The
Significance of the
Old Testament
for
Modern Theology

jfames Lindsay

TROWBRIDGE
kU4

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE OLD TESTAMENT
FOR
MODERN THEOLOGY

BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

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THE SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE OLD TESTAMENT

FOR

Modern Theology

JAMES LINDSAY, M.A., B.D., B.Sc,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
LETTERS, AND ARTS OF PADUA J
AND MINISTER OF ST ANDREW'S PARISH CHILRCH,
KILMARNOCK

V-1-f

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCXCVI

PREFATORY NOTE.

This book consists of a paper prepared for
the Glasgow University Oriental Society,
and read before the Society in October
1896. A wish for its publication having
been expressed at the meeting when it was
read, as well as by some not connected with
the Society, it is now issued practically in
the form in which it was delivered. J. L.

THE
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
FOR MODERN THEOLOGY,

THIS Society is* naturally much con
cerned with the linguistic side of the
Old Testament, and hence is called to deal
with it as literature. A too exclusive ab
sorption in any direction, however necessary
and excellent, is apt to become one-sided
and none too just ; hence I propose, on this
the fourth 1 occasion on which I have had
the honour to address the Society, to deal
with the Old Testament as revelation. For
1 The subjects of my earlier papers were — (l) The Theology
of Ancient Egypt, (2) Semitic Theology, and (3) The Rela
tions of Religion and Morality in the Old Testament.

8 Significance of the Old Testament
the literary study must be accompanied by
that which is theological, the two lines
being mutually complementary. To do so
is perhaps the more necessary, since our
specialists in this line do not always afford
us the help we should expect. Professor
Konig, for example, in a recent article on
" The History and Method of Pentateuchal
Criticism," passes quite away from the re
cent historic aspects into literary analysis
and linguistic considerations just when we
are expecting the rich modern materials to
be brought into line — all this with very
disappointing effect. If Dr Konig has done
something to help us elsewhere, that does
not stand as excuse for him here.

I.
It cannot be said that, since Schleier
macher — strangely devout though he was
— the Old Testament has had more than
barely gracious treatment at the hands

for Modern Theology. 9
of theology. A result this, of course, of
Schleiermacher's singular inability to ap
preciate the revelation given in the law and
the prophets, and of his making the con
nection of Christianity with the Old Tes
tament a very indistinct and indirect one.
Kant, too, has his own share of blame here.
For Schleiermacher the Old Testament was,
ethically viewed, curiously superfluous, and
Judaism, religiously viewed, a lifeless and
valueless thing — no foregleam of Christi
anity. I need not repeat how detrimental
to Schleiermacher's own theological style
and treatment this lack of sympathetic
understanding of the organic relation of
the Old Testament to the New has proved.
Nor do I require in this place to point out
what a pedagogic value still attaches to the
Old Testament, although Schleiermacher in
his Reden tells us that he hates the historic
reference to its Judaistic religion as "the
forerunner of Christianity." For if we ad
mit revelation at all, we can only admit it

10 Significance of the Old Testament
as a coherent system whose organic stages
are traceable through the Old Testament
into the New. Universal truths of religion
are not wanting to the Old Testament on
which, as its presuppositions, the New Tes
tament plainly founds. The theology of the
nineteenth century has come little short of
being as extreme on the adverse side of Old
Testament claims as the theology of the
seventeenth century was on the favourable
side. The deep and devout De Wette —
contemporary and friend of Schleiermacher
— while investigating the Scriptures with
what Hase describes as " an independent
spirit," and evidencing no lack of interest in
Old Testament study, cannot be said to have
always shown anything like a due apprecia
tion either of the theological content or the
religious source of the portions dealt with.
While saying this, I am not, of course,
meaning to disallow that De Wette, in the
work of Old Testament translation and intro
duction, was a breaker of new paths, and a

for Modern Theology. 1 1
revolutioniser for good in exegetical work.
Not the intellectual aspect of truth or reve
lation is alone of consequence to De Wette,
but also its presentation - from the side or
view of " religious ideality " (Schonheit). The
great Ewald has been at times thought over-
theological — though his theology, like his
criticism, was often weak enough — but the
fact that he took the Old Testament to have
in it "things worth remembering" did not
in his case absorb or destroy the scholar's
love of Oriental studies for their own sake.
To say nothing else, I need hardly do more
than recall how Ewald has been blamed for
failing to bring out the internal and religious
history of Old Testament development, or
to do justice to the progress of the history
of revelation. An unduly severe judgment,
let it be said. Omitting notice of Hitzig
and others, one must here recall the
services rendered by the philosophic Vatke,
who- — though doubtless overweighted with
theology and handicapped with Hegelian

12 Significance of the Old Testament
terminology — finely brought out develop
mental views of Israel's religion, and
powerfully set forth the growth of the idea
of God under " the great dialectic of the
world's history." Vatke's keen critical
scrutiny of traditional views of Mosaism,
and his philosophic grasp of the growth
of the religious consciousness, have been
of invaluable service to the advance of Old
Testament criticism. Of Reuss, Riehm,
and Kuenen, of Dillmann, Schrader, and
Noldeke, of Graf, Kayser, Smend, and
Strack, of Schultz, Duhm, Budde, and
Stade, with other critics nearer to ourselves,
I am happy to think that I need not say
anything to the members of this Society.
As little do I need to say a word in
favour of the claims of a religion which
has been pronounced " the grandest
romance of idealism, blended with the
sedate realism of earthly perpetuity."
My present purpose is not to speak of
the significance of the Old Testament to

for Modern Theology. 1 3
modern theology in its historic course and
range, but rather of what significance the
Old Testament now is to theology, in the
state in which — after criticism has done its
work — it comes to us. The presentation
of the results of the Reuss Graf theory
by Wellhausen was too important for the
history of theology not to deserve special
mention here ; and so I say that, agreeing
with it or not, it is impossible to deny its
striking and impressive setting forth of
Israel's religious developments — its power
ful adjustment of the inner consciousness
to the exterior history of Israel. When,
however, it has been very highly praised
for its making everything so perfectly
comprehensible, after the fashion of all
other history, it seems to me that they who
so speak — professedly against "dogmatic
assumptions lying outside history" — are
the unconscious victims of a very large and
palpable dogmatic assumption, the assump
tion that not even in this case must any-

14 Significance of the Old Testament
thing different from the religious history
or experience of other peoples be by any
possibility admitted. I shall revert later to
the lack of warrant for such procedure.
But it is, as I have said, no part of my
purpose to follow out the historic phases
of the Pentateuchal criticism through the
documentary theory ( Urkunden - Hypothese)
and Supplement -theory (Erganzungs- Hypo
these) and non -homogeneous Mosaic legis
lation theory stages, although I have made
the present reference to this evolutional
theory. And so I come back to say that
we can hardly be deterred from doing
something in the theological direction I
have been indicating, whatever we may
think of attempts to integrate the Old
Testament amid the prevailing uncertain
ties of criticism. Emphatically true of the
critics is the word of Dante, —
" Voi non andate giu per un sentiero,
Filosofando ; "
for they certainly "go not" by "one path"

for Modern Theology. 1 5
in their "philosophising." That criticism,
meanwhile, need not, in order to be scien
tific, take an irreligious cast. The critical
study of recent times has, in fact, already
given to theology a more vital apprehension
of Israel's religion and the religions con
temporary with it, and has yielded a more
vivid and realistic view of Israel's history
than was before possessed. There is pos
sible comfort, even in our critical dis
sonances, in the consideration that, as
Voltaire is reported to have once said,
"when critics are silent, it does not so
much prove the age to be correct as dull."
I need hardly say how very far I am
from presuming to lay down in such a
sphere any dogmatic lines of thought or to
claim any sort of finality for anything that
may be now advanced. And I have pre
ferred to outline the subject in a manner brief
and comprehensive rather than attempt it in
any detailed and exhaustive fashion. I take
for granted, for my present purpose, that we

1 6 Significance of the Old Testament
have all felt the tendency to treat the Old
Testament as an excrescence upon the Book
of Divine Revelation so strongly as to be
sensibly aware of the need of corrective and
regulative standpoints. We have to ask
whether there is not truth and reason in the
position of Schultz, that there is absolutely
no New Testament view which does not
approve itself as a sound and definitive
formation from an Old Testament germ ;
and, on the other hand, that there is no
truly Old Testament view which did not
interiorly press forward to its New Tes
tament fulfilment. If these things be so,
clearly no theology can afford to neglect
the Old Testament way of viewing the
world — its genesis, government, and his
toric course. The Pentateuchal sphinx is
that, of course, which — as we have just
seen — has turned the Old Testament into
a riddle, to which no wholly satisfactory
answer has yet been given. I may note
the able and forceful presentation of the

for Modern Theology. 1 7
principle of personation, as applied to the
Book of Deuteronomy, by Vaihinger, with
its reference to extensive practice of this
sort long anterior to the Advent. Riehm,
in treating of the Pentateuch as revelation,
has maintained the consciousness of God
obtainable from its study to be of so im
mediate a character as to be derivable from
no merely human source.
I take it that the significance of the
religious history has not been enhanced
by Schultz — whatever flexibility may have
been secured for the spirit of revelation
— when he has signified that legend will
do quite well for him, or, in other words,
that the bringing of ideas will do as well
for him as the getting at the Divine sig
nificance of the actual facts. Of these
shadowy and elusive elements no construc
tion of the pre -prophetic religious history
of Israel seems feasible. But more of this
anon. We do not fail to appreciate, in
saying this, the express postulation of
B

1 8 Significance of the Old Testament
revelation by Schultz as the only adequate
explanation of Old Testament religion. Of
the grounds on which Professor Robertson
Smith rested his contentions there is no
need to speak, save to recall principally his
postulation of non - finality for the ritual
law, and of the untenableness of the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
It is of interest in the present connection
to note that Robertson Smith expressly
admitted the solution of the Pentateuchal
problem to carry with it " issues of the
greatest importance for the theology as
well as the literary history of the Old
Testament." The solidarity of Israel re
ceived needful recognition at the hands
of Robertson Smith, however he may have
overdone it in so strongly emphasising the
prophetic basis of a unique relation between
Jehovah and the national Israel. Very
finely has he set forth the drama of the
Divine working through the long course of
ages, so that the prophetic ideal in its

for Modern Theology. 1 9
inner and spiritual grandeur has been more
forcibly brought home to us. While seek
ing to do justice to the "creative power"
of the prophets, as " leaders in a great
development," he yet postulated for the
prophetic glance the power to look " in
a supernatural way into the future."
How little any sort of finality may yet be
predicated of Pentateuchal criticism seems
pretty well evidenced by the fact that Klos-
termann has been able to promulgate such
views on the origin of the Pentateuch as
he has within very recent years done.
What it really does concern the theo
logical thought of this time to remember
is, that critics like Reuss and Schultz in
the clearest manner maintain the spirit
of Moses to have ruled the judgment
and shaped the development of centuries.
Whether we invest Moses with historical
character or regard him as only a symbol
ical figure, the significance of the 'moral
ideal that came through him — the absolute

20 Significance of the Old Testament
imperative — is not to be mistaken. Well
hausen does small justice to Moses, differing
herein from the historian Ranke no less
than from a critic like Strack, who thinks
larger place will yet be found for the activity
of Moses. It is not meant to deny that
Wellhausen recognises a certain Mosaic
substratum of actual and historical fact,
but only that he deals insufficiently with
it. And at present it is conceded at least
that Moses, with his lofty intuitions of
God and things Divine, is a real starting-
point for the religious history of Israel, by
those even who think his influence to have
been confined more to what he did for the
worship of Jehovah than for legislative
enactment. Mosaic the religion — with its
germinal ideality of God — and the legisla
tion remain, at least in the sense that their
first impulse came from him, and no ex
igencies of naturalistic theory, therefore,
need keep a place of importance from
being reserved for Mosaism. The univer-

for Modern Theology. 2 1
sal character of Pentateuchal morality is
admitted by such a critic as Wellhausen,
whose arrows against an exalted national
religious consciousness cannot be said to
be very piercing. Crude indeed the religion
of the pre-prophetic time might be, but its
few centuries carved out a path for the
spiritual greatness of Israel when they
evinced the tendency to monolatry they
did ; adhered, as they did, to the worship
of their national god, Yahveh.
In the light of all this Professor James
Robertson seems on pretty secure ground
when he says that " the modern historians, in
their negation of a pure pre-prophetic religion,
are ever faced with the task of explaining
the rise of pure prophetic religion. They
do not allow themselves a sufficient starting-
point for the development ; for the pro
phetic religion, when we meet it, is not
of a germinal or elementary character "
('Early Religion of Israel,' p. 165). And
Professor A. B. Davidson has plainly said

22 Significance of the Old Testament
that " in matters like this we never can
get at the beginning. The patriarchal age,
with its knowledge of God, is not alto
gether a shadow, otherwise the history of
the Exodus would be a riddle." Earlier he
says of Moses that " even he did not create
a nation or a religious consciousness in the
sense of making it out of nothing," the
people having already some knowledge of
God (' The Expositor,' 3d series, vol. v.
p. 42, art. on " The Prophetess Deborah ").
Such discussion as that recently raised in
Germany by Professor Meinhold may make
everywhere evident the unwisdom — suppos
ing we grant no clear line to be possible
between what is historical and what is un
historical — of trying to lay down precise
and definite positions where in the nature
of things much must remain indeterminate.
Yes, may teach us this without necessarily
involving us — suppose we do leave behind
the Mosaic authorship and some other
matters — in Meinhold's naturalistic spirit

for Modern Theology. 23
or views. Meinhold is unguarded and as
sumptive, and his historic principles are not
always sound, as some of his German con
temporaries have shown.
Quite apart from the facts, about which
there is less question, there is room for
difference in the inferences from the facts.
There are those — Professor Baudissin, for
example — who take the religious and ethical
worth of the Old Testament, as reflected
in the contents of Israel's life and thought,
to be unaffected by the results of criticism.
And I think it is not always sufficiently
recognised by critics of the present time,
that the light of the literary history of
even the primitive and pre-prophetic period
shows — amid much prevailing crudeness,
from an .ethical view-point — that noble, if
still undeveloped, germs of religious thought
and sentiment already existed in Israel.
There can be no doubt that attempts like
that of Goldziher, in his ' Mythology of the
Hebrews,' to explain away the figures of

24 Significance of the Old Testament
patriarchal history are to be regarded as
results in any case grotesquely overdrawn in
the mythological interest. He wishes not
to offend "the dignity of monotheism," but
he takes no adequate account of elements
that can by no process be resolved into pure
mythology. As much may also be said
of those other enfants terribles of German
critical tendency, Schultze, Seinecke, and
Popper, in respect of their fantastic myth
ological feats. We can allow no larger
place to mythology here than has been
discriminatingly assigned to it by Robertson
Smith, A. Lang, and others, who mark it
off in essential features from true religion.
Whatsoever of mythologic theory may have
found place in the Old Testament, has
found it only as purified from, say, its
Assyrian or Phoenician form, and as the
vehicle of deep and serious religious truth.
There seems to be no good reason why
legend or myth should not be so employed
as vehicle of revelation, any more than

for Modern Theology. 25
history or parable. But, of course, the
myth or legend must not be taken for
history, or for other than what it is. The
reasonable ground for wonder is that the
Old Testament writers did not cull "the
wayside flowers of popular mythic imagery "
more plentifully than they have done, and,
if we should even accept Professor Cheyne's
view of the way in which " these earthly
growths " have been interwoven " with
blooms of another clime," it would ob
viously not yet follow of any necessity
that the sacred writers adhered in any
wise to the myths themselves whence
their phrases were derived. (' Expositor,'
3d series, vol. vii. p. 21, art. on " The
use of Mythic Phrases by the Old Testa
ment Writers "). There is surely easily at
tainable a deeper view than that which
bluntly says that Creation and the Fall
are "simple myths," because of some pro
nouncements of physical science and ancient
history. Israel's conceptions, just because

26 Significance of the Old Testament
they are Israel's, retain a religious worth
and value.
Now, if any one should be so minded,
is it not always in order to ask whether
a naturalistic philosophy has, in Old Tes
tament interpretation, quite so much to
commend it as is often supposed ? Surely
it may perfectly well be that «the principle
of development — I mean, of course, a purely
natural development — has been pushed to
extreme or undue uses in this connection.
No one is under any compulsion to account
for such a transformation as we have even
in the account, say, of Wellhausen, of the
slow growth from very low beginnings of
the idea of Jehovah up to pure and perfect
monotheism — among a non - metaphysical
people — by the simple supposition of nat
uralistic theory. Any one may still view
the result as the outcome of revelation,
rather than as the pure product of develop
ment. If God is indeed "a factor in human
history," it does not seem either unreason-

for Modern Theology. 2 7
able or unlikely that He should "make a
revelation of Himself to man," whether we
should, with Professor S. I. Curtiss, begin
with both of these as postulates or not
(' Expositor,' 3d series, vol. iii. p. 97,
art. on " Wellhausen's Theory of the
' Pentateuch ").
If we, as Professor Meinhold wants, ad
here to the composite authorship of the
Hexateuch, and lay less stress than for
merly on historical matters, we shall still
have apologetic considerations on hand,
where is room for divergence. I have not
harmonising apologetics in view in saying
this, and I say nothing in favour of them.
I am thinking only of removing obstacles
whereby the Old Testament has become a
stone of stumbling, and of reaching that clue
of Ariadne by which theology may thread its
way out of the labyrinthine hypotheses of
current criticism. I am at least in cordial
sympathy with the expressed need and im
portance of keeping the religious interest

28 Significance of the Old Testament
before even the historical in Old Testament
study and use. Certainly the conveying of
religious truth and spiritual meaning is here
an interest to which that of history is quite
secondary and subservient. The Church
has been far too blind to the truth that
the bald facts of history here cannot,
simply as such, yield any spiritual advan
tage. The history of only too many figures
of the Old Testament is serviceable to us
mainly by way of warning. A sufficient
religious theory or an adequate causal
connection must be sought to bind together
what must otherwise remain so many dis
jointed facts. 'Tis said in Faust,—
" Verachte nur Vernunft und Wissenschaft,
Des Menschen allerhochste Kraft
So hab' ich dich " —
and any orthodoxy will be victimised in like
manner which does not follow the " reason "
and " science " here appropriate, both of
them, of course, historical. The truth and

for Modern Theology. 29
reality of the religious ideals and experiences
therein embodied are undoubted. These
religious ideals were lofty as they were real.
Even the Abrahamic ideals included some
what of faith and sacrifice, righteous egoism
and righteous altruism. And the Mosaic
ideals embraced not only some sense of
the Divine Fatherhood for Israel, " my
son, my first-born," but also ideals of God,
as God of Mercy, of Love, and of Holi
ness. We must be content, however, to
know less of the initial stages of Israel's
religious development. This, of course, is
not meant to disallow a relative value to
such efforts as that, for example, of that
cautious scholar, Bredenkamp, in his ' Law
and Prophets' (' Gesetz und Propheten'),
to show the acquaintance of the earlier
prophets — contrary to Wellhausen — with the
Pentateuch, especially with its priest -code
parts, even though his argument may come
not near establishing explicit pre-exilic re
cognition of the Pentateuch in Israel.

30 Significance of the Old Testament
In this connection it may be profitably
recalled how, as Kuenen pointed out, the
centre of gravity lay for the priestly author
in another direction than for the prophet, lay
in man's attitude towards God rather than
towards his fellow - men. And Schechter,
in his fine ' Studies in Judaism,' says that it
is here "we seem to strike the key-note of
the Weltanschauung of the priestly legislation.
In it man is more than a social being. He
has also an individual life of his own, his
joys and sorrows, his historical claims, his
traditions of the past, and his hopes for the
future ; and all these have to be brought
under the influence of religion, and to
become sanctified through their relation to
God. Hence the work of the priestly nar
rator and legislator opens with a cosmogony
of his own, in which we find the grand
theological idea of man being created in
the divine image; hence, too, his religious
conception of the history of the nation and
the control claimed by him over all the

for Modern Theology. 3 1
details of human life, which became with
him so many opportunities for the worship
6f God" (pp. 292, 293).
Bredenkamp in his work takes Wellhausen
to task for his neglect of Moses, and for the
precariousness of his proofs, maintaining
that " all the prophets take their stand upon
the covenant established through Moses."
Bredenkamp's own conclusion is expressly
stated thus : " The oldest prophecy has its
roots entirely in the covenant concluded by
Moses, mentions it repeatedly, and, when
this is not done by name, the thing itself is
there. If they conceived the duties of the
covenant to be of a merely moral character
(ais lediglich sittliche), then the prophets con
tradict the fundamental ideas of the tradi
tional religion and the method practised by
the fathers to prove their piety " (' Gesetz
und Propheten,' Erlangen, 1881, p. 29).
The defence of Graf's theory has been pre
sented in very vigorous form by Kayser, who
holds Graf's to be "the best substantiated

32 Significance of the Old Testament
and alone satisfactory explanation of the
Pentateuch," but at least in matters of crit
ical detail there remains much to be done in
meeting the objections raised against it —
as presented by the Wellhausen school —
by Baethgen, Finsler, and other critics, and
in putting it on settled basis.
I have not thought it necessary to recall
how Graf stated his own case as one in
which the Mosaic legislation is regarded
as an evidence and a result of a gradual
development from a fruitful germ, or the
part played in his theory by what Graf
styled "die sogennante Grundschrift."
So, too, I have not dwelt upon such
fearless advocacy of the developmental
theory as Kalisch evidenced in his work
on Leviticus. For I am more concerned
to remark, theologically, that faith's great
thoughts and the moral ideals of Israel
are, in their historic meaning and their
historic development, that which must
be emphasised, and this can certainly be

for Modern Theology. 33
done, whatever of newer theory may
appear to us bizarre and artificial. A
modern theologian has remarked that
" Israel has the idea of teleology as a
kind of soul." The distinctive feature of
Israel's development, as compared with all
other religious systems, is to be found in
the way Israel was enabled to make —
despite all retrograde tendencies — recti
linear progress towards a predestined goal.
And what was this goal ? Ewald shall
answer, when in the eighth volume of his
' History ' (Eng. ed.) he says, " There arose
at the end of this third great epoch of the
national history that purely immortal and
spiritual Israel which was felt to be a
Divine necessity at the beginning of the
epoch. This was the goal to which the
history tended from the elevation of its
first epoch."

34 Significance of the Old Testament
II.
The prophets, in the view of Professor
A. B. Davidson, not only give expression
to personality in Jehovah, but sometimes
also " suggest what is the essence of His
personality, and what the spring is which
moves and guides His power and rule : it is
His ethical Being" ('Expositor,' 3d series,
vol. v. p. 73, art. on "Jehovah, God of
Israel"). The fact is as significant as
it is true, that the oneness of this Jehovah,
God of Israel, is only a result reached
at last, through "defeat and suppression
of rival claims," on "the field of Time"
and in the course of historic develop
ment. Not only the ethical, non-theoretic
monotheism of the religion of the prophets
is undoubted, but so also is its non -sub
jective, non - personal character, as not
unmindful of national or communal aspects.
Individualistic elements are, no doubt,
present in it, as the very spirit of pro-

for Modern Theology. 35
phecy shows, but, of course, the nation
comes before the individual in Hebrew
thought. And the universalistic elements
of their religious monotheism — their views
of God as over all — lay hidden in germ,
and were most likely the resultant of their
notions of His purely ethical Being. May
we not say that these prophets lived, as
none others ever did, in the Idealwelt ?
Is not their prophetic mission evidenced in
the very way in which they share in the
timelessness of God ? The incomparable
greatness, and the unique character, of
Hebrew prophetism have been acknow
ledged in express terms by Smend, as
they appear amid all pre - Christian his
tory of religion.
If it be granted that a purely naturalistic
philosophy has not been able to account
for the Christ and the Church of the New
Testament as they appear in history, does
it not afford some ground for those who
choose to ask by what right it shall be

36 Significance of the Old Testament
simply taken for granted that the origin
of the historic Israel — as in the Old
Testament — shall be rightly so explained ?
There is surely some room for those who
ask whether the spiritual unity of the two
Testaments be not too great — the bond
of spiritual continuity too strong — the
evolution of the elements of life in the
later from the earlier testament too clear
— for dismissal as dogmatic presupposition.
Of course, I mean this with reference, not
to the traditional ideas of the order of
revelation, but to the materially adjusted
views of the relative growth of law and
prophecy. Yes, and even while the Old
Testament is itself an abiding and in
dependent revelation, and not a mere
praparatio evangelica. I agree with Pro
fessor Duhm, when, in a recent academic
contribution, he takes the characteristic
element of the early religion of Jehovah
to have lain in His Word. In His Word
— as something eternally new — coming,

for Modern Theology. 37
that is to say, to have such power as
could not attach to His deeds, while as
yet His acts remained unknown to the
prophets and beyond the reach of their
calculations. Rightly, too, Duhm takes
the nerve of that religious life to have
lain in the personal, although the social
and national bearings and aspects have
here a peculiar value attached to them.
I suppose one may very distinctly take
the organic development of revelation
in the history of Israel to have been
brought to clearer expression, and pro
phetical activity to have had ampler
justice done to it, in recent critical study.
We now more fully realise that we have, as
Professor James Robertson has said, " the
prophetic philosophy of history which is
the guiding principle of the prophets to
the end. Favour shown, sin abounding,
punishment descending, a remnant saved
— this will be found to be the scheme
taught by all the prophets ; the scheme

38 Significance of the Old Testament
on which they explain their whole his
tory" ('Early Religion of Israel,' p. 115).
The late Professor Grau, of Konigsberg,
has spoken of Israel as itself presenting
the highest problem in the philosophy
of history, when Israel is viewed in its
ancient development and its subsequent at
titude. That, however, only by the way.
It is surely very evident that the Old
Testament calls to no insistence on
infallible theories — either historical or
scientific or ethnographical — and to no
enunciation of dogmatic statements, but
simply to a moving knowledge of God's
mode of revealing Himself to this people,
and of the incomparable manner in which
this people, with every kind of fallibility
cleaving to them, sought the living God.
In fact, it must be said that the signifi
cance of the Old Testament lies in its
presenting us with theologies rather than
a theology, with the progressive develop
ment of a religion rather than with theo-

for Modern Theology. 39
logical ideas that may be dealt with as
if they lay on one historic plane. What
is usually known as Old Testament
Theology cannot be said to have duly
acted upon these considerations. At the
same time, it should be said that it is
perfectly possible the point may have been
reached, in the history of criticism, at which
question might be legitimately raised as to
whether the tendency to dogmatic pre
supposition or altitudinous dogmatism does
not lie in the line mainly of those who —
in no necessarily scientific spirit — insist
upon the human factors so exclusively
that the presence of anything like super
natural energy or power of revelation is
allowed no place in the records of the
Old Testament. Would a chevaux-de-frise
raised around the Old Testament be any
better, because erected in the critical
interest, than if constructed on behalf of
the traditional ? Why may a thoroughly
critical and scientific history of Israel's

40 Significance of the Old Testament
religious development not proceed, free
from any traditional bias, but also with
out the vitiating element of dogmatic pre
supposition from the destructive side lay
ing down the principle that this religion
must, in every essential feature, be made
to conform to the religions of nations
round about ? Is there anything scientific
in cultivating some sort of colour-blindness
to the all-pervasive element of the docu
ments with which we have to deal — I
mean their inherent consciousness that
the religion vouchsafed to Israel was a
special revelation of God, such as other
nations did not possess ? Professor A. B.
Davidson has even said that "the self-
consciousness of the religion of Israel is
a phenomenon almost more singular than
the religion itself" ('Expositor,' 3d series,
vol. vi. p. 165, art. on "The People of
Israel "). Why must any one be compelled
to shut out from his view the spirit of
revelation that may for him shine in He-

for Modem Theology. 41
brew life and history, any more than he
must shut out the spirit of culture and
art from Hellenic life as he turns to the
history of Greece ? Was not that spirit
the formative principle of Hebrew life ?
What but revelation, as forming the
essence of religious belief, proved the
guiding light of Hebrew progress ? Or
are we to say that a constructive view of
the facts of Hebrew religious life is not
possible ? Is not the Divine training in
these records undeniable ? Of course, the
gradual, obscure, progressive methods —
the orderly growth — by which the rev
elation proceeds, is better grasped by
theology as the result of critical study
than before. But, may it not prove only
an arbitrarily imposed necessity by which
it is required that these early writers —
any more than later ones — be shut off
from Divine influence in the choosing and
shaping of their materials, and that a con
tinuous operation of the Divine Spirit be

42 Significance of the Old Testament
treated as an unreasonable postulate of
the continuous growth of the body of
ancient revelation ?
Such elevation of religious feeling as we
find, from Moses onwards, is to be scien
tifically accounted for only by really ade
quate causes. In the case of prophetic
elevation, the stress has, no doubt, been
shifted from the predictive element in pro
phecy, even while that feature may not be
altogether removed. Giesebrecht has just
dealt with this problem in a combined
spirit of religious depth and scientific
freedom, predicating that the great crises
and developmental movements of history
were peculiarly disclosed to the prophets,
to whom the predictive element was not
wanting. He holds to a Divine purpose
ful direction of world-destiny, on the one
hand — not, however, with Duhm, making
this belief suffice for the predictive issues
or results — and to a subjective com
munion (Gemeinschaft) of the prophetic soul

for Modern Theology. 43
on the other, in which communion there is
a real seizure of his soul by the inworking
Jehovah. For all that, Giesebrecht would
not isolate prophecy, or obscure the
human factors in its working so as to
deprive it of historical character. The
sharp accentuation of the human factors,
according to Giesebrecht, takes not away
the worth of the revelation in prophecy,
and destroys not the supernatural moment
in the process. Prophecy is, then, to be
viewed, as Riehm puts it, as "psycho
logically mediated " and " organically de
veloped," on the one hand, from the
prophet's previous knowledge of God's
will and purpose, and, on the other, from
his knowledge of the historic circum
stances, events, and experiences of his
time. The developmental process by
which we shall reach the final flowering
that is seen in the Son of Man is not
very evident once the germinating buds —
the royal man and the spiritual nation

44 Significance of the Old Testament
that are of the essential ideals of Hebrew
prophecy — are discarded or destroyed.
Genetically related to Christianity Juda
ism must remain on any explanation. It
must be perfectly obvious what a unique
place it must retain in the education of the
race. An elect nation is Israel seen to be
under a gracious particularism that has its
own light to cast for the true understanding
of the universalism in which it becomes
merged. In his work on the Jewish and
Christian Messiah, Stanton affirms the
real connection of Judaism with the Chris
tian dispensation as "part of one grand
scheme in the counsels of Providence."
In this way no small apologetic force
belongs to the history of Israel, taken in a
large sense ; for from the course of Israel's
history, taken in its sum, we see how God
brought forth that spiritual religion which
it was His aim to perfect, through all the
strange, sad ways and fortunes of His chosen
people, unique bearers of a historic revelation.

for Modern Theology. 45
Absolutely devoid of wisdom is the attempt
we see sometimes made to preserve the New
Testament flower of ethical love, while the
Old Testament plant of ethical seriousness
or righteousness — on which it blossoms —
is " vilely cast away." Very finely has
Wellhausen insisted that what Jehovah
demands is " righteousness, nothing more
and nothing less " ; that sin is " a thing of
purely moral character"; that morality is
" the alone essential thing in the world " ;
and that Jehovah, God of Israel, is " the
most intensely living of personal powers."
There is, in fact, no grasp of the ethical
quality of righteousness like that which
springs from study of it in its patriarchal
primitiveness on through rich prophetic
instinct into the full glory of New Testa
ment morality. And the New Testament
grace, which is so new as to be able to
dispense with any schooling in Old Testa
ment ethical earnestness, is not likely to
prove remarkable for longevity. One might

46 Significance of the Old Testament
ask towards what ideals humanity at its
best and largest is moving to-day but just
those which have been the efflorescence of
the long process of Hebrew development.
Then, were there no other reason, we
may not discard the revelation — ablaze
with social righteousness — given us in
Hebrew thought. Indeed, national life can
not hope to reach the strength of purpose
and elevation of tone to be desired for it
till it shall be imbued with the prophetic
thought that breathes for the nation or the
state in the Old Testament with its august
moral ideal (die sittliche Weltordnung).
I suppose we may take the progressive
revelation of God in the Old Testament
to be sure sign and token that a pro
gressive revelation of Him awaits every
nation to - day, even that which is religi
ously most advanced. And, if there be
any revelation of God to the human spirit
singly and alone, then it is not easy to
think of anything to surpass, in sweet-

for Modern Theology. 47
ness, charm, and power, such revelation of
God to the individual as the Old Testa
ment must, after the dismemberments of
a sane criticism, be allowed to bring to a
Moses or an Abraham — not yet eponymic
existences, legendary analogies notwith
standing — or to an Isaiah or a Samuel.
There will always remain, after scientific
treatment of history and text, in such'
books as those of the Hexateuch, intrinsic
and self-evident truth, which criticism can
not dissolve. Yes, and at least historical
nucleus — apart from such spiritual truth
or teaching — is manifestly not going to
be lightly cast aside. Dillmann has asked,
— "Why should the early legends of this
nation, which was the first to quit mytho
logical paths, be judged more unfavourably
than those of other nations, in whose epic
matter we acknowledge a remnant of his
torical recollections ? " Of course, it may
be asked, as Professor G. A. Smith has
lately done, What matters it that this

48 Significance of the Old Testament
or that character be given up as historical,
if God is in the history ? Now, it may be
quite impossible to draw a precise line
here between the historical and the un
historical, but I am only now concerned
with Professor Smith's question to say
that such a mode can obviously not be
satisfactory to all, since it evades the
issues that may be raised as to our very
knowledge of God's being in the history.
So impartial a critic as Dillmann has very
clearly pointed out such a preparatory
and comparatively pure type of religion
as is portrayed in Genesis, to be the
historical presupposition of such work as
that effected by Moses. The fact is, we
cannot well conceive even the earliest pro
phetic influences without some such back
ground as that with which the Pentateuch
supplies us. Dillmann has consequently
pointed to the necessity of personal agents
for the furtherance of such early religion,
and has declared the existence of Abraham

for Modern Theology. 49
so little to be dispensed with, that it
should fall only with the historic con
nection of Moses with the God of the
Fathers. Still, regard must be had to the
contention that, even granting the authen
tic character of patriarchal biography, these
figures in Genesis come into no very great
or evident relation to the nation's history
— the contention, in fact, that Abraham
might almost as well not have been, so
far as the working out of Israel's destiny
in the land of promise is concerned. The
absence of connection on Abraham's part
with the founding of the Yahveh religion
is not to be taken as a thing yet proved.
Professor Kittel has reinforced the general
contentions of Dillmann, and, though so
reverent a critic and, according to Mein-
hold, performing only " half work," has
declared it " evident that neither the
agreement of the sources in the principal
points, nor the accompanying impression
of credibility, can of itself be conclusive as
D

50 Significance of the Old Testament
to the historical character of the Mosaic his
tory." What knowledge of God Moses had
is yet traced, with great power and force,
by Kittel to nothing less than an immedi
ate revelation of God within the sphere of
his own spirit. So, again, we find Dr Driver
saying of one of the writers of the Penta
teuchal documents : " His aim seems to have
been to present an ideal picture of the Mosaic
age, constructed, indeed, upon a genuine
traditional basis, but so conceived as to
exemplify the principles by which an ideal
theocracy should be regulated " (' Literature
of the Old Testament,' p. 120). I am, of
course, only desirous that criticism should
have free course and be glorified, but criti
cism will be just enough to hold us excused
if, after all these idealisings of Israel's his
tory come to an end, we feel it not quite
so easy as before to find God in the history.
Manifestly, if so much of their own religious
thought and conception has been inwrought
with the historic elements, and made to

for Modern Theology. 5 1
give form and colour to these last, by the
early Pentateuchal writers in the course of
an idealising and systematising process, the
position of the Mosaic history, as history,
is not strengthened, its integrity as history
is not confirmed.
I pass from this to say that Professor
Toy, of Harvard, is no doubt right in claim
ing the Old Testament so distinctly for the
immanence of Jehovah, the traces of meta
physical dualism being here small. And
yet may one not ask whether the personal
God is not in Judaism too often conceived
as existing beside the world? A somewhat
one-sided transcendence must even be said to
have found its way into Judaism, even sup
posing this did not attach to the Old Testa
ment idea of God itself. Its entrance was
the result of Israel's opposition to the con
founding of God and the world in the
nature-religions. I proceed, further, to remark that the

5 2 Significance of the Old Testament
interest and value of the Old Testament in
its sociological aspects cannot be overlooked
by modern theology. It will not be easy
to find a higher sociological ideal than that
of Judaism, wherein society is viewed as
a brotherhood under an All-Father. What
but this was the significance of her saying,
" Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself; I
am God"! It seems safe to say that from
the laws and institutions of no other social
system may so much of a helpful sort, socio
logically, be learned for the pressing prob
lems of to-day. Where can the sociological
worth and importance of character be found
emphasised as in the Old Testament ? And
I think it must be said that, in order to this
realisation of character, the freedom of the
individual was recognised. For not without
such recognition would progress be possible.
" No one, in the absence of God's living
touch, can put us into communion with
Him, and make Him known to us as His
own Spirit would. Nothing spiritual, noth-

for Modern Theology. 53
ing Divine, can be done by deputy; and
the prophets are no vicars of God, to stand
in His stead among alien souls, and kindle
in them a flame unfed by the Light of
lights" (Martineau, 'Seat of Authority in
Religion,' p. 308). For all that Israel's
religion had this individualistic reference or
aspect, all things were to be held, not for
mere selfish ends of the individual, but for
the commonweal, that the Civitas Dei of
Israel's ideal might be realised. A com
munity that should answer to the religious
and ethical ideals of the social philosophy
of the Old Testament prophets could be
called into being only through growing
greatness of character in the individuals
who composed it. Besides, to Old Testa
ment collectivism the ideal character of the
personality, in Whom their ideals centred,
lay just in His conformity to the essential
sociological law of service as The Servant
— nV"1'! "^Jf. In such a ministering person
ality it was that their ideal culminated and

54 Significance of the Old Testament
was perfectly realised — for Israel and for
mankind. III.
Difficult as the matter of assigning dates
for the Psalms may be, the theology of the
Psalter must be allowed — what has by no
means been always retained by criticism
for it — a place of importance in Old Testa
ment development. Yes, must be allowed
a large share — amid all crushing sadness —
of the precise spirit of confidence in good
ness which led a modern poet to say —
" Yet, in the maddening maze of things,
And tossed by storm and flood,
To one fixed stake my spirit clings ;
I know that God is good ! "
The goodness of man's life as lived in
God the Psalms must certainly be allowed
to bring out, as against the contentions of
those who would treat Judaistic religion as
of necessity pessimistic. Nor must there
be any failure to exhibit the feeling of the

for Modern Theology. 5 5
ultimate harmony between the physical and
the spiritual worlds with which the Psalms
are permeated — a feeling which the highest
religious thought is seeking to gain for
our own changed times. Spiritual are
these songs in the night of Israel's destiny,
but not for that reason always lacking in
a sense of the strange anomalies under
which the righteous suffer. And in our
age's deepening sense of the burden of the
mystery of evil — so " heart -piercing " and
" reason-bewildering " — as well as in its
need of an optimism that is severely
chastened, it will not be anxious to banish
from the Divine economy writings that
deal with the more directly spiritual side
like Job and Ecclesiastes, and which have
their own light to cast athwart the problems
of modern life and the special tendencies of
philosophical thought. No, for not even
modern theology can afford to forget how
Jewish theism — such as it was — enabled
the Jewish nation to maintain an optimism

56 Significance of the Old Testament
that was no mere temperamental thing,
and was not blind to pessimistic elements,
which it had learned to convert into good.
It cannot afford to miss the lessons read for
it by the God-illumined despair of Job and
the negative, unreasoned, and unsystematic
pessimism of Koheleth, whose " egoism "
ought certainly never to be put forward as
the summit of Old Testament development.
It cannot fail to mark the placidity with
which in Koheleth the facts and conditions
of life are accepted, and the nobility with
which Job is seen striving to put himself
into relation with God. In Job we have
exemplified a religion unfettered and un-
perverted by dogma, and unobscured by
theory — a theophany that tells of a Jehovah
great in love and truth. For a true theodicy
is not to Job the easy matter it is to airy
optimists, late or early : a thing sought after
from the midst of tragic doubt and , despair
is his World-Governor, whose reign must be
in righteousness.

for Modern Theology. 5 7
A thing of abiding interest, then, must
remain a religion whose sum, we have seen,
consists in being personally conscious of
Jehovah, and faithful to Him. And theology
will not fail to do justice by the ethical im
portance of the Wisdom Literature, which
was not without material bearing on the
theological development of Old Testament
teaching — an importance to which justice
has not always been done by modern
critics. I do not, of course, in saying this
mean to deny that books like Job and Ec
clesiastes are less concerned with theology
than with certain aspects of life. There
may be little of the speculative interest in
the Wisdom Literature any more than in
Oriental philosophy in general, but there is
certainly a fine and growing spirit of doubt
from the ethical side, a reflective spirit
which such theistic beHef as traditionally
existed seems to have saved from pessi
mistic despair.

5 8 Significance of the Old Testament
IV.
I come back, then, to say that the
significance of the Old Testament as
revelation is not to be mistaken — a sig
nificance which Professor George A. Smith
has just declared to have been recently
admitted, in correspondence, by so able
and radical a critic as Professor Budde,
as something that for him stands "firm
as a rock " (steht felsenfest). This is merely
to say that the religion may be taken as
revealed, as more, in other words, than
offspring of human development or genius.
And this, of course, notwithstanding that
the revelation is coherent in the parts of
which it is made up, is progressive in
character, and is viewed as having had
for its organs the noblest spirits, the finest
minds, in Israel. ,And, as touching this
last point, surely the revelation is none
/ the less a jewel because we see it set in
a history that is often terribly human.

for Modern Theology. 59
Its transcendental value is thereby en
hanced, rather than impaired, and with ex- (
traordinary vitality and tenacity did Israel
adhere to that value. How very gradual
and progressive this self-revelation of Deity
was, may be seen in such slow growths as
the idea of sacrifice, and the Messianic
idea, not to speak of those growing ethical
ideals of the Old Tesatment on which I
have already dwelt. But, through every
stage of the long process, the reality of ,
Israel's God - cognition is the recognisable/
substratum in the theology of this " God-
intoxicated " people. What, I ask, do we
find, when Israel has come to the full stature
of its spiritual development, but just that
striving to subdue the actual — the heathen
actualities of the world — to the ideal, which
forms the essence of Pauline Christianity
ages afterwards ?
I have seen it claimed, within the present
month, in an important periodical, that
Judaism is indeed superior to the Christian

60 Significance of the Old Testament
\ religion, in virtue of its more impersonal,
| less dogmatic character. I joyfully accord
it whatever merit it possesses in respect of
these, but the writer betrays his theological
limitations when he is so little able to
transcend Judaism as to fail to realise
that there was something which "the law
could not do, in that it was weak through
the flesh," which thing precisely Chris
tianity has accomplished. Schechter says
that "the few dogmas that Judaism pos
sesses, such as the Existence of God,
Providence, Reward, and Punishment —
without which no revealed religion is con
ceivable — can hardly be called a creed in
the modern sense of the term," and to
this one may readily agree ; but a real,
just, and scientific appreciation of the place
and significance of the Old Testament has
no _need of such preposterous claims on be
half of Judaism as those of the other writer
to whom I have just referred. Our concep
tion of the worth of the Old Testament really

for Modern Theology. 61
depends on the clearness, force, and vivid- *
ness with which we apprehend how ex- f
cellently its long and purely spiritual pro- j
cesses of revelation were calculated to bring
home to Israel the fatuity of idol-worship,
and the spirituality of the God with Whom
they had to do. It does not seem as though
the acid of criticism would be able to dis- ,
solve Israel's elevation of God above all
cosmogony, or Israel's belief in God as
Maker of heaven and earth, or the con
nection, in Israel's view, of misery with
sin, or their hold on God as Israel's true
King and on sacrifice as life's true principle,
or Israel's outreaching hope of redemption,
or suchlike matters. And modern theology
can never wholly understand the facts with
which it has to deal save as it begins
with a sympathetic appreciation of the
character and conditions of the movement
of revelation as it appears in its gradual-
ness, its partialness, but also its truth and
reality, in the Old Testament.

62 Significance of the Old Testament
In fine, that absoluteness of the Christian
religion, on which theology is wont to
insist, is something explicable only as it
is approached along the... broad develop
mental lines traced by the^'absoluteness
of revelation in the Old Testament dis
pensation. There we see religion already
.tending to become at once universal and
i individual, as men have since known it,
and none who to-day appreciate the ripest
spiritual products of the ages should be
without the historical sense, enabling them
to interpret these in the light of all the
growth that has gone before. Thus we
shall prove, in the way Mozley urged in
his ' Lectures on the Old Testament,' the
" end " to be the " test " of this progressive
revelation — its justification, indeed, amid
those limitations and difficulties of revelation
that remain. The positive and concrete
reality of revelation is that we are alone
concerned to conserve, with, of course, the
coherence and continuity characteristic of

for Modern Theology. 63
its growth and development. What we see
in the Old Testament is revelation becoming
always more positive ; we see the special
Divine activity in this process of revelation
proving the educative and redemptive power
of Israel. Yes, and the rational and abiding
justification of the concrete truths of Israel's
special revelation lies, and must lie, in its
being part and parcel of that universal rev
elation of which it has been asked and
answered, —
" Who shall say that to no mortal
Heaven e'er oped its mystic portal,
Gave no dream or revelation
Save to one peculiar nation ?
Souls sincere, now voiceless, nameless,
Knelt at altars fired and flameless,
Asked of Nature, asked of Reason,
Sought through ev'ry sign and season
For the light on Israel shining !
Oh, it must be ! God's sweet kindness
Pities erring human blindness ;
And the soul, whose pure endeavour
Strives toward God, shall live for ever,
Live by the Great Father's favour.''

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