. Wherefore the expositor should make it his duty
to follow their footsteps with all reverence, and to use their labours
with intelligent appreciation.
But he must not on that account consider that it is forbidden, when
just cause exists, to push inquiry and exposition beyond what the Fathers
have done ; provided he carefully observes the rule so wisely laid down
by St. Augustine — not to depart from the literal and obvious sense,
except only where reason makes it untenable or necessity requires * ;
a rule to which it is the more necessary to adhere strictly in these
times, when the thirst for novelty and unrestrained freedom of thought
make the danger of error most real and proximate. Neither should
those passages be neglected which the Fathers have understood in an
allegorical or figurative sense, more especially when such interpretation
is justified by the literal, and when it rests on the authority of many.
For this method of interpretation has been received by the Church from
the Apostles, and has been approved by her own practice, as the holy
' Ad Honorat. de util. cred. xvii. 35. ^ Rufinus, Hist. Eccl. ii. 9.
^ St. Attg., Contra lulian. ii. 10, 37.
^ De Gen. ad litt. 1. viii, i;. 7, 13.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

271

Liturgy attests ; although it is true that the holy Fathers did not thereby
pretend directly to demonstrate dogmas of faith, but used it as a means
of promoting virtue and piety, such as, by their own experience, they
knew to be most valuable.
The authority of other Catholic interpreters is not so Catholic
great; but the study of Scripture has always continued to Interpreters.
advance in the Church, and therefore, these commen
taries also have their own honourable place, and are serviceable in many
ways for the refutation of assailants and the explanation -of difficulties.
But it is most unbecoming to pass by, in ignorance or contempt, the
excellent work which Catholics have left in abundance, and to have
recourse to the works of non-Catholics— and to seek in them, to the
detriment of sound doctrine and often to the peril of faith, the ex
planation of passages , on which Catholics long ago have successfully
employed their talent and their labour.
For although the studies of non-Catholics, used with -No-ti-
prudence, may sometimes be of use to the Catholic Catholics.
student, he should, nevertheless, bear well in mind — as
the Fathers also teach in numerous passages ^ — that the sense of Holy
Scripture can nowhere be found incorrupt outside of the Church, and
cannot be expected to be found in writers who, being without the true
faith, only gnaw the bark of the Sacred Scripture and never attain
its pith ^-
Most desirable is it, and most essential, that the whole The Bible
teaching of Theology should be pervaded. aad_ animated and Dogma.
by the _use of the divine Word of God. This Js what
the Fathers and the_greatest_theologians of all ages have desired and
reducecT^to practice. It was chiefly out of the Sacred Writings that
they endeavoured to proclaim and establish the Articles of Faith and
the truths therewith connected, and it was in them, together with divine
Tradition, that they found the refutation of heretical error, and the
reasonableness, the true meaning, and the mutual relation of the truths
of Catholicism. Nor will anyone wonder at this, who considers that the
Sacred Books hold such an eminent position among the sources of
Revelation that withouF their assiduous study and use Theology cannot
be pkced~~oh"its true footing, or treated as its dignity demands. For
although it is right and^propeL that. students in academies and schools
shoiild be chiefly^ercis^djnacquiring a scientTfic knowledge of dogma,
by means^jTreasraing" frcmiJh^^Articles of Faith to their consequences,

' Cf. Clem. Alex., Strom, vii. i6; Orig., De princ. iv. 8; In Levit. Hom. iv. 8 ;
Tertull., De praescr. 15 ff; St. Hilar. Fid., In Matth. 13, i.
2 St. Greg. M., Moral, xx. 9 (al. 11).

272 LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
according to the rules of approved and sound philosophy — nevertheless
the judicious and instructed theologian will by no means pass by that
method of doctrinal demonstration~wEicE'~draws~^ts"^i-l)dr^from ' the
authority of the Bible ; "for (Theology) does not receive her first prin
ciples from any other science, but immediately from God by Revelation.
And, therefore, she does not receive of other sciences as from a superior,
but uses them as her inferiors or handmaids''. It is this vievy of doc
trinal teaching which is laid down and recommended by the prince of
theologians, St. Thomas of Aquin ' ; who, moreover, shows — such being
the essential character of Christian Theology — how she can defend her
own principles against attack: "If the adversary'', he says, "do but grant
any portion of the divine Revelation, we have an argument against him ;
thus, against a heretic we can employ Scripture authority, and against
those who deny one article we can use another. But if our opponent
reject divine Revelation entirely there is then no way left to prove the
Articles of Faith by reasoning ; we can only solve the difficulties which
are raised against them."^ Care must be taken, then, that beginners
approach the study of the Bible well prepared and furnished; otherwise,
just hopes will be frustrated, or, perchance, what is worse, they wiU
unthinkingly risk the danger of error, falling an easy prey to the
sophisms and laboured erudition of the Rationalists. The best pre-
paration will be a^conscientious applicatjon_Jo_ghilosophy and theology
under the guidance of St. Thomas of Aquin, and a thorough, training
therein — as We ourselves have elsewhere pointed out and directed. By
this means, both in biblical studies and in that part of Theology which
is called positive, they will pursue the right path and make satisfactory
progress. Defence of the Authority of Holy Scripture.
To prove^o expoujLd._tailhistrate Catholic DoctriiTe by the legitimate
and skilful interpretation of the. Bible, is much; but there is a^^second
part of the subject of equal importance and equal difficulty— themain-
tenance in the strongest ^possible way_of its full authority. This cannot
be done completely or satisfactorily except by means of the livings and
proper rfiagisterium of the Church. The Church, "by reason of her
wonderful propagation, her distinguished sanctity and inexhaustible fe
cundity in good, her Catholic unity, and her unshaken stability, is her
self a great and perpetual motive of credibility, and an unassailable
testimony to her own divine mission" '.

' Summa theol. P. i, q. i, a. 5 ad 2. 2 ib. a. 8.
^ Cone. Vatic, sess. iii, c. 3 de fide.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY' OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

But since the divine and infallible mas-isterium of the

273

Authenticity
OF the Bible.

Church rests also on the authority of Holy Scripture, the
first thing t^T)e~done is to^ yindicate- the trustworthiness
of the sacred records at least as human docunients, from which can be
clearly proved, as from primitive and authentic testimony, the divinity
and the mission of Christ our Lord, the institution of a hierarchical
Church and the primacy of Peter and his successors. It is most de
sirable, therefore, that there should be numerous members of the clergy
well prepared to enter upon a contest of this nature, and to repulse
hostile assaults, chiefly trusting in that armour of God recommended b)-
the Apostle ^, buP2Iso~norunaccust6med to modern methods of attack.
This is beautifully alluded to by St. John Chrysostom, when describing
the duties of priests : "We must use every endeavour that the 'Word of
Christ may dwell in us abundantly' ^ ; and not merely for one kind of
fio'ht must we be prepared — for the contest is many-sided and the enemy
is of every sort; and they do not all use the same weapons nor make
their onset in the same way. Wherefore it is needful that the man who
has to contend against all should be acquainted with the engines and
the arts of all — that he should be at once archer and slinger, comman
dant and officer, general and private soldier, foot-soldier and horseman,
skilled in sea-fight and in siege; for unless he knows every trick and
turn of war, the devil is weU able, if only a single door be left open,
to get in his fierce bands and carry off the sheep." ' The sophisms of
the enemy and his manifold arts of attack we have already touched
upon. Let us now say a word of advice on the means of defence.
The first means is the study of the Oriental languages oriental
and of the art of criticism. These two acquirements are languages.
in these days held in high estimation, and therefore the
clergy, by making themselves more or less fully acquainted with them
as time and place may demand, wih the better be able to discharge
their office with becoming credit; for they must make themselves "all
to all" *, always "ready to satisfy everyone that asketh them a reason
for the hope that is in them" \ Hence, it is most proper that Pro
fessors of Sacred Scripture and theologians should master those tongues
in which the Sacred Books were originally written; and it would be
well that Church students also should cultivate them, more especially
those who aspire to academic degrees. And endeavours should be made
to estabhsh in all academic institutions— as has already been laudably
done in many— chairs of the other ancient languages, especially the

» Eph. vi. 13 ff. ^ Cf. Col. iii. 16. ' De sacerdotio iv. 4.
<¦ I Cor. ix. 22. ' I Peter iii. I5-
Messmek. OutUnes of Bible Knowledge. 1 8

274

LEO XHI. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

Semitic, and of subjects connected therewith, for the benefit principally
of those who are intended to profess sacred hterature.
g These latter, with a similar object in view, should make
Criticism themselves weh and thoroughly acquainted with the art
of true criticism. There has arisen, to the great de
triment of religion, an inept method, dignified by the name of the
"Higher Criticism", which pretends to judge of the origin, integrity and
authority of each book from internal indications alone. It is clear, on
the other hand, that in historical questions, such as the origin and the
handing down of writings, the witness of history is of primary impor
tance, and that historical investigation should be made with the utmost
care; and that in this matter internal evidence is seldom of great value,
except as confirmation. To look upon it in any other light will be to
open the door to many evil consequences. It will make the enemies
of religion much more bold and confident in attacking and mangling
the Sacred Books; and this vaunted "Higher Criticism" will resolve itself
into the reflection of the bias and the prejudice of the critics. It will
not throw on the Scripture the light which is sought, or prove of any
advantage to doctrine ; it will only give rise to disagreement and dis
sension, those sure notes of error, which the critics in question so plenti
fully exhibit in their owm persons; and seeing that most of them are
tainted with false philosophy and rationalism, it must lead to the eli
mination from the sacred writings of all prophecy and miracle, and of
everything else that is outside the natural order.
In the second place, we have to contend against those
Natural '^ . .,.,..,
„ who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely
oCIENCES. scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers
in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. Attacks of
this kind, bearing as they do on matters of sensible experience, are
peculiarly dangerous to the masses, and also to the young who are
beginning their literary studies ; for the young, if they lose their reverence
for the Holy Scripture on one or more points, are easily led to give
up beheving in it altogether. It need not be pointed out how the
science of nature, just as it is so admirably adapted to show forth the
glory of the Great Creator, provided it be taught as it should be, so
if it be perversely imparted to the youthful intelligence, it may prove
most fatal in destroying the principles of true philosophy and in the
corruption of morality. Hence to the Professor of Sacred Scripture a
knowledge of natural science will be of very great assistance in de
tecting such attacks on the Sacred Books, and in refuting them. There
can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and
the physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own lines, and

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 275
both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash asser
tions, or to assert what is not known as known" '-. If dissension should
arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine,
for the theologian : — "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true
of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with
our Scriptures ; and whatever they assert in their treaties which is con
trary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either
prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we
must, without the smaUest hesitation, beheve it to be so." ^ To under
stand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first,
that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost
"Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that
is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe),
things in no way profitable unto salvation" '. Hence they did not seek
to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with
things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were
commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily
use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary
speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses;
and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers — as the Angelic
Doctor also reminds us — "went by what sensibly appeared" *, or put
down what God, speaking to men, signified in the way men could
understand and were accustomed to.
The unshrinking defence, of the Holy.- Scripture,^ however, does not
require that we should__eq.ualLy_-uphold-.al-f--the-api-nions. which each of
the Fathers or the more recent jnterpxeierS- have_,put forth^Jn_explaining
it; for it may be that, in commenting on passages where physical
matters, occur, they have sometimes expressed the ideas of their own
times, and thus made statements which in these days have been aban
doned as incorrect. Hence, in their interpretations, we must carefully
note what they lay down as belonging" T;o faith, or as intimately con
nected with faith— what they are unanimous in. For "in those things
whiclTdo' not come under the obligation of faith, the Saints were at
liberty to hold divergent_ppinions, just as we ourselves are" ^ according
to the saying of ^TThmnasT) And in another place he says most
admirably : — "When philosophers are agreed upon a point, and it Js not
contrary; to our faith, It is sat^r, in my opuTibn^nelther to lay down
such a point as~a dogma of faith, even thojigh it is perhaps so . pre
sent^ by the philosophers, norJo reject it as against faith, lest we thus
' In Gen. op. imperf. ix. 30. '- De Gen. ad litt. i. 21, 41.
'• Ib. iii. 9, 20. * Summa theol. P. i, q. 70, a. I ad 3.
* In Sent, ii, dist. 2, q. i, a. 3.

276 LEO xm. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
give to the wise of this world an occasion of despising our faith." '¦
The Catholic interpreter, although he should show that those facts of
natural science which investigators affirm to be now quite certain are
not contrary to the Scripture rightly explained, must nevertheless always
bear in mind, that much which has been held as proved and certain
has afterwards been caUed in question and rejected. And if writers on
physics travel outside the boundaries of their own branch, and carry
their erroneous teaching into the domain of philosophy, let them be
handed over to philosophers for refutation.
The principles here laid down will apply to cognate
sciences, and especially to History. It is a lamentable
fact that there are many who with great labour carry out
and pubHsh investigations on the monuments of antiquity, the manners
and institutions of nations and other illustrative subjects, and whose
chief purpose in all this is too often to find mistakes in the sacred
writings and so to shake and weaken their authority. Some of these
writers display not only extreme hostility, but the greatest unfairness;
in iheir eyes a profane book or ancient document is accepted without
hesitation, whilst the Scripture, if they only find in it a suspicion of
error, is set down with the slightest possible discussion as quite untrust
worthy. It is true, no doubt, that copyists have made mistakes in the
text of the Bible ; this question, when it arises, should be carefully
considered on its merits, and the fact not too easily admitted, but only
in those passages where the proof is clear. It may also happen that
the sense of a passage remains ambiguous, and in this case good
hermeneutical methods will greatly assist in clearing up the obscurity.
Inspiration incompatible with error. ,
But it is absolutely wrong and forbidden, either to narrow inspiration
to certain parts only of Holy Scripture, or to admit that the sacred
writer has erred. For the system of those who, in order to rid them
selves of these difficulties, do not hesitate to concede that divine in
spiration regards the things of faith and morals, and nothing beyond,
because (as they wrongly think) in a question of the truth or falsehood
of a passage, we should consider not so much what God has said as
the reason and purpose which He had in mind in saying it— this system
cannot be tolerated.
,,, „ For all the books which the Church receives as sacred
\\ HOLE JjIBLE j
i.N-sriRED canonical, are written wholly and entirely, with all
their parts, at the dictation of the Holy Ghost; and so
' Opusc. V.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

277

far is it from being possible that any error can co-exist with inspiration,
that inspiration not only is essentially incompatible with error, but ex
cludes and rejects it as absolutely and necessarily as it is impossible
that God Himself, the supreme Truth, can utter that which is not true.
This is the ancient and unchanging faith of the Church, solemnly defined
in the Councils of Florence and of Trent, and finally confirmed and
more expressly formulated by the Council of the Vatican. These are
the words of the last: — "The Books of the Old and New Testament,
whole and entire, with all their parts, as enumerated in the decree of
the same Council (Trent) and in the ancient Latin Vulgate, are to be
received as sacred and canonical. And the Church holds them as sacred
and canonical, not because, having been composed by human industry,
they were afterwards approved by her authority ; nor only because they
contain revelation without error ; but because, having been written under
the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, they have God for their author." '
Hence, because the Holy Ghost employed men as His instruments, we
cannot therefore say that it was these inspired instruments who, perchance,
have fallen into error, and not the primary Author. For, by super
natural power. He so moved and impelled them to write — He w.is so
present to them — that the things which He ordered, and those only,
they first rightly understood, then willed faithfully to write down, and
finally expressed in apt words and with infallible truth. Otherwise, it
could not be said that He was the Author of the entire Scripture. Such
has always been the persuasion of the Fathers. "Therefore", says
St. Augustine, "since they wrote the things which He showed and
uttered to them, it cannot be pretended that He is not the writer; for
His members executed what their Head dictated." ^ And St. Gregory the
Great thus pronounces : — "Most superfluous it is to inquire who wrote
these things — we loyally believe the Holy Ghost to be the Author of
the book. He wrote it Who dictated it for writing; He wrote it Who
inspired its execution."^
It follows that those who maintain that an error is No error in
possible in any genuine passage of the sacred wrhings, the original
either pervert the Catholic notion of inspiration, or make books.
God the author of such error. And so emphatically were
all the Fathers and Doctors agreed that the divine writings, as left by
the hagiographers, are free from all error, that they laboured earnestiy,
with no less skill than reverence, to reconcile with each other those
numerous passages which seem at variance— the very passages which in

1 Sess. iii, c. 2, de Revel.
2 De consensu Evangel. 1. I, c. 35. ' Praef. in lob, n. 2.

278

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.

great measure have been taken up by the "Higher Criticism" ; for they
were unanimous in laying it down, that those writings, in their entirety
and in all their parts, were equally from the afflatus of Almighty God,
and that God, speaking by the sacred writers, could not set down
anything but what was true. The words of St. Augustine to St. Jerome
may sum up what they taught: — "On my own part I confess to your
charity that it is only to those Books of Scripture which are now called
canonical that I have learned to pay such honour and reverence as to
believe most firmly that none of their writers has fallen into any error.
And if in these Books I meet anything which seems contrary to truth,
I shall not hesitate to conclude either that the text is faulty, or that the
translator has not expressed the meaning ofthe passage, or that I myself
do not understand it." '
Duties of the Catholic Laity.
But to undertake fully and perfectiy, and with all the weapons of the
best science, the defence of the Holy Bible is far more than can be
looked for from the exertions of commentators and theologians alone.
It is an enterprise in which we have a right to expect
the co-operation of all those Cathohcs who have acquired
THE Learned. ^
reputation in any branch of learning whatever. As m
the past, so at the present time, the Church is never without the graceful
support of her accomplished children; may their services to the Faith
grow and increase 1 For there is nothing which We believe to be more
needful than that truth should find defenders more powerful and more
numerous than the enemies it has to face ; nor is there anything which
is better calculated to impress the masses with respect for truth than to
see it boldly proclaimed by learned and distinguished men. Moreover,
the bitter tongues of objectors will be silenced, or at least they will not
dare to insist so shamelessly that faith is the enemy of science, when
they see that scientific men of eminence in their profession show towards
faith the most marked honour and respect. Seeing, then, that those
can do so much for the advantage of religion on whom the goodness
of Almighty God has bestowed, together with the grace of the faith,
great natural talent^ let such men, in this bitter conflict of which the
Holy Scripture is the object, select each of them the branch of study
most suitable to his circumstances, and endeavour to excel therein, and
thus be prepared to repulse with credit and distinction the assaults on
the Word of God.

' Ep. Ixxxii. I, et crebrius alibi.

LEO XIII. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 279
And it is Our pleasing duty to give deserved praise to
a work which certain Catholics have taken up — that is to Assistance.
say, the formation of societies and the contribution of
considerable sums of money, for the purpose of supplying studious and
learned men with every kind of help and assistance in carrying out
complete studies. Truly an excellent fashion of investing money, and
well suited to the times in which we live 1 The less hope of public
patronage there is for Catholic study, the more ready and the more
abundant should be the liberality of private persons — those to whom
God has given riches, thus willingly making use of their means to safe
guard the treasure of His revealed doctrine.
In order that all these endeavours and exertions may quiding Rule.
really prove advantageous to the cause of the Bible, let
scholars keep steadfastly to the principles which We have in this Letter
laid down. Let them loyally hold that God, the Creator and Ruler of
all things, is also the Author of the Scriptures — and that therefore
nothing can be proved either by physical science or archeology which
can really contradict the Scriptures. If, then, apparent contradiction be
met with, every effort should be made to remove it. Judicious theo
logians and commentators should be consulted as to what is the true or
most probable meaning of the passage in discussion, and the hostile
arguments should be carefully weighed. Even if the difficulty is after
all not cleared up and the discrepancy seems to remain, the contest
must not be abandoned ; truth cannot contradict truth, and we may be
sure that some mistake has been made either in the interpretation of
the sacred words, or in the polemical discussion itself; and if no such
mistake can be detected, we must then suspend judgment for the time
being. There have been objections without number perseveringly directed
against the Scripture for many a long year, which have been proved
to be futile and are now never heard of; and not unfrequentiy interpre
tations have been placed on certain passages of Scripture (not belonging
to the rule of faith or morals) which have been rectified by more careful
investigations. As time goes on, mistaken views die and disappear ; but
"truth remaineth and groweth stronger for ever and ever." ' Wherefore,
as no one should be so presumptuous as to think that he understands
the whole of the Scripture, in which St. Augustine himself confessed that
there was more that he did not know than that he knew \ so, if he
should come upon anything that seems incapable of solution, he must
take to heart the cautious rule of the same holy Doctor:— "It is better
even to be oppressed by unknown but useful signs, than to interpret

' 3 Esdras iv. 38. ^ Ad lanuar. Ep. Iv. 21.

2 80 LEO xril. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
them uselessly and thus to throw off the yoke only to be caught in the
trap of error.'' ' As to those who pursue the subsidiary studies of which
Meritorious '^
P ^Ve have spoken, if they honestly and modestly follow
the counsels We have given— if by their pen and their
voice they make their studies profitable against the enemies of the truth,
and useful in saving the young from the loss of their faith — they may
justly congratulate themselves on their worthy service to the Sacred
Writings, and on affording to Catholicism that assistance which the
Church has a right to expect from the piety and learning other children.
Conclusion.
Such, Venerable Brethren, are the admonitions and the instructions
which, by the help of God, We have thought it well, at the present
moment, to offer to you on the study of Holy Scripture.
It will now be your province to see that what We
LO THE Bishops. . . .
have said be observed and put in practice with all due
reverence and exactness ; that so We may prove our gratitude to God
for the communication to man of the Words of His Wisdom, and that
aU the good results so much to be desired may be realised, especially
as they affect the training of the students of the Church, which is Our
own great sohcitude and the Church's hope. Exert yourselves with
willing alacrity, and use your authority and your persuasion in order
that these studies may be held in just regard and may flourish, in
Seminaries and in the educational Institutions which are under your
jurisdiction. Let them flourish in completeness and in happy success,
under the direction of the Church, in accordance with the salutary
teaching and example of the Holy Fathers and the laudable traditions
of antiquity; and as time goes on, let them be widened and extended
as the interests and glory of truth may require — the interests of that
Catholic Truth which comes from above, the never-faihng source of
man's salvation. _ Finally, We admonish with paternal love all students
lo THE Clergy. , . .
and ministers of the Church always to approach the
Sacred Writings with reverence and piety ; for it is impossible to attain
to the profitable understanding thereof unless the arrogance of "earthly"
science be laid aside, and there be excited in the heart the holy desire
for that wisdom "which is from above". In this way the intelligence
which is once admitted to these sacred studies, and thereby illuminated
and strengthened, will acquire a marvellous facility in detecting and

De doctr. christ.

LEO XHI. ON THE STUDY OF HOLY SCRIPTURE. 261
avoiding the fallacies of human science, and in gathering and using for
eternal salvation all that is valuable and precious ; whilst at the same
time the heart will grow warm, and will strive with ardent longing to
advance in virtue and in divine love. "Blessed are they that search
His testimonies ; that seek Him with their whole heart." '
And now, filled with hope in the divine assistance, and trusting to
your pastoral solicitude — as a pledge of heavenly grace and a sign of
Our special goodwill — to you all, and to the Clergy and the whole
flock entrusted to you. We lovingly impart in Our Lord the Apostolic
Benediction. Given at St. Peter's, at Rome, the iS* day of November, 1893, the
sixteenth year of Our Pontificate. POPE LEO XIII.

' Ps. cxviii. 2.

INDEX.

Note. Names in Italics are either modern or Latin names. Numbers in Italics indicate
the principal place of the subject. Besides the usual abbreviations easily understood we take
B. = Bible, c. =^ city, hpr. = high priest, j. = judge, k. = king, and vill. =: village. The
numbers followed by an asterisk refer to the Illustrations.

Aaron, hpr. 43 205 ; death
149 ; rod 178 205.
Ab, mo. 212 219.
Abana, riv. 171.
Abbreviations in text 20.
Abdemelech, chamberlain
93-
Abdias, proph. 90 100.
Abdon, j. 52.
Abel 243.
Abesan, j. 52
Abgar, k., letter to 12.
Abias, priest 206.
Abilene, prov. 166.
Abimelech, k. 159. A., j.
52.
Abiron 205.
Abiu, priest 43.
Abraham 18 40 f 47 79
I42ff 149 157 165 171
176 192 197 219.
Absalom's vow 195.
Abstinence 195 203 f 205
241 ; V. Fasts.
Abuse of bibl. texts 37.
Abyssinian version 25.
Acacia wood 178.
Acca, plain 152.
Accaron, c. 159 ff.
Accommodative sense 37.
Achab, k. 55 89 163.
Achad, \.. 140.
Achaia, prov. 174.
Achaz, k. 56 160.
Acra, mt. 167 f.
Acre, measure 253.
Acrostics 76 94.
Acts of the Apostles 1x8 f
120 f; apocryphal 12.
Adam, first and second 137.
Adar, mo. 212 f 218.

Addo, proph. 89.
Aderbeidshan, prov. 139.
Adjuration 196.
Administration of justice
222 ff.
Adonisedek, k. 51.
Adoration v. Sacrifice.
Adultery 225 231.
^gean Sea 130 174.
^Ifric's version 2b.
jElia Capitolina 169.
Africa 139.
Agar's well 149.
Age of patriarchs 47 ; Le
vites and priests 205 ;
doctors of the law 208 ;
soldiers 228.
Aggeus, proph. 62 90 loii
Agrarian laws 197 204 214
244.
Agriculture 243 ff ; imple
ments 246.
Agrippa, Herod 69.
Agur, counsels 83.
Ahialon, j. 52.
Ahias, proph. 55 89.
Aila 149.
Akaba, gulf 147 149 159 f.
Albinus, gov. 69.
Aldine, B. 31.
Alexander the Or. 20 23
63 67 173 209.
Alexandra, queen 68.
Alexandria 23 1 1 2 1 5 1 1 73 ;
theol. school 262 f.
Alexandrine canon 13; co
dex 29; dialect 12; v.
Septuagint.
Alfred's version 26.
Allegorical interpretation
263 270; ^.Figurative.

Allegory, bibl. 36 85.
Alleluia 81.
Almonds 240.
Alphabet, the Wife's Gol
den 84.
Alpheus III.
Altar, primitive 176; gol
den A. of incense 179*
182 188 191 ; of burnt
offering 62 180* 182
185.
Alus 148.
Amalekites 148 158 i6oi.
Aman 66 218.
Ammon, k. 58.
Ammonites 52 156 158
isS 193-
Amorrhites 158 f.
Amos, proph. 73 f 90 gg.
Amphipolis, t. 1 74.
Amri, k. 163.
Analogy of Faith in B.
interpretation 34 269.
Ananias of Babylon 96 ; of
Damascus 122; the hpr.
207.
Anathema 225 f.
Anathoth, c. 92.
Ancients (Elders) 43 51
62 209 219 f 222.
Ancyra, c. 174.
Andrew, Ap. 104 114 175.
Andromachus, gov. 67.
Anglo-Saxon versions 4
25 f.
Anianus. bishop 112.
Animals, unclean 203 ; food
243-
Anklets 238.
Anna's song 61 77; vow
195-

j84

Annas, hpr. 207 209.
Anointing of hpr. 205; of
k. 220
Antichrist 130 137.
Anti-Lebanon, mt. 151 166.
Antioch in Pisidia 122 174.
Antioch in Syria 112 119*
122 171 ; theol. school
263.
Antiochus the Or. 67 188.
A. Epiphanes 67 70 169
207 218. A. Eupator
i6g.
Antipater, k. 68 159.
Antiphonal chant 249.
.\ntiquities, sacred 176 ff;
political 2i9ff; domestic
230 ff.
Antitype 37.
Antonia, fortress 168 189.
Aod, j. 52 158.
Apepi, k. 146.
Apis, idol 55*.
Apocalypse 1 1 4 Jj6.
Apocrypha 11 f 16.
Apographs, bibl. 28.
Apollonia, c. 174.
Apollonius, gen. 169.
Apophis V. Apepi.
Apostles, the 118 ff 175;
writings 6 ; calling 104 f
III; Acts 120; Council
100 109 ff; Teaching of
the xii Ap. 12; the Ap.
and the B. 259; -j. Tra
dition.
Apostolic Fathers 6.
Apparel 238.
Aprons 238.
Arabah, des. 147.
Arabia 41 146 148 151
157 \6o lys ; desert 150.
Arabic language 19; ver
sion 32.
Arach, c. 1 40.
Aram, patr., prov. 171.
Aramaic language 12 19
III.
Ararat, mt. 139.
Araxes, riv. 138 f.
Arbe (Hebron) 144.
Arch of Titus 190* f.
Archsology, bibl. 1 76 ff.
Archelaus, k. 68 104.
Arcturus, astr. 247.
Arimathea, c. 151 164.
Aristobulus, k. 68.
Ark of Noe 235 248.

Ark of the Covenant and
the Law 2 ; in the Taber
nacle 178'*; the temple
188; its journeys 181;
among the Philistines 54
181; lost 160 188.
Armenia 112 138 143 173.
Armenian version 25.
Armouries 229.
Arms, military 229.
Army, the 227 ff.
Arnon, riv. 149 f 7^6 161.
Arrows -u. Bows.
Artaxerxes Longim. 62 66,
Artificers 248.
Arts 248 ff.
As, coin 252.
Asaph, psalmist 79 ^.
Asarhaddon, k. 58* 172.
Ascalon, c. 159.
Ascension of Christ 108
118 120.
Aser, tribe 162 165 170.
Asia 142; A. minor 114
122 128 134 136 iy4;\he-
seven principal churches
136.
Asiongaber, harbour 149
159 163 250.
Asphalt Sea 155.
Ass, the 243 f.
Assembly, general 220.
Assur, c. 140.
Assurbanipal, k. loi 172.
Assurkini, k. 172.
Assyria (Assyrians) 56 58
140 77/; discoveries 15
48 66 235 ; literature 3
45 ; domination 63 f ; in
vasion 99 ; captivity 56 ;
kings 172.
Astarte, idol 51.
Astrology 247.
Astronomy 247.
Asylums v. Cities.
.\thalia, queen 57.
Athens, c. 122 174 775.
Atonement, day of 181 194
200 206 ^77.
Attalia, c. 174.
Attica, prov. 174 770.
Augustine, St. 8 100 109
261 263 270 275 277
279.
Augustus, emp. 68 165.
Auranitis, prov. 166.
Authenticity of B. 14 273 f ;
Pentateuch 44 ff; pro

phetic books 90 ; Gospels
ii6; Epistles 125; Apo
calypse 137; Vulgate 24
267.
Authority, crimes against
223; is from God 126.
Autographs, bibl. 27.
Avenger of blood 224.
Avites (Avim) 157.
Azarias of Babyl. 88 96.
Azot, u. 118 159.
Baal, idol 52* 55 57 157;
temple 163.
Babel, tower 42 140 142
235-
Babel and B. 48.
Babylon, c, prov. 18 94
140 ff 143 150 f 171.
Babylonian literature 3
45 ; discoveries 15 ; kings
172; three young men
88 96; captivity 12 18
58 60 f 66 80 90 94 f
163 188 191 194 206
221 226.
Bagdad, u. 140.
Baking 239.
Bala (Segor) 155.
Balaam, proph. 43 50.
Balconies 235.
Baldness 238.
Balm (Balsam) 150 240.
Balmes on the B. 5.
Baltassar, k. 96 f 172.
Baltimore, Councils 38 f.
Ban, the 225 f.
Baneas, c. 106.
Baptism, prefigured 126
181 194.
Barak, j. 52.
Baris v. Antonia.
Barley 200 238 ; first b.
197.
Barnabas, St. 112 119 f
122; epistle 12.
Barrel, measure 253.
Bars, gilt, of Ark 179.
Bartholemew, Ap. I75-
Bartimeus 106.
Baruch, proph. 12 15 90
92 f g4 f.
Basan, kgd. 151 158 166;
oaks 154.
Basin, the brazen 180 181*
185 ; movable basins 185.
Batanaea, prov. 166.
Bath, measure 253.

285

Beard 238.
Beatitudes, mt. of 108 152.
Bede, Ven. 4 25.
Beds 236.
Beelzebub 159 f.
Bees V. Honey.
Bel, idol 55 97 f; temple
141; V. Baal.
Belabariscun 172.
Belgium 1 50.
Bellarmine on the IMasorah
19-
Bells on dress of hpr. 207.
Belts 237.
Belus, brook 157.
Benches 236.
Benedictus 77.
Benjamin 55 62 767 163.
Bentley, Richard 22.
Berea, c. 122 174.
Bernard, St. 263.
Bersabee, vill. 144 154 162.
Beseleel, builder 177.
Besor, brook 157.
Bethania, vill. 106 108 166
169.
Bethaven, des. 154.
Bethel, vill. 55 89 144 146
164 176 181.
Bethesda, pool 105 169.
Beth-Ilva .65.
Bethlehem 103 144 164;
prophecy loi; massacre
103; grotto of the Nati
vity 104*.
Bethphage, vill. 169.
Bethsaida, vill. 113; des.
.154 f 165.
Bethulia, c. 65* 158 165.
Betrothal 23 1 .
Beverages 241.
Beza, codex. 30
Bezetha, vill. 167 f.
Bible, the : definition and
name I ff; circulation 3
14 27 30 39; influence
4; character 4 f 35 39
original text 10 7(5" ff
versions 3 23 — 27 267
manuscripts 27 ff; early
printed editions 30 ff
264 ; contradictions not
original, often only ap
parent 10 f 277 f 279.
B., God's letter to man
258 ; bulwark of the
Church 260 ; its enemies
and their tactics 265 f ;

its defence 272 ff. V.
Authenticity, Canonicity,
Church, Faith, Fathers,
Inerrancy, Inspiration,
Interpretation, Liturgy,
Middle Ages, Morals,
Pulpit, Science, Theo
logy.
Bible reading 27 j><5'ff 262
280 ; in the synagogues
192.
Bible societies condemned
38-
Bible study, present needs
258; always fostered in
the Church 262 ff; ways
and means 265 ff 273 ff;
branches 267 ff; the
Church's guidance 268 f;
the Pope's counsels 258
279 ff; Pius X. on B. St.
pref viii. ?'. Church, Com
mentators, Criticism, Fa
thers, Middle Ages, Lay
men, Science, Seminaries
Biblical Commission, pa
pal 22 36 46.
Birds, forbidden 203, allow
ed 240.
Birs-i-Nimrud 140* 142.
Birthday 231.
Birthright, first 232.
Bishops' B. 26.
Bithynia, prov. 134 174.
Bitter herbs 215! B. la
kes 148.
Black Sea 138 174.
Blasphemy 223.
Blessing, Moses' 43 f 77 ;
daily bl. by the priest
194 201.
Blood, forbidden 193 203;
bl. in the sacrifices 199
202.
Bohemian versions 27 32.
Book of Books, The i.
Book of the Law 178.
Books, biblical 5 ff; lost 4.
Booths 217 234; z/. Taber
nacles.
Booty V. spoils.
Booz 53..
Borith, herb 249.
Borsippa, c. 1 40.
Bosor, c. 162.
Bosra, u. 159.
Botanical names in B. 76.
BoundariesofPalestinel 50f.

Bowls in temple 179.
Bows and arrows 229 240.
Bracelets 238.
Brass-work 248.
Bread 238 f ; first 197 ;
unleavened 215 ; leaven
ed 2i6; V. Shewbreads.
Breads of proposition 179
213.
Breast-plate of the High
Priest 207 * ; of soldiers
229.
Breves 2 1 .
Brick-making 216 235.
Bride, the 231.
British Museum, codex 30.
Brooks 157.
Buildings 235 246.
Bulgarians and the B. 25.
Burglary 225.
Burials 242 f.
Burning, judicial 225.
Burnt-offering v. Holocaust.
Bushel, measure 253.
Butter 240 ff.
Byssus 177 f 236.
Cades Barnea, c. 43 149.
Caedmon, poet 4.
Cffisar Augustus 103.
Caesarea in Cappadocia 174-
Cfesarea in Palestine 69
112 118 f 122 163 f 251.
Csesarea Philippi 106 164
166.
Cain 139.
Caiphas, hpr. 207.
Caius V. Gaius.
Cakes of bread and raisins
239-
Calendar, Jewish 211 ff.
Calumny 224.
Calvary, mt. 168.
Calves, golden 55.
Cambridge Codex 30.
Camels 244 251; c. hair
236.
Cana, c. 104 165 f ; brook
157-
Candace, queen 173.
Candlestick, golden 179
182 190* 191 200.
Canon 1 1 ff.
Canonical epistles 133 ff.
Canonicity 11 ff 277.
Canticle of Canticles 76 81
84 f 192.
Canticles v. Songs.

Capharnaum, c. 104 f 155
165; brook 157.
Caphtorim 157 159.
Cappadocia, prov. 134 1^4.
« Captain of the host" 221.
Captivity v. Assyria, Ba
bylon.
Caria, prov. 174
Cariathiarim, vill. 181.
Carith, brook 157.
Carmel, mt. 152.
Carthage, council 14 171.
Carts 251.
Casleu, mo. 212 218.
Caspian Sea 1 38.
Catacombs and B. 14.
Catapults 229.
Catechumens 87.
Catherine, mt. of St. 147
148*.
Catholic Epistles 133 ff.
Cattle 243 f.
Cavalry 228.
Cave dwellings 233.
Cedar-wood 185.
Cedes, c. of refuge 162.
Cedron, brook 157; valley
153 169.
Celsus, phil. 116.
Cement 235.
Cenchrea, harbour 175.
Cenereth, lake 155.
Cenites 160.
Censer, golden 178.
Census of the people 43
226.
Cerethites 228.
Cerinth, phil. 115.
Chalanne, c. 140.
Chaldea, prov. 41 140.
Chaldean language 12 ; text
8 igf 63 ff 98 III; ver
sions 24 31 ; record of
the Flood 48*.
Chale, u. 140 f.
Challoner's B. 26.
Cham (Chamites) I39f 143
159-
Chanaan, patr. 143 170.
Chanaan, prov. 41 5 I 143 f
147 149 "i '57 f-
Chanaanites 51 143 149
157 f.
Chancellor, royal 221.
Chanters, levitical 89 190
249.
Chariots in war 228 f 244.
Charoseth, the sweet 215.

Cheese 240.
Cherubim, figures 178 188.
Chiefsof families 219; army
228.
Childbirth, law of 201 20S
231.
Children, care of 231 f.
China, Hebrew B. in 28.
Chobar, riv. 95.
Chomer, measure 253.
Christ V. Jesus.
Christian era 103 f; name
171 ; charity I26f 135 f;
duties 129 130 ; life and
virtue 126 128 ff 134;
vocation I28f 134.
Christians at Alexandria
112, Antioch 119, Rome
125 129; persecuted by
Jews 118; disputes 119 f.
Chroniclers 205 221; v.
Genealogists.
Chronicles, book 53 59 ^°'
Chronology, Bibl. 103 254 f ;
tables 255.
Chrysostom, St. 273.
Church, Catholic, her care
and guardianship of the
B. II ff I4ff 27 30 33f
38 f 262 f 265 268 f 272.
Church proved by the
B. 260 ; her future trials
and triumphs 136 f.
Churches, the seven of Asia
136.
Chus, Cham's son 139.
Cilicia, prov. 12 1 f 174.
Circesium, battle 58 61.
Circumcision ig2 f 231;
did not sanctify 126 128
194; not necessary in
N. T. 119 f 193; type
of baptism 194; c. of
Christ 104 193.
Cisterns 236.
Cities of Levites 162; of
refuge 162 224; of Pa
lestine 164 f.
Claudius, emp. 69 125.
Clement, St., Pope 133;
epistle 12.
Clement V. 264.
Clement VIII. 24.
Clepsydra 212.
Clergy and B. study 260
280.
Climate of Palestine 150.
Cloaks 237.

Cloud, the sacred, v. She
chinah.
Coats 237; of mail 229.
Cock's crow 211.
Code, criminal 223 f.
Ccelosyria, prov. 151.
Coins 251 f.
Colchis, prov. 139.
Collections for the poor
127 f.
Colossa, c. 174.
Colossians, ep. 124 129.
Colours in the Tabernacle
177 183; in dress of
hpr. 207, of the people
237-
Commander-in-chief 221.
Commandments , Ten 42
48; of Noe 193.
Commentators, Cath. 18 34
269 271 276; non-Cath.
34 271.
Commerce 250; roads 151
251.
Commissary of army 228.
Commission v. Biblical C.
Complutensian Polyglot
3'f.
Concordances, bibl. 21;
pref. VII.
Concubines 230.
Confirmation at Samaria
118 f.
Confiscation 226.
Constantine the Gr. 29.
Constantinople, B. in 25
29 ; council 85.
Contradictions v. Bible.
Converts, Jewish and pa
gan 119 121 193 204;
V. Proselytes.
Cooking 239.
Coponius, gov. 69.
Coptic version 25.
Copyists, faults of 10 f 20
60 276.
nCorbans 195.
Core 43 205 ; his sons 80.
Core, measure 253.
Corinth, u. 122 124 174.
Corinthians, epp. 124 I26i.
Cornelius, centurion 119
164.
Cornely, S. J. , on poetic
parallelism 71; on the
synoptics no.
Corozain, c. 155 165.
Corpse 202.

28;

Correctoria Biblica 263.
Corruption, judic. 223.
Cos, isl. 114.
Cotton 150 236.
Couches 236.
Councillors, royal 221.
Court, high 222.
- — royal 221.
Courts of Tabernacle 179*
180; Temple 189; ofthe
Gentiles 189, of the wo
men 190; in houses 235 ;
of justice 220 222.
Covenant 6. V. O. T.,
N. T.
Coverdale's Gr. B. 26.
Cow, the red 51 201 202.
Cows 240 243.
Credibility of B. I4ff; Mo
ses 46 ff; Gospels 116.
Creeks 154 f.
Crete, isl. 124 131 175.
Crimes 223 f.
Criticism, bibl. 17 35 274;
Higher Cr. 3 17 274 278.
Cross, inscription 108*.
Crucifixion 225 229; of
Christ 216.
Cubit, measure 253.
Cush, land 138 f.
Cuneiform inscriptions 3
19 48'^.
Cursing of parents 223.
Cursive writing 18 20.
Cyaxares 142 172.
Cymbals, mus. 249*.
Cypress wood 150 185.
Cyprus, isl. 122 174 77^^.
Cyril and Methode 25.
Cyrus, k. 6l*ff 91 97 141
172 188.
Cyrus (Koor), riv. 138.
Dagon, idol 159'* f.
Damascus 56 151 156 162
166 777.
Damasus, St. 21 23.
Dan, tribe 161 163; D., c.
53 55 '62.
Dances 249.
Daniel 58 90 96; book 13
19 g-;r; prophecies 97 f;
tomb 97.
Danish versions 27.
Daphka 148.
Daric, coin 252.
Darius, k. 62 96 172; pa
lace 97*.

Date-tree 240*.
Dathan 205.
David 54 59 ff 76 158 162
181 206 222 228 f ; songs
77 ; psalms 79 ff.
Day , natural and civil
211.
Deacons 118.
Dead, prayers for the 70.
Dead bodies 202.
Dead Sea 144 151 f IJJ.
Death 201.
Debora, proph. 52 90;
song 77.
Debts, payment of 214 225.
Decalogue 42.
Decapolis, prov. 166.
Deception v. Fraud.
Dedication of Tabernacle
180; first Temple 185
201 ; secondTemple 188 ;
Feast of D. 67 70 218.
Deluge 47 48* 139 203.
Demetrius, k. 67 227.
Denarius 252*.
Denisof Alexandria, St. 137.
Derbe, c. 122 174.
Deserts 154.
Destruction of Babylon 141 ;
Niniveh 142; Jerusalem
69 169 191; Temple of
Solomon 1 88; T. of Herod
191.
Deuterocanonical books II
12 ff 25.
Deuteronomy 43.
Diadem 220.
Didactic books of B. 6 70
121 ; d. poetry 76; d.
psalms 81.
Didrachma, coin 252.
Dinner 241 f.
Diocletian's edict 27.
Dion, c. 166.
Dionysius Exiguus and his
era 103.
Discoveries, Assyrian and
Egyptian 15 45 48.
Diseases 248.
Dishes 236 ; of the Taber
nacle 179.
Divination 223.
Division of B. 5 f; biblical
text 21 ; Chanaan 43 51
161; kingdom 55 162 f;
provinces 163 f; Asia
Minor 174; Psalms 80 f;
prophets 89 f; Leviies

205 ; priests 206 f ; sacri
fices 198 f.
Divorce 224 231.
Djebel-et-Tur 147.
Doctors of the law 208.
Dogma and B. 271.
Dogs 245.
Domestic antiquities 230 ff;
d. habits 234 f.
Domitian, emp. 114.
Doors of Temple 185 ff;
houses 235.
Dothain, vill. 144 165.
Douay version 26 40.
Drachma, coin 252.
Dragon of Babylon 98.
Dram 252.
Drawers, linen 206 237.
Dress of Levites 205, priests
206'*, hpr. 207*, people
236.
Drink-offerings z/. Libations.
Drinks 241.
Drusilla, queen 69.
Dutch versions of B. 27 31.
Dwellings 233.
Dyeing, art of 237 248.
Ear-rings 238.
East Sea 156.
Easter, feast 213.
Eastern Schismatic Church
13-
Ebal V. Hebal.
Ebionites in.
Ecbatana, c. 64 163.
Ecclesiastes 83 f.
Ecclesiasticus 12 87.
Eden, garden 138.
Edessa, c. 142.
Edom, Edomites 68 100
147 149 isg 193-
Edrei, c. 158.
Education of prophets 88,
children 232.
Eggs 241.
Egypt 41 144 146 150
173 193 235; literature
3 45 ; versions 25 ; dis
coveries 15 45; exodus
41; dominion 67; flight
into E. 104 ; torrent of
E. 157.
Elamites 157.
Elath, harbour 159.
Elders in the temple 190,
synagogues 191 ; ?'. An
cients.

Eleazar, hpr. 51 f 206 f.
E. Machab 67 ; E. the
just 67 70; E. of Gabaa
181.
Elect, Lady 135.
Elegiac poetry 59 76 94.
Eliakim, hpr. 65.
Elias, proph. 55 59 61 89
152 170.
Eliezer, proph. 89 ; servant
171.
Elim, vill. 148.
Eliseus, proph. 55 60189.
Eliu and Job 78.
El Kuds 166.
El Ledja 147.
El Lissom I55-
Elul, mo. 212.
Embroidery 237 248; in
Temple I77'
Emmaus, vill. 108 113
164.
Enac, Enacim 146 157.
Encyclical letters 133; first
papal E. 134.
Endor, vill. 166.
Engaddi, des. 154.
English versions 26 32.
Enlisting, milit. 228.
Ennon, c. 166.
Enoch V. Henoch.
Enumerators 18.
Ephesians, ep. 124 128 f.
Ephesus 114 123* f 128
136 174.
Ephi, measure 253.
Ephod 207*.
Ephraem, codex 30.
Ephraim, tribe 161 163
165; mts, 51 1 5 1 f ; forest
154-
Ephrem, vill. 106.
Epic poetry 76.
Epirus, prov. 124.
Epistles, apocryphal 12;
Sunday 21 ; St. Paul
124 ff; Catholic 133 ff;
St. James 133; St. Peter
134; St. John 13s f;
St. Jude 136.
Equality of men 132.
Equinoxes 2 1 2 f.
Era, Dionysian, common
103.
Erasmus of Rotterdam 31
134-
Er-Raha 147.
Esau 144 156 f.

Esdras, gov. 60 ff 102 208
221 f; canon 12 18 80;
Pentat 46; books 19 63;
iii. iv. books 12.
Esdrelon, plain 7j'7 f 1 5 7
165.
Esii-Sharkijeh 146.
Esh-Shueib 147.
Espousals V. Betrothal.
Esther, queen 66 218;
book 13 19 63 66 192.
Etham, des. 148.
Ethan, mus. 80.
Ethiopia, Ethiopic 138 ff
77^"; language 19; ver
sion 19 25 32; eunuch
193-
Etienne, Robert 21.
Et-Tih 146.
Eucharist 108 127; types
182 201 216; E. and
B. 2.
Eunuchs 221.
Euphrates, riv. 18 1 38 1 40
144 171.
Eusebius, hist. 27.
Euthalius, deacon 21.
Evangelist of the O.T. 92.
Evangelists 1 09 ff ; sym
bols 96 no.
Evangelium (Evangil) 109.
Evening 211.
Evilmerodach, k. 60 96
172.
Examples of the just 87
132.
Excommunication I27f 226.
Exegesis, bibl. 267, z*. Inter
pretation.
Exemptions, milit. 228.
Exile V. Captivity.
Exodus, book 42 ; from
Egypt 41 173; com
memorated 215 f.
Extreme Unction 133.
Ezechias, k. 57 80 91 160
168 f; prayer 88.
Ezechiel, proph, 58 90 95 ;
book 96.
Fable, Joatham's 53 77.
Faith a gift of God 126 f;
dangers 132 134 136;
perseverance 130 132
I34f; examples 87 132;
F. and good works 133;
F. in Christ justifies, not
theOldLaw 1 24 126 128;

F. and B. 259 f. F. and
Science 274-
Family, the 230 ff. ; chiefs of
219.
Fasts, public and private
195 ; F. days 217 218 i.
Fat in sacrifices 199 f
203.
Fathers of the Church 13
33 f 36 82 261 ff 270
275 ; V. Tradition.
Feasts, principal 214 ff;
minor 218.
Feet, washing 238.
Felix, gov. 69 164.
Ferrero's version 31.
Fertilizing the soil 245.
Festus, gov. 69 164.
Fields, the 245.
Figs 239 f.
Figurative sense 36, speech
76 ; V. Allegorical.
Fines, j. 224 f.
Finger-rings 238.
Fire, column of, v. Cloud.
First-born 195 196 ff 203 f
2J2.
First-fruits 194 797 204
215 227 241.
Fishes 240; unclean 203.
Fishing-smacks 251.
Flavius Josephus 13 103.
Flax 236.
Fleet 229.
Flemish versions 27.
Flesh-meat 240 ; in sacri
fice 198 f.
Flogging 211 225.
Flood V. Deluge.
Florence, council 14.
Florus V. Gessius.
Flour 238 f ; in sacrifices
200; fl.-mill 236.
Flute, mus. 248* 249.
Food, clean and unclean
203 f ; vegetable 238 f ;
animal 240 ; idolatrous
203.
Forests 1 54.
Fortified places 229.
Fortune-telling 223.
Fountain v. Pool.
Four, symb. number 183.
Fowls 240.
Frauds, hypoth. of bibl. 16
22 116 265.
French versions 26 31.
Fruits 239.

289

Fruit-trees, firstliiigs of 197
204.
Frumentius, St., version 25.
Fuel 236.
Fulda codex 30.
Fulling 248 f.
Functions, sacred 192 ff.
Funerals 242 f.
Furlong, measure 253.
¦Furniture 2,36 f.
Gabaa, vill. 53 181.
Gabaon, c. 158 181.
Gabbatha 168.
Gabelus. 64.
Gabriel, archang. 66.
Gad, tribe 52 161; proph.
89..
Gadara, c. 166.
Gaius, the host 136.
Galaad, prov. 149 151 iS7f
161.
Galatia, prov. 122 f 134
174-
Galatians, ep. 121 1 24 f 72.5'.
Galgala, vill. 89 181.
Galilee, prov. 105 i63 7<55'f;
sea 154; dialect 166.
Gamaliel, rabbi 121 208
210 259.
Garizim, mt. 44 63 68 152
158; temple 152 165.
Garments v. Dress.
Garrisons 229.
Gates of Jerusalem 167;
Temple 189; of the city
223.
Gaulanitis, prov. 166.
Gaza, c. 67 151 159 163
164.
Gazith in temple 210.
Gazophylazium 190.
Gedeon, j. 52 160.
Gehenna 153.
Gehon, riv. 138 153.
Gelboe, mts. 152 160.
Gemara, book 14 19.
Genealogies, bibl. 47 49
60 ; Assyrian 49 ; Jesus
Christ 112 f.
Genealogists 220 246 f.
Genesareth, lake 105 113
153 IS4 165.
Genesis, book 42.
Geneva B. 26.
Gentiles, vocation 53 97
100 109 113 119 121 f
125; C, of G. 189.
Messmek, Outlines of Bible

Genuineness v. Authenti
city.
Geography, bibl. 138 ff.
Gerah, coin 252.
Gerara, c. 144 159.
Gerasa, c. 166.
German versions 26 31.
Gessen, prov. 41 146.
Gessius Florus, gov. 69.
Geth, c. 159.
Gethsemane 108 169.
G/zor (Jordan valley) 156.
Gilead v. Galaad.
Ginffia, c. 106.
Girdles 206 229 237.
Glazing 249.
Goats 240 243 ; of atone
ment 200; G. hair 236.
God, the Lord 219; King
and Judge of Israel 222 ;
owner of land 214 245.
Godolias, gov. 59 93 219.
Gods V. Idols.
Goel (avenger) 224.
Golan, c. of refuge 162.
Gold land 138; g. coins
251 f; goldsmiths 248;
g. talents 252.
'Golden calves 55 ; g. altar
179 188.
Golgotha, mt. 168.
Gomor, measure 253.
Gomorrha, c. 156.
Gosen v. Gessen.
Gospels, the 6 109 ff; au-
henticity 116; synoptic
110115; apocryphal 12 ;
Sunday 21; versions 24 ff.
Hebrew G. in f; spiri
tual 119; G. of St. Peter
and St. Paul .113.
Gothic version 25.
•Government, Jewish 219 ff.
Governors, Roman 69 168
222 ; royal 221.
Gradual Psalms 81.
Grains 150 238 f.
Grape-vines 239 f ; valley
of grapes 153.
Grasshoppers, eatable 203
240.
Great B. 26.
Great Council v. Sanhedrim.
Great Sea 161.
Greece, prov. 1 20 I22f77.j;f.
Greek language 3 7° I
text 20 I n ; versions 1 2
23 ; manuscripts 28 f ;
Knowledge.

printed 31 ; Alexandrine
dialect 12; w. Septuagint.
Gregory the Gr., pope 24
263 277.
Guards, Temple 208 ; king's
228.
Guests 238 242.
Guide, need of special g.
in B. study33f 268 f 272.
Gum 240.
Gutenberg's types 30.
Habacuc, proph. 88 90
707 ; song 88.
Habits, domestic 233.
Hadrian, emp. 169.
Haggada 215.
Hagiog7-apha 6.
Hai, c. 144.
Hair, the 238 ; h.-cutting
238.
Haircloth 237.
Halicarnassus, c. 174.
Hall V. Porches.
Hallel, the Great 81 215.
Hammurabi's Law-book
49*.
Hanani, proph. 89.
Handkerchiefs 238.
Hand-mills 236* 238 f.
Hands, washing 242 ; laying
on 199.
Haneberg on Tabernacle
183.
Hanging, judic. 225..
Haptharas 21.
Haran, c. 142 144 171.
Haret, forest 154.
'Harp, mus. 248''" 249.
Harrows 246.
Harvests 204 212 214 ff.
Haseroth, c. 149.
Hasmonseans, the 67 221
225.
Hauran, prov. 151 166;
V. Basan.
Hearth 236.
Hebal, mt. 44 152 165.
Heber, patr. 18 47.
Hebrew language 12 18
20; letters 18; text 18
23 f; manuscripts 28;
printed BB. 31.
Hebrews, Ep. 14 86 124!
132 f; lyand of the H.
150; V. Israelites.
Hebron, vill. 143 7.j(^ i45*t
162 164. 19

290

Heli, hpr. 52 160 181 207.
Heliodorus, gen. 67.
Helmets 229.
Heman, mus. 80.
Henoch, patr. 47 139. City
of H. 139.
Herbs 240; bitter h. 215.
Herds 243.
Hermas, the Shepherd of
12.
Hermeneutics, bibl. 37.
Hermon, mt. 150! 154 156
162; little H. 152.
Herod the Gr. 68 103
163 164 ff 168 188;
Temple 68 106 ;H. Anti
pas 68 106 166; H.
Agrippa 69 119 168.
Herodians, party 209.
Herodias, queen 68.
Hesebon, vill. 158.
Hethites 143 144'* 157.
Hevilath 138.
Hevites 143.
Hieromax (Jarmuk) , riv.
156.
Hierapolis, c. 174.
High priest, the 51 61 178 f
204; offices 206 210
220 222 224; could not
marry a widow 206 ;
dress 207.
Hijjar, mo. 212 218.
Hillah, t. 140.
Hin, measure 253.
Hinnom, valley 153 169.
Hippo, council 14; c. 171
178.
Hippos, c. 166.
Hiram, k. 170.
Historical books of B. 6
40 ff 103 ff; Psalms 81;
H. science and B. 276.
Historiography 246.
History, natural, and B. 247.
Hittin, plain 152.
Hobab 160.
Hobbes 45.
Holda, proph. 90.
Hollandish versions 27 31.
Holocaust, the 199.
Holofernes, gen. 64 f 158.
Holy the, in Tabernacle
179 181 f; in Temple
188 191.
Holy of Holies, the, in
Tabernacle 178 181 f;
in Temple 188 191.

Holy Ghost, advent 118.
Fl Inspiration, Guide,
Reading.
Holy Land 149.
Homer's songs 3.
Honesty in trade 250.
Honey 200 241.
Hor, mt. 149 152.
Horeb, mt. 147 160 217.
Horrites 159.
Horses 244.
Hours of the day and
prayer 211.
Houses 234* f.
Hugh of St. Carus 21.
Hulda Gates 189.
Hungarian versions 27.
Hunting 240.
Hus, prov. 79-
Husbands 230.
Hyades, astr. 247.
Hyksos kings 41 146 173.
Hyrcanus, John, Mach. 68 f
100 159
Hyssop sprinkler 202.
Iconium, c. 122 174.
Idolatry, foolishness 86 ;
crime 95 223 226; not
tolerated 204 ; pagan 5 1 ;
Jewish 51 55.
Idols, pagan 49* 52* 55 *
95'* 159*-
Idumaea, Idumseans 68 10 1
isg 163.
Immorality, pagan 134 136.
Imposition of hands in
sacrifice 199.
Imprimatur 38.
Imprisonment 225.
Incense 1 79 200 ; Altar of
L 179.
Index, Roman, on B. read
ing 38.
India 175.
Inerrancy of B. 9 10 276 ff
279.
Infantry 228.
Injuries, corporal 224.
Inscriptions in Temple court
189*.
Inspiration of the B. I f
<? ff 32 36 257 ff; not
verbal 9 f; its extent
276 f; I. and revelation
10; I. and Nat. Science
10 274 ff. V. Inerrancy.
Instruments, agrarian 246 ;

musical 247* 248"'
249 *-
Intercalary month 212.
Intercession of Saints 70;
angels 78.
Interest v. Usury.
Interment v. Burials.
Interpretation, bibl. s^ ff
267 ff ; rules 34 269 279 ;
mistakes 279 ; private
33 f-
Interregnum 256.
Intoxicants v. Abstinence,
Drinks.
Introduction, bibl. 266 f.
Ionia, prov. 174.
Ionian sea 174.
Irenaeus, St. 16 268.
Irish version 27.
Irrigation 245.
Isaac, patr. 37 41 47 144
176.
Isaias, proph. 90 102;
book 91.
Islands 175.
Ismaelites 250.
Israel (Jacob) 41.
Israel (Israelites), unique
history 4 15; in Egypt
41* 146 173; journey
148 f; kingdom 55 90
162 163 ff; captivity 58f;
return 61 f; independ
ence 221 ; chosen people
ofGod4off53 88f i49f
182 192 f 197 204 214
219 222.
Issachar, tribe 162 165.
Itala version 23 24 30.
Italian versions 27 31.
Ithamar, pr. 206 f.
Ituraea, prov. 68 166.
Jabel, patr. 243.
Jabin, k. 51 f.
Jaboc, riv. 156 15S 161
164.
Jachin and Booz 185.
Jacob, patr. 41 47 50 144
146 171 176 219; well
105 165; vow 195;
tithes 197.
Jaffa V. Joppe.
fahreah 212.
Jair, j. 52.
James' B. 26.
James the Great, Ap. 69
113 "9f-

291

James the Less, Ap. loo
121 128 132 207 210;
ep 133-
Jamnia, c. 210.
Jannaeus 68.
Japhet (Japhetites) 139 142.
Jason of Cyrene 70.
Javelins 229.
Jealousy, trial 200 231.
Jebus (jebusites) 54 146
166 f.
Jechonias, k. 58 60 62.
Jehova, land of 150.
Jehu, k. 55 163; proph. 89.
Jephte, j. 52 158 195.
Jeremias, proph. 58 60 f
79 90 92 ; book 93 ; la
mentations 8 71 76 88
92 f 9^ 192; prayer 94;
epistle 95 ; grotto 93 * ;
hides the ark 188.
Jericho, c. 51 89 104 162
164; plain 153; des.
154-
Jeroboam I., k. 55 163;
J. IL 99-
Jerome, St. 21 23 85 89 124
260 f 263 267 ; Society
of 40.
Jerusalem 67 105 119 144
146 163; capital 54 251;
view 107* 168'*; topo
graphy 166 f ; map 167 * ;
destruction 69 93 98 169
191 222.
Jesus Christ, foretold 36 f ;
birth 103 ; life 104 f; ge
nealogy III; discourses
115; death 108 216;
resurrection 99 II 7 f
125 216; ascension 108;
divinity no 115 125 129
135 ; second coming 1 30 ;
J. the Redeemer, Mes
sias 5 III 132 149 201
217 260; Lamb of God
216; hpr. of N. T. i8i;
sacrifice of the Cross 201 ;
J. C. and the Church 85 ;
and the B. 259. V. Mes
sianic types.
Jesus Sirach 87.
Jethro, k. and pr. 160.
Jewelry 238.
Jews and the B. 13 15.
Jezabel, queen 55 ff 89.
Jezrael, plain 65 151.
Joachaz, k. 58.

Jojakim, hpr. 65.
Joachin, k. 58.
Joakim, k. 58 92.
Joarib, priest 206.
Joas, k. 57.
Job 71 76 77 f.
Jobel (jubilee) 214.
Joel, proph. 90 99.
John the Baptist 69 102 f
104 in 113 f 156 166;
Nazarite 196 ; desert 154.
John Evangelist 104 109 ;
113 120; Gospel n4f;
epp- 135 ff; Apocalypse
114 i3(>-
John V. Hyrcanus.
Jojada, hpr. 57 89.
Jonas, proph. 88 89 f 700
141 ; prayer 88.
Jonathan and David 59.
Jonathan Mach. 67 227.
Jonathan's Targum 24.
Joppe (Jaffa), c. 152 161
164*.
Joram, k. 159 169.
Jordan 43 51 144 149 1^6;
valley 152; Pride of the
J- 154.
Josaphat , k. 222 ; valley
153 169-
Joseph, St. 103.
Joseph of Egypt 41 97 146
165.
Josephus V. Flavius.
Josias, k. 58 90 IOI.
Josue, leader 43 s^ 220 ;
book 52 ; J. , hpr. 62
102.
Journeying 251.
Journeysoflsrael 42f I48f;
Jesus I05f; St. Paul I22f.
Jubal, patr. 248.
Jubilee year 214 245.
Juda, tribe 55 62 161 163
kgd. 55 57 60 90 163
desert 154; mts. 151 f
land of J. 150.
Judas Mach. 67 ff 158 188
218 228.
Judas Iscariot 118 216.
Jude, Ap. 136x75; ep. 136.
Judaea, prov. 163.
jfudeide, vill. 65.
Judges 52 159 220; book
53 ; inferior judges 222.
Judgment, last 153.
Judgment, private, v. Inter
pretation.

Judith 63 f 66 165 218;
song 77; book 12 19
64 i.
Julian Apostate 116.
Julius Caesar 68.
Just, their example 87.
Justice, public 222 ff; in
trade 250.
Kalah-Shergat 141.
Kali (potash) 249.
Kanatha, u. 166.
Kapporeth 178.
Karamleh 141.
Karreh, vill. 142.
Kaulen, Dr., on Pentateuch
46 50; Gospels 117.
Kedes v. Cedes.
Kenrick's B. 26.
Khorsabad 141.
Kidnapping 224.
King, his government 220 ff;
officers 221 ; revenues
227.
Kingdom, Jewish 54 59
220 f; division 55 59
162 227. Machab. Kgd.
68.
Kings, the books of 53 59.
Kings of Juda and Israel
256.
Kison, riv. 157.
Kitchens 235.
Koor (Cyrus), river 138.
Koresh (Cyrus) 91.
Kurdistan 171.
Kuyundjik 141.
Laban 144.
Laborosoarchod, k. 172.
Lakes 154 f.
Lamb, money 252.
Lamb v. Paschal.
Lambs in sacrifice 1 98 f 203 .
Lamech, patr. 47 230.
•Lamentation of suffering
mankind* 79.
Lamentations v. Jeremias.
Lamps in Tabernacle 1 79,
Temple 188, houses 236.
Lamuel, fictitious k. 83.
Land inalienable 214 245.
Landmarks 245.
Langton, Card. 21.
Laodicea, t. 136 174.
Laodiceans, epistle to the
12.
Last Supper 108 216.
It)*

292

INDEX.

Latin versions 3 f 23 f;
manuscripts 30 ; printed
31. V. Vulgate.
Laver v. Basin.
Law of Moses 6 19 42 f
46 f; rolls 28 192; book
191 220.
Laymen, Cath., andB. study
278 f.
Lazarus 106 115 169.
Leaven 239 ; not offered
200.
Lebanon, mt. 150 151 170;
cedars 154.
Lechaeon, harbour 175.
Legends in B., hypoth. 16.
Le Jay's Polyglot 32.
Lemon trees 150.
Leo XIII. 8 ff 17 33—36
40; Encycl. on B. study
I f 257 ff.
Leontes, riv. 151.
Leontopolis, Jewish temple
173-
Lepers (Leprosy) 200
201 f.
Levi V. Matthew.
Levi, tribe 767 f 204 228.
Levirate marriage 230.
Levites 42 f 204 205 ; cities
52 162.
Leviticus, book 42.
Libations in sacrifices 179
198 200 213.
Lieutenant general 221.
Lights, feast of 218. F.
Lamps.
Linen v. Byssus.
Literal sense 36.
Literature, bibl. i ff; ancient
3 45 ; European 4.
Lithostrotos 1 68.
Liturgy and B. 2 37 82
85 87 94 262 270.
Log, measure 253.
Logos, the 116.
London Polyglot 32.
Looking-glasses 238.
Lot, patr. 144 156 159.
Lots 218; judicial 223.
V. Urim.
Love, brotherly 132.
Luke, St. 109; Gospel 16
77^ f; Acts 120.
Lunar months 212.
Luther 14 26 30 f.
Luza, c. 144 146.
Lycaonia, prov. 122 174.

Lycia, prov. 174.
Lydda, c. 164.
Lydia, proselyte 193.
Lydia, prov. 174.
Lye 202 249.
Lyons in Gaul 69.
Lyric poetry 76.
Lysanias, tetr. 166.
Lystra, c. 122 174.
Macedonia, prov. 120 122 f
124 130 77.// M.-Alex.
dialect 20.
Machabean brothers, the
seven 67 70.
Machabees 67ff 159 163
207 221 f 228; books
12 f 6gf; III. IV. books
12.
Machaerus, fortress 166.
Madian (Madianites) 52
149 j6o.
Magdala, c.. 155 166.
Magi, the 104 in 173.
Magnificat B. M. V. 77 ;
Anna 61 77.
Mahanaim, vill. 144.
Majuscules 20.
Malachias, proph. 90 102.
Maledictory Psalms 82.
Malermi's version 31.
Malta, isl. 175.
Mambre, valley 144 153
176.
Manasses, tribe 52 161 f.
M., k. 58 65 101 168;
prayer 12 88; priest 62
165.
Manna, the 178.
Mantles 237.
Manuscripts, bibl. 20 27 ff.
Mara, vill. 148.
Mardochai 66 218.
Mariamne, queen 68.
Mark, St. log f 134; Gospel
112.
Markeshvan, mo. 212.
Market-place 223; in
Temple 189.
Marmalade, sweet 215.
Maon, desert 154.
Marriage, Christian 127
129 231; M. , Jewish
230 ff; mixed 62 206
230; M. of priests 205,
hpr. 206, slaves 233.
Mary, Aaron's sister 43 go
149.

Mary Magd. 108 113.
Mary, Mark's mother 112.
Mary, Lazarus' sister 108.
Mary, the B. V. 37 77 85
104 113 f 118 203. F.
Types.
Maryland 150.
Masorah (Masorets) 19 22
28.
Maspha, vill. 181.
Mathathias, Mach. 67 69
206 221.
Matthew, Evang. 19 log
777.
Matthias, St. 118 I20 175.
Meals, sacrificial 199 214?;
common 238 f 241 ;
prayers 241 f.
Measures, bibl. 251 ff.
Meat 238 240.
Mechanics 246 248.
Media, kgd. 163 172.
Medicine 247 ; v. Physi
cians.
Mediterranean Sea 143 149
151 154 f; islands 175.
Megilloth (Rolls) 28 192.
Melchisedech, pr. 132 198.
Memnon, gov. 67.
Memphis, c. 146.
Menahem, k. 56.
Menes, k. 173.
Merchants v. Commerce.
Mercy Seat 178.
Meroe, kgd. 173.
Merom, lake 51 154 156.
Mesopotamia 41 140 142
144 777.
Messianic prophecies 7 36
50 59 86 goff 94 96 ff
101 ff; types 37 50 f
100 181 183 193 f 201
216 f; Psalms 81 ; weeks
98.
Messias, belief in the 89 ff
in 198 200.
Metaphorical sense 36.
Micheas, proph., the elder
89, the younger 90 700.
Middle Ages and the B.
3 f 14 27 30 3g 263 ff.
Mile 253.
Miletus, c. 174.
Military v. Army.
Milk 240.
Mills, hand-m. 236.
Ministers, royal 221.
Minuscules 20 28.

293

Miracles and the B. 117.
Mirrors 238.
Misael of Babylon 96.
Mishna, the ig.
Missions , first apostolic
174 f.
Mistakes v. Copyists.
Mite, coin 252.
Mitre of priests 206. f'.
Turban.
Mna, coin 252.
Moab (Moabites) I4g 158
IS9 193; land 157;
mounts 151 f; plain 153.
Modin, c. 67.
Moloch, idol 153 158.
Monastery, mt. of the 147.
Money, bibl. 251!.
Monogamy 230.
Monophysitic versions 25.
Monotheism 48.
Months, bibl. 212.
Moon, New 214 217 246.
Moral books of B. 7.
Morals and B. 259 ff.
Moreh, grove 144.
Moria, mt. 54 167 f 185.
Morning 211.
Moses 41 45 47 50 89 148
160 220 222 ; blessing,
canticle and death 44
77; psalm 89; mt. 147'*
148.
Mosul, c. 141.
Mothers 201 203 231 f.
Mountains 151 ff.
Mourning v. Burials.
Mughair, vill. 143*.
Mules 243 f.
Murder 224.
Music 89 248 24g.
Musicians in temple igo
ig4 205 ; of Egypt 247*.
Mustum, drink 241.
Mutilations 225.
Myrrh 150.
Mysia, prov. 174.
Mysteries, divine, and B.
33 257 268.
Mystical sense 36.
Mythology , Assyr.-Babyl.
48.
Myths, hypoth. of bibl. 16
48 116 265.
Nabatean traders 159.
Naboned, k, 172.
Nabopolassar, k.58 142 1 72.

Nabuchodonosor 58 61 64
96 f 141 i6g 188 2ig
248.
Nabuzardan, k. 2ig.
Nadab, priest 43.
Nahum, proph. 90 10 1.
Naim, c. 166.
«Naked» 237.
Name of child 192 231 f.
Names of Holy Land 149 ;
the twelve tribes j6i 207 ;
the judges 52 ; kings of
Assyr. and Babyl. 172;
kings of Juda and Israel
256; prophets 89 256;
months 212.
Nasi, chief rabbi 210.
Nathan, proph. 61 77 89.
Nathanael, disciple 104.
Natron 249.
Natural science and B. 10
274 f.
Nazareth 166; fountain
105'*.
Nazarites, vow 196; sacri
fice 200 f; defilement
202; abstinence 241.
Neapolis, c 174.
Nebo, mt. 44 152 153*.
Nebukadnezar 58.
Necho, k. 58.
Necklaces 238.
Nehemias, gov. 62 f 218
221 ; book 63.
Nephtali, tribe 64 162 165 ;
mts. 151 f.
Neriglissor, k. 172.
Nero, emp. 120 124.
New Moon 200.
New Testament, books 3
5 f 39 103 ff; chrono
logy 103; foretold 6 81
97 gg f 102; superior
to O. T. 132.
Nicaea, council 14 174.
Nicanor, gen. 218 ; N. Gate
igo.
Nicodemus 105.
Nicomedia, c. 174.
Nicopolis, c. 124.
Night, the, and its watches
211.
Nile, the 146.
Nimrod, patr. 140.
Nimrud, c. 141.
Ninive, c. 15 58 64 100 f
140 7^7 151 163 171.
Nisan, mo. 108 212 f 216.

Nob, vill. 181.
Nod, land of 139.
Noe , patr. 47 50 230 ;
commandments ig3.
Nomes 146.
Northumbrian version 26.
Notaries 223.
Numbers, book 43.
Numbers, symbolic 182.
Nuptials 231.
Nurses v. Wetnurses.
Nuts 240.
Oak 150 154.
Oaths 196. O. of al.
legiance 220.
Obed 52.
Obedience 126 134.
Obol, coin 252.
Oblations v. Offerings.
Obscurity of B. 268.
Observances, pious i g4 ff.
Ochozias, k. 160.
Octave, festal 214.
Offence, Mount of 169.
Offerings, sacred 196 ff;
V. Sacrifice.
^Officer of the Temple" 208.
Officers of the Temple 208 ;
synagogue 191 209 211;
king 221 ; army 228.
Og, k. 158.
Oil 239 ; in sacrifice 200
202.
Ointments 238.
Old Testament, books 3 5 f
39 40 ff; type of N. T.
132.
Olives 150 239*.
Olivet, mt. 108 152 169.
Onesimus, slave 131.
Onkelos' Targum 24 32.
Ono, c. 164.
Ooliab, builder 177.
Oracle, sacred 178 206.
Orange tree 150.
Ordinations 200 205.
Organ, mus. 248.
Oriental languages and B.
18 264 273.
Origen's Hexapla 263.
Original sin 126 194.
Original texts 18 ff.
Orion, astr. 247.
Ornaments, personal 238.
Osee, proph. 56 go gg.
Othoniel, j. 52.
Ovens 236 23g.

294

Oxen 243.
Ozias, prince 66.
Pace, measure 253.
Palestine, division 51 f 68
161 f; geography 149 ff
157 ff; summer 150;
winter 150; neighbour
hood 163 ff i7off.
Palimpsests 28.
Palms 150.
Pamphylia, prov. 122 174.
Paper, writing 28.
Paphlagonia, prov. 174.
Paphos, c. 175.
Papyrus 3 28.
Parables, bibl. 36 77; of
Jesus Christ 113.
Paradise 138 f; earthly and
heavenly 137.
Paralipomena v. Chronicles.
Parallelism, poetical 70 ff.
Parasceve 213 216.
Paraschas 21.
Parchment 28 192.
Parisian codex 30.
Parker's B. 26.
Parthia, prov. 173.
Pasch, feast 43 197 200.
Paschal lamb 8 1 200 2 1 5 f.
Passover 212 f 214 2i,s ^¦
Pastoral life 243.
Pastures 227 243.
Patara, c. 1 74.
Patmos, isl. 114* 136.
Patras, c. 175.
Patriarch (Nasi), the 210.
Patriarchs 41 f 143 f 159
2ig,- age 47; example
87; sacrifices 198.
Paul, St., hfe 69 112 ng
121 { i8gf 207 ; Nazarite
196; tent-maker 234; vo
cation 119, consecration
120, journeys 122 ff 174 ;
dispute with Jewish con
verts n 9, and with St. Pe
ter 121; captivity 112
123 f; death 120 124.
Epistles 16 124 ff; ob
scurity 125; medallion
120*; P. on the B. 33
259.
Peace-offerings igg.
Pella, v;. 166.
Peloponnesian Isthmus 1 74.
Penalties v. Punishment.
Penance, types of 181.

Penitential Psalms 80.
Pentateuch, origin 42 44 ff
47 ; credibility 46 ff; Sa
maritan 24 31 f.
Pentecost, feast 197 200
214 216, ¦ day 1 18.
Persea, prov. 106 150 163
166.
Perfumery 238.
Pergamus, c. 136 174.
Perge, c. 174.
Pericopes, Sunday 21.
Perjury v. Swearing.
Persian domination 60 f 63
66 67 171 f 175 227;
gulf 140 1 7 1 ; version 32.
Persons, sacred 204 ff.
Peshito version 24.
Peter, St. 112 118 ff; vo
cation 104; captivity 69;
head of Church 108; at
Antioch 121 , Samaria
118, Caesarea ng, Rome
112 119 f 125 174;
death 120; medallion
120*; epistles 134 136;
on the B. 32 99 125
259.
Petersburg codex 29.
Petra, c. 151 f 159 172.
Petrffia (Arabia) 68 148
172.
Phanuel, c. 144 163.
Pharan, desert 43 146 f.
Pharao, k. 41.
Pharisees 108 f n5f207;
sect 209; perversion 13
23 ig6 f 204 208 242.
Phasga, mt. 151.
Phelethites 228.
Pherezites 157.
Phihahiroth, vill. 148.
Philadelphia, c. 136 166
174-
Philemon, ep. 124 131.
Philip, Ap. 175. Ph., deacon
118 173.
Phihp I. and II., kings 68;
Ph., tetrarch 166.
Philip II. of Spain, Poly
glot 32.
Philippi, c. 112 122 f I2g f
174-
Philippians, ep. 124 129.
Philistia (Philistines) 52
144 149 isg.
Philo of Alexandria 13.
Philoxene's version 25.

Phineas, hpr. 5' f-
Phison, riv. 138.
Phithom, fortress 41 146
148.
Phoebe, deaconess 175.
Phoenicia 149 f 770 235;
letters 18.
Phrygia, prov. 1I2 f 174.
Phul z/. -Tiglath Pilasar.
Phurim, feast 66 218.
Physicians 247 f.
Piety and B. reading 40
262 280.
Pigs V. Swine.
Pigments 238.
Pilate, Pontius, gov. 69.
Pillars V. Jachin.
Pisidia, prov. 122 174.
Pistachio, nut 240.
Pius VI. 40 ; P. IX. 29 38 ;
P. X. 22 35 40, pref. VIII.
Places, holy 1 76 ff.
Plains 152 f.
Plants V. Products.
Platonism 86.
Pleiades, astr. 247.
Ploughs 246.
Poetry, bibl. 44 53 59 -jo ff
77 88 234 236; poetic
al books 7 21 70 ff.
Points, vowel 19.
Police-force 208.
Polish versions 26 32.
Political antiquities 219 ff.
Polygamy 230.
Polyglot BB. 32 264.
Polytheism 48.
Pomegranates 207 ; fruit
240.
Pompey, consul 68 221.
Pontus, prov. 134 174.
Pool of Bethesda 105 169;
Siloe 169 217.
Poor, care of 197; sacrifice
200 202 f.
Popes and the B. 24 29 38
40 264.
Porches ofthe Temple 189;
of houses 235.
Porphyrius, philos. 1 16.
Porters in temple 205.
Prceto riuTn 168.
Prayers, public and private
194; poetical 88; Psalms
80 82 ; hours 211 ; Pr.
for the dead 70 and the
sick 133.
uPreacheru, the 84 192.

INDEX.

295

Prefects, levitical 205, royal
221.
« Presbyter*, the 136.
Press, modern, and B. 266,
pref. VI.
"Priest, the second* 208.
"Priestly Code», the 46.
Priests 200 204 f; could
not marry a. divorced
woman 206; classes 210;
court 190; judges of
sacrifices igg, and puri
fications 202 ; support 227
229; abstinence 241.
Princes of tribes 2ig; Le
vites 205.
Prisoners of war 2 2g.
Proceedings, judicial 223.
Procession, festal 217; bri
dal 231.
Procurators v. Governors.
Products of soil 150 238 ff
245 f-
Professors of bibl. science
266.
Promise, Land of 149.
Prophecies v. Messianic.
Prophecy, false 223.
Prophetesses go
Prophetic books of B. 6 88 ff.
Prophets, office 54 5g 88;
schools 88 ; classes 86 f ;
two orders 89 ; writings
5 f 76 88 ff 240; chrono
logy 256.
Propitiatory 178.
Proselytes 193 f.
Protestant versions 26 38;
commentators 34; B.
societies 38 ; reformers
and B. n 13 f 34.
Protocanonical books I2f.
Proto-Evangelium 50.
Proverbs of Solomon 72
8s i.
Providence, God's, with the
just 77 ff.
Psalms, book 39 76 79 ff;
messianic 8 1 ; festal 81 ;
in liturgy 82.
Psaltery, mus. 247* 249.
Ptolomies,' Kings 173.
Ptolomy Lagi 23 ; Pt. Philo
pater 86.
Publicans 227.
Pulpit and B. 260 ff.
Punctuation in text ig 20 f.
Punishment, capital 213 223

22Si 231 233; judicial
225.
Purifications , mosaic 200
201 f.
Purple colour in temple 177
183; ephod 207; dress
237.
Purse, the 238.
Quadrant, coin 252.
Quarantania, desert 106'"
154; mt. 152.
Rabbath Ammon, c. 158.
Rabbinical schools 1 8 ; tra
ditions 207 2og.
Rabbis ig2 208.
Rabsakas, gen. 58.
Rages, c. 64 163.
Rain, early and latter 1 50.
Raisins 23g.
Ram, battering- 22g.
Rama (Ramathan), vill. 8g
164 181.
Ramesses, c. 41 146 148.
Ramleh, plain 151.
Ramoth, c. 162.
Ramses II. , k. 146.
Raphana, c. 166.
Raphael, archangel 64.
Raphidim, plain 148.
Rational v. Ephod.
Rationalism and B. 17 45
4763 86 g8 265 272 274.
Reader in synag. igi.
Reading v. Bible R.
Real sense 36.
Rebecca 171.
Rechabites, vow ig5.
Red Sea 146.
Redeemer v. Jesus Christ,
Messias.
Redemption , universal, v.
Gentiles.
Redemption of first-born
197 203 ; tithes 1 9 7 ; con
secrated objects ig5.
Reed, measure 253.
Refuge, cities of 52 224.
Registrars 220 228.
Rely, de, version 31.
Renan 116.
Repasts v. Meals.
Resen, c. 140 f.
Restitution 224.
Resurrection, general 70 gg
127 130; z^. Jesus Christ.
Retaliation, law of 224.

Revelation, divine, and B.
I 257; inspiration 2 10
277.
Revenues, public 226 ff.
Rhemish version 26.
Rhodes, isl. 175.
Rhymes in B. 70.
Rhythm, poetical 70 74.
Riddle, Samson's 77.
Riding 251.
Rings, jewelry 238.
Rivers 156.
Roads, public 250; com
mercial 151 152.
Robert Etienne (Stephanus)
21.
Roboam, k. 55 5g 163 169.
Rogel, fountain i6g.
Rolle, Richard, version 26.
Rolls, bibl. 28 ig2.
Roman dominion 68 ff 1 63 ff
227 ; V. Governors.
Romans, ep. 124 I2jf.
Rome , centre of Church
121; new Babylon 134,
St. Peter 112 779 f 125;
St. Paul 1 20 1 23 ; St. Luke
112; St. Mark 112; Chris
tians at R. 125 129 174;
Council 14.
Roofs 235.
Rooms in temple 185 189 f;
in houses 234 f.
Rossi, John Bernard de 22.
Royal household 221; re
venues 227 ; portico 189.
Ruben, tribe 52 767 219.
Rulers in synagogues 191
211.
Ruth, book SJ 192.
Rutum, battle 172.
Ryder, Dr., on B. societies
38.
Saba, c. 172.
Sabbath, the 211 ^7^" f ;
sacrifice 213; S. -journey
213 253; rest 233; S.
breaking 223; S. a type
213; in the synagogues
192 ; S. month 213; S.
year 214.
Sackcloth 195 237.
Sacred Lot 223.
Sacrifices, places 176 ff;
nature and kinds 198 f;
extraordinary 200 ; inner
and outer 200 ; of the

296

poor 200 202 ; typical
sense 201.
Saddles 244 f.
Sadducees 108 207 2og.
Salamis, c. 122 175.
Salecha (Salkat), c. 166.
Salem, c. 144 146 166 176.
Salmanassar, k. 56 165 172.
Salome, John's mother 113.
Saloniki, c. 174.
Salt in sacrifice 200.
Salt Sea 155 f; S. valley
155-
Samaria, c, 55 f 152 163.
S., prov. 105 119 163
i6s.
Samaritan language 20 ;
Pentat. 24 31 f; S. wo
man 105 165.
Samaritans 44 56 62 f 113
165.
Samgar, j. 52 160.
Samos, isl. 114.
Samothracia 174.
Samson, j. 52 160; Naza
rite 196; riddle 77.
Samuel, j. 52 f 89 iSl ;
books 59; tomb 54'*.
Sanaballat, gov. 62 165.
Sandals 237.
Sanhedrim 118 208 2og i
• 111.
Sanur (Bethulia) 65'*.
Sapiential books 7 39.
Sardanapal, k. 1 72.
Sardis, c. 136 174.
Sarepta, vill. 170.
Sargon, k. 15'* 56 f 64
141 172; palace 142*.
Sargos, c. 141.
Saron, plain 152 157.
Saturn, astr. 247.
Saul, k. 54 60 152 158
160 181 248.
Scandinavian versions 27.
Scent bottles 238.
Sceptre 220.
Schools of prophets 88 ; in
synagogues 192 ; Theol.
Sch. and the B. 262 f.
Science, JewisTi 246 ff.
Science, Cath. bibl. 17 35
269. Sc. natural, and B.
274f. Sc, historical, and
B.276f. "Sc, free» 265.
Scourging v. Flogging.
Screens of Tabernacle court
178 180.

Scribes 18 205 2o8i 220.
Scriptures v. Bible.
Scythia, prov. 1 75.
Scythopolis 166.
Seah, measure 253.
Seals and signets 238.
Seasons, yearly 212.
Sebaste, c. 165.
Sebayeh, es-, plain 148.
Secretaries, royal 221.
Sects 208 f.
Sedecias, k. 59 93 169.
Seduction, warning 134 136.
Segor, c. 155 f.
Sehon, k. 158.
Seir, mts. 144 147 151 159.
Sela (Petra), c. 159.
Selcha v. Salecha.
Seleucides, kk. 67 6g.
Sem, patr. 47 I3g 1 7 1.
Semeias, proph. 8g.
Seminaries and B. 266 280.
Semiramis' hanging gar
dens 141.
Semites 142.
Sennaar, plain 139 f 142.
Sennacherib, k. 57 ^ ^4
91 169 172; sons I3g.
Senses, bibl. 33 j-^ff 264;
true 33 36 268.
Sensuality, sin 225.
Sentence, judic. 223.
Septuagint version 3 12 ff
23 87 173 264.
Septuary, festal 214.
Sephela, plain 152 157.
Sermon on the Mount in.
Serpent, astr. 247.
Servants 232.
Sesac, k. i6g.
Seth (Sethites) 47 I3g.
Seven, symbolic number
183.
Seventy years of Jeremias
61 94 98 ; S. year- weeks
of Daniel 98.
Sextary, measure 253.
Shaving 238.
Shearing, first 197.
Shebat, mo. 213.
Shechinah 178* 181; dis
appeared 188.
Sheep 243.
Shekel, coin 226 2S2*.
Shepherd-kings v. Hyksos.
Shewbread, sacred 179*
182 188 191 200.
Shields 229.

Ships 229 250 f.
Shoes 237.
Sichem, c. 52 55 63 144
162 165 176.
Sicily 175.
Sickles 22g 246.
Siddim, valley 144 156.
Sidon, c. 105 162 170.
Silas 122.
Silk 237.
Silo, c. 165 181.
Siloe, pool 169 217.
Silver, coins 252. S. manu
script 25 ; silversmiths
248.
Simeon, tribe 160 161 f
163. S., the just 77.
Simon, Ap. 175; hpr. 87;
S. Mach. 67 f 218 221
252; S. the leper 108.
Sin, desert 147 f.
Sin, original 126 194.
Sin-offerings igg f.
Sin, forgiveness 200.
Sinai, mt. 42 f 122 147*
216.
Sinaitic codex 29 ; pen
insula 45 147.
Sinope, c. 174.
Sintjar, prov. 171.
Sion, mt. 167.
Sirach, Jesus 87.
Sisara, gen. 52 157'
Sivan, mo. 212.
Sixtus V. 24 264.
Skins, bottles, beds, dress
236 ; Sk., coverings of
Tabernacle 177; and tents
234; for writing 28.
Slander 224.
Slavery 224 f ; abolition
132 233.
Slaves 232 f; ofthe temple
205.
Slavic version 25.
Sling, the 229.
Smyrna, c. 136 1 74.
Soba, c. 171.
Socoth, vill. 148.
Sodom 156.
Soldiers 228.
Solid, coin 252.
Solomon, k. 54 59 ; poet 76 ;
learning 246 f; Psalms
80 ; Proverbs 83 ; Song of
Songs 84 ; Job 79 ; Temple
59 7<?j>ff; plan 184*;
destroyed 188; S. and

297

the ark i8i ; his con
version 84.
Songs, bibl. 53 5g 6i 66
77 98.
Sophonias, proph. go 707.
Sorcery 223.
Sorec, brook 157.
Spain, St. Paul in 123 f.
Spanish versions 26.
Spears 22g.
Spices 240.
Spies, the twelve 43 149.
Spinning 248..
Spinoza 45.
Spiritual, sense 36.
Spoils V. War.
Square letters 18.
Stadium, measure 253.
Staff 238.
Standards of weights etc.
251.
Stars 247.
Stater, coin 252.
Stephen, St. 118 122 210.
Stichometry 21.
Stocks, judic. 225.
Stones, precious 207.
Stoning, judic. 223 225.
Stools 236.
Stoves V. Ovens.
Strauss n 6 f.
Streets v. Roads.
Strophes and verses 75f.
Strymon, riv. 174.
Suffering, mystery 77 ; pa
tience 79.
Sugar-cane 150.
Sulamith, the bride 85.
Sun-dials 212.
Supper 241 ; Last S. 108.
Sur V. Etham.
Susa, u. 97.
Susanna 98.
Swearing, false 196 223.
Swine 245.
Sword 229; S. song 77.
Syllabus 35.
Symbolic actions 37 ; vi
sions 1 00.
Symbolism of Tabernacle
and its contents 181 f;
numbers 183; colours
183.
Symbols of Evangelists 96
no.
Synagogues 21 797 f. B.
reading 192; officers
211; the Great S. 210.

Synedrium 210.
Synoptic Gospels nof.
Syria 56 67 f 122 150777
251-
Syrian versions 24 31;
kings 67 ; S.-Chaldean
dialect 20.
Systrum, mus. 249 *.
Tabernacle, the 42 776 ff
234 248; its symbolism
181 ff.
Tabernacles, feast 44 62
81 212 214 ^77.
Table of Shewbreads I7g
191 ; of the Law 178.
Tabor v. Thabor.
Talent, money 252.
Talmud 14 ig 208 226.
Tanis, t. 144, prov. 146.
Tapsacus, t. 162.
Targums, versions 20 24 32.
Tarsus, c. 1 2 1 f 1 74.
Tatian's Gospel Harmony
116.
Taxes, public ig7 226 f;
T. -gatherers 227.
Tebeth, mo. 213 219.
Temple of Solomon 54 168
183 ff; Zorobabel 62 f
188; Herod 186* (plan)
187'* (view) 189 ff. T.
courts 185 189; music
80 ff igo ig4 205 ;
guards, officers 208 ; tax
197 226; destruction 69
169 188 igi.
Tents 234.
Terebinths 150; valley of
153-
Tertullian 16 120.
Testament v. O. T., N. T.
Testimony, false 224.
Tetradrachm of Alexander
the Gr. 67*.
Tetrarchates 163.
Texts, original 10 7<? ff;
division 21.
Thabor, mt. 152 165.
Thaddeus v. Jude.
Thammuz, mo. 212 218.
Thamnatsare 51.
Thank-offerings ig9.
Thaphsa, c. 162.
Thare and Abraham 142 f.
Thebes,c.ioi,kgd.i46i73. Thecua, vill. 99.
Thecue, des. 154.

Theft 224 233.
Theocracy 2ig f.
Theodore of Mops. 85.
Theology and B. 271.
Theophilus 113 120.
Thermaic bay 174.
Thermutis, princess 41.
Thersa, c. 163.
Thessalonians, epp. 124
7^-0 ff.
Thessalonica 122 174.
Thola, j. 52.
Thomas, Ap. 108 175 ; Th.
a Kempis 2 40 ; Th .Aqui
nas 183 264 272 275.
Thorah, the 42.
Threshing 246.
Thummim and Urim 207
223.
Thyatira, c. 136 174.
Tiberias, c. 19 108 in
155 * 166 210; sea 154.
Tiberius, emp. 104 166.
Tiglath-Pilasar, k. 56* 1 72.
Tigris 138 140 ff 171.
Tih, et-, desert 146.
Timothy, St. 124 ; ep. 130 f.
Tischendorf codex 29.
Tishri, mo. 2i2f 217 2ig
Tithes ig7; Abrah., Jacob
197-
Titles, Gospel division 21.
Titus, emp. 69 169 222;
arch igo*f.
Titus, St. 124 175 ; ep. 131.
Tobias 63 f, T. jr. 14'*;
book 12 ig 64.
Tongue, sins 133.
Torrent of Egypt 157 161.
Towers, watch- 239.
Trachonitis , prov. 68 79
166.
Trade 250 ff.
Tradition, apostolic g 13
44; primitive 47 4g ;
pagan 48 ; Jewish 1 3 1 5
18 44 46 63 85; Chris
tian 13 44 63; Tr. and
revelation 257f ; Tr. and
B. 268 ; V. Fathers.
Traditores 28.
Trajan, emp. 112.
Transcripts, bibl. 28.
Trebizond (Trapezunt), c.
174.
Travelling 237 251.
Trent, Council 6 n 13 14
24 33 36f 264 267f 277.

2.98

Trespass-offering iggf.
Treves 175.
Trevisa's version 26.
Trials, judic. 223.
Tribes, twelve 435 1 f 161 f
207. Tr. and families 219.
Tribunals, judic. 222 f.
Tributes to conquerors 227.
Troas, c. 112 122 f 174.
Trowsers 237.
Trumpets 214 218 249.
Tubalcain 248.
Tunics 205 f 237.
Turbans 206 237.
Tutmosis, k. 173.
Tyndale's B. 26.
Types, messianic 36 f 50 f
S3 61 79 181 ff 198
216 f; B. V. M. 53 61
66; church 61 181 183
193 ; heaven 213.
Typical sense 37.
Typology, bibl. 37.
Tyre, c. 67 105 151 170*
1 74 ; Tyrian Ladder 152.
Tyropceon, valley 169.
Ulfilas' version 25.
Uncial letters 20 28 f.
Uncleanness, mosaic 201.
Unction of hpr. 205 ; k.
220; Extreme U. 133 f.
Universality of Redemption
V. Gentiles.
Upsala codex 25.
Ur, c. 142 143* 157 171.
Urbis Conduce (U. C.) 103.
Urias 158.
Urim V. Thummim.
Usury 225 250.
Valleys 153; of Artificers
248.
Vanity of earthly things 84.
Variant readings 22 267!.
Vasthi, queen dd.
Vatican codex 29 * ; Coun
cil 8 n 33 227 268 f.
Vaughan, Mgr., on private
judgment 34.
Veadar, mo. 212.
Vegetable offerings 200 ;
food 238 240, V. first-
fruits.
Veil of Holy 180; Holy
of H. 178 185 199;
rent 181 igi.

Veils of women 237.
Vellum (parchment) 28.
Vercellone, Charles 22.
Vernacular v. B. reading.
Verses and chapters 21 ;
vv. and strophes 74 f-
Versions, ancient 23 ff 267;
modern 25 ff.
Vespasian, emp. 6g.
Vestments v. Dress.
Victims in sacrifice ig8.
Vienne in Gaul, u. 6g.
Vinegar 242.
Vineyards 150 23g f; di
verse crops 204.
Vintage 239.
Virginity and marriage 127.
Visions, prophetic 88 92
96 f.
Volume, sacred 1.
Vowels, hebr. ig.
Vows, pious ig5.
Vulgate, version 4 6 n f
22 2S f 264 f 267 ;
manuscripts 30 ; printed
31-
¦Waggons 251.
Walton's Polyglot 31 32.
Warka, u. 140.
Wars 227 f ; spoils 227
22g ; prisoners 22g.
Washing, legal 202 ; feet
238; hands 242.
Watches, night- 211.
Watch-towers 23g.
Water-clocks 212.
Weaning of child 232.
Weapons, military 229.
Weaving 237 248.
Weddings 231.
Week, the 212; feast of
weeks 216; year- weeks
of Daniel 98.
Weights 252 f.
West Manasses 162 165.
West, Sea of the 156.
Wetnurses 232.
Wheat 238.
Whittingham's B. 26.
Wife and concubine 230.
Wife's golden alphabet 84.
Windows 235.
Wine 240; in sacrifice 200 ;
at paschal meal 215.
Wine-press 239.
Winnowing 246.

Wisdom, book 13 86. W.
of Sirach 87.
Wisdom, Divine, Eternal 7
83 86 f gs ; True W.
86 f.
Wiseman , card. , on the
Psalms 82.
Witness of the Apostles
118 135-
Witnesses, judic. 223 f.
Women's dress 237; court
igo 202; dwelling 235;
at meals 242. W. serv
ants in Temple 205.
Wood 150 177 185 235.
Wool 236.
Word, the Eternal 83 II 5 f.
Work, abstention from
servile 213.
Works, necessity of good
133-
World-Empires, prophecy
of the four 97.
Writ, Holy I.
Writing art, form, mate
rial 18 ff 28 45 192.
Wycliffe's B. 26.
Xerxes, k. dd.
Ximenes' Polyglot 31 f.
Yard, measure 253, v. Court.
Year, Jewish 150 212 i\
New Y. 200 213 218;
Sabbath Y. 7 214; Ju
bilee Y. 214 245 f.
Yebna, c. 210.
Yemen (Arabia) 172.
Youth, admonitions to 84.
Y. and B. 274.
Zab, riv. 141.
Zabadias, chief justice 222.
Zabulon, tribe 76^ 165 251.
Zacharias, priest 77 206.
Zacharias , prophet , the
older 89 ; the younger
90 IOI 102 195.
Zacheus, publican 106 113.
Zin, desert 147 149.
Ziph, desert 154.
Zither, mus. 249.
Zoan, c. 146.
Zodiac, astr. 247.
Zomzommim 157.
Zorobabel, gov. 62 f 221;
Temple 188.

.Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge,

Thee hbiC'

Messmer, Outlines of Bible Knowledge.

BIRD'S EYE VIE\\

i. Damascus. j 4. Csesarea Philippi (Ruins).
¦z. Sidon (nowSatd:ii. , 5. Mount of the Beatitudes.
3. Tyre. i 6. Nazareth.

7. Tiberias.
8. Capharnaum (Ruins).
g. Bethsaida.

ID. Naim.
II, Samaria.
12. Mount Ge

t.

OF PALESTINE.

13. Cedron.
14. Joppe (Jaffa).
15. Jericho (Ruins),

16. Emmaus.
17. Gethsemane.
18. Mount of Olives,

19. Pool of Siloe.
20, Bethlehem, City
of David.

21. Hebron (now
El-Chalil) .
22, Jerusalem,

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