BIBLICAL THEOLOGY

OF THE

OLD TESTAMENT.

Based on Oehler,

BY

REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER,
Professor of Tkeolagy in Augustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Illinois.

PHILADELPHIA :
H. B. GARNER, 710 AROH STREET,
Successor to Smith, English & Co.
1886.

COPYRIGHT 1886,
BT
REVEHE FRANKLIN WEIDNER.

ACGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN,
PRINTERS.
Rock Island, 111.

TO
THE VENERABLE
FRANZ DELITZSCH, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC,
A Prince among Commentators,
The Author of
"A System of Biblical Psychology,"
whose writings have opened to me the depths of the
Old Testament Scriptures,
this BOOK is
respectfully dedicated.

In Press.
Part II. Historical Theology.
3. Biblical Theology of the New Testament.
In Preparation.
Part III. Systematic Theology.
Part IV. Practical Theology.

PREFACE.
Biblical Theology is one of the more recent branches of
Theology. Our older theologians did not distinguish between
Dogmatic and Biblical Theology. During the whole develop
ment of Church doctrine down to the middle of the present
century, no distinct line was drawn between the essential con
tents of revelation as they are laid down in the Scriptures and
the doctrinal formulas elaborated from them; and still less were
the successive stages of revelation and the types of doctrine
which are presented in Scripture, recognized. The Bible was
supposed to attest equally, in the Old and New Testaments,
the truths which the Church has accepted as doctrines, — the
Old Testament being used in all its parts, just like the New
Testament, for proofs of doctrine.
But our modern theologians maintain that the Old and New
Testament stand to each other in the relation of preparation
and fulfilment, — that their unity must not be understood as
identity, — that the Old Testament itself acknowledges that the
manifestation of God's kingdom at that time was imperfect and
temporary,— that still more distinctly does the New Testament
emphasize the difference from the Old which subsists within
the unity of the two Testaments, — that the eternal counsel of
salvation, although announced by the prophets, is nevertheless
not completely revealed till after its actual realization, — that
the tuition of the law reached its goal in the grace and truth of
Christ, — that the unity of the Old and New Testament must
not be^conceived of as an identity of doctrine, but as a gradu
ally advancing process of development of doctrine, — that in
setting forth the doctrines of the Bible systematically we must
recognize the general development which revelation passes
through in Scripture itself, — and that the old atomistic system
of Scripture proof must be superseded by one which shows
that the truths of salvation formulated in doctrinal statements
are the result of the whole process through which revelation has
passed.

VIII We distinguish, therefore, between Biblical Theology and
Systematic Theology. For Christian Dogmatics or Systematic
Theology is a historico — philosophical science, in which the
results of historical exegesis are unified and systematized. It
is the sum of the truths embraced in the Christian faith in their
organic connection with the facts of religious consciousness.
Biblical Theology, on the other hand, has for its aim to rep
resent the religious ideas and doctrines which are contained in
the Bible, and is a purely historical discipline. Systematic
Theology takes the results of Biblical Theology for granted,
and works with them as its material. Some even go so far as
to distinguish between Biblical Theology and Biblical Dog
matics, in which the former has to do with the variety of bibli
cal forms of teaching, and the latter with the examination of
the doctrines and ideas of the sacred writers which Biblical
Theology brings out and with their presentation in a systematic
form. According to this view, Christian Dogmatics or Syste
matic Theology must be based upon Biblical Dogmatics,
which again must be based upon the results of Biblical The
ology. Of late Systematic Theology has been somewhat neglected
in certain parts of the Protestant world, and indeed has fallen
into disrepute, more stress being laid upon the results of Bibli
cal Theology. We are told that in Systematic Theology we
have the deductions and speculations of men while in Biblical
Theology we have the pure teaching of the Word of God. But
let us not forget that the man who takes up the Bible now
without reference to what has been done towards its elucidation
in the past, and without being guided by the development of
doctrine, is exactly as foolish as the man who would undertake
to take up any branch of science without regard to what has
been done before.
Biblical Theology naturally divides itself into that
of the Old Testament- and that of the New, and there
is no discipline of theological science which is more important,
and on which more depends. Our aim, in this work, is to pre
sent in a concise and still full form the Theology of the Old

IX

Testament. No one can present such a theology in its fullness
and scientific precision unless he has repeatedly gone over all
the Books of the Old Testament with this special object in view.
It implies a critical and exegetical study of the Hebrew orig
inal, and the results of such close exegetical study would only
take their proper shape after years of study. Though the
writer for the last twelve years has paid especial attention to
the study of the Hebrew Scriptures, and has studied in course,
all the books of the Old Testament, and has had the great
privilege of lecturing on the most important of them during
the last four years to his theological classes, and has during all
this time been accumulating material, still when the question
arose of presenting the Theology of the Old Testament in a
scientific form, the writer deemed it best to rewrite the work
of the Master of this branch of Theology, hoping in this way
to contribute most to a more exact knowlege of the doctrines
of the Old Testament.
Since the first appearance of " The Theology of the Old
Testament" by Gustav Friedrich Oehler in 1873, it has de
servedly been regarded as the most important work on this
subject, and it is a question whether it ever will be superseded.
The author had especial gifts and qualifications for this branch
of theology, and his rank as an expositor of the Old Testa
ment is very high. For thirty years he lectured on this sub
ject, and almost every topic presented in his system has been
most elaborately treated by him in the first edition of Herzog's
Real- Bncykiopadie (1854 — 1868), and of such excellence were
these articles that they have been retained, with scarcely any
changes, in the second edition of this work. In his Theology
of the Old Testament Oehler incorporated the latest results of
his researches and those who have repeatedly studied his work
are surprised at his erudition and the exegetical skill that he
displays. To a large extent his work takes the place of a criti
cal commentary. For several years the writer has used this
work as a text-book in his class-room, and has learned to ap
preciate its great merits. But there are serious objections to
its use as a text-book, especially on account of its fulness of

treatment, as the work is better adapted for a book of refer
ence for the scholar and pastor.
The attempt, therefore, has been made to reproduce this
valuable work for use in the class-room, and for private stu
dents. It is an abridgement, and yet it is more. It aims at
condensation, and yet seeks to give all that is of importance in
Oehler's original work. Those who have had any experience
in work of this kind know how difficult it is to condense and
reproduce without omitting what is important. We would call
especial attention to the scripture references. The plan has
been, after a careful study of all the passages cited by Oehler, to se
lect the most important, and these references are made to conform
to the English Version. We have made constant use of the ex
cellent edition published by Funk and Wagnalls, under the
editorial supervision of Dr. Day of Yale Divinity school, and
take this occasion of recommending this edition which is su
perior to the Edinburgh edition (save in typography, the type
being smaller), and in several respects even to be preferred to
the original second edition of the German.
As is well-known, in such a large field of research, where
the task is so great and difficult, there will be differences of
opinion as to the interpretation of difficult passages. Even
our most conservative theologians reach different results. And
although Oehler represents the most conservative tendency of
the Lutheran Theology of Germany, still there are various
points on which the writer differs with him. In all such cases
Oehler's views are distinctly stated, but the position of the
writer is also indicated. But in almost all cases Oehler has
been allowed to speak for the writer, so that what is here pre
sented is the view that the writer himself holds of the truths as
presented in the Old Testament.
The analytical index has been prepared so as to be of service
to students in preparing for examination.
R. F. W.
AUGUSTANA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,
Ascension Day, June 3, 1886,
Rock Island, HI.

CONTENTS.
Historical Theology.
Sec. Page.
1. Definition of the Science, ..... 1
2. Sacred History, ....... 1
3. History of the People of Israel, .... 2
4. The Life of Testis, ...... 6
5. Lives of the Apostles, ...... 7
6. Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, . . 15
Introduction.
1 — 4. Definition and Limits of Old Testament Theology, . . 15
5 — 8. Fuller statement of the Scientific Standpoint of Old Testa
ment Theology, . . 17
9—14. History of the Cultivation of Old Testament Theology in the
Christian Church, ... 20
IS, 16. Method of Biblieal Theology  24
Part i. Mosaism.
1. The History of Revelation from the Creation to the
Occupation of Canaan.
17—20. The Primeval Age,  25
21,22. The Second Age of the World, . 28
23—25. The Time of the Three Patriarchs, . ... 29
26— S3. The Time of Moses and Joshua, .... 33
2. The Doctrines and Ordinances of Mosaism.
a) The Doctrine of God and His relation to the World.
34—48. The Mosaie Idea of God,  40
49—66. The Relation of God to the World, . 48
1) Of Creation and Preservation of the World, . . 48
2) Of Divine Providence  50
3) Of Divine Revelation,  52
b) The Doctrine of Man.

XII
67 — 71. The Nature of Man in its main unchangeable Features, 60
72 — 79. The Doctrine of Man in reference to the Contradictory ele
ments which entered by Sin into its Development, 65
1) The Primitive State of Man, ... 65
2) Of Sin, ... ... 66
3) Of Death and State after death, 69
c) The Covenant of God with Israel and the Theocracy.
80—90. The Nature of the Covenant  72
91—156. The Theocracy,  . 80
91 — 111. I), Theocratte Organism, and the Ordinances of Law
and Justice connected therewith, . . . 81
aa) Theocratic Organization of the People, . . 81
bb) Theoeratie Authority, .... 86
cc) Organization of the Family, 90
112—156. 2) The Mosaic Public Worship, .... 97
aa) The Place of Worship,  97
bb) The Actions of Mosiae Worship^ . . 104
1. The Material of the Offerings, .... 104
2. The Ritual of Sacrifice, . . .108
3. Of the Various Kinds of Offerings, . . 112
cc) The Sacred Seasons, . . . 126
1. The Sacred Seasons in general, . . . 126
2. The Sabbatical Seasons, . . . 128
3. The Three Pilgrimage Feasts, . . . .132
Part ii. Prophetism.
1. The Development of the Theocracy from the Death of
Joshua to the Close of the Old Testament Revelation.
157-163. The Times of the Judges, . . 135
164 — 170. Period of the Undivided Kingdom, . . . 141
171—177. The Kingdom of the Ten Tribes, . ... 147
178—187. The Kingdom of Judah, . . . 153
188 — 193. History of the Jewish Nation from the Babylonian Cap
tivity to the Cessation of Prophecy, . . 160
2. The Theology of Prophetism,
194 — 200. The Doetrine of the Lord of Hosts and of Angels, . 164
201 — 204. Man's Religious and Moral Relation to God, . 171
205—216. Of Prophecy,  .274
1) The Prophetic Consciousness, . . . 174
2) Of Prophecy, ... . .180

XIII
217—234. Of the Kingdom of God, .... .184
1) The Purpose of God's Kingdom, . 185
a) The Design  185
b) The Relation of the Present to its Purpose, . . 185
c) The Judgment, . . . 186
2) The Future Redemption, . . . 189
a) The Deliverance and Restoration of the Covenant
People,  189
b) The Admission of the Heathen into the Kingdom of
God,  193
c) The Messiah,  195
Part hi. Old Testament Wisdom.
235—239. Objective Divine Wisdom,  200
240 — 242. Subjective Human Wisdom,  204
243, 244. Moral Good,  205
245—248. The Enigmas of Human Life,  207
249, 250. Renunciation of the Solution in the Book of Eeclesiastes, 211
Literature of Biblical Theology, . . . 213
Index,  219

ERRATA.
The few typogiaphlcal mistakes are of such a character that they can easily
be corrected.

Theological Encyclopedia
AND
Methodology.

II. HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
SECTION I.
DEFINITION OF THE SCIENCE.
The result of the application of Exegetical Theology* to
the Bible lays the foundation of Historical Theology. This
latter begins with that portion of history of which the Bible is
the great source (Sacred History), and includes what has been
developed in the Church in the shape of Church History and
the History of Doctrine. Consequently it reaches back in its
beginning into Exegesis and ends by throwing a bridge over
into Systematic Theology. SECTION II.
SACRED HISTORY.
The transition from Exegesis to Historical Theology is
made in the study of Bible History. This like the Bible itself
is divided into the two departments of the Old and New Test
ament History.
* See the author's Theological Encyctopadia and Methodology. Based on Hagen-
bach and Krauth. Part I. Introduction and Exegetical Theology. Philadelphia, 1885.

2 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
SECTION III.
HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL.
Christ comes of the seed of Israel, and as Israel's history
prepares the way for the history of Christ and his Church, so
all previous history prepares the way for Israel. In the geneal
ogy of Christ, the line is traced till it ends and begins in Adam.
What has been said of the importance of the Old Testament
study in general to the Christian theologian, may be repeated
in particular of Old Testament History*. Unequalled in all the
books of men, it is surpassed alone by New Testament History.
Considering the time from Adam to Abraham as biograph
ical rather than historical, we may divide the History of the peo
ple of Israel into the following periods :
I. The Patriarchal Period. The time of the oldest revela
tion from God next after the few and relatively obscure hints
given to the first Patriarchs. This era reaches from Abraham
to Moses (2016 — 1586) B. c.
II. The Theocratic Period. The establishment of Theo
cracy, i. e., of the rule of God as the civil sovereign of the na
tion, and the subjugation and the complete possession of the
Promised Land under the Theocratic leaders from Moses or
Joshua to Samuel (1586 — 1096) b. c.
III. The Development Period, in which the Theocracy
under the law and under the theocratic institutions of the
prophets, priests and regal estates, came to full maturity, both as
to its negative and positive sides, — from Samuel to the period
which begins with Solomon and ends with the exile (1096 —
606) b. c.
IV. The Period of Decline, under the influence of foreign
dominion and foreign usage, the period of transition into a new
era, the time during the exile and the period immediately sub
sequent to it (606 — 400) b. c.
The sources of the history of the Israelitish people are
1) The Canonical Books of the Old Testament. 2) The Apoc
ryphal Books of the Old Testament, which are here of great
* See Part I. Sec. XXXVII, p. 67, "On the Relation of the Old Testament to
the New."

HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL. 3
value, especially the first book of Maccabees for the period sub
sequent to the exile. 3) Next to these, the books of Josephus
(37 — 103) A. D. 4) Monumental sources (Egypt, Babylon,
Assyria, Palestine). 5) Various materials are given in heathen
writers, e. g., by Herodotus among the Greeks and Tacitus
among the Romans. 6) Early Christian writers. Of these the
writings of Eusebius are the most valuable.
Among the many events in Sacred History, which might be
selected as convenient epochs, there are six which stand out with a
prominence peculiar to themselves. These six epochs are eminently
typical of the very last great epoch, the coming of the Son of Man
to judge the world.
This division has been adopted by the writer, suggested by
earlier chronologists * partly for its convenience and partly for the
beautiful analogy it presents to the six days of creation. These six,
are all epochs of divine judgment, of judgment in two aspects, bene
ficial to all who obey, destructive to them who disobey.
The six judgments which close the six great periods of sacred
history are:
1. The expulsion from Eden. 2. The Flood. 3. The destruction
of Sodom and Gomorrah. 4. The Exodus. The Judgment visited
upon Pharaoh and his host. 5. The destruction of Jerusalem and
Solomon's Temple, with the captivity in Babylon. 6. The final
destruction of Jerusalem and the desolation of the Temple.
These judgments will be followed by the seventh, the Coming of
the Son of Man.
These epochs are mere points in Sacred History. Each is marked
by a judgment of wrath and mercy.
Sacred History, therefore may be thus arranged:
1. The Lord's Day. Paradise.
2. Adam's Day. (4124—2468) B. o.
3. Noah's Day. (2468-2016) B. c.
4. Abraham's Day. (2016—1586) b. c.
5. Mosaic Day. (1586—606) b. c.
a) Judges. 490 years. (1586—1096) r. c.
6) Kings. 490 years. (1096—606) b. c.
6. Prophetic Day. (606 b. c— 70 A. d.).
7. Day of the Son of Man. (70— r) A. d.
This is not the place to discuss the difficult subject of the
Chronology of the Bible, but the writer adopts that of the Hebrew
text, and considers the system so learnedly set forth by Browne|
and so thoroughly tested and substantiated by Mahan,J as the most
* See especially Palmoni; or, The Numerals of Scripture. A Proof of Inspiration.
A free Inquiry. By Mllo Mahan. In Vol. II. of Collected Works. 1875. Also published
separately. t Ordo Sceclorum: a treatise on the Chronology of the Holy Scriptures, etc. By
Henry Browne. London, 1844.
X In the work already cited and especially in Mystic Numbers. A Key to Chron
ology; a law of Divine Economy; a test of Inspiration. A thorough inquiry. By
Mllo Mahan. In Vol. II. of Collected Works. New York, 1875.

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

satisfactory for practical purposes.

In accordance with this system

the principal dates of Old Testament History are as follows:

4124

Expulsion from Eden,

3137
Enoch translated,
3068
Noah born,
2588
The flood announced,
2468
The flood,
2041
Call of Abram,
2016
Covenant with Abraham,
1586
Exodus,
1546
Entrance into Canaan,
1096
Saul,
1056
David,
*
1016
Solomon,
1006
Temple dedicated,
976
Behoboam and Jeroboam.
Kingdom
of Judah. b. c.
Kingdom of Israel.
1
Behohoam,
976
1
Jeroboam,
2
Abijah,
959
3
Asa,
956
955
2
Nadab,
954
3
Baasha,
931
4
Elah,
930
5
Zimri,
930
6
Omri,
919
7
Ahab,
4
Jehoshaphat,
915
898
8
Ahaziah,
897
9
Jehoram,
5
Jehoram,
893
6
Ahaziah,
885
7
Athaliah,
884
10
Jehu,
8
Joash,
878
856
11
Jehoahaz,
841
12
Jehoash,
9
Amaziah,
838
824
13
Jeroboam II,
10
Uzziah,
809
Interregnum,
772
14
Zachariah,
771
15
Shallum,
771
16
Menahem,
760
17
Pekahiah,
758
18
Pekah,
11
Jotham,
757
12
Ahaz,
741
Interregnum,
729
19
Hoshea,
13
Hezekiah,
727
721
Captivity of Israel,
14
Manasseh,
696
15
Amon,
641
16
Josiah,
639
17
Jehoahaz
608
18
Jehoiakim,
608
606
Captivity of Judah,
THE LIFE OF JESUS.

19 Coniah, 597
20 Zedekiah, 596

586 Jerusalem and Temple
destroyed.
536 Decree of Cyrus,
516 Temple restored,
dRQ $ Decree of Artaxerxes,
*0J } Beginning of 70 "Weeks",
410 End of Old Testament Prophecy,
312 Era of the Seleucidaj,
165 Temple purified by Judas Maccabaius,
151 Asmonaean dynasty,
38 Herod the Great,
5 The Incarnation,
4 Death of Herod,
0 Vulgar Era.
THE PROPHETS.*
I. The Pre-Assyrian Period.
Hosea (Israel) )
Joel (Judah) b. c,
Amos (Israel) J- 850—750
Obadiah (Judah)
Jonah (Israel)
II. Assyrian Period. B.C.
Isaiah, 760—690 )
Micah, 758-710 £ Judah.
Nahum, 680 )
III. Chaldman Period.
Zephaniah, 639—609
Jeremiah, 628-583
Habakkuk, 608—590
Ezekiel, 594—535
IV. Period of the Exile.
Jeremiah, 628—583
Ezekiel, 594—535
Daniel, 605-536
V. Post-Exile Period.
Haggai, 525—520
Zechariah, 520—510
Malachi, 433—410

* See O. R. Hertwig's Tabellen, etc. Besorgt von Klelnert. Berlin, 1869.

6 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
SECTION IV.
THE LIFE OF JESUS*
"The life of Jesus," says Ammon, "unites all the interests of
speculation, of religion, and of history. It presents to us a per
son around whom the strife of heaven and earth gathers, a per
son whom we cannot give exclusively either to heaven or earth ;
.... it is the examplar of every man, yet presents itself in rela
tions and situations which never have been, nor can ever be given
to any other man." The image of our Lord in the New Test
ament has been compared to a torso, to a mighty statue, but
incomplete, in the supply of whose missing parts the imagina
tions of Centuries have been toiling. On this figure, Hagen-
bach truly says, "the comparison is lacking in one thing,
inasmuch as a torso wants the grand essential, the counte
nance; but the countenance of our Lord is the very thing
which beams out of the evangelical narrative as something
truly human, encompassed by the Divine glory. "
Around the person of our Lord has gathered the great
struggle of faith and unbelief for all ages, but especially for
the last century.
Bunsen says : " The self-consciousness of Jesus of Nazareth
must stand clear before the eye of the Christian as an actual
historical fact, which a genuine philosophy is bound to explain.
Midway and mediating between two worlds, between two devel
opments, that of the old world and that of the modern, stands
the Divine personality of Jesus of Nazareth; not as something
wrought out by the old world, but as its consummation ; not as
a mere annunciation of a new world, but as its abiding model.
and as the life spring of humanity through the spirit." Again:
" He was the man, because he was man only. He was neither
Jew nor Greek, not prince nor priest, not a rich man, nor a
mighty man, but over against them all — a complete man.
He lived and died for humanity. But because of this very
thing, He is called, and was, and is, God's very image and
God's Son, as none was before Him, and none has been after
Him.' * See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth.

LIVES OF THE APOSTLES. 7
In antithesis to a lifeless atomistic treatment of the life of
Jesus, Carl Ritter has beautifully said: "His whole life lies be
fore us open and free like an enchanting meadow, over which
the light streams without a cloud, and through which our steps
are taken with a hallowed feeling of joy, requiring no tedious
explanation of some uninvited Cicerone, in which the heart
swells in higher anticipations and to which the thoughts are
turned as to a home, soon to be ours, where, whether in sor
row or in joy, we would be willing to live and willing to die.''
SECTION V.
LIVES OF THE APOSTLES AND HISTORY OF THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH.*
The lives of the Apostles are linked with the life of our
Lord, as the life of the first branches are to the vine. To
them was given in some sense, to complete the work of our
Lord as the great prophet of our race. As the Father had
sent Him, so He sent them; and here, it is the Lord's own
testimony that they did greater works than He himself, i. e.,
He from His throne, through the plentitude of His Spirit
poured forth in the New Testament fulness, wrought mightier
things through them in the power of His atoning work which
He had finished, than He had wrought in His own natural
presence on earth, while His atoning work still rested on some
thing yet to be. They wrought in the power of Christ upon
the throne of the universe. He traced his way upon the earth
by the marks of His bleeding feet, and of His bitter tears.
They followed in the light of His glory, as the ascended Son
of God, yet they also filled up that which was behind of the
sufferings of Christ, for it was ordained that He should have
pain, not alone in his person, but also in His sorrowing disci
ples. The Apostles were the earthly angels of the new dis
pensation, yet the offscouring of the world. Man never had
functions as glorious in the eyes of heaven as theirs, and never
did malignity on earth, or in hell, more concentrate on man
* See Manuscript Lectures of Dr. Krauth.

8 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
than on them. " We are made," says St. Paul, " a spectacle
unto the world, and to angels, and to men." Yet great as was
their work arid terrible as was their suffering through which it
was wrought, the Apostles themselves were so merged into their
own work, that of none of them do we know much, and of some
we know nothing. Among those originally called the most
prominent are Peter, James, and John. Greatest among them
all was the one " called out of due time," the Apostle of the
Gentiles, Paul. Great as a missionary, great in the power of
appreciating and using fitting co-workers, which is the most
needed attribute of the leader of men, and great as a thinker
and writer, he may be called the creator of doctrinal system.
Paul was distinguished by the majesty and force of his char
acter, by the intensely interesting events of. his life, by his
matchless presentation of doctrines, and by his wonderful and
successful activity. A new period of development began with
the labors of the Apostle of the Gentiles. He did more than
any of the others for the extension of Christianity ; and he did
more than any to open its internal depth. These two great fea
tures doubtless were connected, the first largely the effect of
the second. He was deep in work because he was deep in
doctrine. He is the developer of doctrine, not in a way of ab
stract theory, but from personal experience. He is the first
fruit of those in whom the grace of God in Christ glorified it
self, and the Gospel reveals itself as the power of God.
SELECT LITERATURE.
1. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
1. Dowling, John G. An Introduction to the Critical Study of Eccle
siastical History, etc London, 1838.
2. Schaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Church; With a General
Introduction to Church History. Pp. 1—134. New York, 1856.
3. Stanley, A. P. Three Introductory Lectures on the Study of Eccle
siastical History. London, 1857. (Also incorporated in his
History of the Eastern Church. New York, 1870).
2. TEXT-BOOKS IN SACRED HISTORY.
1. Blaikie, William G. Bible History, in connection with the General
History of the World, etc. London, 1859.

SELECT LITERATURE. 9
2. Kitto, John. The Bible History of the Holy Land, London, 1867.
3. Kurtz, J, H. Manual of Sacred History, ete. Philadelphia, 1869.
An excellent work.
4. Maclear, G. T. A Class-Booh of Old Testament History. London,
1866.
5  A Class-Book of New Testament History, London,
1867.
6. Pinnock, W. H. An Analysis of Seripture History, with examina
tion questions, intended for readers of Old Testament History, and
for Divinity students in general. Eighth edition. Cambridge,
1857.
7  An Analysis of New Testament History, ete.
Eleventh edition. Cambridge, 1867.
Excellent works for private study,
8. Smith, "William. The Old Testament History, etc. New York,
1875.
9  The New Testament History, ete. New York,
1875. 3. HISTORY OF THE PEOPLE OF ISRAEL.
1. Ewald, Heinrich. The History of Israel. Translated from the
German. 5 vols. London, 1871 — 76.
A work of genius and learning, but bold in criticism.
2. Hengstenberg, E, "W. A History of the Kingdom of God under the
Old Testament. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1872.
3. Koehler, A. Biblisehe Geschichte des Alten Testaments. 2 Bde.
Erlangen, 1877—1882.
4. Kurtz, J. H. History of the Old Covenant. 3 vols. Edinburgh,
1860.
5. Milman, H. H. The History of the Jews, from the earliest period
down to modern times, ete. 3 vols. New York, 1866.
6. Palmer, E. H. A History of the Jewish Nation, ete. London, 1874.
Reprinted in Boston.
7. Bussell, M. Connection of Sacred and Profane History, from death
of Jonah to the Decline of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Re-
edited by J. Talboys Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1865.
8. Shuekford, S. Connection of Sacred and Profane History from the
Creation of the World to the death of Jonah, ete. Edited by J.
Talboys Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1858.
9. Stanley, A. P. Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church. 3 vols.
New York, 1877. 4. CONTEMPORARY HISTORY.
1. Hengstenberg, E. W. Egypt and the Books of Moses. Edinburgh,
1857.
2. Kenrick, John. Phoenicia. With maps and illustrations.
London, 1855.
3  Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs. Two vols.
in one. New York, 1883.

10 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
4. Rawlinson, George. A Manual of Ancient History, ete. New
York, 1871.
5  The Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World.
3 vols. New York, 1883.
6  The Sixth Monarchy, ete. 1 vol. New York,
1883.
7  The Seventh Monarchy, ete. 1 vol. New York,
1883.
8  History of Ancient Egypt. 2 vols. New York,
1884. These standard works, once so expensive, can now be bought
at very cheap rates.
9. Sehrader, E. Die Keilinsehriften und das Alte Testament, 2. Aufl.
Giessen, 1883.
10. Smith, Philip. The Ancient History of the East, ete. New York,
1871. An excellent manual.
5. HISTORY OF THE JEWS IN LATER TIMES.
1. Edersheim, Alfred. History of the Jewish Nation after the destruc
tion of Jerusalem under Titus. Edinburgh, 1857.
Edersheim has also written quite extensively on the History
of the People of Israel.
2. Gosse, Philip H. The History of the Jews, from the Christian era
to the dawn of the Reformation. London, 1851.
3. Graetz, H. Gesehichte der Juden von den dltesten Zeiten bis auf die
Gegenwart. 11 vols. Leipsic, 1854 — 70.
4. Prideaux, Humphrey. An Historical Connection of the Old and New
Testaments, ete. To which is added an account of the Rabbinic
authorities, by A. M'Caul. Third edition, revised by J. Talboys
Wheeler. 2 vols. London, 1877.
5. Raphall, Morris J. Post-Biblical History of the Jews. 2 vols.
New York. 1866.
6. HISTORY OF NEW TESTAMENT TIMES.
1. Delitzsch, Eranz. Jewish Artisan Life in the Time of Jesus. New
York, 1883.
2  A Day in Capernaum. Philadelphia, 1873.
3. Hausrath, A. N. Testamentliche Zeitgesehiehte. 4 vols. Heidel
berg, 1873—77. Also translated into English. London, 1878.
4. Schneckenburger, M. Vorlesungen ueber N. T. Zeitgesehiehte, ete.
Frankfort on the Main, 1862.
5. Schuerer, E. Lehrbueh der N. T. Zeitgesehiehte. Leipsic, 1874.
The best hand-book on the subject.
7, LIVES OF CHRIST.
1. Abbott, Lyman. Jesus of Nazareth: His life and teachings,
etc. New York, 1869.
Compact and popular.

SELECT LITERATURE. 11
2. Andrews, Samuel J. The Life of our Lord upon the Earth, con
sidered in its historical, chronological, and geographical rela
tions. Fourth Edition. New York, 1867.
The author pays special attention to chronology.
3. Edersheim, Alfred. The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. 2
vols, Second edition. New York and London, 1884.
Takes high rank.
4. Ellicott, C. J. Historical Lectures on the Life of our Lord Jesus Christ,
ete. Boston, 1874.
Especially valuable on account of the notes accompanying
the text.
5. Farrar, Frederic W. The Life of Christ. 2 vols. New York,
1875. Many editions of this well-known work have been published.
6. Geikie, Cunningham. The Life and Words of Christ. Two
volumes in one. New York, 1880.
A well-known work, published in various editions.
7. Hanna, William. The Life of Christ. 6 vols. New York, 1870.
8. Lange, J. P. The Life of the Lord Jesus Christ, ete. New edition.
4 vols. Philadelphia, 1872.
9. Neander, Augustus. The Life of Jesus Christ, ete. New York.
1863.
10. Pressens^, E. De. Jesus Christ: His times, life and work.
Seventh edition. London, 1879.
11. Weiss, Bernhard. The Life of Christ. 3 vols, Edinburgh, 1884.
Very valuable for scholars.
8. HARMONIES OF THE GOSPELS.
1. Cadman, Jas. P. Christ in the Gospels, ete. Second edition.
Chicago, 1885.
The Revised Version is used. An excellent work.
2. Fuller, J. M. The Four Gospels, arranged in the form of a Harmony.
etc. London, 1880.
3. Gardiner, Frederic. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek,
according to the text of Tischendorf, etc. Andover, 1880.
To be had also in English.
4. Greswell, Edward. Dissertations upon the Principles and Arrange
ment of a Harmony of the Gospels. Second edition. 4 vols. Ox
ford, 1837.
5. Mimpriss, Robert. The Gospel Treasury and Expository Harmony of
the Four Evangelists, ete. New York, 1870.
Also to be had in larger type
6. Robinson, Edward. A Harmony of the Four Gospels in Greek.
Revised edition. With additional notes by M. B. Riddle.
Boston, 1885.
This edition gives the text of Tischendorf, and the various
readings accepted by Tregelles, Westcott and Hort, and in the
Revised English Version of 1881.
7. Strong, James. Harmony of the Gospels in Greek, ete. New York,
1859.

12 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
8. Stroud, William. A new Greek Harmony of the Four Gospels, etc.
London, 1853.
9. Tischendorf, Constantine. Synopsis Evangeliea. Fourth edition.
Leipsic, 1878. 9. CHRONOLOGICAL.
1. Browne, Henry. Ordo Smetorum. London, 1844.
2, Caspari, Ch. Ed, A Chronological and Geographical Introduction to
the Life of Christ, etc. Edinburgh, 1876.
3. Lewin, Thomas. Fasti Saeri; or, A Key to the Chronology of the
New Testament. London, 1865.
4. Wieseler, Karl. A Chronological Synopsis of the Four Gospels.
Second edition. London, 1877.
10. APOLOGETICAL.
1. Bushneil, Horace. Nature and the Supernatural. New York, 1877.
Especially the famous tenth chapter of this well-known
work, "The Character of Jesus forbids his possible classification
with men".
2. Ebrard, John H. A. The Gospel History: A critical investigation.
etc. Edinburgh, 1863.
3. SchafC, Philip. The Person of Christ; the Perfection of his
Humanity viewed as a proof of his Divinity. With a collection
of impartial testimonies. 12th edition, revised. New York,
1882. An excellent work, translated into various languages.
4. Steinmeyer, F. L. The Miracles of our Lord in relation to Modern
Criticism, Edinburgh, 1875.
5  The History of the Passion and Resurrection
of our Lord considered in the light of Modern Criticism,
Edinburgh, 1879.
Various other works in this department by this same author
have appeared in German,
6. Westcott, Brooke Foss. An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels.
Fifth edition. London, 1876.
An excellent work. An earlier edition has been reprinted
here.
7. Young, John. The Christ of History, ete. New York, 1857.
11. LIVES OF THE APOSTLES.
1. Bruce, Alexander B. The Training of the Twelve, ete. Second
edition. Edinburgh, 1877.
2. Conybeare, W. J., and Howson, J. S. The Life and Epistles of St.
Paul. 2 vols. New York, 1872.
Various editions of this work, abridged and unabridged, have
appeared.
3. Farrar.F. W. The Life and Work of St. Paul, 2 vols. New York,
1881.

SELECT LITERATURE. 13
4. Farrar, F. W. The Early Days' of Christianity. 2 vols. New
York, 1883.
In this last work the author attempts to set forth, in their
distinctive characteristics, the work and the writings of St.
Peter, St. James, St. Jude, St. John, and the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews( ?).
5. Green, Samuel G. The Apostle Peter: His Life and Letters. London.
No date.
6. Lewin, Thomas. The Life and Epistles of St. Paul. Fourth edi
tion, revised. 2 vols. London, 1878.
7. Macdonald, James M The Life and Writings of St. John. Edited,
with an Introduction by J. S. Howson. New York, 1877.
8. Neander, Augustus. History of the Planting and Training of the
Christian Church by the Apostles. Revised by E. G. Robinson. New
York, 1865.
An excellent work, which ought to be in every clergyman's
library.
9. Paley, William. Horae Paulinae, ete. New York, 1851.
Various editions. Still valuable for apologetical purposes.
10. Pressens^, E. De. The Early Years of Christianity. The Apostolic
Era. New York, 1870.
11. Schaff, Philip. History of the Apostolic Church, ete. New York,
1856.
12  History of the Christian Church. Apostolic Christ
ianity. Vol. I. New York, 1882.
12. BIBLICAL CHARACTERS.
1. Adams, Nehemiah. The Friends of Christ, in the New Testament-
Boston, 1864.
2. Adams, W. H. D. St. Paul; his Life; his Work, and his Writings.
London, 1875.
3. Bourdillon, Francis. Lesser Lights; or, Some of the Minor
Characters of Scripture traced, etc. London. No date.
4. Bruce, John. The Life of Gideon, illustrated and applied. Edin
burgh, 1870.
5. Candlish, Robert S. Scripture Characters. London, 1866.
6. Cave, William. Antiquitates Apostolieos; or, The Lives, Acts, and
Martyrdoms of the Holy Apostles, etc. With an introductory
essay by Henry Stebbing. 2 vols, London, 1834.
7. Dykes, J. Oswald. Abraham, the Friend of God. New York, 1877.
8. Edersheim, Alfred. The History of Elisha the Prophet, etc. London,
1868.
9, Geikie, Cunningham. Old Testament Portraits. London, 1878.
10  Hours with the Bible. Six volumes. New
York, 1884.
11. Hunter, Henry. Sacred Biography, ete. New York, 1844.
12. Krummacher, F. W. David, the King of Israel. New York, 1868.
13  Elijah the Tishbite. New York, 1852.

14 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
14. Krummacher, F. W. Elisha. London, 1870.
15. Landels, William. The Representative Women of Scripture. London.
No date.
16. Macduff, J. R. The Footsteps of St. Paul. New York, 1870.
17  The Footsteps of St. Peter. New York, 1877.
18  The Prophet of Fire; or, The Life and Times of
Elijah, etc. New York, 1864.
19  The Healing Waters of Israel; or, The Story of
Naaman the Syrian. New York, 1874.
20. Martin, Hugh. The Prophet Jonah, ete. London, 1866.
21. Randall, J. ML Nehemiah the Tirshatha; his Times and Lessons-
London, 1874.
22. Reynolds, H. R. John the Baptist. London, 1874.
23. Robinson, Thomas. Scripture Characters, ete. London, 1860.
24. Seiss, Joseph A. Voices from Babylon; or, The Records of Daniel
the Prophet. Philadelphia, 1879.
25. Smith, Thornley, The Prophet of Sorrow; or, the Life and Times
of Jeremiah. London, 1875.
26. Stanley, Arthur P. Scripture Portraits and other Miscellanies.
London, 1867.
27. Stowell, Hugh. A Model for Men of Business; or, Lectures on the
Character of Nehemiah. London, 1872.
28. Taylor, William M. David, King of Israel. New York, 1875.
29  Elijah the Prophet. New York, 1876.
30  Moses the Lawgiver. New York, 1879.
31  Paul the Missionary. New York, 1880.
32  Peter the Apostle. New York, 1878.
33  Daniel the Beloved. New York, 1878.
34. Tyng, Stephen H. The Rich Kinsman; or, The History of Ruth.
New York, 1855.
35  The Captive Orphan; or, Esther, the Queen of
Persia. New York, 1860.
36. Wilberforce, Samuel. Heroes of Hebrew History. New York,
1871.

SECTION VI.
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. *
§ I — 16. INTRODUCTION.
§ i — 4. Definition and Limits of Old Testament Theology.
§ 1. Summary of the Introduction.
The Introduction has for its aim
1. To define the Theology of the Old Testament, and its
relation to the cognate branches of Biblical Science ;
2. To present the conception of the Old Testament reli
gion presupposed in our exhibition of the subject, together
with the scientific standpoint of Old Testament Theology
thereby given ;
3. To present a brief history of this branch of theology ;
4. To discuss the method of Old Testament Theology,
and present its divisions.
§ 2. Definition of Old Testament Theology.
Biblical Theology of the Old Testament has for its task the
historical exhibition of the religion contained in the canonical
books of the Old Testament, according to its progressive
deyelopment and the variety of the forms in which it appears.
It cannot, therefore, limit itself to the directly didactic matter
in the Old Testament, but must also embrace the chief features
of the history of the divine kingdom in the Old Testament.
It has to handle as such what is only in germ, and to show
how the Old Testament, in the narrowness and unfinished
* Taking all things into consideration, the best work In this department is the
well-known treatise of Gustav Frledrich Oehler, Theologie des Alten Testamentes (2
Bde. Tueblngen, 1873, 1874. Second edition, revised by Theodore Oehler, 1882).
An English translation of the first edition appeared In Edinburgh in two volumes,
(1874, 1875), and an American Edition, revised by George E. Day, incorporating
the additions of the second German edition, was published in 1883 (Funk and
Wagnalls, New York). As the Science of Biblical Theology is one of the most Im
portant of the recent branches of theology, we herewith present an abridgement of
this valuable work.

16 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
state which characterizes in many parts its doctrinal contents,
points from itself to something higher,
§ 3. Relation of Old Testament Theology to other Old Testament branches.
i. The study of what is called Introduction to the Old
Testament precedes the study of Old Testament Theology, but
the two stand to each other in a relation of mutual dependence.
Not only must the general view which we have of the gradual
progress of the Old Testament revelation influence our deter
mination of the position which is due to any one book in the
whole of the Old Testament, but the criticism of the Old
Testament must pay regard to the course of development of
the individual doctrines of the Old Testament For example,
how is a genetic exhibition of the Old Testament doctrine of
the nature and attributes of God, of angelology, of the doctrine
of the state of man after death, etc., possible, on the presuppo
sition that the Peutateuch is a comparatively recent produc
tion? 2. Old Testament Theology has a part of its contents in
common with Biblical Archeology, which latter treats of the
whole natural and social condition of the people of Israel.
The discussion of all purely technical questions, however,
must be left to Archaeology, and even in those topics which
are common, there must be a treatment differing not merely
in fulness, but in some measure also in form.
3. There is a close relation between Old Testament Theology
and Israelitish History, and yet the two branches are entirely
distinct. Old Testament Theology is bound to reproduce
faithfully, and without admixture of modern ways of looking
at history, the view which the holy Scriptures themselves give
of the purpose of salvation which is carried out in Israel. The
History of Israel, on the other hand, has not only to present
all sides of the historical development of the people of Israel,
but to sift and vindicate, by historico-critical research, the real
historical facts which the Theology of the Old Testament
reproduces as the contents of faith.
As Old Testament Theology must report what men in the
Old Testament believed, in what faith they lived and died, as

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 17
it has to exhibit the history of revelation and to reproduce the
view which Holy Scripture itself has, we have nothing to do
with ethnological and geographical research, and with attempts
of harmonizing the Old Testament history of creation and
other things of this kind with the propositions of the newer
physical sciences.
§ 4. Sources of Old Testament Theology.
These sources must be limited to the books of the Old
Testament Canon as received by the scribes in Palestine, and
acknowledged by the Protestant Church, thus excluding the
Old Testament Apocrypha. That the Canon of the Protestant
Church is that of the Judaism of Palestine, as established in
the last century before Christ, and then re-sanctioned after
temporary hesitation at the Sanhedrim in Jamnia about A. d.
90, is not disputed. According to the declarations of Christ
in Luke 24: 44; Matt, n: 13, etc., and the whole Apostolic
doctrine, there can remain no doubt as to where the Old
and New Testaments are connected, since even the beginning
of the New Testament history of revelation attaches itself
directly to the close of Old Testament prophecy in Malachi
(Matt, n : 13, 14).
§ 5 — 8. Fuller statement of the scientific Standpoint of Old
Testament Theology.
§ 5. Old Testament Theology considered from a Christian theological
standpoint. The view we have of the Theology of the Old Testament
is already expressed in the name we give to this branch of
theology, for we will not treat simply of the Jewish religion,
but of the divine revelation of the Old Testament, which on
the one hand is fundamentally different from all heathen
religions, and on the other forms the preliminary stage to the
revelation of the New Testament, which is with it comprehended
in one divine economy of salvation. The entire Old Testament
remains a sealed book, if we fail to see that the subduing of
the natural character of the people is the whole aim of the
divine tuition.

18 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
§ 6. The Biblical Idea of Revelation. General and Special Revelation.
The Biblical idea of Revelation has its root in the idea of
Creation. The production of different classes of beings ad
vances teleologically, and reaches its goal only when God has
created man in His own image. In this progression the
foundation of revelation is laid. For revelation is, in general,
God's witness and communication of Himself to the world for
the realization of the end of Creation, and for the re-establish
ment of the full communion of man with God. God testifies,
partly in nature and the historical guidance of mankind, and
partly in each one's conscience, of His power, goodness, and
justice, and thus draws man to seek God (Isa. 40: 21—26;
Jer. 10: 1 — 25; Ps. 19: 1 — 6; 94: 8 — 10).
The original communion of man with God destroyed by
sin, is not recovered by means of this general revelation. The
living God remains to the natural man, in all his searchings, a
hidden God (Isa. 45: 15; Jer. 23: 18; John 1: 18). It is
only by God's stooping to man in personal testimony to Him
self, and by the objective presentation of Himself, that a vital
communion is actually established between God and man.
This is the special revelation, which first appears in the form
of a covenant between God and a chosen race, and the found
ing of a Kingdom of God among the latter culminates in the
' manifestation of God in the flesh, advances from this point to
the gathering of a people of God in all nations, and is com
pleted in the making of a new heaven and a new earth (Isa.
65: 17; 66: 22; Rev. 21 : 1, 2), where God shall be all in all
(1 Cor. 15 : 28). The relation between general and special
revelation is such, that the former is the continual basis of the
latter, the latter the aim and completion of the farmer.
§ 7. Historical character and general process of Revelation. Its
supernatural character.
The special revelation of God does not at a bound enter
the world all finished and complete, but as it enters the sphere
of human life, it observes the laws of historical development
which are grounded in the general divine system of the world.
And because revelation aims at the restoration of full com-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 19
munion between God and man, it is directed to the whole of
man's life, and not exclusively or mainly to man's faculties of
knowledge. Biblical revelation, as here defined, is distinguished
from the view of the older Protestant Theology in two respets :
i) In the older Protestant Theology revelation was essentially,
and almost exclusively, regarded as doctrine. But Revelation
cannot possibly confine itself to the cognitive side of man.
Biblical Theology must be a theology of divine facts. 2) The
Older Theology failed to recognize the general development
which revelation passes through in Scripture itself. The Bible
was supposed to attest equally, in the Old and New Testa
ments, the truths which the Church has accepted as doctrines.
Revelation makes itself known as differing from the natural
revelations of the human mind, not only by the continuity and
the organic connection of the facts which constitute the history
of salvation, but also in its special character (miracle), which
points distinctly to a divine causality-
§ 8. The Old and New Testaments in their relation to Heathenism and
to each other.
Revelation falls into two principal divisions, the Old and
the New Testament, which stand to each other in the relation
of preparation and fulfilment, and are thus, as a connected
dispensation of salvation, distinguished from all other religions
(Eph. 2: 12) But the unity of the Old and New Testament
must not be understoo'd as identity. The Old Testament itself
acknowledges that the manifestation of God's Kingdom at
that time was imperfect and temporary, and, indeed, at the
very time in which the old form of the theocracy was over
thrown, it predicted the new eternal covenant which God
would make with his people (Jer. 31 : 31 — 34). Still more
distinctly does the New Testament emphasize the difference
from the Old which subsists within the unity of the two
Testaments. The eternal counsel of salvation, although an
nounced by the prophets, is nevertheless not completely re
vealed till after its actual realization (Rom. 16 : 25, 26 ; 1 Pet.
1: 10 — 12; Eph. 1:9, 10; 3: 5). The tuition of the law
reached its goal in the grace and truth of Christ (John 1 : 17 ;

20 THEOLOGICAL, ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
Rom. 10: 4; Gal. 3: 24, 25). In the saving benefits of the
new covenant, the shadow of the old dispensation passes into
reality (Col. 2: 17; Heb. 10: 1 — 4); therefore the greatest
man in the old covenant is less than the least in the kingdom
of Christ (Matt. 11 : n).
§ 9 — 14. History of the Cultivation of Old Testament
Theology in the Christian Church.
§ 9. Theological view of the Old Testament in the Early Church and
Middle Ages.
Old Testament Theology, as an independent branch of
study, is, like Biblical Theology in general, a modern science.
During the whole development of Church doctrine down to
the middle of the present century, no distinct line was drawn
between the essential contents of revelation as they are laid
down in the Scriptures and the doctrinal formulas elaborated
from them ; and still less were the successive stages of reve
lation and types of doctrine which are presented in Scripture
recognized. The proposition, " the New Testament lies hidden
in the Old, the Old Testament lies open in the New " (Novum
• Testamentum in Vetere latet, Veins Testamentum in Novo patet),
which is in itself correct, was so perverted as to be made to
mean that the whole of Christian theology, veiled indeed, but
already fully formed, could be shown to exist in the Old Test
ament. We may regard the three books (Lib. XV — XVII) in
Augustine's great work De Civitate Dei, as in a certain sense
the first treatment of the Theology of the Old Testament, if
we except the treatment of the Old Testament as found in the
New Testament, especially in the Epistles to the Romans, Ga-
latians, and Hebrews. The study of the Old Testament in the
Ancient Church reaches its close with Gregory the Great. The
cultivation of Biblical Theology as an historical science was
not possible under the influence of the theology of the Middle
Ages. True, much detached matter valuable for the Old Tes
tament was brought to light in the Middle Ages, and especially
on the Song of Solomon, in which the Mysticism of the Mid
dle Ages lives and moves, as Bernard of Clairvaux's lecture*

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 21
on Canticles show, — but this is not anything belonging to Bibli
cal Theology. § 10. Theological view of the Old Testament in the Age of the Reform
ation. The Reformation principle of the supreme authority of
Scripture drew the attention of theologians to the Old Testa
ment as well as to the New. To Johann Reuchlin (d. 1522),
the uncle of Melanchton, must be given the credit not simply
of opening a path for the study of Hebrew in Germany, but
also for so firmly maintaining that it is the duty of the expo
sitor of Scripture to go back to the original text expounded
according to its literal sense, and to refuse to be dependent on
the Vulgate and the traditional expositions of the Church
which are connected with it.
The recognition of the difference between the Law and the
Gospel &<zx\vqA from Paul's Epistles was the first thing that gave
the Reformers a key to the theological meaning of the Old
Testament. They also correctly recognized, that even in the
Old Testament a revelation of God's gracious will in the pro
mise of salvation goes side by side with the revelation of the
demands of the divine will in the law. Of all that is connected
with this practical sphere in the Old Testament, Luther espe
cially shows a profound understanding, springing from a lively
personal experience. In the view which the Reformers (and
especially Melanchthon) were fond of developing, that the
Church began in Paradise and continues throughout all time,
the whole emphasis is laid on the doctrinal unity of revelation,
existing under all change of outward forms. The theological
principle of exposition by the analogy of faith, that Scripture
should be explained by Scripture, is a principle in itself per
fectly correct, and to have stated it, is one of the greatest merits
of Protestant theology, but the Reformers did not properly
apply it; the unity of the Old and New Testament was con
ceived of not as produced by a gradually advancing process
of development, but as a harmony of doctrine.

22 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
§ 11. Theological conception of the Old Testament in the Older Protes
tant Theology.
The treatment of the Old Testament in the older Protestant
Theology was determined by the principles just stated. The
contents of the Scriptures were set forth with strict regard to
the systematic doctrines of the Church, and without respect to
the historical manifoldness of the Scriptures themselves. The
Old Testament was used in all its parts, just like the New Tes
tament, for proofs of doctrine. In opposition to the Romish
theologians, especially Bellarmine, it was taught on the side of
Protestants, that in respect to the fundamental doctrines, the
Old Testament was in no way incomplete ; and that these were
only repeated more distincly in the New Testament.
% 12. Theological treatment af the Old Testament from 1700 to 1800.
In the Lutheran Church, Collegia Biblica, or topical lectures
became common from the end of the seventeenth century on
ward. These lectures, which contained exegetico- dogmatical
discussions of the most important proof-texts of the doctrines
of the Church, gave some impulse to the study of Biblical as
distinguished from Doctrinal Theology, but cannot be regarded
as of much consequence. In this connection must be men
tioned the influence of Spener (1635 — 1705) and of Bengel
(1687 — 1751). The latter insisted on an organic and historical
conception of biblical revelation with strict regard to the dif
ference of its stages.
§ 13. Rise of a Biblical Theology distinct from Dogmatic Treatment of
the Old Testament by Rationalism.
John Philip Gabler in his academic oration, De Justo dis-
crimine theologies biblica et dogmatics, 1787, is regarded as the
first who distinctly spoke of Biblical Theology as an historical
science. George Lorenz Bauer (1755 — 1806) may be viewed
as a leading representative of the rationalistic treatment of the
Old Testament at this period. The hints respecting a treat
ment of the Old Testament as an organic history, which
had been offered by Herder (1744— 1803), were taken up by
De Wette ("1780 — 1849) with discriminating appreciation.
Ewald (1803 — 75) in his History of the People of Israel (5

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 23
vols. London, 1871 — 76), and in his Antiquities of Israel (1
vol. Boston, 1876), has interwoven with his narrative a full ac
count of the growth of the Old Testament religion, but his
vague notion of revelation does not raise him essentially above
the rationalistic method which he despises. Various attempts
have also been made to throw light on the traditions of Gene
sis and the institutions of Moses from the comparative history
of religion. § 14. Theological view of the Old Testament in the most recent literature.
The first to exert a decisive influence on the theological
treatment of the Old Testament was Hengstenberg (d. 1869),
mainly by his Christology of the Old Testament (second edi
tion, 1854 — 57; English translation in 4 vols. Edinburgh,
1854 — 58-). The position which Hengstenberg first took in
treating the Old Testament, and which he never except part
ially relinquished is essentially that of the old Protestant theol
ogy ; for while not accepting all the tenets of the latter, he yet
very distinctly aimed at finding all the fundamental New Tes
tament doctrines in the Old Testament, not in a process of
growth, but ready made. Hengstenberg understands the unity
of the two Testaments to mean, that the New Testament doc
trine is found in the Old Testament as a complete finished
prophecy, though perhaps less prominent, while Oehler on the
other hand maintains that the true meaning is rather that the
New Testament is growing in the Old, and therefore is in the
Old only in the sense in which the higher developments of
every organism are contained in germ and type in its lower
stages. Oehler, although he accords to Hengstenberg the credit
of having been the first to revive in Germany a strong relig-
ous and theological interest in the Old Testament, still accuses
him of uniting a spiritualizing tendency in his explanation of
the prophecies, which fails to do full justice to the historical
facts. Valuable contributions to the theology of the Old Tes
tament are found in Hofmann's Schriftbeweis (Second edition,
2 vols., 1857—60.), Kurtz's History of the Old Covenant
(Translated into English. 3 vols., Edinburgh, i860), Auberlen's
Divine Revelation (Translated into English, 1 vol., Edinburgh,

24 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
1867), and Delitzsch's System of Biblical Psychology (English
edition, Edinburgh, 1869). Especially important also is the
work of Hermann Schultz (Alttestamentliche Theologie. Sec
ond edition, 1878).
§ 15, 16. Method of Biblical Theology.
§ 15. Characteristics of the Historico-Genetic method.
As a historical science, Biblical Theology rests on the re
sults of grammatico- historical exegesis, the business of which
is to reproduce the contents of the Biblical books according to
the rules of language, with due regard to the historical circum
stances under which the books originated, and the individual
relations of sacred writers. Biblical Theology, however, must
view the Old Testament in the light of the completed revela
tion of God in Christ for which it formed the preparation, —
must show how God's saving purpose, fulfilled in Christ, moved
through the preliminary stages of this history of revelation.
Theological exegesis, in the right sense of the word, is not af
fected by the fact that Stier and other writers have brought
theological interpretation into bad repute, by their habit of
finding a second, third, and fourth subordinate and secondary
sense in the Old Testament besides the historico-grammatical
sense. § 16. Divisions of Old Testament Theology.
The proper divisions are given by the following considera
tions : The basis of the Old Testament religion is the Covenant
with the chosen people, into which God entered for the accom
plishment of his saving purpose. This covenant, for which the
way is prepared in the first two ages of the world, is carried
out in two stages: 1) The patriarchal covenant of promise;
and 2) The Mosaic covenant of the law, on the basis of which
the theocracy is founded. This whole sphere may be summed
up in the name Mosaism.
The second part of Old Testament Theology, which we will
briefly call Prophetism, deals with those elements in the history
of the people of Israel from their entrance into the Promised
Land which are important for the development of God's King-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OP THE OLD TESTAMENT. 25
dom, considering these as they appear in the light of prophecy
and also discusses the theology of prophecy itself.
The third division embraces Old Testament Wisdom, which
equally with prophecy has its root in the law, but develops it
self independently of prophecy.
The division of the Old Testament Canon into Law, Pro
phets and Hagiographa, though not entirely agreeing with this
division, points at least toward it.
PART I. MOSAISM (§ 17 — 156).
§ x7— 33- First section. The History of Revelation from
the Creation to the Occupation of Canaan.
% 17. Division of this History.
The Pentateuch plainly distinguishes four periods in the
history of revelation :
1. The Primeval Age, with ten patriarchs, closing with the
deluge. 2. The second age of the world, beginning with the world-
covenant in Noah's time, with ten generations.
3. The time of the three great patriarchs, beginning with
the covenant of promise made with Abraham, and ending with
the sojourn of the chosen people in Egypt.
4. The time of Moses and Joshua, including the giving of
the covenant of the law, and the establishment of the theocracy,
with its regulations.
I. The Primeval Age (§ 18 — 20).
§ 18. The Account of the Creation.
On the threshold of the revelation of God to man, we have
an account of creation free from mythological additions, and
the Bible narrative, by its simplicity, its chaste, positive histo
rical character, is in contrast with the fanciful, allegorical, in
tricate cosmogonies of all heathen religions.*
Since God by His Word calls all things into being, He is
placed above the beginning of all time as the eternal and abso
lutely independent One ; since He animates the universe by
* A comparison of the early history of the Bible with the cuneiform inscriptions
is extremely Interesting, both on account of their remarkable resemblance and their
characteristic difference.

26 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
His Spirit, all dualistic separation of God and the world is ex
cluded.* The production of beings advances continually toward
higher organisms, and we cannot fail to observe a parallel
between the first three and the last three days' work. Still
the divine creative power is not satisfied till it reaches its
ultimate end in the creation of man.
The paragraph Gen. 2 : 4 ff. forms the introduction to the
history of man ; which paragraph is by no means a second rec
ord of creation, but shows, in supplementing the first chapter,
that the earth was prepared for a habitation for man — a sphere
for his activity, and a place for the revelation of God to man.
§ 19. The Origin of Evil.
The world as a divine creation is good, (Gen. 1 : 31) ; every
development of life in it is a divine blessing, (Gen. 1 : 22, 28) ;
there is no room here for a principle which, in its original na
ture, is wicked and inimical to God. Man is called to be a free
being; therefore a command is given to him for self-decision
(Gen. 2: 16), in order that he may pass from the condition of
innocence to that of free obedience. Man falls under the
temptation addressed to him from without.f Through sin the
bond of child-like communion with God is broken; and now
man is in a sense independent, like God (Gen. 3: 22); but fear
resting in the feeling of guilt, dominates from this time forward
his position toward God (Gen. 3: 8 — 10). The life in Paradise
with its peace is forfeited, and man sinks henceforth under the
service of perishable things and of death (Gen. 3: 17 — 24),
• The naturalist Cuvler says concerning the first words of Genesis: A sublimer
passage than this from the first word to the last never can or will come from a
human pen, ' 'In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth". On this
verse Murphy in his Commentary on Genesis says : This simple sentence denies
atheism; for it assumes the being of God. It denies polytheism, and, among Its
various forms, the doctrines of two eternal principles the one good and the other
evil,— for it confesses the one Eternal Creator. It denies materialism, for It asserts
the creation of matter. It denies pantheism, for it assumes the existence of God
before all things, and apart from them. It denies fatalism, for it Involves the free
dom of the Eternal Being.
t Some maintain that the fall of the spirit-world took place before the begin
ning of the six days' creation, placing it between verses 1 and 2, of the first chapter
of Genesis, and such a view cannot be confuted, nor, on the other hand, can It be
proved,

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 27
Nevertheless conscience, which testifies of guilt, shows also man's
capability of being redeemed ; and side by side with the curse
a divine word points forward to a victorious end of the conflict
(Gen. 3 : 15). The seed of the serpent, which by cunning over
came the woman, shall be vanquished in open combat by the
seed of the woman. Oehler maintains, however, that the older
theology erred when it sought to find here (in Gen. 3: 15) the
Messiah, the great destroyer of the serpent, directly promised,
although he is willing to grant that it did not err in the general
conception of the thought in the passage.
§ 20. The First Offering. Cainites and Sethites. Tradition of the flood.
The first offering (Gen. 4) is not to be regarded as a proper
sin-offering, but rather an offering of supplication as well as of
gratitude, or, in a wider sense of the word we may designate it
a propitiatory offering. The difference in the nature of the of
ferings was due to the difference of the employments of the two
brothers ; so that the reason that Abel's offering pleased God,
was not that it was a bloody sacrifice. The reason can only be
found in the different states of heart of the two offerers. This
is indicated in Gen. 4: 3, where it is evident that Abel made
choice of the best to express his gratitude, while Cain offers his
gift of the fruit of the ground without selection.
At the very opening of the Bible, therefore, emphasis is laid
upon the pious disposition of the one making the sacrifice, as
the indispensable condition of its being acceptable to God
(compare Heb. n: 4).
While among the descendants of Cain, the life of sin rises
to insolent defiance (Gen. 4 : 23, 24), in Seth, who takes the
place of the murdered Abel, is propagated the race of patri
archs who seek the living God (Gen. 4 : 26).
After the wickedness of man had reached its height by the
intermarriage of the sons of God (Sethites) with the daughters
of men (Cainites) (Gen. 6: 1, 2), and the time granted for re
pentance had passed without result, the judgment of extermi
nation was executed in the Flood, from which Noah as the
righteous one (Gen. 6 : 9) was saved, along with his family.*
* The tradition of the flood is found in several religions of antiquity; but In
these traditions each religion evidently expresses a distinct Idea of Its own.

28 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
It is the first judgment on the world executed by the holy
God, who, according to Gen. 6 : 3, will no longer permit His
spirit to be profaned by man's sin.
II. The Second Age of the World (§ 21, 22).
§21. Covenant with the World. Noah's Saying. Division of Mankind.
The second age of the world begins with the new form
taken by revelation, in presenting itself as God's covenant
with man, and, in the first instance, as a covenant with the
world, in which God gives to creation a pledge of its preser
vation (Gen. 9: 8 — 17).
Sacrifice precedes the institution of the covenant (Gen. 8 :
20), which offering is mainly thanksgiving for the deliverance
experienced, while at the same time man thereby approaches
God, seeking grace for the future, after having seen the severity
of God's penal justice.
The words of Noah in Gen. 9 : 25 — 27 are of the greatest
importance for the conception of the general history of man
kind as given in the Old Testament, for here is indicated the
type for the development of the human race. The race oiShem,
to whom Jehovah is God, is chosen as the bearer of divine re
velation ; on Japheth the blessing is conferred through Shem ;
on Ham, and mainly on Canaan, the curse of slavery is to
press. The establishment of that world-kingdom which is at en
mity to God, proceeds from the Hamites (Gen. 10: 8 — 10),
whose first seat seems to have been Babel. Here begins the
distinction between the Kingdom of God and the kingdom of
the world which runs through the whole Bible.
The register of nations (Gen. 10 : 1 — 32) is intended to
keep in memory the original brotherhood of all the nations of
the earth (compare Acts 17 : 26), which are again to be united
in time to come, by one blessing of God (compare Gen. 12:3;
18: 18, etc.)
The importance of this "register of the nations" can scar
cely be overestimated. The vast increase of human knowledge
in recent times has proved the truth of its statements. It con
cerns peoples and not individuals, and stands at the end of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 29
grand traditional records of the mighty past, giving us a pic
ture of the world at a time when nations and kingdoms had
become settled and their boundaries fixed. The document*
however, must be prior to the time of the destruction of Sodom
and Gomorrah (Gen. 10: 19). The table works backwards,
and not forwards. Taking the nations at some particular time,
it groups them together, and classifies them according to the
line to which they belonged.
§ 22. The Foundation of a People of God.
In order to give an historical basis to the work of salvation,
a people is to be chosen as the bearer of revelation. When
God assigned to the nations of the earth the territory where
they were to develop themselves, He had in view the place
which his chosen people should afterward possess in order to
fulfil their historical calling (Deut. 32 : 8).
In connection, probably, with the mighty moving of the
nations at this early period, the Terahites leave the ancestral
dwelling-place of the Chaldeans in Northern Assyria and
wander first to Haran in Northern Mesopotamia (Gen. n : 31).
Here, where idolatry, designated as the worship of Teraphim,
begins to break out even in this family (Josh. 24: 2; Gen. 31 :
19), the basis of the Old Testament dispensation is laid by the
calling of Abram (Gen. 12 : 1). While the nations of the earth
walk in their own ways, in which they develop their natural
peculiarities, an everlasting people is to be founded in Abram's
descendants (Isa. 44 : 7), which, in its peculiar national type is
to be not a product of natural development, but of the creative
power and grace of God (Deut. 32 : 6). It is only in this idea
of the people of God that the key is given to the Old Testa
ment history, which would otherwise remain an insoluble rid
dle. The view that the Old Testament dispensation is a natural
production of the religious genius of the people of Israel must
be absolutely rejected.
III. The Time of the Three Patriarchs (§ 23—25)
§ 23. Abraham.
Obedient to the divine call, Abram leaves Mesopotamia,
accompanied by Lot, the ancestor of the Moabites and Am-

30 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPaEDIA.
monites, to go to Canaan, which is already (Gen. 12:6) posses
sed by the tribes bearing this name. In solemn revelation God
closes with him the covenant of promise (Gen. 15: 1 — 21), and
Abram, several years later, takes upon himself the obligations
of the covenant through circumcision (Gen. 17: 1 — 27).
Three points are contained in the promises given to Abram
(Gen. 12: 2,3,7; 13: 15, 16; 17: 5 — 8; 22: 16 — 18): 1) Unto
him is to be given for an everlasting possession to his descend
ants, all the land of Canaan ; 2) He who remains childless till
his old age shall have an innumerable posterity ; 3) In his seed
shall all the earth be blessed.
Abraham, by his faith, which is reckoned to him for right
eousness, becomes the father of all believers (compare Rom.
4 and Gal. 3), and his name stands at the head of the three
monotheistic religions of the world f Jewish, Christian and
Mohammedan) even when looked at in a purely historical way.
The character of God's people is ethically determined from
the first, and Gen. 18: 19 shows that not all natural descend
ants belong to the true sons of Abraham and to the heirs of
the promise.
On the relation of the religion of the patriarchs to the sur
rounding heathenism, the narratives in Gen. 14: 18 — 22 and
Chap. 22 shed the most important light. The former passage
contains the story of Melchisedek, king of Salem. This Salem
is without doubt Jerusalem, and Abraham in the way which he
does homage to Melchizedek manifestly acknowledges the God
whose priest Melchizedek is. We have here traces of an older
purer monotheism on Canaanitish ground, which at first sight
is remarkable, because elsewhere the relation of the Old Tes
tament God to the Canaanitish religion is sharply antagonistic.
No doubt we have here a remnant of an older and pure relig
ion, preserved in the midst of the Canaanitish religion by a
Semitic race dwelling among the Canaanites.*
Abraham accepted from Salem's priest and king, Melchi
zedek, not only bread and wine for the invigoration of his ex-

* See especially the Interesting researches of Movers in his exhaustive work
Vie Phdnizier.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 31
hausted warriors, but a priestly blessing also, and gave him in
return the tenth of all his booty, as a sign that he acknow
ledged this king as a priest of the living God, and that he
submitted to his royal priesthood. And although we can see
in Melchizedek nothing more than one, perhaps the last of the
witnesses and confessors of the early revelation of God, com
ing out into the light of history from the dark night of heath
enism; yet this appearance does point to a priesthood of
universal significance, and to a higher order of things, which
existed at the commencement of the world, and is one day to
be restored again. In all these respects, the noble form of this
King of Salem and Priest of the Most High God was a type
of the God-King and eternal High Priest Jesus Christ; a
thought which is expanded in Heb. 7, on the basis of this ac
count, and of the divine utterance revealed to David in the
Spirit, that the king of Zion sitting at the right hand of Jeho
vah should be a priest forever after the order of Melchizedek
(Ps. no: 4).*
With reference to the second narrative, the temptation of
Abraham, Kurtz in his History of the Old Covenant, seems to
have given the right explanation. He says : "Abraham must
have been conscious that the way that led to the perfecting of
his faith was the way of renunciation and self denial. The sight
of the Canaanite sacrifices of children must have led Abraham
to self-examination, whether he would be strong enough in re
nunciation and self-denial to do what those heathen did, if his
God desired it from him. But if the question was once made
the subject of discussion in Abraham's heart, it had also to be
brought to a definite and real decision." But the remarks of Keil
in his Commentary are equally true : " The command to offer up
his only son Isaac did not come from Abraham's own heart, —
was not a thought suggested by the sight of the human sacri
fices of the Canaanites, that he would offer a similar sacrifice
to his God ; nor did it originate with the tempter to evil. The
word came from Ha-Elohim, the personal true God, who tried
him, who demanded the sacrifice of the only, beloved son, as a
• See Keil In his Commentary on Gen. 14: 18—22.

32 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPaEDIA.
proof and attestation of his faith. The issue, however, shows,
that God did not desire the sacrifice of Isaac by slaying and
burning him upon the altar, but his complete surrender, and a
willingness to offer him up to God even by death." Oehler
makes the following deductions from this point of view: The
culminating point of worship in the religions of nature was hu
man sacrifice. The covenant had to separate itself in this res
pect from heathenism ; the truth in it had to be acknowledged,
and the falsehood denied. In the command to offer up Isaac,
the truth of the conviction that human life must be sacrificed
as an unholy thing, is acknowledged ; and by the arresting in
tervention of God, the hideous distortion of this truth which
had arisen in heathenism is condemned and rejected.
§ 24. Isaac and Jacob.
Very little is recorded of the life of Isaac ; he walked in
the footsteps of his father, and the divine promises given to
the latter were renewed to him (Gen. 26 : 2 — 5). Of his twin-
sons, Jacob, the second-born son, was chosen as the bearer of
the promise (Rom. 9 : n). The fundamental thought connected
with the divine guidance of Jacob's life is, that in spite of all
human hindrances, the divine counsel reaches its goal, and that
even human sins must serve for its realization, although they
are punished none the less. By the sin of Jacob and his mo
ther, Isaac's purpose, which was in opposition to the promise
to Jacob (Gen. 25 : 23), is thwarthed ; yet Jacob's sin is visited
on him in the straits he experienced in his wanderings (Gen.
27: 42 — 45), which were occasioned by his artifice against
Esau, and particularly in the sorrows afterwards prepared for
him by his sons, when he who himself had preached deception
must himself in like manner be deceived. The covenant pro
mise given to him at the beginning of his journey to Mesopo
tamia, in the theophany at Bethel, in order to strengthen him
for the years of exile (Gen. 28: 10 — 15), is confirmed at the
same place on his return (Gen. 35 : 9 — 15), after he had gained
for himself and his race in the night-long wrestling at Jabbok,
which forms the turning-point of his life, the new and holy
name of Israel, characteristic of his divine calling (Gen. 32 :

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 33
24 — 28). It is common, especially in the practical use of this
latter passage, to limit oneself to seeing in Jacob's struggle a
symbol of wrestling in prayer, which does not become wea
ried until it wins the blessing. But it is better to distinguish a
two-fold wrestling. Jacob's combat, when he first wrestles with
bodily strength, is perhaps a picture of the perverseness of his
former life, and his becoming lame is then meant to show that
God does not permit Himself to be forced by natural strength.
But then Jacob becomes victorious by the weapon of prayer
(Hos. 12 : 4, 5).
§ 25. The Twelve Patriarchs.
That there are twelve tribes is explained by the Old Testa
ment from the number of the sons of Jacob. A long period
of expectation in exile and slavery is first prescribed (Gen. 15 :
13, 14) to Jacob's descendants before they enter upon their pos
session of the land of Canaan. The completion of the divine
decree is introduced by the providential history of Joseph.
Jacob dies in Egypt after having predicted the future of the
tribes descending from his sons, in his prophetic blessing (Gen.
49), which looks far beyond the time in which his descendants
continue strangers. The twelve tribes are here portrayed, partly
according to their geographical relationship, while at the same
time Jacob's words rest on ethical and psychological consider
ations. With regard to the theological meaning of these say
ings, it is taught by this blessing, that in the divine kingdom
things do not occur in the way of nature, but according to div
ine choice. Neither he who should have taken the lead by right
of birth, nor yet the father's darling, is called to stand at the
head of the Kingdom of God.
Among the twelve Joseph is especially prominent, who is
to become a mighty double tribe in his two sons Manasseh and
Ephraim (Gen. 48 : 5). It is Judah, on the other hand, who is
specially chosen as the bearer of the promise.
IV. The time of Moses and Joshua (§ 26—33).
1. The deliverance of Israel from the Egyptian Bondage
(§ 26, 27).

34 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
§ 26. Condition of the People of Israel in Egypt.
At the close of the time of the Patriarchs, the biblical ac
count passes silently over a long period, in which Israel grows
up into a people. The simple tribal life, such as we must sup
pose Israel's to have been in those centuries, really forms- no
history. The Old Testament gives us some intimations of the con
dition of the people in Egypt. They seem, on the whole, to
have kept to the pastoral life of their fathers in Goshen. As
the Egyptians and Israelites lived together (Ex. 3 : 22; 12:
33 — 3^), the people could not have remained unaffected by
the Egyptian culture, which was at that time already very far
advanced, and it is a mistake to regard the Israelites at their
Exodus from Egypt as a rude race of nomads, in whom we may
not presuppose even the smallest beginning of culture. They
appear in the Pentateuch as an unmanageable, but not as an
uncultured people. The political organization of the people
had developed itself in a genealogical way, which corresponds
to the natural character of the Semites, who are characterized
by strong family attachment. With regard to the religious con
dition of the nation, we find that among the mass of the people
the remembrance of the God of their fathers, and of the prom
ises given to them, had to be awakened. The purer worship
of God which we find among the patriarchs had been displaced
by idol-worship, as may be concluded partly from express tes
timony (Josh. 24 : 14 ; Ezek. 20 : 7 — 9 ; 23 : 8, 19), and partly
from the idol-worship to which the people gave themselves
during their wandering in the wilderness (the worship of the calf
at Sinai, Ex. 32; the service of the he-goats, Lev. 17: 7; the
service of the fire god Molech, Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20: 2).
§ 27. The Course of the Deliverance from Egypt.
The deliverance from Egypt is related in the book of Exo
dus. The divine instrument for this was Moses. What Moses
failed to do when trying in his own might, he was to accom
plish forty years after as an instrument in God's hand. The ten
plagues which are sent on the Egyptians (Ex. 7 — 1 2, compared
with Ps. 78: 43 — 51 ; 106: 21, 22) are mosdy connected with
natural events and conditions which frequently recur in Egypt.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. _, 35
The order of their succession stands in close connection with
the natural course of the Egyptian year. But partly the sev
erity of the plagues, and partly their connection with the word
of Moses (Ex. 8 : 5, 6), make them signs of Jehovah's power.
The plagues rise from step to step until, after the tenth plague
(the killing of the first- born of the Egyptians, which takes place
the same night as the substitution of the Passover in Israel), the
Egyptians, full of fear, drive the people from the land.* Be
cause the people are not yet matured for war with the nations
of Canaan, Moses does not lead them to Canaan by the nearest
road, but chooses the round-about way through the wilderness
of Sinai. Their faith was tested at the passage of the Red Sea
(Ex. 14). The duration of Israel's stay in Egypt is fixed as 430
years, according to Ex. 12: 40, compared with Gen. 15: i3.f
2. The Institution of the Covenant of the Law and the
March through the Wilderness ("§28 — 31).
§ 28. The Educational Aim of the March through the Wilderness. The
Covenant of the Law established.
The people, scarcely escaped from the rod of correction,
from the flesh-pots and idols of Egypt, must be educated,
sifted and purified for their calling ; and this educational aim
is secured by the march through the wilderness, where the
people are thrown entirely on their God, where they become
aware of their need of help through want and privation, and
are to be exercised in obedience and trust ; and to prove at
the same time, in the experience of the divine leading and
help, what they have in their God (Deut. 8: 2 — 5, 14 — 18).
In Hos. 2 : 16, the future restoration of Israel is represented
as a new guidance through the wilderness. In the third month
(Ex. 19: 1), on the first of the month, the people reached Sinai,

* The passages in Ex. 3: 21, 22; 11 : 2, 8; 12: 35, 36, have been celebrated on ac
count of misinterpretation and mistranslation. No robbery is here implied, but a
simple taking away. The Revised English Version translates correctly. The sense
of the passages is, that the Egyptians are glad to get rid of the Israelites at this
price, so that we have here an act of remuneration, that the children of Israel might
receive at least some compensation for all their labor and suffering.
t So Delltzsch, Keil, Knobel, Kurtz, Tuch. Winer and many others. But there are
many commentators who include the 215 years from the Covenant with Abraham to
the time of Jacob's entering Egypt, within this period of 430 years.

36 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
where Jehovah, as the Holy One, founds the theocracy and en
ters on His Kingship. Then follows the promulgation of the
fundamental law by which Jehovah binds Israel's race to a holy
constitution. By the covenant offering (Ex. 24), the entrance
of the people into communion with the Holy God is sealed.
With regard to grace and judgment, Israel is from this time
forward the privileged people of God.
§ 29. The First Breach of the Covenant. Order of the Camp. Depar
ture from Sinai. Sentence on the People.
The people soon break the covenant by falling into idolatry
in the absence of Moses (Ex. 32 : 1 — 6). Moses executes judg
ment on the idolaters, and on this occasion the tribe of Levi
obtains its consecration (Ex. 32 : 26 — 29). One of the most
beautiful sections of the Pentateuch, in which Moses appears
in all his greatness, is the story of his offering himself as ana
thema, if God will only forgive the people, — a thought which has
been utteretl by only one other than Moses, namely Paul (Rom.
9: 3). During the stay at Sinai, which was for about a year,
the holy tabernacle is set up and dedicated, the ordinances of
worship are regulated, and a number of the laws are given.
Finally the order of encampment is fixed, by which the relation
of Jehovah to the people as His army, and at the same time
their relations to each other, are distinctly expressed (Ex. 2
and 3).
In the second year, on the twentieth of the month, the re
moval from Sinai takes place. They succeed, under repeated
outbreaks of their stiffneckedness and chastisements suffered
on this account, in reaching Kadesh Barnea, the southern
boundary of Canaan. From this point Moses causes the land
to be searched by twelve spies. The accounts which they bring
back raise a general insurrection. A wandering of forty years
long in the wilderness is decreed against the people, during
which time the whole body of men who were capable of war
are to be swept away, except Joshua and Caleb, who had no
share in the offense (Num. 14). Hence the history of the
march through the wilderness is treated as a type of warning
for all times (Ps. 78; 1 Cor. 10: 1 — 12; Heb. 3: 7 — n).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF 'THE OLD TESTAMENT. 37
§ 30. The Wandering during Thirty-seven Years in the Wilderness, and
the Events up to the Occupation of the Land on the east side of Jordan.
The history of the Pentateuch passes over the following
thirty-seven years almost wholly in silence. According to Deut.
i : 46, a long stay of the people in Kadesh must be presup
posed. The seventeen places of encampment which are men
tioned in Num. 33 : 19 — 36 between Rithmath and Kadesh
are those at which the Israelites pitched their camps during
the 37 years of wandering in the wilderness. In the first month
of the fortieth year, the people are again in Kadesh-Barnea.
The new-grown race show the same stubbornness as the earlier
one ; they contend with Moses and Aaron ; and as at this time
even the faith of these two wavers, to them also entrance into
the land of rest is denied (Num. 20: 10 — 12). A new outbreak
of the people's stubbornness draws upon them another chas
tisement. The brazen saraph (a fiery serpent) which was sus
pended, is a symbol of the doing away of evil through the
power and grace of God (Num. 21 : 4 — 9). To this the typi
cal use in John 3 : 14 attaches itself. Then follow, in the land
on the east side of the Jordan, successful combats, as a testi
mony of Jehovah's faithfulness and a pledge of future victory.
Especially interesting is the history of Balaam and Balak(Num.
22: 1 — 24: 25). It is in this connection that the well-known
prophetic passage concerning the star and sceptre arising out
of Israel, occurs (Num. 24: 17 — 19). The new numbering of
the people, which was made in the plains of Moab (Num. 26),
shows the new-grown race to be numerically almost the same
as before (601,730 men fit for war, against 603,550).
§ 31. Deuteronomy. Death of Moses. His Position among the Organs
of Revelation. The people's wandering is completed, and Moses is to
place the staff of leadership in Joshua's hands. The last testa
ment of the departing leader to his people is given in Deuter
onomy. This, although one of the most disputed books in the
Old Testament, is one of the most beautiful.* When Moses has
* The view of some modern critics, that the finding of the book of the law at the
repairing of the temple under Joslah, in the year 624 b. 0. (2 Kings 22), was in truth
the publication of Deuteronomy, which was only written a short time before, Is con-

38 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
finished blessing his people, he mounts to the top of Pisgah in
order to cast yet one look on the longed-for land, and appears
no more on earth. His end is related in a mysterious way, but
is indicated by the same expressions as the common end of
man's life (Deut. 34: 5, 7; compared with Deut. 32: 50). (The
position of the New Testament to the death of Moses is pecu
liar. While Heb. 11 : 40 says of the Old Covenant fathers, "that
apart from us they should not be made perfect," making their
perfection dependent on the completion of the New Testament
work of redemption, — the New Testament history of the trans
figuration, where Moses appears with Elijah, Matt. 17:3; Luke
9: 30, 31, presupposes Moses as perfected for the heavenly life.
If justice is done to all the passages, we must say, with Stier
( Words of the Lord Jesus, in Matt. 17): "A wonderful excep
tion is made with the bodies of these two from the common
lot of death ; although the lawgiver actually died on account
of sin, and the prophet was already more nearly raised to the
victory over death").
The position of Moses, as divinely ordained to exercise all
the powers of the theocracy, is a unique one, which did not
descend to Joshua, who had only to execute inherited com
mands, and administer a law already given.
3. The Settlement of Israel in the Holy Land (§ 32, 33).
§ 32. Occupation of Canaan. Extermination of the Canaanites.
The passage of Jordan ensued in a miraculous way, as a
pledge to the people that the same mighty God who was with
Moses would reveal himself also under the new leader (Josh. 4:
14, 22 — 24), and therefore this event is expressly placed side
by side with the march through the Red Sea (Josh. 4 : 23 ; Ps.
114: 3, 5). The key to the land was won by the conquest of
Jericho (Josh. 6). The cherem (ban, devotion as a curse), en
joined in Deut. 7:2; 20: 16 — 18, was executed on a number
of Canaanitish towns. The Old Testament knows no other
ground for the assignment of the land to Israel than the free
grace of Jehovah, to whom it belonged ; and no other ground
trary to the fact that even the oldest prophets presuppose Deuteronomy, Its legislative
provisions, and also its speeches. But the examination of the critical question of
Deuteronomy must be left to Old Testament Introduction.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 39
for the blotting out of the Canaanite tribes than the divine jus
tice which, after these tribes have filled up the measure of their
sins in unnatural abominations (Deut. 12 : 31), breaks in at last
in vengeance, after long waiting. But Israel is threatened with
exactly the same judgment (Deut. 8: 19, 20; Josh. 23: 15, 16)
if it become guilty of the sins of the tribes on whom it exe
cutes the divine judgment with the sword.
§ 33. Division of the Land. Character of the Promised Land. Israel
at the Close of this Period.
In the seventh year after their entrance (Josh. 14 : 10), the
Israelites began the division of the land, although it was not
yet in all parts completely vanquished (Josh. 13: 2 — 6). Ele-
azar the priest, and Joshua, with the chiefs of the tribes, man
aged the business of division.* The division of the land was
carried out so that not merely the limits of the tribal territories
were fixed, but inside these also the districts of the families.
Thus the life of tribe and family remained the basis of civil
society. The separation from the other peoples commanded in
the law (see especially Lev. 20 : 24, 26) was made easier by
the secluded position of the land, which was inclosed on the
south and east by great wildernesses, on the north by the high
mountains of Lebanon, and which even on the west was un
favorable situated for maritime intercourse. On the other hand,
by the situation of the land in the midst of the cultivated na
tions which figure in ancient history, as well as by means of
the great highways of the old world which led past its board
ers, the future theocratic calling of the people was made possi
ble. A first consequence of the position of Israel in the midst
of nations was, that it courted the powers of the world, and was
chastised by all, so that all became instruments of judgment on
Israel. But on the other side, it was this central position which
made this land fit for the starting-point of the religion of the
world. Two parts of the promise given to the patriarchs were ful
filled — the entrance of Israel into their rest in the promised
* The second part of the Book of Joshua is of Immense value for Biblical Geog
raphy.

40 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPaEDIA.
land, and the increase of the people like the stars of heaven
(Deut. 10: 22). But the dominion over the nations (Gen; 27:
29 ; 49 : 10) was not yet obtained, the blessing of Abraham was
not yet come to the heathen ; nay, a new cycle of history must
arise in which centuries of contest for mere existence were or
dained for the people.
PART II. THE DOCTRINES AND ORDINANCES OF
MOSAISM (§ 34 — 156).
§ 34. Survey.
This section is divided as follows :
1 . The doctrine of God and His relation to the world.
2. The doctrine of man and his relation to God.
3. The law covenant and the theocracy.
First Division. The Doctrine of God and His relation to
the world (§ 35 — 66).
1. The Mosaic Idea of God (§ 35 — 48).
§ 35. Survey.
The most general designations of the Divine Being are El,
Eloah, Elohim, El-Elyon, El-Shaddai, and Jehovah. It is a
mistake to bring the theological divisions of a later period into
Biblical Theology, and to treat God's attributes according to a
preconceived scheme. Biblical Theology traces the religion of
revelation in its rise and development, and finds for the defini
tion of the idea of God a gradually advancing series of state
ments concerning the divine essence. But in these stages the
idea of God is so unfolded that the higher stages do not de
stroy the lower, but embrace them.
§ 36. The names El, Eloah, Elohim, El-Elyon.
1. El is the oldest Semitic name of God. As a name of
the true God, it is not frequent in the prose of the Old Testament.
It hardly ever appears except with the article, or in connection
with a following genitive, or an attribute annexed in some other
way. Its original sense is "the powerful, the strong." The name
is/also appears in a number of the oldest names of men (Gen.
4: 18, Mehuja-el, Methusha-el).
2. Eloah the singular of Elohim occurs in the Old Testa
ment almost exclusively in poetical language, with the excep-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 41
tion of the later books composed under Aramaic influence. It
originally expresses the impression made by power. Eloah is,
according to this, the power which awakens terror. That the
natural man finds himself, when confronted by the Divinity,
chiefly moved by a feeling of fear, is expressed in this desig
nation of God.
3. The most common designation of the Divine Being in
the Old Testament is Elohim, the plural of Eloah. This plural
form is peculiar to the Old Testament and it appears as a name
of God only in old Hebrew, and in none of the other Semitic
languages. The meaning of the plural is not numerical, either
in the sense in which some older theologians understand it,
who seek the mystery of the Trinity in the name;* or in the
sense that the expression had originally a polytheistic meaning,
and only at a later period acquired a singular sense ; or that
originally the plural indicated the one God together with the
angels ; but it is much better to explain Elohim, as the quan
titative plural, which is used to denote unlimited greatness.
The plural signifies the infinite fulness of the might and power
which lies in the Divine Being, and thus passes over into the
intensive plural, as Delitzsch has named it. The plural con
tained in Adonai is to be explained in the same way ; indeed,
this plural of majesty has also passed to other titles of God.
Elohim remains all through the Old Testament the general
name of God ; and is used with special emphasis in the Eloh-
istic psalms.
As the name of the true God, Elohim is regularly joined
with the singular.
4. The divine name El-Elyon (God Most High) is also
used outside of the sphere of revelation. It occurs in the his
tory of Melchizedek (Gen. 14: 18), and it is characteristic that
it appears in the mouth of the king of Babylon (Isa. 14: 14),
probably to designate Bel.
* But even this view has some truth at its foundation, since the plural form, Indi
cating the inexhaustible fulness of the Divinity, serves to combat the most daring en
emy of the doctrine of the Trinity.— abstract monotheism.

42 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
§ 37. El-Shaddai.
This name characterizes God as revealing Himself in His
might. Delitzsch on Gen. 17 : i forcibly says : "Elohim is the
God who creates nature so that it is, and supports it so that it
continues; El-Shaddai, the God who compels nature to do
what is contrary to itself, and subdues it to bow and minister
to grace." But as soon as the name Jehovah unfolds its mean
ing, the name El-Shaddai falls back on the one hand into the
list of the more general names of God.
§ 38. Pronunciation and Grammatical Explanation of the Name
Jehovah. The word Jehovah in the Masoretic text of the Old Testa
ment has the vowel pointing of Adonai. The prohibition for
bidding the utterance of the name is derived by the Jews from
Lev. 24: 16, in virtue of an untenable exposition of the pas
sage in the LXX(he that nameth the name of the Lord). How
old the dread of uttering the name, is, cannot be accurately
fixed. The Jews maintain that the knowledge of the true pro
nunciation has been entirely lost since the destruction of the
temple. Ex.3: 13 — 15 is the decisive passage for the pronun
ciation and grammatical explanation of the name. We must read
either Jahveh or Jahaveh. The first form is more probable, and
we must regard the word as a noun formed from the third per
son of the imperfect oihawah, the older form oi hay ah (he was).
§ 39. The Signification of the Name Jehovah.
The name signifies He who is, according to Ex. 3: 14;
more particularly, He who is what He is. God is Jahveh in as
far as he has entered into an historical relation to mankind, and
in particular to the chosen people Israel. 1) The name carries
us into the sphere of the divine freedom. It expresses quite
generally the absolute independence of God in his dominion.
2) The name further conveys the idea of the absolute immut
ability of God, and implies the invariable faithfulness of God.
§ 40. Age and Origin of the Name Jehovah.
Every attempt to derive the name from heathenism rests on
arbitrary hypotheses. The more exact determination of the
Old Testament origin of the name, depends on the explanation

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 43
of the passage in Ex. 6 : 3. We are not to explain this as if
the name Jehovah had been entirely unknown to the patriarchs,
and that we have here the first revelation of the name; but
rather in this sense, that the name Jen ovah had not been yet
understood by the patriarchs, and that they had not had the
full experience of that which lies in the name. The name,
therefore, reaches back to primeval antiquity, and was not first
introduced by Moses.
§ 41. Comparison of the Name Jehovah with Elohim and El.
In general, all universally cosmical action of God, going
out toward the heathen as well as toward Israel in the creation
and preservation of the world, is traced to El and Elohim ; to
Jehovah, on the other hand, is traced every divine act which
is connected with the theocratic revelation and guidance, and
which bears on the heathen only in so far as their history stands
in relation to the aim of the divine kingdom. This difference,
however, from the nature of the case4 is not strictly kept up
everywhere in the Old Testament in the use of the names of
God, But still it is plainly apparent that the Old Testament
writers had a very definite consciousness of the indicated dif
ference*. Theophany in general is predicated of Jehovah, who,
and not Elohim, holds intercourse with man in the manner of
men. Hence it comes that anthropomorphisms are almost al
ways applied to Jehovah, and not to Elohim.
§ 42. Attributes of God which are derived immediately from the idea
of Jehovah. 1. Jehovah is an eternal God, the Everlasting God, as
Abraham addresses Him in Gen. 21: 33 fcompare Deut. 32:
40). God's eternity is involved in His absolute independence,
in virtue whereof God is not conditioned by anything which
originates or decays in time, but is the first and the last (Isa.
44: 6; 48: 12). While God as Jehovah is the eternal, God's
eternity is defined as the unchangeableness oj His being, con
tinuing throughout every change of time, and thus it becomes
the basis of human confidence.
* It Is well known that the first book of Psalms (Ps. 1—41) is JeJuwistic, and the
second (Ps. 42-72), Elohlstlc.

44 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
2. In the word Jehovah is involved the idea that He is a
living God (Gen. 16: 14; Deut. 5 : 26). He is acknowledged
as the living God in the midst of the congregation by his deeds
of revelation (Josh. 3: 10), and by his words of revelation (Jer.
23: 36).
3. Jehovah is the Lord, — my Lord (Adonai). According
to the original meaning of Adonai ("my Lord"), there lies in
it, not simply the acknowledgement of the divine sovereignty
in general, but also the consciousness of specially belonging to
God, the consciousness of standing under his immediate guid
ance and protection.
§ 43. The Unity of God.
Monotheism forms one of the fundamental doctrines of
Mosaism. Jehovah is one (Deut. 6:4).
1. Some have maintained that the unity of God was devel
oped gradually from a polytheistic religion, but for this there is
no evidence whatever.
2. Others again maintain that the Mosaic Jehovah does not
exclude the existence of other Gods.
It cannot be disputed, that many of the Israelites regarded
Jehovah only as a god beside other gods of the people, but it
is equally clear, however, that this view is always combated by
the organs of revelation as a perversion of the idea of Jehovah.
Judaism is certainly right in continually proclaiming the pas
sage Deut. 6 : 4 as the most holy word, which includes the
fundamental doctrine of monotheism. Of the two admissible
explanations of this passage, a) " Hear, O Israel: the Lord our
God is one Lord," and b) " the Lord our God, the Lord is
one," — the latter seems the more correct.
Another question has also been raised, whether the gods of
the heathen did not exist according to the Old Testament, if
not as gods, at least as living beings, perhaps as demons. But
for this also there is no evidence.
§ 44. Formal Definition of the Idea of God as the Holy One.
In virtue of its inexhaustible signification, the divine holi
ness is one of the most difficult terms in the Bible to define.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 45
The first declaration of the divine holiness is found in Moses'
song of praise, Ex. 15: n (glorious in holiness).
When holiness is predicated of the covenant people and
covenant ordinances, two things are implied : 1) being taken
out of worldliness ; 2) being appropriated by God. Whenever
this character of holiness pertains to anything, this never rests
on a natural quantity.
Where kadosh (holiness) is a designation of a divine at
tribute, there evidently lies in it primarily a negative element,
by which it designates a state of apartness, God raising him
self up above others. God's holiness is God's self-preservation,
by virtue of which he remains like himself in all relations
which either are in him or on which he enters in any way, and
neither gives up any part of his divinity nor accepts any
thing ungodly. Two things lie in the divine holiness, 1) that
He stands in opposition to the world, and again, 2) that He
removes this opposition by choosing in the world some whom
he places in communion with Himself (Isa. 57 : 15).
All demonstrations of the divine covenant of grace are the
issues of the divine holiness.
§ 45. Fuller Definition of the Idea.
If, in order to come at the concrete side of the matter, we
proceed from the question, what is the meaning of God's sanc
tifying a people to Himself? — the answer is, that it relates to
the restoration of a perfect life, both inwardly and outwardly.
Now, if we argue from this to the meaning of the divine holi
ness, it may be defined concretely as an absolute perfection of
life, but essentially in an ethical sense. It is true, however, that
the notions of divine holiness and glory are related. We may
say with Oetinger, holiness is hidden glory, and glory disclosed
holiness. On the whole, we may define the divine holiness as mainly
separation from the impurity and sinfulness of the creature, or
expressed positively, the clearness and purity of the divine nat
ure, which excludes all communion with what is wicked. In
this sense the symbolical designation of the divine holiness is,
that God is light (Isa. 10 : 17). The divine holiness, as a re-

46 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPaEDIA.
vealed attribute, is not an abstract power, but is the divine self-
representation and self-testimony for the purpose of giving to
the world a participation in the perfection of the divine life.
§ 46. Characteristics connected with the Divine Holiness. 1. Impossi
bility of Picturing God, Omnipresence, Spirituality.
i. Inasmuch as the divine holiness is the separateness of
the Divine Being from all finiteness of the creature, it includes
the impossibility of forming an image of the Divine Being.
From Deut. 4: 15 — 19 we learn that the prohibition of repre
senting God by any figure or form is absolute. Neither can any
argument contradictory to the utterances of the Old Testament
as to the idea of God be drawn from anthropomorphisms*,
for no religion can dispense with such anthropomorphic
expressions when it enters into the sphere of representative
thought, and everything depends on making it sure that the
literal application of such expressions shall be corrected by the
whole conception of the idea of God.
2. It is self-evident that the Pentateuch regards God, to
whom the heaven and the heavens of heaven, the earth and all
that is upon it, belong (Deut. 10: 14), as omnipresent, even
when such express delineations of omnipresence as in Ps. 139,
are not found in the Pentateuch. Compare, however, such
passages as Gen. 16: 13; 28: 15 — 17; 46: 4; etc. Beyond this,
the Pentateuch has mainly to do with the special presence
which God gives by living among his people, when he localizes
his face, his name, his glory — the so-called Shekhina (see
§63). 3. The express declaration that God is spirit does not
occur in the Old Testament, which is rather accustomed to say
that God has the spirit, and causes it to go out from Him; by
which, however, the Spirit is indicated as the element of God's
life (Isa. 40: 13; Ps. 139:7; Isa. 31 : 3). The absolute per
sonality of God is frequently expressed in the word "I am He"
(Deut. 32: 39; Isa. 43: 10).

* Those expressions in the Scriptures in which parts of the human body, or more
generally the senses, are transferred to God.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 47
§ 47. 2. The Divine Righteousness, Faithfulness and Truth.
With the Divine holiness in its ethical character are con
nected the attributes of divine righteousness, divine faithfulness
and truth. These attributes are united in the main passage,
Deut. 32 : 4.
1. God is righteous. The Hebrew word for righteous
(tsaddiq,) expresses what is straight and right, in the sense
that God in His government always does what is suitable;
namely, i) what answers fully to his aim; and 2) what answers
to the constitution of the object of the divine action. Specially,
but not exclusively, the sphere in which this righteousness
manifests itself is the judicial activity of God.
As in the idea of Jehovah, who is absolutely immutable, so
also in the idea of the Holy One in virtue of its ethical mean
ing, the attribute of truth and faithfulness is given (compare
Isa. 49: 7 ; Hos. 11 : 9). In the Old Testament this attribute
is specially emphasized in referring to the divine word of
promise, and the agreement to the divine action therewith. One
of the chief passages in the Pentateuch is Num. 23: 19.
(Compare 1 Sam. 15: 29; Ps. 36: 5).
§ 48. 3. The Jealous God.
In the idea of divine holiness is included that God is a
Jealous God (Ex. 34: 14; Deut. 6: 15). The divine zeal is the
energy of the divine holiness. The divine zeal has a twofold
form :
1. It turns itself avengingly against every violation of the
divine will. God's jealousy turns especially against idolatry
(Deut. 32 : 21), and generally against all sin by which God's
holy name is desecrated. Thus the divine jealousy manifests
itself as divine wrath. For the wrath of God is the most in
tense energy of the holy will of God, the zeal of his wounded
love. On the connection of the two ideas, jealousy and wrath,
compare Deut. 6: 15; 32: 21, 22; Ps. 78: 58, 59.
As wrath is a manifestation of divine holiness, the occasion
of its outburst does not lie in a capricious divine humor or
natural malignity, but wholly in the person smitten by it. If
man denies and rejects the testimony of the holy God which

48 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
was given to him, justice must be executed upon him in his
resistance to God's will, which alone is in the right, by his
being reduced to his own nothingness. But the manifestation
of wrath also receives its measure from divine holiness, which
measure is ordained by the divine aim of salvation, and hence
it is not the sway of blind passion (Hos. n : 9; Jer. 10: 24;
and the parable in Isa. 28 : 23 — 29).
2. Jehovah is Jealous not for Himself alone, but also for
His holy people, so far as they are in a position of grace, or are
taken into favor again by Him. From this side His jealousy
is the zeal of love as an energetic vindication of the unmatched
relation in which God has placed His people to Himself. The
anthropopathies* of the Old Testament come for the most part
under this heading.
II. The Relation of God to the World. (§ 49 — 66).
§ 49. General Survey.
The existence of the world as absolutely due to the divine
causality is presented in three propositions :
1 . When reflection is directed to the existence of the world,
both as to its beginning and as to its subsistence, we reach the
doctrine of the Creation and Preservation of the world.
2. When we consider how the world is so, and not other
wise, we get the doctrine of the aim of the world and of divine
Providence, with which is connected the question of the divine
causality to the wickedness and evil in the world.
3. For the realization of His aim, God enters on a peculiar
relation to the world; the means by which God brings about
this His special relation to the world are exhibited in the doc
trine of Revelation.
§ 50 — 52. First Doctrine. On the Creation and Preser
vation of the World.
I. On the Creation. (§ 50, 51).
§ 50. Creation by the Word.
The Mosaic doctrine of creation rests on two fundamental
thoughts: 1) that the production of the world proceeded from
the Word; and 2) from the Spirit of God.
* Those declarations concerning God In which human emotions, and changes
In these emotions, are attributed by God.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 49
The form of the creation of the world is the speaking, or
the Word of God ; this means that the world originated through
a conscious, free divine act. This excludes i) every theory of
the origin of the world by emanation ; and 2) the assumption
of an eternal elementary matter independent of God.
The first verse of Genesis is not to be considered as a title,
a summary statement of the contents of the chapter, but rather
a declaration of the primordial creation of the matter of the
universe. The central idea is creation, and the Hebrew word bara
here used, always means the production of something new
which has not had a previous existence.
It is clear that Mosaism places itself above all natural
religions by the declaration, "In the beginning God created the
heaven and the earth."
§ 51. The Divine Spirit in Creation.
Since the world is placed outside of God, it originated and
subsists only by the life imparted to it by His Spirit ; thus it is
not separated from Him, although distinct from Him.
The life of the creature, according to the record of creation,
does not proceed from the chaotic mass ; but life comes from
God (Ps. 36 ; 9). That the Spirit of God really acts in the
creative word, and that it is itself endued with the power of
life, is indicated by the expression in Ps. 33 : 6, where the Spirit
is characterized as the Spirit of the divine mouth ; it lies also
in Isa. 40: 13, that the Divine Spirit acting in the creation is
a consciously working and intelligent power, as, according to
Ps. 139 : 7, the divine omnipresence in the world acts by means
of the all penetrating Spirit of God. Creature life proceeds
from God, but it does not flow from God; it is imparted freely
by God to the creature (Isa. 42 : 5). It is not a life which God
lives in the creature, but a relatively independent life of the
creatures, derived from God.
§ 52. II. On the Preservation of the World.
1. The preservation of the world is, on the one hand, dis
tinguished in the Old Testament from its creation, inasmuch,
as, according to Gen. 2 : 2, the production of the classes of

50 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
creatures has a conclusion, which is formed by the Sabbath of
creation ; while, on the other hand, the agency of God in this
preservation is represented as a continous creation.
2. The continuance of this system of the world is estab
lished at each moment by the divine omnipotence. The preser
vation of the world rests continually oh the same foundation as
the creation, on God's word of command, which he continually
sends forth (Ps. 147 : 15 — 18) ; and it rests just as continually
on the Divine Spirit, which he causes ever to go forth — (Ps.
104 : 29, 30). This last passage shows how the preservation of
the creature can be looked at from the point of view of a con
tinous creation ; and this thought, that a creative working ol
God goes on in the preservation of creation, is in general im
printed in various forms on the Old Testament phraseology
(Ex. 4:11; Isa. 42 : 5).
Second Doctrine. The Divine aim of the World. Divine
Providence (§53, 54).
§ 53. The Design of Creation, and its Realization through Providence.
That a divine plan is to be realized in the world, and that
the divine creation is therefore a teleological act, is shown in
the account of the creation. In all his creating God approves
the works of his hands ; but still the creating God does not
reach the goal of his creation until he has set over against him
his image in man. From this last fact it is plain that the self-
revelation of God, the unveiling of his Being, is the final end
of the creation of the world ; or to express it more generally,
that the whole world serves to reveal the divine glory, and is
thereby the object of divine joy (Ps. 104 : 31).
But in mankind the aim of the creation of the world, the
glorifying of God, was disturbed by sin. But in spite of the
dominion of sin, the divine aim in the world shall come to its
realization (Num. 14 : 21). The choosing of the race through
which God's blessing shall come on all races of the earth (Gen.
12: 3; 18: 18), serves this divine aim.
It is clear that the Old Testament teaches a providence
which embraces everything, since it subjects everything to the
divine direction (Ps. 65 : 2). The divine providence extends

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 51
also to the animals (Ps. 104 : 21, 27 ; Job 38 : 41 ; Ps. 147 : 9).
No sphere of chance exists in the Old Testament. From Ex.
21 : 13, we infer that even what men call accidental death is
under God's direction. Even in drawing lots " the lot is cast
into the lap ; but the whole disposing thereof is of the Lord "
(Prov. 16: 33).
§ 54. Relation of the Divine Causality to Moral and Physical Evil.
Moral and physical evil were not originally in the world.
The latter was penally ordained (Gen. 3: 17 — 19) after the
former had entered the world by the free act of man, and from
this time forward both form an element of the divine order of
the world.
1. Physical evil in the Old Testament is regarded as pun
ishment for sin, or divine judgment. In the Pentateuch it is
taught that the evil in man's life is also a means of proving
him, especially of proving his obedience and his trust in God,
and thus a means of purifying him. According to Deut. 8 : 2,
3, the privations endured in the wilderness were meant to be a
school of humility and faith, that the people might learn to
trust to the power of the Almighty God.
2. But also, even in moral evil, in man's sin, the divine
causality operates, and this it does in various ways.
Man's sin cannot thwart the divine purpose of salvation; it
must rather serve to the realization thereof (Gen. 45 : 8 ;
50: 20).
The wickedness of some must serve to prove and purify
others, that it may be known whether they are strong to stand
against it (Deut. 13 : 3).
But a divine causality works also in regard to the sinner
himself, and for various ends. God permits one who habitually
walks in God's ways to fall into sin in order to try him, to re
veal to him a hidden curse in his heart, and so to bring to its
issue a merited judgment, and thus bring God's justice to light.
Compare 2 Sam. 24 (the numbering of the people) ; 2 Chron.
32: 3i-
On another, who internally cherishes sin within him, and
wilfully strives against God, the divine causality acts by giv-

52 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
ing him up to sin, so that sinning becomes necessary to this
man, and he must glorify God by the judgment which he has
incurred. This is the hardening of the heart of a man, so often
spoken of in the Pentateuch, Ex. 4:21; 7 : 3 (Pharaoh) ; Deut.
2 : 30 (Sihon) ; etc.
The expressions used to denote hardening of the heart can
not be referred to a simply negative relation to wickedness ;
but still man's sin is not removed because a positive divine
agency rules in his hardening. Man can indeed do nothing
that would not on one side be God's work (Lam. 3 : 37, 38),
and yet he must acknowledge sin as his guilt ( Lam. 3 : 39).
Isa. 45 : 7 (a passage possibly directed against the dualism of
the Persian religion) shows especially how the Monism of the
Old Testament permitted nothing to be withdrawn from the
divine causality.
Third Doctrine. Of Revelation (§55 — 66).
g 55. Introductory Remarks and General View.
1. Although God has made himself known in general re
velation (see § 6), He nevertheless makes himself known in a
more special sense, in which he is pleased to enter into the
limits of the sphere of the creature, in order to present Himseh
personally, and to give testimony of Himself to man. This
side of the revelation of the Divine Being -is characterized as the
divine name, the divine presence and the divine glory.
2. The forms and vehicles in which this divine self-pre
sentation and self-witness reaches man from without are 1) the
voice, 2) the Malakh or Angel, 3) the Shekhina in the sanctuary,
and 4) miracle. The divine self- witness enters the heart of man
by means of the Spirit.
1. The Revelation of the Divine Being (§ 56, 57).
§ 56. The Divine Name.
The true God can be named by man only so far as He re
veals himself to man and discloses to him His nature. God
names himself according to the relation in which He has
placed himself to man, and according to the attributes by
which He wishes to be acknowledged, known and addressed
by man. In short, God names Himself, not according to what

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 53
He is for Himself, but to what He is for man; and therefore
every self- presentation of God in the world is expressed by a
corresponding name of God, as we have already seen (see §
36 — 39). In the New Testament stage, when the only begotten
Son has revealed God's name to man (John 17 : 6), it is God's
good pleasure to be named the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ
or, to express universally the now completed relation of salva
tion, by the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost (Matt.
28: 19).
The expression "name of God" is not merely a title, but at
the same time the whole divine self-presentation by which God
in personal presence testifies of Himself — the whole side of the
divine nature which is turned toward man. It designates every
manifestation of the Divine Being which attaches to places, in
stitutions, and facts, in virtue of which God gives His people a
direct experience of Himself. Wherever God is known and
experienced in personal presence, there His name is.
§ 57. The Divine Countenance and the Divine Glory.
That by which God is present among His people is further
styled the divine countenance (presence). Ex. 33 : 14 — 16 is
the main passage.
By the face of God is meant, in distinction from His tran
scendent and infinite nature, His coming down into the sphere
of the created, whereby He can be brought within the immediate
knowledge of man. Here belongs Deut. 4 : 37, where it is said
that Jehovah brought Israel out of Egypt by His countenance
(with his presence). Only from this, too, is the full meaning of
the high priest's blessing rightly understood, Num. 6 : 24 — 26.
Finally, for name and countenance the indefinite expression,
glory of Jehovah is used (Ex. 33 : 18). In the same way, it is
the glory of Jehovah through which Jehovah appears to His
people on Mount Sinai, under covert of the cloud (Ex.' 24: 16),
and which is present in the holy tabernacle (Ex 40 : 34).
2. The Forms of Revelation C§ 58 — 66).
§ 58. The Divine Voiee.
As divine speech is in general the form of divine working
in the world, bo the word is the most general form of divine

54 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
revelation. So far as this word of God comes internally to the
organs of revelation, it coincides with the revelation which is
effected by the Spirit (compare § 65). But the Old Testament
specifies also among its mediums of revelation also the out
wardly audible voice; indeed, in Deut. 4: 12, special weight is
laid upon this form of revelation.
With this was connected in the later Jewish theology the
doctrine of the Bath-Kol, or revelations by means of heavenly
voices, such as Elijah received. The expression Bath-Kol
(daughter of the voice) means that the divine voice itself is
not heard, but only its working, or else that Kol designates the
heavenly voice itself, and Bath-Kol its echo. This form of re
velation appears in the New Testament in Matt. 3 : 17 ; 17:5;
John 12: 28 ; and very frequently in the Apocalypse.
§ 59. The Doctrine of the Angel of the Lord, of the Covenant, of the
Countenance*. The Exegetical State of the Case.
In a more concrete form God manifests Himself in the
Malakh (angel), generally called Malakh Jehovah.
The principal passages are :
1. Gen. 16 : 7 — 14, where the Malakh appears to Hagar.
2. Gen. 18 : 1 — 33, where one of the three men (angels)
is expressly distinguished as Jehovah (vv. 20, 26, etc.) from
the two others, who are called angels (Gen. 19: 1) and are
said (Gen. 19 : 13) to be sent by Jehovah.
3. Gen. 22: 11, 12, where the Malakh Jehovah calls to
Abraham from heaven as if he were God Himseli.
4. Gen. 31 : 11— 13, where the Malakh Jehovah calls him
self " the God of Bethel."
5. Gen. 32 : 29 — 31, where the man (angel) with which
Jacob wrestles is designated as an appearance of God.
6. Gen. 48 : 15 — 16, where God is indentified with the
Malakh. 7. Ex. 3 : 2, and the following narrative, where the
Malakh Jehovah is identified with Jehovah and Elohim.
* The doctrine of the angel of the Lord Is one of the most important and difficult
points in the Old Testament, on which, even as early as the Church Fathers, there
were various views, and about which, to this day, no agreement has been reached.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. BB
8. In Ex. 13: 21 it is said that Jehovah went before Israel;
on the contrary in Ex. 14 : 19 we read that it was the Malakh.
§ 60. Continuation. The Different Views.
The following main views are to be distinguished :
1. The view taken in the early ages of the church by Au
gustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great ; in our day with spec
ial modifications by Hofmann, from whom it has been adopted
by Kurtz and Delitzsch (though Delitzsch holds the view with
peculiar indecision) — that an angel is to be understood by the
Malakh, a finite spirit under subjection to God, which executes
the divine command in the cases mentioned.
But this first view occurs in two forms, a) Some hold that
the Malakh is an angel specially deputed by God from among
the number of Malakhim for each separate occasion, and that
we have no means of deciding whether he is always the same
angel or not ; b) others maintain (principally Hofmann) that it
is one and the same angel through whom God stands in relation
to the people of revelation from the beginning to the end of the
Old Testament — the special angel who rules in the common
wealth and history of this people, the archangel Michael of the
book of Daniel.
2. The second principal view is that the Malakh of Jeho
vah is a self-representation of Jehovah entering into the sphere
of the creature, and is one in essence with Jehovah ; and is yet
again different from Him.
There are different forms of this view, but the most im
portant is the one which regards the Malakh as the Logos, the
second person of the Godhead in the sense of the Christian
doctrine of Trinity. This is the view of most Greek Fathers,
of Justin, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian, and Eusebius. At a
later period this was the view of the Lutheran theologians ;
and in our own day has been defended by Hengstenberg and
others. Oehler maintains that the doctrine of the Malakh in the Old
Testament oscillates in a peculiar manner between its concep
tion of the angel, as a form and as a being, so that it seems im
possible to bring the matter to a definite intelligible expression.

56 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
He states however that the case has a different aspect from the
standpoint of the New Testament. From this (see especially i
Cor. 10 : 4) it is the Logos, the Son of God through whom re
velations to Israel are made, and who therefore works in the
Malakh. But nowhere in the New Testament is the Son of
God so identified with the Malakh as if His incarnation had
been preceeded by His permanently becoming an angel. The
Logos, according to the New Testament view, works also in
the other forms of revelation in the old covenant and in just
the same way as in the form of the Malakh.
§ 61. Other Points of the Mosaie Angelology.
Even in the Pentateuch, though there comparatively sel
dom, other angels of God appear side by side with the Malakh.
Nothing is said about their creation ; nor are they mentioned
in the account of the creation of the earth, and its completion
in man. On the contrary Job 38 : 7 presupposes the existence
of the angels when the earth was created. Gen. 6 : 1 —4 would
be entirely without a parallel, not only in the Pentateuch, but
in the whole Old Testament, if higher spirits are to be under
stood by the Sons of God. The question is : Are the Sons of
God, Sethites, or, are they higher spirits ? and is a fall of the
angels here spoken of? At present the hypothesis of the angels
is the most widely spread (so Hofmann, Kurtz, Delitzsch, and
others), a view which originally sprang from the book of
Enoch. But Oehler (with the Reformers, and in more modern
times Hengstenberg, Keil, and others), rightly refers the ex
pression "sons of God" to men, to the pious race descended
from Seth, as the name " Sons of God " is used in Deut. 14:1;
32: 5; etc.
In comparison with the later books of the Old Testament,
the angelology of the Pentateuch is but little developed.
§ 62. The Shekhina.
The continous localization ot the divine presence was made
in the Shekhina, (shakhan, he dwelt, resided), that is, the dwell
ing of God, distinguished from passing theophanies by virtue of
its countenance. The first abode of the divine Shekhina, ac
cording to the Old Testament, was Eden, as appears from the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 57
whole description in Gen. 2 and 3, but in particular from the
mention of the cherubim (Gen. 3 : 24), which were bearers of
the divine presence. The book of Genesis seems to suggest
the idea that the dwelling place of the glory and the counte
nance of God continued there upon the earth until the judg
ment of the flood came on the world. Then after the flood
God revealed Himself for the first time from heaven. At a
later time, God's dwelling among His people was in the sanc
tuary (Ex. 40: 34 — 38). Here now is God's countenance (Ex.
23: 17; Deut. 31 : 11; Ps. 42: 2; 63; 3). From passages such
as Lev. 9 : 24 ; 10 : 2, the Shekhina shows its reality in the
sanctuary by means of acts of power which go out from it.
The Shekhina of God on earth corresponds to His dwelling in
heaven (1 Kings 8 : 30, 39, 49,) which, like that in the sanctuary,
is definitely distinguished from the presence of God, which
embraces the whole universe (1 Kings 8 : 27).
According to this presentation, God's dwelling is outside the
human subject. The New Testament (John 1 : 14) is the first
to place the divine Shekhina in a human person, in the Logos
become flesh, and then it speaks of God's making His abode
with believers (John 14: 23). Still the proper Shekhina of
God in heaven appears again in the Apocalypse (Rev. 7 : 15),
and the aim of the Divine Kingdom is said to be the dwelling
of God on the glorified earth (Rev. 21 : 3). See also Jer.
3: 16-18.
§ 63. The Doctrine of Miracle. Its Appearance in History and various
Names. By miracles the Old Testament understands manifestations
of the divine power in the objective world, both in nature and
in history. It is characteristic of the course of Old Testament
revelation, that no real miracle — that is, no miracle wrought
by man's agency — is related in the time of the patriarchs. Moses
is the first organ of revelation endowed with the gift of per
forming miracles.
The closer definition of the notion of miracles follows mainly
from the names for a miracle:

58 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
i. The most general expression pe-le characterizes a mir
acle in its negative aspect, as an occurence withdrawn from the
common course of things, and thus an extraordinary occur
rence. In the New Testament this negative characteristic of a
miracle is denoted by the expression teras.
2. The positive side of a miracle is expressed in the term
gebhuroth (mighty deeds), corresponding to the New Testa
ment dynameis. Side by side with which there appears the
more general emphatic expression ma asim, corresponding
to 'erga in the Gospel of John. According to this, a miracle
would mainly be a divine act of power, exempt from the com-
mon course of nature and history.
3. But the full idea is expressed only by its teleological
designation as 'oth (sign), the semeion of the New Testament,
according to which its meaning is, an indication of something
higher and divine, and so to serve a definite aim.
§ 64. More exact Definition of Miracles.
The more exact definition of miracles in the more limited
sense is given by the more exact definition of the aim of mir
acles, namely, that miracles serve to reveal God in His King
dom. Miracles, in the stricter sense, are extraordinary mani
festations and occurrences, in which God makes known His
power for the purposes of His Kingdom in a uniq?ie manner.
§ 65. Of the Spirit of God.
God reveals Himself in the heart of man by His Spirit
(ruach). As the principle of cosmicallife, as ruach Elohim, as
the mighty divine force of all things, the Spirit is the principle
of the life of man's soul, and every natural intellectual gift in
man is traced back to it: Joseph's wisdom, Gen. 41: 38;
Bezaleel's skill in art, Ex. 31 : 3 ; 35 : 31. From Gen. 6 13 we
learn that the Spirit of God has also an ethical signification,
for, according to this passage, the government of God's Spirit
is hampered by the errors of mankind.
The Spirit as ruach Jehovah only acts within the sphere of
revelation. In the Old Testament, the Spirit's work in the
divine kingdom is rather that of endowing the organs of the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 59
theocracy with the gifts required for their calling, and these
gifts of office in the Old Testament are similar to the gifts
in the New Testament (i Cor. 1 2). In the Pentateuch its work -
ing appears exclusively in this connection. The Spirit bestows
on Moses and the 70 elders skill to guide the people (Num.
11: 17), also to Joshua (Num. 27 : 18, Deut. 34: 9). As the
Spirit of revelation, he produces in particular the gift of
prophecy (Num. n : 25) ; and even as ruach Elohim imparts
ability to prophesy to the heathen Balaam (Num. 24 : 2), by
which means he is made an organ of the revealing God against
his will (Num. 22 : 38).
The Spirit, however, does not appear in the Pentateuch as
the principle of Sanctification in the pious; this is first spoken
of in the Psalms (Ps. 51 : 10-12; 143: 10.).
Now this Spirit is represented as a power proceeding from
Jehovah, a something communicated by Him, which clings to
the person to whom it is communicated* (Num. n : 17, 25).
The relation of the Spirit of revelation to the human spirit is
characterized in a way that makes it clear why a full indwelling
of the Spirit in man, a penetration of the human spirit by the
Holy Spirit, is not reached in the Old Testament, but only a
working on the human mind.
§ 66. The Psyehieal States of the Organs of Revelation.
As psychical states in which the reception of revelation by
man takes place, the principal passage (Num. 12 : 6-8) names
1) the dream; 2) the vision; 3) the immediate sight of the
Divinity as given to Moses, which stands higher than the other
two. 1. Dreams appear in the Old Testament, as in antiquity
generally, as the vehicle of divine revelation, but only in a
subordinate way, and as the lowest form of revelation (1 Sam.
28: 6; Jer. 23; 28).
2. Visions presuppose a previous elevation of the life of the
soul into an extraordinary state, as is made prominent in the first
* Though we must not read the New Testament doctrine of the Trinity into the
Old Testament, it is yet undeniable that we find the way to the doctrine of the
Trinity already prepared in the doctrine of the Malakh and of the Spirit.

60 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
narrative in which a vision appears (in Gen. 15, with Abra
ham). Still the difference between a dream and a vision
may be regarded as not sharply marked. By these two forms
God speaks, as is said in Num. 12:8, only in riddles, that is, in
a way which requires an explanation of the pictures presented
to view. 3. The immediate view of the Divinity (mouth to mouth,
Num. 12: 8) with which Moses was favored stands higher
than these forms ; that figureless, perfect, clear communication
of knowledge, which is to be distinguished also from the vision
of God in emblematical tokens, spoken in Ex. 24 : 10 of
Aaron and the elders of Israel. The principle that a clear
consciousness when receiving revelation is placed higher than
ecstasy is of great importance for the right view of the Old
Testament religion (Num. 12: 6 — 8; 1 Cor. 13: 12). The
idea that in the case of some persons a view into the future
opens at the moment of death is expressed in the Old Testa
ment in Gen. 49, and Deut. 33, (in the blessings of Jacob and
Moses). Second Division. The Doctrine of Man (§ 67 — 79).
§ 67. General View.
First of all, the nature of man is to be described without
reference to the contradictory elements which through sin en
tered into its development ; and then these contradictory ele
ments are to be set forth as they appear in the difference be
tween the original perfection of man on the one side, and the
state of sin and death in which he now is on the other side.
We have here to do only with the anthropology of Mosaism.
I. The Nature of Man in its Main Unchangeable Features
(§68-71).
§ 68. 1. The Idea of Man.
The idea of man is expressed in the statement, that he is
created in the image of God (Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 9 : 6). This
divine image is propagated (Gen. 5 : 1, 3). The statement in
Gen. 1 : 26 ("in our image, after our likeness") does not mean
that the divine image is two-fold, but it rather expresses the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 61
thought that the divine image which man bears is really one
corresponding to the original pattern.
But now what is to be understood by the divine image.
i) We are certainly not to think of the human body as if it was
a copy of the divine form, for Elohim, the creative God, is
without form. We might rather say, that the human figure
was to be so formed that it might serve to represent God Hi m -
self when He revealed Himself 2) It is equally erroneous to
limit the divine likeness to the dominion over the animal world,
as the Socinians did. 3) The divine likeness is rather to be
referred to the whole dignity of man (Ps. 8 : 5, 6), in virtue of
which human nature is sharply distinguished from that of the
beasts ; man as a free being is set over nature, and designed to
hold communion with God, and to be his representative on
earth. § 69. 2. Man in Relation to Sex and Race.
1. The sexual relation of man and zvoman is originally or
dained in Gen. 1; 27 ( "male and female created he them" ).
This does not mean that man was originally created andro
gynous (a man who was at once man and woman), but that
man was created first, and the woman afterwards (Gen. 2 : 22);
as also the passage is understood in 1 Tim. 2 : 13 ; 1 Cor.
11 : 8, 9.
2. According to Gen. 2: 18, 24, marriage, that primitive
form of human society from which all other forms of society
arise, and for which man gives up the others, did not spring
from the blind sway of natural impulse, but from divine insti
tution. Its original form is monogamy (compare Matt. 19 : 4 — 6).
As indicative of character, polygamy is traced to the Cainites
(Gen. 4 : 19). The law does indeed tolerate polygamy, but
does not sanction it, and moreover, provides against the
wrongs that easily spring from it (Ex. 21 : 10 ; Deut. 21 : 15
— 17). Bigamy, in the form in which Genesis represents it as
forced on Jacob, was afterwards expressly forbidden in the law
(Lev. 18 : 18). In general, monogamy remained predominant

62 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
among the people of Israel ; in fact, the description of a wife
in Prov. 12: 4; 19: 14; 31: 10 — 31, and in particular the
prophetic representation of the covenant between Jehovah and
His people as marriage, clearly presuppose that monogamy is
the rule.
3. All mankind is a connected race of brothers (Act. 17 : 26).
The differences between nations and orders of men do not rest
on a diversity of physical origin, but upon the law of God,
who made the nations to differ and set them their boundaries
(Deut. 32 : 28), and who reveals His retributive ordinances
even in their natural character (Canaan, Moab, Ammon, etc.).
3. The Constituent Parts of Man (% 70, 71.)
§. 70. Body, Soul, Spirit.
Man, like all beings endowed with life, originated from two
elements, 1) from earthly material (ground, dust), and 2) from
the Divine Spirit (ruach), Gen. 2 : 7, compared with Ps. 104:
29,30; 146: 4. As in general the soul (nephesh) originates in
the flesh (basar) by the union of spirit with matter, so in par
ticular the human soul arises in the human body by the breath
ing of the divine breath into the material frame of the human
body. The soul, which is common to man and beast, does not
originate in the same way. The souls of animals arise, like
plants from the earth, as a consequence of the divine word of
power, Gen. 1 : 24 ( "let the earth bring forth the living
nephesh"). Thus the creating spirit which entered in the be
ginning (Gen. 1 : 2) into matter, rules in them. But the
human soul does not spring from the earth ; it is created by a
special act of divine inbreathing (Gen. 2: 7 compared with
Gen. 1 : 26). Thus the substance of the human soul is the
divine spirit of life uniting itself with matter; the soul exists
and lives only by the power of the spirit (ruach). In the soul,
which sprang from the spirit, and exists continually through
it, lies the individuality of man, his personality , his self, his ego;
because man is not spirit (ruach), but has it — he is soul. Man
perceives and thinks by virtue of the spirit which animates
him (Job 32 : 8; Prov. 20: 27), but the perceiving and think-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 63
ing subject itself is the soul (nephesh). The impulse to act
proceeds from the spirit (ruach) (Ex. 35; 21), but the acting
subject is the soul (nephesh) ; the soul is the subject which
sins (Ezek. 18 : 4, etc.). Love and attachment are of course a
thing of the soul (Gen. 34 : 3, 8). In many cases, however,
soul and spirit stand indifferently, according as the personality
is named after its special individual life, or after the living
power which forms the condition of its special character.
From all this it is clear that the Old Testament does not
teach a trichotomy of the human being in the sense of body,
soul, and spirit, as being orignally three co-ordinate elements
of man : rather are we to regard the body and spirit of man as
being of distinct natures, but the soul is of one nature with the
spirit. The spirit is the inward being of the soul, and the soul
is the external nature of the spirit.
In all ages a few passages in the Old Testament have been
supposed by some to teach a pre-existence of the soul. But no
such inference can be drawn from the main passages adduced
for such a doctrine (Ps. 139: 15 ; Job 1 : 21).
§ 71. The Heart and its Relation to the Soul.
The soul of man has a double sphere of life:
1) It is anima, that on which rests the life belonging to
the senses, the soul of the flesh in the more limited sense. As
such it acts in the blood, and supplies life to the body through
the blood; hence the proposition, "The life (soul) of the flesh
is in the blood" (Lev. 17 : 11); indeed, it is said directly,
"The blood is life (soul)," Gen. 9 : 4; Lev. 17: 14; Deut.
12: 23.
2) It is not simply anima, the principle of life belonging
to the senses, but it is at the same time animus, — the subject of
all the acts of knowing, feeling, and willing, and especially the
subject of those acts and states of man that refer to his com
munion with God (Deut. 4 : 29; 6: 5; Isa. 61 : 10; Ps. 19 : 7 ;
etc.). In both its relations, as anima and animus, the soul centres
in the heart. The heart, as the central organ of the circulation

64 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
of the blood ("the pitcher at the fountain," Eccles. 12 : 6),
forms the focus of the life of the body. But the heart is also
the centre of all spiritual functions ("keep thy heart with all
diligence ; for out of it are the issues of life," Prov. 4: 23). In
particular, the heart is the place in which the process of self-
consciousness goes on, in which the soul is at home with itself
and is conscious of all its doing and suffering as its own
(Deut. 8 : 5; Isa. 44: 18; etc.). The heart is also the organ
of the act of knowing in general, so that heart has often exactly
the meaning of intellect, insight (Job 34 : 10; Jer. 5 : 21).
Now, because the heart is the central point of the person's
life, the work-place for the personal appropriation and as
similation of everything spiritual, the moral and religious con
dition of man lies in the heart. Because of this, man is
characterized by his heart in all his habitual and moral attri
butes. We read in Prov. 10 : 8, of a wise heart; in Ps. 51 : 12,
of a pure (clean)' heart ; etc. So, on the other hand, of a per
verse (forward) heart (Ps. 101 : 4) ; of a stubborn and evil
heart (Jer. 3 : 17) ; etc. Accordingly the human heart is
characterized in Jer. 17 : 9 as "deceitful above all things"
(properly rugged), and "desperately sick," so that God alone
(but He completely, Prov. 15 : 11) is able to fathom the depths
of its perverseness ; and hence the prayer in Ps. 139 : 23, 24.
Hence all revelation addresses itself to the heart, even the re
velation of the law, Deut. 6:6; for it demands love to God
from the whole heart, and starting from this centre, also from
the whole soul (Deut. 11: 18). The work of revelation is
directed to renewing man from the heart ; its aim is to cir
cumcise the heart (Deut. 30 : 6), — to establish God's will with
in the heart (Jer. 31 : 33).
Also on man's side the process of salvation begins in the
heart. Faith, in which man's personal life in its deepest basis
takes a new direction, belongs entirely to the sphere of the
heart, and is described as a making fast, a making strong (Ps.
27: 14; 31: 24), a staying of the heart (compare especially
Ps. 112 : 7, 8) on that foundation which is God, "the Rock of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 65
my heart" (Ps. 73 : 26). (Compare the same view in the New
Testament — for example, Rom. 10 : 9, 10).
II. The Doctrine of Man in reference to the Contradictory
Elements which entered by Sin into its Development. (§ 72 — 79).
§ 72. I. The Primitive State of Man.
This condition was one of innocence and childlike inter
course with God, of harmonious relation to nature, and, con
ditionally, of exemption from death.
1. Man was created good (Gen. 1:31), that is, conformed to
the divine aim. But this good must be developed into free self-
determination. 1) The conception of the original state as a
created condition of wisdom and sanctity contradicts the state
ment in Genesis ; it would be much more in the sense of the Old
Testament to say, as Eccl. 7 : 29 expresses it : "God made
man upright" (right). 2) The view that the original state
was only an absence of actual sin, in the sense either of a state
of pure indifference, or a state in which the evil was already
latent, so that in the Fall the disposition which already existed
in man only came forth, is equally irreconcilable with Genesis.
2. In the primitive condition, man lives in undisturbed
and peaceful union with nature and with God. The latter is
made especially clear by the contrast implied in Gen. 3 : 8.
The peaceful relation of man with nature is taught partly in
the description of life in Paradise in general, and partly in the
contrast between the present relation of man to nature and his
condition before sin, since man must now make nature of ser
vice to him by toiling and struggling (Gen. 3 : 17, 18 ; 5 : 29),
and since he exercises his dominion over the animals by deeds
of violence and destruction of life (Gen. 9 : 2, 3 contrasted with
Gen. 1 : 29). Hence prophecy has depicted the termination of
this hostile relation in its description of the time of salvation
(Isa. 11 : 6—8; 65: 25).
3. Lastly, in Gen. 2, immortality is ascribed to man, but
conditionally, in the sense of to be able not to die (posse non mori).
This idea, indeed, does not necessarily lie in the words of

66 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Gen. 2 : 17, but it is quite clear from Gen. 3 : 22, that the pos
sibility of reaching immortality was annexed to the life in Para
dise. Nor on the other hand can we infer from Gen. 3 : 19,
that by nature man must die ; the words only give the reason
why the end of man's life, when once decreed, is brought about
in the manner described as a dissolution of the body.
II. Of Sin (§72,— 76).
1. The Origin of Sin. (§ 73, 74.)
73. % The Formal Principle of Sin.
1. Man can pass from the state of innocence into the pos
session of moral character only by an act of self-determination.
Sin is not a necessary factor in the development of man, but a
product of free choice.
2. The first incitement to transgress the command of God
came from without. The account of the Fall presupposes an
ungodly principle which had already entered the world, but
does not give any further account of it. (The New Testament
teaches that the seduction of the first man is the work of
Satan, especially in Rev. 12: 9, where the devil is called the
dragon, the old serpent; compare also the allusion in Rom.
16 : 20 to Gen. 3 : 15).
% 74. The Material Principle of Sin. The Old Testament Names of Sin.
The real principle of sin, is, according to the Old Testa
ment, 1) unbelief of the divine word, 2) the selfish elevation of
self-will above the divine will, and 3) the presumptuous tramp
ling upon the limits set by divine command.
Gen. 3 disproves the doctrine, that according to the Old
Testament, the real principle of evil lies in matter, in the body.
It is a fundamental doctrine of the Old Testament that evil is
originally the denial of the divine will ; that sin is sin because
man selfishly exalts himself above God and His will.
The following are the most common Old Testament desig
nations for Sin:
1) Chata (first in Gen. 4: 7), a missing, a deviation from

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 67
the divine way and goal prescribed for man by the divine will.
It comprehends sins of weakness as well as sins of wickedness.
2) Avon, crookedness, perversion, primarily referring to
the character of an action. It is the perversion of the divine
law (anomia); then especially the guilt of sin, first in Gen.
15: 16 (iniquity). See Ps. 32 : 5.
3) Pesha, sin in its intensification, apostasy, rebellion
against God. Design and set purpose to sin are always im
plied in this word. Chief passage Job 34 : 37.
4) Resha, the evil which has become an habitual feature
of the disposition and of the actions. A stormy excitement of
the underlying thought.
5) Aven, evil as in itself empty and worthless.
2. The State of Sin (§ 75,76.)
§ 75. Sin as an Inclination. Transmission of Sin.
In consequence of the Fall, sin appears as a state in man
kind, that is, as an inclination which rules man, and as a com
mon sinful life which is transmitted partly in mankind in gen
eral, and partly in an especial degree in particular races.
1. The second sin, that of self-excuse and palliation of the
offence, follows immediately on the first, the sin of disobedience
(Gen. 3: 10). As sin thus joins to sin, it becomes a habitus,
and in this way a definite feature of the heart [imagination of
the heart, Gen. 8 : 21), an inclination, which gives a perverted
tendency to man's will (Gen. 6:5). Because this sinful incli
nation (this is the meaning of the variously explained passage
Gen. 8 : 21) cleaves to man from his youth, the human race
would lie under a continual sentence of destruction if God gave
severe justice its course.
2. That this sinful inclination is hereditary is indirectly
contained in the passages cited, although it is not expressly
said. Ps. 51 : 5, "Behold, I was shapen in iniquity; and in sin
did my mother conceive me," directly says that evil is in
grown in man from the first moment of his origin, — for the ex
planation that here reference is only to the iniquity and sin of

68 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the parents, is untenable. So that even the newly born child
is not free from sin, or as Job 14 : 4 expresses it, "Who can
bring a clean thing out of an unclean? not one."
This transmission of sin takes place with special intensity
in certain races, especially those that have fallen under the
divine curse. This is implied in the history of the Cainites
(Gen. 4) ; of Ham, and especially Canaan (Gen. 9 : 25 on
ward) ; of Moab and Ammon (Gen. 19 : 36 onward); and this
is especially expressed in the repeated declaration that God
visits the sins of the fathers on the third and fourth generation
(Ex. 20: 5; 34: 7; Num. 14: 18; Deut. 5: 9).
§ 76. Antagonism of the Good and the Evil in Man. Degrees of Sin.
Possibility of a Relative Righteousness.
According to the Old Testament, the condition of man in
consequence of the Fall is not that of an absolute subjection to
sin, which destroys the power of resistance, but it is an antag
onism between man's susceptibility to the good and the power
of sin. In Gen. 4 : 6, 7 are expressed the possibility and the
duty of resisting the sinful inclination. According as men
seek or do not seek to rule over sin, there arises a difference
of relation to God and a difference in the degree of sinfulness.
The Old Testament calls the highest degree of sin obduracy,
or hardening of the heart. This is the condition in which a
man, by continually cherishing sin, has lost the ability to with
stand it ; and it is added, that God can glorify Himself on such
a one only by punishment. For it is God's ordinance, that as
the power to do good grows by its exercise, so also sin is pun
ished by continued sinning (Ps. 81: 11, 12). This hardening
is both a divine act and at the same time the sinner's own act,
so that the two expressions are interchangeable (compare Ex.
7 : 3 with 8 : 15, 28; etc.). In the first case, hardening is the
effect of the divine wrath (Isa. 64: 5). We must here note as
essential, that the Old Testament (like the New) always speaks
of hardening only in connection with a divine revelation
offered to the sinner, but rejected by him. This is applicable
to Pharaoh, who sees the miracles of Moses, but whose "heart

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 69
was hardened" (Ex. 8 : 19). In such passages the point is not
(as understood by Calvinists) a dark and hidden decree of re
probation, but a divine decree of judgment, well-grounded and
perfectly manifest.
The course of hardening is described in Isa. 6 : 10 ; in
capability to hear the divine word and to see God's ways con
nects itself with dullness of heart, and this again reacts on the
heart so that its insusceptibility becomes incurable.
On the other hand, in the midst of the sinful world, a
righteousness is attained by a cheerful resignation to the divine
will, and by the loyalty with which a man accepts the witness
of God, given to him in accordance with the then stage ol
revelation. But the Old Testament knows nothing of
absolutely righteous persons (1 Kings 8 : 46; Ps. 143: 2; Isa.
43 : 27 ; Prov. 20 : 9 ; Eccles. 7 : 20). The Mosaic law attests
this by excepting none from the need of atonement.
III. On Death and State after Death. (§ 77 — 79).
§ 77. The Connection between Sin and Death.
The consequence of sin is death. This is positively ex
pressed in Gen. 2 : 17. The issue of the punishment is at once
placed foremost in the threat, as is generally the case in pro
phetical announcements. There is no difficulty here from the
fact that death did not really follow immediately after the Fall,
as in reality, man entered on the path of death immediately on
the commission of sin.
The punishment of death is connected with disobedience, not
with the effect of the fruit of the tree as many expositors infer
from the contrast in Gen. 3: 22. The intimate connection ot
sin and death is clear from Gen. 6 : 3, though this passage
primarily treats only of the shortening of the length of life
through sin. According to this passage (the marginal trans
lation of the Revised Version is to be preferred "in their going
astray they are flesh"), the divine spirit of life which supports
man is enfeebled by sin, and thus man's vital strength is de
stroyed ; while, as Isaiah (63 : 10) expresses himself, the Spirit

70 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
of God is grieved by sin ; it is also repressed as to the phys
ical principle of life, and thus man is subject to mortality.
§ 78. The Doctrine of Mosaism on the Condition after Death.
Death takes place when the divine spirit of life which sus
tains man is withdrawn by God (Ps. 104 : 29), by which means
man expires (Gen. 7 : 21, 22), upon which the body returns to
the dust from whence it was taken (Job 34: 14, 15; Eccles.
12: 7 compared with 8: 8). From the whole connection of
Old Testament doctrine, it is clear that as the origin so also the
final destiny of man's soul is different from that of the soul of
an animal (with which it seems to be identified in Ps. 104: 29),
and that, when the sustaining spirit of life is withdrawn,
although the band by which the nephesh (soul) is bound to the
body is loosed, the soul itself, and man, so far as his person
ality lies in the soul, continues to exist ; yet, he exists only as
a weak shadow, which wanders into the kingdom of the dead
(Sheol). Man's existence after death is treated in the Old
Testament so much as a matter of course, that the reality of it
is never the subject of doubt. The doubts with which the
Israelitish spirit wrestled referred only to the how of existence
after death. It is the nephesh (soul) which wanders into the
kingdom of the dead (Ps. 16 : 10; 30: 3; 86: 13; 89: 48;
etc.) ; so also it is the nephesh which returns again to the body
of the dead child on being restored to life (1 Kings 17: 21,
22). Oehler adduces the narratives of resurrection from the
dead (1 Kings 17: 21, 22 ; 2 Kings 4: 34, 35) as proofs that a
close connection between the body just quitted and the soul
still subsists immediately after death, but maintains on the
other hand, that there is no trace in the Old Testament of the
Egyptian notion that a continual connection subsists between
the soul and body, in virtue of which the preservation of the
body secures the continuance of the soul.
The pldce into which man migrates ("the house appointed
for all living," Job 30 : 23), is called Sheol. The word (from

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 71
thaal, to ask) characterizes the kingdom of the dead as that
which is insatiable in its demands.
The following essential features of the conception of Sheol
are distinctly presented in the Old Testament :
The kingdom of the dead is supposed to be in the depths
(Ps. 86 : 13) of the earth (Ps. 63: 10), deeper even than the
waters and their inhabitants (Ezek. 26: 20; 31: 14; 32: 18).
It agrees with this, that it is a region of thickest darkness,
"where the light is as darkness" Qob. 10: 22). The dead are
there gathered in tribes ("gathered to his people," Gen. 25 : 8 ;
35 : 29 ; compare the picture of Sheol in Ezek. 32 : 17 — 32).
These terms cannot possibly be referred to the grave. The
kingdom of the dead and the grave are, on the contrary,
definitely distinguished.
The condition of men in the realm of death is represented
as the privation of all that belongs to life in the full sense; and
so the realm of death is called simply Abaddon, that is,
destruction (Job 26: 6; Prov. 15; 11; 27: 20). Without
strength, dull, and like men in slumber, the dead rest in silence
(Ps. 94: 17; 115: 17). Sheol is the land of forgetfulness (Ps.
88: 12). "There is no work, nor device, nor knowledge, nor
wisdom, in Sheol, whither thou goest" (Eccles. 9 : 10). (Com
pare Eccles. 9 : 5, 6). With all this, however, their con
sciousness is not destroyed; their personal identity continues
(compare such passages as Isa. 14 : 9, 10 ; Ezek. 32 : 21 ; 1
Sam. 28 : 15, 16). It is not possible to ascend or return from
the realm of the dead (Job 7: 9 ; 14: 12). (The Old Testa
ment relates only one example of the appearing of a dead per
son, Samuel, 1 Sam. 28. This narrative is not to be explained
as if we had here a record of a mere deception, as the older
theologians interpreted it).
§ 79. Continuation.
In no part of the Old Testament is a difference in the lot
of those in the realm of death distinctly spoken of, only in Isa.
14 : 15 ; Ezek. 32 : 23, where the fallen conquerors are rele-

72 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
gated to the uttermost depths, can we find an indication of
different grades in the realm of the dead. Elsewhere, only a
division into peoples and races, and not a division of the just
and unjust, is spoken of. In itself, the condition in Sheol,
which is in the main the most indefinite existence possible, is
neither blessedness nor positive unblessedness.
Of the traces of belief in a heavenly life beyond the grave
which have been supposed to be found in the Pentateuch, the
translation of Enoch (Gen. 5 : 24) can alone come into con
sideration. But that is not a testimony to a higher existence
of the soul after death; for the meaning of the passage is that
Enoch never died, — that is, his body and soul were never
separated. In it, as in the history of Elijah's translation (2
Kings 2), there lies rather the declaration, that even before the
coming of death's vanquisher some specially favored men were
excepted from the curse of death and of the kingdom of death
which hangs over man.
But it is clearly expressed in the Pentateuch that the re
lation of the righteous to God is not cancelled after death. The
relation into which God entered with the patriarchs continues
(Ex.3: 6 compared with Gen. 26: 24; 28: 13). Compare
Matt. 22 : 32.
Third Division. The Covenant of God with Israel and
the Theocracy. (§ 80 — 156).
I. The Nature of the Covenant. (§ 80 — 90).
§ 80. Preliminary Remarks and General Survey.
The form in which the Covenant of God with Israel is made
(Ex. 19 — 24), is a contract resting on the promises and engage
ments of the two contracting parties (Ex. 19: 5, 8; 24: 3, 7).
Yet the relation of the parties is not purely mutual. It is
Jehovah alone who fixes the conditions of the covenant (Lev.
11 : 44, 45), and on whom depend the maintenance of the
regulations of the treaty and the final realization of the aim of
the covenant.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 73
According to its nature, the covenant presents itself under
the following heads :
i. The divine act, from which the convenant proceeds,
viz., the divine election, and the promise annexed to it.
2. Man's obligation. He who prescribes the obligation is
God; that to which man is bound, is the revelation of the
divine will in the law, especially the Decalogue, which is the
obligatory document in the stricter sense ; but the symbol of
obligation is in particular the sign of circumcision, imposed on
those who are subject to the covenant obligations.
3. Thus, according as the nation performs its obligation,
the divine retribution is determined, which, however, is so
carried out that at the end the divine purpose of election must
come to be realized.
First Doctrine. The Divine Election. (§ 81, 82).
§ 81. Israel's Election as the Free Act of God's Love.
The adoption of Israel as the covenant people is a free act
of God, or in other words, an act of divine love, and necessary
only so far as God has bound Himself by His oath, — that is, a
proof of His truth and faithfulness — but is in no way dependent
on man's desert. These propositions are expressly inculcated
on the people at every opportunity. It is only on this ground
that the divine commands to the people are given, and there
fore the Decalogue (Ex. 20 : 2) places at its forefront the fact
of election. The divine promise is sealed by the oath of God, which is
given whenever the matter in question is an unchangeable
decree, the performance of which is not to depend on contin
gencies (Heb. 6 : 17).
§ 82. Forms in which the Election of the People is expressed.
The divine election of the people is expressed in the follow
ing forms : Jehovah is the Father of His people; Israel is His
first-born son ; His property out of all the nations of the earth ;
the holy, priestly people. All these ideas are correlated.

74 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
i. In the Old Testament the divine Fatherhood has an
e thical meaning. It denotes the relation of love and moral
communion in which Jehovah has placed Israel to Himself.
This relation is quite unique; Jehovah is only the Father of the
chosen people, not the Father of the other nations (Ex. 4 : 22,
23; Deut. 32: 6).
The fatherhood of Jehovah was displayed in the deliver
ance of the people from Egypt (Hos. n: 1) ; then in the divine
guidance through the wilderness, which was a fatherly dis
cipline (Deut. 8:5; Hos. 11: 3) ; and so likewise all sub
sequent redemption and providential guidance of Israel is a
manifestation of the divine fatherhood (Isa. 63 : 16).
2. The same relation between Israel and God which
rests on the divine election is expressed in the appellations —
people of God's possession, a holy people (Deut. 14 : 1, 2). The
phrase holy people (see § 44) conveys negatively the idea 01
separation from all other people, and positively of admission
or introduction into communion with God (Ex. 19: 4). In
virtue of this attitude to God, Israel is a priestly people. (Ex.
19: 6). Vocation to the immediate service of the true God is
the main idea in the priestly character of the covenant people.
God sanctifies the people to Himself positively by dwelling
among them, by His revelation in word and deed, by every in
stitution on which is imprinted the unique relation between
Israel and God, and finally, by placing His Spirit in the con
gregation. 3. The other nations form a great profane mass. Still, even
from the standpoint of Mosaism, the theocratic exclusiveness is
not absolutely exclusive; for, every heathen, dwelling as a
stranger in the land, could by circumcision become incorporated
among the covenant people, and thus receive a share of all the
gracious benefits bestowed on Israel (Ex. 12: 48); with the
exception, however, of the Canaanitish tribes, the Moabites and
Ammonites (Deut. 23 . 4, 5).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 75
Second Doctrine. Man's Obligation. (§ 83 — 88).
% 83. The Servant of Jehovah.
The covenant of promise with Abraham was made upon
the condition that he and his descendants bind themselves to a
godly life and to obedience to God's will (Gen. 17: 1, 2;
18: 19). The same condition is prescribed to the people (Ex.
19: 5), and accepted by the people (Ex. 19: 8; 24: 3). Laid
under this obligation to their God, the Israelites are the ser
vants of Jehovah, whom He has purchased by redeeming from
Egyptian bondage, and who, therefore, are exempt from all
earthly lordship by being bound to the service of God (Lev.
25: 42> 55J 26: 13).
§ 84. The Law.
The compass of the people's obligations is the law, the
fundamental principle of which is expressed in the words,
"Sanctify yourselves, and be ye holy: for I am Jehovah your
God (Lev. 20 : 7).
The traditional division of the law of Moses into moral,
ceremonial, and forensic laws may serve to facilitate a general
view of theocratic ordinances.
The law of Moses, however, does not demand only external
conformity to the law, a mere legality and not morality. On
the contrary, the law insists on the disposition of the heart,
when it says. "Thou shalt not covet" (Ex. 20; 17). It
demands the external as co-ordinate with the internal. And
precisely in this lies an important educating element.
For a right estimate of the law of Moses, the following
points have further to be noticed :
1 . The whole ritual ordinances to which the Israelite is
subject, from his circumcision onward, have a symbolic char
acter, mirrowing the inner process of sanctification, and so
forming the instrument of tuition advancing from the outer to
the inner man.

76 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. The precepts of the law are given in detail mainly on
the negative side*
3. Finally, — and this is the main point, — we have to look
at the motives for fulfilling the law which the law presents.
§ 85. The Decalogue. Its Division.
The Decalogue ("the ten words," Ex. 34 : 28; Deut. 4: 13;
10: 4) stands at the beginning (Ex. 20: 2 — 17) of the book of
the covenant (Ex. 20 — 23). See Ex. 24: 7. It was written on
two tables of stone, which, according to Ex. 32: 15, were in
scribed on both sides. The Decalogue is again given in Deut.
5: 6—21. Of the division of the Decalogue there have long been
various views. The main schemes of division are three, dis
tinguished by the way in which they take the first and last
commandment. 1. The first scheme became prevalent in the Roman
Catholic Church under the influnence of Augustine, and has
been retained by the Lutheran Church, and in recent times
defended by Kurtz and others. It includes in the first com
mandment Ex. 20 : 2 — 6, Deut. 5 : 6 — 10. The ninth is gen
erally taken according to the text of Exodus, "Thou shalt not
covet thy neighbor's house; the tenth, "Thou shalt not covet
thy neighbor's wife" etc. Augustine himself, on the contrary,
in the main passage in which he treats of this subject, holds to
the text of Deuteronomy for the ninth and tenth command
ments, and Kurtz emends the text of Exodus by the aid of
Deuteronomy. 2. The second And thirdschemes of division agree in making
the whole prohibition of concupiscence a single commandment
(the tenth), but they differ as to the first and •swotzo' commandment.
According to the view now common among the Jews, — which,
however, seems to rest on no very ancient tradition, — the first
commandment, comprises only Ex. 20 : 2. This, they say,
implies the obligation to believe on God as the most perfect
* The scholastic subtlety of the Rabbins, indeed, has made out the considerable
number of 248 positive commands, against 365 prohibitions.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 77
being. The second commandment (Ex. 20: 3—6) then in
cludes the obligation to believe on God's unity and the prohi
bition of false worship.
3. The third scheme, accepted by the Greek and Re
formed Churches, and by the Socinians, makes Ex. 20: 3 the
first commandment ; and Ex. 20 : 4 — 6, the second. Oehler
thinks it more probable that verses 2 — 6 are to be divided, and
that the prohibition of concupiscence should not be divided.
The Hebrew accentuation of the Decalogue is two-fold —
the one accentuation giving the usual Masoretic division into
verses, the other regulating the intonation in the Synagogue.
The latter takes verses 2—6 together, showing that these five
verses were viewed as closely connected. It is also certain
that verses 2 — 6 formed only one parasha in the Hebrew
Bible, and these small parashas are so old that this cannot be
due to Christian influence. This is a strong external argument
for the Romish and Lutheran division of the commandments.
§ 86. Continuation of the Decalogue.
The Old Testament does not expressly tell us how the com
mandments were divided between the two tables. Three views
have generally been held :
1. The arrangement assumed by Philo and Josephus, and
accepted by Oehler, in which five precepts are assigned to each
table. 2. The view of Calvin, followed by the Reformed Church,
in which four precepts are assigned to the first table, and six,
commencing with the command to honor parents, to the sec
ond. 3. The followers of the Augustinian division (the Roman
Catholic and Lutheran Churches) generally agree in beginning
the second table with the commandment to honor parents,
assigning three commandments to the first table and seven to
the second, a division which has also this in its favor that it
makes the writing on each table nearly equal in amount. On

78 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
this view the number three has been associated with the
Trinity, and it is urged that seven in the second table is a holy
number. The definite and rounded character of the Decalogue is a
decisive proof that it retains its original form.
§ 87. Circumcision. Its Historical Origin.
The mainsign of the covenant is circumcision (Gen. 17: 11),
which is the constant symbol of covenant obligations, and of
consequent covenant rights. It was prescribed not only for
Israelites by birth, but also for all who were received into the
house as slaves (Gen. 17: 12 — 27 compared with Ex. 12: 44 —
48). On new-born boys it was performed on the eighth day
(Gen. 17: 12; Lev. 12: 3).
The historical origin and the religious import of circum
cision must be carefully distinguished. It is quite possible that
the rite was customary in other tribes before it was introduced
in the race of Abraham. But this does not justify the infer
ence that the significance of circumcision in the Old Testament
must be explained from heathenism.
§ 88. Religious Import of Circumcision in the Old Testament. The
Giving of a Name.
Circumcision obviously presupposes that the natural life is
tainted by impurity, which must be removed in those who are
called to covenant fellowship with God. It may be named, with
Ewald, "the offering of the body"; and this is carried out in a way
that shall declare the propagation of the race of revelation to be
consecrated to God. Circumcision is essentially distinguished
from Christian baptism by not constituting an immediate, per
sonal relation between God and the recipient of the ordinance.
It does not operate as an individual means of grace. Circum
cision is no vehicle of sanctifying forces, as it makes no
demand in reference to the internal state of the recipient. The
rite effects admission to the fellowship of the covenant people
as an opus operatum, securing to the individual as a member

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 79
of the nation his share in the promises and saving benefits
granted to the nation as a whole. On the other hand, circum
cision certainly makes ethical demands on him who has re
ceived it. It binds him to obedience to God, whose covenant
sign he bears in his body and to a blameless walk before Him
(Gen. 17 : i). Thus it is One symbol of the renewal and purifi
cation of heart.
With circumcision was combined the naming of the child,
which although it is first expressly mentioned in Luke i : 59 ;
2 :2i, is clearly indicated by the connection of Gen. 17:5 with
what follows, and Gen. 21 : 3, 4. How frequently the giving
of a name was in Israel an act of religious confession, is seen
in the meanings of numerous biblical proper names. A re
ligious consecration for girls is neither presented at the insti
tution of circumcision, nor at a later date. This agrees with
the dependent position of woman, who has a part in national
and covenant life only as the partner of man — as wife and
mother. Girls are said to have been named when weaned.
Third Doctrine. Divine Retribution. (§ 89, 90).
§ 89. Blessing and Curse.
As the people bound themselves when the covenant was
concluded to observe the law, so Jehovah on His part binds
Himself to fulfil to the nation, so long as it observes its obli
gations, all the promises He makes, and to grant it the fulness
of His blessing ; but in the opposite case, to execute on the
people the punishment of a breach of covenant (Lev. 26: 23,
24; Deut. 32: 21; Ps. 18: 26, 27).
The divine blessing in a single word is Life (Deut. 30 : 15,
16). Life embraces all the good things that pertain to earthly
prosperity : long life (Deut. 4 : 40), children, fertility of the
soil, victory over enemies (Lev. 26: 3, 4; Deut. 28: 1— 14).
But the earthly good things form a state of felicity only when
the possession of them is united with the experience of the
gracious presence of the covenant God, so that they are pledges
of His favor.

80 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
On the other hand, the result of the breaking of the covenant
on the part of the people issues in the withdrawal of all these
blessings, shortening of life, childlessness, scarcity and famine,
— that Israel may know that it possesses all natural blessings
only as a gift of God (Hos. 2 : 8 — 12) ; also political misfortune,
and defeat by foes. Four judicial plagues are prominently
mentioned in Ezek. 14: 21 and other passages, — the sword,
famine, wild beasts, and pestilence.
§ 90. Solution of the Apparent Contradiction between Divine Election and
the Mosaic Doctrine of Retribution.
But if Israel by breaking the covenant is exposed to God's
judgment and rejected, this seems to nullify God's decree of
election and the realization of the aim of His kingdom, which,
though secured by God's covenant oath, is again dependent
on man's action. But to this difficulty Mosaism provides an
answer. God's compassionate love is higher than His penal
justice (Ex. 34: 6, 7). God's faithfulness cannot be broken
by man's faithlessness. His judgments have a fixed end, and
therefore are always in measure, as is taught in the beautiful
parable in Isa. 28 : 23 — 29. Israel is not annihilated in the
judgment; even in banishment, in dispersion among the
nations, it must not coalesce with them, but be preserved as a
separate nation for the fulfilment of its vocation. According
to Deut. 30: 1 — 6, the final restoration of the people is an act
of God, but it is effected by ethical means, through the con
version of the people, for the order of God's kingdom excludes
all magical means. Thus, in spite of man's sin and faithless
ness, the realization of the divine decree of election, the per
fecting of the people of God, is firmly based in God's faithful
ness and mercy (Rom. 1 1 ; 25 — 36).
// The Theocracy. (§ 91 — 156).
§ 91. The Idea of the Divine Kingship.
The form of government in the commonwealth founded by
Moses is the government of God — the theocracy. Jehovah is the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 81
King of Israel. The Old Testament idea of the divine king
ship expresses, not God's general relation of power toward the
wond (as being its creator and preserver), but the special re
lation of His government toward His elect people. The real
beginning of His kingly rule was on that day on which He
bound the tribes of Israel into a community by the promul
gation of the law and the forming of the legal covenant : "And
He was King in Jeshurun" (Deut. 33 : 5). (It is wrong to take
Moses for the subject). Although Jehovah has been the King
of His people in all ages (Ps. 74 : 12 J, He will not become the
King of the nations until a future time, when He comes in the
last revelation of His Kingdom. As King, He is the Law
giver and Judge of His people (Isa. 33 : 22). As King, God
is also the leader of His people 's army. Israel forms the hosts
of Jehovah (Ex. 12: 41).
First Doctrine. The Theocratic Organism, and the Ordi
nances of Law and Justice connected therewith. (§ 92 — in).
/ Theocratic Organization of the People. (§ 92 — -96).
§ 92. The Division into Tribes. Israel's Representation before
Jehovah. Although Levi received no special tribal territory, the
number twelve still remains for all political relations, and
wherever Levi is numbered, the two tribes of Joseph appear as
only one. This number twelve is so entirely identified with
the normal state of the theocracy, that it continues to be the
signature of God's people even in prophecy. In the New
Testament, too, the twelve tribes continue to be the type of
the covenant people (Acts 26: 7 ; Rev. 7 : 4 — 8), to which the
number of the apostles corresponds.
These twelve tribes together form the priestly kingdom
(Ex. 19: 6). On account of their uncleanness and sinfulness
the congregation are able to draw near to God only by means
of a propitiation. A whole series of institutions is directed to
such propitiation ; but this thought is pre-eminently expressed

82 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
by the introduction of a representative body between Jehovah
and the people. There are three grades in the representation
of the people before Jehovah: i) Levi as a tribe appears in a
mediatorial position between Jehovah and the people (Ex.
32 : 26 — 30) ; 2) the race of Aaron rises from its midst with a
specific priestly prerogative (Ex. 28: 1; Num. 18: 7); 3) the
office of high priest which is the culmination of the priesthood.
1. The Levites. (% 93, 94).
§ 93. The Mode and Meaning of the Representation of Israel by the
Levites. We are told, in Ex. 13, that from the night in which Israel,
was redeemed all the first-born males among man and beast
were dedicated to Jehovah. But instead of all the first-born
sons then living from a month old and upward, He accepts
the Levites as a standing gift of the people (Num. 8: 16); and
instead of the people's cattle, he takes the cattle of the Levites
(Num.3: n — 13). (Since the number of first-born sons in
the nation amounts to 22,263, and the number of the Levites,
on the contrary, only to 22,000, the over-plus is compensated
by a fine of five shekels apiece, to be paid to Aaron and his
sons (Num. 3: 43 — 51).
The Levites were thus, 1) the living sacrifice by which the
people rendered payment to Jehovah for owing their existence
to Him; and 2) since the Levites, in consequence of this, per
formed in the sanctuary the service which the people ought to
have rendered through their first-born, but could not on ac
count of their uncleanness (Num. 18: 22, 23), they serve, in
their substitution, as a covering or an atonement also for the
people who come near to the sanctuary (Num. 8 : 19).
§ 94. Official Functions, Dedication, and Social Position of the Levites.
The official functions of the Levites are definitely dis
tinguished from those of the priests. The charge "of every
thing of the altar, and of that within the veil" (Num. 18: 7),
falls exclusively to the priests. On the contrary, the service of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 83
the Levites is called the service of Jehovah's tabernacle, or of
the tent of meeting (Num. i: 53; 16: 9; 18: 4), and was or
ganized in a military manner. During the wandering in the
wilderness, the Levites had the charge of the taking down, carry
ing and setting up of the holy tabernacle (Num. 1 : 50 — 53) ;
also of the carrying of the sacred furniture, particularly the ark
of the covenant (Deut. 10: 8; 31: 25). The division of these
duties among the three Levitical families is given in Num.
3: 25 — 37; 4: 1 — 49. But the functions mentioned in the
book of Numbers refer only to the time of the people's wand
ering. There are no directions in the Pentateuch concerning
the services of the Levites during the settlement of the people
in the Holy Land.
The act of the consecration of the Levites is described in
Num. 8: 5 — 22. The purification falls into three parts (Num.
8: 7): 1) sprinkling; 2) shaving; 3) washing of clothes.
Their presentation before 4:he Lord is divided into the follow
ing ceremonies : 1 ) the laying on of hands ; 2) the wave offer-
ing! 3) ^e sin-offering; 4) the burnt- offering (Num. 8: 10
-12). In order that the tribe of Levi might give itseli completely
to its sacred vocation, no inheritance as a tribe was assigned to
it (Num. 18 : 23). The tribe is scattered among all the other
tribes, in the territories of which it received 48 towns with their
suburbs for pasturages (Num. 35 : 6, 7), of which six are ap
pointed to be cities of refuge. In this law, moreover, the
priests are included along with the Levites. The 13 special
towns for the priests are first mentioned in Josh. 21 : 4. The
tithes were assigned to them for their support, which, more
over was not an over- abundant endowment, so that the tribe of
Levi was often subjected to unavoidable poverty. (Deut.
12: 19; 14: 27,29).
§ 95. 2. The Priesthood.
The design of the priestly vocation is 1) to represent the

84 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
nation as a holy congregation before Jehovah, with full divine
authority (Deut. 18 : 5), and to open up for it access to its God.
In the functions of his office the priest is the medium of the in
tercourse which takes place in worship between Jehovah and
the congregation, and which, on account of the sinfulness of
the congregation, becomes a service of atonement. Besides
this mediatorial calling, the priest has 2) the office of teacher
and interpreter of the law (Lev. 10: n), in which respect he
has to accomplish a divine mission to the people. The two
sides of the priestly calling are embraced together in Deut.
33 : IO-
The divine calling to the priesthood is connected with the
natural propagation of Aaron's family.
The holiness of the priesthood was to be reflected in the
whole appearance of the priests, which was to suggest the
highest purity and exclusive devotion to God. To this refer
all the provisions as to the bodily condition and regulation of
life of the priests. The law treats of the bodily condition of
the priests in Lev. 21 : 16 — 24. The provisions for the regula
tion of the life are given in Lev. 21 : 1 — 9. Propriety and
order must rule in the priest's family (Lev. 21: 9). Dietetic
directions are given in Lev. 10 : 9, 10 ; 22 : 8. It is supposed
that the rule concerning the age of the Levites (30 — 50, Num.
4 : 3> 23> 3°) held good of the priests also.
The consecration of the priests is prescribed in Ex. 29 : 1 —
37. The consecration consists of two classes of acts:
1. The real consecration of the person to the priestly
office in three acts: 1) washing, a symbol of spiritual cleans
ing; 2) robing, consisting in putting on four articles of dress
(Ex. 28: 40—42) of fine, shining white linen (Ex. 28: 39), as a
symbol of purity ; 3) the priestly anointing, a symbol of the
communication of the Divine Spirit which operates in the
priestly office.
2. A three-fold offering, by which the persons thus con

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 85
secrated were put into all the functions and rights of the priest
hood: i) the sin offering (Lev. 8: 14, 15); 2) the burnt-offer
ing; 3) a modified thank offering (Lev. 8: 22 — 28), which last
was the specific sacrifice for the consecration of the priests.
(Blood was sprinkled upon the ear of the priest, because he
must at all times hearken to the holy voice of God ; upon the
hand, because he must execute God's commands, and especially
priestly functions ; upon the foot, because he must walk rightly
and holily). The conclusion of the festival is the sacrificial
meal. The duration of the consecration is fixed at seven days
(Ex. 29: 35 — 37). Although the priestly service demands
only outward purity and perfection, still the real subjective
qualification for the priesthood lies in undivided devotion to God
(Lev. 10 : 3).
For their maintenance the priests received as dwelling
places 13 of the towns which were given to the Levites (Josh.
21 : 4), and the Levites had to give them tithes of their tithes,
and they received the gifts of the first fruits, and certain parts
of the offerings.
§ 96. 3. The High Priest.
In the high priest (Lev. 21 : 10) are united the mediator-
ship by which the people are represented before God, and the
official priestly sanctity by which they are reconciled. He is
said to bear the iniquity of the holy things (Ex. 28 : 38). Thus
the whole reconciling and sanctifying effect of the sacrifices is
dependent on the existence of a personally reconciling medi-
atorship before God ; and here the Old Covenant proclaims
its inadequacy to effect a true reconciliation, in the fact that
even the high priest himself has need of reconciliation and
purification by the blood of sacrifices, as one subject to sin and
weakness (compare Heb. 5 : 3).
As the "holy one of Jehovah" (Ps. 106 : 16) he must
awaken, by his whole appearance, an impression of the highest
purity and exclusive devotion to God. To this end are

86 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
directed i) all the regulations in regard to his personal con
dition and mode of life, which in respect to descent and bodily
constitution do not differ from that of the other priests.
2) The rules, however, in Lev. 21 : 10 — 15, in regard to the
ordering of his life, relate exclusively to the high priest.
The high priest's consecration to his office differed from
that of the common priests with reference to the robing and
anointing. On his robing, see Ex 29 : 5 — 9 ; Num. 20 : 26 —
28 (in this latter passage we see that the transference of the
office of high priest from Aaron to Eleazar took place by the
transference of the ornaments of office). Without the orna
ments of his office, the high priest is simply a private indi
vidual, who, as such, cannot intercede for the people ; there
fore he is threatened with death, if he appear before Jehovah
without them. The description of the high priest's official
garments is given in Ex. 28 and 39.
This dress of office has received very various symbolic in
terpretations. The symbolic meaning of the Ephod and the
breastplate is especially important. The reference to the re
conciling mediatorship is especially marked by the fact that
the high priest, when clothed with the Ephod, bears the
names of the twelve tribes on his heart and shoulders. This
latter fact is meant to signify that he as Mediator carries, as it
were, the people of God, — that, so to speak, the people lie as a
burden on him.
From his unction, which followed his robing, the high
priest was called "the anointed priest."
In addition to the functions of the common priests, the ser
vice on the day of atonement, and the Urim and Thummim,
were specially assigned to the high priest.
// The Theocratic Authority (§ 97 — 100).
§ 97. 1- The Legislative Authority.
In virtue of the principles of the theocracy, all the powers
of the State are united in Jehovah ; even when the congrega-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 87
tion acts, it is in His name. He is first the Lawgiver (Isa.
33 : 22). His legislative power He exercised through Moses.
The fundamental law given through him is inviolably valid for
all time. In the development of the theocracy, the need of re
ceiving an immediate proclamation of Jehovah's kingly will
must always reappear. This need was met by the Urim and
Thummim, through which the high priest, in whose breastplate
they were set, received the decision of Jehovah (Num. 27 : 21) ;
and this is why the breastplate bears the name of "the breast
plate of judgment" (Ex. 28 : 30). The term Urim refers to
the divine illumination, the Thummim to the unimpeachable
correctness of the decision (l Sam. 14: 41). It cannot be
determined from the Old Testament how the decision took
place, whether the divine answer came by the sparkling of the
jewels (Rabbinical tradition), or by divine inspiration of the
high priest (so Baehr and Hengstenberg). It is not quite clear
from Ex. 28: 30; Lev. 8 : 8, whether the Urim and Thummim
were different from the gems of the breastplate or not. We
should expect to have a more particular description of them if
they were anything distinct.
The sacred lot seems to have been different from the Urim
and Thummim. It was employed at the division of the tribal
territories (Num. 26: 55, 56); to discover the guilty one who
had brought a curse on the people (Josh. 7: 14, 15); and in
1 Sam. 14: 41 (unless the Urim and Thummin are meant) and
at the election of the king (1 Sam. 10: 20, 21). (See also Prov.
18 : 18). These methods of inquiring into the Divine Will will
retire into the background the more prophecy becomes promi
nent. 2. The Judicial Power (§ 98, 99).
% 98. The Principle and Organization of the Administration of Justice.
The administration of justice is, in virtue of the principles
of theocracy, only an efflux of the divine judgment. "The
judgment is God's" (Deut. 1: 17); to seek justice is to in-

88 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
quire of God (Ex. 18 : 15), etc. The theocratic ordinances
limit the power of the head of a family, by taking from him
(Deut. 21: 18, 19; Ex.21: 20) the power over the life and
death of those belonging to him, which he still exercised in the
time of the patriarchs (Gen. 38 : 24). Lynch law is also for
bidden because the office of avenger is God's alone (Lev.
19 : 18). The old custom of blood revenge is indeed retained,
but it is subjected to theocratic regulations.
With regard to the organization of the courts of justice, we
must distinguish in the Pentateuch the provisions given only
for the march through the wilderness, and the regulations in
Deuteronomy, which had reference to later circumstances.
In these later regulations the administration of justice is
placed in the hands of the congregation. A very vivid de
scription of the way in which courts were held in Israel is
given by the story of the judgment of Naboth (1 Kings 21 : 1
— 16). The community exercises its judical power by special
judges, who are placed in all the gates (Deut. 16: 18).
§ 99. The Course of Justice and Punishment.
The course of justice is very simple. The parties must
both appear in person before the judge, and the complaint is
brought before the judges by word of mouth, either by the
parties (Deut. 21: 20; 22: 16), or by others (Deut. 25: 1).
The business of the judge is to hear and thoroughly investigate.
The testimony of witnesses is the most usual form 01 evidence
and special emphasis is laid upon this. It is enacted that two
or three witnesses shall be brought (Deut. 19: 15), particularly
in criminal cases (Num. 35: 30; Deut. 17: 6). The oath is
also a means of evidence (oath of purgation, Ex. 22: 6 — 10;
adjuration of a wife who was accused of adultery (Num.
5 : n — 31). The form of the sentence of judgment is not laid
down. As a rule, execution immediately followed on con
demnation (Num. 15: 36; Deut. 22: 18; 25: 2).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 89
The Mosaic principle of punishment is the jus talionis : it
shall be done to him who has offended as he has done (Ex.
21 : 23 — 25); in other words, the punishment is a retribution
corresponding in quantity and quality to the wicked deed.
The punishment of death is attached apparently to a large
number of crimes (Ex. 21 : 12 — 29; Lev. 20: 1 — 27; etc.). In
general, in all cases where the people did not execute judg
ment on the transgressor, Jehovah himself reserves the ex
ercise of justice to himself (see, as main passage, Lev. 20: 4 — 6).
In the Mosaic law, corporal chastisement (stripes) appears as
another form of punishment (Deut. 25 : 2, 3), also fines f Ex.
21 : 22; Lev. 24: 18). The jus talionis was to be recognized
in case of bodily injury (Ex. 21 : 23 — 25). There occurs also
the judicial selling of a guilty person.
With what emphasis the law demands the strict and impar
tial administration of justice, especially with reference to the
poor, see Ex. 23: 6 — 8; Lev. 19: 15; etc.
§ 100. 3. The Executive Power.
The Mosaic theocracy presents the peculiar phenomenon
of being originally unprovided with a definite office for execut
ing the power of the state. The princes of the tribes (spoken
of in Num. 1 : 16, 44 ; and elsewhere) form no theocratic body.
Jehovah himself acts, as circumstances demand, in the im
mediate exercise of power, in order to execute his kingly will
and to maintain the covenant law ; but for the rest, only the as
surance is expressed (Num. 27 : 16, 17) that Jehovah will not
leave his congregation as a flock without a shepherd, but will
always, again and again, appoint a leader over them and endow
him with his Spirit, as he raised up Joshua in Moses' stead,
and afterward the Judges. This want of a regular executive in
the Mosaic constitution has been thought very remarkable.
But the theocratic constitution does not rest on the calculations
of a clever founder of religion, but on the stability of the coun
sel of revelation.
Yet Deuteronomy, in the law concerning a king (Deut.
17 : 14 — 20) leaves open the possibility of setting up an earthly

90 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
kingship (compare, moreover, the previous prophecy in Gen.
17: 6, 16; 35: n; Num. 24: 17). This future kingship is,
however, subjected strictly to the theocratic principle. The
people shall only set over them as king one whom Jehovah shall
choose out of their midst. Moreover, the stability of his king
ship and its descent to his children are to depend on his obedi
ence to the law.
III. The Organization of the Family, and the Legal Pro
visions connected therewith (§ 101 — III).
§ 101. The Subdivisions of the Tribes. The Principles and Division of
Mosaie Family Law.
The tribes are naturally divided into clans; these into
families or houses, generally called fathers' houses ; then fol
low the various householders, with those that belong to them.
Each family forms a self-contained whole, which, so far as
possible, is to be preserved in its integrity. Each Israelite
is a citizen of the theocracy only by being a member of a cer
tain clan of the covenant people ; hence the value of genea
logical tables.
The following points are the most important for Biblical
Theology: 1) The law of marriage ; 2) The relation of parents
and children ; 3) The law of inheritance, and the provisions
touching the continuance of a family and its possessions, (the
avenging of blood goes along with this) ; 4) The law concern
ing servants.
1. The Law of Marriage (§ 102—104).
§ 102. The Contracting of Marriage. The dependent Position of the
Wife, and the Forms of the Marriage Contract.
In the Mosaic law, woman appears not, indeed, in the po
sition of degradation which she has among most other Oriental
nations, but still dependent, inasmuch as her will is subject be
fore marriage to the will of her father, and after marriage to the
will of her husband ; it is only when this tie is loosed that the
wife holds a position of relative independence (Num. 30 : 4 —
10). The marriage contract is generally supposed to have
rested on a bargain made betweeen the parents of the bride

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 91
and bridegroom, in virtue of which a price was paid to the
father of the bride for his daughter, but according to others no
such selling took place, a present being sent to the bride by
the bridegroom, to which other presents were added for the
kinsfolk of the bride (Gen. 24: 53, 58; 34: 12). It is most
probable that various forms of the marriage contract existed
side by side. The law does not require a religious consecration
of the matrimonial tie; but it is clear from Mai. 2: 14 that
marriage was to be regarded a divinely sanctioned bond.
Purity of entrance into the married state is guarded by such
laws as Deut. 22; 13 — 21, 28, 29. The wife's dependent place
favored the spread of polygamy, although this was in con
tradiction to the Mosaic idea (see § 69).
§ 103. Bars to Marriage.
In the Mosaic law of marriage, the provisions concerning
obstacles to marriage occupy an important place. These pro
visions are contained in Lev. 18: 6 — 18; 20: n — 21; Deut.
27 : 20, 22, 23. All marriages with near relations, are forbid
den, and that not only with blood relations, but also with con
nections by affinity. The marriage of uncle and niece (Lev.
18 : 6 — 13), with the widow of a mother's brother, and a wife's
sister after the wife's death, was allowed (Lev. 18: 18). This last
case is the famous point of controversy so often discussed in the
English Parliament. But there can be no doubt upon the matter
whatever. The prohibition mentioned in Lev. 18 : 18 (that a
man may not marry two sisters), refers expressly only to the
time when the wife still lives ; marrying both at the same time,
as the patriarch Jacob did, was forbidden.
The moral ground of these prohibitions can be no other
than the fact that moral fellowship is already constituted through
the natural forms of near relationship, which would be dis
turbed by the matrimonial bond. (Abraham's marriage with
his half-sister, for this is the most probable view of his relation
to Sarah, seems, from the Mosaic standpoint, to have been
justified mainly because through it alone the pollution of the

92 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
race of revelation by heathen elements was prevented. See
Gen. 24 : 3).
§ 104. The Dissolution of Marriage.
The dissolution of marriage can take place in two ways :
1) By the disruption in fact of the matrimonial bond by the sin
of adultry ; 2) By a divorce drawn up in a definite form.
1. In the Mosaic law, adultery is so understood that it is
only committed through the unchastity of a wife. On the part
of the husband, adultery is committed only when he dishonors
the /r<?<?wife of another; in this case both are to be punished
with death (Lev. 20 : 10; Deut. 22: 22). By simple unchastity
the husband offends indeed against the law which condemns
as an abomination all fornication, and especially such prosti
tution as was committed among the neighboring heathen
nations (Lev. 19: 29; Deut. 23: 18), but not against his wife.
For the trial of a woman suspected of adultery see Num.
5: H—3I-
2. Divorce. The right of divorce belongs to the husband
only ; divorce is therefore called the dismissal of a wife. This
right of dismissing a wife is not formally sanctioned by
the law, but is presupposed as existing, and is limited not
only by the law in Deut. 22 : 19, 29, but even in the
law of divorce (Deut. 24 : 1 — 4). Such a formal bill
of divorcement, no doubt, often prevented a too hasty re
pudiation. Deut. 24 ; 1 assigns as the ground which renders
divorce admissible "some unseemly thing in the woman." The
school of Hillel understood the expression to mean any matter
of offence (e. g., if the wife have let the dinner burn ; etc.) ; but
the school of Shammai referred it to really shameful conduct,
such as unchaste behavior and the like.
It is clear that this whole matter of divorce does not corres
pond to the idea of marriage proper in the Old Testament (see
§ 69), and this is expressly set forth by Christ (Matt. 19 : 3 — 8).
§ 105. 2. The Relation of Parents to Children.
The same promise is given to the honoring of parents as to
obedience to the divine will in general (Ex. 20: 12, compared

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 93
with Deut. 4: 40; 6: 2; etc.). Breach of the reverence due to
parents is punished in just the same way as offences against
the reverence due to God (Ex. 21 : 15, 17 ; Lev. 20: 9). Still
the parents have only such rights over their children as are
consistent with the acknowledgement of God's higher right of
property, which is sealed by circumcision. This thought is
conveyed particularly in the ordinance with reference to the
redemption of the first-born sons. Even the human right of
parents over their children is limited, in particular, the father
has no right over the life and death of his children (such as
the Roman law concedes) Deut. 21 : 18 — 21).
The law also requires that a holy education in the fear and
love of God be given to children (Deut. 4:9, 10 ; 6 : 6, 7 ;
etc.). But the Pentateuch knows nothing of a scholastic incul
cation of the divine laws; it knows no formal religious instruc
tion at all. The Rabbinical tradition that boys in their twelfth
year were bound to fulfil the law may be very ancient, but the
earliest indication of this rule which we have is in the history of
Jesus when He was twelve years old, and in Josephus' state
ment, that Samuel was called to be a prophet in the twelfth
year of his life.
3. The Law of Inheritance, and Provisions for the Permanence of
Families and their Inheritance (§ 106 — 108).
% 106. The Law of Inheritance. Laws concerning Heiresses and the
Levirate Marriage.
After the father's death the firstborn son is the head of the
family. By the law in Deut. 21: 17, the provision that the
first-born son is to receive a double inheritance is confirmed,
and therefore, doubtless, the care of the mother and unmarried
sisters, was incumbent on him. For the rest, the rule of in
heritance was apparently that the other sons inherited equally.
For the law of inheritance if an Israelite left behind no son, see
Num. 27 : 8 — n. Daughters who were heiresses might marry
only men of the tribe of their father (Num. 36 : 6 — 12).
Side by side with this last ordinance stands the Levirate
law which was legally sanctioned by Deut. 25 : 5 — 10. The

94 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
exposition of this law is doubtful. Some hold that this law
applied only to that brother who was in the position to take
up the Levirate duty. Again the words, "if he have no son,"
are understood by the Jewish and many Christian expositors
(so Keil and Schultz) of childlessness in general, so that if there
was a daughter to be heiress, no Levirate marriage would be en
tered on; and for this the expressions in Matt. 22 ; 25 ("having
no seed") and Luke 20: 28 ("childless") seem to speak. This
passage in the Gospels shows that the Levirate law was still in
force in the time of Jesus.
§ 107. Provisions concerning the Preservation of the Family Inheritance.
An inheritance was given to each family by Jehovah for its
subsistence, as an hereditary feudal holding, and was therefore
in itself inalienable, — which was to be preserved as far as pos
sible. When an Israelite is compelled by poverty to alienate
his inheritance, this is only for a time, and the land itself is
never actually sold, but only what it bore (Lev. 25 : 23—28).
In the year of jubilee, moreover, every possession is to return to
to the family to which it originially belonged, without re
demption. § 108. The Avenging of Blood.
In the Old Testament, blood revenge is taken for granted as
a very ancient custom (Gen. 27 : 45). Mosaism, in virtue of
its idea of man as the divine image, discerns in murder, a
transgression against the Creator and Lord of human life (Gen.
9: 5, 6), which must be atoned for "by the blood of him that
shed it" (Num. 35 : 33), (Human life is so sacred that even
the animal 'by which a man is killed must be stoned Ex. 21 :
28 — 32 ; Gen. 9 : 5). But because the family is injured at the
same time by the murder, the execution of the avenging of
blood is laid on "the avenger of blood," the nearest blood re
lation, who has to redeem the blood taken from the family by
the crime committed. The laws regulating the avenging of
blood are found in Ex. 21: 12 — 14; Num. 35: 9 — 34; Deut.
19: 1— 13.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 95
i. Two kinds of murder are distinguished (Num. 35 : 9 —
34) in reference to which the avenging of blood is commanded
a) if any one strike another in such a way that death may be
foreseen to be the probable consequence (vv. 16—18); b) if
one has slain another out of hatred, or by design, or out of
enmity (vv. 20, 21). On the other hand, in order to shelter
from vengeance him who had slain a man undesignedly and in
advertently, the law provided for the selection of six free cities,
three on the east, and three on the west side of the Jordan
(Deut. 4 : 41 — 43 ; Josh. 20 : 1 — 9).
2. For intentional murder, there was no other expiation
than the blood of the manslayer (Num. 35 : 31, 33).
3. The avenging of blood falls upon the doer alone, the
avenger of blood was not allowed to lay hands also on the
family of the murderer. That the custom was still in full force
in David's time appears from 2 Sam. 14: 6 — n.
4. The Rights of Servants in the House (§ 109—111).
§ 709. Bondage in the Time of the Patriarchs. The Principles of the
Rights of Bondmen.
The Old Testament, in ascribing to man the nature and
dignity of one made in the image of God, — in teaching, further,
the descent of all mankind from one blood, — pronounces in
advance that slavery is inadmissible. It is designated as a
curse when a race falls into slavery (Gen. 9: 25, 27). Never
theless, the existence of a state of servitude is presupposed in
the Old Testament. How elevated, however, the position of the
slave is in the time of the patriarchs, is shown specially in the
beautiful picture of Abraham's trusted servant, drawn in Gen.
24, no doubt the Eliezer of Gen. 15: 2, whom Abraham for
want of a son had appointed as his heir.
The rights of the class of servants are more exactly defined
by the law; and a distinction is made between those servants
who were Israelites by birth, and the slaves obtained by pur
chase or as a booty from other nations. These regulations rest
on a twofold principle :

96 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
i ) That bondage, in a strict sense, all human servitude was
for Israel completely done away with (Lev. 25 : 42, 55 ; 26 :
13). With reference, however, to the whole profane mass of
the Gentiles, slavery is recognized as allowable (Lev. 25 : 44
-46). 2) The Israelites, since they themselves were at one time
slaves and strangers in Egypt, are to treat servants and
strangers in a humane way (Ex. 22: 21; Deut. 15: 12 — 15;
etc.). § 110. The Regulations concerning Hebrew Servants.
An Israelite might in a legal way become a slave, either by
selling himself on account of poverty (Lev. 25 : 39, 47), or by
being sold by judicial degree on account of inability to make
compensation for a theft committed (Ex. 22 : 3).
There are different ordinances in the Pentateuch concern
ing the wa"y in which an Israelite who had fallen into slavery
was to be treated, — the one in Ex. 21: 1 — n, and Deut. 15:
12 — 18; and the other in Lev. 25 : 39 — 55.
The apparent contradiction between the two laws is to be
solved (with J. D. Michaelis, Hengstenberg, and others), by
supposing that during the first forty-four years of a period of
jubilee, the emancipation of servants was entirely regulated by
the laws in Ex. 21: 1 — n and Deut. 15: 12 — 18; while, on the
contrary, the year of jubilee brought freedom to those who fell
into servitude in the last years of the period of jubilee, even if
they had not served for six years.
§ 111. The Position of Servants not Israelites.
By circumcision slaves obtained a right to partake of the
Passover (Ex. 12: 44); they were thus, in distinction from
aliens and day-laborers (Ex. 12: 45), to be treated as mem
bers of the family. It was not lawful to interfere with the
Sabbath rest of the slaves (Deut. 5 : 14). The master had no
right over the life of the slave (Ex. 21 : 12, 20, 21). The
humane treatment of slaves required by the law is also incul
cated elsewhere in the Old Testament (Job 31 : 13 — 15). The

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 97
admonitions not to treat a slave too delicately (Prov. 29: 19,
21) are to be regarded as a parallel with those touching the
training of children.
Second Doctrine. The Mosaic Public Worship (§11 2 —
156)- § 112. General Introductory Remarks. Essential Character of this
Worship. Although the whole life of the Israelites must be shaped as
a service paid to God, yet there exists a special series of in
stitutions, in which special expression is given to the funda
mental idea of the theocracy, — -that Israel must consecrate to
God, itself and all that it has. These institutions of public
worship, however, must not be looked at in their bare outward
form, but must be referred to the idea of the covenant, and in
terpreted from it — for the aim of the covenant is sanctification
— and the whole task of the ritual worship is the representation
and exercise of the process of sanctification.
In the Mosaic ritual the acts of worship were not merely
signs of internal things, which would go on in relative in
dependence of the acts of worship, — e. g., sacrifice does not
symbolize a devotion to God taking place independently of the
act of sacrifice; it is not merely a symbol, but it is just the
devotion of oneself to God which is carried out in the act of
sacrifice. The sacrifice is itself an embodied prayer ; to it is
attached the attainment of divine pardon and divine blessing.
That the sacrificial side of worship is predominant in the Old
Covenant, and the sacramental in the New, is due to the re
lation of Law to Gospel ; in the latter, what God does for man
stands first ; in the former, man's acts.
For the stage of infancy, the ritual ordinance has the edu
cational value of a process working from the outside to the in
side, and so awakening a God-fearing disposition, a conscious
ness of inward communion with God (Deut. 14: 22, 23).
§ 113. The Plaee of the Word in Publie Worship.
The proclamation of the divine Word does not appear as
an essential part of the Old Testament worship ; and though

98 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the teachings of Jehovah's law and statues is specified among
the priest's duties (Deut. 33 : 10), the reading of the law ap
pears in connection with worship only every seventh year, at
the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. 31 : 10, n). But to the place
of worship was attached, without express teaching, the knowl
edge of the God who shows Himself there as a present God
(Ex.29: 43 — 46); while with the acts of worship was connected
a lively transmission of the knowledge of the great deeds on
which Israel rested its faith (Ex. 12: 26, 27 ; etc.). Neverthe
less, side by side with the established forms of worship there
prevailed among the people a powerful spirit of prayer ; and all
the examples of prayer in the Pentateuch are represented as
praying men of strong faith.
Appendix : The Oath.
The oath is regarded as a religious act (Deut. 6 ; 13).
Swearing is accordingly an act of religious profession (Jer.
4 : 2), and is a distinct appeal to the penal justice of fehovah
against him who knowingly speaks falsehood (Josh. 22: 22,
23). The oath appears in private life from the most ancient
times as promissory oath (Gen. 24 : 2, 3) ; in particular, as an
oath of covenant (Gen. 21: 23 — 25). The law still further
acknowledges the assertory oath as an oath of purgation before
the court of justice (Ex. 22: n). The form in which an oath
was taken was always that the oath was sworn by Jehovah.
Perjury, as a profanation of Jehovah's name (Lev. 19: 12),
as a vain use of it (Ex. 20 : 7), is a heavy sin.
II. The Place of Worship (§ 114 — 119).
% 114. The Requisites for a plaee of Worship.
Since the persons charged with the conduct of the Mosaic
worship have already been treated of, we have in particular
only to treat of three other points : 1) of the seat of worship;
2) of the acts of worship ; and 3) of the times of worship.
The simplest place of worship is the altar, which is first
mentioned in Gen. 8 : 20 ; a height rising toward heaven, sig-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 99
nifying the ascent of the devotion embodied in sacrifice. The
first condition for a place of worship is, that it has been chosen
and sanctified by God, and has actually been witnessed to as the
place of His revelation (Ex.20: 24; Deut. 12: 5, n).
The sanctuary is to be one only, that the people may be
kept together in theocratic unity.
§ 115. The Arrangement of the Mosaic Sanetuary.
The Mosaic sanctuary was a tent, generally called the tent
of meeting, i. e., of God with the people (Ex. 29: 42, 43). The
other name for the sanctuary, tent (tabernacle) of the testimony
(Num. 1: 50, 53; etc.), denotes the sanctuary as the place of
revelation. In Ex. 26 : 1 — 37, we have the description of how
the tabernacle was built, in which we may notice 1) the ten
curtains (vv. 1 — 6); 2) the external coverings (vv. 7 — 14);
3) the wood work used (vv. 15 — 30); 4) the veil and hanging
(vv. 31—37).
The whole tent, 30 cubits long, and 10 wide, was divided
into two rooms : in front, the Holy Place, twenty cubits long ;
and behind this the Most Holy Place, 10 cubits square, sep
arated from the former by a curtain woven with pictures of
cherubim, called the veil (separation) (Ex. 26: 31 — 33).
The utensils of the sanctuary were as follows : In the
court, in the open air before the sanctuary, stood the altar for
burnt- offerings (Ex. 27 : 1 — 8). At the four corners of the
altar were heights, called horns, on which a part of the blood
was smeared at the sin-offerings, and which were laid hold of
by those who sought a refuge at the altar (1 Kings 1 : 50).
Between the altar and the sanctuary was a copper washing-
basin, in which the priests washed their hands and feet before
going to the duties of the office (Ex. 30; 17 — 21).
In the sanctuary itself, toward the north, stood the table
with the twelve loaves of shewbread (Ex. 25 : 23 — 30). Op
posite the table stood a golden candlestick with seven lamps
(Ex. 25 : 31 — 40.) In the middle, before the curtain leading in
to the Most Holy Place, was the altar of incense.

100 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
In the Most Holy Place stood the ark of the covenant, the
most sacred vessel of the sanctuary,, containing the tables of
the law, and covered with a golden plate called kapporeth
(literally, an instrument of atonement, English Version, mercy
seat), the most important part of the ark of the covenant (Lev.
16: 13 — 16). Above the kapporeth stood two golden cher
ubim, with outspread wings and faces turned toward each
other ; between them the shekhina of Jehovah was supposed to
be (Ex. 25: 22; Num. 7: 89). Besides this, a vessel with
manna (Ex. 16: 33); Aaron's rod that budded (Num. 17: 10),
and lastly, by the side of the ark of the covenant, the book of
the law (Deut. 31 : 26), were kept in the Most Holy Place.
§ 116. Meaning of the Sanetuary. Its Three Rooms.
In the sanctuary is embodied the idea of God's dwelling
among the people of Israel. Here the people come to Jehovah
in his dwelling-place. Into the first division, the court, only
the covenant people can go, and not into the sanctuary itself,
which is only allowed to be entered by the priests fthe medi
ators of the people). But even these priests are not in a po
sition (on account of their sinfulness) to establish a full com
munion with God. For this reason Jehovah's dwelling-place
is divided into two apartments : the veiled, holiest of all,
in which Jehovah, the revealed, and yet hidden and in a
manner unapproachable God is enthroned in the darkness >'
and the holy place, the place of the priests and their service,
which on this account is the symbol of the mediation of the
covenant. § 117. Meaning of the Saered Vessels in the Court and in the
Sanetuary. The meaning of the various sacred vessels corresponds to
the meaning of the three divisions of the sanctuary. The only
piece of sacred furniture with reference to which an immediate
activity of the people takes place, the altar of burnt- offering,
stands in the court. The horns of the altar are 1) either sym
bols of the divine power of salvation and help (so Keil), or

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 101
2) in these horns the general meaning of the altar (that
worship ascends to God) culminates, so that thus the blood of
atonement sprinkled on them is, as it were, brought a step
nearer God (Oehler). The washing-basin marks the passing
from the general offering of sacrifice to the specific priestly
service. He who has to carry on the service of reconciliation
for the congregation must sanctify his own walk and acts.
In the holy place stands the altar of incense. The incense-
offering, presented here every morning and evening by the
hand of the priest was a symbol of the prayers of the people (Ps.
141: 2; Rev. 5: 8; 8: 3).
Oehler thinks that by the table with the shewbread is meant,
that the people in its twelve tribes testifies by the continual
presentation of nourishing bread in the sanctuary that it owes
to the blessing of its God the maintenance of life ; and that
thereby Israel dedicates to God the exercise of the calling by
which it wins its daily bread in the use of God's gifts. This
interpretation is carried further by Hengstenberg and others,
who make the shewbread a symbol of spiritual nourishment.
The candlestick with its sevenfold light points to the perfect
Light which shines in this covenant community ; and in par
ticular, the light does not refer merely to the communication
of higher knowledge,' but to saving divine grace in general.
This meaning of the symbol is specially confirmed by the
visions of Zechariah (4 : 1— 14).
In the symbols of the Holy Place, the truth is expressed,
that the people presents itself before its God in the light and
life which it receives in virtue of covenant communion with
God. § 118. The Meaning of the Ark of the Covenant, with the Kapporeth and
the Tables of the Law.
In the Most Holy Place, the ark of the covenant is the
symbol and vehicle of the presence of the revelation of Jehovah
among his people. Hence it is called the throne of God (Jer.
3: 16, 17); God's footstool (l Chron. 28: 2; Ps. 99: 5). But

102 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
its meaning is more nearly defined by the three parts — the
kapporeth (mercy seat) on the ark, the tables of the law in it,
and the cherubim over it.
i. The kapporeth is the most important part of the ark of
the covenant (Ex. 25 : 22). In the fact that it is the instrument
of atonement, and that it is at the kapporeth that the highest
act of atonement is executed, is expressed 1) that the God
who dwells in the midst of His people can only commune with
them in virtue of an atonement offered to Him, and 2) that He
is also a God who can be reconciled. This throne of God is
veiled in deep darkness (1 Kings 8: 12), and the manifestation
of God over the kapporeth takes place in a cloud, which veils
His glory (Lev. 16: 2). On the day of atonement, the high-
priest when he approaches with the blood of atonement must
envelope himself in a cloud of incense, when he raises the cur
tain (Lev. 16 : 13). This expresses the fact that full com
munion between God and man is not to be realized, even
through the medium of the atonement to be attained by the
Old Testament sacrificial institutions — that, as is said in Heb.
9 : 8, as yet the way to the (heavenly) sanctuary was not made
manifest. 2. The kapporeth rests on the ark, in which are the tables
of the law, the testimony. This means that God sits enthroned
in Israel on the ground of the covenant of law which He has
made with Israel. The testimony is preserved in the ark as a
treasure, a jewel. And while the law is 1) a testimony to the
will of God toward the people, it is also 2) a testimony against
the sinful people, — a continual record of accusation, so to
speak, against their sins in the sight of the Holy God. And
now, when the kapporeth is over the tables, it is declared that
God's grace, which provides an atonement or covering for the
iniquity of the people, stands above His penal justice.
§ 119. The Cherubim.
The cherubim are one of the most important symbols of the
Mosaic worship, occurring no less than eighty-five times in the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 103
Old Testament. They nowhere appear developed into in
dependent personality, like the malakhim (angels) ; they are
not sent out like these, but are constantly confined to the seat
of the divine habitation and the manifestation of the Divine
Being. In Ezekiel, where their form is the most complicated
(compare Rev. 4: 6 — 11), they appear with a fourfold face,
that of a man, a lion, bull, and an eagle, — with four wings, their
whole body covered with eyes (Ezek. 10: 10 — 15). In Ezek.
1 : 5 they are called living creatures, as in Rev. 4 : 6. This
description of Ezekiel 's is not to be transferred to the cherubim
of the sanctuary , nor to the cherubim of the temple. The pas
sages in the Pentateuch lead, as Riehm and Keil rightly assert,
to nothing further than to winged human forms.
Our inquiry into the meaning of the cherubim must start
from the fact that they designate a place as the abode of the
habitation of God (Paradise, the tabernacle, and later the
temple), and are thus the bearers of the manifestation of God
when He manifests Himself to the world in His glory ; on
which account they are called God's chariot (1 Chron. 28 : 18 ;
Ps. 18: 10). Since they bar the entrance to Paradise (Gen.
3 : 24), and protect and shade the ark (Ex. 25 : 20), the first
element in their function is to express to man's consciousness
the inaccessibility of the Divine Being. They reflect the glory
of the unapproachable God in a form which is accessible for
human eyes, but at the same time so constructed that they
could give no support to the worship of images. By uniting
in itself the noblest earthly living creatures (man, the eagle, the
lion, the bull), the symbol is evidently meant more particularly
to set forth the divine glory as it is manifested in the world. It
is the cherubim which at one and the same time proclaim and
veil the presence of God. The continual mobility of the living
creatures (Rev. 4: 8) signifies the never-resting quickness of
the divine operations; this is probably symbolized also by
the wheels which are given to the cherubim in Ezekiel (1 : 16).
The number four, connected with the cherubim in the later
form of the symbol, is the signature of all-sidedness (towards

104 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the four quarters of heaven). Thus Jehovah, when He is hon
ored as the One who is enthroned above the cherubim, is ac
knowledged as the God who rules the world on all sides, in
power, wisdom, and omniscience.
The philological explanation of the term is altogether un
certain. II. The Actions of Mosaic Worship (§ 120 — 143).
§ 120. On the Idea of Offerings in General.
The actions of worship fall under the general notion of offer
ings. The essential nature of an offering in general is the de.
votion of man expressed in an outward act. The inward impulse
which impels man to praise, thank, and supplicate God finds
expression, indeed, in words of devotion ; but this impulse is
not fully satisfied till this word is, as it were, embodied in a cor
responding action, in which man deprives and denies himself of
something and thus by deeds testifies the earnestness of his de
votion to God.
An essential factor in the offering is substitution, which can
take place in a twofold way, — 1) when the person who brings
the offering is represented by the gift substituted in his room ;
and 2) when something is substituted for the object to be offered
(Ex. 13: 13). The idea of substitution is brought out more
fully when another life is offered in the place of the life of the
person who offers.
§ 121. Pre-Mosaie Sacrifice and the Mosaic Covenant. Sacrifice as the
Basis of Mosaie Sacrificial Worship.
Sacrifice was not newly introduced by the Mosaic law.
Genesis not only speaks of sacrifice as observed by the patri
archs, but, in Gen. 4, carries back the presenting of offerings to
the earliest age of mankind. As has been shown above (see §
20, 21), the pre-Mosaic offerings had the signification of thank-
offerings and offerings of supplication, though a propitiatory
element is connected with the burnt-offering (first mentioned
Gen. 8 : 20), lying in the "sweet savour" (literally, odor of sat
isfaction), through which the sacrifice had an appeasing effect

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 105
(Gen. 8 : 21). Although offerings for atonement, in the strict
sense, are not mentioned in the Old Testament before the in
troduction of the Mosaic sacrificial law, still we may say that in
Gen. 8 : 21 we have a first elementary and symbolic expression
of the necessity of an atonement before God. It has been a long
disputed question, whether the origin of sacrifice is to be traced
back to a positive divine command, or to human invention and
caprice. Oehler holds that in this way of putting the question,
the alternative is not correctly formulated — because man offers
in virtue of his inalienable divine image, which makes it im
possible for him to abstain from seeking that communion with
God for which he was created, by such active self-devotion as
takes place in offerings.
Gen. 22 is important for the development of the Old Testa
ment idea of offering. In it is expressed 1) the divine sanction
of sacrifice in general as the proof of man's believing devotion
to God ; 2) the declaration that such devotion is to be proved
by readiness to part with even the dearest possession out of
obedience to God ; 3) human sacrifice is banished out of the
region of the religion of revelation ; 4) the acceptance of an
animal victim as the substitute of man is ordained.
The foundation of the whole system of Mosaic offerings is
formed by the covenant offering in Ex. 24, especially in virtue
of the meaning which here for the first time (apart from the in
stitution of the Passover) attaches to the blood of the sacrifice.
The covenant is to subsist on offerings, for the people are not
to approach their God with empty hands (Ex.23: 15; Deut.
16: 16, 17). In order, however, to make such an approach
possible to the sinful people, God institutes an ordinance of
atonement, which runs through all the acts of worship, and by
the use which is from this time forward made of the blood of
the sacrifice at the burnt and thank offerings, the idea is ex
pressed that man may never approach God without previous
atonement, — that this must be accomplished before he can ex
pect that his gift will be favorably received by God.

106 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
In describing the regulations concerning offerings, we
treat i) of the material of the offerings; 2), of the ritual of
sacrifice ; and 3) of the various kinds of offerings with refer
ence to their purpose.
1. The Material of the Offerings (% 122—125).
% 122. Bloody and Bloodless Offerings.
According to their material, offerings are partly bloody and
partly bloodless. Bloody offerings are exclusively animal- offer
ings. Human sacrifice was excluded from the legitimate wor
ship of God (Gen. 22: 11, 12; Ex. 13: 13; Deut. 12: 31).
Offerings of animals are most important, chiefly on account
of the significance attaching to the blood. For the most part
the food- offerings and the drink-offerings which went along
with them, were connected with animal-offerings.
§ 123. The Material of Animal Offerings.
In reference to the materials of animal offerings, it is laid
down as law:
1. That they must be taken from among the clean an
imals (Lev. 27: 9, 11). The law for distinguishing between
clean and unclean animals is given in Lev. 11 and Deut. 14.
On what ground does this distinction rest ? It seems that the
principle was laid down that all flesh- eating animals were
necessarily to be accounted unclean, because to partake of
blood is an abomination. So, too, the birds enumerated as
unclean are partly birds of prey, and partly such as feed on
worms and the like. To these are added all animals that had
anything repulsive and hideous. For the larger land animals
any other ground than that given in Lev. 1 1 : 4 — 6 could
hardly have existed.
2. Of clean animals, those were fit for offering which formed
the proper stock of domesticated animals, — cattle, sheep, and
goats. Of fowl, turtle-doves and young pigeons were offered.
The animals of sacrifice were to be without blemish, free from
bodily imperfections (Lev. 22: 21 — 24).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 107
§ 124. The Ingredients of the Vegetable Offerings. Salt in the Offerings.
The ingredients of the vegetable- offerings \ and particularly
of the Minhha, or food -offering, were according to Lev. 2, as
follows : 1) Ears roasted by fire (Lev. 2 : 14) ; 2) Flour (Lev.
2 : 1), — to both of these olive oil and frankincense were added
(Lev. 2 : 1, 15, 16) ; 3) Unleavened loaves or cakes, prepared
from fine flour, of three sorts (Lev. 2 : 4 — 8). Thus the food-
offering was made of that which served as the common nourish
ment of man, and at the same time was produced by human
toil. Two kinds of fermentation are forbidden, 1) with leaven ;
and 2) with honey (Lev. 2 : 11) ; probably because the process
of fermentation was looked on as akin to corruption.
Salt was essential to every meat-offering (Lev. 2 : 13). In
virtue of its power of seasoning and preventing putrefaction,
salt is the symbol of cleansing and purification as well as
durability. § 125. The Principle on which the Material of Offerings was fixed.
The principal views are as follows:
1. A first view holds that these rules were fixed with an
eye to the people's property (Bahr). But this view is far too
extensive to explain the material of offerings.
2. A second view holds that the determining principle is
that of nourishment. Offerings are frequentiy called the bread
of God (Lev. 21 : 6; 22: 25; etc.), not as of food offered for
God's nourishment, but only of a giving to God of the people's
nourishment. The people bring an offering to God of the food
which they have produced in the vocation ordained for them
of God ; and thus they sanctify their calling, and bring a testi
mony of the blessing which God has given on the labor of
their hands (Deut. 16 : 17).
3. This last conception favors that point of view which
Kurtz has asserted with good reason (which only must not, as
Kurtz formerly did, be taken as the actual principle of choice),
— the psychico-biotic relation in which the offerer stands to the

108 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
gift presented. The feature of self-denial essential to a real
offering is particularly prominent in these gifts, which are
taken from the best and most precious part of man's produce, —
for it is specially an act of self-denial to give the first-fruits of
the herd and of the field, to which the heart is wont to cling
particularly. What is the meaning to be attached to the oil and the in
cense which accompany the food -offering? No doubt the
offering of the incense is the symbol of prayer ascending to
God, and well-pleasing in His sight (Ps. 141 : 2), and the in
cense along with the Minhha is to serve to imprint more
definitely on the offering the character of a vehicle of prayer.
It is disputed, however, whether the oil, like the incense and
the salt, is simply a supplement to the Minhha (Kurtz), —
namely an unction indicating (because oil is a symbol of the
communication of the Spirit) that only such labor is well-pleas
ing to God as is consecrated by the Divine Spirit, and that
only those gifts should be brought to Him which are produced
by such toil, — or, whether the oil in the offering is co-ordinate
with the grain and the wine, and thus an independent con
stituent of the gift.
2. The Ritual of Sacrifice (§ 126—129).
§ 126. The Ritual of Animal Sacrifice. Presentation at the Altar;
Laying on of Hands; Slaughter.
The parts that make up the action of offering, and first of
animal sacrifice, are in general — 1) The presentation of the
animal to be sacrificed before the altar; 2) the laying on of
hands ; 3) Killing ; 4) Sprinkling of the blood ; 5) Burning on
the altar.
1. The consecration of the offerer, accomplished by avoid
ing all levitical defilement, and by washing, preceded the
sacrificial festival (1 Sam. 16 : 5). After this the offerer had in
person to bring the animal selected to the entrance of the
tabernacle (Lev. 1 : 3; 4: 4) where stood the altar of burnt
sacrifice (Ex. 40 : 6).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 109
2. Then the offerer (if there was more than one, one after
the other, Ex. 29 : 10) laid, or more correctly pressed firmly,
his hand on the head of the sacrificial animal (Lev. 1: 4; 3: 2;
4: 4, etc). The offerer, by the laying on of his hands, appoints
the animal to be for him a medium and vehicle of atonement,
thanks, or supplication, according to the designation of the
offering with which at the time he now wishes to appear be
fore God.
3. The slaughtering of the beast of sacrifice follows im
mediately on the laying on of hands, and, as the law presup
poses throughout, is executed at private offerings by the offerer
himself. At those sacrifices, however, which formed the
standing service at the offerings for the cleansing of lepers
(Lev. 14 : 13, 25), as well as the sacrifices offered for the whole
nation (2 Chron. 29: 22, 24), the slaughtering was the business
of the priests, who were probably assisted by the Levites (2
Chron. 29: 34).
The place of slaughtering was on the north side of the altar
(Lev. 1 : 11; etc.), probably because it was dark, and therefore
cheerless. The law makes no regulations for the manner of
slaughtering. § 127. The Use made of the Shed Blood.
4. The streaming blood of the slaughtered animal was im
mediately caught in a basin by a priest, and was stirred incess
antly to prevent it from clotting. The manipulation of the blood
which followed differed according to the various kinds of offer
ings, that is, according to the degree in which the element of
atonement was connected with the sacrifice. The lowest grade
(in the case of burnt-offerings, Lev. 1 : 5, trespass-offerings,
Lev. 7: 2, and thank-offerings, Lev. 3: 13) consisted in sprink
ling, or rather swinging, the blood around the altar. On the
contrary, at the sin-offerings higher grades of the manipulation
of the blood took place, consisting in bringing the blood to
specially sanctified places, according to the dignity of the sin-
offering. In t!ne first or lower grade of sin-offering, part of the

110 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
blood was put on the horns of the altar of burnt- offering (Lev.
4 : 30, 34) ; in the second, the blood was brought into the holy
place, and part of it was sprinkled or spurted (Lev. 4: 6, 17)
seven times toward the inner veil, and put on the horns of the
altar of incense. In both cases the remaining quantity of blood
was to be poured at the foot of the altar of burnt-offerings. In
the highest grade of sin-offering, the blood was brought into the
Holy of Holies, and the kapporeth (mercy-seat) was sprinkled
with it (Lev. 16 : 14 — 16).
The meaning of this use of the blood is given in Lev. 17:
11, where the prohibition to use blood is based on the follow
ing declaration: " For the life (soul) of the flesh is in the blood:
and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement
for your souls : for it is the blood that maketh atonement by
reason of (in virtue of) the life (soul)." The passage means,
that in the still fresh blood of the sacrifice which is put on the
altar, the soul of the animal is presented for the soul of man,
to atone for, more exactly to cover, the latter. The Hebrew
words (Kipper, Kopher, Kippurim) used to express the idea of
atonement, denote expiation as a covering; the guilt is to be
covered — withdrawn, so to speak, from the gaze of Him who
is to be reconciled by the atonement, so that the guilty one can
now approach Him without danger (Ex. 30: 12 ; Num. 16 : 46).
In the language of sacrifice, the priest, as the mediator between
God and the people, is in general designated as he who covers,
or expiates, or makes atonement (Lev. 10: 17; 15: 15, 30).
That by which a trespass is be covered can only be something
by which he against whom man has offended is satisfied. Thus
kopher passes over into the meaning of lutron, ransom, the
payment which buys a debtor free (Ex. 21 : 30; Num. 35 : 31).
Now in what sense is the soul of the animal presented in the
blood to serve in the sacrifice as a covering for the soul of man ?
Generally speaking, by man's placing the soul of the pure, in
nocent sacrifical animal between himself and God, because he
is unable to approach God immediately on account of his sin
fulness and impurity. For the congregation of Israel the ap-

ii

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Ill
proach to God is made possible by the fact that God gives to
it in the Mosaic ritual the means of covering sin which is well-
pleasing to Him, the Holy One. God has put the soul of the
clean and guiltless animal, which is presented to Him in the
blood of the offering, in the place of the impure and sinful soul
of the offerer, and this pure soul, coming between the offerer
and the Holy God, lets Him see at His altar a pure life, through
which the impure life of the offerer is covered ; and in the same
way this pure element serves to cover the pollutions clinging
to the sanctuary and to do away with them. This is the old
Testament type for the passage in Heb. 9: 14, "who through
the eternal Spirit offered himself without blemish unto God."
The blood of sacrifice has thus a quite specific meaning. It is
that which alone makes God's acceptance of all gifts possible,
since in it the self-sacrifice of the offerer is vicariously accom
plished. § 128. The Burning of the Offering.
5. When the manipulation of the blood was completed, the
burning of the offering followed. In the burnt- offering, all the
flesh and the fat pieceswere consumed after the parts had been
washed which required cleansing (Lev. 1 : 7 — 9) ; in the other
offerings, only the fat pieces. The burning of the offering com
pletes the surrender of it on the part of the offerer, and for him
the gift is destroyed, but only in such a way that at the same
time the acceptance of the gift on the part of God ensues — an
odor, which is well-pleasing to God, being produced as the
smoke and vapor of the burnt-offering, the real essence of the
offering, rises upward, so that he is thus made to enjoy the
offering, which is what is meant by the regularly-recurring
formula, " an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the
Lord" (Lev. 1: 9, 13, 17). But the fire which consumes the
offering is originally one coming from God, because God
thereby appropriates the offering (Lev. 9 : 24). It must never
go out on the altar, but must be continually nourished by the
burnt-offering and the fat of the peace-offering, in order to

112 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
preserve the indentity of the fire on the altar with the original
heavenly fire, and to represent at the same time the unbroken
course of the adoration of Jehovah carried on in sacrifice. This
heaven-born fire is the symbol of the divine holiness which re
veals itself in Israel. That God accepts every offered gift only
by means of the element which proceeds directly from Him, is
intended to teach that every sacrifice which man makes to God
is made perfect only by being taken up into the purifying,
sanctifying element of divine life (compare Mark 9 : 49). The
latter, indeed, becomes a consuming fire, for those who ap
proach the Holy One in a profane spirit (Lev. 10:2; Isa. 33 :
§ 129. Ritual of the Food-offering.
At those food -offerings which accompanied the burnt- offer
ings presented for the congregation, it is probable (there is no
certain command) that the whole quantity of flour, oil and in
cense was burnt on the altar. At free-will food-offerings the
offerer brought the material to the priest, who took a handful of
the flour and the oil, together with the whole of the incense, and
burned it on the altar (Lev. 2 ; 1 — 3). The food-offerings ac
companying peace offerings will be treated of along with these.
3. Of the various kinds of Offerings with reference to their Purpose
(% 130—143). % 130. Various Kinds of Offerings as thus distinguished.
" The law of offering distinguishes, with reference to their
design, four kinds of offerings, — burnt, peace, sin and trespass
offerings. ,
§ 131. a) The Burnt-offering.
The ordinary name of the burnt-offering (cola) means " that
which rises upward to God in the fire" (so Bahr, Keil, Delitzsch
and Dillmann). The animal sacrificed must in accordance
with the high rank of the offering, be a male without blemish,
taken from among the most perfect of the beasts of sacrifice
(cattle, sheep, or goats) (Lev. 1 : 1 — 13). After the skin had
been taken off (which was the perquisite of the priest, Lev. 7 :

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 113
8), and the offal removed, the animal was wholly burnt on the
altar, and the blood was sprinkled round it.
In this offering, the people and the individual expressed in
a general way their adoration of Jehovah and their devotion
to him. In virtue of the presention of blood connected with it,
and as a fire-offering of pleasant order, it is also propitiatory
(appeasing) in general ; it serves to make him who offers it ac
ceptable before fehovah, — indeed in virtue of this acceptableness,
it serves as a covering or atonement for the offerer (Lev. i :
4; 14: 20; 16: 24). This burnt- offering was the morning and
evening sacrifice presented daily in the name of the people (the
embodiment of morning and evening prayer), for which a year
ling lamb was always used. This is called the continual burnt-
offering. The time for presenting the offering was also the
hour of prayer (Dan. 9 ; 21 ; Acts 3 : 1), as, generally speak
ing, it is likely that an act of prayer was combined with the
burnt-offering (compare 2 Chron. 27 — 30).
The Sabbath, the New Moon, and the feasts were marked
by an increased burnt-offering (Num. 8: 9, 11, etc.).
b) The Peace-offering (% 132—136).
§ 132. Its Name, Notion, and Division.
The name of this sacrifice (shelamim) may be explained in
a two-fold manner.
1 , Some take it as derived from the Kal shalem, to be en
tire. This makes the name of the sacrifice declare that the
offerer is in a relation of_integrity, a relation of peace and friend
ship with God. ,
2. Others take it as derived from the Piel shillem, to com
pensate. But if this derivation is adopted, we are not to limit
'the shelamim (peace-offering) to the specific notion of the
thank-offering ; for peace-offerings are offered not only for some
benefit already obtained, but also for one still desired ; in short,
as a testimony that to God alone we are indebted for whatever
we receive or hope.
We are to distinguish three kinds of peace-offerings : 1) the

114 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the thank or praise offering (Lev. 7: 12 — 15); 2) the vow
(Lev. 7 : 16) ; 3) the free-will offering (Lev. 7 : 16).
The thank-offering was the highest among the peace-offer
ings, referring to a favor not already supplicated for, properly
a grateful acknowledgement for Divine favors as undeserved as
they were unexpected. The vow always refers to something
distinctly prayed for. The free-will offering -is every free gift for
which there was no other occasion than the will of the offerer,
whom his heart impelled to show his thankful sense of all the
blessings which the goodness of God had bestowed on him.
§ 133. The Ritual of the Peace-offering.
In the peace-offering the whole animal was not placed upon
the altar, but the fat alone was removed at the cutting up of the
animal and afterward burnt (Lev. 3 : 3 — 5, 9 — 11, 14 — 16). This
fat consisted, in the case of oxen and goats, of four, in that of
sheep, of five parts. The reason for burning these fatty por
tions on the altar was that they were regarded as the choice
parts of the animal. After the removal of the fat, the offerer of
a private peace-offering was to bring with his own hand not
only this, but also the wave-breast and the right shoulder
(therefore a fore-leg) to the priest as a heave- offering (Lev. 7 :
29—34). The waving consisted in the priest's laying the matter to be
waved upon the hands of the offerer, placing his hands under
those of the latter and moving them in a horizontal direction —
backward and forward, according to the Talmud, and also to
ward the right and left, that is towards the four quarters of the
heavens, according to some later Rabbis. This waving took
place almost exclusively in the case of such portions of sacri
fice as were allotted to the priests as a gift from Jehovah. The
swinging forward evidently denoted the presentation of the gift
to God, while the moving it backward again indicated that
God on His part returned the gift, and assigned it to the priest.
The heaving was a special ceremony, a moving upward and
downward of portions of the sacrifice with reference to the God

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 115
who rules in heaven and on earth. In some cases it was com
bined with the wave-offering, in others practised independently,
and generally speaking, heaving and burning appear in combi
nation. After the separation of the wave -breast, the rest of the flesh
was the portion of the offerers, to be used by them as a sacri
ficial feast in the sanctuary, in which all the members of their
families and other guests might participate. Levitical cleanness
was indispensable in all who ate of the sacrifices. In the case
of the thank-offering, the flesh was to be consumed on the same
day (Lev. 7 : 15) ; in that of other sacrifices, on the second
day at the farthest ; if any remained till the third day, it was to
be burned (Lev. 7 : 16 — 18).
The signification of this sacrificial feast was that God con
descended to be the guest of the offerer, receiving the breast as
His portion of honor, and then relinquishing it to His servant
the priest. Thus the repast was a pledge of the blessed fellow
ship into which He would enter with His people among whom
He dwelt. It was also to be a love-feast, at which, besides the
members of the family, the Levites (Deut. 12 : 18), and (as pre
scribed, Deut. 16 : n, in the case of the peace-offerings at Pen
tecost) the needy were to find refreshment.
%134. Of Vows.
The idea of the vow extends much farther than those vowed
sacrifices properly so called, discussed in § 132. Three sorts of
vows are mentioned : 1) vows of devotion (Neder) ; 2) vows of
destruction (Hherem) ; 3) vows of abstinence (' Esar or ' Issar).
The positive vow of devotion first appears in the Old Testa
ment in the case of Jacob (Gen. 28 : 20 — 22), as a promise to
erect a place of worship, and might extend to persons, even the
person of the vower, to animals and to lands (the vow of Han
nah, 1 Sam. 1 : 11). For the law of redeeming a vow, see Lev.
27: 1—25.
Anything which had fallen under the curse could only be
the subjects of the Hherem, This word signifies " a being cut

116 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
off," for to be subject to the Hherem is to have forfeited exist
ence. The Hherem might be carried into execution either in
consequence of a Divine command or of a special kind of vow.
Nothing devoted could be redeemed (Lev. 27 : 28, 29). Of
course this vow might not be arbitrarily vowed, but only that
which had incurred the judgment due to idolatry could be thus
placed under the ban (as may be inferred from Ex. 22 : 19 ;
Deut. 13 : 16). Hence the vow of extermination must be re
garded as a manifestation of zeal for Jehovah 's honor.
Among vows of abstinence, the most usual was that of fast
ing, which except on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16 : 29 ; 23 :
27), was quite voluntary, and therefore often appears as the ex
pression of penitence (compare 1 Sam. 7:6; Joel. 2:12; etc.),
or of mourning in general. It is characteristic of the moral
spirit of Mosaism, that it strictly forbids all unnatural austeri
ties, such as maiming and mutilating the limbs, branding, and
the like (Lev. 19: 28; Deut. 14: 1, 2; etc.).
A vow was never regarded as specially meritorious (Deut.
23 : 22). Of course, if a vow were once made, its performance
was strictly insisted on, with certain exceptions (Num. 30:
3 — 8 ; Deut. 23 : 21 — 23). Inconsiderate vows are expressly
reproved (Prov. 20 : 25 ; Eccl. 5 : 4 — 7).
§ 135. Nazaritism.
The most important vow was that of Nazaritism. The
name Nazar (to separate) denotes this vow as one of ab
stinence. The Nazarite, however, is one who separates himself
with a positive purpose of consecration to Jehovah. The law
of Nazaritism (Num. 6: 1 — 21) treats only of a temporary
and evidently a voluntary assumption of this vow, and not of a
perpetual Nazaritism like that of Samson, Samuel and John
the Baptist (the only Nazarites for life mentioned in the Scrip
tures). Strict obedience in three things was required : 1) Total
abstinence from wine or strong drink, even from all that pro
ceeds from the vine, down to the kernels and husks ; 2) He
was not allowed to cut his hair ; 3) All contact with the dead
was to be carefully avoided. For the rest, he was not com-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 117
manded to withdraw from intercourse with his fellow-men,
nor does the law of the Nazarite speak of an obligation to
celibacy ; for which reason the Roman Catholic view, which
sees in Nazaritism a type of monachism, is irrelevant. The
usual and at the same time shortest duration of this vow
amounted, according to later enactment, to thirty days.
From Num. 6: i — 21 we learn that Nazaritism contemp
lated a consecration of the whole being. The idea of the priestly
life, with its purity and remoteness from everything affected
by death or corruption, its self-dedication to God, which sets
aside even the nearest earthly ties, is the fundamental idea of
Nazaritism. The hair of the Nazarite was a symbol of strength
and vitality and denoted that his person was God's possession,
and his strength dedicated to His service, while its growth
formed a sacred ornament, like the diadem by which the high
priest was recognized as consecrated to God. Thus the com
mand to let the hair grow forms the positive side to the com
mand to avoid all contact with a dead body. In the case of
Samson, the hair was not merely the symbol but also the
vehicle of that abundance of strength by which he was fitted to
become the deliverer of his fellow-countrymen.
§ 136. Appendix: The Theoeratie Taxes.
The fundamental idea of the theocratic taxes was that the
people and all their possessions, especially the Holy Land,
belonged to the Lord. Four kinds of such theocratic taxes
may be mentioned:
r) The (male) first-born, both of man and beast belonged
to the Lord, of which the former were to be redeemed (Ex. 13:
11—13)- 2) The first-fruits of all the produce of agriculture (Ex.
23: 19; etc.).
3) As the first-fruits represent the blessings to be received,
the tenth was, properly speaking, the fee which the Israelite
had to render to Jehovah, as the Lord of the soil, for the pro
duce of the land. This tenth of the fruits, whether of field or

118 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
tree (Lev. 27: 30 — 33), was assigned to the Levites (Num. 18:
21 — 25), as a compensation for their deprivation of an inheri
tance among the tribe?. Of this tenth the Levites were to pay
a tenth to the priests (Num. 18: 26).
4) The tax imposed for the service of the sanctuary, which
according to Ex. 30: 12, 13, was half a shekel, was not a mere
property-tax, but rather for personal atonement, or more
strictly a covering. The money thus raised was, according to
Ex. 38: 25 — 27, applied to the building of the sanctuary. But
this tax can not be considered as an annual one. In Neh. 10:
32, 33 we first meet with a yearly contribution of a third of a
shekel for the service of the sanctuary, and that without ref
erence to the Mosaic enactment. In the times of Christ the
half shekel reappears as a general Jewish temple- tax (Matt.
17: 24).
e) The Atoning Sacrifices (% 137—143).
§ 137. The Difference between the Trespass-offering and the Sin-
offering with respect to the end in view.
The third and fourth kinds of sacrifice, the sin-offering and
the trespass-offering have the common end of abolishing all
interruption of the covenant relation caused by some tran-
gression. This trangression is mainly designated as one com
mitted in error, i. e. in ignorance, unintentional (see with
respect to sin-offering, Lev. 4: 2, 13, 22, 27; etc; trespass-
offering (Lev. 5: 15, 18). Still the expression [unwittingly or
through error) includes more than mere inadvertence, and
extends to errors of infirmity, of rashness, we might say, of
levity. If we examine the three passages on the trespass-offering
in which its import most clearly appears (Lev. 5: 14 — 19; 6;
1 — 7; Num. 5: 5 — 10), we find that the trespass-offering pre
supposes an act of defrauding, which, though chiefly an in
fraction of a neighbor's rights and in the matter of property,
is, also, according to the views of Mosaism, an infraction of
God's rights in respect to the law. Besides material reparation,

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 119
increased by a fifth of the value, the transgressor had also to
make satisfaction to God by means of the trespass-offering.
Satisfaction being thus rendered in the trespass-offering
for an act of defrauding it served indeed at the same time as
a covering or atonement for him who had committed the act
of defrauding (Lev. 5: 18), so that, covered by this satisfaction,
he might approch the holy God. But to effect directly an
atonement for a sinner's soul and therefore the absolution
from sin of the sinner's person, was the office not of the tres
pass but of the sin offering. Delitzsch expresses it in this
wise: The fundamental idea of the sin-offering is expiation,
that of the trespass-offering satisfaction, in the former, the
evangelical feature is prominent, in the latter, the disci
plinary. § 138. The Ritual of the Trespass-offering.
There is a decided difference in the ritual between the tres
pass and the sin-offering corresponding to their different inten
tions. Only the male sheep, generally the full grown ram, the
very animal not included among the sin-offering victims, was
used for the trespass-offering. Another distinction was, that the
victims in the case of the trespass-offering were always the same,
and no substitute could be admitted, as in the sin-offering, on
account of the poverty of the worshipper. This makes it
clear that the chief object of the trespass- offering was not an
expiation for the person as such, but a compensation for a
strictly defined injury.
The proceedings at the bringing of the trespass- offering
are laid down in Lev. 7: 1 — 7.
§ 139. The Ritual of the Sin-offering.
Peculiar to the sin-offering are :
1. The difference of the victims, according to the theocra
tic position of him for whom they where sacrificed. The victim
was a young bullock in sin-offerings of the highest grade (Lev.
16: 3; 4: 3; 4: 13; Ex. 29: 10, 14, 36); a kid of the goats
for the people on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16 : 5), and on

120 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the other yearly festivals, and at the New Moon (Num. 28 : 15,
22, 30 ; etc.) ; a goat or a female lamb for an ordinary Israelite
(Lev. 4 : 28, 32 ; etc.) ; turtledoves and young pigeons for the
very poor (Lev. 5 : 7 ; 14 : 22).
2. The blood was brought to more sacred places than was
the case in other sacrifices, and in the three following degrees.
a) In sin-offerings of goats, kids, or lambs, for individual Isra
elites (the high priest excepted), some of the blood was smeared
on the horns of the altar, and the rest poured out at its base
(Lev. 4 : 25, 30, 34). b) In the sin-offerings of bullocks offered
for the congregation or for the high priest (other than on the
Day of Atonement), the blood was sprinkled seven times to
ward the inner veil, the horns of the altar of incense were
smeared therewith and the rest was poured out at the base of
the altar of burnt- offering (Lev. 4 : 5 — 7, 16 — 18). c) At the
greatest of the sin-offerings, that on the Day of Atonement, the
the blood was taken into the Holy of Holies (see § 140).
3. The consumption in sin-offerings of the lower grade of
the flesh of the sacrifice, which had come into close contact with
God, and was therefore designated as most holy, by the priests
in the fore-court of the sanctuary (Lev. 6 : 26, 29).
The explanation of the ritual of the sin-offering must be
connected with what has already been said on the nature of sac
rificial atonement. To substitute for the impure soul of the sin
ner a pure soul, which, being offered to God, may cover the
offerer, is the meaning of a bloody offering, and consequently
the direct intention of the sin-offering (see § 127).
The significance of the several elements of the sin-offering
is as follows : 1) The laying on of the hand, with which was
probably connected the confession of sin, is meant to express
the intention of the offerer to sacrifice the life of the animal as
a covering for his impure soul. 2) The sacrifice itself follows
in the blood obtained by the slaughter, and then immediately
applied to the holy place where God is present. This bringing
of the blood to God advances in sin-offerings of the higher grade,
till it reaches its climax in the great annual Atonement, the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 121
blood of which attains the nearest approach, by being brought
into the Holy of Holies. 3) The offering of the blood is fol
lowed by the burning of the fatty portions, for God commands
that the fat also of the pure victim, whose blood He has ac
cepted as a covering for the soul of the sinner, should be
conveyed to him by means of fire, and this gives it the signifi
cance of a propitiatory offering, the acceptance of which serves
as a sanction to the preceding act of atonement. Only the fat,
however, and not the whole animal, was presented on the altar, to
give prominence to the idea that in this sacrifice the offering of
a gift holds a secondary position in the act of expiation. 4) The
eating of the flesh by the priests (in the case of sin-offerings of
the lower grade, as well as of peace-offerings) involves, like
the burning of the fat, an acceptance on the part of God, which
serves to declare and confirm the fact that the sacrifice has act
ually attained its end of making an atonement.
§ 140. The Ritual of the Day of Atonement.
The supreme act of expiation was that which took place on
the tenth day of the seventh month ( Tisri), the annual Day of
Atonement. To it refer the laws in Lev. 16, and in Num. 29:
7 — 11. On this day an atonement was effected, not merely for
the people and the priesthood, but in connection therewith for
the sanctuary also (Lev. 16: 16). This atonement related, more-
ever to all the sins of the people, — and therefore to those also
which had been already expiated by other acts, on the assump
tion that the atonement in the fore- court was insufficient.
With respect to the nature of the sins, the above passages
seem to set no limit to the atonement, and the expiation of the
Day of Atonement had reference to every kind of sin, and
availed for the congregation as a whole (Lev. 16 : 33).
The act of atonement to be effected is divided into two acts:
1) the atonement for the high priest and his house, and 2) for
the congregation. The atonement for the high priest must take
place first, because the mediator capable of effecting an atone
ment for the people of God must first be prepared.

122 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA,
The ritual of the day is given in Lev. 16. The High Priest
wore the white linen garments on the day he entered the Holy
of Holies, the seat of the divine Shekhina, for the same reason
that they are attributed to the highest spirits who stand before
the throne of God in heaven (Ezek. 10:2: Dan. 10 : 5 ; etc.),
to symbolize the highest degree of purity.
Of the two kids which were the sin-offering for the congre
gation it is said : And the high priest "shall cast lots upon the
two goats ; one lot for the Lord, and the other lot for Azazel "
(Lev. 16 : 8). With regard to this word Azazel, we are not to
regard it as a designation of the goat, but rather as the name
of the evil spirit whose abode is in the wilderness, and who is
thus designated as the one who is sent away. The word itself
may be taken as an abstract name in the sense of " dismissal."
We are scarcely justified, however, in regarding Azazel as
Hengstenberg does, as simply equivalent to Satan, because the
latter does not appear by name in the Pentateuch ; still the idea
of Azazal is at all events akin to the idea of Satan.
The ascending cloud of incense (Lev. 16: 13), symbolical
of prayer ascending to God, was to interpose as a protection
between the high priest and the presence, albeit concealed, of
God. By his entrance into the Holy of Holies with the blood of
the buliock (Lev. 16: 14), the High Priest made atonement for
himself, and was thus prepared for making it for the congrega
tion. The first and single sprinkling must be referred to the
personal purification of the High Priest and the priesthood
(so also Kurtz and Keil), the second and sevenfold to the puri
fication of the sanctuary, which had been polluted by the sinful
atmosphere of the priests.
The High Priest now returned to the court, slew the goat
destined for the Lord, brought its blood also into the Holy of
Holies, and performed the same sprinklings as before. This
concluded the acts of atonement made in the Holy of Holies.
Next followed the atonement made in the Holy place (Lev.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 123
16 : 16), no doubt corresponding with the process within the
Holy of Holies (compare Ex. 30 : 10).
Lastly followed the atonement for the altar of burnt-offer
ing (Lev. 16 : 18).
The atonement for the priesthood, the sanctuary, and the
congregation, according to its three divisions, being thus com
pleted, the other goat (Lev. 16 : 20 compared with verse 10)
on which the lot for Azazel fell, was brought before the altar of
burnt- offering, and presented alive before the Lord, "to make
atonement for (over) him" (Lev. 16: 10), which controverted
words are probably to be explained " to cover him '' (the goat),
viz. by the application of the blood of the slaughtered goat.
The proceedings at the purification of the recovered leper (Lev.
14: 6), and of the infected house (Lev. 14: 15), elucidate this
point. Here two birds were taken ; the one was killed and the
other, after being dipped in the blood of the first, was let loose
into the open field. So, in the case under consideration, by the
the application of the blood of the first goat to the second, it
was declared, that only in virtue of the atonement effected by
the blood of the first goat are the people in condition to send
away their sins as forgiven to Azazel. The act of sending away
the goat is described in Lev. 16: 21, 22. Thus were the sins
upon the goat to be, as it were, banished to a place removed
from all contact with the people.
For a description of whafr took place after the goat was sent
into the wilderness, see Lev. 16 : 23 — 28.
§ 141. Signification of the Ritual of the Day of Atonement.
The greatest prominence must be given in this ritual to that
element in the ritual by which an atonement for sin is effected,
and to that portion of the the sacrificial transaction which spe
cifically subserves this end.
Wherein lies the efficacy of the expiation made on the Day
of Atonement by means of the blood of the victim ? In the fact
that on this occasion the blood was brought as near to God as
possible, before His throne, and indeed within the veil, into
that central seat of His abode at other times unapproachable,

124 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
thus making satisfaction for the people in the very place where
the accusing law within the ark testified against them. The
people, knowing themselves to be accepted with favor through
the atoning blood, were assured of the continued dwelling of
God in their midst and therewith of the continuance of their
state of grace.
Although Oehler concedes that the idea of vicarious pun
ishment (poena vicaria) is not foreign to the ritual of the Old
Testament, he nevertheless denies that the animal sacrificed
vicariously suffers the penalty of death. On this much contro
verted point the writer entirely differs with Oehler. With
Kurtz, Hengstenberg, Kliefoth, Wangemann, Thomasius and
Philippi, we accept the juridical interpretation of the Old Tes
tament sacrifice in which the slaughtering is regarded as a vic
arious punishment endured by the sacrifical animal in the stead
of the person offering it. According to this view the imposition
of hands may be defined as the consecration to a vicarious,
penal death ; the slaughtering, as the completion of this penal
death, by which the blood of the animal was fitted to become
the medium of expiation ; and the sprinkling of the blood, the
completion of the expiation itself. Delitzsch.who does not fully
accept this so-called juridical view, so ably presented by Kurtz,
nevertheless says that it is "not only the most simple and intel
ligible, but also the idea which harmonizes best with the New
Testament antitype." ,
The meaning of the confession of sin made over the second
goat (Lev. 16 : 21) can only be that of a declaration, that past
sins being forgiven, are now done away with, — are dismissed
and relegated to the evil spirit, whose realm is situated beyond
all connection with the abode of the holy people. It is also an
error to see in the second goat an offering to Azazel. Mosa
ism acknowledges no evil power, independent of God, whose
favor must be in some way secured. The point is not to pro
pitiate, but to get rid of Azazel, — to declare to him that the
nation, now that it has obtained forgiveness of sin, has nothing
to do with him, the patron of evil.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 125
Without the Day of Atonement there would be an actual
gap in the theocratic ordinances. The law, which was contin
ually exposing the opposition in which the chosen people
stood to the holy God through their sinfulness, could not be
without an institution to show the way in which this opposition
might be reconciled by an atonement for the congregation, and
also relatively to secure such reconciliation ; while at the same
time, being weak through the flesh, it pointed beyond itself to
that perfect atonement whose result will be the restoration of a
truly sanctified people (Zech. 3 : 8 — 10 ; Heb. 9 : 6 — 8).
§ 142, The Levitieal Purifications.
The Israelite, as pertaining to the holy people, was to be
clean; and therefore when he had, though unavoidably, incurred
uncleanness, or come in contact with anything unclean, and so
become unclean, he was to restore his state of cleanness by a
special act. The chief means of purification was running water,
which is itself a symbol of life, and therefore called living wa
ter (Lev. 14: 5, 50; etc.). In uncleanness of the lower degree,
the washing of the unclean person or thing and separation till
sunset were sufficient (Lev. 11 : 24, 25 ; etc.). In uncleanness
of the higher degree, the separation lasted seven, or in some
cases fourteen days (Lev. 14). In cases of uncleanness incurred
through contact with a dead body, a certain water of sprinkling
was applied, which is itself designated as a sin-offering (Num.
19: 9, 17). The manner of its preparation is given in Num.
19. Red was the color symbolizing life and vital energy ; scar
let the color of splendor ; the animal is a female, the sex that
brings forth, properly representing life. Cedar as the most
durable of woods symbolizing incorruption ; while great puri
fying power was in ancient times always ascribed to hyssop
(Lev. 19 : 6). Thus the water of purification was an infusion,
strenghtened by elements which symbolized vital energy, incor
ruption, and purity.
§ 143. Acts of Purification for removing the Suspicion of Guilt.
Of an entirely different character were those acts of purifi-

126 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
cation which related to the denial of suspected crimes, viz.,
adultery and murder.
First was the jealousy- offering, and the drinking of the wa
ter of cursing, treated of in Num.5: 11 — 31. The water in
this case acquired, through the word and power of God, a
supernatural power, which, though not to be conceived of as
magical, really produced, through its influence on the mind,
pernicious effects upon the body of the guilty, but was harm
less to the innocent.
Secondly, we have the purification of a community from the
suspicion of blood-guiltiness when a slain man was found in the
neighborhood, and the murderer could not be discovered
(Deut. 21 : 1 — 9). The blood shed was to be removed from
the midst of the people, and this was effected by the symboli
cal infliction of capital punishment upon the heifer, — a case of
vicarious punishment, — and thus satisfaction was made to '
Divine justice.
III. The Sacred Seasons (§144 — 156).
/. The Sacred Seasons in General (% 144 — 146).
§ 144. The Survey of the sacred Seasons.
The sanctification of the course of time in general was ef
fected by the morning and evening sacrifice (see § 131). Be
sides this, however, certain sacred seasons were appointed : 1)
The seventh day of the week, or Sabbath ; 2) The new moons,
of which the seventh was invested with a festal character, and
bore the name of the Day of Trumpets ; 3) The three festival
pilgrimages, when the whole congregation assembled at the
sanctuary, viz. : a) The Passover, with which the annual cycle
of festivals commenced in spring, celebrated on the evening of
the 14th of the month Abib or Nisan, the first month of the
Mosaic year (Ex. 12 : 2) ; b) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost),
seven weeks later ; c) The Feast of the Tabernacles, from the
15th day of the seventh month (Tisri) onward ; 4) The seventh
month Tisri, besides being distinguished by the festal charac
ter of its new moon, included also the Day of Atonement ; 5)
Every seventh year was also sacred as the Sabbatical year,

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 127
and every seventh sabbatical year as the Year of Jubilee. The
laws concerning sacred seasons in general are contained in Ex.
23 : 10 — 17 ; Lev. 23 and 25, Num. 28 and 29, and Deut. 16.
§ 145. Reasons which determine the Times of the Feasts.
The number seven, which from Gen. 2 : 2, 3 onward is the
sign of Divine perfection, forms the fundamental type for the
regulation of the sacred seasons. It directly determines the
order of the sabbatical seasons, and also exerts an influence upon
the order of feasts. But what made these feasts, feasts, and
the Sabbaths holy days, was not human choice, guided by the
order of nature, but the enactments of the covenant God, who
on the one hand preserved by these festivals a lively remem
brance of the great facts of His deliverance and guidance of
His people (Ex. 13: 9; Lev. 23: 42, 43; etc.), and on the other
admonished the people to follow their earthly vocation to an
agricultural life, in constant dependance on the Giver of all the
blessings of nature, and to regard these blessings as inalienably
connected with the ordinances of the covenant.
§ 146. The Celebration of the Holy Days.
On the celebration of the holy days, the following general
remarks may be made :
1. Besides the sacrifices prescribed for every day, certain
special public sacrifices, differing in character according to the
several festivals also took place. The laws respecting these are
found in Num. 28 and 29.
2. On the seven annual feast days (see § 145), rest from
labor was commanded as well as on the weekly Sabbath.
3. The positive element in the celebration of the weekly
Sabbaths and the sabbatical feast-days, is contained in the reg
ularly recurring formula " holy convocation " of Lev. 23 and
Num. 28. This expression signifies that the people were to
come to the sanctuary to worship (Ezek. 46 : 3, 9). A univer
sal command, however, to appear in the sanctuary only took
place with regard to the three festal pilgrimages, and then was
given only to the male population (Ex. 23 : 14, 17 ; Deut. 16 :
16).

128 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
4. They who came to the feasts were not to appear before
the Lord empty (Deut. 16 : 16, 17).
2. The Sabbatical Seasons (§ 147—152).
a) The Weekly Sabbath (147—149).
§ 147. Antiquity and Origin of the Sabbath.
The Sabbath is, according to the Pentateuch, of purely Mo
saic origin. In Gen. 2: 3, indeed, the hallowing of the seventh
day, but not the promulgation among men of a command to
observe it, is connected with creation. In patriarchal times, too,
we meet with no trace of the Sabbath. The first injunction
concerning the sabbath appears in Ex. 16: 5, 22 — 30, on the
occasion of the gathering of the manna, and in a form which
seems to indicate that the Sabbath was not then known to the
people. The expression used in Ex. 20: 8, "Remember," is
not intended to recall the Sabbath to mind as an ancient insti
tution, but requires the people to be from that time onward
mindful of the Sabbath-day (in Deut. 5 : 12 the word observe
occurs). Neh. 9: 14 also testifies to the Mosaic origin of the
Sabbath. It is true that the notion of sacredness of the number
seven was very widely diffused in antiquity; but this may be
sufficiently explained by its frequent and significant occurrence
in natural events ; especially in the planetary system of the an
cients, and the course of the moon. Still even the week and
seven days was by no means universally diffused. The Mosaic
Sabbath is, moreover, peculiar in its independence of the
changes of the moon, and in its significance, as an institution
consecrated to Jehovah, and resting upon the covenant relation
of Israel to Jehovah.
§ 148. The Idea of the Sabbath.
In conformity with what has already been advanced, the
meaning of the Sabbath is to be known from the Old Testa
ment alone. The chief passages relating to it are Gen. 2:3;
Ex. 20: 8 — 11; 31: 12 — 17. We learn: 1) That man, like
God, is to work and to rest ; this human life is to be a copy of
Divine life ; 2) As Divine labor terminates in happy rest, so,
too, human labor is not to run on in resultless circles, but to

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 129
terminate in a happy harmony of existence. The idea of the
Sabbath, however, extends further. The whole course of human
history is not to run on in dreary endlessness, but its events
are to have a positive termination, — are to find a completion in
harmonious and God-given order. The Divine rest of the se
venth day of creation, which has no evening, hovers over the
world's progress, that it may at last absorb it into itself. It is
upon the very fact that the rest of God is also to be a rest for
man, and that God has declared this by the institution of the
Sabbath, that the Apostle in Heb. 4 founds a proof for the pro
position, "there remaineth therefore a sabbath rest for the peo
ple of God" (Heb. 4 : 9).
The full purport, however, of the idea of the Sabbath is not
attained until the dominion of sin and death, which has entered
into the development of mankind, is taken into account.
§ 149. The Celebration of the Sabbath.
The Sabbath is, therefore, a Divine institution, or, to speak
more correctly, a gift of Divine grace, for the sanctification of
the people (Ezek. 20 : 12). In the Old Testament, the Sabbath,
so far from presenting any painful aspect of renunciation, is re
garded as a delight (Isa. 58 : 13), a day of joy (compare the
song for the Sabbath, Ps. 92).
It is in this sense we must regard the enactments with re
spect to the celebration of the Sabbath. The first point is the
resting from labor, to which belongs not merely the intermis
sion of servile work, but also the prohibition to kindle fires in
their dwellings for the preparation of food (Ex. 16: 23; 35 :
3). Capital punishment (Ex. 31 : 14; 35 : 2) by stoning (Num.
J5 : 35) was attached to the transgression of the enactments, as
it was to that of all the fundamental laws of the theocracy. The
positive celebration of the Sabbath arose from its appointment
for worship. As it was possible for only a small portion of the
people to visit the central sanctuary, meetings for hearing and
meditating on the Divine Word may have taken place in very
early times, but the first trace of such assemblies is found in 2
Kings 4 : 23.

130 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
§ 150. b) The New Moon Sabbath.
On the approach of the new moon, the Sanhedrim assem
bled at Jerusalem to receive from him who had seen the first
appearance of the moon's sickle, the information which was then
transmitted by signals throughout the country. The ordinary
new moons were only subordinate festivals, but the seventh new
moon, that of the month Tisri in the autumn, on the contrary,
was a Sabbatical day. Its proper name, the day of trumpet-
sounding, seems to indicate that the use of trumpets in public
worship took place with special solemnity on this day. Accord
ing to Num. 10 : 9, 10 this sounding of the trumpet reminded
the people that God was thinking of them.
e) The Sabbatical Year and the Year of Jubilee (§ 151, 152).
% 151. Legal Enactments.
Four laws are given relating to the Sabbatical year :
1. The general command in Ex. 23: 10, 11. Care for the
poor is the point of view under which the Sabbatical year is
here chiefly regarded.
2. The more detailed law in Lev. 25 : 1 — 7, which more
precisely designates this ordinance as a rest of the land unto
Jehovah. The point of view here taken is that the produce of
the sabbatic year is to be the common property for man and
beast. 3. An essentially new enactment is contained in the third
law (Deut. 15 : 1 — 11). The question here, again, is the special
import of the sabbatical year to the poor. For in the seventh
year every creditor was to release the loan he had lent to his
neighbor. 4. The fourth law respecting the sabbath year (Deut. 31 :
10 — 13) enjoins that at the Feast of Tabernacles in the year of
release, the law shall be read in the public assembly of the peo
ple in the sanctuary. In this a significant hint is given as to
how the seventh year just entered upon ought to be hallowed.
Seven such sabbatic years terminated with the year of Ju
bilee. The passage Lev. 25 : 8 — 10, is most naturally under-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 131
stood as declaring that the year of Jubilee is to follow the
seventh sabbatical year.
With regard to the celebration of the year of Jubilee, we no
tice first the feature it had in common with the sabbatical year,
as a cessation from agricultural labor (Lev. 25 : 11, 12). The
feature peculiar to the year of Jubilee was the "proclaiming of
liberty throughout the land" (Lev. 25 : 10). In this year of
liberty there took place, as it were, a new birth of the state, at
which all such civil impediments as were opposed to the theo
cratic principles were abolished. One of these was the bondage
of Israelitish citizens (Lev. 25 : 39 — 42). At this time also the
restoration of hereditary estates took place (Lev. 25: 23 — 28).
§ 152. Import and Praetibility of the Institutions of the Sabbatical Year
and the Year of Jubilee.
Much has been said at different times, of the agricultural
and political advantages of this institution. But of all this
the law says not a word ; it simply refers to the Divine bless
ing with which obedience was to be rewarded (Lev. 25 : 21,
22). It is upon the thought that man, acknowledging in act
God's higher right of property (Lev. 25 : 23), should withhold
his hand from cultivating the land, and place it wholly at the
Lord's disposal for His blessing, that the whole ordinance is
founded. Israel was thus taught that the earth, though made for
man, was yet not made merely that he might possess himself
of its increase, but that it might be holy to the Lord, and also
partake of His blessed rest. The Sabbath year, therefore, typi
cally points to the time when creation shall be delivered from
the bondage of corruption (Rom. 8: 21).
The year of Jubilee, by which the sabbatic cycle was com
pleted, has, moreover, its own specific import in the idea of re
lease, and of the reinstatement of the theocracy in its original
and divinely appointed order, in which all were, as the servants
of God, to be free, and each was to be assured of his earthly
maintenance, by being restored to the enjoyment of the inher
itance allotted to his family for this purpose.
In the prophecy, Isa. 61 : 1 — 3, the year of Jubilee is as the

132 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
year of restoration regarded as typical of the times of the Mes
siah, in which the discords of the world's history are to be re
solved into the harmony of the Divine life. And hence Christ
designates himself as the fulfiller of this prophecy (Luke 4: 21) ;
while Heb. 4: 9, by calling the perfected Kingdom of God the
Sabbath of the people of God, also refers to the type of the
year of Jubilee.
Although there were great difficulties in observing the Sab
batical year, still the system was by no means impracticable, if
the people were willing to sacrifice all selfish considerations to
the Divine will. The omission of the ordinances, was, however,
already contemplated in Lev. 26 : 35, while how far they were
really carried into practice in post Mosaic times does not ap
pear. It is evident from 2 Chron. 36 : 21, where it is said that
the land lay desolate during the captivity seventy years to make
up for its sabbath years, that the celebration of the sabbatical
year had been omitted during the last centuries before the cap
tivity. After the captivity, the people, under the influence of
Nehemiah, bound themselves to the observance of the sabbati
cal years (Neh. 10: 31 ), which, being frequently mentioned by
Josephus, must have been henceforth the general practice.
3. The Three Pilgrimage Feasts (%153—156).
a) The Passover (%153, 154).
% 153. Enactments concerning the Passover.
The enactments relating to the Passover are found in Ex.
12: 1—28, 43—49: 13: 3—10; 23: 15; Lev. 23: 5— 8; Num.
28: 16 — 25; Deut. 16; 1—8. In Ex. 12: 1 — 20 we have the
entire law of the passover, as delivered to Moses and Aaron
before the fact with which this feast was to be connected had
taken place, — a circumstance, the consideration of which will
obviate many apparet difficulties.
During the whole of the festival nothing leavened might be
eaten (Deut. 16: 3), and on the 14th of Abibor Nisan all leaven
and leavened bread were cleared out of the house. In general
the preparations for the repast took place on the 14th, and the
repast itself, which formed the commencement of the feast of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 133
unleavened bread, on the 15th. The whole animal was eaten
that same night, not a bone of it being broken, with unleavened
loaves and bitter herbs. In remembrance of what occurred at
the institution of the Passover, the head of the household re
lated the history of the deliverance of Israel during that night.
The Hallel was chanted during the repast by the assembled
family (Ps. 113 and 114 after the second cup and before eating
the lamb, and Ps. 115 — 118 before the fourth cup).
§ 154. Significance of the Feast of the Passover.
The significance of the Feast of the Passover was, generally
speaking, an historical one ; it was celebrated in remembrance
of the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. In a certain aspect
the feast was also the consecration of the beginning of harvest
(Lev. 23 : 11, 15). When we inquire into the special import of
this feast, we must, first of all, decide whether the Passover
transaction proper is to be regarded in the light of a sacrifice.
We would answer the question in the affirmative, because the
Passover is expressly exhibited in a sacrificial point of view in
Ex. 12: 27 ("it is the sacrifice of the Lord's passover"), in
Num. 9: 7, 13 ("to offer the oblation of the Lord in its ap
pointed season"). So too it is said in 1 Cor. 5 : 7, "For our
passover also hath been sacrificed, even Christ."
The next question is, under what class of sacrifices is the
Passover to be comprised ?
Hengstenberg maintains that it belongs to the class of sin-
offerings. "The Passover is a sin-offering in the fullest and
most especial sense." Oehler maintains that the fact that it is a
repast places the Passover in the class of peace-offerings ; and
since there can be no peace-offering without an atonement,
which is effected by the sprinkling of the blood, the Passover
presupposes an act of expiation effected by the application of
the blood of the paschal lamb. The application of the blood to
the door-posts of the house, which formed the place of sacrifice
at the first passover, had the same significance as the atone
ment and purification of the sanctuary with the blood of the
Day of Atonement (Lev. 16 : 16). Oehler, however, denies

134 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
that the paschal lamb suffered death vicariously, and in this
view we altogether differ with him, for in the New Testament
the passover lamb is a type of Christ (i Cor. 5 : 7), whose sac
rificial death secures deliverance from the wrath of God for
His Church.
§ 155. b) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost).
The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) owes its name to the fact
that it was to be celebrated seven weeks after Passover. It was
also known as the feast of harvest, or of first fruits. In the
Pentateuch it has the significance of a harvest thanksgiving.
An historical meaning was first given to this feast by the later
Jews, who made it refer to the giving of the law upon Mount
Sinai, which is said by the Jewish tradition to have taken place
on the fiftieth day after the departure from Egypt, while Ex. 19:
1 states quite generally that it was in the third month.
The central point of the religious celebration of this festival
of one day's duration, was the offering of the two loaves of first-
fruits for the whole people. As the wave sheaf at the Pass
over was a sign that harvest had begun, so were these wave
loaves, a sign that the harvest was completed. With the offer
ing of these loaves were combined large burnt, sin, and peace
offerings (Lev. 23 : 17, 18). The feast was enlivened by festal
repasts, which were furnished by the free will offerings (Deut.
16: 10, 11).
§ 156. c) The Feast of Tabernaeles.
The Feast of Tabernacles was kept on the seventh month
(Tisri), from the fifteenth day onward and lasted seven days.
To these was added an eighth, the Atsereth (probably conclu
sion), which undoubtedly had a reference to the close of the
whole annual cycle of feasts. The historic import of the Feast
of Tabernacles was to remind the people, by a seven days'
dwelling in booths made of boughs, of the wandering of their
fathers in the wilderness (Lev. 23 : 42, 43). It was the great
est feast of rejoicing of th° year, and provided with more num
erous sacrifices than the others (Num. 29: 12 — 34). Very

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 135
splendid ceremonies were subsequently added to it, especially
the daily libation of water, probably with reference to Isa. 12 :
3, and the illumination of the court on the first day of the
feast, — customs to which perhaps the words of Christ, John 7 :
37 ; 8 : 12, may refer.
Thus the festal half of the Israelitish ecclesiastical year
coincided with the season in which the annual bounties of na
ture were gathered ; while during the wintry half of the year,
on the contray, the course of the Sabbaths and the new moons
was, according to the Mosaic ritual, uninterrupted by festivals.
PART II. PROPHETISM (§157 — 234).
First Section. The Development of the Theocracy from the
Death of Joshua to the Close of the Old Testament Revelation
(§ I57—I93)- I. The Times of the Judges (§157 — 163).
/. The Disintegration of the Theocracy till the Times of Samuel (§ 157 —
159). § 157. Course of Events. Import of the Office of Judge.
The history of the period of the Judges exhibits a constant
alternation between the apostacy of the people and their conse
quent chastisement by the Divine power, on the one hand, and
the return of the people to their God and the Divine deliver
ances therewith connected, on the other.
In times of oppression, when the children of Israel cried
unto the Lord (Judg. 3: 9, 15; 4: 3; etc.), individual men —
the Judges — arose, who aroused by the Spirit of Jehovah, turned
back the hearts of the people to their God, revived in them the
remembrance of God's dealing with them in past times, and
then broke the hostile yoke under which they were suffering.
The office of Judge was neither permanent nor hereditary, but
purely personal. Called to a prominent position by the neces
sities of the times, they acted with energy in the affairs of the
individual tribes at the head of which they were placed, but
exercised no abiding influence upon the nation, which, on the
contrary, relapsed into its former course, when its burdens were
lightened or the Judge was dead (Judg. 2 : 16 — 19).

136 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
§ 158. Religious Condition : Decline of the Theoeratie Institutions.
Are we justified, in speaking of a decline of the theocratic
institutions, and does the Book of Judges really presuppose a
legislation and a history such as the Pentateuch and the Book
of Joshua attest ? (Great stress has always been laid upon this
point by the opponents of the Mosaic authorship of the Penta
teuch.) So far as religious institutions in particular are con
cerned, it must be observed that it is foreign to the entire
purpose of the Book of Judges to enter into the subject, and
consequently the inference that institutions not mentioned
therein would not have existed, is utterly unjustified. This
applies equally to the Book of Joshua, which confessedly pre
supposes the Pentateuch. There are, however, quite sufficient
data in the Book of Judges to show that although during this
period and down to Samuel the injunctions and ordinances
of the law were for the most part neglected, the theocratic in
stitutions, as they are said to have existed under Moses and
Joshua, are nevertheless in all essential matters presupposed.
The main question is : Does the Book of Judges know of a
central sanctuary as the only authorized place of sacrifice ? We
answer: The national sanctuary, the tabernacle, was during the
times of the Judges permanently located at Shiloh ( Josh. 18 : i ;
19 : 51 ; Judg. 18 : 31 ; 1 Sam. 1 ; etc.). It was there that the
annual festivals were solemnized (Judg. 21 : 19; 1 Sam. 1 : 3),
and the regular sacrificial worship was offered (1 Sam. 2: 12,
13). A second legimate tabernacle in some other locality is not
once spoken of.
The fact that the Books of Judges and Samuel take but lit
tle notice of the individual sacrificial laws in the Pentateuch, is
easily accounted for by the nature of their contents.
It has also been claimed that the Book of Judges knows
nothing of the calling of the tribe of Levi, as appointed in the
Pentateuch. On the contrary, we regard it as a prominent and
remarkable fact, that the Levites appear in the Book of Judges
in exactly that position which Deuteronomy assumes, when it
always classes them with the strangers on account of their pov-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 137
erty. Nor is it difficult to show why there were as yet no or
ganized Levitical services. The services appointed to the
Levites in the Pentateuch ceased with the wanderings of the
tabernacle, and nothing was enacted in the law with respect to
their further employment ; while the period of the disintegra
tion of the theocracy was one utterly unadapted for the pro
duction of new ordinances of worship.
§ 159. Religious Syncretism of this Period.
The commixture with other religions was manifested in a
two fold manner during the age of the Judges, i) By a blend
ing of the worship of Jehovah with heathenism, on the part of
those Israelites who had fallen into Canaanitish idolatry. 2) By
the fact that even among those who adhered to the worship of
Jehovah, the religious consciousness was more or less obscured
by heathen ideas. Hence the image-worship of Micah and the
Danites. Here likewise the narrative concerning Jephthah belongs
(Judges n : 28 — 40). The opinion which prevailed in Jewish
antiquity and among the Fathers of the Church, and which
was also embraced by Luther, and many moderns, is that
Jephthah really slew his daughter, and offered her as a burnt
offering upon the altar. The view that Jephthah only conse
crated his daughter to the service of the sanctuary in a state
of life-long virginity, was first urged by certain mediaeval
Rabbins (Kimchi, Ralbag, etc.), and has since been maintained
by Hengstenberg, Cassel, Gerlach, Keil, and others, who refer
to Ex. 38: 8 and 1 Sam. 2: 22, where women are mentioned as
serving in the sanctuary. According to this view, the fulfill
ment of the vow would lie in the words in Judg. 1 1 : 39, which
must not be taken as pluperfect ("and she had not known
man"), but as an account of what now took place ("and she
knew no man"). Oehler grants that there are some things
in the narrative favorable to this view, but nevertheless rightly
maintains that this interpretation is at variance with the plain
meaning of the words, "who did with her according to his vow
which he had vowed", which in their reference to Judg. 11 : 31

138 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
cannot relate to a merely spiritual sacrifice. It cannot, how
ever, be inferred from the narrative that human sacrifices were
at this time legal in the worship of Jehovah, the matter being
evidently represented as a horrible exception.
2. Restoration of the Theocratic Unity by Samuel. Growth of Prophe
tism. Foundation of the Monarchy (% 160 — 163).
% 160. The Philistine Oppression. Changes effected by Samuel.
The appearance of Samuel, and the growth of Prophetism
by his means, form the turning-point of the period of the Jud
ges. The new state of affairs had been prepared for, partly
by Philistine oppression, which was both a longer and a
heavier judgment than any with which the people had yet been
visited, and partly by the judgeship of Eli.
The person of Samuel, moved as he was by the prophetic
spirit, became the centre of the nation's life. The sanctuary
at Shiloh being rejected, and the agency of the highpriesthood
suspended, the mediatorship between God and His people
rested with the prophet, who, though not of the priestly race,
but by descent a Levite of the region of Ephraim, now per
formed sacrificial services in the presence of the people (i
Sam. 7: 9, 10). As the central sanctuary was no longer exist
ing, we now find various places of sacrifice, as the high places
at Ramah (1 Sam. 9: 13), Bethel and Gilgal (1 Sam. 10: 3;
11: 15; 15: 21).
The day of penitence and prayer for which Samuel
assembled the people at Mizpah, in the tribe of Benjamin, after
he had put down idolatry, became, by the help of Jehovah,
who acknowledged the prayer of his prophet, a day of victory
over their enemies, and the beginning of their deliverance (1
Sam. 7: 5 — 17). Samuel was henceforth judge of the whole
nation ; and the prophetic office began from this time to
develop its agency, on which account the history of Prophe
tism, properly speaking, dates from Samuel (Acts. 3: 24).
§ 161. Nature, Importance, and first Beginnings of the Prophetic Offiee.
In the discussion of the institution and duties of the
prophetic office our point of departure must be the funda-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 139
mental passage, Deut. 18: 9—22. The character of the
prophetic, differed entirely from that of the priestly office.
It was not, like the latter, confined to one tribe and one
family, nor, generally speaking to an external institution,
though a certain succession subsequently took place.
The prophet was to prove his divine mission, not so
much by signs and wonders, for the performance of which
even a false prophet might receive power, as by his confes
sion of the God who redeemed Israel and gave them the law
(Deut. 13: 1 — 5). Again, what the prophet spoke was to
come to pass ; that is, the prophetic word was to be corrobo
rated by its historical fulfilment.
The prophetic office was designed 1) to prevent a mere
lifeless transmission of legal injunctions, and 2) to cast a light
on the future of the people, and to disclose to them the Divine
counsels, whether for their warning or comfort.
The prophet is the man of the Spirit. By the spirit of
Jehovah is the Divine word put into the mouth of the prophet,
hence also his name Nabhi. The classical passage as to the
meaning of the word Nabhi is Ex. 4 : 14 — 16 taken in connec
tion with Ex. 7 : 1. The Nahbi is the interpreter, the one who
speaks for another ; who utters the words that another has put
into his mouth. The gift of prophecy is that which institutes
a direct personal intercourse between God and man; and pro
phecy thus becomes, through God's self-witness to the prophet,
the type of the teaching of His people by God Himself under
the new covenant (Jer. 31 : 34; John 6 : 45). The operation of
the Divine Spirit, however, upon the prophet, was not merely
intellectual, but one which renewed the whole man. The pro
phet became another man(i Sam. 10: 6), and received another
heart (1 Sam. 10 : 9).
The first beginnings of prophecy reach back to the times
before Samuel. For Moses was himself a prophet (Deut. 34 :
19), and his sister Miriam is also called a prophetess (Ex. 15 :
20; Num. 12 : 2). But in the earlier times of the Judges, the
gift of prophecy appeared but occasionally (Deborah, Judg. 4:

140 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
4, 6, 14 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 27). There must also, as may be inferred
from 1 Sam. 9 : 9, have been from time to time seers, with whom
counsel was taken in private affairs, but of whom a more ex
tensive sphere of operation cannot be assumed.
It cannot be proved from Amos 2 : 11 that the schools of the
prophets existed before Samuel.
§ 162. The so-called Sehools of the Prophets. The Prophetic Office of
Watchman. There is scarcely any subject of Old Testament history and
theology which could formerly boast of having excited so large
a share of interest and investigation as the so-called schools of
the prophets, which made their appearance at only two periods
of Israelitish history, viz., in the days of Samuel, and in the
kingdom of the ten tribes in the times of Elijah and Elisha.
By this assembly of prophets around Samuel, we understand
an association of prophets drawn together by the leading of the
Spirit, and among whom the prophetic gift was cherished by
sacred exercises performed in common. Music was designed,
on the one hand, to prepare the mind for the apprehension of
the Divine voice (compare 2 Kings 3: 15) ; on the other, to be
a vehicle for the utterance of the prophetic inspiration. (There
is so close a connection between sacred song and prophecy,
that the former is itself called prophesying (1 Chron. 25 : 2, 3) ;
and the chief singers appointed by David (1 Chron. 25: 1,5;
2 Chron. 29 : 30) are called prophets and seers.
This prophetic office, after Samuel had founded the king
dom, and delivered up to the king the authority he had exer
cised as judge, may be defined as that of watchmen to the
theocracy. This office of watchman was to be exercised both
toward the nation in general and toward the holders of theo
cratic offices in particular, especially the king. It was also
their office to write the theocratic history.
§ 163. The Foundation of the Israelitish Kingdom. Consecration of the
King. The request of the people for a king, in the sense in which it
was made to Samuel, was a denial of the sovereignty of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 141
Jehovah, a renunciation of their own glory as the theocratic
people, and a misconception of the power and faithfulness of
the covenant God, inasmuch as a faulty constitution, and not
their own departure from God and His law, was regarded as
the cause of their misfortunes ; while their hope of a better
future was therefore founded upon the institution of an earthly
government, and not upon the return of the people to their
God. The consecration to the kingship was effected, according
to ancient and recognized usage, by anointing, a rite performed
by Samuel on Saul (i Sam. 10 : i), and subsequently on David
(i Sam. 16 : 3), and repeated in the case of the latter after his
actual entrance upon the government (2 Sam. 2 : 4 ; 5 : 3), by
the elders of the people.
Anointing was a symbol of endowment with the Divine
Spirit (1 Sam. 10: 1, 9; 16: 13), the gift which is the condi
tion of a wise, just, and powerful government, — all ability to
rule righteously being but an outflow of Divine wisdom (Prov.
8: 15, 16).
II. Periodofthe Undivided Kingdom (§ 164 — 170).
§ 164. 1. Saul.
The history of Israel during the time of the undivided king
dom is separated by the reigns of its three Kings into three sec
tions essentially differing in character.
The reign of Saul at once displays the Kingdom in conflict
with the theocratic principle maintained by the prophets. The
narrative in the First Book of Samuel, how Saul after being
forsaken by God, advanced step by step to his tragical end, and
the Books of Samuel in general, are the most complete portion
of Old Testament history ; while the vivid and graphic de
scriptions, and the sharpness and delicacy with which the chief
characters are portrayed, are excellent even in an artistic point
of view.

142 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. David (§ 165, 166).
§ 165. History of his Reign, his Theoeratie Position and personal Relig
ious development.
David had reigned seven and a half years in Hebron before
he received the submission of all Israel in a form in which the
theocratic principle was expressly recognized (2 Sam. 5 : 2, 3).
Thus began the powerful reign of David, whose Kingship be
comes the type of the Kingdom of God which overcomes the
world. Hence all the attributes of the latter are ascribed to
him : he is destined to subdue the heathen (Ps. 18 : 43 — 47) ;
his dominion is to extend to the end of the earth (Ps. 2:8;
72: 8; etc.), and is of continual and eternal duration (2 Sam.
7 : 16 ; 23 : 5 ; etc.) The Kingship, as administered by David,
appears neither as a necessary evil nor an improved constitu
tion, but as a new ethical power. The King becomes also the
representative of the people, and the idea of Divine Sonship,
which in the first place appertains to the people, is transferred
to him. Kingship in the person of David exhibits also a cer
tain measure of the priestly character; for David appeared for
the people before the Lord with sacrifices and intercessions, and
brought back to them the Lord's blessing (2 Sam. 6 : 18).
(This, was done, however, without encroaching upon the spec
ial duties of the priesthood). It is a peculiarity of David,
like Moses and Samuel, that to a certain degree he unites in
himself three theocratic dignities; for the gift of prophecy also
was bestowed on him, the Spirit of God spoke by him, and the
words of God were on his tongue (2 Sam. 23: 2).
In the history of revelation, the eternal covenant of God with
David and his seed (Ps. 89: 20 — 37) now enters as a new ele
ment (2 Sam. 23 : 5); the full manifestation of the kingdom of
God being henceforth combined with the realization of the
"sure mercies of David" (Isa. 55 : 3) ; and thus upon the founda
tion of the theocratic notion of kingship arose the prophecy of
its antitypical perfection in Messiah.
It is not, however, solely in virtue of his theocratic position,
but also by reason of his personal religious development, that

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 143
David is an important character in the history of the Old Testa
ment. To a greater degree than any other Old Testament
character, he experienced the restlessness and desolation of a
soul burdened with the consciousness of guilt, the longing after
reconciliation with God, the struggle after purity and renova
tion of heart, the joy of forgiven sin, the heroic, all-conquering
power of confidence in God, the ardent love of a gracious heart
for God ; and has given in his Psalms imperishable testimony
as to what is the fruit of the law and what the fruit of faith in
man. It is impossible to rate too highly the treasure that Israel
possessed in the Psalms, that copy book of the saints, as Luther
called them ; nor can it be doubted that it was chieflyby means
of the Psalms that the Word of God dwelt in the homes of Is
rael, and that the knowledge of the sacred history was kept up
among the people.
§ 166. The Form of Worship under David.
David manifested an active zeal for public worship, which
manifested itself, in the first place, with respect to the organi
zation of the priesthood. David regularly organized the
priestly service, by dividing the priests into twenty-four classes,
of which sixteen belonged to the line of Eleazar and eight to
that of Ithamar (i Chron. 24: 3 — 5) Each class had a presi
dent at its head, and had to officiate for a week, from Sabbath
to Sabbath (2 Chron. 23 : 4). The order of the classes was de
termined by lot (1 Chron. 24: 7 — 19).
David also organized the service of the Levites. Opportun
ity was afforded by the introduction of music into the public
worship (2 Chron. 29 : 25). By this service of song, by which
words as well as acts were made prominent in public worship,
the spirituality of the temple service was increased. Towards the
close of his life, David, with a view to the needs of the future
temple, arranged a more complete organization of Levitical
services, dividing the 38,000 Levites who were at that time
thirty years old and upwards into four classes (1 Chron. 23:
3 — 5), three of whom had charge of the service of the sanctuary

144 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA,
viz., i) the servants of the priests (24,000) ; 2) singers and
musicians (4,000) ; 3) door keepers (4,000) ; and to the fourth
class (6,000), called officers and judges, was delivered the care
of external affairs (1 Chron. 26 : 29). It is self evident that the
arrangements instituted by David could not be fully carried out
till the completion of the temple by Solomon, as is indeed ex
pressly stated in (2 Chron. 8: 14, 15).
3. Solomon (§ 167—170).
§ 187. The Building of the Temple.
Among Solomon's works, the temple offers special matter
for consideration with respect to biblical theology. The de
scription of the temple (1 Kings 6 and 7) is evidently derived
from a document compiled by a eye-witness. The proportions
of the tabernacle were in all essential respects followed in the
temple building, which was constructed of hewn stone. It was
divided into two parts, of which the foremost was forty cubits
long ; the hindmost, the holy of holies, twenty cubits long and
as many high and broad, thus forming a cube. Before the
east side of the temple was a porch, the whole breadth of the
temple, twenty cubits long and ten wide. The temple was sur
rounded on its three remaining sides by a secondary erection of
three tiers of side chambers, designed for stores and treasures.
The temple was next surrounded by two courts, raised one
above the other like terraces (2 Kings 21 : 5), of which the in
ner one was called the upper court, from its elevated portion
(Jer. 36: 10). The second court, the place of worship for the
people, was probably separated from the first by a railing, thus
allowing the congregation to witness what was transacted in the
court of the priests. Thus the separation of the people from the
holy place was more strictly effected in the temple than in the
tabernacle. The furniture and vessels of the temple corres
ponded on the whole with those of the tabernacle, except that
they were of increased dimensions, and that some were found
in the former which were absent from the latter. In the court
of the priests, as in the court of the tabernacle, stood the altar
of burnt offering ; in the place of the laver of purification was

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 145
the so-called brazen sea ; on each side of the court were five
brazen lavers, for the purification of all that pertained to the
altar of burnt offering. In the Holy place, the foremost part of
the temple, as in the tabernacle, were the altar of incense, the
table of shew-bread (according to 2 Chron. 4 : 8, ten tables) ;
while instead of the one candlestick of the tabernacle there were
ten golden candlesticks, five on each side, before the Holy of
Holies. In the Holy of Holies there were besides the ark, two
cherubim ten cubits high, whose four wings, each four cubits
long, spread out horizontally, touched each other in the midst
over the ark, and reached on the right and left to the two walls
of the Holy of Holies.
¦ § 168. Significance and Dedication of the Temple.
The symbolical significance of the temple is entirely identi
cal with that of the tabernacle. The meaning of the two colos
sal columns of brass, called Jachin and Boaz (1 Kings 7 : 15 —
22 ), evidently is that God has here established His temple on
a firm foundation, and that it is therefore to be no longer a
traveling sanctuary like the tabernacle (2 Sam. 7: 5 — 7). It
is just because Jehovah no longer dwells in a moving tent, but
in a settled house that the cherubim stand in the temple upon
the floor of the Holy of Holies, and make the whole place the
constant abode of the Divine presence. The reason for increas
ing the one candlestick and table of shew-bread of the taber
nacle to the ten candlesticks and ten tables of Solomon's temple,
is found in the greater extent of the latter, the number ten be
ing also itself a completed unity.
After the temple was completed, Solomon had the ark
brought into it, and the tabernacle taken down and deposited,
together with its sacred utensils, in the temple, probably in the
side chambers (1 Kings 8 : 4), thus putting an end to the two
fold worship. The king then himself dedicated the temple by
prayer and sacrifice in the seventh month, Tisri (1 Kings 8).
A sanctuary of permanent countenance seemed now to be
erected ; and Solomon expressed in his prayer the hope that

146 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
this house might be a house of prayer for all nations (i Kings
8: 41—43)- Concerning the temple worship, we further learn from 1
Kings 9 : 25 that Solomon offered sacrifices three times a year,
which refers probably to the pilgrimage feasts.
§ 169. Hebrew Proverbial Poetry. The Hhakhamim.
As the sacred lyric poetry of Israel is connected with the
names of David, so Solomon, whose peaceful times invited the
Israelitish mind to self- introspection, was the father of the
Hebrew proverbial poetry (1 Kings 4: 29 — 34), and thus the
founder of the Old Testament Hhokhma (Wisdom). From
his time onward there appeared a special class of men under
the name of Hhakhamim, "the wise', (Prov. 1: 6; 22: 17;
24 : 23 ; etc.), who applied themselves to the consideration of
the moral relations of life and the manner in which the world
is ordered. The province of the Old Testament Wisdom was
different from that of the Law and of Prophecy — it did not extend
to theocratic enactments and directions. A circle of sages,
among whom the king was distinguished for the fertility and
many-sidedness of his genius, and for his acuteness in solving
enigmatical questions (1 Kings 10: 1), was probably formed at
Solomon's court. An association of Hhakhamim, employing
themselves in the collection of literature, must, according to
Prov. 25 : 1, have also existed under Hezekiah (727 — 696 b. c.).
§ 170. Solomon's External Organizations. The Dark Sides of his Reign.
Division of the Kingdom.
Solomon employed the long interval of peace in still further
carrying out the organization of the state, in rearing various
edifices and fortifications, especially in Jerusalem itself (1 Kings
9 : 15 — 19), and in the promotion of industry and commerce
(1 Kings 8: 26 — 28; 10: 11, 22). This magnificent reign,
however had its dark side. The king's love of splendor be
came more and more oppressive to the people, and he sank
deeper into effeminacy and luxury, till he at last allowed him
self to be seduced by his heathen wives into an open breach
with theocratic institutions, by erecting for their sakes (1 Kings

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 147
ii : 4, 5) sanctuaries for strange gods in the immediate neigh
borhood of Jerusalem.
The prophetic order, however, which had, it seems, long re
mained in the background, now arose against the king, to
avenge the insulted majesty of the law. After a warning had
been given to Solomon (i Kings n : n — 13), feroboam, ahigh
official of Solomon, received an intimation from the prophet
Ahijah that ten tribes of Israel were to be severed from the
house of David and to be united in a separate kingdom under
his sceptre (1 Kings 11 : 29 — 40).
After the death of Solomon, ten tribes renounced their al
legiance to Rehoboam, and made Jeroboam their king. In
vain did Rehoboam raise a considerable force from that part
of the nation which remained faithful to him ; a word from the
prophet Shemaiah sufficed to disband his whole army (1 Kings
12: 22 — 24: 2 Chron. n: 2 — 4).
The disruption of Israel was from this time irremediable.
The separated kingdoms took hostile positions with respect to
each other, and at last consumed their strength in sanguinary
wars. The external glory of the kingdom was at an end ; but
prophecy never ceased to direct the expectation of the nation
to the future reunion of the twelve tribes under one head of
the house of David.
III. The Kingdom of the Ten Tribes (§ 171 — 177).
§ 171. Preliminary Remarks.
The history of the Ten Tribes, or of the kingdom of Israel,
comes chiefly under the consideration of biblical theology, as
exhibiting, the serious nature of Divine retribution. The his
tory is full of conspiracies, regicides, and civil wars ; it is a con
tinuous testimony to the fact that when once the divinely
appointed path is forsaken, sin is ever producing fresh sin, and
that the punishment of one crime is inflicted by another.
Nine dynasties, including nineteen kings, succeeded each
other in the 250 years during which the kingdom existed (975
— 721 b, c), and only two of these dynasties, those of Omri
and Jehu, possessed the throne for any length of time.

148 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
1. From Jeroboam I. to the overthrow af the Dynasty of Omri (975 — 884
B. C.) (§ 172—174).
§ 172. Jeroboam I. to Omri.
The first measure taken by Jeroboam was to make the politi
cal separation of the tribes a religious schism. He erected two
separate sanctuaries, one in the south, at Bethel, and the other
in the north at Dan, where image worship had already existed
in the time of the Judges (Judg. 18). One main obstacle to
the image-worship (i Kings 12 : 28) was formed by the Levites
dwelling among the ten tribes. Jeroboam therefore drove from
his realm the Levites and priests (2 Chron. 11 : 13, 14), and in
their place appointed other priests, "whosoever would, he con
secrated him"(i Kings 13: 33). The moral disorder to which
this priesthood of the northern kingdom fell a prey is shown
in Hos. 4: 6 — 14; 6: 9. It is, however, evident from several
allusions in the prophets Amos and Hosea, that many Mosaic
forms of worship were practiced in the sanctuaries of the north
ern kingdom. For though the date of these prophets is more
than a century later, it is certain that such forms of Jehovistic
worship as existed in their days in the kingdom of the ten
tribes could not have been introduced subsequently to Jero
boam, but must have been handed down from ancient times in
this kingdom. We see that the celebration of the Sabbaths,
New Moons, and festivals still continued (Hos. 2 : 13; 9: 5;
Amos 5 : 21; 8: 5, 10); that the different kinds of Mosaic sac
rifices were in use (Amos 4 : 5 ; 5 : 22) ; that the priests par
took of the sin-offerings (Hos. 4 : 8 — 10) ; while Amos 4 : 4
contains allusion to the tithes of the third year. All this is of
the greatest importance with respect to the criticism of the
Mosaic legislation. None of these institutions would have been
imported from the kingdom of Judah, unless the consecration
of a high antiquity had rested upon them.
Four kings reigned during the twenty-five years intervening
between the death of Jeroboam (955 B. c) and the ascension of
Omri (930 B. a), but they all walked in the ways of Jeroboam.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 149
§ 173. The Dynasty of Omri (930—884 B. C).
Under Omri, the royal residence was transferred from Tir-
zah to the city of Samaria, of which he was the builder (i
Kings 16: 24), and which now became the capital of the king
dom. During Omri's reign the worship of Jehovah, though in
an idolatrous form, had still been the national religion, but the
marriage of Omri's son, Ahab (919 — 898 b. c) with the
Phoenician princess Jezebel, had a disastrous effect upon the
religious condition of the country. At the instigation of the
queen the worship of Baal and Ashera was set up, and a tem
ple built for Baal in Samaria itself (1 Kings 16: 32, 33).
Against the prophets of Jehovah a sanguinary persecution arose
(1 Kings 18 : 4, 15), and they were put to death whenever the
queen could lay hands on them.
At this period the conflict with triumphant heathenism was
waged by the individual in whom was reflected the full glory
of the Old Testament prophetship, by Elijah the Tishbite, the
prophet of fire, whose word burnt like a torch, and whose very
name "Jehovah is my God," testified against the apostate and
irresolute race (1 Kings 17: 1 — 2 Kings 2: 11).
Elisha was appointed by the Divine command to succeed
Elijah (2 Kings 2 : 15 — 13: 21).
The many miracles which appear in the history of Elijah
and his successor Elisha are peculiar, no miracles being ordin
arily attributed to the prophets of the Old Testament. Here,
as well as at the Exodus from Egypt, it appears that the agency
of miracles was chiefly employed when the point at issue was
to prove the existence of the living God, as against the wor
shipers of the false gods.
§ 174. Schools of the Prophets, and Characteristics of the Prophetism of
the Period. Fall of Jehoram. The Reehabites.
It is probable that the schools of the prophets were revived
by Elijah, for the purpose of providing a kind of religious ful
crum for the people who were cut off from the lawful sanctuary
and worship at Jerusalem, and of raising up men who would
labor for the quickening of their spiritual life. Not less than

150 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
three of these institutions are found within a tolerably limited
area, and at the very headquarters of idolatry, viz., at Bethel ' (2
Kings 2 : 3 1, at Jericho (2 Kings 2:5), and at Gilgal (2 Kings
4 : 38). About one hundred sons of the prophets sat before
Elisha at Gilgal, and their number at Jericho could hardly have
been less. The name, sons of the prophets, which is not used of
the association of prophets under Samuel, but first appears 1
Kings 20 : 35, points to an educational relation. From these
communities the prophets seem to have traversed the country,
for the purpose of exercising their ministry among the people.
Ordinarily there seems to have been no special ceremony
for consecrating prophets to their office. The succession to the
office was not connected with any legal ceremony, nor depend
ent on human appointment, but is said to have rested solely on
the direct call and consecration of God (Amos 7 : 15 ; Isa. 6:
8, 9 ; etc.).
These schools of the prophets served the people of the
northern kingdom as a substitute for the legitimate sanctuary .
With regard to their maintenance, the prophets seem in gen
eral to have been dependent upon voluntary contributions (1
Kings 14 : 3).
It was from a school of the prophets that the overthrow of
the dynasty of Omri proceeded. Jehu was anointed king over
Israel by one of the sons of the prophets, and Elisha charged
him with the execution of the curse pronounced by Elijah on
the house of Ahab (1 Kings 21 : 21 — 29). Jezreel was immedi
ately surprised by Jehu, and Jehoram, his mother Jezebel, and
the whole house of Ahab was slain (2 Kings 9).
In this work assistance was afforded to Jehu by jehonadab
the son of Rechab (2 Kings 10: 15, 23), who is also known,
from Jer. 35 : 6, as the founder of the Rechabites, a kind of
nomadic ascetics, belonging, according to 1 Chron. 2: 55, to
the Kenites. According to the statement of Jeremiah (35 : 6 —
n), the Rechabites were bound to sow no seed, to plant no
vineyards, and to drink no wine. The now current notion that
the Rechabites were connected with Nazaritism may be cor-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 151
rect, but there is no authority for regarding them as Nazarites
properly speaking.
2. From Jehu 10 the Overthrow of the Kingdom of the Ten Tribes (884—
721 B. C.) (t 175—177).
§ 175. The Dynasty of Jehu.
Jehu's dynasty maintained itself on the throne for more than
a century, a longer period than that of any other. But Jehu's
reformation stopped half way. He indeed extirpated the wor
ship of Baal, but the illegal worship at Dan and Bethel, and
also the Ashera at Samaria, were left unmolested (2 Kings 13:
6). The state of the kingdom under Jehu (884—856 b. a), and
still more under his son and successor Jehoahaz (856 —
841 B. c), was in a political aspect a very unfortunate one.
But when the kingdom was reduced to the last extremity, the
dying Elisha promised to the dejected Joash (841 — 824 B. a),
the son and successor of Jehoahaz, victory over the Syrians (2
Kings 13 : 14 — 19), and the prophet Jonah, the son of Amittai
subsequently predicted the restoration of the ancient boundar
ies of the kingdom (2 Kings 14: 25). Joash was successful in
his wars against Damascus and Judah : but the glory of the
kingdom was still further enhanced under his valiant son Jero
boam II. (824 — 784 B. c). External success, however, effected
no internal change, and the state was hastening toward those
judgments which the prophets Amos and Hosea were raised
up to proclaim.
§ 176. From Zachariah to the Carrying away of the Ten Tribes (772 —
721 B. C).
After the death of Jeroboam, dreadful disorders broke o.ut
in Samaria (Hos. 4). An interregnum in Samaria of at least
twelve years must be admitted. Zachariah (772 B. a), the
son of Jeroboam fell a victim to a conspiracy six months after
his accession, and thus was fulfilled the doom prophesied
against his house. Shallum (771 b. c), the murderer of
Zachariah, was himself slain, after a reign of one month, by
Menahem (771 — 760 b. c), 2 Kings 15: 13, 14. The horrors
of these days are depicted by Hosea (7 : 1 — 16).

152 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
A decided turn was now given to affairs; for Menahem
smoothed the way for Pul, king of Assyria, to enter the coun
try, and thus laid the foundation of Israel's dependence on
Assyria. Menahem purchased Pul's assistance, in confirming
him in the kingdom, by heavy sacrifices (2 Kings 15 : 19, 20).
This was the first stage of the threatened Judgment.
In Samaria was henceforth developed that unhappy policy,
which, while on the one hand courting the Assyrians, was on
the other secretly combining with Egypt for the purpose of
throwing off, by her assistance, the Assyrian yoke. In oppo
sition to this, the prophets made it their business to inculcate
a higher policy, by a consistent assertion of the theocratic
principle, which was simply this, that Israel should never
court the protection of a worldly power, but seek assistance
from God alone (Hos. 5 : 13, 14; 7: 8 — 16; etc.). Such ex
hortations, however, found no audience ; and the prophets
were despised and persecuted as fools (Hos. 9: 7).
The coming ruin was hastened by Pekah, who, after slay
ing Pekahiah, the son of Menahem, ascended the throne in
758 B. C. Towards the close of his reign, the Assyrian mon
arch Tiglath-pileser took the provinces east of the Jordan and
Galilee, and carried away the tribes inhabiting these regions
into the interior of Asia, about 740 B. c. (2 Kings 15 : 29).
This was the second stage of the Judgment. Hoshea, who
obtained the throne by conspiring against and slaying Pekah,
became tributary to the Assyrian king Shalmanezer, but
sought, by concluding an alliance with So, king of Egypt,
to release himself from this dependence. Shalmanezer imme
diately marched into the land of Israel, and Samaria was
taken after a three years' siege, not by Shalmanezer, but,
as is now settled by the cuneiform inscriptions, by his suc
cessor, Sargon. The people were led into captivity 721 b. c,
and thus was the Judgment accomplished (2 Kings 17 : 7 — 23).
The dwelling-places assigned to the exiles were situated in
Media and the upper provinces of Assyria (2 Kings 17 : 6).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 153
§ 777. Origin of the Samaritans.
In place of the Israelites who were carried into exile, colo
nies from central Asia were planted in the depopulated country
by Sargon (2 Kings 17 : 24). Esar-hadden, the son of Sen
nacherib, also sent colonies into the still sparsely peopled land
(Ezra 4 : 2). These, to avert the judgments which befell them,
mingled the worship of Jehovah, as the God of the land, with
the heathen religions they had brought with them from their
respective homes (2 Kings 17 : 25 — 41). Thus arose the so-
called Samaritans or Cuthites, as they were named by the
Jews, from Cuthah, the native country of a portion of them.
Two views are held with respect to these Samaritans. 1) Some
hold that they were not a purely heathen people, but a mixed
race arising from the intermarriage of the new colonists with
the remnant of the ten tribes which was left in the land. 2)
The other and older view is, that the Samaritans proceeded
from wholly heathen races, a view, in modern times, re-advo
cated especially by Hengstenberg. The Old Testament passa
ges (2 Kings 17: 24 — 41; Ezra 4: 2, 9, 10) favor the second
view. Nevertheless, even under Josiah (639 — 608 B. c),
remnants of Manasseh, Ephraim, and of the rest of Israel, are
assumed as still dwelling in the northern regions (2 Chron.
34: 9), and the men from Shechem, Shiloh, and Samaria,
named in Jer. 41 : 5 as mourning for the destruction of Jeru
salem, were undoubtedly Israelites. Besides, the total deport
ation of the entire population of so important a district is
hardly to be supposed possible. This much, however, is cer
tain, that the Israelitish element among the Samaritans, must
by no means be computed as so considerable as is generally
the case.
IV. The Kingdom of Judah (§ 178—187).
§ 178. Preliminary Remarks and Survey.
The history of the kingdom of Judah has a character es
sentially different from that of the kingdom of Israel. Though
much smaller, it was still superior to the kingdom of Israel in

1B4 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
internal strength. This resulted partly from its possession of
the genuine sanctuary with its legitimate worship, its influen
tial priesthood, and Levitical orders ; and partly from its royal
house, which, had not been raised to the throne by revolution,
but possessed the sanction of legitimacy and a settled succes
sion, and was especially consecrated by the memory of its
illustrious ancestor David, and the Divine promises vouch
safed to his race. Moreover, among the nineteen monarchs
(of course not counting Athaliah) who occupied the throne
from Rehoboam till the fall of the state, there were at least
some individuals distinguished for high administrative talents,
in whom the ideal of the theocratic kingship was revived, such
as Jehosaphat (915 — 893 b- a), Hezekiah (727 — 696 B. c),
Josiah (639 — 608 B. a). Since the preservation of the theo
cratic ordinances did not devolve in Judah exclusively upon
the prophets, their position was different from that which they
occupied in the kingdom of the ten tribes. There is no sort
of evidence that schools of the prophets, or associations such as
existed in the kingdom of the ten tribes, were organized in
Judah. In the historical notices of the kingdom of Judah we
meet only with individual prophets, a succession of whom con
tinues, with but inconsiderable gaps, down to the captivity, and
it was only around eminent prophets like Isaiah (760 — 690 b.
c.) (Isa. 8 : 16), and afterwards Jeremiah (628 — 583 B. c), that
small circles of disciples were gathered.
1. From Rehoboam to Ahaz {976—741 B. C.) (§ 179, 180).
% 179. Rehoboam to Jehosaphat.
The history of Judah under Rehoboam (976 — 959 B. c.) and
Abijah (959 — 956 b. c.) offers little that is worthy of notice.
External misfortunes were added to the internal declension oc
casioned by the spread of idolatry. Then followed the first re
formation under Asa (956 — 915 b. a). Jehosaphat (915 — 893
B. a), the son of Asa, one of the best rulers of the house of
David, was still more zealous for the establishment of the the
ocratic ordinances. To promote religious knowlege among the
the people, a commission, consisting of five high officials, two

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 155
priests, and nine Levites, was sent about the country with the
book of the law to instruct the people (2 Chron. 17: 7 — 9).
Under Jehosaphat not only did the priesthood attain great in
fluence, but the powerful prophets Jehu (2 Chron. 19:2) and
Eliezer (2 Chron. 20: 37) also exercised their office during his
reign. Externally the reign of Jehosaphat was prosperous.
§ 180. Jehoram to Jotham.
Jehoram (893—885 b. c), the son of Jehosaphat, one of the
worst kings of Judah, was married to Athaliah, a daughter of
Ahab and Jezebel. Their son, Ahaziah, after scarcely one
year's reign, was slain along with the whole house of Ahab, on
the occasion of a visit which he was paying to his royal relatives
in Israel (2 Chron. 22 : 6 — 9). Athaliah, the daughter of Jeze
bel, who was worthy of her mother, now ruled absolutely at
Jerusalem (884 — 878 b. a). In an insurrection Athaliah was
slain, and Joash (878 — 838 b, a), a young son of Ahaziah, who
was saved from the fury of his grandmother Athaliah by being
concealed in the temple during six years was raised to the
throne. In the beginning of his reign the worship of Jehovah
flourished, and it is to this period that the book of the prophet
Joel must be assigned. In the latter part of the reign of Joash,
however, idolatry, through the influence of the nobles, again
got the upper hand, and after a very unsuccessful war against
the Syrians, Joash fell a victim to a conspiracy. A similar fate
was experienced by his son Amaziah (838 — 809 B. a), and
Uzziah (809 — 757 b. c) ascended the throne at a time of great
disorder. The kingdom of Judah during his reign and that of
his son Jotham (757 — 741 B. c.) attained a degree of power
such as it had not possessed since the disruption. Still, not
withstanding the general adherence of Uzziah and Jotham to
the theocratic ordinances (2 Kings 15: 3, 34), the moral and
religious condition of the people was not satisfactory. The
characteristics of the times are described in Isa. 2 : 5 — 8 ; 5 :
18—23.

156 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. From Ahaz to Josiah (741—693 B. C.) (§ 181, 182).
§ 181. Ahaz and Hezekiah.
During the reign of the weak and idolatrous Ahaz (741 —
727 B. c.) Judah experienced a series of misfortunes. When
the heart of Ahaz and the heart of his people were moved as
the trees of the wood are moved by the wind (Isa. 7: 2), the
help of the God of Israel was offered him in vain by Isaiah.
During his reign the worship of idols was openly practised in
Jerusalem itself (2 Kings 16: 3, 4; 2 Chron. 28: 2—4).
Better things were to be expected of the pious and power
ful Hezekiah (727.-696 b. a), under whom Isaiah zealously
labored, and who also humbly received the testimony given at
Jerusalem by the prophet Micah (Jer. 26: 18, 19). But moral
corruption was found everywhere, and instead of patiently sub
mitting to the Assyrian yoke as a just punishment, as Isaiah
called upon them to do (Isa. 10: 24 — 27; 30: 15 — 18) the
nobles in Jerusalem were continually plotting to revolt from
Assyria and urged the king to ally himself with Egypt. This
revolt took place soon after the accession of Sennacherib, who,
on his march toward Egypt invaded and devastated Judah.
Sennacherib at first appears to have been pacified by an enor
mous tribute (2 Kings 18: 13 — 16), but afterwards broke his
engagement and marched against Jerusalem. Hezekiah in
deed used every means possible for the defence of the city (2
Chron. 32: 3 — 6; Isa. 22: 9 — 11), but so desperate was the
state of affairs, that Hezekiah knew of no other refuge than
that of prayer. The deliverance took place, by the destruction
of the Assyrian army, on the very night before Sennacherib ad
vanced to attack the city (Isa. 36: 1—37: 37; 2 Kings 18:
13 — 19: 36). This event probably occurred in the neighbor
hood of Jerusalem, and may be supposed to have been effected
by a pestilence.
§ 182. Manasseh and Amon.
Judah was fast ripening for judgement under the two kings
Manasseh (696 — 641 B. a), and Amon (641 — 639 b. a), who
systematically set to work to overthrow the worship of

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 157
Jehovah, and to re-establish the undisputed supremacy of idol
atry. While no trace of resistance to the abomination of
Manasseh is to be discovered on the part of the priesthood,
there were at least prophets who raised their voices against
them (2 Kings 21: 10), and were among the innocent blood
with which Manasseh filled Jerusalem (2 Kings 21: 16; 24: 4).
According to tradition, Isaiah was also among the victims of
Manasseh. 3. From Josiah to the Overthrow of the State (639—586 B. C.) (§ 183—
187). % 183. Josiah.
This period opens with the last struggle of the theocratic
principle against the idolatry and immorality of the people, and
with the last temporary elevation of the kingdom under fosiah
(639 — 608 B. a). In the eighteenth year of his reign (at the
age of twenty-six), Hilkiah the high priest found the book of
the law, which during the sixty years' public supremacy of
heathenism had fallen into oblivion. The king, struck with fear
when he heard the curses threatened for apostasy, took the
most strenuous measure for the complete extirpation of idola
try, but this reformation effected only an external prevalence
of the forms of the legitimate worship, and was unable to pro
duce in the degenerate nation a real purification of faith and
morals. Upon Jeremiah especially, whose call was nearly con
temporary with the appearance of Zephaniah and the com
mencement of Josiah's reforms, devolved at this period the
advocacy of the cause of God.
§ 184. Profane History at this Period. Death of Josiah. Jehoahaz.
Judah was involved in the great battles which arose in con
nection with the fall of Nineveh. Necho, king of Egypt, ap
peared with an army in Palestine, on his way to Assyria (2
Chron. 35 : 21), and Josiah attempted to obstruct his march.
A battle was fought between them at Megiddo, on the plain of
Jezreel, in which the Jewish army was defeated, and Josiah,
mortally wounded, died soon after at Jerusalem (2 Kings 23 :
29; 2 Chron. 35: 20 — 25). Jehoahaz was, after a reign of three

158 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
months, summoned to the Egyptian camp at Riblah, on the
northern boundary of Palestine, and there imprisoned, while
Eliakim was set up in his stead as an Egyptian vassal king, by
the name of fehoiakim, Jehoahaz was afterwards removed to
Egypt, where he died (2 Chron. 36 : 1 — 4; 2 Kings 23 : 31 — 35;
Jer. 22: 10 — 12).
§ 185. Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin.
In Jehoiakim (608 — 597 b. c.) Judah received a king who
surpassed the worst of his ancestors in badness. Idolatry was
again openly practised, and all the reforms of Josiah were ob
literated. A grievous period of affliction and persecution now
set in for Jeremiah. Disgrace and persecution were heaped
upon the prophet, who undauntedly and incessantly contended
against the prevailing idolatry and wickedness, and against the
degenerate priests and false prophets who now appeared in
great numbers, and sought by their deceptions to invalidate the
testimony of the true prophet. After the destruction of
Nineveh in 606 b. C, in which the prophecy of Nahum, proba
bly a younger contemporary of Isaiah, was fulfilled, matters
took a new turn in Hither Asia. After the battle of Garchem-
ish (605 b. c), a fortress situated on the Euphrates, all Hither
Asia fell into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 24 : 7).
Jeremiah now announced, in the spirit of prophecy, the pur
pose for which the Chaldean power was appointed by God, and
its predetermined duration of seventy years (Jer. 25 : 11,12).
When Nebuchadnezzar took posession of Jerusalem, Jehoiakim
was put in chains to be taken to Babylon (2 Chron. 36 : 6), but
was afterward left behind as the vassal of the Chaldean empire.
Three years after, Jehoiakim rebelled (2 Kings 24 : 1), but
died during the war, 599 or 598 b. c. His son Jehoiachin
(Coniah) then succeeded, but was dethroned after a reign of
three months by Nebuchadnezzar, who now came and carried
him away, together with the nobles, men of war, and priests, to
Babylon. This was the second deportation, and by it the bet
ter portion of the people was taken into captivity. Among
those carried to Babylon was Ezekiel, who from the fifth year

BIBLICAL theology of the old testament. 159
of his captivity onward filled the office of prophet to the exiles
at Chebar. S 186. Zedekiah. Fall of the State and of Jerusalem
Zedekiah (598 — 588 b. a), the last king of Judah, was a
weak prince, who lived in shameful dependence upon the low
upstarts who had now seized upon power. Although he had
sworn fealty to Nebuchadnezzar (2 Chron. 36: 13), he never
theless, in the ninth year of his reign, openly broke his oath,
and concluded an alliance with the Egyptian king. In vain had
Jeremiah warned him, by repeatedly declaring the Divine ap
pointment of Nebuchadnezzar to be the instrument of judgment
to Judah and the surrounding nations. When Nebuchadnezzar
appeared before Jerusalem, Jeremiah counselled the surrender
of the city. But the nobles cast Jeremiah into prison, who,
however, was secretly released by the king, and kept in the
court of the prison (Jer. 37: 11 — 21). A second time he was
cast into a dungeon by the princes that he might there perish
with hunger, but was again delivered by the king ( Jer. 38 :
6-13)- After a siege of eighteen months, a breach was made in the
fortifications, and Zedekiah was captured, and after his sons
had been executed before his eyes, was deprived of his sight
and taken in chains to Babylon ( Jer. 39 : 1 — 7 ; 2 Kings 25 :
1 — 7). The destruction of Jerusalem and the third deportation
of the people was effected by the Chaldean general Nebuzaradan
(2 Kings 25: 8 — 11; Jer. 39: 8 — 14), 588 B.C. With ferocious
exultation, the neighboring states, and especially the Edomites
hastened to the spot, to feast their eyes upon the spectacle of
the fall of this detested people (Ps. 137 : 7 ; Ezek, 35 : 15 ;
36: 5)-
§ 187. Gedeliah and the Remnant of the People.
A remnant of the people, among whom was Jeremiah, was
left in the land (Jer. 39: n — 14; 40: 1 — 6); and fields and
vineyards were assigned to them by Nebuzaradan ( Jer. 39 :
10.). Nebuchadnezzar placed over them as his viceroy

160 THEOLOGICAL encyclopedia.
Gedaliah a son of the prince Ahikam, who had a high official
position under Josiah (2 Kings 22: 12). The viceroyship of
Gedaliah, however, lasted only two months, for he was treach
erously slain at a banquet (2 Kings 25 : 23 — 26). The Jews
who were still remaining, fearing the vengeance of Nebuchad
nezzar, determined in spite of the warnings of Jeremiah to emi
grate to Egypt, whither the prophet also followed them. Jere
miah was here also constrained to exercise his office of reprover,
and probably terminated his storm tossed life in this country,
according to patristic tradition, being stoned by his fellow-
countrymen. To this period belong Jer. 40 — 44.
V. History of the Jewish Nation from the Babylonian
Captivity to the Cessation of Prophecy (586 — 400 b. c) (§ 188
—193- § 188. Condition of the People and Ageney of the Prophets during the
Captivity. The condition of the Jews in captivity does not seem, so far
as we can ascertain from the writings of Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
to have been one of special oppression ( Jer. 29 : 4 — 7). The
same word of prophecy, whose truth was proved by the judg
ment which had fallen upon them, exhorted them to wait with
patience for the hour when the deliverance of Israel should ap
pear in the doom of Babylon. As the kingship and priesthood
were annulled, the leadership of the people devolved exclu
sively on the prophets. Perhaps it was from the custom which
now arose among the Israelites, of gathering around a prophet
to hear the word of God, that Synagogues originated. But the
prophets of God had, during the captivity, a mission to fulfil to
the heathen also. The conflict waged by Jehovah against the
gods of the land, when he delivered his people out of Egypt,
was renewed with increased intensity at Babylon. To carry
on this struggle was the special vocation of Daniel, who was
educated at the Babylonian court, in all the wisdom of the
Chaldees, and raised to the highest honors.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 161
§ 189. Deliverance and Return of the Jews from Babylon. Commence
ment of the Re-building of the Temyle.
After Cyrus had ascended the Medo-Babylonian throne,
he gave the Jews permission, in the first year of his reign, to
return to Palestine and to rebuild their destroyed temple at
Jerusalem (2 Chron. 36: 22, 23; Ezra 1 : 1 — 11). The act of
Cyrus can only be explained by the religious interest which he
took in the Jews, and is not to be explained on other grounds.
The return from Babylon took place under the conduct of
Zerubbabel, a hereditary prince of the tribe of Judah, who was
made the Persian viceroy. With him was associated, as spirit
ual ruler of the people, the high priest Joshua. Under the
direction of these men, 42,360 Israelites (Ezra 2 : 64 ; Neh. 7 :
66) with more than 7,000 bondmen and bondwomen returned
to Palestine. These belonged for the most part to the tribe of
Judah, but individuals belonging to other tribes may also have
been found among the band. The returned Jews at first as
sembled for the worship of God at an altar set up for the pur
pose, but preparations were immediately made for there build
ing of the temple (Ezra 2 : 68, 69 ; 3 : 7—9). It was a time of
hearty enthusiasm, which showed itself more especially at the
laying of the foundations of the temple in the second month of
the following year (Ezra 3 : 3 — 10). The newly settled nation
was, however, to experience grievous trials. The Samaritans,
whose desire to obtain a share in the new temple was rejected,
revenged themselves by intriguing at the Persian court to hin
der the building, which now ceased till the second year of Dar
ius Hystaspis ( Ezra 4 : 1 — 5).
§ 190. The Period from Cyrus to Darius Hystaspis.
Of this interval we have no account, for the section Ezra 4 :
6 — 23 refers to the period of Xerxes and Artaxerxes. In the
the whole period from Cyrus to Darius Hystaspis, hindrances
to the building of the temple are only mentioned, and Ezra 4:
5 should be immediately followed by ver. 24. In the sixth
month of the second year of Darius (520 b. a), the prophet
Haggai was raised up to encourage the viceroy Zerubbabel by

162 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA,
prophecy, and revive the hopes of the people in their promised
redemption. When, however, the meanness of the building
(Hag. 2:3; Zech. 4 : 10) produced fresh despondency, the
people were comforted by Haggai and by Zechariah. As, in
spite of all difficulties, the building of the temple would now be
successfully accomplished (Zech. 4 : 7 — 9), so also was redemp
tion assured to them. Soon that great shaking of the nations
would take place, in which the heathen powers would wear each
other out (Hag. 2: 6, 21; Zech. 2: 1 — 4). Then would the
kingdom of God, into which the Gentiles should be incorpor
ated, and to which they should dedicate all their treasures, tri
umph (Hag. 2: 7 — 9; Zech. 8: 20—23). When Darius heard
of the rebuilding of the temple he not only commanded that no
hindrance should be laid in the way, but even granted state as
sistance both for the rebuilding and for the regular maintenance
of the sacrifices. The building consequently proceeded and
the temple was finished and dedicated in the sixth year of
Darius, 516 B, c. (Ezra 5 and 6).
§191. The Jews under Xerxes. Beginning of Ezra's Administration.
We have no information concerning the condition of the
people in Palestine during the next fifty- eight years, except the
short paragraph in Ezra 4 : 6, which refers to the time of
Xerxes. On the other hand the occurrence in Persia to which
the book of Esther refers, belongs to this period, to the reign
of Xerxes. In the time of Artaxerxes Longimanus, the thread of the his
tory of the Jewish settlement in the Holy Land is again taken
up, first by the book of Ezra (Chap. 7), in the seventh year of
this monarch (Ezra 7 : 7), 458 b. c. We find the colony in
Palestine at this time in a state of great depression. Matters
took a turn for the better, when Ezra brought a second band
of Israelites into Judah. He began his work of reformation by
the dismissal of all the heathen wives. Of Ezra's subsequent
administration during the next twelve years, nothing is narrated.
What happened during the period may be inferred from the
record in Ezra 4 : 7 — 23.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 163
§ 192. Ezra and Nehemiah. The Close of Prophecy.
Nehemiah, who was sent to Jerusalem by Artaxerxes in the
20th year of that monarch's reign (445 B.C.), with the authority
of governor, effected the restoration of the walls and gates of
Jerusalem, and set heartily to work at the removal of internal
sores. Ezra also now began to act in his capacity of a teacher
of the law. To Ezra must be attributed not a re-foundation of
the theocracy, but only a restoration of the ordinances of the
law. He was the founder of Judaism proper; and in this very
fact lies his great importance in the history also of the kingdom
of God. After a twelve years' sojourn in Palestine, Nehemiah re
turned to Persia (433 b. a). New abuses sprang up during
his absence, and he returned for a second time, probably be
fore the death of Artaxerxes (424 B. a). During the time of his
second governorship, Malachi, the last of the canonical prophets
of the Old Testament, exercised his ministry.
§ 193. The Beginning of Sopherism. Public Worship at the Close of this
Period. In place of the prophets the Scribes or Sopherim now ap
pear, of whom Ezra was the prototype and representative
(Ezra 7 : 6, 10). Tradition assigns to him a college of scribes,
under the name of the great Synagogue, as sharers in his work
of organization, but the historical books of the Old Testament
know of no such an authority. From this time on, however,
the scribes, who diligently applied themselves to the study and
exposition of the law, formed a separate class. The priests, as
such, were now restricted to the performance of religious rites
and the transactions connected therewith. By the side of those
services of the temple which were connected with the priest
hood, was more and more developed the service of the syna
gogue, with the reading and exposition of the law, — a service
whose administration devolved upon the scribes. This now
formed the actual centre of the religious life of Judaism.

164 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Second Section. The Theology of Prophetism ("§ 194 —
234)- § 195. Summary.
The theology of Mosaism is further developed by prophecy,
especially in the following respects:
1. With regard to the doctrine of God and of his relation
to the world, with which is connected a further expansion of
angelology. 2. The intrinsically moral nature of the law is further
developed by prophecy; in other words, the doctrine of sin and
of righteousness is further unfolded.
3. The communion of man with God culminates in Pro
phecy. 4. The progress of the kingdom of God forms the essential
matter of prophecy.
I. The Doctrine of the Lord of Hosts and of Angels
(§ 195—200).
§ 195. Form and Occurrence of the Name of God. Partial Views con
cerning its Original Meaning.
Jehovah Sabaoth (Hebrew Tsebhaotk). The full expression
of this name of God is Jehovah, God of Sabaoth. Sabaoth
never appears alone as a name of God in the Hebrew text of
the Old Testament. Nor does Jehovah Sabaoth occur as the
Divine name in the Pentateuch, Joshua, or Judges. It is first
mentioned in the narrative of the times of Eli; and it is by this
name that Hannah invokes God (1 Sam. 1: 11). The name
seems to have been especially in use in the days of Samuel and
David. It sometimes appears in the Psalms, but only in the
first three books. It the Books of the Kings it seldom occurs,
and only in the mouths of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. In
the prophetical books it is most frequently found in Amos,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
The name, according to its original meaning, is said by
many to designate Jehovah as the God of battles of His people,
who are called "the armies" or "hosts" of the Lord (Ex. 7:4;

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 165
12: 41). But though it is true, that there is in this name a
reference to the fact that God manifests Himself in irresistible
power against the enemies of His people, yet if this were its
original meaning, it is strange that the name did not make its
appearance in those ancient times which were expressly the
times of the great theocratic conflicts ("the wars of Jehovah"
Num. 21: 14); and again that it did not originate, but was al
ready in use, in the warlike age of David. A higher notion is
involved in the expression, namely this, that the fact that the
God of the armies of Israel is also the Lord of Hosts makes
Him so terrible a God.
A second view appeals to Gen. 2: 1, (where it understands
the expression Tsebhaoth as applying to the creatures in gen
eral, who together compose the great army of the Lord) as
implying that God is the God of the world. So that according
to this view it is the majesty of God in general, as displayed in
his dominion over the whole creation, which this name ex
presses. The true explanation of the name, however, must be derived
from the phrase host of heaven.
§ 196. The Host of Heaven 1. The Heavenly Bodies.
The host of heaven in the Old Testament includes the
heavenly bodies and the celestial spirits. The Old Testament
distinctly maintains not only the creaturehood of the heavenly
host (Ps. 33: 6), but also the distinction of the two above-
named classes. It is only by a poetical personification that
the stars are spoken of in the song of Deborah (Judg. 5 : 20)
as the warriors of the Lord, who, leaving their courses, descend
to fight for Israel against Sisera, and that the morning stars
are said in Job 38 : 7 to have joined with the angels in celebrat
ing the morning of creation. The heavenly bodies are de
clared to be merely light- bearers, created by God, and as such
subserving earthly purposes (Ps. 104: 19 — 23). They manifest,
indeed, by their splendor and their course, the greatness and
wisdom of the Creator (Ps. 8: 3; 19, 1 — 6; Job 9: 9; 38: 31 —
33, etc.), but their brilliancy admits of no comparison with the

166 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Divine glory ( Job 25 : 5). Thus they are. the hosts of God
whom his almighty will commands (Isa. 40 : 26; 45: 12); they
serve to proclaim and to glorify his judgments (Joel 3: 15;
Isa. 13: 10; Hab. 3: 11). Their creaturehood is shown by the
fact that they as well as the terrestrial creation are transitory
(Isa. 34: 4; 51 : 6; Ps. 102: 26, 27).
§ 197. 2. The Host of the Heavenly Spirits.
The Old Testament speaks of the host of heavenly spirits,
the armies of the sons of God, the angels, in athree fold aspect:
1. They form the higher church, which, standing at the
head of the choir of the universe, adores God in the heavenly
sanctuary (Ps. 148 : 2). From this central point of the Divine
glory, proceed all God's manifestations of grace and judgment
to the world (Mic. 1 : 2, 3; Hab. 2 : 20; etc.). In Ps. 89: 5 — 7
the sons of God (angels) are called the congregation of the
saints, who are constantly praising the wonders of Divine grace.
Their near relation to God is shown ver. 7, where they are
designated "the council of the holy ones." The meaning of
this passage is, that the heavenly hosts, as the appointed instru
ments of executing God's judgments, are also to be the wit
nesses of His counsels.
2. They are the messengers of God, the instrument
of executing His will in grace and in judgment for the
deliverance of His people and the subjugation of His
enemies (Ps. 103: 20,21; 148: 2). This implies that God's
government is carried on by the means of personal and
living powers. For the purposes of His kingdom and for the
special service of His people, God has chosen the heavenly
spirits, who are the companions of man (Ps. 91 : n ; 34: 7).
In opposition to Satan, whose occupation it is to ruin men (Job
1), God has thousands of angels whose business it is to be ac
tive in the deliverance of human souls.
3. The hosts of heavenly spirits are also appointed to be
His attendant witnesses, and partially His instruments when
He appears in His royal and judicial glory, (Deut. 33: 2). In
Ps. 68 : 17 God is represented as seated upon His throne on

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 167
Zion, surrounded by the chariots or cavalry of the angelic hosts.
Lastly, the heavenly host form Jehovah's retinue at the final
revelation of His judgment. The angels are "the mighty ones"
whom God, according to Joel 3: 11, leads down into the valley
of Jehosaphat ; they are "the holy ones" with whom, according
to Zech. 14: 5, He appears upon the Mount of Olives in the de
cisive hour of the last conflict of the covenant people. Com
pare the description of the procession of the heavenly armies in
Rev. 19: 14.
§ 198. Result with Respect to the Name Jehovah Sabaoth.
In summing up what has been said, we find that the sig
nificance of the doctrine of Jehovah Sabaoth consists in the
fact that it teaches us to recognize not only the supermundane
power and glory of the living God, but also makes Him known
to us as interposing, according to His free and sovereign will,
in the affairs of the world, and therefore not bound to elements
or forces of nature which obey Him ; but as having, on the
contrary, not only these but also the spiritual powers of the
heavenly world at His disposal for the execution of His will on
earth. He is the omnipotent ruler of the Universe.
§ 199. Angels of Higher Order and Special Office.
The later prophetical books speak of angels of higher or
der and special calling among the heavenly host. The cheru
bim are not among these (see § 119). Some have also re
garded the seraphim as merely symbolical beings, but in Isa. 6,
the only passage in which they occur, ver. 6, rather suggests
the ministry of angels; though seraphim here cannot be said
entirely to correspond with the interpreting angel in Zechariah
and Daniel. The symbolism of their appearance is very sim
ple. With two wings they cover their faces, — to indicate that
even the most exalted spirits cannot bear the full vision of the
Divine glory; with two they cover their feet, — to symbolize
their reverence ; with two they fly, — to express the swiftness
with which they execute the Divine commands. In other re
spect they are evidently represented in human form. The

168 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
meaning of the word "seraph" is extremely doubtful. It is
perhaps best to connect it with the Arabic root sharapha (to be
noble). According to this derivation, the seraphim would be
thus designated as being the most exalted among celestial spir
its. The seven angels mentioned in Ezek. 9 as sent forth to exe
cute the Divine sentence of extermination upon idolatrous
Jerusalem, next come under consideration. The number seven
is here, as elsewhere in the Old Testament, the sign that a
Divine operation is being completed, — in this passage the
Divine judgment now advancing to its close. One of these
angels is distinguished by a high priestly robe of linen, and
this angel of special dignity, no doubt, corresponds to the
horseman who, in the vision of Zech. 1 : 8, stands among the
myrtle trees, and is evidently chief over those who run to and
fro through the earth. To him they bring their report ; and he,
upon receiving it, intecedes with the Lord of Hosts for Jerusa
lem. He seems also to be identical with the angel of the Lord
in Zech. 3, before whom Satan stands to accuse Joshua.
We come now to the angels which appear in Daniel under
the names Gabriel and Michael.
Gabriel (i. e. man of God) is said to be the angel who ex
plains the visions to Daniel (Dan. 8: 16; 9: 12), thus answer
ing to the interpreting angel of Zechariah.
It is, however, the Michael of the book of Daniel who ap
parently corresponds to the angel of the Lord in Zechariah, the
horseman among the myrtle trees, who advocates the cause of
the covenant people.
But another appearance in the book of Daniel now claims
our attention. According to Dan. 10, a man, called neither
angel nor prince, appears to Daniel on the banks of the Tigris.
It is the same person who at Ulai (Dan. 8 : 15 — 17), commands
Gabriel to interpret to Daniel the vision he had received, — the
same who, in Dan. 12:7, guarantees by a solemn oath the ful
fillment of the Divine counsel. It is obvious that this appear
ance must be identified with him who (Dan. 7 : 13; 10: 18)

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 169
comes as a son of man in the clouds of heaven to receive do
minion over all nations, i. e. the Messiah (compare the descrip
tion of the glorified Christ in Rev. i: 13 — 15 with Dan. 10:
5. 6). We find then already in the Old Testament, the doctrine
further developed in the New, that the dispensations and judg
ments of God upon earth are closely connected with corres
ponding events in the higher world of spirits.
§ 200. The Doetrine of Satan.
Among the sons of God (angels) who appear before Jeho
vah, we meet in certain pass ages of the Old Testament ( Job,
Chronicles, Zechariah), with an angel called Satan, of crafty
and hos tie disposition toward the covenant people and all who
fear God, seeking to deprive them of the favor of God, but
only suffered to act as His instrument. The word Satan means
an enemy, an adversary.
If we compare the two parallel passages 2 Sam. 24 : 1 and
1 Chron. 21 : 1, we learn that what is by the older record (2
Sam. 24 : 1) directly referred to Divine agency, is by the later
account attributed to a hostile spirit. We here meet again with
the same fact which we encountered in the doctrine of the an
gels, viz., that the later record brings into greater prominence
those powers which are instruments of the Divine Providence.
Other passages also point to such powers appointed by God to
be instruments of the Divine wrath (1 Sam. 16: 14 — 23; Isa.
19: 14; Ps. 75: 8). The transition hence to the doctrine of
Satan is made by the passage 1 Kings 22 : 19 — 23. Satan
though absolutely dependent on the Divine will with regard to
what he effects, acts from a disposition hostile to man. This is
hinted (1 Chron. 21 : 1) in the standing up of Satan against
Israel, and still more prominently brought forward in the pro
logue to Job. It is true that in Job Satan appears in the midst
of the sons of God (angels); but he comes from a wandering
excursion over the earth, which he has evidently undertaken
from hostility to men ; he hopes, too, that Job's piety will not
endure temptation, and that he will thus cease to be an object

170 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
of the Divine complacency. That he may bring calamity upon
Job, the Lord allows Satan the free disposal not only of the
elements, — the tempest, and the fire of heaven,— but also of
human beings (the nomadic hordes), and at length he is per
mitted to smite Job with a most terrible disease. But he is
obliged to obtain from God the power of effecting all this;
and the limit to the injury he is allowed to inflict is set by the
will of God (Job 2 : 6).
Of special significance, however, is the position of Satan with
respect to the covenant people. This is shown with particular
clearness in the vision of Zech. 3 : 1 — 10, while it is also briefly
alluded to in 1 Chron. 21:1. In the vision of Zechariah,
Joshua, the high priest is the representative of the people. He
is accused before the Lord, not on account of his own sins as
an individual, but in his capacity of high priest. His priestly
garments are defiled. Satan affirms that for this sinful people
there is no valid mediation before God. But the Lord causes
the high priest to be clothed in clean garments, thus acknowl
edging the validity of the high-priestly mediation, though
with an intimation (Zech. 3: 8) that the perfect atonement for
the people is to be effected only by the Messiah. Thus the
work of Satan is to question the forgiveness, the justification
of the church, in which sense he is called "the accuser of our
brethren" (Rev. 12: 10). With respect also to his agency
among men, Satan, who desires to destroy the souls of men
(Job 1), forms a contrast to the "interpreting angel" (Job 33:
23), whose occupation it is to excite men to repentance and
confession of sin, that their souls might be rescued from de
struction. The Satan of the Old Testament is not as yet revealed as
the "prince of the world" (John 16 : 11) as in the New Testa
ment, which discloses "the deep things of Satan" (Rev. 2: 24)
only along with the completion of revelation.
Of other evil angels nothing is distinctly taught in the Old
Testament. By Azazel (Lev. 16) we must probably under
stand an evil spiritual power whom we may, with Hengstenberg,

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 171
connect with the Satan of the later books (see § 140). It is
true that "the destroyers" of Job 33: 22, who are contrasted
with the "interpreting angels" of v. 23, must probably be re
ferred to angels, but it is not so much the nature of these an
gels, as the Divine commission, which makes them destroyers.
II. Man's Religious and Moral Relation to God (§ 201 —
204). § 201. 1. Distinction between the Ceremonial and the Moral Law.
The ceremonial and moral precepts are in the Mosaic law
co-ordinate. The result of the tuition of the law which ad
vances from the outer to the inner, is that prophecy carries out
the distinction between the ceremonial and the moral law, and
emphatically declares that the performance of the external ordi
nances of the law, and especially the offering of sacrifice,
were, as merely outward acts, worthless; that the will of
God aimed at the sanctification of the heart and the surrender
of the will to God; and that the observance of the cere
monial law had no value except as the expression of a godly
disposition. § 202. 2. The Ruinous Nature of Sin. The Need of a new Dispensa
tion of Grace.
In proportion as a consciousness of the inwardness of the
law's requirements is arrived at, will the conviction of sin be
come profound. Prophecy, by bringing into greater promi
nence the opposition in which the people stand to the electing
and sanctifying purpose of their God, carries on the office of
the law, and advances to the perception that the sanctification
of the people at which the law aims, is unattainable during the
present legal dispensation, and must, on the contrary, be
effected by a new dispensation of grace. '
The tuition of the law, advances but gradually. We can
not expect at once to find in the Old Testament such a knowl
edge of sin, as is expressed in Rom. 7. But David already ex
pressed the acknowledgement that a Divine impartation of
heart, was needed if the inward state was to be conformed to
the Divine will (Ps. 51 : 10 — 12; 143: 10).

172 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
To render evident that relation of electing and sanctifying
love into which God has entered with his people, the prophets
employ the figure of fatherhood and sonship (see § 82. 1.).
But the bridal and conjugal relation is far more frequently
used by them, as the symbol of the communion into which God
has entered with His people , (Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel).
The nation now appears as a harlot, an adulteress. Sin is no
longer mere disobedience to the commands of God, but is
viewed as being in its inward and essential nature a breach of
faith, as base ingratitude toward Him who has first loved.
All boasting of human righteousness vanishes, and an over
whelming feeling of guilt is expressed in many prophetic dis
courses. It is, first of all, a common guilt resting upon the nation,
making the nation as such, the object of Divine wrath. From
this general sinfulness, even the more religious part of the
nation, the servants of God, are not so exempt as to be con
trasted as absolutely righteous. The conviction thus forces it
self on the mind that a new dispensation of grace is needed;
in other words, that God must of His own free grace blot out
transgression and effect by a new communication of life that
conformity to His will which the law demands. The chief pas
sages in which this is expressed are found in Jeremiah (24 : 7 ;
31 : 31—34) and Ezekiel (36: 25—29; 37 : 23—27).
The fundamental assumption in this new dispensation is,
as the passage from Jeremiah expresses at its close, the aboli
tion of the old condemnation by Divine mercy; that God, as the
prophet Micah says (7 : 19) would of His mercy tread the
iniquites of His people under foot, and cast all their sins into
the depths of the sea.
It is through the pardon of sin that occasion is afforded for
the agency of those purifying and sanctifying forces which
God puts forth (Ezek. 36 : 25 — 27).
3. Justification by Faith (§ 203, 204).
% 203. The Old Testament Form of Faith.
Meanwhile the just walked in faith and had life therein.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 173
The leading of Israel, from the time of its deliverance out of
Egypt, rests entirely on faith (Deut. i: 32; 9: 23).
What then is this faith ? Negatively, it is a ceasing from
all natural confidence in one's own strength and power, a re
nunciation of all trust in human support and assistance. Posi
tively, it is a fastening of the heart upon the Divine word of
promise, a leaning upon the power and faithfulness of God
(Ps. 112: 7, 8). On its negative side, whereby faith renounces
self-chosen human ways, it is a resting in, a quiet waiting for
God (Isa. 28: 16; 30: 15; Ps. 62: 6). On its positive side,
it is a sanctifying of the Lord (Isa. 8 : 13), a giving of glory
to His sole sovereignty (Jer. 13: 16; Hab. 2 : 4).
In its expectation of the fulfilment of the Divine promise, the
faith of the Old Testament turns to the future. It includes
patience and hope (Isa. 25 : 9; Ps. 42 : 5). It is according to
this specially Old Testament form that faith is illustrated by
Old Testament examples in Heb. 11. But the Old Testament
also exhibits faith as including negatively that renunciation of
one's own claims and merits before God which arises from a
conviction of sin, and positively, that surrender to the sin-an
nulling God and His atoning grace which are essential to the
saving faith of the new covenant. In Ps. 130: 3 — 5 faith appears
as a waiting upon the word which proclaims forgiveness of
sins; but here, too, its eye is directed to the future.
§ 204. The Old Testament Experience of Salvation.
Was there already in Old Testament times the experience
of justification and adoption in the New Testament sense of these
terms? The Old Testament certainly teaches that Divine for
giveness is imparted to the sinner who turns in penitence and
faith to God ; and that this is not a mere ignoring of sin (Ps.
130: 4). To this subject belongs the whole of Ps. 32.
This experience of Salvation, however, still remains but
relative, and decidedly differs from that of the New Testament.
1) It indeed affords peace of mind concerning individual sins,
but it does not establish any permanent state of reconciliation.
No such atoning grace and justification were imparted to the

174 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the believer under the Old Testament as to enable him to say
with the apostle: "The old things are passed away; behold,
they are become new" (2 Cor. 5 : 17): He was pacified con
cerning the past, but only to begin again seeking to be hence
forth just through the works of the law. 2) Under the Old
Testament conversion was indeed reached as a moral change,
but not regeneration as a new creation. 3) The Divine
Spirit did not make in the Old Testament saints a new founda
tion of life, — did not as yet work outward from within, as the
transforming principle of the whole man.
The highest communion between God and man, established
by prophecy, does not attain to the eminence of that filial state
inaugurated by the New Testament; for which reason Christ
declares the greatest of the prophets to be less than the least in
His kingdom (Matt. 11 : 11).
III. Of Prophecy (§ 205 — 216).
/. The Prophetic Consciousness (§ 205 — 212).
§ 205. Negative Propositions.
That which made the the prophet a prophet was not his
natural gifts nor his own intention, and that which he pro
claimed as the prophetic word was not the mere result of in
struction received nor the product of his own reflection.
§ 206. Positive Propositions.
The prophet, as such, knows himself to be the organ of
Divine revelation, in virtue both of a Divine vocation, capable
of being known by him as such, and which came to him with
irresistible power, and also of his endowment with the enlight
ening, sanctifying, and strengthening spirit of God. Accord
ingly, a prophet knows the objective reality, as the Word of God,
of that word which he proclaims.
1. The overwhelming constraint of the Divine call is de
scribed by Amos in the discourse in which he vindicates his
prophetic work (Amos 3: 8). Isaiah (chap. 6) and Ezekiel
(chap. 1) refer their call to visions, in which the glory of the
Lord was manifested to them. But the book of feremiah
furnishes the most abundant proofs of the certainty the prophets

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 175
felt concerning their Divine vocation (Jer. 20 : 7,8; 17: 16).
It was in virtue of the assurance that the call he had received
was from God, that he condemned the pretensions of false
prophets (chap. 23 and 28 ; see also 29: 24 — 32).
2. The medium of the revelation, is, however, more par
ticularly said to be the Spirit of God, through whom it is that
the Lord sends His word by means of the prophets (Zech. 7: 12).
This spirit proves itself to be Divine, 1) by disclosing to the
prophets such knowledge as could come from God alone. To
lay all possible stress upon the objectivity of this word, its
communication is designated as a giving (Ezek. 2 : 8 ; 3 : 3),
a putting into the mouth of the prophet (Deut. 18 : 18 ; Jer.
1: 9; etc.). 2) But still more does the Spirit show itself to be
of God to the true prophet upon whom it comes, and whom it
fits for his office, by its sanctifying and strengthening agency
(Micah 3: 8).
3. It is in virtue of such spiritual experience that the
prophet knows that the word put into his mouth will also prove
itself to bear within it the power of the living God ( Jer. 23:
28, 29; Isa. 55: 11). Hence the prophet, as the announcer of
this word, is also the performer of Divine acts (Jer. 1 : 10).
§ 207. Psyeliologieal Definition of the Prophetie State in Ancient Times.
How then is the prophetic state to be psychologically and
more precisely defined ? On this subject various opinions were
held in ancient times.
At the time that the Septuagint was translated, the Greek
word mantis designated the ecstatic utterer of an oracle, and
prophetes the sober-minded interpreter of the oracle of the
former. When, then, the Old Testament Nabhi is designated
in the LXX by the name of prophetes (prophet), he may be
said to be chiefly characterized not as a predicter (a meaning
belonging indeed also to prophetes), but as one who declares
what the Divine Spirit has imparted to him, to which function
it is essential that it should be consciously and intelligently per
formed. According to Philo, the prophet is the interpreter of God,

176 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
who makes him inwardly perceive what he is to speak. This
Divine inspiration is received by the prophet in a state of
ecstasy, which is said indeed to be distinctly different from the
frenzy of madness, but in which self-consciousness is neverthe
less entirely suspended.
Philo's view of the ecstatic character of the prophetic state
passed over to the earliest Church Fathers. Athenagoras says
that the Divine Spirit that moved the prophets used them as a
flute-player does his instrument. This subject was not discussed
more thoroughly until it became, as Tertullian intimates, a mat
ter of dispute between the Montanists and the Catholic Church
Fathers. The latter disgusted with ecstasy as presented to them
by the Montanist prophets, declared all convulsions which re
pressed rational consciousness unworthy of true prophecy, and
only fit for the manticism produced by demoniacal powers.
So in general Origen (d. 254), Epiphanius(<a(. 403), Chrysostom
(d. 407) and Jerome (d. 420). Still the polemics of the Fathers
as Tholuck justly remarks, do not deny the existence of every
kind of ecstasy in the case of the organs of revelation. They
could not thus set themselves in opposition to the clear state
ments of Holy Scripture.
§ 208. View of this Subject in the Older Protestant Theology.
The propositions laid down by the Fathers, in opposition
to the Montanists, were repeated by the older Protestant theolo
gians. The prevailing theory of inspiration being applied to
prophecy, the Protestant theologians assumed, in the case of
prophets, both an entire passivity in the reception of revelation,
and a continued state of rational consciousness, with at most
but momentary intermissions.
This whole subject received, however, a powerful impetus,
when Hengstenberg (in the first edition of his Christology) re
vived in all its rigid one-sidedness the Montanist theory of
prophecy. For he laid down the proposition that the prophets,
when recipients of revelation, were in an extraordinary con
dition, essentially differing from their usual state — in an ecstasy,
in which the intelligent consciousness retreated, and the spon-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 177
taneity, being suppressed by a powerful operation of the Divine
spirit, was reduced to a state of passivity. (In the second edi
tion of his Christology, Hengstenberg has essentially modified
this earlier view).
§ 209. Continuity and Elevation of the Individual Life in the Prophetic
State. In the earlier view maintained by Hengstenberg, truth and
error are blended. It is true that in prophecy states do occur
in which the individual life is subjugated by the power of the
Divine Spirit, but it is not true that these coincide with the state
of prophetic revelation, nay, they are not even essential thereto.
Isaiah, in his initiatory vision (Isa. 6), is conscious that his
iniquity is taken away and his sin purged, and declares him
self ready in consequence to undertake the Divine commission.
Jeremiah, too, in his inaugural vision (Jer. i), was conscious
of his weakness. It is true that Ezekiel, when he received the
vision fell down overpowered by the sight (Ezek. i : 28), but
in order to receive the revelation he had to stand up again, and
that in the power of the Spirit who entered into him (Ezek. 2:
1, 2). It is true also that Daniel sank down stunned in conse
quence of a vision (Dan. 10: 8 — 10), but he did not receive the
revelation till he had recovered himself. Besides the prophets
felt themselves inwardly elevated (Isa. 8: 11, 12; Jer. 1: 19;
etc.). § 210. Prophecy an Inward Tuition.
Undoubtedly the prophets were often in a state of excited
feeling at the times when they uttered their predictions, and
did not, as merely mechanical instruments of the inspiring
Spirit, comport themselves in an utterly indifferent manner
with respect to their prophecies. But that in such cases the
frame of mind was of secondary importance, that it was pro
duced by the objective influence of the Divine Spirit, is evi
dent especially from the circumstance that the feeling natural
to the prophet was frequently exchanged for just its opposite.
Compare the prophecy concerning Moab (Isa. 16: 9 — 11), and

178 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
that concerning Babylon (Isa. 21 : 1 — 10), where this state of
mind is very distinctly portrayed.
The psychical form of prophecy is rather that of an inward
intuition, taking the word in its wider signification. It belongs
to this intuition that the prophet is aware that the matter of
revelation is directly given, and not produced by his own
agency; and this is just what the prophets affirm with respect
to their prophecies. Hence the prophets designate themselves
as seers. Sometimes this inward perception of the prophets
is also styled a hearing (Isa. 21: 10; etc.). The prophets,
however, chiefly choose the expression to see, even when it is a
mere form of speech, for the manner in which they became
directly conscious of the God-given matter (Amos 1: 1; Isa.
2: 1; Hab. 2: 1).
What now the prophet perceives is a word of Jehovah, an
oracle of Jehovah (which latter expression represents the mys
terious nature of the inwardly perceived Divine voice), a massa
(a lofty or eminent saying, according to Oehler; a burden, ac
cording to Hengstenberg). When, however, the image awak
ened by the revelation appears in a plastic form before the
mind of the prophet, a vision in the stricter sense takes place,
and this is of a symbolical character, the matter of the proph
ecy being reflected in the imagination of the prophet. With
respect to visional symbolism, there is a remarkable difference
between individual prophets. In some, especially the more
ancient, it is simple, and therefore for the most part easily un
derstood, e.g., the visions of Amos (the devouring locusts and
the consuming fire as images of the Divine judgments (Amos
7 : 1 — 6j, the plumb-line laid to the wall as symbolical of the
dealings of the Divine justice (Amos 7 : 7 — 9), the basket of
ripe fruit as an image of the nation ripe for judgment (Amos 8 :
1, 2). In Ezekiel, Zechariah, and Daniel, on the contrary, the
symbolism is more complicated and cases occur in which the
prophet himself does not understand the images he beholds,
and requests an explanation of them (Zech. 4:4; Dan. 8 : 15).
The prophets are, moreover, frequently required to express the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 179
substance of the Divine messages by symbolical actions. In
many of these cases, however, (especially in Ezekiel), it may
be questioned whether the action really took place externally,
as e. g., in Isa: 20: 2, or whether it belongs merely to vision.
(There is scarcely a point in prophetic theology concerning
which theologians so greatly differ. No general principle can
be laid down by which to determine how far such actions per
tain to the province of the external or the internal).
§ 211. The Prophetic State illustrated by Analogies in the Ordinary Life
of the Spirit. Dreams, Communion with God in Prayer.
Although the Old Testament does not exclude the dream
as a medium of revelation, nevertheless a subordinate import
ance is attributed to dreams. Although sleep, by reason of its
withdrawal of a man from the external world, seems specially
favorable for the intercourse of the Divine with the human
spirit ; still, on the other hand, a man in this condition is not
duly capable of distinguishing between what proceeds from his
own heart and Divine inspiration.
In far the greater number of cases we must evidently con
ceive of the state in which the prophet receives a revelation as
merely one of profound self- introversion and collectedness of
mind in a state of perfect wakefulness. This prophetic state
is most nearly related to communion with God in prayer.
% 212. The Conceptions of Genius and the Natural Powers of Divination.
In explaining Old Testament prophecy, the attempt has of
ten been made to refer it to prophetic powers inherent in the
human mind, and manifesting themselves in the conceptions of
genius. But does this natural divination know anything positively
respecting the purposes of God's ways upon earth ? On the
the other hand, the prophets knew that the thoughts of God,
of which they were the interpreters, are as high above the
thoughts of man as heaven is higher than earth (Isa. 55: 8, 9).
The matter of revelation is not, strictly speaking, the men
tal property of the prophets, but continues to be a thing im-

180 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
parted. Hence its meaning was not fully grasped by their un
derstanding, but was, as St. Peter tells us (i Pet. i : 10), a mat
ter of investigation to themselves.
2. Of Propheey (% 213—216).
§ 213. The Office of Propheey in General.
If we regard the collective contents of the prophetic books
of the Old Testament, we must say that prophecy is employed
entirely in promoting the interest of the Kingdom of God, and
that its main office is to unfold its ways.
§ 214. The Prediction of Particular Events an Essential Element of
Prophecy. According to the theory of some, the sole essential feature
of Prophecy is declared to be its expression of the general ideas
of the Divine government, while its prediction of particular
events is, on the other hand, to be regarded as comparatively
unessential and subordinate; nay, the very admissibility of
prediction is denied by the rationalistic party, on the ground
of its destroying human freedom and interfering with history.
The question which concerns us here is whether prophecy
does or does not attribute to itself as essential the characteristic
of predicting particular events? In answer it is sufficient to
bring forward, besides the fundamental passage Deut. 18 : 22,
the very decided expressions contained on this subject in Isa.
40 and following chapters. Here we find the greatest emphasis
laid upon the circumstances that the deliverance of Israel from
the Babylonian captivity had been long predicted by prophecy,
and that the prophet now speaking foretells the appearance oi
Cyrus before it takes place. It maintains also that the predic
tion of such particular events is a proof that the God of Israel
is the true God, while on the other hand it asserts that the van
ity of the heathen gods is manifested by their inability to fore
tell anything (Isa. 41: 21 — 28; 42: 9). In this last passage
(42: 9), the idea of pure prediction could hardly be more pre
cisely 'expressed (compare also Isa. 43: 9 — 13; 44: 25 — 28;
45=1").

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 181
§ 215. The Peculiarities of Old Testament Propheey.
i. The matter of revelation being given to the prophets
in the form of intuition, the future appeared to them as im
mediately present, complete, or at all events in progress. How
great soever the distance, according to human computation, of
the things predicted, they are actually in train to the prophetic
eye, all that intervenes can only help to hasten their fulfilment
(Hab. 2: 3). What the prophet sees are simply "the things
which must shortly come to pass" (Rev. i: i); for in the invis
ible world which is disclosed to the prophet, all is active, in
motion, about to approach.
Connected with this peculiarity of prophecy is the circum
stance that it gives for the most part only a subordinated im
portance to dates. Sometimes the dates given have evidently a
symbolical meaning, and must not for this reason be pressed
to the very letter. In general, the word of the Lord, "It is not
for you to know times or seasons, which the Father hath set
within His own authority" (Acts i: 7), applies also to the
prophets, who limit themselves to indefinite dates, such as, "in
that day", "after this", etc. The Old Testament prophecy is
always directed to the consummation of the Kingdom of God,
and announces the ways in which God conducts His purpose of
salvation, from the actual present to its appointed end. In
other words, what takes place "at the end of the days", i. e., at
the close of this dispensation, forms the boundary of the pro
phetic horizon. This "end", in prophetic diction is the time of
the consummation of redemption (Hos. 3: 5; Jer. 48: 47; Ezek.
38 : 16). The event next preceding this "end" is judgment,
and indeed judgment both upon the rebellious people of God
and the sinful world. Thus the matter of prophecy may be
defined by its three elements,—^?'//, judgment, (first upon the
house of God, then upon the world), redemption. The pro
gress of the kingdom of God forms itself in prophetic vision,
into a picture in which judgment generally forms the fore
ground and redemption the background. Thus prophecy be
holds in every event the coming of the Tudge and Saviour of

182 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the world to set up His kingdom. In this combination of the
nearer and more distant future, lies what has been called the
perspective character of prophecy. Bengel aptly designates
this characteristic when in his Gnomon on Matt. 24: 29, he
says : "A prophecy resembles a landscape painting, which
marks distinctly the houses, paths, and bridges in the fore
ground, but brings together, into a narrow space, the distant val
leys and mountains, though they are really far apart." This char
acteristic of prophecy is manifested with especial beauty in the
Book of Isaiah (40 — 66). To the prophets themselves, more
over, the time when their predictions should be fulfilled was, as
we are told a subject of investigation (1 Pet. 1: 11).
2. The fact that the matter of prophecy is given in the
form of such an intuition, also furnishes the reason why it al
ways sees the realization of that matter in particular events
which are complete in themselves. In the fulfilment, on the
contrary, that which is but momentary in the prophetic intui
tion is accomplished by a process of long and gradual devel
opment; and when a prediction attains its first stage of fulfil
ment, there opens out from the standpoint of subsequent
prophets, a new perspective toward the consummation of judg
ment and redemption.
§ 216. The Peculiarities of the Old Testament Propheey Continued.
3. Since the matter of prophecy presents itself to view as
a multitude of individual facts, it may sometimes appear as
though single predictions contradicted each other, when they
are in fact only those parts into which the ideas revealed have
been separated, mutually completing each other. Thus e. g.,
the representation of the Messiah is at one time that of a gen
tle Prince of Peace, at another that of a powerful and warlike
hero who overthrows his enemies ; on the one side a successful
ruler, on the other the servant of God who atones for the sins
of the people by undergoing death. The internal harmony of
the two views — that Christ is our peace and at the same time
one who has come to send a sword, that the kingdom of God

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 183
is at once a contending and a peaceful kingdom — is first found
in the New Testament.
4. The matter of prophecy being given to the prophets in
the form of intuition, it is brought down, so far as its form is
concerned, to the plane of the beholder himself ; hence proph
ecy is affected by the limits of the sphere of Old Testament
life, the special relations of the age, and the individual peculiar
ity of the prophet. The future kingdom of God is beheld by
the prophets as being in all essential matters an extended and
glorified form of the Old Testament theocracy. The admis
sion of the nations into this kingdom is their traveling to Mount
Zion (Isa. 2), etc. One may often feel, when reading the pro
phetic word, how much further the spiritual meaning reaches
lhan the letter expresses ; how prophecy struggles, as it were,
to give its thoughts an adequate embodiment. Compare such
descriptions as Zech. 2 and similar passages. In virtue of the
organic connection existing between the two Testaments, revel
ation brings forth in the New Testament, circumstances, con
ditions and facts, which are analogous, even with respect to
their external form, to their pre- representation in the Old.
And this is to say that the Old Testament form with which the
matter of prophecy is covered, is typical of the form of the
New Testament fulfilment, and that the coincidence of the two
may extend to individual features. So e. g., in the prophetic
delineation of the Servant of the Lord atoning by His death for
the sins of the people, and afterward glorified. But it would
ill become an expositor to attempt to determine beforehand
how far the last form of the kingdom of God is to coincide
with the prophetic description of the last things.
5. Finally, in forming a correct judgment of the relation
between prophecy and fulfilment, the point yet remains to be
considered, that God in His revelation placed Himself in an
historical relation with mankind, and the kingdom of God
therefore advancing, not by a process of nature, but as a moral
institution, the fulfilment of prophecy is not placed outside the
sphere of human freedom, although the Divine counsel cannot

184 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
in the end fail to come to pass in spite of all opposition. The
teachings of prophecy, like the law, subserve an educational
purpose, by making disclosures concerning the future to man
for his good. The Old Testament declares as clearly as possi
ble, that not every predicted judgment must of necessity be
inflicted in the manner spoken; that the Divine threatening
leaves man for a long time space for repentance (Jer. 18 : i —
10). In the non-fulfilment, however, of His threats and
promises, God acts not arbitrarily, but according to a law of
righteous retribution. This doctrine forms, as is obvious, one
of the fundamental thoughts of the Book of Jonah (3: 3 — 10).
There is, however, a limit to the respites granted by God's
long- suffering. So, too, when blessings are predicted, the ful
filment of such prediction depends upon moral causes, viz.,
upon the obedient submission of the people to the Divine will,
while, nevertheless this fulfilment cannot be rendered doubtful
by any obstacles which man can oppose to it. The question
here arises, is the consummation of redemption possible while
Israel is, as a nation, in a state of rejection? The Old Testa
ment returns an absolute negative to this question. It speaks
only of a temporary rejection, which, moreover, takes place in
such wise that Israel does not perish as a nation, but is pre
served for future restoration. Was then this law abolished
when Israel rejected the gracious visitation of their Messiah,
and when the kingdom of God was taken away from them and
given to a nation bringing forth the fruits thereof (Matt. 21:
43)? The New Testament also answers this question in the
negative (Rom. 11 : 25, 26).
IV. Of the Kingdom of God (§ 217 — 234).
§ 217. Survey.
The chief elements in the process of the development of the
kingdom of God now come under consideration. Sinful Israel
belied its blessed vocation. God's holiness obliges Him to
do away with this contradiction. The means by which He
effects this end is the infliction of judgment. The attribute, in

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 185
virtue of which God thus determines the progress of His king
dom on earth by judgment and deliverance is His righteous
ness. 1. The Purpose of God's Kingdom. The Contradiction thereto presented
by the Present. The Abolition of this Contradiction by Judgment (% 218 —
221). § 218. 1. The Design of God's Kingdom.
The idea of God's purpose in setting up a kingdom includes
the following elements:
i) Jehovah as the Creator and Lord of the world is in
Himself the God of all nations: but.
2) He is not yet God to all nations, and is only manifest
as God to Israel, His chosen people ;
3) By means of Israel, however, He is to be universally
known and acknowledged ; as He is now the king of His own
people, His kingdom is to be set up among all the nations of
the world by their means.
Of these elements, the first two, are clearly contained in the
Pentateuch. The latter thought is first brought into full light
by prophecy. In the older prophets, indeed, the political hor-
rizon is still very limited, including at first only the neighbor
ing nations; but when Israel appeared on a wider historical
stage, prophecy clearly and completely recognized that govern
ment of the God of Israel which embraces all nations, deter
mines their history, and directs all their ways toward the ac
complishment of His own purposes. The purpose, however,
of all this intervention of God in the heathen world is ex
pressed, — "that unto me every knee shall bow; every tongue
swear" (Isa. 45: 23). The Book of Daniel, in particular por
trays in magnificent touches the universality of the Divine
kingdom: "God changeth the times and the seasons; he re-
moveth kings, and setteth up kings" (Dan. 2: 21).
§ 219. 2. The Relation of the Present to the Purpose of the Divine
Kingdom. What, then, it may be asked, is the relation of the present
to the purpose of God's kingdom? Israel and the nations of the

186 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
world are in a state of contradiction thereto. Israel, which was
to be the means of converting the heathen to God, had become
even worse than the heathen (Ezek. 5: 5 — 10). In what rela
tion, then, do the heathen stand to the kingdom of God ? The
heathen are under the Divine displeasure not on account of their
not being Jews, but on account of their idolatry, the folly and
worthlessness of which they might readily have perceived (Isa.
44 : 9; Jer. 10: 8 — 10; Ps. 115: 4 — 8 ; etc.). That, however, which
properly exposes the heathen to the judgments proceeding
from the God of Israel, is their enmity toward the covenant
people. 3. The Judgment (§220, 221).
§ 220. The Day of the Lord. The Judgment upon the Covenant Peo
ple. "God the Holy one sanctifies Himself in righteousness" (Isa.
5: 16), by sending destructive judgments upon all that opposes
His purpose of redemption, and thus insuring the triumph of
His kingdom. The usual designation of this final theocratic
judgment is "the day of Jehovah" (Joel 1: 15; Zeph. 1: 7);
"the day of Jehovah's anger" (Zeph. 2: 3); "the great and ter
rible day of Jehovah" (Mai. 4: 5). The features by which the
prophets portray this day, the manner in which they describe
it as announced and accompanied by terrible natural pheno
mena (Joel 2: 30, 31: Isa. 13: 9, 10; Zeph. 1: 15, 16), are not
to be regarded as merely poetic coloring, but rest upon the
scriptural view of the inalienable connection between the course
of nature and the progress of the Divine kingdom.
There is a close connection between the judgments on the
covenant people and the judgments on the heathen world. They
seem to stand in immediate connection in the great picture of
judgment in Zephaniah (1 and 2). More strictly speaking,
however, the relation of the two judgments to each other is,
that the judgment of Israel in point of time precedes, that of
the nations of the world, follows. Judgment must first begin at
the house of God, as the apostle Peter expresses it (1 Pet.
4 : 17). And Ezekiel, in the majestic vision recorded in Ezek.

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 187
9, sees judgment beginning at the sanctuary and those who
are called to be its guardians.
There is also a historical progress observable in the an
nouncement of judgment upon the covenant people. In the
Book of Joel, Judah is to incur only a visitation which leads
the people to repentance. In Amos, the judgments to be in
flicted upon the ten tribes occupy the foreground. And after
the catastrophe of Samaria fails to have the effect of leading
Judah to repentance, prophecy announces henceforth the ruin
of the kingdom of Judah, the destruction of the temple, the
desolation of the land, and the captivity of the people, the
locality of which is first designated as Babylon in Micah 4 : 10;
Isa. 39: 6, 7.
§ 221. The Judgment upon the Heathen Nations.
The judgment inflicted upon His covenant people is held
up by the Lord as a warning to the heathen. The view of the
several prophets concerning the judgments upon the heathen
world is fashioned according to the historical perspective im
posed upon each by contemporary events. The earliest de
scription is found in Joel 3. While then Amos, whose opening
sentence (Amos 1 : 2) connects his prophecy with Joel 3: 16,
divides this general judgment into many acts of national judg
ment, Isaiah again (Isa. 24 — 27) sets before us a representation
of a general judgment of the world, without any definite his
torical connection, except that a return from Assyrian captivity
is spoken of (Isa. 27: 13). On the other hand, prophecy, even
in the Assyrian period, points onward beyond Assyria to Baby
lon. In Jeremiah the series of announcements of judgments
upon the nations closes with the magnificent prediction of the
fall of Babylon (Jer. 50 and 51).
The fall of Babylon is not, however, contemporaneous with
the end of this dispensation, and accordingly the history of
the world goes on, and with it the judgment of the world still
proceeds. Here we have that remarkable prophecy of Ezekiel
(Ezek. 38 and 39) concerning God and Magog, which predic
tion is made use of in the description of the last conflict against

188 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the Holy City (Rev. 20: 8). This prediction of judgment is
then taken up by the post- Babylonian prophets. The passages
in Zechariah (Zech. 12 — 14), especially chapter 14, are still
more closely connected with the prophecy of Ezekiel concern
ing Gog, and at the same time carry on still further that of
Joel. When things have come to the worst, Jehovah appears
with all His saints upon the Mount of Olives for the deliver
ance of His people. This day of decision is a day of terrible
darkness; but after the enemies, panic-striken by God, have
now also helped to exterminate each other, the light of re
demption shall dawn on the evening of this last day of the
present dispensation,
We close this survey of Old Testament prophecy concern
ing the judgment of the world, with Daniel's prophecy of the
four kingdoms. According to Dan. 2 and 7, the history of the
world is to run its course in four kingdoms. This worldly
power is destroyed at a blow by the kingdom of God coming
from heaven. We cannot here more particularly discuss these
four kingdoms. It will always be a matter of dispute whether
to adopt the traditional interpretation, still advocated by
Hengstenberg, Hofmann and others, which makes these king
doms to embrace the Babylonian (Chaldean), Medo-Persian,
Grecian (Graeco-Macedonian), and Roman empires, or the now
more usual one (of Delitzsch among others), which makes the
fourth kingdom the Grecian, and explains the others variously,
— mostly, however, regarding the second as the Median, the
third as the Persian. Of special importance, however, is that
feature in these delineations of Judgment, which repre
sents the arrogance of the secular power and its hostility to
the kingdom of God as at last concentrated in a king, who,
with a mouth speaking great things, blasphemes the Most
High, and proceeds to destroy His worship and exterminate
His saints ; who then for a period obtains power over the saints
of the Most High, until the final judgment takes place and in
volves him to destruction (Dan. 7: 8, 11, 20, 21, 25, 26).
(Compare Paul's description of Antichrist, "the man of sin,"
in 2 Thess. 2: 3 — 12).

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 189
3. The Future Redemption (§ 222—234).
1. The Deliverance and Restoration of the Covenant People (§ 222-

§ 222. The Restoration of Israel a Neeessary Event.
The future redemption is represented as embracing:
i) The deliverance and restoration of the rejected cove
nant people in which even the just who have fallen asleep are to
participate by the resurrection.
2) The introduction of those heathen who have been saved
from judgment into the kingdom of God by means of the re
stored covenant people.
3) The prophecies concerning redemption culminate in
the appearance of the Messiah.
The restoration of Israel is not founded upon any claim
that can be advanced by this people, but solely upon the nature
of their God as the Holy and Faithful One. As Jehovah, He
is the Faithful One, whose words of promise, given to the
fathers of the nation who found favor in His sight, shall stand
forever, while all that is earthly shall perish (Isa. 40: 7, 8).
His faithfulness cannot be made void by the unfaithfulness of
man. Nay, the Divine judgment of rejection is to have the
effect of causing the whole power of the Divine love to shine
forth (Jer. 31 : 20; Isa. 49: 14, 15; 54: 7 — 10). But how does
this love deliver? The answer is, 1) God so arranges that a
restoration of this nation is possible ; and 2) He so restores
the nation as to make it a fit instrument for the accomplishment
of His purposes of redemption.
§ 223. The Remnant of Jacob. The New Covenant, an Everlasting one.
The Forgiveness of Sins. The Outpouring of the Spirit.
1. God's judgments have a purpose, and therefore a meas
ure, as taught by Isaiah in his profound parable (Isa. 28 : 24 —
29). According to this measure, judgment is so inflicted upon
Israel that they are preserved therein. And here we meet
with the important prophetic doctrine of the remnant of Jacob.
In these faithful ones, this ecclesia invisibilis of the old
covenant, we have a pledge that the people of God shall not

190 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
perish. The intercession of these servants of God procures a
longer exemption from judgment for the people (Amos 7: 1 —
6). For the sake of this seed of His servants, God will not
exterminate Israel (Isa. 65: 8 — 10). This remnant of Jacob,
Isaiah declares, shall return to the mighty God (Isa. 10: 21).
2. In this restored remnant, the stock of the new Church,
the Divine counsel is to attain its end, and that forever. The
new covenant is everlasting (Hos. 2: 19; Jer. 31: 35 — 37).
This restoration of the people does not indeed take place in a
a magical manner ; it becomes possible on their part through
deep repentance for former sins, and a zealous return to their
God. Hence it is that when the Divine summons penetrates
the lands of their captivity, the rejected ones hasten with tremb
ling, lest their deliverance should be delayed (Hos. n: 10, 11),
and return with weeping and supplications (Jer. 31; 9). The
Divine forgiveness corresponds with the repentance of the
people, and is complete. The fact that God thus restores the
people to the same relation to himself, is their righteousness
from Him (Isa. 54: 17). But this righteousness of grace,
which thus abolishes sin, becomes also a righteousness of life,
a new vital principle being implanted in the church by the out
pouring of the Divine Spirit. The new church is a spiritual
church (Isa. 59: 21; Ezek. 39: 29). But such guidance was
effected only by an indwelling of the Holy Spirit, and even in
the prophets this influence was an extraordinary endowment.
The church of the future, on the contrary, is founded upon
an outpouring of the Spirit upon all flesh ( Joel 2 : 28, 29).
No age or station is excluded from the possession of the Spirit.
With this agree also the passages in Jer. 31: 34; Isa. 54: 13.
This is confirmed by John 6: 45; 1 John 2: 20, 27, which
again take up these prophetic utterances. But these passages
are not intended to do away with human means for obtaining
a knowledge of saving truth, but to proclaim the independence
of human authority enjoined by each member of the church
with respect to his assurance of salvation. They promise
that Divine truth shall be directly testified to by the Holy

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 191
Spirit in each member of this church. This impartation of
the Holy Spirit, besides communicating a vital knowledge of
God, purifies the heart and creates a readiness to fulfil the
Divine will (Ezek. 36: 25 — 27; Jer. 31: 33). And thus the
end of the Old Testament educational work is attained ; the
holy people of God is also a subjectively holy church.
§ 224. Other Features of the Times of Redemption.
The other features of the times of redemption are, accord
ing to prophetic intuition, the following:
1. The return of the people to the Holy Land, and the re
storation of Jerusalem. The possession of the Holy Land is
declared to be a perpetual one, from Joel 3: 20 and Amos 9:
15 onward, with increase of territory (Obadiah 17 — 21).
2. The re-union of the twelve tribes. This point is most
fully treated in the prophecy of Ezekiel (37: 15—28).
3. By reason of the causal connection between sin and evil,
the restoration of the people being a deliverance from sin, is
at the same time the abolition of evil in all respects — an aboli
tion of all the troubles of life.
Zechariah (14 : 20, 21) expresses the thought that holiness
is to penetrate even to that which is most external. Among
the troubles of life so frequently summed up in the Old Testa
ment as the four chief evils (the sword, famine, wild beasts,
and pestilence) which shall be abolished, war is especially
mentioned. All weapons are to be destroyed (Isa. 2: 4; Zech.
9: 10); the new church is unapproachable in its protected re
tirement (Mic. 7: 14); the new city of God is no more to be
desecrated by enemies (Joel 3: 17). Peace is also to pervade
nature. Every blessing of heaven and earth is to be poured
out upon the favored people; all that can harm them is to be
done away with (Hos. 2 : 18 ; Amos 9: 13 — 15; Ezek. 34 : 25
-31)- § 225. Death Destroyed.
The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death, in which
the penalty inflicted on mankind for sin culminates. The voice
of weeping shall be no more heard in the new Jerusalem (Isa.

192 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
65: 19). Yet in this very passage (verses 20 — 23), human life
is only supposed to be of greater length, perhaps such as
Genesis ascribes to primeval times. Here, then, a limitation of
the power of death is spoken of, and also is still represented as
possible. On the other hand, prophecy rises in some passages
to a declaration of the annihilation of death, and of a resurrec
tion of the dead. The ultimate grounds on which the prophetic
doctrine of the resurrection rests, are:
1) The knowledge of the living God, who has power even
over death and the regions of the dead (Deut. 32; 39; 1 Sam.
2: 6). 2) The importance of human personality, which is called
to communion with God.
Still it is not of the vanishing of death in the cases of indi
viduals that prophecy chiefly treats, but of the eternal duration
of the church. This is guaranteed by the eternity of God,
who is an inexhaustible source of life even to His perishing peo
ple (Isa. 40: 28). When the heavens wax old as doth a gar
ment, and are changed as a vesture, Pie remains the same, and
therefore the seed of His servants shall outlast these changes
of the universe (Ps. 102: 27, 28). And this very fact that the
church rises again in renewed vigor after apparent destruc
tion, is also represented as her resurrection from death (Hos. 6:
2; 13: 14). The last verse (Hos. 13: 14) points significantly
to an actual conquest of death and the region of the dead;
hence its citation in 1 Cor. 15: 55.
§ 226. Death Destroyed (continued).
In Isa. 25: 8, the prophet speaking of the times of redemp
tion, declares that the Lord would forever annihilate death and
wipe away tears from all faces. This implied, in the first place,
only the abolition of death for the church of that period; but in
Isa. 26: 19 the prophecy goes further. On the day of the
final judgment for which the Lord arises (Isa. 26: 21), the earth
discloses her blood, and no more covers her slain ; these, accord
ing to the most probable explanation, being awakened to new

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 193
life, obtain their justification. Advancing to still later prophecy,
we first meet with Ezekiel's vision of the dry bones (Ezek. 37).
From the times of the Church Fathers to the most recent ex
positors, it has been disputed whether the description in Ezek.
37: 1 — 10 is to be understood literally of the resurrection of
the dead, or symbolically of the restoration of the covenant
people. After the almost exclusive adoption of the symboli
cal meaning in recent times, Hitzig and Kliefoth have again
revived the literal interpretation. In any case, however, the
vision is of the greatest importance in the development of the
doctrine of the resurrection, which, though not resulting there
from as its direct application, is yet implied by its obvious ap
plication. The resurrection of the dead is, however, decidedly
taught in Dan. 12: 2,13. According to the connection of Dan.
12: 2 with Dan. 11: 33, 35, the promise of a resurrection to
life (Isa. 26: 19) is made especially with reference to those who
have maintained their fidelity to God by a confessor's death.
The expression "many", however, must not be taken in a par
tial sense. It is not used in opposition to those who do not
rise, but merely as expressing a great number. The resurrec
tion of the ungodly first appears in Daniel (12 : 2), though the
transition to it is formed by Isa. 66: 24. Daniel is speaking
only of a resurrection of Israel, not of that of all men; the
latter not being expressly mentioned in the Old Testament,
though an allusion to it may be found in Isa. 24 : 22.
2. The Admission of the Heathen into the Kingdom of God(%227, 228).
% 227. The Extension of the Kingdom of God in the Times of Redemp
tion. The opposition of the heathen world to the divinely pur
posed kingdom of God, is subdued by the destructive judg
ment inflicted on it. But this judgment is to have also a posi
tive result. As, however, Israel is to be restored only
in its sifted remnant, so also it only the remnant of
the heathen rescued from judgment who do homage
to the Lord (Zech. 14: 16). To the intuition of the
older prophets, this enlargement of the kingdom of God by

194 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
the admission of the heathen is first of all an extension of the
theocracy as it existed under David and Solomon, when heathen
nations were subject to the sceptre of the theocratic king
(Amos 9: 11, 12). On the other hand, we are placed upon the
heights of prophetic intuition in the descriptions of the latter
days given in Isa. 2: 2 — 4, and Mic. 4: 1 — 4. All nations are
going to Zion, which is spiritually elevated above all the moun
tains of the world, to receive there the Divine law as the rule
of their lives, while universal peace prevails under the rule of
Jehovah. But it is especially in the Book of, Isaiah (40 — 66)
that the mission of Israel as the servant of the Lord, to be the
medium of revelation to all mankind, forms one of the funda
mental thoughts.
In this consummation of redemption, the theocratic relation
in which Jehovah in Old Testament times stood to Israel, is
transferred to all mankind. The Lord has become the King of
all nations (Zech. 14 : 16, 17; Isa. 24: 23; etc.). All the treas
ures of the world, all the most precious possessions of the
Gentiles, now conduce to the glory of the Divine kingdom,
and are used for the adornment of the city and temple of God
(Isa. 60: 9 — 11; Hag: 2: 7).
§ 228. The Conditions under which the Admission of the Heathen into
the Kingdom of God is to take place.
The coming of this kingdom of God which embraces all
nations, is, however, combined, according to prophetic intuition,
with the fact that Israel is to remain the mediatory nation at
the head of the nations, and Jerusalem with its temple to form
the central point of the kingdom to which the nations are to
journey. The incorporation of the heathen in the kingdom
of God is in Ps, 87 represented as their acquisition of rights of
citizenship in Jerusalem, to which also the passage in Isa. 56:
3 — 7 refers. Prophecy does not contemplate the abolition of
sacrifice in the coming period of salvation, for the rites 0/ -wor
ship in this future and enlarged kingdom of God are connected
in respect to sacrifice and festival, with the Old Testament
ritual. On the other hand there is no lack of pro-

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 195
phetic passages in which the limitation of the Old Testa
ment ritual are broken through. We would here notice two
remarkable prophetic passages in which the connection with
the place of worship in Jerusalem is effaced, i) Mai i: n, a
passage quoted times without number by the Fathers, and
claimed by Roman Catholic theologians as the chief passage in
favor of the sacrifice of the mass. 2) Side by side with this
may be placed the noted prophecy concerning Egypt in Isa.
19, which speaks of a worship of Jehovah instituted not by Is
raelites but by Egyptians, and indeed in the land of Egypt.
Thus did the spirit of prophecy struggle to overcome particu
larism by exhibiting the Divine purpose concerning the king
dom of God. Oehler gives us no hint as to the manner in
which these prophecies pertaining to sacrifice and temple wor
ship should be interpreted, whether literally, or typically and
metaphorically. A literal interpretation is scarcely possible,
for as the apostles described in the words of this world the
things of the world to come, so the prophets depicted the spir
itual kingdom of Christ in words taken from earthly things
connected with the state of the Church under the Old Testa
ment, and which, therefore, are to be explained typically.
3. The Messiah (§ 229 —234).
§ 229. Twofold view of the Consummation of Redemption. The Word
Messiah. The Roots of the Messianic Hope in the Pentateuch.
The consummation of redemption is according to prophetic
intuition, introduced on the one hand by the personal coming
of Jehovah in His glory, but on the other by the coming of a
king of the race of David, the Messiah. The former view
prevails in a great number of passages. The two views are
placed in juxtaposition in Ezek. 34. The Lord here declares
himself against the unfaithful shepherds of His people, who
have suffered them to perish. He will, it is at first said in
verses 1 1 — 15, Himself feed His sheep. But then the prophecy
turns directly in ver. 23 to the other view: "I will set up one
shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant
David; he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd."

196 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Then in ver. 24 the two views are thus connected; "And I
the Lord will be their God, and my servant David prince
among them."
Now this son of David in whom Old Testament prophecy
culminates is the Messiah. The word Mashiahh ( Christos,
anointed) is used in the Old Testament first as the designation
of every one anointed with the holy anointing oil, but especially
is "The Lord's anointed" the title of the theocratic king ; and
on this account it became, chiefly by reason of the passages
Ps. 2: 2, Dan. 9: 25, the proper name of that descendant of
David who was to achieve complete redemption, and bring to
its consummation the kingdom of God.
The Messianic hope had already struck root in a series of
passages in the Pentateuch, and here come under consideration
thepassagesinGen. 3: 15; 49: 10; Num.24: 17,18; Deut. 18:
15—19- § 230. The Promise, 2 Sam. 7, as the Foundation of the Messianic Idea
in its stricter sense. The Messianic Psalms.
2 Sam. 7, forms in a twofold respect the starting-point for
the more definite form of the Messianic idea, — 1) by the fact
that the consummation of the kingdom of God for which Israel
was chosen, is from this time forward connected with a king
who, as the son of God, i.e., the representative of Jehovah,
and, fitted by Him to be the depositary of the Divine sover
eignty on earth, — stands in a relation of most intimate connec
tion with God ; and 2) in that it is established for all time that
this king is to be a son of David. How glorious the view of
the Davidio kingdom is rendered by the promise in 2 Sam. 7,
is first shown by the last song of David (2 Sam. 23). But
sacred poetry, under the impulse of the Spirit, now creates a
kingly image, in which all that the present manifests is far sur
passed, and the kingship of David and Solomon beheld in typi
cal perfection. This leads us to the Messianic Psalms (2, 45,
72, 110), with respect to which three different views have at all
times existed. 1) Some refer these Psalms to some actual Is
raelite king ; but since they idealize his government, and thus

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 197
transfer to him predicates (such as the right to universal sover
eignty, Ps. 2: 2, and the union of an everlasting priesthood
with his kingship, Ps. no), which cannot find in him their full
historical accomplishment, they typically point to the future
realizer of the theocratic kingship. 2) Others maintain that
the psalmist, filled with the idea of the theocratic kingship,
really rises in these psalms to the view of an individual in
whom this idea is perfectly realized, and hence, according to
the mind of the spirit, is speaking of the coming Messiah.
3) Others again distinguish between the original signification of
these psalms, by which they refer to an historical king, and
the use which, as prophetic and Messianic songs of praise,
they subsequently acquired in Divine worship.
Oehler holds that the third view is especially applicable to
Ps. 45, but grants that the directly Messianic interpretation is
fully borne out in Ps. 2, 72, and no.
§ 231. The Development of the Idea of the Messiah in the Prophets.
The Older Prophetic Writings. The Prophetic Doctrine concerning the Nature
of the Messiah.
Full and detailed predictions of the Messiah are not met
with till after the middle of the eight century, in Isaiah and
Micah. Such Messianic prophecy is, however, by no means
introduced by them as something absolutely new and till now
alien to the prophetic consciousness.
1) To sum up the essential features of Messianic prophecy,
let us inquire, what does prophecy teach concerning the
nature of the Messiah? Does it attribute to Him a super
human dignity? The meaning of almost all the passages on
this subject has been made a matter of controversy.
We begin with Micah 5: 2 — 4. The words speak either
1 ) of an eternal and Divine origin of the Messiah (so Caspari,
Boehl and others, the correct view), or state 2) that the entire
sacred history from its very beginnings contains the goings forth
of the Messiah, the preparatory elements of his coming (so Hof
mann and Orelli). It is noticeable too that the prophets, how
ever near at hand their intuition may make the advent of the Mes-

198 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
siah, never speak of Him as the son of any actually existing
king. The passage Mic. 5: 3 is parallel with the prophecy Isa. 7:
14 of the birth of Immanuel from the virgin, a passage whose
reference to the Messiah is demanded by its connection with
Isa. 9: 6, though the interpretation at present prevailing re
gards it as only typically Messianic. The mysterious nature,
however, of the expression can neither here nor in Micah be
mistaken, and Ewald as well as Orelli and Boehl have defended
its Messianic interpretation.
The exalted nature of the Messiah, however, is more defin
itely brought forward in Isa. 9: 6, 7. The Messiah is evi
dently regarded as a Divine being, though here also the ex
pressions are mysteriously indefinite.
How close, side by side, the two lines of promise, — the ap
pearance of God and the appearance of the Messiah — run, and
seem almost to touch without uniting, is shown also by the
Messianic predictions of the subsequent prophets. In Jer. 23:
5! 33: J5 trie Messiah is described as the Branch of righteous
ness, and "Branch" becomes even a proper name of the Messiah
(Zech. 3: 8; 6: 12). The chief Messianic passage in Daniel is
found in Dan. 7: 13, 14. Although the interpretation of this
passage has been controverted, the traditional exegesis, as far
as it can be followed back has regarded the Son of Man as the
Messiah, who hence appears, as Paul says, as the Lord from
heaven. § 232. The Office and Work of the Messiah.
2) With respect to the office and work of the Messiah,
these are, as the name itself implies, first those of a king. His
coming presupposes the rejection of the nation, and the deep
est humiliation of the house of David; hence the Messianic
kingdom rises from an abject to a glorious state. This thought
is expressed in Mic. 5: 2, but especially in Isa. 11: 1. With
this corresponds the description Zech. 9: 9, 10. It is not with
the pomp of an earthly conqueror, but with lowly array and

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 199
riding upon an ass, that the Messiah makes His entry into
Jerusalem. Beginning at Jerusalem, He founds a peaceful
kingdom, which is to reach from sea to sea, and from the river
to the ends of the earth.
An important question here arises: Does the Old Testa
ment also speak of a suffering Christ ? i. e., of one who atones
by death and suffering for the sins of the people. The Messi
anic passages quoted hitherto do not involve this. But to
gether with these statements, there is another prophetic view
which points to a servant of God who suffers in the place of the
people, to an act of atonement on which the dawning of the
day of redemption depends, to the priesthood of the Messiah.
To show the connection between this branch of prophecy and
the whole doctrinal system of the Old Testament, it will be
necessary to enter somewhat more into detail.
§ 233. The Office and Work of the Messiah, continued.
In Ps. 22 a guiltless sufferer, exposed to ruthless enemies
and undergoing agonizing torture, prays for deliverance from
his misery. While he is wrestling in prayer, faith triumphs.
Then follows a description how, in consequence of this Divine
act of deliverance, all who are afflicted and exposed to death find
refreshment at the sacrificial feast made by the rescued sufferer.
This description at the end of the psalm recalls especially the
predicted feast of the Messianic days (Isa. 25: 6 — 8), which
God is preparing upon Mount Zion for all nations. Whether
the psalm was occasioned by the experience of a David, a
Jeremiah, or some other servant of God, the details are min
utely descriptive of the Messiah and far surpass anything that
could be predicated of any Old Testament character.
That the intercession of the righteous for a sinful nation is
effectual, is a thought running through the entire Old Testa
ment. The prophecy of redemption is not complete till it be
holds an individual advocating the cause of the people before
God ; and this is the servant of Jehovah (Isa. 53), which can only
refer to an individual. Prophecy rises to the intuition of one
in whom the image of the faithful servant is complete, — of one

200 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
who, not for his own sins, but as a substitute of the people and
for their sins, lays down his life as an offering for sin, a pay
ment in full for debt, but is, notwithstanding the prophetic
message which points to him, despised and regarded by the
people, for whom he appears, as stricken of God for his own
transgressions, who is, moreover, treated even in death like the
violent wicked and like those whom a curse follows even to
the grave. But God leads him from the grave to glory, so that
he is now the author of righteousness to many, and divides the
spoil with the strong.
§ 2*34. The Office and Work of the Messiah, continued.
In Zechariah the Messiah distinctly appears as the future
redeemer .of the people, and indeed as their atoning High
Priest. This future atoner to whom the present priesthood
typically refers, is the Branch, the son of David, the Messiah
(Zech. 6: 9 — 15; 12: 10 — 13).
PART III. OLD TESTAMENT WISDOM (§ 235— 250).
§ 235. General Preliminary Remarks.
The Old Testament Wisdom (Hhokhma) forms, with the
law and prophecy, a special department of knowledge, to
which three of the canonical books of the Old Testament ( Job,
Proverbs, and Eeclesiastes), and, in virtue of their matter,
many of the Psalms also, pre-eminently belong. The law gives
the commandments and claims of Jehovah. Prophecy pro
claims the word of the Lord, which reveals His counsels, and
discloses the object of God's mode of government. The
Hhokhma does not in an equal manner refer its matter to
direct Divine causation. It has even been styled the philoso
phy of the Hebrews. But Old Testament wisdom is neverthe
less essentially different from other philosophy. It is based,
indeed, upon the observation of nature and human affairs, and
especially in the latter respect upon experience as handed
down by the ancients (Job 12: 7 — 13; 5: 27; 8: 8 — 10). In
such investigations of nature and human life, however, it is
placed under a regulative factor which Greek wisdom does

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 201
not possess ; it starts from a supernaluralistic assumption which
the latter lacks. Its mode of procedure, is to endeavor, by
means of that key of knowledge which revelation affords, bet
ter to understand God's ways in the world, and through the,
knowledge of God's will furnished by the law, better to deter
mine the duties of human life. The Old Testament wisdom
begins by abasing the self-sufficiency of natural knowledge,
and giving glory to Divine revelation, i. e., it begins with the
fear of the Lord, as it so often designates its subjective princi
ple of knowledge ("compare Prov. 30: 1 — 6).
§ 236. General Preliminary Remarks, continued.
But how now does the Hhokhma obtain an objective princi
ple of knowledge ? The' Israelitish mind, reflecting on the acts
and ways of God as handed down, and on the Divine ordinan
ces by whose discipline it has been strengthened, attains to the
perception of their marvelous adaptation to their purpose,
especially when it compared the law of Israel with the laws
and statues of heathenism. This impression of the adaptation
of the law to its purpose, which the Israelitish mind received,
is, expressed in numerous passages of the Old Testament (Ps.
147: 19,20; 19: 7 — 11), but especially Ps. 119, which proclaims
in 176 verses the praises of the law. From the perception of
the adaptation of the theocratic ordinances to the purpose of
their institution the mind then advances to the thought of an
all-embracing and all-ruling purpose. The purposes and
government of God being then recognized outside the theo
cracy also, the universe is regarded not as a mere product of
the power of God, who can create what We will (Ps. 115: 3;
135: 6), but as the product of the Divine plan. Thus arises
the thought of the the Divine wisdom as the principle of the
world; and this it is which is the objective principle of the
Hhokhma. The task now presented to the Israelitish mind
was to show that a Divine teleology exists everywhere, even be
yond the boundary defined by the theocratic ordinances, — a
task to which, in prospect of the inexhaustible fulness here of
fered, it devoted itself with delight.

202 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
/. Objective Divine Wisdom (% 237—239).
§ 237. The Part of Wisdom as an Attribute of God in the Universe. Its
Personification. That the Divine intelligence, the Divine nous, is employed
in the creation and preservation of the universe, is laid down
as a general proposition in Prov. 3: 19, 20. Though wis
dom here appears only as an attribute of God, the well-known
passage Prov. 8: 22 — 36, goes further. Wisdom is personified
in this passage, and is no longer regarded as a mere attribute
of God, nor even as a dependent power, hut as that creative,
arranging, and energizing thought of the world which proceeds
from God, and is objective even to Himself, or, to express it
with Delitzsch in a more concrete manner, as the reflection of
God's plan of the world, objective to Himself. That wisdom
is the plan of the universe which proceeded from God, and
which has itself become objective to God, is also very evident
from Job 28 : 12 — 28. In both of these chief passages (Prov.
8 and Job 28) wisdom is the principle of the world laid down
by God, and not a creature like the things in the world, its
coming forth from God being, on the contrary, the presupposi
tion of the world's creation. We cannot go further; but, as
Nitzsch expresses it, we have here an unmistakable germ of
the ontological self-distinction of the Godhead. How closely
the Old Testament borders upon actually regarding Wisdom
as a personal existence, is shown more especially by the re
markable passage in Job 15: 7, 8. How are we here reminded
of "the one who is in the bosom of the Father" (John 1: 18)
and how justly has Ewald found in this passage an echo of the
subsequent idea of the Logos ! Perhaps, too, the "Son" of
God in Prov. 30: 4 may also be thus explained.
§ 238. The Old Testament View of Nature.
In the Old Testament the world is not regarded merely as
the product of power, but more definitely as the product of an
almighty will ordering all in conformity with its purpose. It is
according to this principle that the Old Testament view of
nature must be defined. The ruling omnipotence of God is

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 203
placed above all. He who has subjected all that is in heaven and
on earth to His laws (Job 38: 11, 33; Jer. 31: 35; 33: 25), makes
also the course of nature subserve His purpose. This purpose
is, in general, the manifestation of the Divine glory (see § 53).
The order of nature is further placed in close connection with
the moral order of the world. What the Mosaic doctrine of
retribution teaches (see § 89) concerning this connection, viz.,
that the course of nature subserves the purpose of Divine
justice, is maintained to its full extent in the Hhokhma.
§ 239. The Control of Wisdom in Human Affairs.
Not only nature, but human affairs, are controlled by wis
dom as an objective Divine principle. That same wisdom
which is the governing principle of the universe, has taken up
its abode on earth, and rules as a sovereign all the events of
life, in which a Divine design, and therefore Divine intelligence,
is everywhere perceptible.
If we inquire more closely as to the means by which wisdom
makes her appeal to man, Prov. 1: 23 points to those factors
of revelation, the Word and the Spirit. Indeed the Word is the
vehicle of the Spirit. The effect of this upon men is first
designated as instruction. The idea of instruction is one of
the fundamental ideas of the Proverbs of Solomon, — one of
the seven pillars (Prov. 9: 1), as Oetinger says, upon which
the house of wisdom is supported. Wisdom and instruction
are inseparably connected (Prov. 1: 2, 7; 23: 23); the way to
wisdom is called a reception of instruction (Prov. 1: 3; 19: 20).
The preservation of wisdom is only possible by taking fast
hold of instruction (Prov. 4: 13; 10: 17). Consequently it is
with this instruction or reproof that the educational agency of
wisdom upon man must begin; for man is by nature ignorant
of the way of salvation, and easily seduced to evil. He who
will not be convinced, who in his self-sufficiency will not re
ceive the reproofs of instruction, nay, hates them, shows him
self thereby to he a fool, brutish, and is in his incorrigibleness
hastening to irretrievable ruin (Prov. 1: 24 — 27; 12: 1; 13: 18;
etc.).

204 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. Subjective Human Wisdom (% 240 — 242).
% 240. The Fear of the Lord the Subjective Principle of Wisdom.
The subjective principle of Wisdom is, then, the fear of the
Lord (Prov. i : 7). This fear of the Lord is the knowledge of
the All-Holy (Prov. 9: 10). This Divine holiness addresses
itself, in that law which reveals the perfect will of God, to the
free will of man. Consequently the fear of the Lord, as the
knowledge of the All- Holy, is based upon that will of God
which opposes all selfish and sinful human efforts, and appoints,
in conformity with His purpose of salvation, an end and meas
ure to all things; it is the dread of disobeying this holy will of
God. Hence it involves, according to the just definition of its
moral characteristics (Prov. 8: 13), "hatred of evil, pride, ar-
rogancy, and the evil way." From this fear of God proceeds
also the effort 1) to perceive in everything the end designed
by the Divine will ; and 2) to realize it in every action, as it is
said, "in all thy ways acknowledge him" (Prov. 3: 6). The
former may be called theoretical, the latter practical wisdom.
§ 241. Practical Wisdom.
Subjective wisdom, though by no means excluding theoreti
cal questions, is yet for the most part practical, and bent upon
accomplishing the holy will of God in human life. Since, how
ever, this will of God aims not only at the external consecra
tion of the life, but also at the sanctification of the heart and
temper, the ethics of the Old Testament doctrine of wisdom
does not treat only, as has been so often supposed, of a restora
tion of an external legality of conduct. The Ethics of the
book of Proverbs seeks to arouse the fear of God, and of the
all-seeing Searcher of hearts (Prov. 15: 11; 16: 2; etc.). Con
viction of sin is required (Prov. 20: 9). Prov. 28: 13 declares
the duty of confessing sin, and the happiness of obtaining for
giveness. Sacrifice, as a mere external work is rejected (Prov.
15: 8).
§ 242. Practical Wisdom, continued.
Notwithstanding what has been said, it must be confessed
that the wisdom of the Proverbs is chiefly concerned with the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 205
sphere of the external life. The ethics of the Proverbs is of
an undeniably negative character, and presents by reason of
the constant reflection upon the end designed by that will
which they require, an appearance of coldness and extreme
moderation. The impelling power of love is wanting as a
motive. In consequence of this negative character, it is rather jus
tice than love which it is the duty a man owes to his neighbor;
and it has even been made a matter of reproach against the
ethics of these maxims, that they sometimes border upon the
recommendation of a selfish prudence. But the Book of Prov
erbs has numerous maxims which relate to the practice of
those duties resulting from the principle of love, placability
being inculcated (Prov. 10: 12); the love of enemies (25: 21,
22); peaceableness (17: 14; 20: 3); gentleness and patience
(15: 1, 18); forbearance to the poor (22: 22), in impressing
which last named virtue, it is expressly stated that the Creator
is honored by him that hath mercy on the needy (14: 31).
3. Moral Good (§ 243, 244).
§ 243. Its Realization in the Individual Life.
The teaching of the Hhokhma concerning the possession of
earthly good is entirely based upon the Mosaic doctrine of re
tribution. What this expresses as the shall of promise and
threatening, is announced in Proverbs as a fact, and that with
the assurance arising from direct experience (13: 9, 21), A
number of sayings on this subject are found in the speeches of
the three friends of Job, who explicitly aim to exhibit the act
ual reality of the Divine law of retribution. That the life,
which is the reward of wisdom, is regarded both in Proverbs
and in the legal doctrine of retribution as earthly and of this
world, is generally admitted; the question, however, is whether
the teaching of Proverbs is limited thereto. Ewald, in particu
lar asserts that Proverbs teaches a happy life in another world.
Upon the whole it is worthy of note that the Proverbs make
mention of Sheol, the realm of Shades, (Rephaim), only when
speaking of the final lot of the wicked. It is thither that the

206 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
paths of the adulteress lead (Prov. 2: 18; 5: 5; 7: 27; 9: 18);
while so to speak, a veil is drawn over the state of the righte
ous in Hades.
The doctrine of the Hhokhma has often been designated as
pure Eudemonism, i. e., as teaching that wisdom and righteous
ness are but means for the attainment of earthly prosperity as
the proper object of life. On the contrary, however, it could
not be more distinctly stated than it is in the Book of Proverbs.
that it is wrong too make earthly prosperity, in and for itself,
the object of life (Prov. 11: 4, 28; 15: 16; etc.). The beautiful
passage, Prov. 30: 7 — 9, may especially be mentioned, as show
ing how earthly prosperity is ever to be prized only in
proportion as it is accompanied by godly and righteous con
duct. § 244. Realization of Moral Good in the Various Social Spheres.
Moral good is not realized in individual life alone, but also
in the various social spheres.
1) Domestic happiness is the chief of those good things
with which the fear of God is rewarded. Both the conjugal
and the parental relations are regarded by the Hhokhma with
a moral and religious seriousness, the like of which is not found
in anyone of the nations of antiquity. Marriage is designated
as a covenant of God (Prov. 2: 17). "House and riches are
an inheritance from fathers: but a prudent wife is from the
Lord" (Prov. 19: 14), i. e., marriages are made in heaven. No
sin is more frequently or more sharply reproved in Proverbs
than the violation of conjugal fidelity. With this corres
ponds the appreciation of the blessing of children. Hence it is
expressly required that children be carefully trained, by strict
discipline and religious and moral instruction. Parents are also
warned to begin the instruction of their children betimes, and
thus to train them for their whole life. A complete statement
of the educational precepts given in the Proverbs would here
be out of place. It may suffice to point out how earnestly dili
gence is insisted on, and sloth branded as a contemptible thing
(6: 6— 11; 10: 26; 15: 19; 19: 15, 24; 20: 4, 13; 26: 13—16); how

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 207
temperance (13: 25; 23: 19 — 21) and chastity are required, and
temptations to unchastity warned against (7: 5 — 23, 23: 26 — 28).
The education of girls is never separately treated of in Prov
erbs. It is a self-evident assumption that they too were in
structed in the law. The end contemplated in female
education may be perceived from the description of the excel
lent woman in Prov. 31: 10 — 31, and the passages Prov. 11:
16, 22; 12: 4; etc.
2) Political life and well-ordered civil institutions are re
garded as component parts of moral good. The view that
kings and judges are the organs of the Divine government of the
world, and viceregents of the Supreme Ruler and Judge, and
that as such they are appointed to administer justice, especially
by executing severe judgment upon the wicked, forms the
foundation of a whole series1 of proverbs (Prov. 16: 12 — 15;
20: 8, 26; etc.). All political wisdom is comprised in the say
ing: "Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach
to any people" (Prov. 14: 34).
4. The Enigmas of Human Life. The Struggle for their Solution (§ 245
—248). § 2,45. The Enigmas themselves.
That which above all else gave rise to the struggle between
faith and doubt, was the perception that the actual course of
events did not harmonize with the postulate oj the doctrine of
retribution, — that the God who judges righteously did not
make His righteous judgment evident in what befell either
nations or individuals. It is on this account that Job is so
often reproached by his friends for resembling the wicked by
disputing the Divine retribution. While the perplexities
caused by the fortunes of nations were solved for the prophets
by the view afforded them of the consummation of the Divine
kingdom, — of the day of the Lord when judgment and deliver
ance should manifest the Divine righteousness, — it was concern
ing the enigmas of individual life, presented by the prosperity
of the wicked and the calamities of the godly, that the reflecting
mind of the Old Testament sages struggled to obtain light.

208 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
Several of the Psalms dwell on this matter, which is the.spec-
ial subject of the whole Book of Job.
§ 246. The Struggle to solve the Enigmas relating to this Subject in the
Psalms. In those Psalms which relate to the contradiction existing
between the moral worth of an individual and his external cir
cumstances, we generally find that the knot is not untied, but
simply cut. Another special feature is to be remarked in those
Psalms in which that judgment upon his enemies which the
Psalmist confidently entreats is also in measure announced —
the so-called imprecatory Psalms, of which Ps. 59, 69, and
109 are the strongest. Instead of being shocked at them, we
need simply to understand them. And it is easy to perceive
that what we find in them is no private feeling of anger venting
itself in curses, but that they are the product of zeal for the
honor of that God who is attacked in His servants (Ps. 69: 9).
The New Testament itself knows of no other final recon
ciliation of the contradiction introduced into the world by the
existence of evil than that which is accomplished by judgment.
But the difference between the two Testaments lies in the cir
cumstance that the Old Testament, referring, as far as retribu
tion is concerned, exclusively to this life, does not afford the
same scope for the Divine long suffering as the New, and must
demand an actual and adequate sentence, an infliction of judg
ment upon the ungodly within the limits of earthly existence.
The solution furnished by certain Psalms is not a dogmatic
one, i. <?., no doctrine actually leading beyond the limits of
Mosaism is arrived at. It is rather a solution which is subjec
tive and personal. The communion with God to which the
Psalmist has been admitted asserts itself with such strength,
that he not only finds therein his full compensation for the
prosperity of the wicked, but, rising for the moment superior
to death and Sheol, knows himself to be inseparably united to
God. The first chief passage in which the feeling of saving
and indissoluble union with God is poured forth is Ps. 16. To
this feeling we must certainly refer such passages as Ps. 48: 14

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 209
and 68 : 20, which some have also interpreted of deliverance
from death in the New Testament sense. In Ps. 73: 26, the
Psalmist expresses his confidence that even if his heart fails in
death, his communion with God cannot be dissolved.
§ 247. Solution of the Enigmas in the Book of Job.
All the enigmas with which Israelitish wisdom was occu
pied are discussed in the Book of Job, and every solution pro
duced upon Old Testament soil is attempted. A fragment of
Old Testament life is brought before us, and it is shown by
Job's example, how a righteous man may fall into such griev
ous temptation as to threaten his trust in God with shipwreck,
and how the struggles of faith at last result in victory. This
book has often been contrasted with Mosaism, as coming to a
formsl rupture with the doctrine of retribution. This is, how
ever, far from being the case, — the Mosaic doctrine of retribu
tion being, on the contrary, expressly confirmed by the issue,
viz., the abundant compensation of the hero of the book for his
sufferings. This book teaches us to recognize a fourfold purpose in
human suffering. 1 ) There is a penal suffering with which
God visits the ungodly. This proposition is discussed in
manifold aspects by the three friends of Job (see especially
ch. 8 ; 15: 20 — 35; ch. 18 and 20), and at last conceded by Job
himself (27: 11 — 23). 2) There is a Divine chastisement im
posed upon all men, which is necessarily due to the natural
impurity and sinfulness of human nature, and must accordingly
be borne by the righteous also. This is the doctrine which
Eliphaz advances in his first speech, in explanation of the
calamities of Job (ch. 4), where in verses 12 — 16, he refers to
a revelation imparted to him in a night vision. 3) There is
also a special testing and purifying of the righteous imposed
upon them by the love of God, for the purpose of delivering
them from some secret pride, of leading them to humble
and penitent self-knowledge, and of thus insuring to them the
Divine favor. This is the doctrine which Elihu brings forward
in Job 33: 14—30; 36: 5—15- 4) There is a suffering which

210 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
is designed to manifest the triumph of faith and the fidelity of
the righteous. This it is which was the immediate object of
Job's afflictions, as already alluded to in the prologue of the
book, and evidenced to all in the epilogue.
But while the Book of Job thus offers a key to these afflic
tions of the righteous, it at the same time furnishes reasons for
believing in the righteous providence of God, from the consid
eration of His character and His dominion over nature.
i) Divine providence may be inferred from the character of
God. The fundamental thought of the profound speech of
Elihu (Job 34 : 10 sqq.) is; God, by reason of His power over
the world, can never be unjust. God cannot be unjust to that
which He Himself called into existence, and maintains therein.
He so directs the lot of individuals and nations, that right is
at last made manifest, 2) But Divine Providence may also be
inferred from God's dominion over nature. This proposition
is already prepared for in Job 28, the idea being there carried
out that man, though incapable of becoming possessed of the
Divine wisdom itself, is yet able to recognize its traces in the
whole economy of nature, and may therefore, with regard to
the Divine appointment of human life, resign himself to, and
fall back on, the fear of God. This point of view is especially
maintained by Elihu.
§ 248. Continuation.
The question which still remains to be discussed is, what
position does the Book of Job, which keeps the attention di
rected to the state of man after death, beyond any book of the
Old Testament, occupy with regard to the doctrine of immor
tality? The notion that its direct purpose is to prove the doc
trine of the immortality of the human soul, rests upon a
misconception. It is, however, true that in it are deposited the
presuppositions of the hope of eternal life But that final
solution of all enigmas, that the sufferings of this pres
ent world are not worthy to be compared with the glory that
shall be revealed in the children of God, was not discovered by
Job, nor by the Old Testament in general. By reason of the

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 211
constant connection existing between revealed knowledge and
the facts of revelation, a belief in eternal life which should be
truly stable could not arise until the acquisition of eternal life,
as faith in Him who in His own person overcame death and
brought life and immortality to light, and who through His re
deeming work has perfected also the saints of the Old Testa
ment (Heb. n: 40).
S. Renunciation of the Solution in the Book of Eeclesiastes (%249, 250).
§ 249. Standpoint of this Book. Inquiry concerning Divine Retribution
and Immortality. The Book of Koheleth or Eeclesiastes forms the conclusion
of the canonical Old Testament Hhokhma. Its standpoint
may be briefly designated as that of resignation — an abandon
ment of the attempt to comprehend the Divine government of
. the world, the reality of which to faith, it however, firmly holds.
This book is equally misunderstood when its author is credited
with a knowledge beyond the limits of the Old Testament,
and especially with the knowledge of eternal life, etc., and
when he is regarded as a fatalist or an Epicurean. So little
does this book preach infidelity, that its author does not sur
render even one of the doctrines transmitted to him. That
there is a Divine government of the world, that there is a
righteous retribution, faith may not question: it is the how of
these matters that man is unable to comprehend. Man is not
able to understand the result produced by the God-ordained
course of the world. This appears especially in respect to
Divine Retribution. Experience is seen by the author of the
Book of Eeclesiastes to be always at variance with the adoption
of this doctrine. To this is added the sad experience, of the
impunity of the wicked. Still all this must not destroy the
postulate of faith (Eccles. 8: 12, 13).
With reference to the question whether Eeclesiastes teaches
the immortality of man, we answer that the author of this book
distinctly assumes that there is a future retribution. Towards
the close of the book, the author, dismissing all the doubts re-

212 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
suiting from natural observation, positively expresses (Eccles.
12: 7) the tenet that the spirit of man returns to God who gave
it; and in 12: 14 compared with 11: 9,. that God will bring
every secret thing to judgment, whether it be good or whether/
it be evil.
§ 250. Moral Teaching of the Book. Conclusion.
The moral teaching imparted in this book corresponds
with the standpoint of resignation which it occupies. Pru
dence, moderation in all things, is the quality to be most/ur-
gently recommended. The gladness which imparts vigyr to
the inner life is, however, not found in the Preacher. Iyl pa
tient composure the wise man does at all times just that ivhich
is seasonable, and commits the issue to God. The fr/me of
mind possessed by the wise man in the midst of all this com -
posure is shown in Eccles. 7 : 2 — 4. The dialectics of the Book
of Eeclesiastes, with their mainly negative result,; forms a
transition from the Old to the New Testament. For from a
persuasion of the vanity of all earthly good, arises the longing
after the eternal and saving blessings of the New/ Testament,
and the desire for the coming of that immutable' kingdom of
God announced by prophecy, in which the inquiries of Old
Testament and all other wisdom have found their enduring ob
ject.

SELECT LITERATURE OF
BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
I. Of Biblical Theology in General.
1. Beck, J. T. Christliche Lehrwissenschaft. Stuttgart, 1841.
2. Briggs, C. A. Biblical Study, etc. Pp. 367^05. New York, 1883.
3. Buddeus J. F. Historia Eeclesiastiea Vetei'is Testamenti, etc. Ed. 3.
1726, 1729. 2 Bde.
A work of permanent value.
4. Grlassius, Sal. Philologia Sacra, etc. Leipsic, 1705.
This edition by Olearius is the best.
5. Hofmann, J. Chr. K. Der Sehriftbeweis. 3 Bde. 2. Aufl. Noerd-
lingen 1857—1860.
6. Koehler, A. Biblische Gesehichte des Alien Testaments. 2 Bde.
Erlangen, 1877—82.
7. Oehler, G-. F. Theology of the Old Testament. Edited by Day.
New York, 1883.
This edition is a revision of the Edinburgh edition (1874, 75),
and incorporates the additions of the second German edition,
revised by Th. Oehler, 1882.
8. Eoos, M. F. Einleitung in die biblisehen Gesehiehten des Alten Testa
ments, etc. Reprinted. Stuttgart, 1876.
9. Schultz, F. W. Theologie des Alten Testaments. In Zoeckler's
Handbueh der theologischen Wissenschaften. Noerdlingen, 1883.
10. Schultz, Herm, Alttestamentliche Theologie. 2. Aufl. Frankfurt
a. M. XII, 838 pp., 1878.
Valuable articles on special topics will be found in the Dic
tionaries and Encyclopaedias edited by Fairbairn, Hamburger,
Herzog-Plitt-Hauck, Kitto-Alexander, M'Clintock-Strong,
Biehm, Schaff-Herzog, Schenkel, Smith-Hackett-Abbot, and
Winer. II. Of Special Topics of Biblical Theology.
1. OF THE ANGELS.
1. Barry. Alfred. Article on Angels in Smith's Bible Dictionary.
Compare especially the full literature given by Hackett and
Abbot, covering the whole subject (Jewish notions, Early
Fathers, Representation in Christian Art, "Angel of Jehovah",
Modern works).

214 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. Duke, H. H. The Holy Angels; their nature and employments
gis recorded in the "Word of God. London, 1875.
3. Dunn, L. R. The Angels of God. New York, 1881.
4. Godet, F. Studies on the Old Testament. Third edition. New
York, 1884.
5. Hengstenberg, E. W. The Books of Moses and Egypt. Andover.
1843.  Essay on Cherubim, appended to Commentary on
Ezekiel. Pp. 499—538. Edinburgh, 1869.
6. Hofmann, J. Chr. K. Der Schriftbeweis. Vol. 1. 314—403.
7. Kurtz, J. H. Die Ehen der Soehne Gottes, etc. Berlin, 1857.
8. Ode J. Commentarius de Angelis. Traj . ad Rhen., 1739.
An exhaustive work of more than 1100 quarto pages.
9. Whately, R. Seripture Revelations concerning Good and Evil Angels.
Philadelphia, 1856.
See the various Lexicons on Angels, Cherubim, Gabriel,
Michael, Seraphim, Angel of Jehovah, etc.
See works on Biblical Theology and Systematic Theology.
The literature of this subject is immense.
2. OF CBEATION.
1. Bir&s, T. R. The Seripture Doctrine of Creation, etc. New York,
1875.
2. Buddensieg, R. Die Assyrischen Ausgrabungen und das Alte Testa
ment. Heilb., 1880.
3. Calderwood, Henry. The Relations of Seienee and Religion. Pp. 13
323. New York, 1881.
4. Dawson, J. W. Nature and the Bible. Pp. 257. New York, 1875.
5  The Origin of the World, etc. New York, 1877.
6. Delitzsch, Franz. Commentar ueber die Genesis. 4th edition,
Leipsic, 1872. Facile princeps.
7. Godet, F. Biblical Studies on the Old Testament. New York, 1884.
8. Guyot, A. Creation, etc. New York, 1884.
9. Kurtz, J. H. The Bible and Astronomy. Philadelphia, 1861.
(Fifth German Edition, 1865).
10. Lewis, T. The Six Days of Creation, etc. Pp. 416. New York,
1879.
11. Luthardt, C. E. Fundamental Truths of Christianity. Edinburgh,
1869.
12 McCaul, A. The Mosaic Record of Creation, In Aids to Faith.
London, 1861.
13. Pratt, John H. Seripture and Seienee not at Variance. Seventh
edition. London, 1872.
14. Reusch, F. H. Bibel und Natur. 4. Aufl. Bonn, 1876.
15. Schultz, F. W. Die Sehoepfungsgeschichte nach Naturwissensehaft
und Bibel. Gotha, 1865.

SELECT LITERATURE. 215
16. Zoeckler, Otto. Die Urgeschichte der Erde und des Mensehen. Gue-
tersloh, 1868.
17  Gesehichte der Beziehungen zw. Theol. und Naturwis-
senschaft, etc. 2 vols. Guetersloh, 1877, 79.
3. OF GOD.
1. Alexander, "W. Lindsay. The Connection and Harmony of the Old
and New Testaments. London, 1853.
Also the same author's Articles in Kitto (Alexander's edition).
2. Ewald, H. Lehre der Bibel von Gott, etc 4 Bde. Leipsic, 1871—1876.
An English translation is now appearing.
3. Hengstenberg, E. W. Dissertations on the Genuineness of the Pen
tateuch. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1847.
4. Hoelemann, H. G. Bibelstudien. Vol. 1. Leipsic, 1861.
5. Noeldecke. Ueber den Gottesnamen El. Berlin. 1880,
6. Oehler, G. T. Articles on Elohim and Jehovah in Herzog, first
edition. Re-written by Delitzch for the second edition.
7. Schmieder. Betrachtungen ueber das hohepriesterliehe Gebet. 1848.
"A book which is not known so well as it deserves to be"
(Oehler).
8. "Wright, "W. A. Article on Jehovah in Smith's Bible Dictionary.
See works on Old Testament Theology already cited, and
works on Systematic Theology.
4. PENTATET/CH CRITICISM.
1. Binnie, "W. The Proposed Reconstruction of Old Testament History.
j. bird edition. Edinburgh, 1880.
2. Boehl, E. Zum Gesetz u zum Zeugniss. "Wien, 1883.
3. Curtiss, S. S. The Levitical Priests. Edinburgh, 1877.
4. Green, "William Henry. Moses and the Prophets, New York, 1883-
 The Hebrew Feasts in relation to recent
critical Hypotheses concerning the Pentateuch New York, 1885.
5. Smith, "W. Robertson. The Old Testament in the Jewish Church.
New York, 1881.
6. "Watts, Robert. The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of Faith. Third
edition. Edinburgh, 1882.
5. OF PROPHECY.
1. Boehl, E. Christologie des Alten Testamentes, etc. "Wien, 1882.
2. Davison. John. Discourses on Prophecy, etc. ("Warburtonian
Lecture). Fourth edition. London, 1839.
3. Delitzsch, Franz. Die bibl. prophet. Theologie, etc. Leipsic, 1845.
4  Messianic Propheey. Translated by Prof.
Curtiss. Edinburgh, 1880.
5  Old Testament History of Redemption. Edin
burgh, 1881.

216 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
6. Fairbairn. P. Propheey, viewed in respeet to its distintive nature, etc.
Second edition, 1866.
7. Gloag, Paton J. The Messianie Prophecies. Baird Lectures for
1879. Edinburgh, 1879.
8. Green, "William Henry. Moses and the Prophets. New York,
1883.
9. Hengstenberg, E. "W. Christology of the Old Testament, etc. 4
vols. Edinburgh, 1854, 56, 58.
10. Hofmann. J. C. K. Weissagung u. Erfuelling, etc. 2 vols. Noerd-
lingen, 1841—44.
11. Kueper. Das Prophetenthum des Alten Bundes. 1870.
12. Orelli, C. von. The Old Testament Prophecy of the Consummation of
God's Kingdom, etc. Edinburgh, 1885.
13. Riehm, E. Messianie Propheey, etc. Edinburgh,1875.
14. Smith, J. Pye. The Seripture Testimony to the Messiah, etc. 2 vols.
Fifth edition. Edinburgh, 1859.
15. Smith, R. Payne. Propheey a Reparation for Christ. Bampton
Lectures for 1869. London, 1870.
16. Smith, "W. R. The Prophets of Israel. New York, 1882.
6. OF BIBLICAL PSYCHOLOGY.
1. Beck, J. T. Outlines of Biblical Psychology. Third Edition. Edin
burgh, 1877.
2. Delitzsch, Franz. A System of Biblical Psychology. Second edition.
Edinburgh 1869.
3. Goeschel. Der Menseh naeh Leib, Seek und Geist, etc. Leipsic, 1856.
4. Haussmann, J. G. F. Die Biblische Lehre vom Mensehen. 1848.
5. Heard, J. B. The Tripartite Nature of Man. Fifth edition. Edin
burgh, 1885.
6. Laidlaw, John, The Bible Doctrine of Man. Seventh series of
Cunningham Lectures. Edinburgh, 1883.
7. Ruloff. Die Lehre vom Mensehen naeh Geist, Seele, und Leib. 1858.
8. "Wendt. Die Begriffe Fleisch und Geist im bibl. Sprachgebrauch, Gotha,
1878.
9. ZOckler, Otto. Die Lehre vom Urstand des Mensehen, etc. Gueters-
loh, 1879. 7. OF THE SABBATH.
1. Cox, Robert. The Literature of the Sabbath Question. 2 vols. Edin
burgh, 1865.
2. Gilfillan, James. The Sabbath viewed in the light of Reason,
Revelation, and History, with sketches of its Literature. New
York, 1862.
3. Hessey, J. A. Sunday. Its Origin, History and Present Obliga
tion. Bampton Lectures for 1860. Fourth edition. London,
1880.

SELECT LITERATURE. 217
8. OF SACRIFICES.
1. Baehr, K. C. "W. T. Symbolik des Mos. Kultus. 2 Bde. Heidelberg,
1837, 39. A second edition of first volume appeared in 1874.
2. Cave, Alfred. The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice. Edinburgh,
1877.
3. Delitzsch, F. Commentary on Hebrews. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1882.
4. Dillmann, A. Die Bueher Exodus und Leviticus. Leipsic, 1880.
5. Faber, G. S. A Treatise on the Origin of Expiatory Sacrifice. Lon
don, 1827.
6. Hengstenberg, E. "W. The Sacrifices of Holy Scripture. Pp. 367
— 409 of Commentary on Eeclesiastes with other Treatises. Philadel
phia, 1860.
7  Egypt and the Books of Moses. Edinburgh, 1845.
8. Jukes, A. The Law of the Offerings, etc. Boston. No date.
9. Keil, C. F. Handbueh der biblisehen Archwologie. Second edition.
Frankfurt, 1875.
10. Kliefoth, Th. Liturgische Abhandlungen. Vol. 4. 1. Der alt-und
neut. Cultus. Schwerin, 1858.
11. Kueper. Das Priesterthum des A. Bundes. Berlin, 1866.
12. Kurtz, J. H. Saerifieial Worship of the Old Testament. Edinburgh'
1863.
13. Magee, Wm. On Atonement and Sacrifice. London, 1856.
14. Outram, Two Dissertations on Sacrifices, etc. Translated by John
Allen. London, 1828.
15. Philippi, F. A. Kirehliehe Glaubenslehre. IV. 2. Guetersloh, 1870.
16. Wangemann. Das Opfer naeh d. h. Sehrift, etc. 2 Bde. Berlin, 1866.
See the various articles on this topic in the Lexicons of
Herzog, Kitto, Riehm, Smith, and "Winer.
9. OF SIN.
1. Mueller, Julius. The Christian Doetrine of Sin. Translated from
the Fifth Edition of the German. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1868.
Sixth German Edition. 2 vols. Stuttgart, 1877.
2. Philippi, F. A. Die Lehre von der Suende. In third volume of his
"Kirehliehe Glaubenslehre", pp. 1—250. Third edition. Gueters
loh, 1884.
3. Tholuck, A. Die Lehre von der Suende u. v. Versoehner. 9th edition,
1870.
4. Tulloch, John. The Christian Doctrine of Sin. New York, (1876).
Compare works on Systematic Theology.
10. OF THE STATE AFTER DEATH.
1. Alger, "Wm. R. A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life.
Tenth Edition. With a complete Bibliography by Ezra Abbot.
Boston, 1878.

218 THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
2. Boettcher. De inferis rebusque post mortem futuris. Dresden, 1846.
The literature of the subject up to the year 1844 is given in
this learned work.
3. Cremer, H. Beyond the Grave. With an Introduction by A. A.
Hodge. New York, 1886.
4. Goeschel, C. F. Der Mensch naeh Leib, Seele, und Geist, diesseits und
jenseits. Leipsic, 1856.
5. Humphrey, W. G. The Doctrine of a Future State. Hulsean Lectures
for 1849. London, 1850.
6. Loescher, V. E. Auserlesene Sammlung der besten und neueren
Sehriften vom Zustand der Seele naeh dem Tode. Dresden, 1735.
7. Luthardt, C. E. Die Lehre v. d. letzten Dingen. 3 Aufl. Leipsic, 1885.
8. Perowne, J. J. S. Immortality. Hulsean Lectures for 1868. Lon
don 1869.
9. Rinck, H. W. Vom Zustand naeh dem Tode. Second edition.
Ludwigsburg and Basel, 1866.
10. Rudloff. Die Lehre vom Mensehen, etc. Second edition. Gotha
1863.
11. Spiess. Edm. Ehtwiekelungsgesehiehte der Vor stellungen von Zustand
naeh dem Tode. Jena, 1877.
12. Whately, R View of the Seripture Revelations concerning a
Future State. London, 1870.
See also works on Biblical Psychology, on Eschatology, and
on Systematic Theology.
11. OF THE TABERNACLE AND THE TEMPLE.
1. Atwater. E. E. The Sacred Tabernacle of the Hebrews. New York,
1875.
2. Bannister, J. T. The Temples of the Hebrews, etc. London, 1866.
3. Edersheim, Alfred. The Temple. Its Ministry and Services as
they were in the time of Christ. London. No date.
4. Keil, C. F. Der Tempel Solomo's. Dorpat, 1839.
5. Riggenbach. Die Mosaisehe Stiftshuette. Second edition, 1867.
12. OF THE WISDOM LITERATURE.
1. Job. See the Commentaries of Cook, Cox, Davidson, Delitzsch,
Dillmann and Zoeckler.
2. Proverbs. See the Commentaries of Delitzsch, Plumptre, and
Zoeckler.
3. Eeclesiastes. See the Commentaries of Cox, Delitzsch, Ginsburg,
Wright and Zoeckler.

INDEX.

Abaddon and death, 71
Abraham, 29, 30; trial of, 31, 32
Adonai, 41
Adultery, sin of, 92; trial of sus
pected, 126
Ahab, 149
Ahaz, 156
Altar, the, 98, 99; meaning of,
100, 101
Analogy of faith, 21
Angel of the Lord, doctrine of,
54-56
Angelologv, Mosaic, 56, 57 ; pro
phetic, 164-169
Angels, fall of, 26 n.; doctrine
of, 166-169; office of, 166, 167;
orders of, 166, 167
Anima and, Animus, 63, 64
Animal offerings, 106; ritual of,
108-112
Anthropology, 60-72
Anthropomorphisms, 46
Anthropopathies, 48
Antichrist, the, 188
Apologetics, works on, 12
Apostles, life of, 7, 8; lives of,
12,13
Ark of the Covenant, 100; mean
ing of, 101, 102
Athaliah, 155
Atonement, day of, 125; ritual
of, 121-123; signification of,
123-125, vicarious, 123, 124;
133. 134
Attributes of God, 43-47
Authority of Scripture, 21
Avenging of blood, 94, 95
Azazel, 122, 123, 124, 170, 171
Balaam and Balak, 37
Bath-Kol, 54
Biblical Archaeology, 16
Biblical characters, works on, 13,
14

Biblical Introduction, 16
Biblical Theology, see Theology
of O. T.
Blessing and curse, 79, 80
Blood, use made of, 109-111, 120
Blood revenge, 88, 94, 95
Body, soul and spirit, 62-64
Bondage, in time of Patriarchs,
95, 96; regulations concerning,
96, 97
Burnt-offering, 112, 113
Cainites, 27
Candlestick, the golden, 99;
meaning of, 101
Canon of Old Testament, 17
Captivity of ten tribes, 152; of
Judah, 159
Cherubim, form of the, 103;
meaning of, 103
Children, education of by par
ents 92 93
Christ^ life of, 6, 7 ; lives of, 10, 11
Chronology of Bible, 3-5; works
on, 12
Circumcision, 78, 79; historical
origin of, 78; religious import
of, 78, 79
Corporal punishment, 89
Covenant, the Divine, 72-80; the
new, with Israel, 189, 190; na
ture of, 190
Creation, account of, 25, 26; doc
trine of, -'"
Cyrus, 161
Daniel, 160; four kingdoms of,
188
David, reign of, 142,143; unites
three theocratic dignities, 142;
religious development of, 142,
143; Psalms of, 143; form of
worship under 143
Day of the Lord, the, 186

220

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Death, is the consequence of sin,
69; state of man after, 70-72;
shall be destroyed, 191-193
Decalogue, the, 76-79
Divine name, meaning of, 52, 53
Divine voice, meaning of, 53, 54
Divorce, right of, 92
Dreams, 59
Eeclesiastes, stand-point of
book of, 211; moral teaching of
book of, 212
Education, importance of, 93,
206, 207
Egypt, Israel in 34, 35
El, 40
El-Elyon, 41
Elijah, 149
Elisha, 149
Eloah, 40
Elohim, 41
El-Shaddai, 42
Election of Israel, 73, 74; forms
in which it is expressed, 74
Esther, book of, 162
Eternity of God, 43
Evil, origin of, 26; moral and
physical, 50-52
Exegetical Theology, how re
lated to Hist. Theology, 1
Ezekiel, 158, 159
Ezra, administration of, 162, 163
Faith, belongs to sphere of
heart, 64; justification by 172-
174; definition of, 173
Faithfulness of God, 47
Family inheritance, to be pre
served, 94
Fermentation forbidden in of
ferings, 107
Flesh, the, 62
Flood, tradition of, 27 and n.
Food-offering, ritual of, 112
Forgiveness of sin, 190
Free-will offering, 114
Gabriel, 168
Gedeliah, 159, 160
God, Mosaic idea of, 40-48 ; names
of, 40-42; attributes of, 43-48;
eternity of, 43; immutability

of, 43; unity of, 44; is life, 44;
holiness of, 45; omnipresence
of, 46; spirituality of, 46; right
eousness of, 47 ; faithfulness of,
47; jealousy of, 47, 48; relation
of, to the world, 48; meaning
of name of, 52, 53; coun
tenance and glory of, 53, 57;
penal justice of, 80
Gog and Magog, 187
Haggai, 161, 162
Hardening of heart, 52, 68, 69
Harmonies of the Gospels, 11
Heart, and soul, 63, 64; man is
characterized by his, 64; har
dening of the 52, 68, 69
Heathen, how related to the
kingdom of God, 186; judg
ment upon, 187, 188; shall be
admitted into the kingdom of
God, 193-195
Heaven, host of, 165-167
Heiresses, laws concerning, 93
Hezekiah, 156
Hhakhamim the, 146
Hherem, 115, 116
Hhokhma, see Wisdom.
High Priest, the 85, 86; office of,
85; consecration of, 86; mean
ing of dress of, 86
Historical Theology, defined, 1;
literature of, 8
History of O. T., 2-5; 16; chro
nology of, 3-5; divisions of, 2;
importance of study of, 2;
sources of, 2, 3; text-books, 8, 9
History, contemporary, 9, 10; of
Jews in later times, 10 ; of New
Testament, 6-8; text-books,
8,9
Holiness of God, 45, 46
Holy Spirit, 58, 59
Holy Place, 99
Holy Place, Most, 100
Immortality, doctrine of in book
of Job, 210, 211; in book of
Eeclesiastes, 211, 212
Incense, altar of, 99; meaning of,
101
Inheritance, law of, 93-95

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

221

Isaac, 32
Israel in Egypt, 34, 35
Israel, history of people of, 2-5;
chronology of kingdom of, 4,
5; literature of history of, 8, 9;
election of,,,, the free act of
God's love, 73, 74; how repre
sented before God, 82; restora
tion of, 189-181; new covenant
with, 189, 190
Jacob, 32, 33; prophetic blessing
of, 33
Jealousy of God, 47, 48
Jehosaphat, 154, 155
Jehovah, pronunciation of, 42;
signification of, 42; age and
origin of name, 42; attributes
derived from name, 43, 44; doc
trine of Angel of, 54-56 Saba
oth, 164-167
Jehu, 150; dynasty of, 151
Jephthah, narrative of, 137, 138
Jeremiah, 157, 158, 159
Jeroboam I, reign of, 148
Jerusalem, destruction of, 159
Jesus, life of, 6, 7; lives of, 10, 11
Jews, literature of history of,
9, 10
Jezebel, 149, 150
Job, lessons of the book of, 209,
211
Jonah, 151
Joshua, 38, 39
Josiah, 157
:} ubilee, year of, 130, 131 ; import
of, 131, 132
Judah history of kingdom of,
153-160; captivity of, 159; chro
nology of kingdom of, 4, 5
Judge, office of, 135, 136
Judges, times of, 135-140; relig
ious condition of times, 136,
137
Judgment, the 186-188; upon
Israel, 186, 187, 189; upon the
heathen nations, 187, 188
Jus talionis, 89
Justice, the course of, 88, 89
Justification by faith, 172-174
Kapporeth, the, 100; meaning of,
102

King, law concerning a, 89, 90;
consecration of, 140, 141
Kingdom of God, design of, 185,
186; how related to the hea
then, 186
Law, the, 75—78; tables of, 100,
102;ceremonial,171;moral 171
Laying on of hands, in offerings,
120
Leper, purification of the, 123
Levirate Marriage, the, 93, 94
Levites, they, represent the peo
ple before Jehovah, 82; official
functions of, 82; consecration
of, 83; social position of, 83;
support of, 83; service of, or
ganized by David 143, 144
Life, the divine blessing of, 79
Lord of Hosts, doctrine of, 164
—167
Lynch law forbidden, 88
Malakh Jehovah, doctrine of
54-56.
Man, doctrine of, 60—72; idea
of, 60, 61; divine image of
60,61; relation to sex and race
61, 62; unity of, 62; constituent
parts of, 62, 63 primitive; state
of, 65; sin in, 66—69; state of,
after death, 69—72
Manasseh, 156, 157
Marriage, 61; law of, 90, $1; con
tract, 90, 91; bars to, 91, 92;
dissolution of, 92; the Levir
ate, 93, 94
Megiddo, battle of, 157
Melchizedek, 30, 31
Messiah, the, 168, 169; two-fold
view of coming of, 195, 196;
idea of, defined, 196, 197; de
velopment of idea of, 197, 198;
office and work of, 198, 199; a
suffering, 199; is the Branch,
198, 200
Messianic Psalms, 196, 197
Michael, 168;
Miracle, doctrine of, 57, 58;
names of, 58
Monogamy, 61
Moses, 34—37; death of, 38
Murder, to be avenged, 94, 95

222

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Nahum, 156
Nations, register of, 28, 29
Nature, Old Testament view of,
202, 203
Nazaritism, 116, 117
Nehemiah, 163
Nephesh, 62
New Testament, History of, 6, 7;
literature of history of, 9, 10;
" of times of, 10
Nineveh, destruction of 158
Noah, saying of, 28
Oath, the, 98
Offering, see Sacrifice; idea of,
104, 105; pre-Mosaic, 27, 104,
105; material of the, 106—108;
animal, 106; vegetable, 107;
burning of, 111. 112; various
kinds of, 112— 120; burnt, 112,
113; peact-, 113—115
Old Testament, see History of
O. T.
Old Testament Theology, see
Theology of O. T.
Omnipresence of God, 48
Omri, dynasty of, 149, InO
Original state of man, 65,66
Parents, relation of, to children,
92, 93
Passover, laws concerning, 132;
significance of, 133
Paul, life of, 8; lives of, 12, 13
Peace-offering, name of, 113;
three kinds of, 113, 114; ritual,
114; signification of, 115
Pentateuch, divisions of sacred
history of, 25
Pentecost, significance of, 134
Perjury, 98
Picturing God, wrong, 46
Poetry, Hebrew, 146
Polygamy, 61, 62, 91
Prediction, a characteristic of
prophecy 180
Priests, calling of the, 84; conse
cration of 84, 85; maintenance
of, 85
Primitive state of man, 65, 66
Prophecy, nature of, 174—184;
office of, 180, 181; as defined

in the early church, 176; in
older Protestant Theology,
176, 177; an inward intuition,
177, 178; illustrated by ana
logies, 179; peculiarities of, 181,
—184; fulfillment of, 182—184
Prophet, definition of the, 139,
174, 175
Prophets, chronology of, 5;
schools of, 140, 149, 150, 154
Prophetic office, nature of, 138,
139, 174, 175; object of, 139,
180—184; beginnings of, 139
Proverbs, the ethics of Book of,
204—207; the family, 206; the
state, 207
Providence, divine, 50 — 52; may
be inferred from the charac
ter of God, 210; from God's
dominion over nature, 210
Psalms, a great treasure, 143;
the Messianic. 196, 197; the
imprecatory, 208
Punishment, the course of, 88,
89; principle of, 89; corporal,
89; vicarious, 124, 126
Purification, means of, 125; acts
of, 125, 126
Purifications, Levitical, 125, 126
Race, unity of, 28, 62
Rpchabites, the, 150
Redemption, the future, 189-200;
the restoration of Israel, 189-
191; the reunion of the twelve
tribes, 191; admission of the
heathen, 193-195
Remnant of Jacob, the, 189, 190
Restoration of Israel, 189-191
Resurrection, doctrine of, 192,
193
Retribution, the Divine, 79, 80:
doctrine of, 207, 208, 211, 212
Reunion of the twelve tribes, 191
Revelation, biblical idea of, 18;
doctrine of, 52; general and
special, 18, 52; historical prog
ress of, 18, 19; unity of, 52-54;
organs of, 59, 60
Righteousness of God, 47
Ruach, 62

BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.

223

Sabbath, antiquity of, 128; origin
of, 128; idea of, 128, 129; cele
bration of, 129; of new moon,
130
Sabbatical year, laws concern
ing, 130; import of, 131, 132
Sabaoth, Jehovah, 164-167
Sacred history, 1-8; chronology
of, 3-5; divisions of, 2, 3; text
books in, 8, 9
Sacred seasons; times of, 126,
127; celebration of, 127, 128
Sacrifice, nature of first, 27;
meaning of, 97, 104, 105; ma
terial of, 106-108, ritual of, 108-
112; atoning, 118-125; passover,
133; prophecies concerning,
how interpreted, 195
Salt in offerings, 107
Salvation, O. T. experience of,
173, 174
Samaritans, origin of, 153; en
mity of, 161
Samuel, 138
Sanctuary, arrangement of, 99,
100; meaning of, 100; utensils
of, 99, 100; rooms, of, 100
Satan, doctrine of, 169-171
Saul, reign of, 141
Sargon, 152
Schools of the prophets, 140, 149,
150, 154
Scribes, the, 163
Seasons, see Sacred seasons
Seven, the number, 127
Shalmanezer, 152
Sheol, O. T. conception of, 70-
72; differs from the grave, 71;
condition of man in, 71, 72
Shewhead, table of, 99; meaning
of, 101
Servants, right of, 95, 96; reg
ulations concerning, 96; posi
tion of non-Israelitish, 96, 97
Sethites, 27, 56
Sexual relation of man, 61
Shekhina, the, 56, 56, 57
Sin, origin of, 25, 50-52; God
permits, 51, 52; formal and
material principle of, 66; O. T.
names for, 66, 67 ; as an inclina
tion, 67; hereditary, 67, 68; de

grees, 68, 69; connection with
death, 69, 70; expiation of, 121;
ruinous nature of, 171, 172;
guilt of, 172
Sin-offering, 118; ritual of, 119-
121
Sinai, Israel at, 36
Solomon, reign of, 144-147; dark
sides of reign of, 146, 147
Sopherim, 163
Soul, related to body and spirit,
62-64: origin of, 70; state of,
after death, 70-72
Spirit, connection with body and
soul, 62-64
Spirituality of God, 46
Substitution, idea of, 104
Suffering, four-fold purpose of
human, 209, 210
Synagogue, the great, 163
Synagoj, ues, 160
Tabernacles, feast of, 134, 135
Taxes, the theocratic, 117, 118
Temple, building of the, 144, 145;
significance and dedication of,
145, 146; rebuilding of 161
Ten commandments, 76-79; di
vision of, 76, 77; how divided
between the two tables, 77, 78
Ten tribes, the kingdom of, 147-
152; captivity of, 152
Terahites, 29
Thank offering, 114
Theology of Old Testament, def
inition, 15; how related to
other disciplines, 16; sources
17 ; scientific stand-point of, 17
history of cultivation of, 20-23
method of, 25; divisions of , 24,
25; literature of, 23, 24
Tithes, 117, 118
Trespass-offering, 118; ritual of,
119
Tribes, the twelve, 81, 82; sub-di
visions of, 90
Trichotomy of man, 62-64
Trinity, doctrine of, 59 n.
Unchangeableness of God, 43
Unity of God, 44

224

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Unity of race, 28, 62
Urim and Thummim, 87
Vegetable offerings, 107
Visions, 59, 60
Vows, 114; three kinds of, 115,
116
Wilderness, wanderings in, 35-
38
Wisdom, Old Testament, prov
ince of, 146; a special depart
ment of knowledge, 200, 201;
objective principle of, 201-203;
subjective principle of, 204,

205; an attribute of God, 202;
personified, 202; controls hu
man affairs, 203
Word of God, in worship, 97, 98
World, creation of, 25, 26, 48, 49;
preservation of, 49, 50
Worship, essential character of,
97; place of, 98-100; acts of,
104-112; form of, under David,
143, 144; prophecies concern
ing temple, how interpreted,
195
Zechariah, 162
Zedekiah, 159

THEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA
AND METHODOLOGY.
Based on HAGENBACH and KRAUTH.
Part. I. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY.
By REVERE FRANKLIN WEIDNER,
Professor of Theology in Augustana Theological Seminary, Hock Island, III.
12mo, 184 pp, Sent post-paid on receipt of price, $1.25.

"This work bears testimony of the Author's fitness for the import
ant undertaking of giving the English Church a safe Encyclopaedia
of Theology." — Our Church Paper.
"It is largely made up of notes and outlines, and lists of words on
Exegetical Theology, and has been prepared with much care." — The
Messenger, Philadelphia (Reformed).
"This work will be a valuable aid to the pastor, the students in the
theological seminary, and to those who may be prosecuting the study
of theology without the living teacher." — The National Baptist, Phil
adelphia. "It aims to present a summary view of what is embraced in theolo
gical knowledge. ... It will doubtless prove highly serviceable
to theological students, for whom it is designed." — Lutheran Observer,
Philadelphia. "In this admirable little work, the author avoided on the one hand
a minuteness which impairs unity, and on the other a condensation
which runs into obscurity and dryness." — The Lutheran Evangelist,
Springfield, O.
"More than fifty pages of the book are taken with titles of books
that illustrate special branches of study. Such lists afford valuable

help to the student, and they might be enlarged to the advantage of
the student, and the pastor." — The Church, Philadelphia (Episcopal).
"It is rich in its literature of the topics of which it treats, and thus
will be of special value to theological students. On the points of re
cent agitation, the author is pronouncedly Orthodox. . . . The
Author has mastered his subject and is clear and compact in his state
ments." — Presbyterian Journal, Philadelphia.
"The volume is devoted only to Exegetical Theology, but a notice
that the other parts — Historical, Systematic and Practical — are in pre
paration, encourages the hope that, in due time we will be favored with
as complete a system of Theological Encyclopaedia as can be produced
in our times." — Foreign Missionary.
"We heartily welcome this compilation ; for with the logical out
line of Hagenbach, the pregnant sentences of Krauth, and the very
satisfactory treatment of the subject which special study for years en
ables Professor Weidner to give to the division of Exegetical Theology,
the book is made exceedingly valuable." — The Workman, Pittsburgh.
"Exegetical Theology is the first volume of a series which promises
to be of marked value to many readers. . . . The work is a marvel
of suggestiveness, while its complete lists of the best works on each
subject mentioned are alone worth the price of the book. We shall
look for the remaining volumes with interest." — The Tnterior, of Chi
cago. "Professor Weidner's book will not only prove very serviceable to
theological students, in giving them a summary presentation of the sub
jects embraced in it, but it will be of great value to all ministers who
study, in that it gives under each head the most important books on
this subject, and these lists are brought down to the most recent pub
lications.'" — The Lutheran, Philadelphia.
"A valuable work and the beginning of a no less valuable series of
works in the science of theology. The book, is intended primarily to
assist the student in course, but is also designed to be of aid to the
preacher, professor, or pastor in the hours of study and review. . . .
The lectures of the late Dr. Krauth are largely drawn upon, and are
seen to have been profound and practical ." — The Standard, of Chi
cago.

"It implies on the part of the author a wide knowledge of books,
and evidence of this abounds in the volume. It is of course not meant
for continuous perusal, but for students — for those who want to scan
the whole field of theology and to mark the divisions thereof, b'or
this class this book will be found useful, and for any one who wishes
to know where a peculiar question is discussed, the volume will be very
useful." — The Presbvterian, Philadelphia.
"Professor Weidner correctly thinks that much is gained by placing
in the hands of Theological students text-books, and that courses of
lectures are poor as a substitute for the same material in print before the
scholar's eyes, for his careful study.
He has compiled from the very best sources accessible what his ex
perience has taught him will be to them most serviceable. ... In
deed this little volume is as much a bibliography as it ¦ is a treatise
on Encyclopaedia, and herein its most extended usefulness will be found."
— Lutheran Church Review,
"One of the first helps which the theological students requires is a
guide to theological literature. Guides of this kind are not numerous
in English, nor are they so satisfactory as the German books of The
ological "Encyclopaedia." . . . Professor Weidner begins a good
work, therefore, in the publication of the first part of his Theological
Encyclopaedia and Methodology, of which this first installment covers
the Methodology and literature of Exegetical Theology. The Biblio
graphies, touching the various departments of exegetical study em
brace representative books in German and English, and they are not
so crowded as to be cumbersome." — The Sunday-School Times, Phil
adelphia. "Professor Weidner's method is the sound and fruitful one pursued
by all the best writers on the subject, but it is in no sense a translation.
. . . His statements of a subject and of a line of argument are
made with neatness, precision, and in that suggestive manner which is
a prime merit in work, of this sort. The bibliography is not intended
to be exhaustive on any topic. Selections are made of those which are
considered best  and are adopted to the needs of American-
students. Bare titles are not given, but, when it is possible, the
bibliology is annotated. . . . It is a vigorous sketch of the subject."
— The Independent, of New York.

"The author's plan contemplates a complete outline view of the
subject. His definitions and statements are brief, clear and discrimin
ating. It will prove admirably adopted to the work of the theological
class-room. A feature of special value, which will be found useful by
ministers in general, is found in the lists of books, or select literature,
given in connection with each branch or aspect of the subject. These
lists form a large part of the volume and are made with excellent dis
crimination. The whole work pleases us very much, and we shall be
glad to see the three additional volumes or parts promised on Historical
Theology, Systematic Theology, and Practical Theology." — Lutheran
Quarterly, of Gettysburg, Pa.
"In his selection of literature Professor Weidner has shown great
care and skill. Only that which is of practical value is mentioned.
The book is just what it purports to be, a text-book ; it is arranged for
the wants of the student. But its use is not confined to the theological
class-room. Ministers who study (alas that the number of those who
do not study is so great!) will find in it valuable and helpful material."
— The Old Testament Student, of Chicago.
Sent post-paid on receipt of Price, $1.25 by the Publisher,
H. B. GARNER,
Successor to Smith, English & Co., (710 Arch St.)
Philadelphia, Pa.