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YALE
DIVINITY SCHOOL
LIBRARY

Gift of
Professor George Dahl

THE MODERN APPROACH TO THE
OLD TESTAMENT
GEORGE DAHL

THE MODERN APPROACH TO THE
OLD TESTAMENT
GEORGE DAHL
WHAT is his dominating motive?" is perhaps
the most searching question one could ask
concerning a person. In the long run this
major purpose will infallibly shape his conduct. It is the
driving force behind action. Men do not "gather grapes of
thorns nor figs of thistles" ; no more does the tree of cor
rupt or even indifferent purpose bring forth good fruit.
\ Unless the motive is fundamentally right it is useless to
<q hope that the results will be worthy.
« Taken over into the field of Old Testament science our
? query assumes the form: "What motive dominates the
Q modern approach to the Old Testament?" It is conceiv-
a able that the motive might be purely intellectual; that one
? would study this ancient collection of books because of its
t inherent interest. The Old Testament is a veritable treas-
"^ ure-house of absorbing information — geographical, ar
il chaeological, historical, philosophical, literary, doctrinal.
J Men have always been richly rewarded for their pains
c when they have approached it from these varied angles.
k' Nevertheless the satisfaction of intellectual curiosity does
"I not yield the true secret of the book.
It is only when one comes to the Old Testament with a
distinctly religious purpose that he really understands it.
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education for christian service
This is because it is first and last a religious book, the
product of men's experiences with the Unseen. As well
expect a blind man to appreciate a sunset, or a deaf man a
symphony concert, as expect an irreligious man adequately
to interpret the Bible or any portion of it. Discoveries in
this realm are confined to those who themselves know reli
gion at first hand. Appreciating this fact, modern scholar
ship has increasingly placed the emphasis on the religious
approach to and interpretation of the Old Testament. This
religious motive has proved the golden key to unlock this
storehouse of spiritual truth.
But, of course, the necessity for rigorous intellectual
method is not dispensed with by putting the religious
motive in its rightful place of supremacy. Neither good
intentions nor religious zeal can take the place of ideas.
It is through the medium of ideas that religious growth
normally comes. The interpreter must, therefore, avail
himself of all the light that modern scholarship has fur
nished for the illumination of the text. Geography, ar
chaeology, sociology, history and many more sciences are
summoned into service as handmaids to the religious inter
pretation of the Old Testament. It is the observation of a
very shallow brain that the Bible needs no interpreter or
commentary save itself. The very fact that we are removed
from its scenes by thousands of miles and from its events
by thousands of years should warn against despising any
legitimate means of thinking ourselves back into the actual
environment in which these dynamic ideas first found ex
pression. The modern scholar accordingly seeks such
knowledge of the background of the heroes and events of
the book as will enable him to appreciate more truly their
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APPROACH TO OLD TESTAMENT
significance in the history of religion, and help him to
appropriate their values for the religious life. The re-
enforcement of the religious motive by reverent and
thorough intellectual processes constitutes his equipment
for his task.
Of interest in this connection is the history of the inter
pretation of the Old Testament. Despite sporadic attempts
to combine sound exegesis with the religious spirit, the
Christian Church has in the past frequently followed
methods of interpretation that do not commend them
selves to the modern trained mind. Where the plain and
obvious sense of a passage seemed to them too mundane
or unspiritual for their purposes the Fathers, like their
predecessors in the Jewish Church, resorted to uncon
trolled allegorizing. In addition, a great deal of misdi
rected ingenuity was devoted to the search for "types" of
Christian life and doctrine. Again, some have degraded the
Bible, including, of course, the Old Testament, into a book
of magic, the random opening of which would give infalli
ble direction on any problem. Others have believed its
chief function to be a mystical unveiling of future events.
Or it has been regarded as a fixed legal code, valid for all
time, and with every individual part equal in value to
every other part. These practices made the Old Testament
as wax in the hands of its interpreters. Each moulded and
arranged it to suit his own purposes. In the attempt to
prove dogma, verses were wrenched out of their context
and forced to render service in fields where they were not
at home. Elaborate systems of doctrine were evolved in
utter disregard of the plain fact that the Old Testament
represents many opposing points of view. The natural
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result of all this was to discredit these types of interpreta
tion in the eyes of thoughtful men. At length the inevita
ble reaction toward more rational and defensible methods
came. Modern interpretation of the Old Testament may be
said to date from the year 1680, when the French priest
Simon called attention to the striking phenomenon that
many events in Genesis were recorded two or even three
times. Seventy years later (in 1753) another Frenchman,
Astruc, published his Conjectures, in which he suggested
the thesis that Moses had availed himself of various
memoirs in writing the book of Genesis. Since then a tre
mendous amount of scholarly acumen has been devoted
to unravelling the secrets of the Old Testament. Especially
have the last seventy-five or one hundred years witnessed
notable progress. Among the great names that stand out
in this field of scholarship are those of Ewald, Stade and
Wellhausen in Germany; Robertson Smith and Driver in
Great Britain; and Briggs and Bacon in America. Each
step taken by these scholars has been the subject of the
keenest and most searching criticism. No position has been
taken hastily. As a result, their work has commended itself
almost universally to scholars of liberal mind. It may be
added that, despite insignificant differences in detail, the
main conclusions are in practically unanimous agreement.
In the United States modern Old Testament science was
rather late in gaining a secure foothold. The traditional
fourfold exegesis, literal, tropological, allegorical and
anagogical, long held sway. It is true that in 1843 Theo
dore Parker blazed a trail toward better things by trans
lating De Wette's Introduction to the Old Testament. Un-
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fortunately this work was practically ignored. Only after
another twenty-five years did modern study succeed in
implanting itself. Then it was largely due to students who
had taken courses in English and German universities.
During these last fifty years progress has been so rapid
that the modern approach to the Old Testament is now a
commonplace in all our leading educational institutions.
This method of study may best be described as his
torical. It involves, as already suggested, the attempt
to view Old Testament life and literature in the light of
its background. The various books are recognized as
the product of a religious process extending over many
centuries, each inevitably reflecting the time and condi
tions under which it was written. Realizing that spiritual
experiences are never detached from the rest of life, but
are a vital part thereof, the historical student labors to
discover how the great experiences described or reflected
in the Old Testament were related to their own age.
More than this, he draws near to these inspired records
of the past in a humble and teachable frame of mind, not
seeking to clamp upon them any ready-made dogma or
theory of his own, but allowing the books themselves to
bear witness to their origin, purpose and message. To
keep his mind sensitive to the truth and constantly to
correct mistaken conclusions in its light is his first aim.
Three adjectives have been used to describe the his
torical method: It is said to be critical, comparative
and evolutionary. The word critical is used in contra
distinction to traditional. During two thousand years
Jewish Rabbis, Church Fathers, Schoolmen and other
devoted students of Holy Writ have established certain
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traditions of interpretation. One might be tempted to rest
in the confident belief that, after so many years and so
much effort, nothing new exists under the sun so far as
Old Testament study is concerned. Certainly the books
themselves remain unaltered. It would be a grave error,
however, to suppose that, simply because the materials
remain the same from age to age, a science based on these
materials must mark time. The heavens change but lit
tle; nevertheless astronomy has made enormous strides
forward in recent decades. The same is true of chemistry,
biology and all the sciences, including the study of his
tory. Advance in these branches of learning is conditioned
upon the application of improved methods of study to the
facts. In like manner, Old Testament science progresses
only as its followers break traditional fetters in order,
with open mind and the most approved methods of his
torical science, to re-examine the data.
Critical study involves, then, nothing more than the
careful examination of the facts upon which a science is
based. It seeks to know things as they really are. The
term connotes, not depreciation, but appreciation; its
spirit is not destructive but, in the truest sense, construct
ive. It simply means the application to Biblical study of
methods that have been productive of most happy results
elsewhere. This critical method may be directed either toward
events or teachings. When applied to events it frankly
inquires whether what the writer thought happened ac
tually did happen. For example, is the late priestly his
tory of the Chronicler, so amazingly different in spirit and
content from the earlier records in Genesis to Kings, an
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accurate portrayal of the real facts? Was the tabernacle
contructed along the elaborate lines described by the
priestly historian? How are we to deal with the incon
sistencies of Old Testament chronology? These difficul
ties raise the question whether we are justified in demand
ing of these inspired authors of writings designed for
religious edification the training and equipment of skilled
modern historians. A careful survey of many passages
would make it appear that they generally failed to appre
ciate, as the merest tyro in writing history to-day would do,
the necessity for making allowance for the lapse of time
between the event and their own age. This resulted in
gross anachronisms. Furthermore, they were inclined to
accept as absolutely true all that tradition had handed
down from antiquity; at least they felt no call to raise
the question whether certain narratives belonged to the
realm of fact or fancy. Now we know that there exists a
constant and decided tendency for tradition to supply the
omissions of history. Devout and loving reflection is apt
to weave a rose-colored web of legend about the leading
characters and events of the remote past. In fact, this
process begins sometimes while the hero is still alive. The
recognition of this tendency may destroy for us some
beautiful illusions. Nevertheless, honesty compels us to
seek the facts; and they are often essential to the discov
ery of the truth. And legend itself usually contains at
least these two elements of historical value: first, it bears
faithful witness to the original greatness of the hero or the
event, as the case may be; and second, it shows how the
life and imagination of later ages were affected. In short,
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it furnishes a spiritual interpretation and background.
And this is no mean service.
When, on the other hand, critical method is brought
into contact with the teachings of the Old Testament,
what is its attitude? It reverently asks whether certain
doctrines enunciated by the ancient writer are still en
tirely valid in the light of later more advanced teach
ings, especially as these are found in the New Testament.
Job's practical denial of real immortality, for instance, is
unhesitatingly put down as representing an incomplete
stage in the unfolding of religious truth. In view of Jesus'
contrast of his lofty ethics with those of the past, the
Mosaic law is recognized as inferior to the New Testa
ment revelation. In all this the aim is to build up a con
ception of Old Testament religion which is true to the
facts, and to develop an appreciation of the highest ethical
and spiritual values.
Does this critical study seriously modify traditional
views of the various portions of the Old Testament? Let
us first examine the Pentateuch. Here we find that an im
portant literary discovery has been made: these first five
books are not, as tradition claims, the product of a single
mind, but of four principal schools of writers, denoted
usually by the cryptic symbols J, E, D and P. This is the
so-called documentary theory. Its beginnings date back
to the observation, already referred to, that duplicate and
even triplicate accounts of the same event are given. It
was also noticed that the narratives are distinguished from
one another by consistent differences in vocabulary (in
cluding the divine name), literary style, point of view,
dominating interests and theological conceptions. The
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ancient Rabbinical tradition of the Mosaic authorship of
the completed Pentateuch had finally to go by the board.
Not one lone author, but the literary effort of at least four
centuries (850-450 B. C.) was seen to be represented in
these books. In common with other ancient literatures the
Pentateuch is a composite work. The editors who, at suc
cessive stages, wove these documents together seem to
have worked like some of the Arabic historians. These
often give several discrepant versions of the same event
and allow the reader to take his choice. Naturally the
Hebrew writers, widely separated in point of time as they
were, differ in skill and historical accuracy. Legendary
embellishments such as are found in early Greek and
Roman history are not absent, being especially evident
in the earlier chapters. The necessity is, therefore, laid
upon every student to acquire in some measure at least
that prime requisite of a true historian: the ability to dis
tinguish between degrees of probability. At the same time
the literary and religious value of the narratives is not
impaired. On the contrary, the removal of repetitions and
obvious inconsistencies vastly enhances their usefulness.
When we turn to the historical books from Joshua to
Chronicles, we find that they are built up in much the
same way. In fact, Kings explicitly asserts the use of
sources, and mentions some of them by name. Joshua is
of a piece with the Pentateuch and employs the same
documents. Judges and Samuel likewise show unmistak
able evidences of compilation, including the presence of
numerous duplicate narratives. Both Judges and Kings
are cast in formal literary moulds, the contribution of an
editor of the Deuteronomic school. Chronicles, Ezra and
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Nehemiah are a re-writing, with additions, of the preced
ing history by a pronounced ecclesiastic, who sought to
correct what he considered the faults and omissions of the
earlier books. He employed several independent tradi
tions and documents, notably the genuine memoirs of
Nehemiah. Thus in the historical books, as in the Pen
tateuch, the need for critical method is obvious; its em
ployment clarifies the narratives and increases their liter
ary interest and their usefulness for religious instruction.
What about the prophetic books? Practically without
exception, they contain what is termed secondary mate
rial ; that is, they have been added to by later generations
of writers. It would seem that the oracles of the earlier
prophets were limited almost exclusively to the exposure
of evils, exhortations to repentance and threats of coming
punishment; that these men were too great and wise prac
tically to nullify their messages by unrelated and uncon
ditional promises of blessing and prosperity. Here again
the criteria of vocabulary, literary style, religious attitude
and background in time and place furnish incontrovertible
evidence that the messages of hope are, in general, later
than the original book. After the stroke of divine wrath
announced by these earlier prophets had fallen, there
arose new prophets who declared that this was not the
end — that Jehovah, who had punished, would now restore.
Some of the oracles of these anonymous later prophets
were attached to the original collections, thus making the
books more usable for the times. In all this there was
neither desire nor attempt to deceive. Furthermore, it
appears that occasionally a floating fragment of prophecy
was added to a book for no more profound reason than
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that there happened to be space left at the end of the roll.
The most notable example of the addition of secondary
material is found in the book of Isaiah, more than half of
which is by later writers. Chapters 36 to 39, to give an
example, are historical narratives borrowed by a late
editor from Kings; the incomparable poetry of chapters
34, 35, 40-66 is by an unknown genius, commonly referred
to as the Second Isaiah, who prophesied several genera
tions after the fall of Jerusalem in 586 B. C. In general,
Messianic prophecies — despite certain elements of truth
in the contention of Gunkel and Gressmann that this style
of prophecy must have been known in early times — are
late. The literary study of the prophets thus results in
modifications of traditional ideas concerning authorship,
date and circumstances of writing. It is seen that indi
vidual passages in certain books must be transferred to
contexts entirely different from their present ones in order
to be understood. In many cases, this does not in any way
impair their religious value — often, indeed, it is enhanced.
For example, the poems of hope and cheer carry far more
conviction and inspiration when we know how bravely
they were first sung out of the night of national disaster
and chaos.
It would carry us too far afield were we to consider in
any detail the bearings of critical study on the poetical
and story books. Suffice it to say that a great deal of new
and welcome light has come from the careful, untram
melled study of this important literature. It becomes evi
dent that books like Daniel and Esther belong to the last
centuries of the old dispensation. Psalm titles, such as
"to David," seem to signify dedication or source rather
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than authorship; in its present form the book of Psalms
is comparatively late, and served as the hymn book of the
second temple. The book of Proverbs itself acknowledges
diversity of authorship. Jobr,is evidently in the main a
product of the distressful period of national subjugation
and disintegration after 586, and belongs with those other
wrestlings with the insistent problem of suffering, the
Servant Songs of the Second Isaiah.
Another important result of the application of critical
method to this last group of books is a new realization of
the great variety and diversity of tempers contained in
them. For example, Esther and Ecclesiastes are not at all
on a par religiously with Job or the nobler Psalms. The
Song of Solomon can no longer be treated as a deeply
spiritual book; no method of allegorizing can possibly
justify this age in singing these frankly sensual love and
wedding songs as hymns of Zion. Their intrinsic value lies
elsewhere. In all this the distinction between more and
less valuable has resulted in a truer appreciation of those
books or portions of books which attain to the higher
reaches of Israel's faith.
To summarize the bearings of criticism on traditional
views of the Old Testament: it has altered some opinions
as to date, authorship, composition, historicity and even
the religious nature of certain books. It has also made it
increasingly impossible for men ever again to regard the
Old Testament as an inerrant text-book of science or his
tory. On the other hand, it has immensely strengthened
the fundamental conviction that these books contain a
genuine revelation of divine truth. And it has had the very
salutary effect of emphasizing the fact that the primary
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value of the Old Testament is religious — that it is full to
overflowing of religious inspiration.
But modern historical study of the Old Testament is
not only critical — it is in the second place comparative.
It does not segregate the Hebrew religion as though there
were no other religion in the world, or as though it bore
no relation to other religions. It recognizes the relation
ship of Hebrew civilization to that of the Semitic world in
general. The geography, archaeology and history of this
larger world are diligently scrutinized in order that their
influence upon Hebrew life and thought may be traced.
The literatures of the surrounding nations are summoned
into court. These bear testimony to the surprising fact
that the ancient Babylonians possessed Creation and
Deluge stories unmistakably related to those in Genesis.
The law code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon eight cen
turies before Moses' time, contains remarkable parallels
to the earlier Hebrew legislation. Egyptian, Babylonian,
Assyrian and Moabite inscriptions bear irrefutable wit
ness to the intimate relationship between the Hebrews
and their neighbors. Almost without exception, the basic
Hebrew institutions — Sabbath, circumcision, sacrifice,
priesthood, prophecy, prayer, feasts, fasts, menhirs, crom
lechs, consecration of the hair, distinction between clean
and unclean — existed among other Semites long before the
Hebrew nation had any being. Messianic prophecy flour
ished both in Assyria and in Egypt; probably this was
related in some way to the same development in Israel.
These important bits of evidence go to show that Hebrew
religion did not grow up in a vacuum but in closest con
tact with other Semitic religions. This does not imply,
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however, that we reduce all religions to the same monoto
nous level of mediocrity. The fact that one recognizes
good in other religions does not involve disloyalty to one's
own, any more than the recognition of excellent qualities
in other nations makes one a traitor to his own govern
ment. It is well known that missionaries in closest contact
w7ith heathen religions are the first to acknowledge the
good points of these faiths; at the same time they main
tain with all the more conviction the unrivalled superior
ity of the Christian faith. Modern scholarship asserts that
the Hebrew religion towered far above and beyond all
neighboring religions. What peculiarly marked and dis
tinguished it was the extraordinary way in which it took
institutions common to all the Semitic faiths and ethicized
and spiritualized them. Its pre-eminence was not because
it was different in kind, but because it was of superior
quality. Besides being critical and comparative, the historical
method is in the third place evolutionary or develop
mental. In line with modern scientific thought, it holds to
a universe of law and order characterized by the unfailing
sequence of cause and effect; not a universe in which hap
penings are spasmodic or catastrophic, resulting from vio
lent intrusions upon its order of a providence from out
side. Some of the Old Testament historians,. especially the
later ones, thought of the universe in terms of such direct
interventions of God. They start with a miraculous act of
creation which culminated in the twin disasters of the
Fall of Man and the Flood. Again, Abraham is made to
begin a new era, which in turn goes to ruin with the fall,
first of Israel, and then of Judah. For these writers his-
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tory consists of an intermittent series of divinely initiated
revivals followed in each instance by woeful backsliding.
But historical study has demonstrated that this is hardly
an accurate portrayal of the course of Old Testament his
tory. Development and ascent are clearly traceable. Of
course progress is not without interruption; there are fre
quent setbacks, and at any given time survivals from
more primitive ages will be present. But over any consid
erable period advance is clearly discernible. A comparison
of the crude theology of David, who believed that Jeho
vah's realm was limited to Israel, with the practical mono
theism of the prophets Amos and Isaiah, or with the sense
of Jehovah's omnipresence in the 'Davidic' Psalm 139, will
demonstrate the reality of this process of development.
The finished law, too, is the result of growth, the impor
tant stages of which are clearly marked. The evolution of
such conceptions as individual responsibility, monotheism
and real immortality can be traced from meager begin
nings to the full doctrine. Many individuals and influences
contributed to the unfolding revelation. When Jesus ap
peared, it was, therefore, in the fulness of time. His mes
sage was the result, not only of his own peerless spiritual
insight, but also of the quiet centuries of preparation that
had gone before.
We have seen that the modern approach to the Old
Testament is historical in method, and that its operations
may be described as critical, comparative and evolution
ary. It is above all regardful of spiritual interests and
values, never forgetting that the books under considera
tion are religious documents. An attitude of thorough
sympathy with the underlying purpose of the writings is
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regarded as an indispensable condition of Old Testament
interpretation. So much, then, for the spirit and characteristics of the
modern approach to the Old Testament. Is the application
of the historical method justified by results? The one valid
test is still that of Jesus: "By their fruits ye shall know
them." In view of that test, what answer shall we give?
It ought to be said at once that nothing of vital value
is lost. It is, indeed, simply unthinkable that genuine facts
reverently sought and found can possibly hurt the truth.
What if some changes do take place in our modes of think
ing ? The great foundations of faith still remain absolutely
unshaken. It is reassuring to reflect that such a story as
the Fall of Man, for instance, teaches practically the same
lesson concerning man and God and sin whether one views
it as history or as parable. Generally speaking, the reli
gious value of a given book is independent of such ques
tions as date, authorship, place and even historicity. A
case in point is the book of Psalms, which is fitted to
voice the hopes and longings of every age, no matter when
these hymns were written or by whom. It is, after all, the
great personalities and lofty teachings of the Bible that
have supplied men with inspiration in all ages; questions
such as we have considered do not affect the inspirational
value of these. And the modern method has this distinct
advantage: it supplies a point of view which makes pos
sible the effective use of Old Testament material of every
kind in a scientific age and in dealing with educated peo
ple. Values are thus conserved, not lost, for our times.
But the historical method renders a decidedly more
positive service than that of preserving certain Old Tes-
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tament values intact. It has actually enhanced the value
of some books for our generation. Chief among these are
the prophetic collections. Of course the prophets have
always been regarded as important members of the Old
Testament dispensation. But it has been the habit of both
Jewish and Christian scholars to treat them as subordi
nate to Moses; in fact, as little more than commentators
on the Old Testament legislation. It was argued that, in
asmuch as God's perfect will had been revealed once for
all through Moses, the principal function of the prophets
was to echo and re-enforce, as eloquently as they could,
the laws in which that will was contained. The towering
personalities of these men were considerably obscured by
this attitude of mind. Now modern scholarship has made
its most significant and revolutionary contribution in the
discovery that, broadly speaking, the greater prophets
came before and not after the law. Instead of being sup
plementary to the law, they were the great creative gen
iuses whose utterances led to the law's gradual formation.
They were literally seers, discoverers and revealers of
new truths in the sphere of individual, social and national
life, leaders in the forward movements of ethics and reli
gion. Nor were they the passive and mechanical 'chan
nels' of divine revelation. They were heroic souls who,
despite dangers without and doubts within, fought out and
wrought out the sublime faith that has made them for
ever great. Again, the common notion that the prophets
were primarily predicters of a Messiah who was to ap
pear in the distant future comes wide of the mark. It
is evident that the greater prophets were much more con
cerned with the vital, living message of God for their
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own age; as a matter of fact, they continually opposed
the false optimism of those who predicted peace and pros
perity. To quote a common play on words, they were not
so much /oretellers as Jorthtellers ; they were the spokes
men of the divine will. Call the roll — Amos, Hosea, Isaiah,
Micah, Jeremiah, the Second Isaiah and the rest — and
the prophets will be found to be all of them men who met
and satisfied for their own generations the age-long cry
for adequate leadership. To degrade them, as many have
done, to the position of hewers of wood and drawers of
water in support of theological dogmas is obviously unfair.
It has been the high privilege of historical study to free
the prophets from their irksome bondage and restore them
to their true status as the noblemen of the Most High.
Besides re-discovering the prophets and revealing them
in their unique majesty, the modern method has this to
its credit: it has demonstrated that the Old Testament as
a whole was a living, growing organism. The law, it is
clear, was never complete; the presence of three separate
codes — Covenant, Deuteronomic and Priestly — indicates
a constant effort to bring legislation up to the needs of
a developing civilization. The repeated editing and re
vising of the histories, prophetic books and Psalms is
proof positive that the ancients conceived of God as one
who constantly added new revelations to old truth. The
prophets pre-eminently believed that Jehovah spoke in
fresh and living accents to each succeeding generation.
Truth was for them not static but dynamic. Religion was
never something to be handed down mechanically, but a
progressive achievement. The work of the historical
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school has been largely instrumental in enforcing this
larger view of the Old Testament and its religion.
Historical study has made another considerable contri
bution to the correct interpretation of the Old Testament
by demonstrating that the "four silent centuries" between
Ezra and the opening of the Christian era are not silent
at all. These four hundred years have now become vocal
with fears and hopes and panting aspirations after God.
To mention only a few instances, Jonah, Ecclesiastes,
Esther, Daniel, Chronicles, many Psalms and numerous
Messianic passages are now generally acknowledged to be
the products of this period; some of them belong as far
down as the Maccabean age. These late documents cast a
veritable flood of light upon the hitherto obscure centuries
after the traditional closing of the canon in Ezra's time.
The richness and variety of this literature is really amaz
ing. The two main types of thought are easily distin
guishable: the legalistic, which is represented especially
by the Chronicler; and opposed to this, the prophetic, as
shown in the missionary spirit of the book of Jonah and
the earnest piety of many Psalms. In Daniel and the
appendices to Zechariah we witness the metamorphosis
of prophecy into the strange and baffling phenomenon
of apocalypse; of this type of literature we find numerous
representatives in the extra-canonical writings. Modern
Biblical science has thus enlarged our appreciation of the
divine economy by demonstrating how, through the bar
ren desert of late Jewish legalism, God was preparing this
prophetic highway for the coming of Christ.
But it is in its reaction upon the intellectual and reli
gious life of students that the historical method best dem-
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onstrates its claim to recognition. The method demands of
the student and develops within him a certain balance
and sanity of judgment. Each man is required to come to
his own conclusions, and is encouraged to think through
for himself the grounds for his faith. Nothing is commoner
than for a teacher of Old Testament to urge his students
not to accept too readily the statements made in class.
This apparently paradoxical attitude arises from the in
tense conviction that absolute conformity to another's
opinions is fatal to the integrity of the intellectual life.
No group of men, provided they honestly think for them
selves, can possibly arrive at conclusions that are always
identical. On the other hand, it must not be supposed
that the modern approach leads to a state of intellectual
anarchy and chaos. Experience demonstrates that it tends
toward a combination of healthy diversity of opinion on
minor details, on the one hand, with fundamental agree
ment on major issues on the other.
The acquisition of the power of independent judgment
saves men from the extravagances of certain types of
theological thinking. One of the many unfortunate con
sequences of the World War was the resuscitation of cer
tain dormant and discredited dogmas. Well-intentioned
and earnest men are to-day insistently demanding that
the church go back to modes of thought that belong in the
Middle Ages. These self-styled "Fundamentalists" are
carrying on a modern Holy Inquisition against all who do
not profess adherence to their peculiar tenets. Other
groups are leading many astray with confident assertions
that the Second Coming of Christ will take place within
two or three years. Whether one ministers on the western
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prairies or in China, he will be exposed to the contagious
religous enthusiasm of these controversialists. In all this
confusion those who have been trained in the historical
methods are able to keep their feet on the ground of solid
and tried experience. Avoiding hysteria and vagaries, they
are left free to devote their energies to the real, workable
tasks of life. Withal they are endowed with an intelligent
and vital faith that holds in the storm and stress of mod
ern life and thought. In the presence of science they have
no need for apology or evasion. Theirs is the only kind of
belief that is communicable to the thoughtful youth of
our day.
As a sufficient and more satisfactory alternative to the
impossible expectations of the literalists, the modern stu
dent cherishes a simple faith in God that makes him
view the future with calm confidence and radiant hope.
He believes that God will lead in the future as in the past.
He shares the assurance of the Pilgrim Pastor Robinson
that "God hath more Truth and Light yet to break out
of His Holy Word." That truth and that light he continu
ally seeks in his humble place among the prophets of the
new day. He is, furthermore, convinced that in the mod
ern emphasis on Israel's prophets, with the resultant
awakening of a keener social conscience, the light has
already dawned in part. The study of these same prophets
has also shown him that religion has always been the
mainspring of real and lasting reform in the past. And
because he is firmly anchored to prophetic principles he
is kept from nebulous vagueness and futile experiment in
the building of the kingdom that is to be.
Every teacher of the Old Testament receives frequent
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EDUCATION FOR CHRISTIAN SERVICE
testimony, whether by letter or by word of mouth, to
what amounts to an experience of conversion to the his
torical point of view. Students bear witness to having been
saved from doubt and despair caused by the attempt to
hold impossible views of the Bible. Their experience is
not only an intellectual but also a spiritual awakening. It
involves the rebirth of intense religious conviction and
zeal as they find they have won a faith they can always
and everywhere hold fast.
If the modern Christian Church needs further warrant
for the employment of the historical approach to the Old
Testament, it is to be discovered in the example of its
Founder. On the shores of the Sea of Galilee Jesus
founded the first Christian theological school. He was the
teacher and the Twelve made up the student body. The
Old Testament was the only text-book. For commentaries
he referred to the oral traditions of the scribes; these,
however, were hardly ever mentioned except to point out
their glaring defects. In this outdoor school traditional
methods of interpretation were almost entirely discarded.
This first and greatest Christian critic was far more radi
cal in his treatment of the sacred books than any of his
followers have ever dared to be. Refusing to be bound by
the dead hand of the past, he independently and with in-
errant insight chose what was permanent and rejected
the passing. His was the confident faith that the spirit of
God was leading him and would still lead his disciples
into new vistas of truth. "Ye have heard that it was said
. . . but I say unto you" — this was his boldness.
His early followers, according as they were able, im
bibed his spirit and adopted his methods. Paul, for exam-
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APPROACH TO OLD TESTAMENT
pie, despite the fetters of Rabbinic training that impeded
him, was oftentimes surprisingly free in his interpretation
of the Scriptures of the early church. In the centuries
since, every great era of spiritual re-awakening has been
accompanied, as under Luther and Calvin, by similar
freedom in interpreting the Bible.
One can hardly doubt that here as elsewhere Jesus has
broken paths for us to walk in. If we are to meet the
needs of our generation the old truths -must again be
phrased in new terms. While we cannot hope to equal the
Master's spiritual insight, we can, at least, adopt his pro
ductive method. Like him we are not to be bound by the
letter of these books, but filled with their dynamic power.
The combination of religious spirit and intellectual integ
rity will surely advance the cause of true religion in the
future as it has done in the past.
Pressing forward in this high mood, our generation
unfailingly finds the Old Testament more valuable than
ever before. No longer regarded as an arsenal of proof-
texts, the Old Testament is to-day effective as a "litera
ture of power." Relieved of the incubus of a mechanical
and impossible theory of inspiration, it is again free to
speak directly to the hearts and minds of mankind. Even
an age impatient with the musty past and obsessed with
ideas of "practical efficiency," is coming to realize that we
cannot dispense with the spiritual values of this larger
half of the Bible. In the theological curriculum it will,
because of the variety of its inspired literature and its
intrinsic religious value, hold place as the companion of
and necessary complement to the New Testament. Pas
tors, missionaries, social workers, educators, — all who
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devote their lives to the service of others, — will not remain
satisfied with a mere passing acquaintance with this
matchless literature, but will seek a knowledge of it that is
at once intelligent, loving, intimate and in the truest sense
religious.

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