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D. APPLETON AND 00 :M PA NY.
185 6

f ilkje aiii ^arm Ccttan^s.

THE EEQUIEEMENTS OF

AMERICAN TILLAGE HOMES

COU SIDE EED AND SUGGESTED;

WITH DESIGNS FOR SUCH HOUSES

OF MODERATE COST.

BT
HENRY W. CLEAVELAND, WILLIAM BACKUS, AND SAMUEL D. BACKUS
# . *

NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
448 & 445 BEOAD-WAT.
1864.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 185C,
By CLEATELAND & BACKUS BEOTHEES,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, fOr the Southern District
of New York.

<j "2l \^ t> d-^

PREFACE

IN preparing the following pages of designs and hints,
we have had in.view a class, numerous and important in
every community, but speciaUy so in ours— ;^omprehend-
ing mechanics and tradesmen of moderate circumstances,
the small farmer, and the laboring man generally.
Fortunately for these, labor here is still remunerative,
while land and building material are abundant and cheap.
A modest home, which he may call his own, is beyond
the reach of no capable and industrious man. It is a
laudable ambition which prompts him to strive for such
an object ; and in no way, perhaps, can we serve him and
his family more effectually than by encouraging his
efforts. We have endeavored to provide the villager of lim
ited means with a plan for his small house, in which
strict economy shall be combined with comfort, good
looks, and substantial valyi^

iv PREFACE.
Convenience, facility in doing the family work, and
pleasantness of internal aspect and arrangements, were
our first aim. In the building and famishing of a house,
surely, if any where, charity should begia at home.
Over all other considerations, the pleasure and advantage
of its future occupants claim undeniable precedence.
But true charity does not stop where it begins. In
the minor, as weU as greater moralities, it respects the
rights of others, and gladly ministers not only to their
wants, but to their tastes. To improve the form, decora
tion, and finish of the exterior, and the general character
of its surroundings — though a secondary consideration —
is by no means an unimportant one. And, hence, we
have given to this point very carefal attention.
We believe that every improvement in the abodes of
men, which renders them more neat, comfortable, and
pleasing, contributes not only to physical enjoyment, but
to mental and moral advancement. This idea, so im
portant and encouraging, is presented more fuUy in the
book. The admirable publications of the much lamented
Downing gave a new and lastrag impulse to the arch:
tecture of our country residences. We shall feel re
warded if we may be considered to have done something
in the same direction, with regard to an humbler class
of structures. In the designs here offered, and in the remarks which
precede and accompany them, we have endeavored to

PREFACE. 7
exhibit correct principles in art, and to foster a pure and
just taste. In these alone is to be found the corrective
power that can check the universal tendency to imita
tion, — a passion which almost invariably prefers the
meretricious to the true.
In every part of the work we have endeavored to
secure accuracy and thoroughness. The perspectives
have all been delineated on the blocks by ourselves, —
having been reduced from working drawings, executed
with mathematical exactness.
K we have introduced, sometimes, topics and consider
ations not strictly applicable to village cottages hke
these of ours, our apology is, that we address men accus
tomed to read and think, — men of energy and progress,
— ^not a few of whom will build better houses one of
these days. The lesson taught, if it be good, will not be
thrown away.
For presenting some other matters here, which are
not exactly architectural, we have no better reason to
give than that we regard them as important, and believe
they will be useful.
Most of the landscapes, foliage, etc., the initial cuts,
and other embellishments, are due to the skillful pencil
of Mr. F. A. Chapman, and speak their own praise.
We believe the same will be said of Mr. Rowland's en
graving.

NOTICE.
For the convenience of such as may -wish to build after any of the
designs in this work, the Authors have prepared careful, lithographed
working drawings and printed specifications for each. These comprise
every thing necessary to enable any competent workman fully to under
stand the plans. They wiU be forwarded, together with blank forms
of contract, by mail, on receipt of a special application, and remittance,
at the following rates : — For any one of the first ten designs, $3. For
Numbers 11, 12, 13, and 14, $4 each. For the last ten, $5 each.
They -will be pleased to answer any inquiries that may arise, and to
make such suggestions relative to the execution of the designs in par
ticular localities, as the circumstances of the case, and the information
famished, shall seem to require.
Address Cleaveland & Backus Brothers,
ArcHteots, 41 WaU Street, New York.

CONTENTS,

CHAPTER L
THE HOUSE CONSIDERED IN ITS rNFLUENCE ON THE OCCUPANTS.
The Architecture of Instinct and of Eeason — Influence of the dweUing on human char
acter — Motives for the impro-rement of domestic architecture — Consideration for
the young, ........ i
CHAPTEE n.
THE VALUE OF A PERMANENT HOME.
Ownership desirable — E-rils of tenant life — The true remedy for exorbitant rents —
Owner and tenant contrasted — Salutary memories^ ... 5
CHAPTER HI.
HOME IN THE COUNTKr.
A permanent home attainable — It should be in the country — It core he there — The loss
— The gain in comfort, economy, health, happiness, and -virtue — In the country
only is Natnre seen and felt — Such a life favors individuality aud independence —
Mistaken notions in regard to it, . . . . .11
CHAPTER IV.
THE -VILLAGE.
Villages of Natural Growth — Their origin and character — Suggestions concerning
streets, grading, public grounds, aud buildings — The village farm-house. • Mand-

viii CONTENTS.
PACTUEiNa Villages— Good opportunities for improving vUlage arohitecturt—
Inducements thereto— Double houses— Location. Suburban Villages— Of recent
origin and great importance— Principles which should govern in the selection of
sites— A thought for the philanthropic capitalist— The bequest of Abbot Lawrence
—Objections to rectangular plans— Imitative tendencies— Inappropriate models—
The country village should be consistent— It is a distinct form of social life— Its
true relations and real advantages, . . . • • A'

CHAPTER V.
the CHOICE OF A LOT.
The first question to be settled — Considerations of business, neighborhood, church,
school, social enjoyment, etc.— Cost and prospective value — Adaptedness to buUd
ing purposes — Healthfulness, water, soil, exposure, dimensions — Relations of the
buUding to the ground, and to the scenery — The prospect, . . 31

CHAPTER VL
THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN.
A weU considered plan as important for the small house as the large — Its requirements
and benefits — The special wants of the famUy to be first considered — To adapt a
building to its purposes should be the primary and main object in architecture —
Truthfulness — UtiUty before show — Essential requisites — Arrangement of rooms
— The house a teacher — Mistaken notions of architectural beauty — The effect on
market value, of judicious restrictions and improvements — The moral power of
neatness and beauty — President Dwight — Consistency — Economy, not always
secured hy cheap buUding — How a plan may be procured — The empirical house-
builder — " Practical men" — Professional aid no less useful for smaU houses than
for large — ^Professional responsibility — Pattern houses — PubUshed designs — Danger
of attempting alterations, ...... 89

CHAPTER VIL
PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS.
Important preUminary — Unwise fmgaUty — How to lessen expense — Economy not a
thing to be ashamed of, nor inconsistent -with beauty and convenience. Mate
rials — Stone, bricks, wood — A plea for wood — Concrete waUs not advisable —
Dishonest imitations — Objections to stucco. Style — Should he regulated by
right principles of design— Wrong notions in regard to ornament — The Greek and
the Gothic — Objections to the formeiv-Domestic architecture should lead the way
in improvement — Absurdities of imitation — The passion for novelty — The tastes

CONTENTS. ix
and habits of the occupant not to be disregarded — Style as modified hy material,
scenery, position, and climate, ...... 56
CHAPTER vm.
cottages OF ONE STORY.
The choice of such structures often compulsory — Their advantages — ^Precaution against
damp and impure air. Design I. — Description — ^Entrance halls^— Cost $575-
Note on estimates. Design II. — Described — Site and object suggested — Cost
$626 — Note on the Landscape and foUage accompaniments. Design HI. — Au
irregular house — Supposed history — Cost $650. Design IV. — The Description —
Cost $1,000 — Inclosed spaces, . ..... 69

CHAPTER IX.
COTTAGES OF ONE STOEY AND AITtO.
Their faults, as usuaUy buUt, may he avoided. Design V. — Description — Points of
difference — Cost $820. Design VI. — Description — Section — Cost $900. Design
Vn.-^Described — Cost $1,000. Design VHI. — Description — Symmetry with
variety — Cost $950. Design IX. — Description — Plans that may be reversed —
Cost $1,075. Design X. — Characteristics — Description — Appropriate position —
Cost $1,100. Design XI. — Description — Cost $1,500. Design XH. — Character
and arrangement — Suitable position — The plan easily spoUed — Cost $1,625, 77

CHAPTER X.
mH^SIDE COTTAGES.
PecuUarities and merits of hiU-side positions — The house should conform to the site —
Practical advantages — Subterrene basements condemned — Precautionary direc
tions. Design XHI. — Position, arrangements, characteristics, material, and con
struction — The roof— General remarks — Ruskin — Cost $1,300. Design XIV. —
Position and form — Description — The stairs — Comparative merits of vertical
hoarding and clapboards — Cost $1,375, .... 88

CHAPTEE XL
HOUSES OF TWO STORIES.
Diversities of taste — Proportion — ^Finish. Design XV. — ViUage imitation of city
houses — This design is a modification — Kitchen above ground — Chimneys centra]
— ^Bay -tfindow — General remarks — Balcony — Cornice — Cost 1,250. Design

CONTENTS.

XVI.-More original-Proper position— Cost $1,200. Design XVII. (FrontiB.
piece)-Not properly a cottage— Itspurpos&^Airangement-Chimneys-Wmdows
—Cost $1,876  ^^

CHAPTER XII.
FARM-HOUSES.

The viUage farm-house. Design XVUI.— Importance of the Kitchen- Rooms fop
farm work— Rear buUding— Parlor for use— Second floor— WaUs— Expression-
Cost $1,900. Design XIX. — More of elegance^Regularity— Conveniences-
Second floor^Omamental detaUs— Cost$2,700. Design XX. — Subdued expres
sion — Material aud finish — ^Interior— One story extension — Cost $2,450, 106

CHAPTER XIII.
DOUBLE COTTAGES,
The advantage, in certain cases, of double tenements, iu regard to appearance and
economy — Division of the grounds. Design XXI. — ^Arrangement and expression
—Cost $2,150. Design XXH.- Cost $1,960. Design XXIII.- Described—
The verge-board — ^Machine-made ornament — Cost $3,000. Design XXIV. — ^An
objection obviated — Description — Recesses — Suited to a large viUage — Cost
$3,000, ........ 116
CHAPTER XIV.
INTERIORS.
Walls — Plastering — Papering — Hints. Stairs — ^Their greatest and most common
fault. Mouldings — ^Painting — The merits of graining examined — Use of woods
in their native colors — ^Variegated floors. Windows — ^Window-seats, blinds,
shades, curtains. Kitchens — Fireplaces — Door-bell — Ice — FuRNrmitE —
Should be appropriate to the rooms — Fashion an unsafe guide — Cheap mock-
fashionable fomiture neither comfortable, tastefiJ, nor durable — Home-made fur
nitnre recommended, ....... 123
CHAPTER XV.
HINTS ON construction.
Needftd precautions — Workmg plans for the mechanics, and fiiU descriptions and speci
fications — Nothing gained by hard bargains — ^The plan should be weU considered,
and closely adhered to— Importance of providing seasoned stuff— Foundations—
CeUars, how secured against water, heat, frost, and rats — ^How to retain heat 

CONTENTS. XI
Double waUs, partitions, windows — Plan for double -windows with single sash —
The open fireplace — Stoves inevitable — The cooking stove — The open stove —
Chimneys plaoed centraUy — Cheap way of warming chambers — VentUation and
ventilators — ^A simple and economic method — VentUation of sleeping rooms — Use
of air-space under roofs— Section — ^Both window-sashes should be movable —
Hipped roofs, how to be shingled — Roof valleys and chimney joinings, how made
tight — Water-closets — Health, comfort, and decency demand that they should be
within — How they may be made aud kept inoffensive — The proper size and shape
of flooring timbers — Cross-braces — Deafened floors — Outside timbers — Studding,
furring, and lathing — Shingled roofs should uot be painted — Outside waUs require
it — Choice of colors — Cautions against disorder and nuisances wMle buUding — A
common misapprehension, ...... 135
CHAPTER XVI.
THE IMPKOVEMENT OF GROUNDS.
Tho home not complete if the grounds are neglected. GRADmo — Ease of access im
portant. Draining — Form of surface — Terraces objectionable as ornaments —
Artificial improvements should harmonize -with natural features — Two common
errors — Trees, rocks, brooks. Disposition of the Ground — Not a few attempt
too much — Convenience and looks alike to be considered — ^Place for fruit-trees,
flower-beds, eto. — Grass commended for front plots — The la-wns of England — How
to make and keep a beautiful lawn — Tree-planting, often excessive and injudicious
— How to shut out the sun — Hints — Work for children — A place for play.
Paths — When they should be straight, and when winding. Fences — Should
conform to the house in general style — The high, close fence, where proper —
where not — The wire fence — The Uve hedge — Wood fences — Posts — Gates —
Design for high picket fence — Improved fence of common fencing lath — Plan and
section — Two designs for baluster fence. Drainage — ^Essential to health and
comfort — Suggestions — Kitchen-drain, how to be guarded — Fatal consequences of
neglect — The stench-trap — Section. Cisterns — Rain — ^Its abundance — Its purity
— How we let it run away, and then work hard to get it back — FUtering processes
— FUtering vessels — The filtering cistern — Section — Improvements on this — How
to construct a cistern — Vast importance of this topic. House Plot — An iUustra
tion rather than pattern — Description — References. The S-ikeet — ^What interest
and duty dictate in regard to it — Side-walks, gutters, hanks — Trees — Hitching-
post — Teaohing by example, ...... 149
CHAPTER XVII.
THE GARDEN.
Giardenrng neglected by the majority — ^The cause — The pleasures and benefits of the
pursuit — How and why it grows iu tha love of its votaries — Ignorance and inex-

xu CONTENTS.
perience need not prevent a beginning — Many set out too largely — Only the heat
plants should be cultivated — Hints preUminary and precautionary — ObUgations to
Mr. Mead — Preparation of the soU — Trenching — Making paths — Geometric design
for flower-bed — Directions for planting it — ^Another design — Fruit and vegetable
garden, how to be laid out and planted — Grapes, how to be planted, trained, and
pruned — The planting and pruning of fruit trees — Currants — Gooseberries —
Raspberries — Asparagus — Strawberries — Ornamental shrubs and -vines — Bird-
houses — Lists of pears, apples, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines, apricots,
quince, gooseberries, blackberries, currants, raspberries — Deciduous and evergreen
shrubs — Herbaceous plants — Climbers — Climbing roses — Hardy perpetual
roses ... ..... 172

TILLAGE AND FAEI COHAGES.

CHAPTEE I.

THE HOUSE CONSIDERED IN ITS INFLUENCE ON THE OCCDPANTS.

HE countless varieties of ani-
' mal existence are liardly more
distinct in size, form, and color,
'than in tlie character of tlieir
. respective habitations. From the
natural cave where the wolf hides,
to the artistic house of the beaver ; —
I from the caterpillar's tangled home, to
the waxen and paper cells of the bee
and wasp ; — from the eagle's rude
aerie on the bare cliff, to the pendent
and symmetric shelter of the oriole — ^the range is wide indeed.
And yet, through all these gradations, an unerring instinct
prompts each species to find, or to construct, such an abode for
themselves, or such a nursery for their young, as their peculiar
natures and habits demand. But the operations of instinct,
though perfect, are necessarily limited and unchanging. Of
1

2 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
progress they know nothing. The first humming-bird of Eden
cradled and fed her offspring in a nest, which differed probably
in no particular from thousands that might be seen to-day in
the groves of Cuba or Cashmere.
With man the case is far different. His wants and capa
bilities are so much more numerous, and complex, and various,
than those of the brute creation ; his powers of thought and
action are so incomparably superior, that we might expect to
find some of the most striking proofs of his higher nature in the
structures which he rears for himself. And such is the fact.
The degree in which he has been raised by civilization and re
finement above the unreasoning animal, is shown in nothing
more clearly than in the character of his dwelling. We are
not surprised when we find the poor savage of the North, bur
rowing in an underground cabin, compared with which the
homes of the mole and marmot shine as models of neatness and
comfort. But we may well wonder when we see families, among
people caUing themselves civilized and Ohristian, content to
dwell in hovels hardly good enough for swine. Can we doubt,
when we behold such cases, that the dwellings of men often
exert a powerful influence on their habits and character?
Certainly, no race, or community, or family, or individual,
while dwelling contentedly in filth and discomfort, can be
called respectable, or deemed happy.
Eegarded in this light, human dwellings acquire new con
sequence. They become an important moral influence ; one
of the means by which men are to be transferred from the
govemment of Sense and Passion, to that of Eeason and the
Affections. Their improvement takes rank, at once, among
the moral reforms, and is prompted by motives higher than

THE HOUSE IN ITS INFLUENCB. 3
mere comfort, or fashion, or pecuniary advantage. The point
is an important one, and deserves a moment's attention.
The relations which men bear to one another are among the
most efficient of the influences that mould their character.
Society is a network of closely interwoven interests, wants, and
dependencies. From these come, not only our various occupa
tions and means of living, but nearly all our tastes and sympa
thies, and many of our richest enjoyments. Oommon sense and
all experience teU us that man was not made to Hve in the
hermit's cave, or in the cynic's tub. The most successful
seeker of happiness is not he who has reduced his wants to the
smaUest possible number. The Being who made us with capa
cities for enjoyment, so numerous and varied, could never have
meant that the greater part of them should rust imused. We
may be aU the happier by having many wants, provided they
are not improper in their Mnd, not imperious in their demands,
and not beyond our abUity to gratify them.
The pattern, the foundation, the beginning of aU society, is
the FamUy, In this institution, to which, more than to gov
ernments or to great men, the progress of humanity may be
traced, centre those ties which connect the individual with the
community at large. Here we first leam that we are mutually
dependent and reciprocaUy responsible. This connection, which
begins and ends only with life, and which holds its members by
bonds so strong and yet so deUcate, must powerfuUy affect, for
good or iU, aU who are within its influence. Hence the impor
tance of those means and instruments by which its power is
modified. Prominent among these stands the home; an idea
so blended with aU the affections and associations of the
family, that the terms are almost convertible.

4 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Every enlightened plan for the advancement of family influ
ences and of society in general, wiU include among its earUest
efforts the improvement of dweUings ; and this, not only in re
spect of physical comfort, but of that aid which they can be
made to render in the suggestion of salutary associations and
the formation of desirable habits. When Architecture contri
butes to such an object, she may justly claim the highest praise.
Splendid monuments, temples, and palaces do, indeed, exhibit
the wonders of invention and tasteful skiU. They proclaim the
wealth, and gratify the pride, of individuals and of nations.
They may act as a beneficial stimulus to the pubUc taste. But
he who improves the dwelling-houses of a people in relation to
their comforts, habits, and morals, makes a benignant and last
ing reform at the very foundation of society.
That the dwelUng should most effectuaUy contribute to
such a purpose, its location and its arrangements should be, as
far as possible, adapted to the condition, employment, habits,
and character of the famUy. And not only are the adult mem
bers to be thought of. The interests of the young should
especiaUy be consulted. By aU means let the abodes of infancy
and youth be made commodious and attractive. These, how
ever humble, may teach lessons of neatness and order ; they
may and should inspire a regard for comfort and decorum.
WhUe the mind and heart are fresh and tender, let the love of
parents and kindred be combined with that of place ; the love,
to wit, of one's own house and fireside, of garden, tree, and
prospect. Thus may you contribute toward rendering the
homes of the people not only nurseries of fiUal and fraternal
affection, but the earUest and best schools of obedience and
duty, of patriotism and piety.

CHAPTER II.

THE VALUE OF A PERMANENT HOME.

' E have endeavored to show that
an important purpose ought to
dictate and control aU the arrange
ments of a home. But such a
purpose can be fulfilled only where
the dweUing is permanent. With
! the habitation which we feel to be
but temporary, — our continued oc-
P cupancy ofwhich depends, perhaps,
on another's wiU, unadapted to the
pecuUar wants of the famUy, and
imendeared by the associations of long famiUarity, it is hardly
possible to connect ideas of domestic comfort, and quiet, and
repose. For the fuU attainment of these benefits, and of those
higher ones to which we have aUuded, the dweUing should be
owned by its occupants. This practice is so general, except in
large cities, and has in itself so much to commend it, that it
may seem to some almost needless to urge its importance here.
Among our rural population, and in the smaller towns, almost
every man owns the house in which he Uves, In cities, the
case generaUy is far otherwise. There, Uving in miserable

6 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
hired tenements, we find the men of smaU means, the artisans
and laborers,— almost the whole of that large and important
class who depend on daUy toU for their daily support, and who
certainly most need the comforts and influences of a permanent
and pleasant home. That so many of these seem contented
¦srith their lot, and make no effort to exchange lodgings, so un
comfortable and so unfit, for suitable dweUings of their own, is
a strange fact, and (making aU allowance for the difficulties
and apparent hopelessness of their condition) can be accounted
for only by the paralyzing influence which such abodes exert
upon their occupants.
As it is this class, particularly, which we hope to reach and
to benefit, it seems proper to dwell for a moment on the nature
and evUs of tenant-life as it prevaUs in our large towns.
Of all the abodes rented by Avarice to Necessity, the lowest
and worst are the sunken basements, the inhabited ceUars,
which are so numerous in our great cities. In these dark,
damp, unventUated caverns, fevers, consumption, and rheuma
tism reign unchecked. Here, thousands are born only to die,
Oompared with many of these, the Irish squatter's extempore
shanty on the outskirts, is a palace of health and luxury.
Surely, Humanity and Law ought long since to have combined
(as they did in Liverpool), in shutting up for ever these imder-
ground dens of disease and death.
More frequently the class of persons especiaUy in view, are
found occupying apartments in buUdings erected for the pur
pose, or converted to it from other uses. The ground on which
they stand was chosen, probably, because it was cheap ; and it
was cheap, perhaps, because its air was unwholesome — darkened
by the smoke of a gas factory, or made intolerable with the

THE VALUE OF A PERMANENT HOME. 7
stench of some slaughter-house, or distillery. In devising such
structures, it would seem as if the owner had but one idea —
namely, that of getting the highest possible rent for the least
possible accommodation. Accordingly, the rooms are small,
badly Ughted, unventUated, inconvenient, and uncomfortable.
The stairs are narrow, steep, and dangerous. The entrance,
haUs, and other parts used by the tenants in common, are too
often insufficient in space and iU-arranged. It is easy to see
what are the natural tendencies and almost inevitable conse
quences of Uving in such a place. What is everybody's business
is nobody's. The portions used in common are neglected, and
become filthy. Bad habits soon prove themselves progressive
and contagious. Even the neat house-wife, when surrounded
constantly by dirt and disorder which she cannot remove nor
control, graduaUy loses her ambition and sinks to the surround
ing level. In such close proximity to neighbors, there can be
no feeling of privacy, no security from intrusion. The bounds
which should shut in and preserve the fanuly are overrun and
obUterated. No selection of companions can be made for
chUdren, however unfit and demoraUzing the associations to
which they are condemned. Parental restraint soon loses its
hold, and frequent quarrels among both parents and children,
result from an intercourse so compulsory yet so intimate. The
latter, growing up amid such scenes, can never know the
attractions of home. The former lose, ere long, their domestic
tastes and feeHngs. Debarred from exercising those finer sym
pathies and affections wliich mark a weU-ordered famUy, the
whole household soon leam to find their pleasures in low and
rude excitements, if they do not faU, as is but too likely, into
intemperance and open vice.

8 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
It is tme, indeed, that there are in aU our cities many
leased tenements which are not obnoxious to the above objec
tions ; — ^houses, single, or in blocks, where more or less of
isolation and privacy, and famUy comfort may be had. In
reference to these, however, and to aU other hired habitations,
there is another important point to be considered — namely,
that of expense. Ask the great army of tenants of evety grade,
what item in their expenditure seems heaviest and is met with
the greatest reluctance, and most wUl say, " the rent." And
yet it is not they who pay the largest sums that have the most
reason to complain. The man who hires a whole house can
generaUy suit himself, and usuaUy obtains an abode by paying
the average rates. With the poor it is not so. In this matter,
emphatically, their destruction is their poverty. It is a weU-
known fact, that no houses yield so high a profit to the landlord
as those which he rents to persons who can least afford to pay.
Against such exactions, so long as this class continue to hire
their habitations, there is no help. It is the penalty imposed
npon them for their inability or their unwUlingness to be their
own tenants. It would be weU for such persons to enter into a
Uttle calculation. It is not difficult to prove that what they
now pay for poor lodgings, would soon procure for them a
decent house of their own, and give their famUies the precious
boon of a permanent home. And what a comfort, to fear no
more the quarterly or monthly returns of rent-day, and to be
for ever freed from the cost and damage of compulsory and fre
quent removals ! If weU selected, the Httle property wiU be
Ukely to rise in value, and can hardly faU to constitute the
beginning and the nucleus of other acquisitions.
WhUe he is a tenant, the man must take such a house or

THB VALUE OF A PERMANENT HOME. 9
room as he can get, not such as he needs. As purchaser, or
btulder, he may adapt his dweUing to the wants and circum
stances of his famUy. As a tenant, he suffered a thousand
inconveniences and mortifications rather than to make improve
ments on another man's property. Now he can have his habi
tation repaired, painted, and kept in good condition, without
asking consent of a niggardly landlord.
If the benefits of such a home ended here, how fuUy would
its acquirement justify many sacrifices, and the most strenuous
efforts. It is the moral influence Hkely to flow from such a
change that suggests the highest motives for attemptiug it.
To have a home which he has himself reared, or purchased, — a
home which he has improved, or beautified, — a home, indeed,
which, with honest pride and natural love, he caUs his own, is
an additional security for any man's virtue. Such a home he
leaves with regret ; to it he gladly returns. There he finds
innocent and satisfying pleasures. There his wife and Httle
ones are happy and safe, — and there aU his best affections take
root and grow. To such a pair, as time advances, this abode
of their early and their middle life, this hive where their off
spring once swarmed, and whence they have perhaps aU
departed, becomes constantly more dear ; for it is now a scene
of precious memories, — the undisturbed shelter of their declining
years. And say — what lapse of time, what traveUed distance,
what varied experience of prosperity or sorrow, can ever efface
the good impression made by such a home on the tender heart
of chUdhood 1 To the tempted youth, to the wanderer from
-virtue, to the sad victim of misfortune, such a remembrance
has often proved a strengthening monitor, or a healing balm.
Nor can this kindly influence whoUy fail, so long as the dear

10 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
objects of that famiUar scene retain a place in memory, con
nected as they inseparably are, with thoughts of a father's
counsels, a mother's tenderness, a sister's purity, and a brother's
love.

CHAPTER III,

HOME IN THE COUNTRY.

UT it may be said, that
this talk about possession
and permanency is aU very
weU for such as have the
means to buy or to buUd, but is
'only a tantalizing mockery to those who
with difficulty raise even the monthly
payments for their landlords. We do
not, however, admit the impeachment.
^AK^ We would be the last to excite expecta
tions which cannot be reaUzed. We wUl endeavor to show that
our views and objects are not only practical but practicable.
We address, especiaUy, those who experience and feel the evUs
of hired abodes in populous places. We assure them that their
case is not hopeless ; but we do not say that the desired change
can be effected without effort, or without some sacrifice. Few
things in life worth having can be got except by resolution,
industry, and self-denial. Listen, then, while we try to con
vince you that the object recommended is an attainable one,
and that its benefits wiU repay aU their cost and a great deal
more.

12 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
First, then, we do not counsel you to buy or to buUd within
city bounds. Not but that possession, even here, is far better
than tenancy at wUl. It is enough now to say that the high
value of city lots, their limitations in regard to the style of
building and its material, and the rates of taxation, put such
ownership out of the question for most of you. HappUy the day
is forever gone, when the necessity of being near their place of
labor or business, compelled all the work-people and tradesmen
of a city to Hve -within it. Steamboats and raUroads, convey
ances both rapid and cheap, have brought the once distant hiUs
and fields and groves, as it were, to our very doors. The ines
timable privUege of a country home can no longer be monopo-
Hzed by the wealthy citizen. We wish to show that it may
be, and should be yours.
It is weU known that at the distance of a few mUes, and of
less than one hour from the heart of every great town, buUding
ground may be obtained at prices which bring it within the
reach of aU but the poorest. The organization of viUage associa
tions has made it practicable for a man with Httle capital or
credit, to secure a homestead in a good neighborhood. This is
accompHshed by means of smaU but regular payments. Each
instalment reduces the principal, and soon the purchaser is an
owner in fee simple. Do you not see how easy the change is ?
That the money which you are now paying in quarterly rent
for an unhealthy and uncomfortable tenement, wUl suffice, in
two or three years, to give you a good house and garden in the
country? This is not fancy but fact, as figures prove — a blessed
fact, if you wiU but test it.
It is true that you and your fanuly -wUl be called to relin
quish some associations and friendships, some jmvUeges, (at

HOME IN THE COUNTRY. 13
first,) of church and school, some amusements, perhaps, that
you have leamed to reUsh in city Ufe. But mark what com
pensation ! You gain a home — that which you never truly had
nor can have in the hired city lodging. A home ! We
might leave it there, for the word comprehends aU that is most
to be prized in Hfe. Instead of a house, buUt only to be let,
and to yield profits to its owner, you have, or should have, one
made for your own accommodation and suited to the condition
and uses of your famUy ; a house which the pleasure and pride
of possession wUl prompt you constantly to improve and adom ;
a house not squeezed in between others, not dimly Hghted in
front and rear, not looking out upon pavements and brick waUs,
but standing by itself, surrounded and, (when you so choose,)
permeated by the free, pure air, with a grass-plot on which
your chUdren can play, with flowers and shrubs, and shade-trees
and fruit-trees of your own planting, and berries and vegetables
of your own raising. What suitable and comfortable abodes
can be thus secured at a very moderate outlay -wUl hereafter be
shown, with details and estimates of actual cost.
It is clear that in such a residence the expense of Hving
may be sensibly diminished, whUe its actual comforts wUl be
largely increased. Such a famUy should produce, in part, at
least, their own vegetables, poultry, eggs, and pork. In very
many cases, a cow might be added, and this single advantage
would more than pay if the trouble of Uving out of the city
were ten times what it is. Think of the difference between re
galing your Httle ones on pure, nutritious mUk, and poisoning
them with a compound made from the vUe leavings of the dis-
tiUery ! Nor is it only in the suppUes of the table, that the
coimtry Hfe would prove less expensive. In matters of dress,

14 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
furniture, &c., the tyrant fashion which lords it over aU classes,
would be somewhat less exacting there.
Add now what would be gained in point of healtL The
amount of disease and mortaUty among city chUdren is ab
solutely appaUing. Even in our healthiest summers, the
deaths during the hot months are often doubled, and the new
victims are drawn almost entirely from the ranks of chUdhood,
Oan it be doubted that a large part of these might be saved, if
sent to the country and cared for there ? Fond parents, carry
thither your own, and see how soon their saUow cheeks wUl
glow with ruddy health, and their soft emaciated muscles round
into firmness and strength and beauty.
But rural life can claim other and stUl higher praise. Its
moral infiuences are as much better than those of the city, as
its air is more salubrious. Experience seems to say that in the
country, oiUy, can men be reared. From it the leech-like city
receives ever new recruits, whUe itself produces almost none. To
the country we must look as the proper home and nursery of chU
dren. Here they are away from the dangers and temptations,
the unnatural excitements and morbid stimulants, the thousand
baits and haunts of vice, with which the city abounds- Here
parental authority is less counteracted, famUy discipHne is more
easUy maintained, and the virtues, affections, and benefits of
home are more frequently and more effectuaUy secured.
On this agreeable theme, the pecuUar and beneficial influ
ences of rural life, it would be easy and pleasant to expatiate.
One or two additional hints must suffice.
So far as material objects exert an influence on the mind
and heart, the advantage is almost whoUy in favor of the coun
try. In the city, every thing is subject to change. Few, com-

HOME IN THE COUNTRY. 15
paratively, own their homes, and even they can seldom connect
them -with the thought of permanence. There is Httle within
them, there is nothing at aU around them, about which memory
and affection contrive to twine their invisible, but indestructible
threads. For the dweUer in town. Nature can hardly be said
to have an existence. True, the blue heaven bends over his
head, but he seldom sees it except in streaks and patches. He
must climb high if he would behold the magnificence of its
fretted vault, and look upon the sun as he rises or goes down
in kingly state. In the country alone can earth and sky be
seen in aU their beauty and grandeur. Its favored dweUers
may not always or fuUy appreciate these quaUties, but they do
not therefore escape their influence. The rugged mountain and
the gentle eminence, the lake, the river, and the brook, the
forest and the grove, the broad plain and the Uttle green dell,
must make deep and lasting marks on the minds of those who
daUy behold them, and especiaUy of those who grow up among
them. It is eminently amid such scenes, as history and ob
servation show, that the hardy and homebred virtues thrive,
and that patriotism is bom and nurtured.
In the country the abodes and occupations of men are more
widely separated than in dense communities, so that their life
and labors are more often soUtary and sUent. Such a condition
is evidently conducive to thoughtful habits. Among such men
we look for frequent instances of marked individuaUty in char
acter. They are not all moulded into one form by the surround
ing pressure. Their sharp comers are not wom off by attrition
with the crowd. Not moving in masses, they have opinions
and feelings and perhaps prejudices of their own. There may
be some evUs in this, but there are advantages also. They may

16 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
seem less courteous, but are they not more sincere ? Among
them we look for plain good sense and sturdy independence.
Above aU, their moral and reUgious convictions are of a higher
tone, and are obeyed with a strength and tenacity of purpose,
which we seldom find in any class of city population.
This trait of individuality suggests not only a plea for
country Hfe, but an important consideration for the architect.
Let him remember and consult it when planning for rural
homes. Let them be in some sense emblematical of their
self-relying occupants, suited to their condition, and not out of
harmony -with their taste and character.
To men famiUar with city noise and activity, the quiet
country often seems sluggish and monotonous. Unhappy they
who have become unable to appreciate the power and beauty
of repose ! Be assured that in these calm scenes may be
found a peace and joy unknown to the restless town. In the
culture of domestic affections ; in training your children to
habits of industry, learning, and goodness ; in reading and re
flection ; in the pleasant toUs of the garden ; in social inter
course -with your neighbors, and in good offices to aU who need
them, — ^you will find healthful and deUghtful occupation for
every hour which you are permitted to pass at home.
This is not an imaginary picture. The experiment has
been tried by thousands, who are now enjoying its fruits ; by
men, women, and chUdren, who once wUted and pined amid
stones and bricks in the close city air, but who now luxuriate
among trees and grass and flowers, and feasting upon their own
unbought dainties, are happier than kings.

CHAPTER IV,

THE VILLAGE.

S yet we have treated of
rural residence in a gene-
; ral way. We propose now
to consider one particular
form of it ; to wit, the
' viUage. By this term we
gzr understand any assemblage of houses
in the country, not large enough to
be caUed a town. As viewed with
reference to their origin and charac
teristics, American vUlages may be divided into three classes.
Of these, by far the most numerous are those which have
grown up graduaUy, and naturaUy, round certain central nuclei.
A court-house, a meeting-house, a head of river na-vigation, a
waterfaU, a landing, or a raUroad terminus, are among the
seminal points from which such viUages spring. In the second
class we place those which have been created by manufacturing
enterprise. Thirdly, we have the suburban viUage, a compara
tively recent invention to reUeve the hard-working and severely
pressed population of our cities. As appropriate to our general
object, and with the hope of calling attention to a matter that
2

18 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
has been too much neglected, we offer a few remarks and sug
gestions on the laying out and buUding of vUlages.
In -vUlages of the class first named, we find, as we might
expect, great variety. They have gro-wn up, not accorditig to
any original purpose or plan, but as the increase of business
and population demanded. Their appearance is modified not
only by the character and occupations of the inhabitants, but
by the nature of the site, and the original laying out of roads
and lots. If the ground be uneven and the streets irregular,
the village must exhibit simUar traits. Nor is this want of
uniformity and exactness, in itself, objectionable. Many old vil
lages, with their short, and winding, and often narrow streets,
have a picturesqueness and ever-pleasing variety, whichwe are
sorry to miss in those that have been laid out by rule. -
When places of this class are in their incipient state, a few
influential persons may often do much toward giving a right
direction to their future growth. The main thoroughfares will,
of course, be first buUt upon. We cannot bring ourselves to
feel that such avenues should aU run in straight Hues, and
cross at right angles. This is supposed to be the unfortunate
necessity of cities, where every square inch is measured and
has its value. In the country, where there is room enough and
to spare, there is no need of this mathematical economy. Here
the natural way is generaUy the best way. The character of
the surface, making it easy to run a street in one direction, and
not so in another, may very properly determine its location.
Sometimes this wUl depend on the eUgibUity of buUding sites,
or on the accidents of water, of hUl and plain, of marsh and
ravine. Such requirements wUl not be whoUy disregarded if
taste and judgment have a voice in the matter. Nature must

THB VILLAGE. 19
be humored and not forced, if we would retain her power to
please. As such viUages increase, the districts appropriated to
dwelling-houses should receive particular care. The first
object should be to make the buUding lots ample, convenient,
and pleasant, and then let the street conform. This principle
is to be observed with proper modifications, but its importance
wiU be conceded by many who have witnessed the iU effects of
a course directly the reverse. The reservation for pubUc use
and enjoyment of some open space in every vUlage, cannot be
too strongly urged. The triangular points formed by roads
that converge at acute angles, may weU be made open ground,
instead of being covered with unsightly wedges of wood or
brick. Looks and comfort wUl be promoted by placing the
church and the school-house at some Httle distance from the
noisy and dusty street.
In those hamlets, usually of slow formation, which grow up
in agricultural towns, many of the vUlagers — sometimes the
larger part — are, more or less, engaged in farming operations.
This fact naturaUy influences (as it ought to influence), the
style of buUding and the general aspect of the place. The new
houses, though designed in some respects for difi'erent uses,
ought not to be whoUy out of harmony with the old — nor is
there any reason why men should be in haste to get rid of the
early old-fashioned farm-house, which, however Uttle it may boast
of artistic grace, is yet pleasantly suggestive of rustic plenty and
comfort, of manly independence, and of the home-bom virtues.
From a disregard of such considerations, some of our inland
vUlages are disfigured by the most absurd and incongmous
architecture.

20 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Without further detaU, where much might be said, we pass
to the manufacturing vUlage. This is usuaUy the creation of a
proprietor, or of a corporation. Simultaneously with the erec
tion of a mUl, tenements are put up near it for the accommo
dation of its operatives. When the estabUshment is large, a
Uttle town is thus buUt, as it were, in a day. Such opportuni
ties seem pecuUarly favorable for introducing good specimens
and models of village and cottage architecture. It is not often,
however, that we are able to praise them, either for the taste
which they evince or the practical wisdom. Frequently these
tenements are long, uniform blocks, built Hke rows of small city
houses, and with equal frugaUty of space. Far too often they
occupy unsheltered and unpleasant sites, without the sHghtest
air of comfort or neatness, much less of beauty. We might
urge upon the phUanthropic proprietor his unquestionable obUga
tion to make the abodes of his work people comfortable and
agreeable. On him who would be considered not devoid of
taste, we might press the duty of gratifying, or certainly of not
offending the pubHc eye. But there is another appeal which
aU understand. The pecuniary interest of the proprietor is
promoted when he furnishes pleasant homes to those who are in
his employ. If the original cost should be somewhat greater,
it -will be far more than repaid in the long run. It secures in
the first place a more intelUgent and respectable class of opera
tives, — people who have been accustomed to the comfort and
independence of a home, and who wUl not go where they can
have neither the reaUty nor the semblance. Such habitations
do much towards substituting a permanent for a shifting popu
lation. Other, and stronger ties are formed than those which
depend on mere wages. The pleasant rooms, with their asso-

THE VILLAGE. 21
ciations of domestic and social enjoyment ; the Httle garden
with its fruits ; the small green yard, with tree, shrub, vine,
and fiower, which the occupants have planted, tended, and
leamed to love, are so many pledges of fideUty to their em
ployer. Such homes wUl not be Ughtly abandoned with the
first fancied or real difficulty that may occur.
It wUl at once be seen that these remarks do not apply to
long blocks of houses. In some respects single tenements, with
more or less of open space around them, would undoubtedly
best favor the ends suggested. Nearly the same results may
however be obtained by having two habitations under one roof
The economy of this arrangement, both in buUding the house
and in keeping it warm, wUl ,generaUy give it the preference.
Each tenement may thus have its own yard, garden, and sur
roundings. In another part of this work wiU be found some
simple designs for these double houses.
For simUar reasons the judicious proprietor -wUl be careful
in fixing on the site for his tenements. The nearness of a spot
to the mill, its cheapness or want of fitness for other purposes,
wUl not be deemed sufficient reasons for putting human dweU
ings on it. So far as may be practicable, let considerations of
salubrity and pleasantness, of soU, and sun, and air, of shelter
and of prospect, have their due share in the selection.
It is almost needless to add that the desired work would be
only half accompHshed, unless the same regard for neatness,
order, and comfort, shaU also be exhibited in the nulls and
their appointments, in the canals and bridges, the walks and
grounds. The third class we have caUed the suburban viUage. Like
that just treated of it is a sudden creation, the result of im-

22 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
perative necessity. Such viUages are springing up in the
neighborhood of our great cities, and already furnish comforta
ble homes to a large population. Their desirableness and
utility are unquestionable. But the selection of their sites and
the style of laying out and buUding, ought not to be left to
chance, to ignorance, or to the selfishness of speculation.
There is no necessity, as yet, for planting these Httle towns on
impracticable ledges of rock, nor in or around swamps. Salu
brity of air, abundance and purity of water, pleasantness of
location and prospect, eUgibUity for building and quaUty of
soil, are points that should he considered, as weU as distance
from the city, and proximity to the track of car or steamboat.
Hitherto the perception and supply of a great and growing
want has been left mostly to landowners and speculators, whose
enterprises in this Hne could hardly be expected to look very
far beyond the results of "a good operation." What this
means we aU know. But the object is one which may weU
enUst a higher motive. What more promising field can be
presented to the benevolent man of wealth, who recognizes the
obUgations of his stewardship, and wishes that aU his invest
ments should benefit others as well as himself ?
Attention has recently been given, especiaUy in England,
to the erection, in cities, of cheap and comfortable houses for
the poorer classes. These are rented at low rates under rea
sonable and wholesome restrictions in relation to neatness and
good conduct. Both in a pecuniary and a moral sense these
noble efforts have proved successful. Place those who have
been famUiar -with dirt and wretchedness, where they can be
neat, and quiet, and comfortable, — ^where the lesson of order is
taught by example rather than precept, — where its benefits

THE VILLAGE. 23
are constantly seen and the preservation or loss depends upon
their own conduct, — and you bring them under the best if not
the only culture of which they are susceptible. By thus accus
toming them to respect and help themselves, you prompt the
aspiration for better things and make the attainment possible.
AU this and more, as we have heretofore urged, appHes to
the substitution of rural homes for crowded and wretched city
abodes. To render practicable such a change, by procuring
suitable ground for a city vUlage, by laying it out and pro
viding for its growth, regulation, and future prosperity, on ra
tional, economic, sesthetic, and Christian principles, seems to
us one of the most feasible and one of the noblest enterprises in
which the phUanthropic capitaUst can engage. Every doUar
thus invested would bring to him not only a satisfactory per
centage of interest, but what he would prize infinitely more,
rich visible fruits of neatness and thrift, of happiness and virtue.
He becomes the founder of a community, beholds with his own
eyes the good he has done, and leaves behind him, when he
dies, an imperishable monument.*
One thing we may take for granted. Villages of this class
wUl continue to be needed, and through one agency or another
* The attention of the whole country has just heen caUed, (September, 1856,) to
a much needed reform, by the announcement of a testamentary bequest, appropriating
$60,000, for the erection of model lodging houses for the poorer classes. Should Mr.
Lawrence's intentions be judiciously executed, they -wiU prove the beginning of a great
movement, for they wiU show that houses may thus be bnUt, which shaU prove alike
advantageous to owner and tenant. We regard this, therefore, as the crowning aot of a
useful and honored life. For whUe thousands of the sons of soienoe -wiU laud the
founder of the school at Cambridge, tens of thousands of laboring men wBl bless the
name of the sagacious phUanthropist, who inaugurated a new auspicious era for them
and their chUdren.

24 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
the want wiU be met. No man should venture to give impulse
to such a movement -without some sense of the responsibility
which he thereby incurs. Let him not forget that the health,
happiness, and character of thousands may be infiuenced for
better, or for worse, by his action in a matter of this kind. The
selection of the ground and the first direction of the enterprise
rest with those who project it, and accordingly as these are
good or bad, future generations wUl bless or curse the founder.
In so important an affair as the estabUshment of a vUlage,
the advice of the landscape-gardener and the architect, and
sometimes also that of the civU engineer, may greatly conduce
to a judicious choice of the site, and to its proper arrangement.
And, as sanitary considerations should have paramount weight,
let medical science, after due inquiry and observation, pronounce
on the salubrity of the spot. When such precautions shaU be
used in the designation of the ground, — when a wise and taste
ful care shall be manifest in the laying out of its lots and
streets, in the style and character of the houses and in the
planting of trees, the suburban viUage wUl assume a new
aspect. Then to the eye of the passing traveUer it wUl present
a pleasing, instead of a repulsive picture, while its chief recom
mendation wUl be that it offers to those who most need a
home, one that is healthful and inviting as weU as moderate in
cost. We have already expressed our conviction that rural villages
need not and ought not to be laid out -with the checker-board
exactness which is supposed to be necessary in cities. We say
" supposed " — ^for some good reasons might be given against it
even in these. On the score both of looks and cost it should cer
tainly be avoided m the country. By letting the streets foUow, m

THE VILLAGE. 25
the main the natural grade, there wUl be a saving of trouble and
expense. The lots upon them wUl not be spoUed by cuts and
embankments. Eiding and walking wiU be facUitated and
made more agreeable by the preservation of levels or of easy-
cUmbing graceful curves. It is far more important that the
house which is to be your home and that of your family, should
be pleasant in its position and surroundings, than that it should
be placed at the shortest possible distance from the railroad
station, — a distance that wUl usually be traveUed but twice a
day. This consideration, duly weighed, wiU certainly have some
infiuence in deciding how village streets and lanes shall run.
From these brief hints on a subject temptingly inviting, we pass
to another topic.
The tendency to imitation is perhaps seen in nothing more
than in the houses which men build. In all time and every
where, this has been more or less the case, but the trait seems
to be especiaUy conspicuous in the American mind. The evidence
of this is not far to seek. We should have less reason to "com
plain if the disposition to copy would confine itself to forms of
real exceUence and unquestionable beauty. We can only say
" less reason," for we should stiU have some. Sameness, even in
beauty, soon tires us. Let the productions of art be
" Varions,
That the mind of desultory man,
Stndious of change and pleased with novelty,
May be indulged."
If she must imitate, let her model be Nature, whose infinite
variety " age cannot wither nor custom stale."
Unfortunately the copying tendencies to which we now refer

26 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
usually -ran in a very different direction from that of fitness, oi
of grace. We need not mention instances. To every observant
person they are perfectly famUiar. Often some peculiarity of
material, or form, or ornament, or color, introduced by one am
bitious man, sets the fashion for a whole street, or even town.
The more uncouth or fantastic or incongruous such features are,
the more likely are they to reappear with every new stracture
that is reared. Surely such mimicry as this is speciaUy un
worthy of a people who profess entire freedom and independence
of thought and action.
But our subject calls us to notice more in detaU certain
kinds of imitation to which those who build village houses seem
to be prone.
The common farm-house sometimes furnishes the model.
We have shown that there are situations where, under proper
modifications, this does very well. But there needs no argument
to show the folly of building farm-houses in vUlages which have
nothing to do with farming.
Sometimes the house of the farm laborer, or the gardener's,
or the porter's lodge, as these are given in English works on
cottage architecture, seem to have suggested the design. In the
books referred to, these are almost the only specimena given.
They meet, probably, the wants of that country, but certainly
not those of ours. There, a hovel answers for the laboring man,
provided that it seldom forces itself on the notice of his rich em
ployer. But if the poor fellow's constant presence is required at
the entrance to the grounds, or in any conspicuous spot upon
them, his house must be something pretty to look at. If not
picturesque, it wUl offend the fastidious eye of the master and
of his visitors. The accommodation of the humble tenant is but

THE VILLAGE. 27
a secondary matter. The state of things among us, as yet, is
fortunately, very different. Our working men generally own the
soU. They own their houses. They are independent. They can,
if they choose, Hve in comfortable abodes, and for the most part,
they do choose it. The cottage architecture of England was
never intended for them, and in putting up their dwellings,
they can certainly do far better for themselves and their families,
than to copy either the mean or the fanciful structures which the
wealthy and proud proprietors of that aristocratic isle furnish to
their poor dependents.
To the vUlager of ampler means, or at least of higher am
bition, some neighboring country-seat is apt to hold out its
temptations. Architecture and gardening have lavished their
graces upon and around it.- He is deUghted with its looks,
and can see no reason why he may not have a villa too, on a
smaller scale. When he does this, he certainly forgets the dif
ference between his own circumstances and necessities, on the one
hand, and those of his wealthy neighbor on the other. The
-pUla has been built with more reference, probably, to taste than
to expense. It may be intended mainly for a summer residence.
The indulgence of a large hospitality or some other special pur
pose may have modified its design ; it may or may not be just
what its owner wants ; it is hardly possible that it can suit
one whose condition is entirely different. Besides, when copied
on a reduced scale, it wiU be quite another thing, and its best
quaUties may be lost in the change.
More frequently however this imitation of villa architecture is
limited to particular features and to ornamental detaUs. If these
are transferred without change of form or size to smaller build
ings, they do but overload them with superfluous finery. Nor

28 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
will the attempt to reduce and adapt' them to the new position,
be likely to tum out better. The whole business is bad. It is
simply apish ; a manifest attempt to do something beyond the
builder's power.
StiU more senseless is that form of this vice which takes the
city for its pattern. The very features in town houses which
their occupants have adopted from necessity, and to which they
submit as unavoidable evils, are too often copied in the country,
with a servility which is ridiculous. The high cost of ground in
a city compels its inhabitants to Hve in deep, narrow, lofty
houses, lighted only in front and rear, with some of the rooms
half under ground and others far up in the sky. The man who
has had experience in these matters, who knows the comfort of
basement dining-rooms and basement kitchens, and of deep,
dark parlors and chambers, and who has enjoyed the privilege of
frequent climbing to attic heights, would never repeat the ex
periment when building in the country.
A country viUage, content to appear what it really is, is a
pleasant place. It unites the charms of nature with those of
art, and its fairest feature is consistency. But such are not aU
There are some aspiring and sUly vUlages as well as boys and
girls. Certainly those are such, which, despising the rural sim
plicity that should be their highest pride, vainly endeavor in
their buUdings, manners, etc. to imitate the city style. Such
an attempt must be unsuccessful. Some of its faults may be
copied pretty nearly, but the real exceUencies of city Hfe are
quite beyond their reach. Of such -vdllages it may truly be
said, that they are neither one thing nor another.
WhUe we alternately laugh at and pity these absurdities
of a vain ambition, we feel only indignant when we see a viUage

THE VILLAGE. 29
simUarly injured through the bUndness and the promptings of
avarice. Some man of money has bought a tract of -voUage
ground. It is his purpose to make the most of it. The good
looks and welfare of the village, the interests and wishes of his
neighbors, the health and comfort of those who are to Uve in
his houses, are of Uttle or no account with him. Taking for
his model some mean block of city tenements, he covers the
ground with narrow ceUs, and advertises to sell or rent them
as charming rural residences. It would not break our heart to
hear that such a man had been condemned to perpetual in
carceration in one of his own vUe boxes.
One or two additional considerations for those who have
become, or who intend to become dweUers in a suburban -vUlage,
are respectfuUy tendered. And first, they should remember
that the viUage is and ought to be a distinct and pecuUar kind
of society. If wise, they wUl lay aside those notions, preju
dices, and habits, formed elsewhere, which are inconsistent
with their new mode of Hfe. Let them regard the vUlage not
as a Httle city, nor yet as a mere appendage to some larger one.
It is, or should be, a community by itself, having its own in
terests, and holding its population together by mutual attach
ments and dependencies. In common -with the more isolated
inhabitant of the country, they can have sufficient ground for a
dweUing, with the luxuries of a garden and an unrestricted
supply of Hght and air. With the city resident they may
enjoy many conveniences and privUeges which can only attend
combined efforts and interests. To specify a few of these. —
Here are good sidewalks, a comfort which he who has Uved in
both country and city can well appreciate. Here he has aque
ducts, or at least weUs in common, bringing near him and

30 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
cheaply, one prime necessary of life. Wherever there is a vil
lage, there -wiU be shop-keepers, grocers, butchers, mechanics,
and it wOl not long want physicians of aU the schools. Here,
too, are suppUes for the higher wants of the heart and mind.
The opportunities for social intercourse are multipUed. Bead
ing rooms and lectures are provided. Schools are maintained,
and churches are reared and frequented.
These are important facts. They are connected with all
the detaUs of daily Hfe, and it is for the interest of the
suburban vUlage that they should not be disregarded in its
architecture.

CHAPTER Y.

THE CHOICE OF A LOT.
HEN the building of a house
'^ is determined on, the first step
to be taken is the selection of
a site. This is so important a
matter, and has so much to do
with success or failure, that it
seems entitled to special con
sideration. The first question for a man in
such case to settle, is that of his
needs, both present and prospective. This
is not always easy. In making up his Hst of may wants and
must wants, the future householder wUl often be as much
puzzled as was little Frank, in Miss Edgeworth's channing
story. In the case of every man there wiU be some pecuUari
ties of disposition or of condition which should be taken into
the account.
One of the first points to be examined is the relations of
the lot to its neighborhood and to other parts of the village.
A man doing busiuess in the city, naturaUy prefers a home
near the raUroad station or steamer landing. If engaged in

32 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
some manufactory, store, or workshop, which aUows him but scant
time for meals, proximity in his home is absolutely necessary.
To aU such we would say, let this consideration have its due
weight and no more. In very many cases, a Httle shorter or
longer walk is of smaU consequence compared with other thinga
which ought to influence.
The house which is to be a dweUing, only, may stand upon
some retired and quiet lane. If it is to be also a place of busi
ness, it wUl demand, probably, a conspicuous location on
some frequented street. A social family, accustomed to make
and receive evening caUs, wiU avoid much disappointment, in
convenience, and grumbling, by fixing their habitation on a
street with good walks. Those who prefer soUtude and seclu
sion, and who Hke to go to bed early, can generaUy be accom
modated on some by-way, whose rugged path "wiU effectuaUy
secure them from visiting bores. For some it is very desirable
to be near the church and the school-house, whUe to others
this is a secondary consideration.
Questions of economy are intimately connected with the
relative position of the lot, bearing as this does, not only on
the first cost and probable rise in value, but also on the expense
of buUding and of Hving there. It is not every man who can
settle for himself such points as these. To understand the
present value of property, and the probabHities of its improve
ment or depression, requires much observation and sagacity. To
those who are consciously unequal to the task, we can only say,
consult, if you can find him, some -wise and disinterested
adviser. But there are some means of judging which are within the
reach of all. Such elements of calculation are great thorough-

THE CHOICE OF A LOT. 33
fares, railroads and canals, landings and water-powers; and
such, eminently, is the character of a population in regard to
energy and pubUc spirit. When these are exhibited, even
within a Hmited range, the effect on property -wiU soon show
itself. Thus a single street, with no original advantage over
others near it, is sometimes made greatly more valuable through
the good taste and UberaUty of a few occupants. And to make
such improvements, fortunately, is not the exclusive privUege
of the wealthy and influential. Much may be done by men of
moderate means, if there be only an eye for beauty and a
generous heart. Humble hands have sometimes planted along
the roadside, Httle elms, or maples, which in after years have
given shade and beauty and dignity to a noble avenue, thus
adding untold thousands to the value of its adjacent grounds.
Wherever such men are found, it wUl be safe, on speculative
principles (and those are our present theme), to cast toe's lot
among them.
Is the ground favorable for buUding on ? This is a very
important point. Excavation upon it may be easy or difficult.
It may need much grading, or but Uttle. Its position may
either faciUtate or impede the transportation of materials. To
obtain the needed supply of water may cost Httle, or it may
cost much. From ignorance or inconsiderateness in regard to
such matters, many a man has had to spend as much upon his
ground alone as he had set apart for the whole cost.
Location wUl also influence the cost of buUding by modi
fying its style and decorations. A house that is secluded and
seldom seen, may be simple and plain to a degree which would
seem mean in a more conspicuous position.
We might proceed to show in what ways the particular loca-
3

34 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
tion given to a house, may tend to diminish or to increase the
expenses of the famUy which occupies it, but these wiU readUy
suggest themselves to every householder.
In many instances, the neighborhood furnishes the con-
troUing motive that decides where we shall buUd. We Hke to
Hve near our relatives and friends, or, at least among our ac
quaintance. StUl more desirable is it to secure proper associates
for the young. If the village have a wealthy and fashionable
end, there wUl be some who can Hve only there. Contiguity to
some particular church, or school, or doctor, wUl have its influ
ence with others. The elective affinities of taste, opinion, and
companionship, -wUl always have more or less weight in deter
mining where people shaU Uve.
In a community where aU classes are virtually equal, we
see no reason why their dwellings should not be intermingled.
Let each man select the site that is suited to his wants and
taste, and let the house which he puts upon it be such as
becomes his station and means. His nearest neighbors may
make a greater display. What of that ? If able, they have a
right to do so, and if not, they -will only be laughed at for their
foUy. In either case, he wUl be aU the more respected for
having shown himself in this respect to be a man of sense.
Education and refinement are not confined to any class, and
certainly are not monopoHzed by the rich. Often the most
attractive objects in a -village are its unassuming cottages,
pleasing us by their simple, unborrowed beauty, whUe more
ambitious houses, flauntiog in stolen omaments, are noticed
only with disgust.
Besides these questions regarding the relative position of
the lot, there are others, scarcely less important, connected

THE CHOICE OF A LOT. 35
with its character when considered by itself. The first of these
is its healthfulness. If the air is bad from any cause not to
come -within the purchaser's control, the defect is vital, and
should decide the matter instantly. No other qualities, how
ever valuable, can atone or compensate for this deadly fault.
Next in importance to good air comes an abundant supply
of good water. If this element can be brought in pipes from
pure and permanent sources, the acquisition is of great value,
and wiU justify the sacrifice, if necessary, of some other com
forts. Those who have once enjoyed that unspeakable pri-rilege,
an unfaUing supply of pure soft water, its unrestricted luxury
of washing and bathing, and the comfortable facUity which it
imparts to many household operations, — may weU wonder at
the indifference with which this matter is regarded by many.
Why, there are hundreds and hundreds of viUages in our
country, in whose near vicinity are hUl springs, or mountain
tarns, from which a united effort would easUy bring an inex
haustible supply. What foUy to be digging deep weUs, and
daUy to labor at clumsy sweeps and wheezing pumps, for a
meagre quantity of hard, unwholesome, mineral water, when
they might have the soft, pure, sparkUng lymph laid on their
houses to the very top, fiowing perennially for the refreshment
of man and beast, and cheaply deUghting both eye and ear
with the pleasantest of sights and sounds !
And yet how many aUow the blessed element to run off and
be lost, content to wash in water which turns soap back into
grease, and to derange their bowels with muddy draughts from
the river, or with solutions of salt and Ume from the weU.
Many regard rain-water as whoUy unfit to drink. And so it is
when no care is taken to keep or to make it pure. Properly fil-

36 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
tered and cooled, it is as palatable as it is wholesome. The eis-
tem may be arranged for this purpose, or the water may be
filtered as it is used. A knowledge and right appreciation of this
fact make the question of weUs less important, and wUl render
some places eUgible as buUding ground, which otherwise would
be condemned. The lay of the land and fitness of the soU for garden pur
poses, and the raising of vegetables and fruits, wiU not be over
looked by those who mean to have these pleasant accompani
ments of country life.
So far as the exposure of the ground may affect the tem
perature of the dweUing — ^whether it shaU be high or low, shel
tered by hUls and trees, or bare and bleak, look toward the
sunny South, or at the frozen Bear, — ^is a matter of feeling, and
wiU be decided one way or another as the enjoyment of summer
or of winter is most thought of
In aU that relates to the size, shape, and anangement of
the ground, much must depend on the purposes it is designed to
answer. If poultry, or swine, or cows, or horses are to be kept
on the place, provision should be made for them where they
wiU give the least trouble and offence. If a stable be needed,
a lot -with rear entrance wiU make it accessible, and prevent its
being disagreeably conspicuous.
The extent of a buUding lot should often be determined less
by the size and character of the house which is to stand on it,
than by the probabiHty that it -wiU be properly adorned and pre
served. Some men have no taste for la-wns, or flowers, or shrub
bery. AU they want is a house to Uve in. They know perfectly
weU that the ground around it wiU receive no care from them.
The less there is to reproach them for neglect, to offend their

THE CHOICE OF A LOT. 37
neighbor's eyes, and to injure by mere squaUdness the sur
rounding property, certainly the better.
Ample ground, when properly cared for, undoubtedly adds
to the beauty and value of the house, and under different cir
cumstances it may detract from both. Without attempting to
prescribe the proper relation between the size of houses and of
the grounds which sunound them, it may be said without much
question, that no viUage lot should be less than fifty feet in
front, by one hundred and fifty, to two hundred deep.
In most cases, the style of the houSe to be erected should
be considered in reference to its location. A low, modest-look
ing cottage, set in some bold conspicuous position, — a structure
all stiff, regular, and square, standing on an uneven, oddly
shaped lot, are examples of inconsistency and absurdity which
almost any person may appreciate. That the house may con
form to its location, and the location to its house, let the same
principle govern in the selection of the one and the designing
of the other ; namely, a thorough adaptation of each to the
wants, habits, and character of the future occupants.
At the risk of seeming to transcend the legitimate scope of
our design, we venture to add a word or two on the relations of
buUdings to surrounding scenery, and our obUgations to regard
such relations. It is an undeniable fact that a structure, neither
unpleasing in itself, nor inconvenient for use, may yet be so
placed — so entirely out of harmony with every thing about it —
as actuaUy to mar the landscape. Thus it has been said, that
amid mountain scenery, houses and other works of art should
be of an unassuming character ; that only a subdued look can
become them in the midst of a vastness which it is impossible
for them to rival, and which but proves the littleness of man.

38 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
whenever, among such scenes, he attempts any ambitious dig-
play. The true admirer of nature wUl make no such mistake.
The majesty which is around and above him, wUl awe him
into meekness, and his modest habitation, nestUng among the
cHffs, wiU look as if seeking their protection. The illustra
tion suggests and enforces a principle which should govern
those who buUd in peculiar and picturesque situations.
Again, in selecting a site on which to Hve, let men foUow,
in some degree, at least, their instinctive inclinations and
natural tastes. While the modest and retiring wiU be best
suited in the lowly vale, let the bold and aspiring spirit plant
itself on the hiU-top. In many parts of our diversified country,
there is wide room for choice in these respects. VUlages, in
deed, as already remarked, have often been spoiled, by an
absurd endeavor to make smaU cities of them, by cuttings and
embankments, leveUngs and straightenings. But the attempt
is not always successful. Nature frequently proves too sturdy
for these barbarians and, after aU, a good degree of variety still
'•emains. If he who is about to build either in the vUlage or open
country, have an eye for natural beauty, and especially if he
would cultivate in his children a taste so pure, let him seek
an expanded and pleasing prospect. Why should others en
joy, any more than he, deUghts that were meant for aU ? For
bim no less than for his rich neighbor, hUls soar, and river or
lake sparkles in the distance. For him, in no unimportant
sense, that neighbor plants the orchard, and dresses garden, field
and meadow. From his Uttle domain who can prevent his look
ing out -with rapture over that fair expanse ? Who wUl reprove
hun, if, with a heart attuned to praise and thankfulness, he
shaU caU the deUghtful scenery " aU his own?"

CHAPTER VI.

THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN.

0 buUding can be constructed
^ [properly without a well digested
plan. This is seldom thought
of by those who build smaU
# houses. Some idea, indeed,
iV every man has of the structure
I 'which he means to erect. He de
termines, perhaps, pretty nearly
its form and size, leaving the
detaUs to be adopted as the work
advances. The consequence often
is a series of mistakes. Deficiencies, misarrangements, and in
congruities, make their appearance usuaUy when it is too late
to correct the evU. It seems Hke an absolute waste of money
to spend it in alterations, which a prudent foresight would
have made unnecessary. Yet how often is such waste incuned.
In buUding, it greatly contributes to economical and satisfac
tory results, that the owner should have in his own mind a
judicious and weU matured plan.
A prudent man, we say, before he begins to build a house,
wUl not only count its cost, but he wUl get a distinct concep-

40 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
tion of what it is to be. Its position, material, size, and form ;
the dimensions, shape, and arrangement of the rooms ; its
haUs, stairways, closets, and aU that comes under the head of
conveniences ; its doors, windows, chimneys, and fire-places ;
its waUs, roofs, and fioors ; the combination of its timbers and
the modes of its construction, should aU be decisively fixed
and clearly understood. And this is appHcable not only to
large and expensive structures, but to those of a far humbler
class, as we trust our work will make more fuUy to appear.
To develope such a plan, so that it may be made intel-
Ugible to those who are to execute it, requires thought and
care. Each part should be closely considered, not only by itself,
but in connection with the rest, that every want may be anti
cipated, and every difficulty obviated. A design so elaborated
wUl promote economy, by insuring a closer calculation of the
expenses, and more advantageous bargains for material and
labor. It avoids the hateful cost of alterations, and by a skU-
ful disposal of the apartments precludes waste of stuff and
room. It is not the least advantage of such a plan that it
tends greatly to prevent those disagreements, quarrels, and
lawsuits, which often spring up between the owner on one side,
and contractors and workmen on the other. It is evident also,
that a house thus buUt must be superior to one begun without
forethought and prosecuted at random. It is hardly possible that
proportion and symmetry, convenience, beauty, and strength
should result from the latter course. Weakness and imperfec
tion are almost sure to attend the alteration which such a pro
cedure usually makes necessary. Take for instance, the stair
ways, an important feature requiring careful thought. When
they are not planned in the outset, it often becomes necessary

THE ADOPTION OP A PLAN. 41
to make them uncomfortably narrow, or dangerously steep.
The foot obtrades, perhaps, across doors and passages. The
haU below and -the head-room above are so contracted as to be
almost useless, or the fioors are weakened and the house in
jured by cuttings and alterations, which might all have been
avoided. Compare any house, thus buUt, with some weU
planned dwelling, and the inferiority of the former, both in
looks and comfort, cannot faU to appear.
Let every man who proposes to buUd a house for his own
use, oonsider carefuUy his particular wants and those of his
family in reference to each of the points just now enumerated.
Each family has its pecuUarities of taste, habits, or condition,
which should be thought of and provided for. No house-plan
wUl be likely to meet these, unless they have been anticipated
in its formation.
Such a study of the wants and conditions of the house
hold, and of the arrangements in the dwelHng which wUl best
secure them, would be a profitable exercise for any man, and
might sometimes suggest valuable improvements in the do
mestic economy.
Let us now consider some of the principles which should
govern in the adoption and development of a suitable plan.
These are clearly to be found in the purposes and uses of the
proposed structure. Eeasons growing out of these should de
termine not only the general design, but each particular feature.
The proper inquiry in every case is, not how has this thing
been done elsewhere, or by others, but how can we best meet
the demands of the present case ? And this involves the very
important idea of adaptation. In the right adjustment of the
parts to each other, and of the whole to its main purpose and
appropriate conditions, Hes the foundation of architectural ex-

42 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
ceUence. Every buUding is erected for some purpose ; let that
purpose, if possible, appear in the stracture. Every buUding
is meant to be used ; let its fitness for that use be manifest.
Without this qualification it can have neither trae value
nor real beauty.
Another quaUty which should pervade every design is
truthfulness. Falsehood in words spoken and written, false
hood in human conduct, meets with universal reprobation.
Why should it be more venial when perpetrated in wood, brick,
or stone, in paint or plaster ? We do not mean to ascribe the
same moral turpitude to the buUder who attempts to deceive
the pubUc eye with false shows, as to the deUberate liar in
word and action. But we do affirm that such practice is a
species of dishonest and unworthy artifice, inconsistent with true
Christian integrity, of unwholesome tendency, and as incom
patible -with the simpUcity of good taste as it is with that of
sound morals. Of the ways in which these great obUgations
may be and often have been disregarded, we shall have occasion
to treat more particularly when we come to detaUs.
With these leading ideas well fixed in his mind, no one, in
designing a cottage residence, need trouble himself much about
what are caUed the orders of architecture. He has some im
portant poiats to settle before he begins to talk of G-reek or
Gothic, EHzabethan or ItaUan. Let us consider for a moment
what the case requires.
" Houses," says Bacon, " are buUt to Hve in, not to look
at." Were this truth uppermost in the thoughts of every man
who buUds a house for himself or others, our domestic architec
ture would be greatly modified. It would certainly be more
comfortable. Can we doubt that it would be better looking ?

THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN. 43
The house which is buUt " to look at " is very apt to be incon
venient, and if so, it is just as surely ugly ; for apart from
actual and manifest utUity in a dweUing-house, there can be no
such thing as beauty. Shelter from sun and storm, protection
against the extremes of heat and cold, the due admission of
light and air, suitable rooms to Uve and sleep in, receptacles
for clothing, utensUs, food and fuel, conveniences for cooking,
washing, and all other labors of the household, together with an
ample and convenient supply of good water, may be set down
as necessary requisites of every human dweUing. These pro
visions may be few, smaU, and plain, or numerous, large, and
elaborate, according as the wants, means, and tastes of families
vary ; but there is not an item of the enumeration which the
humblest habitation, that deserves to be called a house, can
afford to spare or needs to omit. In arranging the apartments,
special attention should be given to the saving of needless labor
and to the promotion of neatness and order. Let the rooms
which wiU be most used, be most closely and conveniently con
nected. Let the best, the most accessible, and most agreeable
rooms of the house, whether below or above, be fitted and kept
for daUy famUy use. This has not always been done, — but does
it not commend itself to common sense ? Let there be at least
one room on the first floor, provided with the means of warmth
and ventUation, which may be used as a sleeping-room for age and
sickness. The stairs should generaUy be central in position ;
they should always be safe for children, and broad and low for
the sake of the infirm and the old. The size, form, and arrange
ment of halls and passages, have much to do with both looks
and comfort ; and the same may be said of the position and
character of the chimneys and -windows. In placing the rooms

44 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
which are most to be used, regard should be had to their ex
posure to sun and air at different seasons. The most absurd
mistakes are often made for the want of this forethought. We
have seen large expensive houses, whose snug winter parlors
looked out upon the north-star, and whose large summer draw
ing-rooms in the southern corner, basked aU day in the sun.
Porches, verandahs, window-canopies, etc., if judiciously dis
posed for use and not for show, wiU add much to comfort.
But physical enjoyment should not be the only aim. In
buUding, as in every thing else, the intelligent and rightly dis
posed man wiU remember and consult his higher nature, and
wiU try to make his house, however unpretending, a teacher
and promoter of virtue, by its evident regard for order, neatness,
truth, and beauty.
It is a common, and a very pernicious enor, to suppose that
beauty in architecture consists, mainly, if not whoUy, in some
thing that is extraneous and superadded. There are those who
never think of looking for this quaUty in mere form, in sym
metrical proportions, or in the fitness of things. In buUding,
they settle first what they regard as the practical points of
shape, size, etc., and then proceed to put on the beauty. The
natural result is an excess of iU-selected and Ul-placed orna
ment. Others seeing Httle value in mere decorations, and uncon
scious of the union which may and ought to subsist between
UtUity and beauty, forego aU considerations of taste, and rest
satisfied with unadorned ugliness. Of the two we rather prefer
the latter.
We shaU not be understood as rejecting ornament. Used
under the promptings and guidance of a refined and severe taste,

THB ADOPTION OF A PLAN, 45
it must always add largely to pleasing effect. But let it take
and keep its own place. It is at best but a secondary considera
tion. Not so with the beauty of form, of proportions, and of fit
ness. This is always attainable, always pleasing, and may add
its grace to the simplest cottage, no less than to the proudest
palace. A home in which these qualities are conspicuous, can
hardly fail to be regarded by its inmates with constantly increas
ing pleasure and affection ; and this is the highest motive for
their adoption that can be urged. Nor is the gratification which
siich structures afford to others to be left out of the account.
When a house is to be one of many, as in a viUage, there is an
added obligation to make it conformable and agreeable. On the
ground, too, of profit, it is certain that beauty has the advantage
of deformity. Money spent, not in useless parts, idle splendor,
and meretricious decorations, but in imparting to a house those
soUd and useful charms to -which we have aUuded, will seldom
faU to augment its market value ; and this is a consideration
which almost every one appreciates.
If but a single house in a viUage be weU buUt and hand
some, it acquires at once the pre-eminence in estimation and
value. Let the -riUage be made up, in a great measure, of such
houses, and its superior reputation and pleasantness wUl make
its buUding lots and its entire property greatly more salable.
In such a community, self-interest, as weU as a regard for the
good opinion of neighbors, wUl generaUy deter a man from put
ting up a mean dweUing-house.
There is a street in one of our large cities, on which, by
agreement of the owners, aU the houses were required to stand
twenty-five feet from the street-Une, and to be of a certain
class, as regards style and cost. At first, this restriction some
what impeded the sale ofthe property. But fast as the street

46 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
was built upon, its reputation grew, and its lots now command
twice the price of others lying near, and which ought to have
been just as valuable.
There have been many cases in which the ultimate worth ot
property has been greatly enhanced by judicious restrictions in
regard to the position, character, and uses of the stractures
erected upon it. But far more numerous have been the in
stances of depreciated value from the want of such care. How
often have we seen whole streets and districts which have been
kept from risiag, or have even sunk in the market, in conse
quence of the mean and unsightly buUdings which have been
erected in them by the original proprietors, or with their con
sent. Such buUdings wUl have a correspondent class of occu
pants. There wUl congregate, if not a vicious, yet a noisy,
careless, and filthy population, who, when not made so, are at
least kept so, by the gloomy discomfort of their abodes, and the
irresistible influence of example.
The example of one good house is sometimes foUowed by an
improvement in the style and taste of a whole vUlage. On the
other hand, an unsightly erection at some prominent point acts
as a discouragement to those who would fain improve and beau
tify the place. Such an enormity is not only a serious annoy
ance to the eye — it is an invasion of other's rights ; a real
trespass on one's neighbors, in the view of equity, certainly, if
not of law. How often has the intrusion of such an object ac
tuaUy lowered the value of surrounding property, to an amount
far exceeding its own ! An offence against the sense of hearing
or of smeU is ranked as a nuisance, is amenable to law, and
may be abated by its strong arm. We have sometimes felt dis
posed to ask why the eye should be less favored. Is it not sub-

THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN. 47
ject to trials just as real and quite as severe ? Why should the
noble and deUcate faculty of vision be less protected by those
who make, and expound, and enforce our laws, than the inferior
senses that convey to us the pleasures and pains of odor and of
sound? In regard to those moral considerations which make neat
ness and beauty so desirable in the arrangements and architec
ture of a viUage, we prefer to use the words, and to urge the
high authority of President Dwight : — " There is a kind of
symmetry in the thoughts, feelings, and efforts of the human
mind. Its taste, intelUgence, affections, and conduct, are so
intimately related, _ that no preconcertion can prevent them
from being mutuaUy causes and effects. The first thing power
fuUy operated on, and, in its turn, proportionaUy operative, is
the taste. The perception of beauty and deformity, of refine
ment and grossness, of decency and vulgarity, of propriety and
indecorum, is the first thing which influences man to attempt
an escape from a grovelHng, brutish character ; a character in
which moraUty is effectuaUy chiUed, or absolutely frozen. In
most persons, this perception is awakened by what may be caUed
the exterior of society, particularly by the mode of building.
Uncouth, mean, ragged, dirty houses, constituting the body of
any town, wiU regularly be accompanied by coarse, groveUing
manners. The dress, the furniture, the equipage, the mode of
living, and the manners, wUl aU correspond -with the appearance
of the buUdings, and wUl universaUy be, in every such case, of
a vulgar and debased nature. On the inhabitants of such a
town, it wUl be difficult, if not impossible, to work a conviction,
that intelUgence is either necessary or useful. Generally, they
wUl regard both learning and science only with contempt. Of

48 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
morals, except in the coarsest form, and that which has the
least infiuence on the heart, they wUl scarcely have any appre
hensions. The rights enforced by municipal law they may be
compeUed to respect, and the corresponding duties they may be
necessitated to perform ; but the rights and obUgati6ns which lie
beyond the reach of magistracy, in which the chief duties of mo
raUty are found, and from wliich the chief enjoyjnents of society
spring, wUl scarcely gain even their passing notice. They may
pay their debts, but wiU neglect almost every thing of value in
the education of their chUdren.
" The very fact, that men see good houses buUt around them,
wUl, more than almost any thing else, awaken in them a sense of
superiority in those by whom such houses are inhabited. The
same sense is derived, in the same manner, fi-om handsomer
dress, furniture, and equipage. The sense of beauty is necessa
rily accompanied by a perception of the superiority which it pos
sesses over deformity ; and is instinctively felt to confer this
superiority on those who can caU it their own, over those who
cannot. This, I apprehend, is the manner in which coarse
society is first started towards improvement ; for no objects, but
those which are sensible, can make any considerable impression
on coarse minds."
Let it not be said that it is impossible so to buUd as to please
aU eyes, and that therefore we may as weU forego the attempt
entirely. So far as others are concerned, the main object is
secured when your work is satisfactory to persons of trae intelli
gence and taste. But we must also remember that taste is a
faculty highly susceptible of cultivation. Let each one do what
he can to awaken it in those who are indifferent to good looks,
and to correct it in those whose notions are wrong. There is a

THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN. 49
power in trae beauty, as in aU other trath, which, sooner or
later, makes itself felt. Any house destitute of symmetry, and
of adaptation to its end, — grotesque in form, and tawdry with
ornament, wiU soon reveal its deformity, when seen in contrast
with one of simple elegance, honest in every feature, and reared
e-ridently not so much to be looked at, as to Hve and be
happy in.
Consistency is a quaUty which, in human character, aU un
derstand and value. It should no less mark the human dwelling.
This wiU be the case when in size, form, style, detaUs, and cost,
it evidently conforms to the character, position, and means of its
owner. It violates this obUgation when the requirements of its
situation, of climate, of surrounding scenery, and of the neigh
borhood, are disregarded in particular features, or in the general
expression of the design.
" Count the cost before you begin to build," is a maxim of
all ages, and the prudence which it enjoins is not without the
sanction of lips divine. The question of abUity is one which
every man must settle for himself, so far as to determine what
amount he can expend. How a given sum, and especiaUy a
smaU one, may be most economicaUy and judiciously laid out, is
quite another affair, and demands very careful consideration.
Let it be remembered, that in buUding, cheapness is not always
true economy. To buUd without a reasonable regard for
strength and durabUity, merely for the sake of saving, evinces
but a short-sighted frugaUty.
The question of economy is not a simple geometrical prob
lem, as some would have us consider it. It is not difficult to de
cide what form of structure wUl give, with the least amount of
material, and at the lowest cost of erection, the greatest quan-
4

50 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
tity of cubic space. Learing out of the question looks and con
venience, the rule might do for a temporary barn, which is to
hold nothing but hay ; and this is about the extent of its appli
cation. Hexagonal ceUs answer perfectly for the storage of
honey, and an eight-sided prism looks well as a crystal, but
neither form is suited to the ordinary purposes of a dwelUng-
house. We have stated some of the principles which should govern,
as we conceive, in the planning of a house. To persons accus
tomed to observe and refiect we believe that they wiU commend
themselves. To such we hope they raay prove serriceable, not
by inducing them to dispense with the skiU of educated artists,
but by showing them their need of it, and how they can best
einploy it. As this is a point in regard to which considerable
ignorance and prejudice prevail, we dwell upon it for a moment.
The expense of obtaining a proper plan is the objection with some,
The short-sightedness of this view has been shown in the neces
sity, which it so often involves, of additions and alterations, which
cost perhaps far more than an architect's fees, and faU to satisfy
after all. But there is another class more difficult to deal with.
Many a man, with no experience and little study, fancies that
he can buUd a capital house. Architecture, he contends, is no
mystery, and ought not to be monopoHzed. A mystery it is not,
any more than othsr professions and arts in which it is univer
saUy conceded that skill is acquired only by long and careful
appUcation, and by frequent practice. Any man of good abiUties
may understand its principles, and may learn how to apply them,
provided that he gives to it the requisite time and attention. If
actively engaged in other pursuits, he cannot possibly do this. Nor,
unless he means to change his business, and to plan for others as

THE ADOPTION OP A PLAN. 51
weU as himself, would the object be worth the pains it would
cost. " The life of man," says Eepton, " is not sufficient to
excel in aU things ; and as ' a Httle knowledge is a dangerous
thing,' so professors of other arts, as weU as of medicine, wUl
often find that the most difficult cases are those where the patient
has begun by quacking himself"
Many houses are planned by common carpenters, who, for the
sake of securing the job, frequently offer to make the design
without charge. When such persons profess to think Ughtly of
professional designers, and boast the superiority of "practical
men," as they modestly claim to be regarded, it must not be for
gotten that they have a motive. The merits of the question may
be very briefly stated. If you are disposed to copy exactly some
other man's house, a carpenter is all you need. We trast you
are not so disposed. Houses, as we have shown, should be
adapted to the wants of those who occupy them, and these are
rarely the same in any two cases. Houses need not and ought
not to look just alike. Such sameness is monotonous, tiresome,
and, when carried far, becomes absolutely disagreeable.
In designs thus furnished, the beauties of form are not to be
looked for. Those detaUs wiU be selected which are most easy
to execute, and not those which are most appropriate. Such a
draughtsman may give the simple elevation — the meagre idea of
a building, seen directly in front. To know how it wiU look
from other points of view, and to give it the proper expression,
requires an acquaintance with perspective laws, as weU as with
the principles of artistic grouping and of architectural effect.
Men engaged in the mechanical labor of erecting and finishing
have no need of these qualification? ; they have no opportunity
for acquiring them, and seldom, if ever, possess them. In prac-

52 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
tical carpentry, the main requisite is manual dexterity ; but
practical designing is a work of the mind. In either case, he is
most truly practical who is most attentive to his own special de
partment. By this we do not mean to underrate the advantages
which a designer may derive from an experimental knowledge of
the carpenter's business. Some of our best architects began
thus. To cultivate their taste, and to master the higher
branches of their art, they abandoned, of necessity, the manual
labor of the trad6, without losing the valuable knowledge which
they had acquired of the laws and feasibiUties of mechanical con
struction. Nor, on the other hand, would we disparage the exer
cise of taste and ingenuity in mechanical buUders. No cultiva
tion of these talents is ever lost. We conclude this topic with a
single hint. In the studios of those great sculptors, Crawford
and Powers, there are many ItaHan workers of marble. It is
not improbable that some of these " practical mechanics " would
undertake, for a consideration far inferior to that demanded by
their masters, to conceive and mould a Washington for some
American Capitol.
It is an error to suppose that the architect's aid is needed
only by those who erect large and expensive houses. The man
who in buUding is compeUed to a close economy has, perhaps,
even greater occasion for the best professional advice. The archi
tect who is caUed to plan such a house, and who would make it
suitable and satisfactory, must perform a very important duty
before he begins to make a drawing. He certainly cannot adapt
his plan to the requirements of his employer, untU he has ascer
tained what those requirements are. But so vague, often, are
the notions of men, that this is no easy matter. They need help
to Understand and define their own ideas and wishes. In such

THE ADOPTION OF A PLAN. 53
cases, the architect must explain, and question, aud suggest, until
his client, as weU as himself, shaU have a definite notion in regard
to the size, accommodation, style, and cost of the proposed erec
tion, and of those paramount considerations to which every thing
else must conform. In this matter of adrising, an honorable
architect will feel his moral responsibUity; consulting not so
much his own fancy, as the character and true interests of those
who are to occupy the dweUing. It wiU be his aim so to adapt
the house to the habits, needs, and circumstances of the family ;
so to arrange the whole in respect of economy, consistency, and
architectural propriety, that the result shaU be not only pleasing
at first, but from year to year more and more satisfactory.
To do this requires not only the exercise of a cultivated taste
but considerable acquaintance with human nature. Each par
ticular occasion demands special examination and careful thought.
It is this part of the architect's duty which raises his profession
above what is merely mechanical, or even artistic. This, when
^honestly and judiciously performed, gives to his services their
truest value. In this respect, his labors are less affected by the
size and cost of the buUding than many would suppose. Often,
indeed, the necessity of designing for a house of low cost increases
his difficulties. The man of abundant means can afford to have
ample space for every desired accommodation, without infringing
on architectural effect. But, in the small dweUing, where every
dollar must be made to teU, it requires close calculation and
ingenious contrivance, to secure at once utility and good looks.
And this difference in designing the two classes of structures
holds in regard to ornamental details. Says an eminent English
architect : " I am not ashamed to confess that I have often expe
rienced more difficulty in determining the form and size of a

54 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
hovel or a park entrance than in arranging the several apartments
of a large mansion." It is for these reasons that architects
cannot afford to furnish appropriate and careful cottage designs
for the same per-centage on the cost as that which would remu
nerate them for those of more expensive buildings. The conse
quence is that many feel compeUed to forego such aid.
Under such circumstances, the next best course for procuring
a house-plan seems to be that which many adopt in regard to
their wardrobe. He who thinks he cannot afford to order a coat,
finds a tolerable fit among the ready-made and lower priced arti
cles of the store.
A common mode of procuring a design is to take as a model
some house already buUt. This particularly suits those who ex
perience difficulty in understanding architectural drawings, and
in forming the conception of an object, not actually before their
eyes. To the copying of a pattern house, if one in all respects
suitable can be found, there is perhaps no serious objection,
except the sameness. But it is often forgotten that the house
which exactly suits its present location and occupants, may seem
quite out of place in some other situation, and may be wholly
unfit for a different kind of family. If, as often happens, an
attempt be made to modify it by altering its proportions, by
curtaUment in one part, or by some incongruous addition in
another, the probability is that the good qualities of the original
wiU be mostly lost, whUe their few remaining traces wiU only
show the deformity of the alterations.
The same caution is appHcable to the selection of pubHshed
designs. Those principles which should direct in the formation
of an original design ought also to control in some degree, at
least, the choice of a ready-made plan. Each man must decide

THB ADOPTION OF A PLAN. 55
in his own case what is most suitable for him. The designs in
this book are offered in the hope that, whUe they increase the
variety, they will add something to the faciUty with which such
a selection can be made.
Whatever the plan adopted, let it, when once fixed on, be
firmly adhered to. Even though it should be found in some
slight degree imperfect, attempts to improve it after the work
has begun wUl be more Hkely to result in injury, loss, and vexa
tion, than in benefit. Those who adopt a published design with
the idea of modifying it, should remember that a slight alteration
may change its whole character, and destroy its value. Such a
change can be safely made only in the same spirit as that which
governed in the original formation ; and to do it weU requires at
least equal taste and skUl.

CHAPTER VII.

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS.

IE'

I EFOEE we apply the general princi-
j pies which have been stated, to the
selection, or the formation of a design,
-'~\ fS ¦i^^^^X^jfi^ it is important to know what is the
l] I J^.'.gi?}!-^#^;;=s|gt{ prominent desire of the owner m
building, and to what extent it shaU
control other interests. Thus only
can we determine the purpose and
situation of the different parts, and
^g^^^^^^^S^^^ their adaptation to one another. To
-<^S^ ^ this branch of our subject some allu
sions have already been made, but it requires more minute con
sideration. We shaU discuss it under separate heads.
Economy. — That a man, for the sake of display, or from any
other motive, should go beyond his means in building, is a folly
acknowledged by all. But men sometimes err on the other side.
A penny-wise and pound-fooUsh frugaUty is exhibited in thc
houses which men buUd for themselves, as often as any when
else. The most valuable properties in a house are undenated
They do not get what they need, nor what they can well afford
Tf from either of the above causes a man's house be inappropri

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS. ' 57
ate to his character and condition, the inconsistency is soon
apparent to aU, and he must sink somewhat in the estimation of
his neighbors. In aU cases where expense must be closely calculated, the
multiplying of angles in the waUs and roof should be avoided, so
far as may consist with the main purpose of the house. Dura
bility, low cost, ease of transportation and of working, should
govern in the selection of material ; and in order to derive from
it the greatest benefit, that material should be worked in the
most scientific and skUlful manner. When economy is thus
made the iiUing influence, there should be no attempt to conceal
the fact. Such attempts never succeed. How much better to
challenge admiration for a happy effort to economize, than to
incur the disgrace of having pretended to do something which
was beyond your power ! EspeciaUy bear in mind the fact, that
beauty and convenience are not only consistent with economy,
but promotive of it, far more frequently than men usually sup
pose, — prorided these qualities are properly sought in the forms
of the house itself, rather than in ornaments and appendages.
Materials. — In the choice of materials, as in other things,
appropriateness must stiU govern. Among these, stone in its
numerous forms holds, by universal consent, the pre-eminence.
WaUs of stone, weU laid, last for ages, are proof against fire, a
protection against both heat and cold, and need no paint, either
to preserve or beautify them. Were we treating of costly
structures, we should have much to say in regard to the com
parative merits of the various stones in use, and of the different
ways in which they are prepared and used. But for buUding
such houses as we are now considering, stone is not often em
ployed in our country, nor is it likely to be so employed for a

58 village and farm cottages.
long time to come. Where it exists in abundance, where the
cost of quarrying is Httle or nothing, and that of moving and
cutting it is sUght, stone may be advantageously employed on
buildings of moderate cost. Walls of rough stone, such as these
structures would have, finished with the simple detaUs which
alone become them, are plainly more suitable for the open
country than for the -rillage. For a farm-house, which is likely
to remain such, a stracture of this material seems very suitable,
plain as it is, and strong and enduring. But for very small
houses, especiaUy if located in a vUlage, we should seldom
advise the use of stone. Let the young householder buUd at
first of a cheaper material, and when his improved condition
shall justify it, he may rear a mansion of brick or stone.
When bricks are made near by, or from any cause, are the
material most easUy obtained, their use in cheap houses is ap
propriate. They admit a -wider scope of architectural form,
with a neater and more elaborate finish, than can be given to
stractures of unwrought stone. Such piles are less clumsy, and
perhaps less cheerless. Bricks are also more easUy transported,
and more easily laid, than stones are ; and these qualities have
not unfrequently commended them to vUlage use. But, except
in those parts of our country which are blessed with pale clays,
brick waUs impose the additional expense of paint. In the coun
try, a red house of any material is an abomination to the eye.
For country buildings of smaU cost, wood is the substance
most in use, and so it wiU be, doubtless, for a good whUe to
come. It has not, indeed, the permanent and substantial air
of brick and stone. But this constitutes, in part, its merit.
Our young men just starting in life begin with smaU houses, as
they ought. But they do not mean, and do not expect to Uve

principles as applied to DETAILS. 59
in them always. There are few, perhaps, who do not hope
to see the time when they shaU be able to erect a large and
handsome dwelling, for their middle and decUning years. And
the number is by no means smaU, whose history proves this to
have been no idle dream.
As their humble wood cottages are not meant to be per
manent, would it be fitting that they should seem so ? Un
doubtedly they look fiimsy and perishable to the foreigner, who
has never seen any waUs less soUd than brick or stone. His
impressions are of smaU moment. So long as this way of
buUding is congenial to the quick spirit and progressive habits
of our countrymen, it is also right and fit.
In the use of wood, no less than of more soUd substances,
regard should be had to attending circumstances. So far as it
is suitable, there is an evident propriety in employing such wood
as abounds in the vicinity. It should not only be but seem
easy of procurement. Let us eschew always the miserable, the
unpatriotic feeHng, which prizes things, (it may be of inferior
value,) merely because they are far fetched.
In size and forms let the same consistency be observed.
Massive and projecting timbers, far larger than strength re
quires become a buUding reared among forests and remote from
saw-miUs and lumber-yards : for this reason, if no other, that it
would be expensive to make them less.
Considerable attention has been directed of late, to waUs of
concrete, and their much vaunted cheapness has induced a good
many persons to put them up. They consist entirely of mor
tar, gravel and smaU stone fragments, laid up in wooden sheUs
or moulds, which are removed as fast as the hardening permits
Where Ume, sand, and gravel abound, and stone, brick, and

60 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
wood are scarce, such waUs may save something in the cost.
But there are objections to them. To buUd them weU requires
more skUl than is needed for an ordinary stone waU, They
have a blank and monotonous aspect, unless disguised to look
Hke somethittg which they are not, and this is a practice that
we never can commend. But our chief distrust relates to their
durabUity. These walls are no new invention, nor are they of
American origin. There are instances, undoubtedly, in which
they have stood the test of time. But there have been many
others, and those in cHmates far less trying than ours, where
they have proved worthless. Within our own knowledge,
several structures of this kind, erected in Massachusetts less
than two years ago, have already crumbled to powder. A fluid
concrete of the right ingredients and rightly compounded, may
undoubtedly acquire the hardness of stone. But as the experi
ment, if successful, might not prove economical, and if unsuc
cessful would be disastrous, the question of trying it should be
carefully weighed.
One rule in regard to aU materials we would earnestly in
sist on. Let them appear to be what they are. A taste truly
moral and refined abhors aU dishonest imitations in archi
tecture. If for the sake of looks, or of preservation, waUs of wood or
of brick are painted (as often they should be,) let it still be
erident that they are painted brick or wood. If on the whole
it is deemed ad-risable to plaster on the outside, a rough waU
of brick or stone, let it show as plaster, and not ridiculously
pretend to be ashlar. But outside stuccoing is a process which
we would never advise. It has no particular advantages, either
of appearance or protection, even supposing that it could be

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS. 61
made to adhere. But it cannot, at least in a cUmate Uke
ours. We do not beUeve that any outside plastering can long
-withstand our fierce alternations of heat and cold, of moist and
dry. Certainly we have never seen a wall, thus treated, from
which the coat did not begin, in a few years, to peel off. The
only remedy then, is to strip away the whole and renew the
application ; for an attempt to patch but makes the matter
worse. It may be shown that some stuccoed houses among us
have actuaUy cost more in the end, than they would have done,
if built originaUy of hewn stone, to say nothing of the vexation
they caused the owners. To such, the remark of Lord Mans
field would not seem extravagant, "that had the front of
Kenwood been originaUy covered with Parian marble he should
have found it less expensive than stucco."
Style. — When we are considering a stracture, as a whole,
or in its parts, with reference to appearance and expression,
rather than mere utUity and comfort, a close adherence to
right principles of design is pecuUarly desirable. Although
this wiU set aside many fanciful forms which are common and
fashionable, there is no danger of its producing an unpleasing
uniformity. WhUe the surface and scenery of the country ex
hibit an unbounded diversity, and the condition, character, and
tastes of our countrymen are almost as various, our architecture,
if properly conformed to these, incurs no danger of tiring by
its sameness. The servile copying, on which we have already
remarked, and the architectural absurdities put up by eccentric
or ambitious persons, which are but too common, indicate an
ignorance and indifference in regard to the trae principles of
taste, not destined, we hope, to last for ever.
The faUacy of supposing that architectural beauty consists

62 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
mainly in ornament, the mere accessories of a buUding, has
been already aUuded to in passing. Its injurious influence is
conspicuous every where. The general form of a house is often
determined with strict regard to cost and utility. The orna
mental part is left for after consideration, and so much of it is
stuck on as the owner thinks he can afford. But beauty of
outUne and shape should evidently be the first consideration,
whUe the decorative portion, if there be any, should be designed
simultaneously and form part and parcel of the whole. Such
beauty must be imparted at the outset, if at all. The vice in
question exists, it is to be feared, in high quarters, and needs to
be reformed at the fountain-head. Let us hope, however, that
the case is not quite so bad as the words which foUow seem to
import. " The fact is, I never met with the architect yet,
who did not think ornament meant a thing to be bought in a
shop and pinned on, or left off, at architectural toUets, as the
fancy seized them, thinking Uttle more than many women do
of the other kind of ornament — the only true kind — St. Peter's
kind — ' not that outward adorning, but the inner of the heart.'
I do not mean that architects cannot conceive this better
ornament, but they do not understand that it is the only
ornament ; that aU architectural ornament is this, and nothiag
but this ; that a noble buUding never has any extraneous or
superfiuous ornament ; that all its parts are necessary to its
loveliness, and that no single atom of them could be removed
without harm to its life. You do not build a temple and then
dress it. You create it in its loveUness, and leave it as her
maker left Eve. Not unadorned, as I beUeve, but so weU
adorned as to need no feather crowns." *
*The Stones of Venice, Vol. I. p. 388, London ed, 1851.

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS. 63
Let it not be supposed that attention to this point would
necessarily increase the expense. On the other hand, if timely
and judicious, it would often diminish it.
The subject of architectural orders may seem somewhat
beyond the aim of this work and of our humble designs. We
trust that the Uttle which we may say under this head, wUl not
be found inappropriate or useless. Much money has been
wasted in this country, and great inconvenience has been in
curred, through mistaken notions and idle fancies in regard to
architectural styles. Unfortunately, the first impulses of am
bition in buUding took a Greek direction. For a time in the
earUer part of this century, it was thought that almost every
pubUc structure must be Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian. Accord
ingly we had Grecian Court-houses, and Custom-houses,
Grecian Banks and Churches, Grecian Taverns, and CoUeges,
and Capitols, Nor was the rage confined to edifices of this
description. Both in city and country dweUing houses rose
with huge columns at the end, largely consumptive of wood
and paint. There is reason to beUeve that this foUy has had
its day. We might urge the weakness of the Hntel and architrave as
compared with the arch. We might contrast the tame flatness
and tiresome sameness of that Grecian horizontal squareness,
with the bold, soaring, graceful, and ever varying curves and lines
of the best Gothic. We might show up the one, aU artificial and
mathematically stiff, whUe the other is easy, accommodating,
and full of pleasing analogies that remind us of Nature and its
endless diversities of beauty. But it is enough to say here
that the Greek construction is not adapted to our wants. It
lacks the essential element of fitness to the purposes for which

64 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
our buUdings are erected. Nor is this strange. The temples
of Greece, which we absurdly try to copy, were reared not to be
used but to be gazed at. They were costly offerings, splendid
monuments, set up in honor of some god or goddess, and
as evidences not only of individual or national piety, but also
of wealth, taste, and power. The dark ceU of the Parthe
non might be employed on some great festival to burn a victim
in. For this it answered well enough. Its real use was to help
sustain the roof, and to form a central core for the splendid
peristyle. A genuine Greek structure of the Doric type, unless
it be meant for a tomb, it is impossible for us to have. In
proportion as we approach such a result, it is done with great
waste of room, material, and labor, and involves a serious ob
struction of air and Hght. Look at one of these abortive
imitations. The space below the columns is almost whoUy
useless. If it be a great public stracture, this space is occu
pied in front by a blank, tedious and sometimes frightful flight
of steps. Ecce signum — the New York Oustom-House ! The
huge piUars darken the lower -windows and obstruct their
prospects. The upper -windows are often entirely hid behind
the deep entablature, and the occupants of such rooms never
get beyond a respectable twUight. This mass of base and
colonnade, of entablature and pediment, and of roof to cover
them, is very costly, and all the good it does is to make the
building diB&cult of access, and dark, and inconvenient. When
these features are of wood, they are stiU more objectionable, as
being not only speciaUy Uable to decay, but very attractive and
accessible to fire. And finaUy the low-pitched roofs of this
style are wholly unfit to meet the stem necessities of northern
climes. If we have dwelt a moment on this theme, it is be-

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS. 65
cause we would add, in our humble measure, to banish entirely
a , style of buUding which possesses so Uttle of real beauty,
variety, and power, and thus direct the popular mind toward
other modes which combine aU these quaUties. With the
greatest of modem writers on art, we beUeve it both desirable
and practicable to educate the people generally in the great
principles of architecture;, and thus to create a pure and healthy
pubMo taste. Nor is the subject out of place here if, (as we
firmly think,) he is right in saying, " that all good architecture
rises out of good and simple domestic work ; and that therefore,
before you attempt to buUd great churches and palaces, you
must buUd good house doors, and garret windows." For our
selves, we may be pardoned if we add, that these opinions of
the comparative merits of Greek and Gothic, are by no means
new. They were formed in the school of Upjohn, years before
the " Seven Lamps " and the " Stones of Venice" fell Hke
bombs into the camps of Classical and Eenaissance archi
tecture, — and reflection and experience have but confirmed
our faith.
It is not by a servUe and ignorant copying of any style, that
our domestic architecture is to be truly and generaUy improved.
We think it pretty clear in what direction we must look for
any real and great reform, but in seeking it there is need of
caution and judgment, as weU as of knowledge and skUl.
Among the Gothic cottages, so caUed, which have sprung
up among us, in great numbers of late years, it is not unusual
to see one so excessively Gothic as to look Hke a caricature.
The roof is broken and squeezed into many narrow gables, and
makes a prodigious display of pinnacles and verge boards. AU
ideas of convenience and use were evidently secondary, if indeed
5

66 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
they entered at aU into the designer's thoughts. This is the
very reverse of the spirit which inspired the oldest a.nd best
Gothic, and which must govern stiU, whenever it is employed
aright. For the same reason it is evidently absurd to imitate m a
country home, either ecclesiastical or castellated architecture.
We can hardly imagine any thing more puny than a diminutive
American copy, executed in this ninteenth century, from one of
those stern old castles, which were not only proper but neces
sary in the days of Front de Boeuf.
Not a few in forming or choosing a design, seem to be influ
enced by a passion for novelty, — ^the desire of exhibiting some
thing unusual and strange, that shaU at least excite wonder if it
faU of admiration. It is a poor motive of action at the best, and
in such cases is very likely to result in dissatisfaction.
The aspect of a dweUing-house naturally suggests to us some
idea in regard to the character and condition of its occupants.
There may be, and there ought to be, in the expression of a
house something that shall aid us in this matter. It is not a
mere fancy, that the spirit and character of the inmates may be
made in some measure to appear in the outward expression of
the structure. At any rate, when a man's home is grossly incon
sistent -with his disposition and circumstances, the incongruity is
apparent to all.
Let the construction and arrangement of the house have a
distinct reference to the employment of its inhabitant. The
soUed and weary mechanic, returning at night, wUl usuaUy prefer
a comfortable nook and plain seat by the kitchen fire-place, or
cooking-stove, to a sofa in the parlor furnished with carpets, cur
tains, and mahogany. He would feel out of place — ^he would be

PRINCIPLES AS APPLIED TO DETAILS. 67
uneasy and unhappy, if compeUed to stay long amid the elegan
cies which surround the man of property and taste. Let such a
person consult his incHnations. If it is quite certain that the
kitchen, or common living-room, will be the place of his habitual
abode, let that room, at least, be spacious, comfortable, and plea
sant. Let him consider that his own every-day comfort, and
that of his famUy, are far more important than any impression
which may be made on the minds of occasional risitors. In
many village and farm-houses, the parlor, so caUed, is positively
superfiuous — a locked-up room, kept for company, opened, per
haps, three or four times a year, where the furniture generaUy
gets mouldy, and the air is always musty.
A sensible man wUl compel others to respect his employment,
be it what it may, by the evident and consistent regard which he
shows to its conditions. To ape in one's house, or in any thing
else, another, whose position is different, is a sort of confession
that you despise your own.
The size of a house will modify, to some extent, its form and
character. Eegularity and variety are more easUy attained in
large than in smaU structures. It is very unwise to attempt the
reproduction of a large house by a reduced copy. The compari
son wliich is thus forced upon us, is greatly to the disadvantage
of the latter.
The nature of the material used should have an influence in
determining not only the general form, but the constituent parts.
A given design may perhaps be executed in stone, or brick, or
wood, but seldom, if ever, wUl it be equaUy appropriate for aU
Each material has its distinctive character, and as it must im
part more or less of the same to the structure, it demands in
each case its own particular treatment.

68 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
" " Seen^ry and position must be taken into the aecouiit. Eus-
tic 'features look weU ohly in the midst of raral simphcity
Architectural elegance should be reserved for cultivated scenes.
The Swiss stylfe of cottage originated in the necessities of moun
taineers. Among hiUs, it shows to, advantage its overhanging
roofs, its projecting galleries, and sturdy brackets. In a modified
form, it EQay be adapted to many of our rough hiU sides. K one
is about to buUd where Nature is wUd and grand, he wiU do
wisely to avoid the regtdarity of shape, the precision and finish,
which look well in the village street.
In what degree will your house be conspicuous ? From what
points wUl it be seen ? What prospects, near or remote, will it
eommand .? These are questitos which, properly considered,
must have more or less influence on the character of your design.
' Nor can you, in this important matter, disregard considera^
tions of climate. It is weU to remember that you wiU need both
sunshine and shade. That there are winds to be courted, and
wihds to be shunned. That there wiU be rain storms and hail
storms, and snow storms. That there wiU be fierce invasions of
winter cold and summer heat. ' Against these inevitable assaults
of the elements, the defences which you proride should be appro
priate and sufficient.

CHAPTER VIII.
COTTAGES OF ONE STORY.
THEEE is Httle probability that houses of only one story wUl
ever be looked upon with general favor in a country where
almost every one seems anxious to be getting up in the world.
To say nothing of other reasons, the fact that a second or third
story can be added with nearly the same cost of foundation and
roof, readUy occurs to economical people. But there are cases
where economy demands the one-storied house. If the strac
ture must be so smaU that its other dimensions hardly exceed
the proper height pf a story, this form is clearly indicated.
And this necessity wUl always exist. Multitudes must content
themselves with the smaU, low cottage. Fortunately, it is not
without its recommendations. The rooms are on a level. The
indoors work is more easUy done. There is no toUsome cUmbing
up stairs, nor can chUdren break their necks by faUing down
them, or from chamber windows. When the wants, and means
of the owner shaU justify, it, a wing can be added, or a story in
terposed. In places exposed to, violent winds, and also nnder the covert
of some sheltering ridge, or grove, a low house is often the most
suitable. On large country-seats, the farm-house and the

70 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
laborer's cottage wUl generaUy be made low, that they may not
obstruct the view, or become too prominent in the landscape.
In all houses of this sort, there should be special precaution
against a damp and impure atmosphere. They should be set
weU up from the ground, with care to prevent water from set
tUng under, or around them. To avoid breathing the moist and
dangerous night air, which hovers near the earth, let each sleep
ing apartment be ventUated by a pipe, opening at the top of the
dweUing, and drawing its supply from above.
DESIGN I.
It is our endeavor here to present an arrangement with the
smaUest amount of accommodation that seems consistent with a
decent and orderly management of the household. It is, of
course, fitted only for a family of the smaUest size and most
moderate aims.
Its apartments are a Hving-room, l. r., to answer the gen
eral purposes of kitchen and eating-room ; a sitting-room, s. k.,
for reading, sewing, and the reception of friends ; and a bed
room, B. B. Connected with the Uring-room is a closet, and a
passage leading to the wood-room, w. b., in the rear. This
may be used for the storage of fuel, and large utensUs of the
house and garden ; and, in summer, for washing clothes, &c.
The ceUar stairs may go down from this room. The plan shows
no fireplaces. The use of stoves is so nearly universal in
houses of this class, that there is but Uttle inducement to pro
vide other means for warming or cooking. Accordingly, the
chimneys start from the ceilings. In the Hving-room and
sitting-room there are openings for stove-pipes. The chimney-

DESIG.N', XO. I.

n I
ff I W.R I
~I ^

L

S.P
10 x|0,6

L,R
10 < 14 6

It.
J

L-^^^-J

COTTAGES OP ONE STORY. 71
caps are of terra-cotta, and stand on a brick base. The doors
are so placed as to make the work and care of the housewife
easy, whUe the sitting-room has aU the seclusion that can be
desired. The exterior is equaUy simple. The waU is covered with
vertical boards, and battened at the joints. The window trim
mings are plain and cheap, and appropriate tv^ a wooden house
like this. These, -with the projecting cornice and the entrance
porch, make the Httle stracture inviting and homeUke, and at
once reveal its purpose. To the last-named feature we caU
attention. We regard it as essential to a good dweUing-place that it
have an entrance-space, or haU, separating the outer door from
the rooms in use, and connecting them with one another. The
constant occasions of the inmates demand it, and -without it
there can be no security against the intrusion of unwelcome
winds or company.
The projecting gable of the porch, it wiU be seen, is both a
shelter and an ornament.
This house, having but one sleeping apartment, is suited to
a married couple without chUdren. Should additional room
become necessary, a low second story may easily be added. In
such case, the present bedroom might be used for stairway and
pantries. With its aspect thus altered, the house would look
Uke Design No. 7, or like No. 9, according to the manner of
making the change.
Snugness and modesty are the prominent characteristics of
this design. Its most appropriate place would be a smaU lot in
some sheltered position. A neat and simple fence should in
close the ground.

72 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
The height of the rooms is 8 ft, 6 in. The cost of the
buUding, as shown, is estimated at $575,
Note. — On the tender points of estimate and cost, we are anxious not
to mislead. Something of the kind is always expected, and most he fiir-
nished. But to do this accurately- requires a knowledge of particulars whicli
vary -with time and place. Given, the cost of labor and materials at the
moment, and on the spot, and a very near approximation can be made. In
our estimates we have reckoned nothing for digging, carting, or leveling;
nothing for cellar walls, or foundation stone. In many cases, these -will
involve no outlay of money, wbUeJ in mOst cases, the nature Of the ground
and other circumstances differ so greatly as to render estimates useless.
As a basis of calculation, we have assumed the folio-wing valuation : —
Carpenter's work, at  $1 62 per day.
Mason's " at  $176 "
Oommon labor, at.  $1 12 "
Timber and rough boards, at  ;  $16 00 per M. ft. ' •
Grood lumber, at.....  ,.  $2S 00 " "
Bricks, common hard, at  $4 00 "
Nails, at  4^ cts. per lb.
Glass, at  $2 25 per box.
With the aid of builders of skill and experience, all these designs have
been -carefully estimated from working plans. We believe that the sura
named for each plan is sufiicient for its erection in the most perfect manner,
at the prices above given. Wherever and whenever the cost of materials
and work is either greater or less than we ha;ve assumed, the proper allo-w-
ance must be made; - - • DESIGN NO, n.
Here we have larger rooms, and four instead of three. A
narrow entry opens convemently into the sitting-room and the
Hving-room,— the corners of these apartments being cut off for

DESir.X, \-i>, II.

COTTAGES OF: ONE STORY. 73
the purpose. This irregularity is balanced by the closet in the
centre of the house. Without loss of avaUable space, this
arrangement is promotive of convenience and good looks. A
side-door, opening into the Hving-room, is protected by an open
porch of simple form. By means of light, movable shutters^
and a door, this porch in the winter may be changed to a close
one. As more suitable to this style of house, a square buUt
brick chimney rises from the ground. A ceUar may be made
under part of the house, with entrance from the wood-room.
In very smaU houses we cannot have every conven
ience. In this, the wood-room does not connect with the
interior. If only one of the back rooms be wanted for sleeping,
a door may open from the other. The same room wiU answer
for stairs and pantry, should it be found expedient to raise the
roof But this could not be effected so easUy as in the former
case. This house would form a suitable wing to a larger one
erected in front. In this case, the main porch might be carried
to the side, the two principal rooms converted into one, and
the others used for pantry and store-room.
We have designed this house for a clapboard covering, the
horizontal lines of which suit its spreading form and low roof
The detaUs of cornice and -windows are very simple, and orna
ment is scarcely used. The stracture is not intended for a
Drominent point of view, or to be looked at from a distance. It
would weU become a smaU regular plot, a Uttle removed from
the road, with a neat garden behind it, and open greensward in
front ; a fit abode for some aged couple^ or widow, where they
could StiU enjoy the independence which they love, and some
times see their chUdren,
Height of rooms, 9 feet. Cost, about $625.

74 VILLAGE AND PAEM COTTAGES.
Note. — In explanation of the landscape and foliage shown around these
houses, a few words seem proper. It certainly is not intended to offer these
accessories of the pictures as models of scenery to be sought, or strictly imi
tated. This would be generally impossible. They show, at leaat, what may
be accomplished by a judicious disposition of trees, shrubbery, and grounds.
They -wUl be useful, suggestively, we hope. To the artists we have endea
vored to indicate the general character of the place for which the plan was
deemed appropriate. Much was necessarily left to them, and to their taste
and skiU is mainly due the credit of these pleasing accompaniments. Not
withstanding the opinion of Loudon, we believe that the size and general
effeot of a building may be better appreciated, amid surroundings like these,
than it can be -without them.

DESIGN NO. ill.
It is needless to say for whom this plan was intended, as
the whole family is in sight. The owner, whom you see so busy
-with hammer and nail, is one of that independent sort, who hke
to do things in their own way. On the edge of the viUage he
bought a piece of ground, but partly cleared, and which nobody
else had thought of Here, amid the spared trees, he put his
house. He wanted but three rooms. Tou see that they are
larger than those of No. 1, and differently disposed. A veran
dah, where he could sit in the shade, and enjoy the fresh air,
he was resolved to have. To carry out his own views of con
venience and comfort, he disregarded the advice of neighbors,
who insisted that it would be quite as cheap, and much better,
to buUd his house " regular and square." He did nothing for
mere fancy. The cornice is unornamented, the front door
plain, the window caps are strips of plan]? sustained by three-
cornered blocks. An evident purpose pervades every part of
the plan. At first it looked so plain, compared with neighbor-

DESIGN, NO. III.

P

L.R

CHAPTER IX.
COTTAGES OF ONE STOEY AOT) ATTIC.
AS the structures, caUed story and a half houses, are usuaUy
buUt, the roof is low, and the upper rooms, in consequence,
are inconvenient, uncomfortably warm, and poorly ventilated.
With some reason, then, it is asserted that it is better to give
more height to the side walls, and by means of a fiat, or very
low-pitched roof, secure a fuU, though not a high story. It is
conceded that such a story is generally more comfortable than
one in which the ceiling foUows the line of the roof But it
wUl often happen that steep roofs are preferred, and for the best
of reasons, in cases where economy aUows only one fuU story
below them. When this happens, the attic rooms may, by care
in the construction, be made almost as valuable as those with
vertical walls. They can be more easUy and perfectly venti
lated, and to finish them for use adds but sUghtly to the ex
pense. We have given more examples of this sort than of any
other, as it must always commend itself to that numerous class
with whom it is an object to obtain considerable house-room at
a very moderate cost.

DE.SIGN, .VO. Vf,

FIKS-r STOUY.

i !

f

ill
u
.J

COTTAGES OF ONE STORY AND ATTIC.

79

tage is low and would not obstract the view, it is suitable for a
gardener's, or laborer's home, on some large place. Or it might
serve as the temporary abode of some young and gi-owing family,
to be made, in time, the wing of a larger house. In such case it
would be wise to place it with reference to the probable enlarge
ment. The construction and finish of this house are very plain.
Its sides may be covered with clapboards, or with vertical boards
and battens.
Height of first story 7 ft. 6 in. Length of posts 11 ft.
Cost, ^820, DESIGN NO. VI.

There was a coach-house, no longer needed as such, and the
owner concluded to remove it, and convert it into a dwelling.
The buUding was about twenty feet square, with twelve feet
posts, and a flat roof The plan adopted is shown in this design.
On the lower floor there are two rooms, each fifteen feet long
and ten wide, — a good pantry, — two passage ways, and an easy
staircase. The chimney communicates with both rooms. The
ceUar stairs are under the others, being
Hghted by a smaU rear window. The
rooms, as may be seen, are well Hghted.
Either room may be used independently
of the other, yet not an inch of space or
of partition is wasted.
The same economy is observed in the
second story.
Here are three sleeping rooms, so that this house, smaU as it
is, wUl accommodate a family of considerable size.

eZOOND FI.OOB.

80

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,

The first story is eight feet six inches high. This leaves
two feet six inches (between floor and ceiling) at the side of
the chamber. Bnt, two feet
from the waU, the height of the
room is five and a half feet.
This advantage, as the section
showsj is due to the shaipness
of the roof As the chambers
have a space of nearly eight feet
square, where an adult can
stand erect, they are evidently
but little injured by the slant, ,
This exterior is also perfectly
regular. The side covering is
• BEonoir. vertical, as better suited to its
style. The finish is very plain. The verandah is simply made,
with soHd posts and brackets. There is a plain shed in the rear.
Through a sUght error in the engraring, the base of this house
does not show as it should. The terra-cotta chimney-caps are
simple and cheap.
Height of first story 8 ft. 6 in. Second story 2 ft. 6 m. at
the waUs and 9 ft, at the ceiUng. Cost, $900,
DESIGN NO. VII.
Similar to the last in size of rooms and general arrangement,
but more commodious and of higher character. By adding four
feet to the length, and by projecting a porch in front, we obtain
space for an additional apartment, so that besides the kitchen
and Hving-room, there is a parlor for social occasions. The

' This section is reversed in engraving.

DESIGN. Nil, VII,

FIRST Sl-ORY.

L R

if .

COTTAGES OF ONE STORY AND ATTIO.

81

9 X 12.9

kitchen has a large and convenient pantry, and each bedroom is
furnished with a closet. Like most of our houses this is designed
for a famUy without servants, and the
arrangements of the doors is meant to
facUitate the household work.
The smoke flues may be carried up as
shown, or they may be brought together
over the chamber ceUing, resting on the
cross partitions, and provided, as in No. 6,
with teri-a-cotta pots. The front win
dows reach the floor and open Hke doors, beoo™ toooe.
for the better enjoyment of the verandahs. The form of the sec
ond story rooms, and the heights of both stories are the same as
in No. 6. Cost, $1000. DESIGN NO. VIII.

10x12

10X12

L.R
14x14

t

Thus far, with one exception, aU our fronts have been regular
in shape and uniform in parts. In this we
have symmetry with variety. The door and
window canopies are whoUy unUke, and each
seems formed as with a single eye to its own
utiUty. But in size, form, and position,
they are so proportioned and balanced, so
connected by the regular outline of the front,
and by the upper windows, stretching partly
over both, that there is no feeHng of de
formity or of one-sidedness in the view.
The house has less accommodation than
the last. One apartment answers for kitchen and Hving-room ;
but its arrangements are convenient. It has a pantry of gener-

5

R
12x12

FIK8T BTOET PLAN.

82

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

8.9x9.4

£i

as-x 14

ous size, and communicates directly with the fi?ont and reai
entrances, and with that to the cellar ; thus saring many steps.
The front window is pleasantly shaded, and has a small balcony,
where roses and geraniums can take the air on sunny days.
The stairs (uninclosed) have a hand-raU, and turn across the
hall at the top, to avoid the roof On the
upper floor there are three bedrooms and
three closets, the height being the same as in
the preceding two designs.
Numbers 6, 7, and 8 may be classed
together. They wUl seem appropriately
placed where hiUs or trees, or other tall ob
jects, harmonizing with their vertical lines,
are seen in connection with them. On a
broad plain, and -without shelter, they might
look as if they needed companions.
Another suggestion appHes equaUy to the three. Tbe rear
door opens under a plain verandah or shed. Here ought always
to be an inclosed structure, in size and finish suited to the wants
and means of the owner, for the storage of fuel and tools, and for
other useful purposes. Cost of Design 8, $950.

I2x|5

SECOND FLOOE.

DESIGN NO. IX.

Our plans, thus far, have been formed to meet the wants of
a numerous, but active and earnest class, who are disposed or
compeUed to make the most of their means, and who seek con
siderable accommodation at small cost. The house before us is
of a different stamp. We may suppose its owner to be moderate
in his wishes, and somewhat exact, perhaps, in his habits. With

DESIGN, NO. Till.

IiESKi.N, NO, IK,

COTTAGES OF ONE STORY AND ATTIC.

83

W.R 8X11

3x7 C

I

SR
9 <,ia

10x16

no famUy but himself and wife, with a small but regular income,
he has built according to his taste and means. No idea of future
change or extension entered his head.
Its characteristics are simplicity, snug
ness, neatness and quiet. On the
first floor the quiet couple have their
pleasant parlor, and their snug Httle
sitting-room, with the kitchen adjoin
ing, and they have two good chambers
above. The curved form of the roof,
whUe it makes the attic more commo
dious, has a substantial and pleasing
look. In the cut the floor plan was
unintentionally reversed. To restore
it, would bring the sitting-room and
kitchen on the right of the entrance,
as seen in the perspective. This is easUy done, and the same
may be done in any other of the plans, should circumstances jus
tify a change of the kind. In an
emergency, or by a different family,
the small sitting-room may be used as
a bedroom. The chimney-top in its
character and support is Uke that of
No. 5, The side waUs are suited to a
vertical covering. The work is aU
simple and substantial.
Height of each story, 8 feet 6
inches to the ceUing.
Cost, $1,075.

BIEBT FLOOE PLAIT.

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.
Second story, 4 feet 6 inches at the waUs.

84

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,

DESIGN NO X.

We have here uniformity of parts without formality, and a
good degree of picturesqueness, with convenience of arrangement.
The Uring-room or parlor, occupies the entire front, and is of
regular shape throughout. The bay-window, seven feet wide and
three deep, improves the outward look, and adds immensely to
the pleasantness of the interior. One outer door opens into the
haU, which communicates with the parlor, kitchen, and bed
room. This haU contains the stairs, which are not inclosed.
The door on the other verandah opens into the kitchen. A lat
tice screen across the verandah should conceal it from the front.
The rear, as shown, has a back-kitchen and chimney, with a
wood-room annexed. If not needed, this
back-kitchen may be omitted from the plan,
a smaUer extension for wood-room being
substituted in its place. The chimneys are
of brick from the ground. The house is well
supplied with pantries in both stories. The
cellar stairs open from the kitchen. Let the
side covering be vertical boards and battens.
Clapboards would seriously injure its charac
ter. The picture indicates not only the style
of the house, but, to some extent, its appro
priate surroundings. Let no such cottage
stand in a bleak, open field, as if it had been accidentally dropped
there, and forgotten.
Height of stories same as in No. 9, Cost, $1,100,

8KC0ND FT.Oni;

KESIGN, XO. X.

-^^

FIEST STOUT I'l.AN.

I>E,SIGN. NO. XI.

'Vl -It ,

FIRST STORY PLAN.

COTTAGES OP ONE STORY AND ATTIC.

85

DESIGN NO XI.

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, , 8.9X9.6 ¦

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10.3X12
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a
This cottage is compact and economical, but with powers of
accommodation considerably beyond any of those which have
been presented. A good-sized parlor, a comfortable Hving-room,
an entrance haU, large enough to answer as a sitting or an eat
ing-room in summer, and five bedrooms, are comprised within a
space of about twenty-seven feet
square. A back-kitchen, wood-
room, pantries, etc., are furnished
in an extension at the rear.
Every room in the house is
provided with a closet. In the
parlor there are two, so disposed
as to give the interesting form of
a bay to the front end of the
room. Each bedroom has a small gable window, and three of
them have a dormer-window each, in addition, of such width as
to make them useful and pleasant. The side covering should be
vertical, though clapboards wUl answer.
This house is superior to the preceding ones, not only in size
and commodiousness, but in decoration and finish. The roof has
a wide projection at the gables, supported by brackets. The
dormer-windows have ornamental supporters at the sides, sawn
from thick plank, with simple brackets under the cornice. The
verandah is ceUed above horizontaUy. The height of stories
the same as No. 9. Cost, $1,500.
BEOONP FLOOB PLAN.
86

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

DESIGN NO XIL

The house before us, with fewer rooms than its predecessor
has, is more costly. But it has advantages, notwithstanding,
which wiU probably commend it to some. Such are, rooms of
larger size ; a haU which extends through the house (so conducive
to summer comfort) ; the open staircase, with its balustrade ; a
wider separation of the rooms, and the pleasing irregularity of
its external form. A single glance at its features and finish
would show to the passing observer, that the owner was both able
and wUling to consult his tastes as weU as his purse.
The arrangement needs some explanation. The stairs, start
ing just back of the parlor-door, on the right side of the hall,
land on a platform, six feet above the floor, from which they re
turn over the bedroom
closet. At the rear of
the landing, a partition
crosses the haU, with a
door at the side of the
staircase. The cellar
flight, starting in the
back hall, goes down
under the main stairs,
that part of it beyond
the platform being in
cased. The back porch is open, and the wood-room is beyond it,
with kitchen-pantry, and other conveniences.
In the second story, the stairs land over the partition between
the parlor and bedroom. There are two pantries between the

SECOND BTOET PLAN.

IlKSUiN, NO. j;ii.

FIEST STOBY PLAN.
W B

COTTAGES OF ONE STORY AND ATTIC. 87
chambers at the right of the haU — one for each. There is a
smaU one also in the back chamber beyond the stairs. There is
a large closet in the hall for bedding, etc., and a smaU one in
the left-hand chamber. If needful, this room may be divided
in the centre, and a portion of the haU closet devoted to the
front half. The chimneys are of brick, and topped out with
the same. The smaU dormer-windows in the roof are intended
for ventUation as much as for Hght. But they are decorative
features also. The window caps are of plank, supported on
simple brackets. The front gable -window has a flower-balcony.
The verandah is soUd and plain, and is so finished as to show
its construction. Sawn brackets of soUd plank adorn the gable
cornices, whUe the extended rafters are made to show along the
eaves. The first stoiy is nine feet high. The second is Hke those
last described.
Though this house would not be out of place on almost any
vUlage lot, it is especiaUy suited to one somewhat irregular in
surface, or outline. It is weU fitted for a comer house, the
fronts, seen in the engraving, showing on the two streets. In
any event, the lot on which it stands should be of good size.
This plan may be easUy spoUed. No alteration should be
attempted without good advice. Some practical man may per
haps object to its irregularity. He may wonder that one part
of the house stands back of the other. If he prefer the square,
dreary, double house, so common formerly, and seen sometimes
stUl, his wish is easUy gratified, and for a model he can take a
packing-box. The cost of this house is $1,625,

CHAPTER. X.
HILL-SIDE COTTAGES.
FROM convenience or from choice, many houses are placed on
the hiU or mountain side. When judiciously selected and
properly buUt upon, such sites have many advantages. Raised
above the miasms which too often fioat over the lowlands and
stagnant waters of the vaUey, their occupants breathe a purer
and more salubrious air. From such points, as from lofty watch-
towers, the eye commands, at pleasure, all the variety and beauty
of the landscape. Seen from a distance, they are often and
should always be points of Hght and loveliness — such as make
us wish we " had wings like a dove," that we might fly away to
their leafy shelter and enjoy their cool repose. Notwithstanding
the fatigues of climbing and the dangers of descent, the remote
ness and seclusion to which such situations are sometimes inci
dent, and their pecuUar exposure to the blasts of winter, there
are always some who wUl Hve nowhere else.
The habitation which is properly fitted to an unusual or
rugged site, has a character and beauty of its own. We Hke to
trace in it the evidences of an aUegiance to Nature, the confes
sion of her superority. We are pleased to notice what difficul
ties have been overcome, and to find that such a house can be
conformed to its position, and made to harmonize with the
scenery, -without impairing its usefulness.

HILL-SIDE COTTAGES. 89
By way of caUing attention to the advantages which such
situations possess, and of suggesting some of the ways in which
they may be tumed to good account, we offer two designs for
hiU-side cottages.
Basements, as they are usuaUy made, more or less beneath
the surface of the ground, are om' aversion. Too often they are
damp, almost always Ul-ventilated. If city houses must have
them, they should rank, and generaUy do rank in the class of
necessary evUs. The man's sanity might almost be doubted
who should put a basement to his house in the country. But
it often happens that the form of surface and nature of the
ground, are such as aUow the two sides or ends of a house to be
of diff'erent depths, thus admitting entrance from -without, on
two fioors. In some famUies, such a division of the house
dirides also its duties and labors to great advantage. To give
such a story its highest value and avoid the needless use of
stairs, it should contain aU the rooms and appHances needed for
the labor of the household. The apartments should be en
tirely above ground, weU Hghted and ventilated. The ground
outside should be lower than the floor, and should descend from
the house, not only for drainage, but to prevent the settHng
within of the denser gases and vapors. The floor should be
elevated somewhat above the ground, and the side waUs should
be " furred off " with wooden strips to which the laths are to be
naUed, thus forming an air-chamber between the outside stone
and the inside plastering. The ceUar, back of the rooms, should
be separated from them by an air-tight partition, and weU
ventUated, to prevent the intrusion into the house of its damp
or impure air. A due regard to health demands the use of
every precaution to secure dryness, to retain warmth, and to

90 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
exclude those insidious vapors, charged with disease and death,
which are wont to gather in dark and low places.
Such a story should be a real story, not a low, mean, back
place, but a respectable portion of the house. Let the door be
screened if necessary, and let the whole be made pleasing by the
judicious disposition of flower and vine, and shrub and tree.
Houses thus buUt cannot easUy be regular in form and arrange
ment. Nor is it desirable that they should be. In placing
such a stracture, the surface, rather than boundary of the
ground, should be consulted. The house must be fitted to
the decHvity, even though it do not conform exactly to the
street. DESIGN NO. xin.
This design is intended for a situation higher than the road
on which it fronts. Entering at the upper level by a gaUery on
the side, or by an outside flight of stairs from the front, we
come first to a large hall, which may be furnished as a sitting-
room, or used, on occasion, as an eating-room. This apartment
may be economicaUy warmed by a dram connected with a stove
in the room below. The stairs to the upper fioor start from
this haU near the outer door, and under them is the basement
flight, inclosed, with a door at the top. The large bedroom
beyond the stairs is provided with a flreplace for use in case
of sickness. Connected with these rooms is a smaUer bed
room and a good sized parlor. Every apartment on this floor
has a prospect in two directiona.

DESIGN, NO, XIII.

PEINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.
TT

HILL-SIDE COTTAGES.

91

The under story has a large kitchen and a Hving-room.
From the latter, stairs lead to
the main floor. The Hving-
room is to be warmed by a
stove, the flue of which passes
under the stairs. There are
two ceUars which open from
the kitchen. In these may
be made such pantries as are
needed. Make sure of an air-
¦ ¦ ¦ a
BABBUENT PLAN. spacc betwecu the plastering
and outer waU, and make smaU ceUar windows in the rear.
The upper floor has two large bedrooms, seven feet high at
the side, and four large closets, which are two and a half feet
high at the waUs. This is ow
ing to the low incUnation of the
roof. An additional closet may
be made opposite the head of
the stairs.
This house, with Httle regu
larity of detaU, has, we trust,
nothing distorted or unequal in
its aspect. It is designed for a
_ situation where uniformity would involve a sacrifice of utility.
Its principal feature is the verandah or gaUery covered by the
projecting roof, and supported by the open framework. This
is at once bold and simple, suggestive of summer enjoyment and
of winter protection.
In its main characteristics this house resembles the Swiss
cottage, Oircumstances simUar to those which make this style

VPPEE FLOOB PLAN.

92 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
proper on the Alpine slopes often exist among us, and it is for
some such position that the design is intended. It would suit
well the southern side of some steep and rugged hill, and -wfll
look aU the better if the grounds around and below it are left
-with their natural inequaUties, and not tortured into terraces
or graded into tameness.
The construction should be simple and substantial. The
lower story of rough stone, the rest of wood, and the sides
boarded verticaUy. The framework of the gaUeries and the
eaves should be soHd timber, unornamented, and the raihngs
should be strong and plain rather than nice. Some native
grape--rine, if the cUmate aUow, might in a few years be
made to spread its shade and fruit over the timbers of the
gaUery. The roof, it wUl be seen, though not of the steepest pitch,
is stiU the most prominent 'feature. Such it ought to be.
EspeciaUy may this be said of all domestic architecture. In
houses which are low and unadorned, the effect may be obtained
with a sHght elevation above, and a moderate projection beyond
the walls. Higher houses require higher roofs. Whatever
may be said in favor of the flat roofs on which people sit and
sleep in torrid lands, no such reason holds in our cold and
showery cUmes. Here, economy, durabiUty, protection, conve
nience, comfort, and looks, aU petition for a good degree of
height and steepness in the roof In regard to this very im- '
portant point, we ask the attention of the reader to the foUow
ing remarks of Ruskin.
" The very soul of the cottage — the essence and meamng of
it — are in its roof; it is that mainly wherein conists its shelter;
that wherein it differs most completely from a cleft in rocks or

HILL-SIDE COTTAGES. 93
bower in woods. It is in its thick impenetrable coverUd of
close thatch, that its whole heart and hospitaUty are con
centrated. " Consider the difference, in sound, of the expressions ' be
neath my roof and ' -within my walls.' Consider whether you
would be best sheltered, in a shed, with a stout roof sustained
on comer posts, or in an inclosure of four waUs without a roof
at all, — and you wUl quickly see how important a part of the
cottage the roof must always be to the mind as well as to the
eye, and how from seeing it, the greatest part of our pleasure
must continuaUy arise.
" Now do you suppose that which is so all-important in a
cottage can be of smaU importance in your own dweUing-house ?
Do you think that by any splendor of architecture — any height
of stories — you can atone for the loss ofthe aspect ofthe roof?
It is vain to say you take the roof for granted. You may as
weU say you take a man's kindness for granted, though he
neither looks nor speaks kindly. You may know him to be
Idnd in reaUty, but you wUl not like him so weU as if he spoke
and looked kindly also. And whatever external splendor you
may give your houses, you wiU always feel there is something
wanting, unless you see their roofs plainly. And this espe
cially in the North. In Southern architecture the roof is of far
less importance ; but here the soul of domestic buUding is in
the largeness and conspieuousness of the protection against the
ponderous snow and driving sleet. You may make the fa5ade
of the square pUe, if the roof be not seen, as handsome as you
please, you may cover it with decoration — but there wUl always
be a heartlessness about it, which you wUl not know how to
conquer ; above aU, a perpetual difficulty in finishing the waU

94 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
at top, which wiU require aU kinds of strange inventions ia
parapets and pinnacles for its decoration, and yet wiU never
look right.
" Now I need not teU you that, as it is desirable, for the
sake of the effect upon the mind, that the roof should be visible,
so the best and most natural form of roof in the North is that
which wiU render it most visible, namely, the steep gable;
the best and most natural, I say, because this form not only
throws off snow and rain most completely, and dries fastest,
but obtains the greatest interior space within waUs of a given
height, removes the heat of the sun most effectuaUy from the
upper rooms, and affords most space for ventUation." *
The principal story of this house is 9 feet high — Basement,
8 feet. Estimated cost, exclusive of material for basement
waUs, $1,300, DESIGN NO. XIV.
Our second bill-side plan is meant for a position below the
road. The principal front is therefore on the higher side.
Such a situation has usuaUy less of descent and abraptness
than those to which the former design is suited, G-entle swells
by some vaUey side, or on the outer margin of a plain, often
furnish sites weU adapted to this plan. To make it harmonize
with such a spot it is broader and lower than the former house.
In other respects they are so far similar that the remarks just
made in relation to balconies, verandahs, brackets, waUs, screens,
vines, etc., may be appUed equaUy to this,
* Lectures on Architecture, &c. London, 1854, pp. 34, 85, 36.

HESIGN, NO. XIV.

PRINCIPAL FLOOR PLAN.

HILL-SIDE COTTAGES.

95

The internal arrangement, as shown by the plans, needs but
Httle explanation. The -windows opeiung on the verandah and
on the smaU balcony at the end, are long and are hung on hinges.
The basement has a fuel ceUar, p, a vegetable cellar, v, c, a
closet, c, and the important rooms •
L, R, and K. In the attic plan there
are four bedrooms and as many ¦
closets. These rooms are ten feet
high in the highest part, and but
two feet and nine inches at the «
side ; a result which is due to the
lower pitched roof The stairs are
of a compact form and occupy but
httle space. A reference to the
section of Design No. 6 on page 80 ¦
-wUl show the relation of the upper
stahs to the roof, and the necessity of some such arrangement
as this. The position of the upper flight
determines that of the lower, and makes
necessary the recess in the stone waU as
shown by the basement plan. Where
so close a calculation is required, as in
this case, a smaU alteration in one part of
a staircase without a corresponding change
in some other, may just spoU the whole
thing. Indeed few changes in a plan
are safe, or Hkely to be successful, unless
they are considered with minute and
judicious reference to their bearing on aktc plan.
every other part ; and this is about equal to original planning

BABEalENT PLAN.

96 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,
— a thing more easUy talked of than done. This point has
been aUuded to already, but it is so important that we venture
to give line upon line.
The position, on the whole, most eUgible for this house is one
in which its shaded side should face the west, and its parlor
¦windows look out upon the south. The road might wind round
its southern end, with a sufficient space between for shrubbery
and lawn, whUe the garden might stretch down toward the
vale. Upright boarding is the proper covering for the sides of
this buUding, though clapboards might be used, if specially
preferred. But there are some objections to this once almost
universal mode of covering wooden waUs, and we may as weU
state them here.
In the flrst place, clapboards form a sort of horizontal
ruUng, and it is a weU-known effect of such raUng that it
shortens and flattens, to the eye,, the surfaces on which it is
laid. Now this result is directly the reverse of what is often
intended, and should stUl oftener be aimed at, in architectural
designs. The second objection is connected with questions of Hght
and shade. The strength and character of a buUding depend
almost whoUy on the shadows which are thrown upon its surface
by projecting members. A structure without projections has no
character at aU. It is blank and meaningless, just as a human
face would be without Hps and nose and eyebrows. The hori
zontal raUng of the clapboards being itself a species of shading,
not unlike the paraUel lines of an engraving, cannot but
weaken the power of the other shadows, — ^thus impairing, if not

HILL-SIDE COTTAGES. 97
neutralizing, this part of the effect intended by projecting
eaves, canopies, and siUs.
A third objection to clapboards rests on the fact, that when
they are used, the trimmings are first attached and the boards
then fitted to them. This increases the expense, as weU as the
chances of imperfect work. The reverse happens with plain
boarding. The first cost of thin clapboards is about the same
as that of thick upright boarding -without battens. In dura
biUty and warmth the former is decidedly inferior.
To balance all this the clapboard possesses one, advantage,
and that is the power derived from old habits and early associa
tions. But this power is growing weaker every day.
Height of basement, 7 feet. Main story, 8 feet 6 inches,
¦ Cost, as in the last design, $1,375.
7

CHAPTER XI.
HOUSES OF TWO STORIES.
MANY wUl prefer the two-story house to any that can be de
vised in the style to which we have thus far confined our
selves. We may well rejoice that there is so much diversity in
the tastes and opinions of mankind, and that this is constitu
tional. It would be a very uninteresting world if the men of it
could, by any means, be brought to buUd, or to think, just
alike. But the two-story dwelling has important advantages,
which make it the best form for a great majority of viUage
houses. The choice between this and a lower style of building
should rest on clear grounds. There must be a certain relation
between the breadth and the height of a buUding to give it a
satisfactory look of stabUity. To effect this, the house must
cover more ground, and the expense is thus carried beyond the
reach of many. We do, indeed, see many high thin houses, and
miserable spectacles they are. Sometimes we behold one of
respectable proportions, but with a meanly finished exterior, —
the resources of the buUder not having been sufficient to give
him a large house, and a good one too. In such cases, we
think it would be weU to compromise.
WhUe the low cottage seems modest and retiring, the high,

DESIGN, NO. XT.

FIEST STOET PLAN.

HOUSES OP TWO STORIES. 99
square buUt house, has a more forward and assured look.
When houses, or men, boldly claim our regards, we have a right
to expect that they wiU give proof of their worth. Such struc
tures clearly need a nice finish, and more of ornament, than
those of a less ambitious expression. Look, for example, at
Design No. 3. Its rude construction, and simple detaUs, harmo
nize with the structure, and look weU. Put them on a high,
conspicuous buUding, and they would strike the eye as out of
place, and mean.
A large house is apt to look blank, cheerless, unsupported,
if buUt without wings, porticoes, or some projecting feature.
These, however, if elegant and appropriate, are costly. The
designs already presented are of low construction, to bring them
within the limits of exceUence and cost, which wehave pre
scribed for ourselves. The fifteenth and sixteenth designs,
which foUow, are in style and cost as moderate as we deem con
sistent with the two-story form. Larger houses might, indeed,
be put up for the same cost, but only by the sacrifice, to mere
space, of other and better quaUties, Such houses, if needed,
can be built by any carpenter. DESIGN NO, XV.
The forms of buUding that prevaU in cities are often copied,
or imitated, in the viUages which grow up around them. This
is natural, though very often unwise. In such places, houses,
essentiaUy like the one before us, are very common. In some
sense, it may be regarded as a detached member from a city
block. We have, however, modified it in some respects.
The kitchen, for instance, has been lifted above ground into

100 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
the Ught, and the free air. Standing out, as it does, it helps
to neutralize the disproportionate height of the main buUding.
The chimneys which, in the city model, stood by the side waU,
are placed next to the haU. This leaves space for windows,
economizes warmth, and improves the external appearance, by
bringing out their tops nearer the roof centre. The front parlor
has a bay-window. The beauty and value of this feature is
beginning to be known among us. Many costly houses exhibit
it. But it needs not, and must not, be monopoHzed by the
wealthy. Read what Lord Bacon said more than two centuries
ago: " For inbowed windows, I hold them of good use, * * *
for they be pretty retiring places for conference." And Ruskin
thus to the good people of Edinburgh : " You surely must aU
of you feel and admit the deUghtfulness of a bow -window. I
can hardly fancy a room can be perfect without one. Now you
have nothing to do but to resolve that every one of your princi
pal rooms shaU have a bow -window, either large or smaU."
And so, too, Henry Ward Beecher, to the countless readers of
the Star Papers : " Our common, smaU, frequent windows in
country dweUings are contemptible. We love rather the gene
rous old EngUsh windows, large as the whole side of a room,
many-angled, or circular ; but of whatever shape, they should
be recessed — glorious nooks of Hght, the very antitheses of those
shady coverts which we search out in forests, in hot summer
days. These Uttle chambers of light into which a group may
gather, and be both in doors and out of doors at the same
time ; where in storms, or in winter, we may have full access to
the elements without chUl, wet, or exposure — ^these are the
glory of a dweUing."
The frame of this window is carried up to the roof, forming

HOUSES OF TWO STORIES.

101

an open balcony in tbe second story, which communicates with
the front chamber. This gives not only a marked feature to the
house, but a dehghtful summer seat.
Back of the main haU there may be an open porch, covered
by the roof of a rear buUding. This should be low and unobtru
sive, but well finished. Under the same roof there may be a
kitchen pantry. The front entrance is protected by a canopy, in
shape adapted to the general style of the house. The main roof
is " hipped, " that is, it slopes back on every side. A gable is
avoided, as it would increase a height already somewhat exces
sive. Its lowness is partially reHeved by a break in the outUne, —
the part of the roof near the walls being steeper than the rest.
We have shunned what we deem a
gross, though very common error in such
houses — a large showy cornice in front,
while the other sides are left entirely
naked. Ours is an honest cornice of real
wood ; it is simple and plain, and goes
aU round. Yertical lines in the covering
would increase the apparent height. It
should therefore be clapboarded, or bet
ter still, planked horizontally with an
even surface, showing no joints.
The chimneys are of brick through
out, covered at the top with cement. The posts of the balcony
are of sohd timber. The casings of corners and windows are
plank, and these, if the sides are clapboarded, should be two
inches thick.
The foundation walls, above ground, are smoothly laid, whe
ther of stnne or brick, projecting, as may be seen, beyond the su-

SBOOND FLOOE PLAN.

102

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

perstracture, and covered by a wooden base or water-table, which
terminates and finishes the side covering. The roof is of tin, laid
on an even surface. A gutter is formed in the cornice, which
carries the rain water to leader pipes in the rear.
Height of first story, 9 feet. Second story, 8 feet 6 inches.
Cost $1,250.

DESIGN NO. XVI.
In exterior form and feature this design has more claim to origi
naUty. The rooms, in their general arrangement, are like those
of No. 11. There are two large bays on the front, one in the
parlor and the other in the haU. The main entrance is at the.
side of the latter. This is from a porch, partly inclosed by these
projections and covered by an overhanging roof.
There are four good chambers on the second fioor. Of these
three have clothes-presses attached. The front windows of this
story are double, — two in one. This
makes the rooms more valuable, whUe
it gives dignity to the exterior. Many
house fronts are spoiled by having too
many windows. The wall-veU has
no breadth or dignity, and the house
becomes a large lantern.
LIO X IZ I (u Ala m
I I The roof is low and has a bold
I m MiiiLiM ¦ mJ cornice. The back verandah is plain
BBCOND FLOOB FLAK.  .,, i* t . i ¦ •! 1 />
With solid posts and visible frame
work. There should be a rear buUding, the roofs joining. In
winter, the middle part of the verandah may be inclosed, making
an entry to the kitchen and wood-room.

DESIGN, NO, XTI,

'% i^f/^V

FIEST STORY PLAN.

HOUSES OP TWO STORIES. 103
In its general construction and its covering this house is Hke
its predecessor. Its regular form makes it suitable for a spot
where it may be seen from several points. The lot on which it is
to stand should be open and smooth, rather above than below the
grounds about it.
Height of each story, 9 feet. Cost, $1,200.
DESIGN NO. XVIL
[See Frontispiece.]
A brick house, thirty-three feet square, and finished in the
style of this design, can hardly be called a cottage. It is meant
to show how the principles which give to humble dwellings a pe
cuhar character, may find appHcation and development in more
important structures.
It might be deemed the residence of some individual, happy
in his circumstances, temper, and tastes ; of one who knows how
to prize the neatness and quiet and comfort of such a home, and
who can find in its embellishment a constant pleasure.
The house occupies a level site. Shade trees stand near but
do not overshadow it. A deep verandah extends across the front,
having in the centre an entrance porch, less deep. The parlor is
on the left. Observe its arrangement. Between the doors a
piano may stand. On the opposite side is a pleasant bay-window.
A cheerful fireplace faces the front windows. Without being
stiff or formal, the room is regular, excepting the door at the
corner. This is necessary for communication -with the adjoining
apartment, which may serve as a Ubrary and famUy sitting-room.
There is, on the opposite side of the house a bedroom, entered
from the back haU. The kitchen, with its pantry and other con-

104

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

veniences, occupies the remaining corner. The stairs have a
black walnut raU. Beneath them is the passage to the ceUar.
The upper floor has
four bedrooms with closets,
and a bath-room, the win
dow of which opens on
the front balcony.
The interior finish is
designed to show more
work than any of the
others. The waUs are of
brick, furred off on the in
side with wooden strips to
receive the lathing. The
form and relative size of
the cornice brackets are
SEOOND STOET PLAH. showu by the cut. The
bay window and porch are of brick. The back verandah is plain,
the front one more elaborate. The waUs and exterior wood-work are
painted in colors differing sUghtly, that there may seem to be no
attempt to pass off either material for any thing but what it is.
Each chimney shaft carries four flues, made round and
smooth by buUding them against wooden cylinders, which are
raised as the work proceeds. The chimney top may be of cut
stone, or cast iron, as one or the other can be most easUy pro
cured. This very noticeable feature of every dwelling house is
too often neglected. There are thousands of buUdings otherwise
ambitious and costly, which are meanly surmounted by plain
straight heaps of bricks — mere vulgar smoke-pipes. To give it

HOUSES OF TWO STORIES. 105
the aspect of stabUity, the chimney top should have a base where
it leaves the roof, and its upper termination should be properly
ornamented. These high conspicuous points should be made to
harmonize with the rest of the structure and to enhance the
general effect. They can and they should add grace and dignity
to the whole.
The window openings are sUghtly arched. They have no
projecting caps, but rely for character on the depth of the jambs.
In brick and stone work, strength and good looks ahke demand
the arch. In wood the case is very different.
This roof is covered with tin, the slope being too slight for
shingles. Height of first story, 9 feet. Second story, 8 feet. Cost,
$1,875,

CHAPTER XII.

FARM-HOUSES.

MANY of our smaUer villages are inhabited mostly by farm
ers. In others, they are found but here and there, or
only perhaps on the outskirts of the busy hamlet. Such hus
bandmen are not usuaUy of the larger class. Their homes are
subject, in some degree, to viUage influences, and to limitations,
from which the isolated and independent farm-house of the
open country is exempt. As such, they come within the range
of our design. Though the plans given in this chapter are
adapted to the viUage, and its vicinity, it is beUeved that they
wiU be found not unsuited to the circumstances and wants of
many farmers differently situated. We ask attention to their
general character and special features.
DESIGN NO. xvm.
The heart of a farm-house is the kitchen. Around this, aU
other things must range themselves. The farm has operations
and necessities unknown to ordinary households. The demands
of hungry laborers must be met promptly and abundantly.
These, in busy seasons, come in extra numbers, and are to be

FIRST .STORY PLAN.

FARM-HOUSES. 107
provided for in the same kitchen where the ordinary work of the
family is done. Besides these, and other labors, incident to
farm Itfe, which must often be attended to here, it is usually
the eating and sitting room of the household. This multipUca-
tion of uses, the good housewife, however she may wish it, can sel
dom avoid. The number and pressure of her duties, and the smaU
force which she can command for their performance, demands
the utmost concentration possible. Accordingly, our kitchen is
of generous dimensions. The Ught enters on two of its sides.
There is a large fireplace, which can hold a stove, or range, if
desired. The room has immediate connection with every part
of the house. Should the house front the west (which is desir
able), this room wiU be in the south-eastern comer. Such an
arrangement makes it Ught and cheerful in the morning, when
the work is mostly done, and secures warmth and pleasantness
during the winter months. The free circulation of air which is
secured by the position of the outside doors wiU prevent it from
being oppressively warm in summer.
In the north-east, and therefore coldest corner of the house,
is a large buttery, or store-room, p, connected with the kitchen.
Out of this opens a mUk-room, d, of good size, -with waUs of
stone. The scuUery, or wash-room, s, also leads directly from
the kitchen, and has a chimney, with which a boUer, or summer
stove, may be connected, if desirable. The outside door of this
room opens on a verandah formed by a projection of the roof,
beyond the waUs of the rear building. Should it be deemed
expedient, this additional stracture may be extended of the
same width, as shown, and without break in the roof, untU it
connects with the barn. Such an arrangement wUl furnish a
carriage-house, wood-room, tool-house, &c. The verandah.

108 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
being carried the whole length, provides a dry and neat passage
way. Its posts are exceUent supports for grape-vines.
It wUl also be seen that the kitchen connects with a back
staircase, which leads to chambers for the hired men, and has
ceUar stairs beneath ; and that besides opening into the parlor,
and front haU, it communicates with a bedroom. The last-
named apartment can be conveniently used in cases of sickness.
The front stairs are open, provided with a raUing, and have a
closet below for hats and coats.
The parlor, though only second in size, is a pleasant room,
nearly regular in its arrangement. There are many famUies,
Uving in isolated farm-houses, who seldom see, or wish to see
company. To them a parlor and front door are but a useless
expense and trouble. A room that is rarely opened or aired is
scarcely ever fit to stay in. In denser neighborhoods, the case
is different. The agricultural famUy of the viUage is Uable to
social calls, and their occa'sions can usuaUy be best met by
uniting in one the parlor and sitting-room. Such is our arrange
ment here, and we have aimed to make this apartment the
most agreeable one in the house. The front door is meant to
be opened, and used daUy, and the verandah is for famUy
enjoyment. ShoiUd any occasion bring together in this house a large
number of persons, the connection between haU, parlor, kitchen,
and bedroom, -wiU permit them all to be occupied.
The second floor affords five chambers. These are five feet
high at the waUs, and below the ceUing eight and a half feet.
The hall is so divided that two of the chambers connect with
the back stairs, and the other three with the front fiight. -If
preferred, the door of the central rear chamber may be at the

FARM-HOUSES.

109

left hand corner, and thus open into the back hall. This room,
and that which adjoins it on the right, are Ughted by dormer-
windows, Hke that seen in the engraving. Each room has its
closet, and a larger one,
B c, opens from the
fiont haU. There is
also an inclosed ladder
to the roof Three of
the chambers are pro
vided with smoke fiues.
The supply of bedrooms
win not be thought too
large by those who
know the usual wants
of such famUies.
The weU-rendered
view in the cut, makes
unnecessary a minute
description of the ex
terior. The waUs are
of rough, broken stone,
such as many farms readUy supply, laid up with aU convenient
smocfthness, but vrith no outside plastering. The apertures are
shghtly arched. The trimmings, being almost necessarUy of
wood, are so formed and disposed as to show their trae nature.
The posts of the verandah are soUd and heavy. The cornice
has a framing which is simple, soUd, and unique. The sides
and gables of the dormer-windows are battened. They would be
perhaps better protected, and would look equaUy weU, if covered
by shingles, chamfered at the comers.

SECOND FLOOB PLAN.

110 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
The expression of this house is consistent vrith the employ
ment and character (presumed to be aUke substantial) of those
who are to inhabit it. It is soUd, dignified, comforti»bk, and
individuaUzed. The first story is 9 feet high. The second from 5 feet to 8
feet 8 inches.
The cost of the stracture would depend very much on the
facUity of obtaining good stone and lime. Making no calcula
tion for stone, or cartage, and estimated on the basis named in
the note, on page 72, it would be $1,900.
DESIGN NO, SIS,
The convenience of household operations is here combined
vrith a degree of elegance in the better apartments. The
kitchen is connected with the front entrance haU, and also vrith
a short entry, p, leading to a side door, more accessible. In
this plan, some of the heavier housework is transferred from the
kitchen to other places. This arrangement reUeves the apart
ment, and makes it more fit to be a dining and a Uving room.
Its form, dimensions, and position, aU favor the same ends.
With two vrindows at each end, it can always secure both air
and Ught. The fireplace — that aU-important feature of a
kitchen — ^is centraUy posted on one side. It is weU furnished
vrith closets. If regularity and symmetry are pleasing, this
room must satisfy the most mathematical eye.
Across the entry, p, is the wash-room, containing an oven
and a boUer. From this, a rear door opens into a wood-room.
A pantry on the right hand, opening from the kitchen, contams
a pump, a sink, and a set of shelves, inclosed. This also leads

DESIGN, NO. XXI.

FIRST STORY PLAN.

FARM-HOUSES.

Ill

to a larger pantry beyond. The back stairs are ascended from
the side entry, and the ceUar-way is beneath them. A central
haU, containing a straight, open staircase, divides the front por
tion of the house. On one side is a good-sized parlor ; on the
other, a snug Httle sitting-room, and a bedroom of about the
same dimensions. AU these rooms have fireplaces, — those of
the last two being in the corners.
In the rear part
of the second floor
are two large bed
rooms, of irregular
shape, each having a
closet ; and there is
also a store-room. Of
these rooms, one is
Ughted by vrindows
m the rear gable,
the other by a dor
mer over the side
verandah, not shovra
in the cut.
Above the front
entrance there is a
bedroom, vrith waUs
five feet, and ceUing
nine feet high. The
chambers on each side are of equal size, and alike, though
somewhat peculiar in form. A space next the walls is inclosed
for closet room, so that no part of these chambers is less than
six feet high, whUe they are nine feet in the central portion.

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.

112 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
The haU may receive Ught through glass over the door of the
front bedroom.
This is one of the plans whose features can be transposed.
That is, the right-hand rooms, in front, or in rear, or in both,
may be put on the left, and vice versa. The side verandah
may be extended to the wood-room.
The construction is meant to be simUar to the design last
given, but ruder somewhat. Unless stone, which vriU do vrith
out much cutting, can be easUy obtained, the lintels of the
windows, together with the supports of the projecting gables
and cornice, are designed to be of soUd oak timber, buUt into
the waUs. The gables themselves may be either battened or
shingled. In the latter case, much is gained in looks by cut
ting off the corners of the shingles, but it costs a Uttle more.
The object of this house cannot easUy be misapprehended.
It teUs the whole story in its own honest face.
Height of first story, front part, 9 feet ; rear, 8 feet 6
inches. Cost, estimated as ia the last, $2,700.
DESIGN NO XX.
This, in some respects, approaches more nearly than the
others, a type of houses often seen. Its second story, at
the lowest part, is nearly as high as many that are finished
vrith flat ceilings. It is frank and confident, but stiU modest,
snug, and quiet, as becomes a farm-house. This subdued ex
pression may be ascribed to the descending direction of its
principal Hues, — to the long decHvity of the main roof, which
extends over the verandah, and gives the aspect of a lean-to, —
to the meek-looking dormer, which peeps out from the centre.

DESIGN, NO. XX.

FARM-HOUSES.

113

—to the far projecting eaves, which reduce the apparent height
of the side waUs, — and to the character of the chimney-tops.
Its diversified form (only a part of which is seen in the engrav
ing) wUl make it a pleasing object from whatever point it is
viewed, and vriU give it a new aspect with every turn.
A single glance at the cut shows this house to be of wood.
The windows are of the form most common, trimmed vrith a
casing and band, which project far enough to cast an outUne
of shadow. The cornice is neat and substantial. The brackets
are simple and strong, — meant for support in reaUty, as well as
in appearance. The soUd verandah posts are chamfered, vrith
neat brackets at the top.

SECOND FLOOE PLAN

In its external finish, this house makes no show of rasticity.
It belongs evidently, to a region where saw-mUls and planing-
8

114 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
machines, and good workmen, are found. It would be no un
suitable companion for our best viUage edifices.
Its interior arrangements also show an adaptation to the
habits and conditions of vUlage Hfe. The front haU communi
cates on one side vrith a sitting-room, and on the other vrith a
parlor, and by the principal staircase vrith the upper fioor.
Back of these stairs is a lobby, connecting the parlor with the
kitchen, and yet separating them. The back stairs rise from
this spot, and under them, opening from the back haU, are
those to the ceUar. A pantry, vrith interior closet, opens from
the kitchen. There is a closet under the front stairs, and the
bedroom has one. The facUity of communication between aU
the rooms vriU not faU to be noticed.
These apartments comprise the first floor of the main
buUding, and in themselves would furnish suitable and sufficient
accommodation for almost any vUlage famUy. The additional
room required by the farm economy is provided for by a one-
story extension. Here, compactly and conveniently arranged,
are the back-Mtchen, s., vrith chimney, and large boUer ; the
dairy, d., surrounded by hoUow waUs, for the presjervation of an
even temperature ; a tool-room, t. r., a wood-room, etc. The
second story has five sleeping rooms, four of which are provided
vrith smoke fiues. There is also a good supply of closets. The
smaUest of the bedrooms is Hghted by a dormer vrindow in the
rear roof AU of these rooms may be entered from the uppei
back haU, and two of them also from the landing of the front
stairs. Height of first story, 9 feet. Height of second story, from
5 feet to 8 feet 6 inches. Cost, $2,450,

CHAPTER XIII.
DOUBLE COTTAGES.
IN cities and viUages, two or more famUies often Uve in the
same house. Numerous and grave objections to this practice
readily suggest themselves. To possess the best, the true quaU
ties of a home, each tenement must have its own exclusive
grounds, entrance, passages, and stairs, as weU as its individual
rooms. But where space is limited, and land is dear, and dweU
ings are brought close together, it is sometimes advantageous to
make two distinct habitations under one roof
When this course is pursued, there is a wider interval between
the buUdings, than if each house should stand detached on the
centre of its ovra lot. This not only favors the general appear
ance of the street, but faciUtates a tasteful improvement of the
ground. As this arrangement saves not only a part of the material,
but all the exterior covering and finish of two entire waUs, it is
decidedly promotive of economy. As three of the sides are stUl
open to the Hght and air, the convenience and comfort of the
house may be nearly as great as though the tenement stood
singly. Sometimes the necessity of having a blank side, or some
other unfortunate condition of the buUding grotmd may give to

116 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
this mode a decided preference. In chapter fourth, we have
already spoken favorably of these erections, as suited to the neces
sities of a manufacturing place, and as a desirable compromise
between the costUer single tenements and the more economical,
but odious block of continuous houses.
In each of the foUovring designs the two houses are precisely
alike, constituting in their union an edifice of uniform appearance.
We have not attempted by any artifice of construction, to conceal
the fact that there are two famUies here. As a matter of truth,
of taste, and of convenience, we think it better that the fact
should appear.
Each house should have its own inclosed back yard and vege
table garden. But in front the ground can be more easily and
more highly adorned, if the yards are thrown together. If there
be a separation, it should be made by something sHght, as a fence
of chain or wire, DESIGN NO. XXI.
The body of this buUding is nearly square. A lean-to is car
ried round three of its sides. In parts this is left open and forms
verandahs, v v. In the inclosed portion we have the entries,
E E, and the pantries, s s, adjoining, and the scuUeries, with
chimneys, in the rear corners. The arrangement of each house is
distinctly seen in the plan. The chief entrance is through the
side entry, from which point rise the stairs. The cellar stairs are
under them and lead from the kitchen. The closet behind the
stairs may be made to open from either parlor or kitchen.
There are three chambers on the second floor of each house,
well provided with closets. If thought best, the space in the

DESIGN, NO. XXI

:w^5*:

\ 1 1
'J -'I
J,*.
\ ¦ «
FIRST STORY PLAN.
T
10 ' 10 I 0 .< I l-fi
-r
m
8 '" 11.6 10 -f 10
r~
7
PI
H.
I 5.0
'U_J^
DESIGN, NO. XXII,

FIRST STORY PLAN,

DOUBLE COTTAGES.

117

rear of the stairs may be made into one room like that in front.
Unless this be done, the back flreplace would probably be
needless.

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.

Plainness if not severity marks the exterior. Its sides are
clapboarded. Its detaUs are solid, but neither elaborate nor
costly. Its principal features are the broad, square bay-vrindows
in front, which being continued up, form the window gables
above. These add pleasantness to the house both vrithin and
without. Height of first story, 8 feet 6 inches. Second story, 4 feet to
8 feet 6 inches. Cost, $2,150. DESIGN NO. XSH.

This buUding in its general character is simUar to the pre
ceding, but somewhat superior to it, as having a larger haU,

118

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

better stairways, more variety in form of wall and roof, and
greater richness of outside decoration.
Nothing in the plan of the first floor needs explanation;
The back steps, s, are covered by an open porch, as in Design
No. 2.
Each house has four chambers. The smaU one in the rear

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.

is Ughted by a dormer vrindow simUar to that in front, though
plainer. The closet in the front chamber is raised to give head
room for the stairs. The vrindows of the front gable are arched,
from the necessities of their position, but the variety is not un
pleasing. Height of stories, as in the last. Cost, $1,950.
DESIGN NO. XSni,

This is a larger stracture, having three rooms on the first
floor of the mam house. It may be constracted of rough stone,

DESIGN, NO. XXIII.

FIRST STORY PLAN.

DOUBLE COTTAGES,

119

or of brick, The engraving supposes the former. By using
bricks, the thickness of the waU would be reduced four inches,
and the rooms would be so far enlarged. The waUs, in either
case, must be furred on the inside. The vrindow jambs and
arches are of brick, projecting beyond the waU. In this de
sign, and only in this one, we have introduced the verge-board.
The feature was originaUy used in Gothic cottages for the pro
tection of a plaster wall, or for the concealment of imperfect
work beneath the roof. It was made of heavy oak timber, and
outlasted often the waUs themselves. The verge-boards of our
day are a very different affair. Every body has seen them.
Hundreds of cottage gables display the flimsy, steam-sawn,
thin board appendages to which we aUude. In fact they have
become so common, make often so pretentious a display, and are
so notoriously unsubstantial, cut-paper-like, and perishable,
that we feel some reluctance to use the feature, even when

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.

rightly made and appropriately placed. Such detaUs, when
employed, should be heavy enough at least to seem serviceable.

120

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

In the construction of architectural ornament, so far as it is
meant to look Uke the result of hard work, — the toU more or
less skUlful of human hands — ^we beUeve that resort should
seldom if ever be had to labor-saving processes. This would
dispense vrith much ambitious stuff which comes now from the
saw-mUl and the furnace. But it is better, surely, to do vrith
out the decorations, than in them to violate trath and honesty
and right principles of art. The verge-board before us is of
thick plank, and the cutting aims at simplicity and grace rather
than elaborateness.
The interior accommodations of these houses are some
what in advance of the last. Though more clearly marked as
two distinct houses, they are,
through the proximity of the
front doors, reaUy more social.
The rear windows of the second
story are dormers like those of
the last design. The rear door
opens on a back porch leading
to a rear buUding, the arrange
ment of which is shown in a
plan by itseU". This is of wood,
one story high, verticaUy boarded
and battened.

WOOD KOOM
I2« II

WASH ROOM
10 " 12

WOOD ROOM
IZ-K-II

W.C

WASH ROOM
10 X. 12

PLAN OF EEAB BTTILDING

Height of first story, 9 feet 6 inches. Second story, 4 feet to
8 feet 6 inches. Cost, if buUt of brick, — main building, $2,525 ;
rear building, $475.

DESIGN, NO. XXIV.

FIRST STOEY PLAN.

DOUBLE COTTAGES. 121

DESIGN NO. SXIV.

The objection, already mentioned, to quite smaU houses of
two stories, on the score of looks and proportion, is obviated
when they are buUt in pairs. A suitable relation of breadth to
height is thus obtained, and a style of exterior may be adopted
conformable to the general outUne. The design here presented
is an example of this sort. The main building is nearly square,
divided through the centre, and containing, in each portion,
two rooms, connected by broad doors. These are made in two
parts, and may be hung so as to svring back, when opened,
against the closet and ceUar doors, — or they may slide into the
partitions. The side vrings, one story high, contain each 'a
bedroom, and a front and rear haU. The foot of the staircase
is in the latter, — the lower part being uninclosed. A rear ex
tension, of the same character, contains the kitchens, and their
closets, and is made pleasant by verandahs. This may be fur
ther extended for wood-room, etc.
The front verandah extends from vring to vring, the central
portion being converted into bay-vrindows, which occupy the
entire space from post to waU, These form small apartments
of themselves ; pleasant recesses, where three or four persons
may retire to work, or read, or talk. The opening into the
parlor to be finished as the corresponding window, but vrithout
sash. A glazed door may be introduced, if needed, in vrinter.
K the parlor be a room regularly used and warmed, these
recesses wUl make convenient and pleasant conservatories,
Extemally, they relieve the plain surface of the house.

122

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES

SECOND FLOOE PLAN.

In the upper story, the space in front of the stairs is divided
into two rooms, whUe that in the rear forms one large chamber.
Though this house does not aim at much richness of detaU,
it suggests the advantages which are derived from mechanical
processes, appUances, and skiU, and which are fuUy enjoyed oiUy
in, or near large and prosperous communities. The expression
thus given makes it a suitable edifice for some large and thriv
ing vUlage. It should be placed on ground elevated a Httle
above the surrounding surface.
Height of each story, 9 feet. Cost, $3,000.

CHAPTER XIV.

INTERIORS.

N the preceding de
scriptions, the mode
of finishing interiors
S. has received no atten-
. tion. This, no less
than the outside form,
caUs for careful considera
tion and good taste. We
devote a few reniarks, under
I distinct heads, to this part of our sub
ject.
Walls. — WaUs are sometimes covered vrith wood, and par
titions are sometimes made of boards. It is a poor practice, to
be justified only by some special necessity. Not to mention
other objections, boards are Uable to warp, shrink, crack, and
let in the cold. AU inside waUs should, therefore, be lathed
and plastered. And as this is a rapid and cheap process, leave
no ceiling, from ceUar to attic, vrithout a coat of plastering.
This vriU make you safer against fire, — ^it vriU promote neatness
and good looks, — and, as to the cost, you vriU soon save it in
fuel. To plaster as they do in cities would be, in houses of this

124 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
sort, a useless expense. The hard, smooth, white finish is not
only needless, but undesirable. . If the waUs are weU lathed, a
single coat of good plaster, compounded vrith clean, coarse, Hght-
colored sand, and evenly laid, answers every purpose. It vriU
have a rough sand surface, and vriU look all the better for it.
If you choose, you can give them, vrith lime-wash, before they
harden, some durable color. Almost any Hght, cheerful tint,
is preferable to white. What we have already said respecting
deceptive work, makes it almost needless to add, that, under no
circumstances, could we approve of marking, or coloring plas
tered waU in imitation of stone. If something more than a
wash be demanded, resort is had to paint, or paper. The
former is preferable, as giving a surface that is not injured by
water, and may therefore be kept clean. But it is expensive.
Paper is easily, rapidly, and cheaply appHed, and its use is al
most universal. It is not free from objections ; such as the fact
that it cannot be washed, is an absorbent of infectious matter,
and sometimes harbors vermin. When waUs have been several
times papered, vrithout removing the former coats, the accumu
lated layers of paste have themselves become putrescent, breed
ing fatal disease. For these, and other reasons, we would
never paper the waUs of kitchens, or of sleeping-rooms. Are
not health, and cleanliness, and comfort, a thousand times more
important than mere looks ?
In regard to the selection and use of paper, a hint or two
may be of service. It is a mistake to suppose that the beauty
or fitness of a paper is necessarily proportioned to its cost. If
some apartments require a more sober expression than is suita
ble for others, stUl let cheerfulness be the prevailing tone. We
have occasionaUy entered rooms where the paper was so dark as

INTERIORS. 125
to give them an aspect of gloom. In the choice of figures and
colors, there is a caU for taste. Those pictured walls, however
humble their decorations, vriU play some part in the education
of your children. Where there is much blank space, it may be
agreeably broken by a decided stripe, or by some prominent
figure. In apartments of regular shape, plain papers may be
used vrith good effect, the ground being first laid, and then
surrounded with border stripes of a diff'erent color in panel
fashion. Next the ceUing, a border of contrasting color should
always be placed. The tendency of aU very large figures, either
in waU-paper or carpets, is to reduce the apparent size of the
room. AU grained and marbled papers, and imitations of
stone blocks, mouldings, etc., are so clearly contrary to what we
regard as a canon of true art, that we need but name them.
We disUke the custom of papering ceiUngs. Let these
remain so that they can occasionally be brightened and purified
vrith lime.
We have not contemplated having cornices in any of the
rooms, unless it be the parlor of No. 17, where a Ught plaster
moulding would be proper.
Stairs. — The most common, and the greatest fault of stairs,
is in making them steep and narrow. This is felt more and
more as years advance, and infirmities increase. A low, broad
step, is not only the easiest for age, but the safest for child
hood. To secure this great advantage is worth a special effort,
and wUl, if necessary, justify the sacrifice of something else.
In size, and style of finish, the stairways should correspond
with the rest of the house. The newell post, hand-raU, and
balusters, should be sufficiently large to be actually firm and
protective, as weU as to look so ; and this is enough for smaU

126 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
houses. Where turned work is procurable, it vriU of course be
preferred. Let not those, however, who cannot easUy get it,
suppose it necessary either to good looks, or good service.
Some native wood is preferable to that which is far fetched.
Mouldings. — In the use of mouldings round the doors and
vrindows, the same regard to consistency should appear. The
trimmings of the smaller and cheaper houses may be plain strips
(vrithout mouldings) put on after the waUs are plastered. In
other cases, the mouldings should be few and simple, neither
finically smaU, nor very heavy. Unless the Unes can be weU
drawn, it is better not to attempt any combination of curves or
wave Hues. Let each moulding be a single arc*
Base boards, moulded simply, or chamfered on the upper
edge, should project by their whole thickness from the surface
of the plastering.
It is poor economy to make the doors of inferior stuff, or so
thin that they vriU probably warp and tvrist.
Painting. — We can apply no other principles to the paint
ing of inside wood-work than those which were stated when
treating of exteriors. These require that paint, when used,
should acknowledge itself as such, and should eschew aU shams.
They exclude, of course, the practice of graining, — that is, the
imitation (by pigments) of wood and stone. This has become
so common that we may almost caU it a rage. Like other
senseless fashions, it vriU have its day, and pass away. It would
be some satisfaction to us could we be instrumental in shorten
ing its reign a single hour.
• In the -worb'ng dra-wings of these houses, referred to elsewhere, monldiiigs are
{nmiahed snitaUe for each design.

INTERIORS. 127
, What is gained by it ? You admire, it may be, the skiU of
the grainer. Yet his work can never equal the original, which
you might have in its place, and even if it did, the cheat would
not be worth the pains. His tints are perhaps pleasant to youx
eye, and when varnished, wear well and endure to be washed.
These are advantages, but they can all be had in plain colors,
vrithout the imitation. To copy rosewood or mahogany because
you cannot, or wiU not afford to have the real thing, is mean. To
make a false semblance of oak, walnut, or maple, when you might
have the genuine article for Httle if .any more than the counter
feit costs, reaUy seems to border on the ridiculous.
But the foUy sometimes goes stiU further. In one of our
largest cities there is a pubUc buUding, whose massive oak dooi
has actuaUy been painted and grained in imitation of black wal
nut. Its hard honest face had perhaps begun to look a Httle
weather-beaten, and some citizen painter wanted a job, and so
the once noble monarch of the woods must be made to show false
colors, and to wear the Uvery of his former vassal. Some years
ago, a smaU Gothic church was buUt at one of the fashionable
watering-places where oak timber abounds. As a matter of
cheapness, the buUding was ceUed vrith it. Subsequently, a
grainer of the most ordinary kind was employed to paint this
ceiling, in imitation of the same wood, and for the modest pur
pose of making better oak than nature knew how to do. Into
such absurdities are men Uable to faU when their base of action is
not sound. Of kindred origin and character are those mock stone
blocks which may be seen even in some costly churches, forming
impossible arches, and resting upon nothing, in grave defiance of
the first laws of construction and gravity. These practical Ues,
which are pernicious and offensive every where, are surely most so

128 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
when they present their brazen hoUow fronts in places consecrated
to religious worship and instruction.
And now let us ask again, tf an imperfect imitation of this or
that wood is so pleasing, why not have the wood itsetf ? We
have native trees fit for such purposes, in great variety and of
much beauty. Besides the harder and more costly kinds, we
have pines of all sorts, chestnut, ash, cherry, cedar, maple, mul
berry, apple, beach, birch of different sorts, and many more which
might in this way be turned to good acoount. The use of these
would impart richness and variety to the inside finish of houses.
Oiled or varnished they wUl retain their natural hues, or vrill but
grow handsomer with age, whUe the expense and annoyance of
frequent painting wUl be avoided. The Hght colored woods may
sometimes be improved in appearance by a transparent stain,
which merely tints without disguising them. Some of these
woods vrill make exceUent floors. Why must we always tread on
carpets ? Our fathers did without them and never complained.
For much used rooms they are very objectionable. Dust is con
stantly absorbed by them, and infection, if it be present, and these
pests they are ever ready to give back ; while their own fine wooUy
particles are always floating above. Let us have some floors so
hard as not to need a covering. They should be carefuUy laid
with narrow strips of hard wood, and may be variegated by the
alternation of different kinds and colors. They would cost more
at first, but as there would be no after expense, except an occa
sional oihng and rubbing, we think they would prove the cheapest
in the end. Assuredly they would, tf found conducive to the
preservation of health and Hfe.
Window sashes are often made of these woods. In such cages
their outside only should be painted. In aU cases it would be

INTERIORS. 129
weU to make the strips that secure the sashes, of some hard tough
wood, and they should be neatly secured by round-headed screws.
These brief hints might be much extended. We trast they
will tum the attention of some who may be about to build, to the
apphcabihty and beauty of our common woods, as well as to their
advantages on the score of wise economy.
Windows. — Windows are very important and expressive fea
tures — the eyes of the house. Their character and effect depend
not only on their form, size, and frequency, but in some degree
on the style of their drapery and shading.
With a single exception, the bays in these houses are not
large enough to be shut off from the rooms. A curtain may
supply the place of doors, whUe each compartment of the window
should have its own shade. In some of them it may be weU to
place permanent seats, such as the carpenter can make, and the
frugal housewtfe can herself cushion and cover.
The coolness and pleasantness of the house are much promo
ted by suitable window blinds, so fitted that they can be opened
and modified at pleasure. Venetian blinds may be hung within
or vrithout. If within they are more easUy managed, and inter
fere less with the external appearance of the building. Good
finish requires boxes in the jambs to hold such bUnds when open.
If this be too expensive, let them fold back, one part upon the
other, or if the whole vrindow must be open, on the wall.
If wooden bUnds cannot be had, aU may avaU themselves of
cloth shades that roU up. These may be Unen or cotton, buff-
colored or white, the plainer the better. At aU events, good
friend, when you are about to furnish your vrindows, do spare
yourself the expense of getting, and those who pass by, the pam
of seeing, those intolerable daubs called " painted shades," vrith
9

130 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
their preposterous attempts at landscape and architecture, which
are now so common in cottage vrindows.
Curtains are not, like some articles of furniture, absolutely
necessary, and very many dispense with them whoUy. Yet, in
winter, they almost rival the bright fireside in giving to our
apartments a warm, cheerful, homelike aspect. If selected with
this praiseworthy end, and not for vain ostentation, they will be
accommodated to the style of the rooms, and to the means of the
family. The window curtains are a fair field for the exercise of
housewifely taste and judgment. No need of sending to the city
for flimsy gUt cornices. Your carpenter wiU make better ones of
maple or black walnut, and the upholstery part can be done in
the family.
Kitchens. — To insure neatness where it is so desirable, kitch
ens should be well lighted in every part. The fioors especially
should be smooth and durable. Stone of large size and even sur-
fe.ce makes the best hearth. If brick be used it should be painted.
It is of the utmost importance that sinks should be tight, and
that drains which convey away waste water, should be guarded
by traps, to prevent the ingress of their foul and sickness-breed
ing air.
Fireplaces. — Many of our plans show fireplaces. Others
have chimneys without them. These can be retained or omitted
at the builder's option. Marble mantels vriU be deemed beyond
the style of these houses, at least for the most part, and no one
who has read what precedes, wiU expect us to advise imitations
of marble in any cheaper material. The finish around the fire
place should be plain, and correspondent with the other work of
ihe room, vrith a firm shelf, supported by suitable brackets.
I Door-Bell. — Our experience in wear and tear of knuckles

interiors. 131
and patience, while we have been knocking for admission at
houses in the country, impels us to advise that every cottage
have a door-bell. Its cost is small and its convenience great.
Ice. — Ice, once regarded as a luxury, is fast taking its place
among the necessaries of housekeeping. Every famUy should
have its ice-box or refrigerator. Its cost is soon repaid in the
preservation of meats, etc., and ten times repaid in the comfort
it gives. Where the article has not yet come to be one of daUy
distribution and sale, a number of neighboring famiUes might
unite in buUding and filHng a small ice-house.
Furniture. — The immediate duties of the architect are per
formed, when he has completed the house and its apartments.
As, however, he is often required to adapt his work to particular
articles of predestined furniture, he may, perhaps, be aUowed to
suggest that the additions subsequently made in the way of deco
ration and furnishing, ought in their character and expression, to
bear some correspondence to his rooms. There are many, and
sometimes glaring riolations of taste and propriety in this respect.
After the architect come the painter, paperer, upholsterer, and
cabinet-maker, and these latter often mar, tf they do not spoil
the best designs of the former. We cannot expect to see con
sistency and harmony in aU the features of our homes, so long as
a merely finical fancy, or the selfish interests of artisans and
tradesmen, or the absurd demands of ever-changing fashion, are
aUowed to say how those homes shaU be furnished and adorned.
In such matters the future mistress of the house has, or
should have a potential voice. Let her be entreated to abjure
utterly the folly of imitation. Let her inquiry be, What vrill
best become my circumstances and my apartments ? not. How
has Mrs. A. or Mrs. B. decorated and furnished hers? Let her

132 village and farm cottages.
remember that simpUcity and beauty are kindred quaUties. Let
it be her special aim to give to her house and to each room, the
true homeUke air of ease and comfort. - Let her remember,
that vrith her it rests whether those rooms shaU look stiff, and
cold, and repulsive, or shall wear the ever-smiling expression
of kindly invitation and cordial welcome. Good sense, good
taste, and good morals, alike repudiate the paltry vanity which
furnishes a house, not for its constant occupants to use and enjoy,
but for occasional visitors to look at and admire.
If these remarks apply to many who build costly mansions,
they have a special interest for those whose means are com
paratively Umited. In trying to be fashionable, none suffer so
much as these. Rich people may show but Httle taste and
a great deal of foUy in such matters. But the articles which
they procure are generaUy weU made, and durable, and more
or less comfortable. It is quite otherwise with much of the
cheap furniture which is made in imitation, and sold in city
shops, and whch is neither comfortable, nor handsome, nor
durable. To the young vriife or the matron about to occupy her
Httle vUlage home, we would say, be wary of such places. For
the most part those mahogany sofas, chairs, bedsteads and bu
reaus, are mere shams. Like the razor bought by poor Hodge,
they are " made to seU." It is vastly better for you to get
something less aspiring, but more soUd and more useful.
In general it would be weU that larger articles should be
made speciaUy for the room in which they are to stand. In
this way they may not only be fitted to the places they are to
occupy, but also to the general character of the house. For
cottages of smaU expense, aU that is needed in the way of
couches and easy chairs, may be almost whoUy of domestic

interiors. 133
manufacture. The frames, simply but soHdly made of some
common hard wood, and of convenient form, might be cushioned
and covered by the famUy themselves. In this way much may
be done vrith very small means. We have seen good-looking,
home-made chairs, vrith easy seats and backs, which had been
quickly and cheaply manufactured, and with no other frame
than a common fiour-barrel supplied. Even the hardest and
homeUest bench that was ever made of oak plank, is a more
comfortable and more respectable article of furniture than many
of the spring-seat and hair-cloth sofas and rocking-chairs, which
we have met with, — soft, plump, and elastic to all appear
ance, but which when we, in good faith, accept their invitations,
let us down vrith a sudden jerk, and make us painfuUy ac
quainted vrith their internal mechanism.
In the matter of tables, bureaus, etc., we recommend the
same honesty. Let them be of some native wood, solid, and
strong and weU made. Surely this is better than a perishable
patchwork of soft pine, veneering and glue. If you have sup-
phed your best room vrith well made maple or beech cane-
seated chairs, you have no occasion to envy your neighbor her
stuffed mahogany ones, which are probably as fraU as they are
uncomfortable. The cost and room of a bookcase may often be saved by
means of recesses in the waUs, fitted vrith shelves.
In bedsteads simpUcity is desirable. The broad foot-board
is not only useless — it is often in the way. We hope to see a
great reform in this article of furniture, and we have reason to
think that it is already begun.
In selecting a carpet for a small room, avoid large figures,
the effect of which is to diminish the apparent size.

134 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
In the initial cut of this chapter, the artist, foUowing his
ovTO fancy, has given us a glimpse of an interior considerably be
yond the range and style of our cottages. It shows how bright
and pleasant a place a room may be made, and how much more
sensibly thousands might live, who, vrith ample means to buUd
and ftirnish as they please, spend their days in apartments
dimly Ughted, and stiff, and cheerless.

CHAPTER XV.

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION.

HE man who undertakes to buUd
vrithout any previous experience in
that Une, is liable to find himself
involved in expenses for which he
had made no calculation. A neg
lect of needful precautions in the
earUer stages of the work, — neglect
which his want of famUiarity vrith
such arrangements may naturaUy induce, — ^wiU perhaps seriously
diminish the value of the structure.
The minutiae of construction, — the modes in which buUding
materials are to be shaped, combined, and adapted to their
purpose, are to be sought for elsewhere ; as in the specifications
of the architect, and in the knowledge and skUl of the mason
and carpenter. What the owner needs is, that his attention be
seasonably caUed to certain things, which cannot be neglected
vrithout injury to his house.
It is not enough that he who proposes to buUd should have
fiiUy plaimed the stracture, and that aU its particulars are dis
tinctly fixed in his ovm mind. This plan must be made equally

136 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
clear to the mechanics who are to execute it. It should be so
plain as to leave no chance for misunderstanding or perversion.
And this requires that aU the parts which can be so represented
should be shovm by drawings made to a scale sufficiently large
to admit of measurement by the workmen. Every thing of
importance for them to know, which cannot be dravm, should be
fuUy described in writing. Floor-plans, shovring the position
and dimensions of waUs and partitions ; elevations, giving the
form of each side, with the vrindows, doors, and other details ;
framing plans, determining the size and place of each stick of
timber to be used ; sections of mouldings, cornices, stairs, and
aU those parts which are of irregular outline ; the whole ac
companied by careful specffications of the quaUty of aU mate
rials, and the manner of their use,- — are not only necessary in
order to estimate, before building, what it vriU cost, but form
the surest safeguard against misunderstandings, and against
the taking of wrongful advantage when work is done by con
tract.* Under whatever system mechanics may be employed, they
are entitled to a reasonable compensation for the work which
they perform, and the materials they supply. Yet amid the
strifes of competition, or in times of business depression, con
tracts for buUding are often made at prices which both parties
know, and one of them sensibly feels,' to be too low. Such a
course is injurious to both. To the mechanic, it is not only a
compulsory sacrifice of what he ought to have, but also a strong
temptation to do wrong. And however the employer may
fancy that he gains by the closeness of his bargain, he is quite
* For the convenience of those who may adopt any of our designs, we have pre
pared working dra-mngs. See card, following the Preface.

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION. 137
Ukely to prove the greater sufferer of the two. Not to mention
the claims of justice and mercy, — though these should first be
heard, — such transactions often prove unprofitable to the owner,
resulting very naturally in his being put off vrith poor work and
defective material. To deal only vrith those mechanics who
have an established reputation for fideUty, as well as skUl, is
the true way to obtain the fuU value of your expenditure.
With such a man, it matters Httle how your bargain is made.
You may buy your own materials, and pay for the labor in day-
wages, or at a stipulated sum ; or you may contract for mate
rials and work at a given price. In either case, your own inter
est wUl be promoted by a close adherence to your original plan.
Alterations, as we have said before, are very costly, and very
vexatious. All this shows the need not only of a weU matured
plan, but also of a perfect understanding in the outset between
the owner and the contractor. Let the bargain be well consid
ered, and it vriU probably be faithfuUy carried out. Needless
interference should be sedulously avoided. If the owner be
comes convinced that the mechanic is not doing him justice, let
them agree on some judicious neighbor to inspect the materials
and work, and whose approval or rejection shaU be final. In
any event, keep clear of disputes, and especially of lavv^suits.
The use of unseasoned lumber in buUding is a prolific cause
of annoyance and damage. This is a matter which should be
attended to in season. Better to pay six, or even twelve
months' interest, insurance, and storage, than to build a hasty
house of green stuff, and regret your folly every day you Hve.
If the plan be determined on, the requisite quantity, sizes, etc.,
wUl be known. Whether you decide to buUd by contract, or
othervrise, such provision may, and should be made. The sea-

138 VILLAGES AND FARM COTTAGES.
Boned stuff vrill always be good as cash in payment to the
buUder. In reference to this point, some master builders always hold
themselves in readiness for the proper erection of an edifice at
short notice. To such we would suggest the propriety of secur
ing, as they have opportunity, trunks of various trees which
may be cut in their vicinity, or come vrithin their reach.
Somewhere, or somehow, they wiU aU come in use.
We need not urge the proverbial importance of firm founda
tions. These should rest on an even surface of earth, below
the reach of frost. The bottom, or foot course, should in
general be flat, and broader than the waU placed on it. One
benefit from this is the security which it gives against the un
dermining operations of rats ; the habit of this animal being to
dig next the waU. For the same reason, this course should be
a Httle below the bottom of the ceUar. When practicable,
foundation-waUs should be made of square stones, the portion
above ground being laid in mortar. CeUar waUs should always
be laid in mortar or cement.
A cellar should be dry and cool, but not so cold as to admit
of freezing. Its dryness depends mainly on the situation and
the nature of the ground. When these are such that water
cannot othervrise be excluded, both the sides and bottom ought
to be laid in cement. To prevent the air vrithin from falling
below the freezing point, that part of the waU which is above
the surface, and also that which is in contact vrith ground that
may freeze, should be made double, either by means of a dis
tinct thin waU outside, or, more easily, by furring, lathing, and
plastering inside ; the object in either case being to inclose be
tween the partitions a thin space of air. This vriU not only

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION. 139
retain the warmth in cold weather, but, in summer, vrill keep
it out. The frame of the house should be firmly bedded on the
foundation waUs. By a skUful use of mortar, where the walls
meet the principal floor, all passage for rats and mice may be
cut off. To secure dryness, there ought to be a considerable
space under every lower fioor for the circulation of air. It is
not essential (though where it can be done it is best) to have a
ceUar under the whole house. But to bed any part of the
buUding in the ground, as too many do, vriU conduce neither to
its own health, nor that of its inhabitants.
Warming and Ventilation are very important matters,
demanding early and careful consideration. In regard to the
former,' the difficulty, in general, is not so much how to get the
heat, as how to keep it. There can be no harm from the aggres
sive attacks of frost, so long as we keep its great antagonist at
our side. To accompHsh this, the external walls should be so
constracted as to make them poor conductors of heat. In this
respect, two thin waUs, separated by a narrow stratum of con
fined air, are better than a very thick wall. The superior effi
cacy of air, when thus inclosed, as a non-conductor of heat, is
perfectly estabUshed. In wooden buildings, the object may be
accompHshed by lathing and plastering between, as weU as on,
the studding, or by fiUing in vrith soft brick and mortar between
the studding, leaving a thin space on each side.
It is on the same principle that vrindows are doubled. Not
only does radiant heat pass easUy through thin glass, but the
glass itsetf, grovring cold vrith the external air, rapidly abstracts
heat from the inner air in contact vrith it. But put another
thin glass before, or behind it, so that the air between, no

140 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
matter how narrow the space, shaU be tightly inclosed, and
the remedy is perfect. This, therefore, should be regarded not
as a luxury, but as necessary to comfort and trae economy.
Wherever the vrinters are severe, the common, or Uving
room, ought to be thus protected. Not only is fuel saved, and
the whole room made more comfortable by such a provision, but
the window itsetf, from being a dangerous, becomes a safe place
to sit at. EspeciaUy is this important for deUcate young
women, who love to sit near the Hght as they read and sew,
and thousands of whom have caught fatal colds in tMs very
way. An air-stratum of a quarter of an inch thickness is as
effectual as one of three inches, and the object aimed at has
been perfectly secured by doubling the glass in the same sash.
The only objection to this is, that the inner surfaces vriU, after
a while, need cleaning, but cannot be reached. This might be
obriated by making the sash in two thin parts, to be held
together by screws. To take them apart once or twice a year,
and clean the interiors, would be a small affair. Such windows,
if protected against the direct rays of the sun, and kept closed,
would be as useful in summer by shutting out the heat, as they
are in winter by keeping it within. The ungainly appearance of
a large outside sash would thus be avoided, while the means of
ventilation, and of using the open window, would be the same as
with the ordinary single sash.
On economy in the modes of warming a house, much might
be said. We can but glance at the fertile topic. We haye
great fondness for an open, and particularly for a blazing fire.
So high is our estimate of its cheerful and healthy virtues, that
we would forego many things, deemed important by some, rather

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION. 141
than give up this dear old friend. As to close stoves, we like
them so Httle, that we could preach against them with a will,
and call them aU manner of hard names. But, in this age of
iron, what would it avail ? The stove has become universal. All
through the country, even where fuel is stUl abundant and cheap,
it has supplanted the fireplace. Houses belonging to the class
of our designs are generaUy so warmed. The cooking-stove,
which, on the whole, is the least objectionable kind, from its
supplying moisture as well as heat, is the only means of warming
used in perhaps a majority of country and village houses. This
being the case, plain stove -fiues may, and doubtless will, be sub
stituted for the fireplaces in some of these designs. For mere
warming, we would recommend the open stove, standing out
from the fireplace, as combining economy with comfort.
It vrill be noticed that we invariably place the chimney, not
as it is usually, in the external wall, but in the central part of
the house. This keeps in, and diffuses through the building,
much heat, which, in the other case, goes immediately out of
doors. From the fact that heated air ascends, while that which is
colder takes its place below, it is easier to warm the story above
the fire than that in which it is placed. In this way, by very
simple arrangements, the chambers, even in smaU dweUing-
houses, may be cheaply warmed.
In cities, where the buUdings are high, and close together,
special means are needed to secure an ample supply and free cir
culation of air. In country houses, there is less occasion for such
appliances, each room being in direct communication with a pure
atmosphere. Of the ventUators in general use, one class depends on creat-

142 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
ing a current of air in the building by the action of wind upon
an external apparatus. It is some objection to these, that they
fail at the very time when their service is most needed. Those
modes of ventUation which depend on the ascending tenden
cies of heated air, are not only more uniform in their action, but
more easy of appHcation. In rooms, for instance, where stoves
are used, good ventilation may be secured in the foUowing simple
and inexpensive way.
From a point, near where the stove is to stand, lay a pipe, or
box, about six inches square, which shaU communicate with the
outer air. With this, connect another pipe, placed in a side or
partition wall, and opening into the air-chamber of the roof
There should be an aperture in the latter pipe near the ceiling
of the room. The stove must be so connected with the horizontal
pipe that all other supply of air may be cut off at pleasure ; and
both pipes must be properly furnished with valves. Suppose
this arrangement to have been made in the kitchen. It is sum
mer time ; the air of the room is not only warm, but surcharged
with vapors and odors. Close the opening from the fioor pipe to
the outer air, — connect it with the upright one, and shut off this
above the opening near the ceiUng. The fire must now draw its
sustenance from the air of the room, and taking it directly from
the upper strata, which are most impure, wiU soon restore mat
ters to a proper condition. But if there be no fire, by means of
the fioor pipe, introduce the outer air into the room, and leave
open the passage to the roof In rooms where there is nothing
to make the air impure, supply the stove vrith fresh air from
vrithout, and cut off the communication with the side pipe. In
parlors, or sitting rooms, during cold weather, the external air
may in this way be made to pass round the fire, and thus enter
the room pure, as weU as warm.

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION.

143

But it is in bedrooms unprovided with fires, or flues, that the
need of ventilation is most frequently perceived. Such rooms
should be high, with an outlet at top for the escape of vitiated
air. To protect upper rooms from the heating effect of the sum
mer sun, and to secure the means of ventilation, a space of air
should always intervene between the ceiHng and the roof This
provision is made in aU our designs. Reference to the accompa
nying section will show how this
is done. A narrow air-space be
tween the roof and plastered
slope, is connected with the air-
chamber at the peak. The air
here, becoming heated, rises to
the top, and escapes through
apertures in each gable, just
below tbe ridge. The current,
which wUl usuaUy set one way
or the other, from opening to
opening, vrill carry off the Ughter
and warmer aw, which other
wise would render the rooms below aU but intolerable. We
have already aUuded to the facUities which high-pitched roofs
afford for securing coolness and ventUation, and now, again,
inrite attention to this, as weU as to their other excellencies.
It is desimble that all windows, and very important that
those of bedrooms should open at top, as well as at bottom.
The extra cost of weights and pulleys (about two doUars a win
dow) wiU never be regretted by those who shall experience the
benefit. A few of our plans, calculated for the vicinity of cities, and

144 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
for viUages where good mechanics are to be found, are made for
tin roofs. The others are adapted to a shingle covering, as bet
ter, on the whole, for country houses.
Whenever (as in Design No. 2) the two sides of a roo^ meet
at right angles, the shingles at the sloping ridge, or hip, should
be laid with the courses of the two sides alternately overlapping
each other. The peak of the roof should always be covered with
ridge boards. The valley between two meeting roofs (as in
Design No. 3) is to be covered vrith metal before shingling.
For this purpose lead is preferable, but the "Teme" tin-plate
answers very well. It should extend about ten inches under the
shingles on each side, a space of some three inches wide being
left unshingled in the centre. These directions are very impor
tant, as furnishing the best, if not the only security, against
leaks. For the same reason, and in similar fashion, lead should
be inserted in the courses of the chimney, where it meets the
roof. If the latter be tinned, tum up the tin around the chim
ney, and build the edge of the sheet into the brickwork, about
four inches above the roof.
In laying the chimney, and in framing the rafters, it must be
borne in mind that the projecting base of the chimney-top, just
below as well as above the roof, is larger than any other part of
the shaft.
Health, comfort and decency, all demand that every dwelUng,
however humble, should have a water-closet under its roof, acces
sible with ease and without exposure to the external air. If the
place be supplied with running water and faciUties for drainage,
such arrangements are made with very little trouble. The ab
sence of these advantages involves the necessity of greater care,
and perhaps cost, in the construction of vaults, etc. If the right

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION. 145
precautions are taken, aU causes of offence wUl be effectually pre
cluded. The partial and imperfect method by which many have
brought the water-closet under cover — ^methods which, through
ignorance or disregard of pneumatic laws, have converted the
whole house into a great flue for bad air — ^have undoubtedly pre
judiced multitudes against all attempts of the kind. If there be
no sewer with which a connection can be made, a vault becomes
essential, and from this a chimney-pipe must open to the outer
air at a point above the ceiHng of the apartment. In this way
an inverted syphon is formed, through the longer arm of which
the air-current wUl always set. This, be it remembered, is equally
important, whether the vault be under the common roof, or under
one that is detached and isolated, after the fashion which is so
common, so elegant, and so deUcately conspicuous.
The use of timber in framing and buUding has been greatly
modified vrithin the last few years. Economy and strength have
resulted from the change. It is now a principle well estabhshed,
that the power of timber to resist a cross strain is in proportion
to its depth rather than breadth. Acting on this, house-framers
now use stuff much smaUer than the stout beams and posts which
our fathers supposed to be essential to strength and duration.
WhUe this reduces the amount of timber used and the labor of
construction, it actuaUy produces firmer and better work.
But this reform is not yet universal. In some parts of the
country, frames may stiU be seen with floor beams of perhaps
eight inches by six, laid with the broader side up, and two feet
apart. Instead of these, take plank eight inches wide and two
inches thick, and place them on edge, sixteen inches asunder.
This vriU save one half of the timber, while the floor laid thus wUl
sustain a third more weight. Indeed, if laid as first named, the
10

146 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
weight of the fioor itself wiU cause it to settle. When the im
proved method is used, there should' be diagonal cross braces
naUed between the beams, not only to keep them erect in their
places, but to distribute the resistance and prevent the fioor from
springing. We may add in this connection that it is an excel
lent practice to deafen the floor ; that is, to fiU a part of the
space between the fioor beams vrith clay, or some other inelastic
and incombustible substance. This promotes warmth, renders
the floor less perrious to sound, and, in case of fire, will retard, tf
it cannot stop the progress of combustion. The expense would
not be great, as the material is usuaUy at hand, and no special
skUl is reqiured.
In the size of timber for the outside frame, a great reduc
tion may be made on what many deem necessary, by placing
less dependence on its own stiffness and power to resist a cross
strain, and more on that of diagonal braces, and straight props
and ties, which resist in the direction oftheir length.
Because it is all to be covered up or for some other reason,
the preparation made for plastering is often very poorly done.
The §tuds, rafters, or furrmg, should not be too far apart ; the
laths should be good, properly spaced and firmly naUed. If the
laths are Uable to spring or move, the " cUnch" of the plaster
vriU break and there vriU be nothing to hold it on. Strips of
board, caUed "grounds," should be fixed at the sides of doors
and vrindows and at the floors as guides, eUabUng the plasterer
to make the surface plain and even. The carpenter is thus en
abled to put on his trimmings vrithout cutting away the mason's
work, or leaving crevices behind his own. It wiU be understood
that the trimmmgs are to be put on after the plastering, and
not before, as is the custom m .some houses of a shabby and in
ferior character.

HINTS ON CONSTRUCTION. 147
Shingled roofs are sometimes painted. It is a mistake to
suppose that this makes them last longer. The paint, by
creating small ridges or dams at the end of the shingles,
where they join, tends to retain the water there and thus actu^
ally expedites decay. If the color be dark, as most generaUy
it is, its absorbent properties cause the roof to become much
hotter under a powerful sun. And finaUy, the paint does not
iniprove its looks. This, it wUl be said, is a matter of taste.
True, but we must have faith in our own. To our eye the un
painted roof, Uke the human head, grows handsomer vrith age,
and we love to look at it, bleached by long exposure to sun and
storm, and grown gray, as it were, in honorable serrice. Nor,
if it stUl keep out the rain, would we wish to change it even
when nature, vrith ever busy hand, has converted it into one of
her own parterres, and covered its venerable surface vrith mosses
and hchens.
With the outside waUs of a wooden house the case is dtf-
ferent. They should be weU painted. Here as elsewhere true
economy Hes in using the best materials, and in employing only
sMlfal workmen. Outside painting, to be lasting and hand
some, should not be done in hot weather. The oU is then too
readily absorbed. When it is cold, the oU and pigment slowly
unite to form a tough and permanent coating. The necessity
of repainting may long be deferred, by brushing over the surface
with oU, every three or four years.
In regard to colors, there is a boundless diversity of taste,
and this perhaps is well, for it insures variety. No mle can be
given. Houses differing essentially in character and situation,
ought not to be painted alike. White seems to be the general
favorite. Yet this, for a near and constant object of sight, is

148 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
not pleasing or kindly to the eye. Neither do we like, espe
ciaUy for raral dwellings, the darker shades. The needed vari
ety may be found among the softer, Hghter, and more cheerful
tints ; tints which neither pain the eye by their glare, nor repel
it by their gloom.
The scene around buUdings in the process of erection is often
very disorderly. This may be prevented by a Httle timely pre
caution. Let the owner designate, beforehand, places where the
various materials shaU be deposited, and mark out such space
as may be needed for doing the work. The remaining part of
the grounds and the trees, tf it contain them, may be protected
from injury, by a temporary fence. In his agreement vrith the
buUder, he should have a provision making bim responsible for
any damage that may accrue to his own or his neighbor's pro
perty through the carelessness or rudeness of the workmen.
Persons unaccustomed to watch the progress of a building,
are Uable to be deceived by its appearance in the earUer stages.
The rooms look smaU and seem to be growing smaUer, and very
few things appear as they supposed they would. Hence often,
needless apprehensions and worse than needless complaints.
To such, we can only say that they are not competent judges
in the case. AU that they can do is patiently to await the com
pletion of the stracture. By that time, in aU probabiHty, their
trouble and fears vriU have vanished.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS.

OWEVER great the success of the de
signer, and the care which is be-
^stowed on the house, it vrill faU
^^ short of its proper and complete
effect, tf it be mantfest that no
attention has been paid to the
grounds on which it stands. To
this matter, accordingly, we devote a
a few remarks.
The same obUgation to regard trath
and consistency, — the same duty of conforming to the circum
stances of place and people, which we have urged in the format
tion of the house design, should also direct the arrangement
and improvement of the grounds. But the diversities of soU
and surface, of climate and exposure, are so numerous and great,
that no one plan of improvement can be appHcable to very many
cases, StiU, there are some principles and facts which are
common to aU ; and to these we ask attention.
Grading. — ^AU changes that are to be made in the surface
of the house-plot should be determined before the foundation is

150 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
laid, though the work cannot be completely finished untU after
the house is done, and aU rubbish is removed.
The position of the dwellings should be so adapted to the
form of the ground as to permit, at aU seasons, easy access from
the street, and ready communication between different parts of
the lots. The earth should sUghtly descend every way from
the house, to lead off the water, and for its better appearance.
But beware of making the slope too great. In this particular
many err.
Various considerations, and, paramount among them^ a
regard for health, demand that early and judicious attention
be given to the matter of drainage. AU foul and waste
water of the house should be carefuUy conveyed away. No
water should be allowed to flow towards weUs, yards, or buUd
ings, nor to stagnate in pools, nor to run through walks, or
garden paths.
What form the surface should be aUowed to keep, or made
to receive, depends much on the way it is to be used. For
gardens, a sonthem exposure is generally preferable. If this
be the object, and tf the lay of the land is naturaUy unfavorable,
much may often be done to improve it for the specific purpose,
by throvring it into terraces, and by waUs, which may serve
both as support and protection. As a matter of ornament,
however, we think that terraces should be sparely used. In
general, a gentle inclination, or curved slope of ground, is far
better on every account. It is difficult to preserve the green
ness of a terraced bank in dry seasons ; it is more Uable to be
injured by heavy rains, and other violence ; it costs more to
make at first, and more to keep it in order ; looks badly when
it is not neat, and in its best estate is stiff and formal.

THE IMPROVEMENT OP GROUNDS. 151
In the improving of rural grounds, it is desirable that the
features which you introduce should harmonize vrith those
which nature has already given. If the plot be quite smaU,
and especiaUy tf the ground be level, this is a very simple
affair. It becomes an important consideration, when the inclo
sure is sufficiently large to contain any considerable elevations
and depressions, or prominent rocks, or large trees, or running
or standing water. How are such things to be disposed of?
With some persons, variety of this sort seems to be only another
name for deformity. Their rule is, that the vaUey must be
fiUed, and the hUl brought low ; that every thing which is
crooked shaU be made straight, and that aU rough ways shall
be made smooth. With reformers of this sort, who mar tf they
do not obUterate every thing that is expressive or picturesque
in the grounds they occupy, we have no sympathy.
But he errs on the other side who leaves every thing in its
native rudeness, and who, perhaps, even in his improvements,
attempts to inutate the wUdness of uncultivated nature. This
last is, indeed, a vain endeavor.
In the immediate vicinity of our homes and in those objects
on which the eye is conistantly to rest, we need scenery which
is tranquU and pleasing, rather than that which is vyUd and ex
citing. But let us have variety, if possible, and when Nature
has kindly given it, let us not vritfuUy reject her aid.
Whether irregularities of surface shall be retained, oi
softened, or whoUy removed, is a point which should be de
cided with reference to convenience.
We would not spare even an aged tree, tf its retention
would be prejudicial to comfort and especiaUy to health. But
when, vrith no such reason, for the sake perhaps of the fuel, or

152 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
from mere recklessness and tastelessness, a man destroys, on his
own ground, the magnificent plants which it has taken a Ufe
time or a century to rear, we can only say that he is a semi-
barbarian. Should your ground happen to contain a large boulder, or
should some bed of rock crop out from its surface, do not, like
many, suppose that a regard for good looks imposes on you the
task of either blasting or burying the ragged intruder. Try
rather, tf it be not positively in the way of something needed
and useful, to make it a pleasant feature in the scene. You
may partiaUy conceal it by vines or shrubbery. Hatf seen
through leaves and clusters it wUl brighten, by contrast, the
surrounding culture, and wUl remind each passer-by of toU
performed and difficulties overcome.
FinaUy, does a brook meander through your smaU domain ?
If possible, suffer it stUl to vrind and sparkle among the fiowers
and grass. We must plead for the innocent Naiad, free-bom
daughter of the hiUs. Force her not, henceforth, to creep
darkly along between two straight, high, stone waUs.
Disposition of Ground. — To what special use each part of
the ground shaU be devoted, must depend in the main, on the
size and situation of the lot, the nature of its soU and the form
of its surface. Individual taste and local circumstances alone
can decide how these useful and pleasing accessories shaU be
apportioned and arranged.
To say that the grounds and surroundings of a house should
correspond vrith it in general character and expression, is but
to repeat, in substance, what we have already urged. What
we always vrish to see, is an evident regard for simpUcity, order,
and neatness. Many attempt too much, crowding sometimes

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 153
into a smaU plot what would be sufficient, tf properly distributed
and expanded, for five times the space.
WhUe, in such matters, the convenience and pleasure of
the occupants should first be thought of, their aspects, as seen
hy others, should not be disregarded. If practicable let the
vegetable garden — ^which however useful is not beauttful — ^be
screened from observation. Fruit trees wUl be safer at a Uttle
distance from the street, and they vriU also show better there.
¦ Let it not be thought that we would discourage the culti
vation of flowers, or that we are insensible to their charms,
when we adrise that the place devoted to them, should not be
ia front of the house. A flower-bed judiciously planted and weU
kept is, indeed a delightful spectacle, during the short season
of its glory. But how short that is ! During times of drought,
or conditions of neglect, sometimes unavoidable — during the
witherings and decay of Autumn, and the long torpor of
Winter — the case is very different, and the once smUing parterre
becomes often actuaUy repulsive. For these reasons, we would
place the fiower-garden where we can easily see it, tf we choose,
but shaU not be compeUed to see it always. The objection
does not hold vrith reference to smaU patches of ever-blooming
flowers, which cover the entire surface, (such as verbenas and
portulaccas,) and which may be scattered here and there in the
grass, or may serve to keep the ground open aroimd small trees.
For an object of constant sight in front of the house and be
neath its most occupied vrindows, there is nothing Uke grass.
On nothing, probably, either in nature or art, can the eye rest
with a delight so untUing and such ever new refreshment, as a
smooth, thick carpet of green lawn, close-shaven and neatly
bpt.

154 village and farm cottages.
The lawns of England have long been its pride and boast,
— the wonder and admiration of all who visit that country.
Many suppose that our drier and warmer cUmate makes it im
possible for us to have these priceless omaments of the land
scape. There is a difficulty, unquestionably, but it is not in
surmountable. Go anywhere in a time of drought, and mark
the difference between a piece of American meadow land which
has been deeply ploughed and highly manured, and the neigh
boring grounds, that have been tUled in the usual shaUow and
niggardly way. What a comfort to turn from these, aU arid
and brown, to the deep cool verdure of the other ! Take -this
lesson, and act upon it. Instead of covering a hard, sterile bed
of earth, vrith lean sods of sour grass and sorrel from the way
side, spade deeply the plot which you intend for grass — pul
verize it thoroughly — enrich it properly — plant, liberaUy, the
right sort of seed — ^mow it every two or three weeks — give it,
now and then, a rolHng — ^keep'ft always clean — and we vrill in
sure you a carpet before your house that vrill infinitely outvie
any you can spread vrithin.
AU this, indeed, involves some labor and some care. But
it need not be expensive. Do the work yoursetf. Take care of
it yoursetf. It vriU soon become a deUght. And when you see
your chUdren playing on it, andthe passing stranger stopping to
take a pleased look at the beautiful sight, you wiU feel justly
proud of your Httle green.
In the regards of every one who loves nature truly, trees
must always fiU a large place. It is not strange that our an
cestors, who came here into the forest, and found its trees in
their way, should have been anxious rather how to get rid of
them, than how to preserve or plant them. UntU vrithin some

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 155
twenty or thirty years very Uttle was done in the way of setting
out trees for shade or omament, especially around houses. The
change which has taken place, is very marked, and in many
cases, very undesirable. In multitudes of our viUages and
smaUer tovras, not only are the streets lined vrith trees, but the
yards of the dwelling houses are frequently filled vrith them.
Their dense foHage brushes the vrindows, overhangs the roof,
and wraps the habitation in perpetual shade. The opposite
extreme of our ancestors was vastly better than this. The ob
jections are — ^first and mainly — ^that it shuts out the Ught of
day and the wholesome warmth of the sun, at times when they
are much wanted. We have many cool and many stormy days
during the period of leaves. At such times a house so sur
rounded is gloomy to Uve in and gloomy to look at. The shade
and the humidity, which so many trees constantly maintain in
and around the dwelUng, is unfavorable to health. There can
be no doubt of this. They obstruct, when dense, the free cir
culation of the air. Sometimes they fiU the house vrith in
sects. Wooden roofs, when overhung by branches, rapidly
decay. Secondly — ^it does not look weU. It is not in good taste,
however it may be the fashion, thus to hide your house and
hide your grounds behind a wall of leafage. In those lands
where landscape gardening has been long cultivated, and where
aU points of this kind are carefuUy studied and weU understood,
this practice is very rare. The house is placed in sight, throvm
open to the sun and air. Trees are set at a proper distance,
where, from the house, they can be seen and admired. Is
not this right ? K not ashamed of your house, pray let it be
seen.

156 village and farm cottages.
" But how are we to shut out the sun in hot weather ? "
By projecting roofs, canopies, and verandahs ; by door-bUnds,
and vrindow-bUnds, and curtains. There is no difficulty. Pro
tect yoursetf against the sun by some shelter, which can be
removed when again you want the sun. This is what you can
not do vrith your trees.
If the house stand near the street, and the street itsetf be
Hned with trees, these wiU generally furnish all that is needed
in the way of shade. If the front yard be deep, and it is
thought best to place a tree or two vrithin it, we would recom
mend such as have a Hght, thin foHage, and do not attain to
great size. The acacia and the mountain ash are examples of
the kind.
We may add, in conclusion, that tf you have many trees,
and much shrubbery, you caimot have the lawn. Grass does
not thrive under a dense shade, nor can it be properly cut and
tended, where trees and shrubs interpose their obstructions.
Within the actual circuit of the small grass-plot, it is very
desirable that there should not be a single stem to interfere
vrith the roUer and scythe.
Finally, good friend, tf you would have your house look in-
riting always to yoursetf, your famUy, and every body else, keep
the grounds about it in perfect order.
In aU these arrangements of a home, let not the chUdren be
forgotten. Give them a share in the garden, and teach them
to raise roots and flowers. Let them have a right in the poul
try-yard, and leam to feed their own fowls. Set apart some
small place for a workshop, and accustom them early to the use
of tools. Thus may they become timely industrious, trained to
habits of skUl, forecast, care, and thrtft. Nor must the neces-

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 157
sities of recreation be forgotten. It is as important that they
should have time and place for play, as for work. If possible,
let there be some appropriated spot, both within and without
the house, where they shaU feel at perfect liberty to enjoy
themselves. Paths. — We have no desire to invade the province of the
Landscape Gardener. But as most of those for whom we now
vmte vrill feel unable to command his valuable skUl, we offer a
hint or two on the subject of paths. This is a branch of his
labors, in which the professional artist sometimes finds it diffi
cult to combine grace vrith utUity. If, however, it is certain
that one or the other must be sacrificed, we regard the case as
clear. From the street to the house-door — from the kitchen to
the weU, or the stable — the communication should be direct as
possible. Over paths that must be traversed many times a
day, and often, perhaps, in hot haste, no one vrishes to be com
peUed to describe Hues of beauty, though Hogarth himsetf had
dravm the graceful curve.
In gardens and pleasure walks the case is different, and we
enjoy as a lawful luxury their easy vrindings and purposed pro
longation. Yet even these should not be whoUy capricious.
Let there at least seem to be some reason for every tum — some
compensatory attraction for every delay.
Fences. — Though the fence ranks among the minor matters
of buUding, it is far from being unimportant. JVithout it, no
residence can be properly protected, or regarded as complete.
Its style arid condition often indicate, unmistakably, the taste
and habits of the ovmer. What absurd fashions, — what
strange and fooHsh fancies, — can be exhibited in fences, every
observant traveUer must often have remarked. And what

158 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
surer sign of the sluggard, or the sloven, than leaning posts,
gates that vriU not swing, missing raUs, and broken palings 1
And it is not the worst of it, that the eye is offended by absur
dities and .negUgences in this particular. The imperfect bar
rier, and the neglected gateway, are a copious fountain of daUy
vexations, of serious injuries, and sometimes of quarrels and
lawsuits. That the fence should enhance rather than impair the effect
produced by the house, it must be made to conform to it.
This vriU best be done, not by a finical imitation of detaUs, but
by imparting to it the same general character, whether of sim
pUcity or richness, of Hghtness, or of strength. A fence should
be adapted not only to the house, but to the location and the
neighborhood. Before you copy some pattern, which has struck
your fancy, consider whether the circumstances of the two are
alike. A rich fence of wood, or iron, ui some rude forest situa
tion, and a mock rustic one, of unbarked cedar, on a city
street, are about equaUy appropriate.
To shut from view a stable-yard,— -to protect a garden, or
fruit orchard, from noxious vrinds, or marauding bipeds, a high,
close fence, is often reared. But avoid such a fence, unless the
demand is imperative. High, close fences, around houses and
pleasure grounds, have a niggardly, exclusive, prison-Uke aspect.
A fence may secure the place from intrasion, and yet afford
free passage to air and Hght. If practicable, let your fences be
ofthe open sort, and then, so far as sight is concerned, others
will enjoy your grounds as much as yoursetf. This' is an easy
benevolence, but, alas! how few practise it! High, close
fences are often used for the separation of contiguous lots.
But why ? They are promotive ndther of good looks, nor good

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 159
feelings. Some sUght railing, or in-risible fence of vrire, is iu
better taste, both sestheticaUy and moraUy,
AU necessary divisions of the plot itself, whether temporary
or permanent, should obstruct the view as little as possible. For
suoh purposes the wire fence answers weU. It is quickly placed,
quickly removed, and cheap vrithal.
Woven vrire fence stuff is now made, at very moderate cost,
and wiU last a good whUe, if kept well painted. This wiU do
very well for the front fence of a smaU door-yard.
There is, probably, no inclosure, in aU respects so pleasing, as
a quick-set hedge, properly shaped and neatly kept. Any body
may have one who is wUling to give time and attention to such
matters. No need of sending to distant nurseries, or seed stores,
for some exotic plant. Almost any of our native trees may be
grown in hedges. The apple, for instance, will make an exceUent
feiice, durable and impervious. But evergreens are preferable. The
arbor-vitse, the hemlock, the spruce, and the fir, may easUy be
obtained, and their green walls will give pleasure all the year
round. But let no careless, slovenly man ever attempt to have a
live hedge. All its beauty and virtue depend on its being weU
preserved and constantly cared for. When neglected, straggUng,
and broken, it becomes a most unsightly and useless object.
We come now to wood fences, which are far more frequent
than any other. The facUity and quickness with which they are
put up^their cheapness and shovriness — are their strong recom
mendations. In making sueh a fence, it is of the first importance that the
posts be firmly set. To this end, let the hole be of the smaUest
possible diameter, and twice as deep as frost ever reaches. Throw
m slowly round the post, earth free from stones, rammmg it

160

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

solidly all the time. There is some trouble in this, but it pays
in the end. If the post be set vrith its natural top downward,
the reversal of the sap vessels wUl retard the absorption of water,
and will thus add to the durabUity of the timber.
A disordered rickety gate is an occurrence so common and so
annoying, that we expect to be thanked for a word or two on this
point. The trouble may result from various causes, such as
instability of the posts, want of strength and proper bracing in
the gate-frame, insecure attachment of the hinges, and a poor or
dislocated, catch. Sometimes the distance between the gate-posts
is not rightly adjusted, or the ground below has not been properly
graded. Let all these things be carefully looked to, in time. Be
sure that your gate has the best of stuff, and the best of work.
If much used, it should be provided vrith some simple, setf-acting
fastener. Unless you wish to invoke curses on your head, both loud and
deep, don't let your gates swing outward !
From the boundless variety of
wooden fences, we select two or
three, which we can commend as
neat, simple, and economical.
It is an improvement on the
common form of the picket fence,
to use pickets more than an inch
thick, and but Httle vrider than
that, so that the tops shaU be
nearly square. The accompany
ing cut presents a stUl better modification, suitable for the sepa
ration of lots. The palings are thick, six feet in length, inclosed
between double raUs, so that the fence has the same aspect on

nOnnnOnOnOn

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS.

161

both sides. Train along such a fence the Wistaria vine, and in
the season of bloom, you vrill have a lovely wall of verdure, sur
mounted by a glorious cornice.
For their inclosures

many use the common
"fencing-lath" of the
lumberyards. But these
are neither straight nor
thick enough to make a
good fence in the ordinary way. They may, however, be
turned to account in the foUovring manner.
Place the lath with their sides toward each other ;
cut grooves in the under side of the upper rail, to re
ceive their ends, and cover the joints on both sides
with narrow moulding strips. Secure them at the foot
by three narrow strips, as shown in the section.* To
make the central blocks which separate the laths, take section.
an inch board, three inches vride ; with an inch and a half
auger, bore holes four inches apart, and saw through the holes.
In the neighborhood of cities, and wherever a needy and un-
scrapulous population is
found, fences secured by ^
nails only, stand but a
poor chance. As offering
more protection against
these petty thieves, we
suggest the accompany
ing and the following pattems. Their decided advantage in point
* The outs of fences are all made on a scale of one quarter of an inch to a foot, ex
cept the section, which is three times the size.
11

162

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

of appearance will be at once apparent. Fence like this, witb
moulded rails and round balusters, all accurately made by
machinery, is now manufactured at Buffalo, and sold, not only
there, but in New York
H-t and elsewhere, for less
than the cost of common
-Ip picket fence.
J^ We give here another
form, with three raUs and
heavier balusters — as one
of the many variations, which may be made in this sort of fence.
It is obvious that the color of the fence should conspire with
its form and other qualities, in making it only a subordinate fea
ture of the place.
Drainage, — *A general aUusion to this important topic is
hardly sufficient. Should any part of your ground be springy ;
especiaUy should you find that water is likely to ooze from that
which is under and near the house, resort must be had to under-
draining. In the same way treat every low and swampy spot,
where water stands. This, remember, is a question of health, as
weU as of comfort, and admits no alternative. In the case of
swampy ground it becomes also one of gain.
There are many waya of draining ; such as by trenches par
tially filled vrith smaU stones ; by sewers of brick ; by clay pipe
and clay tile. You must determine for yourself what mode is
best in your own case.
If there be no prorision for retaining and using the rain
water, an under drain of stones or some other precaution is needed,
to prevent the descending streams of the roof from washing away
and disfiguring the surface.

THB IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 163
For the waste water of the kitchen there should be a covered
drain. This water is valuable, and should not be lost. If prac
ticable, let it flow into a manure vat, at some distance from the
house, into which earthy and vegetable materials should occasion
ally be throvm. These will absorb it, and thus become rich fer
tilizers. If this cannot be, it may discharge into some brook — or
in default of this, into a covered cess-pool, sunk in porous earth.
To prevent it from becoming a thoroughfare and retreat for rats,
guard it at each end by coarse gauze of copper wire.
StUl more important is a stench-trap at the entrance, to seize
and hold its foul and noxious odors. MUlions, for want of this
simple contrivance, breathe mephitic vapors every day — and it is
impossible to doubt that many, many thousands of human beings
have sickened and died from thus needlessly, but constantly,
inhahng the poisonous gases of sinks and sewers.
But what is a stench-trap ? some  ^«^--^,r,Ao-'rviKn,,j
may possibly ask. A very slight affair.
Here is one. a is a hopper-shaped
wooden box to receive the waste water ;
6 is the drain or trough that takes it
away ; the partition c reaches far enough below the under edge
of the trough to cut off all air communication between a and b.
It is in fact an inverted syphon, whose bend being always full of
water, aUows no air to pass. These traps ready-made of terra
cotta, may be obtained at the manufactories and warehouses of
that article.
Clay pipe, which may be procured in short pieces of any dia
meter required, is the best material for such drains. Once in the
ground it is literaUy imperishable. But when these cannot easUy be
got, troughs of yellow pine, or of chestnut plank do perfectly weU.

164 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Cisterns. — We had occasion in an earlier chapter, to touch
on the exceUencies of rain-water. Strange to say, they seem to
be comparatively unknown. The vast alembic of the atmosphere
is unceasingly at work, in distilling from the salt sea brine a pure
crystal element. From its magazines of cloud, that element is
again dispensed and distributed over the earth, and with absolute
certainty, tf not with entire regularity. There are very few
places on this globe of ours, where the supply from the heavens —
coming either at irregular intervals, or in one or two seasons of
continuous rain, is not sufficient, tf coUected and preserved, for
the entire domestic uses of the people.
Rain comes to us pure, or nearly so. We do not have to go
after it ; it seeks us. On the palace and the cottage roof alike
it lays its benignant offering — seeming to patter — " Here I am.
Set your tanks, and they shall be filled." But how often is this
offer scorned. Off it runs and sinks speedUy into the more grate
ful earth. Down through vegetable mould, through masses of
drift, and fissures of the partiaUy soluble rock, it sUently makes
its way, taking up something from each as it goes. At length
some clay bed arrests and accumulates the waters.
And now we, who saw this pure Uquid go down before our
faces, and had only to reach forth our cups and catch it, — what
do we wise folks do ? We dig, we bore, we blast ; often at great
expense and vrith much labor, we penetrate deep into the bowels
of the earth, tUl we reach the water. Then we insert a pump, or
rig a windlass, and work hard to Itft a little of it up. And what
do we get ? A lixirium— a solution of salts— sulphates and car
bonates — chlorides and iodides — and ever so many more. Almost
aU weU water is mineral water. Much of it is absolutely unfit to
use ; graduaUy derangmg the system, and actmg as a slow poison.

THB IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS.

165

The rain faUing on roofs upon which soot and dust constantly
gather, must carry with it to the reservoir these impurities. And
hence, much of the prejudice which exists against the use of rain
water as a drink, and in cooking. Multitudes have never seen it
clear and sweet, and do verUy seem to think that it is foul when
it comes down. How then is it to be made fit for use ?
Various processes have been devised for the filtering of im
pure water. One is to insert the foot of the pump into a mass of
porous stone, through which the water must percolate before it
enters the pump. Another is to attach a filterer to the muzzle.
Filtering vessels are also manufactured, differing much in kind,
size, and merit. Into these the impure water is poured, and
drawn off clear below. Some of these answer an exceUent pur
pose, and should certainly be obtained by those who, from any
cause, do not choose to secure the desired end in the cistern itsetf.
But a filtering cistern is, on the whole, far preferable to any
other method. One way is to make a partition, a, in the cistern,
dividing it into two portions. This par
tition is pierced at the bottom with
several apertures. A low wall, &, is
built up on each side the partition, and
a few inches above the top of the aper
tures. The open space between these low waUs, c, is filled with
charcoal broken fine, and with gravel — the latter being on top.
The water is conducted into one apartment, and may always be
drawn up bright and clear from the other. The accompanying
section, to which the letters have reference, may help to make
this account more intelUgible.
We have lately seen what appears to us a decided improve
ment on the plan just described. In this the filtering cistern is

i%

166 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
a separate affair. A cask, holding perhaps a hundred gallons, is
placed by the side of the larger cistern, and quite near the sur
face of the ground. An aperture in its bottom, over which is
secured a large sponge, is connected by a good-sized pipe of wood
or clay, with the main tank. A third part of the cask is now
fiUed vrith the charcoal and gravel ; the conductor from the house
is led into it, and the thing is complete.
This mode is not only as easy and as cheap as the other, but
has this great advantage, that the filterer can be often and
readily cleaned, while in the other case, it is necessary to remove
all the water and to go down deep, in order to accompUsh the
work. Brick cisterns covered with cement, are better and more
durable than wooden ones. When the ground is of such a nature
that a smooth cylindrical hole can be made in it without much
trouble, there is no need of brick. First cover the bottom with
a bed of concrete — then set up a curb of boards around, leaving
a narrow space between it and the earth, and fiU in with your
liquid concrete. It wUl soon harden into stone, and tf the work
be weU done, will stand till the earthquake comes. If you use
the smaU wooden filterer, let that also be bedded in concrete.
We cannot apologize for having thus stepped perhaps a little
out of our professional walk, nor for having dwelt with what may
be deemed needless minuteness on a subject which to some wiU
seem of triffing moment. It does not so appear to us. We can
not resist the conviction that the water which men drink, has
almost as much to do with their health, as the air they breathe.
A large portion of our vast country rests on strata of Hmestone.
Wherever this is the case, the water is more or less impregnated
with salts of Ume. Multitudes have and seek no other drink,

THB IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 167
than the turbid waters of western streams. To these causes is un
doubtedly to be attributed much of the sickness which prevaUs in
those regions. The highest authority of science and experience
assures us that the free use of such water predisposes the drinker
to attacks of cholera, and makes that now constant terror of the
West more maUgnant and fatal.
For aU this, how obvious the remedy ! How prompt ! How
easy ! and how cheap !
House Plot. — It is rather to Ulustrate some of the ideas pre
sented in this chapter, than as a pattern for exact imitation, that
we give a plan of arrangement for a small riUage lot. It is sup
posed to be level ground on the east side of the street. It is
seventy-five feet in front, by one hundred and fifty deep. Though
larger than lots usuaUy are in our new suburban viUages, it is not
large enough for satisfactory cultivation in a general way.
We suppose the house. Design 11, to be placed in the centre
of the lot, twenty-five feet from its front. The verandah and the
parlor front windows look toward the west. The hall and kitchen
Vfindows and the rear entrance face the south ; this being the
position which is best adapted for comfort at aU seasons of the
year, and all hours of the day.
Along the northern side of the lot runs a straight lane for
communication with the stable. This, which is wide enough for
a load of hay to pass, is turfed and separated from the rest of the
land by a wire barrier. A grape vine, protected by a bar or Ught
railing, is trained along the fence.
There are two gates in front, opening into paths about three
and a hatf feet wide, which bending with easy curvature, meet in
front of the verandah. A continuation leads to the rear entrance,
and thence by the weU to the stable. Branches from this diverge.

168

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

and reunite on the south side of the garden. Eegularity is aimed
at in the lines of the front yard, as in good keeping with the
character of the house and its verandah. The semicircular space
c is laid down to grass, with no obstructions upon it but the

ti, Walk.
&, Stable path.
(T, Lawn.
d^ Shrubbery.
d, ITlower bed.
/ Evergreen screen.
\ Clothea yard.
% Fruit

Qy Summer bouse.
k. Well.
I, Cow yard.
m, Poultry yard.
«, Piggery.
0, Manure pit HOUSE.
V, Verandah,
H, Hall
i^, Parlor.
ji:, Kitchen.
BB, Bedroom.
el, Scullery.
w B, Wood room. BTABLil.
1, Tool room.
% Poultry room.
8, Cow stall.
4, Feed room.

Scale 82 feet to an inch.

THB IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS, 169
small flowering shrubs that skirt the fence. The portion on the
right of this may have a few fruit trees, with here and there, if you
Uke, a choice shrub. If preferred, a suitable shade tree may be
planted at each corner of the lot, next the street.
The walks, it will be seen, aUow one to traverse nearly the
whole ground, without returning on his steps. On the northern
side is a smaU flower bed of fanciful shape. Several little beds of
various form are cut in the grass near the principal walk, for the
cultivation of petunias, verbenas, portulaccas, violets, myrtles, and
other plants of simUar character. Each bed must be planted
vrith but one sort, which must fill and cover the entire spot.
The ground next to the house is kept in grass, or devoted to
creeping rines ; of which there is one at the foot of each veran
dah post. A shrub shades the bedroom window. '
In a part somewhat secluded is placed the summer-house,
or garden seat, g. The well-house, h, is also partially embow
ered. A smaU thicket of evergreens at / shuts off from the
street a sight of the clothes-yard. Its hedge-Uke character is
disguised in front by the irregularity of the planting.
The plot, i, may be devoted to berries, or fruits. Borders
of currants, raspberries, etc., extend from the summer-house to
the south-east comer, and also hedge in the vegetable garden.
Trailing plants may be made to cover the stable-yard fence,
which is supposed to be a close one.
In the vegetable garden it would be weU to raise only the
choice roots and plants of household use in summer. It were
better to obtain potatoes, and other winter supphes of vegeta^
bles, from some cheaper ground. The clothes-yard may be
used, tf necessary, for the temporary deposit of wood, and the
space in its rear is a play-place for the chUdren.

170 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
The stable is designed to be a square buUding, with hipped
roof and battened sides. The upper story should be high
enough to contain a sufficient supply of hay, vrith a window in
front for its reception. On the first floor is a large room for
the storage of tools, and for general purposes. The hen-house
(2) has an opening into the yard, m, and is provided vrith boxes
for nests, which open from the tool-room. There is a staU for
the cow, and her manger is so placed that it can be suppUed
from the tool- room. A door in the same room opens at the
right hand of the cow. No. 4 is a feed-room, from which the
hog receives his rations.
The yard, I, slopes towards the manure pit, o. This insures
a dry bed for the cow. She should also have the shelter, in
summer 'nights and stormy vrinter days, of a low shed, which
may be buUt against the stable waU.
The weU is conveniently placed for supplying house, stable,
and garden.
The Street. — Interest and duty should aUke prompt you
to pay some attention to that part of the highway which ad
joins your premises. Do not subject yourselves and others to
perpetual vexations, because the authorities of the place neglect
their duty. As far as your own Hne extends, make and main
tain a vride, smooth, dry side-walk, vrith a graduaUy sloped
water-course between it and the carriage-way. Let there be
against your ground no unsightly, or dangerous banks. Let no
needless obstructions, or rubbish, ever deform your side of the
road. The outer edge of the side-walk is usuaUy the proper
place for trees. Select them judiciously. There is a vride
range of choice. Plant them also judiciously. It is a ndstake
to set them thickly, vrith the idea of thinning out, when they

THE IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS. 171
become large. The process is hardly ever performed. Let the
uncrowded tree spread itsetf in the air and Hght, and its top
wiU become full, symmetrical, and beauttful. Beware of the
pruning kntfe. Omamental trees are often spoUed in this way.
At a proper distance from the gate, place a hitching post,
provided vrith a chain halter. It vrill save your side-walk, your
fence, and your young trees from harm ; and, perhaps, it wUl
save your own, or your neighbor's horse and carriage.
In regard to such improvements as these, do not wait for
others to lead the way. Set the example, and say nothing.
Your neighbors must be different from most men, tf they long
resist such teaching.

CHAPTEE XVII.

THE GARDEN.

,ARDENING, though it has
much increased in extent
pand favor, is stUl far from
being an object of general
attention among us. With
the majority of our raral and vU
lage population, it is a thing al
most whoUy neglected. They
have every faciUty. But the wU
Ung soU Hes untUled at their
very doors, whUe sunshine and
shower, vrith aU their fertUizing
and fruit-producing powers, faU unavaUingly on the neglected
ground. The taste is wanting. The culture of salads and pulse, of
roots, fruits, and fiowers, has not yet become the fashion.
The material advantages, one would think, the saving and the
profits, might induce many to have a good garden. The truth
is, that they are content with a meagre board. They forego
altogether the cheap dainties of the garden, rather than take
the trouble to raise them.

THE GARDEN. 173
To say nothing of these, — ^its innocent luxuries, — a well-
kept garden is a feast for the eye. The fragrance of its fiowers
and fruits regales the sense of smeU. Its culture is an easy
and pleasing occupation for both youth and age. Portions of its
care are weU adapted to the quick eye and deUcate hand of
woman. The employment which it furnishes is healthy, as weU
as agreeable. As a pleasant resort, and an object of just pride,
it tends greatly to strengthen the ties of domestic attachment.
To sum up, — a neat, productive garden, tended by the famUy
itsetf, is not only one of the most deUghtful things about a
homestead, but one of the best. It is a moral power — pure,
wholesome, and conservative.
Gardening is a pursuit which, once taken up, is apt to grow
in the love of its votaries. There is good reason for this. The
practical horticulturist is constantly making progress in know
ledge and skUl, The results of his industry and care are visible
and tangible results. He finds his experience growing yearly
more profitable, as weU as pleasing. Of necessity, he becomes
attached to objects which he has aided in caUing into being,
and has tended vrith so much care. No other tree can interest
him like that which he himsetf planted, or grafted. Its health,
its grovrth, its annual putting forth of buds and leaves, and
flowers and fraits, are watched by him vrith a solicitude, not
whoUy unUke that which he feels for his chUdren, who are
grovring up vrith it
Do not suppose that experience and knowledge are necessary
in order to make a beginning, nor think that unless you can
have a large and complete garden, it is not worth your while to
have any. Many err from attempting too much. The first re
sults are unsatisfactory, and they give up the attempt in dis-

174 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
gust. No more groimd should be set apart for this purpose
than can be thoroughly attended to. A large, neglected, slov
enly garden, vriU yield neither pleasure nor profit. Begin, then,
moderately ; but do not forget that your requirements wUl in
crease vrith your experience and skill. Your plans in this
respect should have reference to the future, as well as the
present. Set out vrith a determination to cultivate only the best
plants, fruits, etc. These occupy no more space, and require
no more care, than those of an inferior quaUty. EspeciaUy is
this incumbent on those whose garden room is smaU. There
vrill be more of pleasure, and of profit too, in the thorough and
successful culture of a few choice sorts, than in the production
of a great variety.
The few hints which we venture to offer on the subject of
gardening vriU be mainly of a preliminary and precautionary
character. We would point out certain steps which should be
taken at the outset. For the detaUs of practice, there is no
teacher like experience ; or tf other aid be needed, there are
treatises in abundance.
For the substance of these suggestions, for the flower-bed
designs, and Usts of plants and fruits, we are indebted to the
kindness of a gentleman weU known for his skUl and taste in
horticulture.* The first matter of importance is the preparation of the soU.
The aspect, grading, etc., must, of course, depend on the cir
cumstances of each case. The ground, whether meant for gar
den or lavm, should be spaded from two to three feet down, and
* Peter B. Mead, Esq., Secretary of the New York Horticidtural Society, and late
Corresponding Secretary of the American Institute.

THE GARDEN. 175
cleared of stones. It may be done in this way. At one end of
the ground to be dug mark off a strip, — say three feet wide.
From this remove the earth a spade's depth, throwing it on the
outside. Stir the bottom of this trench another spade's depth,
and pick out the stones. Now mark off a second strip, and
spade as before, throwing the earth into the trench just made.
Loosen the bottom of the second trench, and so proceed tUl the
whole is dug. The earth removed from the first trench must be
used to fiU the last one. It wUl take longer, but vriU generaUy
pay weU, to throw out from each trench two spits deep, stirring
the bottom as before.
The importance of this process is well understood by practi
cal gardeners, and can hardly be overrated. It gives a chance
for the roots to descend, and by aUovring air and moisture to
penetrate, furnishes not only nourishment, but warmth.
In this process of trenching, many small stones wUl be
thrown out. These are of great value in making walks. Hav
ing marked out the path, excavate the whole of it to the depth
of three feet. FUl up one foot vrith stones ; the largest below.
Upon the stones place a layer of brash, or of sods ; then a foot
of soU, to be topped vrith gravel, sUghtly crowned. The bed
of stones and brush vriU not only keep the path dry and hard at
all times, but vriU serve the valuable end of draining the ad
joining ground. Where anthracite coal is burned, the ashes
make a good covering for garden and other paths, treading
dovm hard, and keeping out grass and weeds.
If the ground be naturally wet, it may need additional
underdraining, which can be effected by other trenches of the
same kind, or by the use of tile.
How little patches for flowers may be cut in the green turf.

176

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

and how they should be planted, we have already shovm. We
also gave, in the Design for grounds, an omamental flower bed.
Two other specimens of geometric figures for the same purpose,
by Mr. Mead, are here presented. They are intended to show
what may be done. There
is no limit to the variety of
such combinations. The
figures are easUy formed.
Two sharpened sticks, con
nected by a string, are the
only instruments required.
One of the figures, it may
be seen, is numbered and
lettered. A selection of plants,
proper for each spot, and
so arranged with reference to size, colors, etc., as to produce a
pleasing and harmonious effect, vriU be found in the foUowing
instructions : —

Scale 16 ft. to an inch.

In the middle of one of the outer borders plant Magnolia purpurea, and in the
middle of the corresponding borders, Rhus cotinus, Euonymus Americanus, and Vibur
num opulns, — all large shrubs. Midway between these and the comers, plant Halesia
tetraptera. Rhododendron catawbiense, Philadelphus gracilis, Chionanthns -virginicus,
Clethra alnifolia, Kalmia latifolia, Hibiscus Syriacus, Weigela (Diervilla) rosea. Between
these last and the first named, plant Azalea Pontica, Styrax glabra, Forsythia -viridis-
sima, Lonicera Tartarica, Aucuba Japonica, Enonymns Japonica, Mahonia aqnifdia,
and CoromHa emems. In the central points of the same borders, plant an Azalea,
Spirsea callosa, Mahonia aqnifolia, and Euonymus Japonica variegata. In the four
comers, plant Syringa JosacMi, Philadelphus coronarius, Halesia diptera, and Deutzia
scabra. There wiU stiU be room enough for other plants, but they must not be
crowded ; this room may bo occupied -vrith Calycanthus floridus, Berberis purpurea,

THE GARDEN. 177
Yucca gloriosa, Spirsea thaliotroides, S. trilobata, S. Douglassii, Cotoneaster microphylla,
Dielytra spectabilis, Crataegus pyraoantha, and some choice roses. The paths indicated
by the dotted lines in the comers may be omitted or opened, as desired.
In the middle of the centre piece plant the Spirsea Reevesii, and in the centres of
the beds 2, 3, 4, and 6, plant roses — Geant des Battailles, Caroline de SansaJ, Prince
Albert, and Pius IX. In each of these beds, at equal distances apart, and about one
foot from the edge, plant three of the folio-wing : Spirsea iilipendula. Plumbago lar-
pentie. Anemone Japonica, CrucianeUa stylosa, Myosotis palustris, Hepatica trilobata,
Dodecatheon meadia, Alyssum saxatUe, Convallaria majalis, Aquilegia glandulosa,
Sedum Sieboldii, and Chelone barbata.
The position of plants in each of the beds numbered 6, 7, 8, and 9, is to be accord
ing to the letters sho-sra on that marked 8 ; and the sorts as follows : — At a, Roses —
Hermosa, Mrs. Bosanquet, La Reine, and Augustine Miohelet ; at i and c. Phloxes ;
at d, an Antirrhinum ; at A, a Delphinium ; at f. Lychnis Chalcedonica, Diotamnus
rubra, Pentstemon gentianoides, and Campanula grandiBora ; at e, Valeriana rubra,
(Enothera Frazerii, Lychnis -viscaria, and Veronica spicata ; at g, Pentstemon atropur-
pnreum, Lupinus polyphyllus, Aconitus napeUus, and Aoonitum speciosum ; at 5, Dra-
cocephalum speciosum, Valeriana officinalis. Spiraea lohata, and S. Americana.
In addition, there should be distributed about the borders a good collection of
Chrysanthemums. In the fall, clumps of Tulips, Hyacinths, Narcissuses, Jonquils,
and Crocuses, may be planted wherever room may be found for them. Bedding plants
are indispensable. Among the best are Verbenas, Petunias, Cupheas, Scarlet Gera
niums, Nierembergias, GaUlardias, etc. Also Dahlias, Gladioluses, etc.
A similar anangement of the same plants, with such modifi
cations as circumstances and good taste may dictate, wiU be
readUy made for the beds of the design ou the next page.
We commend this deUghtful task to the young, and espe
ciaUy to young women. The examples furnished vriU soon
suggest others, and they vrill find occupation ever fresh and
pleasing, in devising new combinations of figure, and new ar
rangements of flowers.
The fruit and vegetable garden should be laid out in large
squares, in order that no room be needlessly occupied by walks.
Every inch of valuable ground should be devoted to some use-
12

178

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES,

ful purpose. Let these squares be edged with box, kept alwaya
neatly trimmed. Dwarf fruit trees (especiaUy the pear) may
be planted on all sides of these squares — about four feet from
the box edging, and from six
to eight feet apart. Between
every two trees, a currant or
gooseberry bush may be planted.
A part of one square may be
appropriated to an asparagus
bed, a portion of another may
be set apart for strawberries.
Against the fences, raspberries
and blackberries may be plant
ed. Across the middle of one
square, a row of rhubarb plants
may be set — ^not less than four
feet apart.
Wherever the cUmate aUows, every body should raise grapes.
They occupy but Httle ground. They vriU grow in comers, and
by the side of buUdings, where nothing else of value could stand.
They vriU run up your verandah posts, and stretch along the
cornice, and adom vrith their green drapery and purple clusters,
the othervrise blank and unsightly waU. By no other culture,
vrith the same ground and the same care, can we obtain so
much of gratification both for the eye and the palate.
Grapes should be propagated from eyes and cuttings, and
not from layers. They should have, if possible, a southern ex
posure. They may be grovm either on a treUis Or an arbor.
The trelHs is by far the best. For this you may set posts, six
to eight feet out of ground. Then through holes in these,

THE GARDEN, 179
about two feet apart, run strong annealed vrire, and wedge it
fast. ' Plant the vines from eight to ten feet apart, and prune
them aimually and thoroughly on the cane system. This is an
important operation, and he, who has had no experience, vriU
do weU to employ, for the first time, some practiced hand.
Autumn, as soon as the leaves have fallen, is the best time for
pruning grape-vines.
Fruit trees should be planted in the faU, after the leaves
have faUen. If not covenient to plant at this time, the opera
tion may be deferred tUl early spring. Great care should be
taken of the roots and smaU fibres. , The holes should be large
enough to aUow them to spread out in their natural position.
Many en in planting too deep. Fruit trees do not flourish un
less, Hke other plants, they are cultivated. The ground around
them should be weU worked, occasionally top-dressed, and kept
free from grass and weeds.
The beneflts which result from pruning fruit trees and
shrubs, are not appreciated as they ought to be. Many seem
to be afraid of the kntfe and saw. They cannot bear to cut
away so much good wood, or to destroy so many buds that
might ripen into fruit. But long and large experience have
shown that in no other way can the best results be reached. To
shape the tree — ^to lay it open for the admission of air and
Hght — to hasten its bearing, and to improve its fruit in size
and quaUty — are the objects and results of judicious pruning.
Fruit trees may be pruned at any time during vrinter, or
early in spring, before the sap begins to run. Summer pruning
should be conflned to repressing shoots of too luxuriant growth,
by pinching . out the terminal eye, and thinning out branches
where they are too thick. But this is sometimes carried too far.

180 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Leaves have an important agency in the ripening process, and it
is injurious to remove those which are near the fruit. The fruit
of pear and other trees may cften be thinned out, to the great
improvement of that which is left.
Ounants and gooseberries should be grown to single stems —
tree-form. They may be propagated from cuttings of the last
wood (not so well by suckers) before growth begins in spring, or
early in September. Rub out all the eyes excepting three or
four at the top. For general purposes we commend the large
Dutch currant. Others will be found in our list. The wood of
currants should be thinned out and cut back.
It has been difficult to raise the gooseberry in this country,
from its liability to mildew. There is an American variety
(Houghton's seedling) which, according to our experience, is not
open to this objection. We treat it as follows. At the bottom
of the hole we place a mixture — one part of wood mould and two
parts of old rotten manure. In the faU we top dress, and take
care, especially in dry weather, to keep the soU open and porous.
Gooseberries should be pruned late in the fall, or early in spring.
As soon as the fruit of your raspbenies is all gathered, cut
down to the ground the stems which bore it, that the suckers,
which are to be the fruit-bearers of the foUowing year, may get
air and light. These also, when numerous, should be thinned
out. In spring, the lateral, or side branches, should be shortened
in about a third of their length, and all dead wood removed.
Some raspberries need to be covered during winter.
For Asparagus, place about six inches of manure at the
bottom of the bed, vrith a Ught vegetable mould above. The
crovm of the plant should not be more than three inches below
the surface ; only that part which is above the ground is flt to

THE GARDEN. 181
eat. An occasional top-dressing of salt is beneficial. In faU,
cover the beds vrith manure — ^not for protection, but for enrich
ment. The smallest famUy will need for this edible at least a
square rod. There is no better mode of forming an asparagus
bed than to plant the seed at once in the bed. When the
plants are weU up, thin them out, so as to stand a foot apart
in the rows ; the latter should be about 18 inches apart.
Strawberries. — In a smaU garden it is not well to grow
many kinds, and these should be selected in reference to size,
flavor, and productiveness combined. Foreign varieties do not
succeed weU vrith us ; our intense summer heat burns them
up. A good selection may be made from the foUowing : * —
Hovey's Seedling, (P.) ; Longworth's Prolific, (H.) ; McAvoy's
Superior, (P.) ; Boston Pine, (H.) ; Monroe Scarlet, (P.) ;
Scott's Seedling, (H.) ; Moyamensing, (P.) ; Walker's Seedling,
(H.) ; and Bun's New Pine, (P.)
The best soil for strawbenies is a heavy loam, to which has
been added a good proportion of vegetable mould from the
woods. A new soU, — an inverted sod, for example, — suits them
best. The manure used should be old and well rotted, and
thoroughly incorporated with the soil, which should be trenched
two or three feet deep. An occasional top-dressing of ashes is
beneficial. Beds are made in various ways. One of the best, for
a small garden, is to place the plants a foot apart each way in a
bed three feet wide, beginning at six inches from the edge,
* The letters H. and P. denote respectively Hermaphrodite and Pistillate. The
Hermaphrodites -srill fruit by themselves— the Pistillates -frill not ; and this is why we
sometimes see beds entirely unproductive, no regard having been paid to their sexual
character. Let it be bome in mmd that Pistillates will not produce a crop of berries
unless Hermaphrodites are planted near them. They need not be in the same beds,
¦ ' near by.

182 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
learing a walk eighteen inches vride between the beds. A pistU-
late variety may be planted in one bed, and an hermaphrodite in
another. Beds may be made at almost any time, provided tbe
plants are watered when the weather is dry. It is better to
plant immediately after a rain. September and early spring are
the best seasons. Plants put out in September, and even in
October, will yield a fair crop the foUovring spring. If carefully
done, a tolerable crop may be had from plants put out in early
spring. In the fall, give a top-dressing of manure between the
rows. A slight covering of hay or straw wiU prevent the plants
from being lifted by repeated freezings. No runners must be
allowed to grow. Stir up the ground as soon as the frost is out,
and put a little clean hay or straw on the ground to keep the
berries clean. A bed carefully made, and well kept, ought to be
productive five or six years.
Whether in the vegetable, fruit, or fiower garden, let it be
remembered that the ground cannot be too frequently stirred,
especiaUy in dry weather.
There should be in the vegetable garden a central walk,
about four feet wide, for the passage of a wheelbarrow. For
the other walks, a width of two and a half to three feet will
suffice. A rose treUis, or an evergreen hedge, makes an appropnate
screen between the flower and the vegetable gardens.
Over the summer-house, if there be one, train the monthly
honeysuckle. For piazza columns and comice, and for the corner-posts of
houses, the Wistaria sinensis, the Bignonia radicans, and the
Bignonia grandiflora, are suitable and beautiful ornaments. So
also are some of the running roses.

THB GARDEN. 183
While you are building for yourself, build also for the birds.
They are the natural friends of man, — his best protectors against
the ravages of insect tribes.
From the almost boundless catalogue of fruits, we have
selected a number comparatively small. Yet even this list is too
copious for the gardener on a moderate scale ; for we must repeat
the injunction, that exceUence, rather than variety, is the object
to be aimed at. Among the pears, we have marked vrith a star
those to which we give the preference. Where the ground is
hmited, it is better to duplicate these, than to take the others.
We give but a short list of apples ; the tree not being so
suitable for gardens as the pear.
From the uncertainty which attends the raising of nectarines
and apricots, we do not advise the planting of more than one of
each sort ; and that should be in some sheltered situation.
DWAEF PEAKS. * Oswego Beiirr6,
*Eostiezer,
* Bartlett, *Seckel,
* Dearborn's Seedling, * Sheldon,
Ott, Boston,
BerarS Clairgeau, ? Stevens's Genesee,
* Beurr6 Diel, Tyson,
* Livingston Pear, * Beurr6 d'Aremberg,
Bix, * Easter Benrre,
Doyenn6 Boussock, Benrr6 Langlier,
* Doyenn6 Blanc (Virgalieu), Doyenn6 Goubalt,
?Duchesse d' Angouleme, * Glout Morceau,
Fondante d' Autonme, * Lawrence,
* Fulton, * Winter Nells,
* Louise Bonne de Jersey, Howell.

184

VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.

DWAEF APPLES.

NEOTAEINES.

Baldvrin,

Early Nevrington,

Melon,

Stan-wick,

Early Strawberry,

Ebuge,

Northern Spy,

Violet Hative.

Swaar,

Kambo.

APEIOOTS.

PLUMS.

Moorpark,

Ooe's Golden Drop,
Delict,

Breda,
Early Peach.

Jefferson,
La-wrence's Favorite,

GEAFES.

Green Gage,

Catawba,

Washington.

Isabella,

Delaware,

CHEEEIKS.

Diana,

Black Tartarian,
Downer's Late Bed,

QDINCE.

Great Bigarreau,

Apple Quince.

Bigarreau Napoleon,

White Bigarreau,

GOOBKBKEEIES.

BeUe de Ohoisy,
May Duke,

Houghton's Seedling,

Reine Hortense.

Whitesmith,

Crown Bob,
PEACHES.
Early White,
White Eagle, etc.
Crawford's Early,
Late,
Early Ne-wington,
BLAOKBEEEIES.
Early York,
New Eochelle,
George the Fourth,
Boston High Bush,
Carpenter's Large White.
Parsley-leaved.
THE GARDEN. 185
OTJEKANTS. EASPBEEEIES.
Large Red Dutch, Red Antwerp,
Large White Dutch, Yellow Antwerp,
Knight's Early Red, Brinckl6's Orange,
Bang-up (black), Franconia,
White Grape, Cushing.
Red Grape.
The following list comprises a good coUection of plants for a
flower garden, from 40 to 50 feet square, or of equal area.
The Hst might be greatly extended in number, but not much
improved in quality. The addition of some choice bedding
plants and annuals (indispensable in every garden) will furnish
a supply of flowers during the whole season.
We give the botanical and common names, time of bloom
ing, height of plants, and color of the flower.
DECIDUOUS AND EVERGKEEN SHKUB3.
Magnolia purpurea. Purple Magnolia, May and June, 8 to 10 feet, purple.
" Soulangeana, Soulange's Magtwlia, May and June, 8 to 10 feet, pur. and white.
Rhus cotinus, Vene&n Sumach — Fringe tree, July to Sept., 8 to 10 feet, light purple.
Euonymus Americanus, American Burning Bush, 5 to 8 feet ; covered with scarlet berries
in fall and early winter.
Euonymus latifolius,Broa<i-?eai;ed Burning Bush, 6 feet; red berries m Sept. and Oot.
Rhododendron Catawbiense, Ccstawba Rosebay, July, 8 to 10 feet, purple.
Halesia tetraptera. Snowdrop, July, 10 feet, white.
" diptera. Snowdrop, July, 10 feet, white.
Viburnum opulus, SmywbaU — Gvdder Rose, June and Jnly, 6 to 8 feet, white.
Philadelphus gracilis, Syringo — Mock Orange, June and July, 4 to 6 feet, white.
" coronarius, Syringa — Mock Orange, June and July, 4 to 6 feet, white.
Crataegus oxycantha rosea fl. pi.. Double Bed Haivthcm, June, 6 to 8 feet, red.
Spiijea Reevesii, Reeves's Spircea, Jnne, i feet, white.
" prunifolia pleno, Double White Spireea, June, 4 feet, white.
" trilobata, Three-hbed Spiraea, June, 4 feet, white.

186 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Spirsea Douglassii, Douglass' Spiraa, August, 4 feet, rose.
" cratsegifolia, Tliom-leaved Spireea, July, 4 feet, white.
" callosa, a new Spiraea in the style of Reeves's, red.
" thalictroides. Meadow rue-kaved^St. Petei's Wreath, June and July, 4 to 6
feet, white.
Syringa Josickxa, JosiclisJJlac, May and June, 6 feet, purple.
" Persica, Permm IMac, May and June, 6 feet, purple.
Deutzia gracilis. Graceful Deutzia, Juue, 3 feet, white.
*' scabra, Rough-leaved Deutzia, June, 6 feet, white.
Pyrus Japonica, Japan Quince, June, 4 feet, scarlet,
Weigela (Diervilla) rosea, Rose-colored Weigela, May and Jnne, 4 feet, rose.
Chiohanthus Virginicus, Virginia Fringe Tree, June, 8 to 10 feet, white.
Clethra alnifolia. Alder-leaved Clethra, Aug. and Sept., 6 feet, white.
Kalmia latifolia. Broad-leaved Kalmia, or Sheep Laurel, June, 4 feet, red.
Calycanthusfloridua.jStcee^-sccjrfa? Shrub, Jime, 4 feet, brown.
Amygdalus pumUa, Dauble-Jhwering Almond, May and June, 4 feet, red.
Berberis ilicifolia, HoUy-leaved Berberry, July, 4 feet, yellow.
" purpurea. Purple-leaved Berberry, June, 4 feet, yellow.
Forsythia viridissima. Green Forsythia, May, 4 feet, yellow.
Daphne mezereum, Sweet-scented Daphne, May, 3 feet, pink.
Styrax glabra, July, 6 feet, white.
Coronilla emems. Scorpion Semia, May, 3 feet, yellow.
Hibiscus Syriacus, Rose of Sharon, Aug. to Oct., 6 feet, various ; the variegated leaved
and the single red and white. The double varieties are not worth gro-wing.
Lonicera Tartarica, Upright MoneysucUe, May, 5 feet, various.
Pseonia moutan, Tree Pceony, May aud June, 3 feet, purple.
Azalea (in varieties). Hardy Azalea, May and June, 3 feet, various.
Aucuba Japonica, Gold-dust Shrub, 3 feet, a heautifully marked evergreen plant.
Mahonia aquifolia, HoUg-leaved Berberry, May and June, 3 feet, yellow.
Cotoneaster microphylla. Small-leaved Cotoneaster, 1 foot, white ; bears brilliant scarlet
berries.
Euonymus Japonicns, Japam Euonymus, 4 feet.
Crataegus pyraoanthus. Evergreen Thom, 2 feet ; bears reddish yellow berries.
BEEBACEOUS PLANTO.
Dictamnus rabra, Red-flowering Dictamnus, May and June, 2 feet, red.
" alba. White-flowering Dictamnus, May and June, 2 feet, white.

THE GARDEN. 187
Lychnis chalcedonica. Scarlet Lychnis, Juno to Aug., 2 feet, scarlet.
" viscaria. Pink Lychnis, June to Aug., 2 feet, pink.
Delphinium (in varieties). Perennial Larkspw, June to Oct., 2 to 4 feet, various.
Phlox " " Perennial Phlox, Juue to Oct., 2 to 3 feet, various.
Pfflonia " " Herbaceous Pteany, May to July, 2 to 3 feet, varions.
Campanula grandiflora, carpatica, etc., Bettflower, June to Oct., 2 to 4 feet, various.
Plumbago Larpentaj, Larpenfs Plumbago, Jnly to Oct., J foot, deep blue.
Anemone Japonica, Jc^an Anemone, July to Sept., 1 foot, rose.
Chelone barbata. Bearded Chelone, June, 1 to 2 feet, scarlet.
CraciaueUa stylosa, CrucrnneUa, June, -J- foot, pink.
Valeriana rubra. Garden Valerian, June and July, 2 feet, 'red,
" officinalis, June and July, 2 feet, white.
Myosotis palustris. Forget-me-not, June to Sept., ^ foot, blue.
Hepatica trilobata. Liverwort, May, 1 foot, pink.
Dodecatheon mea^a, American Cowslip, May and June, 1 foot, red.
Alyssum saxatile. Golden Alyssum, May, 1 foot, yellow.
Convallaria majalis, LUy ofthe VcMey, May, 1 foot, white.
Aquilegia glandulosa, ColvmMne, June to Aug., 1 to 2 feet, deep blue.
" Canadensis, etc.. Columbine, June to Aug., 1 to 2 feet, various.
Lupinus polyphyllus, Peremaal Lupin, June to July, 2 to 3 feet, blue.
" grandiflorus. Perennial Lupin, June and July, 2 to 3 feet, blue.
Pyrethmm partheniunx (pleno). Double Feverfew, June to Oct., 1 to 2 feet, white.
DigitaUs purpurea. Foxglove, Jviy to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, purple.
" alba, Foa;^Zoj)«, July to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, white.
Lobelia oardinalis, Cardinal Flower, July to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, scarlet.
Yucca fllamentosa, Adam's Thread, June to July, 2 feet, white.
" gloriosa, June and July, 2 feet, whitish green.
Funkia Japonica, Dag Lily, August, 2 feet, whitish green.
(Enothera macrocarpa. Evening Primrose, June to Sept., 1 foot, yellow.
" Frazerii, etc., July, 2 to 3 feet, yellow.
Stokesia cyanea. Blue Stokesia, July, 2 feet, blue.
Spiraea Americana, Herbaceous Spireea, July to Aug., 1 to 3 feet, red.
" filipendula, June to August, 1 to 3 feet, white.
" lohata, June to August, 1 to 3 feet, white.
" Japonica, July to August, 1 to 3 feet, white.
Adonis vemalis. Spring Adonis, AprU, 1 foot, yellow.
Aconitus napeUus, MaiJis-hood, June to August, 3 to 4 feet, blue.

' IMy, Jnne to Oct., 2 to 4 feet, various.

188 VILLAGE AND FARM COTTAGES.
Aconitus speciosus, Juno to August, 3 to 4 feet, blue.
Monarda didyma, June and July, 2 feet, scarlet.
" gracilis, June and July, 2 feet, purple.
Lilium candidnm,
" testaceum,
" speciosum, rubrum et album,
" longiflorum, etc.,
Dianthus (iu varieties). Sweet Williams, Pinks, etc., June to Sept., 1 to 2 feet, various,
Statice hyhrida, etc.. Sea Lavender, Thrift, June, 1 foot, various.
Antirrhinum (in varieties), Snapdragon, June to Oct., 1 to 2 feet, various.
Dielytra spectabilis, Dielytra, June to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, pink.
Chrysanthemums (in varieties), Artememi, Sept. and Oct., 1 to 4 feet, various.
Primula " " Primrose, May and Jnne, 1 foot, various.
Iris " " Iris, May to July, 1 to 2 feet, various.
Asclepias tuberosa, MUk Weed, July and August, 2 to 3 feet, orange red.
Baptisia anstralis. Blue Baptisia, June and July, 2 feet, blue.
Lathyms latifolius, a climber, July to Sept., 4 to 6 feet, purple.
Papaver orientale, Perennial Poppy, June and July, 3 feet, reddish yellow.
Pentstemon atropurpureum, Pentstemon, Jnly to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, purple.
" gentianoides, Pentstemon, July to Sept., 2 to 3 feet, scarlet.
Polemonium coeruleum, Greek Valerian, June, 1 to 2 feet, blue.
Potentilla Hopwoodiana, Potentilla, June and July, 1 to 2 feet, yellowish red.
" atrosanguinea, June and July, 1 foot, red.
Sedum Sieboldii, Siebold's SUynecrap, Sept. and Oct., \ foot, red.
Veronica spicata. Speedwell, June to Oct., 1 to 2 feet, blue.
Dracocephalum speciosum, Drag<m's Head, June to Oct., 2 to 3 feet, pink.
Vinca minor. Running Myrtle, July to Sept., ^ foot, blue.

CLiMBEBS. Hedera helix,
Jasminum humile,
Aristolochia sipho, Lonicera iu var.,
Ampelopsis hederacea, Menispermum Canadensa
Bignonia radicans, Periploca Grjeca,
" grandiflora. Wistaria sinensis.
Clematis in var.,

THE GARDEN.

189

OIJMBma BOBES.
Queen of the Prairies,
Baltimore BeUe,
Princess Adelaide Moss,
Elegans, Pride of Washington,
Triumphant.

HABDY PERPETUAL ROSES.
Geant des Battailles, crimson.
Antigone, degj rose.
Baronne Prevost, deirp rose.
Augustine Miohelet, deep red.
Baronne HaUez, light crimson.
Caroline de Sansal, flesh ccHor.
Comte de Derby, brigM rose.
Dr. Marx, carmine.
Duchess of Sutherland, pdle rose.
Standard of Marengo, crimson.
LUac^e, rose.

La Reine, rosy lilac.
Mrs. EUiott, rosy purple.
Marquise BooeUa, blush rose.
Madame Tmdeaux, light crimson.
Madame Laffay, rosy crimsm.
Prince Albert, red.
Rivers, crimson.
Bouquet de Flor6, ro^ Cdnrme.
Dupetit Thouars, crimson.
Henry Clay, bright rose.
Hermosa, blush.
Madame Aude, rose.
Pierre de St. Cyr, pde rose.
Bourbon Queen, rose.
Pius IX., red.
Malmaison, flesh color
Agrippina, velvety crimson.
Mrs. Bosanquet, flesh color.

Persian YeUow.
Microphylla alba.
Herbemont's Musk Cluster, wim,

::V^^B^s^

YALE