YALE DIVINITY SCHOOL LIBRARY Gift of ESTATE OF PROF. GEORGE DAHL CONSTRUCTIVE BIBLE STUDIES EDITED BY WILLIAM R. HARPER and ERNEST D. BURTON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT BY WILLIAM R. HARPER THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT AN AID TO HISTORICAL STUDY FOR USE IN ADVANCED BIBLE CLASSES WILLIAM RAINEY HARPER C t C PEOFESSOE OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AND LITEEATUEES IN THE UNIVEESITT OF CHICAGO Revised and Enlarged Edition Constructive Bible Studies college series CHICAGO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS 1905 Copyright iqo2, igoj By The University of Chicago PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. This treatment of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament is intended to serve as a guide for students who wish to take up the questions relating to the subject from an historical point of view. The materials for a preliminary study of the various topics are gathered together, and arranged with suggestions as to order and method of procedure. It is thought that the work proposed is within the reach of the more mature pupils in the Sunday school, although the needs of college and theological students have been kept especially in mind. The general results of modern historical criticism have been taken as a basis for the work, since it is only from the point of view of his tory that these subjects may now be considered intelligently. Each special topic connected with the general subject of the Priestly Ele ment furnishes a beautiful illustration of the growth and development of Israelitish and Jewish thought under the controlling influence of a conception of God which became more and more pure with the advancing centuries. Four methods of treatment have been employed, each being deemed best adapted to the case in hand, viz.: in Chapter I, a sys tematic statement of the scope of the Priestly Element ; in Chapters II-IV, an historical statement covering in barest outline the story of the Priestly Element as a whole, in its progress and development ; in Chapters V-XI, a classified and comparative examination (indi cated by questions and suggestions based upon the material presented) of the more important special factors which, taken together, con stitute the Priestly Element ; in Chapters XII-XIX, a critical exam ination of the literature produced by the Priests, and of its essential significance. The appendix on the vocabulary of wor ship will be found serviceable to those who wish to enter somewhat carefully into a consideration of the details. In Appendix B there will be found a classified list of the most important books, while in Appendix C the more valuable recent literature (since 1901) has been indicated. Some experience in the use of this manual in the class-room seems to indicate that it furnishes an opportunity whereby both instructor VI PREFACE and pupil may work with greatest freedom. It is not a text-book; nor is it merely a syllabus. It may be adapted to almost every possible method of teaching. An effort has been made to indicate definitely and fully the more accessible literature on each topic. I wish to express my appreci ation of the assistance rendered me by my colleague, Dr. John M. P. Smith, especially in the arrangement and verification of the scriptural references, and the references to the literature on the various topics. For obvious reasons the latter have been arranged chronologically, the literature in languages other than English being placed by itself. In this more* complete form (Chapters XII-XIX and the Appen dixes, constituting the new matter added to the first edition) it is hoped that an outline has been prepared which will assist many students in their desire to gain a reasonable familiarity with a really large and complex subject. William R. Harper. February 22, /goj. CONTENTS. Part I. THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. Chapter I. — The general scope of the Priestly Element in the Old Testament i Part II. THE HISTORY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT, Chai-ter II. — The history of worship in the earlier Old Testament period . . 13 Chapter III. — The history of worship in the middle Old Testament period . 27 Chapter IV. — The history of worship in the later Old Testament period . . 42 Part III. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE LAWS AND USAGES OF WORSHIP. Chapter V. — The laws and usages concerning the priest, considered compara tively . . . . . ... ... 61 Chapter VI. — The laws and usages concerning the place of worship, con sidered comparatively . ... . . 74 Chapter VII. — The laws and usages concerning sacrifice, considered compara tively . . . . 83 Chapter VIII. — The laws and usages concerning feasts, considered compara tively 94 Chapter IX. — The laws and usages concerning the sabbath and kindred insti tutions, considered comparatively . ... 108 Chapter X. — The laws and usages concerning clean and unclean, considered comparatively .... .. ... . . ....119 Chapter XI. — The laws and usages concerning prayer and related forms of worship, considered comparatively .. .- •• .. ..131 Part IV. THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP — THE LEGAL LITERATURE. Chapter XII. — The Deuteronomic code of laws ... 155 Chapter XIII.— Ezekiel's contribution . . . 170 Chapter XIV. — The priestly code of laws . 180 vii Vlll CONTENTS Part V. THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE HISTORICAL LITERATURE. Chapter XV. — The priestly narrative in the Hexateuch . . . ... 195 Chapter XVI.— The books of Chronicles ¦ • 208 Chapter XVII. — The books of Ezra and Nehemiah ... ... 218 Part VI. THE LITERATURE OF WORSHIP— THE HYMNAL LITERATURE. Chapter XVIII. — The priestly element in the Psalter ... . . 233 Part VII. THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. Chapter XIX. — The essential significance of the priestly element . . . . 257 Appendixes. A. The vocabulary of worship; lists of the more important words. . ... 273 B. Classified lists of important books. . . . . 280 C. New literature on the priestly element . . 282 CHAPTER I. THE GENERAL SCOPE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. § i. Three Elements Enter into Religion. — The reli gion of an individual or nation depends upon the promi nence given to one or another of these elements : (i) Worship, or, more technically, cult, a word which Pss. 103:1; 150. expresses the general attitude of the individual or group of individuals toward an outside higher world of super natural or divine existence, and includes the outward acts that in various forms symbolize the inward thought. (2) Belief, or, more technically, creed, a word which Deut. 6:4; expresses the peculiar intellectual position entertained by an individual or group of individuals concerning cer tain facts supposed to be essential, and their explana tion. (3) Conduct, or, more technically, ethics, which includes Mic. 6:8; all the acts and feelings of man in so far as they are James 1:27. ' related to his duties to himself and to his fellows, and to the fundamental ideas of right and wrong. §2. Three Great' Channels of Revelation are found in the Old Testament ; through these, separately and together, there has come down to us a wonderful story of the interworking of God and man. These are : (1) The word of the prophet, including the utter- Jer. 18:18; ances through centuries of that unique order established to give to the Hebrew nation and to the world the "word" of God. (2) The counsel of the sage, including the wise say- Jer. 18:18; \ ' ° ° J Prov. 1:5, 25, ings and philosophical teachings (in the form of proverbs, 30; 8:14. riddles, essays, dialogues, etc.) found, for example, in the books of Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. (3) The instruction (or law) of the priest, which forms Jer. 18:18; the subject of consideration in this and the following studies. § 3. The Place of Worship is First of All to be Noticed. — In ancient times because it seemed to men that certain PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT i Kings 14:23; 1 Chron. 21 : 29 ; Exod. 19:2, 3, 12. Gen. 12:6; 13:18. Gen. 16: 13, 14. Gen. 31:44-54; Gen. 28 : 18-22. Exod. 20:24-26; 1 Kings 7: 48; 2 Kings 16:10-15; Exod. 27:1-8; i Kings 2: 28-30. Josh. 4:11; 1 Sam. 4:3-6; 2 Sam. 6:2-17; Exod. 25:10-21; Exod. 25:22. 2 Sam. 7:2-6; Exod., chap. 26; Exod. 33: 7-9; Numb. 17: 4,12,13. 1 Kings 6:1,2,11- M, 37, 38; Ezek. 43:1-12; Hag. 1:4-14; Ezra 3: 12, 13; 6:13-18. places were more favored by the gods than were others, in modern times because men fancy that a certain environ ment is especially conducive to the spirit of worship, the place has always been a subject of greatest importance. The place was in early days something connected with nature : (1) High places, or hills, were especially sought as being the abode of God. (2) Trees of a notable character are frequently referred to as connected with worship. (3) Springs, or wells, are places by the side of which angels were thought to dwell. (4) Sacred stones are mentioned as places to which the god came to meet his worshiper, and on which food was placed or libations of oil poured out. In each of these places Jehovah had shown his pres ence, and it was for this reason that the hill or tree or spring or stone was sacred. (From Numb. 22 : 41 it is to be seen that this idea of sacred places was found among other nations; cf. also Isa. 16 : 12.) The place was also often something of a more or less artificial character, as is seen in the use of — (5) The altar, which was sometimes only of loose earth thrown up ; at others, of unhewn stone ; at still others, of gold and precious stones. This altar was the refuge and asylum of him who fled the hand of ven geance, the witness of vows, the place on which the sac rifice was laid. (6) The ark, or chest, a sacred box in which certain sacred things were deposited ; which was used in case of war, because it was thought to afford protection ; and was designated as a place of communion with God. (7) The tent, or tabernacle, a dwelling in which the ark was preserved, and around which the holiest associa tions clustered. Moses made most practical use of it, and it came to occupy an important place in Hebrew thought and tradition. (8) The temple, which with the progress of civilization (the establishment of courts and the building of palaces) took the place of the tent, as being more dignified than GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 3 a tent. There was {a) Solomon's temple, erected at a significant period of national development; {b) the tem ple of Ezekiel's vision, which was destined to play an important part in the history of Israel's religious thought ; and {c) the second temple, erected with some disappointment, after the return from exile. It is to be noted, once more, that communion with Exod. 3:2-5; God is sought and obtained in connection with natural s' ,3 ' .places (hills, trees, springs, stones) and with places constructed by man (altars, ark, tent, temple). It will be at a later time, when temples are destroyed, men are scattered, groups living here and there, when the realistic conception gives place to the idealistic, and the material to the spiritual, that synagogues and churches will spring into existence, and, thus in still another form, satisfy the inward craving of humanity for a sacred place, in which to offer worship to the unseen powers. § 4. The Priest, or Minister of worship, was the second necessity of worship, the first being the place. It was the priest who conducted the worship. (1) His function was threefold: to carry the ark, to Deut. 10:8; minister to Jehovah, to bless in his name. In the earliest 18:3-6; ...... ,. r Lev. 8:1-10. times the need of having some such priest was felt, his presence being thought to be attended with peculiar blessing. (2) The priest-idea became so strong in Israel that Deut. 14:2; , . . „ , , , . r. Exod. 19:6; the nation itself was understood to be a nation of priests, Ezra 7:21, 25, 26. or a priestly nation, set apart to minister to the other nations of the world. After the exile, kings ceased to sit on Israel's throne ; and priests, under the form of a hierarchy, controlled the affairs of the nation. This fact shows how great a role the priest played in Israelitish history. (3) Besides the priests and prophets who served and 1 Kings 18:19-22; spoke for Jehovah, there were at many times in Israel's Ezek. 8:15, 16. ' history priests and prophets whose lives were devoted to the service of other gods. §5. Sacrifice was the most significant act of worship in ancient times. PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Gen. 18: 1-8; i Sam. 1:3-8; 9:23-25; 1 Chron. 16:1-3. Ps. 51:18, 19; Isa. 1: 11-17; Lev., chaps. 1-7; 8-10; 11; 12-15; etc. Gen. 8:20; Lev., chaps. 4,9. Lev. 3:1-6; Judg. 20: 26. Gen. 35:14; Exod. 29: 40, 41; Numb. 28: 7. Exod. 30: 1, 7-9; Numb. 4:16. Lev., chaps. 5, 7, 14; Numb. 6: 12. (1) At first this was a social meal, a banquet in which the offerer and his friends participated and to which the deity was invited. There are frequent references to such sacrificial meals in which the members of a family, or of a clan, or, indeed, of a whole nation took part. This meal was full of joy, sometimes boisterous. Those who par ticipated were eating and drinking with the deity ; it was a communion of the worshiper and his god. (2) In later times sacrifice became more formal, and gradually grew into an exclusively religious act. The prophets strongly denounced sacrifice in which the true spirit of worship was lacking, or which in itself, without a proper life, was thought to gain Jehovah's favor. The book of Leviticus is devoted to the subject of sacrifice, viz., the method, the kinds, etc., etc. This more formal and exclusively religious conception of sacrifice came to prevail universally in the last centuries of Israel's history. (3) Several different kinds of offerings or sacrifice were distinguished, according as each expressed a par ticular purpose, or was presented by a particular method ; among these were : {a) The burnt-offering, which consisted of the burning of a whole animal of the proper kind upon an altar as an offering to Jehovah. {b) The peace-offering, which was also an animal sacri fice, but differed from the burnt-offering in that it provided for the giving of only the blood and certain specified parts of the animal to Jehovah, the rest being eaten by the sacrificial guests. {c) The drink-offering, which was a libation of wine, or oil, usually made in connection with other offerings. {d) The incense-offering, in which fragrant spices were burned with the thought that the rising fragrance was acceptable to Jehovah. {e) The trespass-offering, which was made for the pur pose of expiating offenses against Jehovah and man in which the damage could be estimated and covered by compensation ; the blood of the animal was poured out to Jehovah, the fat was burned on the altar, and the rest was the perquisite of the priests. GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 5 (/) The sin-offering, which occupied a very important Lev. 4: 24-34; place in the cultus and of which the emphasis placed Numb., chap.'?; 15 * 27* upon the shedding of blood is a conspicuous feature; the specifications for this part of the ritual are very com plete and detailed. {g) The wave-offering, consisting of certain portions Deut. 12:6-17; 1 ._i_ .,. ,, , , . , Numb. 15:19-21; of the sacrifice that were given over to the priests and Numb. 18:8-29; were waved by them before the altar as a token of the fact that they belonged to Jehovah, but had been given over by him to the priests. (4) Great care was taken as to the materials which Exod. 20:24; might enter into a sacrifice. These were in general flesh, Lev. 2: 1, 4, 13; fine flour or meal, incense, oil, wine, cakes of dough, salt. Here again important conceptions were associated with each of the materials, and regulations were enacted prescribing the exact character and amount of materials to be used. 8 6. The Times of Worship were an important item, for i Sam.9:ia, 13 22-24; these were the feast occasions; these were often merely iSam. 1:3, 4. the social meals of a clan ; or, in other cases, were con nected with a pilgrimage. They had their origin in connec tion with the times of the moon and the seasons, arising, as they did, out of the pastoral or agricultural life. Men whose hearts have the same tendencies are drawn together, and in the act of association there is worship ; for the more closely they are united, the nearer they may come to God. To know more of God is itself to worship him, and the highest form of worship is, perhaps, that which involves communion with others as well as with God. (1) There were three great feasts, the first coming in Exod. 23 : 14-17. the springtime, the second in the early summer, the third in the autuma. These correspond roughly to the more modern Easter, Pentecost, and Thanksgiving seasons. (2) There were also special feasts and feast days, Hos. 2:11. which in early titles seem to have been of a joyous character. (3) There were days, like the Day of Atonement, Lev. 16:29-34. which were days of -ifBiction rather than of joy. PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Zech. 7:3-5; Esther 9:28-31. Gen. 24: 12 ff.; 1 Sam. 1:10; 8:6; 1 Kings 8:23-53; Isa. 38:2, 3; Neh. 1 : 4-zi ; 2 : 4. Judg. 11:30-39; 1 Sam. 1:11; Judg. 13:3-7; Numb. 6: 1-12. 1 Kings 6:19; Exod. 28:30; Gen. 20:3; 28:10, 18. Isa. 47:9; Jer. 27:9; Mai. 3:5; Dan. 2:2; Deut. 18:9-13. Gen. 4:21; Amos 5: 23; Isa. 30:29, 32; Jer. 48:36; Numb. 10: 2; 31:6; Josh. 6:4ft.; Pss. 137:2; 33:2; 2 Sam. 16: 14; Exod. 15: 20; PSS. 149: 3; 150:4. (4) There were also fast days, as well as feast days, celebrating some great calamity. § 7. Other Acts of Worship. — In connection with and forming a part of worship were several specific acts, such as — (1) Prayer; this was always implied in the act of sacrifice, but very frequently it was independent of sacrifice. If the deity is a person, and if he has real inter est in his clan or tribe or people, he will surely listen to them, when in distress their heart appeals for succor ; and also when in joy they express appreciation of some great favor which he has shown them. Abraham's prayer for the city in which his relatives dwelt is characteristic of the earliest and the latest periods of civilization, and is thoroughly typical of humanity. (2) The vow was a kind of prayer, very common in ancient times, and, when once made, regarded as invio lable. It sometimes involved a simple gift; at other times, perhaps, as in the case of Jephthah, the sacrifice of a human life ; and again, as in the case of the Nazirite, it signified setting apart to the service of God. (3) The oracle and dream, as methods of ascertaining the divine will, must be counted as acts of worship. In these methods, as in all the others, the Israelites did not differ from the other ancient nations in the midst of whom they dwelt. (4) Sorcery was employed in many forms, for there were diviners, augurs, enchanters, charmers, consulters with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers; but acts of this kind were always forbidden. (5) Music and dancing were accompaniments of wor ship. If worship is the expression of the heart in com munion with God, it must include melody and rhythm, sound and movement. Music has always formed a part of worship, and in many cases dancing has accompanied, not only festival, but worship. f\ § 8. Songs and Hymns of Worship. — These furnish us, perhaps, the highest product of the priest-work; for, although much of the Psalter is prophetic in its character, by far the greater part is the high and holy expression GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT 7 of the soul of individual or nation in its deepest com munion with God ; and nowhere in all literature may religious songs of so tender and deep a character be found as in the Hebrew Psalter, the hymn-book of the Hebrew temple, the work of the Hebrew priest. These have been variously and quite minutely classified; but here reference may be limited to — (1) Songs of thanksgiving, in which gratitude is Pss. 103; 134; 136. expressed for great favors received from Jehovah and his praises are gladly sung. (2) Songs of petition and prayer, in which the poet Pss. 80; 88; 102. pleads for the intervention of Jehovah in behalf of himself or of Israel, bringing deliverance from difficulty and danger, or restoration to divine favor. (3) Songs of penitential confession, in which the sin- Pss. 51; 116; 130. ner pours out his confession of sin and guilt. K § 9. Laws Regulating Worship and Life were, likewise, largely formulated, promulgated, and executed by the priests. Legislation, therefore, in its stricter sense, was the function of the priests, rather than of the prophets or sages. The priest's work included something more than the various elements which enter into or are connected with what we would today call worship. In those days the religious life and the secular life were the same. Religion and politics were the same. This means that it was impossible to draw a line between religious life and ordinary life. The priest's work dealt with both. It Deut. 22: 1-12; Exod. 21 : 1-35; had to do, consequently, with such matters as the treat- 22:1-27. ment of one's neighbor's cattle, the treatment of birds, the building of a house. There were laws, for example, Lev. 19 : 9-37; Exod. 23 : 1-9. concerning the harvest, the oppression of the poor, the treatment of defectives, tale-bearing, etc., etc. These are a few examples only, taken from the great law books, Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. It is to be understood, of course, that these laws, as they were from time to time formulated, included the teachings of the prophets and sages, as they appeared and did their work and passed away. But in addition to these laws of soci ological character there were the laws which regulated 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 2 Chron. 5:2- cf. 1 Kings, chap. 8. ¦7:2; 1 Chron. , chaps. ¦5."«; cf. 2 Sam. 6:12-19. 2 Chron., chaps. 29-32 ; cf. 2 Kings , chaps. 18-20. 2 Chron. 35:1-19; cf. 2 Kings Exod. 23: 18, 19; the details of worship in all respects, e. g., the priest, his Lev., chap. 21. ' dress, his maintenance, the offerings, their material, etc., etc. These more strictly come into consideration in connection with topics already discussed {cf. §§ 3, 7). C § 10. The History of Worship was naturally written or compiled by priests, and thus constitutes a part of the priest-work of the Old Testament. The history of Israel, as we find it in the books of Samuel and Kings, had already been written (about 550 B. C). This history was prepared from a wholly prophetic point of view. It was intended to teach prophetic lessons, especially those connected with the idea of the enormity of sin and its disastrous consequences. At a later date (about 300 B. C.) the priests undertook to traverse the field of sacred history, and in so doing used, to some extent, the same original sources. This priestly history is found in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. In these books the thought always uppermost is that of the history of worship. Its purpose was to assist in establishing regular service in the second temple, and to kindle in the hearts of the people a national life and spirit, and respect for the insti tutions of the national religion. The differences in matter, tone, and spirit between the prophetic and the priestly histories is easily seen by a comparison of the treatment which each gives to the same subject, e. g.: (1) The dedication of the temple {cf. 2 Chron. 5:2 — 7 = 10). (2) The transfer of the ark to Jerusalem. (3) The accession of Solomon. (4) The account of the plague in David's reign. (5) The sin of David with Bathsheba, which is not mentioned in Chronicles. (6) The organization of the priests and Levites and temple officials, which is treated in full in Chronicles, and not mentioned in Samuel and Kings. It is proposed, after this general view of the work of the priests as a whole, to undertake to do five things in the following series of studies : (1) To trace the history of worship from the beginning to the end of the Old Testament times, through the early, the middle, and the late periods. Kings, chap. 8. 1 Chron., chaps. 28, 29; cf. 1 Kings 1 : 32- 40. 1 Chron. , chap. 21 ; cf. 2 Sam., chap. 24. 2 Sam. 11:2-27. Chron.,23-26. chaps. GENERAL SCOPE OF PRIESTLY ELEMENT O. (2) To classify and note the elements of worship in the Hebrew Psalter, the Christian's Book of Psalms. (3) To analyze and present the essential points of interest in the histories which the priests themselves prepared, and which are found in the books of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. (4) To determine the great ideas which entered into and controlled the priest-work. (5) To explain as far as it may be possible {a) the purpose and spirit of this priest- element as it appears in its various forms in Israel- itish history and literature ; {b) the permanent, as distinguished from the transitory, elements which it contained; {c) the contribution which it made to Christianity, or, in other words, its relationship to Chris tianity. Paet Second THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP II. History of Worship in the Earlier Old Testament Period. III. History of Worship in the Middle Old Testament Period. IV. History of Worship in the Later Old Testament Period. CHAPTER II. history of worship in the earlier old testament period. § ii. Worship Alone Constituted Religion in the earliest times. It was later that greater and greater emphasis came to be placed on con duct and belief (see § i). A ceremony or religious rite was associated (in the various ancient religions) with some fact, or supposed fact, or legend, or myth. But it was the rite which constituted the religious element, and not any belief concerning the origin of the rite. "It made no difference what the worshiper believed concerning the cere mony, if only he performed it regularly and accurately." -*' What was obligatory or meritorious was the exact performance of sacred acts prescribed by religious traditions." It was the prophets and sages who introduced at the same time higher conceptions of God and higher conceptions of life. See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 17-22 ; Menzies, His tory of Religion, pp. 6-13, 64 f.; Wellhausen, Proleg omena to the History of Israel, pp. 52-5. § 12. A Semitic Period in the Development of Worship preceded the earliest Hebrew worship, and formed the basis of it. It will be remembered that the Semitic family (1) gave to the world the two earliest civilizations of which we have knowledge, the Egyptian and the old Babylonian, and controlled the world's political history for forty or fifty centuries ; (2) has been mediary, not only in the field of commerce and between man and man, but also, in that higher field of religion, between God and man, in that they have proved to be the religious teachers of the world, since through them have come the world's three highest faiths — -Judaism, Christianity, and Moham medanism. See G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, pp. 28 ££.; W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 28-83 ; C. G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 22-30; I. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. I, pp. 5-1 1 ; Fritz Hommel, The Civilization of the East, pp. 25-7. § 13. The Most Ancient Form of Semitic Religion, the parent of all others, was that found in the old mother-home of Arabia. It was a 13 14 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT religion well adapted to the condition of the people, who, at that time, were still in clans. The Hebrews, together with the Moabites, Ammon ites, and Edomites, had " their root in a state of society when there was no large and orderly community, but only a multitude of small and restless tribes ; when there was no written law, but only custom ; and when there was no central authority to execute justice, but it was left to a man's fellow-clansmen to avenge his murder." In this time — ( i) There was a god for each clan, and this god was thought to be a very remote ancestor. To leave the clan meant to leave the god. This clan-god was closely connected with every undertaking of the clan, whether of peace or war; and his name everywhere was "Lord," "King," "Mighty One." See Menzies, History of Religion, pp. 74-6 ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 35-9 ; D'Alviella, Origin and Growth of the Conception of God (Hibbert Lectures, 1891), pp. 204-7. (2) The worship of the clan-god was important, because every detail of life was dependent on his favor. His favor or anger was shown at certain spots, which thenceforward became sacred places, and here those who inquired of him would find him. The god could not, of course, be worshiped anywhere outside of the land which belonged to him ; and if one left that land and entered another, he must at once transfer his worship to the god of the new land. See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 160 f.; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 53-5- (3) The present life played a larger part than the future life ; for, while the early Semites believed in the continued existence of the departed, they regarded them as destitute of energy, as " shades laid in the ground." "After death, it was held, even religion came to an end. A man must enjoy the society of his god in this life; after death he could take part in no sacrifice, and could render to God no thanks or service." See Menzies, op. cit., p. 161; C. G. Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 454-7; R. H. Charles, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 51-4. (4) This explains, in some measure, the rites of worship which existed in these primitive times, viz.: {a) The sacrifice; the man sought a sacred place {i. e., a place where the god was likely to be found), killed an animal, put the blood of the animal on a stone ; the god touched the blood, the man touched WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD I 5 it, and this act was a renewal of the declaration that the man and the god were of the same blood, and that the covenant between them was renewed. See Menzies, op. cit., pp. 65-8, 162; Schultz, "The Significance of Sacri fice in the Old Testament," American fournal of Theology, Vol. IV, pp. 257-61 ; G. S. Goodspeed, "The Atonement of Communion," Biblical World, Vol. XVII, pp. 96-106. {b) The feast or banquet; at this the god was supposed to sit with his people and to receive his share of the animal just slain. In late times, when the god was thought to live above, his share was burned and he received the savor or smell of the sacrifice. The feast included dancing, and even gross kinds of indulgence. All was joyful. Happi ness, reaching even to "orgiastic ecstasy,'7 was universal. See W. R. Smith, op. cit., pp. 253-8 ; ScHuyrz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 188 f. §14. Three Great Periods are seen in the develop- Josh. 24:2,3. ment of this primitive Semitic worship, as it appears in the Old Testament history. Two opinions exist as to whether the writing of the Pentateuch (or five books of the law) was practically finished in the days of Moses, or in the days of Ezra. See Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, pp. 31-58; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1897, pp. 156-62; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 82-98, 123-6, 135-59; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 17-23. This question does not concern us here ; for all stu dents agree that, whatever may have been the date of writing, the date of adoption of the laws and ceremonies by the masses of the people is definitely announced in Scripture, viz.: (1) The Levitical law in all its fulness and the Leviti- Neh., chap. 8. cal ritual of worship were not adopted until the times of Ezra (440 B. C). (2) The Deuteronomic law, as laid down in Deuter- 2Kings22:8— onomy, did not come into force until Josiah's time (621 B. C). It is clear that there was (3) An earlier legal code and an earlier form of wor- Exod. 20:23- ship which served to connect the old Semitic worship with the Deuteronomic. This earliest of the three 1 6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT periods is first to be considered and presents itself in three different stages, viz. : Gen. 47:1-10. {a) The primitive Hebrew stage — that which existed during the days of the patriarchs, and while Israel was still a nomadic people, wandering from place to place. judg. 1:1-4; {b) The Canaanitish stage — that in which the primi tive form came into contact with the corrupt and licen tious practices of the Canaanitish religion; it was at this time that Israel was settling down to an agricultural life. Hos. 11:1-4; (c) The prophetic stage — that in which the prophets 12: 10, n; Amos 2 '10-12; made heroic struggle against the corruption and idola try of Israel, by pointing out a truer conception of God, the adoption of which affected both the conduct and the worship of the nation. josh. 24:3-7. g IS jn tne primitive Stage of the Early Period the Worship was, of course, only slightly different from that common Semitic worship described above. The people were still wandering about. Leaders had been raised up by God whose work would in time lead the people higher and higher toward a proper conception of God and of his worship. But, as the Old Testament so clearly shows, the people hung back; refused to follow the divinely appointed leaders ; and only after fifteen hundred years of instruction finally acknowledged Jehovah to be the only God. The facts concerning worship are these : Gen. 12:6-8; (1) The place selected for worship by the patriarchs 26:24!;' was the place in which they pitched their tent; e. g., 35:141- ' Abraham worshiped at Shechem, and near Bethel; Jacob at Beersheba, and at Peniel, and at Bethel. Trees, springs, and stones are also mentioned. Gen. 31:46. The altar must have been something very simple, consisting only of stones gathered together, or of earth thrown up. Gen. 31 : 19, 34 1. Teraphim, or household gods, were found in Jacob's family. There seems not to have been an ark or chest in use. Gen. 22: 13; 27:25; (2) The priest was the leader, whoever he may have Exod. 24:4-8. been, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, or Moses. There was no class of priests. WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD If (3) The sacrifice was a family meal, or a clan meal, i. e., Gen. 26:28-30; Gen. 8:20, 21 ; a banquet. It consisted of flesh, specially prepared ; its Gen. 18:1-8. savor was smelled by Jehovah ; it was eaten by repre sentatives of the deity. (4) The times were irregular ; sacrifice was offered at Cf. references m, r 1 ¦ ¦ , given above. anytime. I here is no reference to the observance of dates marked by the moon, or of the sabbath. (5). Other acts of worship are seen in — {a) The prayer of Abraham for the deliverance of Gen. 18:23-33; 24 : 12 ff . ; 32 :9~ Lot, of Abraham's servant for guidance in the pursuit of 12. his mission, and of Jacob for deliverance from Esau. (b) The vow of Abraham paid to Melchizedek ; and Gen. 14:18-24; 28:20-22. that of Jacob made on his journey to Laban, the Syrian. {c) The dreams of the patriarchs, which as methods Gen. 15:12-21; of receiving communications from the deity are to be 13; 37:5-10.' classed with acts of worship. {d) The cup of divination of Joseph, and the teraphim Gen. 44:1-5. (see p. 16). (6) Songs and hymns, laws, and history-writing had Gen. 49:1-26; not yet taken formal shape ; or, at all events, they have Exod'. 20:1-17.' not come down to us in the form which existed in these early days. The present literary form of pieces like the "Blessing of Jacob," the " Song of Moses at the Red Sea," and the " Decalogue " comes from a time later than the settlement in Canaan. § 16. In the Canaanitish Stage of the Early Period the judg. 2:1-5. worship was greatly changed. This was due partly to the change from nomadic to agricultural life, and partly to contact with Canaanitish forms of worship, which were peculiarly rich and fascinating. The name of the Canaanitish divinity, Baal, meant "lord." It is easy to see that the Israelite would feel that he was not doing justice to his God, if he did not pay him every possible honor, or at least the honors paid their gods by his neighbors, the Canaanites. Consequently much that was Canaanitish was now appropriated. (1) Places and representatives; here arise — (a) The high places, all over the land, which soon judg. 6:25-32; *> ' ° r 1 Sam. 1:3. became centers of corruption and licentiousness. 1 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT judg. 3:7; 6:25, (b) The. pillars and the tree trunks, or Asherim, which 30; 9: 6; 10:6. were to be found at the high places and were taken over into the Jehovah-worship which was carried on at these places. judg. 2o:27f.; {c) The ark or chest, which was thought to represent 1 Sam. 4 : 3 ff. the deity, and which the people carried with them when they went to battle, as in Eli's days. Cf. Exod. 32:8, {d) The image of the serpent, or of the bull, which was 19-24; Numb. 2i:8f.; adopted, now and again, as the proper representation of deity. 1 Sam. 14:41; ( munion with the deity. The burnt-offering seems to 13-15 have occupied a more prominent place. 1 Sam. 20:5, 6, (4) Times and seasons. — Now there arose feasts of 18, 24, 27, 29; v 7 Judg.g:27;2i:i9; the moon ; the sabbath was also observed, probably as a 1 sam. 1:3, 13. ' ' t- j time of rejoicing; there were also the Feasts of Harvest and Vintage, because Israel had now become an agricul tural people. These feasts furnished opportunity for drunkenness and licentiousness. (5) Other acts. — We read of the — Judg. 13:8; 15:18; iSam. {a) Prayers of Manoah, Samson, and Hannah. 1 : 10, 12-17. 1 \ judg. 11:30, 31, \p) Vows of Jephthah and of Hannah, and of the 35 40, 21. 1, 7, j.j.jbgg 0f jsrae] against Benjamin, because of its outrage upon the Levite's concubine. judg. 13:3-5. {c) Visions of Samson's parents, , and of the child iSam.'3:i-i8. Samuel, during his sojourn in the temple at Shiloh. 1 Sam. 28 : 7-14. {d) Sorcery and witchcraft in connection with Saul's attempt to learn the outcome of his contest with the Philistines. WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 1 9 {e) Music and dancing in connection with the yearly Judg. 21:19-21; c ii1 Sam- 10:5» feasts at Shiloh, with the sons of the prophets, and, a little 16:16-22; 18:6, 7, 10; 19: 9. later, on the part of David. This was characteristic of the joyous spirit that permeated the religion of these times. (6) Songs and hymns are seen in the exodus song, Exod. 15:1-21; Judg., chap. 5; with its refrain; the song of Deborah; and the song of iSam. 2:1-10. Hannah. (7) Laws were unquestionably taking form, under divine guidance, as the codification of custom. To what extent this was true is a matter of dispute between {a) those who believe that the Israelitish legislation, as it has come down to us, was the work of one generation, and of one man, Moses, and {b) those who believe that this legislation is the product of seven or eight centuries of history, although based upon and growing out of the work of Moses {cf. references to literature on §14). § 17. In the Prophetic Stage of the Early Period great Amos, chap. 5; influences were at work to purge and purify the corrup- isa.i'cnap.'i!' tion which had entered into Israel's worship, and to teach a conception of God which, in itself, would lead to a higher type of worship. This period begins roughly with Samuel's work of reformation and closes just before Josiah's reformation (621 B.C.). The great names of 2Kings23:i-3. the period are Samuel and David; Elijah, Elisha, and Jonah ; Amos and Hosea ; Isaiah and Micah ; and, last of all, Zephaniah and Jeremiah, in whose days the refor mation came. The details of this reformation belong to the second or middle period; but the preparation for 2 Kings 23: 4-14. the great changes wrought in 621 B. C. was made by the prophets of the preceding centuries. The actual prac tices of this sub-period were full of superstition. Let us first note what they were and then the attitude of the prophets toward them. (1) Places of worship. {a) The high places were still used in different parts iSam. 9:12-14, J9» 25 ; of the country, as is seen in the cases of Samuel, whom iKings3:3, 4; Saul first met at the sacrifice on the high place; of Solo- 12: 31V; 14:23; mon, even when the temple had been built ; of Jeroboam ; 15:4; 17:9, n,' of the people of Judah in Rehoboam's time and under etc. later kings ; and of Ahaz. 20 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT i Kings 14 : 23 ; 2 Kings 3:2; 10: 27; 17: 10; Hos. 3:4; 10:1, 2 Sam., chap. 6; cf. 1 Chron. , chaps. 13,15,16. 1 Kings, chaps. 5, 6; 7:13-8:66; cf. 1 Chron. , chap. 17 ; 22 : 2- 19; 2 Chron., chaps. 2-7. 1 Sam. 28 : 1-25. 1 Kings 12: 25-33; 2 Chron. 11:14,15: Hos. 8:5, 6. 1 Kings 12 : 31-33 ; 2 Sam. 6:13, 14; 1 Kings 3: 15; 1 Kings 2:26, 27; 2 Kings 11:4, g, 12, 15, 17; 12:2; 2 Kings 16:12-16. 1 Kings 8 : 62-65 ; Hos. 2:11; Exod. 23 : i8f . ; 2 Kings 17: 17. (b) The pillars and Asherim occupied even a larger place than before, continuing in general use until the reign of Josiah. {c) The ark was transferred with great solemnity to Jerusalem, when that city became under David the nation's capital. This supreme act of worship was accompanied by music and dancing. {d) The temple was built by Solomon ; this act was full of significance for the future history of worship. As the king had his palace, so Jehovah was to have his temple. The ceremonial would now be better organ ized ; a basis was furnished for future development ; priests and singers must be provided for regular service. While at this central place the worship would henceforth be conducted in a purer form, but at the same time with luxurious magnificence, the old routine continued in all its corruption throughout the country at large. (1?) The spirit of Samuel, called Elohim {i. e., God), was thought to have been called forth after death by the witch of Endor, in order to speak with Saul at his request. (/) The calves set up at Bethel and Gilgal were figures of Jehovah, intended to be worshiped by the Israelites of the north, in order that they might not be induced to go to Jerusalem for worship. (2) The priest wow became a more important person age; the professional element increased. The bond between those engaged in the same work was strengthened by association. The Levite was gaining ground, as over against the older patriarchal priest. The temple required professional service. Samuel was a priest, and in his time the monarchy took shape, which meant a separation of the state and church. With the royal sanction the priestly order was greatly strengthened ; but the king maintained supremacy and, according to the old patriar chal idea, offered sacrifice as head. Since the priest was judge, he formulated decisions, which in later times were to become law. (3) Sacrifice was offered, sometimes upon a great scale ; the old idea of communion with God continued ; and a great feature of the sacrifice was the element of WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 21 joy. The sacrifice might not be offered with leavened bread. The first-fruits of the ground were called for. Sometimes .human sacrifice was offered. (4) Time s were now more definitely fixed. ixof° 23-12 • {a) The sabbath was an established institution, what- H2!V *LX,; \ / 7 2 Kings 4 : 23 ; ever may have been its origin. Wis7'9' {b) The beginnings of a sabbatical year were made, Exod. 23:10, h. in the custom of allowing the land to lie fallow every seventh year. {c) Three agricultural feasts, with dates dependent Exod. 23:14-17; w ° J r Exod. 34:22, 23; upon the climate, were observed, viz.: the Feast of 1 Kings 8:2; 12:32; Unleavened Bread (Easter time), in celebration of the Hos. 2:11. departure from Egypt ; the Feast of Harvest, when the first-fruits were gathered ; and the Feast of Ingathering, in the autumn. (5) Other acts. (a) Prayers continued to be offered, as in the case of » Sam. 7:5, 8, 9; \ ' ¦' 8:6;i2:23; Samuel at Mizpah, and on the occasion of the people's » Sam. 7:18-28; demand for a king ; of David, after Nathan had made 1 Kings 8 : 22-54 ; 0 1 Kings 17: 20-22; known to him Jehovah's purpose to establish his house 18:36,37; 1 r 2 Kings 19 : 15-19. in Israel, and on the occasion of the death of Bathsheba's child ; of Solomon, at the time of the dedication of the temple at Jerusalem ; of Elijah, for the restoration of the widow's son to life, and on Mount Carmel; and of Heze kiah, for deliverance from Sennacherib. (b) Vows were still made, as, for example, in the case asam. 15:7,8; <• ' ' r ' Amos 2:12. of Absalom, and of the Nazirites. {c) Oracles and dreams are seen in David's inquiry of 2Sam. 2:1; 5:23, Tehovah after the death of Saul, and before the battle 2Sam. 7:4; J 1 KingS3 : 511. ; with the Philistines in the valley of Rephaim; in Jehovah's jg^fg., message to David through Nathan ; in Solomon's dream A™?8 J:I_9; at Gibeon ; in Ahab's consultation of the prophets before Isa-> cnaP- 6- advancing upon Ramoth-Gilead; and in the use made of the brazen altar by King Ahaz. The visions of Amos and Isaiah may also be mentioned in this con nection. {d) Sorcery was practiced, for it was distinctly opposed \^*%:^}\^?3'. by Saul and Samuel (although Samuel himself is said to Mic- $¦"• have been called from the grave by a witch), and by later prophets. 22 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT i Sam. 10:5; Amos 5:23; 6:5; 2 Sam. 6:5, 14, 16; Isa. 30:29; 1 Kings 1 : 40. 1 Sam. 18 : 7 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27 ; 2Sam. 3:331. ; 18:33; 2 Sam., chap. 22 =Ps. 18. Amos 7:9; Hos. 10:8; Mic. 1:5; 1 Kings 14:22,23. Hos. 4:6-9; 5:1 6:9; Mic. 3:11; Zeph. 3:4. AmoS4:4; 5:22; Hos. 4:13, 14; 12:11; 13:2; Amos 5 : 21 ; 6:4-6; Hos. 2 : 11 ; Isa. 1 : 13, 14. Isa. 1:15; Mic. 3:4. Isa. 8:19; 19:3. {e) Music and dancing were greatly developed in con nection with the feasts and the worship on the high places, and the regular services of the temple at Jerusalem which contributed much to the enrichment of the worship of Jehovah. (6) Songs were sung, sometimes of a secular character, as when the women of Israel praised the warlike deeds of Saul and David, and when David lamented the death of Saul and Jonathan, or that of Abner, or of Absalom ; at other times of a religious character, as perhaps when David sang upon the occasion of his deliverance from Saul (but see §19). §18. The Prophets' Attitude toward the actual prac tice of the people, as it was conducted by the priests, was that of undisguised opposition. It is asserted many times that — (1) The high places were an occasion of sin, and aroused Jehovah's anger, and must therefore be destroyed. They were one of the most effective channels of corrup tion to the worshipers of Jehovah. (2) The priests were altogether corrupt and self-seek ing; they were the leaders in sin, going to the farthest extremes of debauchery and licentiousness, and carry ing the people down to destruction along with them selves. (3) Sacrifice was displeasing to Jehovah, since the people were multiplying offerings with the thought that this was all that was necessary to secure Jehovah's bless ing; whereas justice and mercy were alone pleasing to him. (4) Feast days and seasons had become occasions of orgiastic revelry and must be brought to an end. These were in large measure borrowed from the Baal-worship, and were not yet wholly purified. (5) Prayer was in vain, no matter how fervent and frequent, since it came from people whose hearts were evil, and their hands red with blood. (6) Sorcery and witchcraft were condemned and regarded as unworthy of a people whose worship should be given to Jehovah. WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 23 § 19. The Songs and Hymns of the Early Period furnish one of the most difficult questions within the entire realm of biblical study. Modern scholars, for the most part, teach (i) that the law is the prod uct of many centuries of history conducted by God in such a manner as to produce that law, the basis being found in the work of Moses ; and (2) that to ascribe the whole to Moses permits no opportunity for gradual unfolding of the divine plan. So they teach (i) that most of the seventy-three psalms ascribed by tradition to David belong to a later age, when ideas of God were higher and purer than in David's times, and when the worship of God by leaders and people had become pure and spiritual; and (2) that to ascribe these psalms, or most of them, to David is to turn the history of Israel's religious thought wrong side foremost, and to presuppose in David's times a condition of spiritual life on the part of David and the people which could not have existed until centuries later. This very serious and important ques tion may not be taken up here. It is to be noted, however, that in the case of the psalms, as in the case of the law, whatever may have been the date of origin, the people never reached a position in which they could use these psalms (with a few exceptions) as the expression of their spiritual communion with God, until {a) the prophets had preached long centuries, {b) the priests themselves had united to purge and purify a corrupt worship, {c) the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and the land laid waste, {d) the inhabitants were carried away into a for eign country, and {e) the nation was taught, once for all, what had many times been said, but never actually believed, viz., that there was one God, and one only. The psalms as a distinct part of the priests' work will receive further consideration in a later chapter. See Ewald, Commentary on the Psalms, Vol. I, pp. 60-71 ; Perowne, Book of Psalms (second edition), Vol.1, pp. 1-21 ; Murray, Origin and Growth of the Psalms, pp. 127-43 ; Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter, pp. 190-225 ; Kirkpatrick, The Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. xxxi-xxxviii ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 373-80 ; Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Lecture XXV; articles on "David" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible and Cheyne's Encyclopcedia Biblica. The views of some of the most important commentators concerning the number of psalms that may be assigned to David are : (1) Binney, all, or nearly all, assigned by tradition. (2) Olshausen, Lengerke, Cheyne, Baethgen, Duhm, Wellhausen, probably none. (3) Hitzig, 3-19, except 5, 6, 14. (4) Ewald, 3, 4, 7, 8, II, 18, 19, 24, 29, 32, 101, and some fragments. (5) Delitzsch, 3-19, 22-24, 25, 28-30, 32, 34, 36-39, 41, 51, 52, 54, 56-63, and some others doubtful. 24 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (6) Perowne grants that some of those ascribed to David cannot have been written by him, but thinks that he " personally contributed more than any other indi vidual " to the Psalter, and was the founder of a school of sacred poetry. Similarly also Kirkpatrick. Exod. 20:1-17; 820. The Laws of the Early Period may be classified Deut. 5:6-21; a J .. ¦ . Exod. 34: 10-28; under three heads: the decalogue, in two editions; the Exod. 20: 22— 23:33- small book of the covenant; and the larger book of the covenant. Before considering these separately, a few points may be suggested concerning them as a whole : {a) However early or late they may have taken on their present literary form, they themselves certainly go back to the period of Israel's earliest history. {b) They contain much material which, of course, had an existence long before the days of Moses ; e. g., there had been prohibition of murder and of stealing centuries before Moses. {c) They reflect, in general, an early and, indeed, primitive stage of society; but this stage is the agricul tural, and therefore later than the nomadic. {d) They are arranged in groups of ten, or of five. (1) The decalogue. Ixod'aJ-ii"' (a) I' 's sa'^ to riave had its origin in different ways ; Acts 7' sr' e' &'' as nav'ng been (1) spoken by God, (2) given through Heb 2-29' angels, (3) written by the finger of God. Exod. 34:28,29; (b) It is given different names ; e.g., (1) the ten words, Deut. 4:13; v ' Deut. 5:2; 9:5; (2) the words of the covenant, (3) tables of the cove- 10:4. nant, (4) covenant, (5) testimony, (6) two tables of testi mony. {c) It has two forms, viz., that in Exod. 20 : 1-17, and that in Deut. 5 : 6-2 1 ; and although both are said to have been engraved on stone, there are many differences ; e. g., Exod. 20:8; (1) the first word of the fourth commandment; (2) the cf. Deut. 5:12; ' \ 1 Exod. 20:12; reason assigned for observance of the fourth command- cf. Deut. 5:16; . Exod. 20:17; ment, viz., the creation and rest of God in the one, the cf. Deut. 5:21. bringing of Israel out of Egypt in the other ; (3) the two additional clauses in the one form of the fifth command ment ; (4) the different order of the first two clauses and the addition of " his field " in the tenth commandment. {d) It has been suggested that originally all the com mandments consisted, like the sixth, seventh, and eighth, WORSHIP IN EARLIER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 2$ of one or two words, and that the remainder, e. g., in the second, third, and fifth, was added at a later time. (if) It is divided (i) into ten words, but the division is not clear, since the Lutheran and Romish churches com bine the first and second as one and divide the tenth ; (2) into two tables, but, here again, Jewish and Christian scholars, ancient and modern, fail to agree, three methods being advocated, according as the two tables contained, the first, three commandments, and the second, seven ; the first, four, and the second, six ; the first, five, and the second, five. (2) The small book of the covenant, the laws of which Exod. 34:12-14; 34 : 17; 34: 19,20; may thus be grouped : {a) five on the duty of worship- 34:21,18,22, ing only Jehovah ; {b) one on image-worship ; {c) five on the offering of firstlings; (d) five on feasts ; (1?) four on sacrifices and offerings. These laws seem to have been written in groups of five or ten, groups {b) and (if) hav ing lost part of their number. They are all directly concerned with worship. (3) The large book of the covenant, which contains : (a) Exod. 20: 23-26; vo/ 6 J w 21:2-6; 21:7- five enactments on worship;1 {b) five on rights of slaves ; h; 21: 12-16; r \ ' ° '21:17; 21:18- (c) five on slave concubines; (d) five on acts of violence. 25:21:26—22:1 v ' ' v / 22:2-6; 22:7- Then follows one (a fragment) on the reviling of father and 17; 22 : 18-20; 22:21-27; mother. After that M five on personal injuries ;(/) and 22:28-30; .... . . , , , 22:31; 23:1-3; {g) ten on injuries in connection with property, slaves, and 23:4-5; 23:6-9; cattle ; {h) five on theft and damage to property ; (z) and (J) ten on breaches of trust. Then follow three frag ments on sexual crimes, magic, sacrifice to other gods. After that {k) five on the dealings with the weak and poor ; (/) five on reverence and offerings. Then follow two on purity. After that (ni) five on testimony. Then follow two on kindness. After that («) five on justice, and {0) and (/) ten on feasts and offerings. In all there are sixteen groups of five, and eight fragments of groups, each of which probably consisted of five. A study of the subjects given above, and a reading of the enactments, will show the early character of these laws as contrasted with those given in Deuteronomy and Leviticus. It is to be noted (1) that the greater part of 1 In this classification the laws relating to worship are italicized. 23:10-19. 26 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT this code is concerned with subjects which are not today thought of as religious, but that in early times there was no distinction between "religious" and "secular" — everything was religious; (2) that all the enactments concerning religion, in the narrower sense of the word, have to do with its objective features — feasts, sacrifices, offerings, ritual, etc. — all of which is included in wor ship. It is these enactments that lie back of the teach ing of the prophets down to about 650 B. C. In the next study it will appear that great and fundamental changes are to occur after 650 B. C. in all the regulations which concern the subject of worship and its allied subjects. CHAPTER III. THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD §21. The Middle Old Testament Period (see §14 (2)) 2 Kings 22:8— had for its most striking event the discovery and pub lication of the book of the law, known in these later times as Deuteronomy. It is impossible here, as in the history of any period, to draw sharp lines of separation. (1) Just when this middle period began cannot be fixed definitely. But this much is clear, that the work of the prophets {cf. § 18) in the years preced ing 621 B. C. (a) pointed out the evils which had Amos 5:24; 9:7; 6 V Hos.8:s,6,l4; crept into the worship of the people; {b) presented such conceptions of God's justice, love, holiness, and isa. 1:12-17; r J 6:1-5; etc. unity as would furnish a basis for higher and more spir itual forms of worship than those which were already in existence ; and this {c) prepared the way for some thing which, up to this time, the people could not appreciate. (2) Just when this middle period ended is likewise indefinite, but it is evident that after and out of this period there came a still higher form of worship, des tined in God's providence (a) to endure through a period of great political and religious upheaval, and (b) to serve as the basis for a worship still higher in its ideals and in its spiritual character. § 22. Three Distinct Stages May be Traced in the his tory of the middle or Deuteronomic period. These may be classified as : (1) The pre-exilic stage, which ended with the removal 2 Kings 25: 8-21. of the people from their land and with the destruction of the temple around which the whole system of worship centered. (2) The exilic stage, during which the people were in Babylon, away from all the familiar scenes of worship 27 28 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT and under the influence of an entirely new religious environment. Ezra, chap, i ; (3) The post-exilic stage, beginning with the return from exile, including the building of the second temple, and ending approximately with the visit of Ezra to Jerusalem. § 23. The Deliverance of Jerusalem in Hezekiah's Day (701 B. C.) had exerted a marked influence on worship. To Hezekiah is ascribed an important work as reformer, 2 Kings 18: 4; in that he (1) removed the high places, (2) broke the pillars, (3) cut down the Asherim, (4) broke in pieces the brazen serpent that Moses had made, which, in his day, was wor- Amos7:9; shiped as a representation of God in Jerusalem. In so far Hos. 10: 1, 2; isa. 30:22; 31:7. as these things were accomplished, Hezekiah was acting in accordance with the commands of the prophets (see § 18). But it seems that the work was not as thorough going as it might have been, since in Josiah's times, 2 Kings 23: 13. seventy or eighty years later, the high places erected by Solomon near Jerusalem were still in existence. Heze kiah's reformation, however transient, was closely con nected with the deliverance of Jerusalem from Sennach erib and the Assyrian army in 701 B. C. This invasion 2Kingsi8:i3; had two results : (1) The outlying villages with their high places were destroyed and dishonored, and the country people came to see that the worship as practiced in the 2 Kings 19:20-37. high places was of no avail in times of great distress. (2) Jerusalem, the temple, and the God whose worship was conducted in the temple (a worship beyond question comparatively pure) were delivered, and thereby greatly honored, for the whole nation had therein a posi- Deut. 12:2-19. tive experience of Jehovah's power. This paved the way for the exaltation of the temple-worship and the destruction of the worship in the high places, changes which together form the great characteristic of the mid dle period. See W. R. Smith, The Prophets of Israel (2d ed.), pp. 353-64; Cornill, The Prophets of Israel, pp. 67 f.; Driver, Isaiah, His Life and Times, pp. 66-83 ; the article " Hezekiah " in Hastings' Dic tionary of the Bible, Vol. II, p. 377 ; and the corresponding article (§ 1) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II. WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 2Q § 24. Manasseh's Reign Brought a Great Reaction. — This came about because (1) the prophetic party (that is, the party of reformers) pushed forward more rapidly than the people could follow, e. g., {a) in destroying the objects and places of worship held in veneration by the people for many centuries, and (b) in holding up con- 2 Kings 18:4; x ' ° * 2 Kings 19 : 19. ceptions of God and of life which the people were still too ignorant and debased to appreciate ; (2) the people were disappointed in the hope, raised by the prophets, that with Jerusalem's deliverance Assyria would perish, when, as a matter of fact, Assyria still remained powerful, sub- 2Chnm. 33:11. duing Egypt and taking tribute from Judah ; (3) the people believed that this failure of their desires and the c/. Jer. 44 : 15-19. consequent adversity had their origin in the proposed reforms of the prophets, and that these very reforms {e. g., the breaking down of the high places) were dis pleasing to Jehovah. The reaction exhibited itself in (1) the murder of the 2 Kings 21:16; v ' Jer. 2 : 30. prophets and their partisans ; (2) setting up again the idols, 2 Kings 21: 3-5. and the Asherim; (3) giving permission to enchanters 2 Kings 21: 6. and augurs and witches and wizards to practice their arts; (4) encouraging human sacrifice; (5) introducing a Kings" = 6; the worship of other gods even within the temple itself, Mic. 6:6,7. e. g., the host of heaven — the chariots of the sun being 2 Kings 21: 3,4; 23 * II, 12, placed within the temple. § 25. The Discovery of the Deuteronomic Law followed a generation or so of prophetic silence. This silence was occasioned by persecution, and had for its result the production of a work which, in itself, summed up prophecy and furnished the text-book of worship for a long time to come. While the mouth of the prophet was closed, his pen worked. In this work the lessons Deut. 4:15-19; of Manasseh's reaction were taken into account ; for the Deut 17 '14-20. new order of worship, while revolutionary in some aspects, was, after all, an evolution from that which pre ceded it. The new cult went as far as possible in retain- Deut. 15:19; ing old usages and old ceremonies, thus avoiding the difficulties occurring in connection with the earlier attempts at reformation. Many other things were learned anew from the experience of the reaction, e. g., 30 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Deut. 12:2-4. ine demoralizing influence of the high places, and the necessity of purging and purifying the ritual. These were incorporated in the written document. See Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 62-4 ; Cornill, op. cit., pp. 80-82 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, pp. xlix-lxii. No opportunity, however, presented itself under Manasseh or Amon for the promulgation of this book. It was put away in the temple. In Josiah's reign, (1) when the hearts of the people were being turned to Jehovah by the terror aroused in connection with the jer. 1:1, 2; Scythian invasion; (2) when Jeremiah and Zephaniah ep ,I'1' were preaching with all the vigor of the older prophets; 2 Kings 22: 1, 2. (3) when Josiah, a young man, was turning his face in the 2 Kings 22:3-8. direction of the true God ; (4) when the temple was being cleansed and repaired, in order that Jehovah might be thereby honored — then this book, the book of Deuter onomy, was discovered, brought to the king, read to him, and read again to the people. The immediate circum stances of this discovery are described in some detail ;e.g.: 2 Kings 22: 8-10. (1) The book was found by Hilkiah, the high-priest, and given by him to Shaphan, the scribe, who read it, took it 2 Kings 22:11-14. to King Josiah, and read it to him. (2) The king was greatly grieved as he listened and realized how far short of the demands of this book the religious life of Israel had fallen. He at once sent a delegation of leading men to Huldah, a prophetess, to inquire Jehovah's will con- a Kings 22 : 15-20. cerning the book. (3) She declared that the judg ments it contained would fall upon Israel because of their desertion of Jehovah and their worship of other gods, but that Josiah would reign in peace because of 2 Kings 23:1-3. his faithfulness to Jehovah. (4) Upon hearing this, Josiah called a great meeting of all the people, read the newly found book to them, and caused them to join him in a covenant with Jehovah to conform to Jehovah's requirements as laid down therein. Thereupon the work of reform was begun throughout the land. § 26. The Results of the Finding of Deuteronomy are very fully given us in the sacred narrative. These results constituted what is called Josiah's reformation, and included : WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3 1 (i) The destruction of the high places and altars % Kingsa3:8, 12, throughout the land. (2) The breaking down of the pillars and Asherim. 2 Kings 23 : 6, 14. (3) The removal of the teraphim and other idols. 2 Kings 23: 24. (4) The destruction of the horses and chariots of the 2 Kings 23 : h. sun. (5) The deposition and destruction of idolatrous 2 Kings 23:5,8,9, 20. priests and of the priests of the high places. (6) The abolition of human sacrifice. 2 Kings 23 : 10. (7) The observance of the Feast of the Passover. 2 Kings 23:21-23. (8) The prohibition of sorcerers and wizards. 2 Kings 23: 24. (9) The purification of worship involved in doing 2Kings23:7. away with the Sodomites. Two things may be said : {a) There is nothing essen tial commanded in Deuteronomy which Josiah did not try to do ; {b) every single act of the reformation will be found commanded in Deuteronomy. § 27. The Teaching of Deuteronomy on the more important points of worship may be briefly summarized as follows : ' (1) Object of worship. — Jehovah only is to be wor- Deut. 6:4; 10:20; shiped; all idols and other objects of worship must be 16:21 f.'; 7 :5,2s' destroyed. (2) Place of worship. — Worship is permitted only at Deut. 12:2-7, u, one central sanctuary, viz., the temple at Jerusalem. All local shrines are to be destroyed. (3) Priests. — These now become a distinct class, the Deut. 10:8,9. tribe of Levi being set apart to perform the priestly function. There are, of course, more Levites than are needed for priests; these are to be teachers and judges. The duties of the Levites at the local sanctua- Deut. i8:i-a ries being abolished, many of them are naturally without means of support, and special provision has to be made for them in the law. {^Sacrifice. — The continuance of sacrifice is taken Deut. 12:131; for granted, but every sacrifice is to be offered at the central sanctuary. All firstlings are, as before, especially designated as sacrifices to Jehovah. 1 For an examination of this book as a code of laws, see pp. 155-69. 32 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Deut. 5 : 12-15. Deut 15 : t-18. Jer. 34 : 1-20. Deut. 16 : 1-15. Deut. 14: 3-21. Deut. '23 : 21-23. Deut. 14 : 28 f . ; 26:12. Deut. 18 : 10-12 ; 23: ljt. ; 14: 1. Deut. 9: 20, 26-29. Deut. 6:4; 4 : 28 ; 10: 17. Deut. 4 : 32-36 ; cf. Exod. ig : 6. Deut. 12 : 2-7. Deut. 10:8. (5) Days and seasons. — Set times of worship are appointed to be observed : (a) The sabbath is preserved unchanged, {b) The sabbatical year becomes established, and is extended to the cancellation of all debts owed by Hebrews to their fellow-countrymen and to the release of all Hebrew slaves. There was an unsuccessful attempt to enforce this provision with reference to slaves in the reign of Zedekiah. {c) Three annual feasts are fixed, as before, in connection with the agricultural seasons ; but, like all other acts of worship, they are to be celebrated at Jerusalem. New elements appear in the fixing of the duration of the Feast of Tabernacles at seven days, and of Pentecost at one day, and in the connection of the Passover with the exodus from Egypt. No reference is made to feasts of the moon. (6) Other acts of worship. — {a) A list of clean and unclean animals is given ; this classification probably had a religious basis ; {b) faithfulness in the performance of vows is enjoined ; {c) a. triennial tithe is imposed which is to be given to the Levite, the widow, and the poor; (d) perverted acts of worship, such as human sacrifice, sorcery, etc., are prohibited ; {e) prayers of Moses are recorded. See Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 64-7 ; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, pp. xix-xxxiv ; article " Deuteronomy " (§§ 27_32) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I ; and corresponding article (§ iv) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I. § 28. The Full Significance of the Deuteronomic Prin ciples, the Spirit with which These are Presented, and the Great Changes Wrought by Their Adoption are difficult to appreciate. Some of these points may be noted : (1) The fundamental idea is that there is but one god worthy to be called God; other gods are wood and stone. (2) With such a God dealing directly with the nation, Israel's life must be high and holy ; for otherwise it will be unworthy. (3) There shall be only one place of worship, and that the temple in Jerusalem; in this way the licentious nature-worship can be done away with. (4) The conduct of worship must be guarded, and WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 33 consequently it is placed under the control of a special tribe, the Levites. (5) The method of presentation is a wonderful one, being twofold, prophetic and priestly; viz., {a) exhorta- Deut. 4:1-13; tions of the most "sweetly impressive" character, full of spiritual strength ; {b) laws, many of them dating from Deut. 5:6-21. the earliest times, others from a later period ; some of Deut., chaps. them apparently arbitrary in their tone, others full of the reasons which should lead to their observance. (6) The spirit throughout is the spirit of love, and is De»t. 7: 7-10; akin to that exhibited in the book of Hosea. "The primal love of Jehovah to Israel fills the foreground of each writer's discourse, and all human relationships within the Israelitish community are rooted in this."2 But this r eut. 6 : 17-19 ; J Deut. 10:18. love is ho sentimental love ; Israel's God is a God of justice as well as of love. (7) The restriction of worship to one place is Deut. 14: 22-27, " tantamount to a suppression of religion in the whole country outside of Jerusalem."3 How can the country people now consult Jehovah? The neighboring altar Deut. 19: 1-13. to which the fugitive might flee and be safe is done away with, and distant cities of refuge are only a partial sub stitute; while the function of the altar as a place to which the people might come and receive judgment is given to the gates of the cities and to the temple at Jeru- Deut. 16: 18; salem. Israel in the country must now live without God, with whom before he had lived so closely. (8) The feasts are beginning to be denaturalized ; that is, they are losing their agricultural significance, and are to be more and more closely associated with historical events — the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the flight from Egypt; the Feast of Weeks, with the giving of the law on Sinai; the Feast of Tabernacles, with the journey in the desert. Religion is a matter of fixed days and sea sons, rather than an everyday affair. (9) The setting apart of priests, and the placing of See article " Feasts " (§§ 9, 10) in Encyclopaedia Biblica, Vol. II ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 91 f.; Cor- nill, op. cit., p. 86. ' Cheyne, op. cit., p. 66. 3 Cornill, op. cit., p. 85. 34 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT all worship in their hands, thus compelling the people to make use of them, while beforetime the use of a priest was voluntary, draws the line sharply between laity and Deut. 18:3; 21:5; clergy. The priest changes his function ; for he is now Deut. 17:9, 12; preeminently a sacrificer, while before he consulted the 20:2-4; 24: oracle and announced the divine will. 30 : 10. Deut. 14:241.; (10) The significance of the sacrifice is greatly changed. Sacrifice being lawful only at the one central sanctuary, it was offered for the most part only in con nection with the three great yearly festivals when all Israelites were required to be at Jerusalem. The popular, joyous aspect of it as a banquet and as an offering of joy and thanksgiving, made frequently and in connection with any suitable occasion, now begins to disappear, and a more and more solemn and expiatory character is given to all sacrifice. Deut. 4:40; 6:1- (n) What is it henceforth to be religious ? To do Q 2A 2^ " 1 ' II " 8': 1, 6, ii ; ' the thing laid down in a book. The day that saw Deut eronomy accepted, its ritual of worship adopted, and its teaching concerning priest and sacrifice recognized; — that day saw the beginning of the death of prophecy. It was, of course, the prophets' own work ; but they had estab lished the agency by which, later, they themselves would be strangled ; because from this time forward the voice of the prophet is unnecessary. See Cornill, op. cit., p. 89. (12) The adoption of Deuteronomy signified the separation of church and state. This was necessary, for the state is soon to die — within thirty-five years. This separation made it possible for the church to live, after the death of the state. See Cornill, op. cit., p. 88. (13) The act of Josiah and his people in accepting Deuteronomy was the first step toward the canonization of Holy Scripture — the first step in a long line of similar events which have given us the Bible with our modern conceptions of inspiration. (14) In a word, worship, whether viewed narrowly or broadly, is henceforth almost a. new thing. The Israelitish religion seems to have been revolutionized. Of course, WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 35 a closer study shows that all this was evolution, not revolution ; the prophets had prepared the way; the prophets and priests worked together. A priest found the book and gave it to the king, and the priests received through this book privileges they had never before enjoyed. See Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 17 1-9. § 29. A Second Reaction followed after thirteen years of successful work on the part of Jeremiah and Josiah. (1) Jeremiah at the beginning of the reformation had Jer. n : 1-6, 18-23. preached the contents of this book throughout the vil lages of Judah, sometimes incurring the opposition and persecution of his friends. (2) The times that followed for thirteen years were quiet and prosperous ; the king and the people lived before God and received his blessing. (3) Perhaps during this time the work of the sages cf. Prov., chaps. began to flourish. Jer. 18:18. (4) Assyria was losing ground; Necho of Egypt 2 Kings 23: 29; ' „, , J 2 Chron. 35 : 20-24. (608 B. C.) began to encroach upon the Assyrian terri tory. Josiah met him at the battle of Megiddo and was slain. The reformation failed. The people believed the king's death was a divine punishment for changing the forms of worship in their religion. The opposing 2 Kings 23 :36 f . ; party gained control, and then followed the series of events which resulted, in a few years, in the downfall of the kingdom. § 30. The Significance of the Babylonian Exile in its Relationship to Worship cannot easily be overestimated. Its effect upon some of the principal ideas and institu tions may be noted here : (1) Object of worship. — The removal to Babylonia 2 Kings 25 : 13-17 involved the leaving behind of all idolatrous objects of worship, or their confiscation or destruction by the con queror. The leaders of Israel's religious life looked Ezek. 6:11-14; upon idolatry as one of the chief causes of the exile. The removal from the land with which Jehovah had always been associated to a land which was the dominion of another god also involved either an acknowledgment isa. 40 : 12-31 ; 0 . ° 44: 9-20; 45:5-7; of the power of this foreign god, or else the maintenance 46:5-7. 36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT of a belief in Jehovah's supremacy and universality. That this higher conception of Jehovah prevailed is clear from the fact that we hear nothing of idolatry after the return from the exile, and especially from the teachings of Isa., chaps. 40-66. (2) Place of worship. — The temple being destroyed, and all the familiar scenes of worship being left behind, together with all material and external reminders of isa. 45:18-22; Jehovah's presence, the worshipers were necessarily led isa. 51:12,13. to a more spiritual conception of God. Moreover, absence from the temple developed an ability to do with out the temple services which was in part responsible for the origin of synagogues. Ezek., chaps. 40- (3) The occupation of the priests was gone, in so far as it was dependent upon the temple. The book of Ezekiel furnishes an illustration of one phase of priestly isa. 61:6. activity during these days. The thought of Israel as a nation of priests appears. isa. 43:22-24; (4) Sacrifice could no longer be offered, but it did not lose any of its importance in the thought of the people. isa. 56:2, 4, 6; (5) Times and seasons. — (a) The sabbath, being an 58: 13; 66: 23. institution which was independent of the temple, could still be kept, and it received much emphasis during and after this period. Sabbaths were also observed by the Baby lonians, (b) Feasts, which had always been occasions of joy, could no longer be observed legally, and emphasis isa. 58:3-5. was laid on {c) fasts, which were of an exactly opposite character and were not dependent upon the temple. (6) Other acts of worship. — (a) In the absence of all the regular public means of worship, those who wor shiped "in spirit and in truth" naturally had frequent isa. 63: 15— 64:12; recourse to prayer. The future temple is thought of as isa. 52: 1, 11. a house of prayer, {b) The recognition of the captivity as a punishment for sin led to an exalted conception of Jehovah's holiness and to the laying of great emphasis isa. 65: 1-7, 11 ; upon ceremonial cleanness, (c) It is probable, however. 66:3, 4. f- v ' r ' ' that many became apostates from the Jehovah-worship and took up the worship of their conquerors. Cf. Ezek. 10 : 9^2. (7) The influence of the Babylonian worship on Israel's ritual is evident in succeeding ritualistic legislation, as WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 3? also in some of Ezekiel's imagery. Jehovah through the exile again brought Israel into contact with a great religion, as he had already done in the case of Baalism. Just as Israel had learned some truths through Baalism, and to some extent had enriched the cultus of Jehovah thereby, so was she to do through the agency of Baby lon's worship. §31. The Priest-Prophet of the Captivity, Ezekiel, occupied an important place in the further development of the ritual of worship. His place may only be touched upon here. With prophetic idealism, legalist though he was, his vision pictured a future temple, a future service, and a future priesthood, as follows : {a) The temple. — While the temple of Solomon had been virtually a part of the royal palace, the new temple is to be wholly separate from the royal dwellings and from all other ordinary habitations ; for it is the earthly habitation of the most holy God, who had abandoned Bzek. 45:1-8. the former city and temple because of their profanation by sin and uncleanness. To prevent any such profanation of Jehovah in future the sacred "oblation," the domain of the priests, Levites, Ezek. 48:7-33. prince, and city, is placed in the center of the restored tribes, Judah on one side of it and Benjamin on the other. In the midst of this oblation is the portion of the priests, that of the Levites lying on one side, and that of the city on the other. In the middle of the priests' portion stands the temple. This is a great complex of buildings, around which on all sides lies a free space or suburbs. Then comes a great wall surround ing the whole buildings, forming a square of five hundred cubits. Within this wall is an outer court, and within this an inner court In this inner court stands the altar, and to the back of it the temple house. The house has also a graduated series of compartments increasing in sanctity inwards — an outer apartment or porch, an inner or holy place, and an innermost, where the presence of Jehovah abides.4 {b) The priests. — The sons of Zadok only are to be Ezek. 44:4-16. priests ; all other Levites are to be subordinate ministers, performing the more menial tasks of the sanctuary. 4 Davidson, The Book of Ezekiel (Cambridge Bible), p. 290. 38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Foreigners are not to be permitted to enter the temple, as heretofore, to perform any tasks. The distinction between clergy and laity is clearly marked ; none of the latter — not even the prince — may enter the inner court Ezek. 44:17-28. of the temple. The sanctity of the priests as the ones ministering in the presence of Jehovah is strongly empha sized and guarded in many ways, such as the requirement that they wear special garments while discharging their Ezek. 44 : 29, 30. sacred functions. They live upon their share of the sac rifices of the people. (c) Sacrifice occupies an important place in the ritual. Ezek. 43 : 18-26 ; The various kinds mentioned are : (1) the sin-offering, Ezek. 43:27; which is much emphasized; (2) burnt-offerings, which 44:11. / \ , J¥ • 1-1 Ezek. 42:13. are numerous; (3) the trespass-offering, which was a Ezek. 46:13-15. variety of the sin-offering ; (4) the meal-offering; (5) the Ezek. 46 : 19-24. peace-offering; (6) the continual burnt-offering made every morning. Special places are provided for the cooking of the offerings that are to be eaten by priests and people. Ezek. 44:24. (d) Times and seasons. — The old times are all to be Ezek. 45:17— observed, viz., the sabbath, the new moons, and the three feasts, the Passover receiving special notice. §32. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of These Times appears most strongly. This means that the priest- work was gaining ground, while the prophetic work was losing ground. But it will be noted that (a) a new situa tion was coming in which the priest-work would be more greatly needed ; and (b) the priest-work had taken into itself all that had been contributed by the prophets. It is true, therefore, that not the priest-work pure and simple, but the priest-work as strengthened by, and as containing, the truth proclaimed through prophets, was the power that now held the forefront. This priestly element is seen — Jer. 1:1. (1) In the priestly birth and character of the prophet Jeremiah, whose home was at Anathoth, one of the headquarters of the priests. Deut., chaps. 12- (2) In the priestly character of a large portion of the book of Deuteronomy. Deut. 18:5; (3) In the position now occupied by the priests as compared with their former position. cf. Judg. 17 : 7-13. WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 39 (4) In the priestly character and service of Ezekiel. Ezek. i : 3 ; chaps o 40-48. §33. The Return of the People from the Babylo- Ezra 2:641. nian Exile introduced an entirely new situation. It was one, however, in which for eighty years (538-458 B. C.) the book of Deuteronomy and its regulations were supreme. It was a time of discouragement ; the high hopes of the returning exiles were dashed to the ground in the presence of desolated homes, wasted lands, fail ure of crops, loss of political independence, and the cy. Hag. 2 : 15-19. destruction of Jerusalem. The struggle against these adverse conditions seems to have absorbed most of their energies during the first years after the return, the re quirements of worship being largely neglected. We may note the attitude toward some of the principal institutions. {a) The temple. — Partly because of opposition on the Ezra 5: 2; part of certain enemies, but chiefly on account of dis- Ezra 6 -15.' couragement and indifference, the foundation of the temple was not laid until December, 520 B. C, eighteen years after the return, and the work was not finished until 516 B. C. Because of the poverty of the people, Hag. 2:3; this new temple fell far short of the splendor of the old. The religious leaders were convinced that prosperity and Ezra 5:1,*. glory could come to Israel only if the temple were first restored. This shows how large a place it had come to Hag. 1 : 9, 10. occupy in religious thought and practice. {b) The priest was gaining more and more importance in the life and worship of the people. Of the returning Ezra 2: 36-39. exiles a large proportion consisted of priests and other temple servants. There seems to have been develop ing the distinction between priests and Levites which Ezra 6: 18, 20. was to become fixed later. That the distinction was not vet clearly made is evident from the fact that the Ezra8:2o; 10:5; . , . . Mai. 3:3. two titles appear to be synonymous in some passages, just as they are in Deuteronomy. One priest had already achieved prominence as the leader of his breth- zech. 3:1-9; 3 r 6:11-13; ren, and he appeared side by side with the prince in all Hag. 1:1,12; important concerns, and was superior to him in reli gious affairs. A high standard was set up for the priests Mai.2:s-9; 3:3. by Malachi, and their corruption was severely denounced. 40 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Mai. 3:8,9. Tithes for the support of the priests were still in force, but were reluctantly paid. Ezra 3: 2, 3. (c) Sacrifice was at once renewed at Jerusalem upon the return from exile, if, indeed, it had ever wholly ceased. One of the earliest acts was the erection of an altar of burnt-offering upon the site of the former temple, that the regular sacrifices might be offered to Jehovah. These sacrifices were probably those provided for in Deuter- Mai. 1 : 7, 8, 12-14; onomy (cf. § 2 7 (4)) and earlier laws. Malachi denounces those who bring maimed, imperfect, and polluted offer ings, and insists upon the best of everything as an offer ing to Jehovah. (d) Times and seasons. — These probably continued the same as they had been under the Deuteronomic law. Ezra 3: 4. 5; Specific mention is made, in the literature that comes zech.97?2i-7; from these days, only of the Feast of the New Moon, the ec . .1,19. Feast of Tabernacles, the Passover, and of four fasts which had been observed every year since the beginning of the exile. Ezra 3: 10, n. (e) Other acts of worship. — (1) Music and singing are mentioned in connection with the laying of the founda- Mai. 1:14. tion stone of the temple. (2) Vows were still made. Neh'. M-n; 2:4; (3) Sorcery was not even yet wholly uprooted. (4) That the habit oi prayer was not discontinued is clear from Nehemiah's statements concerning himself at a little later time. § 34. The Priestly Character of the Prophetic Work of these later years is seen in — Hag. 1:8-10; (a) The emphasis laid upon the necessity of build- zech. 1:16; 4:9; . ' r J 6:12-15. ing the temple as a prerequisite to the enjoyment of Jehovah's favor. This is the main theme of Haggai's prophecy. zech. 3:1-10; (b) The prominence given to priestly interests in the 7 1 1-7; 8:' 18,' 19. utterances of Zechariah, who speaks of the temple, the high-priest, fasts, feasts, etc. Mai. 1:6-14; W Tne iarge place given to matters pertaining to Mai.1^^; worship in the book of Malachi, which probably comes Mai. 4:4.' from the very end of this period. The main interest of the author seems to be centered in an effort to reform the ritual and those who have charge of it. WORSHIP IN MIDDLE OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 4 1 §35. The Songs and Hymns of the Middle Period are very numerous. Their spirit may be gathered from the following examples : (1) Songs celebrating the deliverance of Jerusalem, Pss. 46; 48. as in the days of Hezekiah. (2) Songs describing the wickedness of the times, Pss. 36 ; 54 ; 64. as in the days of Manasseh. (3) Songs depicting the destruction of Jerusalem Pss. 80:31. and the going into captivity. (4) Songs expressing the sense of loneliness and Pss.137; 22; 69; wretchedness experienced during the exile. (5) Songs celebrating the joy and gladness of the Pss.i26;n5. return from exile. (6) Songs of the second temple, written particularly Pss. 106; 107. for congregational worship. It is to be noted concerning the songs thus classi fied— (a) That those of earlier date were considerably modified in the later days when the use of songs in congregational worship was more thoroughly established. (b) That it is exceedingly difficult to fix exactly the date of many psalms because of the lack of historical indications ; i. cf., references to historical events. {c) That many psalms which seem to express indi vidual experiences and aspirations are really congrega tional in their character; i. e., they were written to express the feelings of a community. (d) That a fuller treatment of this part of the ele ment of worship will be presented later (see chap, xviii). CHAPTER IV. THE HISTORY OF WORSHIP IN THE LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD. § 36. The Later Old Testament Period in the history of worship is the story of fudaism, that is, the Jewish religion, which was the daugh ter of the Hebrew religion. The period, rightly considered, (1) begins with the Babylonian exile (§ 30), for at that time were set in motion the great ideas, and the modifications of old ideas, which finally made up Judaism ; but (2) the time in which the distinct establishment and substantial development of Judaism took place falls within the two centuries of Persian supremacy (538-332 B. C.) ; while (3) the cen tury and a half from 332 B. C. to 165 B. C, the period of Greek influence, had for its great achievement the final testing and rounding- out of Judaism. See Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods, pp. v-vii ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 500 f. §37. Some of the Most Striking Characteristics of this period are these : (1) It is the last division of the Old Testament period. Is it a climax or an anti-climax ? Is it a step higher in the development of the true religious conception, or is it a step lower than has hitherto been taken ? Cf. Ezra 1:5. (2) It is prevailingly priestly in its character, for (a) a king no longer sits on Judah's throne ; (b) the prophet's voice and authority are now largely a thing of the past ; Zech. 3:1-7; while (c;) it is the high-priest who occupies the place of supremacy alike in church and state. In Israel's earli est days the king acted as priest ; now the priest acts as king. (3) It is distinctly an ecclesiastical situation which presents itself to our view ; in fact, we are studying the history of a church, not that of a state. Hen., chap. 8. (4) In view of all this, it is natural enough to find that the great event which characterized this period, the 42 WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 43 event which the sacred historians chronicled with especial emphasis, was the promulgation of the Levitical law by Ezra. With this we may compare the giving of the Deuteronomic law, in its relationship to the middle period (§28). § 38. The Situation Culminating with the Building of the Temple, 516 B. C, presents the following, among other, elements which may be taken. as directly grow ing out of the exile and leading up to this later period : (1) Jeremiah's teaching of individualism, which empha- Jer. 31 :a9-34; sized the fact that each individual sustained a distinct Deut. 24: 16. personal relation to Jehovah in addition to his relation to him as a part of the nation. Each man is responsible for his own sins and for those only, and his acceptance with God depends upon himself alone. (2) Ezekiel's teaching of the new community, a new Ezek., chaps. 40- city in which no government will be needed, for there will be no crime and no injustice. God will be judge. He will bestow upon the people all that they need. The city will have no obligation to provide for the wel fare of the people. God will fight Israel's battles, and Ezek. 39:1-16; Israel's only work will be to bury the corpses of the c Ezek. 17! 25-30. slain. What, now, will prince and people do ? Engage in worship, continual worship. The only object of care will be the temple and its materials ; the only taxes will be church taxes. This is Ezekiel's vision of the kingdom of God on earth. (3) There is general recognition of the idea that Ezek., chap. 18; Israel's religion, and, indeed, its national existence, was ' '& 3 not dependent upon a monarchy, nor, indeed, upon any particular form of government. (4) There exists a more general readiness to accept zech. 1:1-6; the teachings of the prophets, which at the time of their f/7joei2:28,29. utterance were unheeded or rejected. (5) The necessity for meeting together in small groups Ezek. 8:1; for worship, and the nature of the exercises possible cf. Ps! 74': 8. under the circumstances, viz., public reading of scrip ture and prayer, are leading to the organization of syna gogues. 4 4 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Exod. 20:23— (6) With the book of the Covenant (§ 20), and the book of Deuteronomy (§ 25) which had become the adopted code of religious life, and the more recent and more elabo- Ezek., chaps. 40- rate program of worship suggested by Ezekiel (§31), all cf. isa. 51 : 17-20. in existence, and all rendered impossible of observance by the circumstances of the people, there is seen to be a great indefiniteness and uncertainty in the situation, which, while confusing, signified most clearly that the "Law" was not yet finished, and prepared the minds of the people for the more definite and final formulation still to be made. cf. Ezra 1:2-4; (7) The broad and generous policy of Cyrus and his Ezra7:ii"6'; successors on the Persian throne, a policy of state and e •2:I~9, religion very different from that of preceding history, as well as from that of still later times, made possible in the way of progress and growth what otherwise would have been impossible. Jer. 24:1-10. (8) The higher character of the Babylonian Jews, and the special circumstances of their environment, as distinguished from that of the Jews who remained in Judah, forms an important factor in the movement toward national exclusiveness which is henceforth to be so prominent. Hag. 2:6-9; (9) The expectations, publicly announced, of Haggai and Zechariah that in the political upheavals of the day (i. e., the revolts of the Babylonians in 519 and 515 B. C. against the Persian rule) deliverance and glory would come to Israel ; the embassy of four Jews from Babylon, bringing gifts of silver and gold which are made into a Zech. 6:9-12. crown for Zerubbabel (not Joshua); and the fact that Zech. 3:8. Zerubbabel had been given the name Branch or Sprout — all this points to the suggestion that there were many who still expected a descendant of David to sit upon Israel's throne ; but the hope was impossible of realization because (a) the whole trend of events was toward the priestly rule, and (b) perhaps the Persian authorities may have interfered to prevent an act which would certainly have led to treason, t/!Neh.^cnap'. 6. just as they did in the case of the building of the walls. See Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, p. 15 ; Kent, op. cit., dd. 147 f. WORSHIP IN LATER OLD TESTAMENT PERIOD 45 (io) The residence in Babylon brought the Jews into close touch with an elaborate system of sacrifice, the most important characteristic of which was the propitia tory idea. This is significant in view of the fact that henceforward the greatest possible emphasis will be placed upon sacrifice as an atonement, and upon prayer Lev., chap. 16; t x Neh. i : 4-ix. for forgiveness. See Paul Haupt, " Babylonian Elements in the Levitical Ritual," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX, pp. 55-8 1; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 668. (i i) Because in Babylon there was no chance to offer isa. 58:3^.; Ezra 8:21; sacrifice, such a thing being utterly inconceivable, fasting Neh. 1:4; came into great prominence, since "by denying them- Zech. '7:3-5. selves their ordinary food they gave expression to the intensity of their feelings, and at the same time laid before Jehovah a gift which could be presented at any time and at any place." See Kent, op. cit., p. 43 ; Benzinger, article "Fasting," § 6, in Encyclopedia Biblica; Stanton, article "Fasting," §§ \b and 3, in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-1 1. (12) It was, likewise, because in Babylon the great Ezek. 20: 12-34. feast days could not be properly or regularly observed, that greater and greater attention was given to the observance of the sabbath, for this could be done any where. The nature of the observance was probably much influenced by the customs in vogue in Babylon. (13) The removal to another land, and residence in that land, took away the narrow conception of a national god which had always existed among the masses; and now the time has come when first the people as such will accept the great and fundamental doctrine of one isa. 44:6. god, i. " Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamenlliche Wissenschaft, 1883, pp. 129-77; Smend, " Ueber die Bedeutung des jerusalemischen Tempels in der alttestamentlichen Religion," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1884, pp. 689-740; Schurer, article " Tempel Salomo's" in Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alter- thums (1884); H. Pailloux, Monographic du temple de Salomon (1885); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887 f.), Vol. I, pp. 325-43, 446-67; Vol. II, pp. 45 ff., 113-28, 245-51 ; Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums (1887), pp. 42-60, 98-105, 113, 171; Th. Friedrich, Tempel und Palast Salomos u. s. w. (1887); O. Wolff, Der Tempel von Jerusalem und seine Maasse (1887); H. L. Schouten, De tabernakel Gods heiligdom by Israel (1888) ; C. Chipiez et G. Perrot, Le temple de Jerusalem et la maison du Bois-Libanon, restituh d 'apres Ezechiel el le livre des Rois (1889); F. v. Andrian, Der Hohenkult asiatischer und europdischer Volker (1891); Piepenbring, " Histoire des lieux de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel," Revue de I'his toire des religions, Vol. XXIV (1891), pp. 1-60, 133-86; E: de Broglie, "La loi de l'unite' de sanctuaire en Israel," Compte rendu du congris scientifique international des catholiques, 1892, 2d sect., pp. 69-89; Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Reli gion (1897), pp. 27-31, 98-103; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions geschichte (isted. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), pp. 128-38; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 243-9, 364-404; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol.11, pp. 1-86; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Tempel;" H. A. Poels, Le sanctuaire de fCirjath-Jearim (1895); S. A. Fries, Den israelitiska kultens centralisation (1895) ; E. Schure, Sanctuaires d'Orient, Egypte, Grlce, Palestine (1898); Aug. Freiherr von Gall, Altisraelitische Kult- stdtten (1898) ; B. A., "Die heiligen Statten in Palastina," Beilage zur Allgemeinen Zeitung (1898), No. 221 ; F. Tournier, "Notes sur les temples paiens de furviere a Pepoque romaine," L'Universiti catholique, 1899, pp. 361-92 ; Basset, "Les sanctu aires du Djebel Nefousa," Journal asiatique, 1900; Meinhold, Die Lade Jahves (1900); Ernst Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der judischen Gemeinde nach dem babylonischen Exit, Vol. II (1901), pp. 44-56 ; B. Stade, " Die Kesselwagen des salomonischen Tempels, : K6. 7 : 27-39," Zeitschrift .fiir die alttestamentliche Wis senschaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 145-90; K. Budde, "Die urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade Jahwe's," ibid. (1901). § 82. Supplementary Topics. 1. Consider the following citations from the book of Psalms : 5 : 7; 11:4; 20:2; 22:25; 24:3; 26:6-8, 12 ; 27 :4-6; 28 :2 ; 29:9; 36:8; 40:9; 42 : 4; 43^3 f-J 46:4; 48: 1 f., 8 f.; 51 :i8 f.; 52 :8 ; 55 : 14; 61 : 4; 63 -.2 ; 65: 1, 4; 66: 13; 68 : 15-17, 24, 29 ; 69:9; LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE PLACE OF WORSHIP 8 1 73:17; 74!2ff.; 76:2; 77^3; 78:54, 58, 60, 68 f.; 79:1-13; 84; 87; 92:13; 93:5; 96:6-8; 99:9; 100:4; I02:i3ff.; 114:2; 122; 125 : 1 ; 127: 1 (?); 132 ; 134; 135 : 1 f.; 138:2; and formulate a statement concerning the place of worship as it stands related to the idea of worship as expressed in the Psalter. i 2. Examine the allusions to the place of worship found in the apoc ryphal books, e. g., 1 Mace. 4 : 36-59 ; 5 : 1, 68 ; 6 : 7, 18, 26, 51, 54 ; 7=33-38; 9:54-57J 10:41-44; 11 : 37; 13: 3, 6; 14: 15, 48; 16:20; 2 Mace. 1 : 8, 15 ff., 18, 32-34 ; 2 : 1 ff., 17-19, 22 ; 3 : 2, 12, 14 ff.; 4:14; 5:!5-2i; 6:2-5; 8:17; 9:16; 10:1-8,26; 13:8,23; x4 : 4, 3I_33, 36 ; and note any important modifications which seem to have been made. 3. Consider the place of worship as it is referred to in the New Testament, e.g., in Matt. 4:3; 6:2,6; 9 : 35 ; 12 : 4-6, 9 ; 13 : 54; 21:12-14,23; 23 : 16-22, 35; 24 : 1 ff., 15 ; 26:61; 27:5; Mark 1 : 21-29; 3 = 1; 5 : 22, 35 ff.; 6 : 2 ff.; 11 : 15 ff., 27; 12 : 41 ff.; 13 : 1 ff., 9 ; 14 : 58 ; Luke 1 : 8-23 ; 2 : 22 ff., 41 ff.; 4 : 16, 20, 28, 33, 38, 44; 6:6; 8 .-41, 49; 13 : 10; 19 : 45 ff.; 21 : 1-6, 37 f.; 22 : 52 f. John 2 : 13-22; 4 : 19-24; 7: 14, 28 ; 11 : 55 ff.; 16 : 2; Acts 1 : 13 f. 2 : 1 ff., 46 ; 3 : 1 ff.; 4:1; 6 : 13 f . ; 9 : 1 f., 20 ; 13:14 f., 43 ; 14:1 16 : 16 ; 17:1 ff., 10, 17; 18 : 4, 8, 19 ; 19 : 8 f.; 20 : 7 ff.; 21 : 26 ff. 22:19; 25;8; 28 : 30 f.; 1 Cor. 8 : 10 ; 16:19; Eph. 2:19-22; 1 Tim. 3 : 15; Philem., vs. 1 ; Heb. 8 : 1 f.; 9 : 1-12, 24 f.; 10 : 19 f; 12:18 ff.; 13 : 10 ff.; Rev. 8 : 3 ; 9:13; 11: if., 19; 14:15,18; 15:5-8; 21:3,22; and formulate the points of difference which appear. 4. Study the origin and development of the synagogue, noting (a) its relation to the temple, (b) the different character of its services as compared with those of the temple, (c) its origin in response to a great religious need, and {d) its historical significance as the forerunner of the church, the Christian place of worship. See, e. g., Ezek. 8:1; 20 : 1-3 ; Ps. 74 : 8 ; Matt. 9 : 35 ; 12:9; Mark 5 : 35; 6 : 1 ff.; Acts 9 : 1 ff.; 13 : 13 ff.; 14 : 1 ; 17:1, etc.5 5. Study the causes which led to the building of the Samaritan 5 See article " Synagogue " in Encyclopedia Britannica ; E. H. Plumptre, article "Synagogue " in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. I, pp. 428 ff.; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (see Index, s. v. " Synagogue ") ; Schurer, History of the Jewish People in the Time of Christ, Div. II, Vol. I, pp. 52-83 ; Edersheim, Life and Times of fesus the Messiah, Vol. I, pp. 430-50 ; Ferguson, The Synagogue Service in the Time of Christ; Kent, A History of the Jewish People (see Index). 82 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT temple on Mount Gerizim. Was this movement a source of strength or of weakness to the Jewish community in Jerusalem ? What was the attitude of Jesus toward the Samaritan temple ? See, e. g., Ezra, chap. 4; Neh. 2 : 18-20 ; 4: 1-23 ; 6 : [-19; 13 : 28; John 4 : 19-24 (cf. §45). 6. Consider the causes which have led to the change of view as to the function of the place of worship seen in the fact that originally a temple was looked upon as the abode of the deity, while now it is regarded primarily as a meeting-place for worshipers. 7. Make a special study of Hezekiah's reform (see 2 Kings 18: 3-7, 22; cf. 2 Chron. 29:3 — 31:20; 32:12), considering (1) the question concerning the age of the narratives; (2) the preparation for such a reform prior to Hezekiah's time; (3) the suggestion that the reform followed, rather than preceded, Sennacherib's invasion ; (4) the prob able relation of Isaiah to the reform movement; (5) the influence of such an attempt in preparing the way for a later reform. See W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel, p. 363 ; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 607 f., 623; Renan, History of the People of Israel, Vol. II, p. 518 ; Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah, p. 365 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, p. 23 ; Stade, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill, pp. 8 ff.; VI, pp. 170 ff.; KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews,Vol. II, pp. 355 ff.; Cheyne, article "Hezekiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible ;M.cCi,ymont, article "Heze kiah," Encyclopedia Biblica; and the commentaries on Kings by Kittel, Benzinger, and Skinner. CHAPTER VII. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE, CONSIDERED COMPARA TIVELY. §83. Sacrifice in the Early Period, that is, as described in {a) the Covenant Code, (b) the historical material of J and E, (c) the pre- Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings, and {d) the pre- Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note 1). 1. Kinds of offerings.1 Gen. 28 :i8; 35 : 14; Exod. 8 : 20 f.; 10 : 24 ff.; 18 : 12 ; 20 : 24 ; 24 : 5 ; Judg. 6 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 10:8; 21:6 ; 1 Kings 3:4; 12 126-33 ; 2 Kings 16:12 f.; Isa. 1:11-13; Hos. 4: 13; 9 = 4; 11:2. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Gen. 4:3; 15 :g ff.; 8 : 20 ff.; 22 : 1-13 ; 28 : 18 ; 35 : 14; Exod. 20 : 24; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14; Judg. 13 : 16-19 ; 6:18-24,26; 1 Sam. 7:9 f.; 21:6 ; 1 Kings 8:5. 3. Manner of sacrifice. Exod. 34 : 25 ; 23 : 18 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 ; I Sam. 2 : 13-17 ; 2 Sam. 6:13; 1 Kings 18 : 30-38; 2 Kings 16:12 f. 4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. Gen. 46:1b; Exod. 23:15^/ 34:20c/ Numb. 23:1-4, 14; Judg. 6:18-24; 13:16-19; 1 Sam. 1 : 3 £f . ; 6:15; 7-9^ u:i5; 20:29; 2 Sam. 6 : 13, 17 f.; 24 : 22-25 ; 1 Kings 8:5; 18 : 30-38. 5. Sacrifice was often a social or family meal. Gen. 18:1-8; 31 : 54 ; Exod. 18:12; Numb. 22 : 40 ; Deut. 27 :6b, 7; 1 Sam. 1 : 3ff.; 9: 12 f.; 16 : 2, 5 ; 20: 29. 6. Human sacrifice was not unknown. Gen. 22:1-13; Hos. I3:2(?). 7. Sacrifice to idols was common. Exod. 32:6; 1 Kings 12:26-33; 2 Kings 5 : 17(?): IO '¦ '9. 24f-I Hos. 4:13; 11:2. 8. The priest was given a share of the sacrifice. 1 Sam. 2: 13-17. ¦The following are J-references : Gen. 4:3; 8:20 ff.; 18:1-8; 35:14; Exod. 8 :20 f.; 34 : 20c, 25 ; Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14 (?); Deut. 27 : bb, 7 (?). The following are E-references: Gen. 15:9 ff.; 22:1-13, 28:18; 31:54; ^:lb; E-xod. 10 : 24 ff.; 18 : 12 ; 20 : 24 ; 23 :15<;, 18; 24 : 5 ; 32 : 6 ; Numb. 22 : 40. 83 84 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 9. The prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. Amos 4 : 4 f.; 5:22-25; Hos. 3:4; 4:13. J9: o:6; 8:13; 9:4; 11:2; 13:2; Isa. 1 : 11-13 ; 34 : 6. § 84. Questions and Suggestions. 1. What were the various kinds of offerings made in this period ? What significance attached to each kind — for example, what was the meaning of the burnt-offering? of the peace-offering? of the pass- over offering ? Consider to what extent (a) sacrifice in this period was equivalent to a social meal ; (b) the eating of meat was a sacrificial act ; (c) the spirit of joy accompanied the act. 2. Note the kinds of material used in sacrifice, for example, the flesh of animals (what animals? animals of what age?), oil, wine, meal. What was the reason underlying the use of each of these kinds of material ? 3. Why was leavened bread not to be used in connection with a sacrifice ? Why was no part of the sacrifice to be left over until the morning of the following day ? What points concerning sacrifice maybe noted in connection with Balaam's sacrifice (Numb. 23 : 1-4, 14, 27-30)? Consider the custom of the priests in Samuel's time, and what it involved. Study Elijah's sacrifice on Gilgal, and note the bearing of the details on the subject. 4. Upon what occasion, and under what circumstances, were sacri fices offered ? What purpose lay in the mind of the offerer ? What was sought for in the act ? 5. When sacrifice was only a social or family meal, what was the religious element ? Was the deity ever thought to partake of the meal ? Was the deity ever supposed to be related to the family ? What was the connection between this social act and the spirit of joy which, in early times, seems to have characterized the act of sacrifice ? 6. Consider the willingness of Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac, and what was involved in this willingness ? Explain to yourself the custom of human sacrifice ; how could it have arisen ? what wrong ideas did it rest upon ? 7. Note some of the instances in which sacrifice was offered to idols. Since the idols were believed to represent deities, either that of Israel or those of other nations, was this not something clearly to have been expected ? 8. Note that in this period the priest, whatever other kind of support he may have received, was given a share of the sacrifice. 9. Formulate a statement containing the substance of the prophet's LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 8$ attitude toward sacrifice ; and consider whether the prophet was opposing {a) the act of sacrifice itself; or (b) a cold, indifferent, hypo critical spirit, with which men in those days had become accustomed to offer sacrifice ; or {c) the feeling, which had become quite general, that sacrifice was enough to gain Jehovah's pleasure, that this was all that he expected, and that this, without reference to conduct, con stituted religion. § 85. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on sacrifice in the early period, embodying the material presented above. § 86. Sacrifice in the Middle Period, that is, as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuter onomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings. 1. Kinds of offerings.2 Deut. 12 : 4-7, 16 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 17 : 26 ; 33 : 1 1, 18. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Jer. 6 : 20 ; Isa. 43 : 23 ff.; 1 Sam. 2 : 27. 3. Manner of offering. Deut. 12 : 27; 16 : 7; Jer. 33 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 27. 4. Occasion and purpose of offerings. Deut. 16 : 2-4 ; 1 Sam. 3:14; Jer. 33 : 11. 5. Social element in sacrifice. Deut. 12 = 4-14; 1 Kings 3:15. 6. Slaughter and sacrifice are no longer synonymous terms. Deut. 12 : 15, 20-28. 7. Priest's portion of the sacrifice. Deut. 18 : 3, 4 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 28, 36. 8. Human sacrifice still existed. Mic. 6 : 6-8. 9. Prophets' attitude toward sacrifice. Zeph. 1 -.7, 8; Mic. 6:6-8; Jer. 6:20; 7:21 f., 29; 17:26; 33 : 11,18 ; 46 :io ; Isa. 43:23 f- § 87. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Note in Deut. 12 : 4-7 (a) the kinds of offerings mentioned (including tithe, heave-offering, free-will offering), and {b) the spirit of rejoicing in which these offerings are to be made. Consider in Mic. 6 : 6-8 {a) the possibilities of sacrifice (including that of one's own child), {b) the purpose of sacrifice, and {c) the requirement of Jehovah. 2. Consider the materials used in sacrifice, as mentioned in passages 2 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuteronomy. 86 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT cited above, and note any variations in comparison with those used in the earlier age. 3. Consider (a) the use made of the blood ; its pouring on the altar ; (b) the roasting of the flesh ; (c) the eating of the flesh ; (d) the employ ment of men "to burn meal-offerings and to do sacrifice." 4. Consider the connection of the Passover with the going-up of Israel out of Egypt, (a) in relation to time (was there not a spring feast celebrated by the ancient nations before the exodus ?) ; (b) in relation to ceremony (why was unleavened bread to be used ?) ; (c) in relation to the purpose of the act. Was the sacrifice intended to purge or purify from sin ? Was sacrifice intended also to be an expression of gratitude for some favor already received ? 5. Is the social element still to be seen in this period, that is, does the family or clan meal, with all its social accompaniments, constitute a sacrifice ? 6. What new distinction has arisen as between the slaughter of ani mals and the act of sacrifice ? Wherein does the distinction consist? What led to the making of the distinction ? What, naturally, will follow as a result of making this distinction ? 7. Note (a) the particular portions of each animal sacrificed, which are assigned as the portion of the priest, that is, for his maintenance ; (b) the additional perquisites he receives in the way of grain, oil, wine, and meal ; and (c) the ground for these gifts. 8. What evidence is there that in this period human beings are still used for sacrifice ? 9. Consider the attitude of the prophets of this period toward sac rifice, and determine (see §84, 9) the real meaning of this attitude. §88. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will contain, in some detail, the differences between the usages of the middle period in respect to sacrifice, and those of the early period. §89. Sacrifice as Presented by Ezekiel. 1. Kinds of offerings. Ezek. 40:39; 42:13; 46:12; 45:13-17; 20:40. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Ezek. 44 : 15 ; 46 :4-7. 3. Manner of sacrifice. Ezek. 40:38-43; 44:n, 15 ; 46:4-15, 24. 4. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. Ezek. 46:4-15 ; 43:18-27; 45:13-25. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 87 5. Sacrifice was still thought of as a banquet. Ezek. 39:17-20; 46:24. 6. Sacrifice was still offered to idols. Ezek. 20 : 28-3 1. 7. Human sacrifice. Ezek. 16:20 f.; 23 ijg. 8. Priests retained a share of the sacrifice. Ezek. 42 : 13. §90. Constructive Work. — Consider the various allusions to sacri fice in Ezekiel, under the topics suggested above, and prepare a statement covering {a) the points of resemblance and difference in comparison with the facts of the early and middle periods ; {b) the more formal and official character with which sacrifice seems to be invested by Ezekiel ; (c) the exceedingly elaborate system of sacrifice provided for, e. g., in 46 : 4-15 ; (d) the fact that, notwithstanding all this, the earlier idea of sacrifice as a banquet still exists (39 : 17-20 ; 46 : 24). §91. Sacrifice in the Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code, (b) by the priestly prophets, and {c) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. 1. Kinds of offerings.3 Lev. 7: 1, 11 ; 6 : g, 14, 25 ; 8 : 22 ; 23: 106, 11, 13 ; Exod. 25 : 30; 30 : 7 ; Numb. 15 :ig ; 5 : 11-31. 2. Materials of sacrifice. Lev. 1 : 1-3, 10, 14 ; 2 : 1, 4 f., 7, 11, 13-15 ; 3 : 1, 3 f., 6 f., g f ., 12, 14 f ., 16 f.; 5:6 f., 11 ; 6 : 1-7, 15, igf.; 7 : 3-5, 11 ff.; g : 1-4 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14: 10, 49 ; 24 : 5-9 ; Numb. 15 : 1-21 ; Exod. 2g : 1-3, 22 f ., 38-42 ; Numb., chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 34-38 ; Lev. 22 : 18-25, 27 f.; 23: 10^-14. 3. The fat and blood are regarded as especially sacred. Lev. 7 : 22-27 ; 8 : 15, 23 f.; g : ig-21 ; 17 : 6 ; etc. 4. Manner of sacrifice. Lev. 1 : 3-9, 11-13, 15-17 ; 2 : 1 f ., 4-16 ; 3 : 1-17 ; 4 : 1-35 ; 5 : 8 1, 12 ; 6 : 1-7, 8-13, 14-18, 19-23, 24-30 ; 7 : 1 ff., 11-21 ; 8 : 14-30 ; g : 8-11, 12-14, 15-24; 14:10-32, 49-53; 16:3-28:24:5-9; Numb. 5 : 11-31; ig : 1-22 ; Exod. 29 : 10-42 ; 30 : 7-10 ; Lev. 22 : 2g f.; ig : 5-8. 5. Occasion and purpose of sacrifice. Lev. 4 : 1-3, 13 f., 20, 22-28, 31, 35 ; 5 : 1-6, 13-15. 17-19 ; 6 : 1-7. 30 ; g : 7 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 14 : 20, 31, 53 ; 15 : 13-15. 28-30 ; 23 : 10^-21 ; Numb. 5 : 11-31 ; 15 : 17-21, 22-28 ; ig : 1-22 ; chap. 28 ; Exod. 30 : 7-10. 3 References to the Levitical Code are in bold-face type. 88 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 6. The priests' share of the sacrifice. Lev. 2:3, io; 5:13; 6:16-18,26,29; 7:6-10,14,28-38; 8:31; 10:12- 20; Numb. 5:5-10; Exod. 29:27-32; Numb. 18:8-20. 7. All slaughter is sacrificial. Lev. 17: 1-9. 8. Few references to idolatrous sacrifices. Lev. 17:7. 9. Attitude of the prophets toward sacrifice. Isa. 19:21; 56:7; 66:3 ; Mai. 1:7-9; 3 : 3~5 ; Joel 1:9, 13; 2: 14; Dan. 9 : 27. 10. Sacrifice is given a large place in the later histories. 1 Chron. 15 : 26 ; 16: 1 ; 21 : 26 ff.; 29: 21 f.; 2 Chron. 1:5 ; 2:4; 5:6; 7 : 4 ff.; 8 : i2f.; 11:16:13:11; 15:11; 24: 14 ; 29 : 20-36 ; 30: 15 ff.; 3i:2ff.; 33 : i6f.; Ezra3:2ff.; 6:17; 7:17; 8:35; 10:19; Neh. io:33f.; i2:43f. 1 1. Prominence of the idea of sin in connection with sacrifice. Lev. 4:35; chap. 16; g:3; io:i6ff.; Numb. 15:22-31; 19:1-9. §92. Questions and Suggestions. — How much in detail the various topics concerning sacrifice in the later period shall be taken up will be determined in some measure by one's archaeological interests. In any case, these topics deserve consideration because of their sociological, as well as their religious, bearing : 1. Prepare a list of the kinds of offerings, viz., burnt-offering, peace-offering, sin-offering, etc., including vows, the offering involved in Naziritism, the offering of purification. From the passages describ ing each, and from a study of the name (in English and, if possible, in Hebrew), differentiate these various offerings from each other and determine what was distinctly characteristic in each case. Consider, now, whether any principle of classification exists ; e. g. : (a) Are they, in each case, voluntary or obligatory? (b) Are they, in each case, self-dedicatory, eucharistic, or expiatory? Suggest any other possible bases for classification. 2. Take up, one by one, the materials which might be used in sac rifice, noting, (a) in reference to animal offerings : (1) the particular animals which were deemed acceptable ; (2) the possible explanations of the selection of these animals with the rejection of others ; (3) whether the distinction between clean and unclean animals + was in any way connected with the choice for sacrifice ; (b) in reference to vegetable * Cf. Lev., chap. 1 1 ; Deut. 14 : 3-21 ; and see G. A. Simcox, article " Clean and Unclean," §8, in Encyclopedia Biblica, and chap. x. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING SACRIFICE 89 offerings: (i) the particular vegetables authorized ; (2) the reason or reasons for this selection ; ( J Chron. 23 : 31 ; 2 Chron. 35 : 1-19. 9. Sacrifices are multiplied in connection with feasts. Numb., chap. 29 ; 15 : 3 ; 2 Chron. 2:4; 30 : 24 ; 35 : 7-9. 10. Attitude of the prophets toward feasts. Zech. 14: 16-19; Joel ! : '4; 2:15. 11. Thought of sin predominant in feasts. Lev. 23: 19; chap. 16; Numb. 28 : 15, 22, 30; 29 -.5, 11, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 38 ; Exod. 30 : 10. 12. Day of Atonement. Lev. 23: 27-32 ; chap. 16 ; Numb. 29 : 7-1 1 ; Exod. 30: 10. 'References in bold-face type are from the Levitical code of laws. 102 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 13. Feast of Purim. Esther 8:17; 9: 15-32. § 104. Questions and Suggestions. 1. In the later regulations and references relating to the Feast of the Passover and Unleavened Bread, note (1) the new phrases, "set feasts," "holy convocations," "appointed seasons;" (2) the exactness with which the date is fixed; (3) the absence of " servile work ; " (4) the burnt-offering, and the meal-offering prescribed, the sin-offering which accompanies, and all this beside the continual burnt-offering; (5) that in time (cf. Exod. 12 : 1-20) the opinion comes to prevail that the Passover had been established before the exodus "in order that Jehovah might spare the firstborn of Israel, not because he had spared them;" (6) the restrictions placed upon participation in the Passover (Exod. 12:43-50); (7) the observance according to Chronicles (2 Chron. 30:13-27) of the Feast of Unleavened Bread in Hezekiah's times; (8) Josiah's Passover (2 Chron. 35: 1— 19); (9) Ezra's Passover; (10) the place of all these observances; (11) their general character; (12) that the offerings have the nature of fixed dues, rather than of voluntary gifts. 2. In the references to the Feast of Weeks, note (1) that the same general characteristics appear as in the case of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (see above) ; (2) that after the fall of Jerusalem it becomes a feast commemorating the giving of the law on Sinai, and is no longer considered a nature feast. 3. In the references to the Feast of Tabernacles, note (1) the same points as were considered above in the case of the preceding feasts, viz., fixing of date, multiplication of various kinds of offerings for each day, no servile work, etc.; (2) the chronicler's account of Solomon's observance of this feast in connection with the bringing up of the ark (2 Chron. 5 : 3 ff.) ; (3) Solomon's dedication of the temple in con nection with this same feast (2 Chron. 7 : 8-10); (4) the observance in connection with the beginning of the second temple (Ezra 3 : 4); (5) the dwelling in booths in Ezra's time (Neh. 8 : 13-18). 4. The system of feasts now includes more definitely the Feast of the New Moon, concerning which it may be noted, (1) that a regular ceremonial is instituted ; (2) that frequent mention is made of it in connection with the sabbath. Consider (3) what has led to this larger emphasis. 5. Consider, in the case of the Feast of Trumpets, (1) its connec tion with the sabbatical system;8 (2) the provisions given for its 8See chap. ix. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING FEASTS 103 observance ; (3) the general provision for the blowing of trumpets with various feasts. 6. In all the cases presented consider (1) the fact that now the exact day of the month is prescribed ; (2) the significance of this fact, as compared with the looser designations of earlier regulations. 7. In all the cases presented consider (1) the fact that the agri cultural significance has been lost ; (2) the fact that, even in the case of the Feast of Tabernacles (the last of all to receive this treatment), a historical meaning has been suggested and adopted; (3) the signifi cance of these facts as seen in the routine of the ceremonial and the general character of the feasts. 8. Consider (1) whether, although no explicit statement occurs in the legislative material covering the point, it is not everywhere taken for granted that all feasts shall be celebrated at one place, viz., Jerusa lem ; and (2) whether this is not the understanding of the prophets and historians of the period. 9. Consider, in the case of all the feasts, (1) whether the largest emphasis is not now placed upon the sacrifice; (2) whether, in fact, with the great multiplication of sacrifices, everything else is not prac tically ignored; (3) the influence of this upon the people; (4) the explanation of it. 10. What appears to have been the attitude of the later prophets toward these feasts? Is there any longer indifference, lack of appre ciation, or hostility ? Why has this change of attitude come about ? Does Judaism (Israel's religion after the exile) adopt an entirely new policy in reference to feasts, as compared with prophetism (Israel's religion before the exile)? Were the prophets of this period really priests, and, in consequence, in sympathy with everything priestly ? Had prophecy now died ? n. Is it a fact that the idea of sin is now everywhere promi nent ? that, indeed, this idea is the controlling idea? that, therefore, confession instead of rejoicing is the order of the day ? If this is the fact, how is it to be explained ? 12. Concerning the Day of Atonement, one may undertake to answer the following questions: (1) Was it observed in the early or middle period, or did its observance arise only in the later period ? (2) Is there any connection between it and Ezekiel's days of atonement (45: 18-20) ? (3) Or with the days of fasting held in commemoration of national calamities mentioned in Zech. 7:3558:19? (4) Or with the day of fasting (the twenty-fourth day of the month) mentioned in 104 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Neh. 9:1? (5) What was the fundamental idea in this observance? Was propitiation thought of as being made in behalf of the individual or of the nation? Were the sanctuary and the land also included ? (6) What evidence does the ritual furnish as to the fundamental idea ? (7) What is the meaning of the phrases "sabbath of solemn rest," "afflict your souls" (Lev. 16 : 31)? (8) What conception of God gave rise to the idea of sin involved in this institution ? 13. In the case of the Feast of Purim consider (1) its origin and occasion ; (2) its date ; (3) the question of its connection (a) with a Persian feast, (b) with a Babylonian feast ; (4) the meaning of the name; (5) the method of observance.9 § 105. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show the more important differences in the observance of the feasts between the usage of the middle period and that of the later period. § 106. Literature to Be Consulted. A, P. Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church, Vol. I, Appendix iii = Z% pp. 341-60; Michaelis, Comm. in leg. Mosis (1775-80), Vol. I, pp. 76-419; Franke, Novum systema chronologiae fundamentalis (1778); Hug, "Ueber das mosaische Gesetz vom Jubeljahr," Zeitschrift fur das Erzbisthum, I, I; De Wette, Lehrbuch der hebrdisch-jiidischen Archdologie (1st ed. 1814, 4th ed. 1864), pp. 211 f.; Baur, "Der hebraische Sabbath und die Nationalfeste des Mosaischen Kultus," Tubinger Zeit schrift, 1832, pp. 125 f.; Vatke, Die Religion des Allen Testamentes (1835), Vol. I, pp. 198 f.; Kranold, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1835); G. Wolde, De anno Hebraeorum jubilaeo (1837); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus (1839), Vol. I, pp. 572 f.; II, pp. 569 f., 601 f.; Winer's Biblisches Realworterbuch (3d ed. 1847), articles "Sabbath," etc.; Ewald, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. I (1847), pp. 410 ff.; Brugsch, ibid., Vol. Ill (1849), pp. 271 ff.; Proudhon, De la celebration du Dimanche ( 1850); OsCHWALD, Die christliche Sonntagsfeier (1850); Liebetrut, Die Sonntagsfeier das Wochenfest des Volkes Gottes (1851); Herzfeld, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1855), pp. 458-65 ; Saalschutz, Archdologie der Hebrder, Vol. II (1856), pp. 224 ff., 308 ff.; Zuckermann, Sabbathjahrcyclus und fubelperiode (1857); Hupfeld, Commentatio de Hebraeorum festis, Part III (1858); Keil, Handbuch der biblischen Archdologie (ist ed. 1858 f., 2d ed. 1875), Vol. I, §§77 ff.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka (transl. from Dutch 1864), pp. 34 f.; Kubel, " Die sociale und volkswirtschaftliche Gesetzgebung des Alten Testamentes," Theo logische Studien und Kritiken, 1871, pp. 760 ff.; Steiner, article "Jubeljahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. Ill (1871); Schrader, " Der babylonische Ursprung der siebentagigen Woche," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343 ff.; Mangold, articles "Sabbat" and "Sabbatsjahr" in Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol.1 (1875), pp. 431 ff.; Klostermann, "tjber die kalendarische Bedeutung des Jobeljahres," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1880, pp. 720-48; Dillmann, Die Biicher Exodus und Leviticus (2d ed. 1880), pp. 602 ff.; Budde, Die biblische Urgeschichte (1883), pp. 493 ff.; Lotz, Quaestiones de historia sabbathi (1883); Hoffmann, " Versuche zu Amos," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 120 f.; Oehler, articles "Sabbath" and "Sabbath- und lobeljahr," revised by VON Orelli, in Real encyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed. 1884); Riehm, articles "Jobeljahr," "Sabbath," "Sabbathjahr" in Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (ist ed. 1884, 2d ed. 1893 f.); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 498 f.; Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuchs (2d ed. 1889), pp. 187 f.; Jensen, Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV (1889), pp. 274 ff.; H. L. Strack, Der Mischnatraktat "Sabbath " herausgegeben und erkldrt (1890); Baentsch, Das Bundes- buch—Ex. XX. 22 — XXIII. 33 (1892), pp. 115 f.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestament lichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" and "Jubeljahr;" Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebraischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, pp.217, 333; II, pp. 138-44. 159-72; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), PP- 201 f., 464 ff., 473 f.; Gunkel, Schopfung und Chaos (1895), pp. I3f., 1 14-17 ; Dill mann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr" and "Sabbat;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), see Index, s. v. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING THE SABBATH II7 "Sabbat" and "Jobeljahr;" Holzinger, Exodus (Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Sabbath" (1900); Bertholet, Leviticus (Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), see Index, s. v. "Jobeljahr," "Sabbat," (1901). See also the Mishnah tracts on "The Sabbath" and "The Book of Jubilees," chap. 50. § 121. Supplementary Topics. 1. Study the meaning of the word "sabbath," its derivation, its usage. 2. Examine the following texts in which the root FQTZJ occurs, with a view to determining the meaning of the root, viz.: Gen. 2 : 2 f.; 8:22; Exod. 16:30; 12: 15; 23: 12; 34:21; Josh. 5 : 12; Isa. 13: n; 14:5; 30 : 7 ; Ps. 8 : 3 ; Prov. 20 : 3. 3. Study the passages in which the word llfQUJ (ordinarily trans lated "solemn rest") occurs, viz.: Lev. 23:3, 24, 32, 39; 16:31; 25:4; Exod. 16:23; 35:2; 31:15, with a view to determining its meaning. 4. Examine the words bn*1 ("jubilee"), "fill ("liberty"). 5. From an examination of 1 Mace. 1:39, 43, 45; 2:32-41; 6:49; 9 : 43 ff-J ^: 34! 2 Mace. 5:24-26; 6 : 6, 1 1 ; 12 : 38 ; 15: 1-5, prepare a statement concerning the sabbath in Maccabean times. 6. Is the sabbath referred to in the Wisdom books, or in the Psalms (cf. the title of Ps. 92)? Why not? 7. From a study of the following references from the New Testa ment discuss the attitude of Jesus and the several New Testament writers toward the sabbath : Matt. 12 : 1 f., 5, 8, 10 ff.; 24 : 20 ; 28 : 1 ; Mark 1:21; 2 : 23 f., 27 f.; 3 : 2, 4 ; 6:2; 15 : 42 ; 16:1; Luke 4:16, 31 ; 6 : 1 ff., 5 ff., 9 ; 13 : 10, 14 ff.; 14 : 1, 3, 5 ; 23 : 54, 56 ; John 5 : 9 f., 16, 18 ; 7 : 22 f.; 9 : 14, 16 ; 19:3!; Acts 1:12; 13 : 14, 27, 42, 44; 15:21; 18 : 4 ; 21:27; 28 : 14 ; Col. 2:16; Heb. 4:4; Rev. 1 : 10. 8. Compare, in general, the observance of special rest-days among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and determine whether there is any possible connection between these days and the sabbath.7 9. Compare, in general, the observance, on the part of the Assyrians, 1 Cf. Maspero, Romans et Poisies au Papyrus Harris, No. joo, pp. 38 f. 41; Chabas, Le calendrier des jours fastes et nefastes de Vannle igyptienne; Wiedemann, Religion of the Egyptians, pp. 263 f. ; Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American fournal of Theology, Vol. II, p. 350, note 116; Budge, Egyptian Magic, pp. 224-8; Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indo-Europder, pp. 145, 309-58 ff. (in English translation = The Evolution of the Aryan, New York, 1897); H. Cohen, "Der Sabbath in seiner culturgeschichtlichen Bedeutung," Zeitgeist (Milwaukee, Wis.), 1881, pp. 4ft.; Dozy, Die Israeliten zu Mekka, pp. 34 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel, 1 1 8 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Arabs, and Canaanites, of special rest-days, and determine whether there is any connection between these days and the sabbath.8 io. Consider, in general, the whole sabbatical system, and show (a) its origin, (b) its various stages of development, (c) its social bear ings, (d) its religious significance, (e) its idealism, (/) its practical character. n. Consider the relation of the sabbath to the moon, the new- moon feast, etc. Was the sabbath originally a lunar festival ? Cf. §§97 (9). i°4 (4)- 12. Consider the origin and significance of the use of the number seven in the Old Testament, as seen, e. g., in the sabbatical system, in the proceedings connected with the capture of Jericho, in the Hebrew verb "to swear, take oath" (literally = "to seven oneself" or "be sev- ened"), in the seven kine of Pharaoh's dream, etc. 13. What is the relation of the Old Testament sabbath to the "Lord's day" of the New Testament, (a) as to the day observed, (b) as to the spirit characteristic of the observance ? Vol. I, pp. 262 f.; Lepsius, Chronologic der Aegypter, Vol. I, pp. 22, 132 ff.; Brugsch, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. Ill, p. 271 ; Nowack, Hebrdische Archdologie, Vol. II, pp. 141 f. 8 Cf. Morris Jastrow, " Original Character of the Hebrew Sabbath," American Journal of Theology, Vol. II, pp. 312-52; Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs, p. 245 ; Schrader, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 343-53; Francis Brown, " The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records," Presbyterian Review, 1882, pp. 688-700; C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian Deeds and Documents, Vol, II, pp. 40 f. (See also §120.) CHAPTER X. THE LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, CONSIDERED COMPARATIVELY. § 122. The Clean and Unclean in the Early Period, i. e., as described in (a) the Covenant Code ; {b) the historical material of J and E ; {c) the pre-Deuteronomic portions of Judges, Samuel, and Kings; and (d) the pre-Deuteronomic prophetic utterances (see § 59, note i).1 1. Traces of totemism. Gen. 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26. 2. Distinction between clean and unclean is ancient. Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20. 3. Sources of uncleanness. Gen. 35 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 11:4; 2 Kings 5 : 10-14 ; Isa. 30 : 22. 4. Non-Israelitish lands are unclean. Amos 7:17; Hos. 9 : 3. 5. Forbidden food. Exod. 23 : ig*/ 34 : 26^/ 22 : 31.2 6. Cleanness is necessary to participation in religious exercises. Gen. 35 :2 ; Exod. 3:5; 19:10; 1 Sam. 20:26 ; Judg. 13 : 4, 7, 14 ; Isa. 6 : 5 ; 2 Kings 10: 22 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 14. 7. Attitude of prophets toward clean and unclean. Amos 7:17; Hos. 9:3; Isa. 1 : 16 ; 6:5; 30 : 22. § 123. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Consider (1) the meaning of " every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians," and what is involved in the statement ; (2) the meaning of "sacrifice the abomination ot the Egyptians;" (3) whether that which is called an "abomination" may have been something sacred or holy, *". e., something worshiped, for example, an animal ; (4) whether, as a matter of fact, there existed in Israel cases of special association between certain kinds of animals and certain tribes or certain towns;3 1 The following references are from J : Gen. 7 : 2, 8 ; 8 : 20 ; 43 : 32 ; 46 : 34 ; Exod. 8 : 26 ; 34 : 2bb. The following are from E : Gen. 35 : 2 ; Exod. 22 : 3I1J/ 23 : 19*. 2 These references are from the Covenant Code. 3 Cf. Nun (Fish), Exod. 33 : 1 1 ; Terah (Ibex), Gen. 11:27; Leah (Wild Cow), Gen. 29:16; and see R. G. Murison, "Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII, pp. 170 ff. 119 120 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (5) whether there are not cases in which animals are regarded as having superhuman power;4 (6) whether the second commandment does not imply that the Israelites were addicted to animal-worship : (7) whether actual historical proof of this is not found in the story of the worship of the calf (Exod. 32 : 7-24) and of the brazen serpent (Numb. 21 : 8 f.; 2 Kings 18:4); (8) the meaning and significance of totemism? 2. Note (1) the distinction between clean and unclean animals made in the narrative of the deluge, and consider (2) whether the words unclean and sacred may not be used synonymously; that is, was not the unclean thing (whether animal or person or object) something in connection with which " a superhuman agency of a dangerous kind " was supposed to be acting, and which, therefore, was, from one point of view, sacred, from another, unclean ? (3) whether this is not to be closely associated with the usage existing among many nations and called taboo.'' 3. Consider the source of uncleanness in the case of (1) Jacob's household, (2) Bathsheba, (3) Naaman the Syrian, (4) the graven images (Isa. 30 : 22) ; and formulate a statement which will (a) classify these sources and (b) explain the idea of uncleanness in each case. 4. Consider the idea that for an Israelite any other land than his own was unclean, and explain the basis on which this idea rests. 5. Note the prohibition of eating (1) a kid boiled in its mother's milk,7 (2) the flesh torn of beasts ; and explain the significance of the usage in each case. Are there in the Covenant Code other prohibi tions concerning the eating of food ? 6. Explain (1) the "washing of garments" in Exod. 19 : 10 ; (2) the reason assigned by Saul for Jonathan's absence (1 Sam. 20:26); (3) the connection of " eating no unclean thing " with the Nazirite (Judg. 13:4); (4) Isaiah's confession of unclean lips (Isa. 6:5); (5) the putting off of shoes (Exod. 3:5); (6) the use of the vestments (2 Kings 10: 22); (7) the use of the linen ephod (2 Sam. 6 : 14). 7. How far were the current ideas concerning clean and unclean " Cf. Gen. 3 : 1 ff.; Numb. 21 : 8 f.; Ezek. 8 : 10 f. s See especially J. G. Frazer, Totemism; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 125 ff. ; and other literature cited in § 134. 6 See especially J. G. Frazer, article " Taboo," Encyclopedia Britannica ; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), pp. 152 ff., 446 ff. 'See Kalisch, Commentary on Exod. 23: 19b, and W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites (2d ed.), p. 221. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 121 accepted by the prophets ? Consider, for example, (i) the view held concerning foreign lands ; (2) the exhortation to wash and become clean (Isa. 1:6); (3) Isaiah's feeling concerning himself (6 : 5); (4) the treatment of graven images (Isa. 30 : 22). §124. Constructive Work. — From the material furnished prepare a general statement upon the idea of the clean and unclean in the earliest period. §125. The Usages and Laws Concerning Clean and Unclean in the Middle Period, i. e., as described in the laws of Deuteronomy, in the Deuteronomic prophecies, and in the Deuteronomic portions of the books of Samuel and Kings.* 1. Traces of totemism. Deut. 32:17; 2 Kings 22:12; Jer. 36:10; cf. 2 Kings 18:4 and Ezek. 8 : 7-12. 2. Forbidden food. Deut. 12 : 16, 23 ff.; 14 : 3-21 ; 15 : 23. 3. Sources of uncleanness. Deut. 21 : 22 f.; 23 : 10 f.; 23 : 12-14 ! 7 : 25 f.; Jer. 16:18; Lam. 4 : 14 f. 4. Cleanness necessary to participation in religious exercises. Deut. 12 : 15 ; 15 : 21 f.; 26 : 13 f .; Isa. 52 : 1, II. 5. Prophetic attitude toward clean and unclean. Jer. 2 :7, 23 ; 13: 27 ; 16: 18 ; 33 : 8 ; Lam. 4 : 14 f.; Isa. 52 : 1, 11. § 126. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Note that individuals and heads of clans still bear the names of animals, e. g., Shaphan (= Rock Badger), Achbor (= Mouse). What is the significance of this in view of the fact that as recently as the days of Hezekiah the image of a serpent was still being worshiped, and that Ezekiel testifies to the existence of similar worship just prior to the exile ? 2. Consider (1) the regulation concerning the eating of blood, and the ground on which it rests ; (2) whether in this case the principle of taboo is not clearly found ; (3) the general command concerning eat ing anything "abominable:" (4) the animals which might be eaten, and their general characteristics ; (5) the animals which might not be eaten, and their general characteristics; (6) the general principles which seem to underlie the selection; (7) the character of a selection arising in this way ; (8) the fact that the number of clean quadrupeds is ten; (9) whether this distinction was something objective imposed 8 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter onomy. 122 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT upon the people for a purpose (if so, was this purpose (a) to train the people in obedience, or (b) to provide hygienic dietary laws, or {c) to teach important religious truth by an allegorical method, or (d) to separate the Israelites from other nations, or (e) to prevent the wor ship of certain animals ?); or, rather, something subjective, of gradual growth, and expressive of certain instinctive feelings (for example, (a) that of aversion, or (b) appreciation of utility or beauty, or (<:) expe rience of the use of this or that kind of flesh) ; or whether the origin is to be connected with some form or other of totemism ; (io) the absence of any list of clean and unclean animals in the Covenant Code, and the significance of so fully developed a list in the Deuteronomic Code. 3. Consider (1) some of the sources of uncleanness as cited, e.g., the body of a man who has been hanged ; issues of the body ; graven images; "carcasses of detestable things;" contagion; and (2) the method suggested for purification. 4. Note the necessity of cleanness on the part of one who is to engage in a religious exercise, and in this connection (1) the fact that the flesh of certain animals may be eaten alike by those who are clean and by those who are unclean ; (2) the prohibition of the lame, the blind, or the blemished in sacrifice ; (3) the synonymous use of the words "uncircumcised" and "unclean."9 5. Study the prophetic attitude toward infringement of the regu lations concerning "clean and unclean," and the punishment which is to follow this infringement. How far do the prophets of this period seem to have shared the ideas of their times on this subject? Does their attitude relate to the minute particulars of the system, or to the general question of loyalty or obedience ? § 127. Constructive Work. — Compare, in general, the minuteness of the regulations of this period in contrast with those of the earlier period ; characterize these regulations as a whole ; and consider whether they are (1) really new usages which had their origin after the formu lation of the book of the covenant, or (2) old usages, for the most part, which are now codified for the first time ; (3) in the former case, whence may they be supposed to have come ? (4) in the latter case, to what influence are we to ascribe their codification ? § 128. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in Ezekiel. 1. Traces of totemism. Ezek. 8 -.7-12. 'For a further study of the subject of circumcision see §§ 164 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 23 2. Forbidden foods. Ezek. 4:14. 3. Sources of uncleanness. • Ezek. 4:14; 22:24; 36:17.25.29.33; 37:23; 39= !2. M. 16, 24; 43 = 7-9; 44:25. 4. Instruction concerning clean and unclean is an important part of the priestly function. Ezek. 22:26 ; 44 : 23. 5. Everything connected with religion must be clean. Ezek. 22:26; 43:20-26; 44:25; 46:19-24. 6. Methods of purification. Ezek. 36:25; 43:1 8-26 ; 44 : 26 f. §129. Questions and Suggestions. — Ezekiel's intermediate position and the peculiar situation to which his work is addressed make the material of his sermons especially interesting. 1. Consider the significance of the fact (1) that seventy elders are present, and that the idols (i. e., likenesses of reptiles and abominable beasts) are being worshiped ; (2) that the presiding priest was the head of one of the animal clans (viz., the Cony). Does this indicate that even in this late period animal-worship prevails ? 2. Note Ezekiel's contention concerning his own cleanness, and the formulation of his idea of uncleanness. 3. Consider the representations made by Ezekiel of uncleanness, including that of the land, and note the various occasions which give rise to uncleanness. 4. Observe the part which the priest is to play in giving instruc tion upon the subject of cleanness and uncleanness. 5. (1) Note that "clean" now means "holy," "unclean" means "common;" to fail to make the proper distinction is to "profane" Jehovah ; and (2) consider how this later and more developed idea has arisen out of the earlier. (3) Observe, also, that every act connected with a religious observance must be ceremonially clean. (4) Consider the bearing on this idea of the establishment of boiling-houses. 6. Consider the methods by which purification from uncleanness might be secured. §130. Constructive Work. — Formulate the new phases and details of the idea of "clean and unclean " which appear in Ezekiel, and dis cuss the relation of all this to Ezekiel's idea of God. §131. The Laws and Usages Concerning Clean and Unclean in the Later Period, that is, as described in {a) the laws of the Levitical Code> 124 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (b) by the priestly prophets, and (c;) in the priestly histories, e. g., Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles.10 i. Traces of totemism. Isa. 65 : 4 f.; 66 : 17 ; Lev. 19 : 28. 2. Forbidden food. Lev. 17 : 10-16 ; ig : 26 ; n : 1-23, 29 f., 41-47 ; 7 : 16-19 : 19 '¦ 7 ; 7 : 22-27 : 3 : 14_I7 ; Gen. 9 : 3 f.; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. 1 : 8. 3. Sources of uncleanness. Lev., chaps. 13 and 15 ; 20 : 20 i.\ chap. 12 ; 18 : ig ; ig : n-13 ; Numb. 5 : ig, 28 ; 31 : 13 ff.; 35 : 33 f.; 5 : 1-4 ; 2 Chron. 34 : 5 ; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13:9, 30 ; Josh. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 65 : 4 f.; Dan. 1 : 8. 4. Uncleanness is contagious. Lev. 13:45!; 14:461.; 15:4-12, ig-23, 26 f.; 11:8, 24-28, 31-40; 22 :4-6 ; 5 : 2 f.; 7 : ig ; 6 : 10 f., 27-30 ; 19 :7-i6, 22 ; Hag. 2 : 10-14. 5. Methods of purification. Lev., chaps. 14, 15 ; 12 : 6-8 ; 6 :27 f.; 16 :ig ; Numb., chap, ig ; 6 : 10-21 ; 35 : 33 f-l 8 : 1-21 ; 31 : 13-24. 6. Everything connected with religious acts must be clean. Lev. 10 : 14 ; 27 : 11, 27 ; chap. 21 ; 22 : 1-25 ; 7 : 19^-21 ; 4:11 f.; 6 : 10 f.; 16 : 19 ; Numb. 6 : 6-9 ; 18 : n, 15 ; 8 : 1-21 ; Exod. 29 : 36 ; 2 Chron. 23:19; 30 : 1 7-20 ; 29 : 1 5 f ., 1 8 f . ; Neh. 1 3 : 9, 22 ; Isa. 66 : 20. 7. Exemption from the requirement of cleanness is made in the case of the Passover. 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20 ; Numb. 9 : 6-14. 8. Non-Israelitish land is unclean, and Israel's land also is unclean. Josh. 22 : 19 ; Ezra 9:11; Numb. 35 : 33 f.; Zech. 13:1 f. 9. All foreigners are unclean. Isa. 35 : 8 ; Ezra 9:11; Neh. 13 : 30. 10. Instruction as to clean and unclean is an important part of priestly functions. Lev. 10 : 10 f.; 20 : 25 f. 11. Traces of ancestor-worship. Lev. ig : 28, 32. § 132. Questions and Suggestions. 1. Observe (1) that the old totem-sacrifice still survives in the sacrificial eating of swine, mice, and other abominable animals; did they eat these because they thought that in so doing they were eating the flesh of the deity, and that this meant participation in the virtues 10 References in bold-face type are from the Levitical Code of laws. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 25 of the deity, as well as in the mystic life of the tribe ? (2) that the old customs of cutting the flesh and of tattooing exist ; were these associated with the old idea of ancestor-worship, and was ancestor- worship connected with totemism ? 2. (1) Classify according to the later usage, the various kinds of food forbidden ; and (2) compare closely the lists of clean and unclean animals given in Leviticus with that of Deuteronomy (see §§125, 2, and 126, 2); (3) note what is implied in the case of Daniel and his companions. 3. Note and classify the sources of uncleanness as they are indi cated in the writings of this period. 4. Consider (1) the various cases of uncleanness (e. g., leprosy, plague, bodily issue, unclean food, etc.), and the fact that a person or object, when brought into contact with an unclean thing, itself became unclean. (2) What was the underlying thought of this usage, and its practical working? (3) In what way did a holy thing, when brought into contact with persons or objects, convey its holiness to them ? 5. Arrange and classify the various ways adopted in this period for securing purification from uncleanness, and compare them in general with the methods of the middle period. 6. Consider now the extreme emphasis laid upon ceremonial clean ness : (1 ) the injunctions to this end ; (2) the historical facts cited ; (3) the practical working out of these commands ; (4) the rigidity of the ceremonial as now maintained, in comparison with that of earlier days and other peoples ; (5) the explanation of the origin of this rigid cere monial, viz., the desire to secure the favor of God and the fulfilment of the prophetic promises (which, for the most part, still remained unful filled) by bringing the individual Israelite into such a state of piety and obedience as would literally compel God to fulfil his promises ; (6) the relation to all this ceremonial of the highly spiritual element found in the Psalter, which was largely the product of this period ; (7) the conception of God which was implied in this ceremonial, which, indeed, permeated the ceremonial. 7. Consider (1) the exemption from ceremonial cleanness made in the case of the Passover feast, and (2) the explanation of it ; (3) the historical case cited in 2 Chron. 30 : 17-20. 8. Observe that (1) the idea of the uncleanness of non-Israelitish land still prevails; and also that (2) the land of Israel itself has become unclean ; but (3) for what reason ? 9. Note that the spirit of exclusivism has become so strong that 126 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT all foreigners are regarded as unclean. Consider the part played by this idea in the conflict which later arose between Judaism and Hel lenism. io- Observe (i) that -it is now a most important function of the priest to give instruction concerning the clean and unclean, and con sider (2) how difficult it must have been to educate all the people in this regard, in view of the great multitude of details involved ; and (3) the general effect upon the priesthood of such an occupation of their time and attention. 11. Is there still a survival of the old tendency toward ancestor- worship in (1 ) the custom of cutting themselves for the dead, which is prohibited, and in (2) the special command to revere the old men ? §133. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement which will show the new points which characterize the later period in the development of the idea of the clean and unclean. § 1 34. Literature to be Consulted. Henry Hayman, articles "Unclean Meats" and "Uncleanness," Smith's Dic tionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, Antiquities of Israel (3d ed. 1866, transl. 1876), pp. 144-60; Schultz, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1869, transl. 1892), Vol. II, pp. 65-78; J. F. McLennan, Fortnightly Review, 1869 f.; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.), Vol. II, pp. 94-7; Kalisch, Commentary on Leviticus, Part II (1871), pp. 1-163 ; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (isted. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§ 142 f.; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (1871, 2d ed. 1873), see Index, s. v. "Totem Ancestors;" Idem, Early History of Mankind {¦$& ed. 1878), pp. 284 f.; Spencer, Principles of Sociology (1879), Vol. I, p. 367; W. Robertson Smith, " Animal Worship and Animal Tribes among the Arabs and in the Old Testament," Journal of Philology, Vol. IX (1880), pp. 75 ft.; Idem, Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), p. 366; Idem, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), chap, vii ; Schurer, A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (1885, transl. 1890), see Index, s. v. "Clean and Unclean;'' Joseph Jacobs, "Are there Totem-Clans in the Old Testament?" Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. VIII (1885), pp. 39-41 ; Andrew Lang, Custom and Myth (2d ed. 1885), pp. 260 ff.; Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament (1886, transl. 1893), pp. 73-9; Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1899), see Index, .>. v. "Tabu," " Totem," etc.; Sayce> Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbert Lectures, 1887), see Index, *. v. "Clean and Unclean," "Totemism;" Bennett, Diseases of the Bible (ist ed. 1887, 3d ed. 1896); J. G. Frazer, Totemism (with numerous references to literature ; 1887); Idem, articles "Taboo" and "Totemism," Encyclopedia Britannica (1887); W. R. Smith, article "Sacrifice," ibid. (1887), Vol. XXI, p. 135; Idem, Religion of the Semites (ist ed. 1889, 2d ed. 1894), additional notes A, B, C, and I; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (1890), see Index, s. v. "Taboo," "Totem," etc.; F. W. Davies, "Bible Leprosy," Old and New Testament Student, Vol. XI (1890), pp. 142-25 ; LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 27 McClintock and Strong's Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesias tical Literature, articles on "Unclean" and "Uncleanness" (1891); J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1892), p. 260; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 473 ff.; Menzies, History of Religion (1895), pp. 55. 7'> '31. 275; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), PP- 7°. 1D4. 29! f-"> I- E- McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1896), pp. 492-569; Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Vol. I (1896) pp. 88-101; Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1897), see Index, s. v. "Animals," etc.; J. Hastings, article "Clean," Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Morris Jastrow, Jr., Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), pp. 397 f., 662 f.; J. G. Frazer, " The Origin of Totemism," Fortnightly Review, April and May, 1899 ; Budge, Egyptian Magic (1899), pp. 232 ff.; Paul Haupt, "Medical and Hygienic Features of the Bible," The Independent, New York, July 13, 1899, pp. 1906 f.; G. A. SlMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica ( 1 899); F. J. Schamberg, "The Nature of the Leprosy of the Bible," Biblical World, Vol. XIII (1899), pp. 162-9 ; Paul Haupt, "Babylonian Elements in the Levitic Ritual," Journal of Bib lical Literature,^ 'ol. XIX (1901), p. 60, and note 113; McCurdy, article " Animal- Worship," fewish Encyclopedia (1901); Andrew Lang, Magic and Religion (1901), pp. 257-69 ; R. G. Murison, " Totemism in the Old Testament," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 176-84 ; E. Clodd, Myths and Dreams, pp. 99 f. Spencer, De legibus Hebraeorum ritualibus (1727); Hebenstreit, De cura sanit. publ. (1783), Vol. II, pp. 15 f.; Beyer, De haemorrh. ex lege Mosis impuris (1792); Bleek, " Beitrage zu den Forschungen iiber den Pentateuch," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1831, pp. 498 f.; Ba.hr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus (1839), Vol. II, pp. 159 ff., 462 ft.; Sommer, Biblische Abhandlungen (1846), pp. 183-367 ; Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht mit Beriicksichtigung des spdtern jiidischen (ist ed. 1846, 1848; 2d ed. 1853), chaps. 22-32 ; Kurtz, "Ueber die symbolische Dignitat des in Num. 19 zur Tilgung der Todesunreinigkeit verordneten Ritus," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1846, pp. 629 ff.; Danielssen et Boeck, Traitl de la Spedalskhed [Nor wegian = leprosy] ou Elephantiasis des Grecs (transl. from the Norwegian, 1847); Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (1856), Vol. I, pp. 146 ff.; C Wolff, "Die Lepra Arabum," in VlRCHOW's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic, Vol. XXVI (1861); S. Finaly, "Ueber die wahre Bedeutung des Aussatzes in der Bibel," Archiv fiir Dermatologie und Syphilidologie (1870); Schenkel, article " Reinigkeit," SCHENKEL'S Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte, Vol. I (1875), pp. 409-19 ; L. Kotelmann, Die Geburtshilfe bei den alten Hebrdern (1876); Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. II (1878), pp. 100 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die Aussatztora des Leviticus," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 3-10; E. Konig, article " Reinigungen," Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche (2d ed.- 1883); Kamphausen, article "Reinigkeit und Reinigungen," Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums (1884); Franz Delitzsch, article " Reinigungsopfer," ibid. ; Noldeke, "Robertson Smith's Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XL (1886), pp. 157-69; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel,\o\. I (1887), pp. 481 ff.; Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums ( = Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, III, ist ed. 1887, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 52, 106, 156, 1768.; M. Sandreczky, "Studien iiber Lepra," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 34-40 128 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (from the English in The Lancet, London, August 31, 1889); Riehm, Alttestamentliche Theologie (1889), pp. 124 ff.; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode {1892), see Index, 1. v. " Taboo " and " Unrein ; " Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch (1892), pp. 105 f.; G. N. Munch, Die Zara'ath der hebrdischen Bibel. Einleitung in der Geschichte des Aussatz, in Dermatologische Studien, by G. Unna (1893); Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (ist ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Tabu," " Totemismus ;" H. Schurtz, Die Speiseverbote (1893); A. Einsler, " Beobachtungen iiber d. Aussatz im heiligen Lande," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins, Vol. XVI (1893), Heft 4; Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894), Vol. I, pp. 116 ff.; II, pp. 275-99; Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894), pp. 152, 297, 478-89; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895), see Index, s. v. "Reinheit," "Unrein," etc.; Zinsser, " Bemerkungen iiber den jetzigen Stand der Lepraforschungen," Zeitschrift des Deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, Vol. XVIII (1895), pp. 41-4; A. Wiener, Die judischen Speisegesetze (1895); A. Sack, Was ist die Zaraath der hebrdischen Bibel? (VlRCHOw's Archiv fiir path. Anatomic und Physiologic, Band 144, Supplementheft, 1896); Stade, Theologische Litteratur-Zeitung, 1896, No. 1, col. IO; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der fuden zu den Fremden (1896), see Index, s. v. " Reinheit," " Reinigung ;" Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897), pp. 24 f., 30, 42, 104, 193, 221 f.; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult im alten Israel (1898), pp. 173-87; N. Cohn, Die Vorschrift betreffs die Zar'ath nach dem Kilab al Kafi (1898); D. H. MuLLER, Siidarabische Altertiimer im kunsthistorischen Museum zu Wien (1899); J. Pikler and F. Somlo, Der Ursprung des Totemismus (1899); J. C Matthes, "De begrippen rein en onrein in het Oude Testament," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIII (1899), pp. 293-318; J. Halevy, Revue semitique, Vol. VII (1899), pp. 267 ff.; Gruneisen, Ahnenkullus und Urre- ligion Israels (1900); Ebstein, Die Medizin im Alten Testament (1901). See also the treatises in the Mishnah entitled Niddah, Parah, Tehoroth, Zabbim, Celim, Miscath Arlah; and the commentaries on Lev., chaps. 11-15, especially those of Dillmann (1880), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1900), and Driver and White (Polychrome Bible, 1898). § 135. Supplementary Topics. 1. Consider the following references to clean and unclean in the Psalter: 73:1,13; 19:9,12; 51:2,7,10; 24:4; 18:20; 119:9; and summarize their teachings. 2. Examine the following references in the books of Job and Proverbs: Job 1 1 : 4 ; 33 : 9 ; 17:9; 15:14 ff.; 25:4; 9 : 30 ; 37 :2i; 36: 14; Prov. 14 .4; 16:2; 20 :g ; and also Eccl. 9:2; and summarize their teachings. 3. Study the allusions to clean and unclean in the books of the Maccabees and formulate a statement covering them : 1 Mace. 1 : 37, 46 ff., 54, 62 f.; 2 : 12; 3:51; 4:38,43 f-, 48 f., 54i 13:47 f-J 2 Mace. 1 : 18, 33, 36; 2:8, 16, 19; 3:12; 4: 14; 5 : 27; 6:2, 5, 7 f., 18 ff.; 7:1 ff.; 10:3, 5; 11 : 24; 12:40; 13:8; 14:3a- 4. What, in general, is the attitude of New Testament writers toward the idea of clean and unclean as gathered from a study LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING CLEAN AND UNCLEAN 1 29 of the principal allusions: Matt. 8 : 2 f.; 10:1,8; 11:5; 12:43; 23 : 25-27 ; Mark 1 : 23, 26 f., 40-44 ; 3 : 1 1, 30 ; 5 : 2, 8, 13 ; 6 : 7 ; 7:25; Luke 4:27; 5:12 ff.; 6:18; 7:22; 8:29; 4:33, 36; 9:42; 11:24, 39,41; 17:14, 17; John 15:3; Acts 5:16; 8:7; 10:14 f., 28; n:8f.; Rom. 1:24; 6:19; 14:14; 1 Cor. 7:14; 2 Cor. 6:17; 7:1; 12:21; Gal. 5:19; Eph. 4 : 19 ; 5:3,5,26; Col. 3:551 Thess. 2:3; 4:7; Heb. 9:13; James 4 : 8 ; 2 Pet. 2:10; 1 John 1:7,9? 5. Make a study of the Hebrew words for "clean," viz., Tflilp, THE, -Q, t]T, and " unclean," viz., 1X2Q ; cf. rC^Fl, yptfj, yi]3Tfl, etc.; trace their usage in the cognate languages (especially Assyrian and Arabic), and endeavor to determine their primary meaning and their exact significance in Hebrew literature. See especially Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II, pp. 1-40 ; G. A. SlMCOX, article " Clean and Unclean," Encyclopedia Biblica; Zim- mern, Beitrage zur Assyriologie, Vol. I, p. 105 ; Whitehouse, Thinker, 1892, p. 52; and the various lexicons. 6. Compare the similarities between the usages connected with clean and unclean and those connected with the . v. "Vows," "Naza rite," etc.; Menzies, op. cit., p. 74 ; G. F. Moore, Judges (" International Criti cal Commentary," 1895), pp. 232, 279, 380 ff.; Driver, The Books of Joel and Amos (Camb. Bible, 1897), pp. 152 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 189, 254; G. B. Gray, "The Nazirite," Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. I (1900), pp. 201 ff.; D. Eaton, article "Nazirite," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. III. Vilmar, "Die symbolische Bedeutung des Naziraergeliibdes," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1864, pp. 438 ff.; Schrader, article "Geliibde," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon; Dillmann, article "Nasiraer," ibid.; Oehler and Orelli, article "Nasiraat," Realencyklopddie (2d ed.); GRILL, "Ueber Bedeutung und Ursprung des Nasiraergeliibdes," Jahrbiicher fiir prot. Theologie, 1880, pp. 645 ff.; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des israelitischen Prophetenthums (1883) pp. 147-53; Riehm, Hand wbrterbuch, articles "Geliibde" and "Nasiraer;" Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien, Vol, I (1888), pp. 23 f.; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Geliibde;" Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 263 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Bann," "Geliibde," etc.; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 141; Marti, op. cit., pp. 87, 107; Buhl, article " Geliibde im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. VI. '"See article " Nazirite" in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. III. "See article "Vow," Encyc. Brit.; Wellhausen, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, p. 117 ; Jastrow, op. cit., pp. 668 f. "See, e, g., Pss. 22:25; 50:14; 56 = 12; 61:5,8; 65:1; 66:13; 76:11; 116:14, 18; 132 : 2. "See, e. g., Eccl. 5 : 4 f.; Job 22 : 27 ; Prov. 7:14; 20 : 25 ; 31:2. 14 See, e. g., 2 Mace. 3 : 35 ; 9 : l3 ff-; Ecclus. 18 : 22. 'SSee, e. g., Acts 18 : 18; 21 : 23 f. I36 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT §143. Blessings and Cursings. 1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.16 Gen. 3 : 14, 17; 4:11; 9:25 f.; 12 :3; 27:27-29, 35 (E), 39 f. (E); 48: 15 f.; 49: 1-27; Exod. 12 =32; 21 : 17(E);17 23 :2i (E), 25-31 (E); Numb. 22 :6 ; 24 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 2 : 20 ; 14 : 24, 28 ; 17 : 43 ; 2 Sam. 3 : 28 f.; 19 : 39 ; Deut. 33 : 1-29 (E) ; Judg. 9:57; 21:18. Study and classify the material on blessings and cursings as fol lows : (1) words used in blessing and cursing; (2) forms of expres sion used, e.g., Judg. 21:18; 1 Sam. 2:20; Deut., chap. 33; (3) important cases of blessings or cursings, e. g., (a) Jacob's last words (Gen., chap. 49), (b) Moses' last words (Deut., chap. 33), (c) David's curse on Joab (2 Sam. 3 : 28, 29) ; (4) the peculiar lack of the moral element in the case of Esau (Gen. 27 : 35) ; (5) the cursing of a hostile nation, e. g., by Balak (Numb. 22:6), by Goliath (1 Sam. 17 : 43) ; (6) the con nection with the oath ; (7) the blessing and curse pronounced in connection with the Covenant Code (Exod. 23 : 21, 25-31). 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions.*8 Gen. 49 : 25 f., 28; Deut. 11:26-30; 27:11-26; 28:1-68; 29:19-21; 30:1, 7, 19; Josh. 8:34 ; Jer. 29:18; Ezek. 34:26; 1 Kings 8 : 14 f., 55 f.; cf. Ps. 68:1-3. Make a similar classification of the material coming from the middle period, noting as cases of special interest (1) the arrangement for blessings and curses to be announced from Mounts Gerizim and Ebal (Deut. 27:11-26); (2) Joshua's reading of the blessings and the curses (Josh. 8 =34); (3) the old royal form of blessing (1 Kings 8 : 14 f, 55 f.); (4) a form of national blessing (cf. Ps. 68:1-3); (5) prophetic use of curse (Jer. 29 : 18) and blessing (Ezek. 34 : 26); (6) the blessings and curses announced in connection with the Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 28 :3-i4, 15-68). 3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.'9 Gen. 28 :3 f.; Lev. g :22; 25:21; chap. 26 ; Numb. 5:12-31:6:22-26; Neh. 10:29; 13:2; 2 Chron. 34:24; Isa. 24 : 6 ; Zech. 5 : 3 ; Mai. 2:2; 3 :g ; Pss. 109 ; Prov. 26 :2 ; Dan. 9:11. Classify likewise the material of the late period, noting as cases of 16 All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those followed by (E). •'This reference is from the Covenant Code. 18 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter onomy. ¦' References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws, LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 37 special interest (i) Isaac's blessing of Jacob (P) (Gen. 28 :3 f.); (2) the priestly form of blessing (Numb. 6 122-26); (3) the forms of doxology used in later worship (cf. Pss. 134; 150); (4) the blessings and curses announced in connection with the Levitical Code (Lev. 26:3-12, 16-45); (5) tne thought even in later times that "it was worth while to curse a bad man" (cf. Ps. 109); but (6) the feeling also that only the good might be blessed {cf. Ps. 37 : 26), and that causeless curses were of no avail {cf. Prov. 26 : 2). §144. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on blessings and cursings, including the following points : (1) the words translated blessing and curse; (2) the forms of expression used ; (3) stereotyped formulas of benediction ; (4) the religious idea or superstition under lying the usage — was it really a "spell, pronounced by a holy per son " ? (5) how was this usage related to magic and sorcery (cf. the curse-producing water)? (6) the more important patriarchal blessings — were they cursings as well as blessings? (7) the threefold classifica tion : {a) one nation by another, (b) one individual by another, (c) as attached to laws to secure their better observance ; (8) a comparison of the three sets of blessings and cursings connected respectively with the Covenant Code, the Deuteronomic Code, and the Levitical Code ; (9) a comparison of the usage as it is found in the three periods, the modifications which are made; (io) a comparison of the New Testa ment representations on this subject20 — are blessings and curses found in the speeches of Jesus ? if so, how are they to be understood? (11) this usage among the Arabians ; " (12) this usage among the Assyri ans;2" (13) the relation of this usage to prayer. § 145. Literature to be Consulted. Ewald, op. cit., pp. 76-9; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 335 ff., 346 ff.; Briggs, Messianic Prophecy (1886), pp. 115-20 ; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1887), pp. 53,263; W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 164; L.W.King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (1896); J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dic tionary, Vol.1 (1898); W. F. Adeney, article "Blessing," ibid.; T. K. Cheyne, article "Blessings and Cursings," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I (1899); Henry Hayman, " The Blessing of Moses : Its Genesis and Structure," American fournal of Semitic Lan guages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106. "See, e. g., Matt. 5 : 44 ; 14:19; 26 : 26 ; Mark 10 : 16 ; Luke 2 : 28, 34 ; 9:16; 24:5of.; Acts 3: 26; 23:12,14; Rom. 12:14; Gal. 3 : 13 ; Mark 7: 10; 11:21; Matt. 15:4; 25 141. " Cf. Goldziher, Muhammedanische Studien. 21 Cf. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, passim. I38 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Merx, articles "Fluch" and "Fluchwasser," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Schenkel, article "Segen," Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Burger, article "Segen, Segnung," Realencyklopddie, 2d ed., Vol. XIV (1884); Riehm, article "Fluch," Handwbrterbuch des bibl. Alterthums (1884); Wellhausen, op. cit, p. 126; Schwally, " Miscellen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XI (1891), pp. 170 ff.; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 251 f., 261 f.; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 146; Marti, op. cit., pp. 91, 116. §146. The Ban. 1. The early period. Exod. 22:19; (E);23 Numb. 21: 2 (J); Josh. 8: 26(E); Judg. 1:17; 21:11; 1 Sam. 15 : 3, 8, 15, 18, 20. 2. The middle period.24 Josh. 2:10; 6:18; 10:28, 35, 40; 1 1 : 1 1 f., 21; Mic. 4:13; Isa. 43:28; Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 7:2, 26; 13:171.; 20:17; Jer. 25:9; 50 :2i, 26 ; 51:3. 3. The late period.2S Isa. 34 : 2, 5 ; Mai. 4:6; Lev. 27 : 21, 28 f.; Numb. 18 : 14 ; Isa. 11:15; Zech. 14:11; 1 Chron. 2:7; 4:41; 2 Chron. 32:14; Ezra 10:8; Dan. n:44. Examine the passages cited in the various periods, and classify the material thus gathered as follows : (1) words used to mean ban or destruction, and their significance ; (2) classes of persons or objects sub ject to ban, e.g., (a) idols, (b) individuals regarded as enemies of the nation, (c) cities or nations regarded as hostile (the Canaanites), (d) individuals personally objectionable, (cf) metals; (3) the regulations at various times relating to the ban ; (4) the modifications which are made from period to period, e. g., Josh. 6:24; Numb. 18:14; Ezek. 44 : 29. § 147. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement on the ban, taking up (1) the sociological basis; (2) its relationship (a) to the vow, (b) to the idea of clean and unclean, (c) to taboo ; (3) a classification of per sons or things liable to the ban; (4) the changes which came in later times ; (5) the attitude o'f the prophets ; (6) the non-appearance of the term in the Psalms and in the wisdom literature ; (7) the New Testa ment development of the idea (cf. 1 Cor. 16:22); (8) the place of the idea in other Semitic nations (cf. Moab, Arabia, and Assyria).26 '3 This reference is from the Covenant Code. ** References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. 2s References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 26 Cf. Mesha Inscription, line 17 ; VON Tornauw, Zeitsch. d. Deutschen Morgen- landischen Gesellschaft,Vol. XXXVI, pp. 297 ff.; W. R. Smith, Ret. of Sem., Index, s. v. " Ban; " Stade, Gesch., Vol. I, pp. 490 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 39 § 148. Literature to be Consulted. Ewald, Antiquities, pp. 75-8 ; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 390 ; II, p. 87 ; W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 150,371, 453; S. R. Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (1890), pp. 100 ff.; McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments (1895-1901), §550; J. Denney, article "Curse," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol.1; W. H. Bennett, article "Ban," Encyc. Bib., Vol. I; Day, op. cit., pp. 180, 212 f. Merx, article "Bann," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. I (1869); Weber, Die Lehren des Talmud (1880), pp. 138 ff.; von Tornauw, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor- genldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXXVI (1882), pp. 297 ff.; Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), p. 490 ; Smend, op. cit., pp. 21, 39, 147 f., 288 ; Nowack, op. cit.. Vol. I, pp. 371 f.; II, pp. 266-9; Benzinger, op. cit., p. 363 ; Dillmann, op. cit., pp. 45, 126, 149 ; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der fuden zu den Fremden (1896), pp. 10, 89; Marti, op. cit., pp. 31, 39, 47 f.; S. Mandl, Der Bann (1898). § 149. Oaths. 1. The early period : readings, questions, and suggestions.27 Gen. 14:22; 15:8-11, 17 f.; 21:22-24 (E); 22:i5(JE); 24: 1-3, 27; 25 : 33(E); 26:3 (JE), 26-31 ; 3I : 53(E); 42: 15(E); 47:29; 50:25 (E); Exod. 13: 19(E); Josh. 2: 12-14, 20; 6:26; Judg. 21 : 1; 1 Sam. 14:24-30, 39, 44 f.; 19:6; 24:21; 30:15; 2 Sam. 3:gf.; 19:23; 21 : 1 f., 7 ; 1 Kings 1 : 13, 17, 30, 51 f.; 2 :23f., 36-46. Examine and classify the cases of oaths cited, determining, in each case, (1) whether it is an oath sworn by man to man, by God to man, or by man to God ; (2) the ritual of the oath, whether, for example, accompanied by sacrifice of certain victims, by taking hold of the thigh, by stretching upward the hand ; (3) the penalty expected or prescribed in case of the violation of the oath ; (4) any specially inter esting uses of or usages in connection with the oath, e. g., Abraham's oath to Melchizedek, the dividing of the animals (Gen. 15 : 10), the treaty between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31 : 44-54), Rahab and the spies (Josh. 2 : 12-14), Saul's adjuration (1 Sam. 14 : 24-30, 39, 44 f.), David's oath concerning Solomon (1 Kings 1:13), Shimei and Solomon (1 Kings 2 : 42); (5) what is prohibited in Exod. 20 : 7, thou shalt not take the name of fehovah thy God in vain (blasphemy, perjury, pro fanity, or sorcery and witchcraft)? 2. The middle period : readings, questions, and suggestions. Jer. 4:2; 22 : 5 ; 31 =33 ; 34 : 18 f.; 38 : 16 ; Ezek. 17 : 16-19 ; Deut. 19: i9ff.sS Examine and classify as above, noting particularly points of special interest in connection with (1) false swearing (Deut. 19:19 ff.); (2) 27 All references to the Hexateuch are from J, except those marked otherwise, and Gen. 14 :22, which is from an independent source. a8 This reference is from the code of laws contained in the book of Deuteronomy. 140 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT the cutting of the calf (Jer. 34:i8f.); (3) the new covenant (Jer. 3I:33); (4) Zedekiah's oath (Jer. 38:16); (5) breaking the covenant (Ezek. 17 : 16-19). 3. The late period : readings, questions, and suggestions.29 Numb. 5:11-28; chap. 30; Josh. 9:15, igf.; Judg. 21:5,7; Zech. 5:1 ff.; Ezra 10 : 5 ; Neh. 10 : 29 ; Dan. 12:7. Examine and classify as above, noting points of special interest in connection with (1) the water of bitterness that causeth the curse (Numb. 5:11 ff.); (2) vows (Numb., chap. 30); (3) the oath to the Gibeonites (as described in Josh. 9 : 15 f., 19 f.); (4) the oath concern ing strange wives (Ezra 10 : 2-5); (5) the flying-roll and false swearing (Zech. 5 : 1-4); (6) the man clothed in linen (Dan. 12:7). §150. Constructive Work. — Prepare a statement upon the use of the oath among the Hebrews, taking up the following points : (1) the significance of the usual word translated swear, viz., " to come under the influence of seven things;" (2) the ritual; (3) the various forms of the oath ; (4) its irrevocable character and the penalty of its violation ; (5) its sociological basis ; (6) the significance of an oath made by the deity; (7) the meaning of the third commandment ; (8) the changes in usage which may be noted between the three periods ; (9) the atti tude of the prophets ; 3° (10) the representations concerning swearing in the wisdom literature;3' (11) the representations in the apocryphal literature;32 (12) the attitude of the New Testament;33 (13) the use of the oath among the Arabs;34 (14) its use among the Assyrians and Babylonians; (15) its relation to prayer.35 §151. Literature to be Consulted. H. W. Phillott, article "Oath," Smith's Diet, of the Bible (rst ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Ewald, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Oath," etc.; Schultz, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 70 ; E. B. Tylor, article "Oath," Encyc. Brit. (1875); W. R. Smith, Rel. ofSem., pp. 180 ff., 480 ; F. J. Coffin, " The Third Commandment,"./o»?-«cz/ of Biblical Literature. 2» References in bold-face type are from the priestly code of laws. 30 See, e.g., Hos. 4:2, 15 ; 10:4 ; Amos 4:2; 6:8 ; 8 : 7, 14; Isa. 14 :24; 19:18; 45 : 23 ; 48 : I ; 54 : 9 ; 62 : 8 ; 65 : 16 ; Ezek. 21 : 23. 31 See, e. g., Eccl. 8:2; 9:2. 32 See, e. g., 1 Mace. 6 : 6l f.; 7 : 18, 35 ; 2 Mace. 14 : 33-36 ; Ecclus. 44 : 21. 33See, e. g., Matt. 5:33 ff.; 14:7-9; 23:16ft.; Mark 6:23,26; Luke 1:73; Acts 2 : 30 ; 23:21; Jas. 5 : 12. 34 Cf. Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, p. 122; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, see Index, s. v. " Oath." 35 Cf. Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. 94 f. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER I4I Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 166-88 ; Duff, op. cit.. Vol. II (1900), see Index, s. u. " Oath ; " G. Ferries, article "Oath," Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, Vol. Ill (1900); Day, op. cit., p. 184. Saalschutz, Das mosaische Recht (1846), pp. 615 ft.; Bruch, article " Eid," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Riehm, article "Eid," Handwbrterbuch; Wellhausen, op. cit., p. 122 ; Smend, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Schwur;" Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 262 ff.; Benzinger, op. cit., see Index, s. v. " Eid ; " Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkult (1898), pp. 108 f.; Benzinger, article "Eid bei den Hebraern," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898). § 152. Supplementary Study on Fasting as a Means for Securing the Divine Mercy and Help. 1. The early period. Exod. 34: 28 (J), cf. 24: 18(E); 1 Sam. 7:5 f.; 31:13; 2 Sam. 1 : 12 ; 3 : 35 ; 12 : 16-23; l Kings 21 : 9, 12, 27. 2. The middle period. Deut. 8:3; 9:9, 18-20, 25-29; 10 : 10; Jer. 14:12; 36 : 6, 9. 3. The late period. Judg. 18: 17(F); 20:26 ff.; Ezra 8:21-23; 10:6; Neh. 1:4-11; 9:1,31; Esther 4 : 1-3, 16 ; Zech 7 : 1-7, 18-23 ; 8 : 19 ; Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; 1 Chron. 10 : 12 ; 2 Chron. 20 : 3 ; Joel 1:14; 2 : 12, 15 ; Jon. 3:5; Dan. 9:3; Lev. 16 : 29, 31.36 §153. Questions and Suggestions. Consider (1) the reason assigned by David in 2 Sam. 12:22 for fasting, viz., to secure Jehovah's pity; (2) the fasting of Moses on Sinai (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 9 : 9) as a preparation for an important act, the receiving of the law; (3) the fasting of Elijah (1 Kings 19 : 8 ff.) as a preparation for communion with God ; (4) the fasting of the men of Jabesh for Saul (1 Sam. 31 : 13), and of David for Saul (2 Sam. 1 : 12), that is, in mourning for the dead (cf. 2 Sam. 3:35); and determine the original meaning of the act, i. e., an explanation with which these various cases may be connected; is it to raise the pity of the deity? or in preparation for a sacrificial meal ? 3? Consider the various cases of fasting cited and note (1) the motive or purpose in each case, e. g., David, Ahab, Nehemiah, Ezra; (2) whether they were private or public (cf, in earlier and middle periods, 1 Kings 21:9 ff.; Isa. 1 :13b (Sept.); Jer. 36 : 6 ff.; and, in later period, Joel 1 : 13 f.; 2 Chron. 20 : 3); (3) the change by which the act becomes spiritualized (cf. Ahab's case, 1 Kings 21:29); (4) the connection between fasting and penitence (cf. 1 Sam. 7:6; Neh. 9:1); (5) the 36 This reference is from the Priestly Code. 3? W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, p. 434. 142 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT circumstances which led to greater importance being given to fasting, and the changes in frequency of the act and in meaning which came in the later period; (6) the conception which makes it a "meritorious work," and the prophets' attitude toward this (Isa. 58 : 3 ff.; Zech. 7 :5 f.). Consider the various occasions on which, in the later period, public fasting was observed and the events thereby commemorated : (1) in the fourth month, the capture of Jerusalem (Jer. 52 : 6, 7); (2) in the fifth month, the destruction of the temple and city (Jer. 52:12!.); (3) in the seventh month, the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41 : 1 ff.); (4) in the tenth month, the beginning of the siege (Jer. 52 -.4) {cf. Zech. 7 : 1-7, 18-23); (s) the Day of Atonement (Lev., chap. 16), noting (a) that this is the only fast required by the laws, (b) that there is no allusion to its observance in any of the historical literature of the Old Testament, (c) the purpose of the day, (d) its relation to the religious thought and spirit of the later times ; (6) the thirteenth of Adar, the case of Haman. Consider the usage of fasting as referred to (1) in the Psalms;38 (2) in the apocryphal literature;39 (3) in the New Testament;40 (4) among other Semitic nations.41 § 154. Literature to be Consulted. Samuel Clark, article " Atonement, Day of," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); Schultz, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 367 ff., 372, 402 ff., 431; Oehler, Old Testament Theology (ist ed. 1873, 3d ed. 1891, transl. 1883), §§i4of.; Edersheim, The Temple, its Ministry and Services (1874), pp. 263-88; Wellhau sen, Prolegomena, pp. 1 10-12; J. S. Black, article "Fasting," Encyclopedia Bri tannica, Vol. IX (1879); Kuenen, The Hexateuch (2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886), pp. 86, 312; W. R. Smith, Ret. qfSem., pp. 303, 388 ff., 433 f.; Montefiore, op. cit., pp. 509 f.; C. J. Ball, article "Fasting and Fasts," Sunn's Dictionary qf the Bible (2d ed. 1893); H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life (1894), pp. 186, 286 ff., 383; McCurdy, op. cit., §§ 1116, 11 18, 1346 n.; S. R. Driver and H. A. White, article "Atonement, Day of," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898) ; E. E. Harding, article "Fea-sts and Fasts," ibid., Vol. I (1898), pp. 862 f.; Cheyne, op. cit., pp. 9-11; M. Jastrow, op. cit., p. 688 ; Benzinger and Cheyne, article "Atonement, Day of," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Benzinger, article "Fasting, Fasts," ' Ency clopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Ottley,^ Short History of the Hebrews to the Roman Period (1901), pp. 305 f. 38 See, e. g., Pss. 35 : 13 ; 69 : 10 ; 109 : 24. 39 See, c g., 1 Mace. 3 : 44-54 ; Ecclus. 34 : 26. <°See, e.g., Matt. 4:2; 6:l6ff.; 9:l4f.; 17:21; Mark 2: 18 ff.; 9:29; Luke 2 : 37 ; 5 : 33 ff-; 18 : 12 ; Acts 10 : 30 ; 13 : 2 f.; 14 : 23 ; 27 : 9, 33 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 5 ; 2 Cor. 6:5; 11:27. *' See, e. g., the references to the works of W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Jastrow, and Black cited in § 154. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 43 Holtzmann, article "Fasten," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Orelli, article "Versohnungsfest," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1875); H. Oort, "De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. X (1876), pp. 142-65; D. Hoffmann, Berliner's Magazin, 1876, pp. 1 ff.; Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 173-83; J. Derenbourg, "Essai de restitution de l'ancienne redaction de Masse'chet Kippourim,'' Revue des (Hides juives, No. II (1883), pp. 41-80 ; Adler, " Der Versohnungstag in der Bibel, sein Ursprung und seine Bedeutung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. Ill (1883), pp. 178-84; Kuenen, Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XVII (1883), pp. 207-12; Riehm, article "Fasten," Handwbrterbuch, Vol. I (1884); Delitzsch, article "Versohnungstag," Riehm's Handwbrterbuch, Vol. II (1884); Stade, Ge- schichte, Vol. II (1888), pp. 182, 258 ff.; Benzinger, " Das Gesetz iiber den grossen Versohnungstag, Lev. XVI," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IX (1889), pp. 65-88; Schwally, Das Leben nach dem Tode (1892), pp. 26 ff.; Smend, op. cit., pp. 142, 319, 330 ff., 396; Nowack, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 270 ff.; Benzinger, ep. cit., pp. 165, 464, 477 ; Dillmann, op. cit., p. 184 ; Marti, op. cit., pp. 234, 283 f.; Buhl, "Fasten im Alten Testament," Realencyklopddie, 3d ed., Vol. V (1898) ; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelenkull im alten Israel (1898), pp. 37, 81-5, 117. §155. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity through Oracles, Urim and Thummim, the Ephod, the Lot. 1. The early period. (a) Oracles. — Gen. 24 : 12-14 (J); 25:22f.(J); Judg. 1:1; 1 8 : 5 f . ; 1 Sam. 10: 22; 14: 19, 37; 23:2,4, ioff.; 28:6; 3o:7f.; 2 Sam. 2:1; 5:19, 23f.; 16:23; 2i:if.; 2 Kings 8 : 7 ff . ; Numb. 24 : 3, 15 ; Isa. 15:1; Amos 2:11, 16. (b) Urim and Thummim. — 1 Sam. 14 : 4if.; 28 : 4-6 ; 22 : 10, 13 ; 23 : 2, 4, 6, 9-12; 30:7; 2 Sam. 2:1 ; 5: 19, 23!.; 21:1 ; Deut. 33 : 8 (E). (c) The ephod. — Judg. 8 : 27a; 17:5; 18:14,20; 1 Sam. 14:18; 21:9!.; 23:6, 9 ff.; 3o:7f.; Hos. 3:4. (d) The lot.— Josh. 16:1 (J); 17 : 14, 17 (J); Judg. 1:3; 20 : 9 ; Isa. 17:14; Mic. 2 : 5. 2. The middle period. (a) Oracles. — Mic. 4:6; 5:9; Nah. 2:13; Zeph. 1:2; Ezek. 5 : 11 ; 11:8, 21 ; Jer. 1:8; 2:3. (b) The ephod.— Deut. 2 : 28 ; Judg. 8 : 27^. (c) Thelot— Josh. 18 :6,8, 10 (Rd); Isa.34:i7; Jer. 13:25; Ezek. 24:6; Obad. 11; Nah. 3:10; Deut. 32:9. 3. The late period.42 (a) Oracles.— Joel 2:12; Hag. 1:9:2:4; Zech. 1:3; 3:9; 10:12; 12:1; Mai. 1:2; Pss. 36:1; 110:1. (b) Urim and Thummim. — Exod. 28:30; Lev. 8:8; Numb. 27:21; Ezra 2:63; Neh. 7:65. *" References in bold-face type are from the Priestly Code. 144 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (c) The lot. — Lev. 16: 8-10; Numb. 26:55!; 33 = 54; 34 = 13; 36 : 2 f.; Josh. 14:2; 15:1; 17:1 ; 19 : 1, 10, 17, 24, 32, 40, 51 ; 21 : 4, 5 f., 8, 10,40; 1 Chron. 6 : 54, 61, 63, 65 ; 16:18; 24:5,7,31; 25:8f.; 26 : 13 f.; Neh. 10:34 ; 11 : 1 ; Esther 3:7; 9 : 24 ; Isa. 57:6; Joel 3:3; Jon. 1:7; Dan. 12:13. § 156. Questions and Suggestions. Examine the various means of consultation with the deity which seem to have been recognized as legitimate and proper, viz., oracles, Urim and Thummim, ephod, and lot ; note the instances cited of each, and consider (1) the various circumstances under which such consultation is held; (2) the underlying motive in each case; (3) the relative frequency in the different periods ; (4) the differences (if any) between the usages named ; (5) the various senses in which the word oracle is used ; (6) the different views as to the method of employing the Urim and Thummim ; (7) the meaning of the ephod and its use; (8) the place of the lot in connection with religious acts. Consider whether, with the growth of religious conceptions and the higher ideas entertained of God in later times, the use of these external helps increases or diminishes. Consider the use of these or similar external helps in consulting the deity, as they may be referred to in (1) the Psalms,43 (2) the wisdom literature,44 (3) the apocryphal literature,45 (4) the New Testa ment ;4° and likewise as they were employed among (5) the Egyptians,4' (6) the Assyrians and Babylonians,48 (7) the ancient Arabs,4' (8) the Greeks and Romans.50 § 157. Literature to be Consulted. Kalisch, Exodus (1855), pp. 540-45; E. H. Plumptre, article "Urim and Thummim," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (ist ed. 1863, 2d ed. 1893); W. L. Bevan, article "Ephod," ibid, (ist ed. 1863), revised by I. M. Fuller (2d ed. 1893); Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Vol. I (1869 f., transl. 1874), pp. 96-100 ; W. M. Ramsay, "See, e. g., Pss. 16:5 ; 22 : 18; 36 : I; 110:1; 125:3. ¦"See, e. g., Prov. I : 14; 16 :33 ; 18 : 18 ; 30 : 1; 31 :i. 45 Cf. Wisdom of Solomon 8 : 8. 46See, e. g., Matt. 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke 1:9; 23:34; John 19:24; Acts 1 :26; 7 : 38 ; 8:21; Rom. 3:2; Heb. 5 : 12 ; 1 Pet. 4:11. 4? See, e. g., Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, see Index, s. v. "Oracle, etc." 48 See references to Pinches, Strong, and Jastrow cited in § 157. 49 See references to W. R. Smith and Wellhausen cited in §157. 50 See, e. g., Warre Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. "Sortes." LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 45 article "Oracle," Encyclopedia Britannica (1875); Wellhausen, Prolegomena, p. 130 ; T. G. Pinches, " The Oracle of Ishtar of Arbela," Records of the Past, Vol. XI (1878), pp. 59-72; see also ibid., Vol. V, new series (1891), pp. 129-40; S. F. Hancock, "The Urim and Thummim," Old Testament Student, Vol. Ill (1884), pp. 252-56; Konig, Religious History of Israel (1885), pp. 107 ff.; W. R Smith, Rel. of Sem., see Index, s. v. "Oracles, etc.;" Kirkpatrick, The First Book of Samuel (Camb. Bible, 1891), pp. 217 f.; H. E. Dosker, "The Urim and Thummim," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1892, pp. 717-30; S. A. Strong, "On Some Oracles to Esar haddon and Assurbanipal," Beitrdge zur Assyriologie, Band II (1894), pp. 627-45; J. F. McCurdy, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" G. F. Moore, fudges (Inter national Critical Commentary, 1895), p. 381; Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition (1897), pp. 280 ff.; S. R. Driver, article "Ephod," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. I (1898); Jastrow, op. cit., see Index, s. v. "Oracles;" T. C. Foote, "The Biblical Ephod," Johns Hopkins University Circulars, XIX, No. 145 (1900), p. 40; O. C. Whitehouse, article "Lots," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900); W. Muss- Arnolt, " The Urim and Thummim," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1900), pp. 193-224; C. H. Prichard, article "Oracle," Hastings' Dictionary, Vol. Ill (1900) ; G. F. MOORE, article " Ephod," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901). BRAUN, De vestitu sacerdotum (1698), pp. 462 ff.; Bellermann, Die Urim und Thummim (1824); Bahr, Symbolik des mosaischen Cultus, Vol. II (1839), pp. 131-41; G. Klaiber, Das priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten (1865); Kohler, Lehrbuch der biblischen Geschichte des Alten Testamentes, Vol. I (1875), pp. 349 f.; Steiner, article "Urim und Thummim," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. V (1875); Riehm, Hand wbrterbuch (1st ed. 1884, 2d ed. by Baethgen 1893 f-). articles " Ephod " and "Licht und Recht;" Kautzsch, article "Urim," Realencyklopddie (2d ed. 1885); Stade, Geschichte, Vol. I (1887), pp. 466, 471 ; Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidenthums, pp. 126 f., 133, 167, etc.; Baudissin, Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889), pp. 70 f., 205 ff.; Lagarde, Mittheilungen, Vol. IV (1891), p. 17 ; Sellin, Beitrdge zur israelitischen und jiidischen Religionsgeschichte, Heft II (1897), P- 119; Wil- HELM Lotz, article "Ephod," Realencyklopddie, Vol. V (3d ed., 1898); Van Hoo- NACKER, Le sacerdoce levitique (1899), pp. 370 ff. § 158. Supplementary Study on Consultation with the Deity or Super natural Powers through Magic, Divination, Sorcery, Witchcraft. 1. The early period.51 (a) Magic and divination. — Gen. 44:5, 15 (J) ; Exod. 22:17; Numb. 22 : 7 (J); 23 : 23; 1 Sam. 6:2; 28 : 8 ; Mic. 3 : 6 f ., 1 1 ; Isa. 2:6. (b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 22 : 18 ; 1 Sam. 1 5 : 23 ; 2 Kings 9:22. 2. The middle period.52 (a) Magic and divination. — Deut. 18:9-14; Jer. 8:17; 14:14; 27:9; 29:8; Ezek. 12:24; 13:7-9, 23; 2i:2ifL, 29; 22:28; 2 Kings 17:17; Isa. 44:25; Mic. 5:12. 5" References in bold-face type are from the Covenant Code. 52 References in bold-face type are from the code of laws contained in Deuter onomy. I46 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Deut. 18:10; Mic. 5:12; Nah. 3:4; Jer. 27:9; Isa. 47:9, 12; 57:3. 3. The late period.53 (a) Magic and divination. — Josh. 13 : 22 ; Lev. ig : 26, 31 ; 20 :6, 27; Zech. 10 : 2. (b) Sorcery and witchcraft. — Exod. 7:11; Mai. 3:5; 2 Chron. 33 :6 ; Dan. 2 :2. §159. Questions and Suggestions. Examine the various means of consultation with higher powers which seem always to have been regarded as improper and illegitimate, viz., magic, divination, sorcery, and witchcraft, noting (1) the various circumstances under which such consultation is held ; (2) the under lying motive in each case ; (3) the relative frequency in different periods ; (4) the various methods thus employed ; (5) the external sources of these influences ; (6) any internal source from which they may have sprung; (7) the prophetic attitude in the different periods; (8) the explanation of this attitude ; (9) the relation of all this to idolatry; (10) the essential element of injury which it contributed; (1 1) the gradual disappearance, and the occasion of this disappearance. Consider (1) the significance of references in the Psalms;54 (2) in the wisdom literature;55 (3) in the apocryphal literature ; 5See, *.£-., Luke 1:59; John 7 :22 f.; Actsi5 : 5 ; 16:3; 21:21; Rom.2:25ff.; I Cor. 7:i8f.; Gal. 5:2 f.; 6:13; Col. 3:11; Phil. 3:5. ?° See especially the references to the works of Tylor, Bancroft, W. R. Smith, Wellhausen, Ploss, Ebers, Erman, and Reitzenstein, cited in § 166. LAWS AND USAGES CONCERNING PRAYER 1 5 1 Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 133, 365, 437; Smend, op. cit, pp. 37 f., 116; Nowack, op. cit., pp. 167-71 ; Benzinger, op. cit, pp. 153 ff.; Budde, Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIV (1894), P- 25° > Glassberg, Die Beschnei dung (1896); Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstellung im Alten Testament (1896), pp. 165, 174; Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Frem- den (1896), see Index, s. v. "Beschneidung;" Marti, op. cit, pp. 43, 163 f.; J. Jaeger, " Ueber die Beschneidung," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, July, 1898, pp. 479-91; Zeydner, " Kainszeichen, Keniter und Beschneidung," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVIII (1898), pp. 120-25; Reitzenstein, Zwei religions- geschichtliche Fragen (1901). Paet Foueth THE LITERATURE OP WORSHIP -THE LEGAL LITERATURE XII. The Deuteronomic Code. XIII. Ezekiel's Contribution. XIV. The Priestly Code. CHAPTER XII. THE LEGAL LITERATURE THE DEUTERONOMIC CODE OF LAWS. § 167. The Literature of Worship includes that portion of the Old Testament literature which concerns itself with the subject of worship in any of its forms, or was written by men imbued with the priestly spirit. Here belong : 1. The legal literature (cf. § 9), or codes of laws and regula tions dealing with the various elements in worship ; these codes include more than can properly be classified under the head of worship, but everything in them may be said to be priestly in its character. 2. The historical literature (§10), viz., Chronicles, Ezra, Nehe miah, and the priestly history in the Hexateuch (=P). 3. The hymnal literature (§ 8), as found in the book of Psalms. A marked spirit of unity characterizes all this literature, and dis tinguishes it from the prophetic and the wisdom literature (§ 2). § 168. The Legal Literature of the Old Testament is found in four groups or codes of legislation, viz.: 1. The covenant code (§20), the earliest form of Exod. 20:23— legislation, ordinarily called the prophetic code, because it is incorporated in literature of a prophetic charac ter. 2. The Deuteronomic code (§§ 25-28), so called Deut. 12:1— 26:19; because it forms the principal part of the book of Deuteronomy. 3. Ezekiel's system of worship (§ 31), which is, Ezek., chaps. strictly speaking, priestly and legalistic, although the work of a prophet. 4. The Levitical code (§§ 41-44), so called because it is found in the book of Leviticus (with portions of Exodus and Numbers). § 169. The Covenant Code (§ 20), or prophetic code, is the codification of law and usage in Israel down to about 650 B. C. Concerning this code there may be noted : i55 I56 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT judg. 17:7 ff. 1. Its prevalence is synchronous with the period in which the order of priests does not occupy the place of power in Israelitish thought. When the priests take a more influential place in the affairs of the nation, an other code appears (the Deuteronomic), in which this higher position is recognized. 2. Its form, contents, and character are rather pro- Exod. 20:24 ff. phetic than priestly, since, although (1) the act of wor- Exod. 23:14-17. ship is recognized (§ 73, 1), (2) provision is made for Exod. 22:18. feasts and offerings (§ 96), (3) reference is made to magic and sacrifice to other gods (§158, 1), all this is of the simplest character, and no tendency exists toward the development of a priestly system, there being no men tion even of a priest or a priestly order (§ 59, 1). 3. It furnishes a formulation under prophetic influ ence of the old Semitic usage, and, at the same time, the basis on which the later codes are developed. 4. Its relation to these later codes has been shown in the comparative examination of various usages (§§59- 166). 2 Kings 22: 3- §!7°- The Story of the Discovery of Deuteronomy 23:as- (§25).' 2 Kings 21:1-26. 1. Consider the conditions of the times in which this event occurred, viz., the preceding reigns of Manasseh and Amon, their character, the forms of worship encouraged, the prophetic attitude (2 Kings 21 : 10- 15), the particular royal acts regarded with disfavor (§^4). See Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 370-79 ; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile, pp. 161-9 ; Kent, A History of the Hebrew People, Vol. II, pp. 159-64; Wellhausen, Prolego mena to the History of Israel, pp. 485 ff. ' It is generally acknowledged by interpreters that the original story of the dis covery of Deuteronomy has been edited from the point of view of later times. The account, as it now stands, comes from three sources: (1) the early narrative, (2) the pre-exilic redaction, (3) the post-exilic redaction. The parts that show the clearest evidence of the work of the post-exilic editor are 2 Kings 22 : 14-20 ; 23 : 8 ff., 16-18, 21-23, 25^-27 ; the work of the earlier editor appears in 23 : 3, 13, 24 f.; while 22 : 5b, 6, 8 ("the high-priest"); 23 :/\b, 5, "]b, 14, 16-20, seem to be minor glosses. The pur pose of these additions and modifications was to furnish an explanation, from the later point of view, of the disaster that fell upon Judah so soon after this reform. LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 57 2. Study the principal details of the discovery, e. g., (1) the chief agent, the priest; (2) the phrase "the book 3 Kings m: 4. 8, of the law; " (3) the strange effect of the reading upon 2 Kings 22:8. the king; (4) the consultation with Huldah— her oracle, "Kings 22:11. v 2 Kings 22: 14-20. its original form and meaning; (5) the convocation of 2 Kings 23:11. the nation and the public reading; (6) the covenant entered into; (7) the phrase "his commandments, and his testimonies, and his statutes;" (8) the phrase "with 2 Kings 23: 3. all his heart and all his soul;" (9) one by one, the 2 Kings 23 : 4-20. various acts of reformation instituted by Josiah; (10) 2 Kings 23 : 21-23. the observance of the passover; (11) the purpose of a Kings 22:8; 23:3,21,24. these acts, viz., to confirm "the words of this covenant which were written in this book," etc. 3. Consider (§ 26) the immediate results of the find- * Kings 23:4-24- ing of this book, and compare these results with the actual provisions of the book of Deuteronomy, and determine : (1) whether Deuteronomy commands any essential thing which Josiah did not try to do ; (2) whether Josiah undertook any act of reformation for which Deuteronomy does not make provision. 4. Take up now three important questions: (1) Is there any reasonable doubt as to the identity of the book found by Hilkiah with the book of Deuteronomy, or, at least, a portion of it ? (2) Does the story in Kings of 2 Kings 23: 8-13. the finding of the book definitely indicate a belief, on the part of its writer, that the book discovered was one written by Moses, or of Mosaic origin ? (3) If such Mosaic origin is implied in the narrative, what explana tion of the narrative is possible from the point of view of those who deny the Mosaic origin of the book ? 5. Take up, still further, these questions : (1) Do the facts of the reformation furnish evidence that the book 2 Kings 23:4-24. which authorizes them is of ancient date, that is, Mosaic ? (2) Could these facts be accounted for just as easily and naturally on the other supposition, that is, that the book of Deuteronomy was prepared during Manasseh's reign, lost, and found in Josiah's reign ? (3) In this latter case, what motive, worthy of the situation, could be ascribed to those who took part in the transaction ? Would it be sufficient to say that it was done to recommend certain I58 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT reforms and to establish more firmly the national reli gion ? §171. Representations in Deuteronomy Concerning its Authorship. 1:1-5;* 4:11., 44 i- Read and interpret the passages in Deuteronomy g'.'ih/'ag Jii.\ which make reference to its authorship, noting the par- t,3o; "329:44ff21 ticular portions of the book which contain these refer ences, and noting, further, that the strictly legal portion, 12 : 1 — 26 : 19, contains nothing of this kind. 2. Consider whether it was customary in ancient times to ascribe to great men writings whose authorship was unknown, and whether instances of this custom are Prov. 10:1; 25:1. found (in sacred writings) in the case of (1) Solomon,3 to whom are ascribed proverbs and psalms and books Pss. 103; 122; 124; which are of a manifestly later age ; (2) David,4 to whom psalms are ascribed which certainly date from a post- isa., chaps. 40-66. exilic time; (3) Isaiah,5 to whom prophetic discourses are ascribed which are now almost universally recognized as belonging to the exilic and post-exilic periods ; and (in secular writings) (4) the letters and many of the dia logues assigned to Plato;6 (5) the "Shield of Hercules" and many other works ascribed to Hesiod.' 3. Consider also the ancient custom in accordance with which writers, for certain reasons, ascribed their Eccies. 1:1, 12. own writings to great men, as in the case of (1) the song of Solomon writer of Ecclesiastes;8 (2) the writer of the Song of Solomon ; ' (3) the authors of the " Wisdom of Solomon " 1>m':a]''Zic.r'*' and of the "Psalms of Solomon ;"10 (4) the author of the 3 All Scripture references in this chapter which are cited without the name of the book are from Deuteronomy. 3 See, e. g., Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 406 ff. * See, e. g., Driver, op. cit, pp. 373 ff. 5 See, e. g., Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah. 6 See Jevons, History of Greek Literature, pp. 482 f . 'See Jevons, op. cit, p. 86. 8 See articles on " Ecclesiastes " in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible and in Encyclopedia Biblica. 'See Driver, op. cit, pp. 437 ff. 10 See articles on "Apocrypha" in Encyclopedia Biblica and in Hastings's Dic tionary of the Bible.. J LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 159 book of Daniel;" (5) Plato putting his words into the mouth of Socrates;15 (6) the alleged correspondence between St. Paul and Seneca, consisting of fourteen letters.13 4. Consider the Egyptian custom of placing in con- Cf. 31:26. nection with religious works the statement " found in the temple," this being understood to be, not a statement that a book had been lost and found, but a conventional fiction of the priestly class to affirm its sacred and authoritative character.14 5. Consider, however, whether, after all, it is not quite certain that the leaders of the time, as well as the people, supposed the "found" book to have been (1) lost for many years, (2) actually discovered, and (3) of Mosaic origin. § 172. The Point of View and Coloring of the Book. 1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (1) the situation — border of the wilderness — outside the i:if. Holy Land ; (2) the lack of any reference to Jerusalem orthe temple; (3) the frequent representation that the 1:8; 4:1; 6:iof.; land is not yet occupied ; (4) the constant reference to 7:1-5', 17-24; the Canaanites as Israel's enemies ; (5) the references to 6:21; 7:8, 18; Egypt as a recent place of dwelling; (6) the references 4:3,4.' to events which those addressed had themselves seen ; (7) the many Egyptian reminiscences, e. g., of methods ":i°; 25:2,3; of irrigation, bastinado, writing of law on plastered stones, " = '» ; « '«> ; wearing of law as amulet, deliverance from Egypt, Egyp- 28:27, 35:5 :''5; tian diseases, motives of kindness to servants. 2. Consider, on the other hand, whether all these points are not capable of other explanation. (1) Is it inconceivable that the writer planned to give his book a Mosaic setting — in other words, that all this material is merely to be regarded as a part of the dramatic repre sentation ? Is the book not thoroughly dramatic in its 11 See Driver, The Book of Daniel (Cambridge Bible), pp. xlvii-lxxvi. "See the "Charmides," "Lysis," "Protagoras," etc.; and compare Jowett, Dialogues of Plato (Macmillan Co., New York, 5 vols.). 13 See Lightfoot, St Paul's Epistle to the Philippians, p. 260. 14 See Cheywe, feremiah, His Life and Times, p. 8$ ; Maspero, Histoire ancienne del' Orient (ist ed.), pp. 57, 73; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens (ist ed.), pp. 60, 84. 160 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 5:6-21; cf. Exod. whole presentation?15 (2) Is it not to be expected n-.iit; cf. Exod that the writer, if a late one, would include material of 23 ; IQt$. 16:4^,- cf. Exod. the earlier times? Is there anywhere a claim that he 23:7,8; cf.i3-.3. includes only late material? (3) Is the author of the book really as hostile to the Egyptians as a writer would be expected to be, if he lived in the generation follow ing the exodus ? If so, how explain the permission to admit an Egyptian to religious privileges in the third generation, when this privilege is denied other nations 17:14-17, until the tenth generation ? (4) Is not the writer living in a time when the upper classes have an attachment to Egypt, which he must oppose, for how otherwise explain isa.,chaps.3o,3i; Deut. 17 : 14-17 ? (5) Is it not true that there was con- 18 ¦ 21 ;cf. 25:26. stant communication with Egypt between 750 B. C. and 600 B. C, and may not these Egyptian references be explained on the ground of this intimacy ? 3. Are there not allusions which furnish direct evi dence that the writer is living at a distance from the 2:3453:4, 8, etc.; period of which he treats ; e. g., (1) are the phrases "at that time," " unto this day," appropriate in the mouth of Moses, when the events described occurred during the preceding six months (cf. 1 : 3 with Numb. 33 : 38, thus fixing the date of Numb. 20:22-28)? (2) How 24:9;25:i7;23:5; explain 2: 12 as Mosaic ? (3) Could Moses have used cf. 4 : 45J, 46*. V ' appropriately the phrase "when ye came forth out of 1:1,5; 3:8; etc. Egypt" ? (4) Must the writer not have lived in western Palestine in view of his use of the phrase beyond the Jordan of eastern Palestine ? § 173. The Language and Style of the Book. 1. Examine a list of special words and phrases16 fre quently occurring in the book of Deuteronomy, and con sider (1) the bearing of the fact of such a list upon the question of authorship ; does it argue for or against identity of authorship with the other books of the Penta teuch? (2) the general character of these expressions as indicating early or later authorship. '* Cf. the same element in the book of Job, viz., a dramatic representation of antiquity in connection with the presentation of a (comparatively) modern thought. 16 See, e. g.. Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy, pp. lxxvii-lxxxiv. LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE l6l 2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities ap pearing in the book,'7 *. e., the peculiar forms, idioms, etc., and consider whether these exhibit evidence (i) of antiquity of date, or (2) of late date. With what writer Cf. jer. 7:1-26; in the Old Testament does the book of Deuteronomy 13 ; 21 :3-io'. show the largest number of similarities ? 3. Consider (1) the general style of Deuteronomy, c/. 2:28 with viz., classical, pure, broad, copious, idiomatic; (2) the i:a8withNumb. 13 : 28 ; striking points of style which distinguish this book from 1:35, 36,39,4" the other Pentateuchal books, and, indeed, from other 14:23,24,31, Old Testament books, viz., (a) individual, affecting even quotations ; {b) the hortatory element, based upon (c) the oratorical. § 174. The Material of the Book. — Make an examina tion of the material of the book with a view to finding evidence for and against the Mosaic authorship, as follows : 1. Note (1) the prohibition of intercourse with the 7:1. Canaanites; (2) references to Israel's condition in the 4:3, 4; 7:1; 8:1; x ' 9:1. wilderness; (3) the directions for appointing a king; 17:14. (4) the law for the cities of refuge, possible only at the 19:1-10. time of the entrance; (5) the order to recall what 25:17-19. Amalek did to them; (6) directions for the blessing 27:11-16. and cursing on Mount Ebal ; and consider whether material of this kind could possibly have had its origin at any other than a very early time, viz., the time of Moses. 2. Consider, on the other hand, (1) whether the presence of this material has not already been accounted for in the statement (see § 172, 2) that the book is con ceded to contain much very old material which has been handed down and incorporated side by side with the newer material ; and (2) whether the presence of the newer material can possibly be explained in a book of Mosaic origin, e. g., {a) the prohibition of star-worship, 4:19517:3. which is late; {b) warnings against lower forms of proph- 18:10-12. ecy, which cannot have antedated Amos and Hosea ; 17 See, e. g., Driver, op. cit, p. Ixxxiv ; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 282— 91 ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium ("Handkommentar zum Alten Testa ment "), pp. xxxii-xli. l62 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Chaps. 15; 21; 23; 24- 3i:gr33:i,4; 4:44-49; chap. 34. Mai. 4:4. 1 ; 9-13 ; cf. Exod. 18: 13-26. 1 : 22 f . ; cf. Numb. 13 : 1-3. 1 : 37 1. ; cf. Numb. 20:12. 19:1-13; cf. Numb. 35:9-34. 14 : 21 ; cf. Exod. 23:19; 34:26. Cbap, 16 ; cf. Exod. 23 : 14 ; Lev., chap. 23. Chap. 5 ;cf. Exod., chap. 20 ; chap. 14; cf. Lev,, chap. 11. 1 Sam. 9 : 12-14 ; 16:2; 10:3,5,8; 1 Kings 18:30 ff. ; 2 Sam. 6:13, 17 1. Josh. , 23; 10, 11; 3:7; 10 : 28-43 ; 11:10-15; Judg. 2 : II-23 ; (c) the law centralizing worship at one place ; {d) laws like those concerning contracts and inheritance, which mark an advanced state of social development. 3. Consider from the point of view of the material the truth or falsity of the following statements : " The Israel of Deuteronomy is separated from the Israel of the exodus by a complete social revolution ; " " The nomadic tribes have grown into a settled and wealthy community whose organization no longer needs to be constituted, but only to be reformed." 4. Consider in their bearing on this question the following: (1) certain passages which manifestly cannot be ascribed to Moses, e. g., the account of his death ; (2) the fact that the first reference in the prophets to a Mosaic code occurs in post-exilic times ; (3) the lack of consistency which appears in so many cases in com parison with the other parts of the Pentateuch, e. g., the difference in the representations concerning the appoint ment of assistants to Moses in his work as judge; the different accounts of the sending out of the twelve spies ; the different causes assigned for Jehovah's anger against Moses ; the many differences between the last chapters of Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy, though both are assigned to the same year ; (4) the repetitions of laws which occur also in other books, e. g., the law against seething a kid in its mother's milk ; the law concerning feasts ; the decalogue ; the law of clean and unclean. 5. Consider the cases in which Israel's leaders in the early period show utter disregard of Deuteronomic laws, without any indication that what they do is regarded as illegal ; e. g., Samuel sacrifices at other places than Jerusalem ; Elijah sacrifices on Mount Carmel ; David also offers sacrifice. 6. Consider the bearing upon this question of the more important teachings (see § 178). § 175. The Book of Deuteronomy as Related to Other Old Testament Literature. 1. Examine the strongly Deuteronomic character of certain passages in Joshua, Judges, and Kings, and con sider whether these are to be explained (1) as themselves LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE I 63 early, and indicating the existence of the book of Deu- 3:4-6; 4:1-3; J ° 6:1; 10:6-16; teronomy at an early date; or (2) as later interpolations » Kings a: 3, 4; and expansions by Deuteronomic editors after the publi- "i}'1'3'' cation of Deuteronomy in 621 B. C. (see § 180). '°a'" '7:7-23; 2. Examine the remarkable cases of similarity (in 4:20; cf. jer. thought and form) between Jeremiah and Deuteronomy'8 cf.'jii. 7:323. (cf. the sixty-six passages from Deuteronomy of which If't. there are echoes in not less than eighty-six of Jere- * 29-23. miah); and consider whether this is to be explained by 2 7*33 ' supposing (1) that Jeremiah was particularly fond of, and 2 16:13. familiar with, the ancient Deuteronomy; or (2) that Deu- 2 $??$. teronomy and Jeremiah are the product of nearly the ^mfi, same times, the latter being strongly influenced by the *% f 31. r' former ; or (3) that Jeremiah was himself the author of '^m. Deuteronomy." 3. Consider the significance of the fact that in the genuine portions of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah none of these Deuteronomic phrases are to be found. 4. Consider, still further, the cases in later literature Neh. 1:5-11; 9 : 6 ff. ; in which the Deuteronomic phrases still maintain them- Dan. 9:4-19; 1 1 Chron. 29 : 19 ; selves, e. g., Nehemiah, Chronicles, and Daniel. 22:13:28:8,20; „ 2 Chron. 32 : 7. § 176. The Book of Deuteronomy and the New Testa ment. 1. Examine the allusions in the New Testament to Marki:44;ia:26; the "law of Moses," and consider the bearing of these y^iielig^u statements on the authorship of the Pentateuch in gen- 5! J7!? 8 Is;" pr„l 1:17; 7 '19; Acts c»«u. 15:21; 28:23; 2. Examine the quotations in the New Testament i^tt li^Y'- taken from the book of Deuteronomy, and consider the "^4; Mark J 10:3 1. , 12 : 19, bearing of the statements made in connection with them £u£e 2°:28; o Acts 3 :22 ; 7:37; on the authorship of Deuteronomy in particular. Rom. 10:19. 3. Consider the three interpretations which have been made of these and similar passages: (1) that the state ments are literally true and are to be accepted as final ;20 ,8ZuNZ, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 1873, pp. 671-3; Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii ff. "'But see Driver, Deuteronomy, pp. xciii f. ; Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 81 f . ; J. L. Konig, Alttestamentliche Studien, II; Kleinert, Das Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker, pp. 185-90, 235. '" See Alvah Hovey, " The New Testament as a Guide to the Interpretation of the Old Testament," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 207-13. 164 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (2) that Jesus and the New Testament writers, though knowing the real facts, accommodated themselves to the point of view of their times and accepted the traditional interpretation, not wishing to arouse opposition over a matter of comparatively slight importance and thereby detract attention from the great truths they wished to teach;2' (3) that Jesus and the New Testament writers were not sent to teach historical and biblical criticism, hence were not given any more knowledge concerning such questions than was possessed by their contem poraries.22 §177. Is Not the Book a Forgery and a Fraud, if Not Written by Moses ? 1. Consider (1) whether, in view of its own assertions and the general belief, this book is not a fraudulent imposture, if Moses did not write it ; (2) whether, if a forgery, it could under any circumstances be counted among the sacred writings; (3) how, if a forgery, it could possibly have gained acceptance in the Jewish nation ; (4) whether the writer, whoever he was, did not secure its acceptance on the pretense that it was the work of Moses. 2. Consider, on the other hand, (1) whether, in those days, there was anything in existence like the literary usages and laws of the modern world, e. g., any literary proprietorship, any literary copyright ; and, if these were not in existence, can the modern conception of forgery or plagiarism have existed ? (2) the suggestions made above (§171, 2, 3) concerning ancient customs in connection with writings ; (3) whether there are not books of excellent morality which are, nevertheless, literary forgeries;23 (4) whether there have not been cases in which a modern law book has been palmed off as ancient;24 (5) whether the proposition of forgery is possible in view of the fact that Chap. 18. the supposed forgers, the priests of Zadok, include laws 21 See G. B. Stevens, " The Bearing of New Testament Statements upon the Authorship of Old Testament Books," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 164-70. " See C. H. Toy, " The New Testament as Interpreter of the Old Testament," Old Testament Student, Vol. VIII, pp. 124-33. 23 E. g., the Sibylline oracles. '* Cf. Sir Henry Maine, in Ancient Law, p. 82 LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE l6$ touching the interests of the country-Levites which are indirect conflict with the interests of the Zadokites ;'s (6) whether the mass of the people who heard the read- 5:1:31:1,9. ing of the law was in any proper position to consider critically the question of authorship ; (7) whether Hilkiah in permitting the belief in the Mosaic authorship was really guilty of delusion; was it not rather illusion? (8) whether the principle of illusion is not {a) necessary in all educational work ;26 {b) practiced in the Old and New Testaments;27 {c) one of the greatest elements in the teaching of Jesus himself;"8 (9) whether, after all, the writer of this book was not properly using the word Moses, inasmuch as {a) this work was only a continuation of the work of Moses, along the same lines and for the same ends ; (b) this work was but the fuller growth of the seed planted by Moses ; (c) even where the older usage is changed, as in the case of the place of worship, the principle underlying the change is one enunciated by Moses ; (d) the writer is doing only what Moses himself under the changed circumstances would have done ; (e) the writer has done just what modern writers do, as in the case of the name of Webster's Dictionary, the original author having long been dead, and the dictionary, although greatly modified and enlarged, still bearing his name ; or the name of Gesenius's Hebrew Grammar, many editions having appeared since the death of the author, with very significant changes in system and matter. §178. The Religious Teachings of the Book. — Con sider (1) the general religious teachings and their sig nificance (see § 28) ; (2) the teachings of Deuteronomy upon the special subjects compared in §§ 52-166. § 179. The Structure and General Character of the Book of Deuteronomy. 1. Consider the various sections which constitute the as Cf. Cheyne, Jeremiah, His Life and Times, pp. 76 f. 26 Cf. ibid., pp. 77 f. '' Cf. ler. 20 : 7, in which the prophet utters his disappointment in his discovery that he had been illuded (not deluded); also Heb. 4 : 8, 9. 38 Cf. lohn 16 : 12. 1 66 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT book of Deuteronomy as it now stands, and note their specific contents : I:I.5# (i) Introduction. i:6-4: 40. (2) The first discourse of Moses, introductory. 4:41-43. (3) Appointment of three cities of refuge. 4:44-49. (4) Superscription to the second discourse of Moses. 5:1— 26: 19; chap. (5) The second discourse — the law. chaps. 5-11. (a) Hortatory introduction. Chaps. 12-26, 28. (b) Code of laws. chap. 27. (6) The acceptance of the code. 29:1-30:20. (7) The third discourse, supplementary. 3i: 1-8. (8) Moses's last words of encouragement. 31:9-13. (9) Delivery of the law to the priests. 31:14,15,23. (10) Commission of Joshua. 31:16-22,24-30; (11) Song of Moses. 32^45-47.3' 44' (12) Final commendation of the law to Israel. 32:48— 34:12. (13) Moses's blessing and death. 2. Consider the literary structure of this material upon the modern hypothesis : °> ( 1 ) To P are assigned the few touches found in 1 : 3; 32 : 48-52 ; 34: 1a, 5^, 7-9 ; consider these passages in connection with the commonly accepted idea of P, and note that by means of them, at a late date, Deuteronomy was brought into the Hexateuch. (2) To JE are assigned the earlier parts of the book, viz., the incorporation of the blessing (chap. 33, this being taken from JE in its original form); 27 : 5-70; 31:14, 15; 3!:23; 34:i0, ib-sa, 6, 10. (3) To D, the first Deuteronomic writer, and to D2, a second Deu teronomic writer, is assigned the remainder, divided as follows (D2 being in black type): i:if.; 1:4 — 3:13; 3:14-17; 3:18—4:28; 4:29-31; 4:32-40; 4:41-49; 5:1 — 26:19; 27:I-4; 27:7^-8; 27:9 f.; 27:11-26; 28 : 1 — 29: 8; 29:9-28; 30: 1-10; 30: 11-20; 31 : 1-13; 31:16-22; 31:24-27; 31:28-30; 32:45-47; 34:111. D3 followed some time after D, and, besides making the additions, incorporated the JE portion and the song 32 : i-43- 29 So Driver, Deuteronomy; for variations consult Bertholet, Deuteronomium ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar") ; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium (" Hand-Kommen- tar"); G. F. MOORE, " Deuteronomy,' 'Encyclopedia Biblica; Staerk, Das Deute ronomium, sein Inhalt und seine literarische Form. LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 1 67 3. Consider the general character of the material in Deuteronomy, consisting as it does of (i) historical, (2) legal, (3) hortatory elements. Which of these elements is the controlling one ? Is the history narrated simply for the sake of imparting a knowledge of historical events, or is it used rather for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing great truths ? Notice also that the laws are imbedded in a didactic setting, and that their gen eral tone is not imperative, but argumentative and per suasive ; reasons are assigned for yielding obedience to them and rewards are promised to the obedient. Consider also the way in which the prophetic and priestly ele ments are combined in Deuteronomy, how the great ideas of the book are of a prophetic character, and how the priestly laws are calculated to give concrete expression to these prophetic ideas and secure their lodgment in the life and thought of the people. § 1 80. Other Work of the Deuteronomic Writers. — After the book of Deuteronomy was accepted as the law- josh. 1:3-9, 12- book of Israel, there seems to have arisen a school of 5:4-84'3io:28-' writers controlled by the spirit of Deuteronomy whose 43' activity may be clearly traced in the Old Testament 1 Kings 2 : 10-12 ; literature during the years immediately preceding the I • 14-66 ;4g • 1-9 ; exile and onward for a century or more. Their work I5'r 5' may be seen most clearly in the books of Judges and judg. 2:7, n-23; Kings, which they edited from the Deuteronomic point 6:i,7-io;4etc.' of view, inserting interpretations of the history of Israel based wholly on the teachings of Deuteronomy. Much of their work is found also in Joshua, and some traces 1 Sam. 1 : 7 f ., 12. of it appear in Samuel and in the preceding books of Gen. 26:1-5; the Hexateuch (§ 1 7 5)-30 Exod. 15:26. §181. Literature to be Consulted. Havernick, Introduction to the Pentateuch (1836, transl. 1850), pp. 410 f.; Hengstenberg, Genuineness of the Pentateuch (1839, transl. 1847); Keil, Introduc tion to the Old Testament (1853, 3d ed. 1873, transl. 1869); Kuenen, The Hexateuch (1861, 2d ed. 1885, transl. 1886); Keil, Deuteronomy (1862, 2d ed. 1870, transl. 1867); SCHROEDER, Deuteronomy (Lange's "Commentary," 1866, transl. 1879) ; Espin, Deuteronomy (" Speaker's Commentary," 1871); Kuenen, Religion of Israel, Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1869 f., transl. 1874 f.); Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 402 ff. (ist ed. 1878, 2d ed. 1883, 4th ed. 1895, transl. 1885); W. R. Smith, 3° Cf. Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 29 ff. 168 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Old Testament in the fewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892); Bissell, The Penta teuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885); G. Vos, The Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuchal Codes (1886); Cheyne, feremiah, His Life and Times (1888, chaps, v-vii); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 69-103; Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 7-44 (1892, transl. 1896); H. E. Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament (1892, 2d ed. 1895), see Index; MONTEFIORE, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews ("Hibbert Lectures," 1892), pp. 161-221; S. R. Driver, article "Deuteronomy," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893); B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradition of the Exodus (1894); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (1895), pp. 80-92; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895), see Index; Driver, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteronomy (1895), pp. i-xcv; A. Harper, Deuteronomy {Expositor's Bible, 1895); C. J. Ball, "The Blessing of Moses," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, 1896, pp. 118-37; L. W. Batten, "The Origin and Character of Deuteronomy," Biblical World, April, 1898, pp. 246-54; Ed. KSnig, "The Unity of Deuteronomy," Expository Times, Oct. and Dec, 1898, pp. 16-19, 124-7; Feb., 1899, pp. 227-30; G.L.Robinson, "The Genesis of Deuteronomy," Expositor, Oct. and Nov., 1898, pp. 241-61, 351-69; Feb., Apr., and May, 1899, pp. 151-60, 271-95, 356-71; H. E. Ryle, article "Deuter onomy," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Th. Tyler, "Notes on Deut. 32 : 42," fewish Quarterly Review, 1898, pp. 379 f.; Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 2-30 ; W. P. McKee, "Transient and Perma nent Elements in Deuteronomy," Biblical World April, 1899, pp. 249 ff.; H. G. Mitchell, " The Use of the Second Person in Deuteronomy," fournal of Biblical Literature, 1899, pp. 61-109; Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899), PP- 170-80; F. H. Woods, article " Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, (1899); G. F. Moore, article "Deuteronomy," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); Martin, The Tora of Moses (1900); Stibitz, "The Centralization of Jehovah Wor ship in Israel," Reformed Church Review, Jan., 1900 ; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol.11 (1900); J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I (1900); Hayman, "The Blessing of Moses," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1901), pp. 96-106; Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexateuch," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Warren, "The Origin of the Pentateuch," Biblical World, Vol. XVIII (1901), pp. 194 ff. Kueper, Jeremias librorum sacrorum interpres et vindex (1838), pp. 4-45; J. L. KSnig, " Das Deuteronomium und der Prophet Jeremiah," Alttestamentliche Studien, Vol. II (1839); Riehm, Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab (1854); K. H. Graf, Der Segen Mose's (1857); F. W. Schultz, Das Deuteronomium (1859); Knobel, Das Deuteronomium (" Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1861); Kamp- hausen, Das Lied Moses (1862); Kosters, De Historie-Beschouwing van den Deutero- nomist met de Berichten in Gen. — Num. vergeleken (1868); Klostermann, "Das Lied Mose's und das Deuteronomium," Studien und Kritiken, 1871 f.; KLEINERT, Das Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker (1872); Reinke, "Ueber das unter dem Kbnige Josia aufgefundene Gesetzbuch," Beitrdge zur Erkldrung des Alten Testa ments, 8 (1872), pp. 131-80; Riehm, Studien und Kritiken, 1873, pp. 165-200; Zunz, Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVIII (1873), pp. 669-76; Kayser, Das vorexHische Buch der Urgeschichte Israel und seine Erweiterungen (1874); Hollenberg, "Die deuteronomischen Bestandtheile des Buches Josua," Studien und Kritiken, 1874, pp. 462-506; Havet, Le Christianisme et ses origines, LEGAL LITERATURE DEUTERONOMIC CODE 169 Vol. Ill (1878), pp. 32 ff.; Reuss, L'histoire sainte et la loi, Vol. I (1879), pp. 154 ff.; J. J. P. Valeton, " Deuteronomium," Theologische Studien, Vol. V (1879), pp. 169-206, 291-313; VI (1880), pp. 133-74. 303-20; VII (1881), pp. 39-56, 205-28; Steinthal, "Das fiinfte Buch Mose," Zeitschrift fiir Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft, 1879, pp. 1-28; Idem, "Die eraahlenden Stiicke im fiinften Buche Mose," ibid., 1880, pp. 253-89; Delitzsch, "Pentateuch-kritische Studien," Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wis senschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1880), pp. 445 ff., 503 ft., 559 ff.; Stade, Zeit schrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. V (1885), pp. 292-300; D'Eichthal, Mllanges de critique biblique (1886); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 148-73,649-71; Martin , Introduction a la critique ginirale de I'Ancien Testa ment, Vol. I (1887), pp. 295 ff.; Vernes, Une nouvelle hypothise sur la composition du Deut.; examen des vues de M. d' ' Eichthal (1887); Kuenen, "De Jongste Phasen der Critiek van den Hexateuch," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1888, pp. 35 ff.; Horst, "Etudes sur le Deut.," Revue de I'histoire des religions. Vol. XVI (1888), pp. 28-65; XVII (1889), pp. 1-22; XVIII (1890), pp. 320-34; XXIII (1895), 184-200; XXVII (1899), pp. 119-76; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuch und der hislorischen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1899); Baudissin, Geschichte des alttesta mentlichen Priesterthums (1889); Van Hoonacker, L'origine des 4 premiers chapitres du Deut. (1889); A. Zahn, Das Deuteronomium (1890); Klostermann, "Beitrage zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Pentateuch," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, 1890-92 ; Montet, Le Deuttronome (1891); Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 29-45; Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuch, Vol. II (1892), pp. 32 ff.; Oettli, Das Deuteronomium (1893); H. Preiss, Zum Deuteronomium — ein Beitrag zur Kritik des Pentateuchs (1892); Marti, "Daserste officielle Bekenntnis," Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, 1892, pp. 29-73; Reuss, Die heilige Geschichte und das Gesetz (1893), pp. 106 ff.; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions geschichte (1st ed. 1893, 2d. ed. 1899), § 16; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 209-25; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des Alten Testament (1893, tr. 1894), § 11; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), PP- 255-331; Steuernagel, Der Rahmen des Deuteronomium (1894); Willy Staerk, Das Deuteronomium, sein Inhalt und seine literarische Form (1894); Piepenbring, "Lare'forme et le code de •Josias," Revue de I'histoire des religions, Vol. XXIX (1894), PP- I23 ff-5 Steuernagel, Die Entstehung des deuteronomischen Geselzes (1896); Naumann, Das Deuterono mium (1897); D. Castelli, " Una congettura sopra Deuteronomio 32 :5," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XVII (1897), pp. 337 f.; M. Lambert, "Le cantique de Moise, Deut. XXXII," Revue des itudes juives, Vol. XXXVI (1898), pp. 47-52; VON Gall, " Deuteronomium und Deuteronomius," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest amentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 173-7 ; I- Halevy, "Le Deute"ronome," Revue simitique. Vol. VII (1899), pp. 313-32; Bertholet, Deuteronomium erklart ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1899), pp. ix-xxix; Finke, Wer hat die 5 Biicher Moses verfasst? (1900); Klostermann, Deuteronomium und Grdgds (1900); Steuernagel, Uebersetzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und fosua, und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (190 1 ), pp. 103-22; Herner, Ist der zweite Dekalog alter als das Bundesbuch? (1901); Hummelauer, Commentarius in Deuteronomium (1901). CHAPTER XIII. THE LEGAL LITERATURE — EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION. § 182. The Historical Situation of which Ezekiel and his work formed a part deserves careful study (§§3off.).' Kings 24: 1-7. !¦ Gather together the principal facts (1) of the first deportation as narrated in Kings, viz., the reign of Jehoiakim, its character; the reign of Jehoiachin, the invasion of Nebuchadnezzar, the carrying away of the princes, etc. (vs. 14); the date of this being 597 B. C; 2 Kings 25 : 1-21 ; (2) of the second deportation, including the reign of Zedekiah, the siege of Jerusalem, its destruction, the car rying away of the residue (vs. 1 1). 2Kings 25:22-26. 2- Note (1) the situation after the destruction of the city under Gedaliah, and the story of Gedaliah's murder; jer., chap. 24; (2) the prophet's estimate of those taken away captive 29:15-20. an(j tjj0se auowe(j to remain (the good and the bad figs), and consider (a) whether it was the captives or those left behind who were adjudged the more important; jer.', chaps. 42- also (b) which of these two classes was supposed to be suf- Bzek. 33:241 fering the more keenly; still further (c), how the lower classes left behind regarded these matters. jer., chap. 29. 3. Study Jeremiah's letter" to the captives in Babylon and formulate the policy therein advocated in respect to' business, marriage, etc. ¦See McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, Vol. Ill, pp. 227-431 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 488-98 ; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I, pp. 675-703; II, 1-67; Guthe, art. "Israel," §§40-47, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II. aIt is very probable that Jer., chap. 29, at least in its present form, is from a later writer, for : (1) Jeremiah is spoken of in the third person and described "as the prophet ; " (2) the nature of the advice given suggests that it comes from one looking back upon the conditions he is dealing with, rather than one living in the midst of movements the outcome of which was still uncertain ; (3) parts of it seem to be dependent upon the Books of Kings ; (4) the booklet, chaps. 26-29, bears marks of late workmanship, linguistic and otherwise. See, e. g., Cornill, The Book of Jere miah (SBOT); Schmidt, art. " Jeremiah," Encyclopedia Biblica; Duhm, Das Buch Je.remia ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum A. T."). 170 LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION I71 4. Consider the general effect which the news of the Ezek. 33: 21 1. fall of Jerusalem must have had when it reached the ears of those who were already in captivity, among whom was Ezekiel. See Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, pp. 239 ff. 5. Note (1) that the period was one of transition, or, perhaps more truly, of revolution ; one in which mon- olatry was to be supplanted by monotheism, idolatry by the sole worship of Jehovah ; (2) that the principal scene of action was no longer Palestine, but Babylon ; (3) that Israel was now scattered, the nationality broken ; (4) that the work of the prophetic order was giving place to that of the priestly order ; for Jeremiah and Eze kiel were priests, and the books of Haggai, Zechariah, Jer. 1 : 1 ; Ezek. and Malachi, which follow, are far more priestly than prophetic {cf. § 34). § 183. The Preparation of Ezekiel. 1. Consider (1) the significance of the fact that he was 1:3.3 a priest, and the great influence, at this time, of the priestly position, second only to that of the king; (2) the character of the training which he would receive; 22:25,26:4:14. (3) the influence which must have been exercised over him by the book of Deuteronomy and by Jeremiah's ser mons (see § 184). 2. Note (1) the fact that Ezekiel had been in cap- 33:21; cf. 26:1 f. tivity already eleven years 4 when news of the fall of Jerusalem was received ; (2) the fact that the call came to « : 3- him after five years' experience in captivity (592 B. C); (3) the latest date in the book (570 B. C). ag.I7. 3. Study (1) the strange and wonderful character of 3 All Scripture references in this chapter cited without the name of the book are from Ezekiel. *33:2I states that the tidings came in the twelfth year of the captivity; but we learn from 26 : 1 f. that Ezekiel already knew of the fall of Jerusalem in the eleventh year of the captivity. The Syriac version has eleventh year in 33 : 2 1 also, and this is probably correct. • Jerusalem fell on the ninth day of the fourth month of the eleventh year of Zedekiah's reign (2 Kings 25 :2 f.; Jer. 39 : 2), which was also the eleventh year of the captivity, since Zedekiah was placed on the throne when Jehoiachin was removed to Babylon (2 Kings 24 : 15 ff.); and it is not reasonable to suppose that the captives in Babylon did not hear of the fall of their city until a year and a half after the event. 172 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT the visions which constituted the call, including {a) the 4:4-28. vision of God — what conceptions of God are implied in the four living creatures (vss. 5-14), the four wheels 2:iff. (vss. 15-21), the throne and glory (vss. 22-28)? {b) the 2:3-7. prophet's introduction to his work by the God seen in 2:8—3:3. the vision — the people a rebellious one, the inspira- 3:4-9. tion accorded him, the special strength given him, his 3:10-15. particular mission to the captives of Tel-abib, the pre- 3:16-21. cise character of his function, viz., to be a watchman ; (2) 33:1-9. his later feeling of responsibility as a watchman. 4. Examine, for the purpose of gaining a better point of view for an appreciation of his work, certain refer- 3:4-11, 26; 14:1-5. ences to his life and activity in exile : (1) the character 11:25. of the people with whom he was called to work; (2) his 20:1; 8:1; 14:1-5. own character as Jehovah's spokesman ; (3) the fact that he was frequently consulted in his own house by the 24:15-18. 19-27. elders of Israel ; (4) his use of the death of his wife as an occasion for a public message; (5) the threatening character of his early sermons ; (6) the consolatory 33:30-33. character of his later sermons ; (7) his place and stand ing among the exiles. § 1 84. Ezekiel's Prophetic Work. — For the better understanding of Ezekiel's work as a priest, and the priestly structure of which he was the author, it is important that his work as prophet should be appreci ated. This is perhaps most easily considered in connec tion with that of Jeremiah. 1. Consider the degree of dependence which Eze kiel exhibits in relation to Jeremiah as seen in the fol lowing passages: 3:3, cf. Jer. 15:16; 3:17, cf. Jer. 6:17; 7:14, 27, cf. Jer. 4:5-9; chap- 13, cf. Jer. 14:13-16; 13: 10, cf. Jer. 6: 14; 16 : 51, cf. Jer. 3 : 11 ; chap. 18, cf. Jer. 31:29 f.; chap. 20, cf. Jer. 11:3-8; 24 : 16-23, cf- Jer- 16 : 3-9 i chaps. 29-31, cf. Jer., chap. 46; chap. 34, cf. Jer. 23:1-4; 36:26, cf. Jer. 24:7; 37:24, cf. Jer. 30 : 9 ; 38 : 15, cf. Jer. 6 : 22. See especially Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch," 1880), pp. xxiv f.; C. H. Toy, art. "Ezekiel," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1462 ; Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (Camb. Bible, 1892), pp. xix f, xlvi ff. LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION IJX 2. Study (i) the place occupied in his preaching by Chap. 18; ff-; 46:1ft.; the form of sermon or address to the people; (3) whether in spirit it more nearly resembles Deuteronomy or Leviticus ; (4) the strange and confusing mingling of the natural and supernatural elements, and show the origin of this in the prophetic conception of life ; (5) the relation of this picture to the preceding context, in 39:35-39. which Israel is represented as having now received the outpouring of the divine spirit — is it not the climax of the book ? § 187. The Principal Ideas of the section deserve clas sification and formulation : 1. Note the statement, made above, to the effect that there were no "teachings" in the section; this does not mean, however, that the picture does not rest upon cer tain conceptions, or imply the truth of certain great ideas. 2. For a general statement of the ideas of Ezekiel in this section, see §31. For the material on the priest, see §§65, 66; on the place of worship, §§77, 78; on sacrifice, §§89, 90; on feasts, §102; on the sabbath, §§114, 115; on clean and unclean, §§ 128, 129. 3. Consider some of the more important of the great ideas that underlie the form of presentation employed in these closing chapters, keeping in mind constantly the necessity in many cases of basing our conclusions largely upon the general tone and character of the material rather than upon specific statements and texts. (1) The idea of God — what is the bearing upon this idea of {a) the fact that the temple, Jehovah's house, is placed in the 45:1-8. middle of the Holy Land and surrounded on all sides by the land of the priests, Jehovah's ministers, thus being kept from contact with everything profane and pollut ing? (b) the stringent regulations concerning those who 44:4-48. may approach Jehovah to offer sacrifice, and concerning their apparel, etc.? (c) the exclusion of foreigners from I76 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT the temple and of the laity from the inner court of the temple ? Does not the whole representation in chaps. 40-48 give the impression of the great exaltation and 43:1-5. holiness of Jehovah in comparison with everything 43:6-9548:35. human? (2) Jehovah's relation to Israel — note that Jehovah is represented as having restored his people to favor, and as requiring of them holiness in order that 44:7,9. they may enjoy his favor forever. Note also the feeling of superiority over all foreigners that appears in the restrictions placed upon the latter, though provision is made for proselytes. Does not the spirit of particular ism appear here very clearly ? (3) The subordination of political to religious ideals — note (a) the fact that the "prince's" functions are almost wholly religious; (b) the 45 : 8-12 146: 16 ff. exceedingly few non-religious matters that are dealt with ; (c) the complete silence on all matters relating to national ambition or development ; (d) the fact that the nation is represented rather as a community existing only for religious purposes ; {e) the emphasis laid on the ceremonial as compared with the ethical side of the reli- 43:21ft.; 44:27; gious life. (4) The great emphasis laid upon the idea of 45:I7' atonement as an evidence of an increasing sense of the exceeding sinfulness of sin. Is this not a correlative of the exalted idea of Jehovah's holiness ? § 188. The General Relation of Ezek., Chaps. 40-48, to Deuteronomy. 44:10-15; cf. 1. Consider the place of the priests in both sections, Deut. 18 : 1-8. r r noting that Deuteronomy makes no distinction between priests and Levites, while Ezekiel degrades the Levites, gives the reasons for so doing, and restricts the priest hood to the sons of Zadok. 44:17-27; cf. 2. Consider the comparative fulness in the treatment Deut. 17:9. 1 / \ 44:291.; chaps, of (1) the duties of priests, (2) the provision made for the 18:1-4/' e" priests; does not this indicate a great advance in the conception of the place and dignity of the priesthood ? 3. Consider the absence in Ezek., chaps. 40-48, as compared with Deuteronomy, of warnings against idola try. Deut., chap. 16. 4. Consider the feasts as enumerated in Deuter onomy, the sacrificial details being absent; while in LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION I J J Ezekiel7 the details of the material are given, and a Ezek. 45:21-25. special ceremony of purification of the sanctuary on the 45 : 18-20 (LXX). first day of the first and seventh months. 5. Consider the apparent failure of the Deuteronomic scheme in the catastrophe of the exile ; for was not this scheme intended for a "holy" people, and to serve as Deut. 7:6. the expression of a people closely united with a "holy" God ? Was it not intended to bring the people into a life which should be worthy of Jehovah, their Lord, and was not the destruction of Jerusalem understood to sepa rate them from him ? 6. Is not Ezekiel's scheme clearly prepared for a people restored from captivity, and not only restored, but actually purified and regenerated? "It opens with 36:24-28. an elaborate account of a new temple set on the sacred hill. The 'law of the house' is expounded with much 40.1—43:12. detail, and the prophet then announces the ordinances of the altar. These are followed in turn by regulations for the priesthood and the appropriate sacrifices, and a scheme of cultus is thus displayed by which the people, once more consecrated, shall be preserved from further temptation to unfaithfulness, and shall secure the pres ence of Jehovah in their midst forever."8 The relationship of Ezekiel's cultus to that of P will be considered in the next chapter. § 189. Literature to be Consulted. P. Fairbairn, Exposition of the Book of Ezekiel (i8$i); Henderson, The Book of 'the Prophet Ezekiel Translated, etc. (1855); H. Smith Warleigh, Ezekiel's Temple (1856); Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined (1862-79), Vol. VI, pp. 3-23; Kuenen, Religion of Israel (1869-70, transl. 1882), Vol. II, pp. I90ff.; Cwsxa., Ezekiel (" Speaker's Commentary," 1876); Kuenen, The Prophets and Prophecy in Israel (1877), pp. 238-42 ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, transl. 1885), pp. 378 ff.; W. R. SMITH, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (ist ed. 1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 442 f.; Plumptre, "Ezekiel: An Ideal Biog raphy," Expositor, 1884 ; Kuenen, Modern Review, Oct., 1884, pp. 617-40 ; Kuenen, The Hexateuch (transl. from the Dutch, 1886), § 15, 10 ; H. Sulley, The Temple of EzekieTs Prophecy (1888); Kittel, History of the Hebrews, Vol. I (1888-92, transl. 1895), pp. 125 ff.; F. W. Farrar, "The Last Nine Chapters of Ezekiel," Expositor, 1889, pp. 1 ff.; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 145 ff., 278-98; Kirkpatrick, Doctrine of the Prophets (1892), 1 Probably from oversight the Feast of Weeks is omitted. 'J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, p. 127. I78 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT pp. 320-45 ; Montefiore, Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892), see Index; A. B. Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel (" Camb. Bible," 1892); Skinner, Ezekiel (" Expositor's Bible," 1895); Cornill, The Prophets of Israel (1895) pp. 115-30 ; L. B. Paton, Presbyterian and Reformed Review, Ian., 1896, pp. 98 ff.; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897), PP- 126 ff.; Douglas, "Ezekiel's Temple," Expository Times, Vol. IX (1898), pp. 515 ff.; Skinner, article "Ezekiel," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); Wood, article "Hexa teuch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899), P- 374; C. H. Toy, The Book of the Prophet Ezekiel — A New English Translation (" Sacred Books of the Old and New Testaments," Part XII, 1899); I. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 126 ff.; C. H. Toy, article "Ezekiel," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Wellhausen and Cheyne, article "Hexa teuch," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901), coll. 2051 f.; Konig, "The Priests and the Levites in Ezek. 44 : 7-15," Expository Times, April, 1901 ; Cobern, Ezekiel and Daniel (1901). Hafenreffer, Templum Ezekiel (1613); E. F. Rosenmuller, Scholia in Vetus Testamentum, Pars VI (2d ed. 1826), pp. 575 ff.; Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge derjuden (1832, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 165-70; I. F. Bottcher, Proben alttestamentlicher Schrifterkldrung (1833), pp. 218-365; Havernick, Commentar iiber den Prophet Ezechiel (1843); Hitzig, Der Prophet Ezechiel erkldrt (1847); Balmer-Rinck, Des Propheten Ezechiel Gesicht vom Tempel (1856); Th. Kliefoth, Das Buch Ezechiels iibersetzt und erkldrt (1864 f.); Graf, Geschichte der Biicher des alten Bundes (1866), pp. 81-3; Hengstenberg, Der Prophet Ezechiel (1867); Keil, Der Prophet Ezechiel (1868, 2d ed. 1882); Schrader, article "Ezechiel," Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, Vol. II (1869); Zunz, " Bibelkritisches. II: Ezechiel," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Mor- genlandischen Gesellschaft, Vol. XXVII (1873), pp. 676-81; SCHRODER, Das Buch Ezechiel ("Langes Bibelwerk," 1873); G. C. Steynis, De Verhouding van de Wetgeving bij Ezekiel tot die in den Pentateuch (1873); Graetz, "Die Echtheit des Buches des Propheten Ezechiel," Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Vol. XXIII (1874), pp. 433-46, 515-25 ; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichte Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874), pp. 176 ff.; Duhm, Theologie der Propheten (1875), pp. 208-11, 216 f., 252-63; Noldeke,, Jahrbiicher fiir protes tantische Theologie, 1875, PP- 3SS ff-; Klostermann, "Ezechiel, ein Beitrag zur bessern Wiirdigung seiner Person und seiner Schrift," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1877, pp. 391-439; Klostermann, "Hat Ezechiel die in Lev. 18-26 am deutlichsten erkennbare Gesetzessammlung verfasst ?" Zeitschrift fiir Lutherische Theologie, 1877, pp. 406-45 (reprinted in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368 ff.); Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel ("Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum A. T.," 1880); Horst, Lev. 17-26 und Hezekiel (1881); E. Kuhn, " Ezechiel's Gesicht vom Tempel der Vollendungszeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. LV (1882), pp. 601- 88; Cornill, Der Prophet Ezechiel geschildert (1882); Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des altisraelitischen Prophetenthums (1883), pp. 38-60 ; P. Wurster, " Zur Charakter- istik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetzes," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. IV (1884), pp. 122 f.; Seinecke, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1884), pp. 1-20 ; Dillmann, Die Biicher Numeri Deutero nomium und foshua (2d ed. 1886), pp. 644 ff.; Cornill, Das Buch des Prophet Ezechiel '(1886); Arndt, Die Stellung Ezechiels in der alttestamentlichen Prophetic (1886); Valeton, Viertal Voorlez. over Prophet des Ouden Verbonds (\88t); Stade, Geschichte LEGAL LITERATURE EZEKIEL'S CONTRIBUTION I 79 des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 1-63; Orelli, Ezekiel (" Kurzgefasster Com- mentar," 1888, 2d ed. 1896); H. Meulenbelt, De Prediking van den Profeet Ezechiel (1888); PERROT et Chipiez, Le temple de Jlrusalem et la maison du Bois-Liban restituh d'aprh Ezikiel et le livre des Rois (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das alte Testament(l889-9o), Vol. II, pp. 1 1 1-26; Knabenbauer, Commenlarius in Ezek. ( 1 890); L. Gautier, La mission du prophete Ezikiel (1891); Baentzsch, Das Heiligkeits gesetz (1893), pp. 121 ff.; Diestel, article " Hesekiel," Riehm's Handwbrterbuch des biblischen Alterthums, Vol. I (2d ed., 1893); Gaupp, "Die Eigentiimlichkeit des Ezekiel," Neue kirchliche Zeitschrift, Vol. V (1894), pp. 613 ff.; Kamrath, "Der messianische Theil des ezech. Proph., besonders in seinen Verhaltnissen zum Hexateuch," Jahr- biichcr fur protestantische Theologie, Vol. XVII (1891), pp. 585 ff.; Cornill, Einlei tung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 77 f., 168-70 ; WlLDEBOER, Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 245-57; KONIG, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 354-60; D. H. Muller, Ezechiel-Studien (1895); Bertholet, Die Verfassungsentwurf des Hesechiel (1896); BERTHOLET, Das Buch Hesekiel erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1897); Dussaud, "Les visions d'Eze'kiel," Revue de I'histoire des religions. Vol. XIX (1898), pp. 301 ff.; ORELLI, article " Ezechiel," Realencyklopddie fiir Protestantische Theologie und Kirche, Vol. V (3d ed., 1898); Kraetzschmar, Das Buch Ezechiel iibersetzt und erkldrt ("Hand-Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 190 ff., 453-71; Schmalzl, Ezechiel erkldrt ("Kurzgefasster wissenschaftl. Commentar," 1901). Neh. 8 Neh. 8 Neh. 8 CHAPTER XIV. THE LEGAL LITERATURE THE PRIESTLY CODE. § 190. The Story of the Adoption of the Law in Ezra's Times (§§40-44)." 1. Consider the conditions of the times in which this Ezra7:i,7-9; event occurred : (1) the date of the event ; " (2) the char- Neh.37-73; 9:1. acter of Ezra and his constituency; (3) the duration of "^zln'U: 5S. Ezra's journey, March to August ; (4) the gifts and let- l^^o/* ters; (5) the work of Nehemiah (§ 40); (6) the work of Ezra (§41)- Neh., chaps. 8-10. 2. Study the account of the formal adoption, includ ing (1) the place of the assembly; (2) the duration of the Neh.8:3. reading; (3) the circumstances attending the reading; 8. (4) the reception given the law by the people ; (5) the 9. method of interpretation ; (6) the occasion of their i3n\ weeping; (7) the reading on the second day in refer ence to the Feast of Booths, and the compliance of the *Neh.g:39; 10:29- people ; (8) the various things which they covenanted to Neh. 10:37-39. do (§43); (9) the fact that the priests are clearly distin guished from the Levites (§§ 43, 68). 2 Kings 22: 1— 3. Compare the general circumstances of the accept ance of the book of Deuteronomy (§ 25) with those of the acceptance of this book, noting points of similarity and difference, e. g., (1) the national assembly; (2) the celebration of a feast, in one case the Passover, in the other 1 Ezra's work is probably to be placed after that of Nehemiah ; for the arguments in support of this position see Kosters, Het Herslel van Israel (1894 ; transl. into Ger man, 1895); Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods, pp. 196 ff.; Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 36-81 ; C. C. Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah, pp. 51-65; Guthe, art. " Israel " (§§ 55 ff.), Encyc. Biblica; A. van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes sur la restauration juive apres V exile de Babylone (1S96). 2 The arrival of Ezra at lerusalem is placed shortly after 433 B. C. by Kosters and Cheyne, Encyc. Biblica, Vol. II, col. 1487, and others. Professor van Hoonacker, however, places it in the seventh year of Artaxerxes II., viz., 398-7; while Kuenen( Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen Wissenschaft (1894), Ed. Meyer, Die Ent- stehung des Judenthums (1896), and others retain the date 458 B. C. 180 LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE 151 the Feast of Booths, in a manner different from that in which they had previously been observed in Canaan. 4. Consider, now, whether the law adopted thus by the people in Ezra's time was (1) the entire Hexateuch as we now possess it; or (2) the so-called Holiness Code, that is, Lev., chaps. 17-26; or (3) the whole Levitical code known as P (§ 43).3 5. Consider why, if Ezra brought the law with him in 458 B. C, he took no steps to make it known to the Ezra7:i4. people until twelve years later, after Nehemiah had come (446 or 445 B. C). Is it enough to answer that this was delayed by (1) the troublous character of the times Ezra 10: 7. which followed the expulsion of the foreign wives ; (2) the necessity of Ezra's taking time to acquaint himself with the conditions of the country and the adjustment of the details of the law to those conditions ; (3) the need of such a character as Nehemiah to arouse the enthusiasm of the people ? § 191. Representations in P Concerning its Authorship (cf. closely § 171). 1. Read and compare some of the various passages in P which refer to its authorship, noting particularly the phraseology employed, e. g., (1) "And Jehovah Exod. 25:1. spake unto Moses, saying;" (2) "And he gave unto Exoa. 31:18. Moses the two tables of the testimony, tables of stone, written with the finger of God;" (3) "And Moses Exod. 35:1,4. assembled all the congregation of the children of Israel, and said unto them;" (4) "And it came to pass on the Lev. 9:1. eighth day, that Moses called Aaron and his sons, and the elders of Israel ; and he said unto Aaron ; " (5) "And Lev. 10:8, 12. Jehovah spake unto Aaron, saying;" (6) "And Jehovah Lev. h:i; 14:33; spake unto Moses and to Aaron, saying;" (7) "These Lev .'26: 46; cf. are the statutes and ordinances and laws, which Jehovah made between him and the children of Israel in Mount Sinai by Moses." 3 This point may well be omitted, except by those who desire to go into the criti cal questions involved ; see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 138 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, §57; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua (" Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 277 ft.; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, pp. 405 ff.; the articles on the Hexateuch in the various Bible dictionaries ; and the discussions in the many intro ductions to the Old Testament. 182 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Numb. 33:2. 2. Read the interesting passage in which writing is ascribed to Moses, and consider whether the contents are consistent with an assignment to the times ot Moses. 3. Take up now, one by one, the suggestions which have been offered in explanation of a non-Mosaic author ship, as indicated in § 171 under 2, 3, 4, 5. § 192. Point of View and Coloring of the Priestly Code {cf. §172). 1. Consider, as bearing upon the Mosaic origin, (1) the representation concerning the plains of Moab as the scene of certain legislation concerning Levitical cities; (2) the situation at Sinai as the scene of certain events and legislation ; (3) the situation in Egypt as the place of the initiation of the Passover ; (4) the exact statement of the date of departure from Sinai ; (5) the date of the ordinances of the tabernacle and of its erection, together with the statement that it accompanied Israel through ^ig'-M^Numb3' a'^ ^e wan(ierings ; (6) the fact that it looks forward to '5;*> l8> 33:51; entrance into Canaan, and introduces legislation appli cable only to settled life in Canaan ; (7) the warnings uttered against practices of Egypt which they had known and practices of Canaan which they are to know; (8) the allusions to Egypt and Jehovah's deliverance of Israel from bondage there; (9) the absence of any men tion of Jerusalem and the temple. 2. Consider, as bearing further upon this question, (1) the regulations against Molech worship; (2) the agricultural character of the feasts ; (3) the experiences of the exile as depicted in Lev., chap. 26 ; (4) the phrase "beyond the Jordan," used of the east side of Jordan; (5) the constant reference to Moses in the third person; (6) the apparent distance of Moses and Aaron in the narrative Exod. 6 ; 26 f., and of the eating of manna in the description of the same ; (7) passages in which Israel seems to be represented as in possession of the land of Canaan ; (8) the significance of the great periods passed over in silence (is it not against the supposition that the author was a contemporary?), e. g., (a) between Exod. 1 : 5-7 and 1 : 13, a period of two or four hundred years ;4 {b) between «For an analysis of the text here see J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 80 f., or the commentaries of Dillmann and Baentsch. On the historical events see the histories of Kitlel, Stade, Wellhausen, Kent. Numb. 35: 1 ; 36:13. Numb. 1:1; 3:14 9:5; Exod. 24:18—25:1. Exod. 12:1. Numb. 10:11. Exod. 29:46. Exod., chaps. 25 «•, 35-40. Exod. 40: 17-38. Lev. 18:3, 27 {. 20 : 22 If. Lev. 19:34,36; 25:2, 54; Numb. 8:17; 14:2. Lev. 20 : 1-5. Lev., chap. 23; Numb., chaps. 28, 29. Numb. 34:15" 35 : 14. Lev. 7 : 28 ; 8:1; 9:1, 5 t; 23:1 Exod. 16 : 55. Lev. 18 : 24 ff. 20 : 23. LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE 1 83 Numb. 20 : i and 20 :22b, a period of thirty-eight years (cf. 10:11 and 33: 37);s (V) the representation that Dan's Numb.i:38; descendants in the fourth generation numbered 62,700. § 193. The Language and Style of the Priestly Code. 1. Examine a list of special words and phrases fre quently occurring in this code,6 and consider (1) the bearing of the fact of such a list upon the question of authorship ; does it argue for or against identity of authorship with the other books of the Hexateuch ? (2) the general character of these expressions as indi cating early or late authorship. Note especially that the Exod. 40:2, 17; months are numbered rather than named, and that the chap. 23. ' New Year comes in the spring, not in the autumn. When did this method of enumeration prevail ? 2. Examine a list of the linguistic peculiarities appearing in the book, i. 126-59; Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1892, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 108 f., 172-80, 233 ff.; Paton, "The Relation of Lev. XX to Lev. XVII-XIX," Hebraica, Vol. X (1893), pp. m-21; B. W. Bacon, The Triple Tradi tion of the Exodus (1894); Driver and White, Leviticus ("Sacred Books of the Old and New Testaments;" Hebrew text 1894, English transl. 1898); W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895); Paton, "The Holiness Code and Ezekiel," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1896, pp. 98-115; Konig, Expositor, August, 1896, p. 97; Paton, " The Original Form of Lev. 17-19," Journal of Biblical 1 90 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Literature, 1897, pp. 31-7; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 170-91 ; F. H. Woods, art. "Hexateuch," Hastings's Dictionary qf the Bible, Vol. II (1899), pp. 368-71 ; Paton, "The Original Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 21 and 22," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XVII (1899), pp. I49~75; Idem, "The Original Form of Leviticus, Chaps. 23, 25," ibid., Vol. XVIII (1899), pp. 35-°o; J. E. Car penter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch (1900), Vol. I, pp. 121-57; Wellhausen, art. " Hexateuch," §§ 29 f., Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); H. G. Mitchell, The World before Abraham (1901), pp. 17 ff., 29 ff., 58 ff.; Kent and Sanders, " The Growth of Israelitish Law," in Biblical and Semitic Studies by the Members of the Semitic and Biblical Faculty of Yale University (1901), pp. 41-90; G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902); G. B. Grav, art. "Law Literature," ibid. E. Bertheau, Die sieben Gruppen mosaischer Gesetze in den drei mittleren Biichern des Pentateuchs (1840); J. POPPER, Der biblische Bericht iiber die Stiftshiitte (1862); Merx, " Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die Opfergesetze, Lev. I-VII," Zeitschrift fiir wisscnschaftliche Theologie, Vol. VI (1863), pp. 41-84, 164-81; Graf, Die geschicht- lichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866); Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. I (1887), pp. 62 ff.; Noldeke, Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868); N6LDEKE, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments (1869), pp. 1-144; KUENEN, "De priesterlike Bestanddeelen van Pentateuch en Josua," Theologisch Tijdschrift, VoL IV (1870), pp. 391-426, 492-500; Kayser, Das vorexilische Buch der Urgeschichtt Israels und seine Erweiterungen (1874); Hofmann, "Einheit und Integritat der Opfergesetze Lev. 1-7 ," Magazin fur Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1877 ; KLOSTER MANN, " Ezechiel und das Heiligkeits-Gesetz," Zeitschrift fiir luth. Theologie und Kirche, 1877, pp. 406-44 (republished in Der Pentateuch, 1893, pp. 368-418); Bleek- Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1878); von Ryssel, De Elohistae Pentateuchi Sermone (l8']8) ; Maybaum, Die Entwickelung des altisraelitischen Priester thums (1880), pp.7 4 ff-; Franz Delitzsch, Zeitschrift fiir kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Vol. I (1881), pp. 617-26; Horst, Leviticus XVII-XXVI und Hezekiel (1881) ; Giesebrecht, "Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; P. WUR- STEr, " Zur Charakteristik und Geschichte des Priestercodex und Heiligkeitsgesetz," ibid., Vol. IV (1884), pp. 112-33; Dillmann, Die Biicher Numeri, Deuteronomium und fosua (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 2d ed. 1886), pp. 593_090; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der histori- schen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1889, 3d ed. 1899); Westphal, Les sources du Pentaieuque (1888, 1892); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1889); Steinthal, Zeitschrift fiir Vblker-Psychologie, Vol. XX (1890), pp. 54 ff.; CORNILL, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-86; Konig, Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1893, PP- 464-8, 478; Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German transl. 1895), §20; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 332-475; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), §48; Baentsch, Das Heiligkeits-Gesetz (1893); Meyer, Die Entstehung des fudenlhums (1896), pp. 208-1 S; Wellhausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testaments (3d ed. 1899) ; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899), pp. 259 f.; Steuernagel, Uebersetzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; Halevy, LEGAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY CODE I O.I "Influence du code sacerdotal sur les prophetes," Revue slmitique, lanuary, 1901; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), §§ 31, 41-4, 50-55. See also the commentaries on Exodus by Dillmann (1897), Holzinger (1900), Baentsch (1900), and Kennedy (" The Temple Bible," 1901) ; and on Leviticus by Kalisch (1867), Keil (2d ed. 1870), Lange (1874), Strack (1894), Dillmann- Ryssel (1897), Baentsch (1900), Bertholet (1901), and Paterson (" The Temple Bible," 1901). Part Fifth THE LITERATURE OE WORSHIP -THE HISTORICAL LITERATURE XV. The Priestly Narrative in the Hexateuch. XVI. The Books of Chronicles. XVII. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. CHAPTER XV. HISTORICAL LITERATURE — PRIESTLY NARRATIVE IN THE HEXATEUCH. §199. The New Tendency Encouraged in the Exile. — Consider (1) the effect of the exile upon the ambition of isa. 57:17-20. Israel to be a nation among other nations of the earth ; (2) the actual condition, in the exile, of all political 2Cbron.35:i7-2i. institutions and political machinery; (3) the certainty isa. 41 : 17-20. that under these conditions the minds of the leaders and the energies of the people would be turned in some other direction; (4) the naturalness and, indeed, the Ezek., chaps. , , , 40—480 inevitableness of a turning in the direction of a more definitely religious, as distinguished from a political, regime; (5) the foundation for this movement already isa. 44:24-28. prepared in the two great doctrines of individualism, as preached by the priest Jeremiah, and solidarity, as Jer. 31:291. preached by the priest Ezekiel — doctrines preached in Ezek., chaps. 18, view of and in connection with the fall of the nation. See J. R. Slater, "Individualism and Solidarity as Developed by Teremiah and Ezekiel," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 172-83; Montefiore, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Reli gion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews, pp. 216-19, 251-3; Duff, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 488 f. §200. The Basis of This Tendency toward Priestly Influence. — Observe now three things: (1) that the 2 Kings 22:3— 23 :52. priestly influence had long been in existence, and that only a century or so before the fall of Jerusalem it had been greatly strengthened by the union of effort in which prophet and priest joined, and of which the promulgation of Deuteronomy was the result (cf. §§25-8, 170); (2) jer. t:i; Ezek.' that the prophetic work in these last days had in large I>3' measure fallen to priests, e. g., Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; (3) that, inasmuch as the will of God had now been pre sented so clearly in the prophetic word (for prophecy had practically completed its work, having reached its highest development in Jeremiah) and in the written law (the 2 Kings 22: 3; law as found in Deuteronomy having been canonized in 23'3' 195 196 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Deut, 10:8. Exod. 20:23 — 23:33; Deut., chaps. 16-26. Ezek. , chaps. 40-48. Mai. 1 : 6-14 ; Zech. 14:16 ft. Leviticus. Hag. 1:7-14; 2:1-9; Zech. 6:9-14. C/.P (below). Cf. Chronicles. 621 B. C), the task that remained was not so much the revelation of new truth as the interpretation, organi zation, and application of the great body of truth already known. Such ministration was the work of the priest. §201. The Origin of the Idea of the Church or Com munity. — Consider now to what extent the idea and practice of the community or church (1) were the further development of the priestly conception and ritual which existed before the exile and were formulated during the exile by Ezekiel in his visions ; (2) were the direct outcome of the prophetic teaching of individualism and solidarity (see § 199) ; and still further (3) were the neces sary result of the historical forces which combined to destroy the nation and put an end to prophetic work and leadership. §202. The Purpose of the Church. — (1) Study, as widely as possible (cf. g., in Ezekiel's code, the Levitical code, and the priestly prophets), the purpose of the church as it now began to take the place of the nation, as that purpose exhibited itself (a) in the emphasis placed on worship, (b) in the multiplication of ordinances seek ing to preserve, organize, and develop the ritual of the temple; and (2) consider how greatly such interest (already existing in the exile) would be strengthened when the return had taken place, the temple had been rebuilt, and worship had actually been established in the new environment. §203. The Desire to Prepare Histories of Worship. — Consider how, under these circumstances, there would come into existence the desire (1) to trace the beginnings of these ordinances to the earliest times, and to show the place assigned them under the great leaders of the past ; (2) to write a narrative which would present their history through the long centuries from David's time down to the last days — a story parallel with that other narrative (prepared by the prophets who had now passed away) which, in representing prophetic truth, had almost entirely ignored the priest-side of the national history; and (3) to show just how these institutions were finally HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE I Qf reinstated or re-established after the return by the great cf. Ezra and leaders Ezra and Nehemiah. This desire found its reali zation in what we may call the histories of the priestly school. § 204. The Histories of the Prophetic School. — Recall (1) the history of J, the work of a Judean prophet, prob- Gen. 2:4,5—4:26; ably the oldest of the prophetic histories, which gathers up the stories and traditions of the earliest times down to the settlement of Israel in Canaan and uses all this material for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing the truths of prophecy;1 (2) the history of E, which Gen. 15:1,5,16; 11 .1 it,.. , chap. 20; etc. covers practically the same ground as J, but is written from the point of view of northern Israel, and is somewhat less naive in its conception of God and in respect to other theological ideas;3 (3) the histories found in Judges, Samuel, and Kings, which trace the progress of the nation from the conquest to the exile; and note the principal characteristics, common to them all, viz.: {a) that they are in large part compilations of older 2 Sam. 1:18; material; (b) the emphasis laid bv them upon the 14:29; 2 King's 15:26; etc. thought of sin as the cause of all of Israel's troubles ; 2 Kings, chap. 24. (c) the purpose of their work as evidently didactic, rather than historical in the modern sense of the word ; 1 The I-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is : 2 : 40—4 : 26 ; 5:29; 6 : 1-8 ; 7 : 1-5, 7-10, 12, 17*, 22f.; 8 :2b, 30, 6-12, 13b, 20-22 ; 9:18-27; 10:10, 8-19, 21,24-30; 11:1-9,28-30; 12:1-43,6-20; 13: 1-5, 60-1 la, 13-18; 15 : 3 f., 6-1 1, 17 f.; 16:1*, 2,4-14; 18:1 — 19:28, 30-38; 21 : la, 2a, 7, 28-30, 33; 22:20-24; 24 : : — 25 : °> 18, 2l-2ba, 28; 26:1-30,6-14, 16 f., 19-33; 27:1a, 2,3, 4<5, 50,6,70,15,180-20, 24-290, 29c:, 300, 30cr, 310-34, 410-42, 430, 45a/ 28 : 10, 13-16, 19 ; 29 : 2-14, 31-35 ; 30:30-16, 22c, 23a, 24f., 27, 29-310, 34-38a, 39-400, 4OC-43; 31 : 1, 17, 180, 25, 27, 31, 43 f., 46, 48-50; 32:3-70, 13^-220, 230-29, 31 f.; 33:1-180/ 34 : 2b, 30, y, 5, 7, II, 19, 26, 29,5-31; 35:14, 16-220/ 36:31-39; 37:20, 2C/-4, 12, 130, 140, 18*, 21, 250-27, 280, 320, 35 ; 38 : 1 — 39 : 6b, 70-23. The remainder of the document may be found in J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. II ; or in Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. I ; or in Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. aThe E-material in Gen., chaps. 1-40, is : 15 : I, 2, 5, 16; 20 : 1-18 ; 21:6, 8-27, 31 f., 34; 22:1-13,19; 25:25^,27,29-34; 27:1^, 40, 70-14, 16-180, 21-23, 30*. 3lo. 35-410,44,450/ 28:nf., 17 f., 20, 210, 22; 29:1, 15-23,25-280,30; 30:1-30,17- 20, 26, 310-33, 380, 400/ 31:2-16, 19-24,26,28-30,32-42,47,51 — 32:2,230,30; 33:18^20; 35:1-5,60-8; 37:5-11,130,140, 170, 19 f., 22-250, 280,28^-31, 320, 330, 34. 3& '. 39: (>o, 7a; 40 : 1-23. For the remainder of the document see literature cited in the foregoing footnote. I98 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (d) the selection and arrangement of material, which is such as to enforce the great lessons of prophecy. §205. The Priestly Histories. — Under this head may be classified (1) the priestly narrative in the Hexateuch; (2) the books of Chronicles, which furnish a parallel history, as understood by the priest, for the entire period covered by the prophetic history found in see 5204. Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; and (3) the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, which describe the restoration from exile and the re-establishment of the temple and its elaborate system of worship. These all possess the same general characteristics of style, are controlled by the same theological ideas, are interested in the same general subject, and are written from the same priestly point of view. §206. The Historical Character of the Priestly His tories. — Keep in mind (1) the purpose of these so-called histories, viz., to represent the priest-side, that is, the element of worship ; (2) the consequent necessity of making selections from the large body of material in existence ; (3) the fragmentary and disconnected char acter of the material which comes by selection ; (4) the only method that, under these circumstances, can be employed — that of compilation; (5) the danger of confusion and disorder ; (6) the certainty that material having its origin centuries after the event described will not be intended to serve as a chronicle of the event, but rather to meet some definite and practical end in view; (7) the difference between actual history and idealized story; (8) the meaning of the word "pragmatic" as applied to history. See, e. g., my article in Sunday School Times, July, 1889 ; Geo. F. Moore, art. "Historical Literature," Encylopedia Biblica, Vol. II; W. E. Barnes, "The Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIII (1896-97), pp. 14-20 ; T. G. Soares, "The Import of the Chronicles as a Piece of Religio-Historical Literature," American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74; C. C. Torrey, The Composi tion and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemia (" Beiheft zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft" 'II, 1896); L. Diestel, "Die hebraische Geschichtesschreibung," Jahrbiicher fiir deutsche Theo logie, Vol. XVIII (1873), pp. 365 ff.; Franz Delitzsch, "Die HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 199 Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift fiir lutherische Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff.i I. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly His torians (1901), pp. 241 ff., 271 ff. § 207. The Scope of the Priestly Narrative. — This document is found alongside of the prophetical histories J and E in the Hexateuch.3 Like them it goes back to the time of creation and sketches the course of events vi>.n * . .— 2 : 4a; , , , T , . _, m, . , , , Josh., chaps. 14, up to the settlement of Israel in Canaan. This leads it 15, 17, etc. in many cases to duplicate the narratives of the pro phetic historians; but, although the same events are Gen. 34:1,2a, 32. , . . , , , 4, 6. 8-10, 12-18, often narrated in both accounts, the point of view is 20-25, 27-2ga/ cf ^A * 2^ 'XeX ^C widely different, since the purposes of the two schools 5,7, 11,19, etc! of writers are of a different character. The priestly nar rative is primarily concerned with questions like (a) the divine choice of Israel as the peculiar people of God ; (b) the divine origin of her system of worship ; (c) the growth of the accompanying institutions and customs. § 208. The Gradual Growth of the Priestly Narrative. — A careful examination of this priestly narrative reveals that it is not all the work of one hand or one time, but, like the prophetic histories, is a compilation of older materials, which have gradually been brought together and wrought into a homogeneous narrative. This ap pears (a) from the fact that there are many repetitions 3 The material belonging to the priestly narrative, as indicated in The Hexateuch, by I. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, is as follows : Gen. 1 : 1 — 2 : 40/ 5:1-28, 30-32; 6:9-22; 7:6, 11, 13-170, 18-21, 24; 8:1, 20, 30-5, 130, 14-19; 9 : 1-I7, 28, 29; 10: 10, 2-7, 20, 22, 23, 31, 32; II: 10-27, 31, 32; 12 : 40, 5; 13 : 60, 110, 12 ; 16 : lo, 3, 15, 16 ; 17 : I-27; 19 : 29 ; 21: 10, 20-5 ; 23 : 1-20 ; 25 : 7-17, 19, 20, 260/ 26:34, 35'. 27:46—28:9; 29:24, 280, 29; 30:21, 220/ 31:180,' 33:180/ 34 : l-2o, 30, 4, 6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 27-290/ 35 : 60, 9-13, 15, 220—36 : 30, 40-43 ; 37:1, 20, 2c; 41:450,460/ 46:6-27; 47:5,60,7-11,270,28; 48:3-7; 49:10, 28-330, 33c/ 50:12, 13; Exod. 1:1-5, 7, 13. 14*.' 2:230-25; 6:2 — 7:13, 19, 20a, 210,22; 8:5-7,150-19; 9:8-12; 11:9 — 12:20,24,28,40 — 13:2,20; 14:1-4,8, 90, 150, l60-l8, 210, 21^-23, 26, 270, 280, 29; 16:1-3, 5-35; 17:10/ 19:1, 20, 24:150-180/ 25:1 — 31:180/ 34:29 — 40:38; Lev. 1:1 — 27:34; Numb. 1:1 — 10:28, 34; 13:1-170, 210, 25, 260, 32; 14:10, 2, 5-7, 90, 10, 26-30, 32-390, 15:1-41; 16:10, 10, 20, 3-11, 16-24, 260, 270, 320, 33c, 35—20:10, 2, 30, 4, 6-8o, 8^-13, 220-29; 21:40,10,110/ 22:1; 25:6 — 32:38; 33:1 — 36:13; Deut. 32 : 48-52; 34:10, ic, Sd, 7-9; losh. 3:40, 8, 15, 16; 4:70, 80, 13, 15-17, 19; 5 = io-i2; 9: 15c:, 17-21; 13:15—14:5; 15:1-12,20-61; 16:4-9; 17:1-10; 18:1,11—19:46,48— 21:42; 22:9-34. 200 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Exod., chaps. 25- within the priestly narrative itself, e. g., the repetition of 30, cf. 35-40 ; the account of the structure of the tabernacle, the double Numb., chaps, i-3, cf. 26; Lev, chap. 23, cf. Numb., chaps. 28, 29. Lev., chaps. 17-26 Numb. 15 : 1-31 ; etc. Exod. 30:22 — 31 : 11 ; etc. account of the census of Israel, the two recensions of the laws concerning feasts, etc.; and {b) from the differ ent tone and character of various parts of the narrative. It is now generally granted that there are at least four different strata in this work. These are (1) a continuous narrative from the creation to the settlement in Canaan, which forms the groundwork of the priestly narrative (=pe); (2) the Holiness Code(=Ph); (3) a collection of priestly teachings on subjects connected with the various institutions (=P'); (4) "a miscellaneous set of secondary enlargements, ranging over a wide variety of topics — genealogical expansions, legislative elabora tions, illustrative narratives, etc."( = Ps). See, c. g.J, E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 142 ff.; Addis, Documents of the Hexateuch, Vol. II, pp. 186 ff.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp, 332 ff.; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch, p. 272 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 1548.; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, p. 385. §209. The Sources of the Priestly Narrative — (i) Examine carefully some of the narratives contained in etc. TV/'. 6: 9-22; both the prophetic history and in the priestly narrative, e. g., the accounts of the deluge, the story of Dinah,4 the bringing of water from the rock in the wilderness,5 etc., and consider whether the prophetic and priestly writers are to be regarded (a) as having used the same sources, or (b) as having used different sources, or (c) as being dependent one upon the other; if the latter, which is the original ? (2) Consider, further, whether it is probable that any sources other than popular traditions were ever in exist ence for the study of the earliest prehistoric times. In cases where the priestly and prophetic accounts of the 4 In the Dinah narrative the following material is from P ; Gen. 34 : 1, 20, 30, 4, 6, 8-10, 12-18, 20-25, 27-290/ and the remainder of chap. 34 belongs to J. s In Numb., chap. 20, the following material is assigned to P : 20 : 10, 2, 30-4, 6-80, 8C-13, 220-29 ; the following to J : 20 : 10, 30, 5, 80, 19 f.; and the remainder to E. Gen. 6 : 5-8 ; 7:1-5, 7-io: HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 201 same event differ widely, e. g., in the accounts of the events at Sinai,6 what explanation maybe given?7 Is the difference to be explained as due to the use of vary ing sources or as a result of the different purpose and point of view of these writers ? (3) Compare the creation accounts of J and P with Gen. 1:1—2: 4*/ cf. Gen. 2:40- each other, and still further with the creation stories as 24. found on Babylonian tablets. Note carefully the points of resemblance and difference, and try to determine (a) which of the two shows the clearer traces of Babylonian influence ; (b) whether they both resemble the same Babylonian tradition ; or {c) whether each reflects a different Babylonian tradition ; or (d) whether the Hebrew and Babylonian accounts are to be considered as parallel, but independent, narratives, (e) If the Baby lonian accounts are considered as sources of the He brew narratives, note how thoroughly the Hebrew writers have edited their sources and the different style of edit ing done by P as compared with J. For English translations of these Babylonian stories see W. Muss-Arnolt's rendering in R. F. Harper's Assyrian and Babylo nian Literature (" The World's Great Books," Aldine edition, New York, 1901), pp. 282-300. On the relations of the Hebrew and Babylonian accounts, see Lenormant, The Beginnings of His tory, pp. 47-66; Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis /John D.Davis, Genesis and Semitic Tradition, pp. 1-22 ; H. Zimmern, Biblische und babylonische Urgeschichte (1901); J. Barth, Babel und israeli- tisches Religionswesen (1902), pp. 21-31. §210. The Legislation Embodied in the Priestly Narrative. — Note that, just as the prophetic histories Exod. 34 : 17-28. included some elements of legislation, viz., the smaller Book of the Covenant in J, and the greater Book of the Exod. 20:23— Covenant, with the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1-17), in E, so the priestly narrative contains its proportion of laws. 6 For the distribution of material among the various sources in Exod., chaps. 19-40, in the book of Leviticus, and in Numb., chaps. 1-10, see the literature cited in note I. 1 0ther stories which are thought to be duplicates are : ( I ) the account of the birth of Hagar, etc., in Gen., chap. 16 (P = 16 : 10, 3, 15, 16 ; the remainder belongs to J); (2) the birth of Isaac (P = Gen. 21 : 10, 20, 3-5 ; the remainder belongs to J and E): the revelation of God to Jacob at Bethel (P = Gen. 35 : 60, 9-13, 15 ; the remainder belongs to J and E). 202 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Exod. 12 : 1-20, 25 t; 43-49', 13 : 1 ; 25 : 1— 31 : 17 ; chaps. 35-40; Numb. 5:1—9:10;chaps. 15, 18, 19,28-31, and 35- Gen. 1 : 1 — 2 : 4a. Gen. 2 : 4*2-25. Gen. 2:4a/ 5:1; 6:9; 10: 1 ; 11 : 10; 11 : 27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1; 37:2. Gen. 1:1; 8:1; etc. Gen. 17: 1. Exod. 6:2f. Gen. 9:8-17. Gen., chap. 17. Exod. 3i:i6f. Gen. 1:1—2:4*/ 5:1; 10: 1 ; etc. This legal element is found in portions of Exodus and Numbers and in the entire book of Leviticus. (1) Notice the relatively large amount of space and consideration given to legal matters in P, as compared with J and E. Is it not true that in J and E the legal material is inci dental, while in P it is the essential and all-important thing ? (2) How may this increase of legal material be accounted for ? Is it perhaps due to the greater interest of the priestly writers in such matters ? §211. Orderly, Systematic Treatment of Material. — Read the priestly narrative of the creation, and (1) notice that the order of events is carefully distributed through out six days, corresponding to the working days of the week, and that God is represented as resting upon the seventh day. (2) Is not the whole account much more systematic than the prophetic account of the same sub ject in the following chapter ? (3) Consider also the division of the patriarchal period into ten "generations," beginning with the " generations of the heaven and of the earth,"8 and ending with the generations of Jacob. (4) Notice that prior to the time of Abraham the gen eral name elohim is used ; between Abraham and Moses the name el shaddai appears ; after the times of Moses the name is Jehovah. (5) Observe the similar system which appears in the presentation of the covenant idea ; the first covenant being represented as having been made with Noah, its sign — the rainbow; the second covenant being with Abraham, its sign — circumcision; while still later the sabbath is spoken of as a covenant, and as the sign of a covenant. See Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 129 ft.; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 353 ff.; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians, pp. 245 f.; Steuernagel, Deuteronomium und fosua u. s. w., pp. 271 f. § 2 1 2. The Fondness of the Priestly Narrative for Genea logical Statements. — (1) Recall the fact, previously men tioned, that the creation account and the patriarchal 'Gen. 2 : 40 belongs to P's preceding narrative and should probably be transposed to the beginning of chap. 1. HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 203 history are presented in the form of genealogies. (2) Exod.6:i4-27; Notice further the large amount of genealogical material 20, 47;' 3: 14-39; in the priestly narratives, and that long periods of time are frequently represented by nothing more than a genea logical list. (3) Does it seem that the writer uses these lists in large part as connecting links for his narrative, hastening over by their means long periods of time in which he has no especial interest, in order to give more attention to matters in which he is vitally concerned ? § 2 1 3. Prevalence of Statistics and Dates in the Priestly Narrative. — In illustration of this characteristic of P, Gen., chap. 5; 6: 15 f. ; 7:6,11, recall the fact that it gives the ages of the antediluvians; 13,20,2418:311., 13, 14; 12 :4 ; the dimensions of the ark; the date of the flood; the 16:3, 16; 17:1, 24m; 21:5; depth of the waters of the flood and its duration; the 23:16; 46:27; r «, , • • • , • ,-r , EXOd. 12:401.; age of Abraham at various junctures in his life ; the price 16:1; 19:1; 25: 10 ff., 23, 25, paid for the field of Ephron ; the number of people that 31 ff-; chaps. 26-30 and 35-40; entered Egypt; the duration of the sojourn in Egypt; Lev., chap. 23; the date of the arrival in the wilderness of Sin and of that 28, 2g;'chaps. 1-3 , and 26 ; at Sinai; the dimensions and specifications of the ark of chap. 7; 34:1-15 testimony, the table of shewbread, and the golden can dlestick ; most minute specifications for the tabernacle with all its furnishings ; the exact dates of all feasts ; a census of Israel at Sinai ; the exact value of the offerings made in connection with the dedication of the altar ; a careful demarkation of the boundaries of the various tribes ; etc. Does not the presence of so much material of this sort render the general style stiff and precise as compared with the free, flowing narratives of J and E? § 2 1 4. The Style of the Priestly Narrative is Repetitious. — (1) Observe that the account of the structure of the 3oand35?4o;j6" tabernacle is given in full twice; also that the census of 1-3 and26C; 7*13- Israel at Sinai is twice narrated. (2) Read Numb., chap, Ill luetic. -io' 7, and notice that six verses are used twelve times in this ?6;2°3634o',' «,' chapter. (3) Consider, further, the large extent to which g-ii^-^etc8; certain formulas and stereotyped phrases are repeated, etc.T":^" I3' and the fact that many sentences are cast in the same iV-.^lVil*;' ' mold. (4) Are some of these repetitions due to the fact J* '74;6Numb?d' that the priestly narrative is a compilation ? But can Mi.3f etc!;0'-' the tendency to the repeated use of the same phraseology etc. 9' '°~l6' 204 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT be so explained ? Is it not a marked characteristic of the priestly style ? On the style of the priestly narrative in general see : Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 126-35; I- E- Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. I, pp. 125 f.; GuNKEL, The Legends of Genesis, pp. 145 f., 148; Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 349-54; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Allen Testamentes, pp. 96-102 ; and the articles by W. R. Harper and W. H. Green in Hebraica, Vols. V and VI. §215. The Selection of Material in the Priestly Narra tive. — (1) Consider whether, if it is not the purpose of the priestly writers to write a history in the modern sense of the word, but rather to teach certain truths with reference to God and the proper methods of worship, it may not be reasonable to suppose that they selected and arranged their material with a view to its appropriateness to the end they had in view. (2) Notice, for example, (a) that, while in J the narrative of the creation is merely intro- Gen. 1:1— 2:4a. ductory to the account of man's first sin, in P the cre ation narrative is treated in a manner to emphasize strongly the sanctity of the sabbath ; (b) that between the creation and Abraham the centuries are bridged over by means of genealogies, with the single exception of the deluge and the account of the covenant with Noah ; (c) Gen., chap. 17. that the only incidents in Abraham's life to which P gives any consideration are the account of the institu- Gen., chap. 23. tion of circumcision with the accompanying covenant, Gen. 28:1-9. and the purchase of the field of Ephron ; (d) that the only incident treated in the life of Isaac is the care taken to provide for his son's marriage to a woman of Gen. 34 : 1 f., 3*, 4, his own race; and in Jacob's life the failure of the pro- 6,8-10,12-18, 1 ,, 1 etc.; 35:9-13, posed alliance between the sons of Jacob and the men 15 ; 46 : 6-27. of Shechem, the appearance of God to him at Bethel with the promise to bless his descendants, and his entrance into Egypt with his sons ; (t?) that in the Exod. 12 : 1-20, account of the exodus the only incidents receiving any considerable attention are the institution of the Passover, Exod., chaps. 25- the giving of manna on six days and its withholding on 40; Lev.,jehaps. J ° 1-27; etc. the seventh, and the legislation at Sinai which consti tutes the bulk of the priestly narrative. (3) Consider in HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 205 each of the above cases why the incident was chosen for treatment to the exclusion of other material, much of which would have been of more interest and value as pure history. See, e.g., Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis, pp. 146 f.; Hol zinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 359 f. §216. The Theological Point of View of the Priestly Narrative. — (i) Is not the conception of God that appears in the priestly narrative in many respects the highest attained in the Old Testament ? Note that in the creation account of P, as compared with that of J, all anthropomorphic features are lacking; it is sufficient for Gen. 1:1-2:43. God to speak and the thing is done. He is most holy, so that none but members of the holiest class may come Numb., chap. 18; Lev., chap. 8. near his altar or perform the highest functions of his wor ship ; and these ministers are set apart by a most solemn service of consecration. The usual manifestation of his presence is by means of a cloud resting upon the tent Exod. 40:34ft. ; 01 Numb. 16:19, of meeting and the appearance of his "glory." In the presence of such a holy Being the sinfulness of man is greatly intensified ; constant sacrifices are necessary to make atonement ; and there is an obligation resting upon Lev. 19:2. all Israel to be holy, because God is holy. This exalted conception of God can be traced everywhere in the nar rative and in the legislation. (2) To what extent is it due to this conception of God and of Israel's relation to him that the accounts of Israel's ancestors given by P differ so widely in spirit from the corresponding narra tives of J and E ? (3) Consider the significance of the fact that none of the sins and shortcomings of the patri archs, so freely mentioned by the prophetic writers, are alluded to in the priestly narrative ; it being taken for granted that the patriarchs, who were the founders of the holy nation, as such must themselves have been holy. (4) Note also that no sacrifices are offered nor altars built by the patriarchs according to the priestly narrative, in contrast with the prophetic account, because sacrifice was Gen. 35: e, 9 ft- ; cf. 35 : 7. not legal until the Mosaic legislation had been given and the proper means for the right conduct of sacrifice provided. 206 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT See, e. g., Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Tes tament (6th ed.), pp. 128 f.; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford- Battersby, The Hexateuch, Vol. 'I, pp, 132 f-; Holzinger, Ein leitung in den Hexateuch, pp. 376-90 ; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, pp. 231 ff. § 217. Literature to be Consulted. Kuenen, An Historico-Critical Inquiry into the Origin and Composition of the Hexateuch (1861, 2d ed. 1885; transl. 1886), pp. 65-107, 272-313; J. W. Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of foshua, Critically Examined, Parts I-VII (1862-79); Wellhausen, Prolegomena lo the History of Israel (1878, 4th ed. 1895 ; transl. from German 1885), pp. 385-91; W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the fewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), Lecture XII ; Driver, Journal of Philology, Vol. XI (1882), pp. 201-36 ; E. C. Bissell, The Pentateuch, Its Origin and Structure (1885), pp. 318-61; Dillmann, Genesis Critically and Exegetically Expounded {Sth. ed. 1886; transl. 1897), Vol. I, pp. 1-26; Franz Delitzsch, A New Commentary on Genesis (5th ed. 1887; transl. 1889), Vol. I, pp. 1-59; B. W. Bacon, "Pentateuchal Analysis," Hebraica, Vol. IV (1888), pp. 219-26; Kittel, History of the Hebrews (1888; transl. 1895), Vol. I, pp. 96-134; W. H. Green, Hebraica,Vo\. V (1888-89), pp. 149 ff-. I&2f., I74&; Vol. VI, pp. 127, 133, 167, 180 f., 196, 210; Vol. VII, pp. 16, 27, 33, 36 f., 1 1 3 ff-» 137 f., 141; Vol. VIII, 37 f., 63, 201 f., 228, 243; W. R. Harper, Hebraica, Vol. V (1888-89), PP- 22 f., 25 {., 33 f., 45, 52 ff., 63 ff., 244 f., 253, 266 f., 275, 286; Vol. VI, pp. 2, I if., 19, 26 f., 36 ff., 242 f., 252, 265 f., 276 f., 288 f.; Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 126-35; E.J. Fripp, The Composition of the Book of Genesis (1892); C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (1892, 2d ed. 1897), pp. 69-75; B. W. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis (1893), PP- 54~9. 66-94 ; W. H. Green, The Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch (1895), pp. 59-133; Idem, The Unity of the Book of Genesis (1895), passim; Addis, Doc uments of the Hexateuch, Vol. II (1898), pp. 170-88; H. E. Ryle, article "Gene sis" (§ iv (a)) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899), pp., 329 f.; F. H. Woods, article "Hexateuch" (§ iii, 2 and 4 D) in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); L. W. Batten, The Old Testament from the Modern Point of View (1899, 2d ed. 1901), pp. 79-119; J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexa teuch, Vol. I (1900), pp. 121-56; G. F. Moore, articles "Genesis" (§§2f.) and " Historical Literature " (§§ 9 f.) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); Gunkel, The Legends of Genesis (1901), pp. 144-60 ; Wellhausen, article " Hexateuch" (§§ 19, 23, 24, 29, 30) in Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 239-47. H. Hupfeld, Die Quellen der Genesis (1853); K. H. Graf, Die geschichtlichen Biicher des Allen Testaments (1866); Noldeke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testamentes ' (1869); Ed. Riehm, "Ueber die Grundschrift des Pentateuchs," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1872, pp. 283-307; Bleek-Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (4th ed. 1878), §§ 81 ff.; Ryssel, De Elohistae sermone (1878); Giese- brecht, " Der Sprachgebrauch des hexateuchischen Elohisten," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 177-276; Wurster, " Zur Charakte- ristik und Geschichte des Prieslercodex," ibid.. Vol. IV (1884), pp. 111 ff .; Dill mann, Die Biicher Humeri, Deuteronomium und Josua (" Kurzgef asstes exegetisches HISTORICAL LITERATURE PRIESTLY NARRATIVE 207 Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1886), pp. 648 f., 663; Kautzsch und Socin, Die Genesis mit ausserer Unterscheidung der Quellen (1888, 2d ed. 1891); Well hausen, Die Composition des Hexateuchs und der historischen Biicher des Alten Testa ments (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. I (1889), pp. 253-80; C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 3d ed. 1896), pp. 56-68; Westphal, Les sources du Pentateuque, Tome 2 (1892), pp. 21-32; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (Dutch, 1893; transl. into German, 1895), pp. 306-33; Ed. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 225-31; Hol zinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893), pp. 332-425; Steuernagel, Ueber- setzung und Erkldrung der Biicher Deuteronomium und Josua, und allgemeine Ein leitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900), pp. 271-8; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 96-102. § 2 1 8. Constructive Work. 1. Prepare a brief survey of early Israelitish history from the pas sages ordinarily assigned to P (see p. 199, note 3), noting especially (a) the gaps which are found to exist, that is, the periods left untouched, or passed over in the genealogical method (see §212); (b) the portions on which large emphasis is laid. 2. Make a list of all the so-called duplicates (cf. § 209), that is, those events which are described by some other writer (e. g., J or E) as well as by P, and observe particularly the characteristics which distinguish the account of P from other accounts. 3. Prepare a statement which (a) will present in logical order the various elements of style that characterize P, {b) will show the relation ship existing between these characteristics of style and the contents, and {c) will exhibit the contrast between the style of P and that of the prophetic narrators (J and E). 4. Trace the growth of P in its various stages, viz., Ph, s?g, P', Ps, and indicate (a) the chronological order of these various elements of P ; (b) the ideas and laws peculiarly characteristic of each stage of the P legislation. 5. Formulate P's conception of God, and trace the influence of this conception in (a) the contents, that is, as explaining why certain things are included or omitted; (b) the style, that is, as explaining why the style is in such marked contrast, e. g., with the prophetic style; (cr) the conception, that is, as explaining the thought of the writer on various subjects, e. g., man, angels, worship, etc., etc. CHAPTER XVI. HISTORICAL LITERATURE THE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES. i Chron i : i ; cf. Gen. i :x. i Chron. i : 1-27. 1 Chron. 11 : 28— 10: 14. 2 Chron. 36 : 22 f . cf. 2 Kings 25 : 27 ff. 2 Chron. 36 : 22. 2 Chron. 36 : 20, 22L ; Ezra 4: 8; 5:6f.; 7:27!; 8:1; Neh. 1:11; 2 : 1 ff . ; Hag. 1 : 1,15; Zech. 7:1. 1 Chron. 29:7. § 2 1 9. The Scope of the History in Chronicles. — Observe that the narrative in Chronicles (1) begins, like that in P, with the very beginning of the human race; (2) runs rapidly over the early history of mankind in general; (3) takes up that of the Hebrew people, beginning with Abra ham and hastening on to the death of Saul ; while (4) with the accession of David it treats the history more elabo rately, and covers the period from David to the exile in the remainder of the work. Observe further that, as com pared with the prophetic history in Judges, Samuel, and Kings, (1) while beginning at an earlier point in history, it gives very much less consideration to the pre-Davidic period ; (2) it leaves the history of the Northern Kingdom almost entirely out of account ; and (3) both stop with the exile, the end of Israel's national life. Consider, now, the purpose of the compiler (1) as gathered from the scope of his work; (2) as gathered from a comparison with Judges, Samuel, and Kings ; (3) as gathered from the comparative fulness of treatment of different parts. §220. The Date of the Books of Chronicles. — Con sidering the relationship and significance of old materials in the book, side by side with materials which indicate a comparatively late date for the origin of the book as a whole, note (i) that the history extends to the "first year of Cyrus, king of Persia;" (2) that the common titles of Cyrus and all the Persian kings were "the King," the "Great King," the " King of Kings," the "King of the Lands;" they are never called kings of Persia in contemporaneous literature ; does not this fact point to a period considerably later than that of the Persian empire ? (3) that the daric, a Persian coin intro duced in the time of Darius I. (521-486 B. C.) and named 208 HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 209 after him, is spoken of as in use in the time of David ; does not this suggest that the coin had been so long in use when Chronicles was prepared that the time and place of its origin had been forgotten ? (4) that the language of the book has a very strong Aramaic coloring, is full of words and phrases characteristic of post-exilic literature, and that the syntax is of a decidedly late char acter;1 (5) that in the list of Zerubbabel's descendants 1 Chron. 3: 19-24. six generations are enumerated according to the Hebrew text, while the Septuagint gives eleven. Since Zerub babel lived about 520 B. C, and a generation may be Hag. 1:1. reckoned at about twenty years, this genealogy, according to the Hebrew text, gives us a date about 400 B. C; or, if the Septuagint be accepted, about 300 B. C. (6) If Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah are the work of the same editor (see § 226), may we not use data furnished by Ezra and Nehemiah to determine the date of Chronicles ? In Nehemiah, the high-priest Jaddua is mentioned, and the Heh.i2:n,22. phrase "the days of Jaddua" is employed to indicate a date in the past. Does not this suggest that the writer lived some time after Jaddua ? But, according to the narrative of Josephus,2 Jaddua was the high-priest who met Alexander the Great as he marched through Syria (333 B. C.) and rendered him favorable to the Jews. Hence we get a date about 30.0 B. C. for the compilation of Chronicles. See, e. g., Barnes, The Books of Chronicles (" Cambridge Bible," 1899), pp. xi f.; W. R. Smith and S. R. Driver, article "Chroni cles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, col. 764 ; Francis Brown, article ''Chronicles I and II," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, p. 392; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 518 ff. §221. The Sources of the Books of Chronicles. — Since the chronicler was one of the latest contributors to the collection of writings known as the Old Testament, con sider the probability of his having used many sources 1 For the linguistic data and their bearing on the date of Chronicles see especially Fr. Brown's article " Chronicles," in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 389-92 ; Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed.), pp. 504 ff.; and article "Chronicles, Books of," in Encyclopedia Biblica (§ 11). 'Antiquities, XI, viii, 4, 5- 210 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 2 Chron. 9 : 29 ; 12: 15; 13: 22; 20 : 34 ; 26 : 22 ; 32 : 34 ; 33 : 19 ; 1 Chron. 29 : 29. 1 Chron. 9:1; 16: 11 ; 20:34; 25 : 26 ; 27 : 7 ; 28 : 26 ; 32 : 32 ; 33:18; 35:27; 36:8. 1 Chron. 23:27; 27:24. 2 Chron. 35 : 25. 2 Chron. 24 : 27. 2 Chron. 30: 22 ff., cf. 1 Kings 22 : 43 ; 24 : 2, cf. 2 Kings 12:3; 25 : i-4. cf. 2 Kings 14 : 'ii., 5 f . ; 1 Chron. 14 : 3-7, cf. 2 Sam. 15:13-16; 20:1, cf. 2 Sam. 11 : 1. 1 Chron. 5 : 17. 1 Chron. 16 : 8-36, cf. Pss. 105:1- 15; 96:1-13; 106:1, 47L already in existence both within and outside of the Old Testament writings, and notice his frequent references to such sources, viz. : (1) a series of prophetic narratives,3 (a) the "words of Nathan, the prophet;" {b) the "prophecy of Ahijah, the Shilonite;" (c) the "visions of Iddo, the seer;" (d) the "words of Iddo, the seer;" (e) the "mid rash of the prophet Iddo;" (/) the "words of Shemaiah, the prophet ;'' (g) the " words of Jehu, the son of Hanani ;" (h) " the rest of the acts of Uzziah, first and last, did Isaiah the prophet, the son of Amoz, write ;" (i) the " vision of Isaiah, the prophet, the son of Amoz ;" (f) the " words of Hozai ;" {k) the " words of Samuel, the seer, and of Gad, the seer ;" (2) a set of court records, vari ously cited as (a) " the book of the kings of Israel ;" (b) " the book of the kings of Judah and Israel ;" (c) " the book of the kings of Israel and Judah ;" (d) " the affairs of the kings of Israel ;" (3) a similar record of the reign of David; (4) a collection of lamentations; (5) "the midrash of the book of the kings," which is perhaps identical with the "book of the kings " cited under (2); (6) the canonical books of Samuel and Kings must have been known to the chronicler, and many passages indi cate a close relationship between the two; (7) ancient genealogical lists ; (8) collections of psalms. In connection with an investigation of the sources, the following general questions are to be considered : Did the chronicler use any sources other than those used by the compiler of Samuel and Kings ? Is the relation ship between Chronicles, on the one hand, and Samuel and Kings, on the other, to be explained as due to {a) direct borrowing of the former from the latter, or to (b) the use of the same sources by both, or to {c) the use by the chronicler of a work based upon the canonical books of Samuel and Kings? What is the significance of the name " midrash " applied to two of the above-mentioned sources? How much material, if any, did the chronicler himself contribute? 3 It is probable, however, that these existed only as a part of the more compre hensive work cited under (2). HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 211 On the sources of Chronicles see, e. g., Barnes, op. cit., pp. xviii- xxi ; Fr. Brown, op. cit, pp. 394 f.; Driver, Introduction, etc., pp 519 ff.; W. R. Smith and Driver, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I, coll. 766 ff.; Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik, pp. x ff.; Kuenen, Einleitung u. s. w., §§ 28-32; KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II, pp. 244-30. §222. The Chronicler's Treatment of His Sources. — This is most easily seen by means of a comparison between Chronicles on the one hand and Samuel and Kings on the other. (1) Note that some material appears in both works in almost exactly the same form. Con sider the character of this material, (a) with reference to its fitness for the chronicler's purpose, {b) as conveying ideas that were in keeping with those represented by the chronicler (cf. § 227). (2) Note the presence of some material not found in Samuel and Kings. Consider {a) the reason for its incorporation by the chronicler, (b) the source whence it was derived, (c) the question of its his torical credibility. (3) Note the absence from Chronicles of some material found in Samuel and Kings. Consider the reason for its rejection by the chronicler as bearing on the question of the purpose of the latter. (4) Note that there are many cases in which the chronicler modi fies the material in Samuel and Kings in some degree, sometimes condensing a narrative greatly, sometimes expanding ; at other times changing the significance of an event, or magnifying the size of an army, or disre garding historical fact. Consider, with reference to such cases, whether the divergence is to be explained (a) as due to the greater faithfulness of one or the other com piler to the source whence the material was taken; or (b) as demanded by the chronicler's more advanced concep tion of God ; or (c) as an outgrowth of the chronicler's idea of the temple and the cultus ; or (d) as a result of the different historical circumstances and influences amid which the chronicler lived, as compared with the times in which Samuel and Kings were edited ; or (1?) as due to other historical or theological influences. § 223. The Chronicler's Use of Genealogies. — Chron icles resembles P in its abundant use of genealogical 1 Chron. 10 : 1-12 (cf. 1 Sam. 31 : 1-13) ; 11 : 1- 9 'cf. 2 Sam. 5 : 1-3,6-10) ; 14:1- 16 (cf. 2 Sam. 5: 11-35) ; chap. 17 (cf. 2 Sam., chap. 7; ; 2 Chron 1 : 14- 17 (cf. 1 Kings 10 : 26-29) j 9 : 29 — 10 : 19 (cf. 1 Kings 11 : 41— 12 : 19) ; etc. 1 Chron. 10 : 13 f . ; 14:17; chaps. 22-29 ; 2 Chron. 14:9-15; 24:20-22 ; 33:10-13; etc. 2 Sam. 5:4! ; 11 :2 — 12 : 23; 13:1—14:33;1 Kings, chaps. 17, 18, 19; 2 Kings 3 • 1 — 8: 15; chap. 10; etc. 1 Chron. 13 : 15 f. (cf. 2 Sam., chap. 6) ; 2 Chron. 5 : 4 (cf. 1 Kings 8:3); chap. 23 (cf. 2 Kings, chap. 11) ; chap. 20 (cf. 2 Kings, chap. 3) ; 12 : 2^-8 (cf. 1 Kingsi4:25f.), 14 : 5 and 17 : 6 (cf. 1 Kings 15 : 14 ; 22 : 43) ; 3 : r-13 (cf. 1 Kings 6:i-3,i5-35);8 : 12-16 (cf. 1 Kings 9: 25); 14=3-5 (cf. 1 Kings 15 : 12) ; 16 : 12-14 (cf 1 Kings 15 : 23*- 24a) ; 28 : 5-15 (cf. 2 Kings 16: 5) ; 29:3— 31 : 21 (cf. 2 Kings 18 :4-7«) ; 32 : 24-33 (cf. 2 Kings, chap. 20) ; 36 : 9 f . (cf 2 Kings 24:8- 17). 212 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT i chron., chaps, lists. Note (i) that the period from Adam to the death of Saul is merely outlined by a series of genealogies ; i Chron., chaps. (2) the genealogical character of much of the material 23-27, in the narrative of David's preparations for the building 2 chron. 29:12- and care of the temple; (3) the emphasis placed upon 14; 31 :n-ig. genealogies of the priests and Levites. How is this use of genealogies to be explained ? Why is so much care taken in tracing the descent of priests and Levites ? Was there any connection between this and the later Hebrew law, which was very stringent in prohibiting the participa tion of foreigners and non-Levites in the conduct of the temple worship ? Whence may we suppose that the chronicler secured these long lists of names ? May they be depended upon as historically accurate ? §224. The Chronological and Statistical Character of i Chron. 12: 23-37; Chronicles. — Note that, in addition to statistics given in the 29:1-9; 2 Chron. ° 2:i7f. ; 15:11; narrative of Samuel and Kings, Chronicles states the 17:11,14-19; ° 25:51.; 26:11 number of the Israelites who came to make David king ff.; 27:6; 29:17, ° 21, 32L; 30:24; in Hebron; the value of the offerings made in David's 34:3. last days for the building of the temple; the number of "strangers" pressed into the work of building the temple ; the number of oxen and sheep sacrificed in one day in the third month of the fifteenth year of Asa ; the number of sheep and goats brought to Jehoshaphat as tribute by the Arabians ; the number of soldiers in Jehosh- aphat's standing army ; the number of the warriors of Judah led forth by Amaziah to battle against Edom in the valley of Salt; the size of Uzziah's standing army; the number of Judah's warriors slain by Pekah of Israel ; the exact date of the cleansing of the temple in Heze kiah's reign ; the number of sheep, oxen, and goats sacrificed in connection with this occasion ; the dates of Josiah's first steps toward religious reform ; and other similar data. (1) Can any principle, or principles, be dis covered which will account for part or all of this statis tical information ? or (2) is it merely a characteristic of the chronicler's literary style ? (3) What is the bearing on this question of the fact that there are divergencies between Chronicles and Kings in many cases where they give figures for the same event ? (Cf. § 222, (4).) HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 213 §225. The Literary Style of Chronicles. — Consisting, as it does, in large part of excerpts from earlier sources which have been edited and supplemented by the editor of Chronicles, may we expect to find the unity of style that is manifest in a work that comes from one hand ? Examine lists of the peculiarities of vocabulary and syn tax in Chronicles* and read large portions of the book with a view to determining {a) the style of the chroni cler as distinguished from that of the sources he uses ; (b) the style of the chronicler as compared with that of the prophetic narratives in J, E, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, on the one hand, and with that of P, on the other. Is the style seen to be involved, stiff, prosaic, repeti tious ? § 226. The Chronicler's Selection of Material. — If it was not the aim of the chronicler to write a history, but to use history in such a way as to illustrate and enforce great ideas which he wished to present, should we not expect to find that he selects and arranges his material with a view to his purpose ? Note that (i) he passes 2 chron., chap. 10; 11:1-4 ; over the history of northern Israel in silence, except in chap. 13; 16:1- J 6 ; chap. 18 ; a few places where the intimate relation of the two king- 20:35-37; 22:5- 9 ; 25 : 6-10, 17- doms compels him to mention Israel; why? (2) that 24128:5-15; he fails to mention the sins of David, Solomon, Heze kiah, and others who were interested in supporting the temple and its worship ; why ? (3) that he emphasizes 1 chron., chaps. the activities of these kings in behalf of the temple and 2g:22';2Chron. chaps. 1-7; 17: priesthood to such an extent as to make them appear 1-9; 19:4-11; / \ 24 : 4-16 ; chaps more like priests than kings ; why ? (4) that he assigns 29-31; 34:1— 35 ¦ *9 j ctCt the priests an essential part in the battle-array; why ? (5) that the religious institutions are given an exceedingly 1 chron. 13:12. large place as compared with the books of Samuel and 1 chron. 6:1-81; 9 : 10-34 i chaps. Kings. What light do these and other similar facts shed 23-26; 2 cnron 35:1-19 (cf upon the nature of the purpose of Chronicles ? Is it 2 Kings not a church history rather than a history of the chaps. 29-31 (cf. J 2Kings 18 : 4) . nation ? §227. The Religion of the Chronicler.— Note (1) 2 Jjj^fj ;,38:™ ;f. ; that the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all llflg]'iX-ti?~etc. ?See, e. g., Driver, Introduction, etc., pp. 535-40; Fr. Brown, Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I, pp. 389 ff. 214 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT i Chron. 21 :5 ; matters of ritual and worship ; (2) that the most religious 2 Chron. 17: 14-1 9; , . , _ . , , 25:5; 26:nff. ; kings are represented as the mightiest, David having n: 1. more than a million and a half of soldiers, Jehoshaphat over a million, Asa more than half a million, Amaziah 2Chron.27:6; and Uzziah only 300,000, Rehoboam only 180,000; (3) 31:21; 13:11; that prosperity is declared to be due to faithfulness to 17 • 4 f. * 26: 5. 1 chron! 10:13 i.; Jehovah and his worship as conducted at the temple; 2 Chron. 25:20; . . , 24:24!; 28:5 (4) that disaster is declared to be due to sin in abandon- 21: 12'ff. ' " ing Jehovah or his worship ; (5) that Jehovah is the only 18; 26-:5; 16:7, and all-sufficient source of help and deliverance; (6) iChron. 28;g; that Jehovah is omnipotent and omniscient; (7) that 5:22, 26; 16: 9.' Jehovah is merciful and good, ever ready to pardon the 2 Chron. 30 : 9, . . , ,..,., i8f. penitent; (8) that, though great emphasis is laid upon 2 Chron. 30:19. ...... . . , ritual, the spirit of an act is recognized as more impor tant than the form. §228. The Idealistic Character of Chronicles. — Recall (1) that there is silence as to the great sins of David and 2 Chron., chaps, other religious leaders (see 8 222 (3)) ; (2) that the Mo- 23-28; 2 Chron., . 6 . . ). \ , . , , , . chaps. 3, 4. saic system as it existed in the chronicler s day is repre sented as in full operation in the times of David and 1 Chron. 14:17; 2 Solomon ; (?) that the splendor and power of the king- Chron. i : 14-17; ' w' r r ° 17:10-19; 32: dom in the days of David, Solomon, Jehoshaphat, Heze kiah, and others are rather a reflection of the greatness of the Persian empire, with which the chronicler was familiar, than a representation of the actual state of See,«..r.,iChron., affairs; (4) that a disproportionate prominence is given 16, 17'; 21': 18- to matters of temple and ritual in the early days of the 29:22. 2 chron. 7:5; 13: kingdom ; (5) that there is a tendency to use extraordi- 3517: 10-ig; 25 : n-13; 27:6,8; narily large numbers in calculations and estimates; (6) etc. 2 chron. 8:2; that occasionally he changes the natural course of histori- 21:12 (cf. J ° 2 Kings 3: h; cal events, e. ^..representing Hiram of Tyre as giving cities to Solomon, though the book of Kings states that the cities were given to Hiram by Solomon in payment for assistance rendered by Hiram in the work of building the temple ; and Elijah as writing a message to King Jeho- ram, although Elijah had been dead for some time. How may these things be most satisfactorily explained ? Are they due merely to a lack of historical perspective ? Can they be accounted for as necessary to the accomplishment of the chronicler's purpose ? Is there a sense in which HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 215 they represent a larger truth than could be imparted by a statement of bare fact ? In other words, can these rep resentations be regarded as ideally true, if not literally ? § 229. Literature to be Consulted. Ewald, History of Israel (1843, 3d ed. 1864, transl. 1883), Vol. I, pp. 169 ff.; C. F. Keil, The Books of Chronicles (1870, transl. 1872); Zockler-Murphy, The Books of Chronicles (Lange's "Commentary," 1874); W. R. Smith, art. " Chronicles,' Encyclopedia Britannica (1876) ; Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (1878, 5th ed. 1899, transl. 1885), pp. 171-227 ; W. R. Smith, Old Testament in the fewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 140 ff., 182 ff.; Ball, Chronicles (Ellicott's "Commentary for English Readers," 1883) ; Wildeboer, Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament (1891, transl. 1895), see Index; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891,6th. ed. 1897), pp. 516-40 ; KlTTEL, History of the Hebrews, Vol. II (1892, transl. 1896), pp. 224-9 ; J. Robertson, Book by Book (1892), pp. m-19; Jennings, "Chronicles," The Thinker, July, Sept., Nov., 1892; Ryle, Canon of the Old Testament (1892), pp. 138 f., 145, 151, 162; Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892), pp. 447 ff., 454, 483 ; Renan, History of the People of Israel, from the Rule of the Persians to That of the Greeks (1893, transl. 1895), pp. 151 ff.; W. H. Bennett, The Books of Chronicles ("Expositor's Bible," 1894); Girdlestone, Deuterographs (1894), passim; Driver, "The Speeches in Chronicles," Expositor, Apr. and Oct., 1895; G. B. Gray, Studies in Hebrew Proper Names (1896), chap, iii; Kautzsch, An Outline of the History of the Literature of the Old Testament (1896, transl. 1899), pp. 121-8; W. E. Barnes, "The Religious Standpoint of the Chronicler," American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XIII (1896-97), pp. 14-20; Idem, An Apparatus Criticus to Chroni cles in the Peshitta Version (1897) ; Idem, "Chronicles a Targum," Expository Times, Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 316 f.; Crockett, A Harmony of Samuel, Kings, and Chroni cles (1897); Fr. Brown, art. "Chronicles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. I (1898); T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), see Index; T. G. Soares, " The Import of the Chronicles as a Piece of Religio-Historical Litera ture," American Journal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 251-74 ; W. R. Smith and S. R. Driver, art. "Books of Chronicles," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. I (1899); C. F. Kent, History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian, and Greek Periods (1899), pp. 101 ff.; Barnes, The Books of Chronicles ("Cambridge Bible," 1899); Beecher, "Is the Chronicler a. Veracious Historian for the Post-Exilian Period?" Bible Student, Oct., 1899, Jan. and Feb., 1900; Howlett, " Wellhausen and the Chronicler," Dublin Review, Apr., 1900; Macmillan, "The Date of Chronicles," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, July, 1900; J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Prophetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 270-85; R. Somervell, "The His torical Character of the Old Testament Narratives," Expository Times, April, 1902, pp. 298-302. De Wette, Kritischer Versuch iiber die Glaubwiirdigkeit d. Chron. ("Beitrage," Vol. I (1806)); C. P. W. Gramberg, Die Chronik nach ihrem geschichtlichen Charak- ter und ihrer Glaubwiirdigkeit gepriift (1823); C. F. Keil, Apologetischer Versuch iiber die Biicher der Chronik (1833); Movers, Kritische Untersuchungen iiber die bibl. Chron. (1834); E. Bertheau, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzgef asstes exege tisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1854, 2d ed. 1873 ; 3d ed. by Ryssel, 1887) ; 2l6 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Kuenen, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek (1861, 2d ed. 1887), §§28-32; Graf, Die geschichtlichen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1866), pp. 1 14-247 ; De Wette-Schra- der, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1869), §§ 224-33 ; Wellhausen, De gentibus et familiis Judaeis quae 1 Ch. 2 — 4 enumerantur (1870); Franz Delitzsch, " Die Formenreichtum der israelitischen Geschichtsliteratur," Zeitschrift fiir lutherische Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XXXVI (1870), pp. 31 ff. ; L. Diestel, " Die hebraische Geschichtsschreibung," fahrbiichcr fiir deutsche Theologie, Vol. XVIII (1873), PP' 365 ff.; Oettli, Die Biicher der Chronik (" Kurzgefasster exegetischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament," 1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 316-28; Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 2d ed. 1896), §46; Budde, " Vermutungen zum ' Midrasch ' des Buches der Kbnige," Zeitschrift fiir die alttest Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 37 ff. ; H. Winckler, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen (1892), pp. 157-67 ( = " Bemerkungen zur Chronik als Geschichts- quelle ") ; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), PP- 269-76 ; Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893; German transl. 1895), pp. 404-20 ; Klostermann, art. " Chronik," Realencyklopddie fur prot Theologie und Kirche, Vol. IV (3d ed. 1898); Benzinger, Die Biicher der Chronik ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament" (1901); Baudissin, Ein leitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 266-78; Rothstein, Die Genealogie des Kbnigs Jojachim und seiner Nachkommen (1 Chron. 3: iy—24) in geschichtlicher Beleuchtung (1902). . §230. Constructive Work. 1. Make a minute comparison of 2 Chron. 2: 1 — 9:31 with 1 Kings 5:1 — 11:43, and (1) classify the variations which are found; (2) explain the motive which may have led to the making of the change. 2. Make a similar comparison of the psalms found in 1 Chron. 16:8-36 with the form of these same psalms as they occur in the Psalter, viz., Pss. 105: 1-15 ; 96: 1-13 ; 106: 1, 47 f. 3. Study the classification of the sources of Chronicles as pre sented by Driver, viz.: (1) the canonical books from Genesis to Kings; (2) the "book of the kings of Israel and Judah," which included the prophetic writings referred to in 2 Chron. 20:34 ; 32: 32 ; 33: 19, and possibly those mentioned in 1 Chron. 29 =29 ; 2 Chron. 9:29 ; 12:15; (3) the "acts of Uzziah," 2 Chron. 26:22 ; (4) the "midrash of the prophet Iddo," 2 Chron. 13:22; and (5) the " midrash of the book of the kings" (2 Chron. 24: 27), unless this be identical with (2). 4. Study the classification of sources as given by Kautzsch, viz.: (1) excerpts from canonical books of Samuel and Kings : 1 Chron., chaps. 1-9; 10:1-12; 11:1-9; 14: 1-17; 16:43 — 17 : 27; 2 Chron. 1: 13 —3:1; 5:2-10; 5:13,5—6:12; 6:14-39; 7:4,5,7,8; 7:17—8:1; 8:6-113/ 9:1-28; 9:30 — 11:4; 12:2a, gb-11, 13b; 12:15^ — 13:2; 13:23a/ 15: 16-18; 18:3-34; 21:1; 24:1-23/ 24:27^ — 25:4; 25:17- 203, 21-26; 25:27^ — 26:4; 27:1-23, 33/ 28:1-23,3, 4; 29:1, 2; 32:333"— 33:9; 34:1,2; (2) similar excerpts which were edited by the HISTORICAL LITERATURE BOOKS OF CHRONICLES 217 chronicler: i Chron. 13: 1-14 ; 15:25-29; 18:1 — 21:27; 2 Chron. 1:7-12; 3:2 — 5:1; 7:11-16; 8:17 f.; 16: ic5-6 ; 20:31-333/ 21:5- 103/24:4-14; 26:21-23; 27:7-9; 32:9-21; 32:24; 33:20-25; 34:8-323/ 35:18 f., 20^/ 35:26 — 36:63/ 36:8^-123/ (3) contribu tions of the chronicler himself and older sources which were thor oughly worked over by him into conformity with his own point of view: 1 Chron. 10: 13 f.; 11: 10 — 12: 40 ; 15: 1-24; 16:1-42; 21:28 — 29:30; 2 Chron. 1: 1-6; 5:11-133/ 6:13; 6:40 — 7:3; 7:6, of.; 8:2-5,11,7- 16; 9:29; 11:5— 12:1 ; 12: 2^-93, 12, 13a, 14, 153/ 13:3-22; 13:23^ — J5 : J5 i I5: I9 — l6 : la>' l6 : 7 — l8 : 2 ', 19 •' x — 2° : 3° > 20 : 33^-37; 21:2-4; 21:10,$ — 23:21524:2^,3,15-273/ 25:5-16,20^,273/ 26:5- 20; 27:2^,3^-6; 28:2b, 5-25; 29:3 — 32:8; 32: 22 f, 25— 33 Ezra suggest that the Persian dominion was a thing of the 7:271; 8:1,22, past in the writer's time? the words "of Persia" would i:'h; a:iff.; be superfluous while the Persian empire was supreme, 13:6. 222 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Neh. 12:10 f., 22; but entirely appropriate after its overthrow; (3) the josephus, An- reference to Jaddua, the high-priest, who lived three tiguities, XI, . ,. , ,, , vii, 8. generations later than Eliashib, the contemporary of Nehemiah ; this points to a time as late as the days of Alexander the Great for Jaddua, and the phrase " the days of Jaddua," would seem to indicate that the Neh. 12:22. priesthood of Jaddua was now long past; (4) the refer ence to " the reign of Darius, the Persian," as a period some time past ; it is generally agreed that the king referred to is Darius Codomannus, 336-332 B. C; (5) Neh. 12:23. the reference to "the book of the chronicles" which is said to have contained the register of the Levites as far down as the high-priesthood of Johanan, the son of Ezra4:6-23; Eliashib ; (6) the treatment of the sources, which is such 7:1-10; etc. ' \ 1 as no contemporary historian would have ventured (cf. §229). §239. Constructive Work. — Discuss the significance of the preced ing facts; and determine whether they point (1) to the work of a later editor, who inserted all these allusions to late history in a book that had been written at an earlier period, or (2) to the probability that the book as a whole was not compiled and edited until a time some where about 300 B. C. See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xxiii ff.; Driver, Introduction, etc., P- 545 ; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes, pp. 266 ff. § 240. The Sources of Ezra-Nehemiah. — In support of the position that Ezra-Nehemiah is the work of an editor who compiled largely from existing sources, consider (1) Ezra2:i;5:i; the many cases of abrupt transition from one topic or 7:1; 9:1; Neh. . . , J , r, , . , . f 1:1; 7:73*/ incident to another, an abruptness which is natural in a 12 ' 27 * n ' A work made up of extracts from older works placed side by side, but hard to account for in a work all of which origi nated from the same hand ; (2) the frequent change from the third to the first person, and vice versa, in closely related sections of the work, without any indication of Ezra4:8— 6:18; reason for the change; (3) the presence of two large sec- 7: 12-36. . tions written in Aramaic, without any apparent reason for Neh. 7:6-73; n: the change of speech ; (4) the presence of lists of names 3-36; 12:1-26. .... , : which have no close connection with the context to Ezra3:2;3:2; which they belong ; (5) the use of important names in Hen'. 12:32, 32. such a way as to imply that they had occurred in some HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 223 previous context from which they are now severed; (6) the marked differences in style and language appearing in various parts of the narrative ; (7) the fact that all the other historical books of the Old Testament are com pilations ; for the book of Chronicles especially see § 221; (8) the allusion to the "books of the chronicles," Neh. 13:33. apparently a temple-register from which the editor obtained some materials. As materials which the editor seems to have derived from earlier sources may be noted (1) the decree of Ezra 1:1-4. Cyrus permitting the exiles to return home; (2) the Ezra 4 : 7-16 ; 4 : Aramaic sections containing (3) the letter sent by the 6: 18;' 7:13-26. Jews' enemies to Artaxerxes; {b) the king's reply; (c) the account of the building of the temple in the days of Haggai and Zechariah, with certain letters that passed between Jerusalem and Babylon with reference to it; (d) the firman of Artaxerxes endowing Ezra with such authority as he desired; (3) various lists, including (3) Ezra 1:9-11; 1 , s Ezra3:i-7oand the vessels of the temple; (b) the Jews who came back Neh. 7:6-73; 1 v ' Ezra 10 : 20-44 '• from exile with Zerubbabel; (c) the men who married Neh., chap. 3; 10: 1-27; n 13- foreign wives; {d) the builders of the wall; (e) the 36; 12:1-26. signers of the covenant ; (/) the dwellers in Jerusalem and in other cities ; {g) the priests and Levites ; (4) the Neh. 7:73a— account of the adoption of the law and the new covenant 3y in the time of Nehemiah; (5) certain portions of the Ezra 7: 27— 8:34; narrative which use the first person and seem to have 9I I5- belonged to the memoirs of Ezra; (6) similar sections Neh., chaps. 1-6; which seem to have been taken from the memoirs of li]li?4-3i'.27 Nehemiah. § 241. The Treatment of the Sources in Ezra-Nehemiah. — Consider (1) the form of the decree of Cyrus with Ezra 1 : 3 ff . ; cf. x . 6 : 3 ff . reference to the return of the exiles as it is given in two different places in Ezra, and note the differences in phraseology and contents ; is it probable that there were two copies of the decree in existence differing so much as these, or is it more natural to ascribe the variations to the hand of the editor ? (2) the fact that a large section Neh., chaps. 8-10; v ' cf. Ezra, chaps. of Nehemiah appears to belong to the memoirs of Ezra, 7-10. being closely connected with them in the period with which they deal, in tone, and in phraseology; (3) the Ezra. chaps. 4-6 ; -' T Neh., chaps. fact that the opposition of the Samaritans to the Jewish 4, 6. 224 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT community is all crowded together at the beginning of the narrative, though, as a matter of fact, the dates given show that this opposition extended over a period of about eighty years and grew more and more bitter ; (4) Ezra 3: 1— 3:1a,- the fact that there are more than one hundred variations in two copies of the same genealogical list, and, in par ticular,' that the numbers differ oftener than they agree. Consider further (5) the evidence pointing to the conclusion that Ezra's expedition really followed that of Nehemiah instead of preceding it, as the editor's narrative reads; e.g., (a) Nehemiah's memoirs make no allusion to any previous work of Ezra; (b) those who came back with Ezra seem to have taken no part in the rebuilding of the walls, as they certainly would have done had they been Neh. 13:35; cf. present; (c) Ezra's measures, especially with reference to Ezra, chap. io. r ' v ' ' sr j intermarriage, all seem more decisive than those of Nehe miah, which have the appearance of being tentative ; (d) the fact that, according to the editor's narrative, Ezra's law was not promulgated until after the arrival of Nehe miah, and that no explanation of this long delay is Ezra 9: 9. offered by the editor; (e) the fact that Ezra gives thanks to Jehovah that the walls have been rebuilt at a time when Nehemiah, the builder of the walls, had not yet appeared on the scene, according to the editor's narrative. What motive could have led to such a rearrangement of the documentary sources? Is it sufficient to say that it was for the purpose of giving Ezra, the priest, precedence over Nehemiah, the layman? § 242. The Style of Ezra-Nehemiah. — As indicative of Ezra, chap. 2; tne editor's tastes and interests note (1 ) the large amount 44 ; Neil. 3° 1-32 ; °* genealogical material he incorporates into his narrative, J7:?7i^I°2?26. giving lists °f those who took part in the first return from exile, of those who helped build the wall, of those Ezrai:iof.; who dwelt in Jerusalem, etc., etc.; (2) the similar fond- i8:f47:22; 8*26 ness for statistical statements, as evidenced in connection 17',' ii; 7?66-73. with the above lists and on every other possible occasion ; Ezrai:i; 3:1,6, (3) the numerous chronological data with which his work i5;47: 1,7-9; abounds. In connection with these characteristics, 16L; Neh?i?i; recall the similar features seen to have been character ed "7: m'V: 2 istic °* tne books of Chronicles (see §§ 223, 224). Con- ^,13,17 -,9-i, sjder (4) the style of the editor's own contributions to HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 225 the work as distinguished from the style of the sources used by him. §243. Constructive Work. — Examine lists of phrases and words peculiar to the various sources, and read each source separately, as far as possible, in order that its literary style may impress itself upon your mind. Then treat the editor's own contribution in the same way, and compare its style with that of the editorial contributions to the books of Chronicles, with a view to the light that may be thrown by such a comparison upon the question of the unity of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. See, e. g., Ryle, Ezra and Nehemiah, pp. xviii f., xxviii f.; Driver, Introduc tion, etc., pp. 546 ff ., 553 ; Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren, insbesondere zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschriften (1899). §244. The Religion of Ezra-Nehemiah. — If Ezra-Nehe miah is the result of a compiler's work, the religious interests of the compiler must be looked for in three directions: (1) the nature of the subjects he selects for treatment ; (2) the relative prominence given by him to various matters ; (3) the religious tone of the material contributed by himself. In reference to (1) it maybe Neh. 12:27-43; Ezra, chaps. 9, noted that the subjects treated are all of a religious char- io. acter, such matters as are not in themselves distinctively religious being given a religious interpretation, e. g., the building of the walls and the movement against inter marriages with foreigners. As to (2) we may note the Ezrai:a-n; 2: great prominence given to the temple and its affairs, the Neh". 3 : 4-14 ; ' ° r ° ... Ezra 6: 16-22; important place in the community assigned to priests Neh. 12:27-47; r r , Ezra 2: 40-63; and Levites, and the large amount of attention bestowed 3:8-10,12; 7:7, r ¦ , 1 ¦,. <¦ ,. ¦ H-13,24; 8:15- upon matters of ritual, descriptions of religious cere- 2o;io:i8ff.; \- . / \ « 1 Neh. 12:1-26. monies, and the like. Concerning (3) we observe the Ezra 6: 16-22; 7:1-10; 8:35f.; priestly interest dominant in the editor's work, and that Neh. 12:44-47; 13 : 1-3. the Priestly Code serves as the standard in all matters of ritual and worship. In general, is there any appreciable difference be tween the religious ideals and feelings of the editor of Ezra-Nehemiah and those of the Chronicler (cf. § 227)? If not, is not this a strong indication of the unity of Ezra-Nehemiah and Chronicles? § 245. Literature to be Consulted. F. W. Schulz, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (Lange's "Commentary on the Holy Scriptures," 1876, transl. 1877) ; Ewald, History of Israel, Vol. I (1843, 3d ed. 226 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 1864, transl. 1883), pp. 169-96; Keil. Commentary on the Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1870, transl. 1879); D. H. Haigk, ' Coincidence of the History of Ezra with the First Part of the History of Nehemiah," Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archeology, Vol. II (1873), pp. iio-I3;.J. S. Bl^CK, articles on "Ezra" and "Books of Ezra and Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. VIII (1878); W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1881, 2d ed. 1892), pp. 42 f. ; Geo. Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Pulpit Commentary," 1881) ; Kuenen, National Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882), pp. 323-7 (on "Ezra and the Establishment of Judaism ") ; A. H. Sayce, An Introduction to the Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885, 3d ed. 1893); Marcus Dods, "Ezra" and "Nehe miah," Expositor, 3d series, Vol. VI (1887), pp. 53-64, 287-97; P. H. Hunter, After the Exile, Vol. II (1890); G. Rawlinson, Ezra and Nehemiah, Their Lives and Times ("Men of the Bible " series, 1890); Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (ist ed. 1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 540-54 ; W. F. Adeney, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1893); Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1893), PP- 537-53". A- C. Hervey, "The Chronology of Ezra II and IV, 6-23," Expositor, June, 1893, pp. 431-43 ; July, 1893, pp. 50-63 ; H. E. Ryle, The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah ("Cambridge Bible," 1893); G. S. Goodspeed, "Ezra and Nehemiah," Biblical World, Vol. I (1893), PP- 40-48, 208-19; H. Howorth, The Academy, 1893, Jan. 7, pp. 13 f.; Jan. 21, p. 60; Feb. 4, p. 106; Feb. 25, pp. 174 f.; April 15, pp. 326 f.; June 17, p. 524; July 22, pp. 73 f.; Sept. 16, pp. 233 f. ; Idem, "A Criticism of the Sources and Relative Importance and Value of the Canonical Book of Ezra and the Apocryphal Book Known as Esdras I," Transactions of the Ninth International Con gress of Orientalists, Vol. II (1893), pp. 68-85; C. C. Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah (" Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestament liche Wissenschaft," II, 1896); Kautzsch, The Literature of the Old Testament {1896, transl. 1899), PP- 121-8; J. A. Selbie, "Van Hoonacker on Israel's Return from Exile," Expository Times, Vol. VII (1897), pp. 71-3; Idem, "Israel's Return from Exile," ibid., pp. 320-22; Idem, "Ezra-Nehemiah," ibid., pp. 509-1 1; Idem, "Kosters on Israel's Return from Exile," ibid., Vol. IX, pp. 66-8; A. R. S. Kennedy, "Did the Jews Return underCyrus?" ibid., Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 268-71; Van Hoonacker, "The Return of the Jews under Cyrus," ibid., Vol. VIII (1897), pp. 351-4 ; Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898), pp. 36-81; Idem, "The Times of Ezra and Nehemiah," Biblical World, Vol. XIV (1899), pp. 238-50; N. Schmidt, "Nehe miah and His Work," ibid., Vol. XIV (1899), PP- 329-43 ; L. W. Batten, art. "Ezra and Nehemiah," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. II (1899); C. F. Kent, A History of the Jewish People during the Babylonian, Persian and Greek Periods (1899), pp. 126-36, 167-214 ; J. O. Boyd, " The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1900, pp. 4*4-37; I- E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Pro phetic and Priestly Historians (1901), pp. 31 4-34; Cheyne, "From Isaiah to Ezra," American Journal of Theology, 1901, pp. 433-41; Kosters and Cheyne, art. "E'rra- Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. II (1901) ; Guthe and Batten, The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah — Critical Edition of the Hebrew Text, etc. (" Polychrome Bible," 1901); J. W. Harper, The Books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther ("The Temple Bible," 1902). Kleinert, in Beitrdge zu den theologischen Wissenschaften von den Professoren zu Dorpat, Band I (1832), pp. 1-304 (on origin, structure, and date of Ezra-Nehe miah); Keil, Apologetischer Versuch iiber die Biicher der Chronik und iiber die HISTORICAL LITERATURE EZRA-NEHEMIAH 227 Integritdt des Buches Ezra (1833); KUENEN, Historisch-kritisch Onderzoek naar het Onlstaan en de Verzameling van de Boeken des Ouden Verbonds, Vol. II (1861, 2d ed. 1887, German transl. 1892), pp. 103-83; Schrader, "Die Dauer des zweiten Tempel- baues. Zugleich ein Kritik des Buches Ezra," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460-504; Margraf, "Zur Aufhellung der nachexilischen Chronologie," Theolog. Quartalschrift, 1870, pp. 567 ff.; DE Saulcy, Etude chronologique des livres d'Esdras et de Nehimie (1868); Bohme, Nehemia i-b (1871); Franz Delitzsch, "Der Esra der Uberlieferung und der Esra der neuesten Pentateuch-Kritik," Zeit schrift fiir die gesamte lutherische Theologie u. Kirche, Vol. XXXVIII (1877); J. Halevy, "Esdras et le code sacerdotal," Revue de I'histoire des religions, Vol. IV (1877); Eb. Nestle, " Zum Frage nach der urspriingliche Einheit der Biicher Chronik, Esra und Nehemia," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1879, pp. 155-21; Smend, Die Listen der Biicher Ezra und Nehemia (1881); A. Rosenzweig, Das fahrhundert nach dem babylonischen Exil mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die religiose Entwicklung desfudentums (1885); J. Halevy, " Esdras a-t-il promulgue' une loi nouvelle?" Revue de I'histoire des religions, Vol. XII (1885); Kuenen, " L'ceuvre d'Esdras," ibid., Vol. XIII (1886), pp. 334-58 (German transl. by K. Budde in Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur biblischen Wissenschaft von Dr. Abraham Kuenen (1894), pp. 370-91); Bleek- Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 205-22 ; Ber- THEAU-Ryssel, Du Biicher Esra-Nehemia und Esther erkldrt (" Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1887); Ryssel, " Die Anf ange der jiidischen Schriftgelehrsamkeit," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1887, pp. 149-82; Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vol. II (1888), pp. 95-193; Oettli, Ezra und Nehemia (Strack und Zockler's " Kurzgef asste Kommentar," 1889); Riehm, Ein leitung in das Alte Testament, Vol. II (1890), pp. 329-38 ; Van Hoonacker, Nihdmie et Esdras. Une nouvelle hypothese sur la chronologie de Ve'poque de la restauration (1890) ; Kuenen, " De Chronologie van het Perzische Tijdvak der Joodsche Geschie- denis," Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Amsterdam, 1890, pp. 273-322 (German transl. by K. Budde, in Gesammelte Abhandlungen u. s.w. (1894), PP- 2I2_5I); Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891, 3d ed. i896),§45; Van Hoonacker, Zorobabel et le second temple: itude sur la chronologie des six premiers chapitres du livre d'Esdras (1892) ; Idem, Nehemie en Van so d' Artaxerxes I, Esdras en Van 7 d' Artaxerxes II (1892); Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrdge der Juden (1892), pp. 20-31; Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 276-85 ; Ch. Huyghe, " La chronologie des livres d'Esdras et de Ne'he'mie," Revue des questions historiques, 1893; Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de Tijdsorde van haar Ontstaan (1893, German transl. 1895), pp. 404-20; Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak (1894, German transl. 1895); Lagrange, "Ne'he'mie et Esdras," Revue biblique, Oct. 1894; Wellhausen, "Die Ruckkehr der Juden aus dem babylonischen Exil," Nach- richten der kbniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft zu Gbttingen, 1895, pp. 166-86; Kosters, "Het Tijdvak van Israels Herstel," Theologisch Tijdschrift, 1895, pp. 549_57; 1896, pp. 489-504; 1897, pp. 518-54; Fl. de Moor, "L'epoque de la restauration juive d'apres les livres d'Esdras et de Ne'he'mie," Science catholique, 1895 ; Van Hoonacker, Nouvelles etudes sur la restauration juive apres Vexil de Babylone (1896); Ed. Meyer, Die Entstehung des fudenthums (1896); Well hausen, Gbttingischer gelehrter Anzeiger, 1897, No. 2, pp. 89 ff. (review of Meyer's Entstehung des fudenthums); Ed. Meyer, /. Wellhausen und meine Schrift, "Die 228 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Entstehung des fudenthums" (1897) ; J. Marquart, Fundamente israelitischer und jiidischer Geschichte (1897), pp. 28-68; Sellin, Serubbabel — ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der messianischen Erwartung und der Entstehung des Judenthums (1898), pp. 48-61; Klostermann, art. "Esra und Nehemia," Realencyklopedie fiir prot. Theol. u. Kirche, Vol. V (3d ed. 1898) ; Guthe, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1899), pp. 245-60 ; J. Geissler, Die literarische Beziehungen der Esramemoiren insbesondere zur Chronik und den hexateuchischen Quellenschrif ten (1899); Moulton, " Uber die Uberlieferung und den textkritischen Werth des dritten Esrabuches," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 209-58 ; Vol. XX (1900), pp. I-35; Winckler, "Die Zeit der Herstellung Judas," Altorientalische Forschungen, zweite Reihe, Band II (1899), pp. 210-27; Idem, "Die Zeit von Ezras Ankunft in Jerusalem,'' ibid., pp. 24 1— 4 ; Idem, "Die doppelte Darstellung in Ezra-Nehemia," ibid.. Band III (1901), pp. 458-89; NlKEL, Die Wiederherstellung des judischen Gemeinwesens nach dem babylonischen Exil (1900); C. Siegfried, Esra, Nehemia und Esther iibersetzt und erkldrt(" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1901); Sellin, Studien zur Entstehungsgeschichte der judischen Gemeinde,s5an6\ 11(1901); Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 264-6, 279-300 ; Bertho let, Die Biicher Esra und Nehemia erkldrt (" Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament," 1902) ; Carl Holzhey, Die Biicher Ezra und Nehemia. Untersuchung ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen Charakters (1902). § 246. Supplementary Topics. 1 . Make a careful comparison of the parallel passages, Ezra 2 : 1 — 3 : 1a and Neh. 7:6-23, noting and classifying the variations in the two lists. 2. Analyze Ezra-Nehemiah carefully, with a view to determining for yourself the sources of the various materials of which it is com posed and the historical value of the narrative as it has been presented by the editor. Cf. especially Torrey, The Composition and Historical Value of Ezra-Nehemiah; Guthe, Ezra and Nehemiah ("Polychrome Bible," 1901); Siegfried, Esra, Nehe mia und Esther ("Handkommentar z. A. T."), pp. 7-14; Kosters, Het Herstel van Israel in het Perzische Tijdvak (1894, Germ, transl. 1895); Carl Holzhey, Die Biicher Ezra und Nehemia; Untersuchung ihres litterarischen und geschichtlichen Charakters {1902) ; Meyer, Die Entstehung des fudenthums; Schrader, Theologi sche Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460-504; Van Hoonacker, Nlhemie et Esdras; I. O. Boyd, "The Documents of the Book of Ezra," Presbyterian and Reformed Review, 1900, pp. 414-37. 3. Compare the canonical book of Ezra with the apocryphal book, Esdras I, noting (1) the materials common to both, (2) the materials peculiar to each ; and consider the relative value of each as historical sources. See, (b) Certain psalms, although not descriptive of his torical events, may be regarded as the outgrowth, and in themselves the expression, of an historical event- — sub jectively historical. Pss. 22,51,69, 84, (c) Certain psalms may be regarded as the expression, although not the description, of individual experience. 2. Note some points of general interest in respect to the historical element in the Psalms : {a) The absence, in general, of distinct allusion to specific historical events. How far may this be explained (1) on the ground of the lyric character of the Psalms? (2) On the ground of the divine purpose as to the use of the Psalter as a hymn-book for all ages? (3) On the supposition th'at changes and omissions have been intro duced throughout the centuries, as editors have trans mitted the collection from hand to hand? (b) The great importance of discovering this histori cal element wherever possible (1) for the sake of the freshness and vividness which is thereby added to the material ; (2) for the sake of the new historical data thus brought to light ; (3) for the sake of the evidence thus gained respecting the growth and development of psalmody. 3. Still further, make a study of three closely related points, viz.: (a) The sources from which help may be obtained for reaching a decision on these questions, e. g., (1) bib lical history ; (2) the style and language of the Psalms; (3) the present position and arrangement in the Psalter ; and (4) the superscriptions. (b) The character of the knowledge thus obtained : is it definite? is it trustworthy? is it abundant? (c) The analogy furnished by a study of the modern hymn-book. Pss. 78, 81, 105, §254. Constructive Study. — Examine certain psalms ; 106, 114, 44, 74, J r > 79,126,137. and (1) classify each under one of the heads (1. {a) (b) and (?)) indicated above ; (2) point out in detail and dis cuss the historical element which you find. THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 237 §255. What Is David's Place in Connection with the Psalter? — Perhaps no problem more important than this may be found in Old Testament literature. It is well worth while to examine into the scope and the signifi cance of this problem. Consider, therefore — p^' ' *9'29'6 1. The psalms assigned to David by tradition — in 63 !?fV46'(?)' all seventy-three, and ordinarily classified by periods as "'55- Pss. ioi, 15, 24, follows: (a) psalms reflecting his early life; (b) psalms 68,132,30. connected with Saul's persecution; (c) psalms connected 6o,ai8'."' "°,a' with the removal of the ark ; (d) psalms connected with Pss- 5I> 32- PSS. 63 3 4 23 David's v/ars; (e) psalms connected with David's fall; 26, 62,' 27, 28, 41! 55, 69, 109. (/) psalms connected with his flight from Absalom ; {g) pSs. 5, 9, n-14, others not definitely connected with any period. l^SiUlUl^i', 2. The reasons urged for the probability of so large 108^109^22,' 124,' a number of Davidic psalms, e. g. : J4I; 143I145.138" {a) The period preceding David was just what would have been expected to produce such a result, since it included, e. g., (1) the religious revival under Samuel ; (2) a wonderful activity on the part of the prophets, like Samuel, Gad, Nathan ; (3) the founding of the prophetic schools ; (4) a marked degree of development in the way of spiritual activity. {b) The times of David furnished an excellent basis for these psalms, since they were times of national struggle, of multiform experience, of high aspiration. (c) The several historical references to David as a 1 Sam. 16:17, 18; v ' 18:10: 2 Sam. musician and a poet substantiate this claim. 1:19-27; Amos 6:5. (d) The many-sidedness of David's character as it is revealed in his private life, as shepherd, soldier, states man; priest, prophet, king; friend, father, leader. (c?) The overwhelming evidence furnished by the superscriptions, which, at all events, show that from very early times David was regarded as the author. (/) The ease with which the events of David's life may be fitted into connection with the content of the Psalms.5 sOn this point the following statements present the opposing views : " References to the more remarkable passages in David's life occur in places without number. There are psalms, not a few, which it is impossible for anyone to read without being reminded that they are his."— Binnie, The Psalms. The view that these psalms come from David " implies absolute incapacity to 238 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 3. The reasons urged against the probability of so large a number of Davidic psalms : (a) The uniform tendency of tradition to magnify the work of a particular man ; as seen in the parallel cases of Moses, to whom all Hebrew legislation is e. z., Lev. 1:1; ascribed ; Isaiah, to whom the work of four or more 1; p'rov. 1:1;' prophets is ascribed; and Solomon, to whom so large a Eccl. 1:1; r r ,,.,,. - - cant. 1 : 1. portion of the wisdom literature is assigned. E.g., Pss. 3,18, (b) The fact that only in the case of psalms assigned 34, 5'- J. , , . r • • • to David are the circumstances of occasion or origin indicated. E.g.,Vss. 122, (c) The certainty that in many cases the assignment 124. I39i 142. to David is unquestionably wrong; and, with this, the unreliable character in general of the superscriptions. {d) The difficulty involved in the proposition that the composition of psalms was thus restricted to so few periods. Were there not many historical situations in which conditions existed favorable to psalmody ? (e) The difficulties involved in the proposition that psalms which represent the highest and latest Stage of Israelitish spiritual development should have had their origin (1) before the work and utterances of a single cf Pss. 90, 97. prophet of those who have written ; (2) before there was any considerable acceptance on the part of the Israelitish cf. Pss. 91, 96. nation of the doctrine of one God ; (3) during a period when Israel was steeped in superstition and continually cf. Pss. 86, 39. relapsing into idolatry of the foulest character ; (4) in connection with the life of a king characterized by a spirit at once fierce and warlike, and by a life abounding in the most heinous crimes, among which were adultery and murder. 4. The views presented in some of the more impor tant contributions to the subject, e.g.: Konig (1893) maintains the historical probability of the Davidic author ship of certain psalms and finds no objection to assigning 3. 4, 6. 7. 8, 11, 15, 18, 23, 29, 30, and 32 to David. Driver (fntroduction, 6th ed., 1897) grants that a majority understand the difference between old Israel and later ludaism, and makes almost anything possible in the way of ascription of comparatively modern pieces to ancient authors." — W. R. Smith, Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 3931. THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 239 of the "Davidic" psalms are not David's, but insists upon the possibility of Davidic psalms, and declares that if there are any such, they may safely be looked for among those on Ewald's list, which is possibly too large. Baethgen (1897) says, "of the seventy-three psalms ascribed to David, in the case of only a few at the most can Davidic authorship be defended with any plausibility, e-g-, 3> 4> J8; and that even for these the supposition of a later redaction is hardly to be avoided." Wellhausen (1898) says : "It is not a question whether there be any post-exilic psalms, but rather whether the psalms contain any poems written before the exile." Duhm (1899) denies the existence of any Davidic psalms, and is doubtful whether any psalms come from a time earlier than the Greek period. Kirkpatrick (1901) argues for the Davidic authorship of Ps. 18, and adds: "If this be acknowledged, important consequences follow. For depth of devotion, simplicity of trust, joyousness of gratitude, and confidence of hope, not less than for its natural force and poetic beauty, that psalm has few rivals. It has all the freshness of creative genius. It can hardly have been the solitary production of its author. If such a psalm could have been written by David, so might many others." Cheyne (Encyclopaedia Biblica) denies the historical possibility of Davidic psalms in our Psalter, and explains the superscription of David as a corruption of an original of fedithun.3 5. The various tests to which each psalm, thought to be Davidic, must be subjected, viz.: (a) The historical test ; that is : Is the background of the psalm in harmony with the conditions of David's time? Are the historical and social presuppositions of the psalm met by the facts of the Davidic period ? (b) The theological test ; that is : Are the ideas con cerning God, man, and sin which the psalm reflects in keeping with the stage of theological thought to which David and his contemporaries may fairly be said to have belonged? (c) The rhetorical test; that is: Are the poetical 3 See also pp. 23 f. 240 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT form and the general literary style such as were charac teristic of the earlier days of Hebrew poetry ? {d) The grammatical test; that is: Are the syntax, the order of words, the structure of sentences, and the grammatical forms such as are found in the earlier stages of the language of the Old Testament ? (e) The vocabulary test ; that is : Is the language of the psalm the pure Hebrew of the Davidic age, or does it contain Aramaic, Persian, and Greek words, so many of which crowded into the Hebrew speech in the course of the later history ? §256. Constructive Study. — Select from each of the following groups of psalms one or more, and apply the tests suggested above : Pss. 122, 124, 131, 1. Psalms which, although assigned by tradition to David, are almost universally believed to be wrongly so assigned. Pss. 3, 4, 7, h, 18, 2. Psalms which are certainly to be regarded as Davidic, if there are any Davidic psalms. Pss. 8, 19, 22, 23, 3. Psalms which, while assigned to David by some 24,25,32,37- . , . . , , / eminent authorities, are, to say the least, uncertain. §257. Constructive Study. — Formulate a statement which will pre sent briefly what is involved in a decision to assign no psalms to David, in contrast with the traditional view ascribing to him seventy-three, or even a more liberal position ascribing ten or twelve. §258. Does the "I" of the Psalter represent an individual, or the entire Israelitish community ? Con sider, in connection with this problem, the following points : 1 . The use of the rhetorical figure, termed personifica tion in general literature.4 2. The use of personification by the Arabs in the effort to find concrete expression for the origin of a tribe or community.5 4 On the general subject of personification see especially Freytag, Technique of the Drama, trans, by E. J. MacEwan (3d ed., 1900), pp. 246 ff. SW. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885, 2d ed., 1903), pp. 20 f. THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 24 1 3. Some specific examples: me= Egyptians (Exod. E.g., Numb. 20: \ j 1 <¦ • , , . , j 18,19; Isa. 12: 14:1=;); and the frequent interchange of singular and 1,2; 25:1:26: 7 1 6 6 o; Jer. 10:19; plural. Mic. 7:7-10; „ . , . _ . . , Lam. 1 : ni-i6, 4. Some important examples of personification in the 18-22; isa. 61: Old Testament : {a) The servant of Jehovah, under which figure is set isa., chaps. 40-55. forth the mission of the community of pious Jews as the representative of Jehovah in a wicked world. {b) The character of Job in the Book of Job ; under the guise of a person, the sufferings of the Jewish com munity at the hands of heathen oppressors are portrayed and discussed, the poet setting forth the doubts and questions which arose in the minds of pious Jews, the various theories proposed in explanation of the suffer ings, and his own point of view. {c) The common practice of the prophets, e. g., Amos's Am. 5: 1 fi. dirge over the approaching destruction of northern Israel ; Hosea's representation of Israel as the bride of Hos., chap. 2. Jehovah ; the representation of Jerusalem as a person in isa., chap. 60. Isaiah; Ezekiel's characterization of Samaria and Jerusa- Ezek., chap. 23. lem as two harlots ; and the use of the title " virgin daughter of Israel." 5. Some of the points involved in interpreting the "I" as of the community : {a) If the "I" be the community of Israel, and the statements made represent the thought of the community as a whole, will it be necessary to find a date for these psalms in which there was a fair degree of unanimity of opinion in the community? (b) If these psalms are the expression of the heart of the community at large, could they have been written at a time when the prophets and priests were in definite conflict with each other, i. e., down until 621 B. C? {c) When, as a matter of fact, did there first come to be a community feeling in Israel? {d) Is a difference to be found between national feeling and community feeling? If so, in what does this consist? Is the idea of a church-nation evident? (c?) Is it, in general, true that the community inter pretation requires a later date for the psalms than the individual interpretation? 242 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (/) Would the following description of the "I" meet the demands of the case, viz.: "the company of faithful Israelites and diligent frequenters of the temple who formed the kernel of the post-exilic Judean com munity"? (g) Would one expect to find, at this age of religious development, in a hymn-book intended for a community and for public worship, psalms of so strongly marked an individual character? (h) Is it not true, on the other hand, that the lyric poet always generalizes, and that, while describing his own experiences, he really includes all whose situation is like his own? (i) Are not these psalms, when interpreted of the community, much more significant? (j) Is it also true that a writer may as a representa tive include with himself a few others, perhaps an entire party, who have the same feelings with himself? § 2 59. Constructive Study. — Take up, now, the special study of certain passages, and determine whether, on the whole, the individual, or the community interpretation Pss. 44:4,6, 15; seems more fitting, e. g.: 51 ; 60 ¦ 9 ¦ 66:13ft.; 71; 1. A group which most modern writers would regard 74:12; 89:50; ° c s 102; 118. as representing the community. Pss. 7; 9; 10; 28; 2. A group thought by some to have as subject the godly portion of the community. PSfo-465-574"o2- 3- A £rouP tnougnt by some to have as subject the M5- nation as a whole. § 260. Did Any Psalms Have Their Origin in the Maccabean Period (/. e., 1 68-1 6 1 B. C.)?— Consider, in this connection: 1. The question of the close of the Old Testament canon. When may this be supposed to have happened, and under what circumstances? What bearing on this question does the book of Ecclesiasticus (see Prologue) have? And, further, in what relation with this event does the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes stand? 2. The question of the age of the Book of Daniel; e. g.: (a) What considerations may be urged against the older view which placed the book in the days of the exile, and in favor of the modern view which assigns it to the age of the Maccabees? {b) What important difference in the interpretation of chap, n turns on this decision? THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 243 3. The question of the origin and date of the Septuagint; e. g.: {a) Could books have found their place in the canon as late as 161 B. C, and yet have secured a place in the Greek version? {b) At what periods were the various divisions of the Old Testament translated into Greek? {c) The significance of the fact that the Septuagint includes a psalm not found in the Hebrew. 4. The special circumstances of the Maccabean times which cannot be found in connection with any earlier period of Israelitish history; e. g. : {a) a time when protestation of national innocence was possible (cf. Ps. 44); (b) a time when synagogues were in existence {cf. Ps. 74:8); (c) a time when Israel and the opposing nations constitute the two classes mentioned. § 261. Constructive Study. — Take up certain psalms, and determine for yourself whether they seem to fit into the Maccabean times; e. g.: 1. Certain psalms, generally acknowledged to be Pss. 44, 74, 79, 83. Maccabean. 2. Certain psalms concerning which there is con- Pss. 80, 60, siderable doubt. 3. Certain psalms concerning which there is still a Pss. 20, 21, 33, 101. greater degree of doubt. § 262. In What Ways Did the Editorial Factor Enter into the Psalter? — This question can only be touched upon. Consider — 1. The editorial element which appears in connec tion with the superscriptions (see above, § 251), a work involving selection, arrangement, interpretation, and designation as to use. Is there evidence of difference of opinion in this work ? 2. The editorial work suggested by the fact that the Greek text (Septuagint) has a psalm not contained in the Ps. 151. Hebrew Psalter, concerning David as a shepherd. 3. The editorial work to be inferred from (a) the fact that Pss. 42, 43, now two, were quite certainly one Pss.42,43,"3,"4. at an earlier time ; cf. also Pss. 1 13, 1 14; and {b) the fact that Ps. 24, now one, was perhaps originally two, vss. Pss. 24, 27, 32. 1-6 and vss. 7-10 being separate pieces; cf. also Ps. 27 :i-6 and 7-14; Ps. 32:1-7 and 8-1 1. 4. The editorial work implied in the two editions of the same psalm which are to be found, in which one v%££%?Sam" 244 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT word in every four shows a variation, the more common of which may be classified as (a) the incorporation of glosses, (b) correction of harsh and unusual terms, {c) alterations for the purpose of securing greater harmony, or of removing words which were objectionable from the dogmatic point of view.e 5. Editorial work which went so far as to add new Ps. 51:18, 19. verses to an old psalm. 6. Who these editors were ; e. g., those connected with the song service of the temple ? prophets ? priests ? scribes ? §263. Constructive Study. — Select from any part of E.g., Pss. 72-76. the Psalter half a dozen psalms, and, taking them up one by one, tabulate carefully anything that looks like edito rial work. § 264. The Pritstly Factor in the Psalter is plainly discernible in certain external elements affecting its out ward form and use : Ps. 41:13. 1. Read the doxology which closes Book I; compare Pss. 72:18, 19; the similar doxologies in other psalms, and note that by 89:52; 106:48; ° f ' j 150. means of these doxologies the Psalter is divided into jive books. Was this suggested by the division of the law into five books ? May both arrangements be ascribed to the priests ? E.g.. Pss. 51:7, 2. Examine the phraseology, tone, and style of sev- 16,17,19; 27:1- r OJ • J 6; 65: 1-3; 74: 1- eral passages, and observe how definitely all this points to the priest. Ps. 24. 3. Note, {a) in Ps. 24, the question asked in vs. 3, with the answer given in vss. 4-6 ; likewise, (b) the simi lar interchange of general statement, answer, and ques- Pss. 42, 43. tion in vss. 7-10; (c) the thrice-recurring refrain in Pss. 42, 43 (vss. 5, 1 1, and vs. 5) ; (d) the monotonous refrain Ps. 136. in Ps. 136; and consider whether these examples do not seem to show that, in some cases at least, there was antiphonal singing by divisions of the temple choir, as well as that the psalms were used in public song. Con sider also (if) the many musical terms employed. Pss. 122, 124, 134. 4. Examine Pss. 122, 124, 134, and consider their 6Cf. W. H. Bennett, "Notes on a Comparison of Psalm XVIII with 2 Sam. XXII," Hebraica, Vol. Ill, pp. 65-86. THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 245 adaptation to the purpose which seems to be suggested in their title, "Songs of Ascents," viz., songs sung by companies of pilgrims on their way to the temple at Jerusalem. With what spirit is the temple itself re garded ? 5. Read carefully the group of psalms numbered 146-150, and note that the entire content is an invita- Pss. 146-150, tion or call to worship — exhortations to the whole con gregation of worshipers to sing praises to Jehovah. 6. Consider the use of certain psalms in connection Pss. 81:1-5; r 33:1-3; 98:4-6. with special occasions of worship; e. g.: (a) with feasts; 1 Chron. 15 : 16-28. (b) with the temple-worship ; (c) with the dedication of N35'f"38,74o-43. the wall at Jerusalem; (d) with the bringing up of the C/,,61^S^Ipl6:8" ark to Jerusalem. 105:1-15; 96:1- ¦> 13; io6:47f. §265. Constructive Study. — Summarize the material suggested in § 264, and formulate a statement on the priestly element in the Psalter as seen in the external use. §266. References to the Priest are found in the Pss. 58:64; 99:6; 105:26; 106:16, Psalter. What, briefly, is the evidence furnished by these 30 f. ; "0:4; , - , - - - n , - . n 115 : 10, 12 ; passages concerning the priest, his position, and his influ- 118:3; 132:9, ence? 135:19*. 8267. References to the Place of Worship are found Pss. 5:7; 11:4; 20: 2 ; 22:25:24 : in the Psalter. What may be inferred from this material 3; 26:6-8, 12; 27 : 4-6 ; 28 : 2 ; concerning the attitude of the psalmists toward the 29:9; 36:8; 40: , . , . ., 9;42:4;43:3f-; temple and its worship ? 46:4; 48:1 f., 8 268. Referenc«s to Sacrifice are found in the Psalter. 52:'$; 55:14;' 0 61:4; 63:2; 65: What light do these references throw upon the subject of 1,4; 66:13; 68: I5_I7, 24,29; 6g: the priestly tone and spirit of the Psalter ? What is the 9; 73:17; 74: r 2ff.; 76:2; 77: attitude of the psalmists toward sacrifice? 13; 78:54. 58, r 60, 68 f . ; etc. § 269. References to Feasts are found in the Psalter. pss.4:s; 20:3; Consider also the significance of the Psalms of Ascents in *£' 23;55i?'i6f., this connection.7 Do the psalms furnish any evidence ll'.il'iy^lil.l', as to the ideas concerning feasts at the time of their !ot::22':3i7i6:'i7; composition ? Ps"84 *7:. 8l . 3 §270. The Very Essence of the Psalter is Priestly, since in its purpose and contents it may be explained 'On these psalms see the literature cited on p. 106, note 10; also Baethgen, Die Psalmen iibersetzt und erkldrt ("Handkommentar," u. o. w.; 2d ed., 1897), pp. xvii f.; W. T. Davison, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV, pp. 153 f.; and the commentaries of Ewald and Delitzsch, in loc. 246 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT See, e. g., Pss. 69, only as a Book of Worship. In this regard it may be con- 88, 17, 26, 143. J , . See, e. g., Pss. 29, sidered from three points of view, according as it served 103. ' '"' the purpose of (1) Book of Prayer, for the Israelitish 91,23,73. ' ' church; (2) Book of Praise; (3) Manual of Personal ss' 9' ' Communion with God. § 271. The Psalter as a Book of Prayer. — Note that — 1. Sometimes throughout an entire psalm the tone is Cf. Ps. 21 : 1-21 that of supplication or penitence, or both ; while at other with Ps. 22 : 22- , . . . , , - , , , 31. times the tone of supplication with which the psalm begins passes over into one of triumphant praise. Pss. 80, 85, 90, 123. 2. Sometimes the prayer is unquestionably the formal prayer spoken by the congregation as such ; while at other times the prayer is clearly that of an individual soul "in converse with God, disclosing to him its mani fold emotions, desires, aspirations, or fears." 3. The Psalter is as definitely a prayer-book as it is a hymn-book, and to be interpreted as such. §272. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the following assignments of work : Pss. 69, 88, 79, 74, \a. Examine carefully certain prayers offered for deliverance, and analyze the thought which they contain, in order to determine, e. g., (a) the nature of the calumny or trouble from which deliverance is sought; (b) the out ward circumstances of the suffering described; (cr) the grounds on which petition for relief is based; (d) the extent to which faith exists that deliverance will ulti mately be secured; (e) the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances. 2 Kings 19: 15-19; ib. Study in the same way similar utterances found 20 : 3 ; Amos 7:5;jon.2:i-g; outside of the Psalter, and note the points of difference. Hab., chap. 3. . . Pss. 17, 26, 55, 57, 2a- Examine certain prayers which demand from God 69, 70. vindication of character; and analyze the thought pre sented, in order to formulate, e. g., {a) the nature of the accusation which seems to have been preferred against the defendant; (b)the injury which he is represented as having suffered in consequence; (c) the grounds on which the demand for vindication is made ; (d) the measure of the suppliant's consciousness of rectitude ; (.?) the stage of religious development suggested by these utterances. THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 247 zb. Study in the same way similar pieces found out- isa. 57:1 f-; job, chaps. 22, 30. side of the Psalter, and note any points of difference. 30. Examine passages containing petition lor guidance Pss. 143, 61, 86, 42, 25. in the midst of danger and difficulty; and analyze the same in order to determine, e. g., (a) the nature of the trouble or difficulty in which the suppliant finds him self; {b) the historical background which is implied ; (c) the tone of the supplication put forth for guidance ; {d) the degree of expectation which is exhibited as to the answer to be vouchsafed ; (cf) the stage of religious development indicated. $b. Study in the same way similar utterances found Numb. 11:10-15; outside the Psalter, and note the points of difference. iSam. 23:'2, 7-12; 30:7 f. 4. Examine certain prayers which exhibit more of the element of contemplation; and analyze the thought e. g., pss. 77, 73, expressed, adopting as the basis of analysis your own form of logical development. § 273. The Psalter as a Book of Praise. — Observe — 1. That the very name of the Hebrew Psalter (t'hillim) means "praise-songs;" and that still other words -s.^., Pss. 66, expressing various phases of the idea of song are em ployed. 2. That in many cases the tone of prayer passes into E.g., Pss. 13, 22, that of praise, and in still others, the tone of praise passes into that of prayer. 3. That everything of a musical character points to the use of the psalms as media ot praise. §274. Constructive Studies. — Take up, in turn, the following assignments of work : 1a. Examine carefully certain praise-songs, in which E.g., Pss. 65, 107, the author seeks to find expression for the praise of God because of the manifestation of his power ; and analyze the thought according as it is related to {a) the writer's situation ; {b) the form of manifestation of the divine power ; {c) the way in which the writer's situation has been affected by this particular manifestation ; (d) the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances. ib. Study in the same way similar utterances found E.g., isa., chap. . . . . , . , 12 ; Exod., chap. outside the Psalter and note points of similarity and 15- difference. 248 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Pss. 104, 103, 48, 2ff. Examine certain praise songs, in which the writer 46, 146, 147. > seeks to find expression for praise of God, on the ground of what he is, perhaps, in history or in nature ; in other words, his attributes, analyzing the thought with refer ence to (a) the writer's situation ; (b) the particular attri butes referred to; (c) the bearing upon the writer's position ; (d) the stage of religious thought marked by these utterances. E.g., job, chaps. 2b. Take up, in the same way, similar utterances 36, 37, 38, 39; . t" -" isa. 40: 27-31; outside the Psalter, and note points of similarity and 44 : 24-28 ; 45 : ' r J 18 f.; 63: 7-19. difference. §275. The Psalter as a Manual of Personal Communion with God. — Observe — 1. " The surprising variety of mood and subject and occasion in the Psalms which gives them their catholicity, and, combined with their deep spirituality, adapts them to be'' a manual of meditation and communion. 2. The strange and significant expression of the community-feeling in the personified " I " — a fact which adds greatly to the use of the book for practical and devotional purposes. 3. The incomparable freedom with which the soul is represented as in converse with the Deity, laying bare its inmost feelings. §276. Constructive Studies. — Take up the following lines of work : Pss. 46, 64, 102. xa. An examination of certain psalms with a view to (a) the position of the author ; (b) his relation of trust and dependence on God ; (c) the analysis of this feeling ; (d) the conception of God which underlies it. jer. 20: 7-13; isa., ib. A similar examination of certain passages outside chap. 26. 1- © of the Psalter. Pss. 51,38,39- 2a. An examination of certain psalms, with a view to {a) the position of the author ; (b) the consciousness before God of the "exceeding sinfulness of sin," and an intense longing for forgiveness ; {c) the analysis of this ELev°hcanap9;i6; feelinS > (d) the conception of God which underlies it. 6S*';AmP51' ' 2i5- A similar examination of certain passages outside 10-15. of the Psalter. Pss. 42, 22, 13. 3 a. An examination of certain psalms with a view to (a) the psalmist's position; {b) his longing for com munion with God; (c) the analysis of this feeling; (d) THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 249 the conception of God which underlies it; {e) the custom referred to in this psalm of praising God in public worship. $b. A similar examination of certain passages outside Lam., chap. 5; of the Psalter. isa., 63: 15-64: 43. An examination of certain psalms with a view to Pss. 91,23,73. {a) the psalmist's position; (b) the confidence, security, joy, and comfort resulting from fellowship with God; (c) the analysis of this feeling; (d) the underlying con ception of God. 4b. A similar examination of certain passages outside Deut. 33:26-29; e 1 -n , Am. 7:10-17; of the Psalter. jer. 20:7-13; c, Josh. 1 : 1-11. §277. The Significance of the Psalter as Related to the Priestly System. — Consider, now — 1. The various elements of worship that have found tangible expres sion in the Psalter, e. g., prayer, praise, peniterice, gratitude, thanks giving, trust, fellowship with God ; and discover, if possible, any fundamental religious emotion which does not find full expression in it. 2. The full and definite evidence cited that the Psalter {a) had its origin in connection with the temple-worship; {b) was largely the creative work of the priests ; {c) exercised great influence upon the priests ; (d) was employed as a manual of temple-worship ; {e) served also as a manual of private individual devotion. And, in view of all this, ask yourself the following questions : {a) If all this is a part of the priestly system of the Old Testament, what is the conception of this priestly work which we must hold? {b) Could a priestly system, including as its climax a hymnal, breathing a devotion so rich, be wholly formal and mechanical, devoid of life and of spiritual power? {c) Could such a hymnal have owed its origin to a body of priests who were strangers to the spiritual and altogether slaves of the formal? {d) Is there any higher type of spirituality in the Old Testament than that which is thus represented by the Psalter? {e) Is it, then, true or untrue that the highest type of spiritual life known in the Old Testament is ot priestly origin, priestly environment, and on a priestly basis? §278. Literature to be Consulted.8 H. Ewald, Commentary on the Psalms (1835, 3d ed. 1866, transl. 1880); ISAAC Taylor, The Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry (1861); Perowne, The Book of Psalms, 8 Of the extensive literature on the Psalter only the more recent and important works of an exegetical and critical character are cited here. 250 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT with Introductions and Notes, explanatory and critical (1864, 8th ed. 1892); Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Psalms (1867, 4th ed. 1883 [transl. 1887- 89], 5th ed. 1894); The Psalms Chronologically Arrangedby FOUR Friends (1867, 2d ed. 1891); W. Kay, The Psalms, with Notes (1871, 2d ed. 1874); A. C. Iennings and W. H. Lowe, The Psalms, with Introductions and Critical Notes (1875-77); T. C. Murray, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of the Psalms (1880); W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, Lecture VII (i88i,2d ed. 1892); C. H. Toy, " Date of the Korah Psalms," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. IV (1884), pp. 80-92 ; Idem, "On the Asaph-Psalms," ibid., Vol. VI (1886), pp. 73-85; Binnie, The Psalms, Their Origin, Teachings and Use (1886); C. H. Toy, " Rise of Hebrew Psalm-Writing," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. VII, pp. 47-60 ; T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms: A New Translation, with Commentary '(1888); C. G. Montefiore, " Mystic Passages in the Psalms," fewish Quarterly Review, Vol. I (1889), pp. 143ft.; A. Neubauer, "On the Titles of the Psalms According to Early Jewish Authorities," Studia Biblica, Vol. II (1890), pp. 1-58; S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (1891, 6th ed. 1897), pp. 359-91; A. F. Kirk patrick, The Book of Psalms, with Introduction and Notes, 3 vols. ("The Cam bridge Bible," 1891-1901); T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism (1892), pp. 129 ff.; W. Tj Davison, The Praises of Israel (1893, 2d ed. 1898); J. P. Peters, "The Development of the Psalter," The New World, 1893, pp. 203 ff.; A. Maclaren, The Psalms ("Expositor's Bible," 1893-94); J. SHARPE, The Students Handbook to the Psalms (1894); T. K. Abbot, "On the Alphabetical Arrangement of Ps. IX and X, with Some Other Emendations," Zeitschrift f. d. alttest Wissenschaft, Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 292-94; J. W. Beardslee, "The Imprecatory Psalms," Pres byterian and Reformed Review, 1897, pp. 490-505; T. K. Cheyne, "The Book of Psalms ; Its Origin and its Relation to Zoroastrianism," Semitic Studies in Memory of Alexander Kohut (1897), pp. m-19; F. Buhl, "The Aid of Criticism in the Interpretation of the Psalms," American fournal of Theology, Vol. II (1898), pp. 7°3_75; E.G.King, The Psalms in Three Collections : Translated with Notes (1898); J. Wellhausen, The Book of Psalms; A New Translation (Haupt's "Sacred Books of the Old and New Testaments," 1898); S. R. Driver, The Parallel Psalter: Being the Prayerbook Version of the Psalms and a New Version .... with an Introduction and Glossaries (1898); J. Robertson, The Poetry and Religion of the Psalms (1898); T. K. Cheyne, The Christian Use of the Psalms (1899); Idem, "Studies in the Criticism of the Psalms," Expositor, 1899, pp. 252-63, 334-44; G. A. Barton, " The Bearing of the Composition of the Psalter on the Date of the 44th Psalm," American fournal of Theology, Vol. Ill (1899), pp. 740-46; EMILIE G. Briggs, "TOO," American fournal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVI (1899), pp. 1-29 ; C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture (1899), PP- 355-426 ; T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and Religious Contents of the Psalter in the Light of Old Testament Criticism and the History of Religions (" Bampton Lectures " for 1899); A. S. Carrier, "Notes on the Psalms" American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. XVII (1900), pp. 54-59; Wright, The Psalms of David and the Higher Criticism (1900); W. S. Pratt, "A Comparative Study of Ps. 45," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 189-218; D. Smith, "Songs of the Ascents," Expository Times, Vol. XII (1901), pp. 62-65, 161-64,414- 16; Vol. XIII, pp. 118-20, 500-503; Vol. XV, pp. 39-42; W. T. Davison, art. " Psalms," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. IV (1902) ; Budde, art. "Hebrew THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 25 I Poetry," ibid., Vol. IV (1902); W. R. Smith and T. K. Cheyne, art. "Psalms," Encyclopedia Biblica, Vol. Ill (1902) ; Duhm, art. " Poetical Literature," ibid., Vol. Ill (1902) ; E. G.HlRSCH, " Note on Psalms 34 and 25," American fournal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, XVIII (1902), pp. 167-73 ; W. W. Martin, "A Psalmist's Epithalamion," ibid., Vol. XIX (1902), pp. 49-51; P. Haupt, "The Poetic Form of the First Psalm," ibid., Vol. XIX (1903), pp. 129-42; C Martin, "The Impreca tions in the Psalms," Princeton Theological Review, Vol. I (1903), pp. 535-53; J. W. Thirtle, The Titles of the Psalms: Their Nature and Meaning Explained (1904); T. K. Cheyne, The Book of Psalms, Translated from a Revised Text with Notes and Introduction (1904); J. E. McFadyen, The Messages of the Psalmists: The Psalms of the Old Testament Arranged in Their Natural Grouping and Freely Rendered in Paraphrase (1904). J. G. von Herder, Vom Geist der ebraischen Poesie (1782-83); Hitzig, Die Psalmen (1835, 2d ed., 1863-65); J. Olshausen, Die Psalmen erkldrt (" Kurzge- fasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament," 1853); T. Noldeke, Die alttestamentliche Literatur (1868), pp. 117-42; CEnKT,AbfassungszeitundAbschluss des Psalters zur Prufung der Frage nach Makkabaerpsalmen historisch-kritisch untersucht (1869); E. Reuss, Le Psautier, ou le livre de cantiques de la synagogue (1879); Lagarde, Orientalia, Vol. II (1880), pp. 13-27; M. Kopfstein, Die Asaph- Psalmen untersucht (1881) ; F. Giesebrecht, "Uber die Abfassungszeit des Psalters," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. I (1881), pp. 276-332; H. Graetz, Kritischer Commentar zu den Psalmen nebst Text und Uebersetzung (1882); F. Baethgen, "Der textkritische Wert der alten Uebersetzungen zu den Psalmen," Jahrbiicher der prot Theologie, Vol. VIII (1882), pp. 405-59, 593-667; Bleek- Wellhausen, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (5th ed. 1886), pp. 443-75; Hupfeld-Nowack, Die Psalmen iibersetzt und ausgelegt (1888) ; R. Smend, "Ueber das Ich der Psalmen," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. VIII (1888), pp. 49-147; Kessler, Die asaphitische Psalmengruppe unter sucht (1889); Riehm, Einleitung in das Alte Testament Vol. II (1890), pp. 171- 205; W. Campe, Das Verhaltniss Jeremias zu den Psalmen (1891); J. Muhlmann, Zur Frage nach den makkabdischen Psalmen (1891); C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1891), pp. 205-20; E. Sellin, Disputatio de origine carmi- num quae primus psalterii liber continet (1892); F. Baethgen, Die Psalmen iiber setzt und erkldrt ("Handkommentar z. Alten Testament," 1892, 2d ed. 1897); W. Staerk, " Zur Kritik der Psalmeniiberschrif ten," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XII (1892), pp. 91-151; A. Rahlfs, *V2 and W in den Psalmen (1892); J. Bachmann, Praeparation und Kommentar zu den Psalmen, mit genauen Analysen und getreuer Uebersetzung fiir Gymnasiasten, Sludirende und Candidaten (1892) ; B. Stade, " Die messianische Hoffnung im Psalter," Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und Kirche, Vol.11 (1892), pp. 369-413 (reprinted in Akademische Reden und Abhand lungen [1899], pp. 37-76); Kuenen-Matthes, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Allen Testaments, Vol. Ill (1893, German transl. 1894), pp. 1-57; E. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893), pp. 393-406; Wildeboer, Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1894), pp. 388-403 ; W. DiEHL, Erkldrung von Ps. 4f (1894); G. Beer, Individual- und Gemeinde-Psalmen (1894); B. Jacob, "Beitrage zu einer Einleitung in die Psalmen," Zeitschrift f. d. alttest Wissenschaft, Vol. XVI (1896), pp. 129-81, 265-91; Vol. XVII, pp. 48-80, 263-79; Vol. XVIII, pp. 99-120; Vol. XX, pp. 49-80; J. K. Zenner, Die Chorgesdnge im Buche der Psalmen 252 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT (1896) ; F. Coblenz, Ueber das betende Ich in den Psalmen (1897) ; W.Staerk, "Die Gottlosen in den Psalmen," Theologische Studien und Kritiken, 1897, pp. 449-88; CH. Cornill, Die Psalmen in der Weltlitteratur (1898); D. Leimdorfer, Das Psalter- Ego in den Ich-Psalmen: Beitrag zur wissenschaftlichen Psalmenforschung (1898); Buchler, "Zur Geschichte der Tempelmusik und der Tempelpsalmen," Zeitschrift f. d. alltest. Wissenschaft, Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 96 ff.; W. Riedel, "Zur Redaktion des Psalters," ibid., Vol. XIX (1899), pp. 169-72; A. Merx, Ps. IX und X und andres Maccabaeische (1899) ; H. Kessi.ER, Die Psalmen ("Kurzgefasster Kommen- tar zu den heiligen Schriften," 1899); J. Wellhausen, "Bemerkungen zu den Psalmen," Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. VI (1899), pp. 163-87; B. Duhm, Die Psalmen erkldrt ("Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, 1899); Idem, Die Psalmen iibersetzt (1899); J. Koberle, Die Tempelsdnger im Alten Testament (1899); Rothstein, " Ps. 78, ein Zeuge fiir d. Jahwistische Gestalt der Exodus- Tradition," Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, 1900, No. 4; Grimme, "Was bedeutet I"fl5yTQP> "Ptj?" Orientalistische Literatur-Zeilung, Vol. IV (1901), pp. 180-82; Couard, "Behandlung und Losung des Problems der Theodice'e in den Ps- 37> 39 un" Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Vol. XLVII (1901), pp. 110-24; Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901), pp. 635_72 J E. Kautzsch, Die Poesie und die poetischen Biicher des Alten Testaments (1902); Matthes, "Die Psalmen und d. Tempeldienst," Zeitschrift fiir die alttesta mentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 65-82; Grimme, Psalmenprobleme : Untersuchungen iiber Metrik, Strophik und Paseq des Psalmenbuches (1902). §279. Supplementary Topics. 1 . Is the Psalter rightly classified as a priestly product ? Consider the significance of the fact that it contains a large amount of prophetic and wisdom material as well as priestly. Can it be said to belong to any one of these three classes of Old Testament literature, or does it belong, rather, to all of them ? Might it not properly be a class by itself, viz., devotional literature? 2. Consider the various possible methods of classifying the Psalms; e. g., as to (a) their subject-matter (see Driver, Introduction, pp. 368 f), (b) their spirit and tone, (c) the time of their origin. 3. Of what value is the Psalter as a source of information con cerning Israel's history ? What knowledge of Israel's past history does it reveal ? What can be legitimately inferred from a study of the individual psalms as to the historical conditions amid which they were composed ? What light does the fact of the existence and use of the Psalter throw upon the life and spirit of the post-exilic Jews? 4. In a study of the origin of the Psalter what is the significance of {a) the presence within it of such groups as the Korahite psalms, the Asaphite psalms, the Pilgrim psalms ; (b) the groups of Yahwistic and Elohistic psalms ; (c) the division into five books ; (d) the grouping of the "Davidic" psalms? On the basis of these and other similar THE HYMNAL LITERATURE 253 phenomena, can any history of the growth of the Psalter through the grouping of various earlier collections be satisfactorily traced ? 5. Take up the so-called "Imprecatory Psalms" and study them in the light of the following considerations : (a) the times to which they belong, when moral and spiritual conceptions were still in a more or less primitive stage and the spirit of the gospel was not yet shed abroad ; (b) the great provocation which called forth these utterances, the feeling of injury, oppression, and insult revealed in them ; {c) the tendency of human nature to seek revenge ; (d) the deep sense of justice out of which they spring, the feeling that such sins must not and cannot go unpunished, that the vindication of Jehovah's character demands the infliction of drastic penalties upon the notoriously wicked ; {e) the necessity that this infliction of punishment should take place here and now, since the thought of a future life and a future judgment had not yet developed ; (/) the doctrine that prosperity was a sign of the divine favor, while misfortune and suffering was manifest evidence of and chastisement for sin. 6. Make a comparison of the Psalms of Solomon with the Old Testament Psalter, and note the points of similarity and difference in the two collections. On the Psalms of Solomon see especially R. H. Charles, art. " Apocalyptic Literature," §77-85, Encyclopedia Biblica; Ryle and James, The Psalms of the Pharisees (1901); W. Frankenberg, Die Datierung der Psalmen Salomos: ein Bei- trag zur judischen Geschichte ("Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft," 1896). 7. Compare the old Babylonian penitential psalms with corre sponding psalms of the Old Testament, with reference to such matters as (a) their idea of God, {b) their conception of sin, (cr) their longing for forgiveness, (d) their idea of atonement. On the Babylonian psalms see especially: H. Zimmern, Babylonische Buss- psalmen, umschrieben, iibersetzt und erkldrt ( 1885) ; R. Brunnow, "Assyrian Hymns," Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie, Vol. IV, pp. 1-40, 225-58 ; Vol. V, pp. 55-80 ; T. G. Pinches, "An Erechite's Lament," Records of the Past (New Series), Vol. I, pp. 84 f.; R. F. HARPER, Assyrian and Babylonian Literature (1901), pp. 429-44; J. Bahr, Die babylonischen Busspsalmen und das Alte Testament (1903); W. Caspari, "Die Religion in den assyrisch-babylonischen Busspsalmen," Beitrdge zur Fbrderung Christlicher Theologie, Vol. VII, No. 4 (1903). Paet Seventh THE PERMANENT VALUE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT XIX. The Essential Significance of the Priestly Element. CHAPTER XIX. the essential significance OF the priestly element. §280. The Priestly Element Had Serious Limitations. — The agencies, through which the Spirit of God worked upon Israel during long centuries of guidance were human, and therefore imperfect. The prophet, with all his enthusiasm and enlarged vision, suffered serious limita tions. The sage, in spite of his careful, methodical and, at times, scientific observation and study, fell far short of reaching even his own ideals. In what way were the priests limited ? Consider the following : 1. There were granted to the priests, as such, no great and uplifting visions of the nation's future glory. In later days, to be sure, priests like Ezekiel and Ezek. 1 : 1-3 : 15 ; Zechariah were given such inspiration ; but they and chaps.'4o-48 ; , - . zech. 1:7-6:8. others like them were no longer simply priests : they were prophets. The lack of the presence of the Spirit in their souls placed the ordinary priests in a class essentially different from that of the prophets. 2. The priest was by the very nature of his profession c/. Exoa., chaps. a literalist, and consequently he was forever denied the chaps'. 1-3, "7, strength and freshness which those may have who rise chaps. 3, 4'. higher than the letter and see what is above and beyond it. This fact will account for much that is distinctly disap pointing in the priestly element. 3. Since the priestly element represented worship, and for that reason (a) came out of an early paganism, and (b) was constantly being; drawn backward into that 1 Kings 3:3; 12: \ ' J a 25-33; i6:3iff. ; same paganism, or into other forms of heathen thought 2 Kings 16: n- with which the sacrificial system was always in more or Ezek. & -. 7-13 ; 1 J Jer. 44: 17-I9- less close contact, it was forced to carry a heavy burden made up of corrupt and injurious notions and prac tices, which even long culture would not and could not shake off. From all this prophetism was practically free. 257 258 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Exod. 32:1-6,32- 4. All the ignorance and superstition of the masses 1-3, 12-14; Hos.' were borne by the priestly class, rather than by the is'a.'28:57f' 9' prophets. The priest, if he remained a priest, was compelled to live and work with the masses in the midst of all that was degrading. Lev. 8:1-9:24; 5. The priest had to do chiefly with the outer form '" ° of truth, the symbol; and while this was supposed to zech. 7:4, 5; isa. represent the inner and essential thought, it not infre quently failed to maintain any real connection with that thought. zech. 6:n; Lev. 6. The priest was intensely ambitious of power and 2 Kings 11:4-20. wealth, and the fact that, in time, the order gained control of state and church is evidence of success which in itself was detrimental to true and sincere effort. Numb., chap. 19; 7. The teachings of the priest were more subjective -I3' and less direct than those of the prophet, in that the teaching of the latter was given to the people directly through the spoken or written word, while much of the priest's teaching was dependent upon the worshiper's own interpretation of the symbol employed in the ritual. 2 Kings 22 : 3-23 : A strong spirit of conservatism was always in control ; 25; Neh. 8:1- 6 r , , , , , . , 10:39; Mai. 1: progress was secured most frequently by revolution from 6-2 : 9. the outside, in which the prophets took leading part. Under the circumstances the priestly teaching was always slow to penetrate the nation's heart. §281. The Characteristics of the Priestly System, regarded as a whole, may be briefly studied : 1. Its spirit not peculiar. — What is to be said of the spirit of this system when compared with that of other priestly systems? Wherein, if at all, is a distinction to Lev. 17:6; 20:26; be found? Is not the spirit, in this case, iust what the chap. 16; 26: . . , ... , ii f. true spirit of worship always proves to be, viz., the simplest and most common effort to come into close touch with the higher powers ? 2. Its form not peculiar. — But what may be said of the outer form of this priestly system ? Does it not have cf. §§72:4,6:95: much in common likewise with other systems ? What is 6,7:107:5,6,7; .. 121:8, 9; 135:7. peculiar to it so far as form is concerned? Altar? temple? sacrifice? feast? music and prayer ? priest and holy order? Are not the Urim and Thummim of ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 259 foreign origin ? How about sacrifices of salt and meal ? the clean and unclean ? Can you find among the institutions of the Israelitish priestly system one which does not have an analogue in other religions ? 3. Its relation to other priestly systems. — Consider, now, whether or not it is true that in its priestly system the Hebrew religion touches other ancient religions most closely. Have other religions prophetism and prophecy ? Or is it not rather soothsaying and divina tion ? Is the Hebrew priestly system as different from other priestly systems as Hebrew prophecy is different from other systems of prophecy ? 4. The system and the people.— Is it true that at first Amos 2:6ft., , 11 ff.; 3:14; 4: the people were more in sympathy with their priestly 4f-; 5:4^-, «- system than with the prophetic ideas which were pro- Ho's.2:n; 3:4; 1 r r r 4:11-14; 8:nfl. posed in opposition ? Did the nation ever struggle against the priest as it struggled against the prophet ? Does this mean that the priestly conception and expres sion were something less alien to the hearts of the people ? 5. The period of its dominance. — To what extent were JeT-J? ']*?¦• .ao: priest and prophet in conflict with each other? And ioff; Hos. 6:4- why? Is it the priest whom the prophet always holds IE17'.??1,?" responsible for the people's sins ? Which of the two orders represented the old ? which the new ? Which represented form ? which spirit ? Which held back ? which pushed forward ? How important in the history of the nation was this struggle between prophet and priest ? which conquered ? when ? why ? 6. Its chronological relation to prophecy. — When in the Jer. 1: 1 ; Ezek. history of the priestly system was its progress most Ha^i'-T'4!- pronounced ? How explain the fact that in the later ^:'^f:^. periods of prophecy the prophets were all priests ? But 2:1-9. what became of the great teachings of the prophets when prophetism as a movement had died out and the priestly order was in power? Was this teaching lost? Deut.,*aps^iv _ or was it appropriated by the priests and incorporated 25:39ft; 26:14- into their system ? Of what importance was the legacy left by prophecy at its death ? Are priest and prophet now one, the priest being the spokesman ? But why did 260 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT prophecy die ? And how did it happen that the priest, who had always opposed the prophet and his work, took up that work when there were no longer prophets to conduct it ? Exod. 20:24; 7. Its variations and contradictions. — Does not this Deut. 18:1-8; ' priestly element seem to be full of contradictions? But Lev. 21 '10^15.' what is the nature of these contradictions ? Is it that of change from time to time ? Is it the result of adjust- cf §§76; 80; ment to great changes in national life? What, for ! example, led to the change from the system in which worship was distributed throughout the nation to that of centralization at one place ? Why was worship in Babylon during the exile impossible ? Explain the recentralization later in the second temple; and still later its redistribution in the synagogues. All this points to what characteristics besides those of flexibility and capability of adjustment ? cf. §§ 60, 62, 66, 8. Its autocratic and democratic character. — Con sider the change in character that has taken place between the early days when every man might be his own priest, and the last days which witnessed the firm establishment of the hierarchy. How is this to be accounted for? Cf. chaps, ii, iii, 9. Its purity, impurity, and artificiality. — Compare 97J 104. 4' ' this priestly system (a) when it was mingled with all the impurities of Canaanitish worship, and (b) when it has been purged and purified of its dross by the fire of captivity ; and still again (c) when it has become one of the most artificial rituals ever accepted by a nation. What is to be said of these different stages ? 10. Its narrowness and breadth. — Compare, again, the character of this system in its later days when, from one point of view, it was most narrow and artificial; while, from another, it was most broad and spiritual ; since, at Lev., chaps. 4, 5, a time when animals were being slain by tens of 6, 7, 12, 14, 15, o j 21; Numb., thousands, and the body was being worn out with chaps. 6, 8 . J ° worship and purifications, then, and not till then, did cf §§270-77. this religious system give birth to the Psalter, which contains the greatest examples of higher spiritual con templation and communion with God that religion has ever produced. ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 26 1 § 282. The Purpose or Function of the Priestly System. — Which of these words is to be employed, " purpose " or "function " ? What is the point of view involved in each ? 1. Its purpose or function in general. — What may be said as to the purpose or function of the priestly system Cf.%\. in any religion ? What other elements, aside from the priestly element, are required to make up religion, or to constitute the religious spirit ? What is the relation sustained by the priestly element to the others ? 2. Its purpose or function for the individual. — (a) Was there a meaning in the various acts of worship for each and every person who participated in the worship ? Did c/.§§84:2; 87:2; oil and salt, blood and fat, meal and incense, represent ideas ? What, in the case of each of these ? Did these ideas, thus symbolically represented, come from men's hearts and express various phases of their feelings ? (b) In what sense was the temple a laboratory in which men were required to go through a certain process, doing the detail of the work, every detail representing an experi ence of one or another kind in the religious life ? Would the doing of these things impress upon the doer the meaning which they were supposed to represent ? What was the answer to the oft-recurring questions : " Why do I wash ? Why do I touch no unclean thing ? Why do I observe the sabbath?" Was it not in each case a great truth ? Was the act, therefore, a lesson repeated every time the act was performed ? But would many, perhaps the great majority, perform the act without asking the question, and so without being conscious of any lesson involved in it ? Is it just so in acts of worship today ? Does this fact, in itself, affect essentially the point in question ? 3. Its purpose or function for the nation. — (a) Did the national idea precede or follow that of the individual? Am. 2:6; 5:iff.; r Exod. 20 : 2 ff, ; When did the first conception of the individual as Jer. 31: 29 f.; £Z6K(, Cb3.p< 18. distinguished from the nation begin to appear ? Did the idea of individualism have large development in Old Testament times ? or even in the first centuries of Christianity? Was the priestly system, on the whole, 262 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMEFT better adapted to individual or national life ? (b) What, so far as concerns relationship to the deity, would be the result for the nation, of a regular and sincere adoption of the ceremonial ? How different would the effect of observing the ritual be from that of attending church in more modern times? Would it, in some sense, bring them into touch with God, and under His influence? Was it, after all, a very natural expression of man's relation to God ? (c) Are we to suppose that sacrifice (which may here be taken as representing the priestly system) from the beginning was something established by God himself and suggested by him directly to man ? Lev., chaps. 1-7. Is this not the way in which the Priest Code everywhere cf. §216, (4). regards sacrifice? In other words, as something given by God to man through Moses ? Does the Priest Code recognize the existence of a priestly system before Moses's day ? or among other nations ? How, then, is this presentation of the subject to be understood? (d) But in what way are we to account for the universal prevalence of sacrifice among the nations ? What is to be said for and against the hypothesis of a primitive revelation to which all this points back ? Is it easier to understand this common form of worship, viz., sacrifice, as a natural expression, on the part of man, of the relation which he believes himself to sustain to the higher powers ? In this case what was the nature of the feeling which originally prompted the action, and controlled the devotee in the process of the action ? Lev., chap. 16; 4: (¦?) Was it his sense of God's holiness and his own sin? i6ff?;'Numb. his feeling that he deserved death? Did he therefore 15^22-31,19. present animals in sacrifice as his own substitute? What is meant in this connection by the use of the words "piacular," "propitiation ?" But can we suppose that the men of primitive times, savages, had reached so advanced a point of philosophical reflection ? May we perhaps suppose that this act, which constitutes so large an element in all priestly systems, had its origin and abiding function in a desire to acknowledge dependence upon the higher power and to render to it homage? Would it be far removed from this to say that the chief ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 263 purpose of the worshiper, whether nation or individual, Lev. 4:20, 26, 31, was to gain the favor of the god, or to avert his i8f.;Numb.' displeasure? (/) What is involved in that other expla- Gen.' 18:1-8; 31: nation which finds the essence of sacrifice in the meal 12; Numb. 22: which followed, a communion of man and God in food ? 6^/7; 1 s'am.' Did not eating together constitute a covenant or bond 16:2,5; io^g- of friendship? God and the tribe being one, would not Lev. »:\f,ill'm this union be strengthened, "or, if temporarily strained, Lev. 1 :'3-g.' be restored by eating food in common ? And did not the god receive his share in the blood poured upon the altar ? In this case how explain the whole burnt offering, all of which was given to the god ? How much change in this conception of sacrifice was involved in the advance from nomadic life, when all property was held in common by the tribe, to the agricultural life, when men began to hold personal property ? (g) In any case, is it not true that in Old Testament times the idea most in vogue is that the priestly system, with the act of sacrifice as its central feature, represented the means by which a man might make a gift to God? Is it Numb., chap. 28; J 6 ., Exod. 3o:7f. anywhere suggested that the giving of gifts to God is something displeasing to him ? Is there great difference Mic. 6 : 6-8 ; Amos of opinion, on the other hand, as to the particular thing 6:6. which shall be given ? 4. Its function in connection with the messianic idea. — (a) In what sense is the word "messianic" to be taken ? What are some of the more important elements of which it is constituted? In how far may the word "eschato- logical " be used as a synonym ? Who are indicated as the conspicuous representatives of this movement or element, (1) during the existence of the kingdom; (2) isa.g:6f. during the Babylonian exile? (b) When Jerusalem is 153.49:1-6:52: rebuilt and the second temple is erected — that is, at the time of the restoration — what official figure comes into Hag. 1 : 1, 12, 14 ; ° 2:2, 4; Zech., especial prominence ? At the same time what feeling chap. 3. becomes uppermost in the minds of the people? As a Lev., chap. 16; consequence of this overwhelming sense of sin, what Numb. 19:1-9. new importance attaches to the idea of atonement? (c) Were the people of the restoration disappointed in Hag. 2:6-9, 20- r r rr j3; zech. 6:15; their failure to see the fulfilment of the prophetic chap. 8. 264 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT promises concerning the re-establishment of the king dom and the coming of the Messiah ? How did they, Mai. 1:1-14; 2: after awhile, account for the refusal or failure of God to c/.~§§38, 15; 92, fulfil these promises? Regarding themselves as respon sible, what steps were taken to force God to bring these Mai. 3:1-6. things to pass ? How did this affect the priestly system ? In what way, also, the further development of the messianic idea ? 5. Its function in relation to the introduction of Greek thought. — What, in general, was the effect upon the eastern world of the fall of the Persian empire and the supremacy of the Greeks, attained through Alexander the Great ? How was Greek, influence exerted upon these eastern nationalities ? To what extent was the cf. §51. Jewish nation affected by Greece? What were the essential contributions received by Judaism from Greece? To what extent did Judaism successfully resist the movement which exerted so strong an influence upon all other nations with which it came in contact ? What enabled Judaism to withstand this influence ? What were the elements in the priestly system that enabled it to render this very striking service ? Cf. §197, 3. § 283. The Essential Thought of the Priestly Element may be grouped around three or four subjects. These are, God, Man, Sin, and the Church. 1. God. — (a) Does not the priestly thought of God, after all, represent the whole Old Testament, except the portions known as Wisdom ? (b) How, and in what sense, does the priestly element include the prophetic ? (c) Can a distinction be made between the priestly and the prophetic conceptions of God in the periods that precede the captivity in Babylon ? in the periods that follow the captivity ? (d) What stages of growth may be discovered in the cf §§ 18, 38, 49. priestly conception of God before its incorporation of the prophetic ? likewise, after the incorporation ? Was the later conception more strongly priestly or prophetic ? (e) What distinct conceptions, if any, are to be found in the Wisdom element ? Are they older than the priestly, or later ? higher of lower ? ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 265 (/) Are holiness and majesty perhaps the two pre dominant conceptions of God in the priestly element ? What others might be mentioned as almost equally prominent ? Was either of these attributes a part of the primitive Semitic conception of God ? At what time in Greece's history did they begin to be recognized ? How Lev., chaps. 8, 9, is the holiness of God symbolically represented in the Exod. i^-.isi-iSa; Levitical ritual? How is the majesty of God indicated, 34-39~35' especially in the Priest Code? Upon what aspects of Pss. 23, 90, 91, deity do the Psalms dwell most earnestly ? 2. Man. — {a) In what way is the priestly element especially concerned with man? (1) as an individual? cf §283, 2, 3. or (2) as representing the human race ? or (3) as he appears, earlier, in the Israelitish nation and later, in the Judaistic church ? What is the position of the individual, in contrast with that of the nation, as represented in the Levitical ritual ? in the Psalter ? {b) Is it through Israel alone that God will meet the Exod. 19:6; world? What will be Israel's relation to the world at 32: si. large ? Does the materialistic conception continue to the end in spite of the prophetic teaching ? {c) Is the sinfulness of man's nature more definitely Lev. 4:35; g:3; and frequently expressed than any other quality? What 16; 'Numb. 19 :P' is the form of expression most common in the ritual? in 90:8; 41:4;' the Psalter? 38:3:32:1-5. 3. Sin. — (a) Have there been different stages in the Josh., chap. 7; 0 v ' 6 Deut. 7.25; growth of the priestly idea of sin? What, for example, 8:19; g-.st; was the prevailing idea in the patriarchal time under the Lev. 4: i t., 13, r a 27 ; 6 : 1 ff . ; primitive Semitic worship? What, later, when the chap. 16; Numb. 15:32 ff. prophets have given their message ? What, still later, when the fulness of the monotheistic conception has come to be realized ? (b) Is it true that the idea of sin is always and every where simply a corollary of the idea of God? What c/. §92, n. connection may be traced in the development of the priestly system between these two ideas ? How shall we explain the growth, among the Hebrews, of the inten sity of feeling concerning sin? (c) Is it true that the different Hebrew words for sin Lev. 4:3; 16:16; \ ' 20 : 20 ; Numb. express various phases of the idea as they were recog- 15:28; Deut. 266 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Amos 5:7, ioff., 15; Hos. 2: 13; 4:6; 6 : 6 ff . ; Lev. 18: 1-5; 15 : 31 ; 6 : 1 ff . ; 5:14ft. Pss. 51; 36:1-4; 39:1; 53:i. Lev., chap. 16; 5:5f- Numb. 19 : 1-10. Exod. 12:3; 16:1 Lev. 4:13; Numb. 35 : 24 ; Ps. 74:8. Pss. 2:6; 9 : 11 ; 48:12; 51:18; 53 : 6 ; 126 : 1 ; Isa. 1 : 8 ; 14 : 32 ; 28: 16; Jer. 26: 18; 50:5- Amos 1 : 2. Lev. 24 : 8 ; 26 : 42. Gen. 1 : 27-30 ; 9 : 8-17; 17:1-14; Exod. 31 : 16 f. Ezra g : 1-4 ; chap. 10; Neh., chaps. 9, 10 ; Lev. 4 : 13 ff.; chap. 25. Isa. 8:16-18. Isa. 7:3; 10 : 20- 22. Jer. 31 : 29 f . Ezek., chaps. 18, 33, 40-48. nized by the Hebrews ? What are the more important of these words (in English), and what is the distinctive meaning of each ? What, as a matter of fact, is the meaning of the word (haltath), commonly translated sin? (d) Can a distinction be made between the priestly and the prophetic conceptions of sin? Does Wisdom furnish any varying ideas ? Wherein consists the difference between the priestly conception of sin, as expressed in the Psalter and the ritual, and that which is found in the Assyrian penitential psalms and corresponding ritual ? (if) How may forgiveness of sin be secured ? What is the essential idea in the teaching concerning atone ment as it appears in connection with the ritual ? 4. The Church. — (a) Does this word really belong to Old Testament thought of any school ? What is the usage of the terms "congregation" and "synagogue"? Is " Zion" a priestly or a prophetic word ? What general significance does it have asid'e from its literal meaning? What is the distinctive meaning of two other common phrases, "the Covenant people," and "the theocracy"? (b) Was it with the inner or outer sense of the terms cited above that the priestly element had most to do ? Was there a time after which the inner sense received greater consideration ? (c) Did the great priestly narrative [P] lay stress upon certain covenants, viz., with Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Moses ? What bearing did these covenants have upon the later conception of the church ? (d) Was Judaism a kingdom or a church ? Was the ruling power a monarchy or a hierarchy ? Did the priestly element, therefore, really become a church sys tem ? and were the institutions of worship precursors in thought as well as in form of the idea of the church ? (tf) Was the company made up of Isaiah and his dis ciples the first step away from the national community to the church community? Did Isaiah's teaching of the remnant prepare the way for Jeremiah's teaching of indi vidualism, and the two together thus furnish the basis for the church idea? Did Ezekiel continue to develop this thought in the direction of a church community ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 267 made up of those who were circumcized of heart ? Were jer. m; Ezek. Jeremiah and Ezekiel priests as well as prophets ? (/) In what way did the period of the exile during which worship in the usual sense was impossible contri bute to the development of the church community ? Did this period also make more prominent the observance Cf. §§ u8 and 137, 3. of the sabbath and the service of prayer? Did Ezekiel Ezek. 8:1; 14:1; 20 : 1 . gather together the people for exhortation ? What indi cations are found, in Ezra's times and later, of the growing Ezra 10: 1 ff. ; habit of assembling for prayer and for the reading and interpretation of Scripture ? {g) If we may understand that back and under all institutions thought is to be found, and if we measure the importance of the thought by the number of the institu- tutions involved, as also by the acknowledged character of the institutions, is it not true that the church, with all that it represented before the times of the Christian church, was one of the most essential subjects of thought in the priestly element ? § 284. Many of the Ideals of Modern Church Life and Worship are the direct contribution of the priestly element found in the Old Testa ment. The word "inheritance" is perhaps a better word in this con nection than "contribution." Some of these ideals are institutions; and some, aspirations of the most holy character. Consider and formulate in some detail the following propositions : ? 1. That the Christian church goes back directly to the synagogue community. See : I. A. Selbie, art. "Congregation," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; S. C. Gayford, art. "Church," ibid.; Bacher, art. "Synagogue," ibid.; ]. A. Robinson, art. " Church," Encyclopedia Biblica; I. I. Peritz, art. " Synagogue," ibid.; Schurer, History of the fewish People in the Time of Christ, Division II, Vol. II, pp. 52-89, 243-52 ; Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Neuetestamentlichen Canons'Nol. II (1883), p. 165; Idem, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, Vol. I, pp. 66 f.; Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches. S2. That the Christian service of song, prayer, and exhortation goes back to the Jewish temple ritual and the exercises of the synagogue. See: chap, xviii; Weiszacker, The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church, Vol. II, pp. 246, 254, 258. 3. That the beginning of the modern Bible in form and idea dates from the priestly reform of Josiah's times when Deuteronomy was published. 268 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT See : Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 89 f. ; F. H. Woods, art. " Old Testament Canon," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Wildeboer, The Origin of the Canon of the Old Testament, pp. 22-25. y'^. That the conception of the clergy as distinct from the laity goes back to the Levitical priesthood. See: §§62f.; and Hatch, The Organization of the Early Christian Churches, pp. 141 f. ; Cornill, Prophets of Israel, pp. 87 f. y$. That the idea of the mission of the church to the world at large goes back to the commission of Israel to be a priest nation. See : Exod. 19: 6; Isa. 42: 1-7; 61:6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9, and Holzinger, Exodus, p. 67 ; Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie, pp. 457 f. ; G. A. Smith, The Book of Isaiah, Vol. II, pp. 237 ff. 6. That the thought of bringing God into the world comes from the determination of the Jewish saints, under priestly influence, to live lives of such purity and holiness as to make God introduce the messi anic times, of which there had been dreams, but as yet no realization. See : Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile, pp. 80 f. ; Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (Hibbert Lectures, 1892), pp. 321 f. 7. That the highest ideals of mankind touching the soul's contact with God have come from the experiences of Jewish saints expressed in song for purposes of Jewish worship (/. e., the Psalms). See : §§ 275-277 ; and Perowne, The Book of Psalms (8th ed.), Vol. I, pp. 25-40 ; Kirkpatrick, The Book of Psalms (Cambridge Bible), Vol. I, pp. lxxviii ff. 8. That the Lord's Supper is the continuation of the Jewish Paschal feast. See: Plummer, in Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. Ill, p. 145; I. A. Robinson, in Encyclopedia Biblica, col. 1419. 9. That the Lord's day, Sunday, is the offspring of the Jewish sab bath. See: Hessey, Sunday, its Origin, History, and Present Obligation (Bampton Lecture, 5th. ed., 1889); H. R. Gamble, Sunday and the Sabbath ("Golden Lectures'" for 1900-1901); N. J. D. White, art. "Lord's Day," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Zahn, Geschichte des Sonntags vornehmlich in der alten Kirche; G. A. Deiss- mann, art. " Lord's Day," Encyclopedia Biblica. 10. That the Christian Easter celebration is the continuation of the spring feast which has come down to us through the Jewish Pass over feast. See: Hitzig, Ostern und Pfingsten (1837-38); Duchesne, La question des origines du culte chritien (1889), pp. 226 ff.; Canon Venables, art. "Easter," Encyclopedia Britannica. 11. That Thanksgiving day is the modern representative of the Feast of Tabernacles. ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT 269 See: Deut. 16:13-15; and A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Benzinger, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," Ency clopedia Biblica. 12. That the more widely accepted theories of the atonement (whether right or wrong) rest fundamentally upon the Old Testament doctrine of sacrifice. See : J. O. F. Murray, art. " Atonement," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Dale, The Doctrine of the Atonement; Wilson, Hulsean Lectures on the Atonement (1899); Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American Journalof Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; Archibald Scott, Sacrifice, its Prophecy and Fulfilment ("Baird Lecture," 1892-93). _Xi3. That the New Covenant, a more accurate expression for the New Testament now commonly used, was first conceived and expressed in its fundamental principles by an Old Testament priest (who was also a prophet). See : ler. 31: 31 ff.; and A. B. Davidson, art. "Covenant," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; McClymont, art. " New Testament," ibid. 14. That the Christian practice of fasting had its direct origin in the usage which grew up in later Judaism. See: §§152-154; and I. S. BLACK, art. "Fasting," Encyclopedia Britannica; Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia Biblica; C.J. Ball, art. "Fasting and Fasts," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). yi$. That the Christian rite of baptism is historically (through John the Baptist) and logically (moral uncleanness taking the place of cere monial uncleanness), the successor to the Jewish rite of baptism, practised as a means of restoration from a state of ceremonial unclean ness, and employed in the case of proselytes. See: Plummer, art. "Baptism," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; J. A. Robinson, art. "Baptism," Encyclopedia Biblica; W. Elwin, art. "Baptism," Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). § 285. Permanent Truth of a most precious kind was wrought out through this long laboratory process, along with much which, of course, was temporary and ephemeral. Consider and formulate, among other great and fundamental truths of an eternal character, those relating to — 1. The Holiness of God, especially from the point of view of the Levitical system, in which it occupies a fundamental position. See: J. Skinner, art. "Holiness in the Old Testament," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Baudissin, Studien zur Semilischen Religionsgeschichte, Vol. II, pp. 3-142; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeschichte (2d ed.) pp. 325 f.; A. B. Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 144-60; Schultz, Old Testament Theology, Vol. II, pp. 166 ff. 27O PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 2. The filthiness of sin, especially as symbolized in certain details of the Levitical system, which undoubtedly were, however, only the tangible representation of previous prophetic thought. See: Koberle, Siinde und Gnade im religibsen Leben des Volkes Israel bis auf Christum (1905), pp. 325-57, 415-571 ; Bernard, art. "Sin," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 203-34; Tennant, The Origin and Propagation of Sin; Idem, The Sources of the Doctrine of the Fall and Original Sin; Clemen, Die Christliche Lehre von der Siinde. 3. The forgiveness of sin, as illustrated by the ceremonial of the priestly system. See: Koberle, op. cit, pp. 597-638; Bethune-Baker, art. "Forgiveness," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religions geschichte (2d ed. 1893), pp. 394-403; Davidson, Old Testament Theology, pp. 315 ff. 4. Vicarious suffering, as involved in the doctrine of sacrifice. See: Baird, Sacrifice, its Prophecy and Fulfilment; Schultz, "The Significance of Sacrifice in the Old Testament," American Journal of Theology, Vol. IV (1900), pp. 257-313; Driver, art. "Offer, Offering," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible; Th. Naville, Les sacrifices Uvitiques et f expiation (1891). 5. The ecclesiastical state, as pictured by Ezekiel. See : Ezek., chaps. 40-48, and the commentaries on these chapters, especially those of Davidson {Cambridge Bible), Kraetzschmar (Hand-Kommentar zum Allen Testament), Bertholet (Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament), and Skinner (Expositor's Bible). § 286. The Ethical Influence of the Priestly Element is one which can be felt more easily than it can be described. (1) Analyze this element and point out the various individual factors in it which, one may believe, would tend to an ethical uplifting of those who conscien tiously followed the rules and regulations of the priestly ceremonial. (2) Consider, on the other hand, the factors which might be expected to prove injurious ethically. (3) Would some of these factors for good vary in their influence, producing one result in certain cases, and a different result in still other cases ? (4) What, upon the whole, would be the general ethical influence of the system ? § 287. Pre-natal Christianity and the Priestly Elemeot. — Much of that which was later called Christianity really existed before the coming of Jesus. This is true of teachings and ideals which were distinctively prophetic, and of those which were characteristic of the sage, as well as of those which were peculiarly priestly in their origin and character. All these elements, as they existed together in Judaism, may figuratively be called pre-natal Christianity. Endeavor to reconstruct this embryonic Christianity, and decide what part or portion of the whole was this priestly element, as separated from the other elements of prophecy and wisdom. Appendixes A. The Vocabulary of Worship; Lists of the More Important Words. B. Classified Lists of Important Books. C. New Literature on the Priestly Element. APPENDIX A. the vocabulary of worship. The following list, though not designed to be exhaustive, aims to include all the more important words relating to worship and to the great ideas that find expression in the ritual. The list of Greek equivalents contains the various renderings employed in the Septuagint with the exception of some of the rarer ones, and of those evidently based upon different readings from those now found in the Massoretic Text. ¦wia bn's TJ OKt\VT\ TOV paprvplov tent of meeting O^TIS 8i}Xwcris, Sr)\ol Urim DTarti vpyat cpaHoav (Neh. 7:65) Urim and Thummim nbs, dptf, opKUTpSs, SpKOS, 6pK<0- /iocr/a, Kardpa oath, curse Din'bi* Be6s, Kupios God aipx iopri] avmeKelas ingathering, harvest IBS opur//.6s ioiS, ItpthS, iiru/its (or lirw- binding oath, vow msx pldes, Exod. 28:8; 39:5), TIES lepareta (Hos. 3: 4), crToXi} (2 Sam. 6:14; I Chron. 15=27) j - ephod "IBS airoSbs, (TtroSta, Kowpta (Job 2:8) ashes fm* tcifjiarbs ark niss ffvola, Ovolaop-a, R&pnrbipM, K&piro&is, o\oKavT(op.a an offering made by fire nm 7rXj//ii|UeX«i', &pMpr&veiv, &y- offend, be guilty vbeiv nm ir\riiJ.iJ.£\ei.a, ILyvoia, ir\i)p.pj- offense, trespass, guilt, \rjpa, 7r\?7/Xjit^Xij(ns, ap.ap- rla. ir\ijp.p.e\etv, kv a/mprtats ehai trespass offering um guilty (Gen. 42:21) mows &yvoia, tipaprla, TXijftiKXdV, ir\riniiir\eta wrongdoing, guilt ftXcros, ' Xo-riprq (2 Chron. 15:16; 24:18) Asherah(A.V., "grove") "13 |8t£c5, f3Av (fl^TjXij), f3ap.d, dfiapd high-place (Ezek. 20:29), P<»pl>s, ctt^Xt;, vftos, povvbs, (Ps. 78:58; 1 Kings 10:13), elSaXov (Ezek. 16:16) toxvpbs, ioreTos (Judg. 3:17), fat c?kXc;kt6s, iraxbs (Ezek. 34=3) SiadrjKri covenant ev\oyta, ebXoyeiv, ebXoyqrbs blessing ySvo/j.a, 0v/j.lap.a, 6op.ii ijSeta spice, balsam 13 Dibifea -pai ni rot nat 33n - T teih nfn sun Stan hyav KXijpos, Kk-npovofila, 8piov, 6vo/j.a £kvos, ir6.pot.Kos, yndipas, irpo- otfXvTos, yeiroiv etdtoXa, iiriTijdebpuiTa, (3de- \oyp.ara, Siavo-fifAaTa, iv- dvpdjpM.Ta oajicip, Safiecp, oafiip, vabs ac/xati6tt}5, t& &ya$d, oirobbs, oirodia, KaTaKdpiroJO'S vabs, oXkos dvetv, ffvotdgeiv, Ofpdgeiv, Svpudv, dvfudfciv, irpoo- ipeiv (Deut. 17:1), c?Kfij- tuv (2 Chron. 28: 23) 60pa, dvota, 6volatsp.a, dvp.1- afia, acpdyiov (Am. 5:25), oXoKavroifia (Exod. 10:25) coprrjeoprdgetv fi.^v,veop.r)vla, vovpvqvla., eoprij oti)86viov, ijirap (Lev. 7:30) afiaprdveiv, k^ap-aprdveiv, dSi- Keiv, ivvoeiv icaicd, 8iap.apT&- veiv, IkkXIvciv, i¦ sin nsorf KapSla (Ps. 32:5), pdraios (1 Kings 16:2) lXatrp.6s, H-iXaopIis, dyvio- ,_ p.^, &yvtn oriap, p.veX6s (Gen. 45:18), 7aXd (Ps. 119:70; Ezek. 34:3)j airapxi (Numb. 18: 29, 30, 32), 0ucr(a (1 Kings 8:64), trdp/t:as(Ezek. 44=7) fat >n,ph v6p.os, Trp6oTayp.a, diKaicofia, t6 vbp.1p.0v, ivroXrf, Kplp,a, dtaoToXtf, Tpoir'tf, ovvra&s, 86ols a statute o"in dvaTeBep.aTiopJvov, dvdfiepa. dvddijput, ad)6p'op,a, dirib- Xeta, diroXXbeiv, oayfivij, O-oXbffpevpui (1 Kings 15:21), 6X4Bpu>s (1 Kings 20:42) devoted thing, ban ¦jten Xoyeiov, Xbyiov, ireptOT-^Btov, breast-piece, or sacred iro8rfpi]s pouch bau f$dirret.v, fioXoveiv to dip, immerse * inu Kadapbv eivai, &p£p.irTov eJvai, KaBaplgeoBai, ayvlgetv, dipa- yvlfrodat. be clean, pure SHE &Kddaprov elvai, dKddaprov ylveoBat, kKpialveoBai, p.ial- veiv (to defile), (iefitiXovv (to defile), dKaBapola, pLlavois be or become unclean nsatj dKaBapola, dKdBapros, diro- KaBrjpJvn, piavcis (Lev. 13: 44), p.ialveiv uncleanness Wp &d>ans, d(pit4- vai (Isa. 22:14), IXdgeiv, KaBaplgeiv (Exod. 30:10), ireptKaBaplgeiv (Isa. 6:7), c?/CKa9apIfeiK(Deut.32:43), dflcfjoui/ (Isa. 18:23), ciyid- friv (Exod. 29:33) "S3 5XXa7^io, e%lXaop.a, irepiKd- Bappa, Xbrpov n"lB3 iXacrT^pioK, {%iXa TrXdi/ai ras xeipas (Ezek. 43:26), TereXeiiopJvos (Lev. 21:10) D^S^P reXefwcrts, 7rXi5pwcris, yXvdj-i/ Q'^npb'O Xo/3ic5es, iirapvori/ip (Exod. 25:38), iirapvoTpls (1 Kings 7:49) nnDT3 Bvota, dwpov, Bvolaopa, !-4- viov, irpootpopd !"DD)3 tJ x',"'euT^,', xt'"c,'/ia! l a measure of flour or of grain 278 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT snp nbo nay rny nbw T? as? rnaw rniy T3* -i»y ¦jintey bl3B nos bos d\ec0eu<, XP^LV oeptSaXisirapa^alvta, irapkpxopM.1, ky- KaraXelireiv, irapairopebe- oBai ovvaywyi)bXoKavrcopui, bXoKaVrojois, Kdpirioois, bXoKdpTuois, Kdpiriop.a, bXoKdpirtapn, 6v- ola, dvacpopd, dvdfiaois dbiKla, ddlKijpa, dpaprla, apiprijpa, avopda, dvb- pripa, irapavopila, (Prov. 5:22), Kaxla (1 Chron. 21:8; Jer. 13:22; 16:18), dotfieia (Ezek. 33 : 9), ahla (Gen. 4:13). efdwXov, yXvTrbv lepela (2 Kings 10:20), Bepa- irela (Joel 1:14; 2:15), dpyela (Isa. 1:14), obvoSos, k^bdiov, iravrfyvpLS irapardooeiv, OTOiftdfeiv, kiruTToifidgeiv, kroipAgeiv, TrapaOKevdgeiv(Isa. 50:42), irporiBkvai., irpocTiBkvai (Exod 40:23; Lev. 24:8), kiriTiBivai (Gen. 22 : 9), Koopetv (Ezek. 23:41), atpeiv (1 Chron. 12:8), 7rapicrTdj'at, loovv, bpoiovv (Ps. 40: 5; Isa. 40:18), jSoofleii/ (1 Chron. 12:36), avaXapfidveiv (Jer. 43 : 3), kirvrpiireiv (Job 32:14), Kaleiv (Exod. 27:21; Lev. 24:2, 3), Kkvreiv (Job 6:4), Tipav, ripoypdcpeiv ( 2 Kings 23:35) SeKarovvSkKarov plaopa, &0vtov, /3c:/3iiXos, p£paXvp,pAvos irdoxa, (paokK yXvirriv, etSaXov, dyaXpta, irepifjtipuov, yXbp.p.a, eUiiv KlbdltiV anoint fine flour transgress congregation whole burnt-offering iniquity arrange, set in order (the parts of a sacrifice) to tithe tenth part unclean thing, refuse passoveridol, image bell on high priest's robe APPENDIXES 279 170"1E KaT07rcfrocrp;o ytOB ytiB D1Xn*iat obs «np onp nianp it?P nntap -TH nrpa rrn nyiate T I nate -site obte dBkreiv, dalfieiv, ddjurrdvai dvopeiv, dSiKelv, apapra- veiv, irXavav, dvopuis, ira- pbvop,os, apaprla, irapa- fialvetv aotfieia, aStxla, d8lKr)p,a, dpaprla, apdprijpa, dvo- p.la, dvbprjpxL, irapdirrupLa, irXdvij, dyvoia vnorela vyffrebctv, doireiv elK&v, opoluipa, eidwXov, rb- iros dyios, KaBapbs, ijytaopkvos ayidgeiv, ayvlfetv, KaBaptgetv (Job 1:5), So&friv (Isa. 5.16), SiaorkXXeiv (Jos. 20:17), KaBayidfeiv, dva- /3i/3dfei» (Jer. 51:28) #7105, ayuaobvTj, dylaopM., dyidgeiv, ayiaopbs, ayvl- £eiv irbpvn kKKXijola, ovvayuyi), 6xXos, avvkSpiov (Prov. 26:26), oboraais (Gen. 49 : 6), irXrjBos (Exod. 12:6; 2 Chron. 31:18), Xo6s (1 Kings 12:3) Bviuav, Bvpidfeiv, kiririBkvai, Bbeiv, ivadjkpeiv, irpoo(pk- peiv, kiriBbeiv, Bvoidgeiv (Exod. 40:27) 0vp.lo.pa, obvBesis puvrela, pjavreiov, oltivuspa Swpov, xXijpos (Neh. 10:34) dop.il, bod>pao-la (Hos. 14:7) dopij ebcoSlas SpKos, kvbpxios (Numb. 5:21), evopxos (Neh. 6:18). 0-dfSfSarov, odpfjara, kfiBopAs, kfidopas, dvdiravocs o&XinyZ, Keparlvrj oiori/piov, elpi]VLK6v, Bvola ooirrjplov, ourripta, rb rod owrijplov curtain (in tabernacle be fore Most Holy Place) to rebel, transgress transgression fasting, fast to fast imagesacred, holy set apart, consecrate, dedicate sanctity, holiness temple-prostituteassembly, congregation offer burnt-offering, offer smoke, odor, incense divinationoffering, oblation scent, odor soothing odor oath sabbath trumpetthank - offering, offering peace- 280 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Xgtg c-fXatov, dXeip.pa, irlojv fat, oil nip'aten nate eras rjjs ddikoews (Deut. 15:9), iviavrbs d(pkoews (Deut. 31:10) year of release nbnn atveois, eiraivos, lipvos, 7au- plapa, fcaiixw, aper-h, S6£a, evdo^os, vpvijois praise, song of praise T q.Swv, alveois, edx^ %apiimri- vrjs, k^opoXbynois thanksgiving, praise nayin fiSkXvypa, &KaBapola, dicd- Oapros, dvopla abomination nnin v6pu>s, kvroXij, rb vbpufwv direction, instruction, law nb?pi irpooevxil, kvxil, Ski/ens, lip> prayer nann VOS dwapxy, dcpalpepa, dcpbpiopa, dtpopioplts, eUria ( I Sam. 19:13), rd 7Xu7rrd (Ezek. 2I:2l), ol dirocpBeyybpevoi (Zech. 10:2) Teraphim o^aiann olKTippjbs, Si-qois, irapdKXtfois petition narip Sk-nois, eXeos, irpooevxv, /Soi; favor, request * \ dXiJ0eia, rd rkXeia (Ezek. 2:63) Thummim nsian dirapxi), iirlBepa, dtpalpepa, dirbSopa, d(p6piop.a, Sbfia wave-offering APPENDIX B. IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. I. Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias. J. Hastings, A Dictionary of the Bible, Vols. I-IV (1898-1902), with an extra volume, containing supplementary articles, indexes, and maps (1904). T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopedia Biblica, Vols. I-IV (1899-1903). W. Smith, A Dictionary of the Bible (2d ed. 1893). Herzog-Hacck, Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche (3d ed. 1896 ff.; fourteen volumes have now been published). U. Introductions to Old Testament Literature. S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament (6th ed. 1897). J. E. Carpenter and G. Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1900). J. E. Carpenter, The Composition of the Hexateuch (1902). C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criticism of the Hexateuch (2d ed. 1897). W. E. Addis, The Documents of the Hexateuch, 2 vols. (1893, 1898). W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the fewish Church (2d ed. 1892). C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (3d ed. 1896). APPENDIXES 2SI H. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch (1893). W. von Baudissin, Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1901). E. Konig, Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1893). A. Kuenen, Historisch-critisch Onderzoek naar het ontstaan en de verzameling van de boeken des Ouden Verbonds, 3 vols. (2d ed. 1885-89). German translation, Historisch-kritische Einleitung in die Biicher des Alten Testamentes (1887-92). English translation of Vol. I, The Hexateuch (1886). G. Wildeboer, De Letterkunde des Ouden Verbonds naar de tifdsorde van haar ontstaan (1893; 3d ed. 1903). German translation, Die Litteratur des Alten Testaments (1895). C. Steuernagel, Allgemeine Einleitung in den Hexateuch (" Handkommentar zum Alten Testament," 1900). III. Hebrew Institutions and Archaeology. W. H. Green, The Hebrew Feasts in Their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885). A. Scott, Sacrifice, Its Prophecy and Fulfillment ("Baird Lecture," 1892-93). W. von Baudissin, Die Geschichte des alttestamentlichen Priesterthums (1889). W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebrdischen Archdologie (1894). I. Benzinger, Hebrdische Archdologie (1894). IV. Semitic Institutions and Archaeology. W. R. SMITH, Religion of the Semites (1889 ; 2d ed. 1894). G. A. Barton, A Sketch of Semitic Origins — Social and Religious (1902). W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885 ; 2d ed. 1903). MORRIS Jastrow, Jr., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898). German translation, being a revised and enlarged edition of the English; Vol. I (1905). L. W. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology (1899). A. H. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (1902). S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-Day (1902). Wellhausen, Reste des arabischen Heidenthums (— Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, Vol. Ill, 1887; 2d ed. 1897.) Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions Semitiques (1903). Schwally, Semitische Kriegsaltertiimer, Heft I (1901). Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, 2-vols. (1876, 1878). Baethgen, Beitrdge sur semitischen Religionsgeschichte (1888). V. The Code of Hammurabi and Hebrew Legislation. R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi (1904). C. H. W. Johns, The Oldest Code of Laws in the World (1903). C. H. W. Johns, Article " The Code of Hammurabi," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (Extra Volume, 1904). S. A., Cook, The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (1903). C Edwards, The Hammurabi Code and the Sinaitic Legislation (1904). C. F. Kent, " The Recently Discovered Civil Code of Hammurabi," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1903), pp. 175-90. A. H. Sayce, "The Legal Code of Babylonia," American fournal of Theology (1904), pp. 256-66. 282 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT D. H. Lyon, " The Structure of the Hammurabi Code," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XXV (1904), pp. 248-65. V. Scheil, Memoires de la delegation en Perse, Tome IV (1902). V. Scheil, La loi de Hammurabi (1904). H. Winckler, Die Geselze Hammurabis (1903). H. Winckler, Die Geselze Hammurabis in Umschriftund Uebersetzung herausgegeben. Dazu Einleitung, u. s. w. (1904). J. Kohler UND F. E. Peiser, Hammurabi' s Gesetz, Vol. I : Uebersetzung, juristische Wiedergabe, Erlduterung (1903). D. H. Muller, Die Geselze Hammurabis und ihr Verhaltnis zur Mosaischen Gesetz gebung sowie zu den XII Tafeln (1903). H. Grimmf., Das Gesetz Chammurabis und Moses (1903). S. Oettli, Das Gesetz Hammurabis und die Thora Israels (1903). J. Jeremias, Moses und Hammurabi (1903). G. Cohn, Die Gesetze Hammurabi' s (1903). A. Rosenbacher, Moses und Hammurabi (1904). Ed. Konig, " Hammurabis Gesetzgebung und ihre religionsgeschichtliche Trag- weite," Beweis des Glaubens (1903), pp. 169-80. Lagrange, " Le code de Hammurabi," Revue biblique (1903), pp. 27—51. VI. Old Testament Theology and Religion. H. Schultz, Old Testament Theology (German, 1869; 5th ed. 1896; English, 1892). C G. Montefiore, The Religion of the Ancient Hebrews (" Hibbert Lectures," 1892). A. Duff, Old Testament Theology, 2 vols. (1891, 1900). A. Kuenen, The Religion of Israel, 3 vols. (Dutch, 1869-70; English translation, 1882-83). A. B. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament (1904). J. Robertson, The Early Religion of Israel (" Baird Lecture," 1889). Piepenbring, The Theology of the Old Testament (1886; English translation, 1893). K. Budde, The Religion of Israel to the Exile (1899). T. K. Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile (1898). R. Smend, Lehrbuch der alttestamentlichen Religionsgeshichte (1893 ; 2d ed. 1899). K. Marti, Geschichte der israelitischen Religion (1897). A. Dillmann, Handbuch der alttestamentlichen Theologie (1895). APPENDIX C. NEW LITERATURE ON THE PRIESTLY ELEMENT. P. 63, note 1— on Hexateuchal Analysis, etc.: H. G. Mitchell, The World Before Abraham (1901); Driver, Commentary on Genesis (1904); C. F. Kent, Beginnings of Hebrew History (1904); Tesch, Setzt der Prophet Amos autoritatives Gesetz voraus (1895); Paul Vetter, "Die Zeugnisse der vorexilischen Propheten iiber dem Penta teuch," Theologische Quarlalschrift Vol. LXXXIII (1901), pp.94-112, 187-207. P. 71, § 71 — on The Priest: J. Taylor, art. "Nethinim," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1900); A. Walker, "The Levitical Priesthood — a Study in Social De velopment," fournal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 1.24-3 1; Benzinger, art. " Nethinim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, APPENDIXES 283 art. "Priests," ibid.; W. R. Smith and A. Bertholet, art. "Levites," ibid.; Graf von Baudissin, art. " Priests and Levites," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); Frants Buhl, art. "Hoherpriester," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche Vol. VIII, (3d ed. 1900). P. 72, §72, topic 6 — on The Priest in other Semitic Nations: W. H. Bennett, art. " Molech, Moloch," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900) ; G. F. Moore, art. " Moloch," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. " Nature-Worship," ibid. ; Idem, art. "Tithes," ibid.; J. Jeremias, art. "Ritual," ibid.; M. J. Lagrange, "Les prgtres babyloniens d'apres une publication re'cente," Revue biblique, 1901, pp. 392-413; Spiegelberg, Der Stabkultus bei den Agyptern (1903); W. Wreszinski, Die Hohen- priester des Amon (1904). P. 80, §81,— on The Place of Worship : L.W. Batten, "The Sanctuary at Shiloh and Samuel's Sleeping Therein," Journal of Biblical Literature Vol. XIX (1900), pp. 124-31; O. C. Whitehouse, art. " Pillar," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1900); G. F. Moore, art. " High Place," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); G. A. Deissmann, art. "Mercy Seat," ibid. (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Massebah," ibid.; Benzinger, art. "The Brazen Sea," ibid. (1903); G. H. Box; art. "Temple, Temple Service," ibid.; Benzinger, art, "Tabernacle," ibid.; T. W. Davies, art. "Temple," Hastings's Dic tionary of The Bible (1902); A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Sanctuary," ibid.; Idem, art. "Tabernacle," ibid.; J. T. Marshall, art. "Shekinah," ibid.; A. H. Sayce, "Recent Biblical Archaeology; Tree and Pillar Cult," Expository Times, Vol. XIII (1902) pp. 309 f.; W, E. Barnes, art. "Jachin and Boaz," Journal of Theological Studies, 1904, pp. 447-51; J. Meinhold, Die Lade fahves (1900); Idem, "Die Lade Jahves; ein Nachtrag," Theologische Studien und Kritiken Vol. LXXIV (1901), pp. 593-607; A. Lotz, Die Bundeslade (1901); K. Budde, "Die Urspriingliche Bedeutung der Lade Jahves," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 193-7; W. Riedel, "Der Kultusort nach dem Bundesbuch, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen (1902), pp. 48-51; M. Verne, "Notes sur les sanctuaires de la region chanane"enne qui furent fre'quente's concurrement par les Israelites et les nations voisines," Revue de I'histoire des religions, Vol. XLIII (1901), pp. 352-54; P. Torge, Ascherah und Astarte (1902); A. Buchler, Das Synedrium in ferusalem und die grosse Beth-Din in der Quader-Kammer des Jerusalem- Tempels (1902); J. Prestel, Baugeschichte der iiidischen Heiligtiimer, und die Tempel-Salomos (1904). Pp. 90 ff., §94 — on Sacrifice: Cheyne, art. "Incense," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); W. P. Paterson, art. "Sacrifice," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); S. I. Curtiss, "Discoveries of a Vicarious Element in Primitive Semitic Sacrifice," Ex positor, 6th series, Vol. VI (1902), pp. 128-34; Idem, "The Origin of Sacrifice among the Semites," ibid. (1904), pp. 461-72; S. R. Driver, art. "Propitiation," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); S. Langdon, " History and Significance of Carthagi nian Sacrifice," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXIII (1903), pp. 79-93; G. F. Moore, art. "Sacrifice," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); R. de la Grasserie, "Du r61e sociale du sacrifice religieux," Revue de I'histoire des religions, July-August, 1 90 1; J. C. Matthes, " Zoeiv&exs," Teyler' s Theologisch Tijdschrift,^ 'ol. 11(1904), pp. 69-92. Pp. 104 ff., §106 — on Feasts: Cheyne, art. "Purim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Benzinger, artt. "New Moon," "New Year," "Passover," "Pentecost," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902), and "Feast of Tabernacles," ibid. (1903); A. T. Chapman, art. "Feast of Tabernacles," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); J. A. McClymont, art. 284 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT "Purim," ibid.; J. E. H. Thomson, "The Samaritan Passover," Palestine Exploration Fund, Vol. XXXIV (1902), pp. 82-92; Belleli, "The High Priest's Procession on the Day of Atonement," Jewish Quarterly Review, October, 1904; W. Riedel, "Die drei grossen jiidischen Feste," Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen ( 1 902), pp. 52-63; Fr. Buhl, art. "Laubhiittenfest," Realencyklopddie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche, Vol. XI (3d ed. 1902), pp. 303-6; Hochfeld, "Die Entstehung des Hanukafestes," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 264-84; S. Hanover, Das Festgesetz der Samarilaner nach Ibrahim ibn Ja'kub (1904); B. D. Eerdmans, "De groote Verzoendag," Theologisch Tijdschrift (1904), pp. 17-41. Pp. 114 ft., § 120 — on Sabbath: Toy, "Earliest Form of the Sabbath," Journal of Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 191 ff.; W. R. Smith and Benzinger, art. "Jubilee," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); Driver, art. " Sabbath," Hastings's Dictionary of The Bible (1902); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Sabbatical Year," ibid.: W. R. Smith, Marti, and Cheyne, art. " Sabbath," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); T. G. Pinches, " Sapattu, the Babylonian Sabbath," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Vol. XXVI (1904), pp. 51-56; W. Riedel, " Der Sabbath," Alttestamentliche Unter suchungen (1902), pp. 74-89; Bohn, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament (1903). Pp. 126 ff., § 134 — on Clean and Unclean : A. Macalister, artt. "Leprosy" and "Medicine," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); A. R. S. Kennedy, artt. "Food" and "Meals," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); C. Creighton, artt. "Leprosy, Lepers," and "Medicine," ibid.; A. S. Peake, art. "Unclean, Uncleanness," Hast ings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); S. A. Cook, "Israel and Totemism," Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. XIV (1902), pp. 413-48; Fr. Vinc. Zapletal, Der Totem ismus und die Religion Israels (1901) ; L. G. Levy, "Du totemisme chez les He'breux," Revue des itudes juives, Vol. XLV (1902), pp. 13-26. Pp. 133 f., § 139 — on Prayer: J. A. Selbie, art. "Praise," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); E. R. Bernard, art. "Prayer," ibid.; Cheyne, art. " Prayer," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Justus Koberle, Die Motive des Glaubens und der Gebetserhbrung im Alten Testament (1901). P. 135, § 142 — on Vows: W. H. Bennett, art. "Rechabites," Hastings's Dic tionary of the Bible (1902); A. S. Peake, art. "Vow," ibid.; W. R. Smith and T. K. Cheyne, art. "Nazirite," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Vows, Votive Offerings," ibid. Pp. 140 f., § 151 —on The Oath: M. A. Canney, art. " 'Oath," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902). Pp. 142 f., § 154— on Fasting: Benzinger, art. "Fasting, Fasts," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); J. J. P. Valeton, "Jets over Israelietischen Vastendagen," Theologisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXV (1901), pp. 521-29; M. Th. Houtsma, "Nog eenmal de Israelietische Vastendagen," ibid., Vol. XXXVI (1902), pp. 334-41. P- M5> § 157— on Oracles, Ephod, etc.: T. C. Foote, "The Ephod," Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. XXI (1902), pp. 1-47; A. R. S. Kennedy, art. "Urim and Thummim," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1902); G. F. Moore, art. "Urim- and Thummim," Encyclopedia Biblica (1903); Elhorst, "De Ephod," Teyler's Theolo gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. II, No. 2 (1904). Pp. 146L, § 160— on Magic and Divination: O. C. Whitehouse, art. "Soothsayer, Soothsaying, Sorcery," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, (1902); H. Zimmern and APPENDIXES 285 Davies, art. "Magic," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); Cheyne, art. "Serpent," §§ 3 ff., ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Teraphim," ibid.; F. SCHMID, "Die Zauberei und die Bibel," Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, Vol. XXVI, pp. 107-30; H. Duhm, Die bbsen Geister im Alten Testament (1904). Pp. 148 f., § 163 — on Mourning Customs, etc.: Morris Jastrow, "The Tearing of Garments as a Symbol of Mourning," Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XXI (1901), pp. 23-39; R- H. Charles, art. " Eschatology," Encyclopedia Biblica (1901); Benzinger, art. " Mourning Customs," ibid.; M. Jastrow, "Baring the Arm and Shoulder as a Sign of Mourning," Zeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, Vol. XXII (1902), pp. 117-20; J. A. Beet, "The Immortality of the Soul: Before Christ," Expositor, Sixth Series, Vol. Ill, pp. 50-61; J. Garnier, Wor ship of the Dead (1904); J. C. Matthes, "Rouw en doodenvereering in Israel," Theolo gisch Tijdschrift, Vol. XXXIV (1900), pp. 97-128, 193-224; Vol. XXXV (1901), pp. 320-49; J. Wohlgemuth, Die Unsterblichkeitslehre in der Bibel (1901); G. Beer,.^?- biblische Hades (1902); Sartori, Die Speisung der Toten (1903); C. L. DelStra, Rlcherches sur les vestiges d'un culte des morts chez les anciens Hebreux (1903); J. Schreiner, Elysium und Hades (1903); F. Roux, Essai sur la vie apres la mort chez les Israelites (1904); F. Hrozny, "Zur HoUenfahrt der Istar," Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes (1904), pp. 323-30; G. WlSSOWA, "Die Anfange des romischen L.arenk\iltes," Archiv fiir Religionswissenschaft (1904), pp. 42-57; A. Lods, "Les Israelites croyaient-ils a la vie future?" Revue chretienne (1904), pp. 283-300, 359-76. Pp. 150 f., §166 — on Circumcision: H. Gunkel, "Ueber die Beschneidung im alten Testament," Archiv fiir Papyrus- For schung, Vol. II (1902), pp. 13-21; P. Wend- land, "Die hellenistischen Zeugnisse iiber die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 23-31; Ulrich Wilcken, "Die agyptische Beschneidung," ibid., pp. 4-13; Kutna, " Studien iiber die Beschneidung, IV," Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des fudentums, Vol. XLVI (1902), pp. 193-205. Pp. 167 ff , § 181 — on The Deuteronomic Code: Cullen, The Book of the Cove nant in Moab (1903) ; S. Fries, Der Gesetzschrift des Kbnigs fosia (1903). Pp. 180 ff., chaps, xiv and xv — on The Priestly Document: Driver, art. " Law," Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible (1900); G. Harford-Battersby, art. "Leviti cus," ibid.; Idem, art. " Numbers," ibid.; G. F. Moore, art. "Leviticus," Encyclo pedia Biblica (1902); Idem, art. "Numbers," ibid.; G. B. Gray, Commentary on Numbers ("International Critical Commentary," 1903); J. Halevy, "Influence du Code Sacerdotal sur les prophetes," Revue semitique, Vol. IX (1901), pp. 1-6; Holzinger, Humeri erkldrt ("Kurzer Handkommentar," 1903); Erbt, Die Sicher- stellung des Monotheismus (1903). Pp. 225 ff., § 245 — on Ezra and Nehemiah : W. H. Kosters and T. K. Cheyne, art. " Nehemiah," Encyclopedia Biblica (1902); A. E. Cowley, art. "Samaritans," ibid. (1903); P. RlESSLER, "Uber Nehemias und Esdras," Biblische Zeitschrift, 1904, pp. 15-27, 145-53. Index INDEX Altar, 2, 16, 74 f., 76. Aramaic sections of Ezra-Nehemiah and Daniel, 229. Ark, *, 16, 18, 20, 75, 78. Asherim, 18, 20, 29. Atonement: day of, 5, 53, 96, 103 f., 113, 142. Ban, 129, 138 f.; literature on, 139. Baptism, 269. Belief, i. Blessings and cursings, 136-38; litera ture on, 137 f. Blood: use of, 86, 89. bull-worshd?, 18. Burnt-offering, 4, 18, 38. Calf-worshep, 20. Canon: formation of, 34. Centralization of worship, 76, 78, 99. Christianity: pre-natal, 270. Chronicles, books of, 208-17; scope of history in, 208; date of, 208 f.; sources of, 209-11, 216; treatment of sources in, 211; use of genealogies in, 211 f.; chronological and statistical character of, 212; literary style of, 213; selection of material in, 213; religion of, 213 f.; idealistic character of, 214 f.; litera ture on, 215 f.; numbers in, 217. Church: origin of, 196; purpose of, 196; and state, separation of, 34, 42, 43, 52. Circumcision, 1 49-5 1 ; literature on, 1 5 o f . Clan-god, 14. Clean and unclean, 32, 36, 119-30, 138; • in early period, 1 19-21; in middle period, 121, 122; in Ezekiel, 122 f.; in later period, 123-26; literature on, 126— 28; Hebrew words for, 129; among non- Hebrews, 129. Clergy: distinction between, and laity, 38, 268. Community: Israel a religious, 43, 55; origin of idea of, 196; purpose of, 196. Conduct, i. Covenant: Book of the, 25 f.; Code, 155 f- Curse, Cyrus: 136 f. policy of, 44. Dancing, 6, 15, 19, 20, 22. Davidic psalms, 23, 237-40. Decalogue, 24 f. Deuteronomy: discovery of, 29 f.; 156 f; teaching of, 31 ff., 165; authorship of, 157—65; point of view and coloring of, 159 f.; language and style of, 160 f.; material of, 161 f.; its relation to other Old Testament literature, 162 f; and the New Testament, 163 f.; a forgery? 1 64 f . ; structure and general character of, 165-67; literature on, 167-69. Deuteronomic writers, 167. Divination, 17, 145-47. Dream, 6, 17, 21. Drink-offering, 4. Ephod, 65, 120, 143-45. Esdras I.: relation to Ezra, 228 f. Ethics, i Exclusiveness, 44, 55, 125 f., 175 f. Exile: significance of, 35, 195; return from, 39, 46, 51. Ezekiel, 37, 39; work of, 170-79; histor ical background of, 1 70 f . ; prepara tion of, 171 f.; prophetic work of, 172 f.; dependence upon Jeremiah, 172; structure and character of chaps. 40- 48, 174; genuineness of book, 174; ideas of chaps. 40—48, 175; literature on, 177-79. Ezra: work of, 48; relation to Nehemiah, 180, 181; introduction of law, 180 f.; law of, what was it? 181; relation of chaps. 40-48 to Priestly Code, 187 f. Ezra and Nehemiah: books of, 218-29; scope of history in, 218 f.; unity of, 220; unity of Chronicles and, 220 f., 225; date of, 221 f.; sources of, 222 f., 228; treatment of sources in, 223 f.; style of, 224; religion of, 225; literature on, 225— 28. First-fruits, 21, 31, 49. Fasts, 6, 36, 40, 45, 54, 103 f., 141-43. 269; literature on, 142 f. 289 290 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Feasts, 5, 15, 21, 32, 33, 36, 38, 53, 94- 107, 176 f.; Harvest, 18, 21, 95; Vintage, 18; at Shiloh, 19; of Ingathering, 21, 95; of Unleavened Bread, 21, 32, 33, 53> 95> 98, 101, 102; of Tabernacles, 32» 33. 4°, 53 f-> 95. 99. IQ2; of Pente cost, 32, 95, 96; of Weeks, 33, 53, 95, 99, 102; of Passover, 32, 38, 40, 53, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 113; of New Moon, 38, 40, 53, 97, 102; of New Year, 53; in early times, 94-98; in middle period 98-100; in Ezekiel, 100 f. ; in later pe riod, 101-4; literature on, 104-6; of Booths, 95, 113; of Sheep-shearing, 97; special, 97; influence of, 97; of Trumpets, 102 f., 113; of Purim, 104; Hebrew words for, 170; among non- Hebrews, 107. Future life, 14. Genealogies, in O. T., 217; in Chron icles, 211 f. ; in P., 202 f. ; in Ezra- Nehemiah, 229. God, love of, 33; conception of, 45, 95, 96, 107, 175, 188, 207; holiness of, 45, 55, 107, 130, 176; Kingdom of, 174 f. Greek period, 56 f. Hezekiah's reform, 28, 82. High places, 2, 17, 22. High-priest, 47, 52, 65, 70. Histories: within the Hexateuch, 62; priestly, 62, 195-229; origin of, 196!; historical character of, 198 f. ; prophetic, 197 f. Holiness — see Clean and Unclean. Holiness: of God, 45, 55, 265; of sanc tuary, 55- Holiness Code, 63, 186. Idolatry, 31, 35 f., 84, 90, 176. Incense-offering, 4. Individualism, 43, 54 f., 173. Josiah: reform of, 30 f. ; death of, 35. Jubilee: year of, 53, 114, 117. Judaism, 42, 46, 52, 54 f.; Cornill on, 57. Law: Levitical, 15, 43, 49, 50; Deutero nomic, 15, 29, 155-69; early, 15 f., 20, 24; codes of, 61 f. Laws, 7 f., 17, 19, 20, 44. Legal literature, 155-91. Levite, 18, 20, 31, 37, 39, 48, 52, 65, 66 f.; distinction between priest and, 39, 66 f., 68, 69, 176. Literalism of priests, 257- Lord's Supper: the, 268. Lost writings of Hebrews, 217. Lot, 143-45- Magic, 54, 137, 145-475 literature on, 146 f. Malachi: priestly character of, 4°- Manasseh: reaction under, 29. Marriages: mixed, 48, 49. Meal-offering, 38. Messianic expectations, 44. Monotheism, 45, 55. moon-feasts, 18, 32, 38, 109, 112. Mourning customs: 147-49; literature on, 148 f. Music, 6, 19, 20, 22, 40, 54. Nazirite, 134 f. Necromancy, 54. Nehemiah: work of, 47 f. Oaths, 139-41; literature on, 140 f. Oracles, 6, 21, 143-45; literature on, 144 f. Passover, 32, 38, 40, 86, 96, 98, 125. Peace-offering, 4, 38. Pentateuch: origin of, 15, 19. Persian rule, 51. Personification in Old Testament, 240 f. Pillars: sacred, 18, 20. Place of worship, 1-3, 14, 16, 17 f., J9f-. 3i, 33. 36, 37. 52f-> 74-82; in early times, 74 f. ; in middle period, 75 f. ; in Ezekiel, 76 f . ; in later period, 77 f.; literature on, 78-80; function of, 82. Post-exilic period: characteristics of, 42 f. ^Prayer, 6, 17, x8, 21, 22, 32, 36, 40, 45, 54, i3J-34; literature on, 133 f. PR,IRSIn3'^'IV0'22'3I.33f-;36,37, 3a, 39. 47. 52, 63-73, 126; classification of, 70; sanctity of, 38, 68, 69, 175; 68PP,ort*f «l8f 3-' 47' 48' So. 6S, 67, 68, 70, 84, 89 f.; ln earl ti 6 > A in Deuteronomic period, 66 f.; in Eze kiel, 67 f., i76; m later period, 68-70; hterature on, 70 f • among K brews, 72; outside functions of"^ as mediator, 73. ' ' ' Priestly code, 62 f., 180-01- a^ j authorship of, 181^; S^vie^ INDEX 291 and coloring of, 182 f.; language and style of, 183; repetitions between P. and other legislation, 183 f.; discrep ancies between P. and other legislation, 184 f.; structure and contents of, 185- 87; strata within, 185; relation of Ezek. chaps. 40-48 to, 187 f.; principal ideas of, 188 f.; literature on, 189-91. Priestly element: limitations 0^257; corruption in, 257; essential teachings of, 264 f.; permanent truth in, 269 f. ; ethical influence of, 270. Priestly influence: basis of later, 195 f. Priestly narrative in Hexateuch, 195—207; scope of, 199; gradual growth of, 199 f.; sources of, 200 f.; legislation within, 201 f. ; systematic character of, 202 ; genealogical material within, 202 f ; statistics and dates within, 203; repe- titiousness of, 203 f.; selection of material in, 204 f.; theology of, 205 f.; literature on, 206 f. Priestly nation, 3, 36, 72. Priestly system : characteristics of , 2 5 8 f . ; subjectivism of, 258; relation to proph ecy, 259 f.; purpose of, 261 f. ; national character of, 26if. ; relation to Messian- ism, 263 f.; relation to Greek thought, 264. Prophets: Relation of P. toward wor ship, 22, 34, 38, 40, 62, 65, 67, 70, 73, 75. 76> 78, 84 f., 86, 90, 97, 100, 103, 109, no, 135. Propitiation, 45, 50, 53, 54, 176, 189. Psalm: supersciptions of, 234 f. Psalms, 23, 233-53; °f early period, 23; literature on, 23; of second temple, 56; significance of, 56, 90; priest in, 71; scope of priestly element in, 233; non- priestly elements in, 233; problems of, 233-44; tests of Davidic, 239 f.; Macca- baean, 242 f . ; priestly element in, 244 ff. ; of Ascents, 245; imprecatory, 253; Babylonian penitential, 253. Psalter: historical element in, 235 f. ; David's contribution to, 237 -40; the "I" of the, 240 ff.; editorial element in, 243 f.; as a Book of Prayer, 246 f.; as a Book of Praise, 247 f.; as a manual of communion, 248 f . ; significance of, for priestly system, 249; literature on, 249-52; origin of, 252. Reaction under Manasseh, 29; after Josiah, 35; after rebuilding of temple, 46. Reform of Hezekiah, 28, 82 ; of Josiah, 30 f., 267; of Nehemiah, 47 f. Refuge: cities of, 70. Religion: its constituent elements, 1, 13; most ancient form of Semitic, 13 f . Revelation: channels of, 1. Sabbath, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 38, 45, 48, 49, 53, 108-18, 150; in early times, 108—10; in middle period, nof. ; in Ezekiel, inf.; in later period, 11 2-1 4, 150; literature on, 114-17; meaning of Hebrew word, 117; among non-He brews, 117 f.; origin of, 109, 118. Sabbatical year, 21, 32, 49, 53, 109 f., 111, 112, 113 f. Sacrifice, 3-5, 14 f., 17, 18, 20 f., 22, 31. 34, 36> 38, 40, S3. 83-93, 2°5; nature of, 4, 14 f., 18, 20 f., 34, 45, 55, 84, 89; kinds of, 4 f., 38, 84, 85, 88; materials of, 5, 88 f.; human, 21, 29, 32, 84, 86; in early period, 83-85; in middle period, 85 f.; in Ezekiel, 86 f.; in later period, 87-90; literature on, 90-92; Hebrew words for, 93; among non-Hebrews, 93; origin of, 93. Sages: attitude of toward worship, 71, 92, 117, 128, 135, 148, 150. Samaritans. 50 f. Scribes, 52. Semites: contribution of, 13. Sennacherib's invasion, 28. Serpent worship, 18. Seven: use of number, 118, 140. Sin: conception of, 55, 90, 96, 103, 107, 176, 188 f., 265 f. Sin-offering, 5. Skepticism, 47. Slaves: release of, 53, m. Songs and hymns, 6 f., 17, 19, 22, 23, 40, 41. 54- Soothsaying, 54. Sorcery, 6, 18, 21, 22, 29, 32, 40, 137, 145-47- Springs: as abodes of deity, x. Stones: sacred, 2. Synagogue, 36, 43, 51 f., 53, 81, 267. Tabernacle, 2, 78, 184 f. Taboo, 120, 121, 138. Temple, *, 20, 37, 39, 48, 52 f., 75, 77, 78, 175; tax, 49; Samaritan, 50 f.; 81 f. 2g2 PRIESTLY ELEMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Tent of meeting, 2, 75. Teraphim, 16, 17. Times of worship, 5, 17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 38, 40, 53- Tithe, 32, 40, 47, 48, 49. Totemism, 119 f., 121, 123, 124. Tree-worship, 2, 18. Trespass-offering, 4, 38. Urim and Thummim, 18, 65, 67, 143- 45- Visions, 18, 21, 171 f., 175. Vows, 6, 17, 18, 21, 32, 40, 54, 134 f-> *38; literature on, 135. Wave-offering, 5. Witchcraft, 18, 20, 22, 145-47- Wood for burnt-offerings, 49- Worship, i, 13, 34 f.; corrupt, 47i history of, 8, 13-57, 61; periods in history of, 13, 15 f., 27 f.; primitive stage of, 16 f.; Canaanitish stage of, 16, 17 ff.; proph etic stage of, 16, 19-22; Canaanitish influence on, 17; Babylonian influence on, 36 f.; literature of, 155- YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 3 9002 03918 2325